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 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT 
 FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY 
 
 HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE 
 
Cornell University Library 
 DA 34.L91 1885 
 
 Dictionary of Engiisli history. 
 
 3 1924 027 976 285 ..»,., 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 the Cornell University Library. 
 
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DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH HISTORY. 
 
DICTIONABY 
 
 OP 
 
 ENGLISH HISTOET 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 SIDNEY J. LOW, B.A., 
 
 LATE SCHOLAK OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD ; LECTUB.ER ON MODERN HISTORY, 
 king's college, LONDON ; 
 
 AND 
 
 F. S. PULLING, M.A., 
 
 LATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, YORKSHIRE COLLEGE, LEEDS. 
 
 SECOJfD EDITION. 
 
 CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited 
 
 LONDON, PABI8, NEW YORK # MELBOURNE. 
 
 1885. 
 [all rights reserved.] 
 

 tJU. 
 
 A. S-jO^S 
 
 nf/ifyri-Tfi 
 
 ■;UNI¥ERSI' 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 AT a time when the systematic study of English historv is every clay attract- 
 ing the interest of an ever- widening circle of readers, it is somewhat 
 remarkable that there should be no convenient handbook to the whole subject. 
 The present publication is an attempt to supply this deficiency, so far as it caK 
 be supplied by a work which is intended to be useful rather than exhaustive. 
 It is scarcely possible that everything relating directly or indirectly to a subject 
 so vast and so ill-defined as the history of a great people and a great empira 
 could be included within the compass of eleven hundred moderate-sized pages. 
 The compilers of a concise historical dictionary must be content to make a 
 selection from the materials at their command. The present work is not an 
 encyclopsedia, and the editors are aware that many things are omitted from it 
 which might have been included, had its limits been wider, and its aim more 
 ambitious. But they hope that the general reader, as well as the special student 
 of the history of the British Empire, will find this volume a convenient auxiliary 
 to his studies ; and they are sanguine enough to anticipate that it will fill a gap 
 on his bookshelves not at present occupied by any single book of reference. 
 Dictionaries of biography already exist in abundance ; handbooks of dates and 
 chronology are common and familiar things ; manuals of English history, 
 political and constitutional, of all sizes and all degrees of merit, are at the ea.sy 
 command of the reading public ; and it is possible, by diligent search, to discover 
 works on English bibliography, and even on the bibliography of English history. 
 But if a gi-eat book is a great evil, a great many books are assuredly a greater. 
 The most earnest student cannot be expected to read his history with a dozen 
 manuals and works of reference at his elbow, in case he should be in doiibt as 
 to a fact, or should require to verify a date, to gain- some information on a 
 constitutional point, to satisfy himself as to the sequence of events at one of the 
 epochs of our annals, or to find out the aiithorities for a particular period. 
 To produce a book which should give, as concisely as possible, just the informa- 
 tion, biographical, bibliographical, chronological, and constitutional, that the 
 reader of English history is likely to want, is what is here attempted. 
 
 In deciding what should or should not find a place in these pages, the Editors 
 have tried to keep in view the probable needs of modern readers. Practical con- 
 venience has guided them in the somewhat arbitrary selection they have been 
 compelled to make ; and with a view to this end they have not hesitated to make 
 some slight changes of plan which suggested themselves in the course of the 
 work. In the biographical department names of purely personal and literary 
 interest have been omitted, and the biographies have been written throughout 
 from the historical standpoint. No attempt is made to supplant other Diction- 
 aries devoted solely to biograpliy ; but the reader will, it is hoped, find sufficient 
 information about every prominent personage to be of use to him in his histo- 
 rical studies, while the references to authorities which accompany all the more 
 important articles will show him where to go if he desires to pursue his inquiries 
 further. In the older " Helps to English History," such as that of Heylin, space 
 equal to the whole of this work is devoted to genealogies and to the Hsts of 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 little space is given to tliese subjects. The genealogies of the great families and 
 the order of official succession are very fully worked out in many well-known 
 and easily accessible works. A modem student is likely to have more occasion 
 for the accounts of the growth of English institutions, and for the summaries 
 of great epochs in our history, and of the relations of the country with foreign 
 powers, which occupy a considerable portion of these pages. In these instances 
 it is hoped also that the bibliographical notes supplemented by the special article 
 on Authorities on English History (page 105), will be found of considerable 
 value, even by those who can lay claim to some historical scholarship. 
 
 It, is perhaps necessary to say that though "English" on the title-page ot 
 this work is to be understood in its widest and least exact sense : and though the 
 doings of Englishmen, Scotsmen, Irishmen, and Welshmen at all places and 
 periods nostri est farrago libelli, yet that very much more attention is devoted 
 to the history of England than to that of Scotland, Ireland, "Wales, and the 
 Colonies. Selection being inevitable if the book were not to sacrifice its chief 
 recommendation, that of practical utility, it is felt that the rule adopted, though 
 illogical, is the one likely to promote the greatest convenience of the greatest 
 number of readers. It has been thought advisable to bring the book down to our 
 own day ; but very recent events have been treated more briefly than those of 
 more remote periods, and only those living and recently deceased statesmen have 
 been included, concerning whom there can be no reasonable doubt that their 
 names have a right to appear in a Dictionary of English History. For obvious 
 reasons no articles on living historians have been given, though it is hoped that 
 f jll justice is done to their works in the bibliographical notes. 
 
 To save space, and to secure somewhat more adequate treatment, it has often 
 been thought better to group the various divisions of a large subject into one 
 ai'ticle, rather than to discuss them separately in a number of short ones. Here, 
 again, the rule followed is somewhat arbitrary. But a reference to the Index 
 will generally show the reader where to look in case he does not find the title he 
 is in search of in its proper place according to the alphabetical order. 
 
 Such merits as this volume may be found to possess are due in great measure 
 to the able staff of contributors who have given it their invaluable aid. 
 To all of them the Editors have to render their grateful thanks. For many 
 useful suggestions and much kindly interest displayed in the progress of the 
 work, they have to acknowledge their obligations to Professor Creighton ; 
 Professor Rowley, University College, Bristol ; Mr. Arthur L. Smith, Fellow 
 of Balliol College, Oxford; Mr. Lloyd Sanders, M.A. ; Mr. W. J. Ashley, M.A.; 
 and Mr. T. A. Archer, B.A. Their special thanks are due to Mr. T. F. Tout, 
 M.A., Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Professor of History at St. 
 David's College, Lampeter, whose assistance throughout has been of the greatest 
 value, and who has constantly and most kindly placed the benefits of his 
 extensive knowledge of modern history at the service of the Editors. 
 
PEIIifClPAL CONTEIBUTOES. 
 
 T. A. AUCHEE, B.A. 
 
 W. J. ASHLEY, M.A., 
 College, Oxford. 
 
 Fellow of Lincoln 
 
 C. E. D. BLACK, Private Secretary to the 
 Secretary of State, Home Department. 
 
 OSCAR BROWNING, M.A., Fellow of King's 
 College, Cambridge; University Lecturer 
 on History. 
 
 REV. MANDELL CEEIGHTON, M.A., 
 Honorary Canon of Newcastle ; Professor 
 of Ecclesiastical History in the University 
 of Cambridge. 
 
 REV. JOHN EAELE, M.A., Professor of 
 Anglo-Saxon In the University of Oxford. 
 
 H. ST. CLAIR FEILDEN, M.A. 
 
 CHARLES H. FIRTH, M.A., late Scholar of 
 Balliol College, Oxford. 
 
 J. WOULFE FLANAGAN, B.A. 
 
 MRS. S. E. GAEDINEE. 
 
 DAVID HANNAY. 
 
 REV. WM. HUNT, M.A., late Examiner in 
 the School of Modem History, Oxford. 
 
 CHAS. F. KEAEY, F.S.A. 
 
 S. L. LEE, B.A., late Exhibitioner of Balliol 
 College, Oxford. 
 
 SIDNEY J. LOW, B.A., Lecturer on Modem 
 History, King's College, London. 
 
 MISS M. MACAETHUE. 
 
 J. F. BASS MULLINGEE, M.A., Lecturer 
 and Librarian of St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 R. L. POOLE, M.A., Ph.D. Leipzig; formeriy 
 of the Department of MSS. in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 F. S. PULLING, M.A., late Professor of 
 History, Yorkshire College, Leeds. 
 
 REV. HASTINGS RASHDALL, M.A., Tutor 
 in the University of Durham. 
 
 H. R. REICHBL, M.A., Fellow of All Souls' 
 College, Oxford ; Principal of the Univer- 
 sity College of North Wales. 
 
 J. E. THOROLD ROGERS, M.A., M.P., 
 Professor of Political Economy, King's 
 College, London. 
 
 JAMES ROWLEY, M. A., Professor of English 
 Literature and History, University College, 
 Bristol. 
 
 LLOYD C. SANDERS, M. A., late Exhibitioner 
 of Christ Church, Oxford. 
 
 W. R. SHELDON, M.A. 
 
 B. C. SKOTTOWE, M.A. 
 
 ARTHUR L. SMITH, M.A., Fellow and Tutor 
 of BalUol College, Oxford. 
 
 T. F. TOUT, M.A., Fellow of Pembroke 
 College, Oxford ; Professor of English 
 Literature and Modem History, St. David's 
 College, Lampeter. 
 
 BERNHARD RINGEOSE WISE, M.A., 
 Barrister-at-Law of the Supreme Court of 
 New South Wales, Australia. 
 
Dictionary of English History. 
 
 Ablieville, Treaty op (May 20, 1259), 
 ■was concluded between Louis IX. of France 
 and Henry III. of England, after the abor- 
 tive attempt of the latter to recover the pro- 
 Tincee which John had lost. By this treaty 
 the English king relinquished all claims to 
 Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, and 
 Poitou ; but was guaranteed the possession of 
 Guienne, which he was to continue to hold as 
 a fief from the French crown. His territories 
 in the south of France were to be further in- 
 creased by the three bishoprics of Limoges, 
 Perigueux, and Cahors ; and he was to receive 
 from Louis a grant of money sufficient to 
 maintain five hundred knights for two years. 
 
 The text of the treaty is given in Rymer, 
 Fadera, i. 675 (ed. of 1704). See also ib. 688 ; 
 and Pearson, Hist, of Bng. dwring the Early and 
 Middle Ages, ii. 192, 228. 
 
 Abbey. [Monasticism.] 
 
 Abbot (abbas, literally "father") was a 
 title of respect applied in early times to all 
 monks, but was afterwards s_pecifically re- 
 stricted to the superior of a monastery. 
 The abbot was elected by the brethren of the 
 monastery, subject to varying and ill-defined 
 rights of the crown and the bishop ; but, on 
 the whole, as the position of abbot was one of 
 comparatively small pohtical importance, free- 
 dom of election was allowed to a degree very 
 rare in bishoprics, and the power and influence 
 of the great orders freed them also in most 
 cases from episcopal jurisdiction. Thus 
 chosen, the abbot held office for life, unless 
 canonically deprived by the bishop. In the 
 earliest days of the English Church, the 
 abbots, Hke other monks, were very commonly 
 laymen, but later it became usual for them to 
 receive priest's orders ; and an early instance 
 of a series of presbyter abbots is to be found 
 in the great foundation of lona. In Ire- 
 land, abbots were either themselves bishops, 
 OB usurpers of episcopal functions. In the 
 monastic cathedrals which form such a pecu- 
 liar feature in English Church history, the 
 bishop was also abbot. The power of the 
 abbot varied with the order to which he 
 belonged, but it was always very high. In 
 theory, as the name denotes, it was paternal ; 
 and, in early times, this paternal authority is 
 the same as absolute power. The abbot wa« 
 
 to be feared as lord as well as loved as father. 
 No one was allowed to fict without his orders, 
 and the whole management of the monastery 
 ultimately depended on him. But Bene- 
 dictine abbots were restricted in various ways 
 by their obligation to observe the rule of 
 their founder. The practical 'limitations to 
 the power of the abbot were : {a) the prior; 
 (i) the decani and centenarii chosen by the 
 monks ; (c) the general chapter of the monas- 
 tery (by the rule of St. Benedict, the abbot 
 was obliged to take counsel with all the 
 monks, junior as well as senior, though the 
 final right of decision rested with him, and 
 not with the brethren) ; [d) the bishop, though 
 exemption, after the 12th century, generally 
 took away this check ; (e) the advocatus, an 
 influential layman, who was appointed owing 
 to the inability of the abbot to interfere in 
 person in civil suits, and who consequently 
 largely limited the power of the abbot over 
 the property of the abbey and secular matters 
 generally. But, with all these deductions, 
 the abbot held a most imposing position. As 
 practical landlord of a large district, he had 
 much social influence and political considera- 
 tion. In England the position of the abbot 
 was especially important ; for, introduced by 
 monks, English Christianity had from the first 
 a monastic aspect. Thus half the English 
 cathedrals became Benedictine abbeys, of 
 which the canons were monks and the bishop 
 abbot. As magnates, or as king's chaplains, 
 a few abbots sat in the Witenagemot ; and, 
 after the Conquest, many of them attended 
 the Great Council, as holders of feudal 
 baronies, and were ranked after the lords 
 spiritual. Under the early Norman kings, 
 Norman abbots were set over the English 
 monasteries, and in many cases met with 
 determined resistance from their monks. 
 They organised the monastic system more 
 strictly than before; and each new order 
 found a home in England during the 
 twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Some 
 abbots were called mitred, because they 
 received from the Pope the right of wearing 
 the mitre and other vestments proper to the 
 episcopal office. This did not, however, 
 affect their constitutional position, for abbots 
 were summoned to Parliament as holding 
 baronies under the crown. The smaller 
 
Abb 
 
 (2) 
 
 Abb 
 
 abbots felt attendance at Parliament to be a 
 strain on their resources, and during the 
 fourteenth century many of them executed 
 deeds declaring that they did not hold their 
 estates by any tenure that involved the duty 
 of parliamentary attendance. In Edward I.'s 
 model Parliament of 1295 there were present 
 67 abbots and priors ; but this number rapidly 
 deoHned, and in 13il the number had become 
 27, which seems to have remained fixed. The 
 abbots summoned in 1483 may be mentioned 
 as showing the chief amongst the body. 
 They were : Peterborough, St. Edmund^, 
 Colchester, Abingdon, Waltham, Shrewsbury, 
 Cirencester, Grlouoester, Westminster, St. 
 Albans, Bardney, Selby, St. Benedict of 
 Hulme, Thorney, Evesham, Ramsey, Hyde, 
 Glastonbury, Malmesbury, Crowland, Battle, 
 Winchcombe, Beading, St. Augustine's, St. 
 Mary's York, and the priors of Coventry 
 and St. John of Jerusalem. As the average 
 number of lay lords attending Parhament was 
 about 40, the proportion of 27 abbots was large. 
 The monasteries, however, represented the 
 influence of the papacy as against the bishops, 
 and were left unmolested both by pope and 
 king. The elections of abbots were rarely 
 interfered with by the crown, and in the later 
 middle ages abbots did not take much part in 
 political affairs. They were chiefly busy with 
 the administration of the secular business of 
 their monasteries. When once the work of 
 civilisation had been accomplished, monasti- 
 oism drifted apart from the- general current 
 of national life, and its abuses became in- 
 creasingly manifest. The religious reformers 
 found little difficulty in calling attention to the 
 sloth and uselessness of the smaller monasteries, 
 and in 1536' the temporalities of all that did 
 not exceed £200 a year were given by Act of 
 Parliament to the king: their number was 
 computed at 380. The greater monasteries 
 followed by process of compulsory surrender, 
 and by 1540 all had been suppressed. They 
 took no common action to avert their doom ; 
 the abbots in the House of Lords did not 
 raise their voices against the measure for 
 vesting in the crown the property of monas- 
 teries which should be suppressed. With 
 the disappearance of the abbots from the 
 House of Lords, the preponderance of lay 
 over spiritual peers was established, and the 
 subsequent work of the Reformation of the 
 Church was rendered more easy. Lay abbots, 
 or advocati ecclesite, were common in the abbeys 
 of Irish origin from the- 8th to the 12th cen- 
 turies. They were commonly the descendants 
 of the founder or of a neighbouring lord, and 
 were originally the lessees of the abbey lands. 
 In some oases, the coarb, or abbot, chosen by 
 the monks retained his spiritual position, but, 
 in temporal matters, he was quite superseded 
 by the advocatus. [Cathedral ; Monasti- 
 
 CISM.] 
 
 The ecclesiastical and social position of an 
 abbot can best be gathered by reference to the 
 
 history of some monastery, such as Walsing- 
 ham's Gesta Ahhatum Monasterus S. Albani, ed. 
 Kiley, 1863—72. The constitutional questions 
 concerning abbots are discussed in the Lords 
 Report on the Dignity of a Peer, 1829. See also 
 art. Aiiot, by Mr. Haddon, in the Diet, oj 
 Cliristian Antiquities ; Montalembert, The Monies 
 of the West ■ and, for the Celtic abbots, Skene, 
 Celtic Scotland, vol. ii., and Dr. Beeves, Adam- 
 nan. [M. C.J 
 
 Abbot, Chames. [Colohestee, Lord.] 
 
 Abbot, Georob (*. 1362, d. 1633), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, 1611— 1633, was born 
 of humble parents in Guildford; studied at 
 Balliol College, Oxford, of which he became 
 fellow in 1582 ; was elected Master of Uni- 
 versity College in 1597, and made Dean of 
 Winchester in 1599, Bishop of Lichfield in 
 1609, and translated to the See of London, 1610. 
 He owed his appointment as archbishop (1611) 
 to his union of Calvinistic theology with a de- 
 sire to maintain the authority of the crown in 
 ecclesiastical matters. Such a position coin- 
 cided with the wishes of James I. ; but Abbot, 
 though a man of earnest piety, was narrow- 
 minded, stem, and lacking in geniality. He 
 was in theological matters the conspicuous 
 opponent of Laud, who represented^ the re- 
 action against Calvinism. His conscientious- 
 ness was shown by his determined refusal to 
 comply with the wishes of the king in for- 
 warding the divorce of the Countess of Essex 
 from her husband, that she might marry the 
 favourite, Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset. 
 In 1621, at a staghunt at Bramzil Park, Abbot 
 accidentally shot a keeper. This raised 
 the question among canonists whether, in. 
 consequence of having shed blood, he had 
 become legally incapacitated from the epis- 
 copal office. A commission of bishops and 
 judges appointed to determine this point were 
 divided in opinion, but advised the king that 
 it was desirable that the archbishop should 
 ask for pardon. Thoug-h Abbot was greatly 
 shaken by this untoward event, he stiU was 
 bold enough to express his disapproval of the 
 Spanish marriage of Prince Charles. On the 
 accession of Charles I., Abbot found that his, 
 influence at court was gone, and that Laud 
 was the favourite. In 1627he incurred Charles 
 I.'s displeasure by manfully refusing to 
 license a sermon by Dr. Robert Sibthorpe, in 
 favour of passive obedience. He was ordered 
 by the king to betake himself to his house at 
 Ford, in Kent, and there remain in confine- 
 ment, while the archbishopric was put into 
 the hands of a commission, with Laud at the 
 head. He was, however, restored to some 
 degree of royal favour next year ; but, suffer- 
 ing from disease, and embittered in temper he 
 was helpless against the influence of Laud. 
 His last years were spent in the indolence 
 of sickness and despair, and his death made 
 way for the undisputed power of his rival. 
 He was buried in 'Trinity Church, Guildford 
 where his monument still remains. Abbot 
 was munificent in hie benefactions, and built 
 
Abb 
 
 (3) 
 
 Abe 
 
 a hospital at Guildford, which bears his 
 name. He was a worthy man, but had neither 
 knowledge, large-heartedness, nor tact suffi- 
 cient for his office. 
 
 Heylin, Cyprianus jlmgliconus ; Spelman's 
 jlpologte for Archbishop Abbot, 1727; Abbot's 
 Narrative in Eushworth, Historical Collections, 
 vol. i. See also Hook, Lives of the ArclMshops, 
 vol. v., new series. There i-? a. good portrait 
 in tbe hall of University College, Oriord. 
 
 [M. C] 
 
 Abbott, Chakles. [Tenterden, Loki>.] 
 
 Abdication. [CBo-n'N.] 
 
 Abel, Thomas {d. July 30, 1540), chaplain 
 to Catherine of Arragon, strongly opposed the 
 divorce of that princess; and was attainted for 
 his share in the affair of Elizabeth Barton, 
 and found guilty of misprision of treason. He 
 was subsequently imprisoned and executed 
 for denying the king's supremacy, and affirm- 
 ing the legalit}' of the marriage with Cathe- 
 rine. He carved the famous punning inscrip- 
 tion (an A upon a bell) on the walls of the 
 Beauchamp Tower in the Tower of London. 
 Arcli€eologia, xiii. 93, 
 
 Abercom, Peerage of. In 1603 James 
 Hamilton, Master of Paisley, grandson of 
 James Hamilton, second Earl of Arrau and 
 Duke of Chatelherault [Douglas; Hamilton], 
 was created Baron Abercom, and in 1606 
 Earl of Abercom. John James, ninth Earl, 
 was created Marquis of Abercom in 1790, and 
 his successor James (i. 1811), Lord Lieutenant 
 of Ireland, 1866—68, and 1874—76; was 
 created Duke of Abercom and Marquis of 
 Hamilton, Aug. 10, 1868. The title is derived 
 from the Castle of Abercorn in Linlithgow- 
 shire, a stronghold of the Douglases, taken by 
 James II. in the Douglas rebellion of 1435. 
 Abercom was the seat of one of the earliest 
 monasteries in Scotland, and of a Pictish 
 bishopric. 
 
 Abercromby, SirEalph (i. 1 734, <?. 1 801) , 
 bom at Tullibody, Clackmannanshire, entered 
 the army as comet in a dragoon regiment in 
 1756, and was gazetted to a colonelcy in 1781. 
 He had, however, seen scarcely any active 
 service, on account of his opposition to the 
 government while in the House of Commons, 
 and the sympathy he manifested for the Ameri- 
 can Colonies. In 1 7 9 3 ho commanded a brigade 
 under the Duke of York in Holland, and was 
 wounded at Nimeguen. In the winter of 
 1794 — a he showed great skill in protecting, 
 as far as possible, the British forces during 
 their disastrous retreat. After the close of 
 this expedition, he was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of the forces in the West Indies. He 
 returned in 1797, and held the chief command 
 in Ireland during that and the following year. 
 There he showed much talent in re-organising 
 an undisciplined army, as well as statesman- 
 like tnct. Thwarted, however, by the Irish 
 government, he reluctantly resigned his office. 
 
 and accepted the chief command in Scotland, 
 whence he was called to serve again in the 
 disastrous expedition to Holland under the 
 Duke of York. In 1801 he was appointed to 
 command the expedition against the French in 
 Egypt. With wonderful skill and daring he 
 disembarked his forces at Aboukir in the face 
 of the French army. On March 21, the two 
 armies met near Alexandria. Abercromby 
 gained a complete victory ; but the battle, 
 which saved Egypt from the French, cost the 
 English the life of their commander. In 
 acknowledgment of Sir Ralph Abercromby's 
 servifces, his widow was created a Peeress of 
 the United Kingdom, with the style and title 
 of Baroness Abercromby of Aboukir. The 
 title descended to her eldest son. Her 
 third son, James, Judge-Advocate-General, 
 1827, Speaker of the House of Commons, 
 1835—39, was created Lord Dunfermline 
 of Dunfermline in 1839. [Alexandria, 
 Battle of.] 
 
 Lord Dunfermline, Sir R. Abercromby : a 
 Memoir, 1861; Alison, History of Eurove. 
 
 [W. R. S.] 
 
 Aberdeen, was an important place even 
 before its elevation to a city in the twelfth 
 century. It was made a royal burgh by 
 William the Lion, and reoeiv.ed a charter from 
 Robert Bruce in 1319. The University was 
 founded in 1494 by Bishop Elphinstone, and 
 Marischal College by George Keith, Earl 
 Marischal, about a century later. They were 
 united in 1860. In 1336 the greater portion 
 of the town was burnt by the English, and 
 when rebuilt was called New Aberdeen. 
 
 Aberdeen, Peerage of. In 1682 Sir 
 John Gordon of Haddo, Lord Chancellor ot 
 Scotland, was created Earl of Aberdeen in 
 the peerage of Scotland. George, fourth 
 Earl, was made a peer of the United Kingdom 
 in 1813, and in 1818, on his marriage with 
 Lady Catherine Hamilton, assumed the addi- 
 tional surname and arms of Hamilton. 
 
 Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 
 4th Earl of (i. 1784, d. 1860),in 1801 began his 
 diplomatic life as attache to Lord Cornwallis at 
 Paris when engaged in negotiating the peace of 
 Amiens. In 1806 he was elected a representa- 
 tive peer of Scotland. In 18 13 he was employed 
 on a mission to induce Austria to break with 
 Napoleon, and in this he was highly successful. 
 He followed the allied armies ; was present at 
 Lutzen, Bautzen, and Leipzig ; was employed 
 to detach Murat from Napoleon ; and was 
 the colleague of Lord Castlereagh at the Con- 
 gress of Chatillon. He took no further share 
 in public life until 1827—28, when he was 
 offered the Chancellorship of the Duchy of 
 Lancaster by the Duke of Wellington with a 
 seat in the Cabinet, and shortly after was pro- 
 moted to the Foreign Office. In this capacity 
 he took a prominent share in the management 
 of the Greek q\iestion, and the formation of 
 the Hellenic Kingdom, recognised by the 
 
Abe 
 
 (4 ) 
 
 Abi 
 
 Porte in 1829. In general, however, he was in 
 favour of a policy of neutrality in continental 
 questions. He recognised Louis Philippe im- 
 mediately ; he refused to employ the English 
 power to dispossess Don Miguel of the crown 
 of Portugal; and he strongly ohjected to 
 the Quadruple Alliance which Lord Pal- 
 merston negotiated. His first tenure of oiB.ce 
 ended in 1830. He was Colonial Secretary 
 imder Sir E. Peel in 1834—35, and Foreign 
 Secretary to the same statesman in 1841. 
 He assisted in carrying the repeal of the Corn 
 Laws and the commercial reforms of Peel, and 
 on the death of that statesman he became the 
 acknowledged head of his party. When in 
 succession both Whigs and Tories had failed 
 to carry on the government, and there was no 
 course left but to apply to the Peelites, Lord 
 Aberdeen was invited to form a government, 
 1852. He formed a coalition ministry, em- 
 bracing " men of all parties, from the extreme 
 Tory to the extreme Eadical." It was his 
 misfortune to be met by the complications 
 in foreign politics which led to theCrimean 
 War. It was thought at the time, and the 
 opinion has been frequently expressed since, 
 that a greater display of vigour on the part 
 of the ministry might have averted the war. 
 The mismanagement of the campaign com- 
 pleted the unpopularity of the ministry. 
 On January 25th, 1855, Mr. Roebuck moved 
 for a select committee to inquire into the state 
 of the army and the conduct of the war. On 
 the motion being carried Lord Aberdeen re- 
 signed, and during the remainder of his life 
 took no further share in public affairs. In 
 his home policy Lord Aberdeen represented 
 the advanced section of the Conservatives, 
 regarding Catholic Emancipation and the 
 repeal of the Corn Laws as advantageous 
 measures rather than as necessary evils. In 
 foreign politics he was the advocate of the 
 principles of friendship with foreign powers, 
 and non-intervention, which he perhaps at- 
 tempted to apply too indiscriminately. Lord 
 Aberdeen, "the travelled thane, Athenian 
 Aberdeen," of Byron's English Bards and 
 Scotch Seviewers, was an accomplished scholar, 
 specially learned in Hellenic antiquities. 
 
 The policy and aclmiuistra.tion of Lord Aber- 
 deen are discussed in Kinglake, Invasion of (he 
 Crimen,, esp. ii. 62. 
 
 Aberdeen Boctors, was the name 
 given, in 1638—9, to six clergymen of Aber- 
 deen—John Forbes, Eobert Bacon, Alexander 
 Eoss, William Leslie, Alexander Sorogie, 
 and James Sibbold— who strenuously opposed 
 the compulsory administration to all persons of 
 the oath to preseive the Solemn League and 
 Covenant. 
 
 Spalding, Memoriais, i. 98, &c. ; and Burton, 
 Hist, of Scotland, vi. cap. Ixxii. 
 
 Abergavenny, Peerage of. Nov. 23, 
 1392, William Beauchamp was summoned to 
 Parliament by writ as Lord Bergavenny or 
 Abergavenny. The peerage passed to a 
 
 branch of the Neville family on the marriage 
 of Sir Edward Neville (second son of Ealph 
 Neville, Earl of Westmoreland, by Joan, 
 daughter of John of Gauni,) with Elizabeth, 
 heiress of Eichard Beauchamp, Earl of Wor- 
 cester, Baron Beigavenny. Greorge, fifteenth 
 Baron, was created Earl in 1784, and William, 
 fifth Earl, was advanced to the dignity of 
 Marquis in 1876. [Neville.] 
 
 Abergavenny, Geokge Neville, 3rd 
 Bahon {d. 1636), was one of the nobles 
 arrested in 1502 on suspicion of being engaged 
 in a conspiracy with Edmund de la Pole, Earl 
 of Suffolk. He was, however, soon, restored 
 to libertv, and eventually came into great 
 favour with Henry VII. and Henry Till. 
 During the Cornish revolt of 1497, it was 
 partly owing to Lord Abergavenny's local 
 influence that the insurgents met with no 
 encouragement from the people of Kent. 
 
 Abergavenny, Henry Neville, 4th 
 Babon {£ 1587), who was supposed to favour 
 the insurgents in 1654, finally declared for 
 Mary, and defeated the rebels at Wrotham 
 Heath (q.v.). He was one of the commis- 
 sioners at the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots, 
 in 1586. 
 
 Abhorrers (1679), was tho name given 
 to the adherents of the court party, who, oh 
 petitions being presented to the king, praying 
 him to summon Parliament for January, 1680, 
 signed counter-petitions, expressing abhor- 
 nnce for those who were attempting to en- 
 croach on the royal prerogative. [See Peti- 
 tionees.] It is said that the names Whig 
 and Tory, as party designations, were first 
 used in the disputes between the Petitioners 
 and Abhorrers. 
 
 Burnet, History of His Own Time, ii. 238; 
 Eapin, Hist, of JBng. ii. 712; Macaulay, Hist. 
 0/ Bug. i. 268. 
 
 Abingdon Abbey Chronisle, The, is 
 a well-preserved record which narrates the 
 history of the great Benedictine monastery of 
 Abingdon. It extends from the foundation of 
 the abbey in 676 to the accession of Eichard I. 
 in 1189. It is specially useful for the light it 
 throws on social history, on the relations of the 
 clergy to the laity, on the state of society be- 
 fore the Norman Conquest, and on the details 
 of the changes produced by that event. 
 
 The Chronicon Mor.asf erii de Ahinndon has been 
 
 printed in the EoUs Series, 185S. with valuable 
 
 introductions by Mr. Stevenson. 
 
 Abingdon, Peerage op. In 1572 Sir 
 Henry Norris, who was ambassador to France 
 the preceding year, and son of the Sir 
 Henry Norris beheaded in 1636 for alleged 
 criminality with Anne Boleyn, was created 
 Baron Norris of Eyecote. He was the father 
 of the distinguished military commander Sir 
 John Norris. His grandson, Francis, 'was 
 created Earl of Berkshire in 1620, but dipfl 
 the same year, and the Berkshire peerage 
 
AH 
 
 (5) 
 
 AT)s 
 
 expired. The Norris peerage descended by 
 the female line to James Bertie, who was 
 created Earl of Abingdon in 1682. This 
 nobleman commanded the Oxfordshire Militia 
 against the Duke of Monmouth on the latter's 
 invasion of England. He, however, opposed 
 James II. 's action in religious matters, and 
 was the first English peer to join WiUiam. 
 
 Abinger, James Scarlett, Lord (J. 1769, 
 d. 1844), the second sou of Robert Scarlett 
 of Jamaica, after gaining great reputation as 
 an advocate, entered Parliament in 1818 as 
 member for Peterborough. He resisted the 
 plans of Castlereagh aud Vansittart for in- 
 creased ta.'cation, and supported Eomilly and 
 Mackintosh in their attempts to ameliorate 
 the Penal Code. He also unsuccessfully 
 endeavoured to bring in a bill for amend- 
 ing the Poor Laws. In 1827, when Mr. 
 Canning sought the assistance of the Whigs, 
 Mr. Scarlett became Attorney-General. He 
 now gradually drifted over to Conservatism. 
 He retained his office under Lord Goderioh, 
 and, on the dismissal of Sir Charles Wetherell 
 by the Duke of Wellington, took office again 
 under the latter. In 1830 he resigned with 
 his party. In 1834 he was made Chief Baron 
 by Sir E,. Peel, and raised to the peerage. 
 Foss, The Judges of England, 
 
 Abjuration Oath, The (1701), was a 
 pledge of renunciation of the exiled Stuart 
 dynasty, exacted from time to time after the 
 lievolution of 1688. It first appears in 1690, 
 embodied in a proposed " Act for the further 
 security of his Majesty's person, and for 
 extinguishing the hopes of the pretended 
 Prince of Wales, and all other pretenders 
 and their abettors." Every person who held 
 any ofSce, civil, military, or spiritual, was to 
 solemnly abjure the exiled king; the oath of 
 abjuration might be tendered by any justice 
 of the peace to any subject of their Majesties; 
 and, if it were refused, the recusant might 
 be sent to prison, to lie there as long as he 
 continued obstinate. The influence of Wil- 
 liam caused this bill to be rejected, as well as 
 a less severe measure, imposing a declaration 
 on all office-holders that they would stand by 
 William and Mary against James and James's 
 adherents. In the last year of the reign, after 
 Louis XIV. had acknowledged the Pretender, 
 it was again inuoduced in the " Act for the 
 further security of his Majesty's person, and 
 the succession of the crown in the Protestant 
 line." After a long debate in the Commons, 
 the abjuration oath was made compulsory ; 
 but the provision was only carried by a 
 majority of one. William gave his assent to 
 the measure on his death-bed. On the ac- 
 cession of Anne a new Act was passed, apply- 
 ing the oath to the new reign. The oath was 
 taken freely by the Tories, and even by noted 
 Jacobites, the Pretender having, it was said, 
 sent instructions to that effect to his adherents. 
 It was renewed on the occasion of the union 
 
 with Scotland, when the Scottish clergy 
 petitioned against it, but without result. The 
 bin was subsequently re-introduced on the 
 accession of George I., and on the death of the 
 old Pretender (1766). The oath was not finally 
 abolished imtil 1858. "The definition of 
 persons required to take the Abjuration 
 Oath," says Mr. Burton, " is an attempt, and 
 a successful attempt, to exhaust the gentry 
 and the educated community." It includes 
 the holders of all public offices, members of 
 the universities, and all teachers, clergj-men, 
 and legal practitioners; and as a general 
 remedy of omissions, the oath might be 
 tendered " to any person or persons what- 
 soever." 
 
 Burnet, Hist, nf h's Oiru Time; Burton, Seign 
 
 of Queen Avne; Stankope, Eeign of Queen Anne ; 
 
 Maoaulay, Hist. ifUng. [L, C. S.] 
 
 Abjuration Oath for Scotland, The 
 
 (1662), was imposed on all persons holding 
 public office, and consisted, among other abju- 
 rations, of a declaration that the Covenant and 
 League " are of themselves unlawful oaths, 
 and were taken by and imposed upon the 
 subjects of this kingdom against the funda- 
 mental laws and liberties of the same." The 
 oath was modified in 1716, when it became a 
 simple declaration of allegiance to the Han- 
 over settlement and a renunciation of the 
 Stuarts. [Covenant.] 
 
 Abjuration of the Kealm, was the 
 
 oath to quit the coimtry, which might be 
 enforced on any person guilty of felony who 
 had taken advantage of the privilege of 
 sanctuary. Such a person was bound to leave 
 the kingdom within thirty days, and if he 
 returned he might be put to death. The 
 practice was abolished, in company with the 
 pri\'ilege of sanctuary, by James I., cap. 28. 
 [Sanctuary.] By a statute passed in the 
 35th year of Elizabeth, Protestant Dis- 
 senters who had failed to attend divine 
 service, and Eoman Catholics, might be com- 
 pelled to abjure the realm, and if they refused, 
 or returned without license, they were ad- 
 judged felons, and might be hanged. Dis- 
 senters were relieved of the necessity of 
 abjuration by the Act of Toleration ; but so 
 far as regards Eoman Catholics, it was not 
 finally removed from the Statute Book tiU 
 1791. 
 
 Abraham, Heiohts of. [Quebec; 
 Wolfe.] 
 
 Absenteeism, owing to the partial 
 character of the conquest of Ireland, early 
 became the crying evil of that coimtry. In 
 1331, Edward III. called on all absentees to 
 foUow him to Ireland and defend their estates. 
 When Lionel of Clarence went out in 1361, 
 the same demand was made. In 1374, too, 
 they were called up to go in person or send 
 substitutes. The first statute on the subject 
 was passed in 1379 in an English Parliament, 
 ordering all proprietors who were absentees 
 
Aby 
 
 (6) 
 
 Acr 
 
 to contribute two-thirds of their means to the 
 defence of Ireland. In 1413 all Irishmen 
 were, with the same object, ordered to leave 
 England, and were excluded from the Inns 
 of Court. In Henry VI.'s reign, legislation 
 against absenteeism was also frequent. James 
 II. in 1689 summoned all absentees to join 
 Mm. Under George I., absenteeism having 
 much increased, in 1729 an absentee-tax of 
 four shillings in the pound was imposed on 
 all moneys paid out of Ireland ; but the king- 
 being allowed to grant exemptions, it did not 
 do much good. In 1767, this law was re- 
 newed, and the exemptions done away with, 
 or, at least, only maintained for members of 
 the roj-al family and distinguished officers. 
 But an attempt to increase the tax in 1773 
 had to be given up, owing to the opposition it 
 aroused in England. In 1783, a like attempt 
 failed in Ireland. In 1796, an absentee-tax 
 was defeated in the Irish Parliament by 
 English influence, and after that no such 
 measure was mooted, though the evil con- 
 tinued to increase. In 1779, Arthur Young 
 estimated the amount of rent annually sent 
 out of the country, at £732,000. 
 
 Almost every Irisli historian, statesman, and 
 economist, has had something to say on the 
 subject of absenteeism. The reader will find 
 it referred to, at some length, in Fronde, 
 The JLnglish in Ireland, passim ; Lecky, Sist. of 
 Bfig., vol. ii. ; the works of Swift and Arthur 
 Young ; and TheReport of the Select Committee oil 
 the State of Irelami, 1828. 
 
 Abyssinian Expedition, The (1867). 
 Theodore, King of Abyssinia, fancying that 
 he was slighted by the British Government, 
 who had refused to assist him against the 
 Egyptians, had seized and imprisoned in his 
 fortress of Magdala all the British subjects 
 within his reach. Among others was Mr. 
 Cameron, British Consul at Masaowah. An 
 embassy was sent to the king, headed by 
 Mr. Eassam, British Assistant-Eesident at 
 Aden, to expostulate. The mission was at 
 first well received and cajoled by the crafty 
 king, but eventually seized and imprisoned 
 with the rest. Lord Stanley's remonstrance 
 being disregarded, war was declared. It was 
 waged from India, and the expedition was 
 despatched from Bombay in the winter of 
 1867 under Sir Robert Napier. The cam- 
 paign was conducted under difficulties, which 
 arose from the varying nature of the 
 climate and the natural impediments of the 
 ground. The difficult task of transporting 
 the military stores and artillery in a country 
 where roads were unknown, and which 
 bristled with lofty and rugged mountains, 
 was performed with complete success. The 
 baggage-elephants were especially useful, and 
 greatly facilitated the progress of the expe- 
 dition. Little resistance was experienced 
 from the natives. There were one or two 
 straggling sldrmishes, and a wild battle was 
 fought, in which the reckless bravery of the 
 Abyssiniana proved ineffectual against the 
 
 serried masses of the English bayonets, and 
 the deadly fire of the English artillery. 
 Theodore, at last, sent back all the prisoners, 
 and offered to treat. Napier, however, refused 
 to Hsten to any terms short of a total surren- 
 der, and to this the king refused to agree. 
 He shut himself up in his citadel of Magdala, 
 which was perched upon a lofty rock, and de- 
 fended not only by the natural difficulty of the 
 ascent, but also by walls of great thickness, 
 and gateways strongly fortified. The Eng- 
 lish, with great bravery, surmounted the 
 difficulties of the ascent, forced their way 
 through the gate at the top, and fought from 
 post to post till the position was won. 
 Theodore was found dead inside the gate, 
 slain by his own hand. The town and 
 fortress were destroyed, and within a, week 
 the troops were on the sea returning home. 
 Sir Robert Napier for his services was created 
 Lord Napier of Magdala, with a pension, 
 and received the thanks of both Houses of 
 Parliament. 
 Acadia. [Nova Scotia.J 
 
 Accord, The, is the name given by some 
 Scotch writers to the Treaty of Leith (q.v.). 
 
 Acre, or St. Jean d'Acre, a town on the 
 coast of Syria, anciently called Ptolemais, is 
 connected with three episodes in English 
 history : — (1) The Siege on? Acre. In June, 
 1191, Richard I. arrived before the town, 
 which had already been besieged by the 
 Crusaders for more than two years, with the 
 loss, it is said, of over 120,000 men. A series 
 of assaults was immediately made on the 
 town, but these were seriously impeded by 
 the attacks of Saladin on the Christian lines. 
 At length, however, the garrison offered to 
 treat ; they were allowed to retain their lives, 
 and (July 12) the Crusaders marched into 
 the town. (2) The Defence or Acre. On 
 March 16, 1799, Bonaparte's Egyptian army 
 appeared before Acre. The town was held 
 by a Turkish garrison, under Yussuf Pasha, 
 aided by Sir Sidney Smith, who commanded 
 the English squadron in the roads, and a 
 French engineer, Philippoteaux, who had 
 once been a school-fellow of Bonaparte. Ani- 
 mated by these leaders, the Turks held out 
 with great bravery for sixty days of open 
 trenches ; and on May 20 the French were 
 compelled to retreat. " That miserable fort," 
 as Napoleon called it, was thus the means of 
 causing his Syrian expedition to be aban- 
 doned, and his great projects of Oriental 
 conquest to be altogether hopeless. Alluding 
 to Sir Sidney Smith, he is said to have fre- 
 quently remarked : " That man made me 
 miss my destiny." (3) The Bombardment 
 OF Acre, Nov. 3, 1840. After the refusal of 
 Mehemet Ali to agree to the terms of the 
 Quadrilateral Alliance, 1840, a combined 
 Austrian, Turkish, and British squadron (the 
 latter, consisting of 6 line-of-battle ships, 
 and 10 smaller vessels, commanded by Admiral 
 
Act 
 
 (7) 
 
 Ada 
 
 Sir E. Stopford) sailed to the coast of Syria, 
 and bombarded Acre, which fell in total ruins 
 after enduring a tremendous fire for three 
 hours. 
 
 Act of Farliament. [Statute.] 
 Acton Burnel, Parliament op (1283), 
 was the name given to one of the sessions of 
 Edward I.'s great council, reinforced probably 
 by the merchants who had previously met in 
 the Parliament at Shrewsbury. The presence 
 of so many representatives of the commercial 
 classes was taken advantage of by the king to 
 issue the ordinance known as the Statute of 
 Merchants. 
 
 Adamnan, St. (b. 624, d. 704), Abbot of 
 lona, was converted, while on a mission to 
 Aldfrid of Northumbria in 688, to the custom 
 of the Roman Church with regard to the 
 observance of Easter — a conversion which 
 ■embroiled him in disputes with the monks of 
 lona. In 692 he attended the SjTiod of Tara, 
 and successfully urged, on part of the Irish 
 Church, the necessity of conformity to the 
 rest of the Church. " Between the year 688 
 and his death, Adamnan wrote the Life of St. 
 Colmnba, a work which, although containing 
 some elements of legend, still comprises a 
 good deal of valuable historical information. 
 He also wrote a work, De Situ Terra SoMctm. 
 
 Forbes, fi'aleTidar of the Scottish Saints. The 
 Life of St. ColuTnha was edited by Dr. Beeves in 
 1857 for the Irish ArcliEeolo^ical Society, 
 
 Adams, John (*. 1735, d. 1826), second 
 President of the United States, was a lawyer 
 in Boston, and took an active part in the 
 measures of the colonists to defend their 
 rights against the English Government. In 
 the Philadelphia Congress of 1774 he was dele- 
 gate for Massachusetts, and he was one of 
 the members of the " Continental Congress " 
 of 1775. In this assembly he advocated 
 immediate and vigorous hostile measures 
 against the mother country, being convinced 
 that any further attempts at reconciliation 
 were hopeless. Adams was a skilful practical 
 lawyer, as well as an earnest student of the 
 philosophy of politics and jurisprudence ; 
 and much of the shape which the national 
 and state constitutions assumed, as well as 
 the curious basis of speculative legal theory 
 on which the acts of the earlier congresses 
 were grounded, was largely due to his in- 
 fluence. He was a declared opponent of 
 the " pure democracy," advocated by a large 
 section of the American leaders, and favoured 
 the system of government by double cham- 
 bers and " checks and balances," which was 
 often stigmatised as aristocratic. In 1777 he 
 was sent as diplomatic agent of the new 
 government to Paris, and for the greater part 
 of the next ten years was engaged in political 
 and financial missions to the courts of France, 
 Holland, and England. On his return to 
 America in 1788 he was chosen Vice-President 
 of the Union, and was immediately involved 
 
 in the bitter party contests between the 
 federalists, who followed Hamilton, and the 
 republicans, who were now led by Jelferson. 
 In 1797 Adams was chosen President by 
 a shght and doubtful federalist majority. 
 His term of oiEce was not altogether a suc- 
 cessful one. The southern federalists were 
 only lukewarm supporters, and the repub- 
 licans bitterly assailed him in public and pri- 
 vate. Like Washington, Adams held to the 
 principle of neutrahty in the contest between 
 France and the other European states; but 
 this made him very unpopular with the power- 
 ful body of republicans within the States. In 
 the presidential election of 1801, Adams was 
 defeated by Jefferson, and retired from public 
 life amidst a storm of very undeserved obloquy, 
 Adams was a voluminous writer of political 
 and quasi-political treatises, and his works 
 are, very valuable for a correct understanding 
 of the views and principles which actuated 
 one large section of the founders of the United 
 States. 
 
 P. Adams, Life and Works of John Adams, 10 
 vols., Boston, 1850; J. Q. and C. P. Adams, 
 Life of J. .4dcmis, 2 vols., 1871 ; Jared Sparks, 
 Dvpiomatic Coj'respondence of the Amer. Revolu- 
 tion; Guizot, Washint/ton. [g. J. L.l 
 
 Adams, Samuel (6. 1722, d. 1803), a dis- 
 tant relation of John Adams, was a leading 
 member of the Boston " Caucus " Club, and 
 took a considerable part in founding similar 
 associations elsewhere. He was one of the first 
 to oppose the measures by which the English 
 Parliament attempted to raise revenue from 
 the trade of the American colonists, and he did, 
 perhaps, more than any other man to rouse 
 the people of Massachusetts to open resist- 
 ance. In American pohtics he was by no 
 means a devoted follower of "Washington, 
 and was in many respects an opponent of 
 the federalist constitution. In 1797 he 
 retired from the governorship of Massa- 
 chusetts, when the federal party were pre- 
 dominant. It is in a, (probably spurious) 
 speech of Samuel Adams, printed in London, 
 and purporting to have been delivered Jjt Phi- 
 ladelphia, August 1, 1776, that the famous 
 phrase, " a nation of shopkeepers," is applied 
 to England. The speech was translated into 
 French, and Bonaparte probably borrowed his 
 use of the appellation from it. 
 
 W. "V. Wells, Life of Samuel Adams, Boston, 
 1865. 
 
 Adamsou, Patrick (S. 1543, d. 1591), 
 Archbishop of St. Andrews, was educated in 
 France, and returned to Scotland in 1 5 7 3, when 
 he entered the ministry. In 1575 he was one of 
 the commissioners employed to settle the con- 
 stitution of the Church of Scotland, and soon 
 after wa| appointed by the Eegeut Morton 
 Archbishop of St. Andrews. His life thence- 
 forward was a long course of opposition to 
 the Presbyterian party, who lost no oppor- 
 tunity of taking proceedings against him, 
 and finally succeeded in getting him excom- 
 
Add 
 
 ( 
 
 Add 
 
 municated, and deprived of the revenues of 
 his see, so that, it is said, his last years were 
 passed in actual want. He was the author of 
 a poetical version of the Book of Joh, and 
 other works in Latin verse. 
 
 Calderwood, True Hist, of tlie Church of Scot- 
 land; Cunningham, Chwrch Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Addingtou, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth 
 {b. 1755, d. 1844), the son of Anthony 
 Addington, Lord Chatham's family physician, 
 was called to the Bar about the same time aa 
 Pitt, whose intimate friend he was. By Pitt 
 he was persuaded to leave the Bar, and to turn 
 his attention to political life. He was accord- 
 ingly returned to ParUament as memher for 
 Devizes, and soon became conspicuous as 
 a devoted follower of Pitt. In 1789 he was 
 elected Speaker, and presided over the House 
 until, on Pitt's resignation in 1801, he was 
 invited by the king to form an adminis- 
 tration. It was verj' feeble, and would 
 scarcely have lived a month if Pitt had not 
 for a time given it his protection and advice. 
 Addington' s ministry was chiefly signalised 
 by the conclusion of the treaty of Amiens ; but 
 when Pitt withdrew his support, the utter 
 weakness of the Cabinet became very clear, 
 and Addington was forced to make way for 
 his former leader. There was now a com- 
 plete breach between the two, and Ad- 
 dington, who had been created Viscount 
 Sidmouth, attacked Lord Melville, and 
 through him the Prime Minister, with great 
 vehemence. After Pitt's death, Addington 
 became President of the Council in the Greu- 
 ville and Fox administration. In the minis- 
 try of Perceval and the Duke of Portland 
 he had no place ; but, when Lord Liverpool 
 came into oiEce in 1812, he was appointed 
 Home Secretary. In this position his repres- 
 sive policy, and the hostility he showed to 
 popular movements, made him remarkably 
 impopular with the nation at large ; but he 
 maintained his post for several years, until he 
 resigned it to Sir Eobert Peel, 1822, after 
 which he took but little share in politics. 
 His administration has been described by 
 Macaulay as one which, in an age pre- 
 eminently fruitful of parhamentary talents, 
 contained hardly a single man who, in par- 
 liamentary talents, could be considered as 
 even of the second rate. " He was," the 
 same writer says, " universally admitted to 
 have been the best speaker that had sate in 
 the Chair since the retirement of Onslow. 
 But nature had not bestowed on him very 
 vigorous faculties," and his long occupation 
 of the Chair had unfitted him for the task 
 of heading an administration. 
 
 Pellew, Li/e and Corre.'ijpondence of Lord Sid. 
 mouth, 1847 ; Stanhope, Life of Pitt ; Eussell, 
 lAfe of Fox; Lord Hoilajid,' Memoirn . 
 
 [W. E. S.] 
 
 Addison, Joseph {i. 1672, d. 1719), was 
 the son of the Reverend Launcelot Addison, 
 
 afterwards Dean of Lichfield. Joseph Addison 
 was educated at the Charterhouse and Mag- 
 dalen College, Oxford, where his Latin com- 
 positions gained him considerable reputation. 
 He was elected to a fellowship in 1699. Soon 
 alter leaving Oxford, he became acquainted 
 with Charles Montague, Earl of Halifax, 
 and subsequently with Lord Somers, through 
 whose influence he received, in 1695, a pension 
 of £300 a year. In 1699 he left England, 
 and travelled over France and Italy, until 
 the death of William III. In 1704 his Cam- 
 paign, a poem on the battle of Blenheim, 
 written at the request of Godolphin, was 
 highly successful, and at once brought its 
 author into note. Henceforth his rise was 
 rapid. He became Commissioner of Appeals, 
 Secretary to the Legation at Hanover, and in 
 1708 Under-Secretary of State. In 1708 he 
 entered Parliament as member for Lost- 
 withiel. In the autumn of the same year. 
 Lord Wharton, the Lord-Lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, appointed him his Chief Secretary and 
 Keeper of the Records. From Ireland Addison 
 sent his contributions to the Tatler, the first 
 of the periodical publications, which his friend 
 Steele projected. With Steele he was one of 
 the founders of the new literary school of the 
 Essayists, who introduced into English Prose 
 a remarkable simplicity and purity of style, 
 and in whose light and graceful publications 
 modem periodical literature had its source. 
 On the faU of the Whigs in 1710, Addison 
 was dismissed from office. During the 
 General Election he contributed some vio- 
 lent party papers to a political journal, 
 entitled the Whig Examiner. In March, 1711, 
 the Spectator appeared, under the conduct of 
 Steele, and during the years of its existence 
 (March, 1711— Dec, 1714), Addison was the 
 principal contributor. In 1713 Addison's 
 tragedy, Cato, was put on the stage. Political 
 feeling was high at the time, and the opposite 
 principles appealed to in the play caused it to 
 be highly successful, both with Whigs and 
 Tories. On the death of Anne, Addison was 
 made Secretary to the Lords of the Regency. 
 On the accession of George I., he again became 
 Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant. In 
 1715 he pubhshed the Freeholder, the best of 
 his political writings. The next year he mar- 
 ried the Dowager Countess of Warwick, and 
 in 1717 became Secretarj^ of State. But his 
 health was failing, and his marriage was 
 unhappy. He finally quitted office in 1718, 
 with a pension of £1,500 a year. In 1719 
 his defence of the Peerage Bill involved him 
 in a, quarrel with Steele, whom he attacked 
 in a party journal called the Old JFhig. This 
 was the last of Addison's literary efforts. He 
 died June 17, 1719, and was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey. Addison's importance in the 
 political history of England is not great, though 
 he held high office, and his personal career was 
 remarkably successful, even for an age when 
 literary merit, aided by a certain amount of 
 
Add 
 
 (9 ) 
 
 Ade 
 
 influential patronage, was frequentlj' a pass- 
 port to wealth and power. In Parliament 
 he was a silent member, and as Secretary 
 of State lie was not particularly successful. 
 In principles he was a strict Whag of a some- 
 what narrow cast ; and in the schism which 
 took place in 1717 it is notable that he sup- 
 ported the " old Whigs,'' Sunderland and 
 Stanhope, against the more progressive section 
 of the party which Walpole headed. It is as 
 an essayist that he won his title to fame, 
 though his political writings are valuable, 
 as exhibiting the doctrines and principles of 
 the earlier Whig statesman of the Revo- 
 lution school, set forth with the skiU and 
 finish of a consummate literary artist. 
 His chief political writings are The Fresent 
 State of the War (1707), The Trial and Con- 
 viction of Count Tariff (1713), and the Free- 
 holder (1715 — 16) ; and his contributions to 
 the Whig Examiner (1710) and the Old Whig 
 (1719). 
 
 The Works of Addison were puWislied in six 
 volimies, with Notes by Bishop Hurd in 1811. 
 There is a good Lifa by Miss AiVin, published 
 in 1843, and a lengthy memoir in the Biogra^hia 
 Britannica. The famons character of Addison, 
 nnder the name of Atticus, in Pope's E^pistle to 
 Dr. ^rbitthnot, and Macaulay*s account of the 
 relations between Addison and Steele in his 
 essay on The Life and, Wriliin^s of Addison, 
 are well known- [S. J. L.] 
 
 Addled Parliament, was the name 
 
 given to the Parliament which sat from 
 April 5 to June 7, 1614. No Parliament had 
 been summoned since 1609 ; but in 1614 the 
 condition of the finances, and the unwiUing- 
 ness of the people to pay the Customs levied 
 by the king without the sanction of Parlia- 
 ment, made it essential to assemble one. 
 James hoped that, by employing "under- 
 takers" or intermediaries, between himself 
 and the Commons, he might obtaiu a con- 
 siderable grant in return for the renuncia- 
 tion of some small portions of the royal pre- 
 rogative. But when Parliament met, it 
 showed itself determined not to grant any 
 supplies until the king's claim to levy Customs 
 had been surrendered. Finding that the 
 Commons persisted in their determination to 
 make redress of grievances precede grants of 
 supply, James dissolved Parliament before a 
 single statute had been passed, and committed 
 the leaders of the opposition to prison. 
 
 Addresses to the Crown are (i) 
 
 from Parliament, (2) from the people. 
 (1) Since the time of Edward I., Parliament 
 has exercised the privilege which it inherited 
 from the Great Council of the Baronage, 
 of freely offering its advice to the crown, 
 and demanding the abolition of grievances. 
 Nearly all the legislation of the fourteenth 
 century is baaed upon the petitions of Parlia- 
 ment. From the reign of Henry VI., the 
 petitions and addresses began to assume 
 the form of actual statutes, and were called 
 
 bills. In later history, Parliament asserted 
 its right to address the Crown on subjects of 
 wider pohcy, such as the settlement of the 
 succession under Elizabeth, and recommen- 
 dations to the queen to marry (1562 and 
 1566) ; whilst advice on questions of peace 
 and war has often been tendered to the 
 Crown by Parliament. Thus the House of 
 Commons presented a remonstrance against 
 the continuance of the American war, and on 
 receiving an unsatisfactory answer, declared 
 that it would " consider as enemies to his 
 Majesty and this country all who should 
 advise or by any means attempt the further 
 prosecution of offensive war on the continent 
 of America, for the purpose of reducing the 
 revolted colonies to obedience by force." 
 Addresses to the Crown are always moved in 
 both Houses in answer to the Koyal Speech 
 at the beginning of the Session; and the 
 Debate upon the Address has become the 
 formal opportunity for approving or challeng- 
 ing the Ministerial policy put forward in the 
 Royal Speech. (2) Addresses from indivi- 
 duals have been offered to the king from the 
 earliest times, usually in the form of petitions 
 for pardons, or redress of private grievances ; 
 and though these petitions were subsequently 
 usually made to the House of Commons, they 
 were occasionally laid at once before the 
 sovereign himself, as in the case of the 
 petition of the clergy in 1344. The practice 
 of addressing the Crown on political matters 
 had, however, no precedent until the time of 
 Charles I. >(1640), and in 1662 was restrained 
 by an Act against tumultuous petitioning. 
 In 1679 the Whig petitions for the assembling 
 of Parliament were met on the part of the 
 Tories by counter-addresses from the Ab- 
 horrers (q.v.). In 1701 petitions were pre- 
 sented, praying for the dissolution of Parlia- 
 ment, and :again in 1710 ; whilst in 1784 
 numerous addresses to the king set forth 
 that the people were wiUing to support Mr. 
 Pitt and the prerogative. The constitutional 
 character of the addresses of 1710 were sup- 
 ported by a vote of the House of Commons, 
 which affirmed "that it is the undoubted 
 right of the people of England to petition or 
 address the king for the calling, sitting, and 
 dissolving Parhaments, and for the redressing 
 of grievances." [Crown ; Petitions.] 
 
 Por the practice and procedure observed in 
 Addresses trom Parhament, see May, law of 
 Parliament, chap, xvii., and Comt. Hist. ; Stnbbs, 
 Const. Hist. ; Hallam, Const. Hist. 
 
 [F. S. P.] 
 
 Aden, an important military position on 
 the south coast of Arabia, was taken by the 
 English in -1839, and, in spite of various 
 attacks made upon it by the Arabs, has ever 
 since remained under British rule. Its 
 position gives it a great importance as a coal- 
 ing station for the Indo-European steamers. 
 Aden is governed by a Resident, and forms 
 part of the Bombay presidency. 
 
Ade 
 
 ( 10) 
 
 Adm 
 
 Adelaide, Queen (S. 1792, d. 1849), the 
 daughter of George, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, 
 was married to the Duke of Clarence, 1818. 
 On the accession of the Duke of Clarence as 
 William IV., a bill was passed [Regency 
 Bills] appointing her Regent, in case any 
 child of the king's succeeded him during 
 minority. She scrupulously abstained from 
 interfering in politics ; but in spite of this, 
 the dissolution of the Melbourne Cabinet in 
 1834 was attributed to her influence. After 
 the accession of Queen Victoria, her life was 
 chielly spent in works of charity and benevo- 
 lence. 
 
 Adelais of Louvain (*. 1103) was the 
 
 second wife of Henry I., to whom she was 
 married in 1121. She survived her husband, 
 and subsequently married William de Albini, 
 ancestor of the family of Howard. 
 
 Adjntators, The (sometimes erroneously 
 iijVei. Agitators), were representatives elected 
 by each regiment of the Roundheads in 1647, 
 to act in concert with the officers, in com- 
 pelling Parliament to satisfy the demands 
 of the army before disbanding it. They 
 presented a petition to Parliament, in which 
 they complained of "the ambition of a few 
 men, who had long been servants, but were de- 
 generating into tyrants." The Parliament, 
 finding it impossible any longer to refuse to 
 listen to the demands of the army, sent a 
 committee, consisting of Cromwell, Ireton, 
 Skippou, and Fleetwood, to head-quarters 
 to pacify the soldiers. But the army muti- 
 nied, seized the money intended for their 
 pay, and expelled the officers whom they 
 suspected. On May 29 a great meeting of 
 Adjutators, under the authority of Fairfax, 
 was held at Bury St. Edmunds, and a ren- 
 dezvous of all the troops called at Newmarket. 
 On June 2 the army leaders sent Cornet 
 Joyce to remove the king out of the hands 
 of the Parliament. This having been done, 
 on June 10 a great rendezvous of the army 
 was held at Triploe Heath, near Cam- 
 bridge. Here the army refused to accept 
 the conditions of Parliament, demanded the 
 dismissal of eleven of the most obnoxious 
 Presbyterian leaders, and began to march on 
 Loudon. On the approach of the army the 
 eleven withdrew, and the Independents be- 
 came for a time the majority in the House. 
 But the City of London was strongly Pres- 
 byterian, and on July 26 a large muster of 
 apprentices and others came unto the House, 
 and compelled the recall of the eleven mem- 
 bers, and the replacing of the London militia 
 in the hands of the Presbyterians. There- 
 upon the army, which had been encamped 
 close to London, entered the city (August 8) 
 and again expelled the eleven members. The 
 power was now entirely in the hands of the 
 army, and the Adjutators were busy holding 
 meetings, and urging forward extreme mea- 
 sures, and demanding vengeance on the king. 
 
 Cromwell and the officers began to grow 
 anxious to restore discipline in the army, 
 and when some of the regiments showed 
 signs of acting independently, ^ vigorous 
 measures were taken, one of the ringleaders 
 shot, and others placed under arrest. Lil- 
 burne and others attempted to revive the 
 Adjutators in 1649 ; but the attempt was 
 frustrated by Cromwell. [Cromwell ; Faik- 
 
 PAX.] 
 
 "Whitelocke, Memoirs; Ludlow, Memoirs; 
 Cailyle, Crcymwell; Guizot, Hist. oftheETig. Rm. 
 [F. S.P.] 
 
 Admiral, The Lord High, was one of the 
 great officers of State who was specially con- 
 cerned with the government of the navy and 
 the administration of maritime affairs. The 
 name is derived from an Asiatic word corres- 
 ponding to the Arabic Amir, and the Turkish 
 JEmir, a commander or general ; and it was pro- 
 bably adopted by the English either directly 
 from the Saracens, in the course of the later 
 Crusades, or from the Sicilians or Genoese. 
 The first person to whom the name " Admiral 
 of England" is certainly known to have 
 been given was William de Leyboume, who 
 was appointed in 1286, though we hear of 
 the appointment of an officer called " custos 
 maris" from time to time under the 
 Norman and earlier Angevin kings. During 
 the 14th century and the early years of the 
 16th, there were frequently two Admirals, 
 of the North and the West respectively. 
 From 1404 till 1632 there was an uninter- 
 rupted succession of Lord High Admirals of 
 England, whose duties were not only to act 
 as Naval Commanders-in-Chief, but also as 
 Ministers of Marine and Presidents of the 
 Court of Admiralty. In 1632 the duties , 
 of the office were entrusted to a commission 
 of the great officers of state ; and under 
 the Commonwealth naval affairs were man- 
 aged by a Committee of Parliament, and 
 afterwards by Cromwell. After the Restora- 
 tion, the office of Lord High Admiral was 
 held by King Charles II., and by James, 
 as Duke of York and as King, and by Prince 
 George of Denmark, the husband of Queen 
 Anne. Since 1708, however, the office has 
 always been in commission, with the excep- 
 tion of a short period (May, 1827— Sept., 
 1828), when the Duke of Clarence, after- 
 wards King William IV., was Lord High 
 Admiral. By the Acts 2 Will, and Mary, o. 2, 
 and 1 Geo. iv. c. 90, the authorities, juris- 
 diction, and powers of the Lord High Admiral 
 were vested in the Lords Commissioners of 
 the Admiralty. The chief of these commis- 
 sioners is styled the First Lord of the Ad- 
 miralty. In modem times he has become , 
 practically sole and responsible Minister for 
 the Navy, and is now always a member of the 
 Cabinet. In 1869, Mr. C'hilders, then First 
 Lord of the Admiralty, introduced important 
 changes into the working of the department 
 
Adm 
 
 ( 11) 
 
 Adm 
 
 which, tended to give the minister more un- 
 divided control and responsibiKty. The First 
 Lord, who is generally a civilian, is as- 
 sisted by the three Naval Lords, one Civil 
 Lord, and the Secretary to the Admiralty, 
 who has charge of financial and parliamentary 
 business. 
 
 The title of Admiral has also been used 
 continuously since the 13th century to desig- 
 nate the highest grade in the Royal Navy; but 
 it does not appear to have come into general 
 use in this sense tiU the latter part of the 16th 
 century. There were formerly three classes of 
 Admirals, those of the Red, the White, and 
 the Blue squadrons, but this distinction was 
 abolished in 1864. [Navy.] 
 
 Lord High Admirals. 
 
 William de Leyboume, or Leibum, is styled 
 at the Assembly at Bruges 8th March, 
 15 Ed. I., Admirallus Maris Anglim . 1286 
 
 Jolm de Botetort, Admiral of the North; 
 
 William de Leibum, Admiral o£ the South 1294 
 John de Bello Campo, or Beauohamp, consti- 
 tuted High Admiral of both West and 
 
 „ North . . 1360 
 
 Sir Robert Herle 1361 
 
 Sir Balph de Spigumell ... . 1361 
 
 Eiohard Pitz-Alan, Earl of Arundel . . 1387 
 Edward of Rutland, afterwards of Albemarle, 
 
 High Admiral 1392 
 
 John Beaufort, Marquis of Dorset (natural 
 son of John of Gaunt), High Admiral of 
 the Northern, Western, and Irish Fleets 1398 
 Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester, Admiral 
 
 of both parts 1399 
 
 Thomas of Lancaster, High Steward of Eng- 
 land, afterwards Duke of Clarence . . 1404 
 John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset . . . 1406 
 Edmund Holland, Earl of Kent. . , . 1407 
 Sir Thomas Beaufort, natural son of John 
 of Gaunt, created by letters patent, 1411, 
 Admiral of England, Ireland, and Aqoi- 
 
 taine for life 1408 
 
 John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford, son of 
 
 Henry IT 1426 
 
 John Holland, Dnke of Exeter, constituted, 
 together with his son, Admirals of Eng- 
 land, Ireland, and Aquitaine . . . 1436 
 William de la Pole, Marquis and Earl of 
 Suffolk, Admiral of England, Ireland, and 
 
 Aquitaine 1446 
 
 Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter . . . 1449 
 Eiohard Nevil, Earl of Warwick . . 1461 
 
 William Neyil, Earl of Kent . . . 1462 
 
 Eichard, Duke of Gloucester . . . 1465 
 
 Richard Nevil . 1466 
 
 Eiohard, Duke of Gloucester . . . 1471 
 John Howard, Duke of Norfolk . 1183 
 John de Tere, Earl of Oxford .... 1485 
 Edward Howard (afterwards Duke of Nor- 
 folk) 1513 
 
 Thomas Howard (brother of the above, after- 
 wards Duke of Norfolk) . . . 1514 
 Henry, Duke of Richmond .... 1526 
 William i'itzwilliam. Earl of Southampton . 1537 
 John Eussel, Lord Eussel . . . 1541 
 
 John Dudley 1543 
 
 Lord Thomas Seymour 1548 
 
 John Dudley, Earl of Warwick . . . 1551 
 
 Edward, Lord Clinton 1552 
 
 William Howard of Effingham .... 1553 
 
 Edward, Lord Clinton 1555 
 
 Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham . 1595 
 
 George, Duke of Buckingham .... 1619 
 Committee of Parliament .... 1649—1660 
 
 James, Duke of York 1660—1673 
 
 Charles II. managed it himself by his Privy 
 
 Councillors 1673—1684 
 
 James II., as Duke of Tork and King . 1684—1689 
 
 Thomas, Earl of Pembroke . . . 170a 
 
 George, Prince of Denmark . . . 1702—1708 
 WiUiam, Duke of Clarence . i Jf =^y 2, 1827 
 
 ( Sept.l9, 1828 
 
 PlKST LOEDS OP THE AdmiEALTY. 
 
 Prince Rupert .... , 1673- 
 
 Sir Henry Uapell .....'! 1679 
 Daniel Knch (afterwards Earl of Notttagham) 1680 
 
 '. '. 1690 
 
 . 1692 
 
 . 1693 
 
 . 1694 
 
 . 1697 
 
 Arthur Herbei*t 
 
 Thomas, Earl of Pembroke 
 
 Charles, Lord Comwallis . 
 
 Anthony, Viscount Falkland 
 
 Edward Russell . 
 
 Edward, Earl of Oxford 
 
 John, Earl of Bridgewater 
 
 Edward, Earl of Oxford 
 
 Sir John Leake . 
 
 Thomas, Earl of Strafford 
 
 Edward, Earl of Oxford 
 
 James, Earl of Berkeley 
 
 Viscount Torrington . 
 
 Sir Charles Wager 
 
 Daniel, Earl of Winchelsea 
 
 John, Duke of Bedford 
 
 John, Earl of Sandwich 
 
 George, Lord Anson , 
 
 Richard, Earl Temple 
 
 Earl of Winchelsea . 
 
 Lord Anson 
 
 George, Earl of Halifax 
 
 George Grenville 
 
 Earl of Sandwich 
 
 John, Earl of Egmont 
 
 Sir Charles Saunders . 
 
 Sir Edward Hawke , 
 
 Earl of Sandwich 
 
 Augustus, Viscount Keppel 
 Eichard, Viscount Howe 
 
 Viscount Keppel . 
 
 Viscount Howe . 
 
 John, Earl of Chatham 
 
 George, Earl Spencer 
 
 John, Earl of St. Vincent 
 
 Henry, Lord Melvil e 
 
 Charles, Lord Bartram 
 
 Charles Grey 
 
 Thomas Grenville 
 
 Henry, Lord Mulgrave 
 
 Charles Torke . 
 
 Robert, Lord Melville 
 
 Sir James Graham 
 
 George, Lord Auckland 
 
 Philip, Earl de Grey . 
 
 Lord Auckland . 
 
 Gilbert, Earl of Minto 
 
 Thomas, Earl of Haddington 
 
 Edward, Earl of Ellenborough 
 
 George, Earl of Auckland . 
 
 Sir P. Baring 
 
 Duke of Northumberland . 
 
 Sir J. Graham , 
 
 Sir Charles Wood 
 
 Sir John Pakington . 
 
 Edward, Duke of Somerset 
 
 Sir J. Pakington ... 
 
 Thomas L. Corry 
 
 Hugh Cbilders . 
 
 George J. Goschen 
 
 George Ward Hunt . 
 
 WUUam H. Smith 
 
 Thomas, Earl of Northbrook 
 
 . 1709 
 
 . 1710 
 
 . 1712 
 
 . 1714 
 
 . 1717 
 
 . 1727 
 
 . 1733 
 
 . 1741 
 
 . 1744 
 
 . 1748 
 
 . 1751 
 
 . 1756 
 
 . 1757 
 
 . 1757 
 
 . 1762 
 
 . 1762 
 1763 
 1763 
 
 . 1766 
 
 . 1766 
 
 . 1771 
 
 . 1782 
 
 Jan. 30, 1783 
 
 April 10, 1783 
 
 Dec. 31, 1783 
 
 . 1788 
 
 . 1794 
 
 . 1801 
 
 . 1804 
 
 . 1805 
 
 . 1806 
 
 . 1806 
 
 . 180? 
 
 . 1812 
 
 1830 
 
 . 1834 
 
 . 1834 
 
 April 25, 1835 
 
 Sept. 19, 1835 
 
 . 1841 
 
 Jan. 13, 1846 
 
 July 21, 1846 
 
 . 1849 
 
 . 1852 
 
 . 1853 
 
 . 1855 
 
 . 1858 
 
 1859 
 
 . 1866 
 
 1871 
 1874 
 1877 
 1880 
 
 Admiralty, Court of, is the Court of 
 the Lord High Admiral in his judicial capa- 
 city. The early admirals and oustodes maris, 
 from the time of Henry I. onwards, had the 
 prerogative of judging on all disputes between 
 merchants and sailors, and on ofEenoes com- 
 mitted on the high seas, out of the jurisdic- 
 tion of the Common Law Courts. These 
 privileges, and the way in which the admiral 
 and his deputies used them, especially the 
 
Adm 
 
 ( 12 
 
 Adr 
 
 respect paid by the Admiralty judges to the 
 Civil Law, provoked the jealousy of the 
 Common lawyers, and, in 13 Rich. II., a, 
 statute was passed strictly limiting its proce- 
 dure to matters transacted on the seas, and 
 this statute was enforced by one passed two 
 years later. When there was a Lord High 
 Admiral the judge of the Admiralty Court 
 was generally appointed by him ; when the 
 office is in commission he is appointed by the 
 Crown. The criminal jurisdiction of the Ad- 
 miralty Court is now no longer exercised, 
 and offences committed on the high seas are 
 tried at common law. By an Act of the reign 
 of Ilenry VIII. , all such offences were to be 
 tried by commissioners of oyer and terminer 
 under the great seal, and according to the 
 law of the land. When the Central Criminal 
 Court was established in 1834, the judges 
 were authorised to decide on aU offences com- 
 mitted within the jurisdiction of the Admi- 
 ralty. The civil jurisdiction of the court is 
 important, and, by 3 and 4 Vict., c. 65, com- 
 prehends all causes arising out of questions 
 of the title to or ownership of vessels, mari- 
 time contracts, salvage, and cases of collisions 
 and damages on the high seas. By the Judi- 
 cature Act of 1873, the Admiralty Court was 
 united with the Court of Probate and Divorce 
 to form one division of the Supreme Court of 
 Judicature. At the breaking out of war, a 
 commission is issued to the judge of the 
 Admiralty Court constituting him president 
 of a Prize Court, to decide as to what 
 is or what is not lawful prize. Property 
 captured from the enemy is held not to have 
 absolutely ceased to belong to its former 
 owner till condemned by the sentence of a 
 Prize Court. The proceedings in this court 
 are supposed to be conducted according to the 
 law of nations, and the decisions of its judges, 
 and notably of Lord Stoweli during the early 
 years of the French revolutionary war, form 
 very important contributions to international 
 law. Courts of Vice- Admiralty, having 
 analogous powers to the Admiralty Court, 
 are estabKshed in most of the British colonies. 
 The Chief Justice of the colony is ex-officio 
 judge of this court, and there is an appeal 
 from his decision to the Judicial Committee 
 of the Privy Council. The Admiralty 
 Court for Scotland retained its separate exis- 
 tence at the union, though the Scottish Lord 
 High Admiral was abolished. In 1831 the 
 Scotch Admiralty Courts were abolished, and 
 their functions entrusted to the Courts of 
 Session and Justiciary. [Navy.] 
 
 For the early history of the Admiralty, the best 
 authority is Tha BlacTt Bools of the Admiralty, a. 
 most important collection of documents bearing 
 on the subject, chiefly in the 14th and 15th cen- 
 turies, with the valuable prefaces of Sir Trayera 
 Twiss in the Rolls Series, 1871, &c. See esp. the 
 Editor's introduction to vol. ii. Among other 
 iTiabters of interest, the Black Book contains a 
 transcript of the Laws of Oleron, issued by 
 Richard I. at that town, which formed the hnsis 
 of the maritime jurisprudence ol all the western 
 
 nations. See also Rymer*s Fcedera ; Pepys' HavaX 
 Collections; A Treatise on the Sea Xaios, 1724; 
 J. Exton, Maritime Dicceologis, 1746 ; Sir Harris 
 Nicolas, History of the British Navy; Knight's 
 Political Cyclopcedia, art. Admira'ty ; and Ste- 
 phens' Cmmaentaries on the Laws of England. 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Admonition, The, 1588. A book en- 
 titled " An Admonition to the Nobility and 
 People of England and Ireland, concerning 
 the present wars made from the execution of 
 his HoUness' sentence, by the high and 
 mightie King Catholike of Spain," was 
 issued by Cardinal Allen, in order to advo- 
 cate the Spanish invasion of England, and 
 to declare the Papal sentence of excom- 
 munication against Elizabeth. It is a docu- 
 ment full of gross and offensive attacks on 
 the Queen, and may be considered as one of 
 the most indeccAt political libels that have 
 ever appeared. The effect of the Admonition 
 was to disgust not onlj' all Protestants, but 
 also a great many Catholics. The style is so 
 unlike the usual manner of Cardinal AUen that 
 it has often been attributed to the pen of 
 the Jesuit Parsons ; bat whoever was its real 
 author, it was signed and acknowledged by 
 AUen. 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of the Reformation; Strype, 
 
 Annals of the Reformation, iii., pt. 2, p. 7o0 
 
 (ed. 1824) ; Sharon Turner, Hist, of Ting., irii. 485. 
 
 The Admonition was reprinted with a. preface by 
 
 Eev. J. Mendham, 18^. 
 
 Admonition to Parliament, The, 
 1572. the work of two nonconformists, 
 named Field and Wilcox, was presented to 
 Parliament by Thomas Cartwright. The 
 object of the pamphlet, whii.'h was written in 
 a spirit of intolerance and defiance, was the 
 complete abolition of episcopacy. A second 
 "admonition" was also published by Cart- 
 wright (who was supported by Leicester), and 
 spread over the country. An elaborate answer 
 wa» written by Archbishop Whitgift, and 
 Field and Wilcox were committed to New- 
 gate. 
 
 See Strvpe, Annals of the Reformation, and Life 
 of Whitgift. 
 
 Adrian IV., Pope (5. circ. 1100, d. 1159), 
 was the only Englishman who has occupied 
 the Papal chair. His name was Nicholas 
 Breakspeare. He was born at Langley in 
 Hertfordshire, studied in France, entered the 
 monastery of St. Eufus in Provence, of which 
 he became Abbot. In 1146 he was created a 
 Cardinal, and sent as papal legate to Norway. 
 In 1154 he was chosen Pope. His papacy 
 was disturbed by the attempt of Arnold of 
 Brescia, whom he succeeded in arresting and 
 executing (1155). Adrian is memorable in 
 European history as beginning the long and 
 bitter quarrel between the Popes and the 
 Hohenstaufen emperors. In English history 
 his chief interest lies in the famous bull in 
 which he granted Henry II. the sovereignty 
 over Ireland. The Bull of Adrian IV., with 
 regard to Ireland, was issued in accordance. 
 
Ada 
 
 (13) 
 
 Adv 
 
 with, the idea, commonly held throughout the 
 middle ages, that the fabulous "donation" 
 of Constantine had included a gift to the suc- 
 cessor of St. Peter of all the islands in the 
 world. In H5S, on condition of the pay- 
 ment of Peter's Pence, the Pope issued a buU 
 ■which handed over the sovereignty of the 
 island to Henry II. The enterprise was 
 prompted, it was stated, hy "the ardour of 
 faith and love of religion," and there is in- 
 deed no doubt that the laxity of the Irish 
 clergy, and the looseness of the connection 
 with Eome, had much to do with the eager- 
 ness with which the Pope acceded to Henry's 
 request for the buU. 
 
 William of Newbury, ii. ch. 6 ; "Will, of Tyre, 
 
 xviii., ch'. 26 ; GiraldusCainbrens. Expug.Rihern.; 
 
 Moore, HUt. of Ireland. 
 
 Adllllaiultes (1866) was a name deri- 
 sively applied to those Liberals, about forty in 
 number, who opposed the majority of their 
 party on Earl Russell's proposal for a further 
 Eeform of Parliament. Their leaders wera 
 Mr. Lowe, Mr. Horsman, and Lord Elcho. 
 Mr. Bright, on the 13th of March, compared 
 this party to the assembly which came to the 
 cave of Adullam, when David called about 
 him every one that was in distress and every 
 one that was discontented. The defection 
 of the AduUamites led to the overthrow of 
 Lord Russell's ministry. 
 
 Adventurers. ISee Meechaut Adven- 
 
 TUEEES.] 
 
 Adventurers of 1642, The. The 
 
 English Parliament having confiscated be- 
 tween two and three millions of acres in 
 Ireland, in consequence of the Rebellion of 
 1641, debenture bonds were issued made pay- 
 able in land after the reconquest of the 
 country. About a million acres were thus 
 disposed of, the original idea being that the 
 money thus obtained should actually be em- 
 ployed in suppressing the rebellion ; but the 
 outbreak of civil war in England prevented 
 this. When in 1653 the conquest was finally 
 accomplished, the counties of Limerick, Tip- 
 perary, and Waterford, in Munster; King's 
 and Queen's County, East and West Meath, 
 in Leinster; Down, Antrim, and Armagh, 
 in Ulster, were set aside for satisfying these 
 claims, and those of the Puritan soldiery. 
 Many of these Adventurers were subse- 
 quently deprived of a large portion of their 
 lands by the Act of Settlement and Explana- 
 tion in 1665, and a considerable number 
 emigrated to America. 
 
 Sir W. Petty, Tfce Political Anatomy of Ireland, 
 1691 ; and The Sist. of the Survey of Ireland, re- 
 published by the Irish Arohseolog. Soc, Diiblm, 
 1851. See also Leoky, Sist. 0/ Bug. m the Etgh- 
 temth Century ; Proude, The English in Ireland. 
 
 Advertisements, Duty on. Adver- 
 tisements in newspapers appear to have first 
 come into use during the periodof the Common- 
 wealth, the first being, it is said, an announce- 
 
 ment of an heroic poem on the death of Crom- 
 well. Advertisements became common during 
 the latter haU of the seventeenth century, and 
 in the reign of William III., a gratuitous paper 
 of advertisements was started and existed for 
 some time. By an Act of 1712, a duty was 
 imposed on each advertisement published. In 
 1838 the tax was reduced from 3s. 6d. in Great 
 Britain, and 2s. 6d. in Ireland, to Is. 6d. in 
 the former and Is. in the latter country. In 
 1851 the tax brought in over £175,000. The 
 duty was abolished in 1853. 
 
 See Article in Qiiarterly Review, June, 1855; 
 Grant, The Newspaper Press. 
 
 Advertisements (1566) was the name 
 of a book of discipline issued by Arphbishop 
 Parker. It marks the beginnings of the 
 persecutions of the Puritan clergy, and has 
 in recent times excited much controversy. The 
 Archbishop had previously endeavoured in 
 vain to induce Cecil to consent to 'an official 
 promulgation of these " advertisements ; " but 
 as Cecil was not anxious to provoke opposition 
 by too rigid an execution of the Act of 
 Uniformity, he had refused to authorise or 
 publish them, and Parker was consequently 
 left to issue them on his own responsibiKty. 
 Their title ran : " Advertisements partly for 
 due order in the public administration of 
 Common Prayer and using of the Holy 
 Sacraments, and partly for the apparel of all 
 persons ecclesiastical, by virtue of the Queen's 
 Majesty's letter commanding the same." The 
 points especially insisted on are the wearing 
 of the surplice and cap ; and generally they 
 enforced rigid obedience to the more ob- 
 noxious portions of the Act of Uniformity. 
 Much controversy has arisen as to the precise 
 validity of these Advertisements. On the one 
 side it has been maintained that the royal 
 authorisation gave binding force to the Arch- 
 bishop's injunctions, and that they were the 
 " other order " which the Act of Uniformity 
 of 1559 half anticipated as litely to supersede 
 the " Ornaments Rubric," which enjoined that 
 church ornaments should remain as in the 
 second year of Edward VI. This view, 
 which was adopted by Lord Selborne in the 
 "Ridsdale Case," has been attacked by 
 Mr. J. Parker in his " Ornaments Rubric," 
 where it is maintained that the advertise- 
 ments were simple archiepiscopal injunctions, 
 and that their enforcement of a minimum of 
 ritual did not aim at abolishing the vestments, 
 etc., of Edward VI. 's First Prayer-Book. 
 
 Strype's Annals and Life of Parlter ; Neal's 
 History of the Puritans. 
 
 Advocate, The Lord, also called the 
 King's or Queen's Advocate, is the chief law 
 officer of the crown in Scotland, and corre- 
 sponds, roughly speaking, to the English 
 Attorney-General. The King's Advocate is 
 found in existence in 1479, in 1540 he be- 
 came one of the officers of state, and m 1587 
 he is first mentioned as Lord Advocate. The 
 
Adv 
 
 ( 14) 
 
 Afg 
 
 origin of the office is extremely otacure ; it 
 has heen supposed that, with the title, it was 
 derived from the French ; and the duties of 
 the earlier Kings' Advocates, of whom there 
 is a fairly full list from 1483, are equally 
 ill-defined. They appear to have been com- 
 prised in the prosecution of state officers, and 
 the inquiry into the extent of the feudal for- 
 feitures arising from those offences. In the 
 middle of the sixteenth century it is possible 
 to gain a clearer idea of his functions ; the 
 Lord Advocate was public prosecutor, he 
 conducted all cases in which the sovereign 
 was concerned, which, from the reign of 
 Queen Mary, have heen pursued in his name, 
 and in the latter part of the century appears 
 to have occasionally combined the offices of 
 advocate and judge in the court of sessions. 
 Previous to the tjnion, the Lord Advocate 
 sat in Parliament in virtue of his office : but 
 now he is not necessarily, though he is 
 generally, a member of the Lower House. 
 He is appointed by the Crown, and tenders 
 his resignation when the administration 
 changes. When the Duke of Newcastle 
 abolished the office of Secretary of State for 
 Scotland in the reign of George II. the duties 
 of that' minister were transferred to the Lord 
 Advocate. In Parliament he answers all 
 questions relating to Scotland, and under- 
 takes all measures of Scottish legislation ; 
 but he is not a member of the Privy Council, 
 and is called right honourable by courtesy 
 only. Outside Parliament he acts as public 
 prosecutor, in which duties he is assisted by 
 the Solicitor-General and four advocates-depute, 
 and appears for the Crown in all civil cases. 
 His warrants for searching, apprehending, 
 and imprisoning run in any part of Scotland ; 
 he is allowed to sit within the bar of the 
 court of session, a privilege enjoyed by peers 
 of the realm. 
 
 Barclay, Digest of the Law of Scotland ; More, 
 Lectures on the Laws of ScotlandyVol. i. ; Knight, 
 Cyclo]}cedia of FoliUcal Knowledge. [L. C. S.l 
 
 AdvOWSOn is the right of presentation 
 to an ecclesiastical benefice vested in a man 
 and his heirs for ever. The word is taken 
 from Lat. advocatio, for he who had the 
 advowson was the protector or patron of 
 the church. As the parochial system was 
 grafted on the township, it might be contended 
 that the right of presentation would at first 
 be in the lord of the manor ; but as a fact, 
 the early parish priests were in a great pro- 
 Jjortion of cases appointed by the bishops. 
 An advowson is presentative when it is the 
 right of presenting a clerk to the bishop 
 for institution ; collative when the bishop 
 is patron ; donative when by royal foundation 
 or licence the patron can present without 
 reference to the bishop. An advowson is 
 regarded by the law as a trust. Yet advow- 
 sons, and the power of exercising the 
 right of presentation for one or more terms, 
 
 can be sold subject to some restrictions. A 
 right of nomination to the patron may exist 
 separate from the right of presentation to the 
 bishop ; thus, in the mortgage of an advow- 
 son, the mortgagee presents, but he must do 
 so on the nomination of the mortgager. 
 Neither Koman Catholics nor their trustees 
 may present ; they must sell the presentation, 
 or it wiU vest in the University of Oxford 
 or of Cambridge (11 Geo. II., c. 17). The 
 presentee must be in priest's orders before 
 his institution (14 Car. II., c. 4). Eestrio- 
 tions on patronage depend on the law of 
 simony, which, as far as our temporal courts 
 are concerned, is founded on 31 Eliz., c. 6, 
 and 12 Anne, c. 12. A clergyman may not 
 purchase a next presentation for himself, but 
 he may purchase an advowson, and be pre- 
 sented on the next vacancy. If a patron 
 neglects to exercise his right, the presenta- 
 tion lapses at the end of six months to the 
 bishop, the archbishop, and the crown suc- 
 cessively. Suits for disturbance of patronage 
 used to be maintained by darrein presentment, 
 and later more usually by quare impedit, and 
 now, since 23 and 24 Vict., c. 126, by writ 
 of summons. The bishop is bound to insti- 
 tute the clerk presented by the patron, unless 
 there is good cause to the contrary, and the 
 patron or {he clerk has remedy in case of 
 I'ef usal by appKcation to the Provincial Court. 
 Phillimore, Eccl. Law ; Cripps, Law of Church, 
 &c. ; Chitty, Collection of Statutes. ("W". H. 1 
 
 Aelfheah.. [Alphege.] 
 
 Aelred (Aildred, Ealred) of Eievaulx, 
 St. (5. 1109, d. 1166). An English historian, 
 born at Hexham, and educated in the family of 
 King David of Scotland. He is said to have 
 refused a Scotch bishopric that he might be- 
 come a monk of the Cistercian Abbey of Eie- 
 vaulx, in Yorkshire, of which he became 
 abbot in 1146. He wrote several historical 
 works, among which are Hves of Edward the 
 Confessor, David of Scotland, Queen Margaret 
 of Scotland, and St. Ninian, and a Chronicle 
 of the Kings of England. None of his works 
 are of high historical value. " Ail;red of 
 Eievaulx," says Sir Thomas Hardy, "ranks 
 in the second class of English mediseval his- 
 torians, and even there does not occupy the 
 first place." Aelred was also the author of 
 a number of theological treatises. He was 
 canonised in 1191. 
 
 See Sir Thos. Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue of 
 Materials, ii. 298, &c. (Rolls Series.) Aelred's 
 works were collected by E. Gibbon, Donai, 
 1631, 4to, and they are to be found in Migne, 
 Patrologia, vol. 195. Aelred's Vita S. E*carft 
 Con/, and Descriptio de Bella apud Standardum 
 are m Twysdeu Scriptores Decern. 
 
 2:thelberht. [Ethelbeet.] 
 
 .mthelred. [Ethelred.] 
 
 .Xithelstane. [Athelstan.] 
 
 Afghan Wars. (1) Situated in imme- 
 diate proximity to the N.W. frontier of 
 
Afg 
 
 ( 15) 
 
 Afg 
 
 India, Afghanistan has, from the earliest 
 times, flgmed conspicuously in the history 
 of Hindostan and of Central Asia. Its first 
 connection with English history dates from 
 the year 1809, when the rumour of a joint 
 invasion of India, determined on by Napoleon 
 and the Czar Alexander, led to the despatch 
 of the Hon. M. Elphinstone as envoy to Shah 
 Shujah, then ruler of Cabul. A treaty was 
 concluded between the two at Peshawur. The 
 subsequent events, fraught with intestine 
 broils, do not call for detailed review, though 
 we may note the visit of Lieut. Alexander 
 Burues to Cabul, on his way to Bokhara, in 
 1832, for the mass of interesting information 
 collected thereby. In 1834, Shah Shujah, 
 who had been dethroned, endeavoured to 
 regain his power, and advanced on Candahar, 
 but was defeated by Dost Mahomed, ruler of 
 Cabul, and Kohandil Khan, who reigned at 
 Candahar. He took refuge eventually with 
 Nasir Khan, of Khelat, who enabled him to 
 return to Ludiana in a manner suited to his 
 dignity. In 1837, the siege of Herat by 
 Persia, encouraged, as believed, by the Rus- 
 sians, and the defeat of the Sikhs by Dost 
 Mahomed, led the English to despatch Burnfis 
 as resident at the court of Cabul. But the 
 suspension of the negotiations then existing 
 between Dost Mahomed and the Russians 
 being refused by the Amir, the resolu- 
 tion was formed of placing the ex- king. 
 Shah Shujah, on the Afghan throne. An 
 army of 21,000 men was assembled on the 
 Indus (16th January, 1839), and, advancing 
 on Candahar through the Bolan Pass, took 
 possession of that city, where Shah Shujah 
 was crowned on the 8th May. Ghazni fell 
 next, the gate of the city being blown in by 
 Lieut, (afterwards General Sir Henry) 
 Durand. Dost Mahomed, finding his forces 
 melting away, lied beyond the Hindu Kush, 
 and the British entered Cabul without oppo- 
 sition. Shah Shujah's restoration was at 
 first popular, but the people, soon finding how 
 completely this was due to English support, 
 incensed at the reduction of subsidies to the 
 chiefs, and inflamed by the mullahs or priests, 
 began to gather in insurrection. The British 
 authorities neglected warnings, and on the 
 2nd November, 1841, rebellion broke out, and 
 Sir Alexander Burnes and other officers were 
 treacherously assassinated. Disasters fol- 
 lowed thickly on one another, and General 
 Elphinstone, on whom the command had been 
 thrust, was in the feeblest health. At a con- 
 ference with Akbar Khan, Dost Mahomed's 
 son, Sir "W. Macnaghten, the British envoy, 
 was murdered by that chief ; and on the 6th 
 Januarj', 1842, the British garrison of 4,500, 
 with nearly three times that number of camp 
 followers, proceeded to evacuate the country, 
 but perished miserably in the mountain passes 
 between Cabul and Jellalabad, a single sur- 
 vivor. Dr. Brydon, alone reaching the latter 
 city. Ghazni fell to the Afghans on the 10th 
 
 December, some hundreds of Sepoys being 
 carried into captivity, while ninety-five host- 
 ages, left by the British, were in durance near 
 Cabul. Candahar and Jellalabad, however, 
 were held firmly by Generals Nott and Sale 
 respectively. A strong expedition, under 
 General Pollock, was prepared in India, and 
 after forcing the Khyber Pass relieved Jella- 
 labad. After halting two months at this 
 place, the time being spent in negotiations, 
 General Pollock advanced and inflicted a 
 severe defeat on Mahomed Akbar Khan 
 entering Cabul a few days later. The cap- 
 tives were recovered, the principal bazar 
 of Cabul razed to the ground, and General 
 Nott, who had advanced from Candahar and 
 captured Ghazni, beheld, on his arrival at 
 Cabul, the British flag floating over the 
 ramparts. Soon after the departure of our 
 troops Shah Shujah was assassinated, and 
 Dost Mahomed Khan was restored to his 
 former power. During the Sikh revolt, in 
 1848, he joined them against the British, but 
 a friendly understanding was arrived at and 
 a treaty concluded in 1855. The same year 
 saw the acquisition of the Candahar province 
 by Dost Mahomed, and the second Persian 
 advance on Herat ; its capture and final 
 cession, through fear of the English, who 
 had sent an expedition to the Persian Gulf, 
 are the subsequent events of note. 
 
 (2) Shere AU Khan, who ascended the 
 Afghan throne in 1863, passed through great 
 vicissitudes of fortune, but eventually over- 
 came his rivals and foes in 1 868. An arrange- 
 ment was arrived at between the British and 
 Russian governments in 1872 that Afghani- 
 stan was beyond the field of Russian influence, 
 and the practical violation of this under- 
 standing in 1878, coupled with the repulse 
 by the Afghans of a British mission, led to 
 a" fresh Afghan war. The victories at Ali 
 Musjid and Pewar, and the capture of Can- 
 dahar and Kelat-i-Ghilzai by Sir Donald 
 Stewart, placed all the important vantage 
 points of Eastern Afghanistan (Cabul ex- 
 cepted) in our hands. A treaty was con- 
 cluded at Gandamak with Yakub Khan, who 
 had succeeded to power on the death of his 
 father, Shere AK, but all its provisions were 
 scattered to the winds by the murder of Sir L. 
 Cavagnari, who had been deputed as English 
 envoy to Cabul. Sir F. Roberts promptly 
 advanced on the capital, and inflicted a severe 
 defeat on the Afghans at Charasia. For some 
 months, however, fighting went on, till, at 
 the close of 1879, the total defeat of Mahomed 
 Jan effectually dispersed the insurgents. 
 These successes were worthily supported by 
 Sir D. Stewart's victory at Ahmed Kheyl, he 
 having advanced to Cabul from Candahar. 
 Matters were now settling down, but the 
 approach of the Sirdar Ayub Khan from the 
 side of Herat kindled anew the flames of 
 rebellion. This pretender, having defeated 
 General Burrows at Maiwand, proceeded to 
 
Aff 
 
 '( 16 ) 
 
 Agi 
 
 invest Candahar,' but was utterlj' routed in 
 his turn by General Sir F. Eoberts, who had 
 effected the difficult march from Cabul with 
 much skill and generalship. In September, 
 1880, the British troops were withdrawn from 
 the Kurram and Cabul valleys, and in the 
 following April from Candahar, leaving the 
 government of the country in the hands of 
 Abdur Rahman, whose authority as ruler of 
 the country had been recognised by England 
 in July, 1880. 
 
 Tke chief authorities on the subject of Afghan- 
 istan generally will be found enumerated at 
 length in Sir Charles MacG-regor's admirable 
 Gazetteer, published at Calcutta in 1871. The 
 leading events of the subsequent campaigns are 
 briefly chronicled in Eobertson's Three Cam- 
 •paigns m Afghanistan {1881). [0. E. B.] 
 
 Affirmations. [Oath, Parliamentary, 
 and Oath in Couets op Law.] 
 
 Africa. [South Ajpeican Colonies and 
 West African Colonies.] 
 
 African Company. [Daeien Scheme.] 
 Agatha, or Elegiva, second daughter 
 of William the Conqueror, was betrothed to 
 Harold in 1062, but died shortly after. 
 
 Aghrim, Battle op (July 12, 1691), 
 fought in the campaign between William III. 
 and James II., in Ireland, resulted in a 
 victory, gained by Ginkel, over the Irish and 
 French troops, under St. Ruth. The French 
 general had allowed Athlone to be taken 
 (June 30). He then feR back about thirty 
 miles to the hiU of- Aghrim. He drew up 
 his army on the slope of a hiU almost sur- 
 rounded by a deep bog. A wooden breast- 
 work had been constructed in front, near the 
 edge of the morass. Ginkel started from 
 Ballinasloe, four miles from Aghrim, on the 
 11th, and reconnoitred the Irish position. 
 Next day at five in the evening the battle 
 began. The EngKsh first struggled through 
 the bog and attacked the breastwork, only to 
 be driven back again and again. Ginkel was 
 meditating a retreat. But Mackay and Ru- 
 vigny led the cavalry through a narrow 
 passage in the morass, and turned the Irish 
 flank. At this crisis St. Ruth was killed. 
 His officers foolishly kept his death secret, 
 so that Sarsfield, who might have taken the 
 command, remained with the reserve. At 
 length the breastwork was carried. The 
 Irish retreated step by step, but, after a 
 while, broke and fled. Then the conquerors 
 began to kiU without mercy. For miles 
 around the naked bodies of the slain lay on 
 the flelds. The country looked, it was said, 
 like an immense pasture covered with flocks 
 of sheep. Sarsfleld did his best to cover the 
 retreat. One body of fugitives went towards 
 Galway, the other towards Limerick. 
 
 London Gazette, 1691 ; Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; 
 iFroude, JSng, in Irelamd, 
 
 Aginconrt, Battle op, fought October 
 25, 1415. Henry V., in attempting to 
 
 regain the ground which Edward III. had 
 lost in his first campaign against France, 
 took Harfleur, but finding his army greatly 
 diminished by sickness, was unable to under- 
 take any great expedition. He resolved to 
 make his way to Calais through the hostile 
 provinces of Normandy, Picardy, and Artois. 
 His army consisted of about 15,000 men, of 
 whom 5,000 were archers, and 700 knights. 
 A French army numbering at least 50,000, 
 under the Constable D'Albret, was gathered to 
 cut them off. The English were allowed to 
 cross the Somme, and Henry was courteously 
 asked to name a day for battle. He answered 
 that he was always to be found in the field. 
 For four days the French marched by the 
 side of the English. At last the Constable 
 chose his position a little to the north of 
 Creqj, so as to cut off the BngUsh from 
 the village of Agincourt. The battle-field 
 was a somewhat narrow valley, surrounded 
 by woods on the east and west, while through 
 it ran the road to Calais. The French were 
 drawn up in three massive lines. The first 
 two hnes fought on foot; the third was 
 mounted. The confined nature of the ground 
 gave no chance for the use of artillery, and 
 the heavy-armed French were at a disad- 
 vantage in the soft ground, as compared with 
 the light-armed English yeomen. The Eng- 
 lish were drawn up in three divisions, but all 
 close together. While their lines were only 
 four deep, the French were massed thirty 
 deep. Before the battle futile negotiations 
 were carried on, and Henry V. used the time 
 to send some archers secretly through the wood 
 to watch the left flank of the French. It was 
 eleven o'clock when the order was given to 
 the English to advance. The archers ran 
 forward armed with stakes, which they fixed 
 in the ground so as to form a palisade in 
 front of them. Darting forward, they fired 
 with splendid aim at the French men-at- 
 arms, who were unable to advance quickly 
 in the soft ground, and fell in numbers. 
 Meanwhile the French cavalry attempted a 
 flank movement, but were taken unawares by 
 the archers in ambush; their horses soon 
 became unmanageable, and they were thrown 
 into confusion. The French infantrj', finding 
 themselves unsupported, broke, and the 
 English archers, seizing their swords and 
 maces, rushed into their lines and turned them 
 to flight. Then, reinforced by the English 
 men-at-arms, the archers attacked the second 
 division of the French. Here the battle was 
 fiercer and more equal. The Duke of Alen^on 
 on the French side, and Hemy V. on the 
 English, fought desperately, and for two 
 hoirrs the victory was uncertain. At length 
 Alen^on was slain, and the French gave 
 way. A cry was raised among the English 
 that a new French army was coming up in 
 their rear. In the panic Henry V. gave orders 
 that all prisoners should be slain. Many 
 brave Frenchmen met their death before 
 
Agi 
 
 17) 
 
 Agr 
 
 it was discovered that the supposed army 
 was only a band of peasants who had col- 
 lected to plunder. Meanwhile the third 
 division of the ITrenoh wavered, and, at last, 
 fled. After three hours' fighting the victory 
 of the English was assured. The French 
 losses were very heavy. More than 10,000 
 men fell on the field, amongst them 8,000 
 nobles, knights, and squires. 
 
 On tlie Englisli side, see "Walsiagham, Sistoria 
 Anglica ; Elmham, Vita et Gesta Henrici V. ; 
 Henrici V. Gesia, ed. Williams ; Titus Livius 
 Forojuliensis Vita Henrici Quinti ; English Chro- 
 nicle ([Camden Society) ; on the French side, 
 Keligieux de St. Denys, Monstrelet, and St. 
 Bemy. [M. C] 
 
 Agitation, Political. [&c the Ikdex.] 
 
 Agra is a strong and ancient town on the 
 river Jumna, in the North- West Provinces 
 of India. It was formerly one of the chief 
 cities of the Mogul dynasty, and in the 
 wars of 1803 it was held by the Mahrattas, 
 from whom it was captured by General Lake 
 after a day's bombardment, and ceded to the 
 English by Scindiah at the peace of Surge 
 Anjengaom. Agra then became the capi- 
 tal of one of the eight commissionerships 
 into which the North-West Provinces were 
 divided, and the residence of the Lieutenant- 
 Governor; but since the mutiny of 1857, 
 when the European residents were menaced 
 by the insurgent sepoys, and had to take 
 refuge in the fort, the provincial seat of 
 government has been transferred to Allaha- 
 bad. Agra contains the old palace of Shah 
 Jehan, a mosque which is one of the most 
 beautiful in India, and the famous Tajmahal, 
 a magnificent mausoleum built by Shah 
 Jehan over the remains of his wife. 
 
 "Agreement of the People" was 
 
 one of John Lilbume's numerous pamphlets, 
 and was published in 1648. It was received 
 with great enthusiasm by the Levellers ; and 
 at a meeting held between Hertford and Ware, 
 for the purpose of restoring discipline to the 
 army, and satisfying the claims of the 
 soldiers, a large number wore this pamphlet 
 in their hats. Fairfax and Cromwell ordered 
 them to remove the pamphlets. All the 
 regiments except Lilbume's obeyed ; and 
 Cromwell, perceiving the necessity of at once 
 stopping the insubordination, caused one 
 of the ringleaders to be shot, and the others 
 imprisoned. [Lileubne; Levellers.] 
 
 Agricola, Cn^us Julius {b. 37, d. 93), 
 Eonian governor of Britain (78 — 84), had, 
 previous to his appointment, served in the 
 island under Cerealis. During his governor- 
 ship he endeavoured to subdue the tribes ia 
 the north, and to conciliate the British to the 
 Eoman rule by making them acquainted with 
 the advantages of civilisation. He encouraged 
 them to come to the towns, and had many of' 
 the sons of the chiefs instructed in literature 
 and science, and he succeeded so well " that 
 
 they who had lately scorned to learn the 
 Roman language were becoming fond of 
 acquiring the Eoman eloquence." In 78 he 
 reduced Mona ; in 79 he subdued the north of 
 Britain to the Tweed ; in 80 he advanced as 
 far as the Firth of Tay ; the year 81 was 
 employed in constructing a chain of forts 
 between the Clyde and the Forth ; in the 
 next year he explored the north-west part of 
 the island, and planned a descent upon Ire- 
 land, but the rising of the Caledonians, under 
 their chief Galgacus, prevented this project 
 being carried out. After some severe fighting, 
 he defeated Galgacus, and thus subdued the 
 whole island. In 84 he sailed round the 
 island, and discovered the Orkneys ; and in 
 the same year he returned to Rome, where a 
 triumph was decreed to him. 
 
 The Life of Agricola was written by his son- 
 in-law, the historian Tacitus. The Agricola is 
 the best extant account of the condition of 
 Britain in the early part of the period pf the 
 Eoman rule. 
 
 Agriculture. The historj' of agricul- 
 ture in England is derived from two sources ; 
 the literature on the subject, which is 
 scanty in the earlier period, but becomes 
 copious as time goes on, and contemporaneous 
 records, which are exceedingly abundant and 
 exact in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and part 
 of the fifteenth centuries, but are scarce after 
 this time. The fact that so great a mass of 
 domestic archives has been preserved is due 
 to the importance the rules of law gave 
 to aU documents which could be alleged in 
 proof of title. Besides, it was at an early 
 period the custom with nearly all proprietors 
 — even the sovereign and the great peers — to 
 cultivate their own estates with their own 
 capital, and under the superintendence of 
 bailiifs, who regularly drew up an annual 
 balance-sheet, which was submitted to the 
 audit of their lords. Hence it is possible, by 
 investigating these accounts, to discover how 
 land was stocked and cultivated, and what 
 was the amount of produce which agriculture 
 secured from land. 
 
 Generally, during the medieval period, 
 the greater part of the land in a parish 
 or manor was possessed by the lord and 
 the tenants, free and serf, iu the shape of 
 strips or furrows in a common field, separated 
 by a narrow boundary of untilled ground. 
 These fields were private property during 
 part of the year (as a rule, from Lady-day to 
 Michaelmas), and common pasture for the 
 rest. Sometimes fields — generally pasture- 
 land — were held in absolute ownership, and 
 the value of such closes was great. Besides 
 the cultivated land and the closes, there was 
 always a more or less considerable area of 
 common pasture, and generally a wood ^ in 
 which hogs were fed, a small charge being 
 paid for each head. English agriculture from 
 very early times always looked to the raising 
 and maintenance of live stock as a most 
 
Agr 
 
 ( 18) 
 
 Agr 
 
 important industry, and the success -with 
 which, stock-breeding was handled is proved 
 by the great value of English wool, and by 
 the numerous qualities of this product. The 
 keeping of sheep in connection with arable 
 farming has always been a special character- 
 istic of English agriculture, and for several 
 centuries this country had almost a monopoly 
 in the supply of wool. 
 
 Early agriculture in England was very rude. 
 The plough was clumsy, iron was exceedingly 
 dear, draught-cattle, horses and oxen, were 
 small, and the ground was only scratched 
 on the surface. The husbandman had but 
 little farmyard manure, and the only artificial 
 fertilisers which he knew of were marl and 
 lime. The seed was thrown broadcast on the 
 land, about two bushels to the acre of wheat, 
 rye, and peas, and about four bushels of 
 barley and oats. Four times the seed sown 
 was thought to be a fair crop, and five times 
 was seldom obtained even on the best land. 
 The husbandman knew nothing of winter 
 roots, or of artificial grasses, as they are 
 called. Hence his cattle were starved in the 
 winter, and always stunted. Under this im- 
 perfect cultivation, he was forced to let at 
 least a third of his land lie in fallow every 
 year. The corn was reaped by cutting off 
 the ears, the straw being suffered to remain 
 on the field at least for a time, often per- 
 manently, in order to restore the ground. 
 The whole of the population, town and 
 country, generally took part in the harvest, 
 for the number of residents in the country 
 was insufficient for gathering even the scanty 
 harvest. The stock on the land was far more 
 valuable than the land itself. It has been 
 proved that the stock on a well-tilled farm 
 was worth three times as much as the land. 
 The rent of good arable land was for three 
 centuries about sixpence an acre. 
 
 It is not likely, even if the great land- 
 owners had continued to cultivate their own 
 estates, that much progress could have been 
 made in agriculture, for the inventive facul- 
 ties of Europe were almost stagnant up to 
 the end of the sixteenth century. But owing 
 to the ravages of the Black Death, the great 
 land-owners abandoned cultivation on their 
 own account, and let their land and stock to 
 tenant-farmers, a stocked estate being found 
 to be the most profitable employment of 
 capital, even though the landlord did all the 
 repairs, and made good the losses of his 
 tenant's sheep. It was quite out of the 
 question that a tenant should make agricul- 
 tural discoveries and improvements, and it is 
 certain that from the reign of Henry III. to 
 the death of Elizabeth, some 350 years, no 
 material alteration was made in English 
 agriculture, except in sheep-farming, and 
 certainly no appreciable progress. 
 
 Small as was the produce of the land 
 in comparison with that which has been ob- 
 tained at later periods, it is very likely that 
 
 nearly as much land was cultivated in the 
 Middle Ages as is in modern times in England. 
 Certain counties, especially the north and 
 the west, were very backward, as we learn 
 from those few valuations of counties for tax- 
 ing purposes which are stiU extant, and are 
 probably the only genuine valuations in ex- 
 istence. But the towns were much smaller, 
 and the space occupied by human habi- 
 tations in such counties as Middlesex, Oxford- 
 shire, and Norfolk, the most opulent of the 
 English counties, was far less than at present. 
 Ornamental grounds were wholly unknown, 
 and the land was ploughed up to the noble's 
 castle and the farmer's homestead. One can 
 constantly see in parks, which are now an- 
 cient, and surrounding residences which are 
 still more ancient, the signs that cultivation 
 had formerly been carried on over places 
 which are now either ornamental only, or 
 are devoted to pasture. In the description 
 given of ancient estates, we may often find 
 that land was ploughed and sown up to the 
 gates of the manor-house, and over spaces 
 which have long been streets in busy towns. 
 Our ancestors had poor gardens, and no plea- 
 sure grounds. In the more fertile counties, 
 which are now known by the absence of by- 
 roads, it is likely that more land than is now 
 cultivated was, in the poor fashion of those 
 times, tilled, under the disadvantageous system 
 of frequent fallows and common fields. For 
 as ploughing was merely superficial, and the 
 number of crops was very limited, land was 
 early exhausted, and had to rest in fallow. 
 As the ownership of several lands or closes 
 was rare, and was generally confined to the 
 lord of the manor, the furrows in the common 
 field, with the scanty pasture of the manor 
 common, were the holding of the small agri- 
 culturist, i.e., of the mass of the people, since 
 nearly all possessed land ; but were held, as 
 far as the first portion of the holding was 
 concerned, under the least advantageous form. 
 Nor was the use of common land for pasture 
 as profitable as it might have been. Gene- 
 rally the right of pasturage was without 
 stint, that is, each occupier had the right 
 of putting as many cattle or sheep as he could 
 get upon the common pasture ; and as the 
 lord, who possessed, as has been said, closes 
 from which he could make hay, or could 
 devote to forthcoming stock, had many more 
 cattle than the tenants, he could make the 
 common pasture of comparatively little value 
 to them by overstocking it. 
 
 Nothing better illustrates the character of 
 mediaDval husbandry than the extreme rarity 
 with which prices of hay are recorded in early 
 times, and the excessive rent which was paid 
 for enclosed pastures. The rent of arable 
 land being about sixpence an acre, that of 
 natural meadow is constantly sixteen times 
 as much, and the aftermaths over four or 
 five times. In our day, the best natural 
 meadow does not command a rent of more 
 
Agr 
 
 ( 19) 
 
 Agr 
 
 than twice the best arable. During the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, it is rare 
 to find, in the examination of many thousand 
 accounts, the prices of hay given. In the 
 fifteenth and sixteenth, duripg which time 
 enclosures were frequent, and many of the 
 common lands were encroached on, occa- 
 sionally to the great discontent of the farmer, 
 and even to the employment of violent reme- 
 dies for the wrong which they felt had been 
 done them, prices of hay are very common. 
 
 Under so imperfect a system of agriculture, 
 as the people were fed on unwholesome salted 
 food during half the year, and cattle were 
 starved during the same period, disease was 
 common in man and beast. Scurvy, the 
 inevitable consequence of the use of salted 
 meat, and a deficient vegetable diet, was 
 endemic. Leprosy, which an abundant vege- 
 table food has banished, was as common as 
 it now is in the basin of the Po. The unclean 
 habits of our forefathers added to the general 
 unhealthiness of their hves. Few people lived 
 beyond fifty, when they were old. Plagues 
 of terrible deadliness attacked the people. 
 It is probable that one-third of the population 
 perished in 1349, when the Black Death ap- 
 peared among us. [Black Death.] The 
 Plague continued to appeeir at intervals, till 
 its last visitation in 1665, when it seems 
 most terrible, because it has been most 
 minutely described. After the battle of 
 Bosworth, a new disease, the sweating sick- 
 ness, appeared, and for a long time was the 
 special scourge of the English people. Like 
 the plague, it was very destructive ; but, 
 unKke it, does not appear to have been 
 a foreign importation, but the result of 
 dirt, privation, and unwholesome food. It 
 is only by the study of contemporaneous 
 evidence, and by inquiry from undoubted 
 facts, that we can discover the real extent 
 of the loss. So it is not likely that we should 
 get evidence of the occasion on which plagues 
 have visited animal and vegetable life. It is 
 curious to find that two diseases, scab in sheep 
 and smut in wheat, were first noticed at 
 periods which can be almost defined. The 
 former appears about 1288, and was par- 
 ticularly dreaded, because it imperilled the 
 principal source of English opulence during 
 the Middle Ages, and, indeed, for long after, 
 English wool, in the cloth produced from 
 which a large part of Western Europe was 
 clad. The other was smut in wheat and 
 the allied grains, which was first noticed 
 in 1527, a year of comparative famine. 
 The art of the agriculturist has long been 
 engaged in combating these two pests of his 
 calling. Other serious diseases, the rot in 
 sheep, and pleuro-pneumonia in homed cattle, 
 are described so precisely that there is no 
 doubt of their identity with modem cattle- 
 plagues. 
 
 It was stated above that during the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries it was a com- 
 
 mon practice to let live and dead stock with 
 land, m other words, to stock a farmer's land 
 as weU as let it to him. The monasteries 
 contmued the practice up to the dissolution. 
 The leasing of stock was the best part of the 
 landlord's profit on his property, and by im- 
 plication the least profitable form of holding 
 to the tenant. Hence, in order to induce 
 tenants to accept this kind of occupancy, the 
 landlord not only covenanted to do all repairs, 
 great and small, on the holding, but to insure 
 the tenants against the loss of their cattle by 
 disease. In the rent-rolls of great estates, 
 the costs of tenants' losses by cattle disease 
 form a very serious item, and throw a plain and 
 characteristic light on agriculture and its 
 customs in England, while they show how 
 it came to be an English custom that land- 
 lords should improve land. The first change 
 in this prolonged system began with the dis- 
 coveries of the Dutch. "When that people 
 had, by almost superhuman efEorts, obtained 
 their political freedom, they began to cultivate 
 Holland on new methods, and to instruct 
 Europe. The impulse which was given to 
 the human mind in the seventeenth century 
 reacted upon husbandry. The discovery of 
 the process of reducing iron by pit-coal 
 cheapened the tools of the husbandman. The 
 Dutch discovered and improved winter roots, 
 the turnip and carrot. It is estimated that 
 the turnip has doubled the productiveness of 
 land. For a century and a half the Dutch 
 were the seedsmen of Western Europe. Then 
 they cultivated clover, and other so-caUed 
 artificial grasses, and English agriculturists 
 and landowners soon saw that gxeater 
 profits and larger rents would accrue from 
 these new inventions. The effect of these 
 improvements was, that the numbers and the 
 quality of cattle and sheep were greatly 
 increased, the agriculturist being enabled 
 to find them food in winter, and keep 
 them at least in some condition. Till 
 winter roots were discovered, surplus stock 
 was killed in November, and salted for 
 winter provisions, and it is obvious that this 
 system was injurious to health, as well as a 
 great hindrance to agricultural progress. 
 
 During two epochs oE English history, the 
 fifteenth and the eighteenth centuries, agri- 
 cultural products were abundant and cheap. 
 The seasons appear to have been continuously 
 favourable, while the result was aided by 
 the creation of estates in severalty, by enclosing 
 portions of lands on which there were certain 
 common uses, and by similar expedients. The 
 loss was considerable to the general body of 
 occupiers, but the aggregate food product was 
 greatly increased. During the eighteenth 
 century Enclosure Acts were exceedingly 
 common. Between 1726 and 1796, 1,761 such 
 Acts were passed, dealing with nearly three 
 million acres. From this date to 1850, 2,365 
 more Acts were passed, under which six million 
 more acres were thus appropriated. Most of 
 
Alun 
 
 (20) 
 
 Aid 
 
 this area passed from common pasture to 
 aratle, and as it may he reasonably con- 
 clnded that the agriculturist would not 
 cultivate new soil except with the prospect 
 of increased profit, the quantity of food pro- 
 duced must have been greatly increased. To- 
 wards the latter end of the last century 
 great attention was given to the improvement 
 of breeds of sheep, by the selection of those 
 which had the best points. This develop- 
 ment of agricultural art was due to Mr. Bake- 
 well, and even more perhaps to Mr. Coke, 
 afterwards Lord Leicester. The economy of 
 such a selection was rapidly extended to cattle, 
 and up to recent times stock in Great Britain 
 has been better than in any part of the 
 civihsed world, pedigree animals being ex- 
 ported to all countries from this. Nor were 
 the discoveries in practical science made 
 during the eighteenth century without their 
 significance on agriculture. With cheaper 
 iron came better and cheaper tools, a deeper 
 and more thorough manipulation of the soil, 
 and consequently a higher rate of production 
 from the soil. Writers on mediaaval, and 
 even later agriculture, counsel the use of 
 wooden harrows on stony ground, because 
 iron was too costly for such tools, and with 
 reason, for while wheat during the gTeater 
 part of Elizabeth's reign was worth about 
 fourteen shillings a quarter, iron cost about 
 £26 a ton. 
 
 The last improvements in agriculture are 
 due to chemical science and machinery. The 
 agricultural chemist, by the gift of artificial 
 manures, by the analysis of artificial food, and 
 by the examination of soils, has been a great 
 benefactor of the farmer, and these inventions 
 have been eminently of English growth. The 
 Americans are to be credited with many 
 labour-saving machines, adopted in order to 
 reduce the cost of wages, for the problem 
 before the agriculturist has alwayp been how 
 to get the greatest possible amount ol nutri- 
 tive matter out of the soil for man and beast, 
 and how to get this continuously, as far as 
 possible, of uniformly good quality. 
 
 Walter de Henley, Le Bit de Hoshanderye, 
 a^outl2o0; Fitzherbert's Treatises on Kusban- 
 dry and Surveying^ 1523 ; the works of Tusser, 
 1680, Maxkham, 1610, and Simon Hartlif, 1680 ; 
 Worledge's System of Agriculture ; Houghton's 
 Collections, 1683— 170S ; Aithur Young's Works ; 
 Porter's Progress of the l^ation; Tooke and 
 Newmarch, History of Prices ; and the History 
 of Agriculture and Prices, 1359 — 1583, 4 vols., 
 1866 -82, by the present writer. [J. T. R.] 
 
 Ahmednuggur. A town of British India, 
 capital of a province of the same name in the 
 district of Gujerat. It passed from the hands 
 of the Peishwa to those of Scindia in 1797. 
 During the Mahratta Avar of 1803 General 
 Wellesley invested and captured the town. 
 It was restored to the Mahrattas at the end 
 of the war ; but in 1817, after the treaty of 
 Punnah, again passed into the hands of the 
 British. 
 
 Aid was a term which included all custo- 
 mary payments by a vassal to his feudal 
 superior, but which was applied especially to 
 the forms of taxation employed by the Crown 
 from the Norman Conquest to the fourteenth 
 century. It is therefore applied to the 
 military tenants' payment of scutage, the 
 freeholders' carucage, and the boroughs' tal- 
 lage, as well as to what may be called the 
 ordinary feudal aids. The word aid [auxiUum) 
 expresses in itself the very theory of the 
 feudal relation — viz., that it was a voluntary 
 relation. The tenant made gifts in aid of 
 his lord, as the lord himself had accepted 
 homage from the tenant. Taxation, there- 
 fore, as long as it consisted chiefly of feudal 
 aids, required the formal gTant of the feudal 
 tenants. But when it becomes national 
 taxation, it requires the grant of the repre- 
 sentatives of the nation — i.e., of the Estates 
 in Parliament. Thus it is that Bracton's 
 statement, that " aids depend on the grace 
 of the tenant, and are not at the will of the 
 lord," grows into the principle enunciated by 
 Lord Chatham : " The taxes are a voluntary 
 gift and grant of the Commons alone." So 
 early even as Henry I., the words of the 
 king's writ are — " The aid which my barons 
 have given to me." And on the same prin- 
 ciple, in the thirteenth century, grants are said 
 to be made by " chief tenants, freeholders, 
 and villeins." The very villeins, in order to 
 be taxed, must be supposed to join in the 
 grant, if only through the lords and the 
 freeholders, or their representatives in the 
 national Parliament. The evolution of a 
 national Parliament is, therefore, a logical 
 consequence of the theory of the aid. 
 
 The word " aid " applied originally to the 
 three occasions on which the lord could 
 demand contributions from his tenants— viz., 
 for his own ransom, or for the expenses of 
 making his eldest son a knight, or of marry- 
 ing his eldest daughter. It was due, therefore, 
 equallyfrom the barons who were tenants of the 
 crown, and from the tenants of those barons. 
 Thus Henry I. took, in HI 0, an aid pur fille 
 mm-ier, three shillings from every hide in 
 Englahd, and a similar aid pur faire fits: 
 chevalier ; and the amount raised for Richard 
 I.'s ransom was enormous. But the word 
 "aid" includes also what may be called 
 the extraordinary aids— the scutage, the 
 hidage or carucage, and the tallage, which 
 together made up the Anglo-Norman scheme 
 of direct taxation. Scutage, the composition 
 m lieu^ of military service, fell properly on 
 the military tenants of the crown alone. 
 But when the king demanded scutage from 
 them, they would make up the amount 
 by aid from their tenants. Sidage, or in 
 the later and stricter form which it took 
 carucage, fell on the freeholders. Tallage 
 was the similar burden on the royal demesne 
 and fell chiefly on the towns. The great 
 struggle in regard to all aids was to fix 
 
Aid 
 
 ( 21 ) 
 
 Aid 
 
 the rate. Thus Henry I.'a charter promiaes 
 to take only " reaaonahle " aids, and that the 
 barons shall do the same. In Glanvil the 
 amount is settled hetween king and baron, as 
 between baron and vassal, by bargaining. In 
 Magna Charta, art. 12 and art. 14, consent of 
 the Common Council of the realm is required 
 for all but the three ordinary aids, and these 
 aids are to be "reasonable" in all caaes, 
 whether taken by the crown from the barons, 
 or by the barons from their own men. And in 
 the Conflrmatio Cartarum of 1297 it is en- 
 joined : " Aida henceforth shall only be by 
 the common assent of the realm, saving the 
 ancient aids and prises due and accustomed." 
 Already by statute, in the third year of 
 Edward I., the rate at which lorda might take 
 aida of their vassals was fixed at twenty 
 shillings the knight's fee {i.e., about 5 per 
 cent, of the annual value) ; the same rate in 
 the twenty-fifth year of Edward III. waa 
 fixed for the feudal aids of the crown. It 
 only remained to make the extraordinary 
 aids, and especialty tallage, dependent upon 
 the assent of Parliament. This, after a 
 long struggle, was effected by the concession 
 made by Edward III. in 1340 : " No aid to 
 be henceforth but by assent of Parliament." 
 The struggle was decided, though it was 
 stiU necessary to guard against royal eva- 
 sions. But after the Good Parliament, 
 in 1376, it is not till national liberties were 
 silenced by the Yorkist and Tudor despotism 
 that the old theory of a voluntary ofiering was 
 again made a cover for arbitrary taxation, 
 under the new name of benevolences. 
 
 But the crown, by working the theory of 
 voluntary offerings, had also been able to 
 negotiate with the merchants for large grants 
 by way of increased customs, especially on 
 wool ; and to humour the clergy in their 
 device to evade the BuU Clei-icis Laieos by 
 accepting their tenths or fifteenths as free 
 gifta. Parliament, therefore, had to take 
 under its control these two great sources of 
 revenue alao, if it was to make the voluntary 
 theory of taxation a reality. And ao, in 
 1362, it is at last enacted that the merchants 
 are to grant no charge on wool without 
 assent of Parliament. The clergy, however, 
 in their two Convocations, were wise enough 
 to forestall direct interference on the part of 
 Parliament, which on ita side accepted the 
 compromiae, aa the crown had done. Thus, 
 by the Lancaatrian reigns, the claaa-taxation 
 of the land-ownera, merchants, and clergy 
 was becoming harmonised into a simpler 
 system of taxation, which should fall upon 
 the whole nation rather than upon classes, 
 and on personalty rather than mainly on 
 land. As the subsidy on movables and the 
 customs on exports and imports came in, the 
 old aids died out. The last feudal aid waa 
 that taken by Edward III. in 1346, for 
 knighting the Black Prince, which was pro- 
 tested against by the Commons. Of the 
 
 extraordinary aids, scutage was last taken in 
 1314. Scutages, indeed, were part of a military 
 organisation of society that waa now obsolete, 
 as was that division into knight's fees, which 
 were the basis on which they were assessed. 
 Moreover — and this appKes also to carucage 
 and to tallage — they were bound up with a 
 very imperfect method of representation, in 
 which the class highest in the feudal scale 
 was supposed to speak for all. They required 
 laborious collection by old and wasteful 
 methods. But, above all, the two former 
 were assessed on land, and let personalty 
 escape ; while tallage was peculiarly un- 
 profitable, because a tallage by the king from 
 his demesne had to be purchased by allowing 
 his barons simultaneously to tallage theira. 
 The development of the wool-trade, and the 
 existence of a national Parliament, alike 
 necessitated the substitution of a simple 
 national system ; and the old, irregular, and 
 imperfect system of aids disappears, not, 
 however, without having bequeathed the great 
 principle to our constitution — that taxation 
 requires assent, and therefore must come 
 through the Commons. 
 
 Bracton, bk. ii. , f ol. 36 ; Madox, JTist. of the 
 Exchequer; Kenelm Digby, Hist, of the Law of 
 Real Proyerty ; Stubbs, Const. Hist. [A. L. S.l 
 
 Aidan, Kixg (S. 532, d. 606), the son of 
 Gabran, succeeded Conal (574) as King of Dal- 
 riada. Aidan was crowned by St. Columba, 
 in the island of lona, and soon proved himself 
 to be a ruler of energy and ability. In 575, 
 at the Council of Drumscat, he successfully 
 asserted the independence of the Scotch king- 
 dom of Dahiada, throwing off the yoke of the 
 Irish Dalriada. In 583 he defeated the 
 English invaders at the battle of Manann, but 
 in 596 was defeated in Kincardineshire by the 
 Picts, four of his sons being slain. In 603 
 Aidan was again defeated by Ethelfrith of 
 Northumbria at the battle of Dsegaastan. 
 [Dalriada.] 
 
 Aidan, St. {d. 651), wasamonk intheCo- 
 lumban monastery of lona. Upon the failure 
 of a mission sent into Northumbria at 
 the requeat of the King Oswald, who 
 had learnt something of Christianity in Scot- 
 land, Aidan was sent and was at once in- 
 stalled as bishop, with his see at Lindisfame. 
 He established Christianity, and waa one of 
 the most zealous supporters of the unref ormed 
 Paschal Cycle ; which has drawn down upon 
 him the reproaches of Bede. To St. Aidan 
 many miracles are ascribed, the moat remark- 
 able of which ia, perhapa, his reputed power 
 of stilling the most violent tempest by the use 
 of consecrated oil. 
 
 Bede, Hist. Eccles., i. 3, SO; Acta Sanctonm; 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland, i. 269, seq. 
 
 Aids, The Voluntary, waa the name 
 given to a grant of £120,000, made in 1628 
 by the Irish Parliament, payable in in- 
 stalments of £40,000 a year in return for 
 
Aig 
 
 22 ) 
 
 Alb 
 
 certain " Graces " or concessions from the 
 crown. These payments were afterwards, 
 especially by Strafford's action, renewed, and 
 altogether continued for ten years. The 
 Graces were never actually granted. 
 
 Aiguillon, Siege op (1347), was the 
 most famous siege of the French wars of 
 Edward III.'s reign. The fortress of Aiguil- 
 lon was strongly situated on the borders of 
 Gascony and Agenois, between the Lot and 
 the Garonne, and it was bravely defended by 
 Sir Walter Manny against John, Duke of 
 Normandy, from May tiU the end of August. 
 The duke had sworn never to quit the siege 
 till the place was taken; and, finding his 
 assaults ineffectual, resolved to reduce the 
 place by famine. But the great victory of 
 the English at Cre9y imperatively called for 
 the presence of the duke's army in the north 
 of France, and he was compelled to raise the 
 siege. 
 
 Ailesbury, Thomas Bruce, 2nd Babl 
 OF, and 3rd Earl of Elgin in Scotland (d. 1741), 
 was present at the death-bed of Charles II. 
 He took the oath of allegiance to "William III., 
 but, nevertheless, played a prominent part in 
 the Jacobite conspiracies against the king. He 
 was present at a meeting of Jacobites at the 
 Old King's Head in 1695. He was sent to the 
 Tower for his complicity in the Assassination 
 Plot, and, in conjunction with Fenwick, at- 
 tempted to bribe the witness Porter to leave 
 the country. He, however, always denied 
 that he bad been privy to the criminal designs 
 of the plotters. Macaulay remarks that " his 
 denial would be the more creditable if he 
 had not, by taking the oaths to the govern- 
 ment against which he was so constantly 
 intriguing, forfeited the right to be considered 
 as a man of conscience and honour." 
 
 Ailmer, Sir LArRENCE, was Sheriff of 
 London in 1501, and subsequently Lord Mayor. 
 He resisted the exactions of the king's rapa- 
 cious minsters, Empson and Dudley, and was 
 committed to prison in the last year of Henry 
 VII. 's reign for refusing to pay the fine of 
 £1,000 imposed upon him. 
 
 Airds Moss, Fight or (1680), in Ayr- 
 shire, was a small skirmish in which the 
 royal troops routed a party of the extreme 
 Scotch Covenanters, who had signed the 
 "Sanquhar Declaration" (q.v.), or Oameron- 
 ians, as they were subsequently called. 
 Richard Cameron, the loader of the sect, fell 
 in this encounter. 
 
 Aislabie, Johx (J. 1670, d. 1742), was 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer in Lord Stan- 
 hope's ministiy of 1717. In 1719 he defended 
 the Peerage Bill. In 1720 he, with Simder- 
 land, was requested by Stanhope to consider the 
 proposals of the South Sea Company. They 
 accepted them ; and, accordingly, all the inten- 
 sity of popular indignation fell on them when 
 the scheme failed. The inquiry elicited the 
 
 fact that an extensive system of bribes had 
 prevailed, and that large sums of fictitious 
 capital had been invented and distributed 
 among leading members of the Government. 
 Aislabie's case wa,s so flagrant that no one 
 rose to defend him. He was expelled the 
 House, and sent to the Tower. [South Sea 
 Company.] 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty op (April 
 18, 1748), closed the War of the Austrian 
 Succession. The initiative came from France, 
 strengthened by her recent successes, and 
 the strong desire for peace felt by England 
 and Holland eventually forced the treaty 
 on Austria and Sardinia. The principal arti- 
 cles were : — The renewal of all former treaties, 
 and the mutual restoration of all conquests, 
 England giving hostages for the restoration 
 of Cape Breton ; the fortifications of Dun- 
 kirk on the sea-side were to be demolished ; 
 the Duchies of Parma, Guastalla, and Pia- 
 cenza were assigned to the Infant, Don 
 Philip, but if he succeeded to the throne of 
 Naples, the two first reverted to the house of 
 Austria, and Piacenza to Sardinia ; the Duke 
 of Modena and the republic of Genoa were 
 reinstated in their former territories ; the 
 Assiento Treaty with Spain was confirmed 
 for four years ; the Protestant succession in 
 England was guaranteed according to the 
 treaty of 1714, and the Pretender was to be 
 excluded from France ; the Emperor was to be 
 acknowledged by France, and the Pragmatic 
 Sanction guaranteed ; the Duchy of Silesia 
 and the county of Glatz were guaranteed to 
 the King of Prussia. AU the cessions were 
 made at the expense of Austria, and one 
 result of the treaty was the breach of the 
 alliance between that power and England. 
 
 Kooli et Sohoell, Hist, des Traites de Fain:, ii., 
 oh. 16 ; Coxe, Pelham ; Mahon, Hist, of Eng. ; 
 Ametli, Maria, Theresa. 
 
 Ajmeer, the chief town of a district in 
 Eajputana, lying south-east of Jodpore. It 
 was taken by the Mahrattas from the Moguls 
 in 1 7 70, and was for nearly half a century alter- 
 nately in the hands of the Mahrattas and of 
 rival Eajput princes. In 1818 it was finally 
 ceded to 'the British in return for a payment 
 of 50,000 rupees. The town contains the 
 ruins of a very fine Hindoo temple. 
 
 Akeman Street. [Roman Roads.] 
 
 Alabama. [Geneva Award.] 
 
 Alban. About the end of the ninth 
 century, and before the term Scotia came into 
 use, the district between the Firths of Forth 
 and Clyde and the Spey, which had been 
 known as Pictland, or the kingdom of 
 Scone, was called Alban, or Albania (more 
 correctly. Alba, or Albu), a name which had 
 still earlier been used to designate the whole 
 country north of the Forth and the Clyde. 
 The first king of Alban was Donald, son of 
 Constantino (889—900). Shortly after this, 
 
Al1b 
 
 (23) 
 
 Alb 
 
 Alban was divided into seven provinces. 
 About a century later the name was super- 
 seded by that of Scotia, Malcolm, son of 
 Kenneth (1005—1034), being the first king 
 of Scotia. 
 
 KlNOS OP Albah. 
 
 Donald 889—900 
 
 Constautiae, son of Aedli . . 900 — 942 
 
 Malcolm . . ... 942—964 
 
 Indulph 954—962 
 
 Dubli . ... 962—967 
 
 Cuilean ... . . 967—971 
 
 Kenneth. 971-995 
 
 Constantine, son of Cuilean . . 995 — 997 
 
 Kenneth, son of Dubh . . . 997—1004 
 
 See Skene, Celtic Scotland : a Sistory of Ancient 
 Albcm, 1876. 
 
 Albau, St. {d. 305 ?), is generaUy held to 
 be the proto-martyr of Britain. His story, 
 as related by GUdas, is that Alban, being 
 then a Pagan, saved a. confessor, who was 
 being pursued by his persecutors, and was at 
 the point of being seized, by hiding him in 
 his own house, and by changing clothes with 
 him. Alban was carried before the magis- 
 trate, but having in the meantime become a 
 Christian, he refused to sacrifice to the gods, 
 and was accordingly executed just outside 
 the great city of Verulamium (St. Albans). 
 Numerous miracles are related of him, but, 
 putting these aside, there seems no reason for 
 doubting that he is a historic personage. The 
 date of the majrtyr's death is a difficulty, as in 
 305 Constantius, the father of Constentine, 
 was Csesar in Britain, who is known to have 
 been very favourable to Christianity ; perhaps 
 we may place the event in 283, the date 
 assigned to it in the Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 Bede, Ecdes. Hist., i. 7 ; Gilda;S, Eist., § 10 ; 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron,, sub. an. 
 
 Albani. A name cognate in meaning 
 with Alban and Albion, which is found asso- 
 ciated with the Celtic tribe who possessed the 
 districts of Breadalb.ane and Athol, with parts 
 of Lochaber and Upper Lome. 
 
 Albania. The name sometimes given to 
 the Scottish DaMada. [Dalriada.] 
 Albans, St., Abbey of, &c. [St. 
 
 AXBANS.] 
 
 Albany, Peerage of. In 1398 Robert 
 Stuart (second son of King Eobert II. of 
 Scotland) was created Duke of Albany. On 
 the execution of his son, Murdoch, second 
 Duke of Albany, in 1425, the peerage was 
 forfeited to the crown, but revived by James 
 II. of Scotland, and conferred on his second 
 son Alexander, who transmitted it to his son 
 the Regent (1515—1523), John, Duke of 
 Albany. In 1566, the title, being again 
 extinct, was granted to Henry Stuart, Lord 
 Darnley [Daenley], husband of Mary, 
 Queen of Scots. In 1772 the title of 
 Countess of Albany was assumed by Louisa 
 Maria of Stolberg-Gedem (1754—1823) on 
 her marriage with Prince Charles Edward, the 
 Young Pretender. She quitted her husband 
 
 in 1780, and after his death married the poet 
 Alfieri. On being deserted by his wife, the 
 Pretender afiected to create his natural 
 daughter, by Clementina ■Walkinshaw,i)MeA«s« 
 of Albany. The title of Albany was added 
 to that of York in the peerages of Ernest 
 Augustus, brother of George I., Ernest Au- 
 gustus, brother of George III. , and Frederick, 
 second son of that king. By letters patent. 
 May 24, 1881, Prince Leopold, fourth son 
 of Queen Victoria, was created Duke of Albany 
 and Earl of Clarence. [Stuart.] 
 
 Albany, Robert Stuart, 1st Duke of 
 [b. 1339, d. 1419), the second son of Robert II., 
 ,and the brother of Robert III., of Scotland, 
 during .his brother's later years practically go- 
 verned the kingdom. His inertness on the inva- 
 sion of Scotland by Henry IV. gave rise to the 
 suspicion that he was plotting for the death 
 of his nephew, David, Duke of Rothesay, 
 who was besieged in Edinburgh Castle. 
 That there may have been some truth in the 
 supposition is Hkely ; for soon afterwards 
 Rothesay was seized at Albany's instigation, 
 and imprisoned in Falkland Castle, where ke 
 died of starvation, 1402. On his nephew's 
 death Albany became governor of the king- 
 dom, and in that character gave support to 
 a man whom he declared to be Richard 11. 
 of England, and whom he hoped to be able 
 to make use of against Henry IV. The 
 capture of the young Prince James by the 
 English was also ascribed to his intrigues, 
 whether justly or not is uncertain. On 
 the death of Robert III. Albany continued 
 to govern the kingdom as regent, until his 
 own death, Sept. 3, 1419. In spite of his 
 odious private character, Albany seems to 
 have ruled Scotland with vigour, justice, 
 and moderation. 
 
 See the Scotichronicon and "Wyntoun, bk. ix., 
 
 for different views of his character; and Burton, 
 
 Hist of Scotlond. 
 
 Albany, Murdoch, 2nd Duke of 
 {d. 1425), succeeded his father, Robert, as 
 governor of Scotland, 1419, during the cap- 
 tivity of James I. in England. Upon James's 
 return he was condemned and executed at 
 Stirling, May, 1425, together with two of his 
 sons, for having misused his power as regent. 
 
 Albany, Alexander, 3kd Duke of 
 {d. 1485), was the second son of James II., and 
 brother of James III., from whose jealousy he 
 was compelled to take refuge in France, 1479. 
 In 1483 he joined Edward IV. of England, 
 executing a secret deed, in which he acknow- 
 ledged the feudal supremacy of England over 
 Scotland. After the affair at Lauderbridge 
 (q.v.), Albany returned to Scotland and 
 assumed the government for a short time; 
 but on the terms of his secret treaty leaking 
 out, was again compelled to seek an asylum in 
 England. Here he joined the Earl of Douglas 
 in an invasion of Scotland, -which failed, 
 Albany being obHged to go to France, where 
 
Alb 
 
 (24) 
 
 Alb 
 
 lie became a great favourite of Louie XI. He 
 ia described in the Chronicle of Pittscottie 
 as " verrie wyse and mauKe, and loved nothing 
 so Weill as able men, and maid great coast 
 and expences theirupoun." 
 
 Chronicle of Pittscottie; Lesley, Hist, of Scot- 
 land ; Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Albany, John, 4th Duke op. Regent of 
 Scotland from 1515 to 1524, was the son of 
 Alexander, Duke of Albany, and nephew of 
 James III. On the death of James IV., 
 Albany, who was Lord High Admiral of 
 France, was summoned to Scotland to assume 
 the regency, a position which his French 
 education had by no means fitted him to fill. 
 He arrived in Scotland in 1515, and one of his 
 first acts as regent was to crush the power of 
 the Earl of Angus, whom he managed to get 
 conveyed to France ; his next, to bring to trial 
 all whom he conceived to be in league with 
 the Douglas party. In September, 1522, he 
 collected an immense army for the invasion of 
 England, to retaliate upon Henry VIII. for 
 having demanded his expulsion from the 
 Scotch Estates. Henry, however, contrived 
 by diplomacy to stay the blow before it had 
 fallen, and Albany shortly after returned to 
 France, where he collected an auxiliary force, 
 1523. Compelled, however, to raise the siege 
 of Wark Castle, he retired to France in dis- 
 gust, May, 1524, and never returned. 
 
 Chronicle of Fitt<cijttie ; Lesley, Hist, of Scot- 
 land ; Burton, Klst, of Scotland, 
 
 Albemarle (or Aumale), Peerage op. 
 Odo or Eudes, a claimant of the county of 
 Champagne, held considerable possessions 
 at Albemarle, in Normandy. He married 
 AdeKza, sister of WiUiam the Conqueror, 
 and his wife, styled in Domesday Book 
 "Comitissa de Albemarle," obtained large 
 grants of land in England. Her son 
 Stephen (1127) is called "Comes Albe- 
 marlensis," and the title was inherited by his 
 son William, who greatly distinguished him- 
 self at the battle of the Standard. {See Sir 
 Harris Nicolas' note in his Sistoric Peerage,) 
 His heiress Hawisia carried the title to "WiUiam 
 de Fortibus {d. 1195), from whom it passed 
 to their son, "William de Fortibus, one 
 of the twenty-five barons named in Magna 
 Charta. His granddaughter Avelina married 
 Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, second son 
 of Henry III., so that the title and 
 honours of Albemarle became sunk in the 
 royal house. In 1397, Edward, Earl of 
 Rutland, son of Edmund, Duke of York, was 
 created Duke of Albemarle (or Aumale), but 
 forfeited the title in 1399. In 1411, Thomas, 
 second son of Henry IV., was created Duke of 
 Clarence and Earl of Albemarle ; he was killed 
 at Beauge in 1421, when the peerage became 
 extinct. It was revived in 1423, in favour 
 of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of "Warwick, who 
 was granted the title for life. It again be- 
 ca,me extinct on his death in 1439. In 1660 
 
 General George Monk was created Duke of 
 Albemarle. The title passed to his son 
 Christopher, and expired with him in 1688. 
 In 1696 the earldom of Albemarle was revived 
 and conferred on "William III. 's faithful 
 follower, Arnold Joost van Keppel, in whose 
 descendants it has since remained. 
 
 Albemarle, Geokge Monk, Duke op 
 (i. 1608, d. 1670), was the second son of a 
 Devonshire baronet, entered the army as a 
 volunteer, and took part in the expedition to 
 the Isle of Rhe in 1628 ; and after peace 
 was made with France joined the Earl of 
 Oxford's regiment, which had been raised for 
 the support of the Protestants in Germany 
 and Holland. He remained abroad for ten 
 years, returning to England in 1639, in time 
 to take part in the Scotch war. After 
 hesitating for some time between king 
 and Parliament, Monk decided on joining 
 the forces which had been sent over from 
 Ireland by Ormond to Charles's assistance. 
 As major-general of these troops. Monk 
 took part in the battle of Nantwich, where 
 he was taken prisoner and committed to 
 the Tower. Here he remained for more 
 than two years, but in 1646 he was liberated 
 and placed in command of the English forces 
 in Ulster. He was so badly supported that 
 he was forced to make terms with the rebels 
 under Owen Roe O'Neil, for which he was 
 censured by Parliament, although the Inde- 
 pendent leaders had advised the treaty. But 
 Monk had convinced Cromwell of his ability, 
 and on the latter being appointed, ia 1650, 
 to the command of the parliamentary forces 
 in Scotland, he made Monk lieutenant-general 
 of artiUery. At the battle of Dunbar, Monk 
 showed great bravery, and on Cromwell's 
 return to England he was left to complete 
 the reduction of Scotland, which he speedily 
 effected, though not without considerable 
 cruelty. In 1653, on the outbreak of the 
 Dutch war. Monk was appointed one of the 
 admirals of the fleet, and had a share in the 
 great victory off the Texel. He returned to 
 his command in Scotland in 1654, and re- 
 mained there till the death of Oliver Cromwell, 
 when he acknowledged Richard, and advised 
 him to rely on the Presbyterian party, and 
 endeavour to gather the old nobility, and the 
 country gentlemen round him. But during 
 Richard's short reign anarchy prevailed in 
 England. The Parliament had been forcibly 
 dissolved by the army, and the Rump restored, 
 only to be dispersed a few months afterwards 
 by the soldiers. Having obtained a grant of 
 money from the Scotch Estates, on New 
 Year's Day, 1660, Monk crossed the border, 
 and on February 3rd entered London. AU 
 opposition^ to him proved fruitless, and the 
 Rump, which had been hurriedly resuscitated, 
 hailed him as their deliverer. Perceiving the 
 strength of the royalist reaction he determined 
 to restore the monarchy, and sent an invitation 
 
Alb 
 
 (2ft) 
 
 Alb 
 
 to Charles II. to return. So skilfully did he 
 manage matters that only one slight outtreak 
 occurred, which was easily suppressed, and 
 when Charles landed he was universally 
 welcomed. Monk reaped the highest re- 
 wards. He was created Duke of Albemarle 
 and lieutenant-general of the forces, and a 
 perpetual pension of £7,000 a year was 
 granted to him. On the renewal of the Dutch 
 war in 1664 he was appointed joint-admiral 
 with Prince Rupert, and hehaved with his 
 usual bravery. During the Plague of 1665 
 he was invested by the king with the govern- 
 ment of London, and by his energy greatly 
 alleviated the general misery, and preserved 
 order. He took no prominent part in 
 politics during the few remaining years of 
 his Ufe. 
 
 Guizot, Mfrnk (Eng. trauslatioli, 1851, with 
 Lord "Wliaxncliffe's notes) ; Gumble, Life of 
 afoT.fe, 1671; Skinner, li/e 0/ Monk, 1723 ; Lodge, 
 Portraits, vol. v. j Ludlow, Memoirs; Wbite- 
 locke. Memoirs ; Clarendon, Bist. of the 
 Rebellvm. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Albemarle, Aknold Joost van Keppel, 
 
 1st Eakl of (J. 1669, d. 1718), accompanied 
 WiUiam of Orange to England. He was the 
 confidential friend of the king, and acted as 
 his chamberlain. He was raised to the 
 peerage in 1696. After the death of WilUam, 
 Albemarle was chosen by the States-General 
 to command their cavalry, and fought in the 
 war of the Spanish succession. He was taken 
 prisoner at Denain in 1712. 
 
 Biographica Britannica; Macaulay, Hist, of 
 England, 
 
 Albemarle, George Keppel, 3kd Earl 
 OF {b. 1724, d. 1772), the son of WilUam Aime, 
 2nd earl, served, as aide-de-camp to the Duke 
 of Cumberland, at Fontenoy and Culloden. In 
 1745 he was elected member for Chichester, 
 which place he continued to represent till 
 1754, when he succeeded to the earldom. In 
 1761 he was appointed governor of Jersey. 
 In March, 1762, he embarked as commander- 
 in-chief of the land forces destined for the re- 
 duction of Havannah, and captured Fort 
 Moro after a stubborn resistance. Still the 
 Spaniards declined to surrender ; but after 
 enduring a cannonade for six hours Havannah 
 capitulated with eleven men-of-war and one 
 million and a half of money, and about the 
 same amount in merchandise. In Parliament 
 the earl took an active part in most of the 
 Whig measures of his time, especially making 
 himself conspicuous by his opposition to the 
 Eoyal Marriage Act, and by joining with 
 forty-seven other peers, in 1770, in a solemn 
 pledge against any future infringement of the 
 rights of the people at elections. 
 
 Albemarle, EocfcingJiam and Tiis Cot emporarics ; 
 Jesse, Reign of George III. ; Qreniyitte Papers, ill. 
 
 Albert, Prince {i. 1819, d. 1861), the hus- 
 band of Q,ueen Victoria, was the second son 
 of the reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
 and nephew to King Leopold, of Belgium, 
 
 and the Duchess of Kent. The prince was 
 admirably and carefully educated, and in 
 November, 1839, formally betrothed to his 
 cousin, the Queen, to whom he was married 
 February 10, 1840. By an Act passed just 
 before this event, a sum of £30,000 a year 
 was settled on the prince for life, the grant 
 having been reduced from £50,000, the sum 
 proposed by the Ministry, by the efforts of 
 the Radicals and the Opposition. By a subse- 
 quent Act of this session, the prince was 
 named regent in the event of the Queen's 
 death before the heir to the crown attained 
 the age of eighteen ; and in 1857 he was desig- 
 nated "Prince Consort" by letters patent. 
 He died, to the universal regret of the nation, 
 of typhoid fever, Dec. 14, 1861. The prince's 
 position, as husband of a constitutional sove- 
 reign, had been a peculiarly difficult and 
 trying one. Apprehensions were frequently 
 expressed in the earlier part of his married 
 life that his influence would be too extensively 
 exercised in matters of state ; and during the 
 years of the Crimean war it was asserted and 
 popularly believed, though, as it was proved, 
 without a shadow of foundation, that the 
 prince had taken an undue share in the 
 management of the army and the disposal of 
 patronage. It was, however, gradually ac- 
 knowledged that the difficult circumstances 
 of his situation could hardly have been met 
 with greater tact and conscientiousness, and 
 with more thorough appreciation of the theory 
 of constitutional monarchy. The prince 
 found a more congenial sphere than politics 
 in the encouragement of the arts and 
 in the promotion of social and industrial 
 reforms, and to his efforts the inauguration 
 and successful establishment of the Great 
 Exhibition of 1851 were in great part due. 
 
 The Speeches and Addresses of Fvince AlbeH, 
 with an Introd., 1862; Sir Theodore Martin's 
 authoritative and elaborate Life of the Prince 
 Consort ; Memoirs of Baron Stockmar, 1872 ; The 
 Early Years of the Pnnce Consort, 1867. 
 
 Albert Edward, Prince of Wales 
 (i. November 9, 1841), the eldest son of 
 her Majesty Queen Victoria ; Duke of Corn- 
 wall, in the peerage of England ; Duke of 
 Rothesay, Baron Renfrew, and Lord of the 
 Isles in Scotland; and Earl of Dublin and 
 Carrick in Ireland ; was educated at both 
 Oxford and Cambridge. The Prince visited 
 Italy in 1859, America in 1860, Germany in 
 1861, Turkey and Egypt in 1862, and the 
 Emperor of the French at Fontainehleau the 
 same year. In 1871 his life was imperilled 
 by an attack of tj-phoid fever, and his 
 recovery, in Feb., 1872, was celebrated by a 
 National Thanksgiving Festival. Between 
 Nov. 8, 1875, and March 13, 1876, the Prince 
 of Wales was engaged in a grand tour 
 of India. He married. Mar. 10, 1863, Alex- 
 andra, daughter of Christian IX., King of 
 Denmark, and his eldest son. Prince Albert 
 Victor, was bom January 8, 1864. 
 
Alb 
 
 ( 26) 
 
 Aid 
 
 Albinus, Clodids {d. 197), commander 
 ol the Roman forces in Britain, was pro- 
 claimed Emperor by the legions of the province 
 on the assassination of Pertinax (193). His 
 rival, Severus, who was declared emperor hy 
 the troops of Pannonia, at first attempted to 
 win him over by favours ; but in 197 marched 
 against him and defeated and slew him at 
 Lyons. This battle of Lugdunum, or Lyons, 
 is interesting as being the first recorded battle 
 fought by a British army on the Continent. 
 Dio Cassius, Isxiii. — v. 
 
 AlMon was perhaps the oldest name for 
 Britain. It occurs in a treatise once ascribed 
 to Aristotle {De Mundo, o. 3, in Mon. Hist. 
 Mrlt. i.), " iv TouTifi (sc. T^ *'n/c6ar^) v7J(roL 
 iilyLffjai Te Tvyx^vov^rtv odcai 5vo, '^peravytnal 
 Aey6iJ.€VM, "AA^ioy Kul 'lepvri " (of. Bede, Hist. 
 Sc, i. 1., in Mon. Hist. Brit., 108 A). " Rex 
 Albionis insulae " was a very favourite title of 
 the more powerful Anglo-Saxon kings {see 
 example in Freeman, Norm. Conq., i. 548 — 
 551), but in later times Albion mainly occurs 
 in poetry. The word mean.i "white," and 
 its use waSj perhaps, suggested by the chalk 
 cliffs of the south-east coast. It is etymo- 
 logically connected with "albus," "alp," &o., 
 and is the Brythonic (Cymric) form of the 
 Goidelic (Gaelic) " Alban," e.g., " Drum 
 Albin " is "Dorsum Albionis" [Mon. Sist. 
 Brit., 175 n). 
 
 Por mucli curious iuformation and ertrsLOr- 
 dinary etymologies, see Cooper, Thesaurus 
 LingutE Romaiue et Britannicx ; Bictionariuvi 
 HUtoxicum (London, 1566), s.v, Albion. See 
 also Ehys, Celtic Briimn, p. 200—203. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Albuera, Battle of (May 16, 1811), 
 during the Peninsular War, was fought by 
 Beresford to check Soult, who was advancing 
 to the relief of Badajos. Soult had with him 
 20,000 veteran troops, while Beresford, though 
 he had nominally .30,000 men, could only 
 depend oa the handful of 7,000 British troops. 
 He had, however, taken up a strong position 
 on a range of hills, in front of which ran the 
 Albuera Eiver; the British being in the centre, 
 with Blake and the Spaniards on the right. 
 During the night of the 15th Soult massed his 
 men with a view to carrying the table-land 
 which threatened the English right and rear, 
 and on the morning of the 16th directed 
 a feint attack in front. Beresford ordered 
 Blake to change front, to guard against an 
 expected flank attack on the right, but that 
 general for a long time refused to 'Obey 
 orders, and the movement was flnly at 
 length carried out by Beresford in person, 
 who, even when he had changed the front of 
 the Spaniards, could scarcely induce them to 
 move. Beresford was already thinking 
 of retreating, when Colonel Hardinge 
 with the 4th division, and Abercrombie 
 with a brigade of the 2nd division, which 
 had only been slightly engaged, pushed 
 on to the high ground. The crowded fyi'ma- 
 
 tion of the French prevented them from 
 executing any rapid movement; and, in 
 spite of a storm of grapeshot, the British 
 infantry irresistibly pressed on till, " slowly 
 and with a horrid carnage, the French were 
 pushed by the incessant vigour of the 
 .ilttaok to the farthest edge of the hill." 
 The attempt to bring up reserves " only 
 increased the irremediable confusion ; and the 
 mighty mass, breaking ofE hke a loosened 
 clifi, went headlong down the steep, and 
 1,800 unwounded men, the remnant of 6,000 
 unconquerable British soldiers, stood trium- 
 phant on the fatal hill." In four hours 
 nearly 7,000 of the allies and 8,000 French 
 had been struck down. On the 17th Soult 
 took up a threatening position, but on the 
 arrival of British reinforcements marched 
 away, and abandoned the attempt to relieve 
 Badajos. 
 
 There is a striking account of the battle in 
 Napier, Peninsular War. ( W. R. S.l 
 
 Alcantara, Capture of (1706), was 
 efiected by Lord Galway during the War of 
 Succession in Spain (q.v.)- He had urged on 
 the Portuguese troops the duty of advancing 
 on Madrid to co-operate with the troops of 
 the Archduke Charles advancing from Bar- 
 celona. On his way he drove out a garrison 
 placed by Marshal Berwick in Alcantara. 
 " Ten good battalions " of Berwick's force 
 were taken, and sixty pieces of cannon. 
 
 Alcock, John {d. 1514), Bishop of Roches- 
 ter, Worcester, and Ely, bom between 1430 
 and 1440, at Bevorley, in Yorkshire, was ap- 
 pointed dean of the chapel of St. Stephen in 
 the Palace of Westminster in 1462, and in 
 March, 1470, acted as Edward IV.'s envoy to 
 the King of Castile. After the victory of 
 Barnet, Alcock was made Master of the RoUs, 
 which appointment he resigned in March, 
 1472, to John Morton, upon his own advance- 
 ment to the bishopric of Rochester. During 
 the temporary ilhiess of Bishop StiUington, 
 Alcock held the Great Seal from 20th Septem- 
 ber, 1472, to April 6th, 1473 ; and in Septem- 
 ber, 1476, he was appointed to the bishopric 
 of Worcester. During Richard III.'s reign 
 his influence on public; afllairs was very slight ; 
 but on the accession of Henry VII. he became 
 Lord Chancellor, in 1485 ; and in 1486 suc- 
 ceeded Morton as Bishop of Ely. He built 
 the beautiful hall at his episcopal palace of 
 Ely, and Jesus College, Cambridge, which he 
 founded on the site of the old monastery of 
 St. Radigundo. 
 
 Foss, Judges of Engla/nd, vol. v. 
 
 Alderman, or Ealdorman, which is 
 the more ancient form of the word, means 
 simply elder man ; that is, one advanced in 
 years. It is used in two distinct senses. 
 
 (1) Among the first English settlers the 
 title appears to have meant simply chieftain, 
 the position of the ealdorman corresponding 
 to that of the princeps of the Germanic 
 
Aid 
 
 ( 27 
 
 Aid 
 
 tribes as described by Tacitus before tbe 
 migration, and it continued to be occasionally 
 used vaguely as an equivalent to lord or 
 noble ; but in all public documents the word 
 is evidently taken in the strict sense of the 
 chief magistrate of the shire or group of 
 shires, and was not necessarily connected 
 with nobility of blood, service, or large 
 estate. This restriction of the title may be 
 dated about the beginning of the ninth 
 century, in the days of Egbert. The 
 ealdorman was, in theory, elected in the 
 Witanagemot, but the office became practi- 
 cally hereditary. As the power of the 
 kingdom of Wessex rose, and the smaller 
 kingdoms were absorbed by it, the des- 
 cendants of the royal houses often became 
 hereditary ealdormen in almost unbroken 
 succession ; and when their lines became 
 extinct, the ealdormen appointed by the king, 
 with the implied, if not expressed, consent of 
 the Witan, transmitted the office to their des- 
 cendants. Their jurisdictions became en- 
 larged, probably by the aggregation of several 
 shires under one rule. The position of the 
 great ealdormen was a high one ; they were 
 practically independent of weak kings. Their 
 wergild, the fine exacted from those who killed 
 them, was equal to that of the bishop, and four 
 times that of the theyn, the king's being six 
 times. The duties of the ealdorman con- 
 sisted in administering the shire conjointly 
 with the sheriff, who represented the royal 
 as opposed to the national authority. He 
 commanded the military force of the shire, 
 in which capacity he was sometimes called 
 heretoga, the leader of the host {here) ; and 
 he sat with the sheriff and the bishop in the 
 shiremoot, receiving a third of the fines levied 
 in the jurisdiction. The ealdormen also 
 attended the central Witan, together with the 
 bishops. In the reign of Ethelred, the 
 ealdorman began to be supplanted by the 
 Danish office of earl, and this process was 
 completed when Canute di^dded the kingdom 
 into four great earldoms. From that date the 
 title sank to its earlier meaning of headman, 
 and was applied to almost any local officer. 
 Thus, in the thirteenth century there is an 
 ealdorman of the hundred, who represents 
 his hundred in the shire moot. [_See also Eahl ; 
 Sheriff.] 
 
 (2) Alderman, in its media3val and modern 
 sense, means an official invested with certain 
 municipal powers and duties, and associated 
 with the mayor in the government of a city 
 or town corporate. The word ealdorman, 
 or alderman, had, as has been shown, become 
 applied to any headman or local officer, and 
 accordingly, in the reign of Henry II., we 
 find that the headman of a gild is called 
 alderman. "V^hen, as happened in some of 
 the great towns, the English system of a gild, 
 or trade corporation, gradually lost its identity 
 in the communa, or municipal corporation, the 
 presiding officer of which was the mayor, the 
 
 mayor and aldermen became associated in 
 the government of the new municipalities. 
 The first mayor of London was appointed in 
 1191, and the institution of mayor and alder- 
 men in the large towns was pretty general 
 by the end of the reign of John. The autho- 
 rity of the aldermen was, at first, by no 
 means secure, and throughout the reign of 
 Henry III. the populace of London protested 
 against their claim to assess taxation and 
 elect the mayor. However, we find them, with 
 four men from each ward, sending members to 
 Parliament in 1297, and their appointments, 
 which were annual under Edward II., were for 
 life under Edward IV. Under the Lancas- 
 trian kings, the mayor and aldermen are 
 associated with the town councils, relics of the 
 earlier town government, which first consisted 
 of twenty-four, and afterwards of larger 
 numbers, and became prominent from the 
 decay of the machinery of the local courts ; 
 the mayor, aldermen , and town council forming 
 the elements of the municipal corporation. 
 The numbers and sometimes the functions of 
 the aldermen were settled in the charters of 
 incorporatiou granted to the towns. Under 
 the Stuarts, their powers were frequently 
 tampered with from above by the forfeiture 
 and alteration of the charters of incorpora- 
 tion, and the appointment of individual alder- 
 men by royal authority ; while they in turn 
 usurped the privileges of the burgesses and 
 freemen, became self-elective, and in some 
 cases obtained the exclusive right of electing 
 members of Parliament. Their electoral 
 power, however, was taken from them by the 
 Eeform Bill, and in 1835 the Municipal 
 Reform Act and a subsequent Act in 1859 
 did away with the old order of aldei-men 
 (except in London), and enacted that their 
 successors were to be elected for six years 
 instead of for Hfe, one-haU of their number 
 retiring every third year ; and that they 
 should form one-third of the town councillors, 
 who varj- in each borough from 12 to 48, 
 from whom and by whom they were to be 
 chosen. The alderman is represented in Scot- 
 land by the bailie ; in Ireland he is elected 
 by the burgesses. [See also Gild ; Town.] 
 
 Stubbs, Const, ifist., cbaps. v., vi., xi., xv. and 
 xxi., and Select ChaHers; Palgrave, The Eng. 
 Commonwealth; Brady, On Boroughs; Mere- 
 weather and Stephens, Hist, of Boroughs ; Grant, 
 The Law of Corporations ; Madtland, Ht,st. of 
 Lonion. Statutes 1 5 and 6 Will. IV., c. 76; 
 and 22 Vict, c. 35. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Alderney. [Channel Islands.] 
 
 Aldfrid (Ealdfeith), King of North- 
 umbria (685 — 705), was the son of Oswy, and 
 brother of Egfrith, whom he succeeded. He 
 was well instructed in theology and secular 
 learning, and acquired the title of " the 
 wisest of kings." His territory was curtailed 
 by the conquests of the Picts, but on the 
 whole his reign is said to have been a pros- 
 perous and tranquil one. 
 
Aid 
 
 ( 28 
 
 Ale 
 
 Aldhelm, or Adelm, St., Bishop of 
 Sherborne {b. circa 656, d. 709), was born in 
 Wiltshire, and appears to have been connected 
 with the family of the West Saxon kings. 
 Early in life he was sent to study in Kent, 
 and afterwards joined the community of 
 scholars who had studied under the Irish 
 hermit, Meidulf, at Malmeshury ; of which 
 monastery Aldhelm became abbot. He after- 
 wards made a journey to Kome, and took 
 part in the dispute with the British clergy 
 about Easter. In 70.5 he was made Bishop of 
 Sherborne. Aldhelm's learni;xg was greatly 
 celebrated. He wrote in the vernacular as 
 well as in Latin, and has been called "the 
 father of Anglo-Latin poetry." King Alfred 
 considered him as among the best of English 
 poets. He wrote a prose treatise, De Laude 
 Virginitatis ; and a poem, De Laude Virginum ; 
 some uEnigmata in verse ; and some letters to 
 Aldfrid of Northumbria and others. 
 
 Will, of Malmesbury, Vita Aldlielmi ; in 
 Wharton s Anglia Sacra; Wright, Biographia 
 Brit. Litt. i. Si09, where a list of editions of 
 Aldhelm's works is given. 
 
 Aldred (Ealdred), {d. 1069), Arch- 
 bishop of York, was a monk of Winchester, 
 who became Abbot of Tavistock, and in 1046 
 Bishop of Worcester. Like many of the 
 native English prelates he travelled much 
 on the Continent. Besides journeying to 
 Home, in 1050 he traversed Hungary and 
 visited Jerusalem; and subsequently was 
 sent by Edward the Confessor on a mission 
 to the Emperor Henry III. In 1061 he 
 became Archbishop of York, retaining the 
 see of Worcester in commendam. The Pope 
 refused to bestow the pallium on him till 
 he gave up the see of Worcester. On the 
 death of Edward, Aldred crowned Sarold ; 
 but on the death of that prince he submitted 
 to William, and in fact became a strong sup- 
 porter of the new dynasty. He performed 
 the coronation ceremony for the Conqueror, 
 in default of Stigand. Several legendary 
 tales are told of the latter part of his life, 
 among which is the striking story that he 
 cursed William for his evil deeds, and caused 
 the king to fall trembling at his feet. 
 
 William of Malmestary, De Gest. Pantif., 164 ; 
 T. Stuhbs, (Jest. Poiitt/. BboraCCTis., 1701 ; Free- 
 man, Norm. Conq., ii. 85, iv. 2*32, &c. 
 
 Ale-Taster, Ale-Conner, or Ale- 
 Founder, was an officer appointed formerly in 
 every manor and borougb to examine and 
 assay the beer and ale, and present dishonest 
 ale- vendors to the next court-leet or borough- 
 court. The assize of bread and ale {panis et 
 cerevisice), 51 Henry III., regulated the selling 
 and inspection of these two chief articles of 
 food. The ale-tasters were chosen and sworn 
 in the court-leet once a year. The office, which 
 is of very great antiquity, still survives in some 
 parts of England. It has been thought to 
 owe its origin to the convivial feasts in which 
 
 the business of the primitive Teutonic com- 
 munities was largely transacted. 
 
 Alexander I., the Fierce, King of 
 Scotland {s. 1107, d. 1124), was the son of 
 Malcolm Canmore and Margaret, and successor 
 to his brother Eadgar, or Edgar. By Eadgar's 
 will he obtained as his kingdom the lands north 
 of the Forth and Clyde, his brother David in- 
 heriting Lothian and Cumbria. He gained a 
 great victory on the Moray Firth over the 
 rebellious Maormars of .Eoss and the Meams, 
 and founded, in gratitude, the monastery 
 of Scone. An attempt to reconstitute the 
 bishopric of St. Andrews involved the king 
 in disputes with the Archbishops of York and 
 Canterbury, ending only with his death, which 
 took place at Stirling, April, 1124. He had 
 married Sybilla, natural daughter of Henry I. 
 of England. With his father's courage and 
 restless ambition, he seems to have inherited 
 from his mother a devotional feeling and a 
 taste for religious exercises, which were much 
 less characteristic of his race. He inaugurated 
 the feudal policy so thoroughly carried out by 
 his successor, David. 
 
 Eobertsoa, Early Kings of Scotland; Skene, 
 Celtic Scotland. 
 
 Alexander II., King of Scotland (s. 
 Dec. 5, 1214, d. 1249), was son and successor 
 to William the Lion. The young king, 
 who was on friendly terms with the 
 English barons, had to maintain a border army 
 to frustrate the attacks of John until 1217. 
 Carlisle surrendered to the Scots, and the 
 Castle of Tweedmouth was demoHshed in 
 1217. In June, 1221, Alexander married 
 Joaima, sister of Henry III. The next 
 year Alexander entered Argyle, drove 
 out all those who had been engaged in 
 insurrections against the royal power, 
 and turned the whole district into the 
 sheriffdom of Argyle, creating also the 
 bishopric of the same name. After a struggle 
 of some years' duration he succeeded in 1235 
 in finally bringing Galloway into subjection 
 to the crown. The following year Alexander 
 refused to do homage to the English king, 
 and laid claim to the northern counties of 
 England; at a conference between the two 
 kings, at Newcastle, war was only averted by 
 the strong inclination which the English 
 barons showed for peace. In 1244 there was 
 another rupture between the two kings, 
 and war was imminent ; but it was averted 
 by the mediation of Richard of Cornwall 
 and the Archbishop of York. In 1248, 
 Alexander, after trying to induce Haco, King 
 of Norway, to surrender the sovereignty of 
 the isles, made an expedition to the Sudreys. 
 He died, however, before accomplishing his 
 object, near Oban, July 8, 1249, and was 
 biiried at Melrose. He married, as his second 
 wife, Mary, daughter of Enguerrand de Coucy. 
 He had been a good king, noted for his 
 moderation and justice, bent on the improve- 
 
Ale 
 
 (29) 
 
 Ale 
 
 ment of his subjects and the consolidation of 
 the various discordant elements in his king- 
 dom. Sir David Dalrymple calls him "one 
 of the wisest princes that ever reigned over 
 Scotland." 
 
 Sie the ScofioJiromcon, edited by Mr. Skene ; 
 Dalrymple, ArmaU of Scotland ; Robertson, Early 
 Kings of Scotland ; Skene, Celtic Sootlamd ; Burton 
 Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Alexander III., King of Scotland 
 (J. 1241, s. 1249, d. 1285), was the son of 
 Alexander II. and Mary de Ooucy. In 1251, in 
 accordance with the terms of the Treaty of 
 Newcastle, he was married to his cousin 
 Margaret, daughter of Henry III. In 1255, 
 Henry procured the appointment of the Earl 
 of Dunbar, who was favourable to his in- 
 terests, as regent in the place of the Earl of 
 Menteith, who, however, recovered his power. 
 In 1263 a war broke out between Alexander 
 and Haco of Norway, for possession of the 
 Sudreys and the Norse districts on the main- 
 land, which ended in the victory of the Scots 
 at Largs (q.v.), and the consequent annexa- 
 tion of the Isles to Scotland, 1266. In 1274 
 Alexander and his queen were present at 
 Edward I.'s coronation; and in 1278 the 
 Scotch king did homage to his brother-in-law 
 at Westminster, for lands held in England. 
 On the death of his second son, Alexander, 
 January, 1284, the king, left childless, sum- 
 moned a meeting of the Estates at Scone, 
 and caused them to recognise his grand- 
 daughter, Margaret, the Maid of Norway, 
 as their future sovereign. Shortly after- 
 wards he married Yolande, daughter of 
 the Count of Dreux, but died owing to a fall 
 from his horse, near Kinghom, in March, 
 1285. " To judge from the events of his 
 reign," says Mr. Robertson, ' ' he was an able, 
 upright, and high-spirited sovereign. 
 
 Scotichronicon ; Eoberteon, Early Kvngs of 
 Scotland; Burton, Hist. ofScntUind. 
 
 Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln (d. 1147), 
 was one of the family group of episcopal 
 statesmen of Stephen's reign, of which Alex- 
 ander's uncle, the Justiciar, Eoger, Bishop 
 of Salisbury, was the head. By his in- 
 fluence he was advanced to the see of Lin- 
 coln, and probably also held some office in 
 the royal court. He was one of the bishops 
 arrested by Stephen in 1139, and was kept in 
 prison some considerable time. After his 
 release he retired from political life, and was 
 appointed Papal legate in England. Henry 
 of Huntingdon dedicated his history to 
 Alexander, and speaks of him in terms of the 
 highest praise. He began the erection of the 
 present cathedral of Lincoln, to replace the 
 former one, which was destroyed by fire. 
 
 Henry of Huntingdon, Ristoria ; Pauli, Hn^. 
 Geschichte ; Stubbs, Const, Hist, 
 
 Alexandra, Puinoess of "Wales (i, 
 Deo. 1, 1844), the eldest daughter of Christian 
 IX., King of Denmark, was married to Albert 
 
 Edward, Prince of Wales, on the 10th of 
 March, 1863. 
 
 Alexandria, Battle op (21st March, 
 1801), was fought by the British force under 
 Sir Ealph Abercromby, which had been sent 
 out to complete the destruction of the dimi- 
 nished remnant of Bonaparte's army after he 
 had effected a landing in Aboukir Bay, in the 
 face of a large French force, on the 1st of 
 March. During the next three weeks the 
 French gradually fell back before the British, 
 tiU they retired into Alexandria. Aber- 
 cromby now stationed himself to the east of 
 Alexandria, with his right resting on some 
 Eoman ruins on the sea-shore, and his left on 
 the Lake Mayadieh. Early on the 21st the 
 French infantry attacked simultaneously both 
 flanks, though the serious attack was on the 
 right, where all the French cavalry were 
 launched upon the English. The attack 
 was resisted by Moore's division with stub- 
 born bravery, until Abercromby ordered the 
 reserve to charge. It obeyed, threw the 
 French into confusion, and hurled them back 
 to their own lines. Meanwhile the attack on 
 the left had proved to be merely a feint, and 
 a real attack on the centre had been repulsed 
 by the Guards. The British loss was heavy, 
 and Sir Ealph Abercromby feU. Deprived 
 of its general, the army was handled 
 with an excess of caution which precluded 
 any brilliant successes, but finally resulted 
 in the capitulation of the French army. 
 Alison, Hist, of Europe, 
 
 Alexandria, Bombardment op (1882). 
 In May, 1882, owing to the disturbed state of 
 Egypt, where the BO-caUed "National Party," 
 under Arabi Pasha, had obtained a complete 
 control of the government, and seemed bent 
 on dethroning the Khedive, an English and 
 French fleet was ordered to enter the harbour 
 of Alexandria. An attempt of the Khedive 
 to dismiss Arabi failed, and the rebellious 
 leaders remained masters of the situation. 
 On June 11th a fanatical outbreak of the 
 Mussulman population of Alexandria oc- 
 curred, and several hundreds of Europeans, 
 including an officer of the fleet and the 
 British consul, were kUled or injured. The 
 fortifications of Alexandria were being con- 
 stantly strengthened, till they menaced the 
 safety of the British fleet. The English admiral, 
 Sir Beauchamp Seymour, demanded that these 
 works should be discontinued ; and on July 
 6th threatened to bombard the forts if the 
 demand was not comphed with. On the 9th 
 and 10th the foreign ships, including those of 
 France, steamed out of the harbour. The 
 English fleet, consisting of eight ironclads 
 and five gunboats, opened fire at seven o'clock 
 on the morning of July 1 1th. By the evening 
 of the 12th the forts had been completely des- 
 troyed and the town abandoned by its garrison, 
 after being set on fire in several places. The 
 loss of the Enghsh in the action was trifling, 
 
Alf 
 
 (30) 
 
 Alf 
 
 though the Egyptians fought with hravery. 
 Sir Beauchamp Seymour was raised to the 
 peerage under the title of Lord Aloester. 
 
 Annval Register^ 1882 : History of the YeaVf 
 1881—2. 
 
 Alford, Battle op (May, 1645), was 
 a skirmish fought in Aherdeenshire between 
 Montrose, at the head of the Cavaliers, and 
 the Covenanters under Hurry and BaHHe. 
 The latter were defeated. 
 
 Alfred (4. 849? d. 901), oaUed in his 
 own times .SIlpred, .SIthelwufing, in later, 
 Alfred the Great ; King of the West-Saxons 
 between 871 and 901, was bom at "the royal 
 town that is called Wanating" (Wantage), 
 in Berkshire. The date usually given on the 
 authority of Asser is 849. But an earlier 
 date, 842 or 843, for his hirth would remove 
 at least one difiSoulty in the story of his life, 
 without raising, so far as the present writer 
 can judge, any others that cannot be ex- 
 plained. He was the youngest son of King 
 Ethelwulf and his wife, the Lady Osburgh, 
 and the grandson of Egbert, and of Oslac, the 
 pincerna, or cup-bearer, of Ethelwulf. 
 
 We are told nothing of Alfred's childhood, 
 and but little of Ms boyhood. In 853, says 
 the Chronicle, his father sent him to Eome, 
 when Leo (IV.) was Pope ; and the Pope there 
 consecrated him king, and ifok him as his 
 spiritual son. The well-known account given 
 in Asser of the way in which his lifelong love 
 of letters was first kindled is now looked upon 
 with considerable doubt. There is certainly 
 more than one fatal objection to it, on the 
 supposition that Alfred was bom as late as 
 849. In 861 his mother had been dead at 
 least six years ; his father, who had taken as 
 second wife a girl not much older than Alfred 
 himself, and his eldest brother, who had 
 married this same girl on her widowhood, 
 were also dead, and another brother was king 
 in the elder's place; but if we can bfing.' 
 ourselves to believe the date of Alfred's birth, 
 as now printed, a blunder for an earlier, we 
 can safely acquiesce in the literal truth of the 
 beautiful story. 
 
 When we add to these scraps of information 
 the facts that he lost his mother about 856, 
 and his father in 858, we possess all that can 
 be received as certain or admissible know- 
 ledge respecting his youth. The story that 
 he went again to Eome, as his father's com- 
 panion, in 855, is discredited by the silence of 
 the Chronicle on the subject. In 868hemarried 
 Alcswith, the daughter of Ethelred, sur- 
 named Mickle (the Big), Earl of the Gainas, 
 in Lincolnshire. If Asser's Life speaks the 
 truth, the wedding festivities were not yet 
 over when he was seized by a malady of so 
 strange and mysterious a nature that the 
 simple folk of the time suspected it to be the 
 work of the devil. This would seem to have 
 been some peculiar form of nervous disease. 
 Its most painful feature was its periodic re- 
 currence ; it sometimes came upon him with- 
 
 out a minute's warning, and paralysed his 
 powers on occasions that demanded their 
 fullest exercise. In the same year, within 
 a few weeks, perhaps, he was called upon 
 to face, for the first time, what proved to 
 be the one mighty task of his Ufe. The 
 Danes had fallen upon the land of the Mer- 
 cians. Burghred, the Mercian king, cried to 
 his brother-in-law and over-lord, Ethelred, 
 King of the West-Saxons, for help. His cry 
 was heard, and Alfred went with his brother 
 to the siege of Nottingham, where the Danes 
 were lying. Nottingham was won back, not 
 by force, but by a treaty — which probably 
 meant a bargain that gave the English a 
 breathing-space, and the Danes a fair profit 
 on their adventure. 
 
 Three years later (871) Alfred was sum- 
 moned to grapple with the work he was bom 
 to accomplish, in deadly earnest ; and, as if 
 to bring him to the fuliilment of his destiny, 
 his elder brothers were rapidly dying off. In 
 _860 the West-Saxon kingship had passed from 
 Ethelbald to Ethelbert, whose death in 865 
 had given the crown to Ethelred, and thus 
 placed Alfred on the very steps of the throne. 
 After the peace of Nottingham the invaders 
 had gone back to York, staj-ed there a year, 
 and then (870) had marched southward, 
 seized on Thetford, and beaten in battle and 
 slain Edmund, the East-Anglian king. Very 
 early next year (871) they burst into Wessex 
 itself. "The destroying host" laid hold 
 on Reading, secured their position there, 
 and proceeded straightway to carry on from 
 thence their work of plunder and havoc. To- 
 wards Reading the men of Wessex at once 
 hastened, under the command of King Ethel- 
 red, of Alfred, and of Ethelwulf, the alder- 
 man ; and a furious strife ensued, which 
 lasted throughout the year. Eight followed 
 fight in quick succession. Victorious under 
 Ethelwulf at Englefield the West-Saxons 
 were, a few days later, baffled at Read- 
 ing, though led by their king and hia 
 brother in person ; and after great slaughter 
 had to fall back, leaving the field of carnage 
 in the possession of their enemies. Eoiled 
 for the moment, but- with courage still un- 
 shaken, the royal brothers, four days after- 
 wards, closed with the whole army of the 
 Danes at Ashdown. Here took place one of 
 the most stubborn tugs of war in history. 
 [Ashdown.] To Alfred the chief glory 
 of the victory of the West-Saxons is given 
 by Asser, whose book tells us that it was his. 
 early advance to the attack, while his brother 
 Imgered at mass, that broke the strength of 
 the enemy, and led to their utter discomfitiire 
 in the end. Yet this splendid success was 
 indecisive. In an engagement at Basing that 
 followed a fortnight later, "the Danes got 
 the victory " over the winners of Ashdown ; 
 and in two mouths more, at Merton, the 
 West-Saxons, after a stubborn conflict, had 
 to withdraw from the iield. 
 
Alf 
 
 (31 ) 
 
 Alf 
 
 At Easter Bthelred died; and Alfred was 
 made king. In another month he was again at 
 handgrips with his dogged foes — this time at 
 Wilton — and was again beaten. Thus Alfred's 
 reign began with defeat. He now either lost 
 heart, or concluded that further fighting was , 
 useless ; for in a short time he came to terms 
 — perhaps struck a, bargain — with the men 
 he had failed to overcome; and early next 
 year the Danes marched away from his 
 kingdom. 
 
 If it was his design to gain time to repair 
 his strength, he was wise to make peace. 
 After 871 the land had entire rest for four 
 years, and comparative rest for three more, 
 though other parts of England were smarting 
 under the rapacity and ferocity of the merci- 
 less strangers. Some use of this respite the 
 king must have made: he is recorded as 
 having, in 875, attacked and put to flight 
 seven Danish ships. During the next and 
 following years ([876 — 877)i he was also strong 
 enough to force a treaty upon a powerful 
 force that had landed in Dorset, and exact 
 oaths and hostages from them. He found it 
 no easy matter to get rid altogether of the 
 intruders ; but in the autumn of 877 they at 
 length sailed away from Exeter to the land of 
 the Mercians. But this deliverance almost 
 brought his kingdom to the brink of ruin. 
 In the first week of 878 the Danish army 
 stole up from Gloucester, and, coming upon 
 the West-Saxons unawares, seized Chippen- 
 ham. The surprise was complete ; so 
 sudden and so swift was the movement, 
 that they had ridden over and taken to 
 themselves the greater part of the kingdom 
 before a suflScient force could be brought 
 together to make head against them at any 
 point. Many people fled beyond the sea; 
 Alfred alone refused to despair ; " uneasily, 
 with a little band of warriors, he went along 
 the woods, and into the moor-fastnesses." 
 In one of these he at last halted, and began, 
 with the faithful few that followed him, to 
 throw up a defensive work — thrice-famous 
 ever since as Athebiey, the Isle of Nobles, 
 called so, no doubt, from the trusty handful 
 of high-bom men that plied the mattock 
 around the king. It covers a few acres a 
 little south of Sedgmoor, in Somerset. To 
 its narrow compass the last English kingdom 
 had shrunk. 
 
 But it was a brief agony, after all. The 
 Danes would seem to have been drawing 
 their toils round Athelney ; they threw a 
 considerable detachment on the neighbouring 
 coast, which was beaten with great loss, and 
 Alfred was untiring in his assaults upon 
 them from his stronghold. The country 
 recovered from its surprise, and, some weeks 
 after Easter, Alfred quitted Athelney, 
 and met the levies of the three shires at 
 Egbertstone, on the eastern skirts of Selwood 
 Forest. With these he went straight upon 
 the enemy, met them at Edington (a place 
 
 that, like Egbertstone, has not been identified 
 with certainty), overthrew their host, and 
 chased its 'wrecks into their fortress. A 
 siege of fourteen days ended in the Danes 
 engaging to withdraw from Wessex, and 
 their king, Guthorm, consenting to become a 
 Christian. These pledges were punctually 
 kept. At Aller the baptismal ceremonies 
 were begun ; at Wedmore they were com- 
 pleted ; and soon after, the army of the in- 
 vaders marched away from Chippenham. 
 Thus, was Wessex snatched from destruction, 
 and, with Wessex, the destiny of the English 
 race. Never, perhaps, had a nationality come 
 so near, and yet escaped, extinction. 
 
 The next fifteen years (878 — 893) may be 
 called a time of peace for Alfred and his 
 people. During them the fla.me of war left 
 the ancient kingdom untouched; such fitful 
 bursts of fighting as broke the general still- 
 ness either fell upon the outlying districts, as 
 Kent and Surrey, or had the sea as their 
 scene of action ; and the king was success- 
 ful in all. But to these years almost 
 certainly belong the great measures that 
 make the second half of England's debt to 
 Alfred — the effiacement of the ravages of war, 
 the restoration of material prosperity, the 
 re-invigoration of the national defences, the 
 improvement of the laws, the rekindling of 
 religion, the "relighting of the lamp of 
 learning." The first two of the above 
 objects he tried to eft'ect by repairing the 
 damage done to towns and cities, raising 
 public buildings, reclaiming waste lands, and 
 making or renewing roads and bridges. Our 
 knowledge of the third is vague ; but to the 
 fyrd, or levy en masse, of the people, he sought 
 to give greater rapidity and flexibility of 
 movement ; and he reformed the naval system 
 by making the ships themselves instruments 
 of war, not mere platforms for fighting from. 
 As a legislator, he added nothing to existing 
 laws, but simply revised those of his prede- 
 cessors, keeping " those that seemed to him 
 good," rejecting "those that seemed to him 
 not good," and combining the former into a 
 single code. Religion and letters had sunk 
 so low among the West-Saxone that he had 
 to seek the agents of their regeneration in 
 foreign lands. From Wales he drew Asser ; 
 from Mercia,Werfrith and Plegmund ; Grim- 
 bald and John the Old Saxon from the Con- 
 tinent ; and with their help reanimated the 
 services of the Church, founded schools, and 
 encouraged literary composition in the native 
 tongue. At this last he was himself a diligent 
 worker, as translations (that are not mere 
 translations) of large portions of the writings 
 of Boethius, Orosius, Bede, and Gregory the 
 Great still survive to prove. Men in later 
 times loved to dwell on this feature of his 
 career ; in a mediaeval list of West-Saxon 
 kings, his name is specially distinguished as 
 " litteratus." But in 893 the dogs of war 
 were again let slip on his kingdom, and the 
 
Alf 
 
 (32) 
 
 Alg 
 
 old hideous scenes of pillage, slaughter, and 
 havoc were renewed. The chief leader of 
 these fresh swarm of marauders was the 
 terrihle Hastings. For four years he dragged 
 Alfred up and down, across and along, the 
 country, making treaties and hreaking them, 
 getting again and again heaten, hoth hy land 
 and by sea, but recovering himself after every 
 defeat, and refusing to be driven from the 
 land. The value of the king's military 
 reforms was thus effectually tested ; and they 
 may be said to have fairly stood the strain. 
 In every recorded encounter — as at Farnham, 
 Benfleet, Buttington — the .West-Saxons over- 
 threw their foes. The upshot at length was 
 that the Danes, heaten, out-generalled, and 
 checked at every turn, got weary of an un- 
 profitable enterprise, broke up into several 
 bands, and went off in different directions, 
 leaving Wessex at peace. The heroic king's 
 work was now done. " Six nights before 
 AUhallowmas," in the year 901, he died. 
 
 Alfred is one of the few historical charac- 
 ters that all writers delight to honour ; almost 
 with one consent historians have pronounced 
 that he comes pretty nearly as close to per- 
 fection as a man and a king as any ruler of 
 whom there is record. This verdict may be 
 accepted as final ; it is certainly not likely to 
 be ever successfully impeached. To his good- 
 ness, nobility of character, moral greatness, 
 heroism, his whole hf e is a testimony. Alfred 
 the Good and Steadfast he assuredly was ; 
 and if it may be plausibly hinted that he 
 was a little lacking in the sagacity, originality, 
 forecast, and efficient provision for the future, 
 without which no human greatness is com- 
 plete, it may yet be pleaded that such a rare 
 combination of moral and intellectual excel- 
 lence amply justified the writers of the seven- 
 teenth century in styling him Ali-eed the 
 Gkeat. 
 
 Tlie Artglo-Saxon Chronicle, the only really 
 trustworthy authority. Asserlus, de Rebus 
 Gentis ^Ifredi, from whom all hiographies of 
 Alfred are in large part drawn, of disputed 
 authenticity, at best containing but a kernel of 
 original matter [see the art. Asser] ; Alfred's 
 Laws, in Thorpe's CoUectiou ; and Alfred's 
 Works. No collected edition of these exists; 
 hut the Preface to Si. Gregory's Pastorale hag 
 been three times published (by Archbishop 
 Parker in 1574, by Camden in 1603, by "Wise in 
 1722) ; the translation from Bede twice (at Cam- 
 bridge, in 1613 and 1722) ; the translation from 
 Boeihius twice (at Oxford in 1698, and at London 
 in 1829) ; Alfred's Will twice (at Oxford in 1788, 
 and at London in 1828 ; his translation from 
 Oroslus once (at London in 1773) ; and of the 
 Metres of Boethius once (at London in 1835). 
 There is a Life of Alfred the Great by Dr. E. 
 Pauli (translated by Wright, London, 1862). 
 
 [J. E.] 
 
 Al&ed (or All-red) of Beverley, 
 
 Treasurer of the Church of Beverley in the 
 first half of the twelfth century, wrote nine 
 books of Annales, which were first printed by 
 Heame, in 1716. A very large part of 
 Alfred's work is mere compilation from 
 Geoffrey. of Monmouth and Henry of Hunt- 
 
 ingdon. It is evident, therefore, that he 
 must have written at least as late as the 
 year 1138—9, about which time the British 
 History of Geoffrey is supposed to have 
 appeared, and that the dates usually given 
 for his death (1126 or 1136) are erroneous. 
 It is probable that the Annales were written 
 about 1143. 
 
 Hardy, Descri'ptive Catalogue of Materials, ii. 
 
 173 (Rolls Series) ; Wright, Biographia Brit. 
 
 Literaria, ii. 157. 
 
 Alfric (.SIlfeic), sumamed Abbas and 
 Grammaticus, was an ecclesiastic of the tenth 
 century, and the writer of numerous works 
 in Anglo-Saxon. He received his early edu- 
 cation from a secular or "mass-priest." He 
 was a pupil of Ethelwold at Winchester, 
 and he became Abbot of EveSham. -Sllfric's 
 works, which include a grammar, a number of 
 sermons, a treatise on astronomy {see Wright, 
 Popular Treatises on Science during the Middle 
 Ages), and some Canons, are interesting to 
 the student of Anglo-Saxon literature, and 
 have considerable importance as regards the 
 state of the English Church in the tenth 
 century both as to doctrine and discipline. 
 The writer has often been confused with 
 another Alfric or Mlyv.\c, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, who died during the closing 
 years of the tenth century. 
 
 Wharton, Be JDaobus Elfricis in Anglia Sacra, 
 vol. i. ; Thorpe, Analecta. 
 
 Alfred (-SIlered) the Etheliug {d. 
 
 1036?), was the son of Ethelred II. and 
 Emma. On the death of his father he fled 
 to Normandy, where, together with his 
 brother Edward (the Confessor), he seems to 
 have remained till the reign of Harold, 1036, 
 when, either alone or accompanied by Edward, 
 he made an expedition to England for the 
 purpose of obtaining the crown. He was 
 entrapped, together with his Norman fol- 
 lowers, by means of an ambuscade near 
 Guildford, and conveyed to the monastery of 
 Ely ; by the orders of Harold, he was either 
 blinded and died of the pain, or was actually 
 murdered. The question whether Godwine 
 had any share in this is a vexed one, but it is 
 certain that he was at the time suspected of 
 being an accomplice ; and it was also sus- 
 pected that Emma was privy to the treachery 
 and violence which brought about the end of 
 Alfred, in order that the crown might be 
 assured to his half-brother Harthaknut. 
 
 Fitu Edward. Covfessor. in Twysden, Hisf. 
 Anglic. ScHptores decern.; Ang. Sax. Chronicle; 
 Turner, AngU>-Saxons; Freeman, iloman Can- 
 guest ; and the art. in the Biographia Britannioa, 
 
 Algar (iELFGAR) (d. 1062 ?), was the son 
 of Earl Leofric, and the father of Edwin and 
 Morkere. We first hear of him in 1051, 
 when, on the triumph of the Norman party 
 and outlawry of Harold, he received the 
 earldom of East-Anglia. On Harold's re- 
 turn in the next year, Algar appears to have 
 quietly resigned it to him, to resume it again 
 
Alg 
 
 ( 33 
 
 All 
 
 in 1053, on. the translation of Harold to 
 Wessex. In 1055 Algar was banished. The 
 reason for this treatment is douhtful ; hut he 
 soon showed his unscrupulous and treacherous, 
 disposition hy allying with GrufEydd of Wales, 
 and ravaging Herefordshire. Harold was 
 sent against them, and peace was quickly 
 made, one of the conditions being that Algar 
 should be restored to his earldom. In 
 1057, on his father's death, he succeeded 
 to the earldom of Mercia. Outlawed again 
 in 1058, he was once more restored to his 
 earldom, and seems to have spent the latter 
 years of his life in peace and good works. 
 [Hakold.] 
 
 Freeman, Novm. Conq., ii. 161, &c. 
 
 Algiers, Bombardment of (1816), was 
 conducted by the Enghsh fleet in conse- 
 quence of the ravages made by the Algerine 
 pirates on the commerce and coasts of the 
 Mediterranean. The work was entrusted to 
 Lord Exmouth, who at first attempted by 
 negotiations to unite the states of Barbary in 
 an effort to suppress the pirates. In May, 
 1816, while Exmouth was absent in England, 
 pending the result of his negotiations, 2,000 
 Algerine troops attacked the Italian coral- 
 fishers, who were attending mass under the 
 protection of the British flag, and massacred 
 the whole of them. Exmouth at once set 
 saU, ,with a force of five ships of the line, 
 five frigates, and some bomb-vessels. At 
 Gibraltar Lord Exmouth received a rein- 
 forcement from the Dutch admiral, Capellen, 
 who desired to be allowed to join in the siege. 
 On the 27th of August the fieet reached 
 Algiers, and a messenger was at once de- 
 spatched with an ultimatum to the Dey. 
 This the Dey refused to receive, and Lord 
 Exmouth, at once leading the way towards the 
 harbour, anchored as close as possible to the 
 mole, and opened fire. The battle lasted from 
 two o'clock in the afternoon till ten o'clock, 
 when, the batteries having been nearly all 
 silenced, and fearful destruction wrought in 
 the town, the British fleet ceased firing. Next 
 day Lord Exmouth sent off a despatch, offer- 
 ing the Dey peace on the conditions of the 
 ultimatum. The chief of these related to the 
 abolition of the slave-trade for the future, and 
 the immediate restitution of all Christian 
 slaves without ransom. The conditions were 
 immediately agreed to. 
 
 Annual Register, 1816 j S. WaJpole, Hist, of 
 Eng, from 1816. 
 
 Alien Priories. [Monasticism.J 
 Alienation of Land. [Lakd, Tenuke 
 
 OF.] 
 
 Aliens. By our Common Law, nation- 
 ality depends on the place of birth. Every 
 one born in a land not subject to the sove- 
 reign of this country was an alien. Jews 
 also, though bom in this kingdom, were 
 regarded in the same light. [Jews.] This 
 Hist.— 2 
 
 doctrine has been modified by statute. By 
 26 Ed. III., St. 2, all, whose father and 
 mother at the time of their birth were in 
 allegiance [Allegiance], were so far to be 
 held natural-born subjects as to be, capable 
 of inheritance. And it was held that the 
 nationahty of the mother mattered not, if 
 her husband was a British subject. Aliens 
 could become subjects by denization, which 
 conferred a kind of middle state between a 
 natural-born subject and an alien. This 
 position was sometimes obtained [temp. Hen. 
 VIII.) by Act of Parliament, but as a rule 
 by letters patent. Naturalisation was ob- 
 tained only through Parliament until the 
 reign of Queen Victoria. All children bom 
 in Scotland after the accession of James I. 
 to the throne of England [post-nati] were 
 held, by the decision in Calvin's case, to 
 be natural -bom subjects of England. 
 [Post-Nati.] In the, same reign it was 
 determined (7 Jas. I., t. 2) that no alien 
 should be .naturalised until he had taken 
 the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and 
 conformed to the sacramental test. From 
 a desire to strengthen the Protestant interest, 
 an Act was passed (7 Anne, c. 5), naturalising 
 all Protestant residents on their taking the 
 oaths, &c., and declaring the children of all 
 natural-bom British subjects to be natural- 
 born. This statute was repealed, as regards 
 its earlier provision, shortly afterwards. 
 Seven years' residence in the American 
 colonies was made (13 Geo. II., c. 7) to confer 
 naturalisation on a Protestant alien. During 
 the war consequent on the French Eevolution, 
 various statutes were passed, as 33 Geo. III., 
 c. i, placing aliens under supervision, and 
 giving the Secretary of State power to remove 
 them, if suspected, out of the kingdom. The 
 demand of the First Consul, in 1802, for the 
 expulsion of the French emigrants was one of 
 the causes which led to a renewal of the war. 
 The 7 and 8 Vict., c. 66, allowed naturahsa- 
 tion to be conferred by the certificate of a 
 Secretary of State. By the Naturalisation 
 Act (33 and 34 Vict., c. 14), a woman, who 
 has become an alien by a foreign marriage, 
 may, after her husband's death, be re-admitted 
 to nationality, in this case her duldren, 
 though bom of her ahen husband, will also 
 gain the position of British subjects. By 
 naturaUsation in a foreign state, British sub- 
 jects are allowed to become aliens. This Act 
 also provides for the grant of certificates of 
 naturalisation to aliens who have resided 
 within the kingdom, or served the crown, 
 for five years, and for .the grant of a 
 limited nationality by the legislature of 
 British colonies within their own borders. 
 Aliens have been regarded with jealousy 
 both for political and commercial reasons. 
 During the fourteenth century they were 
 often made the subjects of special taxation. 
 By the Great Charter, art. 41, alien merchants 
 were allowed to trade freely. The privileges 
 
All 
 
 ( 34 ) 
 
 Al^ 
 
 of the mercantile statutes of Edward I. were 
 extended to them. The king favoured them 
 because they granted him customs. Parlia- 
 ment, however, interfered with these grants 
 in 1303, and at other times. [Ccstoms.] 
 English merchants were jealous of these 
 foreign competitors. In 18 Edward I. the 
 citizens of London petitioned that they might 
 he banished. This was refused; Vexatious 
 restrictions were laid upon alien merchants 
 in the reign of Richard III., and were in- 
 creased by 32 Hen. YIII., c. 16. Aliens are 
 subject to, and under the protection of, the 
 criminal law. By express provision, they 
 also are subject to, and have the advantages 
 of, the Bankruptcy Acts. Aliens by the 
 Common Law lay under great disabilities. 
 An alien could not take nor transmit land by 
 descent. He could not hold land either for 
 his own benefit or in trust. Until 8 Hen. V., 
 c. 16, the alien wife of an English subject 
 could not demand her dower. Aliens might, 
 however, hold benefices, for the Church was 
 Catholic. An alien could not have an action 
 for land in his own name, but he might have 
 an action for personal property. His witness 
 was received, but he could not serve on a 
 jury, except on one partly composed of 
 aliens for the trial of aliens {de medietate 
 linguce). These disabilities have to a great 
 extent been removed by statute. By 33 
 and 34 Vict., c. 14, an alien may acquire by 
 inheritance or purchase. He may hold any 
 kind of property in this kingdom, except a 
 share in a British ship ; and title to laud may 
 be derived from or through an alien. This 
 Act, however, does not confer any right to 
 hold property in land outside the IJnited 
 Kingdom, and provides that no property 
 shall confer on an alien a qualification for 
 franchise or public office. 
 
 Foote, FHvate IntemaUonal Jv/i-isprudenee ; 
 Hansard, On Aliens; Bacon's Ain-idgment. 
 
 [W. H.] 
 
 Alignrh, Capture of (Aug. 29, 1803), 
 occurred in General Lake's campaign against 
 the Mahrattas. Aligurh, the great military 
 arsenal of the French army of Dowlut Rao 
 Scindiah, in Hindostan, was very strongly 
 fortified, and further protected by a ditch, 
 100 feet wide, and 30 feet deep, containing 
 10 feet of water. General Lake, however, 
 was determined to take it, and it was cap- 
 tured by the irresistible gallantry of the 
 76th Highlanders, commanded by Major 
 Macleod, who blew open the gate, and forced 
 their way in through the most intricate and 
 loop-holed passages, raked by a destructive 
 fire of grape, wall-pieces, and matchlocks. 
 The number of guns captured was 281. The 
 Duke of Wellington called it " one of the 
 most extraordinary feats he had ever heard 
 of." 
 
 Ali Morad was one of the Ameers of 
 Upper Scinde in 1842. The intrig-ues of Ali 
 
 Morad to obtain the office of rais, or lord 
 paramount of Upper Scinde, then held by 
 Meer Roostum, were the main causes which 
 hastened on Sir Charles Napier's proceed- 
 ings in Upper Scinde, in the year 1842. 
 He succeeded in obtaining at last the office 
 of rais, and lands to the value of six lacs 
 of rupees a year. The insurrection, how- 
 ever, which broke out in 1843, destroyed 
 all his hopes and past success. The annex- 
 ation of Scinde was accompanied by the 
 banishment and pensioning of the Ameers. 
 [Scinde.] 
 
 AliwaU, Battle of (Jan. 28, 1846), was 
 fought during the first Sikh war. After his 
 victory at Loodiana , Runj oor Singh fell back to 
 AliwaU, on the Sutlej. General Smith, rein- 
 forced by 11,000 men, lost no time in attack- 
 ing him. The village was feebly defended by 
 some hiU-men, who took to flight with Bun j oor 
 Singh at their head, after firing a few rounds. 
 But the EngUah met with a stern resistance 
 from the Khalsa soldiers on the right, men 
 of true Sikh blood and temper, who stood 
 their ground with unflinching courage ; and 
 it was not till their ranks had thrice been 
 pierced by Cureton's cavalry, that they 
 became disorganised, and retreated to the 
 river, in which a great number were 
 drowned, leaving 67 guns as trophies to. the 
 victors. 
 
 Ciumingham, SiJcTis, 312. 
 
 AUziu the Scot {d. 834), of Pictish 
 
 descent on his mother's side, in 832 was 
 King of the Southern Picts. In 834 he was 
 victorious at the Carse of Gowrie over the 
 Picts, who disowned his authority ; but on 
 July 20 of the same year was defeated and 
 slain by them at Pitalpin, near Dundee. 
 
 Chron. Picts and Scots; Skene, Celtic Scotla/nd. 
 
 Alkmaar, Capture of (Oct. 2, 1799), was 
 efEected during the expedition of the Duke of 
 York to Holland. On September. 19 an un- 
 successful attack had been made by the allied 
 troops. Soon afterwards the Duke of York 
 was strongly reinforced, and on October 2, 
 with 30,000 men, he was ready to attack the 
 equal forces of the French, under the com- 
 mand of Brune, whose position was centred at 
 Alkmaar. The attack was begun at six a.m., 
 by an impetuous charge of the Russians, 
 which carried the villages of Schorl and 
 Schorldam, and drove the French back to 
 Bergen. The Russians then halted, await- 
 ing the arrival of Sir E. Abercromby on 
 the right. With 9,000 men he bad, since 
 early morning, been steadily pushing his 
 way along the sand-dyke on the seashore'. 
 Continually driving the French back, he 
 was at length able to attack their left 
 flank. The Russians, reassured by Aber- 
 cromby's arrival, simultaneously attxcked in 
 front. The whole of the French left was 
 thus turned, and, falling back in confusion 
 
All 
 
 (35) 
 
 AU 
 
 on the centre, eomi)elled Brune to abandon 
 Alkmaar, whicli was at once occupied by the 
 allies. 
 
 Alison, EUt. o/Eurojie; Awniial Register, 1799. 
 
 All the Talents, Ministry of (1806), 
 Was the name given to the administration 
 which was called into existence on the 
 death of William Pitt. An attempt was 
 made to include in the new government re- 
 presentatives of all the three parties — ^the 
 Tories, the Moderate Whigs, and the Extreme 
 Whigs, whose sympathies had all along been 
 with France. Lord GrenviUe became Prime 
 Minister; Fox, Foreign Secretary; Erskine, 
 Lord Chancellor ; Lord FitzwiUiam, President 
 of the Council ; Lord Sldmouth, Lord Privy 
 Seal ; Windham, Minister of War ; and Lord 
 Spencer, Home Secretary. Lord Ellen- 
 borough, the Lord Chief Justice, was ad- 
 mitted into the Cabinet — a most dangerous 
 innovation to be made by a Liberal govern- 
 ment. In spite of this imposing array of 
 talent, the Cabinet was composed of elements 
 much too discordant to admit of any per- 
 manent harmony; and Fox's early death 
 removed the commanding mind which alone 
 could possibly have held together men of 
 such different views. One great measure 
 was passed, which will always be associated 
 with this ministry — viz., the abolition of 
 the slave-trade. Little else of permanent 
 interest was effected. Foreign politics were 
 of too vital an importance to admit of any 
 progress in domestic reform ; and Fox him- 
 self devoted all his ability to negotiating a 
 peace with France, and too late learned to 
 gauge the restless ambition of Napoleon, 
 with the result of being convinced that his 
 long-cherished hope of peace was in vain. On 
 March 25th, 1807, the ministry, which had 
 been greatly weakened by the disaffection of 
 some of its members, resigned office, on being 
 required by the Idng not only to drop the 
 Catholic Eehef BiU they had brought in, but 
 also to pledge themselves never to introduce 
 any such measure in the future. They were 
 succeeded by the administration in which 
 the Duke of Portland was Prime Minister. 
 [Fox, C. J. ; Gkenville, Lord.] 
 
 Russell, Life of Fox ; Lord Holland, Mem. of 
 the Liberal Party ; Cooke, ilist. o/ Party ; Pellew, 
 Life of Sidmouth ; AHsod, Hist, of Europe. 
 
 [W. R. S.] 
 
 Allahabad, . the capital of the North- 
 West Provinces of India, was one of the strong 
 , towns of the old Mogul djTiasty. At the 
 break-up of the Mogul empire it feU under 
 the yoke of the Vizier of Oude, by whom it 
 was ceded to the Company in 1765, and handed 
 over to the dethroned Mogul Emperor, Shah 
 AUum. In 1771 it was, however, handed to 
 the Nawab of Oudh, by whom it was ceded 
 back to the English in 1801. The town con- 
 tains the remains of a magnificent palace of 
 the Emperor Akbar. | 
 
 Allectus {d. 296) was one of the 
 officers of Carausius, whom he murdered in 
 293. Allectus then usurped the power in 
 Britain, and governed the province in a very 
 tyrannical manner till 296, when Constantius 
 Chlorus invaded the country, and completely 
 defeated the usurper, who was slain jn the 
 battle. 
 
 Eutropius, is. 12 J Orosius, liii. 25 ; T. Wright, 
 The Celt, the Boman, amd the Saxon. 
 
 Allegiance (Lat. alHt>o, through Low 
 Lat. tigancia, and Norm.-French, ligeance), 
 means the tie which binds each man of a 
 nation to its head in return for the protec- 
 tion allowed him. The idea of allegiance 
 existed in England at an early date. The 
 duties of the king towards the subject were 
 expressed in the jiromise of Ethelred to govern 
 righteously ; those of the subject towards the 
 king in the treason-law of Alfred, and in the 
 laws of his son Edmund (about 943) we have 
 the first recorded oath of allegiance. " AU 
 shall swear, in the name of the Lord, fealty 
 to King Edmund as a man ought lo be faith- 
 ful to his lord, without any controversy or 
 quarrel in open or in secret, in loving what 
 he shall love, and not willing what he shall 
 not will." It was to counteract the disrup- 
 tive tendencies of feudalism, and to assert the 
 royal power, that William I., at the Council 
 of Salisbury, a.d. 1086, caused "all his witan 
 and aU the land-owners of substance, whose 
 vassals soever they were," to swear an oath 
 of allegiance to him, which in form was a 
 modification of that of Edmund ; and there is 
 a clause directing every free man to take the 
 oath in the so-called Laws of William. 
 Nevertheless, from that date, inasmuch as 
 ownership of land was the sig-n of the rela- 
 tions between ruler and subject, and all land 
 was held of the king, the idea of allegiance 
 became, as far as he was concerned, identified 
 with those of fealty and homage, though the 
 two last concerned in reality owners of land 
 in the connection of vassal and lord, and had 
 no necessary connection with kingship. This 
 change is to be found in the oath of allegiance 
 to Edward I., which was imposed on all over 
 the age of fourteen. With the growth of the 
 idea of loyalty and legitimacy under the 
 Lancastrian and Yorkist kings, the theory 
 became prominent among legal writers. 
 Meanwhile another idea had been growing 
 up — that of the oath of office ; it was asserted 
 in the reign of Henry III. by the Provisions 
 of Oxford, and probably existed even earlier 
 in the ease of sheriffs and the king's coun- 
 cillors, and in the reign of Edward II. the 
 Despencers were banished by Parliament for 
 misapplication of allegiance. It was not, 
 however, imposed by statute on all persons 
 holding office until the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, the promise then being "to be true 
 and faithful to the king and his heirs, and 
 truth and faith to bear of life and limb and 
 terrene honour, and not to know or hear of 
 
AU 
 
 (36 ) 
 
 AU 
 
 any ill or damage intended him without 
 defending him therefrom." This oath might 
 he exacted when necessary from all persons 
 over the age of twelve. James I. also im- 
 posed a special oath on Eoman Cattiolics, in 
 which he hound them to disclose conspiracies 
 against him, in spite of any excommunication 
 hy the Pope, thus attacking his supposed 
 deposing power. The oath of allegiance was 
 imposed afresh after the Revolution hy the 
 Declaration of Right ; hut as the form en- 
 joined hy it differed from the form imposed 
 hy statute, it was determined, in 1689, to pass 
 an Act abolishing the old oaths, and deter- 
 mining by whom the new oaths should be 
 taken. The form agreed upon was much the 
 same as that at present in use, but a violent 
 controversy arose as to the class of men who 
 should be required to take it. It was 
 unanimously agreed that it should for the 
 future be applied to all who were admitted to 
 civil, military, or academical offices ; but it 
 was felt that to make it retrospective would 
 be to make large bodies of the clergy, who 
 believed in the doctrine of the divine right of 
 kings, resign their livings. On this point 
 the House of Lords and "William III. were 
 disposed to be merciful, and exempt the 
 clergy from the oath ; but the Commons re- 
 fused to give way, and finally it was decided 
 that all those who refused to take the oath by 
 February, 1690, should be deprived of oiEce. 
 The forms of the oaths of abjuration and 
 supremacy were also settled at the same date. 
 A single oath was, however, substituted for 
 the three in 1858, and in the same year this 
 was adapted to the use of Catholics and Jews. 
 By the Promissory Oaths Act, 1868, the form 
 of oath, that at present in use, was fixed as 
 follows : — " I, A. B., do swear that I will be 
 faithful and bear true allegiance to her 
 Majesty Queen Victoria, her heirs and suc- 
 cessors, according to the law. So help me, 
 God ! " It is imposed on all officers of state, 
 holders of appointments in the Supreme 
 Court of Judicature, and justices of the 
 peace, though in some cases a simple affirma- 
 tion is allowed ; but members of Parliament, 
 on whom the obligation to take the oath 
 of allegiance was imposed in 1679, and again 
 in 1714, now use a special form of oath 
 provided by the Parliamentary Oaths Act of 
 1866. 
 
 Sfcubba, Const. Hi>it., vol. i., chaps, vii. and is., 
 vol. iii., chap.xxi. ; Littleton, Tenures; tStephpn, 
 Commentaries on the Laws of Bnglar.d, vol. ii. ; 
 Statutes, 1 Will, and Mary, c. 8 ; 31 and 32 
 Vict., 0.72. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Alleluia Victory, The (429 ?), is the 
 name given to a victory of the Britons over 
 the Picts and Saxons. The story, as told by 
 Bede (who copies from Constantius, Sanct. 
 Germani Vitn), is that the Britons, being 
 attacked by the combined forces of the Picts 
 and Saxons, sought the aid of S. Germanus. 
 The saint accordingly, after the celebration 
 
 of Easter, placed himself at the head of the 
 Britons, and drew up his troops in a valley 
 encompassed by hiUs, in the way by which 
 the enemy was expected. As soon as the foes 
 appeared, Germanus, bearing in his hands the 
 standard, instructed his men to repeat his 
 words in a loud voice, and as the enemy ad- 
 vanced securely, thinking to take them by 
 surprise, the men cried three times aloud, 
 " Alleluia ! " The enemy, struck with terror, 
 fled in disorder. Thus the Britons gained a 
 bloodless victory. The scene of this battle is 
 laid at Maes Garmon (the Field of Germanus), 
 about a mile from Mold, in Flintshire. 
 Bede, Hisioria Ecclesmstica, i., chap. sx. 
 
 Allen, Ethan (d. 1789), was a celebrated 
 partisan leader in the American Independence 
 War. He established the little state of 
 Vermont, whose individuality he successfully 
 vindicated, and formed a corps of irregulars, 
 " The Green Mountain Boys," which greatly 
 distinguished itself. Allen took a chief share 
 in the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point in 1775, but in the expedition to 
 Canada he was captured by the British. 
 He was subsequently exchanged, and re- 
 ceived several marks of distinction from 
 Congress. 
 
 Allen, John (J. 1476, d. 1534), had been 
 Archbishop Warham's agent at Rome, and 
 was afterwards employed by Wolsey in 
 visiting the smaller monasteries, with a view 
 to their suppression. In 1528 he was made 
 Archbishop of Dublin and Chancellor of 
 Ireland. In these capacities he headed the 
 opposition to the Earl of Kildare. In 1534 
 he was seized by Kildare's orders, and 
 brutally murdered. 
 
 Allen (or Allan), Cardinal William 
 (5. 1532, d. 1594), was at one time Principal of 
 St. Mary Hall, Oxford, and Canon of York 
 during the reign of Mary. In 1568 he estab- 
 lished a seminary at Douay, in order to train 
 priests for England. Subsequently he founded 
 a college at Rheims, and another at Rome. 
 Becoming closely connected with the Jesuits, 
 he entered into various schemes for the sub- 
 version of Elizabeth's throne, and advocated 
 a Spanish invasion of England. In 1580, by 
 his aid, a number of Jesuits were .dispatched 
 to England to prepare the people for rebel- 
 lion ; and, until the destruction of the Spanish 
 Armada, Allen continued to inveigh against 
 Elizabeth in the most virulent terms. In 
 1587 he was made a cardinal by the Pope, in 
 acknowledgment of his services to the Roman 
 Catholic cause, and received a rich abbey 
 from the King of Spain. In 1588 he pub- 
 lished at Antwerp his violent and scurrilous 
 pamphlet against Queen Elizabeth, entitled 
 An Admonition to the People of England (q.v.). 
 . Allen was created Archbishop of Malines in 
 1591, but the remainder of his life was passed 
 at Rome. Besides the Admonition, his chief 
 
AU 
 
 (37) 
 
 Aim 
 
 works are A Defence of the Doctrine of 
 Catholicks, 1567 ; Of the Worship due to Saints 
 and their Eelicka, 1583 ; De Sacramentis, 
 1576. 
 
 Fitzlierbert, Epitome Yiia CavdAnaXis Alatii, 
 Bume, 1608 ; Wood, Athenas Oajon., vol. i. ; Strype, 
 Annales ; Camden, Annales Eer. Ang. ; Liugard, 
 Hwt. of Eng, ; Sharon Turner, fltst. of Eng. 
 
 Alliance, the Gtrand, the Holy, &c. 
 [Grand Alliance ; Holy Alliance, &c.] 
 
 Alma. Battle of the (Sept. 20, 1854), 
 fought during the Crimean War. After 
 their landing at Eupatoria, the allies marched 
 southwards along the coast, meeting with no 
 resistance. The allied army consisted of 
 27,000 English, 22,000 French, and 5,000 
 Turks. Prince Mentschikofi, the Russian 
 general, had determined not to allow them 
 to inarch without opposition on Sebas- 
 topol. He entrenched himseH strongly 
 on the heigjhts which overlook the river 
 Alma, about sixteen miles to the north 
 of Sebastopol, with the river between him 
 and the foe. The allies came up under a 
 heavy fire, forced their way through the 
 river, and struggled bravely up to the Rus- 
 sian entrenchments, which, after a slight 
 momentary waver along the whole line, they 
 carried at the point of the bayonet. The 
 Russians retreated slowly, with their usual 
 dogged persistency, in spite of their heavy 
 losses. The allies were too much fatigued 
 and too weak in cavalry to be able to follow 
 up the advantage they had gained. The 
 victory was in great part due to the deter- 
 mined advance of the British up the height 
 in the face of a terrible fire. 
 
 Slnglake, Itivasifyn of the Crimea. 
 
 Almanza, Battle of (April 25, 1707), 
 was one of the battles of the Succession War 
 in Spain. Peterborough, who had been most 
 successful, was superseded by Lord Galway, an 
 experienced veteran, " who thought it much 
 more honourable to fail according to rule than 
 to succeed by innovation." On the plain of 
 Almanza he encountered the French, under 
 the Duke of Berwick. As Berwick was 
 stronger than the allies in cavalry, it was 
 rash in Galway to act on the offensive ; 
 but he wished to drive the French from 
 Valencia. Berwick had drawn up his troops 
 with his infantry and artillery in the centre, 
 and his cavalry on the flanks. The English 
 commander committed the grave mistake of 
 drawing up his infantry in line close in the 
 rear of his cavalry. Galway's attack on the 
 French right was at first successful, and the 
 French centre was for a moment driven back. 
 On the right of the alUes the Portuguese 
 cavalry, under the Marquis de los Minas, 
 as usual turned and fled ; their infantry were 
 cut to pieces. The English centre was 
 assailed at once on the flank and in front, 
 and thus completely routed, they were com- 
 pelled to surrender. The victory was decisive 
 
 and important. Valencia and Arragon were 
 at once reconquered by the French. " The 
 battle of Almanza," says Macaulay, " decided 
 the fate of Spain." 
 
 Burton, Reign of Q. Anne; Wyon, Eeign of 
 Q. Anne; Stanhope, War of the Succeesion in 
 Spam; and M!acaulay's Essay on the same 
 suhject. 
 
 . Almenara, Battle or (July 10, 1710), 
 resulted in a victory for the allied armies in 
 Spain. Through the month of June the two 
 armies were engaged in marches and man- 
 oeuvres. At length General Stanhope over- 
 ruled the scruples of his colleague, the Im- 
 perial general, Staremberg, and advanced 
 across the Segre. He also secured the pas- 
 sage of the Noguera, the Spanish general 
 being too late to intercept him. The two 
 armies were face to face near the village of 
 Almenara. Staremberg was still averse to an 
 engagement ; but the spirits of the English 
 regiments had been roused by the sight of the 
 enemy, and they murmured loudly at their 
 forced inactivity. At length, two hours 
 before nightfall. Stanhope obtained per- 
 mission from the Archduke Charles to 
 attack some Spanish regiments who had 
 advanced in a spirit of bravado. He 
 charged at the head of the cavalry. "The 
 allied squadrons on the right had easy work 
 in routing the left wing of the enemy ; but 
 opposed to the English and Dutch was the 
 splendid body-guard of Philip, regiments of 
 picked soldiers, not inferior in courage or 
 discipline to the renowned household troops 
 of the French king." A furious struggle 
 ensued, Stanhope himself slaying the com- 
 mander of the Spanish cavalry. The king's 
 troops at length gave way, and had a few 
 hours of daylight remained it is probable that 
 the whole army would have been destroyed. 
 Philip hastily retired on Lerida, and fell back 
 iirst to the line of the Cintra, and then to the 
 line of the Ebro. 
 
 For authorities see last article. 
 
 Almoign, Fkank. [Frank Almoign.] 
 
 Almon, John (A. 1738, d. 1805), after an 
 adventurous career in early life, became ac- 
 quainted with Churchill and Wilkes, and 
 published a defence of Wilkes's " Essay on 
 Woman." In 1763 he set up as bookseUer 
 and publisher. He published " The Found- 
 ling Hospital for Wit," a collection of party 
 squibs, and "The Parliamentary Register," 
 an account of the debates in Parliament. In 
 1765 he was tried in the Court of King's 
 Bench for publishing a pamphlet, " On Juries, 
 Libels, &c. ; " and in 1770 he was again tried 
 for publishing Junius' s Letter to the King, 
 and was fined ten marks. He amassed a- 
 large fortune in his trade, much of which he 
 lost by an unfortunate newspaper enterprise. 
 To add to his misfortunes, he was again 
 prosecuted for libel, and afterwards was pro- 
 claimed an outlaw. The rigour of the law, 
 
Aim 
 
 ( 38) 
 
 Air 
 
 however, was soon relaxed, and he retired 
 once more to his villa at Boxmoor, from 
 which, in 1792, he sent forth a work called 
 " Anecdotes of the Life of the Earl of Chat- 
 ham." In 1805, he fihlished "The Life 
 and Letters of Mr. Wilkes." He died on 
 the same day as Woodfall, the publisher of 
 Junius. 
 
 Chalmers, Biog, Diet. ; Gentleman's Jfag., 
 vol. Ixxv. 
 
 Almorall, Capture of (April 26, 1815), 
 took place in the Goorkha War. Colonel 
 Gardner, with a hody of irregular troops, 
 occuied the Chilkeeah pass, and proceeded to 
 Almorah, the capital of the province of Ku- 
 maon, along the Cosillas river. The Goorkhas 
 withdrew as he advanced. Being reinforced 
 by 2,000 regulars, under Colonel NicoUa, on 
 April 25 the heights and town of Almorah 
 were attacked with rapid success. Two of 
 the enemy's breastworks on the Sittolee ridge 
 were carried by the regular infantry, and the 
 irregular troops attacked and carried the 
 remaining three. During the night an un- 
 successful attempt was made to dispossess the 
 victors of their advantage. In the morning 
 the fort was vigorously attacked, and by nine 
 in the evening the Goorkha commander 
 agreed to terms, by which the province and 
 fortresses of Kumaon were surrendered to 
 the English. [Goorkha War.] 
 
 Aluwich, in 1093, withstood a severe siege 
 from Malcolm Canmore, of Scotland, who was 
 slain before its walls. In 1135 it was taken 
 by David, of Scotland. In 1174 it was be- 
 sieged by William the Lion, who was taken 
 prisoner in a battle fought under the walls. 
 In 1215 Alnwick was destroyed by John. In 
 1310 it passed into the hands of thePercies. 
 In Northumberland's rebellion in 1403, the 
 castle was temporarily seized by the king ; 
 and about the middle of the fifteenth century 
 it was burnt by the Scots. During the re- 
 bellion of the Northern lords, in 1569, it was 
 fortified by the Earl of Northumberland for 
 the insurgents. Alnwick Abbey was a priory 
 of Premonstratensian canons, founded by 
 Eustace Pitz-John, and richly endowed by the 
 De Vescies and the Percies. 
 
 ])Iackenzie, JfortJiumberland, i. 448. 
 
 Alodial Iiaud is land which is the abso- 
 lute property of its occupier, and is not held by 
 rent, service, or other obligation from a supe- 
 rior. The "alod," which name occurs in Anglo- 
 Saxon documents of the eleventh century, 
 and in its Latinised form, is found in the Salian 
 and other Continental codes and documents, 
 was land held in full ownership, whether 
 derived by inheritance, or created from the 
 public land by grant or charter. In the 
 latter case, as deriving its title from some 
 book or document, it was called Bocland (q.v.). 
 In England, as in other countries which came 
 under the effects of feudaHsm, the smaller 
 
 alodial proprietors found themselves practi- 
 cally obliged, for the sake of security and 
 protection, to commend themselves to some 
 neighbouring lord, surrendering their lands 
 to him, and receiving them back again on 
 some feudal tenure. Thus the alodial land 
 tended to disappear, and in England the pro- 
 cess received a great impetus by the Norman 
 Conquest, and the theoretical transfer of all 
 land to the crown, which followed. Accord- 
 ing to the theory of English law, there is 
 therefore no alodial land in Great Britain 
 and Ireland, all land being occupied by tenure, 
 and held either directly or indirectly from 
 the qrown. 
 
 The derivation of aloi has heen much dis- 
 cussed. Grimm, Deutsch. Worterhuch, associates 
 it with the root od, wealth, found in A.S. 
 ead, and Lat. ops ; others take it as connected 
 with lot, and as meaning primarily that which is 
 obtained by lot, or division of the original tribal 
 land. It is not improbable that there is a 
 connection between allod and odal, or edhel, 
 the word signifying inheritance, and specially 
 the inherited homestead, with "the share of 
 arable and appurtenant common rights " (Prof. 
 Stnbbs), and which also came to mean nobility 
 of blood and race. (See Skeat, Etj/^nohgical 
 Dictionary.) 
 
 Stephen's Commentaries^ bk. ii., pt. i,, ch. i. ; 
 Coke xipom lAttleUm, f3a j Stubbs, Const. Hist., 
 i. 60, &c. ; Hallam, Mid, Ages, ch. ii., pt. i., 
 &c. ; and for the whole subject see the art. 
 Land Tenuee. 
 
 Al^hege (Aelfheah), St. {b. 954, d. lOn), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury (1006 — 1012), was 
 of noble birth, and early in life became a 
 monk. He is said to have been Abbot of 
 Glastonbury, and was certainly advanced to 
 the bishopric of Winchester in 984. In 1006 
 he was made Archbishop of Canterbury. On 
 the capture of Canterbury by the Danes in 
 1012, Alphege was taken prisoner, in the ex- 
 pectation that he would ransom himself with 
 some of the treasure of his see. On his re- 
 fusal to pay them anything, the Danes dragged 
 the archbishop to their busting, or place of 
 assembly, where they pelted him with stones, 
 logs of wood, and the bones and skulls of 
 oxen, till one Thrum, whom Alphege had 
 converted, clave his head with a battle-axe. 
 He was considered a martyr by the Eng- 
 lish, and Anselm contended that he had a 
 right to the title ; because he died refusing to 
 plunder his people in order to ransom himself. 
 Ihe Enghsh Church celebrates St. Alphese 
 on April 19. ^ ^ 
 
 ^Hook, Lives of the Ai-cWiiihops ; ^nglo-SaiOTl 
 
 Aired (Eai.hred), King of Northumbria, 
 succeeded to the throne in the year 765, on the 
 resignation of Ethelwald. After a troublous 
 reign of nine years, he was compelled to re- 
 nounce the throne, and seek refuge with the 
 Picts. 
 
 Alresford, Eight at (March 29, 1644), 
 was between the Koyalists, under the Earl of 
 Brentford and Sir Ealph Hopton, and the 
 Parliamentary forces under Sir William 
 
Alu 
 
 (39) 
 
 Amb 
 
 Waller. The latter were victorious, though 
 the severe losses they sustained prevented 
 Waller from taking advantage of his victory. 
 
 Alnred, John (J. 1607, d. 1653 ?), served as 
 colonel of a regiment under Fairfax. He was 
 member for Heydon in the Long Parliament, 
 acted as one of the king's judges, and signed 
 the death-warrant. lEs brother, Matthew 
 Alured, also served in the Parliamentary 
 army. 
 
 Alyth. A small town on the slopes of 
 the Grampians, fifteen miles north-west of 
 Dundee, where the last remnant of the Soots 
 Estates, some forty in number, who called 
 themselves "The Committee of Estates," 
 assembled in September, 1651, after the 
 storming of Dundee by Monk. They were 
 surprised and captured by a party of cavalry 
 sent by Monk, and were conveyed to London. 
 With them the existence of the Soots Estates 
 came to an end for the time. 
 
 Amatola nConntaiii, Battle of the 
 
 (1846), was fought between the British and 
 Cape forces, under Colonels Campbell and 
 Somerset, and the KafSrs, under SandiUi. 
 The latter were completely routed, although 
 shortly afterwards they managed to capture 
 the English baggage- wagons. 
 
 Amliassadors. Different ranks and 
 titles exist among the diplomatic representa- 
 tives of states. Ambassadors hold the first 
 place. Next below them are Envoys and 
 Ministers Plenipotentiary. In the third rank 
 are Residents and Charges d'Aliaires. The 
 distinction between these classes is one of 
 dignity, and depends on the nature of their 
 commission, or the fulness of the representa- 
 tive character with which the agent is in- 
 vested by his court. This representative 
 character exists in perfection in the office of 
 an ambassador. There is, however, no dis- 
 tinction between these agents as to their 
 rights and privileges. From the time when 
 England, by the conversion of its people, 
 became part of European Christendom, its 
 sovereigns have from time to time sent em- 
 bassies to other lands, and received the repre- 
 sentatives of their rulers. While, however, 
 the mediseval system continued, and Christen- 
 dom was regarded as one body politic under 
 the Emperor and the Pope, the mission of 
 ambassadors was occasional, and unregulated 
 by law. As the mediseval polity gave place 
 to a system of independent states, the matter 
 of ambassadors received the attention of 
 jurists. Ambassadors were at first sent 
 only on special occasions. Long residence 
 was regarded with jealousy by the state 
 which received the embassy, e.g., Coke 
 praises Henry VII. because he was too 
 prudent to allow ambassadors to reside within 
 his realm. This feeling died out in the seven- 
 teenth century. After the Peace of West- 
 phalia, 1648, resident ambassadors were 
 
 generally employed by most of the nations 
 of the civilised world. Ambassadors may 
 therefore be classed as either ordinary, 
 resident, or extraordinary. Every sovereign 
 state has a right to send and receive 
 ambassadors, unless it has renounced that 
 right. Mazarin, in 1659, received the am- 
 bassadors of Oliver Cromwell at the Congress 
 of the Pyrenees, and rejected those sent 
 by Charles II. A prince who has lost his 
 sovereignty cannot claim to be represented 
 by an ambassador ; and so far at least 
 the civilians of Elizabeth were right when, 
 in 1567, they refused to recognise the Bishop 
 of Ross, the agent of the Queen of Scots, as 
 an ambassador. The right of rebels to em- 
 bassy must be decided by circumstances. To 
 avoid difficulty, a foreign country in such 
 cases sometimes receives from an insurgent 
 state agents invested with the immunities, 
 but not with the representative character of 
 ambassadors. The right to do this was as- 
 serted by Lord Russell, in 1861, in the Trent 
 afiair. A state cannot reasonably refuse to 
 receive an embassy, though it may make 
 an objection to receive any particular am- 
 bassador. In 1625, Louis XIII., not with- 
 out reason, refused to receive the Duke of 
 Buckingham as ambassador of Charles I. 
 The right of inviolability attaches to all 
 ministers representing their sovereign or their 
 state, not only in the country to which a re- 
 presentative is sent, but in any other through 
 which he may have to pass. In 1587, Aubes- 
 pine, the French ambassador, was found to 
 have been privy to a plot against the life 
 of the queen. Burleigh, however, did not 
 bring him to trial because of his right as an 
 ambassador. The inviolability of an ambas- 
 sador extends to his suite. It is doubtful, 
 however, whether in this case it is equally 
 fuU in respect of gross crimes. For, in 1654, 
 Dom Pantaloon Sa, brother of the Portuguese 
 ambassador, was executed in London for 
 murder. He pleaded that he was accredited 
 as an ambassador, but could show no creden- 
 tials. Had he been able to prove that he 
 was a representative of his sovereign, he 
 might have escaped. Certain privileges of 
 ambassadors eire established by custom. An 
 ambassador is exempt from civil jurisdiction, 
 unless, indeed, he so far forget his character 
 as to engage in trade. In consequence of 
 this exemption having been violated in 1708, 
 in the case of an ambassador of the Czar, it 
 has been enforced by our municipal law, 
 7 Anne, u. 12. An ambassador is also exempt 
 from taxation, and enjoys other like immu- 
 nities. Akin to these was the privilege of 
 asylum attaching to his house, which is now 
 generally renounced. An ambassador re- 
 ceives instructions from his own ' government, 
 and carries with him credentials to the govern- 
 ment to which he is sent. He also carries 
 the full power, which is his authority for 
 negotiation. After he has delivered his letters 
 
Amt) 
 
 (40) 
 
 Ame 
 
 of credence to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, 
 he has a right to an audience of the sovereign 
 to whom he is accredited. The death of 
 either of the sovereigns between whom he 
 negotiates ends his embassy. He may, how- 
 ever, be re-accredited ; and if this is likely to 
 be the case, his embassy is held to be sus- 
 pended, and relations are continued in the 
 expectation of confirmation. 
 
 Grotius, He legationwm jure, ed. "Wheaton ; 
 Vattel, Hrmt d.&s Gens, bk. iv. ; Wheaton, In- 
 temational La/U); PMllimore, IntevTiational iaio, 
 vol. ii. [W. H.] 
 
 Amboyna, one of the Molucca Islands, 
 was captured by the Dutch, from the 
 Portuguese, in 1607. The English, after 
 having been expelled from Amboyna by the 
 Dutch, obtained in 1619 the right of trading 
 there. The treaty was badly kept on both 
 sides ; and in February, 1623, the Dutch tor- 
 tured to death several of the English factors, 
 under pretence that they had intrigued with 
 the natives. In 1654, after the war with 
 Holland, the Dutch agreed to pay a sum of 
 £300,000 to the descendants of the victims, as 
 compensation for the massacre. Amboyna 
 has since this been twice captured by the 
 English — in 1796, and again in 1810 — ^but on 
 both occasions subsequent treaties of peace 
 restored it to HoUand. 
 
 A-mbrositis Aurelianus (d. circ. 450) 
 is said to have been a prince of the Damnonii, 
 and appears to have been the chief leader 
 of the Britons against the English invaders 
 under Hengist. He was very probably a 
 rival of' Vortigern — Whom he is said to have 
 defeated in battle — and the representative 
 of the : Roman party in Britain. According 
 to Gildas, he was " a modest tnan, who, of all 
 the Koman nation, was then alone in the 
 confusion of this troublous time left aUve. 
 His parents, who for theii: merit were adorned 
 with the purple, had been slain in these same 
 broils." Geoffrey of Monmouth makes him 
 the brother of Uther Pendragon and father 
 of Arthur, and states that he built Stone- 
 henge. 
 
 Gildas, § 25 ; Bede, Hist. Ecdes., i. 16. See 
 
 also Nennlus, Geoffrey of ■ Monmoutli, and 
 
 Palgrave, Eng. CoinmonweaUh. 
 
 Ameer Khan, a EohiUa adventurer and 
 free-lance, joined JeswuntfEao Holkar in his 
 plunder of the territories of Scindiah and 
 the Peishwa. During the Holkar War (1804) 
 he waged a predatory warfare against the 
 English and their allies. The conclusion of 
 the second Treaty of Surje Anjengaom 
 drove Ameer Khan and Holkar westward to 
 Ajmere, where they led a predatory life, 
 until Holkar was compelled to yield by 
 Lord Lake. The Treaty of Rampoor G-haut 
 left Ameer Khan free to live at the 
 expense of the Rajpoot princes, whom he 
 plundered with great impartiality, and gra- 
 dually proceeded to create a principality for 
 
 himself. He became the recognised chief of 
 the Pathans in India. In 1809 he crossed the 
 Nerbudda with 40,000 horse and 24,000 Pin- 
 darries, entered the Nagpore state, and sacked 
 the town of Jubbulpore. The English, how- 
 ever, interfered, ordered him to quit the 
 country of their ally, and put an army in 
 motion to enforce it ; when Ameer Khan with- 
 drew to Indore. During the Pindarrie war 
 he brought 32 battalions of trained infantry 
 into the field ; but his army and his influence 
 were alike destroyed by the British victories 
 and the vigorous policy of Lord Hastings. 
 He, however, founded a dynasty at Tonk, in 
 Rajpootana, and his Mohammedan descendant 
 still exists as ■■<, protected prince, in conse- 
 quence of a treaty made in 1817, which con- 
 firmed his jaghire to him. 
 
 American Independence, Declaka- 
 
 TioN OF (July 4, 1776), was a manifesto issued 
 by the representatives of the thirteen United 
 Colonies assembled in Congress, and signed 
 by all of them but one. The original draft 
 was the work of Thomas Jefferson of the State 
 of Virginia, which had .in the preceding May 
 issued a Declaration of Rights, and the altera- 
 tions made were only matters of detail. It 
 began with an imaginary picture of "natural" 
 society, and an assertion of the original rights 
 of man. The inference it drew from the 
 hypotheses was that man has a right to upset 
 any form of government which violates these 
 "natural" conditions. The Declaration went 
 on to enumerate " the repeated injuries and 
 usurpations, all having in direct object the 
 establishment of an absolute tyranny over these 
 States." The last paragraph sums up the 
 position which the colonies claimed to hold 
 in the future : " We, therefore, the represen- 
 tatives of the United States of America, in 
 general Congress assembled, appealing to the 
 supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude 
 of our intentions, do, in the name and by the 
 authority of the good people of these colonies, 
 solemnly publish and declare that these united 
 colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and 
 independent States." Jefferson, in his indict- 
 ment of George III., had inserted a paragraph, 
 charging him with waging " cruel war against 
 human nature itseU" by encouraging the 
 slave-trade. This clause, however, was struck 
 out, on account of the disapproval expressed 
 by some of the Southern members ; and thus 
 Congress committed itself to the inconsistency 
 of asserting in one paragraph that aU men 
 are created equal, that they are endowed bv 
 their Creator with certain inalienable rights, 
 that among these are life, liberty, and the 
 pursuit of happiness; while in the rest of 
 the Declaration it tacitly recognised, since it 
 did not prohibit, the slave-trade. "The 
 Declaration," says Bancroft, "was not only 
 the announcement of the birth of a people, 
 but the establishment of a national govern- 
 ment. The war was no longer a civil war 
 
Ame 
 
 (41 ) 
 
 Ame 
 
 Britain was become to the United States a 
 foreign country. Every former subject of 
 the British king- in the thirteen colonies now 
 owed primary allegiance to the dynasty of 
 the people, and became a citizen of the new 
 Kepuhlio. Except in this, everything re- 
 mained as before." In the history of political 
 thought, the Declaration has an important 
 place. It embodied in a formal state-paper 
 some of those theories on the equality of man, 
 and the origin and character of human society, 
 which were thrown into a popular shape by 
 Eousseau. And the influence which this 
 enunciation of the freedom and equality of 
 aU men exerted on the European peoples was 
 immediate and profound, as well as lasting. 
 The Americans largely owed their political 
 theories to France ; but the Declaration of 
 Independence gave form and expression to 
 the theories, and was thus a distinct step in 
 the direction of that attempt to realise certain 
 d priori political theories which formed one 
 element in the French Revolution. 
 
 Bancroft, Hist, of the United States, ctap. Ixx. ; 
 Jared Sparks, Life of Washington; Stanhope, 
 Hist, of England, vi,, chap. liii. [g, J, L 1 
 
 American Indepeudeuce, War of 
 
 (1775—1783). For some time before the 
 spring of 1775 the relations between the colo- 
 nies and the mother-country were such that 
 they were in a state of virtual hostility. Ac- 
 tual warfare began in April, 1775, when the 
 first blood was shed at Lexington, near 
 Boston. Colonel Smith had been sent to 
 destroy a magazine at that place, but was 
 met by unexpected opposition. He suc- 
 ceeded only partially, and after a long and 
 desultory skirmish retreated with considerable 
 loss. In the north. Fort Ticonderoga, on 
 Lake Champlain, was surprised ; and its 
 garrison surrendered the fort and its copious 
 stores. On May 10, the Congress assembled 
 for its second session at Philadelphia, and 
 prepared for war by voting 15,000 men as the 
 "continental" army. "While itwas still sitting, 
 an English fleet appeared in Boston Eoads, 
 and its arrival was the signal for General 
 Gage to declare martial law. On June 17 
 was fought the battle of Bunker's Hill, which 
 had been occupied by the Americans, and was 
 carried on the third assault by the British 
 troops, with great loss of life. Washing- 
 ton arrived soon after the battle to take 
 command, and found the difficulty of the 
 situation increased by want of ammunition 
 and the insubordination of the men. The 
 English were masters of the sea, and hfld 
 Boston and Charleston, but were surrounded 
 by the blockading lines of Washington. 
 After the battle, Penn carried to England 
 the Olive Branch Petition, the last attempt 
 at reconciliation on the part of America. In 
 the meantime an expedition was sent to 
 Canada, which proved a total failure, and 
 'Sacrificed many valuable American lives. In 
 
 HIST.— 2* 
 
 Virginia, Lord Dunmore exasperated public 
 opinion by his many cruelties, and by ofilering 
 inducements to the slaves to join the British 
 side. Howe evacuated his position in March, 
 and while he sent Clinton to co-operate with 
 the fleet at Charleston, in Carolina, he himself 
 threatened New York from Sandy Hook. The 
 attack on Charleston was gallantly repulsed ; 
 and Clinton brought back his division to take 
 part in the operations against New York. On 
 July 4, the American Congress adopted the 
 Declaration of Independence. The attack on 
 New York was long delayed ; but on August 
 27, the British troops drove the defenders 
 from Long Island ; and it was only Howe's 
 dilatoriness that allowed Washington to with- 
 draw unmolested from New York. The 
 English withdrew into winter quarters, and 
 left Washington free to take advantage of 
 their inactivity by surprising the garrison of 
 Trenton, and soon afterwards acquiring nearly 
 all New Jersey by winning a decisive battle 
 at Princeton. Howe remained idle till June, 
 1777, when he organised a threefold expe- 
 dition, which was so far successful that after 
 defeating Washington at Brandywiue Creek, 
 in September, he advanced unopposed into 
 Philadelphia. "It is not General Howe that 
 has taken Philadelphia; it is Philadelphia 
 that has taken General Howe," said FrankHn ; 
 and so it proved. While Washington passed 
 the winter in his camp at VaUev Forge, 
 with resources gradually dwindling, his 
 forces weakened by privations, fevers, and 
 insubordination, and himself harassed by 
 the petty jealousies of the government and 
 his own officers, Philadelphia became "the 
 Capua of the British army." Meanwhile, 
 in New York State, Clinton captured Forts 
 Clinton and Montgomery, on the Hudson ; 
 but he did not advance fast enough to co- 
 operate with Burgoyne, who was advancing 
 from Canada. On August 16, a detached 
 division of his force had been destroyed 
 at Bennington, and Burgoyne himself, after 
 being defeated at Stillwater, on September 19, 
 was compelled to capitulate, with 3,500 men, 
 at Saratoga, on Oct. 16. The immediate result 
 of Saratoga was a treaty between France and 
 America, which was virtually a declaration 
 of war by France against England. In 
 June, Clinton, who had succeeded Sir Wil- 
 liam Howe as commander-in-chief, evacu- 
 ated Philadelphia and retreated on New 
 York. Washington opposed his march at 
 Monmouth, and finished a severe contest 
 master of the field, hut not strong enough to 
 oflfer any further resistance. In the north, 
 operations were at a standstill through 
 the embarrassed condition of both com- 
 manders, and the interest of the war centred 
 in the south. In December, Savannah was 
 taken by Colonel Campbell ; and in January, 
 1779, Lower Georgia was reduced by Colonel 
 Prevost. In February, South Carolina was 
 overrun, and Charleston was again threatened 
 
Ame 
 
 (42) 
 
 Ame 
 
 by the British, who spent the summer in alienat- 
 ing by their ravages, the few loyalists that 
 remained. In September a combined French 
 and American force failed to take Savannah. 
 In the meantime, Washington had tided over 
 his difficulties by maintaining a strictly de- 
 fensive attitude. A large armament sent by 
 Massachusetts to destroy a British outpost in 
 Penobscot Bay was signally defeated and 
 almost destroyed. In October, 1779, Rhode 
 Island was evacuated, and Clinton carried the 
 troops, thus set free, to the attack of Charles- 
 ton. It was not, however, till May, 1780, 
 that General Lincoln surrendered the town. 
 Clinton returned to New York, leaving .5,000 
 men with Lord Comwallis, who by the end 
 of June reported that all resistance was at an 
 end in Georgia and South Carolina. But 
 strenuous efforts were made to save the 
 South, and General Gates, with strong rein- 
 forcements, met Lords Cornwallis and Raw- 
 don at Camden, on August 16, and was sig- 
 nally defeated, with heavy loss. A small 
 detachment, under Sumpter, was also cut to 
 pieces by Colonel Tarleton's cavalry, and 
 the American army of the South seemed to 
 be annihilated. But the severity of Com- 
 wallis and Rawdon had alienated the popula- 
 tion, and the inhabitants rose on aU sides 
 to oppose the advance of the former into 
 North Carolina. During the winter "Wash- 
 ing'ton and Clinton maintained a passive 
 attitude, each watching the other, and neither 
 strong enough to take the offensive ; and 
 Washington's difficulties were increased by 
 the disaffection of the troops, who had re- 
 ceived no pay for ten months. On March 1 , 
 1781. a crisis was averted by the signing of 
 the Articles of Confederation, which united all 
 the States by a common bond of union. In 
 the South, Greene, who had succeeded Gates, 
 put a new aspect on the war. In January, 
 1781, he defeated Tarleton at the Cowpens; 
 but, notwithstanding, Comwallis assumed the 
 offensive, and advanced northwards. Greene 
 retreated 200 miles before Cornwallis, who 
 was gradually leaving his base of supplies 
 farther and farther in his rear. On March 
 13, Greene gave him battle at Guildford 
 Court Housp, and after a fierce struggle 
 was driven from his position, but Comwallis 
 was so weakened that he retreated to Wil- 
 minn-ton, though in April he again advanced 
 to Petersburg, in Virginia. Meanwhile, 
 Greene had organised a combined movement 
 against South Carolina and Georgia. He 
 himself was attacked and defeated by Lord 
 Rawdon, who, however, was compelled by the 
 simultaneoiis advance of Lee and Marion to 
 retire to Charleston, and the greater part of 
 South Carolina was again in American hands. 
 In September the battle of Eutaw Springs 
 ended in a victory for the English, which was 
 as disastrous as a defeat; and the British 
 forces in the South were henceforth pent up 
 in Wilmington, Charleston, and Savannah. 
 
 From Petersburg Cornwallis had pursued 
 Lafayette, who continued to elude him ; but 
 in the beginning of August, in obedience to 
 orders from Clinton, he withdrew with his 
 army to Yorktown, where he strongly fortified 
 himself. At the same time a large French 
 force joined Washington, and a southward 
 march was begun. On August 31, De Grasse 
 arrived with a French fleet in Chesapeake 
 Bay, and a few days later beat off the English 
 under Admiral Graves. On Sept. 28, the 
 whole army had completely invested York- 
 town ; and on Oct. 19, 1781, Comwallis sur- 
 rendered, with all his army and supplies. 
 In March, 1782, Rockingham again became 
 prime minister; and by Shelburne, one of the 
 new secretaries of state. Sir Guy Carleton was 
 at once sent out to supersede Clinton, and to 
 prosecute conciliatory measures. Franklin had 
 been carrying on negotiations at Paris ; but 
 the American commissioners persisted in vain 
 proposals, until it was discovered that France 
 was playing a double game. The intrigues of 
 the loyalists, together with the wretched con- 
 dition of the American army, brought matters 
 to a crisis, and on Nov. 30 preliminary articles 
 of peace were signed. On Dec. 5, the king 
 announced his tardy and reluctant consent to 
 the independence of the American colonies. 
 In April, 1783, Congress, beset by the nu- 
 merous discontents in the army, aiid threatened 
 by mutineers, issued a proclamation for the 
 cessation of hostilities. On Sept. 3 the 
 treaties were ratified, but various arrangements 
 remained to be carried out, and it was not till 
 Nov. 25, 1783, that the British troops evacu- 
 ated New York, The war had cost America 
 little under £50,000,000, but she had gained 
 independence at a price that was not too dear. 
 Its result to England was the loss of half a 
 continent and the addition of 115 millions to 
 the national debt. 
 
 Jared Sparks, Diplomatic Om-respondmoe of 
 the American Revolution, 12 vols., Boston, 1829 • 
 and Life and Writings of Washington, by the 
 Bame writer ; D. Eamsay, Rist. of the American 
 BsDoItificm, Philad., 1789; Jefferson's TTorfo ed 
 H. A. Washington, 1854 ; J. Q. Adams, Worla, 
 10 vols., 1856 ; A. Hamilton, Worhi, ed. J. C. 
 Hamilton, 1857—58 ; W. Gordon, Hist of the 
 American War, Lond., 1788 ; The Life ani Corr. 
 0/ Frestdmt Rees; Thn Chatham Correspondence. 
 Ihe best general account is to be found in 
 ig. Bancroft's exhaustive Sist. of the United 
 States, new ed. in 6 vol^., 1876. See also E. 
 Uildrtth, Hi.st. of the United States; B. Lossing, 
 iield Book of the American Revolution: Wash- 
 ington Irving, Ue of Washington ; and, tor the 
 ll^nsiish side, Stanhope's Hist, of Enq. Fot 
 ??°i*7„f 1°"™''^' ^0^ ^- H. Patton, Hist, of the 
 UnitedStates ; Leriky, Hi.st. of Bng.,yol. jv. ; and 
 J. M. Ludlow, The War of ^moncnTi Indevm- 
 dmce. |-^^ jj^ gl-j 
 
 American War (1812 — 1815), arose 
 out of the severe action of England towards 
 neutral vessels m the war against Bonaparte. 
 America, to retaliate, adoptedEngland's policy 
 and laid an embargo upon all trade with both 
 1< ranee and England. Some arrangement was 
 attempted in 1809 ; but it was impossible to 
 
Ame 
 
 ( 43 ) 
 
 Amh 
 
 effeut any permanent conciliation as long as 
 England adhered to the Orders in Council of 
 1807, and Brougham's motion for their repeal 
 came too late to avert the war. The war, 
 ■which was declared without any great una- 
 nimity on the part of Congress, in June, 1812, 
 was at first almost entirely confined to com- 
 bats between detached frigates, in which the 
 Americans were generally successful, and to 
 attempts by the Americans on Canada, which 
 always ended in failure. The cause of the 
 English want of success in the naval actions 
 ' was in some degree, no doubt, due to the ex- 
 cellence of their enemies' seamanship, and 
 the picked crews they obtained by enlisting 
 English deserters; but it was also partly 
 owing to the superior size and armaments of 
 the American frigates, which were in reality 
 almost equivalent to the smaller ships of the 
 line. The most celebrated of these detached 
 actions, that between the Chesapeake and the 
 Shannon, is well described by Alison, Hist, 
 of Europe, chap. xci. England carried on the 
 war in a very desultory manner, until the 
 close of the campaign in the south of France 
 set free the Peninsular veterans, many of 
 whom were shipped straight from Bordeaux 
 to America. In the meantime, negotiations 
 had been entered into at Ghent, which con- 
 tinued for more than twelve months before 
 they resulted in the conclusion of peace. A 
 large fleet, under Admiral Cockburn, was 
 despatched with the Peninsular troops, under 
 General Ross, to make a combined attack by 
 sea and land on the Chesapeake River. The 
 expedition completely succeeded in the cap- 
 ture of Washington, the chief public buildings 
 of which city were destroyed. A combined 
 sea and land attack was made upon Flatts- 
 burg on Lake Champlain ; but the flotilla, 
 unaided by Sir George Prevost, who com- 
 manded the troops, was annihilated, and 
 the enterprise had to be abandoned. A pro- 
 jected attack on Baltimore was also given up; 
 but the State of Maine was almost entirely 
 in the hands of the British. An expedition 
 on a large scale was undertaken against New 
 Orleans, under General Pakenham. Natural 
 difficulties, greatly increased by the energy 
 and abOity of the American commander, 
 General Jackson, met the armament at every 
 turn, but were at length overcome by the 
 alacrity of the men ; and on the 8th Jan., 
 1815, an assault was made. This was con- 
 spicuous no less for the intrepid gallantry of 
 the troops on both sides, which caused a ter- 
 rible loss of life, includmg that of Sir E. 
 Pakenham, than for the utter mismanagement 
 and want of unity among the English com- 
 manders. The assault was delivered in a 
 number of separate attacks on different" points, 
 which failed from want of co-operation and 
 neglect of the most simple details. So great 
 was the loss of the British that General Lam- 
 bert, who had succeeded to the command, felt 
 it desirable to withdraw. Had means of com- 
 
 munication been more rapid in those days, 
 this useless bloodshed would have been averted, 
 since already, on the previous 24th Dec, a 
 convention had been signed at Ghent. This 
 convention was merely a compromise, which 
 left undecided all the chief points on which 
 the two countries were at issue. The rights 
 of neutrals were not touched upon, and the 
 question of the frontier line between Canada 
 and the United States was reserved for future 
 negotiation. 
 
 See B. J. Losa'ng's and C. J. Ingereoll's His- 
 tories of tlie Wax ot ltl2 ; J. F. Cooper, Sist. of 
 the United States THavy ; James, T^aval Rist; 
 Armual Register, 1813 ; Alison, Eist. of Enrope. 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Amherst, Jeffery, Lord {b. 1717, d. 
 
 1797), as aide-de-camp to General Ligonier, 
 was present at Dettingen and Pontenoy, and 
 fought under the Duke of Cumberland at 
 Hastenbeck. In 1756 he was appointed to 
 command the 15th Regiment of Foot, and 
 two years later became major-general. In 
 1758 he was sent to America, and, acting in 
 co-operation with Admiral Boscawen, efiected 
 the capture of Louisburg, the capital of Cape 
 Breton. In the following year, in conjunc- 
 tion with General Prideaux, Sir E. Johnson, 
 and Wolfe, he took Ticonderoga. In 1760 
 he reduced Montreal after a long and difficult 
 navigation, taking the fort of Isle Royale on 
 his way. Shortly afterwards he planned a 
 successful expedition for the recovery of New- 
 foundland. In 1761 he was created a Knight 
 of the Bath, and appointed Commander-in- 
 chief and Governor-General in America: In 
 1770 he was appointed Governor of Guernsey, 
 and Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance. In 
 1776 he was raised to the peerage, with 
 the title of Baron Amherst of Hohnesdale. 
 Shortly afterwards he was made Commander- 
 in-chief, and in that capacity quelled the 
 riots of 1780, but was compelled to resign 
 in 1782. He was again appointed in 1793, 
 and accepted the rank of field-marshal in 1796. 
 Amherst was a firm disciplinarian, but was 
 much beloved by his men. He was a com- 
 mander of some tactical ability, and always 
 showed dauntless courage on the field of 
 battle. 
 
 Gentleman's Magazine, 1797 ; Stanhope, Hist, of 
 England. 
 
 Amherst, William Pitt, 1st Eakl (A. 
 
 1773, d. 1857), was the eldest son of Lieut.- 
 General Amherst, brother of the first Lord 
 Amherst. On the death of the latter in 
 1797, he succeeded to the title. In 1816 he 
 was appointed Ambassador-Extraordinary to 
 the Emperor of China. On reaching the 
 precincts of the imperial palace at Pekin, and 
 refusing to submit to the humiliating cere- 
 monies of the emperor's court, he was refused 
 admission to the presence of the emperor, and 
 his mission was thus rendered useless. On 
 his return voyage, the vessel he was in was 
 wrecked off the island of Pulo Leat, from 
 
Amh. 
 
 ( 44 
 
 Anc 
 
 which he proceeded, accompanied hy Sir 
 Henry Ellis, in the boats of the wrecked ship 
 to Batavia. He was subsequently appointed 
 Governor-General of India, and landed in 
 Calcutta, 1823. He had no sooner assumed 
 the government than he found himself in- 
 volved in hostile discussions with the Bur- 
 mese, which terminated within five months 
 in a declaration of war. After two cam- 
 paigns, the first Burmese "War ended in the 
 Treat}' of Yandaboo. The progress of the Bur- 
 mese War also gave rise to the Barrackpore 
 Mutiny, which was violently suppressed, and 
 to several seditious manifestations in India. 
 The Governor-General was created Earl Am- 
 herst of Aracan in 1826. [Burmese War.] 
 Ellis, Proceedings of the late Embassy to China, 
 1817. 
 
 Amhurst, Nicholas {d. 1742), was a 
 
 writer of satires and political papers of con- 
 siderable ability. He published a caustic 
 series of papers in 1726 under the title, Terra 
 Ml'ms, intended as a satire on the University 
 of Oxford. After quitting Oxford, Amhurst 
 devoted himself to pohtical journalism, attach- 
 ing himself to the opponents of Walpole. He 
 conducted The Craftsman, a pohtical Journal, 
 to which Bolingbroke and Pulteney contri- 
 buted largely. Amhurst was, however, neg- 
 lected by his influential friends, and died in 
 poverty and distress. 
 
 Biographia Bnf aunica ; Wilson, Hist, of Mer- 
 chant Taylors' School, 
 
 Amiens, Mise op (January 23, 1264), 
 was the award pronounced by Louis IX. of 
 Frarice, to whom the question as to the obli- 
 gation of Heirry III. to observe the Provisions 
 of Oxford had been referred, on Dec. 16, 
 1263. Since 1261 the baronial party had 
 been reduced by desertions, and distracted 
 by Prince Ed-stard's dereliction of their cause 
 in 1262, and by disputes and jealousies 
 among themselves. This, with the fear of 
 Louis openly supporting Henry III. with 
 troops, explains their forced assent to an 
 arbitration which, from Louis' character and 
 frequent services to Henry, could only issue 
 one way. Influenced by his strong views as 
 to the kingly oiEce, and by the authority 
 of the papal bull, possibly also by the ne- 
 gotiations already on foot for the papal 
 appointment of his brother Charles to the 
 crown of Naples, Louis, after some days' 
 hearing of the pleadings on either side, and 
 perhaps some hesitation, decided completely 
 for his brother sovereign, annulled the Pro- 
 visions of Oxford, especially as to the employ- 
 ment of aliens in England and the royal 
 appointment of sheriffs; but after all left" to 
 the^ barons a loophole in declaring that hie 
 decision was not to annul any of the ancient 
 charters or liberties of the realm. In March 
 the warfare broke out which ended for the time 
 in Simon's victory at Lewes. Similar arbi- 
 trations were frequpnt about this period : 
 even the day before Lewes, the barons offered 
 
 to submit all, save the aliens question, to a 
 new body of arbitrators; and a strikmg 
 political song of the time shows the general 
 feeling, even in the national party, that some 
 compromise must be accepted. The award 
 had the effect of still further reducing and 
 weakening Simon de Montfort's party. 
 
 The documents connected with this event are 
 given ill Pfere Dauit-1, Histoire de France ; Eish- 
 anfjer, Chronicle (Camden Society) ; Stnbbs, 
 Select Charters^ See also the Liber de Antiquis 
 Legihus ; the Royal Letters (Rolls Series) ; 
 B.vmer's Fwdera: and Wright's Political tsongs 
 (Eulls Series). The best modem accounts 
 are in Blaauw, Barons^ War; and Froth ero, 
 Siraon de Montfort, [A. L. S.l 
 
 Amiens, Treaty of (March 25, 1802), 
 between England and France, put an end for 
 the time to the great war which had lasted since 
 1793. The mutual losses during the preced- 
 ing years, the complete supremacy of the 
 English fleet, and the blow given to the 
 northern alliance by the battle of Copenhagen, 
 and, on the other hand, the defeats inflicted 
 on England's Continental ally, Austria, in 
 1800, and the Treaty of Luneville, which she 
 concluded with France, Feb. 9, 1801, led botti 
 governments to desire a cessation of hostilities. 
 The treaty was the work of the Addington 
 ministry. In the previous October the pre- 
 liminaries had been agreed to and signed, but 
 some "troublesome negotiations bad to be gone 
 through, before it was finally ratified at 
 Amiens, by Lord Comwallis on the part of 
 England, and by Joseph Bonaparte, assisted 
 by Talleyrand, for France. According to it, 
 England gave up all its conquests but Trinidad 
 and Ceylon. The Cape of Good Hope was 
 restored to the Dutch, but was to be a free 
 port. Malta was to go back to the Knights 
 of St. John, under the guarantee of one of 
 the great powers. "Get article est' le plus 
 important de tout le traite, mais auoune des 
 conditions qu'il renferme n'a ete executee; 
 et l1 est devenu le pretexts d'une guerre qui 
 s'est renouvelee en 1803, et a dijre sans inter- 
 ruption jusqu'en 1814 " {Histoire des Traith, 
 vi. 149). Porto Ferrajo was to be evacuated. 
 On the other hand, the Eepublic of the Ionian 
 Islands was acknowledged ; the French were 
 to withdraw from Naples and the Roman 
 States ; the integrity of Portugal was to be 
 guaranteed; Egypt was to be restored to 
 the Porte; and. finally, the Newfoundland 
 fisheries were to be placed on the same footing 
 as they held before the war began. These 
 terms, as noticed abova, were not considered 
 sufficiently satisfactory by the English; conse- 
 quently the peace was of very short duration, 
 war being declared against Bonaparte in 1803. 
 For the complicated negotiations which 
 aocompamed the Treaty, sec Koch et Schoell, 
 Hi,st ie.TraMs, vi chap. xxxi. ; Von Syhel, 
 Hist, of the French Revolution ; Alison, S'k. of 
 Europe; Maasey, Hist, of George III.; AnnvA 
 hegister, If 02. fS J I T ' 
 
 Ancolites, The, were a small British 
 tribe, inhabiting probably part of Berkshire 
 
Anc 
 
 (45) 
 
 Aug 
 
 and Oxfordshire. They are mentioned by 
 Cjesar, but not by Ptolemy. 
 
 Ancrain Moor, Battle of (Feb. 17, 
 1545), was fought in Roxburghshire, between 
 the forces of Henry VIII., headed by Sir Ralph 
 Evans and Sir Brian Latour, and the Scots, 
 under the Earl of Angus, Scott of Buccleuch, 
 and the Master of Rothes. The English were 
 completely beaten, owing to their desertion by 
 the Borderers who had joined them. 
 
 Auderida (Andredes-ceaster), the name 
 of a Roman fortress and settlement on the 
 Sussex coast, which Camden placed at New- 
 enden, in Kent, and others have considered 
 to have been situated at Hastings, Chichester, 
 or under the downs near Eastbourne, where, 
 m 1717, Roman pavements, baths, and other 
 remains were found. Most modem autho- 
 rities agree in placing it on the site of Peven- 
 sey. The town was taken and burnt by the 
 Saxons, under EUa, in 491, and the site was 
 a desolate ruin in the time of Henry of 
 Huntingdon. The Forest of Anderida (An- 
 dredes-weald) was the great belt of wood 
 which stretched across south-eastern England 
 through Hampshire, Kent, and Surrey, having 
 a length of more than seventy, and in some 
 places a breadth of over thirty, miles. The 
 district stiU called the Weald may be held to 
 mark out roughly the extent of the closer 
 portions of this forest. [Forests.] 
 
 Henry of Htmtingdon, Ki^. .4nglor., ii. § 10, 
 &c. ; Lower, Sva^kh. 
 
 Anderson, Sra Edmund (J. 1540, d. 1605), 
 one of Elizabeth's judges, was employed in 
 the prosecutions of the Jesuits, as Queen's 
 Sergeant, 1581. In the following year he 
 was made Chief Justice of the Conunon Pleas, 
 an ofSce which he retained untU his death. 
 In 1586 he tried the conspirators in Babing- 
 ton's plot, and was one of the commissioners 
 at the trial of Mary Queen of Scots, in Oct., 
 1586. He subsequently tried Davison for the 
 issue of the warrant. 
 
 Anderton, William {A. 1693), was a 
 violent Jacobite pamphleteer, in the reign of 
 William III. For two years he evaded the 
 government agents, but was at length traced 
 to a house near St. James's Street. He 
 attempted to conceal his press, but it was 
 discovered, together with a tract called 
 Remarks on the Present Confederacy and the 
 Late devolution. He was indicted for high 
 treason before Treby at the Old Bailey. He 
 denied that he had printed the libels. It 
 was argued in his favour, moreover, that, as 
 printing was unknown in the reign of Edward 
 III., it could not be construed into an overt 
 act of treason, and that, under the statute of 
 that sovereign, a further distinction ought to 
 be made between the author of a treasonable 
 pamphlet and the man who merely printed it. 
 He was, however, found guilty, and_ after 
 beiug kept for some time in suspense, in the 
 
 hope that he would betray his accomplices, 
 was executed. 
 
 Cobbett's State Trials, xii. 1246 ; Ealph, Hist. 
 0/ Eng. under WiUiam III., &c. 
 
 Andre, Major John (*.1751,(;.1780), was 
 
 the son of a London merchant. Entering tbe 
 army, he rose rapidlj'. He was appointed to 
 serve under General Howe in America, and, 
 when Sir H. Cliuton succeeded Howe, was made 
 adjutant-general. His tact and ability in this 
 position caused him to, be selected, in the 
 month of September, 1780, to superintend the 
 negotiations for the surrender of West Point, 
 on the Hudson River. The man he had 
 to deal with on the other side was Arnold, 
 an American general whose ambition was not 
 satisfied with his position. An arrangement 
 was riade between the two for a meeting, to 
 take place on the 17th, when Washington 
 would be absent. The sloop which was carry- 
 ing Andre to the meeting-place ran aground, 
 and Arnold, on hearing of the mishap, refused 
 to come down himself, but sent for Andre to 
 come to him. Andre, on his return, found 
 the sloop gone, and could not induce the 
 boatmen to put off to her. He accordingly 
 returned to Arnold, who persuaded him to 
 exchange his uniform for a countryman's 
 dress, and go back to the British lines by 
 land. He accomplished the greater part of 
 the journey in safety, and was already in 
 sight of the British lines, when he was 
 arrested, and, in spite of Armold's passport, 
 carried back to Washington. A court of 
 inquiry was forthwith held ; Andre was found 
 to be a spy, and sentenced to death. Wash- 
 ington was most unwilling to carry out the 
 sentence, and he endeavoured to seize Arnold, 
 the real offender, in order to be able to release 
 Andre. But Arnold was not to be found; 
 and on Oct. 2, Andre met his fate with perfect 
 composure. Washington himself declaiing 
 that he was more unfortunate than criminal. 
 His bones were afterwards brought to 
 England, and have been interred in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 J. Sparks, Life of Arnold; Eose, Biogr. Diet. 
 
 Andros, Sir Edmund {i- 1637, d. 1713) 
 became governor of New York m 1674, and 
 in 1685 was appointed governor of New 
 England by James II. His administration 
 was so unpopular with the colonists that, m 
 1688, all the colonies subject to him revolted, 
 and he was sent back to England for trial, 
 but acquitted-. In 1692 he went out as 
 governor of Virginia, holding the office with 
 credit to himself and advantage to the country 
 until 1698. 
 
 Ansel was the name of a gold coin, first 
 introduced into England in 1465. The value 
 of an angel was originally 8s. 4d., but m 
 Edward VI.'s time it was raised to 10s. It 
 derived its name from the representation of 
 the Archangel Michael which appeared on it. 
 
Ang 
 
 (46) 
 
 Aug 
 
 Angels continued to be coined down to the 
 reign of Charles I. [Coinage.] 
 
 Angevius, The, sometimes called Plan- 
 TAGENETS. Anjou first became connected 
 with England by the marriage, in 1127, of 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry I., with Geoffrey 
 v.. Count of Anjou. Their son Henry be- 
 came King of England, as well as Count of 
 Anjou. Anjou remained united to England 
 till 1205, when Philip Augustus conquered 
 it, and annexed it to the French crown. For 
 a short time, during the reigns of Henry V. 
 and Henry VI., it was again united to Eng- 
 land; but in 1444 the latter king, on his 
 marriage with Margaret of Anjou, ceded his 
 claims. The Angevin rulers filled as great a 
 space in the history of the Middle Ages 
 as the Hapsburgs have done in more modern 
 times. The first Count of Anjou was Fulk 
 the Red, who at the end of the ninth century 
 was thus rewarded for his services against 
 the Northmen. But by the twelfth century, 
 when the petty counts had added Saintonge, 
 Maine, and Touraine to their territory, men 
 began to throw their origin further back, into 
 legends of au heroic champion, Ingelger, son 
 of the wild Briton hunter, Tortulf ; and ac- 
 counted for tK.t fitful energy and successful 
 unscrupulousness which marked the whole 
 race, by tales of an ancestress, who had 
 been an evil spirit or a wituh in guise of 
 a lovely countess. In Fulk the Good there 
 appears the other side of the Angevin 
 character : the literary, poetic, and artistic 
 tastes strong in Henry III. and Edward III., 
 in Richard I. and Richard II., and partly- 
 shared by Henry II. and John ; the 
 capacity for business and the organising 
 power which distinguished Henry II. and 
 Edward I. So, too, the physical prowess of 
 Richard I. was an inheritance from his an- 
 cestor, Geofirey Greygown, the third count ; 
 while the fourth count, Fulk the Black, in 
 his successful adventurousness, his restless 
 pilgrimages to Jerusalem, his cruel revenges 
 on his wife and son, seems to anticipate 
 familiar stories of our own Plantagenet kings. 
 WithFulk's son, Geoffrey Martel, the original 
 Angevin line ends, to be continued by his 
 daughter's marriage with Geoffrey of the 
 House of Orleans. Their son, Fulk Rechin, 
 " to whom alone it is due that the charge of 
 trickery is urged against this family," 
 brought upon himself many enemies and some 
 disasters. The next count, Fulk the Young, 
 had already secured Maine by marriage ; and 
 his successor, GeofErey the Handsome, called 
 Plantagenet, by his marriage with the Em- 
 press Matilda, heiress to Henry I. of England, 
 raised to its climax the long advancement of 
 his house. Their son, Henry II. of England, 
 succeeded, in 1151, to Anjou, Maine, and 
 Touraine from his father, and Normandy 
 from his mother, and received, in 1162, 
 Poitou, Limoges, Auvergne, Guienne, and 
 
 Gascony, with Eleanor, the divorced wife of 
 Louis of France. He was crowned Kiiig of 
 England in 1154, made himself Lord of Ire- 
 land in 1171, exacted full homage from the 
 captive King of Scots in 1174, and obtained 
 for his second son, Geoffrey, the succession to 
 Brittany by marriage. In 1170 Anjou was 
 set apart, with Maine and Normandy, to 
 form a temporary dominion for his eldest 
 son, Henry, as Aquitaine was for Richard, 
 Brittany for Geoffrey, and Ireland for John. 
 But with the accession of John " Lack- 
 land," Anjou, like most of the other French 
 possessions of the English crown, passed 
 to Philip of France in 1202. Before this, 
 Ralph de Dicelo, finding a pious explana- 
 tion for the success which had now reached 
 such a height, had declared "the prophecy 
 made to Fulk the Good by the leper whom 
 he carried so piously (and who was none 
 other than the Saviour Himself), that his 
 seed should prosper to the ninth generation, 
 is being fulfilled." But most men spoke 
 otherwise of the Angevins. Thus Giraldus 
 Cambrensis, not content with recounting their 
 diabolic origin, St. Bernard's prediction of 
 their curse, and Richard Coeur de Lion's 
 gloomy acceptance of it (." Let us fight ; son 
 with father, brother with brother; it is in- 
 stinct in our family : from the devil we all 
 came, to the devil we shall aU go "), draws 
 out furthermore the calamitous end of 
 all the offspring of Eleanor, as a vengeance 
 foretold for her parents' adulterous union ; 
 he recites the visions which warned holy men 
 of the punishment reserved for Henry II. 's 
 sins against the Church, and points the 
 moral of the breakdown of that great king's 
 empire, after all his subtle schemes and his 
 toilsome, gainful life, before the divinely- 
 favoured royal house of France. This indeed 
 was the feeling which many men had about 
 the Angevins; not without some reason. 
 " They remind us," says Dr. Stubbs, " of those 
 unhappy spirits who, throughout the Middle 
 Ages, were continually spending superhuman 
 strength in building in a night inaccessible 
 bridges and uninhabitable castles, or purchas- 
 ingwith untold treasures souls that might have 
 been had for nothing, and invariably cheated 
 of their reward." There is, indeed, in all the 
 English kings of this race, even in Edward 1., 
 something of this waste of vast energies upon, 
 futile results, which are no sooner grasped 
 than they crumble in the hand. They had 
 not, with all their insight, that rare gift of 
 penetrating to the real heart of their age, 
 the gift that only sympathy with it can 
 give. Even Edward t. could not see that 
 he was, in his own despite, making of 
 Scotland .what he had already made of 
 England — a self-governing patriotic nation. 
 Yet to this dynasty England owes much. 
 Henry II. not only finally defeated the feudal 
 class by superseding its privileged jurisdic- 
 tion, by subduing it to his strong centralised 
 
Aug 
 
 (47 ) 
 
 Aug 
 
 system, by withdrawing its military basis, but 
 he also set up a counterpoise to it in the 
 revived popular courts, iu the developed use 
 of local juries, in the reconstituted national 
 militia, in the legalised liberties of the towns. 
 In a word, he began the varied training of the 
 English people to co-operation in the work 
 of government, which Edward I. took up and 
 carried on to its completion. Moreover, 
 the very tyranny and neglect of the other 
 kings were direct instruments of benefits 
 never intended. Kichard I.'s careless absence 
 and heavy exactions left his ministers free to 
 expand the principles bequeathed them from 
 Henry Il.'a reign. A still greater debt of 
 gratitude we owe to the misgovemment of 
 John, the worst of the Hne, inasmuch as 
 it alone supplied the pressure which could 
 force the baronage for the iirst time to act 
 with and for Church and people, and produced 
 the coalition which extorted the Great 
 Charter. Henry III.'s shiftiness recalled this 
 coalition into action so often that it became 
 a permanent union. The second Edward's 
 failure taught the nation that a vigorous 
 kingship was stiU a requisite of political 
 stability, to control the baronage, and to be 
 the , working head of the government. Ed- 
 ward III., in his selfish haste for the means 
 of warfare and ostentation, sold away the 
 crown's power of extra-parliamentary inter- 
 ference in taxation and legislation. And 
 Richard II. 's unsuccessful attempt at abso- 
 lutism precipitated the downfall of preroga- 
 tive, and gave constitutional government 
 sixty years in which to strike its roots down 
 too deep even for the destroying hand of 
 Yorkist, Tudor, and Stuart kings to kill their 
 latent life. And it is to the stem peace kept 
 by the Angevin kings, to their repression of 
 private justice and private war, to their firm 
 but prudent attitude to the Church, that we 
 owe the early rise of English literature and 
 philosophy, the great age of the English 
 Church, the enfranchisement of the peasantry, 
 the populous independence of the towns, the 
 firowth of wool-trade and maritime commerce. 
 All the Angevins were men of strong but con- 
 flicting character ; none were without physical 
 bravery, bodily activity, passionate emotions. 
 Even the worst were men who superstitiously 
 respected some forms of religion, while they 
 violated its spirit : like Henry II., jesting and 
 drawing pictures at mass, but dying before the 
 chapel altar at Chinon ; or Richard, after an 
 agony of repentance for his sins, recovering, 
 to plunge into them afresh. All inflicted, and 
 in turn suffered, the ancestral curse, the pangs 
 of filial or fraternal ingratitude. None are con- 
 temptible, save, perhaps, Henry III. ; none, 
 save John, fail to win some sympathy. They 
 must remain to us as they were to their con- 
 temporaries — a marvellous race, with many 
 elements of greatness, with immense personal 
 endowments, and a certain mysterious shadow 
 han^'ing over all ; whose work, to which they 
 
 Henry U. . 1154—1189 
 
 Richard I. . 1189—1199 
 
 John . . 1199- 1216 
 
 Henry III. 1216—1272 
 
 sacrificed their peace and domestic happiness, 
 and too often their conscience and fame, for 
 the most part was destined to pass away, but 
 through whom other results were brought 
 about, destined to be of incalculable value and 
 indestructible permanence. 
 
 ASGEVIN KiHGS OP EnOLAITD. 
 
 Edward I. . 1272-1307 
 
 Edward II. . 1317-1327 
 
 Edward III. 1327—1377 
 
 Eiohard II. . 1377— la99 
 
 Chroniques d'Anjou^ witli preface by M. 
 Mnbille, 1871 ; the works of Benediotus Abbas, 
 Eoger de Hoveden, Ralph de Diceto, WiUiam ol 
 Newburgh, Itinemriym Regis Bicardi (in the 
 Rolls Serles),Walterof Coventry .Matthew Paris, 
 Giraldus Cambrensis (especially, his De InstitVr- 
 tione Principiim), and Ralph Niger. See also 
 Liugard, Hist, of Eng.; Hallam, Mid. Ages; 
 Stubbs, Constitutional History ; Dr. Pauli, 
 GeBchichte von England (from Edward I. to 
 Richard 11.) ; Longman, Life and Times of 
 Edward III.; M. Wallon, hiclmrd 1 1. 
 
 [A. L. S.] 
 
 Angles, The. If identity of name and 
 general probability be held fair proofs of 
 identity of race, the Angles (Angli, Anglii), 
 after whom this land is called, are first men- 
 tioned in the Germania of Tacitus (written 
 about A.D. 98), seemingly as dwellers on the 
 farther side of the Elbe. But in Tacitus's 
 page they are merely one among a num- 
 ber of obscure names of German peoples. 
 They would seem, however, to have been 
 then in motion westwards; fifty years later 
 Ptolemy found them on the left hank of the 
 same river, in occupation of a territory con- 
 jectured to be in the neighbourhood of the 
 modern town of Magdeburg. But neither did 
 they remain here ; by the four';h century, if 
 not earlier, they had estabHshed themselves on 
 the neck of the northern peninsula, now 
 Jutland, and filled the district that is now 
 known as Schleswig, but which an English 
 writer of the tenth century (Ethelward) 
 names Anfflia Vetus, or Old England. And 
 Bede, in calling this country of theirs An- 
 gulus, suggests a hint regarding the origin of 
 their name, which a weighty authority. Dr. 
 Guest, has not scrupled to take, speaking of 
 their Continental home as " Ongle," and ap- 
 parently looking upon them as " men of the 
 corner." Next to nothing is told us of the 
 Angles in written history. Scholars are, how- 
 ever, satisfied that they were of the Low- 
 German stock, and were closel)' akin to, yet 
 distinct from, the Saxons, having a speech 
 that, though essentially the same as the Saxon, 
 was not so far removed from the High- 
 German, and showed more frequent marks of 
 Scandinavian influence. But, like the Saxons, 
 they were of pure German type ; Roman 
 civilisation had never reached them. A 
 legal code, the Laws of the Anglii and 
 Werini, presumably belonging to them, 
 and as old as the eighth century, survives 
 as a record of native usages in an inter- 
 mediate stage between those of the Germania 
 
Aug 
 
 (48) 
 
 Ang 
 
 and of the earliest-known English system. 
 In the sixth century, at various but un- 
 known dates, and by many but unconnected 
 expeditions, the Angles crossed over to 
 Britain, and conquered to their own use the 
 whole of the east coast, from the Stour to the 
 Forth. Pushing steadily their encroach- 
 ments westwards, and slaying, expelling, or 
 enslaving the bulk at least of the natives, 
 they eventually formed several powerful 
 kingdoms,- and not a few smaller states — 
 fought and prospered until two-thirds of the 
 conquered land had passed into their posses- 
 sion. This great movement is believed to 
 have caused an exhaustive migration of the 
 race ; Bede is our authority for a report that 
 their fatherland was without inhabitants even 
 in his time. Yet some will have it that their 
 name still abides there in the local term, 
 Angeln. In Britain, though they just missed 
 winning political supremacy, the}"" fixed their 
 name inefiaceably on the whole German 
 population and the land it lived in. Many 
 have speculated upon, but none gained any 
 solid knowledge of, their distinguishing cha- 
 racteristics ; it would seem, however, that 
 wherever they differed from their Saxon 
 brethren, they more nearly resembled their 
 Danish cousins. 
 
 Elton, Origins of Bnglish History, ch. xii. ; 
 Stubbs, Constitutional History, ch. iii. ; Skene, 
 Celtic Scotland, book i., ch. iv. ; and tTie works 
 of Tacitus, Ptolemy, and Bede. ' [J. H.l 
 
 Anglesey (Latin, Mona ; Welsh, MSn), 
 an island and county of North Wales, was 
 in the earliest times celebrated as the head- 
 quarters of Druidism, and therefore of resist- 
 ance to the Romans. It was conquered by 
 Suetonius Paulinus in a.d. 61, and again more 
 thoroughly by Agricola in 78. On the with- 
 drawal of the Eomans, it became the centre 
 of the power of the kings of North Wales, or 
 G-wynedd, and Gildas calls the famous Mael- 
 gwn "insularis draco." Yet it was conquered, 
 with much other Welsh territory, by Edwin 
 of Northumbria (Bede, ii. 5), and perhaps 
 this Anglian conquest explains Nennius — 
 ' ' Mona insula qufe AngKce Englesei v ocatur id 
 est insula Anglorum" {Mon. Rist.JBrit,, 52 D.). 
 But Northumbria soon fell, and the " isle of 
 the English " became Welsh again. It con- 
 tained Aberffraw, the chief palace of the 
 kings of Gwynedd. During the ninth, tenth, 
 and eleventh centuries, it was repeatedly 
 ravaged by the Dames, who very probably 
 efiected permanent settlements in it. After 
 the Norman Conquest, it became the battle- 
 ground of Irish Dane, native Welsh, and 
 Norman adventurers. IJnder William Rufus, 
 it was more than once captured by Earl Hugh 
 of Chester, when "the French reduced all 
 to be Saxons" [Brut-y-Tys., sub an. 1096). 
 Again, in 1098, it was the scene of the exploits 
 of Magnus of Norway, and of the death of 
 Hugh. But it soon got back its liberty, 
 and has retained to this day that in- 
 
 tensely Welsh character ("M6n mam 
 Cymrn ") which makes its name so mis- 
 leading. It continued the home of the 
 princes of North Wales until the fall of 
 Llewelyn ap Grufflydd annexed the princi- 
 pality to the crown, and it was erected into a 
 regular county by Henry VIII. [Counties, 
 Welsh.] 
 
 Kowland's Mona Antiqua Restaurata liopeles^y 
 confuses tbe history with fable. A History of 
 Anglesey (London, 1775) is little better. The 
 chief facts are in Miss Williams' History of Wales, 
 ajid Freeman, William Rufus, vi. 127, seq. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Anglesey, Peerage of. In 1628 Sir 
 Francis Annesley, of Newport Pagnell, Bucks, 
 was created Baron Mount Norris in the peer- 
 age of Ireland, and Viscount Valentia. It 
 was this nobleman who was arbitrarily tried 
 and condemned to death by Strafford, when 
 Lord -Deputy in 1635. Arthur, second 
 Viscount Valentia (1614 — 1686), was, in 
 1645, sent as Commissioner to Ulster to 
 oppose Owen Roe O'Neil. After the death 
 of Cromwell, he was President of the Council 
 of State, and took a considerable share in 
 bringing about the Restoration. In 1660 he 
 was created Earl of Anglesey in the peerage 
 of England. During the life of Richard, 
 sixth Earl of Anglesey, the title and estates 
 were claimed by James Annesley, who 
 asserted that he was the son of the fourth 
 Earl. [For the litigation which ensued on 
 this claim, see Anneslby's Case.] As a result 
 of this litigation, it was held that the earldom 
 of Anglesey became extinct in 1761, on the 
 death of the sixth Earl. In 1815 the title of 
 Marquis of Anglesey was conferred on Henry 
 Paget, Earl of Uxbridge. 
 
 Anglesey, Arthur Annesley, 5th 
 
 Eakl of (d. 1737), held several posts in 
 Ireland in the reign of Queen Anne. In 17U 
 he hastened from Ireland to take part in the 
 debates on the war, and commented severely 
 on the exhaustion of the country, hinting 
 that Marlborough had averted peace from 
 interested motives. But on a subsequent oc- 
 casion he attacked the ministry, and publicly 
 apologised for the part he had played in 
 politics. During the last years of Queen 
 Anne, he was one of the leaders of the 
 faction of Hanoverian Tories, whom Swift 
 calls the " Whimsicals." He was one of 
 the Lords Justices appointed to administer 
 the kingdom between the death of Anne and 
 the arrival of George I. 
 
 Anglesey, Henry WiUiani Paget, 
 
 1st Marquis or (*. 1768, d. 1854), eldest son of 
 Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, in. 17 94 served 
 under the Duke of York in Flanders, and 
 again in Holland in 1799, as colonel of a 
 dragoon regiment. In December, 1808, he 
 joined Sir John Moore's force as a major- 
 general, and greatly distinguished himself by 
 the manner in which he covered the dis- 
 
Ang 
 
 (49) 
 
 Ang 
 
 astrous retreat of the British army, and con- 
 tributed in no small measure to the victory 
 of the English at Corunna. In 1806 he was 
 returned to Parhament for Milboume Port, 
 and he was called to the Upper House on the 
 death of his father in 1812. In the campaign 
 of 1815 the Earl of Uxhridge was appointed 
 to the command of the cavalry. At Water- 
 loo, where he led the heavy brigade in the 
 terrible charge which overwhelmed D'Erlon's 
 division, he distinguished himself by the ut- 
 most intrepidity. In the battle he was 
 wounded in the leg, which was obliged to 
 be amputated. For his services he was 
 created Marquis of Anglesey, and received 
 the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. 
 In 1827 he was appointed Master-General of 
 the Ordnance; and in 1828 the Wellington 
 Cabinet made him Viceroy of Ireland. His 
 advent was looked forward to with much 
 dread in Ireland, owing to some thoughtless 
 reniarks he had once made as to using 
 mihtary force to quell disturbances. But he 
 very much belied the anticipations that had 
 been formed of him, and by his impartial 
 conduct and strict j uatice, gained great popu- 
 larity. His views on Catholic emancipa- 
 tion, of which he was a strong advocate, 
 eutirely differed from the policy of the 
 Cabinet, and he was summarily removed 
 fiom his post, to the great regret of all 
 classes in Ireland. In 1830 he was again 
 appointed Lord-Lieutenant, and carried on 
 the government of Ireland till the dissolution 
 of Lord Grey's government in 1833. In 1846 
 he was made a field-marshal, and in the 
 same year once more became Master-General 
 of the Ordnance, which ofiice he held till 
 1852, when he retired into private life until 
 his death. 
 
 Wellington Despatches ; Clark, The Georgian Era. 
 
 Anglia, East. [East Axglia.] 
 
 Anglia Sacra is the title of a miscel- 
 laneous collection of ecclesiastical memorials, 
 published by Dr. Henry Wharton, in two 
 vols, folio. Lend., 1691. These volumes con- 
 tain Eadmer's "Life of Anselm," WiUiam of 
 Malmesbury's " Life of Aldhelm," John of 
 Salisbury's "Life of Anselm," and other 
 works relating more particularly to the early 
 histor)- of English dioceses, and the biography 
 of EngHsh bishops. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon is a word which has been 
 commonly applied to the aggr^p,te of the 
 Teutonic inhabitants of Britain who lived 
 under native institutions, up to the date of the 
 Norman Conquest ; to the earliest form of the 
 English language of which memorials survive; 
 and, by a curious modern usage, to the sum 
 total of the men of English speech and origin, 
 to whatever nation they may belong, who are 
 now scattered over the globe. The exact 
 meaning of the word is not obvious. Mr. 
 Freeman rules "Anglo-Saxon." to be a con- 
 
 densation of the phrase "Angles and Saxons," 
 construing both its component parts as nouns ; 
 whilst the ablest of his predecessors has taken 
 the compound to mean " properly Saxons of 
 England, as distinguished from Saxons of the 
 Continent," in which case the former half must 
 have the force of an adjective. A scrutiny of 
 the oMest forms of the word, whether English 
 or Latin, would seem to justify the latter con- 
 clusion rather than the other. These forms 
 are : in English, Ongol-Saxna and Ancjiil- 
 Seaxna ; in Latin, Angul-Saxones and Angli- 
 Saxones. Now, if Ongol eyn and Angel cijn be 
 —as they usually are — construed into "English 
 kin," we cannot easily escape the necessity 
 of construing Ongol-Saxe, Angul-Seaxe, and 
 Angul-Saxones into " English Saxons." And 
 the Latin form seemingly admits of the 
 same construction more readily than it does 
 that of "Angles and Saxons." Camden, 
 therefore, and Mr. Kemble would appear to 
 have had some show of reason, the first for 
 naming [Remains concerning Britain, pp. 24, 
 25) the inhabitants of England before the 
 Norman Conquest " English-Saxons," and 
 their tongue "English-Saxon," the second 
 for calling his great work " The Saxons in 
 England." On the other hand, Mr Freeman's 
 explanation would unquestionably, if language 
 permitted it, be a far more satisfactory 
 one. An Anglo-Saxon king was certainly 
 a king of Angles and Saxons; the popula- 
 tion he reigned over was composed of 
 Angles of the north and east, as well 
 as Saxons of the south and west. It is 
 noteworthy, however, and perhaps signi- 
 ficant, that the word was barolj'" recognised 
 by the men of the time to which it is now so 
 of tan given; neither in the Chronicle, nor 
 in Ethelward — nor, indeed, in any purely 
 native English historical record — is it once 
 found. So long as these men were distributed 
 into separate states, they looked upon them- 
 selves as Saxons or as Angles ; when they fcU 
 into political unions they became, when con- 
 templated as members of one community. 
 Englishmen. When native writers would 
 contrast West-Saxons, East-Anglians, and 
 Northumbrians with their insular foes or 
 continental neighbours, the}' had no other 
 designation for them than " Engle," no 
 other for their speech than "Englisc." 
 This is the first reason that has nloved 
 some scholars to drop this and every 
 cognate word altogether in writing, and use 
 " English " as a descriptive epithet of every 
 part of our history and every form of our 
 language. The men whom Edgar and Harold 
 ruled called themselves " English kin ; " even 
 Alfred, mere King of West-Saxons as he was, 
 is represented in the Chronicle as having 
 been " King of all the English kin except thn 
 part that was under the wield of the Dams." 
 It is thought better to call the people as they 
 called themselves. And undoubtedly the 
 name has led to misconceptions. It has misled 
 
Ang 
 
 (50) 
 
 'Ang 
 
 people into thinking that their forefathers 
 were not their forefathers, that the nation 
 ■which was (teraporarily) overthrown at Senlao 
 ■was not the same nation that, 750 years 
 later, overthre-w Napoleon ; into thinking 
 the language of the Chronicle a different 
 tongue from the language of Carlyle. " The 
 unhistorical and conventional term Anglo- 
 Saxon conveys," says Sir F. Palgrave, "amost 
 false idea of our civil history. It disguises 
 the continuity of affairs, and substitutes the 
 appearance of a ne'w formation in place of a 
 progressive evolution." On the other hand, 
 it is urged that as regards the language, at 
 leart, the name is necessary. To insist upon 
 calling both the earliest and latest forms 
 of our literary language " English," is 
 to assert identity "where there is no identity ; 
 to prevent misconception, therefore, we must 
 alter the name either of our own or of Al- 
 fred's tongue. To do the second were not 
 Brisy. But those earlier were the daj's 
 of Angles and Saxons, if ever Angles and 
 Saxons were ; it surely ought to he at least 
 fairly accurate to sp'iak of their written lan- 
 guage as the Anglo-Saxon form of English. 
 And £ls to the people — seeing that during 
 those days the Angles and Saxons, though 
 coalescing, had not yet coalesced into a well- 
 hlended national unity — there is perhaps 
 no intolerable error in describing their era 
 as the Anglo-Saxon stage in the history of 
 the English nation. 
 
 Freeman, Norraan Cnnqueiit, esp. vol. i., ap- 
 pendix, note A ; Marsk, Origin and Hist, of the 
 Eng. Langwige, seut. ii. ; Kemble, Saxons. 
 
 [J. R.] 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the name 
 given to an historical document of the very 
 first importance for the whole earlier portion 
 of English history. It is in the form of 
 annals, beginning with the Christian era, 
 and terminating at various dates in the various 
 copies, the most prolonged ending with 1154. 
 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is sometimes 
 spoken of in the plural, as the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicles ; and each form of expression may 
 be justified. The extant copies are so far 
 alike in their contents that they can be re- 
 garded as variations of a common original, 
 such hypothetical original being a compilation 
 made in the ninth century. But the diver- 
 gences are great even within this earlier 
 part, and they tend in the continuations to a 
 separation so wide as to produce in some 
 cases a total independence of one another 
 before the close. No one can really study 
 this document without finding that there is 
 at least equal propriety in the plural designa- 
 tion. 
 
 Manuscripts : There are six manuscripts, and 
 soniefragments of a seventh. These manuscripts 
 haveljeen designated by the letters A, B,C, D, E, 
 F, G. They hive each and all heen identiaed(at 
 least proximately) with one or other of the 
 great religious houses of the southern part of 
 the i^l nd. The first (A) hns been assiemed to 
 Winchester ; the second (B) was prohably com- 
 
 piled at St. Augustine's, Canterbury ; the third 
 
 (C) is manifestly from Abingdon; the fourth 
 
 (D) from "Worcester ; the fifth (E) is from Peter- 
 borough, and is the most distinctly local of tbe 
 whole series ; the sixth (F), in the two languages 
 Latm and Saxon, is from Canterbury. The 
 seventh (G) is little more than a late copy of A. 
 Of this last manuscript only three leaves have 
 escaped the fire of 1731 ; but this loss is alle- 
 viated hy the fact that this manuscript has been 
 iwinted in full, and without admixture, hy 
 "Wheloo (Cambridge, 1643). The places of de- 
 posit of these manuscripts are as follows : — A, 
 in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge ; B, C, D, 
 F, G, in the Cotton Library, British Museum ; 
 E, in the Bodleian. 
 
 Of all these manuscripts, the Peterborough 
 Chronicle (E) is the one of which the date and 
 occasion of its production has been mO:it satis- 
 factorily made out. There was a great flre at 
 Peterborough in August. 1116, which destroyed 
 all the monastery except the chapter-house and 
 the dormitory ; most of the town was burnt also. 
 All the books were probably lost. Five years 
 later, in 1121, we find this new Chronicle, which 
 must have taken time to collect and compile, 
 brought down to the date of the current year in 
 one handwriting. A new hand continues the 
 history in 1122. "We know from other sourf'es 
 that this was counted an epoch at Peterborough. 
 The Latin Chroniaon Petroburgense (Camden 
 Society), of which the object was to describe 
 th e administration of Abbot Eobert, which dates 
 from 1274., begins -with 1122. 
 
 Bvvision of Contents : The first five hundred 
 years is a literary compilation, made at a com- 
 paratively late date, from Latin authorities ; 
 then follows a mixed period down to A.n. 735, in 
 which the greatest part is from Bede, with a few 
 original annals interspersed. These annals are 
 the earliest material proper to the Saxon 
 Chronicle. From this date onwards, our Cbroni- 
 cles are the highest source for nearly all the 
 history they contain. As a whole, the Chroni- 
 cles belong to the south, but there is an impor- 
 tant exception to this general character, in a 
 series of annals between a.d. 737 and 803, em- 
 bodied in the ■Worcester Chronicle (D), ond 
 manifestly derived from Northumbrian and 
 Mercian sources, not otherwise kno'wn. The 
 best and strongest writing appears with a 
 natural propriety In the reigns of Ethelred and 
 Alfred, the greatest crisis of the national life. 
 In 1066 we may be struck with the fact that 
 only one Chronicle (D) describes the battle of 
 Hastings. A new and peculiar interest a,ttaches 
 to the later continuations of the Peterborough 
 Chronicle (E). Here we see the language ad- 
 mitting gradual changes, and this goes with 
 other pomts of internal evidence to link the 
 records very closely with the events. 
 _ The earliest Latin historians are in close rela^ 
 tion with the Saxon Chronicles. Florence of 
 ■Worcester, who died in 1118, and whos% latest ' 
 annal is 1117, is for a large part of his work 
 simply a translator of these Chronicles, espe- 
 cially of D. Asser is indebted to A. Henry of 
 Huntingdon made large use of the Saxon 
 Chronicles; and where he deviaiies from them 
 his credit is deteriorated thereby. In general, 
 tt may be asserted tbat the existence of the 
 Saxon Chronicles tends greatly to increase our 
 confidence in the early Latin annalists. "When 
 we see how closely they have for the most part 
 followed these vernacular annals, we are able to 
 feel assured that in instance'! where vernacular 
 authority fails, it was probably possessed by the 
 Latin historian. This is the case where Simecm 
 of Durham produces materials that we have no 
 other trace of, and which is therefore attributed 
 to some lost northern chronicles. 
 
 Edition s: After ■Wheloc, the next editor -was 
 Gibson (Oxford, 1692), who constructed a text 
 by a collati.ui of several manuscripts. Both 
 Wheloc and Gibson gave Latin translations. 
 
Ang 
 
 51) 
 
 Ang 
 
 and Gibson's is, for the time, excellent. The first 
 translation into English was b^ Miss Gurney. 
 It was privately aud anonymously printed 
 (Norwich, 1819}. The next edition was in 1823, 
 Dy Dr. Ingram, with English parallel to the 
 Saxon. The next edition appeared in the folio 
 Monumenta Kistorica Britannica (1848) ; and here 
 the plan of a composite text was carried to its 
 extreme perfection. That plan has since been 
 abandoned. In 1861 appeared the RoUs edition, 
 by Thorpe, where all the texts are printed 
 pttrallel in vol. i., with a translation in vol. ii. 
 In 1865 came Two Saxon CUronicles Parallel, with 
 SuppUmentary Extracts from the Others, ed. J. 
 Earle ; Clarendon Press, Oxford. 
 
 Lappenberg, Geachichte von England, Litera- 
 rische EinlBiiung,'p. xlix.; ArchiEologv:alJoumal, 
 papers by Dr. G-uest, Mr. Freeman, and Dr. 
 Stuubs ; Introductions to Mon. Hist. Brit., and to 
 Earle's Two Sax. Chron. Parallel. [J. E.l 
 
 Anglo - Saxon Kingdoms. Much 
 that specially distinguishes the development 
 of oar national historj' is due to the fact that 
 the English Conquest was carried out, not hy 
 a single people or confedeiation of peoples, 
 hut hy independently-acting hodies of adven- 
 turers who were sprung from a common stock, 
 and had been living for ages under similar 
 institutions. For thus it came about that, 
 when the success of the long series of separate 
 invasions was assured, and at least half of 
 Britain south of the isthmus of Forth and 
 Clyde had received an English population, 
 and passed under the sway of the English 
 system of rule, this newly-subjugated land was 
 necessarily divided among a large number of 
 distinct, almost isolated, kingdoms and states. 
 By the last quarter of 'the sixth century, 
 the whole of the eastern and southern coast, 
 from Queensferry to Portland Bill, formed 
 an exclusive sea-board for an Anghan, Saxon, 
 and Jutish territoiy, while a traveller might 
 still make his way from Stirling to the shores 
 of "West Bay entirely through Celtic land, 
 without having once to cross tidal water save 
 at the point where the Severn broadens into 
 the Bristol Channel. But the line that parted 
 the two races was somewhat irregular, and, 
 owing to incessant warfare between them, 
 continually changing. In the upper reaches 
 of the EngKsh side of the island, two king- 
 doms had established themselves — Bernicia 
 (Welsh, Bryneich, the country of the braes) 
 and. Deira [Deifyr), stretching, the former 
 from the Forth to the Tees, the latter from 
 the Tees to the Humber. These are both 
 usually reckoned among the states founded 
 by the Angles, though certain inquirers pro- 
 fess to have detected a Frisian element in 
 their population. Below the Humber a cluster 
 of Anglian settlements — Gainas, Lindisfaras, 
 Mercians, Middle Angles, and others — covered 
 a broader area of considerable but indefinable 
 length, and would seem to have been already 
 consolidating into the great kingdom of the 
 Marchland, or Mercia. East Anglia filled the 
 space between the lower half of the Mercian 
 land and the eastern sea, and had the Stour 
 as its southern boundary. Between the 
 
 Stour and the Thames dwelt the East and 
 the Middle Saxons, already, it would appear, 
 united into a single kingdom. Westward to 
 the lower Severn and the Forest of Selwood, 
 and southward to the English Channel, spread 
 the kingdom of the "West-Saxons, in which 
 Surrey had probably been already included. 
 The belt of cleared land that ran, thrust in 
 between the huge forest of Anderida and the 
 sea, from Chichester harbour to the Rother, 
 formed the territory of the South-Saxons; 
 and the Kentish kingdom must have had 
 pretty much the same limits as the present 
 county of Kent. Though the men of Kent, 
 "Wight, and the part of Hampshire that bends 
 round the Southampton "Water, are called 
 Jutes in early authorities, the distinctive 
 name was not long maintained ; and the four 
 southern kingdoms may be taken to compose 
 the Saxon constituent of the English race in 
 Britain. It must also be borne in mind that, 
 scattered over the newly-conquered country, 
 there were not a few smaller states, such as 
 the Hwiocas, the Gyrwas, the Meanwaras, 
 either independent or owing an incomplete 
 allegiance to one or other of the kingdoms ; 
 that Deira and Bernicia showed a disposition 
 to combine into one state, had already once 
 combined, and were sure to become soon per- 
 manently incorporated into a Northumbrian 
 kingdom, while the co-existence of the two 
 dioceses of Rochester and Canterbury, from 
 the first organisation of the Church in Eng- 
 land, has led to the beUef that there may 
 have been originally two kingdoms in Kent, 
 the earliest dioceses being generally co-ex- 
 tensive with kingdoms. As yet these several 
 kingdoms and states — at any rate, the greater 
 among them — held aloof from one another. 
 Nor had they yet learned — perhaps the 
 resistance of the natives did not allow 
 them the necessary leisure — even to quarrel 
 among themselves. In fact, each, as 
 a rule, went about its business of fightiug 
 with the Welsh, of settlement and appor- 
 tionment of the soil, of general organ- 
 isation, on its own forces only ; loosely 
 speaking, they had no relations with one 
 another ; the conditions that made the first 
 step towards union possible did not exist. It 
 is true that Ella, the first king of the South- 
 Saxons, is represented by Bede as holding a 
 sort of imperium, or military overlordship, 
 over the "provinces" south of the Humber ; 
 but Bede's statement must be either an exag- 
 geration of some insignificant fact, or alto- 
 gether baseless. An imperial king of the 
 South-Saxorjs in the fifth ceutury is incon- 
 ceivable. In another century {cii-e. 685) a 
 great change had taken place. The southern 
 part of Northumbria now stretched from 
 sea to sea, its western border-line joining the 
 coast at the head of Morecambe Bay. Mercia 
 had grown considerably towards the south 
 and the west ; part of the lower Dee and half 
 the Wye flowed within her confines, and her 
 
Aug 
 
 (52) 
 
 Aug 
 
 kings'had pushed their conquests from Wessex 
 almost to the Bristol Avon and the upper 
 Thames. But Wessex had helped to make 
 up for these losses by extending her western 
 frontier to the mouths of the Parret and 
 Exe, and by taking Wight within her king- 
 dom. East Anglia, Essex, Kent, and Sussex, 
 having no weaker race in their neighbourhood 
 to encroach upon, were substantially un- 
 altered. 
 
 Among these kingdoms a state of things 
 had arisen which Milton in his ignorance 
 of the real facts of the case only caricatures 
 when he calls their mutual dealings "the 
 wars of kites or crows, flocking and fighting 
 in the air." Strife and bloodshed were uni- 
 versal ; no kingdom escaped them ; even 
 Christianity brought a sword; by far the 
 greater number of battles that are hencefor- 
 ward recorded were fought between English- 
 men. Indeed, the several peoples seldom 
 came together save as enemies. And in the 
 course of this warfare the vicissitudes of 
 success were many and sudden ; the irresis- 
 tible conqueror of one day was the hunted 
 fugitive or mangled corpse of the next. 
 Ceawlin of Wessex, after years of nearly 
 unbroken success, in which Briton and Jute 
 went down before him, was, in 591, himeelf 
 beaten down by his own subjects, and driven 
 from his kingdom. Kent then rose to great- 
 ness under the guidance of Ethelbert, who 
 won a sort of supremacy that is stated by 
 Bede to have reached the Humber, at the 
 same time that another restless warrior, 
 Ethelfrith, was making the might of North- 
 umbria terrible to the north and west of that 
 river. But Ethelbert shrank back, and 
 Ethelfrith fell in battle before the growing 
 power of Redwald, King of the East Angles ; 
 and for a few years Redwald held the fore- 
 most place among the kings that ruled south 
 of the Humber. Then the turn of Northum- 
 bria came : in 630 the authority or influence 
 of her king, Edwin, bore undisputed sway 
 from the Forth to the English Channel, save 
 in Kent alone. Then Penda of Mcrcia van- 
 quished and slew Edwin (634), and seized a 
 part of his supremacy ; but was himself van- 
 quished and slain in 655 by a successor of 
 Edwin's, Oswy, under whom Xorthumbria 
 regained a fair share of her former ascend- 
 ancy. But with the death in battle of her 
 next king, Egfrith, in 685, the glory and 
 greatness of the northern kingdom passed 
 away for ever. For a hundred and forty 
 years longer she kept her independence, 
 and at times acted with vigour to the 
 north and west ; but her part in determining 
 the destiny of England was played out. 
 These were not futile fightings, after aU. 
 The kingdoms were merely taking the best 
 way they knew of settling among themselves 
 which was the most worthy to fulfil the 
 trust of making England a nation. To 
 bringing about thii end, the newly-founded 
 
 Church proved an effective ally. Her autho- 
 rity, being an undivided force that proceeded 
 from a single centre, and her organisation 
 covering the whole land, gently drew the 
 separate communities together, made the 
 idea of unity familiar, and must have fos- 
 tered a vague longing for political union. 
 And the practical eff acement of all the smaller 
 kingdoms except East Anglia must also have 
 done something to smooth the way towards 
 this consummation. Essex sank, first into a 
 Mercian, then, seemingly, into a West-Saxon 
 dependency ; in the last quarter of the seventh 
 century Ceadwalla of Wessex and his succes- 
 sor, Ina, reduced Sussex and Kent beneath 
 their dominion ; and these states, without as 
 yet losing their separate existence, never 
 again enjoyed a separate political life. 
 
 In the rivalry that was thus narrowed to 
 Mercia and Wessex, the tide of success, 
 during the greater part of the eighth cen- 
 tury, ran decidedly in favour of the former ; 
 one of the Mercian kings, Ethelbald, was 
 strong enough to fasten his yoke on the neck 
 of Wessex itself. And, though the stubborn 
 land succeeded in shaking off this yoke 
 by a decisive victory at Burford (752), 
 Offa, a later Mercian king, managed in his 
 long reign (755 — 794) to raise his power to 
 an unexampled height. Wessex was beaten 
 in battle, and driven below the Thames ; 
 Essex and Kent had become almost parts of 
 the Mercian kingdom ; and in 792 a deed of 
 the foulest treachery gave Offa the command 
 of East Anglia. From the Welsh, too, the 
 masterful king wrested the wide sweep of 
 scrub-land that lay round Pengwem, and on 
 the site of this place built the town of Shrews- 
 bury (Scrobbesbyrig, Scrub-bm-y), and made 
 the dyke that is still called after his name 
 the western limit of his kingdom, thus 
 bringing the area of England almost to 
 its furthest expansion on the side of Wales. 
 But the sceptre was destined for Wessex, 
 notwithstanding. Pressed down from her 
 northern frontier, and forced, as it would 
 appear, to give up Surrey and Sussex also, 
 she never paused in her slow advance towards 
 Cornwall. Somerset was completed, and the 
 making of Devonshire begun ; by the end of 
 the century the Exe, from source to sea, was 
 a West-Saxon river. With the first years 
 of the next Egbert, a wise and valiant 
 descendant of earlier kings came from 
 exile in Charlemagne's court, to take on 
 himself the rule of the kingdom ; and under 
 his direction the West-Saxons went steadily 
 forward on the path that led to national 
 greatness. Egbert was long content to repel 
 Mercian invasion, and to push his conquests 
 further into the Cornish peninsula ; in his 
 reign Devon reached its final limits, and the 
 men of Cornwall were driven to accept him 
 as their overlord. At length, in 823, on the 
 field of Bllandune, Mercia and Wessex 
 measured their strength for the last time ; 
 
Aug 
 
 (53) 
 
 Aug 
 
 and there the might of Mercia was 
 broken. Ere the year was over, Sussex and 
 Surrey had rejoined, Kent and Essex heen 
 added to, the victorious kingdom; and the ■ 
 East AngHans had successfully revolted from 
 Mercia, and put themselves under the pro- 
 tection of Egbert. The crowning year of 
 triumph for Wessex was 827 ; then a single 
 campaign made her king master of Mercia, 
 and awed Northumbria into submission ; 
 from Edinburgh to Land's End he was 
 supreme lord or immediate king. Of the 
 nature and measure of this West-Saxon 
 supremacy, no exact knowledge can be 
 gained ; doubtless it gave the right to 
 demand help in war, and a commanding 
 voice in the higher concerns of each kingdom. 
 An unlooked-for force created the condi- 
 tions that converted this supremacy into 
 actual kingship. Northumbria, Mercia, and 
 East Anglia, though bound to Wessex, still 
 remained distinct Idngdoms, each with its 
 dependent king. These kingdoms the Danes 
 laid in ruins ; and after the narrow escape 
 of Wessex from the same fate, the line of the 
 Lea, the Ouse, and Watling Street divided 
 England into two political systems, Wessex 
 and the Danelagh, that were practically two 
 hostile camps. Between these, after Alfred's 
 death, the battle was fought out to the bitter 
 end ; and this end, when it came — as it did 
 in the reign of Edgar (958 — 975) — made the 
 whole of England a single kingdom. But 
 either in this or in Canute's reign, the 
 country between the Forth and the Tweed — 
 the Lothians, as they are , called — fell, or 
 was torn, away from England : under what 
 circumstances there is no record can tell us. 
 The Aiiglo-Saxon Chron., Bede, and Ethel- 
 waxd, are our chief authorities for the history 
 of these kingdoms. See also Lappenber?, Anglo- 
 Saxon Kings, vol. i. ; J. E. Green, The Making of 
 England. [J. K.] 
 
 Angouleme, or Augoumois, a pro- 
 vince in the south of France, was united 
 with England by the marriage of Henry II. 
 with Eleanor of Aquitaine. In 1218 it passed 
 into the possession of the Count de la Marche, 
 stepfather of Henry III. In 1303 it was 
 annexed to the French crown, but by the 
 Treaty of Bretigni in 1360, was restored 
 to England, only to be re-conquered by the 
 French in 1370. 
 
 Augria was a pirate-chief, who occupied 
 the rock of Gheriah, off the Malabar coast of 
 India. His depredations had caused him to 
 be regarded as the scourge of the adjacent 
 seas. Clive, on his return to India, in 1756, 
 and Admiral Watson, with the English fleet, 
 attacked and destroyed his station. 
 
 Angus (the older name of the county of 
 Forfar) was the territory of one of the great 
 Pictish tribes, or sub-kingdoms, and was 
 governed by a succession of Celtic " maor- 
 mors," one of whom, Dufugan, is styled 
 
 " Comes " in the reign of Alexander I., and 
 " was," says Mr. Skene, "no doubt, the first 
 Earl." After him there is a further succes- 
 sion of four Celtic earls from father to son. 
 Maud, the heiress of the last of these, carried 
 the earldom by marriage first to the family 
 of the Comyns, then to that of the XJmphra- 
 villes. In 1297 Gilbert de Umphraville was 
 summoned to Parliament as Earl of Angus. 
 It is somewhat doubtful whether this was 
 not merely a courtesy-title, and whether 
 Umphraville was not in reality summoned in 
 virtue of his barony of Prudhoe, in North- 
 umberland {see Sir H. Nicolas, Historic Peer- 
 age) ; but his descendants were, at any rate, 
 regularly summoned as Earls of Angus. By 
 the marriage of Margaret, Countess of Angus, 
 with William, first Earl Douglas (as his 
 third wife), the earldom passed into one 
 branch of the house of Douglas. In 1633 
 William, eleventh Earl of Angus, was created 
 Marquis of Douglas. In 1700 James, third 
 Marquis, was created Duke of Douglas. 
 Archibald, son of the first Marquis, was 
 created Earl of Ormond in 1651, and his son 
 Archibald was created Earl of Forfar in 1661. 
 His title and estates devolved, in 1715, on 
 the Duke of Douglas, on whose death, in 
 1761, the honours of this family passed to the 
 Dukes of Hamilton, for whom, and for the 
 celebrated lawsuit which arose out of this 
 succession. [Douglas, Family of.] 
 
 Edwards, Description of Angus, 1791 ; Skene, 
 Celtic Scotland, iii. 289; A. Jervise, MemoviaU 
 of Angus ; Sir B. Burke, Dormant a/nd Ex'tijnct 
 Peerages, p. 175. 
 Angus, Archibald Dol'glas, 5th Earl 
 OF, quarrelled with his kinsmen of the royalist 
 party, and at the head of the partisans of 
 James II., defeated them at Arkenholm 
 (1455). At the siege of Roxburgh, 1460, he was 
 wounded by the bursting of the same cannon 
 which Trilled James II. He was the leader of 
 the baronial party in the conspiracy against 
 the ministers of James III. at Lauderbridge, 
 and from his famous remark on that occasion, 
 "Heed not, I am he who wiU bell the cat," 
 was ever afterwards called Archibald Bell- 
 the-Cat. He commanded one wing of the 
 insurgent army at the battle of Torwood, 
 where James III. was killed.. He became 
 Chancellor of Scotland, and in 1488 was 
 one of the leaders of the barons at Sauchie- 
 bum. In 1491 he entered into a private 
 treaty with Henry VII. by which he agreed 
 to do his utmost to promote harmony between 
 the kings of England and Scotland. 
 
 Angus, Archibali) Douglas, 6th Earl 
 OF (d. 1536), was the grandson of Earl "Bell- 
 the-Cat." In August, 1514, he married 
 Margaret, the Queen Regent of Scotland, 
 and mother of James V.; but was shortly 
 afterwards carried ofE to France at the instance 
 of John, Duke of Albany. Returning to 
 Scotland in 1519, he defeated his enemies, 
 the Hamiltons, in the following year, m the 
 
Aug 
 
 (54) 
 
 Ann 
 
 battle of " Cleanse the Causeway,'' and seized 
 Edinburgh, though he soon found himself 
 compelled to seek u, temporary asylum in 
 France. In 1525 he returned, and became 
 guardian of the young king, whom he kept in 
 close restraint for three years, until one of his 
 many attempts to escape proved successful 
 (1528). On the death of James V., he 
 returned to his native coimtry, after coming 
 to a secret understanding with the English 
 king that he would do all in his power to 
 serve his cause in Scotland. In 1543, he 
 received Sir Ralph Sa,dler, the English am- 
 bassador, at his Castle of Tantallon ; but in 
 the following year Angus with the Assured 
 Lords' threw over Henry, and joined the 
 national party, an act which drew down on 
 his lands the army of Lord Hertford. Shortly 
 afterwards he defeated the English at the 
 battle of Ancrum Moor. 
 
 Burton, Sist, of Scot, iii. 85, &c. 
 Auj^us, McFergus (d. 761), obtained 
 the Pictish throne, 731, after defeating the 
 previous king, AJpin, at the junction of the 
 Tay and the Earn, and annihilating the 
 forces of Nectan MacDenli at Loch Inch. In 
 732 Angus invaded Dalriada, and drove its 
 king to Ireland. In 736 he again laid waste 
 the kingdom of the Scots, taking the capital, 
 Dunad, and throwing Dungal into prison ; 
 this devastation was repeated in 741, when 
 Dalriada for some years sank into the position 
 of a Pictish dependency. Shortly afterwards 
 Angus entered into an alliance with Eadbert 
 of Northu'mbria against the Britons of Strath- 
 clyde, who submitted in 756. 
 
 Animals, Ceuelty to. In 1822, chiefly 
 owing to the exertions of Mr. Martin, M.P., 
 an Act was passed to repress the practice of 
 cruelty to animals. Subsequently Acts with 
 the same object were passed in 1827, 1835, 
 and 1854, in great part through the efforts of 
 the Itoyal Society for the Prevention of 
 Cruelty to Animals, instituted in 1824. In 
 1875 a Royal Commission was appointed to 
 inquire into the question of the vivisection of 
 animals. In 1876 an Act was passed regula- 
 ting (but not abolishing) vivisection, and 
 compelling physiological demonstrators and 
 others to take out a certificate to vivisect. 
 
 Aujou. [Angevins.] 
 
 Anjou, Mabgaret of. [Maegaket of 
 Anjou.] 
 
 Anlaf (or Olaf) Cnaran (<?. 980), was 
 
 the son of Sihtric, Danish King of North- 
 umberland. After his father's death, Anlaf 
 went to Dublin, but soon left Ireland for 
 Scotland, where he married the daughter of 
 Constantine, King of Alban. It was this 
 match which probably provoked Athelstan's 
 invasion of Scotland in 933. Anlaf next 
 appears as his father-in-law's ally at 
 Brunanburh in 937. In 943, after his 
 cousin Anlaf Godfrithsson's death, we find 
 
 him ruling in Northumberland with Reginald 
 Godfrithsson. When Edmund conquered the 
 five boroughs, Anlaf opposed him, and took 
 Tamworth by storm, but being beset in 
 Leicester he made peace with the English king. 
 In 944, however, Edmund drove both his 
 godsons from their kingdom. But Anlaf 
 again appeared in arms in 949, and was 
 received by the people, till in 952 he was 
 driven abroad for the last time by his turbulent 
 subjects. He now ruled in Dublin for 
 several years, and commanded at the great 
 battle of Tara ; but his defeat there by the 
 high king of Ireland seems to have wrought 
 a change in the old warrior, for he started 
 the same year on a, pilgrimage to lona, where 
 he died. 
 
 The famous legend of HavuloTe the Dane, 
 extant in old English and ^French, contains a 
 romantic account of the early years of Anlaf 
 Cuaxan, and long served to keep his fame alive 
 in Northern England, especially in Grimsby, the 
 port of Scandinavian shippers, which is tabled 
 to have derived its name from one of the cha- 
 racters in the story. See the poem edited by 
 Sir F, Madden and Mr. Skeat for the Early 
 Eng. Text Society ; Ang. ~Saa; Chron. ; Plorence 
 of Worcester, Chroti. sub an. 937, &c. ; Skene, 
 Celtic Scotland, i. 352, &c. 
 
 Anlaf (or Olaf) Godfrithsson {d. 941), 
 King of Dublin and Northumberland, suc- 
 ceeded his father as King of Dublin in 933. 
 He came with a great force of Irish and 
 Danes to the assistance of his cousin Anlaf 
 Cuaran at the battle of Brunanburh, whence 
 he fled, as the English song of triumph tells 
 us, " over the dark water Dublin to seek." 
 On the death . of Athelstan he was called 
 by the Northumbrians to rule over them, but 
 he perished soon after of a grievous disease. 
 
 Anlaf Haraldson, Anlaf Trygve- 
 
 SOn. [Olaf.] 
 
 Annates, or Eiest-Fruits, was the 
 first year's income of newly -appointed arch- 
 bishops and bishops which was exacted 
 by the Pope before he would confirm the 
 election. According to Blackstone, these 
 payments were "part of the papal usurpa- 
 tions over the clergy of these kingdoms, 
 first introduced by Pandulph, the Pope's 
 legate, during the reigns of King John and 
 Henry III." Frequent attempts were made 
 to check the payment of such large sums to 
 the court of Rome, and in 34 Ed. I., when 
 there was great complaint of the oppressive 
 manner in which the papal legate exacted 
 them, the first-fruits were granted to the king 
 for two years. It was not, however, until 
 1532 that a bill was brought in declaring, 
 that whereas "annates had risen, grown, and 
 increased by an uncharitable custom, grounded 
 upon no good or just title, and the payment 
 thereof was enforced by the restraint of' bulls, 
 against all equity and" justice," the payment 
 of such annates should be discontinued, and 
 that any bishop milking such payments 
 should forfeit all his lands and goods to the 
 
Ann 
 
 (55) 
 
 Ann 
 
 king, whilst any bishops whom the Pope 
 refused to consecrate for non-payment of first- 
 fruits, should be consecrated in England, and 
 " should enjoy their spiritualities and tem- 
 poralities as completely as if they had 
 obtained their bulls from Rome." The opera- 
 tion of this Act, however, was suspended for 
 a time, as Henry waited to see whether the 
 Pope would grant him the wished-for divorce 
 from Catherine of Aragon ; on his refusal the 
 rupture with Rome took place, and the 
 statute was re-enacted 1534, whilst a clause 
 was introduced providing that archbishops 
 and bishops should not " be presented to the 
 Bishop of Rome, otherwise called the Pope, 
 for confirmation, or sue out any bulls at his 
 court ; but that they should be elected by 
 conge d^elire" In consequence, the payment of 
 episcopal first-fruits to the Pope ceased from 
 this time. 
 
 Anne, Queen (b. Feb. 6, 1664, s. March 9, 
 1702, d. Aug. 12, 1714), the last of the Stuart 
 sovereigns, was the second daughter of James 
 II. (while Duke of York) and Anne Hyde. 
 She was bred a Protestant by the express 
 command of Charles II., under the care of 
 Dr. Henry Compton, afterwards Bishop of 
 London. While still very young, her hand 
 was sought by George Louis, electoral 
 prince of Hanover, who eventually suc- 
 ceeded her on the English throne ; but in 
 1683 she married George, brother of Chris- 
 tian v., of Denmark. Prince George was a 
 personage completely without talent, capacity, 
 or ambition, so that throughout his life 
 his political position was altogether insigni- 
 ficant. Already, before her marriage, Anne 
 had conceived what were, perhaps, the two 
 strongest emotions- of her life. The teaching 
 of Compton, a zealous Anglican, who had 
 suffered for the cause of Church and King in 
 the rebellion, had made her a steadfast and 
 devoted adherent of the Church of England. 
 The design of altering the succession to the 
 throne, on condition that Anne would become 
 a Roman Catholic, entertained by the French 
 and English courts, was nullified by the steady 
 attachment of the princess to the Protestant 
 faith ; and Anne had already conceived that 
 violent affection for Sarah Jennings, who be- 
 came in 1678 the wife of John Churchill 
 [Mableoeough], which lasted during the 
 greater portion of her life. It was owing 
 to the Churchill influence chiefly that Anne 
 consented to notify to "William of Orange her 
 approval of his landing, and that in the crisis 
 of affairs she fled from Westminster to Dorset's 
 house in Epping Forest. In spite of the 
 efforts of her uncle, Clarendon, she made no 
 objection to the accession of William III. 
 and Mary. She was herself declared heir to 
 the throne, failing issue to the sovereigns, 
 and an allowance of £20,000 settled on her. 
 Soon after the Eevolntion she gave birth to 
 William,_ Duke of Gloucester, the only one of 
 
 her numerous children who survived infancy 
 and he died in 1700 at the age of eleven'. 
 Anne gradually became completely estranged 
 from the king and queen, and a party, of 
 which the ChurchUls were the heads, was 
 formed about her in opposition, and came to 
 be known as the " Princess Party." One of 
 the points this party constantly pressed for- 
 ward was an increase in Anne's income. In 
 1691, Anne's estrangement from the king 
 went so far that she wrote a letter to James 
 II., begging his forgiveness. On the dis- 
 grace of Marlborough, in 1692, Anne quar- 
 relled with her sister, the queen ; her guard 
 of honour was taken from her, and she was 
 treated with injudicious coldness and disre- 
 spect. ^ After the death of Mary a formal 
 reconciliation was made, through "the media- 
 tion of Somers, but there was little friendship 
 on either side. Anne resided at St. James's 
 Palace during the remainder of WiUiam's 
 reign, with some of tha state befitting the 
 heiress to the throne. 
 
 With the death of William, Anne became 
 queen, and reigned over England during a 
 period of twelve years crowded with important 
 events, and singularly distinguished by 
 illustrious men. The earlier portion of 
 the periott is that in which the influence 
 of the Marlboroughs prevailed; in the 
 second that of their opponents was pre- 
 dominant. By the year 1702 the Tories, 
 Godolphin, Nottingham, Normanby, and 
 Pembroke, had supplanted the great Whig 
 ministers, who were chiefly responsible for 
 the Revolution settlement. The war was 
 entered upon with vigour, under the auspices 
 of Marlborough and Godolphin ; a com- 
 mission was appointed to draw up terms of 
 union between England and Scotland ; and 
 the union of the two rival East India Com- 
 panies accomplished. The chief military 
 events of the year were the capture of Venloo, 
 Ruremond, and Liege, and the expedition 
 against Vigo Bay. In 1 703 violent opposition 
 was offered in the Scotch Parliament to the 
 Union scheme. The Methuen Treaty was 
 concluded with Portugal. Queen Anne's 
 Bounty, lor the augmentation of the livings 
 of the poorer clergy, was instituted. Next 
 year some changes occurred in the ministry. 
 The High Tories, Nottingham, Jersey, and 
 Seymour, who thwarted Marlborough's war 
 policy, were dismissed, and their places sup- 
 plied by the Moderate Tories, Harley and St. 
 John. In July Gibraltar was captured, and 
 Marlborough won the great battle of Blen- 
 heim in August. An attempt to tack the 
 Occasional Conformity Act to the Land 
 Tax BiU was defeated in the Commons. 
 The Aylesbury election case threatened a 
 permanent breach between the two bodies of 
 the Legislature. In 1705, Peterborough, in 
 Spain, captured Barcelona, and estabhshpd 
 the authority of Charles II. in Catalonia and 
 Valencia. Commissioners were appointed by 
 
Ann 
 
 (56) 
 
 Ann 
 
 the Scotch Parliament to discuss the terms 
 of the Union in London. It was gradually 
 becoming evident that Marlborough would 
 have to rely on a Whig ministry. In 1706 
 the chief event was the consummation of the 
 Union with Scotland. The labours of the 
 commission lasted through the year, and the 
 royal assent was given in March of the fol- 
 lowing year. Marlborough gained the battle 
 of Ramillies, thereby driving the French from 
 the Netherlands ; but in Spain Charles II. 
 had to evacuate Madrid. Mrs. HiU now 
 began to supplant the Duchess of Marlborough 
 in the royal favour, and the influence of 
 Harley commenced to be appreciable. He 
 instituted a series of intrigues in company 
 with St. John, with a view to drive the 
 "Whig ministers from office. Meanwhile, 
 Louis had made offers for peace, which 
 were rejected. In the following year, 
 Harley's intrigues, which took the form of an 
 attack on the naval administration, were dis- 
 covered, and he was forced to resign. On the 
 failure of a composite ministry, the Whig 
 junto came into power. The military events 
 of the year were unfortunate. In Spain the 
 allies were utterly defeated at Almanza ; nor 
 was Eugene's attack on Toulon successful. 
 In 1708 the Pretender made an unsuccessful 
 expedition to Scotland ; and Marlborough, in 
 Flanders, gained a great victory at Oudenarde. 
 The queen suffered great grief from the loss 
 of her husband, to whom she was sincerely 
 attached. Meanwhile, it was evident that 
 the Whig ministry was insecure. Once 
 more Louis offered to treat. His terms were 
 rejected ; and Marlborough won a bloody 
 victory at Malplaquet. In 1710 important 
 changes took place at home. Mrs. Hill, now 
 Mrs. Masham, had completely supplanted the 
 Duchess of Marlborough in the royal favour. 
 The nation was weary of the war ; and the 
 injudicious prosecution of Dr. Sacheverell by 
 the Whig ministry produced a violent outcry 
 against them. Sunderland and Godolphin 
 were dismissed, and Harley was entrusted 
 with the formation of a Tory ministry. The 
 conference at Gertruydenberg resulted in 
 nothing. In Spain the allies gained victories 
 at Almenara and Saragossa, and Charles was 
 once more established in Madrid ; but these 
 results were neutralised by the defeat of 
 Stanhope at Brihuega. It soon became evi- 
 dent that the new ministry had determined 
 on a peace policy, and that some of them, at 
 all events, were willing that the Stuarts 
 should be restored. The chief event at home 
 in 1711 was the formation of the South Sea 
 Company. Harley, now exceedingly popular 
 on account of Guiscard's attempt to stab him, 
 rapidly opened negotiations for peace. Marl- 
 borough's campaign in the year was resultless. 
 On his return he was violently attacked in 
 Parliament, and deprived of his offices. 
 Twelve new peers were created, in order 
 to " swamp " the majority in the House of 
 
 Lords. In 1712 Ormonde was placed in com- 
 mand of the army, with instructions to 
 attempt nothing. The conference was opened 
 at Utrecht, and the terms of peace were laid 
 before the House. In July Ormonde separated 
 from the aUies. Marlborough quitted 
 England in November, and remained abroad 
 until the queen's death. The Treaty of 
 Utrecht was signed in March, 1713. Mean- 
 while, the failing health of the queen made 
 the succession question open. Harley was 
 evidently unwilling to consent to a return of 
 the Stuarts; but no such scruples restrained 
 St. John, now Viscount Bolingbroke. The 
 remodelling of the army was entrusted to 
 Ormonde, but the scheme failed owing to the 
 neglect of Harley to supply the necessary 
 funds. As a blind, BoUngbroke introduced 
 into the House a proposition that the Pro- 
 testant succession was in no danger. The 
 design of the Whigs to bring the Electoral 
 Prince over to England was thwarted by the 
 wise caution of George, and by the evident 
 dislike of the queen to such a step. Boling- 
 broke now saw that he must drive Harley 
 from office ; and he therefore introduced his 
 Schism Bill, which Harley, who was of Low 
 Church principles, could not support. .He 
 was accordingly dismissed. Everything was 
 now in Bolingbroke's favour, but his plans 
 were foiled by the fatal illness of the queen. 
 As she lay on her death-bed, she was induced 
 by a deputation of the Council to entrust the 
 Lord Treasurer's staff to Shrewsbury, now firm 
 in his attachment to the house of Hanover. 
 There is considerable reason, nevertheless, to 
 believe that Anne would have consented to 
 her brother's succession to the throne if only 
 he would have changed his religion. 
 
 Anne was very popular with the nation, 
 but this, perhaps, was rather due to the fact 
 that she was the last of the dynasty, which, 
 in spite of its faults, retained a strong hold 
 on the sympathies of Englishmen, than to 
 any special merits of her own. She was a 
 woman of somewhat narrow intellect, vio- 
 lent prejudices, and weak judgment. Her 
 strongest political passions were devoted 
 attachment to the Established Church, and 
 dislike to the Whigs, whom she regarded as 
 the enemies of legitimacy and of royalty 
 itself ; but, except when her prejudices and 
 her obstinacy were roused, she had little 
 strength of will, and was easily led by her 
 female favourites. While she was under the 
 fascination of the Duchess of Marlborough, 
 she lent herself readily to the great schemes 
 of the duke ; when, subsequentlj'-, the in- 
 fluence of Abigail Hill was completely estab- 
 lished over her, she allowed herself with no 
 less willingness to countenance the projects 
 of Harley. Of taste and wit she had little, 
 and she showed scarcely any conception of 
 the great intellectual movement which has 
 rendered her reign an illustrious period in 
 English literary history. She had, however, 
 
Ann 
 
 (57 ) 
 
 Ann 
 
 some compensating qualities. Her private 
 life was exemplary and excellent ; she was a 
 good wife and a devoted mother. Her long 
 and much-tried friendship with her haughty 
 favourite was, at any rate, a testimony of the 
 goodness of her heart and the strength of her 
 affections. " Scarce any person," says Lord 
 Stanhope, " ever endured more for a friend, 
 or from a friend." As applied to her private 
 character, at least, the familiar appellation of 
 "good" Queen Anne is, perhaps, not unde- 
 served. 
 
 Boyer, .Annals, and Bnrnet, Hisl. of his Omn 
 Times, botli valuable, but both to be used with 
 care, as belog the works of violent Whig par- 
 tisans ; Macpherson, Stuart Papers; Coxe, 
 Memoirs of Marlborough; Mrs. Thomson, Me- 
 moirs of the BiLchess of Marlborough, and of the 
 Court of Queen Anne, 1839 ; Private Correspon- 
 dence of the Duchess of Marlborough, 1838 ; Oob- 
 bett, ParZiamentary Hist.; W. Wilson, Life of 
 Defoe, 1830 J Lamberty, JHemoires; Tindal's Ra- 
 pin's Hist, of Sng. ; Swift's works (esp. Journal to 
 Stella, Inquiry into the Conduct of the Last Minis- 
 try, and Thoughts on the State of the Nation), and 
 The Sistory of the Last Four Tears of Queen Anne, 
 generally ascribed to him, are the ablest ex- 
 pression of the Tory view ; see elIso Torcy, 
 Mimoires; and Bolingbroke, CoiTespontJence. 
 
 There are good modem histories of England 
 during Queen Anne's reign, by Lord Stanhope 
 (1870), Mr. Wyon (1876), and Mr. T. H. Burton 
 (1880) ; and a sketch in Mr. Lecky's Hist, of the 
 Eighteenth Century. For Anne's personal his- 
 tory, see Miss Strickland's Lives of the Queens of 
 .England. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Anne Boleyn, Queen, second wife of 
 Henry Vlll. (b. 1507, d. 1536), was the 
 daughter of Sir Thomas Bolejm, who married 
 the Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the 
 Duke of Norfolk. She was in her youth taken 
 by her father to the French court, but re- 
 turned in 1522. She is described as a little 
 lively brunette, with long black hair and 
 beautiful eyes. She was the object of much 
 flirtation in the English court, and Henry 
 "VIIL, beginning from idle gallantry, ad- 
 vanced to an uncontrollable passion for her. 
 Honours and emoluments were showered 
 upon her father. At last, in 1527, Henry 
 VIII. resolved to divorce Catherine that he 
 might many Anne, whom he lodged magnifi- 
 cently in his palace. The momentous pro- 
 ceedings to obtain a divorce were entrusted to 
 the charge of Wolsey, and when, in 1329, his 
 failure was manifest, his fall rapidly followed. 
 Henry Till, still pursued his efforts to obtain 
 a divorce, and meanwhile went about the 
 country in company with Anne Boleyn. This 
 created much indignation amongst the people, 
 and the mode of life of the King and Anne 
 Boleyn was generally regarded as dishonour- 
 able. The vacillation of Pope Clement VII. 
 had lasted too long for his firmness to be suc- 
 cessful ; when, at the end of 1532, he issued a 
 brief, bidding Henry to take back Catherine, 
 and forbidding him to marry Anne Boleyn, 
 Henry VIII. had gone too far to retrace his 
 steps. On Jan. 25, 1533, he was privately 
 married, and the new Archbishop (Cranmer) 
 pronounced his divorce from Catherine. The 
 
 marriage with Anne was then avowed, and 
 confirmed by the archbishop, 'and the new 
 queen was crowned in June. On Sept. 7 she 
 gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth. But Anne 
 Boleyn had but a brief enjoyment of the posi- 
 tion for which she had waited so long. On 
 January 7th, 1536, Catharine of Aragon died, 
 and Anne Boleyn could not conceal her delight. 
 Shortly afterwards she brought into the world 
 a dead child, to the king's great disappoint- 
 ment, as he wished for a male heir. He looked 
 on Anne's conduct with suspicion. The light- 
 heartedness and brilliancy which had once 
 attracted him now seemed to be culpable 
 frivolity. On May-day the king abruptly 
 left some games at which he was present 
 with the queen, and on the next day Anne 
 was committed to the Tower on the charge 
 of treason and adultery. Her brother. Lord 
 Eochford, Sir Henry Norris, Smeaton a 
 musician, and Brereton and Weston, gentle- 
 men of the bedchamber, were apprehended as 
 her accomplices. Smeaton and Norris made 
 some confessions of guilt, but it is hard to 
 estimate how far they were true. That Anne 
 was frivolous, and had behaved with some 
 indecorum, may be admitted; but opinions 
 must continue to diif er as to the degree of her 
 guilt. She was arraigned before a commission 
 of twenty-seven peers, presided over by the 
 Duke of Norfolk. The evidence of the con- 
 fessions was regarded as sufficient for her con- 
 demnation. Cranmer was induced to declare 
 her marriage null and void, and on May 19, 
 1536, Anne Boleyn was beheaded. 
 
 Calendar of State Papers of Henrj/ VIII., with 
 Mr. Brewer's Introd. to vol. iv. ; Froude, Hitft. 
 of Eng. ; Strickland, Lives of the Queens of 
 Enqlajid, vol. iv. ; Lingard, Hist, of Ena., vol. v. 
 
 [M. C] 
 
 Anne, Daughter of Edwaed IV. (i. 1475, 
 d. 1511), was married in 1495 to Lord Thomas 
 Howard, son of the Earl of Surrej-, by whom 
 she had one son, who died in infancy. 
 
 Anne, Daughter op Richard, Duke of 
 York {d. 1475), was married first to Henry 
 Holland, Duke of Exeter (q.v.), from whom 
 she was divorced, and secondly to Sir Thomas 
 St. Leger. 
 
 Anne Neville, Queen (b. 1454, d. 1485), 
 wife of Eichard III., was the younger daughter 
 of Eichard Neville, the great Earl of "War- 
 wick. In 1470 she was betrothed (though it 
 is doubtful whether she was actually married) 
 to Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VI. 
 After his death at Tewkesbury, in 1471, she 
 was sought in marriage by Richard, then 
 Duke of Gloucester. Clarence, who had 
 married her sister Isabel, strongly opposed the 
 match, and disguised her as a cookmaid ; but 
 she was discovered by Richard, married to 
 him in 1473, and bore him a son in 1474. In 
 1483 she was crowned queen with Richard. 
 In 1484 her young son died, "an unhappy 
 death," according to the Continuator of the 
 
Ann 
 
 (58) 
 
 Ann 
 
 Croylamd Chronicle ; and tlie queen did not 
 long survive him, dying on March 16, 1485. 
 Cofd. Croyland Chran. ; tte Chronicles of Bou8, 
 Hall, and Holinshed j Strickland, Qaeens of ling., 
 u. 373. [M. C] 
 
 Anne of Bohemia, Queen (J. 1367, d. 
 1394), wife of Richard II., the daughter of the 
 Emperor Charles IV., was married to Richard 
 in 1382. Her sweet and gentle disposition 
 earned for her the title of "Good Queen 
 Anne," and her influence seems to have had 
 some effect in mitigating the violence and 
 disorder of her husband's reign. It is said 
 that the cruel reprisals taken on the Kentish 
 revoltera were discontinued at her inter- 
 cession ; and that the quarrel between the 
 king and the citizens of London, which cul- 
 minated in the riot of 1392, was healed by 
 her mediation. In one instance only does her 
 influence appear to have been bad. She took 
 an active part in attempting to bring about 
 the divorce of the king's favourite, De Vere, 
 Earl of Oxford, from his wife, who was con- 
 nected with several of the great noble 
 families, in order that he might marry one 
 of her German ladies, " the landgravine," 
 as Froissart calls her. Anne of Bohemia 
 was said to be well versed in the Bible, and 
 to have read it in a Bohemian or Ger- 
 man version; and she and her attendants, 
 English and Bohemian, are said to have 
 looked with considerable favour on Wiclif. 
 The proscriptions of the " mercQess " Par- 
 liament of 1386 were specially directed 
 against the queen's attendants, and King 
 Richard afterwards declared, at the trial of 
 the Earl of Arundel (see State Trials, vol. i.) 
 that the queen was three hours on her knees 
 before the earl, pleading with tears for the life 
 of John.Calverley, one of her esquires. There 
 is little doubt that the connection between 
 England and Bohemia, brought about by 
 Anne's marriage, must have done much to 
 make the writings of "Wiclif better known on 
 the Continent, and especially in Germany. 
 
 Walsingham, Hist. Anglio., ii. 48, 119, 153, &c. ; 
 Strickland, Qmens of England, i. 591. j-q j -j- -. 
 
 Anne of Burgundy {d. 1432) was the 
 daughter of John Sans Peur and sister of 
 Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. She 
 was married in 1423 to John, Duke of Bed- 
 ford (q.v.). 
 
 Anne of Cleves, Queen (6. 1517, «?. 1557), 
 fourth wife of Henry VIII., was the daughter 
 of John, third Duke of Cleves, by Marie, 
 daughter of William, Duke of Jiilich, Berg, 
 and fiavensberg. Anxious to secure for Eng- 
 land the goodwill of the Schmalcaldic League, 
 Thomas Cromwell, after the death of Jane 
 Seymour, proposed to Henry an alliance with 
 the German Protestant princes by means of a 
 marriage with Anne of Cleves ; and the king, 
 who was greatly pleased with a portrait 
 he received of his intended bride, willingly 
 lent himself to Cromwell's proposition. 
 
 Landing at Deal Dec. 27, 1539, Anne pro- 
 ceeded to Rochester, where Henry first saw 
 her. Her person, however, failed altogether 
 to come up to the expectations he had 
 formed from her portrait. He called a 
 council to consider if there was any possi- 
 bility of getting out of the marriage en- 
 gagement to her without involving himself 
 in a quarrel with her family. A sort of prior 
 contract between Anne and Francis, son of 
 the Duke of Lorraine, was, however, the only 
 respectable objection to the marriage that 
 could be raised ; and this, when named to the 
 Duke of Cleves's ambassadors, was completely 
 disposed of by an offer on their part to pro- 
 duce a formal renunciation of the contract. 
 Henry was therefore obliged to submit to 
 the distasteful marriage, which was celebrated 
 at Greenwich on January 6, 1540. For a 
 time Henry was able to treat his queen with 
 a fair show of respect ; but after the execution 
 of Cromwell, the original proposer of the 
 marriage, he sought no longer to conceal his 
 feeling of aversion for her. The marriage 
 was finally annulled, and the decision 
 to that effect duly ratified by Parliament, 
 on three grounds, viz. (]) that she had been 
 previously contracted to the Duke of Lorraine ; 
 (2) that he, Henry, had not inwardly given his 
 consent ; (3) that the marriage had never been 
 consummated. As some consolation to Anne 
 for this loss of position, it was arranged that 
 she should be treated as an adopted sister, and 
 that she should enjoythe honours of precedence 
 next to the queen and the king's daughter. 
 These terms, and the further promise of an 
 annual settlement of £3,000, procured Anne's 
 willing assent to the proposed divorce. She 
 passed the remainder of her days in England, 
 where she died at her palace of Chelsea, July 
 16, 1557. By Queen Mary's orders her fune- 
 ral was solemnised in Westminster Abbey 
 with regal splendour. 
 
 Strype, Memiovia^s; Proude, Hist. o^Eng. 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Anne of Denmark, Queen (h. 1575, if. 
 1619), wife of James VI. of Scotland and I. of 
 England, was the second daughter of Frederick 
 II., King of Denmark, and was married to 
 James in 1589. She seems to have been at 
 one time a Roman Catholic, and at her coro- 
 nation as Queen of England she refused to 
 receive the sacrament according to the rites of 
 the English Church. But she took little part 
 in politics, and the Roman Catholic party 
 quickly found it was useless to hope for any- 
 thing from_ her. With the exception of 
 some occasional interference in the cause 
 of a favourite, she seems to have contented 
 herself with entertaining the king and his 
 courtiers with balls and masques. She was 
 never on very good terms with her husband, 
 and took great delight in making him jealous 
 and exposing him to ridicule. She is reported 
 to have been on rather intimate terms both 
 
Ann 
 
 (59) 
 
 Ann 
 
 ■with tlie Earl of Murray, who was assassinated 
 (it is suggested with the king's connivance) 
 Dy the Esirl of Huntley, and with Alexander 
 Euthven, brother of the Earl of Gowrie, who 
 met with a similar fate. The pleasantest fact 
 that is recorded ahout her is her intercession for 
 Sir Walter Raleigh's Ufe. Her character has 
 been very differently represented, but perhaps 
 Hume's estimate, that she was " a woman 
 eminent neither for her vices nor her virtues," 
 is on the whole the fairest one. 
 
 Strickland, Queens of Eng. ; Jesse, JLTem. of 
 the Stuarts; Aikin, CovH of James I. 
 
 Annesley Case, The (1743), arose out 
 of a disputed claim to the honours and estates 
 of the Anglesey peerage. Soon after the 
 assumption of the title by Richard, sixth earl, 
 James Annesley, who professed to be the son 
 of Lord Altham, elder brother of the earl, 
 laid claim to the title and estates. The 
 claimant, who was popularly known as " the 
 unfortunate young nobleman," stated that he 
 had been kidnapped in infancy by his uncle's 
 orders, and sent to the American colonies. 
 On November H, 1743, he commenced an 
 action against his uncle in the Irish Court of 
 Exchequer. The result of the trial (which 
 was said to have been the longest known up to 
 that time) was that he gained a verdict, but 
 made no further effort to obtain his title. On 
 the death of Richard, sixth earl, in 1761, the 
 right of his son Arthur to succeed him was 
 disputed. The Irish House of Lords confirmed 
 his title. The English House of Lords, how- 
 ever, held that the earldom of Anglesey had 
 expired with the father of this nobleman, 
 who, however, continued to sit in the Irish 
 Parliament as Viscount Valentia, and was 
 subsequently created Earl of Mountmorris. 
 
 State Trials, xvii. 1139, &c. ; GentlemarCs Maga- 
 zine, vol. xlii. 
 
 Annesley's Case (1719) produced an 
 
 important constitutional dispute between the 
 English and the Irish Houses of Lords. A 
 suit for the possession of certain lands in 
 Kildare, between Hester Sherlock and Maurice 
 Annesley, had been decided in favour of the 
 latter by the Irish Court of Exchequer. On 
 appeal, the Irish House of Lords reversed the 
 decision. This might have been considered 
 final ; but Aimesley appealed to the English 
 House of Lords, who affirmed the judgment 
 of the Court of Exchequer, and ordered 
 Annesley to be put in possession of the estate. 
 The court made an order accordingly, but 
 the Sheriff of Kildare refused to execute it. 
 He was thereupon fined £1,200, and brought 
 his case before the Irish House of Lords. 
 That body resolved, after taking the opinions 
 of the judges, that the final right of appeal 
 from the Irish courts lay with them, and 
 ordered the Barons of the Exchequer into 
 custody for acting on the decision of the 
 English House. The latter, however, caused 
 a Bill to be brought in (which passed by a 
 majority of 63), asserting the inferior position 
 
 of the Irish House of Lords, and depriving 
 it of aU appellant jurisdiction whatsoever. 
 This Act was a mere stretch of power, for the 
 Irish Lords had frequently entertained both 
 writs of error and appeals in equity. 
 
 Parliamentary Hist., vii. 642 ; Hallam, Const, 
 
 Hist., v., oliap. iviii. ; lecky. Hist, of Eng., ii. 
 
 Ha. 
 
 Annuities are certain sums of money 
 paid yearly, and are charged upon the person 
 or personal estate of the individual from whom 
 they are due. If an annuity is charged 
 upon real estate it is called a rent charge. 
 Before the reign of Anne the annuities 
 which had been granted by the crown as 
 a reward for services performed, or for other 
 reasons, had been charged upon the heredi- 
 tary revenues, and it had been held that the 
 king had power, in law, to bind his successors. 
 On the accession of Queen Anne an Act was 
 passed to restrain the alienation of any por- 
 tion of the hereditary revenues for a longer 
 period than the Ufe of the reigning sovereign ; 
 so that it became the practice to re-grant 
 annuities and pensions at the beginning 
 of a fresh reign. On the establishment of a 
 civil list under George III., government 
 annuities were charged on it instead of on 
 the hereditary revenues ; and the indiscrimi- 
 nate granting of pensions by the crown was 
 checked by Act of Parliament, 1782, the Irish 
 annuities being regulated in 1793, and the 
 Scotch in 1810. In 1837 the right of the 
 crown to grant pensions was restricted to 
 £1,200 a year, and to "such persons as have 
 just claims on the royal beneficence." The 
 system of granting annuities as a political 
 bribe, which had been much in favour 
 under the Stuarts, was done away with in 
 1705, when holders of government annuities 
 were declared incapable of sitting in Parlia- 
 ment, though the Act was occasionally evaded 
 by the granting of secret pensions. The sys- 
 tem of raising government loans by means of 
 annuities began in 1692, when the " Million 
 Act" empowered the raising of that sum for 
 the expenses of the French war by means of 
 a tontine annuity, and several similar statutes 
 were passed during the war of Queen Anne's 
 reign. During the Austrian Succession and 
 Seven Years' Wars, government annuities were 
 frequently granted by way of bonus or pre- 
 mium to the subscribers of government loans. 
 In 1773 a measure was passed through the 
 House of Commons, under the auspices of 
 Burke, to enable the working classes to 
 invest their savings in the purchase 
 of deferred annuities, but it was rejected 
 by the Lords. In 1779 the government 
 was authorised to raise £7,000,000 by an- 
 nuity. "The government of that period," 
 says Mr. Walford, "was driven to great 
 extremities for raising money ; nearly every 
 session one or two Annuity Acts were passed, 
 generally accompanied by a lottery." Acts 
 were passed on the subject in 1808, 1817, and 
 
Aus 
 
 (60) 
 
 Ans 
 
 1853 ; the last named, besides consolidating 
 and amendiag the law on government annui- 
 ties, inaugurated the system of granting 
 annuities for small amounts through the 
 medium of Savings Banks. 
 
 May, Const. Hist. ; Walford's Itiswra/nce Cyclo- 
 pedia contains an elaborate and exhaustive 
 article, embracing both public and private an- 
 nnities. Statutes 4 W. & M., o. 3; 19 Geo. III., 
 c. 18; 48 Geo. ni., c. 142 ; 16 and 17 Viot., c. 45. 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Anselm, St. (5. 1033, a. 1109), Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, was born at or near Aosta. His 
 father, a vassal of Maurienne, was a man of 
 some wealth and position, but of unthrifty 
 habits and violent temper. When only fifteen 
 Anselm ardently desired to enter the monastic 
 life, but his father refused his consent. A 
 severe illness did not soften the old man, and 
 "when his mother's death removed the last 
 barrier to the father's tyranny, Anselm crossed 
 the Alps with a single attendant to seek a 
 career and escape his father's oppression. He 
 spent three years in Burgundy, and was thence 
 attracted to Normandy. After a sojourn at 
 Avranches, where Lanfranc had once taught, 
 Anselm removed to Bee, now flourishing 
 under Lanfranc as prior. After a severe course 
 of study and discipline he took the vows, at the 
 age of twenty-seven. Three years later he was 
 elected prior on Lanfranc removing to Caen. 
 His administration made Bee inferior only to 
 Cluny in general repute and superior to it in 
 learning. Not only did Bee turn out great 
 scholars, but Anselm infused a high intellectual 
 tone into the whole monastery. He now pub- 
 lished his famous Prosloc/ion and Monologion, 
 and in 1078, when Herlwin died, was made 
 abbot. This office led to several visits to Eng- 
 land, to look after the estates Bee had obtained 
 from the Conqueror. These visits made him 
 widelyknown among all classes of Englishmen. 
 He renewed his connection with Lanfranc, now 
 archbishop, became acquainted with Eadmer 
 of Canterbury, his future biographer, and 
 established cordial relations with Earl Hugh 
 of Chester. He had a good word to say for 
 English saints like Alphege when Lanfranc 
 denied their claims to martyrdom. Lanfranc 
 died in 1089, and everyone recognised in 
 Anselm the one man who could, as at Bee, 
 continue Lanfranc' s work and keep William 
 II. in check. But William kept the see vacant 
 four years, to secure, with the rich temporali- 
 ties, freedom from unpleasant advice. In 1092 
 Anselm again visited England, very unwil- 
 lingly, lest he should be accused of ambition, 
 but overcome at last by the importunity for 
 spiritual consolation of Earl Hugh, now 
 very ill. Anselm was still in England when 
 a sudden illness stirred Eufus's sluggish con- 
 science, and he resolved to atone for his past 
 ci-imes by making the Abbot of Bee arch- 
 bishop. Anselm was almost dragged before 
 the sick king's bed, and after a show of resis- 
 tance, ludicrous if not sincere, was positively 
 
 forced to accept the office. But if archbishop 
 he would maintain all the rights of his church. 
 Only on William's promise to resign the tem- 
 poralities, to listen to Anselm' s advice in things 
 spiritual, and to aokno wledge Urban II. instead 
 of the imperial anti-Pope Clement, did he 
 submit to consecration (Dec. 4, 1093). William 
 soon recovered, relapsed into his old ways, 
 and quarrelled with Anselm. Anselm's pre- 
 sent of 500 marks was scornfully rejected as 
 inadequate. His desire for the convocation 
 of a council to check the tide of profligacy 
 and profanity was equally unheeded. At last 
 William's refusal to acknowledge Urban, or 
 to allow Anselm to go to Eome to receive the 
 pallium from that Pope, led to a definite rup- 
 ture. The Great Council of Eockingham failed 
 to make Anselm give way to William ; - but 
 the king ended the dispute himself by secretly 
 acknowledging Urban, and getting from him 
 Anselm's pallium. The fresh difficulty of 
 Anselm's refusal to accept it from lay hands 
 was got over by his taking it himself from the 
 high altar of his cathedral. But within a 
 year William brought him before the Curia 
 Regis on a charge of inadequately fulfilling 
 his feudal obligations in the Welsh war. 
 Anselm now appealed to the Pope, wrung 
 from Rufus a licence to travel, and left Eng- 
 land in October, 1097. William at once seized 
 on the estates of his see. At Rome, Anselm 
 soon found that Urban, though very friendly, 
 was too war}' to quarrel with the English 
 king. While in Italy he took part in two 
 councils. At Bari he defended the double 
 Procession against the Greeks. At the 
 Lateran he shared in excommunicating all 
 concerned with the sin of lay investiture. 
 Tired of fruitless waiting, Anselm left Italy 
 in the early summer of 1099, and lived chiefly 
 at Lyons, tiU William's death and Heiiry's 
 need of friends recalled him from exile. But 
 though Henry had urged Anselm's immediate 
 return, he required him before long to renew 
 his homage, and be again "invested" with 
 his archbishopric. Thus the investiture con- 
 test at last crossed over into England, but 
 was conducted in a spirit different from that 
 displayed by Gregory VII. and Henry TV. 
 Anselm absolutely refused to yield ; Henry 
 insisted on prerogative and precedent; but 
 king and prelate always treated each other 
 with the utmost courtesy. An agreement to 
 refer the matter to the Pope led only to Pas- 
 chal II. 's strong support of Anselm ; and as 
 Henry would not give way, the primate went 
 into exile a second time, in 1103. In 1105 
 Ansehn felt compelled to threaten excom- 
 munication, but his ultimatum led to an inter- 
 view and reconciliation with Henry, when 
 the famous compromise was devised which 
 hali a generation later was accepted at Worms 
 by Pope and Emperor. In 1106 Anselm 
 returned. He gave canonical consecration to 
 the bishops irregularly appointed during the 
 rupture, and efficiently aided Henry against 
 
Aus 
 
 (61 ) 
 
 Ans 
 
 the feudalists. He found time to compose 
 a treatise on thq Agreement of Grace and 
 Predestination -with Free Will. He died 
 April 21, 1109, aged seventy-six, and was 
 buried next to Lai3ranc at Canterbury. Not 
 till the end of the fifteenth century did 
 he receive formal canonisation from the 
 worst of popes, Alexander VI. ; but long 
 before this Dante had placed him in paradise 
 among the greatest saints of Christendom. 
 Anselm's personal character was lofty and 
 pure. But the saint in private life was also 
 a churchman and a, politician of high rank, 
 the successful governor of a great abbey and 
 greater see, and the author of the investiture 
 compromise. He represented the highest 
 ideals of mediaeval Christendom. His contest 
 with William and Henry was to him a 
 struggle for principle and divine law against 
 mere force and worldliuess. That it involved 
 the subordination of budding nationality to 
 dying cosmopolitanism, the subjection of the 
 state to a spiritual tyranny as ruthless as that 
 of William, could not be seen by Anselm, 
 
 As the precursor of at least one side of 
 scholastic philosophy, Anselm has an equal 
 claim to fame. Although his unsystematic trea- 
 tises became unduly neglected when brought 
 into competition with the vast and methodical 
 tractates of the later schoolmen, he, more 
 than anyone else, gave that impulse to justify 
 Scripture and the Church by reason and 
 dialectic, which was the dominant idea of the 
 most characteristic school of mediaeval philo- 
 sophy. In the Monologion, he tried to 
 " elicit from the necessity of reason, without 
 the aid of Scripture, the idea of God and the 
 real foundation of it," by recourse to the 
 Platonic theory of " ideas," as expressed by 
 St. Augustine. In the Proslogion he pur- 
 sues the same line still further, and anti- 
 cipates Descartes' famous principle " that the 
 idea of God in the human mind necessarily 
 involves the reaHty of that idea." His Cur 
 Bern Homo attempts to establish a logical 
 and rational theory of the Incarnation, and 
 has profoundly influenced all subsequent 
 speculation on that subject. His crude 
 realism passed away with the advent of more 
 systematic thinking, but the impulse he gave 
 remained permanent. 
 
 The best editions of Anselm's worTrs are tbose 
 of Dom Gerberon (Paris, 1675) and Migne 
 {Patrologice Cursus Completus). Cur JDeus Homo 
 has been translated into English (Oxford, 1858), 
 and the Monologion and Proslogion into French, 
 with comments, in Bonchitt6*s Rational >xme 
 Chretien (Paris, 1842). Some of the MeiJilatioMS 
 have been done into English by Dr. Pusey. 
 
 Eadmer's Vita AnseVmi and Historia Novella 
 (printed in Migne, Patrolog,, v, 159) are onr great 
 sources for the personal and political career of 
 Anselm. After 1093 his history is the history of 
 the time, and much therefore can be got from 
 the general authorities for the period. Thsy 
 are fully and elaborately worked up in Mr. 
 Freeman's William Exi/us. Dean Chiu^eh's 
 Siunt Anselm is the best general account ci him 
 in. English, better than ihat in Dean Hook's 
 
 Uvea of the ArchUshojis of Oanieriurji. Church's 
 preface enuuierutes the chief modem works on 
 Anselm. Professor Basse's Anselm von Canter- 
 bury is full and careful. Professor Franok's 
 wort is shorter and more meagre. M. Charles 
 de Kftnusat's Saint Anselme dc CamtorUry is of 
 great importance. There are other accounts by 
 Mohler, baisset, and Moutalembert. An elabo- 
 rate, though not altogether satisfactory. Life has 
 been publisned (1883) by Mr. M. Eule. 
 
 [T. P. T.] 
 
 Anson, George, 1st Baeon (*. 1697, 
 d. 1761), in 1716 became second Keutenant 
 of H.M.S. Smnpshire, and during the two 
 following years sailed under Admiral 
 Byng in the Mediterranean. In 1724 
 he attained the rank of post - captain. 
 He visited South Carolina, and founded 
 the town of Anson (1733). In 1740 he was 
 despatched with six vessels to sail round Cape 
 Horn and rifle the shores of Peru. Beset by 
 terrible storms, he appointed the island of 
 Juan Fernandez as a rendezvous for his ships. 
 Next scurvy broke out. The vessels at length 
 arrived at the island, except the Wager, which 
 was wrecked. The Spanish fleet sent to 
 attack them was driven back into the Rio de 
 la Plata. Foiled in his attempt to catch the 
 Spanish treasure ship, Anson sailed westward 
 from America with the Centurion, his sole 
 remaining ship, and arrived at Spithead in 
 June, 1744, after an absence of three years 
 and nine months, during which he had cir- 
 cumnavigated the globe. He was at once 
 appointed Rear-Admiral of the Blue and 
 Commissioner of the Admiralty. In 1746 
 he was made Vice-Admiral. In the fol- 
 lowing year he commanded the Channel 
 squadron, and defeated De la Jonquiere off 
 Cape Finisterre. For this exploit he was 
 raised to the peerage. In 1749 he became 
 Vice - Admiral of Great Britain, and in 
 1751 First Commissioner of the Admiralty. 
 He commanded at the descent on Cher- 
 bourg in 1758. Anson's talents were of a 
 rather mediocre order, and scarcely bore a 
 proportion to the honours and success he 
 attained. He was dull and somewhat un- 
 ready in business, so that it was said of him 
 after his famous expedition that he had been 
 round the world but never in it. He was, 
 however, a, man of great courage, coolness, 
 and determination. 
 
 "Waldegrave, Memoirs; Anson's Voltage, com- 
 piled from his papers soon after his return in 
 1744, and frequently reprinted ; D. L. Purvis, 
 English Circumnavigators, 1874. 
 
 Anstruther, Sir Eobeet (5. 1768, d. 
 1809), was quartermaster-general to Sir Ralph 
 Abercromby's army in Egypt, in the cam- 
 paign of 1800. In 1808 he went to Portugal 
 with the reinforcements for Sir Arthur Wel- 
 lesley's division, and was present at the battle 
 of Vimiera, in command of a brigade. In 
 the subsequent campaign of this year he com- 
 manded the rear-suard of Sir John Moore's 
 army during the retreat. He died of exhaus- 
 tion and fatigue, brought on by his exertions 
 
Ant 
 
 (62) 
 
 App 
 
 during the campaign, the day after the army- 
 arrived at Corunna, and was buried at that 
 city by the side oil his commander. 
 Napier, Peninsular War, 
 
 Anti - Corn - Law League. [Cokn 
 Laws.] 
 
 Antigua, the most important of the 
 Leeward Islands, was discovered by Columbus 
 in 1493. In 1632 an English settlement was 
 founded in the island by Sir Thomas Warner, 
 a further influx of colonists from Britain 
 taking place in 1663, in which year a grant of 
 the island was made to Lord Willoughby. In 
 1666 it was ravaged by a French expedition 
 from Martinique, but by the Treaty of Breda, 
 in the same year, was formally ceded to Britain. 
 In 1710 an insurrection caused by the mis- 
 conduct of the governor. Colonel Park, took 
 place, and the governor was slain ; in 1737 a 
 proposed rebellion of the negroes was crushed 
 before it' came to anything. The emanci- 
 pation of the slaves in 1834 was effected 
 without any of the disturbances which took 
 place in .Tamaica. In 1871 Antigua became 
 part of the Federation of the Leeward Islands, 
 and is the residence of the governor-in-chief ; 
 even before that date it was a representative 
 colony, its ailairs being administered by a 
 governor, a legislative council nominated by 
 the crown, and an elective legislative assem- 
 bly of fourteen members.' 
 
 B. Edwards, Hist, of West Indies ; R. M. Mar- 
 tin, Hisf . of the British Colonies, vol. ii. 
 
 Anti-Jaco'bin, The, was a magazine 
 established in Nov., 1797, and brought out 
 weekly until the following July, under the 
 editorship of William Gifllord. The object 
 of the paper was mainly political, being in- 
 tended to satirise the Jacobin principles of 
 the Fox section of the Whigs. The most 
 distinguished of its contributors were John 
 Hookham Frere and George Canning, the 
 latter of whom was the author of the cele- 
 brated story of the " Needy Knife Grinder." 
 Though its object was political, it contained 
 much parody of the literature of the day, 
 especiallj' of Southey and Darwin, both of 
 whom afforded fertile subjects for Canning's 
 wit. The Anti-Jacobin as at first projected 
 had but a short life. The first number was 
 published Nov. 20, 1797, and the last on July 
 9 in the following year. It was, however, 
 continued on a new plan, with less of a political 
 and more of a literary character, imtil 1818. 
 Some of the papers that appeared in it have 
 frequently been reprinted. 
 
 Anti-Slavery Association. [Slave 
 Trade.] 
 
 Antrim, Alexander Maotionnell, 3rd 
 Earl of (5. 1615, d. 1699), was a Roman 
 Catholic, and an active supporter in Ireland 
 of James II. after the Revolution. He was 
 sent with 1,200 men to occupy Londonderry, 
 but the inhabitants shut the gates in his 
 
 face, and he thought it prudent to retire to 
 Coleraine. At the battle of the Boyne his 
 cavalry fled, without striking a blow, before 
 the enemy. Lord Antrim was attainted of 
 high treason, but was subsequently included 
 in the provisions of the Treaty of Limenck, 
 and his honours and estates were restored to 
 him. 
 
 Antrim, Randal Macdonnell, Marquis 
 OF (d. 1682), was employed in 1641 to gain over 
 the Irish army, and he greatly ingratiated 
 himself with the Catholics. Though a Cathoho 
 and a CavaUer, he was eager to fight the Ulster 
 rebels, and offered his aid to Monroe, who, 
 however, treacherously seized him, and kept 
 him a prisoner for eight months, when he 
 escaped, joinedOwen O'Neil, and became one 
 of the Kilkenny Council, pretending that he 
 would bring 10,000 men over to England. 
 The l,-500 men under Kolkitto who joined 
 Montrose in 1644 were sent by him. Clarendon 
 says of him that he was a narrow-minded and 
 vain man, and aspired to supplant Ormonde as 
 a commander, though wholly unfit for the post. 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the BebelUon ; Fronde, 
 Eng. wi Ireland. 
 
 Antwerp, The Surrender op (1706), 
 was an important advantage for the allies 
 in the War of the Spanish Succession. The 
 town was the key to the Scheldt fortresses, 
 and in fact commanded the whole of Brabant 
 and West Flanders. "It might otherwise 
 be described," says Mr. Burton, " as repre- 
 senting in enlargement the relation of its own 
 citadel to the minor fortified works attached 
 to its walls, since it was the centre of converg- 
 ence to a group of fortified towns bound to it 
 by an apparatus of dykes and canals." Marl- 
 borough was so convinced of its importance 
 that he termed his plans against it " the 
 great design." The fortress had previously 
 been occupied by Boufflers, who had driven 
 Opdam from it. After the battle of Ramillies, 
 Cadogan was sent to summon the town. 
 Marlborough awaited the news with anxiety, 
 as a siege would cause great delay. The in- 
 habitants were, however, to a man in favour 
 of their new king, and the French were there- 
 fore compelled to give up the town. For the 
 remainder of the war it remained in the 
 hands of the allies. 
 
 Coxe, Marlborough ; Burton, Reign of Queen 
 Anne; Wyon, Reign of Anne. 
 
 Antwerp, Expedition against (1809). 
 [Walcheren Expedition.] 
 
 Appa Sahil} was the nephew of Ragojee 
 Bhonslah [Mahrattas], on whose death (1816) 
 he became regent of Nagpore, in consequence 
 of the idiotcy of the heir, Passwajee. Being 
 opposed by a powerful faction in the court and 
 zenana, he turned to the English, and a sub- 
 sidiary treaty was concluded Maj' 27, 1816, 
 which provided that a force of 6,000 infantry, 
 and a regiment of cavalry, together with the 
 
App 
 
 (63) 
 
 App 
 
 due proportion of artillery, should be subsi- 
 dised by the Nagpore state at an expense of 
 seven lacs and a half per annum ; and that the 
 rajah should- engage in no foreign negotiation 
 without the concurrence of the British govern- 
 ment. On Feb. 1, 1817, Passwajee was stran- 
 gled by order of Appa Sahib, who immediately 
 mounted the throne with the title of Madajee 
 Bhonslah. Anxious to be freed from de- 
 pendence, he entered into the Mahratta 
 confederacy against the English, while pro- 
 fessing the most inviolable attachment to the 
 latter. On hearing of the attack made on 
 Mr. Elphinstone by Bajee Eao on Nov. 5, 
 he inveighed against such perfidy in very 
 strong terms, though at the same time he was 
 preparing his resources for a treacherous 
 attack on the English residency. This 
 actually took place soon after, and was 
 followed by the gallant defence of the Tula- 
 buldee hiUs by the British against the 
 forces of the rajah, which terminated in his 
 complete defeat. On Dec. 15 the Resident 
 was able to require the rajah to surrender 
 at discretion, on the understanding that his 
 throne would be restored to him. He was 
 restored to his dignities Jan. 8, 1818; but 
 again proving treacherous, was once more 
 dethroned, and died a pensioner on the bounty 
 of Eunjeet Singh. 
 
 Mill, Sist. of India (Wilson's ed.), vlii., dh. 
 iv. — ix. 
 
 Appeal of Treason. [Treason.] 
 
 Appeals to Rome. [Papacy.] 
 
 Appellants, or Lords Appellant, 
 
 was the name given to the nobles who 
 in 1387 " appealed" of treason Eichard II.'s 
 ministers, De Vere, Neville, De la Pole, 
 TresUian, and Brember. When it was known 
 that the king, with the aid of his supporters 
 in various parts of the country and the citizens 
 of London, was attempting to resume the full 
 exercise of his authority, of which he had 
 been deprived by the commission forced on 
 him the previous 3'ear, the Duke of Gloucester, 
 with a large body of troops, marched to 
 London, and compelled him (Nov. 17) to 
 receive a petition of complaint against the 
 royal counsellors. On this proceeding he 
 immediately fled. The Appellants exhibited 
 the bill of impeachment in the Parliament 
 which met in Feb., 1388, and, in spite of the 
 protests of the judges, it was carried. Three 
 of the ministers had already escaped from 
 the kingdom ; but Tresilian and Brember 
 were arrested and put to death. The Appel- 
 lants were five in number — the Duke of 
 Gloucester, and the Earls of Derby, Notting- 
 ham, Ayarwick, and Arundel. [Eichard II. ; 
 Glouoestek, Thomas, Dtjke or.] 
 
 Appellate Jurisdiction is "the ju- 
 risdiction exercised by a court of justice at 
 ihe instance of a person complaining of the 
 
 decision of another court called, in reference 
 to the court of appeal, the court below." Be- 
 fore the Norman Conquest no suit could be 
 carried to a higher tribunal until it had been 
 first heard in the Hundred Court; thence 
 an appeal lay to the Shire Moot, and thence 
 to the Witenagemot, which was the final court 
 of appeal. Under the Norman kings, appeals 
 were decided in the Curia Eegis ; while the ap- 
 peal from the ordinary law courts under Henry 
 II. lay to the sovereign as the source of 
 justice, and to the Concilium Ordinarittm. By 
 degrees, however, petitions for redress were 
 addressed to the Chancellor rather than the 
 king; and in the reign of Edward III. the 
 Court of Chancery was constituted as a Court 
 of Equity, but not of appeal. The Concilium 
 Ordinarium (and not the Commune Concilium) 
 was for long the only court of appeal ; by 
 degrees its appellate jurisdiction passed to 
 the House of Lords, whose power to hear 
 common law appeals has never been ques- 
 tioned. In 1661, however, in the famous 
 case of Shirley v. Fagg, the Commons denied 
 that the Lords could hear appeals from 
 equity; but this right, first asserted in the 
 reign of Charles I. , has never been attacked 
 since. In 1368, the Court of Exchequer 
 Chamber was created as an intermediate 
 court of appeal between the Common Law 
 Courts and the House of Lords ; the powers 
 of this court were extended in 1585, and 
 reconstituted in 1831. Under Henry VIIL, 
 appeals ±rom the ecclesiastical courts to 
 Eome were forbidden under the penalty of 
 prasmunire, and appeals from the arch- 
 bishops' courts were declared to lie to the 
 king in Chancery, who was to appoint Lords 
 Delegates of Appeals to hear appeals from the 
 Admiralty, ecc.esiastical, and baronial courts. 
 In 1832 this appellate jurisdiction was trans- 
 ferred to the Judicial Committee of the Privy 
 Council. By the Supreme Court of Judi- 
 cature Act (36 & 37 Vict., c. 60) of 1873, the 
 appellate functions of this committee, and of 
 the Court of Exchequer Chamber, were trans- 
 ferred to the High Court of Appeal constituted 
 by that Act, with appellate jurisdiction from 
 ail courts of common law and equity, and 
 from the Palatine Courts of Durham and Lan- 
 caster, The final appeal was still left to 
 the House of Lords. [Chancery; Exchequer 
 Chamber ; Lords, House of.] 
 
 Beeves, Hist, of JSng. Law; Stephen, Com- 
 mentariBB ; H. Broom, Const. Sist. r]Hi g p l 
 
 Apprentices are persons bound by in- 
 dentures to serve a master for a certain 
 period, receiving in return for their services 
 maintenance and instruction in their master's 
 craft. The system of apprenticeship in 
 England is of very ancient date, and probably 
 was instituted as early as the trade gilds 
 themselves. In mediaeval times the principle 
 of combination amongst members of one 
 trade was universally recognised, and in 
 
App 
 
 ( 64 
 
 App 
 
 order to practise any craft it was necessary to 
 become free of the company or gild of that 
 craft. This freedom was obtained by serving 
 an apprenticeship of so many years ; and as 
 the number of apprentices which each master 
 was allowed to take was usually limited, a 
 material check was placed upon the numbers 
 of those who were privileged to exercise each 
 trade. Although the system of apprentice- 
 ship existed in England from about the 
 tweUth century, and is occasionally referred 
 to in Acts of Parliament {e.g., 12 Rich. II., 
 c. 3), it was not until 1563 that the famous 
 Statute of Apprentices was passed. By this 
 Act no person was allowed to exercise a 
 trade unless he had previously served a 
 seven years' apprenticeship to it, though 
 the restriction did not, of course, afEect 
 trades which were established in England 
 after the passing of the statute. This Act 
 was speedily found very burdensome, and, 
 although it was held to apply only to towns, 
 it was repealed in 1814 on the recommen- 
 dation of a committee of the House of 
 Commons ; some reservations were, however, 
 made " in favour of the customs and by-laws 
 of the city of London and of other cities, 
 and of corporations and companies lawfully 
 constituted." In 1601 it was enacted that 
 the overseers of a parish might bind pauper 
 children as apprentices until their twenty- 
 fourth year, but in 1728 the age was reduced 
 to twenty-one. In 184.5 an Act was passed 
 which regulated the bindii^g of boys appren- 
 ticed on board vessels, such boys to be between 
 the ages of twelve and seventeen. The terms 
 of apprenticeship in Ireland and Scotland 
 were much less than in England, varying 
 from five to three years, and in Scotland, 
 says Adam Smith, " the corporation laws are 
 less oppressive than in any part of Europe." 
 Apprenticeship, though not now necessary, 
 except in a few cases (as that of solicitors 
 and the like), is frequently entered into by 
 contract, the master being in all cases bound 
 to provide necessary food, clothing, and 
 lodging. The apprentices of the Elizabethan 
 and Stuart periods were usually the sons of 
 yeomen or tradesmen, and, being forbidden 
 to wear the genteel rapier, carried a stout 
 bat or club. Hence the cry when an uproar 
 commenced of " 'Prentices ! clubs ! ' ' From 
 the time of the Tudors the apprentices of 
 London were the special "champions of mer- 
 cantile jealousy arrayed against aristocratic 
 arrogance ; and are to be found in almost 
 every London riot, until they were finally the 
 conquerors at Marston Moor and Naseby." 
 
 Macpherson, Annals of Commerce^ iii. 444, 607. 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 Appropriation of Supplies. The 
 
 successive maxims, the enforcement of which 
 finally secured to the Commons the com- 
 plete control of taxation, were ; (1) that the 
 Parliament alone could grant supplies, and 
 
 the Commons alone originate such grants ; 
 
 (2) that their petitions for redress must be 
 answered before supplies should be granted ; 
 
 (3) that the right to grant includes the right 
 to' decide the appropriation of the grant for 
 definite purposes, and to demand the audit of 
 its expenditure. The Parliament of the six- 
 teenth century saw the two former of these 
 claims constantly evaded by the arbitrary or 
 underhand action of the crown. They began 
 also to see that the way to counteract this, and to 
 counteract at the same time the extravagance 
 or dishonesty of the minister of the crown, was 
 by putting in force the third claim. This had 
 been suggested in the early struggles of the 
 thirteenth century; as in 1237, when the 
 crown offered to allow a committee of the 
 Great Council to supervise the expenditure of 
 the grant then asked for. The plan comes 
 forward again in 1262 and in 1266 ; its im- 
 portance, however, was not yet realised. No 
 doubt under Edward I. it was felt to be 
 enough that Parliament alone should make 
 grants, while under Edward III., Parliament 
 advanced to the principle of redress before 
 supply ; yet the principle of appropriation was, 
 even in these reigns, plainly exhibited in the 
 custom of explaining to the country in the 
 writ of summons to Parliament what the 
 specific purpose was of the grant about to be 
 demanded, whether for a French, a Welsh, or 
 a Scotch war, or for defence of th,e seas, or 
 for protection against invasion. Indeed, 
 under Edward III. the grant was commonly 
 stated to be made for this particular purpose ; 
 while in 1377 the grant for defence of the 
 seas is put by the Commons into the hands 
 of the London citizens, "Walworth and Phil- 
 pot, to expend; and in 1390 is clearly dis- 
 played the distinction between the ordinary 
 and the war expenditure, ten shillings and 
 thirty shillings respectively being allotted to 
 each, out of the forty shillings tax on every 
 sack of wool. The principle thus established 
 was fully accepted in the Lancastrian reigns. 
 Tonnage and poimdage, for instance, became 
 the recognised appropriation for defence of 
 the seas, as the household expenses were sup- 
 posed to be provided out of the crown lands ; 
 and Fortescue wished the principle carried 
 further, so that the crown lands should be 
 redeemed, and inalienably set apart for such 
 extraordinary expenses as embassies, pensions, 
 protection against invasion, &c. It was, in 
 fact, the increasing povertj' of the crown that 
 directed attention to the distinction of the 
 various heads of expenditure, and the need of 
 a strict system of appropriation ; and it was 
 natural, therefore, that when the crown, in 
 Yorkist and Tudor hands, became wealthy 
 as well as despotic, these distinctions, and the 
 appropriations among them, should be lost 
 sight of. Parliament met but rarely ; ton- 
 nage and poundage were granted for the 
 king's life ; benevolences filled up the royal 
 coffers, already enriched by forfeitures; and 
 
Aqn 
 
 (65) 
 
 Arb 
 
 not till the reign of Charles II. is the con- 
 trol resumed hy the old means — the first case 
 heing in 1665, when a grant was made for 
 purposes of the war alone. After the Revolu- 
 tion, ministers hrought in annual estimates 
 of the sums required under different heads; 
 and Fox's resolution in 1781 would have 
 effected this still more completely, hy making 
 it illegal to issue any moneys not appropriated 
 hy Parliament. This has now become a con- 
 stitutional rule, and in the annual estimates 
 the sums asked of Parliament are specifically 
 appropiiated to their several purposi'S, and 
 the Budget voted item hy item. The prin- 
 ciple has been completed by the reforms 
 originated by Burke, which have reduced the 
 Civil List to an amount fixed to meet the actual 
 personal eind royal expenses of the sovereign, 
 and relieved him of many payments for 
 national objects, so that Parliament no longer 
 has schedules of crown debts to pay off at 
 intervals, and its strict rights of appropriation 
 now extend over crown expenses as over all 
 other heads of public expenditure. 
 
 Sir Jolin Fortescue, On the MoTiarchy of Eng- 
 land; Gneist, Das Self-government; Gneist, Ver- 
 ToaWimgsrecM ; P. V. Smith, The English Institu- 
 tions ; and the ConstitutioBal Histories of 
 Stubbs, Hallam, and Tttay. [A. L. S.] 
 
 Aanablanca, Peteb. op (d. 1268), was 
 
 one of the numerous foreign ecclesiastics who 
 thronged to England in Henry III.'s reign. 
 In 1240 he was made Bishop of Hereford, and 
 was one of the most obnoxious foreign ad- 
 visers of the king. He was driven from his 
 see by the barons in 1262, and his goods 
 were sequestrated. 
 
 Aq,Tiitaiiie, The Dttchy of, in the south of 
 France, which comprised Guienne, Perigueux, 
 Limoges, Auvergne, Saintonge, La Marche, 
 Poitou and Gascony, besides smaller terri- 
 tories, was first brought into connection with 
 England by the marriage of Henry II. 
 with Eleanor, heiress of the last Duke of 
 Aquitaine. John lost Poitou, but the rest of 
 the province remained in the hands of the 
 English king. By the Treaty of Abbeville, in 
 1259, Aquitaine became a fief, held by the 
 King of England as a vassal of the French 
 crown. For a short while in Edward I.'s 
 reign, Aquitaine was occupied by the French ; 
 and one of the chief causes of the war with 
 France in the reign of Edward III. was the 
 attempt of Philip VI. to regain possession of 
 the duchy. In 1360 the Treaty of Bretigny 
 once more secured Aquitaine to the English 
 king, with the addition of Poitou, but not 
 including Auvergne. But the renewal of 
 the war brought defeats and losses on the 
 English, with the result that in 1374 nothing 
 remained to them of Aquitaine but some 
 small pieces of territory round Bayonne and 
 Bordeaux. Henry V. won back the province, 
 only for his son to lose everything ; and the 
 final result of the Hundred Tears' "War was 
 Hist.— 3 
 
 the incorporation of Aquitaine into the 
 French kingdom. 
 
 Freeman, Hibtorical Geography, 
 
 Arabella Stuart, Lady (J. 1577, d. 1615), 
 was the daughter of the Earl of Lennox, 
 brother of Lord Darnley. Thus she was first 
 cousin to James I. and great-granddaughter of 
 Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. During 
 her early hfe, (Jueen Ehzalieth often spoke 
 of Arabella as her possible successor, in case 
 James did not conduct himself according to 
 her satisfaction; and though on Elizabeth's 
 death James I. succeeded to the English 
 crown without opposition, there were some 
 who maintained that Arabella, having been 
 born in England, had a better title to the 
 crown than James, who was an aHen. [Stuart, 
 Family of.] One of the objects of the 
 Main Plot would seem to have been to 
 depose James and place Arabella on the 
 throne, though it is very improbable that 
 Arabella herself knew anything of the designs 
 of the conspirators. She continued to hve at 
 court till 1610, when, contrary to the king's 
 wishes, she privately married Sir "William 
 Seymour, afterwards Marquis of Hertford, 
 and a member of the Suffolk branch of the 
 royal family. This union of two possible 
 claimants to the throne was regarded by 
 James with great apprehension ; Seymour 
 was at once sent to the Tower, and Arabella 
 confined at Lambeth, to be shortly after 
 conveyed to Durham. While on her way 
 thither she managed to escape, and took ship 
 for France, her husband having got out of 
 the Tower and fled to Ostend. But before 
 Arabella could reach Calais, the vessel was 
 captured, and she was committed to the Tower. 
 Her reason gave way, and after four years' 
 imprisonment she died. Her character was 
 remarkably amiable, and she never appears 
 to have engaged personally in the intrigues 
 carried on in her name. 
 
 Jesse, Memoirs of the Stuarts ; S. E. Gardiner, 
 Hist. ofEng., 1603—1642. 
 
 Aracau is a division of British Burmah, 
 lying along the eastern coast of the Bay of 
 Bengal, extending from Chittagong to Cape 
 Negrais. The district at one time belonged 
 to the Moguls, and was subsequently partly 
 in the hands of the Portuguese. In 1783 it 
 was conquered by the Burmese, by whom it 
 was ceded to the English, as a result of the 
 first Burmese "War in 1826. 
 
 AragOU. [Spain, Eelations with.] 
 
 Aragon, Catherine of. [Catherine.] 
 
 Arbnthuot, John,M.D. [b. 1666, d. 1735), 
 author, wit, and physician, the son of a 
 Scottish Episcopal clergyman, after taking 
 a medical degree at Aberdeen University, 
 came to London in search of a fortune. 
 He acquired some literary reputation by a 
 criticism of Dr. "Woodward's Account oj 
 
Arc 
 
 ( 66 ) 
 
 Arc 
 
 the Deluge, and Tables of Grecian, Soman, and 
 Jewish Measures, Weights, and Coins, a work 
 of considerable researoli. About 1704 acci- 
 dent threw him in the way of Prince George 
 of Denmark, Queen Anne's husband, and 
 he became the queen's physician, and the 
 intimate friend of the foremost political 
 writers of the Tory party. In 1712 he 
 wrote a political allegory, The History of 
 John Sull, which Macaulay calls the most 
 humorous political satire in our language. Its 
 object was to throw ridicule on the "War of 
 the Spanish Succession, and he represents 
 John Bull, the Englishman, Nick Frog, the 
 Frenchman, and Louis Baboon (Bourbon), the 
 Spaniard, as tradesmen squabbling over a 
 lawsuit, Marlborough being the Attorney 
 Hocus, who tries to prolong the contest. On 
 the death of Queen Anne, in 17U, Arbuthnot 
 joined Swift, Pope, and other Tory men of 
 letters, in founding the Scriblerus Club, the 
 object of which was to chastise literary quacks. 
 The first book of their uncompleted work. 
 The Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus, was un- 
 doubtedly by his pen, and it is a very fine 
 piece of Ught satire. Arbuthnot wrote besides 
 many works on medical subjects, which had 
 great reputation in their day. 
 
 Arbuthnot, Miscelkuecms Tfavfcs, 1770; Scott, 
 Xi/e of Swift . 
 
 Archbishops. The territorial extent of 
 an archbishop's authority is called a province, 
 from the name of an administrative division 
 of the Roman empire. Archbishops do not 
 form an order apart from bishops. An arch- 
 bishop in England has a, bishop's authority 
 within his own diocese, and is also chief of 
 the clergy, and has power to correct the 
 faults of bishops throughout his province. 
 When, in 597, at the biddmg of Gregory the 
 Great, Augustine was on his way to England, 
 he received episcopal consecration at Aries. 
 The design of Gregory was that there should 
 be two metropolitan sees in England — at 
 London and York — following the twofold 
 division of the Roman province. Augustine, 
 however, dwelt at Canterbury, which thus 
 became the seat of the southern metropolitan. 
 England was not wholly converted from Kent. 
 Different missions succeeded at various dates in 
 the kingdoms into which the land was divided, 
 and in consequence a danger arose from lack 
 of unity in the Church. From this she was 
 saved by Archbishop Theodore (668 — 690). 
 His plan was that there should be only 
 one archbishopric, and he gathered all the 
 bishops together in one synod.' After his 
 death his scheme perished. Pope Gregory's 
 plan was revived as more in accordance with 
 national feeling, and in 735 the see of York 
 was made an archbishopric. OfEa, King of 
 Mercia, similarly attempted to give expression 
 to the brief period of Mercian supremacy 
 by setting up a third archbishopric at Lich- 
 field, which lasted from 787 till 803. In 
 
 1143 Henry of Blois, Bishop of the royal city 
 of Winchester, applied to Pope Innocent II. 
 to convert his see into an archbishopric and rid 
 him of the authority of Canterbury, but did 
 not obtain his object. Before the Conquest 
 the archbishopric of York was below that 
 of Canterbury in dignity. In 1093 Thoracis 
 of York objected to the title of Metropohtan 
 of Great Britain being applied to the Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. 'The objection was 
 held good. The Archbishop of Canterbury 
 was declared to be Primate, first in rank, but 
 York was and is also a metropolitan see, 
 though the Archbishop of Canterbury has 
 the title of Primate and Metropolitan of 
 aU England. In 1119 Thurstan of York 
 defeated an attempt to make him profess 
 obedience to the Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 The Welsh bishops owned the authority of 
 Canterbury. An unsuccessful attempt was 
 made in 119S to restore to St. David's the 
 archiepiscopal dignity which it had in the 
 time of the British Church. Until 1152 the 
 Irish bishops received consecration from the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury ; and in the twelfth 
 century his authority in Scotland was dis- 
 puted by the Archbishop of York, until, in 
 1188, the Scotch Church was made imme- 
 diately dependent on Rome. The Archbishop 
 of Canterbury had a kind of patriarchal au- 
 thority, and Archbishop Anselm was greeted 
 by Pope Urban II. as the Pope and Patriarch 
 of a second world. His position in the state 
 was one of great importance, and he has always 
 stood next after the sovereign, whom it is his 
 duty to crown. The right of electing the arch- 
 bishops pertains, as in the case of bishops, to 
 the Chapters of their churches. The dignity 
 of the see of Canterbury caused frequent 
 interference with the right of the monastic 
 Chapter of Christ Church. A voice in the 
 election was claimed by the suffragan bishops ; 
 but their claim was disallowed by Innocent 
 III. The crown interfered oftener and more 
 directly in the appointment of one who was 
 its constitutional adviser than in the case of 
 other elections. The Pope managed in many 
 instances to secure the election of his nominee. 
 His influence was insured (1) because it was 
 held necessary that the archbishops should 
 receive from him the pall, an ecclesiastical 
 vestment, without which an archbishop did 
 not consecrate bishops; (2) and because (in 
 later times) the Pope also granted to the 
 archbishop the authority of a legate. The 
 right of the Archbishop of Canterbury 
 to the legatiue commission was asserted 
 by Archbishop Anselm, and finally gained 
 by Archbishop Langton in 1291. This 
 right did not preclude the visits of special 
 legates a latere, but it was an infringement of 
 it to grant a permanent legatine commission 
 for England to any one else, as in the case of 
 Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, since 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury was legatus natus. 
 The Archbishop of York also had the pall, 
 
Arc 
 
 (67) 
 
 Arc 
 
 and from about 1350 thelegatine commission. 
 The provincial jurisdiction of the archbishops 
 ■was exercised in their Provincial Courts. The 
 judge of the Provincial Court of Canterbury- 
 was the Official Principal. In the Court of 
 Arches^ so called because held in St. Mary 
 le Bow (de ^)-«ubus), the Bean of Arches 
 exercised the archbishop's jurisdiction over 
 certain peculiars, or parishes exempt from the 
 ordinary episcopal jurisdiction. As the offices 
 of Official Principal and Dean of Arches were 
 usually vested in the same person, the Court 
 and Dean of Arches came to be inexactly 
 spoken of as if they signified the court and 
 judge of the archbishop's provincial jurisdic- 
 tion. The final appeal from this court lay, 
 after the breach with Eome, to a body called 
 the Sigh Court of Delegates (25 Henry VIII., 
 c. 19). By 3 and 4 Wm. IV., o. 41, the 
 appellate jurisdiction of this court was con- 
 ferred on the Judicial Committee of the Privy 
 Council. The office of Official Principal, both 
 of Canterburj' and York, is now, by the Public 
 Worship Regulation Act (37 and 38 Vict., c. 
 86), merged in that of a judge appointed by 
 the archbishops, subject to the approval of her 
 Majesty. This judge exercises the provincial 
 jurisdiction of both archbishops as the Official 
 i?rincipal of the Arches Court of Canterbury 
 and the Chancery Court of York. The arch- 
 bishops summon and preside over the pro- 
 ■vincial synods or Convocations (q.v.). [For 
 Archbishops of Dublin, St. Andrew's, &c., see 
 Imsu Church ; Scotland, Church or.] 
 
 Haddan and Stub'bs, Cownoils and Eccl. Docu- 
 ments (1869—71) ; Bede, Sist. Bccles. ; Eadmer, 
 Hist. Nov. and Vita Anselm. ; T. Stubbs, -Eborac. 
 Archiepisc. ; Hook, lAves of the Archimho^s of 
 Canterbury ; Phillimore, Eeoles. Law ; Brice, 
 Public Worship; and esp. Report of the Royal 
 Commission on Ecclesiastical Courts, 1883. 
 
 [W. H.] 
 
 Archbishops op Cantebbuby, 
 
 59?. 
 604. 
 619. 
 634, 
 627, 
 655. 
 
 731, 
 7*. 
 759, 
 766. 
 793. 
 805. 
 
 870. 
 
 890. 
 
 914. 
 
 923. 
 
 942. 
 
 960. 
 
 988. 
 
 990. 
 
 995. 
 101)5. 
 1013. 
 1020. 
 1038. 
 1051. 
 
 , — Augustine. 
 , — LaurentiuB 
 ,— MelUtuB. 
 , — Justus. 
 .— Honorins. 
 , — ^Trith-ona 
 
 (Deusdedit). 
 —Theodore. 
 — Brihtwald. 
 — Tatwin. 
 — ^Notbelm. 
 — Bregwin. 
 — Jaenberfc. 
 — Ethelhard. 
 — Wulfred. 
 — Feologild. 
 — Ceolnoth. 
 — Ethelred. 
 — Plegmund. 
 — Atlielm. 
 — Wulfdelm. 
 -Odo. 
 — Dun Stan. 
 — Ethelgar. 
 — Siric. 
 — Alfric. 
 — Alphege. 
 — Alfsfcan. 
 — Ethelnoth. 
 — Eadsige. 
 -Robert. 
 
 1052.— Stigand. 
 1070.— Lanfrano. 
 1093.— Anselm. 
 1114. — Balph d'Escures. 
 1123.— WiUiam de Cor- 
 
 beuil. 
 1139.— Theobald. 
 1182.— Thomas (Beoket). 
 1174.— Eiohard. 
 1185.— Baldwin. 
 1193.— Hubert Fitz- 
 
 Walter. 
 1207. — Stephen Langton 
 1229 Eiohard of 
 
 Wethersbed. 
 1234.— Edmund Eich. 
 1245.— Boniface of 
 
 Savoy. 
 1273.— Bob. Eilwardby. 
 1279.— .Tohn Peckham. 
 1294.— Eob. Winohelsey. 
 1313.— Walter Eeynolds. 
 13'i8. — Simon Meopbam. 
 1333.— John of Stratford 
 1349, July 19. -Thomas 
 
 Bradwardine. 
 1349, Dec. 20.— Simon 
 
 Islip. 
 1366. — Simon Langbam. 
 1368.— Wm. Whitt.lesea. 
 1375. — Simon Sudbury. 
 
 1381.— Wm. Coui:tenay. 
 1396.— Thos. Fitzalau. 
 1398.— Eoger Walden. 
 1411.— Henry Chicheley. 
 1443.— John Stafford. 
 1452. — John Kemp. 
 145i.— Thos. Bourchier. 
 I486.— John Morton. 
 1501.- Hem-y Dean. 
 1503.— Wm. Warham. 
 1533.— Thos. Cranmer. 
 1553. — Reginald Pole. 
 1559.— Matthew Parker. 
 1576.— Edmund Grindal. 
 1583.— John Whitgift. 
 1604.— Eichrd. Bancroft. 
 1611.— George Abbot. 
 1633.— WiUiam Laud. 
 1645—1660. See Va- 
 cant. 
 1660.— William Juxod. 
 1663.— Gilbert Sheldon. 
 
 1678. 
 1691. 
 1695. 
 1716. 
 1737. 
 1747. 
 1757. 
 1758. 
 1768. 
 
 1783. 
 1805. 
 
 1828, 
 1848. 
 
 -Wm. Sanoroft. 
 
 -Joim TUlotson. 
 
 -Tbos. Tenison. 
 
 -William Wake. 
 
 -John Potter. 
 
 -Thomas Herring. 
 
 ■MatthewHutton. 
 
 -Thomas Seeker. 
 
 -Prederiok Corn- 
 wallis. 
 
 -John Moore. 
 
 -Charles Manners 
 Sutton. 
 
 -William Howley. 
 
 -Jn. Bird Sumner. 
 
 -Charles Thomas 
 Longley. 
 . — Archibald Camp- 
 bell Tait. 
 .—Edward White 
 Benson. 
 
 Archbishops op York. 
 >. — Paulinus. 
 1.— Ceadda (Chad). 
 ).— Wilfrid (dep. 678 ; 
 restored 686 — 
 
 678. 
 705. 
 718. 
 734. 
 767. 
 
 780, 
 796. 
 
 837, 
 
 864. 
 
 900. 
 
 921. 
 
 931. 
 
 958 
 
 972. 
 
 996, 
 1003, 
 1028. 
 1051 
 1061. 
 1070. 
 1101. 
 1109.- 
 1119. 
 1143.- 
 
 1147. 
 1154. 
 
 1215. 
 1256. 
 1258.- 
 1266.- 
 1279.- 
 1286.- 
 1298.- 
 1300.- 
 1306.- 
 1317.- 
 1342.- 
 
 — Bosa. 
 
 — John 01 Beverley. 
 
 —Wilfrid. 
 
 —Egbert. 
 
 ,-Ethelbert (or 
 
 C<]ena). 
 , — Eanbald. 
 , — Eanbald. 
 (?).— WuUsy (Wul- 
 
 fius). 
 , — Wigmund. 
 , — Wulfbere. 
 — Ethelbald. 
 — Eedevald.^ 
 -Wulfstan. 
 — Oskytel. 
 — Oswald. 
 — Aldulf. 
 , — Wulfstan. 
 , — ^Alfric. 
 , — Kinsy. 
 ,— Ealdred. 
 — Thomas. 
 Gerard. 
 Thomas. 
 
 -Thurstan. 
 
 •WiUiam Ktz- 
 Herbert. 
 — Henry Murdac. 
 — Eoger de Pont 
 
 ravSque. 
 — Geoifrey Planta- 
 
 genet. 
 — Walter Gray. 
 
 -Lewall Bovill. 
 
 -GeoffreyLudham 
 
 -Walter GifEard. 
 
 -Wm. Wickwan. 
 
 ■John Romain. 
 
 ■Henry Newark. 
 
 ■Thos. Corbridge. 
 
 ■Wm. Greenfield. 
 
 -Wm. Melton. 
 
 -Wm.de la Zouch. 
 
 1352.- John Thoresby. 
 
 1374.— Alexndr. Neville. 
 
 1388.— Thomas Arundel. 
 
 1397.— Eobert Waldby. 
 
 1398.— Henry Scrope. 
 
 1407.— Henry Bowet. 
 
 1426.— John Kemp. 
 
 1452.— WiUiam Booth. 
 
 1464. — George Neville. 
 
 1476 — Laurence Booth. 
 
 1480.— Thomas Eother- 
 ham. 
 
 1501. — Thomas Savage. 
 
 1508.— Christphr. Bain- 
 bridge. 
 
 1514.— Thos. Wolsey. 
 
 1531.— Ed. Lea. 
 
 1545.— Eobt. Holgate. 
 
 1555. — Nicholas Heath. 
 
 1561.— Thomas Young. 
 
 1570.— Edmund Grindal. 
 
 1577.— Edwin Sandys. 
 
 1589.— John Piers. 
 
 1595.— Matthw. Hutton. 
 
 1606.— Tobias Matthew. 
 
 1628. -Geo. Monteigne. 
 
 1628.— Samuel Hars- 
 nett. 
 
 1632.— Richard NeUe. 
 
 1641.— John WiUiams. 
 
 1660.— Accepted Fre- 
 wen. 
 
 1644. — Eichard Sterne. 
 
 1683.— John Dolben. 
 
 1688.— Thos. Lamplugh. 
 
 1691.— John Sharpe. 
 
 1714. — William Dawes. 
 
 1724. — Lancelot Black- 
 bum. 
 1743. — Thomas Herring. 
 1747.— MatthewHutton. 
 
 1757.- John Gilbert. 
 1761.— Ebt. Drummond. 
 1777,— Wm. Markbam. 
 1808.— Edward Vernon. 
 1847.— Thos. Musgrave. 
 I860.— Cliarles Thomas 
 
 Lonpley. 
 1863.— Wm. Thomson. 
 
 See W. Stubbs, Registrum Sacrum Anylicanum, 
 Oxford, 1858. 
 
 Architecture. In England there are 
 many remains of the peoples who dwelt in 
 the land before the coming of the Romans. 
 These remains are chiefly sepulchral, and show 
 that the chief object of attention was the 
 erection of memorials to the dead. These 
 prehistoric remains may be roughly classified 
 
Arc 
 
 ( 68) 
 
 Arc 
 
 as (1) monoliths, single stones standing up- 
 right ; (2) cromlechs, or table stones, con- 
 sisting of one large stone supported by others, 
 as at Kit's Coty House, near Maidstone ; 
 (3) stone circles, as at Stonehenge, Avebury, 
 and Long Meg and her Daughters, near 
 Penrith; (4) barrows, oblong or round, 
 which consist of mounds of earth containing 
 sepulchral chambers. These barrows are 
 scattered over the country, but are generally 
 to be found on moorldud. Besides these are 
 traces of lake dwelHngs — houses built on 
 wooden platforms supported by piles driven 
 into the bottom of lakes, accessible by planks 
 from the mainland. There are also traces of 
 sculptured ornaments on boulders of stone, 
 which are especially frequent in Northumber- 
 land. There are also earthworks of camps 
 and the foundations of fortified villages to be 
 found in many places amongst the hills. 
 
 When the Romans came to Britain they 
 brought with them the art of building in 
 stone. They built towns and houses, which, 
 however, were all destroyed, though the sites 
 of Roman villas, their mosaic pavements, the 
 hypocausts, or cellars with flues to warm the 
 house, may be still traced in many places. 
 But the greatest memorials of Roman build- 
 ing are their military works, especially the 
 great wall extending from the Tyne to the 
 Solway, whose course may still be traced, with 
 its military stations and remains of build- 
 ings outside. The station of Housesteads, 
 near Hexham, has been called "the English 
 Pompeii." After the departure of the Romans 
 the English conquest drove the Britons from 
 the cities, which fell into decay. The English 
 themselves lived in villages, in houses built 
 of clay, or wood, or wattles. After their 
 conversion to Christianity they began to 
 build churches, of oaken planks, sometimes 
 covered with lead. Benedict Biscop, a 
 Northumbrian thegn, went over to Gaul and 
 brought back workmen, who, at the end of 
 the seventh century, built a stone church, or 
 basilica, for the monastery of Wearmouth. 
 Wilfrid followed, and built churches at York 
 and Hexham, remains of which may still be 
 seen. Still, before the Norman Conquest 
 architecture did not make much advance in 
 England. Stone towers were built with 
 wooden naves, and the remains of what is 
 called Saxon architecture are few. The tower 
 of Earl's Barton Church, in Northamptonshire, 
 is one of the most important examples. 
 
 The Norman Conquest gave the signal for 
 a great age of ecclesiastical architecture in 
 England. Vast cathedrals were built in the 
 massive, round-arched style which had gra- 
 dually developed from the Roman construc- 
 tions, and which is known as Romanesque 
 or Norman. Of this style, very striking 
 specimens are the cathedrals of Norwich, 
 Peterborough, and Ely, and Malmesbury 
 Abbey. The cathedral of Durham shows an 
 attempt at emancipation from the traditions 
 
 of the Norman builders. The introduction 
 of the pointed arch, which was probably first 
 employed in rebuilding the east end of 
 Canterbury Cathedral after the fire in 1174, 
 made a gTeat change in architectural con- 
 struction. The activity in the way of church 
 building in the north, as shown in the York- 
 shire abbeys, still further developed an 
 English style of architecture, which first made 
 itself manifest in Lincoln Cathedral (1200); 
 and SaHsbnry (1220—1258). This style, which 
 is known as the Early English, is remarkable 
 for its lancet windows, which are either single 
 or grouped in graceful designs. The increase 
 of the use of painted glass as a necessary part 
 of church decoration led to an adoption of 
 French principles and the introduction of 
 geometrical tracery, which marked the archi- 
 tecture of the reigns of Edward I. and 
 Edward II. The Angel Choir at Lincoln; 
 the abbeys of Tintern and Gainsborough, 
 and the chapel of Merton College, Oxford, 
 may be given as examples of the progress of 
 this geometrical style. It lasted, however, 
 but a short time ; the restlessness which 
 marked the reign of Edward III. was ex- 
 pressed in the desire for new inventions, and 
 geometrical tracery gave way to flowing or 
 curvilineal tracery of the style that is called 
 Decorated, specimens of which may be seen 
 in Carlisle Cathedral. It would seem that the 
 vagaries of the Decorated st}de awakened a 
 reaction. In the flowing tracery strength and 
 construction were alike lost sight of, till the 
 Perpendicular style was hailed with delight 
 as being sounder. This style was first made 
 popular by William of Wykeham, in his build- 
 ings at Winchester and at Oxford, and pre- 
 vailed for above a century, during the four- 
 teenth and first half of the fifteenth centuries. 
 Its characteristics were a stern regard to the 
 needs of construction. Straight lines ran 
 from the bottom to the top of the window, 
 which was regarded as merely a frame for 
 painted glass. Regularity and proportion 
 were everywhere insisted upon, and fancy was 
 no longer allowed a place. The chapel of 
 King's College, Cambridge, is a good example 
 of the Perpendicular style, but there are 
 many instances to be found in every locality 
 of a style which was so long in use. 
 
 The development of ecclesiastical archi- 
 tecture was the chief feature of this period. 
 England produced no great municipal build- 
 ings. The towns did not rise to the same in- 
 dependent position as that which .fostered the 
 development of municipal architecture on the 
 Continent. The dwellings of the barons were 
 niilitary forti-esses, and wer^ at first reproduc- 
 tions of the castles of Normandy. Castle-build- 
 ing, however, soon became an eminently Eng- 
 lish art. The massive keeps of the Norman 
 castles were surrounded by curtain walls con- 
 necting one tower with another, and weaving 
 the whole pile into a strong and picturesque 
 mass of buildings. In the reigns of the 
 
Arc 
 
 (69 ) 
 
 Arc 
 
 Edwards these castles assumed their largest 
 proportions, and their remains are to be seen 
 most clearly on the "Welsh and Scottish 
 marches. Some may he traced in ruins, 
 others have been altered into modern dwell- 
 ings, hut still retain many of their ancient 
 features. The castles of Alnwick, Berkeley, 
 Chepstow, Kenilworth, Warwick, Rochester, 
 and Windsor are amongst the most strilring 
 examples. Another class of mediEeval build- 
 ings peculiar to England is found in the 
 colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, and the 
 schools of Eton and Winchester. Taking as 
 their model monastic buildings, the architects 
 adapted them to the conditions of secular life, 
 and built quadrangles round the chapel and 
 common hall. The great hall was, moreover, a 
 feature of the castle, and received the greatest 
 architectural care, particularly in the construc- 
 tion of the roof. The halls of the royal palaces 
 of Westminster (Eichard II.) and Eltham 
 (Henry IV.) still remain as examples of the 
 constructive ingenuity of their builders. 
 
 The Tudor reigns saw a great increase in 
 the material prosperity of England and in 
 its internal quiet. The suppression of the 
 monasteries removed one of the principal 
 supports of ecclesiastical architecture. The 
 comforts of domestic Hfe increased. The 
 castles and fortified manor-houses of the 
 troubled times of the Middle Ages were either 
 abandoned or were converted into dwelling- 
 houses more suitable for peaceful times. At 
 first this was done in accordance with the 
 principles of Gothic architecture. But the 
 movement of the Kenaissance towards a re- 
 vival of the classical style had begun in Italy, 
 and spread over France. It was long in 
 taking possession of England, but it afiiected 
 it unconsciously in details. The style known 
 as Jacobean was Gothic in feeling, but adopted 
 with some timidity classical ornamentation. 
 It corresponded to the change through which 
 England was passing in religion and literature 
 alike. The memorials of this style are chiefly 
 to be found in dwelling-houses. Churches 
 were not required, as the number already ex- 
 istingwas more than ample for the population. 
 The University of Cambridge, which was at 
 that period very flourishing, has some excel- 
 lent examples in Caius and Clare Colleges, 
 and in Neville's Court in Trinity. The great 
 houses that were now built served for some 
 time as models for English houses. They 
 differed from the designs in vogue on the 
 Continent, and showed an adaptation to the 
 needs of English climate. They were built 
 round courtyards, after the old fashion ; but 
 the entrance was on the outside, and the win- 
 dows of the main rooms looked outwards to 
 the country, not into the courtyard. Knowle 
 may be taken as an example of the Gothic 
 style of dwelling-house. Longleat, Temple 
 Xewsam, Longford Castle, Hardwioke Hall, 
 and Hatfield House are examples of various 
 forms of classical adaptations. All of them 
 
 are picturesque, graceful in proportions, and 
 comfortable in their arrangements, though 
 their ornamentation shows learning misunder- 
 stood and improperly applied. The most 
 conspicuous instance of this is the gateway of 
 the Bodleian Library at Oxford, where the 
 five orders of classical architecture are piled 
 one upon another, and the whole is crowned by 
 Gothic pinnacles. 
 
 In the reign of Charles I., the architectural 
 style of the Italian Eenaissance found its full 
 development in England under the influence of 
 Inigo Jones, an architect of great ability, who 
 studied in Italy under the last great Italian 
 architect Palladio. On his return to England, 
 Inigo Jones designed a mighty palace for the 
 king at Whitehall. The Banqueting House 
 was executed from his designs, but the troubles 
 of Charles I. prevented the plan from being 
 carried out. Jones's scheme was conceived on 
 a gigantic scale ; had it been executed, the 
 Palace of Whitehall would have been the 
 most splendid in Europe. Jones showed the 
 possibility of dignified simplicity in a Protes- 
 tant church, by the building of St. Paul's, 
 Covent Garden, the first ecclesiastical build- 
 ing of any importance since the Reforma- 
 tion. The Restoration found its architect 
 in a man of real learning and cultivation, 
 Sir Christopher Wren, whose earliest work 
 is the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford. The 
 Great Eire of London, in 1666, gave Wren 
 an opportunity, such as few architects have 
 enjoyed, of modeUing the architectural aspect 
 of a great city. He prepared a plan for the 
 rebuilding of London, which unfortunately 
 was not carried out. However, he was asked 
 to rebuild St. Paul's Cathedral and nearly 
 fifty other churches. In St. Paul's Cathedral 
 Wren built the largest and most splendid 
 church, after St. Peter's in Rome, that had 
 been attempted in the classical style. Besides> 
 this, he studded the city with graceful steeples, 
 that lent dignity to the proportions of St. 
 Paul's dome, which towered above them. The 
 chief of these are the spires of Bow Church ; 
 St. Bride's, Fleet Street ; St. Michael's, Com- 
 hiU; St. Stephen's, Walbrook; and St. Duu- 
 stan's-in-the-East. In all his buildings Wren 
 showed great constructive ingenuity and a 
 delight in solving diflicult problems, though 
 at times he has allowed this to overcome his 
 artistic taste. Few cities bear so clearly the 
 impress of one man's architectural genius as 
 does London that of Wren. 
 
 The successors of Wren in the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century were Hawksmoor, who 
 built the church of St. George's, Bloomsbury, 
 and Sir John Vanbrugh. Vanbrugh, a Dutch- 
 man by descent, was happy in the opportunity 
 of having entrusted to him a monumental 
 work of national importance. He was com- 
 missioned to build Blenheim Palace as a gift 
 of the nation to the Duke of Marlborough. 
 His plan is vast and grand. He certainly 
 aimed at giving enduring stability to his 
 
Arc 
 
 ( 70 ) 
 
 Ard 
 
 ■work. But though the general design was 
 dignified, there is a clumsiness and want of 
 proportion in the adaptation of details that 
 leaves an impression of heaviness and gloom. 
 In the huilding of Castle Howard, Vanbrugh 
 shows the same attempt at grandeur, hut with 
 more sobriety. An architect whose work 
 shows more artistic feeling is James Gibbs, 
 whose most important buildings are the 
 church of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields and the 
 Eadcliffe Library at Oxford. 
 
 The middle of the eighteenth century saw a 
 development of the study of classical archfe- 
 ology, which immediately reacted on archi- 
 tecture. Especially Stuart's work on The 
 Architecture of Athens, commenced in 1762, 
 affected popular taste. The architecture of 
 the Italian Renaissance, which had hitherto 
 been pursued in England, was classical in 
 sentiment, and used classical details while 
 freely adapting them to its own purposes. 
 The end of the eighteenth century saw a 
 learned revival of pure classical architecture, 
 freed from its Italian adaptations. This 
 absolute copying of classical antiquity became 
 a fashion. Churches were built like Grecian 
 temples, as, for instance, the church of St. 
 Pancras, with its caryatid porticoes and model 
 of a small temple erected by way of a spire on 
 a larger one. No large building was erected 
 except in the severest classical style, with 
 portico, whether needful or not. The British 
 Museum is one of the least successful of the 
 buildings of this school ; St. George's Hall at 
 Liverpool is one of the most happy. But this 
 classical revival in architecture was soon met 
 by a, Gothic revival, which may be said to 
 date from Horace Walpole, but took a great 
 hold on popular taste after JBeckford's revival 
 of Fonthill Abbey in the shape of a gentle- 
 man's house. its architect, Wyatt, was 
 entrusted with the restoration of several of 
 our cathedrals. Houses were built in the 
 form of Gothic castles or abbeys. The rage for 
 strictly classical imitations was succeeded by a 
 rage for exact reproduction of Gothic designs. 
 The writings of Britton, Hickman, Pugin, 
 and many others lent the resources of careful 
 archaeology to this revival, which corresponded 
 also with the Tractarian movement within the 
 English Church. In obedience to the desire 
 of restoring the assumed reverence and faith 
 of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, 
 churches throughout England have been 
 " restored," or brought back, to what some 
 ingenious archaeologist guesses to have been 
 their original aspect. Innumerable churches 
 have been built in imitation of Gothic models ; 
 and in secular buildings, the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment, and more recently the Law Courts, 
 were erected in Gothic style, and have taxed 
 the ingenuity of their architects to find the 
 accommodation necessary for modern purposes 
 in buildings constructed in the style of an age 
 when such purposes were unknown. 
 
 Eickman, AtUm'^i io discrimwinte Stales of 
 
 English Architecture ; Pugin, Frmciples of Pomtei 
 Architecture; Billings, Cathedarals ; Turner and 
 Parker, Bomestic Architeciwre in England; J. Fer- 
 gusson, History of Architecture. [M. 0.] 
 
 Arcot, Defence or (1751). The victories 
 of the confederation formed by Dupleix 
 against the Enghsh were checked by the 
 expedition to Arcot under Clive. Chunda 
 Sahib was obliged to detach a large force, 
 thereby relieving the pressure on the British 
 garrison cooped up in Trichinopoly. The fort 
 of Arcot was defended only by a low and 
 Hghtly-built parapet; several of the towers 
 were decayed, and the ditch was partly choked 
 up. From the day of its occupation, August 
 30, 1751, Clive had been incessantly employed 
 in repairing the defences, but the place 
 seemed little capable of standing a siege. Of 
 his eight officers, one had been killed, and two 
 wounded, in successive encounters with the 
 enemy, and a fourth had returned to Madras. 
 The troops fit for duty had been reduced by 
 casualties and disease to 120 Europeans and 
 200 sepoys, and it was with this small body 
 that Clive sustained for seven weeks the in- 
 cessant assault of 10,000 native troops and 160 
 Europeans. On the last day of the siege the 
 enemy endeavoured to storm the fort, but, 
 during a conflict which lasted more than 
 eighteen hours, they were repulsed on every 
 point, and next morning retired from the 
 town. 
 
 Arcot, State or. [Carnatic] 
 
 Ardanesbi, Battle or (719), was anaval 
 engagement fought between the two branches 
 of the Scots of Dalriada — the Cinel Gabran 
 and the Cinel Loam. Dunchadt, King of 
 KintjTe, was chief of the Cinel Gabran, and 
 Selvach, at the head of the Cinel Loarn, the 
 latter being defeated. Ardanesbi, according 
 to Mr. Skene, is " probably the point of 
 Ardminish, on the island of Gigha." 
 
 Chron. Picts and Scots (Skene's ed.), cxxs. 74. 
 
 Ardeu, Edward {d. 1583), was implicated 
 in a project for the assassination of Elizabeth, 
 by the confession of his son-in-law, the con- 
 spirator John Somerville. He had incurred the 
 enmity of the Earl of Leicester, and, after an 
 unfair trial, was executed at Tyburn, Decem- 
 ber, 1583. His guilt, however, is very doubt- 
 ful, and he probably fell a victim to the 
 enmity of Leicester. 
 
 Ardwulf (Eardwulf), King of North- 
 umbria (798 — 810), was placed on the throne 
 after the interregnum, which followed the 
 murder of Ethelred. He found anarchy 
 throughout the kingdom, but eventually 
 succeeded in restoring something like order 
 by making a treaty with Cenwulf of Mercia, 
 whose kingdom had been the refuge of 
 all Northumbrian conspirators. His journey 
 to the Emperor Charles the Great, and Leo 
 the Pope, is the most interesting event of hia 
 reign. He obtained their mediation between 
 
Arg 
 
 (71) 
 
 Arg 
 
 himself and his rebellious nobles, and by their 
 assistance was firmly re-established on the 
 throne of his kingdom. 
 
 Aii^lo-Saxmi Civr(m. ; Simeon of Durham j 
 Eginibard, 
 
 Arganm, Battle op (Nov. 28, 1803), 
 was fought during the Mahratta War, be- 
 tween General WeUesley and the Rajah of 
 Berar. The rajah, who had been long pur- 
 sued by WeUesley, attempted to raise the 
 siege of Havilgur, a strong fortress in the 
 Berar territory, and was caught by WeUes- 
 ley on the plain of Argaum. Though late in 
 the day, WeUesley resolved to engage, but 
 his troops had no sooner come within range 
 of the enemy's guns, than three battalions, 
 who had behaved with distinguished gal- 
 lantry on the field of Assaye under a far 
 hotter fire, broke their ranks and fled. 
 Fortunately the general succeeded in raUying 
 them, or the battle would have been lost. 
 They returned to the field, and after some 
 hours of severe fighting, the Berar troops 
 were compeUed to retreat. The rajah aban- 
 doned aU his cannon and ammunition ; and 
 few of his troops would have escaped, if there 
 had been an hour of daylight left. 
 
 WeUesley, Despatches; Grant Duff, Sist. of the 
 3fa?irattas. 
 
 Argyle, Aechibald Campbell, 5th Earl 
 OP (d. 1575), although a member of the Con- 
 gregation, attached himself to the side of 
 the Regent, Mary of Guise, and was of great 
 service to her in averting a collision between 
 the Reformers and the French troops in 
 15.59. He was said to have formed a plot 
 to carry off Mary Queen of Scots almost on 
 the eve of her marriage with Damley ; and 
 he acted as president at the mock trial of 
 Bothwell for Damley's murder, in 1567. On 
 the abdication of the queen he was appointed 
 one of the Commission of Regency during 
 Murray's absence, but on her escape, 1368, 
 joined her party, and commanded her troops 
 at the battle of Langside. A year or two 
 later, however, he submitted to the govern- 
 ment of Morton and obtained an indemnity. 
 He married the widow of the Regent Murray, 
 and thus became possessed of some of the 
 crown jewels, his enforced restoration of 
 which by Morton caused him to head the 
 party then forming against the Regent. 
 
 Argyle, Akchibaxd Campbell, 8th Eabl 
 and also Marquis op (b. 1598, d. 1661), 
 succeeded his father in 1638, and at once 
 joined the Covenanters, whose forces he com- 
 manded when they were defeated by Montrose 
 at Inverlochy and Kilsythe. His cruelties 
 towards the Royalists in 1640-1 earned him 
 the bitter hatred of all his opponents, and in 
 1641 a plot to murder him, known as the 
 Incident, was formed. The same year he was 
 created a marquis, and in 1651 supported the 
 cause of Charles II., whom he crowned at 
 
 Scone._ Immediately afterwards, however, the 
 marquis was taken prisoner at Worcester, and 
 was supposed to have entered into close rela- 
 tions with Cromwell. In Richard CromweU's 
 Pa.rliament of 1659 he represented Aberdeen- 
 shire. As a consequence, he was impeached 
 for high treason immediately after the Res- 
 toration. He was executed at Edinburgh, 
 suffering as much for his great power, which 
 was an object of dread to Charles II., as for 
 his treason. 
 
 S. E. Gardiner, Hist, of Ung. ; Burton, iTisf . of 
 Scotland, vi. 205, vii. 149, &c. 
 
 Argyle, Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl 
 OP {d. 1685), was the son of the preceding. 
 He was restored to his estates and earl- 
 dom in 1663, which had been forfeited by 
 his father's treason, and joined the RoyaUst 
 party in Scotland. On the passing of the 
 Scotch Test Act, in 1681, Argyle refused to 
 take the required oath, except with a reserva- 
 tion, stating that he did not thereby debar 
 himseH from attempting any amendment in 
 Church or State. For this he was brought to 
 trial, and being found guilty of " leasiug- 
 making," was sentenced to death. He, how- 
 ever, managed to escape to HoUand, where he 
 remained till 1685, when he joined Monmouth 
 in his attempt to dethrone James. But there 
 seems to have been no sympathy between the 
 two, and Argyle was suspected and distrusted 
 by the English. Argyle landed in Scotland 
 in May, 1685, but found himself joined by 
 very few foUowers except his own clansmen. 
 Divisions were rife in his councils, and after 
 an abortive march on Glasgow, his followers 
 dispersed without striking a blow, and he 
 himself was captured in the disguise of a 
 carter, taken to Edinburgh, and executed on 
 his former sentence of death. 
 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland ; Macaulay, Hist, of 
 Ungland, 
 
 Argyle, George Douglas Campbell, 
 8th Duke op (4. 1823), was, as Marquis of 
 Lome, very prominent in the controversy in 
 the Presbyterian Church of Scotland relating 
 to patronage. In 1852 he accepted office 
 under Lord Aberdeen as Lord Privy Seal, 
 and retained the same office- under Lord 
 Palmerston. He was Lord Privy Seal again 
 under Lord Palmerston in 1859, Postmaster- 
 General in 1860, and Secretary of State for 
 India in Mr. Gladstone's Cabinet from 1868 
 to 1874. He joined Mr. Gladstone's second 
 administration (1880) as Lord Privy Seal, but 
 retired owing to a difilerence of opinion with 
 his coUeagues on their Irish policy. 
 
 Argyle, John, Marquis, afterwards 
 Duke op (d. 1743), as Lord Lome, was 
 made commander of a regiment of foot by 
 WiUiam III. In 1692 he, together with hi's 
 kinsmen Breadalbane and the Master of Stair, 
 planned the infamous massacre of Glencoe. 
 The greater part of the troops employed 
 
Arg 
 
 (72 ) 
 
 Ark 
 
 in that affair were Campbells. In 1703 
 he succeeded to his father's honours and 
 estates, and was sworn of Anne's Privy 
 Council. In 1705 he was appointed Lord 
 High Commissioner to the Scottish Parlia- 
 ment, in which he zealously advocated the 
 Union. For these services he was created a 
 peer of England and Earl of Greenwich. In 
 1706 he fought under Marlborough at Eamil- 
 lies, and commanded in the attack on Menin. 
 He returned to Scotland, where he supported 
 the efforts of the Commission for the Union. 
 He fought at Oudenarde and Malplaquet ; 
 hut was at enmity with Marlborough, his 
 commander-in-chief. At this time he was 
 closely connected with the Tories, and was 
 appointed to the command in Catalonia in 
 1710. The army was demoralised by the 
 defeat at Almanza, and he could obtain no 
 supplies. He returned to England, and was 
 made commander-in-chief of the land forces 
 in Scotland. He was soon at variance with 
 the ministry; and opposed, in the Upper 
 House, a, motion to the effect that the 
 Protestant succession was in danger. As 
 Queen Anne lay dying, Argyle entered the 
 Council with the Duke of Somerset, and pro- 
 posed that the queen should be requested to 
 make the Duke of Shrewsbury Lord Treasurer. 
 It was- done-; and it was owing to this vigor- 
 ous action that Bolingbroke's plans at once 
 fell to the ground. On the accession of 
 George I., Argyle was continued in his 
 employments, and on the outbreak of Mar's 
 rebellion, in 1715, Argyle, as commander-in- 
 chief in Scotland, met the rebels at Sheriffmuir, 
 where Mar was defeated. But the conduct of 
 Argyle caused it to be suspected that he was 
 unwilling to drive the Jacobites to extremities. 
 Cadogan was sent to reinforce him. As soon 
 as the duke marched forward, the Jacobites 
 retreated before him; the Pretender fled. to 
 France; and the rebellion was crushed. 
 Argyle was a follower of Walpole during 
 the greater part of his long ministry, but in 
 1739 he distinctly joined the Opposition. 
 Walpole, wishing to preserve so powerful a 
 support, kept him in his places, but at length 
 was compelled to dismiss him. On the resig- 
 nation of "Walpole, Argyle was again placed 
 in office; but he was dissatisfied with the 
 arrangement of the ministry, and resigned. 
 Towards the end of his career, he intrigued 
 with the Jacobites. It was only after Sir 
 John Hinde Cotton, a noted Jacobite, had 
 been placed on the Board of the Admiralty, 
 that the duke condescended to join Pel- 
 ham's administration. Argyle was a brave 
 soldier and an accomplished orator; but his 
 political career was one long course of incon- 
 sistencies. 
 
 Coxe, Walpole ; Burton, History of Scotland. 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 Argyle, Peekage of. In 1445 Sir Duncan 
 Campbell of Lochow, the head of the great 
 
 Argyleshire family of the Campbells, was 
 raised to the peerage as Lord Campbell, by 
 James II. of Scotland. His grandson, Colin, 
 was created Earl of Argyle in 1464. He 
 married Isabel Stewart, daughter of the Lord 
 of Lome, and added to his titles that of Lord 
 Lome. Archibald, the eighth earl, who was 
 subsequently executed for treason in 1661, 
 was created a marquis in 1641. His son 
 Archibald, ninth earl (who was restored 
 to the family estates and the earldom), was 
 attainted for treason in 1685. The attainder 
 was reversed at the Revolution of 1688, and 
 Archibald, the son of the last-named earl, 
 was advanced to the dignity of Duke of 
 Argyle. His son John, second duke, re- 
 ceived a British peerage as Duke of Green- 
 wich in 1719. He left no male issue, and 
 his English honours ceased ; but his daughter 
 Caroline was created in her own right 
 Baroness of Greenwich. His Scotch honours 
 devolved on his brother Archibald, third 
 duke, from whom they passed to his nephew 
 Archibald, the ancestor of the present holder 
 of the title. John, the fifth duke, was created 
 a peer of England as Baron Sundridge in 
 1766. 
 
 , Arikera, Battle of (May 13, 1791). 
 After the capture of Bangalore, during Lord 
 CornwaUis's campaign in Mysore, the English 
 army marched to Seringapatam, and (May 
 13) reached Arikera, about nine miles from 
 that city. Tippoo was encamped between them 
 and Seringapatam, with hia right resting 
 on the Cavery. Lord Cornwallis hoped 
 by a night march to turn the enemy's left 
 before daylight, and cut off his retreat. A 
 terrific storm arose, and delayed the march by 
 repeated halts, till it became impossible to 
 carry out the original plan. In the morning 
 Lord Cornwallis determined to gain a hill 
 commanding the left of the enemy, and or- 
 ganised an attack in front, under cover of 
 which Colonel Maxwell was to seize the hill. 
 Tippoo perceived this, and made his prepara- 
 tions accordingly ; but in spit© of this Max- 
 well crossed a difiScult ravine and gained the 
 hiU. The attack became general along the 
 front, and was assisted by Maxwell's flank 
 attack along the hill, and Tippoo's army was 
 already wavering when Colonel Floyd and the 
 cavalry charged his rearguard and nearly de- 
 stroyed it, nothing but the unwieldy move- 
 ments of the Nizam's horse, which now 
 came up, allowed Tippoo's army to escape a 
 total rout. 
 
 Mill, HtsS. 0/ India; Comwallla, Despatches, 
 
 Arkeuholm, Battle of (May 1, 1455), 
 was fought in the valley of the Esk between 
 the supporters of James II. of Scotland and 
 James, Earl of Douglas, and his brothers. 
 The rebels were defeated. Archibald Douglas, 
 Earl of Murray, fell in the combat; Hugh 
 Douglas, Earl of Ormond, was captured and 
 
Ark 
 
 ( 73 
 
 Arm 
 
 teheaded ; and James Douglas was forced to 
 take refuge in England. [Douglas.] 
 
 Arklow, The Battle op (1798), was 
 fought during the Irish rebellion. The town 
 was defended by General Needham with 1 20 
 Ancient Britons, 800 Irish militia, 300 Dur- 
 ham Fencibles, and some yeomanry, against 
 Father John Murphy, who led some 27,000 
 rebels with a few guns to the attack. In 
 spite of the determined fury with which they 
 came on, the rebels were beaten back with 
 great loss, and had to give up the idea of 
 marching on Dublin. 
 
 .Arlington, Henry Bennet, Earl op (J. 
 1818, d. 1685), was originally intended to take 
 orders in the Church, but on the outbreak of 
 the Civil War he joined the EoyaUst army 
 as a volunteer. After the death of Charles 
 I., he joined Charles II., and was employed 
 by him as ambassador to Madrid. In 1662 
 he was made one of the Secretaries of State, 
 and in 1664 was created a baron. In 1667 
 he joined the Cabal ministry. In 1674 he 
 was impeached by the House of Commons, 
 and sold his office to Sir J. Williamson, pur- 
 chasing in his turn, the post of Lord Cham- 
 berlain, which he held till 1681. Arlington 
 was a Catholic, but never showed himself 
 verj' zealous for his religion, though ready 
 to sign the secret clauses in the Treaty of 
 Dover. Sharing the want of political prin- 
 ciple, and " the cosmopolitan indifference to 
 constitutions and religions " which distin- 
 guished the politicians with whom he was 
 associated, Arlington was nevertheless in 
 many respects superior to most of them. He 
 was resolved to maintain himself at court, and 
 in the pursuit of this object he displayed great 
 subtlety, resource, and flexibility of temper ; 
 but " he was regarded as the man in Eng- 
 land who least overstepped the line of good 
 conduct. He possessed the culture of European 
 society at that time ; by the excesses which 
 were in favour at the court he was little 
 affected ; his hours of leisure he devoted to 
 the study of the literary products of that 
 fruitful age." Eanke, Hist, of Eng., vol. iii., 
 p. 517. See also Macaulay, Hist, of Eng., 
 vol. i., p. 212. [Cabal.] 
 
 Arlington's Letters to Sir W. Temple (published 
 posthnmously in 1701) are of some importance 
 for the diplomatic history of Charles II.'s reign. 
 
 Armada, The Spanish, is the name 
 jisnaUy applied to the great military and naval 
 expedition despatched by Philip II. Of Spain 
 against England in 1588. The equipping of 
 his great fleet was protracted by his incorrigible 
 habits of delay and hesitation, but it is 
 probable that it was ready to sail in 1587. 
 It might in any case have been kept waiting 
 o^e year more tiU the Prince of Parma had 
 his army ready in Flanders, but, however that 
 may be, it was delayed by Drake's vigorous 
 Action on the coasts of Portugal and 
 
 HIST.-3* 
 
 Andalusia. Early in 1688 the damage he 
 had done was repaired, and the Invincible 
 Armada sailed from Lisbon in the latter days 
 of May. It was commanded by Don Alonso 
 de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia, who 
 succeeded to the command on the death of 
 Don Alvaro de Bazan, the Marquis of Santa 
 Cruz. It consisted of 130 vessels, manned by 
 8,450 sailors, and 2,088 galley-slaves. It 
 carried 19,295 soldiers, and 2,680 pieces of 
 artillery. The provisions of food and ammu- 
 nition were abundant, but the ships were ill- 
 fitted for the navigation pf the Channel, of 
 which the Spanish sailors knew nothing. 
 From the beginning it met with losses and 
 misfortunes. It was scattered by a gale im- 
 mediately after leaving Lisbon, during which 
 one galley went down, and two were seized 
 by the slaves who revolted, and overpowered 
 the soldiers. It was not till Friday, July 
 22 (N.S.), that Medina Sidonia could rally 
 his ships, and sail from Corunna. On 
 Thursday, July 28, the fleet was off "the 
 Lizard, and had its first sight of the Enghsh 
 fleet on Saturday the 30th. The English 
 Lord High Admiral, Lord Howard of Effing- 
 ham, had thirty ships of the Royal Navy, and 
 a large number of volunteer ships, with him, 
 and was assisted by Drake, Hawkins, Fro- 
 bisher. Winter, Ealeigh, and other -seamen. 
 The Armada was steered for iCalais Road. 
 On Sunday, July 31, some fighting took place, 
 in which the unwieldy Spanish ships were 
 completely outmanoeuvred. Ihe>y swere built 
 so extremely high, and drew -so few feet 
 of water in proportion, that they could not 
 carry enough sail. The handy English vessels 
 closed and drew off as they ipleased. Our 
 seamen, acting on the principle which has 
 always been followed in the English navy, 
 trusted to their raipid and accurate artillery 
 fire, and refused -all temptations to board the 
 enemy, whose vessels were crowded with 
 soldiers. The first encounter proved the 
 wisdom of this system of tactics. The flag- 
 ship of the Andalusian squadron was dis- 
 abled, and fell into the hands of Drake after 
 a long fight. The Anaada, arranged in the 
 half-moon formation which had been adopted 
 at Lepanto, continued its way through the 
 Channel, keeping indifferent order. On 
 August 2 there was another indecisive can- 
 nonade off Portland, in which the English 
 seamen followed their usual system of attack ; 
 and though they did not do the Spaniards 
 any considerable damage, they further proved 
 their superiority in seamanship, and con- 
 vinced the enemy that he could only hope to 
 fight them on their own terms. By Saturday 
 the 6th, the Spanish Armada had reached 
 Calais, and waited for the Prince of Parma, 
 who was to join it from Flanders. But the 
 prince, by one of the extraordinary oversights 
 which ruined all Philip's plans, had no armed 
 ships, and was closely blockaded by the Dutch. 
 On Sunday night (August 7) the EngHsh 
 
Arm 
 
 (74) 
 
 Anil 
 
 admirals sent fire-sliips among the Spaniards, 
 who cut their cables and stood to sea in a 
 panic. On Monday they were fiercely attacked, 
 and soon became utterly disorganised. On 
 Tuesday, August 9, the Armada, greatly 
 diminished by loss of vessels, which had been 
 sunk or compelled to strike, or driven on 
 shore, was drifting helplessly on the coast of 
 Zeeland. A sudden change of wind saved it 
 for the moment, but the crews had no more 
 stomach for the fight. By the next day they 
 had quite lost heart and begun to fly to the 
 north. They were followed for some, dis- 
 tance by a few English vessels, but there was 
 no effectual pursuit. Elizabeth's fleet had 
 been ill-provided with powder and shot, and 
 still worse with food. They had put to sea 
 in a hurry, and they had moreover been 
 now engaged almost incessantly for days. It 
 is not to be wondered at, therefore, that after 
 three general engagements and numerous 
 skirmishes the ships were out of ammunition. 
 The want of provisions ia less excusable. It 
 appears, however, that the volunteer vessels 
 were almost as badly found as the queen's, 
 and that what is often called Elizabeth's 
 parsimony was in fact want of experience 
 in equipping a large force, and was common 
 to her with her people. The brunt of the 
 fighting fell on the vessels of the Eoyal 
 Navy ; the volunteers, though they proved 
 the spirit of the nation, and helped to make 
 a moral impression on the Spaniards, did 
 comparatively little of the real work. The 
 preparations on shore were probably dis- 
 tinguished more by spirit than efiiciency, 
 but they were never tested, and it is im- 
 possible to know what they would have 
 done. It must not be forgotten, that though 
 the Priaoe of Parma had a veteran force in 
 Flanders, the majority of . the soldiers on 
 board the Armada were as new as the Eng- 
 lish militia. The Spaniards straggled home 
 round the north of Scotland, through con- 
 tinual storms, in which the greater part of 
 their vessels went down or were driven on 
 shore. Only fifty-three ships reached Spain, 
 and the loss of life was so terrible, that 
 it was said that every family in the country 
 lost a member. 
 
 Tlie standard historians of Elizabeth's reign, 
 and Camden, Puller, or Hakluyt, need scarcely 
 he mentioned, and the same may be said of 
 Froude or Motley. There is a very good ac- 
 count of the Armada in Sonthey's 1aj6 of Lord, 
 Howard of B^gftam, in the Cdbvnet Cyclopcsdia, 
 with copious citations of authorities ; and a 
 French writer, M. Ji'omeron, has told the story 
 very fully in his recent Life of Philvp II. On 
 the Spanish side, may be .mentioned Strader, 
 Herrera, and Cabrera, in their Lives of Philip. 
 Cabrera was an official historian, who wrote 
 under royal dictation, and gives, of course, the 
 royal view. He is chiefly valuable as showing 
 what the Spanish government wished to be 
 beheved. Several accounts by eye-witnesses 
 are to be found in " the Documentos Ineditos 
 (Spanish State Papers), particularly in the 
 fourteenth and forty-eighth volumes. 
 
 [D. H.] 
 
 Armagh, The School (or Univeksity) 
 OP, was the centre of early Irish monastic 
 civilisation and learning. It was from here 
 that the scholars who made Ireland famous in 
 France, and those who founded Glastonbury, 
 came. The most famous among the Irish 
 scholars trained at Armagh is of course John 
 Scotus Erigena, whose death may be placed in 
 the year 875. Even the capture of Armagh 
 by Olaf 's Danes was not sufficient to desi;roy 
 entirely its school and its fame for learning. 
 The continuance of the existence of a school 
 there is vouched for by the proceedings of a 
 synod in 1158, which decided that no one was 
 to be instituted as a professor of theology 
 who had not completed his education at 
 Armagh. The presence of foreign students 
 can be traced at least as far as the eleventh 
 century. The existence of a learned body in 
 Armagh is aU the more remarkable as the see 
 was, after the arrival of the Ostmen, almost 
 always in the hands of laymen. 
 
 Armagh, The Synod of, was held ui 
 1170, when the Irish prelates, alarmed at the 
 English invasion, which they regarded as a 
 divine visitation, determined that all English 
 slaves should be set free. 
 
 Armed neutrality. In 1780 a coali- 
 tion known as the First Armed Neutrality was 
 entered into by the northern powers, who re- 
 sented the right of search which was claimed 
 by England in respect of all neutral vessels. 
 In the treaty then made between Russia, 
 Sweden, and Denmark, the principle was pro- 
 claimed that " free ships make free goods," 
 that the flag covers the merchandise, and 
 that a port is to be considered blockaded only 
 when a sufficient force for its blockade is in 
 front of it. There was some ground for the 
 contention that the rights of neutrals on the 
 sea should be the same as on land. At this 
 time Great Britain was in the miidst of 
 the war with the American colonies ; France 
 and Holland were also at war with her ; and 
 the right of search was indispensable, if she 
 was to make any use of her naval supe- 
 riority. Nevertheless, pressed as she was, it 
 was impossible for her to take any active steps 
 in opposition to the treaty, though she con- 
 tinued to exercise her right, which had been 
 admitted by the several powers in former 
 treaties. The armed neutrality was aban- 
 doned by Sweden in 1787 ; in 1793 Russia 
 entered into a treaty with Great Britain, 
 which expressly recognised the right of search 
 on neutral vessels ; and in the same year 
 America made a similar treaty with Great 
 Britain. But in 1799 Napoleon, by a re- 
 markable exercise of diplomatic skill, induced 
 the Americans to adopt a maritime code on 
 the basis of the Armed Neutrality of 1780; and 
 at the same time the other powers saw an 
 opening for a profitable trade with France, if 
 the right of search were abolished. The prin- 
 ciples of the Armed Neutrality were accordingly 
 
Arm 
 
 ( 75 ) 
 
 Arm 
 
 reWved, and the determined persistence of 
 the British government, combined with the 
 skUful diplomacy of Napoleon, induced the 
 northern powers again to enter into a coali- 
 tion, known as the Second Armed Neutrality 
 (1800), to enforce its principles. The English 
 government acted with decisive energy. A 
 fleet was despatched to the Baltic ; and the 
 bomhardment of Copenhagen, followed by the 
 death of Czar Paul, effectually broke up the 
 northern coalition. On June 17, 1801, the 
 Maritime Convention of St. Petersburg was 
 opened ; and finally a series of treaties was 
 made between Great Britain and the northern 
 powers by which the Armed Neutrality was 
 abandoned, but the right of search was 
 strictly defined, and it was agreed that block- 
 ades must be efficient to be valid. [Neu- 
 
 TBALITY.] 
 
 Koch and Sclioell, Hist, d«s Traiteb, iv. 34, and 
 vi. 92, seq. ; Alison, Hist, of Europe ; Judgments 
 of Sir W. Soott in Bob'mson's Reports. 
 
 Arm.illians was the name sometimes 
 given to the High Church party in the 
 reign of Charles I. Strictly speaking, the 
 Arminians were those Dutch Protestants who 
 followed Arminius ( Harmenssen) , in opposition 
 to the more rigid followers of Calvin. The 
 party was the fruit of the reaction which had 
 arisen in the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century in the minds of many men against 
 what seemed the bigotry of extreme Pro- 
 testantism, and which made them inquire 
 whether the Reformers, iu their desire to 
 get rid of the evils of Popery, had not also 
 destroyed much that was vital in Catholic 
 Christianity. In the Netherlands the con- 
 troversy between the Arminians and " 6o- 
 marists" led, early in the 17th century, to 
 violent commotions. To disputes of dogma 
 were added those concerning the rights of 
 the Church with reference to the authority of 
 the civil government in ecclesiastical affairs. 
 The Arminians, with their leanings to the 
 doctrines of Zwingli, maintained the right of 
 the State to conduct the government of the 
 Church, in conformity with the model of 
 Scripture, and urged that, by the independence 
 claimed by Spiritual authority in the Re- 
 formed Church, a new popedom was being 
 sot up. The Gomarists, on the other hand, 
 strictly adhering to the principles of Calvin, 
 demanded the complete autonomy of the 
 Church. This schism spread to the political 
 world. The heads of the municipal oflgarchy 
 sided with the Arminians. The leaders of 
 the popular party, under Maurice the Stadt- 
 holder, declared against their rivals for the 
 Gomarists. At the national Synod of Dort, 
 which commenced its sittings in 1618, the 
 victory rested with the latter in regard both 
 to doctrine and Church authority. The Synod 
 declared its adherence to the strict Calvinistic 
 views on unconditional election by grace, and 
 the independence of the Church. Silenced 
 in Holland, Arminianism took firm root in 
 
 England, and was weleomed by many who 
 shared in the reaction against Puritanism. 
 A violent controversy began between Calvinists 
 and Arminians, James I. attempted to silence 
 it (1622) ; but, in fact, in his later years, the 
 king, who had been a Calviniht all his life, 
 and had even written a book against Vorstius, 
 the successor of Arminius, leaned towards 
 Arminianism. For the Synod of Dort, by 
 ascribing equal authority to all ministers of 
 God's Word, no matter what their position, 
 indirectly condemned the English Church. 
 The Puritans and Presbyterians regarded the 
 spread of Arminianism with great dislike, 
 and on March 2, 1629, the Commons resolved 
 that " whosoever shall bring iu innovation in 
 religion, or by favom' seek to introduce Popery 
 or Arminianism, shall be reputed a capital 
 enemy to the kingdom and commonwealth." 
 But Arminianism continued to gain influence 
 amiong the High Churchmen, and the term 
 came to be applied generally to all those who 
 objected both to the Roman and Calvinist 
 doctrines and theory of Church government 
 (though they considered the Roman Catholic 
 Church as corrupt and unsound), and who 
 wished that the English Church should occupy 
 a middle position between Rome and Geneva. 
 Charles I. and Laud were claimed by this 
 party as its champions. They were supposed 
 to be equally averse to Romanism and Puri- 
 tanism, and they were regarded by the English 
 Arminians as the great defenders of the 
 Church from the dangers which threatened 
 her on both sides. After the Restoration the 
 name " Arminian" fell into disuse. [Laud.] 
 
 Banke, Sist, of Eng.t i. 435, &c. ; Hook, Arch- 
 hishops ; Perry, Hiet. of the Eng. Church ; S. B, 
 Gardiner, Hisi. of Eng., 1803—1642 ; Ge£Eoken, 
 Church and State. [S. J. L.I 
 
 Arm.s, Assize of. [Assize.] 
 
 Anustrong, Sir John, of Gilnockie 
 (d. 1631), was the head of a powerful 
 family, which held practically independent 
 power on the borders of Englknd and Scot- 
 land and the " debateable land." The Scots 
 government, however, regarded the Arm- 
 strongs as robbers, and James V. deter- 
 mined to suppress them. Li 1531 the king 
 entered the border country at the head of a 
 powerful force. Sir John Armstrong came 
 to meet the king in great state, and attended 
 by a train of gentlemen. He was immediately 
 seized and hanged, together with his brother 
 Thomas. The Pitscottie Chronicle represents 
 him as saying to James, when his entreaties 
 for mercy proved fruitless, " I am but ane 
 fool to seek grace at a graceless face; but 
 had I known, sir, that ye would have talcen 
 my life this day, I should have hved upon 
 the borders in despite of King Harry and you 
 both ; for I know King Harry would down- 
 weigh my best horse with gold to know that 
 I was condemned to die this day." 
 
 Chron. of Pitscottie; Armstrong, Rist. of 
 lAdiesiale ; Burton, Hist, of Scot,, iii. 
 
Arm 
 
 (76) 
 
 Arr 
 
 Army. [Military System.] 
 
 Army Plot (1641) was an attempt to 
 use the English army, which had not heen 
 dishanded after the Scotch War, to coerce 
 the Parhament. Ther© were two distinct 
 plots for this purpose : (1) Percy Wilmot 
 and other officers and members of Parlia- 
 ment proposed to induce the officers of the 
 army to sign a declaration that they would 
 stand by the king : («) if parliamentary pres- 
 sure were put upon him, either to compel him 
 to assent to the exclusion of the bishops from 
 the House of Lords, or to force him to dis- 
 band the Irish army before the Scots were 
 disbanded ; (i) or if the full revenue he had 
 enjoyed for so many years were not placed in 
 his hands. At the same time, a plot some- 
 what similar, but contemplating the direct 
 employment of force, was being contrived 
 by Sir John Suckling and Henry Jermyn 
 with the approval of the queen. They in- 
 tended to commence operations by placing 
 the command of the army in the hands of the 
 Earl of Newcastle and George Young. 
 Charles at first endeavoured to get the two 
 parties to work together, and finding this 
 impossible, decided against Suckling's plan. 
 Young, seeing no prospect of becoming 
 lieutenant-general, betrayed the plot to the 
 Earl of Newport, through whom it reached 
 Pym (April 1). Meanwhile, SuckHng had 
 by no means abandoned his scheme, and he 
 was also arranging an attempt to rescue 
 Strafford from the Tower. Pym made use 
 of his knowledge of this double plot to secure 
 the agreement of the two Houses, and the 
 support of the people. On May 3, the Pro- 
 testation was drawn up, on the next day it 
 was taken by the Lords, on the 5th it was 
 agreed that a Bill should be brought in to 
 provide against the dissolution of ihe Parlia- 
 ment, on the 8th that Bill and the Attainder 
 Bill both passed their first reading in the 
 Lords. The king, left without any support, 
 gave his assent to both Bills on the 10th. 
 Percy, Jermyn, Suckling, and others fled to 
 France, but were declared guilty of high 
 treason. Thus the first attempt to use the 
 army against the Parliament gave fresh 
 streug-th to the popular party. (2) At the 
 end of May or the beginning of June, Daniel 
 O'Neill was sent by the king to sound the 
 officers of the army as to the feasibihty of 
 bringing up the troops to London if the 
 neutrality of the Scots could be secured. 
 At the same time, one of the officers was 
 entrusted by the king with a petition, to 
 which he was to obtain signatures in the 
 army. The petition protested against the 
 unreasonable demands of the popular leaders, 
 the diminution of the king's "just regalities," 
 and the tumultuous assemblies round the 
 Houses of Parliament. It concluded with a . 
 promise to defend King, Church, Parliament, 
 and Laws. .The leaders of the army repu- 
 
 diated the petition, and O'Neill was obliged 
 to fly, but the king stiU persisted in his 
 intrigues for this purpose both during his 
 journey to Scotland and his stay in that 
 country. The knowledge of this new plot 
 made Pym, on the outbreak of the Irish 
 Rebellion, demand that the king should 
 employ onlj' such ministers as Parliament 
 should approve ; otherwise the Commons 
 would be obliged to provide for Ireland with- 
 out the king. He followed this by bringing 
 the evidence before the Commons, who passed 
 a resolution affirming that there was " a 
 second design to bring up the army against 
 the Parliament, and an intention to make 
 the Scottish army stand as neutral." This 
 event did much to secure the passing of the 
 " Grand Remonstrance." 
 
 Claxendon, Kist. of the RehKllion ; May, Hisf . o/ 
 tlie Long Pari. ; Wbitelocke, Memoirs; S. E. 
 Gardiner, Hist. ofUng. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Amee, Battle of (June 7, 1782), took 
 place in the Mysore War between the British, 
 under Sir Eyre Coote, and the troops of 
 Hyder Ali, commanded - by the Sultan in 
 person. After an indecisive action, Hyder 
 retreated. 
 
 Arnold, Benedict (i. 1740, d. 1801), was a 
 druggist at Newhaven, in Connecticut, when 
 the American War of Independence broke out. 
 On the news of the battle of Lexington, he col- 
 lected a body of volunteers, seized some arms, 
 and obtained a commission to capture Ticon- 
 deroga on Lake Champlain. Subsequently 
 he proceeded on his own account, after sur- 
 prising St. John's, to equip a small flotilla 
 on the lake. He displayed great bravery 
 and skill, but he offended Congress by his 
 independence, and he was in turn ofiended 
 by their want of confidence, though he was 
 appointed to the command of Philadelphia, 
 on its evacuation by the British forces. 
 At length, mortified by the insults put upon 
 him, he entered into communications with Sir 
 H. Clinton to betray West Point. The proj ect 
 failed through the capture of Major Andre 
 (q.v.), but Arnold managed to escape to the 
 British lines, and for some time he commanded 
 a corps of American refugees. He sub- 
 sequently settled in the West Indies, and 
 after being captured by, and escaping from, 
 the French, he came to London, where he 
 died. 
 
 J. Sparks, Life of .4raoId; Bancroft, Hist, of 
 
 America. 
 
 Arrah, Defence of (1857). On July 
 25, the 7th, 8th, and 40th Native Regiments, 
 quartered in the district of Shahabad, Bengal, 
 nnitinied, plundered the town and station of 
 Arrah, and, headed by Koer Singh, a Zemin- 
 dar, who had rebelled, attacked a house 
 where sixteen Englishmen and sixty Sikh 
 police had taken refuge and fortified them- 
 selves. Mr. Boyle, an engineer, was the life 
 of the defence, and it was to his services that 
 
Arr 
 
 ( 77 
 
 Airr 
 
 the successful conduct of it was due. An 
 attempt to relieve the besieged from Dina- 
 poor failed ; but Major Vincent Eyre, of the 
 artillery, formed a small field force, with 
 which he defeated the rebels with severe loss 
 on August 2ud, and on the 3rd released the 
 gallant little garrison. 
 
 Sir J. Kaye, Rut. of the Sepoy War, vol. m. ; 
 
 Annual Register, 1857; Statistioal Account of 
 
 Bengal^ xii. 204. 
 
 Arrau, Peeuage of. 1. Scotch. — In 
 1467, Sir U. Boyd was created Earl of 
 AiTan. His widow married James, Lord 
 Hamilton, and the earldom passed into that 
 family. [Hamilton.] 2. Irish. — In 1693, 
 Charles Butler, Warden of the Cinque 
 Ports, and Master of the Ordnance in 
 Ireland, second son of Thomas, Earl of 
 Ossory, the son of James, Duke of Ormonde, 
 was created Earl of Arrau. The peerage, 
 however, became extinct with him. The pre- 
 sent peerage was conferred on Sir Arthur 
 Grore in 1758. He was the descendant of Sir 
 Paul Gore, captain of a troop of horse in 
 Elizabeth's reign, who arrived in Ireland and 
 obtained large grants of land in County 
 Mayo. 
 
 Arrau, James Hamilton, 2nd Eahl of 
 and Duke of Chatelherault {d. 1575), 
 the head of the house of Hamilton, and a 
 near relative of James V. of Scotland, acted 
 as Eegent for some time, until he was 
 displaced by his rival the Earl of Angus, 
 the head of the house of Douglas. On 
 the death of James V. he again became 
 Regent. The confirmation of a treaty with 
 England, 1543, was quickly followed by 
 a league on the part of the Eegent and 
 Cardinal Beaton against aU English inter- 
 ference, and soon afterwards the English 
 ambassador. Sir Ralph Sadler, was requested 
 to withdraw. In 1547 Arran was defeated at 
 Pinkie, and in 1554 the regency was trans- 
 ferred to Mary of Guise, Arran being re- 
 warded for his acquiescence by the dukedom 
 of Chatelherault, conferred on him by the 
 French king. He joined the Lords of the 
 Congregation and supported the Reformers; 
 and by his opposition to the Darnley marriage, 
 incurred the resentment of Queen Mary, so 
 that he judged it prudent to retire to Eng- 
 land. Returning some time afterwards, he 
 was reconciled to the queen, and during the 
 Civil War he and the rest of the Hamiltons 
 supported her against the Reforming Lords. 
 On the abdication of Mary, 1567, he was 
 named one of the Council of Regency. In 
 1569 he was .imprisoned by Murray in 
 Edinburgh Castle. He was a man of fickle and 
 vacillating character, of courteous manners, 
 and pleasant address, but by no means fitted 
 to fill the high position to which he was called. 
 
 Arran, James Hamilton, 3rd Earl of 
 (d. 1609), was the son of the Duke of Chatel- 
 herault and the heir of the Hamiltons. 
 
 Having left France, where his life was in 
 danger from the Guises, he became one of the 
 numerous suitors of Mary Queen of Scots, 
 whom he planned to carry off in 1561. His 
 failure in his suit seems to have affected his 
 reason. He became mad, and continued a 
 maniac till he died. 
 
 Arrau, James Stuart, Earl of (d. 1596), 
 was a sou of Lord Ochiltree, and a brother- 
 in-law of Knox. In 1581 he received the 
 estates and title which the house of Hamilton 
 had forfeited, as the reward for his zeal in 
 procuring the condemnation of the Regent 
 Morton. He aided Lennox in compassing the 
 ruin of his enemy Morton ; a prisoner at the 
 " Raid of Ruthveu," Arran quickly revenged 
 himself by collecting an army in the interest 
 of James VI., and by taking the lead against 
 the conspirators ; and having extorted a 
 confession from Gowrie by fair promises, 
 used it against him to his ruin. He 
 became Chancellor and Lieutenant-General 
 of Scotland, and on the streogth of the 
 king's favour, set himself in opposition to 
 the rest of the Scotch barons, rousing their 
 hatred by his arrogance. The English 
 government found means to accuse him of 
 instigating a border raid, and he was ordered 
 to withdraw from the Scottish court in 1584. 
 Shortly afterwards, on a combination against 
 him of the Hamiltons (whose estates he held), 
 and the banished lords, Arran had to escape 
 as best he could to the hills of Ayrshire. He 
 was slain by James Douglas of Torthorwold 
 in revenge for the death of Morton. 
 
 Arras, The Congress of (t435), was 
 assembled for the purpose of making peace 
 between England, France, and Burgundy. 
 Ambassadors came from England, France, 
 Burgundy, the Pope, the Council of Basle, 
 Castile, Aragon, Naples, Portugal, Sicily, 
 Cyprus, Navarre, Poland, Denmark, Milan, 
 and Brittany. The French offered to cede 
 Normandy and Guienne to the English, but 
 this was indignantly refused, and the Treaty 
 of Troyes was insisted upon, certain territories 
 south of the Loire being offered to Charles of 
 France. This being rejected, the English 
 representatives withdrew, and a treaty of 
 peace and alliance was signed between France 
 and Burgundy, by which the latter power 
 agreed not to treat with the English without 
 the sanction of the King of France. 
 
 Array, Commissions of, first issued under 
 Edward I. — though their germs may be 
 traced as early as the reign of William Eufus 
 — were commissions given to certain in- 
 dividuals called Commissioners of Array to 
 press a number of men in their district, or 
 sometimes all men capable of bearing arms 
 for the king's service, and to train them 
 in military duties. Under Edward I. the 
 forces thus raised were paid by the king, 
 but under Edward II. and Edward III. the 
 
Ai± 
 
 (78) 
 
 Arr 
 
 cost usually fell on the townships which 
 furnished the men. There was no doubt that 
 these commissions, when issued without the 
 consent of Parliament, were unconstitutional, 
 and Edward III. had to promise that aU 
 troops levied by this means shoald be paid 
 for by the king — a promise which, however, 
 was not kept. In 1352 - a nd 1403 it was pro- 
 vided that " the common assent and grant of 
 . Parliament" should be obtained before these 
 commissions were issued, and the latter of 
 these statutes further provided that, ' ' except 
 in case of invasion, none shall be constrained 
 to go out of their own counties, and that 
 men chosen to go on the king's service out 
 of England shall be at the king's wages from 
 the day they leave their own counties." Com- 
 missions of Array, which were frequently 
 issued under the Plantagenet kings, and were 
 not uncommon under the Lancastrians and 
 Tudors, ceased on the creation of the office of 
 Lord Lieutenant in the sixteenth century. The 
 latest bears date 1657. [Militaky System.] 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist, 
 
 Arrest, Freedom erom, is the special 
 privilege of members of both Houses of 
 Parliament, and is enjoyed by them during 
 the session, and for forty days before and 
 after, except in cases of treason, felony, 
 or breach of the peace. The earliest men- 
 tion of an analogous privilege is in a law 
 of Ethelbert in the sixth century, which 
 provides that " If the king call his people to 
 him, and any one there do them injury, let 
 him compensate with a twofold ' hot,' and fifty 
 shillings t6 the kinjr." In 1290 this privilege 
 was confirmed by Edward I., who, in reply 
 to a petition from the Master of the Temple 
 that he might distrain for the rent of a house 
 held of him bv the Bishop of St. Davids, 
 replied, that " It does not seem fit that the 
 king should grant that they who are of his 
 council should be distrained in time of Par- 
 liament." So too in the Prior of Malton's 
 case, in 1315. The first recognition of the pri- 
 vilege by Act of Parliament was in 1433, when 
 it was enacted that any assault on a member 
 on his way to Parliament was to be punishable 
 by a double fine ; though in 1404 Henry IT. 
 had replied to a petition that a threefold fine 
 might be indicted for such an offence, that 
 though he admitted the privilege, the existing 
 remedy was sufficient. The existence of the 
 privilege was thus, by usage and by statute, 
 clearly established; but frequent violations 
 occurred under the Angevin and Lancastrian 
 kings. In 1301 Henry Keighley was im- 
 prisoned by Edward I. after the Parliament 
 of Lincoln. In 1376, Peter de la Mare, the 
 Speaker of the Good Parliament, was im- 
 prisoned at the instance of John of Gaunt ; 
 whilst in 1453 occurred the famous case of 
 Speaker Thorpe, who was imprisoned during 
 the prorogation of Parliament at the suit of 
 the Duke of York. The Commons tried to 
 
 obtain his release " for the despatch of the 
 business of Parliament," but failed, though the 
 judges held that " if a member were arrested 
 for any less cause than treason, felony, 
 breach of the peace, and sentence of Parlia- 
 ment, he should make his attorney and be 
 released to attend in Parliament." Thorpe^ 
 however, was not released, owing to the in- 
 fluence gf the Duke of York. In 1460, 
 Walter Clerk, member for Chippenham, was 
 arrested "for a fine to the king, and damages 
 to two private suitors," whereupon the 
 Commons demanded and obtained his release. 
 In 1477 John Atwyll, member for Exeter, 
 was imprisoned for debt, but was released on 
 the petition of the House. Up to the reign 
 of Henry Till, arrested members had ob- 
 tained their release either by special Act of 
 Parliament if they were imprisoned in 
 execution after judgment, or by a writ of 
 privilege issued by the Chancellor if confined 
 on mesne process (i.e., after the commence- 
 ment of a suit but before judgment) ; but, 
 in 1543, in the case of George Ferrers, who 
 had been arrested as surety for a debt, the 
 House demanded his release by virtue of 
 its own authority, and on the refusal of the 
 sheriffs to liberate him committed them to 
 prison for contempt, their proceedings being- 
 confirmed by the king. From this time 
 members were usually released by the Ser- 
 jeant by warrant of the mace, not by writ. 
 In 1603 occurred the case of Sir 'ThomaB 
 Shirley, whom the warder of the Fleet refused 
 to release for fear of becoming personally 
 liable for his debt. This led to an Act dis- 
 charging from all liabihty the ofiicer from 
 whose custody a person having the privilege 
 of Parliament has been delivered, and en- 
 abling the creditor to sue out a new writ on 
 the expiration of the period of privilege. The 
 privilege of freedom from arrest for some 
 time belonged not only to members of Parlia- 
 ment but also to their Sf-rvants (as in 
 Smalley's case, 1575, and Johnson's case, 
 1621), but in 1770 was confined to the persons 
 of members, owing to the frequent abuse of 
 the privilege, which was used as a means of . 
 escape from debt. As lately as 1880 it was 
 decided on precedents that the duration of 
 the privilege is forty days before and after 
 the meeting of Parliament ; on the ground 
 that the time must be clearly defined. The 
 House of Commons has always maintained 
 its powers of imprisoning its own members 
 for contempt, as in the case of John Stone 
 in 1547, and Arthur Hall in 1581. The 
 right of a member of Parliament to claim 
 freedom from arrest has never been allowed 
 to extend to criminal ofl^ences ; and though in 
 1572 Lord Cromwell obtained his release after 
 committal for contempt of court, in more 
 recent times, members committed by courts of 
 law for open contempt have failed in obtain- 
 ing release by virtue of privilege, " though," 
 observes Sir Erskine May, " each case is stiU 
 
Ari; 
 
 ( 79 
 
 Art 
 
 open to cousideratiou when it arises.'' 
 
 [Pakliament.] 
 
 J. Hatsell, Precedents, vol. i. (ed. of 1818) ; 
 Sir E. May, Farliamentary Practice; Hollam, 
 Const. Hist. [F. S. p.] 
 
 Arthur, King, the famous British and 
 Christian hero of romance, had akeady be- 
 come the centre of much Celtic legend, espe- 
 cially in Brittany, when Geoffrey of Monmouth 
 published, in 1130, his Sistoria Britonum. 
 This work, though it poisoned the very foun- 
 tains of history, acquired, in spite of protest 
 (e.g., by William of Malmesbury), wide popu- 
 larity, and became the source of that elaborate 
 legend of Arthur and his Round Table which 
 has inspired so much that is best in literature. 
 Geoffrey's fictions were largely regarded as 
 history, until, by an inevitable reaction, 
 Milton and most of the eighteenth century 
 writers were led to disbelieve that any Arthur 
 had really lived. Gildas, nearly a contemporary, 
 majkes no mention of him, though the fre- 
 quent allusion to him in the obscure utterances 
 of the Welsh bards, edited by Mr. Skene, may 
 be set against this. But many deny the his- 
 torical value of the Four SooJcs, and the 
 earliest really historical notices of Arthur are 
 found in " Nennius " and the Welsh tenth 
 century chronicle called^««afes Carnbri(B (MS. 
 A.), ifennius says [Mon. Mist. Britan., 73-4), 
 " Artur pugnabat contra illos [videlicet Sax- 
 ones] cum regihus Britonum ; sed ipse dux 
 erat bellorum, et in omnibus bellis victor 
 exstitit." He then gives a list "of Arthur's 
 twelve victories, ending with the battle " in 
 monte Badonis." This the AnnaUs Cambria 
 place in a.d. 516, and make Arthur a Christian 
 hero. The same authority places his death 
 at the battle of Camlan, in 637. Will this 
 evidence compensate for the silence of Gildas ? 
 All really depends on our estimate of Nennius. 
 Many, like Milton, repudiate Neunius as a 
 " very trivial author ;" but others, including 
 Dr. Guest and Mr. Skene, fuUy accept his 
 authority, though recognising the fragmentary 
 and unequal character of the series of treatises 
 that collectively go by his name. Mr. Skene 
 [Four Ancient Books of Wales, i. 50 — 89 ; 
 Celtic Scotland, i. 152 ; of. Glennie's Arthurian 
 Localities) claims that Arthur was the leader 
 of the Northern Cymry of Strathclyde and 
 Cumbria against the Saxons ; and identifies 
 places in those regions as the scenes of the 
 twelve battles — Mons Badonis being Bouden 
 HDl, near Linlithgow. Arthur, according to 
 this view, is not a king, but a temporary 
 general, the " Gwledig," who led the combined 
 hosts of the princes of the Northern Britons to 
 unwonted victories. He was the successor of 
 the Eoman generals of the legions encamped 
 along the Pictish wall. His victories led to 
 the restriction of the Saxons to the country 
 east of the Pennine range, and so created the 
 Cumbrian kingdom. He died defeated by a 
 revolt of the heathen British, perhaps in 
 alliance with the Saxons. The great authority 
 
 of Dr. Guest [Archceological Journal, Salisbury 
 volume, 1849) also accepts Arthur as a real 
 person, but places the scene of his victories in 
 the western border-land of the growing State 
 of the West Saxons (e.g., Mons Badonis is 
 Badbury, in Dorsetshire). Mr. Elton (Origins 
 of British Bistory, p. 362) doubtfully follows 
 Mr. Skene; while Professor Ehys (Celtic 
 Britain, p. 231) regards Arthur as the " ideal 
 champion of the Brythonic race," whether in 
 Wales, Cumbria, Cornwall, or Brittany. 
 " Whether he was from the first a purely 
 imaginary character, in whom the best quali- 
 ties of his race met, or had some foundation 
 in the facts of long forgotten history, it would 
 be difficult to say." Perhaps nothing more 
 decided than this can safely be said. 
 
 Besides the above-mentioned authorities, the 
 Myvijriwii Archaiology of Wales may be referred to 
 as containing the texts of the Welsh legendi^ of 
 Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth's British His- 
 tffry is translated in Bohn's series, and the Mahi- 
 nogwn has been translated by Lady Charlotte 
 Guest. For the influence of the Arthurian 
 legend on the literature of Germany, Prance, 
 ajid Scandinavia, see an essay by Albert Schulz 
 (Llandovery, 1841). There are many editions of 
 Les JRomans de la Table Ronde (e.g., Paris, 1860), 
 and Malory's Morte d' Arthur has been reprinted, 
 in 1817 by Southey, and 1856 by Wright. The 
 literature on the Arthurian legend is almost 
 endless. [X. IT. T.] 
 
 Arthur of Brittany (*. 1187, d. 1203) 
 was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and Con- 
 stance, Duchess of Brittany. His mother's 
 championship of the independence of herduchy 
 no doubt damaged her son's chances of succeed- 
 ing to the crown of his uncle. She had, more- 
 over, completely alienated Richard ^nd Queen 
 Eleanor, so that, on Richard's death, John 
 was unanimously accepted as king. Arthur's 
 only hope lay in gaining the assistance of 
 Philip Augustus, who at first seemed willing 
 to help him; and the Barons of Anjou, Maine, 
 and Touraine, declared for him. War broke 
 out between Philip and John, but the former 
 was more eager for his own interests than for 
 Arthur, and verj' soon peace was concluded, 
 by which Philip's eldest son Louis was to 
 marry Blanche of Castile, John's niece, John 
 giving her the county of Evreux as a marriage 
 portion. Arthur, who was betrothed to one 
 of Philip's daughters, was forced to do homage 
 to John for Brittany. Quarrels very shortly 
 broke out between John and Philip, who 
 offered to receive the homage of Arthur for 
 the count}' of Anjou, and allow his knights to 
 join him in conquering it. Arthur commenced 
 operations by attacking his grandmother 
 Eleanor at Mirabel ; but he was captured by 
 John, who imprisoned him, first at Falaise, 
 and afterwards at Rouen, where he died. 
 The manner of Arthur's death is unknown, 
 nor is it ever likely to be determined with 
 certainty. All that the historians of the 
 next reign could say was that Arthur disap- 
 peared. " Elapso igitur aliquanto tempore 
 Arthurus evanuit." (Matt. Paris, Chron, 
 
Art 
 
 ( 80 
 
 Art 
 
 Anglic, iii., p. 221.). The generally received 
 account of his deal^h, which has been conse- 
 crated by tradition and poetry, was, that he 
 was murdered by his uncle's own hand, and 
 his body thrown into the Seine. The peers 
 of France found John guilty of the murder, 
 but it is doubtful how far this can be held as 
 confirmatory of the accusation. 
 
 The Chronicles of K. Hoveden, Kadulf de 
 
 Coggeshall, and Mattliew Paris (Rolls Series) ; 
 
 C. H. Pearson, Hist, of Sng. in tlie ^a/irly and 
 
 Mid. Ages. 
 
 Arthur, Prince (A. I486, d. 1502), was the 
 eldest son of Henry VII. His marriage with 
 Catherine of Aragon was first agreed upon 
 between the Kings of Spain and England in 
 March, 1489, when he was not ye1> three years 
 old, and he was little more than fifteen when 
 the actual wedding ceremony was celebrated 
 at St. Paul's, Nov. 14, 1801. Bacon describes 
 the young prince as a studious youth, and 
 learned beyond his years. His name of Arthur 
 was a graceful acknowledgment on Henry's 
 part of his own British descent through Sir 
 Owen Tudor. 
 
 Bacon, Hist, of Henry VII. 
 
 Articles, Lokds of the, appointed first 
 in 1369, in the reign of David II., became 
 gradually a recognised part of the legislative 
 machinery of Scotland. The " Lords " con- 
 sisted of a committee chosen equally from 
 each estate to prepare the various measures, 
 which, when completed, were laid before the 
 Estates for final adoption or rejection. 
 William III. endeavoured to remodel tho 
 system in 1689, and ordered that the Lords 
 should consist of twenty-four persons, eight 
 being chosen from each estate, and took away 
 their power of rejecting absolutely any motion 
 laid before them. 'The Estates, however, 
 voted that a permanent committee was ob- 
 jectionable, and in 1690 William gave his 
 assent to a measure abolishing the Lords of 
 the Articles, and providing for temporary 
 committees, to be elected as occasion might 
 arise. [Estates.] 
 
 Articles of Grievances, voted April, 
 1689, by the Scotch Estates, protested against 
 sundry laws which were held to be burden- 
 some and dangerous, and were intended to 
 show William III. in what cases reforms 
 were needed. The Estates complained chiefly 
 of the laws passed in the Parliament of 1685; 
 of the reference of legislative proceedings to 
 permanent committees to the injury of free 
 parliamentary discussion ; and of the Act of 
 1669 which made the Sovereign head of the 
 Church. The Articles of Grievances differed 
 from the Claim of Eight in that the former 
 laid down fundamental rules of the constitu- 
 tion which had been violated by James II. ; 
 the latter merely petitioned for certain neces- 
 sary reforms. 
 
 Articles of Religion. In England, 
 as in other European countries, the Eeforma- 
 
 tion period was marked by several attempts to- 
 codify or embody in an authoritative form 
 the articles of religious beHef . With a view 
 to putting an end to discussion, Henry VIII., 
 with the aid of his theological advisers, 
 compiled a Book of Articles, which was laid 
 before Convocation in 1536, and subscribed by 
 all its members. These Articles established 
 the Bible, the three Creeds, and the first four 
 Councils as the basis of belief ; limited 
 the Sacraments to three, baptism, penance, 
 and the Eucharist ; declared that, though 
 the use of images, the worship of saints, 
 and the ritual of the church services had not 
 in themselves power to remit sins, yet they 
 were useful to Uft up men's minds unto Grod ; 
 accepted purgatory, but denounced pardons, 
 and masses for the dead. These Articles 
 pleased neither the Reformers nor the Roman- 
 ists, and were accepted merely at the king's 
 command. In 1639 Henry VIII.'s policy 
 led him to check the growth of the reforming 
 doctrines, and Parliament passed the Bill of 
 the Six Articles, which a£Srmed trausubstan- 
 tiation, the reception of the communion 
 under one kind, the celibacy of the clergy, 
 the binding power of vows of chastity, private 
 masses, and auricular confession. Soon after 
 the death of Henry VIII., in the Parliament 
 of 1547 the Statute of the Six Articles was 
 repealed. In 1551 an order of the Council 
 was issued to Archbishop Cranmer bidding 
 him frame Articles of Religion. This task the 
 archbishop discharged with caution and de- 
 liberation. He consulted with others, circu- 
 lated a rough draft, and laid it before the 
 Council. After many revisions it was handed 
 for final consideration and emendation to five 
 of the royal chaplains, and to John Knox, the 
 Scottish Reformer. Though it was thus dis- 
 cussed and revised, the draft was in the main 
 the work of Cranmer and his friend Bishop 
 Ridley, who is said to have supplied the 
 greater share of learning. There is some doubt 
 whether or not these Articles were submitted 
 to Convocation; but the evidence seems to 
 show that they were. Finally, they were issued 
 in 1553, with the royal mandate to all the 
 bishops ordering them to call on aU clergy, 
 schoolmasters, and churchwardens, to sub- 
 scribe. These Articles of Edward VI., from 
 their number, are sometimes known as the 
 Forty -two Articles. They show that Cranmer 
 in framing them used the Lutheran Confes- 
 sions of Faith, especially the Confession of 
 Augsburg, though he did not merely copy 
 them. The accession of Queen Mary within 
 two months of the publication of the Forty- 
 two Articles did not give them much time to 
 sink into the minds of the clergy. On the 
 accession of Elizabeth, Archbishop Parker was 
 called on to provide for the troubled condi- 
 tion of ecclesiastical matters. In 1659 Eleven 
 Articles were issued by authority, to be held 
 by all clergy. They were limited to the defini- 
 tion of fundamental truths, and the points in 
 
Art 
 
 (81 
 
 Art 
 
 which the Church of England held the Roman 
 practice to be superstitious. These were meant 
 to be temporary only, while Parker recon- 
 sidered the Forty-two Articles of Edward VI. 
 He revised them, and laid the results of 
 his revision before Convocation in 1562. 
 As Cranmer had used the Confession of 
 Augsburg, Parker made further use of the 
 Confession of Wurtemberg. In his revision 
 he omitted four of the original Fort)'-two 
 Articles — the tenth, " Of Grrace; " the sixteenth, 
 " Of Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost ; " 
 the nineteenth, " All men are bound to keep the 
 Moral Commandments of the Law " (the fii'St 
 part of which was added to the seventh) ; and 
 the forty-first, against "Heretics called Mille- 
 narii." He added four others — the fifth, 
 twelfth, nineteenth, and thirtieth of the 
 present edition. Besides these greater changes, 
 the phraseology was altered in many points. 
 The Convocation made further alterations, 
 and several important omissions. It struck 
 out the end of the third Article, concerning 
 the preaching of Christ to the spirits in 
 prison, and entirely discarded three articles — 
 " The souls of them that depart this life do 
 neither die with the bodies, nor sleep idly ; " 
 " The resurrection of the dead is not yet 
 brought to pass;" "All men shall not be 
 saved at the length." The Articles, now re- 
 duced in number to thirty-nine, were sub- 
 mitted to the queen, who further struck out 
 the present twenty-ninth Article, " Of the 
 wicked which eat not the Body of Christ in 
 the use of the Lord's Supper." She further 
 added to the twentieth Article the clause, 
 " The Church hath power to decree rites or 
 ceremonies, and authority in controversies 
 of faith." The Articles were originally in 
 Latin; but an English translation was soon 
 issued of the Thirty-eight Articles as they 
 passed the revision of the queen and CouhciL 
 In 1571 the Articles were committed by 
 Convocation to Bishop Jewel for editorship. 
 They were then put into their present form, 
 and were issued both in Latin and English — 
 both versions being authoritative and ofi&cial. 
 The twenty-ninth Article was restored, and 
 the other alteration of the queen, on the 
 authority of the Church to determine rites 
 and ceremonies, was retained in the English 
 Articles, but omitted in the Latin. The 
 Thirty-nine Articles were then approved by 
 Parliament, and a statute was passed re- 
 quiring subscription from all candidates for 
 holy orders. From this time forward they 
 have been the standard of the opinions of the 
 Church of England. Accordingly, the " Con- 
 stitutions and Canons Ecclesiastical " passed 
 by Convocation in 1603, and confirmed by 
 royal authority, enacted excommunication as 
 the penalty to any one who " declared the 
 Thirty-nine Articles to be erroneous, super- 
 stitious, or such as he may not with a good 
 conscience subscribe unto." But these Canons, 
 not haring been passed by Parliament, are 
 
 binding only as ecclesiastical law on the 
 clergy, not on the laity. As regards the 
 legal aspect of the Thirty-nine Articles, the 
 Act of 1571 enacted that no one should be 
 admitted to a benefice tiU he had subscribed 
 the Articles in the presence of the Ordinary, 
 and publicly read them in the parish church, 
 with a declaration of his unfeigned assent. 
 The Canons of 1603 further enacted that no 
 one should teach, either in a school or in a 
 private house, unless he subscribed the Thirty- 
 nine Articles and obtained a licence from a 
 bishop. The Act of Uniformity, passed in 
 1662, embodied this provision. The Tolera- 
 tion Act of 1689 exempted from the penalties 
 of existing statutes against conventicles such 
 dissenting ministers and teachers as should 
 subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles, omitting 
 the thirty-fourth, thirty- fifth, thirty-sixth, 
 and the words of the twentieth which declare 
 that the Church has power to decree rites 
 and ceremonies. Those who had scruples 
 about infant baptism were exempted from 
 subscription to part of the twenty-seventh 
 Article. This Act was the beginning of a 
 period of indulgence and security from per- 
 secution to Dissenters, which went on tiU in 
 1779 was passed the Dissenting Ministers' 
 Act, enabling Dissenters to preach and act as 
 schoolmasters without any subscription to the 
 Articles. From this time forward subscrip- 
 tion to the Articles ceased to be a test for the 
 exclusion of Dissenters, except in the Univer- 
 sities. At Oxford, the Earl of Leicester as 
 Chancellor had, in 1581, imposed subscription 
 to the Articles before matriculation. At 
 Cambridge, subscription, since 1616, was re- 
 quired of aU who took a degree. Thus, 
 Dissenters could not enter the University of 
 Oxford ; they might be educated at Cam- 
 bridge, but were not admitted to any of the 
 endowments. These disabilities were not 
 removed tiU the passing of the University 
 Tests Act in 1871, which exempted laymen 
 from any religious test. Thus the Articles 
 have ceased to be used as a standard of 
 orthodoxy for any save the clergy of the 
 Church of England. Even in their case it 
 was felt that subscription to a body of 
 doctrinal statements was an excessive obliga- 
 tion, if it was meant to imply literal agree- 
 ment with every sentence contained in them. 
 To avoid further ambiguities, and to relieve 
 scrupulous consciences on this point, the 
 Clerical Subscription Act of 1866 did away 
 with subscription in the case of the clergy, 
 and substituted a declaration of assent to the 
 Thirty-nine Articles and the Prayer Book. 
 
 Cardwell, Synoialia; Hajrdwick, History of 
 the Articles. [M. C] 
 
 Articles of War are framed by the 
 crown for the better government of the 
 army and navy. Those which are in force 
 for the army were first authorised in 1714, 
 and are confirmed aimually in the Mutiny 
 
Art 
 
 ( 8'.2 )■ 
 
 Aru 
 
 Act, the Articles of "War for the Navy being 
 based on a Bill passed in 1749. The Articles 
 of War, " which are to be obeyed as being 
 the commands of a superior officer," are 
 divided into sections, some of which corre- 
 spond to clauses in the Mutiny Act ; others, 
 however, though they relate to subjects in 
 the latter, are occupied with definitions of 
 the crime and the punishment appropriate 
 to it. There are some Articles, moreover, 
 which have no counterpart in the Act. It 
 is to be observed that the legality of the 
 Articles of War, as of other orders, may 
 itself become the subject of examination and 
 controversy in a court martial; but the 
 Mutiny Act, being part of the statute law, 
 must be obeyed without question. [Military 
 System.] 
 
 Articnli Super Cartas were certain 
 articles, twenty in number, which were added 
 to Magna Charta when it was confirmed by 
 Edward I. in the Parliament which met, 
 1300. The most important clauses are those 
 which appoint commissioners to investigate all 
 cases in which the charters had been infringed ; 
 those which reform and regulate the jury 
 system ; those which remedy the abuses of pur- 
 veyance and jurisdiction of the royal officers ; 
 and those which order that no common pleas 
 shall be held in the Exchequer contrary to the 
 form of Magna Charta, and forbid the issue of 
 common law writs under the Privy Seal. One 
 article, which Dr. Stubbs calls "a curious 
 relic of the ideas of 1258," allows the office of 
 sherifE to be elective in counties where the 
 office is not of fee or heritable. There were 
 also articles regulating administration of the 
 forests, and limiting the royal jurisdiction 
 over them. 
 
 Statutes of the Realm, i. 136 ; IVLattliew of 
 
 Westminster, p. 433: Stubbs, Const. Hist., ii., cb. 
 
 xiv. Tbe articles are ^ven in Stubbs, Select 
 
 Charters. 
 
 Arundel, Peerage of. Eoger de Mont- 
 gomery, one of the mcst trusted followers 
 of William the Conqueror, besides grants 
 of land in Shropshire, received vast estates 
 (seventy-seven lordships) in Sussex, including 
 the castle of Arundel. In 1102, upon the 
 forfeiture of Eoger's son, Robert de Belesme, 
 the castle of Arundel passed to the crown, 
 and was settled by Henry I. on his second 
 wife, Adeliza of Louvain, who, after the 
 king's death, conveyed it to her second 
 husband, William de Albini. It is doubtful 
 whether William de Albini, the son of this 
 marriage, received a grant of the third penny 
 of the county of Sussex ; but he is styled Earl 
 of Sussex, as well as Earl of Arundel and 
 Chichester. In 1243 Hugh de- Albini, fifth 
 Earl of Sussex, died without issue, and part 
 of his estates, together with Arundel Castle, 
 passed to John Fitz-Alan, a descendant of 
 Isabel, daughter of the third Earl. He and 
 his sons are frequently styled Lords of 
 Arundel. Richard Fitz-Alan {d. 1283) is the 
 
 first of this family actually summoned as 
 Earl of Arundel (1291) by writ. His son 
 Edmund was beheaded in 1326, and his 
 honours forfeited. They were, however, 
 restored to Richard, third Earl, in 1331. In 
 1580 Henry Fitz-Alan, twelfth Earl, died 
 without male heirs, and the earldom and 
 estates passed to Phihp, son of Thomas, 
 fourth Duke of Norfolk, who had married 
 Mary, daughter of this earl. Philip was 
 summoned to Parliament as Earl of Arundel. 
 The earldom has since continued in the line 
 of the Fitz-Alan Howards, Dukes of Norfolk. 
 [Howard.] The peerage of Arundel of 
 Wardour was conferred in 1605 on Sir 
 Thomas Arundel, a distinguished soldier, who 
 had fought in the wars against the Turks, 
 and had been created a Count of the Holy 
 Roman Empire by Rudolph II. 
 
 For interesting questions connected with the 
 peerage of Arundel, see tbe Lords' First JBcport 
 on the Dignity of a Peer, esp. Appendix ; and Sir 
 Harris Nicolas, Historuj Peerage, 
 
 Arundel, Edmund Fitz-Alan, 2nd Earl 
 OF (d. 1326), was one of the Ordainers ap- 
 pointed in 1310. He was one of the few 
 nobles who remained faithful to Edward II. 
 after the landing of Isabella and Mortimer. 
 He was seized by the latter at Bristol, and 
 hanged with Hugh Despenser. 
 
 Arundel, Richard Fitz-Alan, 4th Earl 
 OF (d. 1397), was the son of Richard, Earl of 
 Arundel, and Eleanor, daughter of Henry, 
 Earl of Lancaster. He succeeded his father 
 in 1375, and served in the French and Scotch 
 wars ; but he was chiefly remarkable for his 
 valour and conduct at sea. He was for 
 several years admiral and captain of the east, 
 south, and west, gained several naval victories, 
 and captured Brest. He joined Gloucester 
 against De la Pole and De Vere, and was one 
 of the first Lords Appellant. In 1397 he was 
 involved in Gloucester's fall, and was seized, 
 tried, and beheaded. 
 
 Arundel, Thomas Eitz-Alan, 10th Earl 
 OF [d. 1524), was one of the chief nobles at- 
 tached to Henry VII.'s court. On the occasion 
 of the shipwreck near Weymouth, in January, 
 1506, of the Archduke of Austria, Phihp, and 
 his wife, the Earl of Arundel was the royal 
 messenger sent to congratulate Philip upon 
 his recent escape, and to welcome him to 
 England. The Earl of Arundel had also done 
 the king good service as a soldier in Flanders, 
 during the wars in aid of MaximiUan. 
 
 Arundel, Henry Fitz-Alan, 12th Earl 
 OF [d. 1580), was in 1547 appointed one of 
 the twelve councillors who, under the will 
 of Henry Till., were to assist the executors 
 in carrj-insr on the government during the 
 minority of Edward VI. He was one of the 
 chief promoters of the attack on Somerset, 
 which ended in his downfall; and having given 
 an unwilling assent to the alteration of the 
 succession of Edward VI. in favour of Lady 
 
Aru 
 
 ( 83 
 
 Asc 
 
 Jane Grey, lie was regarded with suspicion 
 by Northumberland, who endeavoured to 
 prevent his leaving London. However, he 
 managed to escape to Baynard's Castle, and 
 at once, with the rest of the Council, declared 
 for Mary ; shortly afterwards he arrested the 
 Duke of Northumberland at Cambridge, and 
 conveyed him to London. After the accession 
 of Queen Elizabeth, Arundel became one of 
 her councillors, "feared by all men, trusted by 
 none," and was even named as a probable 
 suitor for her hand, a fact which led to a 
 bitter quarrel with Leicester in 1561. In 1568, 
 as the leader of the old nobility and the 
 Catholic party, he showed himself violently 
 opposed to Cecil and the Reformers, and was 
 present at the Westminster Inquiry as 
 a partisan of Mary Queen of Scots ; in the 
 following year he was placed under arrest for 
 complicity in the northern rebellion, and in 
 1571 was privy to the Ridolfi conspiracy. 
 
 Froude, Htst o/Ens. ,• P. F. Tytler, England 
 under Edward Vl. aud Mary. 
 
 ArtmdeljTHiLip Howakd, 13th Easl of 
 (d. 1595), son of Thomas, fourth Duke of 
 Norfolk, who was attainted and beheaded in 
 1572, inherited the earldom of Arundel in 
 right of his mother. He was restored in blood 
 and made privy councillor in 1580. On his 
 first appearance at court he won the favour of 
 Elizabeth, but quickly lost it through his 
 immoral life. In 1583 he was charged with 
 compUcity in the plot of Francis Throgmor- 
 ton, having incurred suspicion by becoming 
 " reconciled" to the Catholic Church in 1581 
 on the solicitations of the Jesuits ; but though 
 there was no doubt of his guilt, he was 
 speedily released. On attempting to es- 
 cape from England, in 1585, he was captured 
 and again sent to the Tower, where he 
 remained until his death. In 1589 he was 
 found guilty of high treason on a charge of 
 having prayed for the success of the Spanish 
 Armada. He was also charged with corre- 
 spondence with Allen and other CathoHo 
 conspirators. He was condemned to death, 
 but by the advice of Cecil and Hatton was not 
 executed. " In her conduct towards this un- 
 fortunate nobleman," remarks Mr. Lingard, 
 "the queen betrayed an unnccountable spirit 
 of revenge. He seems to have given some 
 deep but secret offence which, though never 
 divulged, could never be forgotten." 
 
 Sfcrype, AnnoXs; Lingard, Hist, oj Eng. 
 
 Arundel, Thomas (S. cirea 1352, d. 1413), 
 was the third son of Richard, Earl of Arundel, 
 and was made Bishop of Ely in 1374. He 
 joined Gloucester in his opposition to De la 
 Pole and other ministers of Richard II., and 
 in i:i86 was appointed Chancellor. On the 
 banishment of Neville he received the arch- 
 bishopric of York, and retired from the 
 Chancellorship in 1389. He was Chancellor 
 again from 1391, till his appointment to the 
 archbishopric of Canterbury in 1396. Shortly 
 
 afterwards he was accused of treason, and at 
 the king's request translated by the Pope to 
 the see of St. Andrews. He was banished 
 from the realm, and concerted with Boling- 
 broke plans for regaining power in England. 
 He accompanied Henry on his expedition to 
 England, and on the deposition of Richard 
 received the archbishopric once more. He 
 strenuously supported the rights of the Church 
 during the remainder of his life, and was in- 
 strumental in getting the statute Be Saretico 
 Combtircndo passed. He held the Chancellor- 
 ship again from 1407 to 1409, and from 1412 
 .to 1413. 
 
 "Roo^, Archhuthops ofCanterhury; Foss, Judges 
 of England; Wallon, Richard II. 
 
 Arundel, Sir Thomas {d. 1552), was one 
 of the most trusted and sagacious of Henry 
 VIII. 's councillors. He enjoyed much in- 
 fluence with the king, and was appointed one 
 of the twenty-four executors appointed to 
 carry out that sovereign's will. He was the 
 brother-in-law and intimate friend of the 
 Protector Somerset, in whose fall he was in- 
 volved. He was executed on a, charge of 
 treason, Eeb., 1552. 
 
 Asaf-ul-Dowlah. {d. 1797) succeeded his 
 father, Sujah Dowlah, as Vizier of Oude, in 
 1775, and was ultimately recognised by the 
 Emperor. A treaty was concluded with the 
 English, by which the Vizier agreed to sur- 
 render Benares and certain other districts of the 
 annual value of twenty-two lacs. This Vizier 
 misgoverned, as his father had done, and by 
 1781 was in a state of the greatest pecuniary 
 embarrassment. Hastings therefore con- 
 cluded an arrangement with him, one main 
 object of which was to relieve him from 
 burdens which he professed himself totally un- 
 able to bear. It was provided by the new treaty 
 that a portion of the British forces should be 
 withdrawn, that the Vizier might resume all 
 jaghires on payment of compensation. The 
 second article enabled the Vizier to dispossess 
 the Begums (his mother and grandmother) of 
 Oude of their jaghires, and was the prelude 
 to the cruelties exercised to compel them to 
 surrender their treasures, 1782. The im- 
 poverishment of the Vizier, however, con- 
 tinued steadily, owing to his misgovermuent 
 and debauchery, and in 1786 his repeated 
 requests that the British force should be 
 removed induced Lord Comwallis to make a 
 fresh treaty with him, by which the money 
 paid for the support of the brigade at Futty- 
 gurh was reduced from seventy-four to fifty 
 lacs on the condition that it should be punc- 
 tually paid. The misgovemment, however, 
 continued, and the Vizier passed the rest of 
 his life in oppressing his subjects, and in- 
 dulging in boundless sensuality. 
 
 Cornwallis Despatches; Mill, Hist, of India; 
 Macaulay's Essay on Warren Hastings. 
 
 Ascalon^ a town on the coast of Syria, 
 about twelve miles from Gaza, was a place of 
 
Asc 
 
 ( 84) 
 
 Ash 
 
 great strength and importance in the earlier 
 Crusades. It was to this town that Richard 
 I. led the crusading army after the fall of 
 Acre in the earlj' part of 1192. On the way 
 his troops were intercepted by a great Saracen 
 army, under the command of Saladin, said to 
 amount to over 300,000 men. The two 
 wings of the Christian army were broken; 
 but the centre, commanded by Richard him- 
 self, held firm, and at last drove back the . 
 enemy in great disorder. 40,000 of the 
 Saracens are said to have perished. The 
 victory threw the town of Ascalon into the 
 hands of the Crusaders. 
 
 Ascension Island, situated ,in the 
 
 South Atlantic, was discovered by the Portu- 
 guese on Ascension Day, 1501. It was never 
 colonised until it was seized by the English 
 in 1815, during the captivity of Napoleon in 
 the neighbouring island of St. Helena. 
 
 Ascham, Antony (d. 1650), an author 
 " of much reputation," was sent by the 
 Commonwealth, in 1650, as ambassador to 
 Madrid. A few days after his arrival there, 
 he was assassinated by some refugee Royalists. 
 The murderers, with the exception of one who 
 was executed, were allowed to escape, public 
 opinion in the Spanish capital being entirely 
 in their favour. [Dokislaus.] 
 
 Ascham, Rogek (b. 1515, d. 1568), one of 
 the earliest of English Greek scholars, and at 
 one time public orator at Cambridge, became 
 successively Latin secretary to Edward YI., 
 Queen Mary, and Elizabeth, and was also 
 tutor to the last-named princess in 1548, being 
 charged with her instruction in the learned 
 languages. In 1550 he accompanied Sir 
 William Morysine in the capacity of secretarj' 
 to the court of Charles V. On the accession 
 of Queen Elizabeth, Ascham was, in 1559, 
 made a canon of York. As a writer of English 
 prose Ascham deserves high praise. His style, 
 though somewhat rugged, is pithy and vigo- 
 rous. His work on education, entitled The 
 Schoolmaster, is interesting and valuable. He 
 also wrote Toxophikes, a treatise on archery, 
 and A Report of the Affairs and State of 
 Germany, which is of some historical value. 
 
 Ascham's Wovlcs, ed. by Dr. Giles, 1856 ; A. 
 Katterfeld, Eogtr Ascham: seln Xeten und sQvne 
 Werke, 1879. An edition of The Schoolmaster, 
 witli notes, has been pubUsbed by Mr. J. E. B. 
 Mayor. 
 
 Ascue (Askew, or Ayscough), Anne 
 
 {d. 1646), daughter of Sir Thomas Ascue, of 
 Kelsey, in Lincolnshire, was arrested as a 
 heretic for denying the doctrine of the Real 
 Presence in the Sacrament. From her in- 
 timacy with Catherine Parr, Anne Ascue's 
 prosecution for heresy is memorable, as it 
 instanced, among other things, the hostility 
 of Bishop Gardiner and Lord Chancellor 
 Wriothesley to the queen; for before being 
 handed over to the executioner for the punish- 
 
 ment of burning, Anne, in spite of her sex, 
 was made to undergo in the Tower the tor- 
 ture of the rack, with a view of extorting 
 from her in her agony some avowal implicating 
 other court ladies, and possibly the queen. 
 Wriothesley's efforts are generally thought to 
 have been entirely fruitless ; though Parsons, 
 in his " Examen " of Foxe's account of her, 
 states that she actually did so : " By her con- 
 fession, he (the king) learned so much of 
 Queen Catherine Parr as he purposed to have 
 her burned also, had he lived." 
 
 lHarraHaes of the Reformation (Camden 
 Soc.) ; Froude, Rist, of Eng. 
 
 Asgill, John (*. 1658, d. 1738), was the 
 author of various pamphlets, including a trea- 
 tise, published in 1698, on the possibility of 
 avoiding death. He was elected to the Irish 
 Parliaraent, and subsequently to the English 
 Parliament, but was expelled on account of 
 the blasphemy of his book. The character 
 of the treatise was animadverted upon in the 
 trial of Dr. Sacheverell. Asgill wrote also a 
 tract, De Jure Bivino, on the hereditary claims 
 of the House of Hanover; The Succession of 
 the Souse of Hanover Vindicated; and an 
 Essay for the Fress. 
 
 Asgill, Sir Chables (S. 1762, d. 1823), in 
 1780 was a lieutenant in the army of Lord Corn- 
 wallis in North America, when that general 
 capitulated at York Town. In the following 
 j'ear the Americans, to revenge the death of a 
 certain Republican officer, cast lots for a vic- 
 tim among their English prisoners. The lot 
 fell on Asgill; but his mother went over to 
 France, and persuaded Marie Antoinette to 
 interest herself on his behalf with the Ameri- 
 can envoy. The intercession of the French 
 queen was successful. Asgill was released, 
 continued in the arm}', and in 1794 served 
 under the Duke of York in the Low Countries. 
 In 1798 he was placed in command of a large 
 body of troops for the suppression of the Irish 
 rebellion, and after the Union was for many 
 years employed in various offices in Ireland, 
 
 Ash, Simeon (d. 1662), was one of those 
 clergymen who were ejected from their livings 
 by Laud for refusing to read the declaration 
 concerning the Book of Sports. He became 
 chaplain to the Earl of Manc^hester, and 
 had considerable influence with Presbyterian 
 leaders in the war. He was, however, a 
 strong opponent of the Commonwealth, and 
 was one of those who went to Breda to con- 
 gratulate Charles II. on his restoration. 
 
 Ash was present at the battle of Marston 
 Moor, and wrote an interesting and valuable 
 account of the campaign, "A true relation of 
 the moste chiele ot^currences a^ and, since the late 
 iattell at Newherry . ... to viudicati the 
 Earleof Mancdesfer" (Lond., 1644). 
 
 Ashantee is a country of western Africa 
 in the interior of the Gold Coast and to 
 the north of the river Prah. It first came 
 under the notice of Englishmen in 1807, 
 
Asli 
 
 (85) 
 
 Ash 
 
 •when its king, Sy Tutu, attacked Annam- 
 aboe, a fort on the coast built by the 
 English after the settlement in 1661. Soon 
 afterwards peace was concluded on dis- 
 graceful terms, and it lasted until 1824, 
 when, the Ashantees having attacked the 
 Fantees, over whom the English had estab- 
 lished a protectorate. Sir Charles MacCarthy, 
 governor of Cape Coast Castle, advanced with 
 a handful of men against the king, but was 
 surprised and slain at Esmacow. In 1826, 
 the death of MacCarthy was avenged at 
 the battle of Dudowah. Though there were 
 one or two skirmishes between the Ashantees 
 and the English troops, peace was, on the 
 whole, maintained from that date until 1863, 
 when on the refusal of Governor Pine to 
 give up some runaway slaves to the King 
 of Ashantee, war was begun by the latter. 
 The governor drove the savages back to 
 the Prah, but his West Indian troops fell 
 victims to the climate, and he was compelled 
 to withdraw. Once more peace was pro- 
 claimed. In 1871 the question whether Eng- 
 land or Ashantee should rule the territory 
 between the Prah and the coast, was brought 
 to a final issue by the cession to Enaland by 
 the Dutch of aU their claims on the Gold 
 Coast on condition that they should be allowed 
 to annex lands in Sumatra. Thereupon King 
 Coffee Calcali, who had ascended the throne 
 in 1867, objected to the transfer of the town 
 of Elmina on the ground that it always paid 
 him a fixed annual tribute ; he had also 
 taken captive some missionaries, whom he 
 did not wish to ransom. He therefore 
 decided on renewing the war, and his general, 
 Amanquatia, accordingly crossed the Prah, 
 and drove the cowardly Fantees before them 
 to the coast, but was himself driven from 
 before Elmina by Colonel Festing. Sir Garnet 
 "Wolseley was sent out in October to take 
 civil and military command of the Gold Coast, 
 while Captain Glover, E.N., who had been 
 sent out by the Colonial Office in 1872, 
 attempted to raise a native force at the mouth 
 of the Volta. Native troops were, however, 
 very untrustworthy, and pending the arrival 
 of some English soldiers, all that Sir Garnet 
 Wolseley could do was to occupy and stockade 
 the advanced posts on the road to the river 
 Prah. With the arrival of three English 
 regiments and a, body of marines, in Decem- 
 ber, Sir Garnet was able to invade Ashantee ; 
 the Prah was crossed on Jan. 20th, and on 
 the 31st he encountered the Ashantees at 
 Amoaful, and defeated them after a severe 
 skirmish. On February 4th the English troops 
 reached Commassie, the Ashantee capital, which 
 they fired. The army was overtaken on its 
 return march by some envoys from King 
 Coffee, and a treaty was concluded, by which 
 the king agreed to pay 50,000 ounces of 
 gold, to renounce all rights over the tribes 
 formerly under the protection of the Dutch, 
 ;to allow free trade, to keep the road between 
 
 the Prah and Commassie open, and to discon- 
 tinue human sacrifices. 
 
 Brakenbury, Tlw Ashantee War ; H.M. Stanley, 
 Commassie and Magdala; Beade, Storti of the 
 Ashantee Campaign. rjj. C. S.l 
 
 Ashbumham, Sib John {d. 1671), a 
 descendant of an old Sussex family, sat in 
 the Long Parliament, find took a prominent 
 part on the Eoyalist side, and at the out- 
 break of the Civil War joined the king, 
 and was appointed treasurer and paymaster 
 to the army. He attended Charles I. when 
 he gave himself up to the Scots, and im- 
 mediately afterwards fled to France. In 1647 
 he returned, and became one of the king's 
 personal attendants, and was the chief con- 
 triver of Charles's escape from Hampton 
 Court. The business was mismanaged, and 
 Ashburnham was accused of treachery by the 
 RoyaKsts ; for which, however, there seems to 
 be little ground. He remained in England 
 after the king's death, and compounded for his 
 estate, but being detected in sending money 
 to Charles II., he was in 1654 imprisoned in 
 the Tower, where he remained till Cromwell's 
 death. At the Restoration he received large 
 grants of land, and was made Groom of the 
 Bedchamber to the king. 
 
 Ashburnham's Narrative of his Attendance on 
 King Charles the First was publisbed by his 
 descendant, Lord Ashburnham, in 1830. 
 
 AsIlT)lirton, John Dunning, 1st Loud 
 (A. 1731, d. 1783), was the son of an attorney 
 at Ashburton, in Devonshire. After being 
 articled to his father, he came up to London 
 and was called to the Bar. In 1760 he made 
 a great reputation by the defence which he 
 drew up on behalf of the East India Com- 
 pany against the Dutch claims. In 1763 he 
 still further increased his fame by his elo- 
 quence in the cause of Wilkes against the 
 legality of general warrants. In 1766 he 
 became Recorder of Bristol ; was appointed 
 in the next year Solicitor- General ; and ob- 
 tained, in 1 768, a seat in Parliament as member 
 for Calne. In 1770 be went out of ofiice, and 
 throughout Lord North's long administration, 
 vigorously opposed the government policy. 
 Ho warmly maintained the legality of the 
 Middlesex election, opposed the Test Act, 
 seconded Sir George Savile's motion for an 
 inquiry into government pensions, and was one 
 of the most persistent opponents of the policy 
 pursued towards the American Colonies. In 
 1782, when the Marquis of Rockingham came 
 into power. Dunning was appointed Chan- 
 cellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and raised 
 to the peerage. Sir William Jones has given 
 a true estimate of his character when he says 
 that " his sense of honour was lofty and 
 heroic ; his integrity stem and inflexible ; and 
 no love of dignity, of wealth, or of pleasure 
 could have tempted him to deviate in a single 
 instance from the straight line of truth and 
 honesty." 
 
 Lord Campbell, Li'ues nf the Chancpllors ; Jesse, 
 The GeorgiaiL Era; Chatham Corresponderjx. 
 
Ash 
 
 ( 86) 
 
 Ashbiirton Treaty, The (1846), was 
 concluded tetween England and America 
 for settling the frontiers of the two countries. 
 It defined them to nm along the forty-ninth 
 parallel of north latitude from the great lakes 
 to the middle of the channel which separates 
 the continent from Vancouyer's Island, and 
 thence southerly through the middle of that 
 channel to the Pacific. It neglected, how- 
 ever, to define the middle of the channel, 
 and in consequence a dispute, which was 
 finally settled by arbitration, arose as to the 
 ownership of the Htlle island of San Juan. 
 
 Ashljy, SiK John {b. 1642, d. 1693), a 
 distinguished naval officer, was appointed 
 captain of the Defiance, and took part in the 
 engagement with the French fleet in Bantry 
 Bay. In 1692 he fought in the battle of 
 La Hogue, and, together with Delaval, was 
 entrusted with the pursuit of the French 
 ships. Nottingham afterwards accused him 
 in Parliament, together with Admiral Eussell, 
 of negligence in the latter part of the en- 
 gagement, and though triumphantly acquitted, 
 Ashby seems never to have taken active ser- 
 vice again. [La Hogue.] 
 
 Asbby i>- White. [Aylesbury Case.] 
 
 Asbdowu (.35scdun). The name of the 
 town on the Berkshire downs, near Didcot, 
 where was fought, in 871, a great battle be- 
 tween the West Saxons, led by Ethelred and 
 Alfred, and the Danish host, which had spread 
 over East Anglia and invaded Wessex this 
 year. The Danes had seized Reading, and 
 before this town the Saxons were badly 
 beaten, A few days later they again attacked 
 their foes at Ashdown. A desperate battle 
 was fought, lasting all day, and ending in the 
 flight of the Danes. One of their kings and 
 five of their " jarls " fell in the battle. The 
 victory was in great part due to the vigour 
 and promptitude of Alfred, who led one of the 
 two divisions of the Wessex army. [Alfked.] 
 
 Anglo-Sax. CTirou., an. 871; Asser, DeEefe. Gest, 
 Mfredi. 
 
 Asbtee,THE Battle OF (1818), was fought 
 between the English troops under General 
 Smith and Bajee Rao. The latter, after the 
 battle of Korgaom, retreated, pursued by the 
 British, who on the 19th of February came 
 up with him at the village of Ashtee, and 
 prepared immediately for the attack. The 
 Peishwa, heaping reproaches on his brave 
 general, Gokla, for this surprise, fled at once, 
 leaving his army to cover his retreat. Gokla, 
 stung by the insult, placed himself at the 
 head of 300 horse, rushed on the sabres of the 
 British cavalry, and fell covered with wounds. 
 After his death the Peishwa's army was easily 
 discomfited, and fled in hopeless confusion. 
 
 Aslce, RoEEET {d. 1637), was a gentleman 
 of Yorkshire, and the chief organiser of the 
 famous rebellion of Henry VIII. 's reign, 
 known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. His 
 
 sympathies with the prevalent discontent seem 
 to have been excited originally by his acci- 
 dental sojourn at Lincoln during the disturb- 
 ances there in September, 1536. Hurrying 
 thence to Yorkshire, where his character and 
 capabilities were very favourably known, he 
 soon succeeded in organising a much more 
 formidable movement than the one which had 
 inspired his efEorts ; and, in an astonishingly 
 short space of time, almost the whole king- 
 dom north of the Humber was arrayed against 
 the government of Henry and his minister 
 Cromwell. When the king's verbal con- 
 cessions and promises had brought about the 
 disbandment of the Yorkshire insurgents, 
 Aske and the other prominent leaders of th6 
 movement were at once secured on some 
 plausible pretext, and, in accordance with the 
 summary method of dealing with suspected 
 malcontents at that time, they were put to 
 death after the barest formality of a trial. 
 While D'Arcy was beheaded. Sir Thomas 
 Percy hanged at Tyburn, and Lady Bulmer 
 burnt at the stake, Robert Aske had the dis- 
 tinction of being hanged in chains on one of 
 the towers of York. Aske's talents for or- 
 ganisation and command, his evident single- 
 ness of purpose, and his noble moderation 
 and integrity make him a very remarkable 
 and interesting character. 
 
 Assam. A province of British India, lying 
 along the upper valleys of the Brahmaputra, 
 and extending from the frontiers of Bengal 
 to Northern Burmah. The country was con- 
 quered in the early Middle Ages by tribes 
 from Burmah, who, however, gradually assi- 
 milated in language and religion with the 
 Hindoos. The Mohammedans never succeeded 
 in conquering the country, though they fre- 
 quently attempted it. In the early part of 
 the present century the Assamese became 
 closely connected with Burmah, and their 
 hostile attitude to the East India Company 
 brought about the First Burmese War, the 
 result of which was the annexation of Assam 
 in 1826. It was placed under the Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor of Bengal, but was made a 
 separate chief - commissionership in 1874. 
 [Burmese Wars.] 
 
 Assandun, The Battle of (1016), was 
 the last of the battles between Edmund 
 Ironside and Canute. Owing to the treachery 
 of Edric, the EngUsh were defeated. Assandun 
 is identified by Mr. Freeman with Aslington, 
 near Rochford, in Essex. 
 
 Assassination Plot, The, -was an 
 
 attempt on the life of William III., first 
 designed in 1695, but postponed by William's 
 departure for Flanders. It grew up side by 
 side with Berwick's plot for the invasion of 
 England by a- French army. It was entrusted 
 by the court of St. Germains to Sir George 
 Barclay. Ranke thinks that " all direct evi- 
 dence" is against the complicity of Louis 
 XIV. and James II. ; though " both of them 
 
Ass 
 
 87)- 
 
 Ass 
 
 would have been very ready to pluck the 
 fruit." Certainly Barclay was given a com- 
 mission by James himself authorising him to 
 " do such acts of hostility against the Prince 
 of Orange as should most conduce to the 
 service of the king." Barclay landed in 
 England in January, and in conjunction 
 with Charnook and Parkyns hatched the 
 conspiracy. He was joined by twenty men 
 of James's body-guard, whom he called his 
 Janissaries. It remained to gain twenty 
 more adherents, and but little care was taken 
 in their selection. It was determined to 
 attempt the life of the king on Turnham 
 Green, on his way back to Kensington after 
 hunting in Bichmond Park, on the 15th 
 of February. But the hearts of some 
 of the conspirators failed them, and in- 
 formation was conveyed to the Duke of 
 Portland. William thereupon postponed his 
 hunting. Still the conspirators imagined 
 they were undetected; but they were speedily 
 un,deceived by the arrest of some of their 
 number, and the issue of warrants against 
 others. A joint address was voted by both 
 Houses of Parliament, acknowledging the 
 Divine goodness which had preserved the 
 king to the people. 
 
 CommoTis' Joumah ; Burnet, Mist, of Ms OvM 
 
 Time; Banke, Hist. ofEng.; Macaulay, Hist, of 
 
 Eng. ^ 
 
 Assaye. [Asste.] 
 
 Asser {d. 910) was a monk attached to the 
 famous monastery of St. Davids, of which his 
 uncle was bishop. The fame of his learning 
 led King Alfred in 855 to invite him to assist 
 him in his studies. He was made by that 
 monarch Bishop of Sherborne, but seems to 
 have resided a, great part of his time at the 
 court, assisting the king in the revival of 
 learning, which he brought about. His name 
 occurs in some catalogues of Bishops of St. 
 Davids ; but their historical value is small, and 
 his occupations in England make it highly 
 improbable that he ever attained the bishopric 
 of his native place. His Life of King Alfred 
 {Be Sebus Gesiis Alfredi) was long considered 
 a thoroughly trustworthy authority. There 
 is, however, little doubt that the work, as we 
 have it now, contains large additions from 
 the hands of later copyists, the great Camden 
 being among the number. Some scholars 
 have even gone so far as to declare the Life 
 entirely spurious. This seems an extreme 
 conclusion ; but there is little doubt that the 
 work cannot be relied on as a thoroughly 
 authentic contemporary biography. Accepted 
 with these qualifications, the work is valuable 
 and extremely interesting. [Alfred.] 
 
 No MSS. of Asser are in existence, nor any 
 printed copies earlier than Elizabeth's reigii. The 
 work is printed in Monwmenta, Histor, Britann, ; 
 and translated in Bolin's Antiquarian Library, 
 
 Assessment. The assessment of taxa- 
 tion begins to be important when direct taxa- 
 tion itself assumes so much more importance 
 
 with the Norman reigns. For the century and 
 more during which taxation was looked for onlj' 
 from the laud, Domesday remained the great 
 rate-book, and its assessment remained un- 
 altered. A township was rated in Domesday 
 at such and such a number of hides, and paid 
 its Danegeld or hidage accordingly. The towns 
 arranged with the sheriff or the itinerant 
 justices what sums they should pay. Only as 
 the knight's fee became the universal mode of 
 reckoning the liability of military tenants, 
 this liability had to be expressed in a new 
 compilation — the Black Book of the Exchequer, 
 or rate-book for tenants-in-chief ; which 
 again was revised more than a century later 
 in the Testa de Nevill, But Domesday itself 
 was a return sent in to royal commissioners by 
 each hundred and township, a joint work of the 
 royal and popular powers. When, after the 
 Saladine tithe of 1188 upon movables as 
 well as rents, taxation began to fall more and 
 more on personal property, and to advance 
 towards the subsidy of the fourteenth and 
 succeeding centuries, then more than ever the 
 assessment of a tax required the free co- 
 operation of each locality. Only from v. 
 jury of neighbours could a due estimate be 
 reached of a man's property. The assessment 
 of taxation was committed to representatives 
 in each district, and taxation itself was 
 rapidly becoming a function for the united 
 representatives of the whole nation. When 
 this latter point is reached in the Parlia- 
 mentary system of Edward I., the matter or 
 assessment loses its main constitutional im- 
 portance, having already done its work. The 
 knights of the shire, who in 1220, for instance, 
 assess the average on their neighbours, in 
 1295, assembled in one body, grant the tax, 
 and in the Good Parliament of 1376 demand 
 the right to settle its appropriation. And 
 indeed, as early as 1334, assessment becomes 
 little more than mechanical when the rating 
 of the fifteenth, made in that year and re- 
 corded in the Exchequer, was thereafter 
 taken as a standard. Henceforth the 
 only question which remains to give trouble 
 is concerned with the assessment of the 
 clergy. When, from the date above given 
 (1188), their "spiritualities," i.e., revenues 
 from fees, &c., came under contribution, the 
 assessment was carried out by the same 
 method of juries of neighbours, until, in 1256, 
 the Norwich taxation made by oi der of Pope 
 Alexander IV., and in 1291 the valuation 
 superseding it, which was made by order of 
 Nicholas IV., and which covered both " tem- 
 poralities " and " spiritualities," gave the 
 clergy a permanent independent rate-book, 
 which was acted on till the Reformation. 
 But it left an opening for constant disputes 
 in the next two centuries as to the mode and 
 rate of assessment to be applied ; first, to 
 lands acquired by the Church since the valua- 
 tion of 1291, and secondly as to the large 
 class of chantry priests and private chaplains 
 
) 
 
 Ass 
 
 whom that valuation had left out of account. 
 This clerical valuation and the lay assess- 
 ment of Domesday, as well as the rating to 
 subsidies of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and 
 sixteenth centuries, were probahly far helow 
 the real value. Not only were exemptions 
 wide and numerous, but the rating itself was 
 evidently at a nominal valuation. The 
 Domesday hide, for example, omitted un- 
 productive ground; and the later subsidies 
 did not fall on a knight's equipment or a 
 peasant's implements. The lightness of the 
 assessment must, in fact, he set against the 
 burdensomeness of early taxation due to its 
 uncertainty, its wasteful modes of collection, 
 and its suicidally short-sighted principles. 
 When the methods of assessment ceased in 
 the fourteenth century to have a formative 
 effect on the constitution, their chief import- 
 ance is over. But here, too, the Tudor and 
 Stuart kings, going back for precedents to 
 an age before the national liberties were set 
 on a firm constitutional basis, revived on 
 several occasions more arbitrary methods, and 
 disregarded the valuations which had been 
 icoepted for two centuries. Thus the com- 
 tnissioners under Wolsey's great scheme of 
 taxation in 1522, and again in 1525, were to 
 issess each man, clerk or lay, to the value of 
 his chattels. In 1621 the assessors were to dis- 
 regard old rates, and to rate every man accord- 
 ing to their own knowledge, not even accepting 
 his own declaration, and such was the prece- 
 dent followed in the raising of ship-money. 
 The whole practice, too, of benevolences and 
 of forced loans levied according to official esti- 
 mates of the individual's property, was an 
 application of arbitrary assessment. Again, 
 in the seventeenth century, with the establish- 
 ment of the excise arose a question of some 
 practical moment, how this was assessed. 
 Similar points of social interest are connected 
 with the injurious effects of certain taxes, 
 assessed on a false principle, as the window- 
 tax; or the introduction of the income tax, 
 in which recourse has to be made to a rude 
 method of joint assessment by the payer him- 
 self and by an official commissioner. But 
 these methods are, as a matter of fact, 
 guaranteed against unjustly operating, by 
 the right of appeal to a higher body or a court 
 of law. 
 
 Madox, Hist, of tlie Exchequer ; Lin^rd, Hist, 
 of England, ill 116 — 119 ; Pauli, GcBchiclite von 
 England, i. 683—685; Stubbs, const. Hist, and 
 Sxlect Chai-teis and documents; Hallaiu, Const. 
 Hist.; M..y, Const. Sisl. [A. L. S.] 
 
 Assiento, The (1713), or the "contract" 
 for supjjlying the Spanish colonies in the 
 Western world with negro slaves, was at first 
 an arrangement between France and Spain. 
 After the merchandise had been carried on by 
 Genoa and Portugal, it had been undertaken 
 in 1702 by a French company. By one of 
 the stipulations of the Treaty of Utrecht, this 
 right was surrendered to England, and con- 
 
 firmed by a special treaty of forty-two clauses. 
 After France had resigned the Assiento, 
 Spain was to convey it to England for thirty 
 years, at the end of which period, and a 
 further term of three years, the traffic was to 
 be wound up. England was to furnish 4,800 
 negroes annually. With the Assiento England 
 was to have the right of sending two ships a 
 year, each of five hundred tons burden, to 
 America with negroes. A contest for this 
 profitable monopoly soon arose between the 
 African and the South Sea Company ; the 
 latter were successful, and obtained the fourth 
 part reserved for the queen by the terms of 
 the treaty. On the outbreak of war with 
 Spain, England lost the Assiento, but it was 
 once more renewed in 1725, and was again 
 restored to her by the Peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (1748), for the remaining four years 
 which it had to run. " Not one person," saj's 
 Mr. Wyon, " seems to have imagined that 
 there was anything immoral or unjustifiable 
 in the business itself ." 
 
 T. H. Buvton, B&i^n of Queen Anne; 'Wyoii, 
 Reign of Queen Arnie; Lecky, Bist. of Eng. 
 
 Assize (assisa-assisia) is a word of doubt- 
 ful etymology; probably at least two words 
 have converged to create the ideas under- 
 lying the various senses of the term ; viz. 
 (b), assido or assideo, to sit down — i.e., a 
 session or a settlement, the notions perhaps 
 common to most meanings of assize; (4) 
 aeeido, to tax {ef. excise and assisus redditus). 
 Besides these (c) there must be some con- 
 nection with the Anglo-Saxon asetniss, a 
 law {cf. etablissement de S. Louis) ; and {d) 
 Duoange's editors can explain assisia only by 
 reference to Arabic. 
 
 Meanings — (1) Session, and, specially, 
 Judicial Session. — This meaning, which is 
 found so early as in the Pipe Eoll 2, Henry 
 II. , may possibly be the original one ; cf. 
 Watsius, I)e Jure Vet, Munic. Norm., i. 56 ; 
 " assize est une assemblee de plusieurs sages 
 hommes en laquelle ce qui y sera jugie doit 
 avoir produrable fermete." Prom this come 
 the "Grandes" and "Petites Assises" of 
 France, and the Courts of Criminal Jurisdic- 
 tion, called " Cours d'Assises," in the Code 
 Napoleon. The modern English use to de- 
 note the court of the justices on circuit is, 
 perhaps by an accident, an example of this 
 use of the word. A specialised case is the old 
 use of assize for — 
 
 (2) The Select Body Engaged in Administer- 
 ing the Trial — e.g.. Provisions of Oxford, in the 
 "provisum est quod nuUus miles non ponatur 
 in juratis vel assisis "— i.e., all knights are 
 liable to be jurymen. The words are clearly 
 synonymous, though the old law books make 
 a distinction. The " sworn men " are also 
 the " men settled " to try a case. 
 
 (3) A Law or Ordinance — i.e., the "lex 
 assisa," the settled edict of the king. In 
 reality a law, the " Assize " in this sense 
 
JLSS 
 
 (89) 
 
 Ass 
 
 professed to te rather an occasional enact- 
 ment, valid during pleasure, an executive, nqt 
 a legislative, act. Thus, the mediieval rever- 
 ence for the " written law," which sprang 
 from the solemn sense assigned to " lex " in 
 the Bible and Roman Law, was respected, 
 and real legislative changes produced by a 
 legal fiction— c/. the Praetor's Edict, the 
 Capitularies of the Carolingians, the Pro- 
 visions of Henry III., the "Establishments " 
 of St. Louis, all of which had the same object. 
 Instances of' such assizes are the " Assises de 
 Jerusalem," a code for the Frank kingdom 
 of Palestine, drawn up by Godfrey of Bouillon 
 and his barons (1099), Henry II.'s Assizes of 
 Clarendon, Northampton, Woodstock, Arms, 
 Essoines, &c. (" novas leges quas assisas 
 vocavit "), for which see below; the Assizes 
 of Antioch, Sicily, Roumania, and in Brittany 
 the Assizes of Count Geoffrey in 1185, and 
 the Assize of Count John (against the Jews) 
 in 1239. "Wherever Norman or Frank in- 
 fluence went, twelfth-century law assumed 
 the form of assizes. 
 
 (4) State Seffulations of the Frice, Quality, 
 &c., of various Commodities. — ^A sense kindred 
 to previous paragraph. These were the " assisse 
 rerum venalium " of old English and French 
 law. Richard I. aimed — not very successfully 
 — at uniform weights and measures (Assize 
 of Measures in Hoveden, iv. 33). John " fecit 
 generaliter acclamari ut legalis assisa panis 
 inviolabiter observaretur " (Matthew Paris, 
 A.D. 1201). This points to pre-existing 
 custom. There were also assizes of wine, 
 ale, salt, boards, timber, wood, coal, butter, 
 and cheese. These restrictions on trade and 
 on adulteration were kept up quite late — e.g., 
 there were three editions of the assize printed 
 in 1528, 1530, and 1580. In 6 and 7 Wm. 
 IV., Acts regulating the assize of bread were 
 formally repealed. They were carried into 
 New England and long kept up there. 
 
 (5) A Mode of Trial preseribed hy cm Assize 
 (in sense of law) — e.g., the Grand Assize of 
 Henry II. and the other " real actions," the 
 assizes of Mort d'Ancester, Novel Dis- 
 seisin, and Darein Presentment (see below). 
 Spelman calls them "brevia regia et Htigandi 
 formulae." Assize here means (a) the law; 
 (4) the rule instituted by it. 
 
 (6) The Trial itself— e.g., in the assize of 
 Northampton the royal direction to the 
 justices to try robbers (ut faciant assisam de 
 latronibus) ; cf. " cum brevibus assisarum et 
 placitorum" in royal writ of 1231. 
 
 (7) Assessment — i.e., the settlement of the 
 incidence of a tax — e.g., Bialogus De Scaccario, 
 i. 8. " Fiunt per comitatas communes assises 
 a justiciis errantibus — qua? ideo diountur 
 communes quia cognita summa quae de comi- 
 tatu requiruntur," &c. 
 
 (8) A Tax — e.g., Liber Niger Scacarii, cap. 
 De Danegeldo, " ex constitutis duobus solidis 
 summa una quae communis assisa nuncupatur 
 excresoit ;" cf." levare assiaam," to levy a tax. 
 
 (9) Fines. — Fixed by courts of justice — 
 e.g., in Brittany, " le seigneur pent demander 
 pour son betail I'essise ou le dedommage a 
 san choix." 
 
 (10) Assisus Redditus. — The fixed rentwhich 
 customary tenants paid to the lord of the 
 manor, beyond which they were free. This 
 is analogous to the preceding. 
 
 The various law glossaries, such as Spelmau 
 and the modem works based on him, coUefit 
 the chief nses of assize ; of. Ducange's Glos- 
 sarium Medire et Injima Latinitaiis, and the old 
 law books, Britton, Bracton, &c. rm -ni m i 
 II. b. 1.] 
 
 Assize, Justices oi', were originally the 
 judges commissioned to try the special assizes 
 or real actions mentioned in Assize (5), By 
 27 Ed. I., o. 1, 0. 3, it was ordered that Justices 
 of Assize should, if laymen, also make de- 
 liverance of the gaol; and before long, the 
 common law judges always were laymen. 
 Gradually various other commissions were 
 given to them, as it was a main object of 
 Edward I.'s judicial reforms to simplify and 
 consolidate the too numerous Acts which had 
 oppressed the nation under his father. So 
 the commissions of nisi prius, of oyer and 
 terminer, and of the peace, were added to 
 those above mentioned ; until the judge, with 
 his five commissions under the Great Seal, was 
 en his provincial circuit generally called the 
 Justice of Assize, though, properly speaking, 
 that was only one of his commissions. By 3 
 and 4 Wm. IV., the actions of " assizes " were 
 abohshed, so that the present commission is 
 only fourfold, but the name has survived the 
 fact, and their courts are stiU generally called 
 the " assizes," and the town of their meeting 
 the assize town. 
 
 Assize of Arms, The, was an ordinance 
 issued by Henry II. in 1181. It revived and 
 organised the old national militia, based on 
 the obhgation of all freemen to serve in the 
 fyrd. Henry hoped it would be a safer 
 support to his throne than the feudal levies 
 or the unpopular mercenaries. By this 
 assize all freemen were required to provide 
 arms suited to their rank and means. A 
 knight, or. possessor of over sixteen marks 
 yearly, provided a coat of mail, helmet, 
 shield, and lance: the freeholder of ten 
 marks, a hauberk, iron cap, and lance; and 
 all burgesses and " tota communa hberorum 
 hominum " a gambeson, iron cap, and lance. 
 Doubtful cases were decided by a jury. 
 Elaborate provisions were annexed for the 
 enforcement of the law. Paralleled in most 
 other European countries, this assize was 
 renewed by Henry III.'s sysiem of watch 
 and ward, and by Edward I.'s Statute of 
 Winchester. 
 
 Stnbbs, Select Cliorfers, 155—157. 
 
 Assize of Clarendon (1166), Henry 
 
 II.'s first great measure of judicial reform, 
 was remarkable as formally instituting, and 
 giving legislative recognition to, the jury 
 
Ass 
 
 90 ) 
 
 Ass 
 
 syatem in criminal trials, as connecting the 
 local with the central jurisdiction, and as the 
 first effort to constitute a great administrative 
 system. Henry I. had probably borrowed the 
 institution of justices itinerant from the 
 Carolingian missi. His plan was now enlarged 
 and made permanent. A commission was sent 
 round to each shire, to whom, in conjunction 
 with the sheriffs, grand juries of the county 
 were to present accused or suspected persons. 
 The ordeal by water furnished a further 
 means of discrimination. This new system 
 of presentment and ordeal abolished com- 
 purgation. Other provisions required all 
 qualifled persons to serve on juries, opened 
 every franchise to the sheriff, regulated the 
 treatment of waifs and strangers on purely 
 Anglo-Saxon principles, directed sheriffs to 
 help each other, to make lists of fugitives, 
 forbade religious houses to receive " aliquem 
 de minuto populo," unless sick to death or 
 of good repute, and forbade hospitality to the 
 heretics condemned at Oxford. 
 
 StubDs, Select Charters, 140—146. 
 
 Assize of Darrein Presentment. 
 
 An action to determine the lawful patron of 
 a benefice. " If a tenant in fee or in tail had 
 himself presented, or if his ancestors had 
 presented, to a benefice, or if a tenant for 
 life or years had himself presented and the 
 nominee had been duly instituted, but after- 
 wards the old possessor of the advowaon had 
 been debarred from exercising his right, he 
 could institute a recognition of darrein 
 presentment." This inquest was originated 
 by Henry II., and is alluded to in Glanvil. 
 By Magna Charta (art. 18) it was to be held, 
 along with the assizes of mart d'aneester and 
 novel disseisin four times a year, by two jus- 
 tices in the county court, in conjunction with 
 a jury of four knights of that county; but 
 the Charter of 1217 reserves cases of darrein 
 presentment to the ^Xistiaei in banco (art. 15). 
 By the Statute of Westminster the first (3 
 Ed. I., c. 51), the assize was again assimilated 
 to the other two, and directed to be held 
 every Advent, Septuagesima, and Lent. It be- 
 came early obsolete, as the writ quare impedit 
 gave an easier means of prosecuting claims 
 to advowson, and was abolished, with all 
 " real actions," by 3 and 4 Wm. IV., c. 27. 
 
 Assize of Mort d'Ancester. When 
 the heir to an estate was deprived by a, 
 stranger of part of what had been in the 
 possession of his predecessor (antecessor) at 
 the time of the latter's decease, he could 
 apply for a possessory writ de morte ante- 
 cessoris. Glanvil, to whom we owe our 
 earliest knowledge of what was probably then 
 one of Henry II.'s novelties, describes the 
 process of the inquest. The sheriff empanels 
 a jury of twelve lawful freeholders of the 
 neighbourhood, and the suit is determined by 
 their testimony. It was held by the justices 
 in the shire, mostly with a jury of four 
 
 knights four times a year, according to Magna 
 Charta, § 18. But the Charter of 1217 directs 
 the assize to be used only once a year. By 
 the Statute of Westminster the first, it was 
 held thrice in the year. It became obsolete, 
 and was abolished by 3 and i Wm. IV. 
 
 Assize of Northanipton (1176), A 
 re-issue and expansion of the Assize of 
 Clarendon, marked by the increased severity 
 of the punishments, the lessened trust reposed 
 in the sheriffs, and the gradual limitation of 
 the ordeal. Those presented by the jury who 
 escaped on the ordeal, had to find bail for 
 good behaviour if accused of a small offence ; 
 but if felony or "murdrum" had to abjure 
 the realm. Confessions before the jury must 
 not be revoked before the judge. Some new 
 legal articles are of great importance in 
 relation to land tenure, reliefs, dower, and 
 other feudal obligations. The concluding 
 political articles require, in reference to the 
 1173 rebellion, oaths of fealty even from 
 villains, the destruction of castles held against 
 the king, the safe custody of all others, the 
 registration of fugitives and outlaws. The 
 justices are to makre exhaustive inquiries of 
 aE kinds, hold all pleas, and look after the 
 royal revenue. The country is divided into 
 six circuits, to be visited by six commissions. 
 Stubbs, Select Chartsrs, 143—145. 
 
 Assize of ITovel Disseisin. An action 
 that lajr'with a tenant unjustly dispossessed 
 of his lands, tried by the itinerant justices 
 before a jury of the neighbourhood. The 
 importance attached to this assize illustrates 
 the widespread lawlessness of the times. Its 
 limitation to recent disseisins is equally signi- 
 ficant. The Assize of Northampton (chap. 5) 
 directs "Ut Justitias Ilegis faciant reeogni- 
 tionera de dissaisinis factia a tempore quo 
 dominus rex venit in Angliam post pacem," 
 and this seems to be the original text of the 
 assize. The assize is called by Bracton 
 " Summaria cognitio absque magna juris 
 solennitate," and by the Statute of West- 
 minster the second "festinum remedium." 
 Its history is the same as the history of the 
 assizes of mort d*ancesier and darrein prescnt- 
 inent. Analogous to it was the assize of fresh 
 force, so called, because the plaint was to be 
 within sixty days of the injury. It was a 
 writ that lay by custom of a town when a 
 man was disseised within the borough. Similar 
 also was the assize of nuisance. 
 
 Assize of TJtruni lay with the possessor 
 of an ecclesiastical benefice to recover lands 
 of the Church alienated by his predecessor. 
 The term "utrum" was the emphatic word 
 which directed the jury to inquire whether 
 the tenements or lands were in frank almoign 
 of the descendant's church, or the lay fee of 
 the tenant. It was instituted by statute 14 
 Ed. III., c. 17, and practically ended by the 
 restraining statute 13 Eliz., c. 10. 
 
(91) 
 
 Ass 
 
 Assize of Woodstock, or the Assize 
 
 of tlie Forest, drawn up by Henry II. in 
 1184, was the first code of any elaborateness 
 for the government of the forests, which, from 
 the time of the Conquest at least, were 
 regarded as specially subject to the uncon- 
 trolled jurisdiction of the monarch. The 
 forest jurisdiction is arranged on just the 
 same lines as the county jurisdiction, just as 
 the manor organisation was based on that of 
 the free township. The punishments are 
 said to be milder than those in vogue under 
 Henry I., but the whole assize is full of 
 vexatious clauses, which must have been very 
 irksome to dwellers in the forest. No one can 
 possess a dog or a bow and arrows without a 
 royal licence. Elaborate regulations have 
 reference to the woods and clearings vithin 
 the forest that belonged to private in( ' .iduals. 
 All men, from archbishop and earl down to 
 the simple freeholder, are required to attend 
 the forest courts on the summons of the 
 master forester (this was repealed by Magna 
 Charta). All persona over twelve years old 
 dwelling within the forest are to swear to 
 keep the peace of the forest. Hounds are to 
 have their foreclaws cut off, and no tanners 
 or bleachers of hides are to dwell therein, 
 beyond the limits of a borough. [Forests.] 
 
 Select CJiarfcrs, 150—152 ; Beeves' Eistorv of 
 English Law and Blackstoiie*s ComTtievtariea 
 give a full account of this and most of the 
 above assizes. Most of them are printed in Dr. 
 Stubbs's Select CTiarters {with invaluable com- 
 ments). See also his Const. Mist., vol. i. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Assize, The Grand. A form of inquest 
 by sworn recognitors in cases of suits to 
 determine the possession of a freehold, in- 
 stituted by Henry II. as an alternative to 
 wager of battle, which, since the Conquest, 
 had been the ordinary way of trying such 
 suits. The procedure, according to the assize, 
 ■was as follows. On the motion of the posses- 
 sor, the Curia fiegis stopped proceedings in 
 the local courts until after the inquest. On 
 the claimant's command, four lawful knights 
 were selected and summoned, through the 
 sheriff, to Westminster, where they elected 
 twelve lawful knights of their neighbour- 
 hood, before whom, and the king or his 
 justices, the trial comes off. If the jury 
 know the facts, they have only to declare 
 their verdict. If not, those ignorant are 
 replaced by better informed witnesses. Their 
 decision is final. Long obsolete, the Grand 
 Assize was only abolished by 3 and 4Wm. I V,, 
 cap. 27. The text of Henry II.'s ordinance 
 is lost, but a copious account of it is given in 
 Glauvil, with much about its equity and 
 superiority to the " duellum." 
 
 Assizes, The Black. A name often given 
 to the assizes at Oxford in 1577, when "a 
 pestilent savour" rose either from the noisome 
 smeU of the prisoners, or the damp of the 
 ground, owing to which all present were 
 
 seized, within forty hours, of fever, and many 
 died (some accounts say, with probable ex- 
 aggeration, 300), including the chief baron, 
 the sheriff, and a large number of the 
 Oxfordshire gentry. 
 
 Assizes, The Bloody. A term often ap- 
 plied to the summer assizes of 1685, held in 
 the Western Circuit after Monmouth's rebel- 
 lion ; when Chief Justice Jeffreys sentenced 
 more than 300 rebels to death for treason 
 after the barest mockery of a trial. 
 
 Macaulay, Rtslorii, ii., chap. 5, A tract called 
 The Uloodi; Assizes contains contemporaneous 
 accounts of the executions. 
 
 Associated Counties was the name 
 
 given to the counties of Essex, Cambridge, 
 Norfolk, Suffolk, and Hertford, to which 
 were subsequently added Huntingdon and 
 Lincoln. These counties formed an asso- 
 ciation in 1642 to keep the war out of 
 their own districts and raise an army for 
 the Parliament. The Association was first 
 commanded by Lord Grey of Wark, and 
 subsequently by the Earl of Manchester and 
 Cromwell. Other counties formed similar 
 associations, " but," says Carlyle, " the 'Eastern 
 Association ' is alone worth naming. All the 
 other associations, no men of emphasis being 
 in the midst of them, fell in a few months 
 to pieces ; only this of Cromwell's subsisted, 
 enlarged itself, grew famous ; and, indeed, 
 kept its own borders clear of invasion during 
 the whole course of the war." 
 
 Association in favour of William 
 
 III., (1) (1688), was devised by Sir Edward 
 Seymour after the prince had landed in 
 England, in order to bind his supporters 
 by some mutual obligation. It was signed 
 first at Exeter and then in all the western 
 counties. (2) The more famous association, that 
 of 1696, was formed on the discovery of the 
 Assassination Plot. The idea was proposed by 
 Sir Eowland Gwj-n, and eagerly adopted by 
 Montague. The members of the House of 
 Commons, each for himself, solemnly recog- 
 nised William as rightful and lawful king, 
 and bound themselves to stand by him ; and 
 they vowed that, if his life should be 
 shortened by violence, they would avenge 
 his murder, and support the order of suc- 
 cession settled by the Bill of Eights. The 
 measure was opposed by the Tories in the 
 Lower House, headed by Musgrave, on the 
 ground that the formula implied an ab- 
 juration, and that William could not be 
 properly described as " rightful and lawful 
 king." Leeds, in order to conciliate opposition 
 in the Upper House, proposed the verbal 
 alteration that it should be declared that 
 William had a right by law to the English 
 crown, and that no other person had any 
 right whatever to that crown. This quibble 
 satisfied nearly all the Tory peers. The 
 country in general was seized with great 
 enthusiasm. The municipal corporations all 
 
Ass 
 
 (92) 
 
 Ast 
 
 over the country appended their signatures 
 to similar documents. Everywhere orange 
 ribands were worn, on which were written 
 in letters of gold the words " National 
 Association for King William. " 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Ovm Time, it. 299 ; 
 MacauJay, History, iv, 670. 
 
 Association Project (1582) was the 
 
 name given to the proposal, emanating 
 from France, for associating James VI. and 
 his mother, the Queen of Scots, together in 
 the government of Scotland. 
 
 Association to Protect Queen 
 
 Elizabetll, Bond of, 1584, was an attempt 
 to organise all English Protestants into "a 
 universal vigilance committee" (Froude), 
 to defend the queen against the plots of the 
 Papists. In Nov., 1584, Burleigh and "Wal- 
 singham framed an instrument declarmg that 
 the signers of it bound themselves together 
 on oath to withstand any attempt against the 
 queen's person, and if any such attempt 
 should be made and should be successful, to 
 pursue to the death the person or persons 
 who had been concerned in it. The asso- 
 ciation was primarily directed against Mary 
 Queen of Scots, and was meant to show her 
 partisans that her own death would follow 
 closely on the assassination of Elizabeth. 
 The oath of association was taken with 
 enthusiasm by the nobility, privy councillors, 
 judges, the clergy, and all who held ofSce 
 under the crown, and a large number of 
 private persons throughout the country. 
 Many of the Roman Catholic nobility and 
 gentry were among those who signed the 
 Bond. 
 
 State Trials, vol. i. ; Calendar of State Papera, 
 
 Domestic Series (1581 — 1590) ; Froude, Hist, of 
 
 Eng., 3ii. 43. 
 
 Associations (Ireland) Bill (1826), 
 
 6 G-eorge IV., o. 4, was directed chiefly 
 against the Catholic Associations. It for- 
 bade periodical sittings of political associa- 
 tions, the appointment of committees for 
 more than fourteen days, the levying of 
 money to redress grievances, the adroinister- 
 ing of oaths, the exclusion of men on account 
 of their religion, and the affiliation of societies. 
 It lasted for three years, but failed to crush 
 O'Connell's agitation. 
 
 Assured Lords, The, consisted chiefly 
 of Scottish nobles taken prisoners at the battle 
 of Solway Moss, Nov. 25, 1542, who, from a 
 long sojourn at the English court, had be- 
 come to a certain extent identified with Eng- 
 lish interests. On their return to Scotland 
 after the death of James V., they under- 
 took to serve Henry VIII. at the Scotch 
 court, givina: hostages to the English king 
 for their fidelity. Henry, howe%'er, soon 
 found that their good faith was doubtful, and 
 in 1544 they openly joined the national 
 party. The assured Lords consisted of the 
 Earls of Cassilis and Glencairn, Lords 
 
 Fleming, SomerviUe, Maxwell, and Oliphant, 
 taken at Solway Moss ; tog-ether with the Earl 
 of Angus and his brother. Sir George 
 Douglas, who had long been refugees at the 
 English court. 
 
 Assye, The Battle of (Sept. 23, 1803), 
 during the Mahratta War, was fought between 
 an army of 4,500, commanded by General 
 Wellesley, and the great army of Dowlut Rao 
 Scindiah and the Eajah of Berar ; which, after 
 the capture of Jalnapoor on the 2nd, was 
 retreating towards the Adjuntee Pass, while 
 the English, in two divisions, under Welles- 
 ley and Colonel Stephenson, were attempting 
 to intercept them. The Mahrattas were 
 strongly entrenched, with their left resting 
 on Assye, when Wellesley came up with 
 them, and without waiting for Colonel 
 Stephenson, resolved to attack them. Wel- 
 lesley had given the most positive in- 
 junctions to the officer commanding the 
 pickets to avoid the cannon planted in the 
 village, but in spite of this he led his troops 
 directly up to the muzzles of the guns, which 
 poured an incessant shower upon the assail- 
 ants. The 74th Regiment, which supported 
 them, was thus exposed to a hotter fire than 
 any troops had ever before encountered in 
 India. To save it, more troops had to be 
 moved up amid this terrific fire. The in- 
 domitable courage and energy of the British 
 troops, however, bore down all resistance, 
 and Sciudiah's infantry gave way. The 
 English cavalry then charged, and forced 
 them ofi the field. The victory was com- 
 plete ; but it was dearly gained by the loss 
 of one-third of the army. 
 
 Wellington, Despatches ; G. Duff, Hist, of the 
 Mahrattas ; Mill, Htbt. of India, vi. 520. 
 
 Astley, Jacob, Lord (d. 1651), had served 
 in many foreign countries, and had distin- 
 guished himself in Germany under Gustavus 
 Adolphus. He joined the army of Charles I., 
 and, having taken part in the battles of 
 Edgehill, Brentford, and Newbury, was raised 
 to the peerage. At the battle of Naseby, 
 Astley commanded the infantry, and in 1646 
 he made a last stand at, Stow-on-the-Wold 
 against the Parliament. Here he was defeated 
 by Brereton and taken prisoner. He com- 
 pounded for his estate, gave his parole not 
 to serve any more against Parliament, and 
 spent the rest of his life in retirement. 
 
 Aston, Sir Arthur {d. Sept. 12, 1649), 
 was a distinguished soldier, who had acquired 
 military experience abroad. He was governor 
 of Oxford at the beginning of the Civil War, 
 but was soon after disabled by a wound. At 
 a later period he was governor of Reading. 
 In 1649, Ormonde made him governor of 
 Drogheda, hoping that he would be able to 
 hold out till the rains. This he was unable 
 to do, and on the taking of the place he was 
 literally hacked to pieces by the Puritan 
 soldiers. 
 
Ath 
 
 (93) 
 
 Ath 
 
 Atheling (JEtheling) was a title of 
 honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one 
 who is of noble [aithel) blood. In the earlier 
 period, the Eorlas and Jithel are used to 
 designate the class spoken of by Bede as 
 mbiles, in all probability "the descendants 
 of the primitive nobles of the first settlement, 
 who, on the institution of royalty, sank one 
 step in dignity from the ancient state of rude 
 independence" (Stubbs). As the nobility of 
 blood became superseded by the nobility of 
 service, the title of ^Stheling was gradually 
 confined to the princes of the blood royal, and 
 in the ninth and tenth centuries is used 
 exclusively for the sons or brothers of the 
 reigning king. Though he seems to have 
 held no official position in right of hia birth, 
 the athelLng was superior in dignity to all 
 men but the king and the great functionaries 
 of the Church, as shown by his " wer-gild." 
 In the " north people's law " of the tenth 
 century, the gild of the atheling and the 
 archbishop (and in this case of the " eorl " 
 who corresponds no doubt to the Danish 
 "jarl"), is 15,000 thrymsas, while that of 
 the bishop or ealdorman is 8,000. So too 
 in the laws of Athelstan of Wessex. The 
 atheling attended the Witenagemot as one of 
 the magnates of the kingdom, and was one 
 of those who were least seldom absent from 
 it. The name was kept up after the Norman 
 Conquest, and is applied not only to the 
 young princes, the sons of Edmund Ironside, 
 "but also to William " Clito," the son of 
 Henry I. and Matilda, and possibly to Henry 
 himself. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Mist., cb. vi. ; Thorpe, Atic. 
 Lams and Institutes (^ Wer-gilds) ; Freeman, 
 Norm. Conq., vol. iv., appendix E E. 
 
 Atheling, Edgah. [Edgar Atheling.] 
 
 Athelney (AetheUmga eigge), the Isle of 
 Princes, is situated about seven miles from 
 Taunton. Hither, in 878, Alfred the Great 
 repaired after his defeat by the Danes, and 
 bere he remained concealed for nearly a year, 
 when, sallying forth, he defeated the invaders 
 and compelled them to make peace. At .that 
 time Athelney was a veritable island in the 
 midst of fens and marshes, but it has since 
 been drained and cultivated. 
 
 Athelstan (Athelstan) (i. 89.5, s. 925, 
 d. 941) was the son of King Edward, and 
 grandson of Alfred. According to William 
 of Malmesbury, his mother, Ecgwyn, was of 
 humble origin, and it has been thought that 
 he was illegitimate. On the death of Edward, 
 the Mercians and West-Saxons chose Athel- 
 stan as their king, and he was crowned at 
 Kingstou-on- Thames. There appea,ra to have 
 been some opposition to his accession, and it 
 is probable that a conspiracy was formed 
 against him by some of the leading nobles 
 and princes of the royal house. The plot, 
 however, was suppressed, and Athelstan 
 speedily attained to a position of greater 
 
 power and dignity than that of any of the 
 preceding West-Saxon sovereigns. One of 
 his sisters married Sihtric, the Danish King 
 of Northumbria, and on his death Athelstan 
 invaded the territories of his successor, Guth- 
 frith, and compelled him to hold his kingdom 
 as a tributary state. Subsequently he made 
 several expeditions against the Welsh of 
 Wales and Cornwall, and reduced their rulers 
 also to the position of subject princes. Thus 
 under him the state of Wessex became one 
 of the great powers of Western Europe, and 
 was held in high estimation by foreign 
 governments. Of Athelstan's sisters, one, 
 Elgiva (iElgif u), married Otto the Great, Duke 
 of the Saxons (afterwards Emperor), and 
 another Ethilda (Eadhild), Hugh, Duke of the 
 French, and father of Hugh Capet. Athel- 
 stan took a considerable share in the poli- 
 ties of northern France, and it was chiefly 
 by his efforts that Louis d'Outremer, the son 
 of Charles the Simple, was restored to his 
 throne. In 937 a formidable league was 
 formed against the power of Wessex, between 
 the Danes, Scots, and Britons. Constantine, 
 the King of Scotia, Anlaf (Olaf), the son of 
 Guthfrith of Northumbria, and Anlaf (Olaf) 
 Cuaran, the Danish King of Dublin, together 
 with Owen of Cumberland and other British 
 chieftains, united their forces. A great 
 battle was fought at Brunanburh, in 
 Northumberland, in which the invaders 
 were completely defeated, with terrible 
 loss. [Brunanburh.] Athelstan's subsequent 
 years were peaceful and uneventful. Athelstan 
 is greatly praised by the chroniclers, and 
 he appears to have been a wise and vigorous 
 ruler. Such of his laws as remain show that 
 his wars and foreign policy were far from 
 absorbing the whole of his attention. His 
 ordinances are more particularly directed 
 to the enforcement of the system of mutual 
 assurance and association, which held so 
 great a place in Anglo-Saxon jurisprudence. 
 One of the most important of his acts was 
 that in which it is law that every landless 
 man shall have a lord ; and the " Judicia 
 Civitatis Lundoniae," attributed to Athelstan, 
 are highly valuable in connection with the 
 history of gilds and civic associations. The 
 chief imputation on Athelstan's character is 
 the alleged murder, by drowning, of his half- 
 brother, Edwin, on the pretext that he was 
 engaged in a conspiracy against the king ; 
 but the story is doubtful. It is told in the 
 Chronicle, but is not accepted by William of 
 Malmesburv. 
 
 Annlo-'Sax. Chron. ; William of Malmesbury ; 
 Henry of Huntingdon; bimeon of Durham. 
 Also Lappenberg, Anglo-Saxon Kings; and 
 Palgrave, Eng. OommonweaUh. For Athelstan's 
 Laws, see Thorpe, Ancient Laws and Institute" ; 
 and Stubbs, Const. Hist., i. 87, &o., and Select 
 Charters, 67. [S. J. L.J 
 
 Atheury, The Battle op (1316), was 
 fought between Feidlim O'Connor and the 
 English, under William de Burgh and Richard 
 
Ath 
 
 ( 94 
 
 Ath 
 
 de Berming'ham. Eleven thousand O'Connors 
 fell beside their chief, and the sept disappears 
 from history. The O'Connors were ostensibly 
 fighting in the interest of Edward Bruce. 
 
 Atherton Moor, or Adwaltou, The 
 
 Battle op (June 30, 1643), was a skirmish 
 fought between the Eoyalists, under the 
 Earl of Newcastle, and the Parliamentarians, 
 under Fairfax. The latter were completely 
 routed, and the capture of Bradford (from 
 which Atherton Moor is some four miles 
 distant) by the Eoyalists was the immediate 
 result. 
 
 AthlOUe, G-ODART DE GlNKELL, EaEL 
 
 OF (*. 1640, d. 1720), was one of the Dutch 
 officers who accompanied William of Orange 
 to England. In 1689 he reduced some Scotch 
 regiments who had mutinied at Harwich 
 when under orders to be in readiness to cross 
 to the Continent. He accompanied "William 
 to Ireland, and commanded a body of horse 
 at the battle of the Boyne. When William 
 left Ireland, Ginkell was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief. He reduced BaUymore with- 
 out difficulty and proceeded to lay siege to 
 Athlone, which he carried by assault, and 
 subsequently won the victory of Aghrim 
 over St. Euth. This victory completed the 
 conquest of Ireland (July 12). Ginkell then 
 besieged Limerick, which he captured (Out. 2), 
 and granted fairly favourable terms to the 
 defenders. A violent dispute arose between 
 Ginkell and Sarsfield, the Jacobite leader, as 
 to the destination of the Irish troops; till 
 at length it was decided that they might make 
 their choice between England and France. 
 For these services Ginkell was created Earl 
 of Athlone. The small estate that was given 
 him in Ireland for his services was one of 
 the objects of the Commons' attack in 1700. 
 [Kesumption Bill.] After the declaration of 
 war with France he competed unsuccessfully 
 against the Duke of Marlborough for the 
 position of commander of the Dutch forces. 
 Before the arrival of the great duke in Flan- 
 ders, his clever occupation of Mmeguen pre- 
 vented its seizure by Marshal Boufflers. 
 Ginkell had little knowledge or understanding 
 of English feelings and institutions; but his 
 abilities as a general were certainly above 
 the average. 
 
 Athlone, The Capture op (June 19—30, 
 1691), was Ginkell's first important suc- 
 cess over the Irish followers of James II. 
 under the French general, St. Ruth. After 
 the fall of BaUymore the whole army moved 
 westward to Athlone. "It was, perhaps," 
 says Macaulay, " in a military point of view, 
 the most important place in the island." The 
 town was surrounded by ramparts of earth, 
 and lay partly in Leinster and partly in 
 Connaug-ht, the English quarter being in the 
 former and the Celtic quarter in the latter. The 
 Shannon, which is the boundary of the two 
 
 provinces, rushed through Athlone in a deep 
 and rapid stream, and turned two large 
 mills which rose on the arches of a stone 
 bridge. Above the bridge, on the Con- 
 naught side, a castle towered to the height 
 of seventy feet. Fifty or sixty yards below 
 the bridge was a narrow ford. On the 
 20th, Ginkell assaulted the English quarter 
 and mastered it with trifling loss. On the 
 22nd he opened fire on the castle. A 
 struggle now began for the possession of the 
 bridge, resolutely defended by the Irish 
 under Maxwell. St. Euth, thinking the 
 position perfectly secure, had not yet come 
 up, but lay about two miles off, sending his 
 subordinate, D'Usson, to conduct the defence. 
 On June 30th, Ginkell resolved to try the 
 ford. With Maokay, Talmash, Prince George 
 of Darmstadt, and the Duke of Wurtemberg at 
 their head, the soldiers dashed into the water. 
 The Irish, greatly to the disgust of the 
 French commander, ofilered but feeble resis- 
 tance, and the town was taken. 
 
 Burnet. Hist, o/ Tiis Oum Tvms ; Macaulay, 
 Hist, of Bug. ; Story's Conlinuatitm. 
 
 Athole, John Stuart, 4th Earl op 
 {d. 1579), was a staunch Eomanist and sup- 
 porter of Mary Queen of Scots. He was named 
 one of the Commission of Eegency established 
 on the abdication of Mary, 1567. On Murray's 
 return from France he accompanied him to 
 Lochleven and had an interview with the 
 queen. In 1569 he was suspected of plan- 
 ning a rebellion against Murray. In 1577 
 he combined with Argyle against the Eegent 
 Morton, whose deposition was in great part 
 owing to his exertions, and about the same 
 time was appointed Chancellor of Scotland; 
 he died soon afterwards at Stirling, poisoned, 
 it was said, by Morton. 
 
 Athole, The Peerage of, appears to date 
 back to the time of Alexander I. of Scot- 
 land, when Madach, a son of Donald Bane, 
 is styled Earl of Athole. From his de- 
 scendants it passed by marriage to the 
 Strathbogie family, one of whom, David, 
 eleventh Earl of Athole, in the reign of 
 Edward II., married the heiress of the gxeat 
 famUies of Comyn and Valence, and be- 
 came possessed of vast estates in England. 
 His Scotch peerage was, however, forfeited in 
 1311 for his connection with the Baliol party. 
 These Scotch estates were granted to Sir Neil 
 Campbell, brother in-law to King Eobert 
 Bruce, whose son, Sir John Campbell, was 
 created Earl of Athole. He died (at Halidon 
 Hill, m 1333) without issue, and the earldom 
 was confeiTed on Sir W. Douglas, from 
 whom it passed to Eobert Stuart, Great 
 Steward of Scotland, and thus became vested 
 in the royal family. In 1457 Sir John 
 btuart, of Balveny, was created Eirl of 
 Athole. The peerage became extinct in 1625, 
 and in 1628 was revived and granted to 
 John Murray, Earl of Tullibardine, who was 
 
Att 
 
 (So) 
 
 Att 
 
 descended by his mother from the Stuart 
 earls. John, the third earl of this familj', 
 was created Duke of Athole and Marquis of 
 Tullibardine in 1703, in the peerage of Scot- 
 land, and his third son and successor claimed 
 and established his right to the barony of 
 Strange in the peerage of England. 
 
 Attacotti, The, were an ancient Celtic 
 tribe who inhabited a portion of Argj'leahire 
 and the greater part of Dumbartonshire. 
 
 Attainder. " Attainder imports that 
 extinction of civil rights and capacities which 
 took place whenever a person who had com- 
 mitted treason or felony received judgment of 
 death or outlawry," whether such judgment 
 were pronounced by a royal justice after 
 trial and conviction, or were decreed by a 
 legislative Act of Parliament, called a Bill of 
 Attainder. In ancient law this involved 
 (1) Corruption of Blood, and (2) Forfeiture, 
 complete or partial. 
 
 (1) The blood of the attainted criminal was 
 held to be corrupted and stained, and the 
 virtue by which he could inherit, and transmit 
 and even hold, property destroyed. Attainders 
 operated, in fact, exactly like a sudden 
 discovery of illegitimacy in the possessor of 
 property; the stream of inheritance was at 
 once cut off, and could be re-established only 
 by a special grant of the Legislature. From 
 this it followed that the lands of the criminal 
 reverted back or escheated to the lord of the 
 fee, in subordination, however, to forfeiture 
 to the crown ; and that any title of his de- 
 scendants which had to be traced through 
 him to a remoter ancestor was obstructed 
 and barred. This was felt to be such a 
 hardship that, in the creation of new felonies 
 since the reign of Henry VIII., Parliament 
 has always provided that they shall not in- 
 volve "corruption of blood." The statute 
 64 Geo. III., c. 145, still further limits its 
 operation to treason and murder. The In- 
 heritance Act, 3 and 4 "WUl. IT., e. 106, gave 
 further relief by enacting that the attainder 
 of an intermediate ancestor should not obstruct 
 the tracing of the descent through him if 
 his death took place before the property 
 devolved. 
 
 (2) Forfeiture for treason transferred to the 
 crown the entire property of the traitor. 
 Unlike escheat, it was no feudal innovation, 
 but dates back to Saxon times, and, indeed, 
 has been the rule in the early legislation of 
 most nations. So foreign to early society is 
 any compunction against punishing the son 
 for the father's crime that some ancient 
 codes, not content with reducing a traitor's 
 children to beggary, involve them in the 
 same capital sentence ; and the Golden Bull 
 declares that the sons of a subject who kills 
 an elector have their lives spared only by the 
 imperial bounty. The two kinds of property 
 recognised by English law, lands and chattels, 
 were both forfeited absolutely to the crown 
 
 for treason, but the forfeiture of the former 
 followed on judgment, audits operation went 
 back to the moment at which the treason 
 was committed, making void all alienations 
 which had been effected in the interval ; 
 the forfeiture of the latter followed on con- 
 viction, and, from obvious motives of con- 
 venience, had no such retrospective force. 
 The wife's dower was untouched by the 
 husband's attainder till expressly included in 
 the forfeiture by the merciless statute 5 and 
 6 Ed. VI., c. 11. In the case of counterfeiting 
 the coin, the statutes which made the 
 oifence treason limited the forfeiture to the 
 life of the offender, and expressly guarded 
 the wife's dower (S Eliz., c. 11 ; 8 and 9 Will. 
 III., c. 26 ; 15 Geo. II., c. 28). The celebrated 
 statute of Queen Anne (7 Anne, c. 21) extended 
 the same principle to all treasons by enacting 
 that after the decease of the Pretender " no 
 attainder for treason should extend to the 
 disinheriting of any heirs, nor to the prejudice 
 of the right or title of any person" other 
 than the offender himself; but this humane 
 provision was first delayed by 17 Geo. II., 
 c. 39, and finally repealed by 39 and 40 Geo. 
 III., c. 93. Forfeiture for felony was only 
 partial, and seems to have arisen from an old 
 right of the crown to commit unlimited waste 
 on the lands of a felon. So detrimental did 
 this prove to the interests of the lord of the 
 fief, and of the country at large, that in 
 the reign of Henry I, it was commuted for 
 the right to the profits for a year and 
 a day, a rule confirmed by Magna Charta. 
 The statute 17 Ed. II. confused the two, 
 enacting that the king should have his year 
 and a day and waste, and this remained the 
 law till the Act 54 Geo. III., c. 145, which 
 limited forfeiture to cases of treason and 
 murder. But attainder, along with its effects 
 of corruption of blood and forfeiture, was 
 finally swept away by the Felony Act, 33 and 
 34 Vict., o. 23. 
 
 Attainder, Bill of, was a legislative 
 Act of the two Houses, introduced and passed 
 exactly like any other BUI, and requiring the 
 royal assent, which declared a person or 
 persons attainted. Originally aimed against 
 offenders who fled from justice, and analogous 
 to the Bill of Pains and Penalties, it was soon 
 perverted to secure a more certain and speedy 
 destruction of political opponents than could 
 be hoped from the impartiality or the routine 
 of the law courts. No restriction was possible 
 in such a mode of procedure. Evidence was 
 usually heard, but not invariably ; and even 
 the presence of the accused was decided by 
 the lawyers whom Thomas Cromwell con- 
 sulted on the subject to be unnecessary, on 
 the ground that there can be no authority 
 superior to statute. The first recorded in- 
 stance of its employment is in the violent 
 banishment of the Despensers in 1321 by the 
 Parliament of Westminster ; an act which was 
 
Att 
 
 ( 96 ) 
 
 Att 
 
 held by Trussel, the Justice who delivered judg- 
 ment on the younger Hugh, to have involved 
 attainder. With the deposition of Edward II. 
 the appearance of the more regular method of 
 impeachment attests a less savage spirit in 
 political parties, till the outhreak of the Rose 
 wars in H59. In that year hostihties hrolie 
 out on an attempt of the queen to have the 
 Earl of Salisbury, the head of the Yorkist 
 NeviUes, arrested. He completely defeated 
 the force sent against him, and both sides 
 rushed to arms. But the Lancastrians were 
 better prepared ; the Yorkist leaders had to 
 ily the kingdom, and a Parliament met at 
 Coventry which attainted them in a body. 
 Two years later, after the decisive victory of 
 Towton, the Yorkists retaliated by a similar 
 proscription of all the promiaent Lancastrians, 
 Parliament, by the restriction of the fran- 
 chise to 40s. freeholders (1430), and by the 
 terrorism exercised through the system of 
 Livery and Maintenance, having become a 
 mere tool in the hands of the dominant 
 faction. Yet a petition, so late as 1432, 
 praj'ing that trials touching freehold or in- 
 heritance should not be held in Parliament 
 or council, shows that the Commons had still 
 independence enough to display their sense of 
 the danger. The new monarchy, which rose 
 on the ruins of sell-destroyed nobility, was 
 strong enough to content itself as a rule 
 with the ordinary methods of indictment 
 and impeachment. But in 1539 the kins- 
 men of Reginald Pole, including his aged 
 mother, the Countess of Salisbury, daughter 
 of Edward IT., were cut off by Bill of 
 Attainder, and the same fate overtook, in 
 the following year, the disgraced minister 
 Cromwell, condemned by a singular retribu- 
 tion without being heard in his own defence. 
 Revenge in the one case, the preservation of 
 the royal popularity in the other, demanded 
 the employment of a procedure which could 
 dispense with legal proof of guilt. The at- 
 tainder of Strafford, however, in 1641 marks 
 the triumph, not of a political faction, but of 
 a constitutional theory. By the letter of the 
 Statute of Treasons (1352), which condemned 
 attempts on the king's life and honour only, 
 the earl was innocent ; but the Parliament 
 maintained that the spirit of the statute saw 
 in the king the majesty of the state, and so, 
 by implication, condemned aU attempts to 
 ovei throw the existing constitution. The 
 last instance in English history is that of Sir 
 John Fenwick attainted and executed in 1697 
 for participation in the Assassination Plot. 
 
 Eeeves, ffist. ofUng. Law, iii. 424, &o. ; Hallam, 
 Const, ffist. ,• Sir E. May, Parliamentary Prac- 
 tice; Stephen, Cominentaries on the Laws of 
 Eng., i. 141, &c. ; Knight, Political Cyclo-pcedia, 
 Statutes 5 and 6 Ed. YI. ; 5 Eliz. ; 8 and 9 'Will. 
 III. ; 7 Anne ; 54 Geo. III., &o. f tt Tj T) "l 
 
 Attainder, The Great Act of 
 (Ikeland), was introduced into the Irish 
 Parliament on Jan. 25, 1689, and the debate 
 
 on it lasted some time. James II. gave his 
 consent to it with great reluctance. It natu- 
 rally had a very bad effect on the English 
 Jacobites. Between 2,000 and 3,000 names, 
 including half the Irish peerage, and even 
 many prominent Jacobites, were included 
 in the Bill. All those who were in rebellion 
 against the king (James II.) were to sur- 
 render and take their trial before Aug-ust 
 10, otherwise they were to be deemed guilty 
 of high treason. All those who had left 
 Ireland before Nov. 5, 1688, were to appear 
 for the same purpose before Sept. 1, 1689. 
 Those who had left Ireland before Nov. 5, 
 1688, and were then in England, Scotland, 
 or the Isle of Man, were allowed tOI Oct. 1. 
 In case of a valid excuse for not presenting 
 themselves, the estates were to be placed 
 temporarily in the hands of the king, but to 
 be restored on the accused person's return. 
 The king's pardon granted before Nov. 1 
 was to be valid, otherwise to be of no avail. 
 Macaulay asserts that care was taken to keep 
 the list of attainted persons secret, but the 
 evidence adduced seems inconclusive. The 
 same author calls it an " Act without parallel 
 in the history of any civilised country. " In 
 excuse for the Irish we must look to the his- 
 tory of Ireland since 1641, and to the conduct 
 of the English Parliament at the same time. . 
 
 Arehtisliop King, S'ate of the Protestants m 
 Ireland, 1692; Froude, Eng.mlreland; Macaulay, 
 i£i.-t. ofEng. 
 
 Atterbury, Francis (J. 1662, d. 1732), 
 Bishop of Rochester, was educated at "West- 
 minster and Christ Church, Oxford, and distin- 
 guished himself with his pen as a defender 
 of the reformed religion against the attacks 
 of James II. After the Revolution he took 
 the oath of allegiance to the new government. 
 He took orders, and, after being preacher at 
 the Rolls Chapel, became one of the royal 
 chaplains (1702), but resided at Oxford. 
 There he helped Boyle in his edition of 
 the spurious Letters of Phalaris, and revised 
 his Answer to Bentley. He now wrote several 
 pamphlets in support of the powers of the 
 Lower House of Convocation. In 1 704, he be- 
 came Doctor of Divinity and Dean of Carlisle. 
 In 1710, however, he seized the opportunity 
 of the Sacheverell prosecution, and framed 
 the speech which that divine pronounced at 
 the bar of the House of Lords, f Sachev- 
 erell.] He became Dean of Christ Church, 
 and subsequently (1713) Bishop of Rochester, 
 " because he was so bad a dean." He es- 
 poused the Jacobite cause, and on the death 
 of Anne implored the ministry to proclaim 
 James III. Disliked by George I. because 
 of his refusal to sign the bishops' declaration 
 of fidelity, he began, in 1717, to correspond 
 directly with the Pretender. On the failure 
 of Atterbury's plot to restore the Stuarts (see 
 below) he was imprisoned, and a Bill of Pains 
 and Penalties being introduced, he was forced 
 to leave England, professing his innocence. 
 
Att 
 
 (97) 
 
 Auc 
 
 For a time he resided at Paris, and wa.s chief 
 adviser of the Pretender. He hecame " the 
 phantom minister of a phantom court," and 
 engaged in the schemes for a Highland 
 rebellion (1723). Atterbury was the type of 
 the High Church clergy, most of whom were 
 Jacobite at heart, and he " would have made 
 an admirahle bishop," says Lord Stanhope, 
 " had he been a less good partisan." He was 
 a clever, versatile, if somewhat fussy politician, 
 always full of daring schemes and speculative 
 adventures. 
 
 F. "Williams, Memoirs and Correspondence of 
 
 AUerbury, 2 vols., 1869 ; Lord Macaulay, Bio- 
 
 graphy in £nciyl, J^ritann. 
 
 Atter'biiry's Plot (1721), a Jacohite 
 conspiracy, was occasioned by the confusion 
 in England owing to the failure of the South- 
 Sea Scheme and the revival of Jacohite 
 hopes on the birth of the Young Pretender. 
 It was concocted by a council of five — Atter- 
 hury. Bishop of Eoohester, the Earls of 
 Arran and Orrery, Lords North and Uower — 
 who constantly communicated with James 
 the Old Pretender. They quarrelled a good 
 deal amongst themselves^ and offered their 
 leadership to Lord Oxford, but he declined 
 it. They intended to procure a force of 
 5,000 men from abroad, and, failing that, as 
 much arms, money, and men as they could. 
 They then proposed to seize the Bank, Ex- 
 chequer, and other places where money was 
 lodged, and to proclaim the Pretender during 
 the absence of the king from England, when 
 James was to embark for this country. Un- 
 fortunately for the success of their scheme, 
 they applied for 5,000 men to the Regent 
 of France, who promptly betrayed their de- 
 sign to the English envoy. Sir Luke Schaub. 
 They were allowed to continue for some time 
 longer, their communications being opened 
 by the government; ultimately, the leaders 
 were arrested and the conspiracy was frus- 
 trated. 
 
 Coxe, WalpoU, ii, 534, &c. ; Stanhope, Hist. 
 o/E»ig., ii. 52. 
 
 Attorney-General, The, is the chief 
 law officer of England, who is appointed to 
 represent the crown in all matters affecting 
 its interests. The meaning of the term is 
 thus explained in the early text-book, Zes 
 Termes de la Ley : " An attorney is one 
 appointed by another man to do something 
 in his stead, and is either general or special. 
 Attorney-General is he that is appointed to 
 all our affairs or suits, as the attorney- 
 general of the king, attorney-general of the 
 duke." In modem timeB the Prince of 
 Wales is the only person besides the crown 
 who appoints an " Attorney-General," who, 
 however, is usually spoken of as " the Attor- 
 ney-General for the Duchy of Lancaster or 
 Cornwall" (as the case may be). The 
 Attorney- General must be a party to all 
 actions affecting the crown; and, as repre- 
 
 HIST. — 4 
 
 sentative of the crown, he prosecutes for 
 crimes, brings actions for revenue causes, and 
 allows applications for patents. tfntil 
 recently, the income of the office was mainly 
 derived from patent fees. It is now fixed at 
 £7,000 per annum, exclusive of fees for legal 
 advice and services. The first record of the 
 designation " Attomatus Regis " occurs in 
 the 6th year of Edward I. The second 
 named is WilUam de Giselham (a.d. 1278), 
 who two years afterwards is called " king's 
 Serjeant." In a.d. 1315 — 16, three Attomati 
 Regis are mentioned in the same year as 
 king's Serjeants. It was probably during the 
 reign of Mary that the person who had been 
 originally chosen to represent the king gene- 
 rally became a royal officer with that par- 
 ticular function. In 1614, a question was 
 raised as to whether the Attorney- General 
 (Sir Francis Bacon) could legally sit in the 
 House of Commons, " because by his office he 
 is an assistant of the House of Lords." 
 Bacon was allowed to retain his seat, tut in 
 1620, 1625, and 1640, on the bestowal of the 
 office on members of the House, they vacated 
 their seats. On the appointment of North in 
 1673, he retained his seat, and his successors 
 have continued to sit without hindrance. 
 [Solicitor- General.] 
 
 Poss, Judges of Engloud, iii. 44, 207, iv. 20, 
 
 138, 194 ; Manning, Tiignity of kl Serjeant-at-Law. 
 
 " ' Beeves, Hist, of Eng* Law, xkv. ; and 
 
 Termes de la Ley^ sub nom. 
 
 [B. R. W.] 
 
 Attwood, Thomas (J. 1784, d. 1856), was 
 a banker, of Birmingham, and Gracechurch 
 Street, London, and first attracted public 
 . attention by his vigorous opposition to the 
 Orders in Council of 1812. He condemned 
 the return to cash payments after the war, 
 and wrote some pamphlets advocating paper 
 money in 1815 and 1816. He was a vigorous 
 advocate of parliamentary reform, and the 
 chief founder in 1829 of the Birmingham 
 Political Union. He was one of the first 
 members for Birmingham after the passing 
 of the Reform Bill of 1832. 
 
 Auchmuty, Sir Samuel (i. 1762, <?. 1822), 
 entered the army at the age of fourteen, and 
 was despatched on active service to America 
 under SirW. Howe. He was present at moat 
 of the principal engagements in the earlier 
 years of the war. In 1778 he returned to 
 England, but almost immediately left for 
 India, where he remained for nineteen years. 
 He served in the campaigns on the Malabar 
 coast, and in Mysore and against the RohiUas, 
 and he also took part in the siege of Seringa- 
 patam under Lord Comwallis. Returning in 
 1797, he was gazetted to a brevet- colonelcy, 
 and in 1801 joined Baird's Indian force in 
 Egypt, and became adjutant-general. After 
 the surrender of Alexandria in 1802 he 
 returned to England, and four years later 
 was sent to command a division of the 
 troops in the Rio de la Plata, which he 
 
Auc 
 
 98 ) 
 
 And 
 
 found in a dangerous position. By his skill 
 and energy lie restored confidence to the 
 army, and on the 3rd February, 1807, carried 
 Monte Video by storm. Auchmuty, on his 
 return, was appointed to the command in chief 
 at Madras, and in 1811 gave valuable assistance 
 in the reduction of Java. Two years later he 
 returned to England, and was appointed to 
 command the forces in Ireland, which post 
 he held till his death at Dublin in August, 
 1822. 
 
 Alichy (EocHA, AoHAicus), King of 
 Dalriada, was the son of Aodhfin, whom he 
 succeeded, 796. He was on friendly terms 
 with Charlemagne, to whom he rendered 
 great assistance in the establishing of 
 universities in France. He is said to have 
 married Erfusia, a Pictish princess, and thus 
 to have bequeathed to his grandson Kenneth 
 a claim to the Pictish crown. 
 
 Auckland, William Bde>'", 1st Lord 
 (J. 1743, d. 1814), the third son of a Durham 
 baronet. Sir Robert Eden, was educated at 
 Eton and Christ Church, and was called to 
 the bar in 1769. In 1771 he published 
 " Principles , of Penal Law," which brought 
 him into notice, and he was appointed auditor 
 and one of the directors of Greenwich Hos- 
 pital, and in the following year an Under- 
 Secretary of State. In 1774 the Duke of 
 Marlborough gave him the family seat of 
 Woodstock. Two years later he was appointed 
 to the Board of Trade, and, again, after two 
 years, one of the commissioners for making 
 terms with the American colonies. His 
 mission was unsuccessful, but it made him 
 acquainted with Lord Carlisle, who, in 1780, 
 appointed him his secretary in Ireland, 
 where Eden remained until the Eockiug- 
 ham ministry came into power in 1782. 
 He conducted an active opposition to that 
 government, and on their fall was made 
 a privy - councillor and Vice - Treasurer of 
 Ireland — an oiEce, however, which he soon 
 resigned. In 1785 he went over to Versailles 
 with plenary powers to negotiate a treaty of 
 commerce with France, and was most success- 
 ful. In 1788 he was appointed ambassador 
 to Spain. On his return a year later, he was 
 raised to an Irish peerage, and was almost 
 immediately afterwards sent out to Holland 
 as ambassador. He held this position until, 
 in May, 1793, he was raised to the British 
 peerage. In 1798 he was appointed by 
 Pitt to be joint Postmaster-General, and 
 only gave up the place when Pitt went 
 out of office in 1801. He was a warm 
 supporter of most of Pitt's measures, and 
 especially of the union with Ireland, the 
 scheme for which he had himself helped to 
 prepare. Lord Auckland was the author of 
 measures for bettering the condition of crimi- 
 nals, for erecting penitentiaries, and for sub- 
 stituting hard labour for transportation. 
 
 Auckland, Geobge Eden, 1st Eael or 
 (5. 1784, d. 1849), the second son of the first 
 Lord Auckland, entered Parliament as member 
 for Woodstock, and in 1814 he succeeded to 
 the peerage. In 1830 he was appointed Presi- 
 dent of the Board of Trade, and in 1834 was 
 for a few months First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 On the return of his friends to office, Lord 
 Auckland was appointed Governor-General of 
 India, and quitted England (1835) for the 
 administration of afiiairs in that country. At 
 a dinner given to him by the Court of 
 Directors before his departure, he assured 
 them that "he looked with exultation to the 
 new prospects before him as affording him an 
 opportunity of doing good to his fellow-man, 
 of promoting education and knowledge, and 
 of extending the blessings of good govern- 
 ment and happiness to millions in India." 
 But before he had been six months in Cal- 
 cutta, he perceived a storm gathering in the 
 North -West. The complications which arose 
 brought on a great pohtical crisis with which 
 he was not competent to deal. He had little 
 reliance on his own judgment, and acted for 
 the most part under the influence of those 
 who surrounded him. His administration 
 is almost exclusively comprised in the fatal 
 expedition to Afghanistan. [Afghan Wars.] 
 In February, 1842, the arrival of Lord Ellen- 
 borough at Calcutta brought Lord Auckland's 
 administration to a close. It comprised a 
 single series of events— the conquest, the 
 occupation,^ and the loss of Afghanistan. 
 For administrative or material progress he 
 had no leisure. Lord Auckland on his return 
 was created an earl. On the accession of the 
 Russell Cabinet, 1846, he was once more 
 placed at the head of the Admiralty Board. 
 Annual Be^ster; Kti,ye, Afghanistan. 
 
 Audley, James Touchet, 12th Lord 
 {d. 1459), served under Henry V. in the 
 French wars. In the reign of Henry VI. he 
 took part with the Lancastrians, and was in 
 command of the army which intercepted 
 SaUsbury at Blore Heath, in which battle 
 Audley was defeated and slain. 
 
 Audley, James Touchbt, 14th Lord 
 (d. 1497), a man of broken fortune, was 
 famous in the reign of Henry VII. for his 
 ill-advised leadership of the Cornish rebels, 
 and for his adherence, generally, to the cause 
 of Perkin Warbeck. In the conflict that 
 took place at Blackheath between the rebels 
 and the king's forces under the command of 
 Lord Daubeny and the Earl of Oxford, Lord 
 Audley was taken prisoner, and was soon 
 afterwards beheaded. 
 
 Audley, Thomas Audley, Lord (S. 1488, 
 d. 1544), was a lawyer, appointed in 1529, at 
 the king's request, Speaker of the House of 
 Commons. In 1530 he became Attorney for 
 the Duchy of Lancaster, and, in November, 
 1531, he was made King's Serjeant. To 
 
Aug 
 
 ( 99 ) 
 
 Ans 
 
 enable him to second Henry's designs with 
 a due amount of personal influence, he was, 
 OQ May 20th, 1532, put in possession of the 
 Great Seal, which he continued to hold till 
 shortly before his death. Audley profited 
 largely by ecclesiastical confiscations, " carving 
 for himself in the feast of abbey lands," as 
 Fuller remarks, " the first cut, and that a dainty 
 morsel." The magnificent priory of the Holy 
 Trinity in Aldgate, London, which was granted 
 to Audley soon after his advancement to the 
 chancellorship, was converted by him into a 
 private mansion. But his chief spoil was 
 the rich monastery of Walden, which he 
 persuaded the king to grant him on his 
 elevation to the peerage in November, 1538, 
 as Baron Audley of Walden. He was named 
 in the commission for the trial of Anne 
 Boleyn and for the examination of Catherine 
 Howard. 
 
 Angmentatious, Cotjrt of. This court 
 was instituted on the dissolution of the 
 monasteries in Henry VIII.'s reign, and was 
 established to secure to the crown the rich 
 revenues belonging to suppressed religious 
 houses. Its business was strictly limited to 
 the consideration of questions connected with 
 the confiscated Church property, and as this 
 property was granted away with lavish 
 liberality, the court speedily became a nullity 
 and ceased to exist. 
 
 Angnstine, St. (<?■ 604), first Archbishop 
 of Canterbur)-, was prior of the monastery of 
 St. Martin, in Kome, and was selected by 
 Gregory the Great as the head of the band 
 of monks who were to preach Christianity in 
 England. After a difficult journey they 
 l..nded in the Isle of Thanet, in 596. and 
 obtained the protection of Ethelbert of Kent. 
 Ethelbert's marriage with Bertha had fami- 
 liarised him with the idea of Christianity, 
 and he immediately gave pernussion to the 
 missionaries to preach and convert his people. 
 In the next year Ethelbert himself became 
 a Christian, and in 600 Canterbury was 
 made an archiepiscopal see. with Augustine 
 as its archbishop, with authority to consecrate 
 twelve bishops under his primacy. Kent 
 seems to have become converted rapidly, 
 and on Christmas Day, 597, no less than 
 10,000 persons are said to have been bap- 
 tised. Before his death Augustine was able 
 to see almost the whole of Kent and Essex 
 Christian. Augustine's ministry was largely 
 occupied by a contest with the British 
 bishops. Their differences were nominally on 
 questions of ritual, but the real question at 
 issue was whether or not the Celtic bish"pa 
 should acknowledge the supremacy of the 
 Pope and the Italian Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury. Conferences with the Welsh bishops 
 were held at Augustine's Oak (probably Aust, 
 on the Severn), in 603, but to no purpose, 
 and the breach between the two Churchps 
 was only widened. Augustine was a man of 
 
 somewhat narrow, pedantic, and unconoilia- 
 tury character — tendencies which the monastic 
 training of his early and middle life probably 
 did much to confirm ; but his firmness, his 
 integrity of life, and his singleness of pur- 
 pose, are undoubted. The work he did might 
 have been greater, if he had possessed a 
 wider culture, a greater insight, and a more 
 powerful influence over men's minds and 
 hearts. Still, as far as it went, it was in the 
 highest degree important. " He had," says 
 Canon Bright, " rooted in Canterbury a defi- 
 nite centre for any future amount of Church 
 extension." 
 
 Bade, Htst. Ecc'cs., i. 23, &o. ; Gervase of Can- 
 terbury, Act. Pontif. Cantuar. Eccles. (Rolls 
 Series), ii. 324 i Saint Gregory, Epist., vii. 5, 30 j 
 Bright, Early Eng. Church History. 
 
 Aula Regis. [Curia Eegis.] 
 
 Auldearn, The Battle op (May 9, 1645), 
 was fought between the Covenanters and the 
 Eoj'alists under Montrose, during the latter's 
 irregular campaigTi in the north-eastern High- 
 lands. In May, 1645, he found himself near 
 Auldearn in Nairn, in presence of the 
 Covenanters, led by John Urry or Hurry. 
 A mistake made by one of the latter's officers 
 led Montrose to make an attack. The High- 
 landers' rush carried all before it, and Urry's 
 force was broken and scattered. 
 
 Spalding, Memorials, ii. 474; Burton, Htst. of 
 Scot, vi., ckap. 73. 
 
 Aulus Plautius was the commander of 
 the Roman forces which Claudius despatched 
 against Britain in the year 43. Among the 
 distinguished officers who served under him 
 were two future emperors, Vespasian and bis 
 son Titus. With their aid he defeated 
 Caractacus, and reduced the north-eastern 
 part of the island. In the year 50 he was 
 recalled. Rumour makes him the founder of 
 London. 
 
 Anmale, William of {d. 1179), was the 
 son of Stephen, Count of Champagne, and 
 therefore a kinsman of King Stephen. For 
 his valour in the battle of the Standard, the 
 earldom of York was given to him. He held 
 out in Scarborough Castle against Henry II., 
 but in 1155 was compelled to surrender. 
 
 Axiray, The Battle or (1364), was fought 
 between the English, who were espousing 
 the claims of Montfort to the dukedom of 
 Brittany, and the French, who supported his 
 rival, Charies of Blois. The Enghsh, who 
 were commanded by Sir John Chandos, were 
 completely victorious. Du Gui-sclm, the 
 French commander, was taken prisoner, and 
 Charles of Blois was slain. 
 
 Austin, John (i. 1790, d. 1859), was the 
 first systematic English writer upon the 
 formal science of positive law. At an early 
 age he entered the army, in which, however, 
 he remained only five years. In 1818 he was 
 
Ans 
 
 ( 100) 
 
 Ans 
 
 called to the bar by the Society of the Inner 
 Temple ; but, in spite of great industry and 
 a consummate clearness and subtlety of in- 
 teUeot, he was debarred from professional 
 success by physical weakness, and an over- 
 fastidious and exacting temperament. In 
 1826 he was appointed Professor of Juris- 
 prudence in the newly founded University of 
 Loudon (now University College), where his 
 lectures were attended by numerous men of 
 future eminence, including Lord EomiUy, 
 Grote, Sir G-. Cornewall Lewis, and J. S. 
 Mill. The text of many of the lectures 
 has been recovered from notes taken by the 
 last named. But in spite of this apprecia- 
 tion by the few, the majority of students 
 could not afford to pay attention to a 
 study which was not professionally lucrative, 
 and in 1832 Austin resigned his chair. In 1 833 
 Lord Brougham appointed him a member of 
 the Criminal Law Commission. In 1834 the 
 Inner Temple engaged him to deliver another 
 course of lectures upon the principles and 
 history of law. But, as before, it was soon 
 apparent that there was no demand for a 
 scientific legal education. In 1837 Mr. Austin 
 was sent to Malta as a royal commissioner to 
 inquire into native grievances, in which 
 capacity he was highly successful. After 
 a prolonged sojourn on the Continent, he 
 returned to Weybridge, where he died in 
 1859. As a jurist, Austin owes his rank to 
 the fact that he was the first to define the 
 sphere of legal science, by distinguishing law 
 from history and ethics — thus destroying a 
 confusion which has produced many practical 
 legislative evils. His writings are unfinished, 
 and their form is often uncouth and tedious ; 
 but the doctrines which he first enunciated 
 are now the common property of every 
 thinker. 
 
 Austin's "Works are The Province of Jurisprvr 
 dence Determined, Lond., 1832, and Lectures on 
 Jurisprudence, 5th edition, Lend., 1875. Tlie 
 latter work embodied tlie former, and was pub- 
 lished by Mrs. Austin from the author's notes. 
 The preface contains an interesting life of Austin . 
 For criticisms of Austin's theories, see Sir Henry 
 Maine, Ancient Law, Lectures xi. and xii. ; 
 Mr. F. Har'ison in Fortnightly Beuiewj, Oct. 
 andNov., 1878, and Jan., 1879; Prof. Pollockin 
 Forinighthi Eeuieu), Jan., 1883; Prof. Holland, 
 Jurisjirudeuce, Oxford, 1882. [B. E. W.] 
 
 Australia. At what date Australia 
 was first discovered, and whether by the 
 Portuguese or Dutch, are questions which 
 may possibly never be answered. Certain 
 it is that, whatever may be the probability 
 of a ooncealme t, from supposed commercial 
 interests, of an earlier knowledge of a 
 southern continent, the discovery was not 
 disclosed earlier than 1511, nor later than 
 1542. Between those years the Portuguese 
 published the existence of a southern land, 
 correspondinif to Australia, which they termed 
 Great Java ; and subsequent Spanish ex- 
 plorers, among whom was Torres, the dis- 
 coverer of Torres' Straits (1606), confirmed the 
 
 correctness of the Portuguese maps. Upon 
 the decline of Spanish maritime supremacy, 
 the Dutch became the chief explorers of the 
 southern seas, using their colony of Java as a 
 starting-point. Through their efforts the 
 Gulf of Carpentaria was surveyed and named, 
 with' many other places on the northern 
 coasts, which retain their Dutch names up to 
 the present day. Indeed, such was the extent 
 of Dutch influence that the whole continent 
 was called " New Holland " — a name which 
 is even yet not quite supplanted by Matthew 
 Flinders's more happy appellation of " Aus- 
 tralia." The southern coast remained undis- 
 covered until 1627, when a Dutch vessel, bound 
 for Japan, being driven from her course, 
 sailed along the shore of the Great Bight for 
 upwards of one thousand miles. Tasman 
 (1642) was the first systematic explorer of 
 these shores ; and to him is due the discovery 
 of New Zealand, and of Tasmania, the latter 
 of which was called by him Van Diemen's 
 Land, after his betrothed. The first English- 
 man who touched Australian shores was 
 Dampier, the buccaneer (1688), whose ac- 
 count was so favourable that the English 
 government placed him in command of a 
 national expedition. After this expedition, 
 by means of which the north-west coasts 
 were first surveyed, there are few records of 
 discoveries until the first voyage of Captain 
 Cook (1770). This voyage marks the begin- 
 ning of Anglo - Australian history. For, 
 although no permanent settlement was made 
 until 1788, Cook saw enough of the country to 
 convince him that settlement was desirable ; 
 and moreover, by sailing along the eastern 
 coast, he completed the outline of the con- 
 tinent. In his second (1773) and third 
 voyages (1777), he visited New Zealand and 
 Tasmania. The news of his discoveries, and 
 of the further discoveries of Barr and Tlinders, 
 induced the English government to take 
 possession of the country ; and on Jan. 20, 
 1788, the first English fleet, under the com- 
 mand of Captain Arthur Phillip, anchored in 
 Botany Bay, a locality which was soon 
 abandoned for the more sheltered Cove of 
 Sydney. Inland exploration was first checked 
 by the chain of mountains which runs, under 
 various names, along the greater part of the 
 eastern coast at a distance from the sea of 
 from fifty to a hundred miles. These were 
 crossed in 1813, under the necessity for find- 
 ing new pasture during a long drought. 
 The great rivers were next explored, and 
 attention was directed to the possibility of 
 traversing the continent. After various 
 attempts, this feat was successfully accom- 
 plished by Stuart in 1860, journeying from 
 south to north, and in the following year by 
 the ill-fated expedition of Burke and "Wills. 
 These expeditions proved that the interior 
 of Australia was not a desert, and showed 
 the feasibility of constructing the present 
 telegraph line between Adelaide and Port 
 
Ans 
 
 (103 ) 
 
 Aus 
 
 Darwen. All the Australian capitals are now 
 connected by telegraph, and the railway sys- 
 tem, which is under governmental control, 
 has also heen largely developed. 
 
 Included under the general designation of 
 Australia, or Australasia, are the colonies of 
 (1) New South Wales, (2) Victoria, (3) South 
 Australia, (4) Western Australia, (6) Queens- 
 land, (6) Tasmania, (7) New Zealand. These 
 colonies are not connected except geographi- 
 cally, though a conference was held (1883) 
 in which it was resolved to form a federal 
 council for certain purposes. 
 
 (1) New South Wales (cap. Sydney), dur- 
 ing the earlier period of its history, was used 
 as a penal settlement by the British Empire. 
 Governor Phillip, however, speedily perceived 
 the necessity for encouraging another kind of 
 immigration, and through his efforts a settle- 
 meat of freemen was established on the 
 Ha wkesbury River (1802). In 1808 Governor 
 Bligh was deposed by a successful mutiny of 
 the New South Wales Corps ; but the vigorous 
 measures of his- successor. Governor Mac- 
 quarie, restored order, and rapidly advanced 
 prosperity. After the introduction of merino 
 sheep by Mr. John Macarthur, and the dis- 
 covery of the pasture-lands beyond the Blue 
 Mountains, the progress of the colony was 
 very rapid ; and the arrival of a Chief Jus- 
 tice in 1824, with all the apparatus of 
 a Court of Record, marks a more settled 
 order and vigorous society. Free immi- 
 gTation, which his immediate predecessors 
 had discouraged, was revived under Gover- 
 nor Brisbane (1821). In 1840 an Order in 
 Council suspended transportation to New 
 South Wales, although an attempt was made 
 to revive the practice by Earl Grey in 1846. 
 This, however, was met by the colonists 
 with the threat of secession ; and, after a 
 violent dispute, the EngUsh government gave 
 way (1852), and agreed to send no convicts 
 to any Australian colony which should 
 object to receive them. Western Australia 
 was for a long time the only colony which 
 gave consent, but since 1864 transportation 
 has been discontinued. In 1842 municipali- 
 ties were first established, and in 1843 the 
 Legislative Council was made partially elec- 
 tive ; but government by responsible ministers 
 was not introduced until 1856. The most 
 important political questions in New South 
 Wales, as in all the Australian colonies, have 
 been the questions of labour and land. In 
 the earliest days of the colony, the demand 
 for labour was met by hiring out convicts to 
 the free settlers ; but from 1821 onwards, the 
 system of free immigration was largely ex- 
 tended. Not only was every immigrant 
 entitled to a free passage and a grant of land, 
 but the shipper also received a bounty for 
 every person whom he landed in the colony. 
 In consequence of this practice, the country 
 was crowded with paupers and incapables, 
 who had often disposed of their land-grants 
 
 to speculators before they had landed. After 
 the establishment of responsible government, 
 the bounty system was abolished, and state- 
 aided immigration has been jealously watched. 
 The questions connected with the settlement of 
 the land are still causing grave political dif- 
 ficulties in New South Wales, as in other Aus- 
 tralian colonies. The community is divided 
 into two classes — ^the " squatters " (or lessees 
 of large pasture-runs), and the small farmers. 
 The former class desires that every facility 
 should be given to the acquisition of large 
 landed estates, while the other side maintains 
 that the alienation of the national land is a 
 poUcy of suicide. The disposition of land 
 was vested originally with the Governor ; but 
 in 1831 it was ordered that every alienation 
 of crown-land should be by sale at a public 
 auction, and that a minimum price should be 
 fixed of five shillings an acre. In 1846 the 
 influence of the squatters culminated, and a 
 measure was passed, known as the Squatters 
 Act, to secure fixity of tenure to government 
 lessees, with an option of purchase. Since 
 the introduction of representative govern-, 
 ment, the tendency of legislation has been in 
 the opposite direction. At present any boni- 
 fide settler can " select " not more than 640 
 acres out of any unoccupied land or leasehold 
 pasture " run," and can become the absolute 
 owner of his selection by residence and small 
 yearly payments. Great attention is paid in 
 New South Wales and throughout Australia 
 to education. Elementary schools and uni- 
 versities are supported by the state, and a 
 movement is on foot for establishing govern- 
 ment technical and secondary schools. The 
 legislative power in New South Wales is 
 vested in_ the Governor, as representing the 
 crown, and a Parliament of two Houses, under 
 Stat. 18 and 19 Vict., c. 54. The Upper House, 
 or Legislative Council, consists of not less 
 than twenty-one members, who are nomin- 
 ated by the crown; while the Legislative 
 Assembly or Lower House consists of 
 102 elected members. There is no property 
 qualification for voters, and the votes are 
 taken by ballot. The population of New 
 South Wales on April 3, 1881, was 503,981, 
 of whom 220,427 resided in or about Sydney. 
 The colony originally embraced all the terri- 
 tory from Cape York to the South Cape. 
 But its area has been greatly reduced by the 
 creation of the separate colonies of South 
 Australia (1836), Victoria (1851), Queens- 
 land (1859). 
 
 (2) Victoria (cap. Melbourne, pop. 858,562) 
 is the most populous of the Australian 
 colonies. It rose into importance after the 
 discovery of gold in 1848, and in 1854 re- 
 ceived a constitution (18 and 19 Vict., u. 55). 
 This measure was drawn up on similar lines 
 to the Act conferring a constitution upon 
 New South Wales, the main difference being 
 that the Upper House was elected by voters 
 with a high property qualification. In this 
 
Aus 
 
 { 102) 
 
 Aus 
 
 respect tlie constitution was altered in 1881. 
 The colony is now divided into fourteen pro- 
 vinces, each of which returns three members 
 to the Legislative Council. The members 
 are returned for a period of six years, and 
 one-third of their number retire triennially. 
 The voting qualification has been reduced to 
 a freehold of the value of £10, or a leasehold 
 of £25 per annum. All the land of the colony 
 has been disposed of, greatly to the benefit 
 of those who are descended from the earliest 
 settlers. The accumulation of land in the 
 hinds of single proprietors has been such that 
 an attempt has been made to break up the 
 large estates by the imposition of a progressive 
 land-tax. The commercial policy of Victoria 
 has been strongly Protectionist. 
 
 (3) South Australia (founded, 1836, cap. 
 Adelaide, pop. 279,865), originally part of 
 New South "Wales, obtained responsible 
 government in 1856. The Parliament con- 
 sists of two elected Houses. The Legislative 
 Council is composed of eighteen members, 
 six of whom retire every four years, their 
 successors being then elected for twelve 
 years. The Council is elected by the whole 
 colony voting as one district. A property 
 qualification is required for membership. 
 The House of Assembly consists of forty-six 
 members, elected for three years by manhood 
 suffrage. The executive is vested in the 
 Governor and an Executive Council, oonsist- 
 ina: of the cabinet and specially - appointed 
 ministers. The South Austrahan territory 
 now extends over the whole of Central Aus- 
 tralia, and a great part of the north-western 
 coast. 
 
 (4) Westeen" Australia, first called the 
 Swan River Settlement, was founded in 
 1829, mainly under government auspices. To 
 induce settlement, enormous grants of land 
 were made to men of influence and capital, 
 who in return were to import labourers. The 
 result was disastrous. Labourers, who are 
 the settlers most needed in a new country, 
 regarded the colony as closed to them, while 
 those who were brought out preferred to work 
 upon their own account. In 1850 the colony 
 received a fiUip of prosperity, by accepting the 
 convicts which the rest of Australia had ex- 
 cluded. The colony has not yet received 
 representative government. There are two 
 governing bodies — the Legislative Council, 
 partly elected and partly appointed by the 
 crown, by whom the local Acts are passed, 
 and the Executive Council of five official 
 members, by whom they are administered. 
 
 (5) Queensland (cap. Brisbane, pop. 
 213,525) was separated from New South Wales 
 in 1859. Its constitution does not essentially 
 differ from that of the mother-colonv. The 
 climate is tropical, and sugar is a staple pro- 
 duct. The demand for labour has been met 
 by the importation of South-Sea Islanders 
 (Kanaks) ; the traffic in whom hag caused 
 grave scandals, which have been the subject of 
 
 investigation. Queensland has of late years 
 developed an extensive trade in wool. In 
 1883 this colony took the initiative in pressing 
 upon the imperial government the creation 
 of an English protectorate over the southern 
 part of New Guinea. 
 
 (6) Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land 
 (cap. Hobart Town, pop. 115,705), has a con- 
 stitution similar to that of South Australia 
 (Act 18 Vict., c. 17, and Act 34 Vict., cap. 42). 
 The aborigines of Tasmania have recently 
 become extinct. 
 
 (7) New Zealand (cap. Auckland, pop. 
 534,008), a group of islands 600 miles to the 
 eastward of Australia, was established as a 
 self-governing colony in 1852 (15 and 16 Vict., 
 c. 72). The country was divided into six; 
 provinces (afterwards increased to nine)', each 
 of which was governed by an elective Superin- 
 tendent and Provincial Council. The pro- 
 vincial system was abolished in 1875, and 
 the legislative power vested in the Governor, 
 appointed by the crown, and a General As- 
 sembly of two Chambers, one nominated by 
 the crown (Legislative Council), the other 
 elective (House of Representatives). Members 
 of both Houses receive £210 each session to 
 cover expenses. The colony has been dis- 
 turbed by native wars [Maori Wars], the 
 most serious of which occurred in 1864 — 5. 
 
 Hakluyt Society, Early Voyages to Australia; 
 tlie journals of the various explorers (e.g., Sturt, 
 Stuart, Mitchell, MTTinlay, &cj ; Bonwiok, 
 Kistory of Fort Phillip; Lang, History of Nevj 
 South Wales ; Fitzgerald, Australia ; Creasy, 
 Britannic Empire; Busden, Hist, of Australia, 
 1883. The Lihrary of the Royal Colonial Insti- 
 tute contains the "best English collection of 
 literature upon Australia. [B. R. "VV.l 
 
 Australian Colonies Act, The, was 
 
 passed by Lord John Russell's government 
 in 1850, for the better administration of the 
 Australian colonies. It created Victoria a 
 distinct province from New South Wales, and 
 conferred on the four colonies of New South 
 Wales, Victoria, Van Diemen's Land, and 
 South Australia the power of choosing their 
 own constitution, "by means of popular 
 assemblies, composed of all the inhabitants 
 who were £10 householders or £100 free- 
 holders.'' 
 
 _ Austria, Relations with. Before the 
 sixteenth century, Austria was merely an 
 imperial duchy, too remote and insignificant 
 to have important dealings with England. 
 Under the Bamberg line, the captivity of 
 Richard I. in consequence of his quarrel with 
 Leopold V. is the only important exception. 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg, who in 1278 granted 
 Austria to his son Albert, was a good friend 
 of Edward I., but friendship for actual 
 Bavarian and Luxemburg emperors made 
 England necessarily cool to Austrian aspirants 
 to that dignity. With Frederick III. 
 (1439—1493) and Maximilian T. (1493—1519), 
 the empire became practically hereditary in 
 
Au3 
 
 ( 103 ) 
 
 Aus 
 
 the Austrian house. The traditional friend- 
 ship between England and the empire 
 [Empire, Belations with] now necessarily 
 involved closer relations with Austria. Maxi- 
 milian I. acquired, with the Burgnndian 
 Netherlands, the advantages of the old com- 
 mercial and political connection between Eng- 
 land and Flanders. Charles V. united Spain, 
 England's third medieval ally, with the 
 imperial crown. But it was rather with the 
 Austrian house than Austria, with Spain 
 rather than the distant " Erblander," that 
 England now becomes closely involved. On 
 Charles's abdication, the Austro-Spanish 
 House split up into two lines, but the soli- 
 darity between them was such that the 
 intimate relations of alternate friendship and 
 hostility between England and Spain 
 practically aetermiued her relations with 
 Austria until the death of the last Austrian 
 King of Spain in 1700. [Spain, Kela- 
 TioNS WITH.] Up to that date it is only 
 necessary to note any peculiarity of relation 
 between England and Austria. For instance, 
 when the Catholic Eeaction ended for a time 
 the Anglo-Spanish alliance, the superior 
 moderation of the imperial branch produced 
 friendly relations between Elizabeth and the 
 liberal and tolerant Maximilian II. (1564 — 
 1578). Again, in the Thirty Tears' War, close 
 relations with Ferdinand II. (1619 — 1637) 
 resulted from James I.'s persistent efforts to 
 obtain the restoration of the Pfalzgraf 
 Frederick, his son-in-law, to his hereditary 
 dominions. For some years he hoped to get 
 this by Spanish mediation. But when he 
 and his son Charles found they were being 
 played with, they turned to that alliance with 
 France which lasted with partial breaks till 
 1688, and much longer than the political 
 balance demanded. Fear of Louis XIV. led 
 even Charles II. to the Tkiple Alliance, 
 which saved Austria Franche Comte ; and 
 again, in 1677, he began to incline to the 
 imperial side. "With WiUiam III. the whole 
 influence of England was thrown against 
 France, and in the wars of the League of 
 Augsburg (16S8— 1697) and of the Spa>ish 
 Succession (1702 — 1713) England fought in 
 close alliance with Austria. The substitution 
 of a Bourbon for a Hapsburg monarch in 
 Spain led to a closer union of interests 
 between England and Austria than before. 
 Yet there was a constant strain in their 
 relations in the early half of the eighteenth 
 century that led to absolute hostility in 
 the second half. In the Treaty op Utrecht 
 (1713), the Tories abandoned their Austrian 
 ally. The accession of George I., the head 
 of the house whose long attachment to the 
 empire had been rewarded with a ninth 
 electorate, made relations easier. But the 
 commercial restrictions imposed on Flanders 
 in the interests of the maritime powers, and 
 the Barrier Treaty, negotiated through 
 English mediation, that handed over that 
 
 country to Austria, with its fortresses gar- 
 risoned by Dutch Protestants, were warmly 
 resented by Charles VI., who had not for- 
 gotten the failure of his Spanish hopes. Very 
 unwillingly he made a defensive alliance 
 m 1716, and when Alberoni's intrigu(S 
 agamst the Utrecht settlement produced 
 the Triple Alliance of 1717, it was only 
 unmediate fear of losing Italy that prevailed 
 on him to make it a Quadruple Alliance, by 
 joining with France and the maritime powers 
 to uphold the treaty. In 1722 his Ostend 
 India Company was established in direct 
 contravention of the treaty, and in 1725 
 Eipperda negotiated the first Treaty of 
 Vienna, that re-united Austria with Spain 
 against England, even more than France. 
 Charles secured a further triumpli when 
 Prussia deserted England [Treaty oe Han- 
 over, 1726] for his alliance, and open war 
 between England and Spain ensued. But in 
 1727 peace was patched up [Paris, Peace of], 
 and in 1731 the second Treaty of Vienna 
 restored peace with England, and Charles 
 renounced his commercial schemes for a 
 guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction. His 
 subsequent misfortunes in the Polish and 
 Turkish wars did not prevent England from 
 loyally supporting Maria Theresa in the War 
 of the Austrian Succession (1741 — 1748). 
 But English help was given in an over- 
 bearing and insolent spirit that destroyed all 
 feelings of gratitude. Eobinson, the EngKsh 
 ambassador at Vienna, made himself most 
 obnoxious, and England compelled the em- 
 press, much against her will, to surrender 
 part of the Milanese to Sardinia (Treaty of 
 Worms, 1743), and Silesia to Frederick II. of 
 Prussia, and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 (1748) confirmed these cessions, and created 
 a patrimony for Don Philip at the expense of 
 Austria. This treaty, coming after thirty 
 years of friction, produced a definite rupture. 
 Count Wenzel Kannitz became Maria's ad- 
 viser, and negotiated that alliance between 
 France and Austiia that continued with 
 partial breaks till the Eevolution. Hence, 
 in the Seven Years' War (1756—1763), 
 Austria did its best to ruin Prussia, Eng- 
 land's constant ally. But George III., intent 
 on the restoration of personal government, 
 paid but shght attention to foreign politics. 
 Meanwhile Austria approximated to the 
 Eastern powers, and in 1772 shared in the 
 partition of Poland. Joseph II. became com- 
 pletely fascinated by Catherine II. 's schemes 
 of Eastern empire, and his sister's marriage 
 keeping up his friendship with France, he 
 availed himself of England's difiiculties with 
 America to repudiate the Barrier Treaty 
 (1781), and an attempt to reopen the Scheldt. 
 At last the younger Pitt's vigour restored to 
 England its true position in Europe by 
 forming an alliance against the Eastern 
 powers, which in 1790 compelled Leopold II. 
 (Joseph was just dead) to accept the Conven- 
 
Ans 
 
 ( 104) 
 
 AUS 
 
 tion of Eeichenbach, and withdraw from the 
 Turkish War. The French Revolution com- 
 pleted the rapprochement of England and 
 A-Ustria. A close alliance was cemented by 
 heavy subsidies, and in 1793 England joined 
 the war against France. The alliance con- 
 tinued till 1815, only broken when Napoleon 
 forced a peace on Austria, and was re- 
 newed again at the earliest opportunity. The 
 Treaty of Vienna was successfully nego- 
 tiated (1815) ; if England did not aicede to 
 the Holy Alliance, it did not purge itself of 
 association with its authors until the great 
 ministry of Canning. Since 1827 the two 
 countries have pursued very different direc- 
 tions. While Austria, under the guidance 
 of Metternich, was the representative of 
 reaction and absolutism in Europe, the two 
 powers could hardly be on other terms than 
 thoje of distant courtesy. In 1848 — 9, when 
 Italy and Hungary tried to realise their in- 
 dependence, English sympathy was largely 
 enlisted on the side of the wronged nationali- 
 ties ; but the sympathy took no active shape, 
 and Austria was allowed to subdue the Hun- 
 garians by the aid of Russian armies. The 
 close alliance with Russia was, however, 
 severed by the Crimean War, in which Austria 
 took no part. The overthrow of Austria by 
 Prussia in 1866 — her consequent exclusion 
 from German affairs, and the liberal in- 
 stitutions which she found herself compelled 
 to set up — seemed to have removed nearly 
 aU possible grounds of difference. Since 1867 
 the poUtical intercourse between English 
 statesmen and those of the Austro- Hun- 
 garian monarchy, has been almost confined to 
 such questions as have arisen out of the con- 
 dition of the Balkan peninsula. 
 
 Coxe's House ofAwslyna, largely drawn from des- 
 patches, is the hest general authority. Banke, 
 English History in the Seoenteenth Century, is 
 excellent on all foreign relations i Ameth's 
 Prinz Eugen and JUaria TheresUt are indispens- 
 able for the eighteenth century. [T. F. T.l 
 
 Austrian Succession, The War op 
 
 THE (1741—1748), was caused by the death of 
 Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, without 
 male issue. There was thus thrown open the 
 question of the succession to the empire, and 
 to the Austrian dominions. The latter had 
 previously been secured to Maria Theresa by 
 the Pragmatic Sanction. The chief claimant 
 to both was the Elector of Bavaria ; the next 
 important candidate was Philip V. of Spain. 
 As both these prince? were allies of France, 
 it was necessary for England to oppose their 
 designs. Walpole, therefore, had tried to 
 found a grand alliance between Hanover, 
 Prussia, and the maritime powers with 
 Austria ; Frederick, however, would recognise 
 the Pragmatic Sanction oidy if his claims to 
 Silesia were acknowledged. This was refused 
 by Austria, and immediately the French and 
 Prussian armies crossed to the frontier (1741) 
 Hanover was obliged to declare neutrality 
 
 for a year. In 1742 England and Holland 
 joined Austria, and an army of 30,000 was 
 sent into the Low Countries. In the Mediter- 
 ranean Commodore Matthews, with the fleet, 
 forced the King of Naples to neutrality, and 
 allowed Sardinia to side with Austria. 
 Frederick acquired Silesia by the treaties 
 of Breslau and Berlin, and withdrew from 
 the contest. The chief event of 1743 was the 
 battle of Dettinoen, which, though nearly 
 resulting in a disastrous defeat for the 
 English, forced the French to retire into 
 Alsace. Negotiations for peace were begun, 
 George II. being wOling to recognise Charles 
 of Bavaria as emperor if he would renounce 
 his claims on Austria. They were, however, 
 broken off, and the Treaty of Worms, in- 
 cluding England, HoUand, Austria, Saxony, 
 and Sardinia (Sept., 1743), was met in October 
 by the League of Frankfort, the important 
 members of which were France and Prussia. 
 Thus both England and France were now 
 the respective heads of two great leagues, and 
 the question at issue was really that of the 
 naval supremacy of one or the other power, 
 rather than the Austrian succession, the 
 ostensible cause of the war. In 1744, 
 after an attempted invasion of England in 
 favour of the Pretender had been thwarted 
 by the elements, a formal declaration of war 
 was made. The general war, in which the 
 English troops were not concerned, need not 
 be discussed here. Frederick of Prussia was 
 not well supported by the French; and in 
 1745, on the death of Charles of Bavaria, 
 Francis, the son of Maria Theresa, was 
 elected emperor. It was then possible to 
 have made some general negotiation. The 
 opportunity passed. Large subsidies were 
 voted to German troops, and 18,000 Hano- 
 verians were taken into English pay. In 
 Dec, 1745, Frederick made a separate peace 
 with Austria, known as that of Dresden. 
 Meanwhile the allies, under the Duke of 
 Cumberland and the Prince of Waldeck, 
 were disastrously beaten by the French at 
 FoNTENOY (May, 1745), and had to retire 
 to Brussels and Antwerp. They had been 
 much weakened by the necessity of with- 
 drawing troops to defend England against the 
 invasion of the Young Pretender. [Stuart, 
 Chae,les Edward.] In 1746 Marshal Saxe 
 became master of the Austrian Nether- 
 lands. Deserted, however, by the Prussians 
 and Bavarians, the French began to make 
 offers for peace. In 1747 the Duke of Cum- 
 berland and the Prince of Orange were de- 
 feated with great loss at Lawfeldt. Bergen- 
 op-Zoom_ fell, and Maestricht was besieged. 
 These disasters were counterbalanced by the 
 Austrian successes in Italy, and by the capture 
 of Cape Breton Island in America. At length 
 the struggle was brought to a close by the 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Oct., 1 748) . The 
 results of the war, as a whole, were not un- 
 favourable to England. She had done much 
 
Ant 
 
 ( 105) 
 
 Aut 
 
 to secure her maritime supremacy, ■while her 
 rival, France, had displayed a growiag weak- 
 ness and incapacity, 
 
 Carlyle, Frederick II.; Coxe, Pelham and WaU 
 pole; Smollett, Sist. of Eng,; Frederick II., 
 M^moires de Mon Temps ; Yoltaire, Siecle dd Louis 
 XIY.; Stanhope, Hist, of Sng.; Uanke, Hist, of 
 Prussia. 
 
 Authorities on English. History. 
 
 In the present article the leading authorities 
 are briefly considered under the following 
 nine periods : — (1) Before the English con- 
 quest; (2) from the English to the Norman 
 conquest ; (3) from the Norman conquest to 
 the close of the 12th century ; (4) the 13th 
 century;' (5) the 14th and 15th centuries; 
 (6) the 16th century; (7) the 17th centurv: 
 (8) the 18th century tOl 1789; (9) from 1789 
 to the present time. 
 
 1. Period before the lEnglish Con- 
 quest. — CoKTEMPOKAEY WRITERS : CsBsar, de 
 Bella Gallico (bks. ir. and v.) ; the Agrieola 
 of Tacitus and passages in the Germania of 
 the same writer are the principal sources. 
 To these must he added numerous scattered 
 passages in Tarious classical ■writers, enu- 
 merated in Sir T. Hardy's Descriptive Catalojme 
 of Materials relating to the History of Great 
 Britain and Ireland (vol. i.), and printed in 
 fhe Monumenta Sistorica Britannica (fol. 1848). 
 The Itinerarium of Antoninus supplies an 
 enumeration of the chief towns and roads in 
 Eoman Britain: the Notitia Bignitatum an 
 outline of the organisation of the country. 
 
 Later Writers : A fe-w notices of the 
 condition of the native population before the 
 middle of the 6th centiiry, may be gathered 
 from Gildas, de Exeidio Britannia. The Eccle- 
 siastical History of Bede, commencing at the 
 same time, but coming down to a.d. 731, 
 is then the chief authority. The Sistoria 
 Britonum of Nennius preserves some impor- 
 tant fragments of earlier writers, and affords 
 iUuatrations of the early Welsh traditions, 
 but is otherwise of little value. The work 
 bearing the same title, by Geoffrey of Mon- 
 mouth, although worthless from an historical 
 point of view, is valuable as a source of 
 numerous legends. 
 
 Modern Writers : Britannia Somana, of 
 J. Horsley (1732) ; Dr. Guest, Origines Celticm, 
 1883 ; H. C. Coote, The Romans of Britain 
 (1878) ; J. C. Bruce, The Roman Wall (1851) ; 
 T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman, and the 
 Saxon; C. Elton, Origins of English Eistory 
 (1882) ; Rh^s, Celtic Britain; W. F. Skene, 
 Celtic Scotland (1880). 
 
 2. rrom the English to the Worman 
 Conquest. — Contemporary Writers : Bede 
 and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles {R. S.*)-, the 
 ^Peterborough version of the latter carries us 
 
 * The letters B. S. appended to a titl^ in this 
 article denote that the work is included in the 
 series Chronicles a/nd Memorials of Great BrUain and 
 Ireland, puhlished by the anthority of the Master 
 of the Bolls. The letters C. S. denote that it is one 
 of the puhlioations of the Camden Society. 
 Hist. -4* 
 
 to the end of ■the reign of Stephen ; Asser, 
 I-ife of Xing Alfred (probably in part a 
 geunine contemporary narrative) ; the Chro- 
 nicle of Ethelward (little more than a compi- 
 lation from Bede and the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicles) ; the Encomium Emmec (Life of 
 Queen Emma), and life of Edward the Con- 
 fessor {R. S.), have both a certain though 
 secondary value. Other Zives are those of 
 St. Cuthbert, by Bede; St. Columba, by 
 Adamuau ; and that of Wilfrid, Bishop of 
 York , by Eddius ; and the later ones of Aldhelm, 
 by Fabricius, a foreigner, used by William of 
 Malmesbury in his account of Aldhelm in the 
 Gesta Fontijicum; an anonymous life of 
 Alcuin, the foremost English scholar of his 
 age, whose Letters are also of considerable 
 value ; and the Life of St. Dunstan, by 
 Adelard. The Chronicles and Histories up to 
 1066 are printed in the Monumenta Eistorica 
 Britannica. 
 
 Later Writers : Among these are the 
 Chronicle of Marianus Scotus ; the Bistoria 
 Regum and Sistoria Ecclesim Dunelmensis 
 {R. S.) of Simeon of Durham ; the Sistoria 
 Anglorum {R. S.) of Henry of Huntingdon ; 
 and the Chronicles of Ralph of Dieeto (R. S.) 
 and Peter Langtoft [R. S.). These all, how- 
 ever, yield in value to William of Malmes- 
 bury, whose Gesta Regum Anglorwm, Sistoria 
 Novella, and Ee Gcstis Fontijicum [R. S.) — a 
 history of English bishops and monasteries 
 from the time of Augustine — are the best 
 sources for the period. The Chronicon of 
 Florence of Worcester is also of considerable 
 importance. The princijial biographies are 
 the Lives of Edward the Confessor, byEthelred 
 of Eievaulx, and of . St. Dunstan, by Osbem 
 and Eadmer. 
 
 Modern Writers : J. M. Kemble, Saxons 
 in England, 1849 ; E. A. Freeman, Norman 
 Conquest, which to a great extent, but not 
 altogether, supersedes The Sistory of Eng- 
 land and Normandy by Sir Francis Palgrave ; 
 also Palgrave, English Commonwealth; 3. M. 
 Lappenberg, Sistory of England under the 
 Anglo-Saxon Kings ; Dr. W. Stubbs, Select 
 Charters and Constitutional Sistory ; Schmidt, 
 Gesetze der Angelsachsen ; B. Thorpe, Ancient 
 Laws and Institutes of England ; Wm. Bright, 
 Early English Church Eistory; the Lives relat- 
 ing to English history contained in the Diction- 
 ary of Christian Biography ; J. E. Green, The 
 Making of England, and The Conquest of England. 
 
 3. Iforman Conquest to the Close 
 of the T^welfth Century — For Norm.\n 
 History : the Sistoriee Normannorum of Wil- 
 liam of Jumieges ; the Gesta IVillelmi of Wil- 
 liam of Poitiers; theBaijeux Tapestry, engraved 
 by the Antiquarian Society, and with elucida- 
 tions by Eev. G. C. Bruce. See also Freeman, 
 Norman Conquest, vol. iii.. Append. A. 
 
 Contemporary Writers : Peterborough 
 edition of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ends 1154) ; 
 Eadmer, Sistoria Novorum, and Vita Anselmi ; 
 Gaimar, Eistoire des Angles; Ordeiicus 
 
Ant 
 
 ( 106) 
 
 Aut 
 
 Vitalis, Bistoria Ecclesiastica ; Malmesbury's 
 Mstoria Novella (above-mentioned) should 
 be compared with the Geata, Stephani ; 
 Chronicles by Richard and John, both priors 
 of the monastery at Hexham (in Twysden, 
 Decern Scriptores). For reign of Henry II. : 
 William of Newburgh, Mistoria Serum 
 Anglicarum; the Gesta Regis Henrici {M.S.), 
 ■wrongly ascribed to Benedict of Peter- ' 
 borough; the Chronica of Roger Hoveden 
 [E.S.), a work of high importance; the 
 Imagines Sistoriarum (B. S.) of Ealph of 
 Diceto. For the reign of Eichard I. : The 
 Chronicle of Richard of Devizes (£. S.) ; the 
 Chronicle of Gervase, a monk of Canterbury 
 {B. S.) ; and Gesta Begum {B. S.), by the 
 same author, with continuation by unknown 
 writers (of considerable value) ; Chronicles 
 and Memorials of Beign of Eichard I., 
 with prefaces by Dr. Stubbs {B. S.). For 
 reigns of John and Henry II.: The Topo- 
 graphia JlibernicB and Expugnatio Sihernice of 
 Giraldus Cambrensis (iJ. S.) ; and for court 
 and ecclesiastical life of the period, the Gemma 
 Ecclesiee and Speculum Eoclesim of the same 
 writer {R. S.), the poem of Walter Map, de 
 Nugis Curialium, and the de Nugis Curialium 
 of John of Salisbury. In biography, the 
 Lives of Lanf ranc, by Milo Crispin ; of An- 
 selm, by Eadmer ; together with those of 
 Becket, in volumes edited by Canon Robertson 
 for Rolls Series ; and the Magna Vita of Hugh 
 of Lincoln (R. S.). Domesday Book, fac-simile 
 edition by Sir Henry James, by photozinco- 
 graphic process, together with account of the 
 whole in Freeman, Norman Conquest, vol. v., 
 Append A. 
 
 MoDEBN Weiteks : Works by Freeman 
 and Stubbs, named in preceding section ; also 
 Freeman, History of William Bufus and 
 Historical Essays (1st series) ; Guizot, Essais 
 and Histoire de Civilisafioji en Erance ; W. F. 
 Hook, lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury ; 
 R. W. Church, Life of Anselm ; M. Rule, St. 
 Anselm; Perry, Life of St. Hugh of Lincoln ; 
 Lord Lyttelton, History of Henry II. ; Dug- 
 dale, Monasticon Anglicanuin (1655 — 73). 
 
 4. Thirteenth Century and Eeign 
 of Edward II. — Contempokary Writers : 
 The Historia Major of Matthew Paris {B.S.), 
 abridged in his Historia Minor {ib.), 
 specially important, and exhibiting a 
 great advance in historical composition ; 
 Ghronicon of William Rishanger (B. S.), and 
 Annates of Nicholas Trivet ; Memoriale of 
 Walter of Coventry (B. S.), useful for the 
 reign of John ; the Annals of the monasteries 
 of Burton-upon-Trent, Winchester, Waver- 
 ley, Dunstable, Osney, and Worcester, all 
 contained in the Annates Monastici {B. S.), 
 edited by Luard. For reign of Edward 
 II. : The Annates of John of Troke- 
 lowe, a monk of Tynemouth (B. S.), and 
 Life of Edward, by an unknown writer 
 (probably a monk of Malmesbury), in Hearne ; 
 also another Life, by Thomas de la Moor ; 
 
 Chronicon of Adam of Murimuth ; Chronicon 
 of Walter of Hemingford (superior in con- 
 ception and accuracy to the average historical 
 literature of the period), comprising the reigns 
 of the first three Edwards ; Chronicon Petro- 
 burgense (C.5'.), as a specimen of local history. 
 For civic history of London : The Mmiimenta 
 Gildhall<e Londoniensis {B.S.), edited by 
 Riley, specially valuable for the light they 
 throw on the political and commercial condi- 
 tion of the country during the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries; the Domesday of St. 
 Paul's (C. S.) ; also Chroniques de London {C.S.) ; 
 Chronicle of London from 1089 to 1483, edited 
 by Nicolas; Collections of a London Citizen, 
 edited by J. Gairdner (C. 8) ; the Annates 
 Londonienses and Annates Faulini, edited by 
 Dr. Stubbs (B. S.) ; Royal and Historical Letters 
 illustrative of Reign of Henry III., edited by 
 W. W. Shirley (R. S.) ; Letters of Bishop 
 Grosseteste, edited by Luard (R. S.) ; Political 
 Songs of England, frmn Beign of John to that of 
 Edward II., edited by Thomas Wright {C.S.). 
 Later Writers : Among these Walsing- 
 ham is the chief, and his Historia Anglicana 
 [U.S.) is for this period little more than a 
 compilation from the earlier writers above- 
 named. 
 
 Modern Writers : Freeman, Guizot, 
 Hook's Lives, as specified in preceding sec- 
 tion ; Dr. Pauli, Geschichte von England (in 
 Gcsch. d. Europdisehen Staaten, by pleeren and 
 TJkert) ; W. Longman, Lectures on the His- 
 tory of England ; the Prefaces by the different 
 editors of Walter of Coventry, Matthew Paris, 
 the Monumenta Franciscana, Roger Bacon, in 
 Rolls Series, as above specified. HaUam, 
 Middle Ages; W. H. Blaauw, Barons' War ; 
 Lives of Simon de Montfort by Pauli and 
 G. W. Prothero ; J. E. T. Rogers, History of 
 Agriculticre and Prices in England (commejices 
 A.D. 1259) ; Mulhnger, History of the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, vol. i. For relations of 
 England to the Papacy : Milman, Latin 
 Christianity ; and the fifth volume of Green- 
 wood's Cathedra Petri. 
 
 5. Fourteenth and Fifteenth Cen- 
 turies. — Contemporary Writers ; Adam 
 of Murimuth, witii continuation by unknown 
 writer, coming down to 1380. For reign of 
 Edward III. ; Robert of Avesbury, de Mira- 
 hilibus Gestis Edwardi III., edited by Hearne ; 
 Higden's Polychronicon, with version by John 
 of Trevisa {B. 8.) ; Knighton, History of 
 England (from Edgar to death of Richard 
 II.) ; Chronicle of England, by a monk of St. 
 Albans [B. S.) ; Walsingham (see preceding 
 section), now of primary importance ; French 
 Chronicle, relating to death of Richard II. 
 {Eng. Hist. Soc.) ; and History of the same 
 monarch, also in French (Archaol. Britann., 
 vol. XX.) ; Adam of Hsk, with translation by 
 E. M. Thompson; Capgrave, Chronicle of 
 England and Book of the noble TTenries (both 
 B. S.) ; Otterbourne, Chronicon Begum Angliim, 
 edited by Hearne ; Lives of Henry V. as f ol- 
 
Aut 
 
 (107 ) 
 
 Aut 
 
 lows: (1) by Thomas Elmham, in Hearne; 
 (2) by Titus Livius (ib.) ; (3) "The Chap. 
 Iain's Accoimt " {£ng. Sist. Soc.) ; Puiseux, X« 
 Sieffe de JRouen ; Annals of the monastery of 
 St. Albans, by John Amundesham and John 
 "Whethamstede (both R. S.) ; Chronicles of the 
 reign of Henry VI., edited by Gairdner (C &) ; 
 Bekynton's Correspondence, belonging to same 
 reign [R. S.) ; Harding's Chronicle, continued 
 by Q-rafton ; Jehan de Wavrin's Collection of 
 Chronicles {Ti. S.) ; Wilham of Worcester, 
 Annals and Collections, edited by Stevenson 
 (iS. S.) ; Chronicle of Jehan le Bel, edited by 
 Polain ; the Chronicles of Froissart and Mons- 
 trelet, important, but not altogether truat- 
 "worthy; Blondel, de Meductione Mormannice 
 (E.S.) ; Historic of Arrivale of Edward IV. in 
 England (C <S.) ; the Faston Letters, edited by 
 J. Gairdner, are important as illustrating 
 the manners and habits of thought in the 
 fifteenth century; Continuation of the Croyland 
 Chronicle (in Gale's Scriptores) ; Warkworth's 
 Chronicle (C. S.) comprises first thirteen years 
 of King Edward's reign ; the London Chronicle 
 (C. S.) ; Sir Thomas More's account of Ed- 
 ward V. and Richard III. , virtually a contem- 
 porary narrative ; Letters and Papers illustra- 
 tive of the Reigns of Richard III. and Henry 
 VII., edited by Gairdner {R. S.) ; Bernard 
 (Andre), Life of Henry VII., edited by Gaird- 
 ner {R. S.) ; Materials for a History of the 
 Reign of Henry VII., edited by Campbell 
 {R. S.) ; Life of Henry VII., by Lord Bacon, 
 in fifth volume of his Works, edited by Ellis 
 and Spedding; the Venetian Relation \C.S.), 
 a view of England as it appeared to 
 an intelligent foreigner, temp. Henry VII. ; 
 Fabyan's Chronicle; TV'yclil's Works, to be 
 studj'ed in edition by Thomas Arnold, and 
 volume (with preface), edited by F. D. 
 Matthew for the Early EngUsh Text Society ; 
 Political Poems and Songs, from accession of 
 Edward III. to reign of Henry VIII., edited 
 by Thomas Wright (iJ. -S.). 
 
 Later Wkiters : Polydore Vergil's His- 
 toria Anglica, a record that often assumes the 
 value of strictly contemporary evidence ; 
 Hall's Union of the Families of Lancaster and 
 York, the main source of Shakespeare's his- 
 torical dramas. 
 
 Modern Writers : Among those already 
 named are Hallam, Middle Ages (two conclud- 
 ing chapters) ; Freeman, Essays (first series) ; 
 Hook, Lives of the Archbishops ; Rogers, His- 
 tory of Prices; Life and Times of Edward III., 
 by Longman ; 51. Wallon, Richard II.; Lord 
 Brougham, History of England under the House 
 of Lancaster ; Life and Reign of Richard III., 
 by Gardiner. For academic life and history 
 of learning : Huber, English Unirersities 
 (transl. by Newman) ; Mackenzie Walcott, 
 William of Wykcham and his Colleges; Anstey, 
 Preface to Munimenta Academica [R. S.). 
 Sir J. H. Ramsay, articles on Richard II. 
 and Henry IV. in Antiquary for 1882. For 
 Wyclif and his opponents : Shirley, Preface 
 
 to "Fasciculi Zizaniorum (K. S.) ; article on 
 The Lollards, in Gairdner and Spedding's 
 Studies in English History. 
 
 6. Sixteenth. Centviry. — Contempo- 
 RAUT Writers : Among those named in pre- 
 ceding section are Polydore Vergil (now espe- 
 cially important) ; Hall ; the London Chronicle. 
 For the question of the royal divorce, the 
 materials collected in Records of the Reformation 
 (a.d. 1527—1.533), edited by Rev. N. Poeoek; 
 Harpsfield, Treatise of the Pretended Divorce 
 {C.S.); the Catholic representation of the 
 facts is to be found in Nicholas Sanders's 
 Historia Schismatis Anglicani (1585), of which 
 an enlarged edition, with continuation, was 
 published by Rishton (transl., with notes, by 
 Lewis, 1877) : only a small proportion of the 
 work is entitled to rank as contemporary. 
 Wriothesley's Chronicle; More, Utopia, and 
 Starkcy, England in the Reign of Henry 
 VIII.; the collection known as Holinshed's 
 Chronicles, of which Harrison's Description of 
 England has been reprinted in series pubhshed 
 by the New Shakspere Society. John 
 Stowe, Summary of the Chronicles of England, 
 Annoles, and Siirvey of London and West- 
 minster ; Foxe, History of the Acts and Monu- 
 ments of the Church (ed. Cattley) ; Chronicle 
 of the Grey Friars of London (C <S.) ; Letters 
 on the Suppression of the Monasteries, edited 
 by Wright (C S.) ; Narratives of the Refor- 
 mation [C. S.) ; Literary Remains of Edward 
 VI. (Roxburgh Club) ; Machyn's Diary 
 (C. S.) ; Chronicle of Queen Jane, etc., edited 
 by Nichols (C. S.) ; Lives of More, by his 
 son-in-law, Roper, and of Wolsey, by his 
 gentleman-usher, Cavendish ; Life of Sir Peter 
 Carew, by Hooker ; Life of Queen Elizabeth, 
 by Camden ; Sir John Harington's Briefe 
 View contains a series of sketches of the 
 principal bishops of Elizabeth's reign. For 
 original documents, the Calendars of Letters 
 and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign 
 of Henry VIII., edited, with important pre- 
 faces, by J. S. Brewer ; also the "Domestic" 
 series for reigns of Edward VI., Mary and 
 Elizabeth, edited by Robert Lemon and Mrs. 
 Everett Green; the "Foreign" series for 
 same reigns, by TurnbuU, Joseph Stevenson, 
 and Crosby (all in the series published by the 
 Record Commissioners). The Ziirich Letters 
 (edited by Hastings Robinson) contain the 
 correspondence between the English and the 
 Continental Reformers ; see also Brief Dis- 
 course of the Troubles begun at Frankfort (in 
 " The Phoenix," vol. ii.) ; and the Journals 
 of the Houses of Parliament. The Hardwicke 
 Papers are an important miscellaneous collec- 
 tion known under this designation, although 
 the name of the editor, the Earl of Hard- 
 wicke, does not appear on the title-page ; Sir 
 Dudley Digges, The Compleat Ambassador ; the 
 Cabala — a collection of letters by eminent 
 diplomatists, &o. ; the Somers Tracts. For 
 ecclesiastical affairs in Scotland, the Works 
 of Peterkin, Calderwood, and Archbishop 
 
Aut 
 
 108 ) 
 
 Aut 
 
 Spottiswoode ; also the Works of John Knox, 
 edited by Laing. For proceedings of Parlia- 
 ment, the collections hy Sir Simonds d'Ewes 
 and Heywood Townsend ; the Burleigh 
 Fapers. For Continental relations, the Cor- 
 respmdence of Granville ; the Relations poli- 
 tiques des Fays-Bas et de VAngleterre, 
 edited by Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove ; the 
 Calendars {S. S.) relating to Venice, edited 
 by Eawdon Brown ; and those by Bergenroth 
 and Gayangos relating to Spain ; for relations 
 of Scotland and France, the French Despatches, 
 edited by M. Teulet. For questions connected 
 ■with the career and character of Mary Queen 
 of Scots, her letters, edited by Prince 
 Lobanof-Eostovsky ; the materials (some of 
 them of doubtful genuineness) in Anderson's 
 Collections; the Letter-Books of Sir Amias 
 Paulet ; the Si/dneij Fapers. Stubbes' Anato- 
 mie of Abuses, and Stafford's Examination of 
 Complaints (1680), published by the New 
 Shakspere Society. 
 
 Later "Writers: Fuller, Church Bistory ; 
 Burnet, Sistory of the Reformation of the 
 Church of England (ed. by Pocock), with 
 Harmer's Specimen; Collier, Ecclesiastical 
 History (edited by Lathbury) ; Legrand, His- 
 toire du Divorce ; Strype, Ecclesiastical Memo- 
 rials, Annals of the Reformation, and Dives of 
 Cranmer, Parker, Sir John Cheke, Sir Thomas 
 Smith, Aylmer, Grindal, and "Whitgif t ; Neal, 
 History of the Furitans ; C. Dodd, Chureh His- 
 tory of England (1742), the work of amoderate 
 Catholic ; Life of Henry VILl. , by Lord Herbert 
 of Cherbury ; Sir John Hay ward's Life of Ed- 
 ward VI., and Annals of the first Four Tears 
 of Reign of Elizabeth ; Fiddes, Life of Wol'sey ; 
 Fuller, The Worthies of England; Lloyd, 
 State Worthies ; A. Wood, Athena Oxonienses 
 (1691); J. Nichols, Frogresses of Queen Eliza- 
 beth (1788). 
 
 Modern "Writers : J. A. Froude, History 
 of England; li.von'R3.nk.e,History of the Fopes, 
 and History of England, chiefly in the Sixteenth 
 and Seventeenth Centuries ; J. Lingard, History 
 of England ; J. H. Blunt, Reformation of the 
 Church of England ; E. W. Dixon, History of 
 the Church of England; J. 0. "W". Haweis, 
 Sketches of the Reformation ; S. E. Maitlaud, 
 Essays on the Reformation; 3. B. Marsden, 
 Early Furitans ; J. L. Motley, Rise of the 
 Dutch Republic and History of the United 
 Netherlands; "W. Maskell, History of the 
 Martin Marprelate Controversy ; H.M. Dexter, 
 Congregationalism of the last Three Hundred 
 Years; C. "Wordsworth, Ecclesiastical Bio- 
 graphy ; F. Seebohm, Oxford Reformers ; E. 
 Churton, Life of Alexander Nowell ; Sir H. 
 Nicolas, Lives of "William Davison and Sir 
 Christopher Hatton ; Fox Bourne, Life of Sir 
 Fhilip Sidney; J. S. Brewer, English Studies ; 
 Mignet, Hisloire de Marie Stuart ; J. Hosack, 
 Mary Queen of Scots ; "W. B. Devereux, Lives 
 and Letters of the Devereux; E. Edwards, 
 Life of Sir Walter Raleigh ; M'Crie, Life of 
 John Knox ani. Life of Andrew Melville (the 
 
 latter important for the history of learning 
 and education) ; Athence Cantabrigienses, by 
 C. H. and T. Cooper. 
 
 7. Seventeenth Century — Contem- 
 porary Sources: The Calendars of State 
 Fapers, "Foreign" and "Domestic," edited 
 by Mr. Lemon, Mr. Bruce, Mr. Hamilton, and 
 Mrs. Everett Green, furnish the key to the 
 most authentic and original information until 
 nearly the close of the seventh decade ; while 
 other sources already indicated, such as the 
 Somers Tracts, the Sydney Papers, the "Win- 
 wood Memorials, the works of Fuller, Colher, 
 Neal, Dodd, Nichols, &e. , afford material for 
 either the whole or part of the century. 
 First Half of Seventeenth Century. 
 
 Contemporary "Writers : For the reign of 
 
 King James, Camden's ^>m«& — a compilation 
 of comparatively little value ; other accounts 
 are, "Wilson's History of King James I. (in 
 Kennet) ; Goodman, Court of James I.; King 
 James's own Works. For parliamentary 
 transactions, the Debates of 1610 (C. S.), 
 together with those of the years 1620 and 
 1621, contained in the Farliamentary His- 
 tory ; Eushworth's Collections, commencing 
 with the year 1618 ; the Frotests of the 
 House of Lords (commencing with the year 
 1625), edited by J. B. T. Rogers ; the Mel- 
 rose State Fapers and Correspondence ; Sir 
 David Dalrymple, Memorials and Letters 
 (1762) ; the Carew Letters. Narrative of the 
 Spanish Marriage Treaty (C. S.) ; Lord Her- 
 bert of Cherbury, Expedition to the IsleofRhe. 
 For Continental relations, the Ambassades de 
 M. de la Boderie, the " "Venetian Reports," 
 "Win-woodi, Memorials ; Birch, Historical View; 
 and the Memoires of Eusdorf. For the reign 
 of Charles I., "Wallington's Diary; the 
 Thomason collection of pamphlets and " The 
 King's Pamphlets," both in the British 
 Museum; Dalrymple, Memorials and Letters; 
 Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion 
 and State Fapers ; Letters and Fapers of the 
 Verney Family {G. S.). "Whitelocke, Memo- 
 rials ; the Thurloe Fapers; May, History of 
 the Long Farliament ; Sir Ealph Verney's 
 N'otes (C. S.) ; ScobeU's Collection. For par- 
 liamentary proceedings : Strafford's Letters 
 and Despatches ; Nalson's „ Collection. The 
 Ormonde Fapers (edited by Thomas Carte) ; 
 A Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland 
 from 1641 to 1652 (edited by G. T. Gilbert) ; 
 Guthry's Memoirs; Ludlow's Memoirs — con- 
 tain important materials for Scottish and 
 Irish history. Milton's Frose Works and the 
 writings of Bishop HaU give the chief points 
 in dispute between the Episcopalian and 
 Presbyterian parties. Sprigg's Anglia Redi- 
 viva ; John "Webb's Memorials ; the Hamilton 
 Fapers [C. S.) ; the Letters of Charles I. to 
 Henrietta Maria (C. S.) — belong to the time 
 of the Civil "War. The Furitan Transactions, 
 edited by Heywood and "Wright, the Querela 
 CantabrigiensiSj and The Puritan Visitation of 
 the University of Oxford, edited by Professor 
 
Aut 
 
 ( 109) 
 
 Aut 
 
 Montagu Burrows (C. S.), illustrate the con- 
 dition of the universities. The Fairfax Cor- 
 respondence, successively edited by Johnson 
 and Bell, covers the period 1625 — 70. The 
 important series, Records of the English Pro- 
 vince of the Societi/ of Jesus, edited by Father 
 Foley ; the Zife of Father John Gerard, by 
 Father Mprris-; together with the works of 
 Juvencius, Bartoli, and Tanner, should be 
 consulted for the history of the Jesuit move- 
 ment. The principal biographies are those 
 of the Loid Keeper Williams, by Hacket ; of 
 Colonel Birch (C. S.) ; of Jiishop Bedell, edited 
 by Maj-or and Jones; of The Dukes of 
 Hamilton, by Bishop Burnet. Among the 
 autobiographies are those of Sir Simonds 
 d^Fwes, Sir Robert Carey, Lord Herbert of 
 Cherbury, Lady Halket [C. S.), and Mrs. Alice 
 Thornton. 
 
 Later Writers : The writers of the last 
 century — Eapin (the author of a History of 
 England to the Heath of Charles I.), Dr. Birch 
 [Court and Times of James I., Court and Times 
 of Charles I.), and Thomas Carte (Life of 
 Ormonde) — together withBrodie(Co«s<iteiJo««/ 
 History), Godwin {History of the Common- 
 wealth), and Disraeli {Commentaries on the 
 Reign of Charles I.), in the earlier part of the 
 present century, although rendering useful 
 service in their time, must be regarded as 
 almost superseded by later and more syste- 
 matic research, such as that represented by 
 Carlyle, Letters and Speeches of Cromwell, 
 Guizot, Histoire de la Revolution d' Angleterre 
 and Etudes sur I'histoire de la Revolution 
 d' Angleterre, and especially Professor S. R. 
 Gardiner, History of England from 180S to 
 1642, 10 vols., 1883—84. Eanke's History 
 should also be systematically consulted. 
 Other works are J. B. Mozley, Essays; 
 Stanford, Studies and Lllustrations of the 
 Great Rebellion. The colonisation of America 
 may be followed in Bancroft, History 
 of the United States; Palfrey, History of 
 New England ; Tyler, History of American 
 Literature, vol. i. The chief biographies are 
 those of Bacon, by J. Spedding ; Milton, by 
 Professor Maason ; Montrose, by Mark Xapier ; 
 Prince Rupert, by Eliot Warburton ; Fairfax, 
 by Clements Markham ; and Clarendon, by 
 T. H. Lister. 
 
 Second Half of Seventeenth. Cen- 
 tury. — Contemporary "Writers: Among 
 those named in preceding section are Fuller, 
 Collier, Thurloe, Winwood, Whitelocke, Neal ; 
 the Lords and Commons Journals, the 
 Ormonde Papers, the Sydney, Hatton, and 
 Fairfax Correspondence. For the Crom- 
 wellian Parliaments, Burton's Diary is of 
 special value. Burnet's History of hie 
 own Times belongs to the period from the 
 Eestoration to a.d. 1713. Other sources 
 are Kennet, Register and Chronicle; Lives of 
 Charles II. and James II. ; Diary of Lord 
 Clarendon ; Letters and Memoirs of Sir Wil- 
 liam, Temple ; Sir John Eeresby's Memoirs ; 
 
 Letters to Sir Joseph WilHamsou (C. S.) ; 
 Diary of John Evelyn; Diary of Samuel 
 Pepys ; Memoirs of the Comte de Gramont ; 
 Diary of Narcissus Luttrell ; Locke, Letters 
 on Toleration; Turner, Vindication of San- 
 croft and the Deprived Bishops; Sir John 
 Dalrymple, Memoirs of Great Britain and 
 Lreland. The Negotiations of the Comte 
 dAvaux, the materials collected by Mignet 
 relating to the Spanish Succession, and the 
 Correspondence of the Marquis d'Harcom-t 
 illustrate the aggressive policy of Louis XIV. 
 The Correspondence of the Duke of Shrews- 
 bury, Macpherson's Original Papers, the State 
 Papers and Letters of Carstairs, the Letters of 
 William III. (edited by Groeu vanPriasterer), 
 the Letters of William III. and Louis XIV. 
 (edited by Grimblot), other Letters of William, 
 together with the Reports of F. Bonnet {see 
 Eanke, History of England, vi. 144 — 404) and 
 a Collection of State Tracts (3 vols, fol), are 
 all various and valuable material for the 
 reign of William III. In biography we 
 have Baxter, Autobiography, and Calamy, 
 Account of the Ejected Ministers ; Boyer, Life 
 of Sir William Temple ; Eoger North's iwcs 
 (of his three brothers) ; Sir James Turner, 
 Memoirs. The poKtioal poems of Dryden 
 should be carefully studied. 
 
 Later Writers ; A fragment by Charles 
 James Fox on the early part of the reign of 
 James II., and a Life of that monarch by the 
 Rev. J. S. Clarke, together with Sir James 
 Mackintosh's Review of the Causes of the 
 Revolution of 1688, scarcely call for notice in 
 comparison with Macaulay's great History of 
 England, which deals in detail with the reigns 
 of James II. and WiUiam III. In connection 
 with special features of the period, Marsden's 
 Later Puritans, Tulloch's Rational Theology 
 in England, and Weld's History of the Royal 
 Society may be mentioned. In biography we 
 have Courtenay, Life of Sir William Temple; 
 Napier, Life of Grahame of Claverhouse; , 
 Dixon, Lives of Blake and Penn ; Story, 
 Life of Carstairs ; Memoirs of William Bow- 
 yer (in Nichols, Literary Anecdotes, vol. i.) ; 
 Macaulay, Essays on Sir William Temple, 
 War of the Succession in Spain, and Sir James 
 Mackintosh ; Christie, Life of Shaftesbury. 
 
 8. Eighteenth Century to 1789.— 
 Contemporary Writers : For reign of Queen 
 Anne — Swift, Journal to Stella and History of 
 the Four Last Years of Queen Anne's Reign, 
 together with his pamphlets On the Conduct of 
 the Allies and Behaviour of the Queen's last 
 Ministry; Bolingbroke, Letter to Sir W. 
 Wyndham, and Letter on the State of Parties 
 at the Accession of George I. ; also his Letters 
 and Correspondence (edited by Parke) ; Marl- 
 borough's Correspondence; Boyer, History of 
 the Reign of Queen Anne ; Tindal, Continua- 
 tion of Eapin's History; the Wentworth 
 Papers (edited by J. J. Cartwright). For 
 reign of the Hanoverian sovereigns — Calen- 
 dars of the State. Papers have appeared for 
 
Ant 
 
 ( 110 ) 
 
 Aut 
 
 the first nine years only (iJ. S.), tut the pub- 
 lished correspondence of the chief statesmen 
 of the period affords material of scarcely less 
 value. Among these are, The Grenville 
 Fapers ; the Bedford Correspondence; the 
 Chatham Correspondence; Memoirs of Lord 
 Eockingham ; Correspondence of George 
 III. with Lord North; the Malmeshury 
 Correspondence'; . Burke's Correspondence and 
 Speeches, together with his pamphlets, Obser- 
 vations on a Late State of the Nation, Thoughts 
 on the Cause of the Present Discontents, and 
 Letters on the Trade of Ireland ; Duke of Back- 
 ingham. Memoirs of the Court of George III. ; 
 the Cornwallis Correspondence ; Romilly's 
 Letters; the Rose Correspondence ; the Auck- 
 land Correspondence; Horace Walpole, Me- 
 moirs of the Beign of George III. ; the Letters 
 of Junius ; Bubb Dodington's Diary. For 
 American affairs the Header's Handbook of the 
 American Revolution (1761 — 83), by Justin 
 Winsor, wiU be found to afford ample 
 guidance to all the authorities. For debates 
 in the House of Commons — the Gentleman's 
 Magazine and the Annual Register ; Caven- 
 dish's Debates (a.d. 1768 to 1744). 
 
 Latek Histokical "Writers : Earl Stan- 
 hope (Lord Mahon), Eistory of Ungland from 
 the Teace of Utrecht to the Feace of Versailles 
 and History of the Reign of Queen Anne; 
 T. H. Burton, History of the- Reign of Queen 
 Anne ; Wyon, Histm-y of the Reign of Queen 
 Anne ; Massey, History of England during the 
 Reign of George III. ; Adolphus, History of 
 England from the Accession to -the Decease of 
 Xing George III. ; Craik and Macfarlane, 
 Pictorial History of England during the Reign 
 of George III. ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of 
 England in the Eighteenth Century ; Abbey and 
 Overton, The English Church in the Eighteenth 
 Century ; Leslie Stephen, History of English 
 Thought in the Eighteenth Century ; Sir 
 Erskine May, Constitutional History of Eng- 
 land; Lord Holland, Memoirs of the Whig 
 Party ; T. "Wright, Caricature History of the 
 Georges. 
 
 In Biography. — W. Coxe, Lives of Marl- 
 borough, "Walpole, and Henry Pelham ; Sir 
 Archibald Ahson, Life of Marlborough ; Annals 
 and Correspondence of the Earls of Stair, by 
 J. M. Graham ; Jesse, Memoirs of the Pre- 
 tenders ; Bishop Monk, Life of Bentley ; 
 Sir David Brewster, Life of Sir Isaac Newton ; 
 Montagu Burrows, Life of Admiral Hawke ; 
 H. Craik, Life of Jonathan Swift; Mac- 
 knight, Life of BoUngbroke ; "W. "Wilson, Life 
 of Defoe, and "W. Lee, Life of Defoe ; John 
 Forster, Biographical Essays, Life of Pitt ; 
 Bunbury, Life of Sir Thomas Hanmer; Lives 
 of Chatham, by F. Thackeray, and of Pitt, by 
 Bishop Tomline and Earl Stanhope ; Life of 
 Lord Shelbm-ne, by Lord Edmund Fitzmaurice ; 
 Macknight, Life of Burke ; Trevelyan, Early 
 History of Charles James Fox ; Lord Shel- 
 bume's Autobiography; Lord Chesterfield's 
 Letters; Eomilly's Letters; Memorials and 
 
 Correspondence of Fox, by Earl Russell ; Sir 
 John Malcolm, Life of Clive; Southey, Life 
 of Wesley; Life and Times of Wesley, by 
 I'yerman; Moore, Life of Sheridan; Brougham, 
 Statesmen of the Reign of George III. For 
 state of Education and Learning — J. G. 
 Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth 
 Century; Eev. C. Wordsworth, University 
 Life and University Studies in the Eighteenth 
 Century ; Baker, History of St. John's College 
 (edited by Prof. John B. B. Mayor). 
 
 9. From 1789 to the Present Time — ■ 
 Besides works named in preceding section, 
 Duke of Buckiugham, Memoirs of the Court 
 of the Regency ; George Rose, Diary (1801— 
 15); Lord Cornwallis, Correspondence; "Wel- 
 lington, Despatches; "WeUesley, Despatches; 
 Sir S. Eomilly, Journal (1806—18); Lord 
 Colchester, Diary and Correspondence; Lord 
 Sidmouth, Life and Correspondence; Twiss, 
 Life of Lord Eldon; C. D. Yonge, Life of Lord 
 Liverpool; Erskine, Speeches; Francis Horner, 
 Memoirs and Correspondence; Briahnont, Life 
 of Wellington ; Soathey, Life of Nelson ; Nel- 
 son, Despatches (edited by Sir H. Nicolas) ; 
 Collingwood, Correspondence ; Life of Earl of 
 Dundonald (by Earl of Dundonald andFox 
 Bourne) ; Lord Dudley, Letters (1814—23) ; 
 Alison, Lives of Lord Londonderry and 
 Sir Charles Stewart ; liOndonderry, Corre- 
 spondence; The Greville Memoirs; George 
 Canning and his Times, by A. G. Staple- 
 ton ; Canning's Speeches (with Life), 6 vols. ; 
 Life of Earl Grey, by Hon. C. Grey; Sir 
 Eobt. Peel's Memoirs, by Stanhope and 
 Cardwell ; also Life by Guizot , and Speeches 
 (4 vols.) ; Memoirs of John Charles Viscount 
 Althorp, by Sir Denis Le Marchant ; Life 
 and Speeches of 0' Connell, by his son ; Ashley, 
 Life of Lord Palmerston ; Torrens, Life of 
 Lord Melbourne ; J. Morley, Life of Cobden ; 
 Alison, History of Europe and Continuation; 
 H. Martineau, History of the Peace ; Pauli, 
 Englische Geschichte zeit 1815 ; Molesworth, 
 History of the Reform Bill; Spencer "Walpole, 
 History of England from 1815 ; Kinglake, 
 History of the Invasion of the Crimea ; Irving, 
 Annals of our Time (from accession of Vic- 
 toria) ; Justin M'Carthy, History of our Own 
 Times ; Bosworth Smith, Life of Lord Law- 
 rence ; G. Brandes, Life of Lord Beaconsjield. 
 
 General Histories of England : Among 
 the best known are those by Eapin, translated 
 by N. Tindal (1726); T. Carte (1747—55); 
 Hume (1754), continued by SmoUett (1758); 
 E. Henry (1771—93) ; Sharon Turner (1814 
 —29); J. Lingard (1819-25); C. Knight 
 (1862); J. E. Green (1881). 
 
 Constitutional Histories : Prof. Stubbs, 
 Constitutional History of England, invaluable 
 for the earlier and medibeval period, and the 
 fifteenth century to the reign of Henry "VII. ; 
 Gneist, Englische Verwaltungsrecht, and Self- 
 Govermnent ; and his Englische Veifaasungs- 
 geschichte, the best short constitutional history 
 
Ave 
 
 (111) 
 
 Ayl 
 
 of England. HaHam's Constitutional History, 
 which begins with the reign of Henry VII., 
 is specially useful for the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries ; and those hy Sir 
 Erskine May and Professor C. D. Yonge, for 
 the eighteenth and present centuries. Taswell 
 Langmead's Constitutional Sistory is a useful 
 handbook for students. 
 
 WoKKS FOR Genbkai Eeference : T. H. 
 Burton, History of Scotland ; J. MUl, History 
 of British India, with Continuation by H. H. 
 Wilson ; Wheeler, History of India ; Miss 
 Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England ; 
 Lord Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors 
 and Lives of the Lm-d Chief Justices ; Hook, 
 Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury ; Foss, 
 L'wes of the Judges of England ; Cobbett and 
 Howell's State Trials ; Willis Bund, Selected 
 State Trials ; Halliwell, Letters of the Kings 
 of England; Ellis's Original Letters ; Eymer, 
 Fmdera ; Wilkins, Concilia, partly superseded 
 by Haddan and Stubbs, Councils; Madox, 
 History and Antiquities of the Exchequer ; 
 Dumont, Corps Universel Diplomatique du 
 Droit dea Gens ; Eden, History of the Poor ; 
 Rogers, History of Prices ; Porter, Progress of 
 the NatUm; Macpherson, History of Commerce ; 
 Leone Levi, History of British Commerce; 
 James, Naval History ; Bruce, History of the 
 East India Cmnpany. 
 
 Of most of tlie above wor!ks, and many others, 
 some account "will be found, together with brief 
 criticisms, in the second part of AnlntrodAi^ion 
 to the Study of ^glish History, by S. E. (Jardiner 
 and J. B. Mullii^er. [For authorities ou 
 Scottish, Irish, and Welsh history see Scot- 
 land, Ieelahb, Wales.] [J. B. M.J 
 
 Avesbiiry, Eobekt op {d. 1357), 
 
 registrar of the archiepiscopal court at 
 Canterbury, wrote a History of the Wonder- 
 ful Deeds of Edward III., extending from 
 the birth of Edward to the year 1356. It 
 gives us a short detail of pubhc events, with 
 transcripts of original documents and extracts 
 from letters. It was printed by Heame in 
 1720. 
 
 Avrauches, a small town in the extreme 
 west of Normandy, was the scene of Henry 
 II.'s reconciliation with the Pope after the 
 murder of Becket. Here, on Ascension Day, 
 1172, the king swore on the Gospels that he 
 had neither commanded nor desired the death 
 of Becket; and that he had not so deeply 
 grieved for the death of his own father and 
 mother. He also agreed to abrogate the 
 Constitutions of Clarendon and all bad cus- 
 toms introduced during his reign ; to re- 
 invest the Church of Canterbury in aU its 
 rights and possessions ; to pardon and restore 
 to their estates all who had incurred his wrath 
 in Becket's cause ; to maintain 200 knights 
 at his own cost in the Holy Land ; and, if the 
 Pope should require it, to make a crusade 
 himself against the Saracens in Spain. 
 
 Aylesbtiry Election Case, The (1704) 
 (or the case of Ashby v. White), produced 
 
 a violent collision between the House of 
 Commons and the Lords. The vote of 
 a burgess, Matthew Ashby, had been re- 
 jected by the returning officer, William 
 White. Ashby brought an action in 
 the Court of Queen's Benct. There a 
 majority of the judges, contrary to the 
 opinion of Chief Justice Holt, decided 
 against him on the ground that no harm 
 had been done to him, and that decisions ou 
 the right to vote belonged to the Commons 
 alone. Ashhy's supporters thereupon brought 
 the case by writ of error before the House of 
 Lords. Here the judgment given at the 
 Queen's Bench was reversed, and, by this 
 important decision, franchises were placed 
 under the common law. In spite of the wise 
 advice of the Whig lawyers, William Cowper 
 and Sir Joseph JekyU, the Commons proceeded 
 to pass resolutions to the effect that (1) neither 
 the qualification of any elector nor the right 
 of any person elected was cognisable else- 
 where than before the House of Commons ; 
 (2) that Ashby, having in contempt of the 
 jurisdiction of the House prosecuted an action 
 at common law against William White, was 
 guilty of breach of privilege. The Lords 
 passed contrary resolutions, and the quarrel 
 became so serious that early in April 
 Queen Anne put an end to the session. 
 Ashby, however, sued out execution for the 
 damages awarded him at the County Assizes 
 against the returning officers who had refused 
 to receive his vote. In addition, four other 
 burgesses were put forward to sue the officers. 
 The Commons promptly committed the plain- 
 tiffs and their attorney to Newgate. The 
 prisoners, after two months, moved the Court 
 of King's Bench for a habeas corpus; but 
 these judges, contrarj'' to the opinion of Holt, 
 who was for the discharge of the prisoners, 
 decided that the court had no jurisdiction in 
 the matter. It was determined to bring this by 
 writ of error before the Lords. The Commons 
 foolishly voted an address to the Queen 
 praying her not to grant a writ of error. 
 Her reply, that the matter required careful 
 Consideration, was looked on as equivalent to 
 a refusal. The Lords thereupon passed 
 some important resolutions : (1) That neither 
 House of Parliament could arrogate to 
 itself any new privilege ; (2) that the 
 Commons had assumed an unwarranted 
 legislative power by attributing the force 
 of law to their declaration; (3) that they 
 had thereby subjected the rights of English- 
 men to the arbitrary votes of the House 
 of Commons; (4) that every Englishman 
 who is imprisoned by any authority what- 
 ever, has an undoubted right to his writ of 
 habeas corpus; (5) that for the Commons to 
 punish any person for assisting a prisoner to 
 procure such a writ is a breach of the statutes 
 provided for the liberty of the subject; 
 (6) that a writ of error was not one of grace, 
 but of right, and ought not to be denied to 
 
Ayl 
 
 (' 112 ) 
 
 Bab 
 
 the subject whuu duly applied for. A fairly- 
 amicable conference between the two Houses 
 produced no result, as neither side would give 
 way. The Queen, therefore, prorogued 
 Parliament (March 14th), thus leaving a 
 great constitutional question wholly un- 
 decided. Hallam thinis that "the House 
 of Commons had an undoubted right of 
 determining all disputed returns to the writ 
 of election, and consequently of judging upon 
 the right of every vote. But as the House 
 could not pretend'that it had given this right, 
 or that it was not, like any other franchise, 
 vested in the possessor by a legal title, no 
 protest or analogy could be set up for deny- 
 ing that it might come, in an indirect manner 
 at least, before a court of justice, and be 
 • judged by common principles of law." [Elec- 
 tions.] 
 
 Parliamentani Hist. ; State Trials, vol. iv. ; 
 Hallam, Const. Hist. ; Stanhope, Reign of Qwen 
 Anne ; Hatsell, Precedents ; May, Const. Hist. 
 
 Aylesford, in Kent, is generaUy sup- 
 posed to be the place where, in 455, Horsa 
 fell in a battle against the Britons. Near 
 this is Kit's Coty House, a cromlech said 
 to have been erected to Catigern, one of the 
 British commanders, who was slain in this 
 battle. 
 
 Aylmer, John (5. 1521, d. 1594), the tutor 
 of Lady Jane Grey, was one of the most 
 zealous reformers of Edward VI.'s reign. In 
 1576 he was made Bishop of London by 
 Queen Elizabeth, and distinguished himself 
 by his zeal against- the Puritans. He pub- 
 lished an Answer to Knox's celebrated Blast 
 of the Trumpet against Monstrous Begiment 
 of Women; but having offended the queen 
 by preaching against dress, she requited 
 him by vowing that, " If he held more 
 discourse on such matters, she would fit him 
 for heaven ; but he should walk thither with- 
 out a stafil, and leave his mantle behind him." 
 
 Ayscongh, or Ayscue, Sik George 
 {d, 1673 ?), was the son of a Lincolnshire 
 gentleman. He entered the naval service at 
 an early age, and was knighted by Charles I. 
 In 1648, when the fleet revolted to Prince 
 Rupert, Ayscongh secured the Lion for the 
 Parliament. He was appointed to the com- 
 mand of the fleet which had to watch the 
 coasts of Ireland, and in 1651 to reduce the 
 Scilly Islands. In 1652 he took Barbadoes 
 for the Parliament. He was engaged, in 
 company with Blake, in the desperate naval 
 battles against the Dutch in 1652 ; but he 
 was so much annoyed at Blake's retreat be- 
 fore Tromp, after the action of Nov. 29 in 
 that year, that he laid down his command, 
 and remained in retirement during the re- 
 mainder of the Commonwealth. In 1665, on 
 the renewal of war with the Dutch, he was 
 made Rear- Admiral of the Blue, and bore a 
 principal share in the great victory obtained 
 over Tromp and Ruyter on June 3. In the 
 
 great four-days' battle of the following year, 
 Ayscongh behaved -with distinguished bravery ; 
 but his ship ran upon a sand-bank, and he 
 was forced to surrender. The Dutch were 
 so elated at the possession of this formidable 
 antagonist, that they exhibited him in triumph 
 in several of their to-wns. He was afterwards 
 confined for some time in the Castle of Loeve- 
 stein. He was subsequently released, and 
 allowed to return to England; but he took 
 no further part in public affairs. 
 
 Biographia Britannica; Chamoct, Biographia 
 Namlis, 1794; Campbell, Lives of the Admirals. 
 
 Azores, Expeditions to the, took 
 place (1) in 1572, when Sir John Hawkins, 
 with twenty ships, sailed to lie in wait for 
 the Mexican gold fleet. (2) In July, 1587, 
 when Sir Francis Drake took the Spanish 
 treasure-ship San Felipe, doing so much to 
 damage the Spanish prestige, and to inspirit 
 the disheartened ministers of Elizabeth, that 
 ■the expedition is said to have been "worth at 
 the moment to Protestant England more than 
 a general engagement fought and won." 
 (3) In 1597, when a fleet was sent out under 
 the Earl of Essex, Sir Walter Ealeigh, 
 and Lord Thomas Howard to capture the 
 Spanish vessels returning from the Indies. 
 Ealeigh, having arrived first, took the Island 
 of Fayal without waiting for Essex, and a 
 serious quarrel arose between the two ad- 
 mirals. Essex subsequently took Plores and 
 Graciosa, but from his bad management 
 allowed the Spanish treasure-ships to escape, 
 taking three only. On the return of the 
 expedition to England, Essex was severely 
 blamed for its failure. 
 
 Babington's Conspiracy (1586) origi- 
 nated with Ballard, a J esuit, and " a young 
 man of famUy and fortune " named Anthony 
 Babington, of Dethick. Three elements may 
 be traced in this conspiracy; the devoted 
 adherents of the Papacy; English Catholics 
 whom zeal and harsh treatment had driven 
 to desperation; and lastly, the paid agents 
 of Walsingham. Babington — who, whilst a 
 page at Sheffield, had been fascinated by the 
 charms of the Queen of Scots — was easily 
 persuaded by Ballard, after the latter's tour 
 through England in 1585, to enter into a 
 scheme by which Elizabeth was to be assassi- 
 nated, and the country then raised for Mary. 
 The conspirators, who numbered several 
 gentlemen of position, chose six of their 
 number to commit the crime — namely. 
 Savage, Salisbury, Abington, Tilney, Barn- 
 well, and Tichboume— and felt confident of 
 success, ignorant of the fact that, through the 
 elaborate system of espionage established by 
 Burleigh and "Walsingham, agents of, th? 
 
Bac 
 
 (113) 
 
 Bac 
 
 government had actually been admitted to a 
 share in the secret. Unfortunately for the 
 Queen of Scots, Babingtou revealed the 
 whole plot to her in a letter, which, like all 
 his others, passed through Walsingham's 
 hands ; and her reply, encouraging the 
 conspirators, and urging them to immediate 
 action, ultimately sealed her fate. Proof 
 BuflBcient having been obtained, Ballard was 
 arrested Aug. 4, 1586, and Babington, with 
 foui- others, was captured ten days after in a 
 bam at Harrow, whilst the papers of Mary 
 Stuart were seized during her temporary 
 absence from her room on a hunting 
 party. On Sept. 13th the conspirators 
 were tried by a Special Commission at West- 
 minster, and fourteen were executed at Ty- 
 burn on the 20th and 21st of the same month. 
 Lingard regards the plot as in very great 
 measure set on foot by Walsingham's 
 spies: — "There was much in the fate of 
 these young men to claim sympathy. 
 Probably had it not been for the perfidious 
 emissaries of Morgan and Walsingham — of 
 Morgan, who sought to revenge himself on 
 Elizabeth, and of Walsingham, who eared 
 not whose blood he shed provided he could 
 shed that of Mary Stuart — ^none of them 
 would have even thought of the ofience for 
 which they suffered." On the other hand, 
 Mr. Froude says : — "It is false, absolutely and 
 utterly, that the plot was set on foot by 
 agents of Walsingham to tempt her to join it 
 in her desperation and then to destroy her." 
 Camden, Reign of Qn. Elizaheth; Lingard, 
 Hist, of Bug.; Proude, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Bachelor, or Knight Bachelor [bache- 
 lariuSf baccalaureus), was a simple knight, one 
 who had received knighthood, but had ob- 
 tained no further honour, such as that of 
 being made baronet or Knight of the Bath. 
 The word was also used to denote a squire, 
 or armour-bearer not of the degree of knight, 
 " bachalarii armorum nuncupati," says Spel- 
 man, " ut sic innotescerent, a Ktterarum 
 bachalariis." A knight was required to have 
 ten of these before he could be made a 
 baronet. " Bacheleria " is also occasionally 
 used to designate apparently the whole 
 gentry, or the whole body of military tenants 
 below the degree of baron. Thus the " com- 
 munitas bacheleria totius Anglise" {Annul. 
 Burton., p. 471), in 12.59, complains to Prince 
 Edward of the conduct of the barons. 
 
 MatthewParis, p. 769; StuHs, Cimsf. Htiit.,ii. 
 87 J Spelman, Glossarium. The derivation of the 
 word has been variously connected with Welsh, 
 hack, young [cf. O. Pr. haceUa, iaciwlette), and 
 more plausibly with hacca, i.e., vaccn, a cow, and 
 with bamlm, a staff. See inc. Brit, (ninth ed.). 
 
 Bachelors, Taxes on. By theAct 6 and 7 
 Will. III., a tax was imposed on unmarried 
 male persons above the age of twenty-five, 
 varying in amount from £12 10s. to Is., 
 according to the taxpayer's status. It was 
 repealed in 1706. In 1785 bachelors' servants 
 
 were subjected to a higher tax than those of 
 other persons. In Mr. Pitt's graduated 
 Income Tax, in 1799, the rate was higher for 
 bachelors than for married men. 
 
 Back Lane Farliament was the 
 
 name given to an assembly of Catholic 
 delegates from all Ireland, ' which met in 
 Dublin in Dec, 1792. They drew up a 
 petition professing loyalty and demanding 
 the franchise. The bishops signed it for the 
 clergy, and the delegates for the laity. Five 
 gentlemen, among whom were Byrne and 
 Keogh, went over to present it. Dundas pre- 
 sented them, and they were assured that 
 their wishes would be considered. 
 
 Bacon, Fkanois (Lord Bacon). [St. 
 Albans, Viscount.] 
 
 Bacon, SirNicholas (5. 1510, d. 1579), was 
 born at Chislehurst and educated for the law, 
 obtaining in 1537 the office of Solicitor to the 
 Court of Augmentations. During the reign 
 of Mary, Sir Nicholas, like many others, con- 
 formed to the CathoKc religion, although he 
 had been, under Edward VI., an active 
 supporter of the Reformation. Having 
 married a daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, 
 he became Cecil's brother-in-law, and by the 
 latter's recommendation obtained the post of 
 Lord Keeper of the Great Seal on the accession 
 of Elizabeth. He speedily won the confidence 
 of the queen, and became famous for his 
 decisions in equity. In 1561 he did his 
 best to bring about an alliance with the 
 Huguenot leaders in France, and subse- 
 quently strongly supported the marriage of 
 the queen, whose favour he lost for a time 
 in 1564, owing to his having participated 
 in the publication of John Hales's book 
 on the succession. The Lord Keeper was 
 for this offence struck off the roll of Privy 
 Councillors, at the instance of his enemy, 
 the Earl of Leicester, and " strictly enjoined 
 to meddle with no business whatever except 
 that of the Court of Chancery." Shortly 
 afterwards, however, he recovered his position 
 at court. In 1568 he was one of the com- 
 missioners to inquire into the guilt of the 
 Queen of Scots in the matter of the Darnley 
 murder, and he superintended the trial of 
 the Duke of Norfolk in 1572, although 
 he took no active part in it. Lord Keeper 
 Bacon had a great influence over his brother- 
 in-law Cecil, and is said to have framed 
 the Acts aimed at the Queen of Scots and 
 her supporters. He died Feb. 20, 1579, 
 having held his office for twenty years. His 
 son says of him:— "He was a plain man, 
 direct and constant, without all finesse and 
 doublenesse," whilst a contemporary describes 
 him as " a man of greate diligence and ability 
 in his place, whose goodnesse preserved his 
 greatness from suspicion, envye, and hate." 
 Camden, Reion of Qn. Eli-aheth ; Burnet, His- 
 toM/ of th0 Reformntion ; Campbell, JAvei of the 
 Chancellors ; Poss, Judges of England. 
 
Bac 
 
 ( 114 ) 
 
 Bad 
 
 Bacon, Eogek (i. 1214, d. 1294 ?), studied 
 at Oxford and Paris, and took orders as a 
 Franciscan friar. His proficiency in natural 
 science exposed him to very severe treatment 
 on the part of his superiors. Accused of deal- 
 ing in ma,gic, he was prevented from lecturing 
 at Oxford, and ordered to go to Paris, vphere 
 he remained several years. Clement IV., in 
 1266, interested himself in Bacon, induced 
 him to publish his works, and procured his 
 release and return to Oxford. In 1271, in the 
 Compendium Studii Philosophic, he made a 
 violent attack on the monks and clergy. In 
 1278 he was again imprisoned, and remained 
 in confinement for fourteen years. As a 
 philosopher and man of science, Roger Bacon 
 is a personage of the first importance in the 
 history of mediaeval thought. 
 
 Bacon's cliief work is the Opus Majus, an 
 encyclopsedic survey of existing knowledge, 
 wliicli lias been compared witli tne great work 
 of his later namesake. It is printed by Jebb, 
 Lend., 1733. Some of Bacon's minor philoso- 
 phical treatises are published in the Rolls 
 Series, 1859. A very large number of his writ- 
 ings are still in manuscript. For accounts of 
 Bacon's life, and estimates of his position in 
 philosophy, see E. Charles, Roger Bacon, 1861 ; 
 Schneider, Moger Bacon, 1873 ; Mr. Brewer's 
 Prefaces to Bacon's Opera Inedita (Rolls Series). 
 
 Badajos was the scene of the fiercest 
 struggles in the Peninsular War. Originally in 
 the hands of the Spaniards, it was surrendered, 
 by the treachery of its commander, in Feb- 
 ruary, 1811, to the French; and on the 5th 
 of May following the first English siege was 
 begun. Owing to false information as to the 
 movements of the French army, the siege 
 was raised, after the operations had been 
 carried on for a week ; but, when the battles 
 of Fuentes d'Onoro and Albuera had checked 
 the armies of Massena and Soult, Wellington 
 began his preparations for the second siege. 
 Circumstances, however, prevented him from 
 taking as much time as he really required for 
 the siege I and after two desperate assaults 
 on San Christoval, an outlying fort, in June, 
 the siege was again raised. But in the next 
 year the two previous failures were avenged. 
 The place was very strongly fortified. On 
 the north it was washed by the Guadiana, 
 with two outlying forts thrown across the 
 river, one of which defended the only bridge. 
 At the north-east corner of the town, the 
 Guadiana is joined by the Eivillas. On the 
 south-east beyond the Pdvillas an isolated hiU 
 was occupied by a strong fort, called the 
 Picurina. Within the walls, the town was 
 defended by four chief fortresses, the castle at 
 the north-east corner, the Trinidad bastion 
 at the east extremity, with that of St. Maria 
 close to it on the west side, and at the extreme 
 north-west corner, by the castle of St. Vin- 
 cente. Wellington's works were begun on 
 the 17th of March, and on the night of the 
 25th the Picurina was assaulted and taken 
 after a desperate conflict. On 'the 6th April 
 the assault was made. Picton crossed the 
 
 Eivillas and attacked the castle on the 
 right, while Major Wilson stormed the 
 smaller fortress of San Eoque ; ColviUe and 
 Barnard assaulted the breaches ; Leith was 
 to make a feint against Pardaleras, while 
 Walker made the real attack at St. Vincente. 
 The troops at the breaches displayed the 
 most undaunted courage and resolution, but 
 the terrible defences devised by Philippon, 
 and the stern resistance of the defenders, 
 baffled aH their efforts. In two hours 2,000 
 men had fallen without result ; and Wel- 
 lington sent orders to the party to retire and 
 re-form. Meanwhile Walker's party had suc- 
 ceeded in effecting an entrance through an 
 empty embrasure into St. Vincente. By 
 sheer hard fighting they carried bastion after 
 bastion, till the rumour of a mine caused 
 a panic, and they were temporarily driven 
 back. They soon recovered, however, and 
 sweeping everything before them took those 
 who were defending the breaches in the rear, 
 and in a, very short time made themselves 
 masters of the whole town. This was the most 
 bloody of all the struggles of the Peninsular 
 War, and the English lost 5,000 men in killed 
 and wounded. 
 
 Napier, Pen. War.; Clinton, Fm. War. 
 Badby, Thomas (d. 1410), was a tailor or 
 blacksmith of Worcestershire, and the first 
 person executed under the statute De Saretico 
 Oomburendo, for denying the Eeal Presence. 
 The Prince of Wales, who was present at his 
 execution, made a vain attempt to save him 
 by inducing him to recant. But Badby 
 remained firm to his convictions, notwith- 
 standing the entreaties and promises of the 
 prince. 
 
 Walsingham, Hisf. Ari^l. ; Foxe, Martyrs. 
 
 Badges, Eoyal, are distinguished alike 
 from crests and coats of arms. They were 
 intended to be worn on helmets, banners, or 
 caparisons, as well as on the breasts of 
 soldiers, retainers, and attendants. WiUiam 
 II. 's badge is said to have been an . eagle 
 gazing at the sun ; that of Stephen was an 
 ostrich plume. Henry II. used the badge of 
 his house, the planta genista, or broom plant, 
 besides the carbuncle and a sword with an 
 olive branch. Eichard I. had a variety of 
 badges: a star issuing from between the 
 horns of a crescent; a mailed arm holding a 
 broken lance ; and a sun on two anchors. 
 John seems to have adopted the first of these 
 as his special badge, and Henry III. used 
 the same device. The badge ascribed to 
 Edward I. is "a rose or, stalked proper," 
 while Edward II., in token of his descent 
 from the kings of Castile, used a castle. 
 Edward III.'s badges were very numerous ; 
 amongst them were rays descending from a 
 cloUd, the stump of a tree, a falcon, an 
 ostrich feather, and a sword erect. Eichard 
 II. likewise had a variety of badges, such as 
 the sun in its splendour, the sun behind a 
 
Bad 
 
 ( 115) 
 
 Bai 
 
 cloud, and a white hart. By Henry IV. 
 numerous hadgea and devices were employed, 
 such as an eagle displayed, a fox's tail, a 
 panther crowned, and a crescent. Henry V. 
 bore an antelope, a swan, and a beacon. 
 Henry VI. also used the antelope, as weU as 
 the feather. The Lancastrian party, how- 
 ever, adopted the red rose as their emblem, 
 in opposition to the white rose of the 
 Yorkists. Edward IV. had numerous 
 badges, such as a, black bull, a white wolf, 
 and a fetterlock ; but the most famous badge 
 of the House of York was the sun in its 
 splendour, to which Shakespeare alludes at 
 the beginning of "Richard III." This king's 
 peculiar badge was a falcon with a woman's 
 face, holding a white rose. In memory of 
 the finding of the crown in a hawthorn 
 bush at Bosworth Field, Henry VII. adopted 
 a crowned hawthorn bush as his badge, 
 besides which he used the red dragon of 
 Wales and a white greyhound, which last 
 was also used by Henry VIII. Edward VI. 
 bore the sun in splendour. The general badge 
 of the House of Tudor was a rose, which 
 Queen Mary frequently used, besides the 
 pomegranate and a sheaf of arrows. Elizabeth 
 also used the rose, as well as the falcon, and 
 James I. the rose and the thistle. Since this 
 time royal badges have not been used, but 
 the rose has come to be considered the emblem 
 of England, the thistle of Scotland, the sham- 
 rock of Ireland, and the harp of Wales. 
 
 Badon, Mount (Mons Badonicus), is the 
 name of the place where King Arthur is said 
 to have defeated the Saxons in 520. Its 
 position is imknown ; one school of historians 
 identify it with some place in the south of 
 England, as Badbury, in Dorsetshire ; an- 
 other with towns in the district between the 
 Forth and Clyde, as Borden Hill, near Lin- 
 lithgow. [Akthxjb.] 
 
 Bagemond's Roll was the valuation by 
 Bocamund de Vicci, the Papal Commissioner, 
 in 1275, of aU benefices in Scotland, a tenth 
 of the revenues of which were to be devoted 
 to the recovery of the Holy Land. This roll 
 was the basis on which ecclesiastical taxation 
 in Scotland rested down to the time of the 
 Eeformation. 
 
 Bahamas, The (or Lucayos), consist of 
 a number of small islands in the North 
 Atlantic Ocean, lying to the north-east of 
 Cuba. The principal islands are New Provi- 
 dence (in which is situated Nassau, the capital), 
 St. Salvador (the first land sighted by Colum- 
 bus on his voyage in 1492), Great Bahama, 
 Long Island, and Eleuthera. Although the 
 Bahamas were discovered by Columbus inl492, 
 no attempt was made to colonise them until 
 1629, when an English settlement was planted 
 in New Providence. In 1641 the English 
 were driven out by the Spaniards, but re- 
 turned again in 1666, and held the islands 
 until they were compelled to retire by a com- 
 
 bined French and Spanish attack in 1703. 
 For some years after this the Bahamas were 
 chiefly resorted to by buccaneers, who were, 
 however, extirpated in 1718 by Captain 
 Eogera. In 1781 the islands were taken by. 
 a Spanish force, but were recaptured by 
 Colonel Devereux, and finally given up to 
 England by the Treaty of Versailles, 1783. 
 The govEirnment, which is representative, 
 is vested in a Governor, an Executive 
 Council of nine members, a Legislative 
 Council of nine, and a Representative 
 Assembly of twenty-eight members, which 
 meets at Nassau, and which is elected by 
 the people of eleven different islands. 
 
 B. Edwards, Hist, of the West Indies ; E. M. 
 
 Martin, Sisi. of the Colonies; Sir E. Creasy, 
 
 Britannic Empire. 
 
 Bail (Fr. bailler, to hand over, deliver ; 
 or Lat. bajulare, to take up a burden) is used 
 in English common law to denote the freeing 
 of accused persons from imprisonment, on 
 security being accepted that they will appear 
 to stand their trial. Mainpriza has much the 
 same meaning as bail, and the two terms are 
 used almost promiscuously in the old law 
 books. By the common law all offences were 
 bailable except murder. By the Statute of 
 Westminster, 1275, the power of granting 
 bail in cases of felony and treason was 
 taken away. Common Bail or Bail below 
 was often required for the release of persons 
 charged with trifling offences ; but the bail 
 was entered in the names of John Doe and 
 Richaid Roe, and was therefore merely 
 formal. This was abolished by 2 WiH IV., 
 0. 39. By 7 Geo. IV., c. 64, justices of the 
 peace might release persons charged with 
 felony if the evidence were not such as to 
 raise a strong presumption of their guilt. 
 The modem practice is regulated by the Act 
 15 and 16 Vict., c. 76. 
 
 Bailiff, a word cognate with Fr. bailli, 
 from Old Fr. bailler, to carry or govern, and 
 Low Lat. ballivus, or bajulus, a governor, is a 
 person who is entrusted with power of super- 
 intendence by a superior. The term was in 
 common use among the Normans both in 
 France and in Sicily, and accordingly, after 
 the Conquest, we find it apphed loosely to 
 many officials : thus the sheriff was called the 
 king's bailiff, and the district over which his 
 jurisdiction extended was called his baili- 
 wick ; so too is the jurisdiction of the chief 
 forester in Henry I.'s charter ; the keeper of 
 Dover Castle was also called baihff, and later 
 (in the word is used of elective functionaries. 
 The burgesses of Colchester could elect bailiffs 
 in the reign of Richard I., and under Henry 
 III., when the right of choosing their mayor 
 was taken away from the Londoners, they were 
 allowed to elect bailiffs instead. Gradually the 
 word became attached to definite offices : (1) 
 The presiding magistrate o/ « ^owm, who assumed 
 the functions of the English reeve, called in 
 
Bai 
 
 ( 116) 
 
 Bai 
 
 mercantile towns port-reeve, whose Latin title 
 prepositus was applied to him— with this 
 essential difference, that the reeve before the 
 Conquest might be, and in the old free towns 
 frequently was, chosen by the citizens, while 
 the Norman bailifE was almost invariably 
 appointed .by the lord— e.j'., the bailiff of 
 Beverley by the Archbishop of York. His 
 duties were to preserve the king's peace, and 
 to preside over the chief court of the town. 
 Thus in Leicester the bailifE was the con- 
 stituting officer of the portmanmote until the 
 middle of the thirteenth century, and in 
 Beverley the archbishop's bailiffs held the 
 court in his name until the reign of Henry 
 VIII. By the end of the thirteenth century, 
 however, the mayor had supplanted the 
 bailiff nearly everywhere ; the summonses of 
 borough members to a national council are 
 addressed to the mayors of the towns more 
 frequently than to the bailiffs, and in cases 
 where both are mentioned the mayor is placed 
 first. Later on, the citizens of Poole, in 1371, 
 were allowed to call their chief magistrate 
 mayor instead of prepositus. Nevertheless, 
 the idea of the bailiff being a great town 
 official stiU lingered on, and the inquiries of 
 the Corporation Commissioners in 1835 
 showed that there were 120 officers of this 
 nature in the corporate towns. [Reeve.] 
 (2) The bailiffs of the liberty and the 
 manor, and closely connected with them the 
 bailiffs of the royal demesne, were officials of 
 higher position than those of the towns. It 
 may be conjectured that the latter are the 
 ballivi mei mentioned in Magna Charta on 
 terms of equality with the sheriffs, and they 
 are mentioned as officers of importance in 
 Henry II. 's Inquest of Sheriffs. Before the 
 Conquest the presiding officer of the Courts of 
 the Liberties, which were jurisdictions exempt 
 from that of the hundred, and of lands held 
 in sac and soc, which corresponded to a 
 certain extent to the Norman manor-system, 
 was the reeve, whose subordinate was the 
 bydel, or beadle. The bailiffs of the liberty or 
 honour and of the manor, represented their 
 lords in the court-baron, or ancient assembly, 
 of the township where by-laws were made, 
 in the court customary, where the business of 
 villanage was transacted, and in the court leet, 
 which had criminal jurisdiction ; in the great 
 baronial honours, whose system corresponded 
 to that of the shire, the bailiff attended the 
 sheriff's tourn or court for the view of frank- 
 pledge. On a liberty the lord and the baiUff, 
 as his lord's representative, were the only per- 
 sons who could execute the king's writ to the 
 exclusion of the sheriff until the Statute of 
 Westminster the second (1295), when it was 
 provided that if the bailiff neglected to 
 execute a writ within the liberty, a writ, 
 with a clause of non omittas, should be issued 
 authorising the sheriff himself to enter the 
 liberty and execute the writ. During the 
 reigns of the Edwards, and subsequently, the 
 
 power of these bailiffs was narrowly watched ; 
 they were to be sworn to make distress, and 
 punished for malicious distress by fine and 
 treble damage ; to truly impanel jurors, and 
 to make returns by indenture between them 
 and the sheriffs. They could not arrest with- 
 out order of the sheriff. The exclusive juris- 
 dictions of the liberties still exist in many 
 parts of England, and in 1844 the power of 
 the bailiffs was regulated by placing their 
 appointment in the hands of the judge of the 
 courts, i.e., the county-clerk or under-sheriff 
 before whom they are held, and subj ecting them 
 to severe penalties for misdemeanour. With 
 the decay of feudalism the baiiiff of the manor 
 became an unimportant functionary who 
 looked after his lord's interests in the matter of 
 collecting rents, surveying improvements, &o. 
 (3) The bailiff of the hundred presided, after 
 the Conquest, in the smaller court of the 
 hundred, the chief business of which was to 
 settle disputes about small debts. He repre- 
 sented the king's interest, and was probably 
 the same as the gerefa, or reeve of the hundred, 
 of the laws of Edward the Elder and Ethel- 
 red. He was supposed to execute aU pro- 
 cess directed to the sheriff, to collect the 
 king's fines and fee-farm rents, and to attend 
 the judges of assize and gaol-deUvery. From 
 Bracton we learn that another of his duties 
 was to select four knights of the hundred, who 
 were in turn to choose the jury of inquisition. 
 These jurisdictions of the hundreds fell, under 
 the Norman kings, into the hands of great 
 landowners, in which case the bailiff was 
 appointed by the lord, and presided in the 
 manorial courts as well as the hundred- 
 court. The functions of the bailiff of the 
 hundred were, therefore, gradually absorbed 
 by the bailiff of the manor on the one side, 
 and on the other by the improved machinery 
 of the county courts, which, in the days of 
 Henry III., began to obtain in England. 
 These functions were also, to a certain extent, 
 represented in later times by (4) the sheriff^s 
 bniiif, who is, however, mentioned as early as 
 1170 in Henrj^ II.'s Inquest of Sheriffs. The 
 office can hardly be said to be of constitutional 
 importance ; bailiffs executed writs and made 
 arrests within the sheriff's bailiwick, and they 
 were usually bound, in an obligation to the 
 sheriff, for the due execution of their offices, 
 whence they were called bound bailiffs (vul- 
 garly corrupted into bum bailiffs). Special 
 bailiffs may also be nominated at the re- 
 quest of the suitor in a case, and approved 
 by the sheriff, for a particular occasion. Their 
 persons were protected, and severe penalties 
 laid on them for misdemeanour by the 
 Inferior Courts Act (1844). 
 
 Mereweat-her and Stephens, Hi.st. of Boroughs 
 
 and Municipal Corporations; Stubbs, Cfiwst. 
 
 Hist., and Select Charters; Atkinanu, Shenffs; 
 
 Knigbt, Political Cyclopaidia. [L. C. S.l 
 
 Bailiwick signifies either a county in 
 which the sheriff as bailiff of the king exer- 
 
Bai 
 
 (117) 
 
 Eal 
 
 cises jurisdiction, or the liberty or franchise 
 of some lord, " who has an exclusive author- 
 ity within its limits to act as the sherifE does 
 in the comity." [Bailiff.] 
 
 Baillie, Robert (4. 1599, d. 1662), minister 
 of Kilwinning, was one of the leaders of the 
 Covenanters, and a voluminous writer. He 
 was one of the Assembly of Divines at West- 
 minster, and in March, 1649, was one of the 
 commissioners sent to Charles II. at the 
 Hague. 
 
 Baird, Sir David (J. 1758, d. 1829), entered 
 the army in 1772, and in 1776 obtained a com- 
 pany in a new regiment, raised by Lord Mac- 
 leod, and destined for India. He arrived at 
 Madras in Jan., 1780, and shortly afterwards 
 hiid active employment made for him by the 
 irruption of Hyder All into the Carnatic. 
 While proceeding with his regiment, under 
 Colonel Baillie, to join Sir Hector Munroe, he 
 fell into an ambuscade which had been set for 
 the detachment. Baird, wounded in four 
 places, remained a prisoner till he was released 
 in July, 1784. In 1789 he went on leave to 
 England, but returned two years later as 
 lieutenant-colonel of his regiment. After 
 this he was continually employed in some 
 active service in India, being present at the 
 siege of Pondicherry in 1793, and leading the 
 storming party at Seringapatam in 1799. 
 In 1800 he was appointed to command the 
 expedition to Egypt, where he acted in con- 
 junction with the army which Abercromby 
 had commanded. Taking umbrage at 
 WeUesley's promotion, Baird came to Eng- 
 land in 1803, and two years later was des- 
 patched to the Cape of Good Hope, which he 
 reduced and formed into a colony. On his 
 return to England in 1807, he was sent under 
 Lord Cathcart to Denmark, and was twice 
 wounded at the siege of Copenhagen. _ He 
 had no sooner returned from that expedition 
 than he was despatched with 10,000 troops to 
 reinforce Sir John Moore. Having effected 
 a junction, Sir David shared in aU the hard- 
 ships of the dreadful retreat, and_ finally 
 rendered excellent sen-ice as second in com- 
 mand at Corunna, where he lost his left arm. 
 Chambers, Btog. Diet, o/ Scotsmen; Napier, 
 Pen. Watr. 
 
 Bajee Rao, the son of Kagoba, became, 
 on the death of Madhao Rao II. in 1796, 
 the natural heir to the office of Peishwa. 
 On acceding to office. Lord Wellesley made 
 it his great object to conclude a subsidiary 
 alliance with Bajee Rao. The march of 
 Holkar on Poonah (1801) so alarmed the 
 Peishwa that he began to treat, while the 
 total defeat of bis own and Scindiah's troops 
 at the battle of Poonah, Oct. 25, 1802, drove 
 him to the English residency, and from 
 thence to the coast, where, at his own re- 
 quest, he was transported by an English ship 
 to Bassein. He was now eager for the Enghsh 
 
 alliance, and on Deo. 31, 1802, the memor- 
 able Treaty of Bassein was concluded. The 
 Peishwa himself, however, repented of the 
 treaty as soon as he had affixed his seal 
 to it, and commenced a series of intrigues 
 with Soindiah and the Bhonslah to render it 
 inefiectual The treaty, however, had effec- 
 tually curbed his power, and the victories of 
 the English in the war which followed set 
 a seal to this by completely breaking up the 
 Mahratta Confederacy. Under the rule of 
 Sir George Barlow, Bajee Rao made a vain 
 attempt (1806) to reassert his lost power. 
 The Peishwa, however, waited anxiously for a 
 chance of revenge on the English. A general 
 confederacy of Mahrattas and Pindarries was 
 organised against the English in 1815. The 
 next year Bajee Rao's attitude became more 
 hostile, and he began to intrigue with Scin- 
 diah, Ameer Khan, and Holkar, and 
 assembled a large body of troops near his 
 capital. A British force was ordered up to 
 Poonah, and the Peishwa was compelled to 
 accept the treaty of June 5th, 1817, which 
 bound him to dismiss his mischievous minis- 
 ter Trimbukjee, the great opponent of the 
 British ; to renounce the formal headship 
 of the Mahrattas for ever; to dismiss all 
 foreign ambassadors, and refer all communi- 
 cations from foreign states to the Company's 
 government. Bajee Rao had no sooner 
 signed this treaty than he proceeded to 
 hasten his intrigues, and, in the f uU assurance 
 of powerful support, he plunged into hosti- 
 lities Nov. 5, 1817. The defeat of Kirkee 
 was immediately followed by the surrender 
 of Poonah and "the retreat of the Peishwa. 
 He was again severely defeated, by General 
 Smith, at Korgaom, on Jan. 1, 1818, and at 
 Ashtee, soon after which battle he was forced 
 to surrender. He was taken to Bithoor, 
 sixteen miles from Cawnpore, where he re- 
 ceived an annuity of eight lacs of rupees for 
 the rest of his life. He died in 1853, leaving 
 an adopted son. Nana Sahib. 
 
 ■Wellesley, Despafdies ; Grant Duff, Hisf. o/(he 
 Mahrattas; Malcolm, Polit. Hist, of Iniia; MiU, 
 Hist, of India. 
 
 Balaclava,THEBATTM! of (Oct. 25, 1854), 
 during the Crimean War, was brought on by 
 the Russian general. Prince Mentschikoff, 
 who moved a body of 30,000 men on Bala- 
 clava, hoping to get possession of the harbour, 
 and to cut the allies oflt from their supplies. 
 The Russians first attacked the redoubts 
 in the valley of Kadikoi, defended by 
 the Turks, who fled almost immediately. 
 The Russian cavalry then advanced towards 
 Balaclava, but were checked by Sir Colm 
 Campbell's Highland Brigade, and by the 
 Heavy Brigade of cavalry. The charge 
 of the Heavy Brigade was a _ pecuUarly 
 brilliant piece of cavalry fighting. The 
 Russians, though more than twice as nu- 
 merous as their opponents, were driven back 
 
Bal 
 
 (118) 
 
 Bal 
 
 in confusion. The main body of the English 
 and French now came into action, and the 
 fighting about the captured redoubts began to 
 thicken. Lord Eaglan, thinking the enemy- 
 were retiring with the guns from one of the 
 redoubts, sent orders to Lord Lucan, in com- 
 mand of the cavalry, to foUow and harass 
 their retreat. But by the time the Light 
 Brigade was prepared to carry out the order 
 the broken Russian cavalry had re-formed, 
 and the main body of Liprandi's corps 
 d'armee had advanced and formed at the 
 bottom of the valley. Notwithstanding, 
 Lord Lucan^" from some misconception of 
 the order given," as Lord Kaglan's despatch 
 said, and of the verbal instructions of Captain 
 Nolan, the aide-de-camp — "considered that 
 he was bound to attack at all hazards," and, 
 in spite of Lord Cardigan's remonstrance, 
 .insisted that the charge should be carried 
 out. Accordingly, the Light Brigade (con- 
 sisting of the 5th and Uth Hussars and the 
 17th Lancers), in all 673 men, commanded 
 by Lord Cardigan, rode down upon the whole 
 Russian army. They broke their way right 
 through the enemy's lines, and struggled 
 back again through the valley, in which the 
 Russian guns played on them from front, 
 flank, and rear as they rode, with the loss 
 of 113 killed, 134 wounded, and 15 prisoners. 
 Except for some desultory cannonading, this 
 ended the battle. The Russians had not 
 eifected their object, but they kept possession 
 of the ground they had won in the valley, so 
 that the victory may be said to have been 
 indecisive. 
 
 For an elaljorate description anl a full discus- 
 sion of the questions connected witli tlie gallant, 
 I but culpaMy reckless, " Charge of the Six Hun- 
 dred," see Xinglake, Invasion of the Crtmen. 
 
 Balance of Power may be defined as 
 the existence of such a connection and such 
 relations of power among a majority of 
 neighbouring states, that no one of them can 
 endanger the independence or the rights of 
 any other state without effectual resistance 
 and without danger to itself. The term 
 seems to have come into existence at the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century. The 
 Due de Rohan's work, Trutina Statuum 
 JEuropcs, was published in 1645. The first 
 attempt towards establishing a balance of 
 power in Europe was probably that of Henry 
 IV. and Sully, which dates from 1603. Their 
 idea was to create a confederation in Europe 
 under the title of the "R^publique tres 
 chretienne." It was to contain fifteen states ■ 
 five elective monarchies— the Pope, the Em- 
 peror (the ancient freedom of election beine 
 restored with a provision that no two suc- 
 cessive Emperors were to be chosen from the 
 same house), the Kings of Poland, Hungary 
 and Bohemia; six hereditary monarchies- 
 those of France, Spain, England, Denmark, 
 bweden, and Lombardy, the last a new king- 
 dom created for the Duke of Savoy; four 
 
 republics — Holland, Venice, a republic con- 
 taining Genoa, Florence, and Central Italy, 
 and Switzerland, which was to be considerably 
 enlarged. Each of these states was to have its 
 limits so well defined that it could not exceed 
 them without being attacked by aU the rest. 
 There was to be liberty of conscience — Roman 
 Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists were to 
 be on an equality ; there was to be a general 
 federal council, to keep peace at home, and to 
 make war upon the infidel. {See Sully, 
 (Economies Hopales in Petitot's Collection of 
 Memoirs.') The plan of Henry IV. came to 
 nothing, and the Peace of "Westphalia (1648) 
 is generally regarded as the foundation of the 
 modern political system of Europe. It es- 
 tablished a modus vivendi between Catholics 
 and Protestants; recognised the Republics of 
 Switzerland and the United Netherlands; 
 placed the German Empire on a firmer foot- 
 ing; and raised a bulwark against the 
 ambition of the house of Austria. The 
 second great settlement was that of the 
 Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which put an end 
 to the war of rivalry between France and 
 Austria for the throne of Spain. Since the 
 Peace of Westphalia the equilibrium of 
 Europe had been more seriously threatened 
 by the house of Bourbon than by the house 
 of Hapsburg ; but the • Treaty of Utrecht 
 gave Spain to a younger branch of the 
 Bourbon line. England was the principal 
 power in the negotiation, whereas she had 
 taken no part iu the Treaty of "Westphalia. 
 The third great settlement of Europe was in 
 the Peace of Vienna in 1815. This was 
 designed to restore to Europe the tranquillity 
 which had been broken by the wars of the 
 French Revolution and of Napoleon. Its 
 arrangements were based on calculations of 
 the balance of power, but many of them have 
 been falsified by events. The theory of the 
 balance of power may at one time have been 
 defensible, but it has often given rise to 
 spohations and violations of justice. It is 
 impossible to restrain every state within the 
 limits which once sufficed for it. The growth 
 of wealth, of population, of colonisation, the 
 inevitable facts of annexation and conquest, 
 are witnessed in all ages of the world. 
 Peace is destroyed if each of these incre- 
 ments is held to justify a similar addition to 
 neighbouring states. The law of prooxess 
 determmes the shifting of the balance; but 
 there IS no reason why each of these changes 
 ^1,° J^ ^'^^ m-^^ for a European war. 
 ihe modern law of nations depends rather on 
 securing the equahty of all states, great and 
 small, before the law, and the protection of 
 the weak against the violence of the strong, 
 ihe growth of one state in power and pros- 
 perity IS not necessarily a danger to the rest. 
 aI^^ ^■^'^^ ^® sometimes regarded as an 
 aaaitional guarantee for peace. 
 
 Besides the works of Sully and the Duo da 
 Eohan mentioned above, see Hume, lssa"°, ii 
 
Bal 
 
 ( 119) 
 
 Bal 
 
 7) and the standard works on International 
 Law, esp. Wheaton, Hist. 0/ the Law of Nations; 
 and Blimtschli, Droit Internat. CodiJiL 
 
 [0. B.] 
 Baldock, Eobeut {d. 1327), was Chan- 
 cellor of England from 1323 to 1326. He 
 was one of Edward II. 's chief supporters, and 
 shared with the Despensers the hatred of the 
 haronage. Soon after his appointment a 
 conspiracy was formed to murder him, and, 
 though this failed, his tenure of office was a 
 troubled one. In 1326, on the landing of 
 Queen IsaheUa, he fled with the king and the 
 Despensers into Wales, where he was seized 
 and sent to the Bishop of Hereford's palace 
 in London. Hence, by the connivance of his 
 enemies, he was dragged by the mob, and, 
 after much iU-usage, thrust into Newgate, 
 where he shortly afterwards died from the 
 injuries he had sustained. 
 
 Bald'nin, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (1185 — 1190), born at Exeter, was educated 
 at Ford Abbey. He became Bishop of Wor- 
 cester in 1180, and in 1184, despite the 
 claims of the monks of Canterbury to elect, 
 was chosen by the bishops of the province 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. He preached 
 the second crusade in England, and himself 
 took the Cross. He was present at the siege 
 of Acre, where he died of a fever. 
 
 Bale, John (6. 1495, d. 1563), one of the 
 most zealous of the Reformers under Henry 
 Vni., was made Bishop of Ossory by Edward 
 VI., 1552. He was compelled to leave Engla,nd 
 during the reign of Mary, and took refuge at 
 Basle, but returned on the accession of 
 Elizabeth, and was made Prebendary of 
 Canterbury. Bale was a voluminous writer, 
 and wrote, besides several miracle-plays, a 
 work of British biography, entitled Illustrium 
 Majoris Biitanniw Scriptorum Catalogus, -winch 
 extends from Japhet to 1549. In his contro- 
 versial works he is violent and abusive, so 
 that Mr. Froude has called him "a foul- 
 mouthed ruffian ; " but he seems to have been 
 an honest, if too zealous, Reformer. 
 
 A selection from Bale's Works was puWished 
 by the Parker Society in 1849. The fullest ac- 
 count of him is given in Cooper, Athenm Cantah. 
 
 Balfoar, John (of Burley), in conjunc- 
 tion with Hackston, his brother-in-law, and 
 John Henderson, murdered Archbishop Sharp, 
 1674. He made his escape after the murder, 
 and was present at the battle of Drumclog 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Baliol, The Family or, was one of the 
 wealthiest in Normandy, being possessed of 
 the lands of Nyvelle and Bailleul ; the house 
 also acquired considerable estates in the north 
 of England after the Conquest, and held 
 Harcourt and Barnard Castles. Its members, 
 such as Bernard and Henry de Baliol, are 
 found taking an active part on the side of 
 England in all the Border wars. John de Baliol 
 having married Devorguilla (a daughter of 
 
 Alan of Galloway, and Margaret, daughter 
 of David, Earl of Huntingdon), transmitted 
 to his son, John Baliol, a claim to the Scottish 
 crown, 1291. 
 
 Baliol, John db, one of the regents of 
 Scotland during the minority of Alexander 
 III., was deprived of his office by the 
 English party, 1255. He was Lord of Nyvelle 
 in Normandy, and of Barnard Castle. 
 
 Baliol, John, Lord of Galloway, was the 
 son of John de Baliol, regent of Scotland, 
 and Devorguilla, granddaughter of David 
 of Huntingdon, from whom he derived his 
 claim to the Scottish throne. On the 
 death of the Maid of Norway in 1290, and 
 the consequent failure of heirs to Alexan- 
 der m., Baliol, in conjunction with Robert 
 Bruce, John de Hastings, and a host of 
 minor competitors, laid claim to the crown 
 of Scotland. Together with other Scotch 
 nobles, he was summoned by Edward I. 
 to a conference at Brigham, 1291, where the 
 succession to the Scotch throne was to be 
 settled. At this meeting forty commissioners 
 were appointed by Baliol, forty by Bruce, and 
 twenty-four by Edward, to report on the 
 claims of the competitors ; the meeting 
 was adjourned to June, 1292, when the 
 arbiters announced that as Baliol was repre- 
 sentative of the elder daughter of David iis 
 claims were .preferable to those of Bruce. 
 Baliol was accordingly declared King of 
 Scotland by Edward, and did homage to him 
 as his liegeman, Nov. 20, 1292 ; he was 
 crowned at Scone ten days afterwards, and 
 renewed his homage to Edward, Deo. 26, at 
 Newcastle. Edward soon began to exact the 
 rights of an overlord, encouraging appeals to 
 his own courts from those of Baliol ; on the 
 appeal of MacdufE of Fife, the Scotch king was 
 summoned to appear in London, and, though 
 he disobeyed this summons, he went to the 
 English court on the appeal of Sir William 
 Douglas in 1293. Little by little Scotch 
 feeling against the action of the English king 
 was aroused; in Oct., 1295, Baliol, urged by 
 public feeling in the country, concluded an 
 alliance with Philip of France, and in March 
 of the following year invaded England, 
 laying waste the northern counties, and 
 also sent a document renouncing his allegiance 
 to the Enghsh king. Edward at once 
 marched northwards at the head of a large 
 army, and took Berwick, Dunbar, and Edin- 
 burgh. On July 10, 1296, Baliol, seeing that 
 further resistance was useless, made his sub- 
 mission at Montrose, renouncing to his 
 liege lord the kingdom of Scotland. Edward 
 ordered his imprisonment in England for a 
 short time, after which he was permitted to 
 retire to his lands of Bailleul in France. 
 
 Eishanger, Chronicle (Camden Soc); Soofi- 
 
 chronicon: Sir I". Palgrave, DocumeMs md 
 
 Records illustrative of the Hist, of Scotland, In- 
 
 itrod., Uv., &o. ; Ckron. JToMst. Sanct. Alban. 
 
 (E. S.), vol. iii. 
 
Bal 
 
 ( 120 ) 
 
 Bal 
 
 Baliol, Edward, the son of King John 
 Baliol, was in 1324 brought over to Englwnd 
 from the court of Prance, and, on the death 
 of Bruce in 1328, secretly encouraged by the 
 English government, and joined by the 
 " disinherited barons," he put forward his 
 claims to the throne of Scotland through 
 hereditary succession (although his father had 
 resigned all connection with the kingdom). 
 In 1332 he landed with an army in Fifeshire, 
 and won the battle of Duplin ; shortly after- 
 wards he successfully held Perth against a 
 besieging army, and was crowned at Scone, 
 Sept., 1332. His first act was to render 
 homage to Edward, who at once sent an 
 army to assist him, but the national party 
 gradually gathered strength, and Baliol found 
 himself compelled to retire to the English 
 court after a defeat at Annan. Having 
 obtained the aid of some English barons, he 
 returned to Scotland, where he met with a 
 few successes in the southern part of the 
 country; in 1338 he went to reside in 
 England, where he remained for some time ; 
 in 1346 he ravaged the Lothiaus with an 
 English army, but gained little advantage ; 
 in 135G he resigned absolutely his claims to 
 the crown and kingdom to Edward III. 
 
 Dalrymple, Annals of Scot.; Burton, Hist.of Scot. 
 Ball, John {d. 1381), one of the leaders of 
 the Peasant Revolt [Cade's Eebbllion], is said 
 to have been one of "Wiclif's " Poor Priests," 
 and at all events he preached doctrines very 
 similar to theirs. He had been notorious as a 
 wild fanatic for many years, and was im- 
 prisoned by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 
 Maidstone gaol, whence he was released by the 
 insurgents, to whom he preached a famous 
 sermon on Blackheath full of socialistic 
 doctrine. He took for his text the popular 
 distich — 
 
 " When Adam dalf and Ev6 span. 
 Who was then the gentleman ?" 
 On the suppression of the revolt he was 
 seized and executed. 
 
 Ballads are of great historical importance, 
 for they were the literature of the people, 
 and give indications, which can be obtained 
 nowhere else, of the popular feeling in 
 stirring times. They were numerous in 
 the old English days, and were sung in the 
 thegn's hall and in the churl's cottage. Some 
 specimens, chief of which is the song of the 
 Battle of Brunanburh, were so popular that 
 they were embodied in the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle. After the Conquest, the songs of 
 the people no longer circulated amongst the 
 Norman barons. Not till barons and people 
 were united in the attempt to assert their 
 common liberties did a ballad literature arise 
 which breathes the spirit of all classes. In 
 the reign of John, we again find political 
 songs, and in the times of the Barons' War 
 they were numerous. There are French 
 ballads which were sung in the barons' halls, , 
 
 Latin ballads which were current among the 
 educated class, and rude but spirited English 
 ballads which were sung by the people. Chief 
 in importance amongst these is a Latin " Song 
 of the Battle of Lewes " (Wright, " Political 
 Songs," p. 72), which is a remarkable assertion 
 of constitutional principles, and might have 
 been written by a Whig in 1688. The reign 
 of Edward I. awakened a national spirit, 
 which found its expression in national and 
 martial songs, accompanied by others which 
 grumble at oppression. In the reign of 
 Edward II. the latter kind prevail, while 
 under Edward III. the balance is restored by 
 the patriotism kindled by the French war. 
 The number of English songs becomes 
 greater; the French and Latin sink into 
 the background. The end of the reign of 
 Edward III. saw the English songs disappear, 
 and the others became less spirited. The 
 national impulse was spent, and the problems 
 of the succeeding period awakened no popular 
 expression. Ballads gradually ceased to have 
 a, direct bearing on politics, and were con- 
 cerned with chivalry and romance. They 
 satisfied the popular desire for adventure, but 
 did not deal with current events. The min- 
 strel became a recognised personage, and was 
 generally said to come from " the north coim- 
 trie," the land where border-raids still kept 
 alive the adventurous spirit. The ballads of 
 Chevy Chase, Edom o' Gordon, and Adam 
 Bell, all show their northern origin. It is of 
 them that Sir Philip Sidney wrote, " I never 
 heard the old songs that I found not my 
 heart moved more than with a trumpet." 
 During the Eeformation period ballads dealt 
 with polemical topics, often in a coarse and 
 irreverent manner. However, the influence 
 of ballads naturally declined before the growth 
 of other forms of literature. The stage and 
 the pamphlet afforded other means of ex- 
 pressing popular opinion. The struggle be- 
 tween the Stuarts and the Parliament did not 
 give rise to much ballad literature. But the 
 unpopularity of James II. was sung and 
 whistled all over England in Wharton's 
 " LillibuUero." A vein of very beautiful 
 ballad-poetry was struck in Scotland by the 
 Jacobite risings of the eighteenth century. 
 In Ireland also ballads survive to the present 
 day as a political power. The songs written 
 for the Nation newspaper, collected under 
 the name of "The Spirit of the Nation," 
 deserve their popularity by their poetical 
 merits. At the present day there are nu- 
 merous collections of old ballads; but it is 
 diiEcult to determine their date, and, in many 
 cases, their genuineness. 
 
 Wright, Political Sotigs (Camden Soo.) ; 
 Political Poems (Eolls Series) ; Eiteon, Andmt 
 Popular Poetry ; Scottish Songs ; English Songs;. 
 Percy, Reliques of Ancient E«gtis?i Poetrii ; Scott, 
 Minslrels-g of the Scottish Borders. [M. C.] 
 
 Ballard, John, or Foktescue {d. 1586), 
 a Jesuit priest of Rheims, and the original 
 
Bal 
 
 ( 121 ) 
 
 Bal 
 
 instigator of the Babington plot (q.v.), 
 landed in England (1586), having previously 
 obtained the sanction of the Pope to the 
 queen's murder. He made a tour of the north 
 and west of England, and subsequently re- 
 ported to Mendoza, who had been ambassador 
 at Elizabeth's court, that the death of the 
 queen was necessary to the success of an in- 
 surrection. In 1586 Ballard returned to 
 England, and was in close communication 
 with Babington. On Aug. 4, 1586, he was 
 arrested, and executed at Tyburn in the fol- 
 lowing month. 
 
 BalliuailUXlck, Surrender of the 
 French at (Sept. 8, 1798). The French force 
 under -General Hjambert, which had landed at 
 KiUala and routed the troops sent against them 
 at Castlebar, found their way to Longford 
 barred by a large force under Lord ComwaUis, 
 while General Lake with fresh troops was 
 close behind, so that Humbert had no alter- 
 native but to surrender. Eight hundred 
 French, and 1,500 Irish surrendered. Many 
 of the latter were at once hanged. 
 
 Ballot, Tote by. The ballot is properly 
 a mode of voting in which little balls are 
 used, but it is employed to signify any kind 
 of secret voting. The vote by ballot for 
 members of Parliament appears to have been 
 first proposed in the reign of William III. 
 In 1710, a Bill authorising vote by ballot 
 passed the Commons, but was rejected by the 
 Lords. During the agitation for Parlia- 
 mentary reform, which resulted in the Reform 
 Bill of 1832, it was not lost sight of as a 
 remedy for bribery ; and some disappointment 
 was felt, on the introduction of the Reform 
 BUI by Lord J. Russell, that provisions for 
 secret voting were not contained in it. It 
 was replied that the reason why a ballot 
 clause was not introduced into the Bill, was 
 because it was desirable that the two questions 
 should be kept distinct. When it was found 
 that the ministry did not intend to follow 
 the Reform Act by a Ballot Act, the matter 
 was taken up by independent members of the 
 Liberal party. Mr. George Grote made his 
 first motion in favour of the ballot on April 25, 
 1835. He repeated it every year till 1 839, on 
 which occasion the ayes were 216, the noes 333. 
 Mr. Grote's place in moving the adoption of 
 the baUot was taken by Mr. Henry Berkeley, 
 who in 1851 carried his motion in spite of 
 the opposition of Lord J. RusseU and the 
 government by a majority of fifty-one. 
 It was, however, rejected on several subse- 
 quent occasions. Vote by ballot was one of 
 the points of the People's Charter, and per- 
 haps the one to which the greatest importance 
 was attached. It was advocated on the 
 ground of its being the only efficient safe- 
 guard against bribery and intimidation; it 
 was opposed on the ground of the safeguard 
 being itseU founded on falsehoods, and the 
 probability of a man promising to vote in one 
 
 way and voting in another. The revelations ' 
 made before a select committee of the 
 House of Commons convinced many states- 
 men, Mr. Gladstone among others, that the 
 step could not be long delayed. This 
 committee reported, in 1869, that the ballot 
 presented many advantages — that it would 
 put an end to some of the evils in our 
 electoral system, and that it would tend to 
 mitigate rather than to aggravate those which 
 it would not entirely remove. In 1871, the 
 matter was referred to in the Queen's Speech, 
 and a Bill was introduced. It passed the 
 Commons, but was rejected by the Lords on 
 the ground that it was brought before them 
 too late in the session. It was introduced 
 again in 1872, and passed the Commons, but 
 an amendment was introduced in the Lords 
 making secret voting optional. This the 
 House of Commons would not accept, and 
 after a struggle the Lords yielded the point. 
 With the establishment of secret voting, public 
 nominations of the candidates and public de- 
 clarations of the poU, which had frequently 
 been occasions of serious disorder and rioting, 
 were abolished. 
 
 E&ports of Select Committee of Houfe of Commons 
 ou parliamentary and Municipal Elections^ 1869 
 and mo. [0. B.] 
 
 BaUyxuore, The Battle op (June 3, 
 1798), was fought during the Irish Rebellion 
 between Colonel Walpole and Father Murphy. 
 The former, marclmig carelessly towards 
 Enniscorthy with some 500 royal troops, was 
 surprised in a defile by a body of insurgents 
 imder Father Murphy. Colonel Walpole fell 
 with a considerable portion of his force, and 
 his guns were captured. 
 
 Balmerino, Arthur Elphinstone, Lord 
 (4. 1688, d. 1746), was a noted Jacobite. He 
 early entered the army, and held command of 
 a company of foot in Lord Shannon's regi- 
 ment under Queen Anne ; but on the 
 accession of George I. he resigned his com- 
 mission. Elphinstone took part in the 
 Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and fought at the 
 battle of Sheriffmuir. He escaped to France 
 and served in the French army until 1733. 
 He was one of the first to repair to the 
 Young Pretender's standard in 1745, and at 
 once became .colonel, and captain, of the 
 second troop of Charles Edward's life-guards. 
 Early in 1746 he succeeded to the title of Bal- 
 merino on the death of hie brother. Taken 
 prisoner at the battle of CuUoden he was 
 tried for high treason before the Lord High 
 Steward's Court in Westminster Hall, found 
 guilty, and executed. He maintained his 
 principles to the end, and his last words were, 
 " God bless King James.'' 
 
 Scots Magazine ; Walpole JTemoirs ; Stanhope, 
 Hid. of Eng. ; Burton, Hist, of Scotlamd. 
 
 Balnavis, Henry, of Halhffl {d. 1570 ?), 
 was one of the earliest of the Scottish 
 Reformers. He was appointed a Lord of 
 
Bal 
 
 ( 122 ) 
 
 Session in 1538, and sat in Parliament in the 
 same year, and supported the Act for the 
 translation of the Old and New Testaments. 
 He was one of the commissioners in May, 
 1543, appointed to treat of the marriage be- 
 tween Edward VI. and Mary. In 1547, he 
 was taken prisoner hy the French force sent 
 to assist the Queen Regent, and conveyed to 
 France in company with Knox. Recalled in 
 1554, he was in 1563 reappointed a Lord of 
 Session. He was on the commission ap- 
 pointed to revise the Book of Disciphne, and 
 one of those who accompanied Murray on his 
 mission to England in connection with the 
 murder of Darnley. 
 
 Knox, Historij ; Sadler, State Papers, i. 83, &o. j 
 M'Crie, Life of Knox. 
 
 Baltic Expedition, The (1854—55), 
 occurred during the war with Russia. On 
 March 11, 1854, a strong squadron, consisting 
 of eight screw line-of-hattle ships, and eight 
 frigates and paddle-wheel steamers, sailed for 
 the Baltic under the command of Sir Charles 
 Napier. Pre^'iou3 to the departure of the 
 fleet a banquet was given to the admiral at 
 the Reform Club, where speeches calculated 
 to iucrease the war feeling in the country 
 were made by Lord Palmerston and Sir 
 James Graham, and provoked much animad- 
 version in Parliament. In April Sir Charles 
 Napier, strongly reinforced and accompanied 
 by a powerful French fleet, established a 
 blockade of the Gulf of Finland, and captured 
 many Russian prizes. In August Bomarsund 
 was bombarded and taken; but except that 
 a large Russian army had been kept in- 
 active in the Baltic forts, and the Russian 
 fleet had been driven from the sea, nothing 
 further of much importance was done this 
 year. Consequently the government evinced 
 dissatisfaction that more had not been ef- 
 fected, and on the return of Sir Charles in 
 December, he was treated with great cold- 
 ness, and finally deprived of his command. 
 Rear-Admiral Dundas succeeded him in 
 1855, and in the simimer of that year 
 there were eighty-five English war vessels, 
 besides a large French fleet, in the Baltic 
 Seas. The fleet consisted entirely of steamers, 
 and was accompanied by a flotilla of 
 floating batteries, mortar vessels, and gun- 
 boats. Some delay occurred in consequence 
 of a collision between one of the squadron 
 and an American emigrant ship. On June 
 1st, however, the allied fleets met in the 
 Baltic and proceeded to bombard Sveaborg. 
 This place was battered with shot and shell 
 for three days, with an immense destruction 
 of life and property, but without any appre- 
 ciable result on the course of the war. The 
 fleets then retired in consequence of the 
 unfavourable weather, and returned home, 
 having efilected nothing in proportion to the 
 expense which they had involved, and the 
 expectations to which they had given rise. 
 Ai.nual Begislei; 1854^-55. 
 
 Baltimore, George Galvebt, 1st Lokd 
 (4. 1580, d. 1632), was Secretary of State 
 to James I., but was compelled to resign 
 his office in 1624, in consequence of having 
 become a Roman Catholic. He had always 
 taken a great interest in colonisation, and 
 obtained in the year of his death the charter 
 of Maryland from Charles I. An expedi- 
 tion was sent out in 1633 under the patronage 
 of Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore (who 
 died in 1676), and the colony of Maryland 
 was successfully planted. The capital was 
 named Baltimore in honour of its patron. 
 
 Bamboroug'h., anciently "Bebbanburgh," 
 is mentioned by Bede, and is said in the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to have been built by 
 Ida, King of Northumbria, about the year 
 547, and named in honour of his wife Bebhe. 
 There is a very strongly-situated castle, some 
 portions of which possibly belong to a period 
 before the Norman Conquest. The castle 
 was besieged by Penda of Mercia in 642, un- 
 successfully defended by De Mowbray against 
 William Rufus, and it played an important 
 part in the civil wars of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. In 1720 it passed into the possession 
 of Nathaniel, Lord Crewe, Bishop of Durham, 
 who turned it into an institution for various 
 charitable purposes, and fitted up apartments 
 for shipwrecked seamen, a library, schools for 
 poor children, an infirmary, &o. 
 
 Banbury, judging from the number of 
 Roman remains which have been discovered 
 there, was probably a place of importance before 
 the English Conquest. It appears in Domes- 
 day Book as Banesberie. In the reign of 
 Henry I. a great castle was erected by 
 Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln. In 1469 a 
 battle was fought near the town by the 
 troops of Edward IV., under the Earl of 
 Pembroke, and a strong body of northern 
 insurgents, in which Pembroke (weakened 
 by the desertion of Lord Stafford) was de- 
 feated, and subsequently beheaded. , [Edge- 
 cote.] In the Civil "War the inhabitants 
 of Banbury were specially zealous for the 
 Commonwealth. After the battle of Edgehill 
 the town was taken by the king, and stood a 
 desperate siege in 1644, for fourteen weeks, 
 when the garrison were reduced to the last 
 extremity before they were relieved by the 
 Earl of Northampton. It was again besieged 
 by WhaUey in 1646, but held out tiU the 
 king had suirendered to the Scots army. 
 The castle was subsequently destroyed by 
 order of the Parliament. 
 
 Bancroft, Richard, was Archbishop of 
 Canterbury from 1604 to 1610. He was 
 born in Lancashire in 1544, and was educated 
 at Cambridge University. Bancroft early 
 gained considerable fame as a preacher, 
 and having won the favour of Sir Christo- 
 pher Hatton, obtained rapid preferment, 
 becoming Treasurer of St. Paul's (1585), 
 
Ban 
 
 ( 123) 
 
 Ban 
 
 Canon of Canterbury (1594), and Bishop of 
 London (1597). He had already made him- 
 self very popular hy his denunciations of the 
 Puritans, and Archbishop Whitgift, who was 
 old and unfit for work, entrusted the sole 
 management of church affairs to him. Three 
 years later he was employed on an embassy 
 to Denmark. Bishop Bancroft took an 
 active part in the Hampton Court Conference 
 between the representatives of the Establish- 
 ment and the Puritans, at Hampton Court, 
 in 1604. Later in the year he succeeded 
 Whitgift as Archbishop of Canterbury, and 
 at once proceeded to compel the clergy to 
 subscribe the articles imposed in the new 
 book of canons which he had compiled, the 
 result being that some three hundred of the 
 Puritan clergy were ejected from their Kvings. 
 At the same time he was engaged in super- 
 intending the present translation of the 
 Bible. In the following year he presented 
 to the king a series of articles of com- 
 plaint against the judges, who, acting on the 
 advice of Coke, had issued prohibitions iu 
 the Ecclesiastical Courts in order to stop the 
 cases before them; but the judges declared 
 that they would submit to an Act of Parlia- 
 ment, and to that only. The undaunted 
 archbishop, who in the meantime had been 
 active in securing the condemnation of the 
 Puritan Fuller, renewed his appeal in 1608, 
 but James, who was inclined to support him, 
 after a violent altercation with Coke, thought 
 it best to reserve his conclusion. The same 
 result happened in the following year, when 
 he, urged on by the prayers of the eccle- 
 siastical lawyers, brought forward his com- 
 plaint a third time. Bancroft is said to have 
 used his influence to soften the rigour with 
 which Parliament was inclined to treat the 
 Papists after the discovery of the Gunpowder 
 Plot ; but he could not prevent the passing of 
 a Bill of Pains and Penalties. In 1608 he 
 was made Chancellor of the University of 
 Oxford, and just before his death took great 
 interest in James's scheme for an episcopal 
 church in Scotland. Archbishop Bancroft 
 was a remarkably sincere though perhaps a 
 narrow-minded man, never deliberately cruel; 
 but a firm 'believer in the divine origin of 
 the Episcopacy — a doctrine which he was one 
 of the first to assert — he suppressed the 
 Puritans mercilessly, and they, in return, 
 never ceased to abuse him. He has been 
 called covetous, but probably without much 
 foundation. 
 
 Strype ; Neal, EUt. of the Purifam (1732) ; 
 Hook, Lives of (he AnlMslwps ; S. E. Gardiner, 
 Hist, of Englamd, 1603—1642, chaps iv. and x. ; 
 Siographda Britammca (1747), art. Bmicroft, 
 
 [L. C. S.J 
 
 Bauda Islands, in the Indian Archi- 
 pelago, were taken from the Dutch in 1796, 
 but restored in 1801. They were retaken 
 in 1811, and again restored in 1816. 
 
 Bangorian Controversy. [Hoadley.] 
 
 Banished Lords (1383) was the name 
 
 given to the nobles of the Ruthven parly 
 who seized Stirling Castle, but were compelkd 
 by Arran and a large royal army to flee 
 across the border. They formed a small com- 
 munity, which they attempted to regulate on 
 strict religious principles at Newcastle. The 
 Scottish government outlawed them, and 
 demanded their surrender ; this was, however, 
 refused. In 1585 the banished lords, with the 
 Hamiltons and Maxwells and a strong force, 
 marched to Stirling, captured the king, and 
 procured the reversal of their outlawry and 
 the restitution of their estates. 
 
 Bank Charter Acts, Bakk of Eng- 
 land, Bank op Ireland, &c. [Banking.] 
 
 Bank Holidays Act, The, was brought 
 
 in by Sir John Lubbock, and carried in May, 
 1871. It declared that Easter Monday, Whit 
 Monday, the first Monday in August, and the 
 day after Christmas should be kept as public 
 holidays. 
 
 Banking (1) seems to have originated in 
 modern Europe among the Italian money- 
 lenders, especially those of Florence, of whom 
 the Bardi and Peruzzi, who were ruined by the 
 inability of Edward III. to pay his debts, most 
 concern English history. Banking was first 
 practised iu England during the reign of 
 Charles II. by the goldsmiths of Lombard 
 Street, and it soon became an important 
 trade, when the advantages of cheques over 
 ready money payments became known, in 
 spite of its dangers as displayed by the fre- 
 quent bankruptcy of the goldsmiths. Private 
 banks sprang up, such as those of Messrs. 
 Child at Temple Bar, and of Messrs. Hoare 
 in Fleet Street, and the question of a national 
 bank began to be eagerly discussed. 
 
 (2) The Bank op England was pro- 
 jected by a Scotchman, William Paterson, who 
 submitted his plan to the government in 
 1691. It was well received, but was allowed 
 to lie dormant until 1694, when Montague, the 
 ablest financier in WUham III.'s ministry, 
 suddenly determined to establish the Bank 
 in order to relieve government of its many 
 diflSculties caused by war and misappUed tax- 
 ation. He borrowed £1,200,000 at eight per 
 cent., and formed the subscribers into a com- 
 pany, who treated the loan to government as 
 part of their capital, the interest being 
 secured upon the taxes. By their charter, which 
 was granted for eleven years, from July 27, 
 the government of the bank was entrusted to 
 a governor and twenty-four directors, who 
 were to be elected annually by such members of 
 the company as possessed £500 capital stock. 
 Sir John Homblow was the first governor. 
 The company was restrained from trading in 
 anything but bullion, bills of exchange, and 
 forfeited pledges, and from lending money to 
 the crown without the consent of Parlia- 
 ment. In spite of the popularity of the 
 
Ban 
 
 ( 124 ) 
 
 Ban 
 
 Bank of England, the government loan of 
 ■which was raised in ten days, it had at first 
 to encounter much opposition, and several 
 crises occurred, especially during the year 
 1696. The goldsmiths, who hated the Bank 
 of England, attempted to destroy it by 
 buying up its paper, and suddenly demanding 
 immediate payment. The directors, however, 
 referred them to the courts of law, and, during 
 the time thus gained, managed to restore 
 their credit by extensive calls on their sub- 
 scribers. They were strengthened by the fall 
 of their rival the Land Sank, whose brief 
 popularity had seriously affected their opera- 
 tions during the crisis. This was the idea of 
 two men named John Briscoe and Hugh 
 Chamberlayne, who thought that a bank 
 could be formed to lend money on landed 
 security, their doctrine being that every one 
 who had real property ought to have besides 
 paper money to the fuU value of their pro- 
 perty. The scheme was adopted in a modified 
 form by Harley; he promised to advance 
 two millions and a half to government 
 at 7 per cent., the interest being secured 
 upon a new tax on salt. If a quarter 
 of the money was paid in by the Ist of 
 August the subscribers were to be incorpo- 
 rated under the title of the National Land 
 Bank. William, urged by want of money, 
 grasped at the idea, and headed the list with 
 £300, but the scheme proved an utter failure. 
 The subscriptions never rose to more than 
 £7,500. Thereupon the government turned 
 in despair to the Bank of England ; the sub- 
 scribers, in fuU court, resolved to lend it 
 £200,000, and thus began the aUiance between 
 the Bank and the Whig ministries. In 1708, 
 the Bank capital was doubled, and in the 
 same year an important Act was passed for- 
 bidding the issue of notes by associations of 
 more than six persons, which checked the 
 formation of joint-stock banks. In 1720 
 came the second great crisis of the Bank's 
 existence. The South Sea Company then pro- 
 posed to take over the government debt, con- 
 sisting of about thirty-two millions, to its 
 capital, receiving in return interest at 4 per 
 cent. ; but such was the anxiety enter- 
 tained by all public companies to have the 
 government for a creditor that the Bank of 
 England contended against the Company for 
 the privilege, but was,' fortunately for itself, 
 outbidden. In a few months the bubble burst 
 and the Bank stood secure, though it was 
 compelled by government to pay up two 
 milhous out of the £3,500,000 which in a 
 weak moment it had promised to lend its 
 tottenng enemy. With the exception of 
 "/fr <>''*!;« Bank during the Jacobite 
 rebellion of 1745, which was only averted bv 
 payment m sixpences, and a violent attack 
 upon It by the mob during the Lord George 
 Cxordon Eiots of 1780, there is nothing of 
 especial moment in the history of the Bank of 
 England until 1792, when a violent commer- 
 
 cial panic occurred chiefly owing to the reck- 
 less use of paper by country banks, some fifty 
 of which failed totally. The Suspension of 
 Cash Payments in 1797 was caused chiefly by 
 the drain of bullion due to the war, subsidies 
 to foreign allies, the exclusive puichase of 
 provisions abroad owing to bad harvests, 
 and the hoarding of coin owing to fear of 
 invasion. A run on the Bank set in from 
 all sides, and on February 25th, when little 
 over a milhon remained in its cellars, a 
 proclamation was issued forbidding it to issue 
 cash in payment. This was followed by a BiU 
 prohibiting it to pay more than 20s. in cash, 
 or to advance more than £600,000 to govern- 
 ment; at the same time the Bill of 1777, 
 which prohibited notes for less than £5, was 
 suspended. This measure, by which Bank of 
 England notes became inconvertible, though 
 intended to be temporary, lasted until 1821, 
 during which period the value of paper varied 
 very considerably. The ^Resumption of Cash 
 Payments was proposed by Mr. Peel in 1819 ; 
 the Act was to have come into effect in 1821, 
 but its provisions were adopted by the Bank 
 two years earlier. In 1825 another crisis oc- 
 curred. During the last six weeks of the year 
 seventy houses failed, and the Bank itself was 
 only saved, it is said, by the discovery of a 
 cluster of 700,000 £1 notes. The measures 
 of the government were prompt ; notes for 
 less than £5 were suppressed, and the law of 
 1708 repealed, banks with any number of 
 partners being permissible beyond sixty-five 
 miles from London, while the Bank in re- 
 tui-n was allowed to establish branches to be 
 carried on by its agents. The Bank 
 Charter Act of 1833, framed on the occa- 
 sion of the renewal of the Charter at the 
 instance of Sir E. Peel, Lord John Russell, 
 and others, attempted to stop runs on the 
 Bank by enacting that notes of the Bank 
 of England were to he made legal tender, 
 whereby the country banks would be enabled 
 to meet a panic with notes instead of gold. 
 A deduction of £120,000 a year was to be 
 made in the sum allowed by government to 
 the Bank for the management of the National 
 Debt, while in return a quarter of £14,686,800, 
 the sum due, was paid back. The priuciple 
 that the paper issued and specie kept in 
 hand should bear to each other the ratio of 
 three to one was established, and the Bank 
 was compelled to publish a general statement 
 of its condition quarterly. In spite of this 
 remedial measure, bullion was continually 
 lacking in London, and in 1839 the Bank of 
 England was in imminent danger of stopping 
 payment, so that Sir R. Peel brought forward 
 the Bank Charter Act o/ 1844. Its object being 
 to regulate the issue of notes, it enacted that 
 the Bank should not be allowed to issue more 
 than £14,000,000 in notes, unless a corre- 
 sponding amount of specie were retained. 
 Further, no new banks established after the 
 measure became law were to issue their own 
 
Baa 
 
 ( 125 ) 
 
 Ban 
 
 notes, and the old banks were not to increase 
 their issue. Sir E. Peel's great Act was the 
 last important piece of legislation aft'ecting 
 the Bank of England. 
 
 (3) Joint-Stock Bakks were rendered 
 possible by the Act of 1826. They increased 
 largely in numbers after 1836. By Sir K. 
 Peel's Bank Charter Act of 1844 they 
 ■were allowed to accept bills of any amount 
 or date, and could sue or be sued. Banks 
 other than the Bank of England are regulated 
 by the Companies Act (1862). This Act 
 provides that no association of more than 
 ten persons can carry on a bank unless 
 registered under the Companies Act, that an 
 unlimited company may convert itself into 
 a limited one, that a bank of issue shall, 
 with certain relaxations, though registered as 
 a limited company, have unlimited liability 
 with respect to its notes, and that accounts 
 must be audited and published once a year. 
 There is also the law of 1867, which provided 
 for minute registration with regard to the sale 
 or purchase of shares in a joint-stock banking 
 company. 
 
 (4) Thb Bank or Scotland was estab- 
 lished by Act of the Scottish Parliament 
 m 1695. Its capital was £100,000 sterling, 
 of which about £10,000 was paid up, and it 
 had the exclusive privilege of banking in 
 Scotland for twenty-one years. Its capital 
 was intact from state loans, and it was also 
 temporarily exempt from public burdens. 
 Nevertheless, the great African Company 
 started a banking branch in rivalry, but they 
 soon abandoned it for the more exciting pur- 
 suit of trade. The bank began to issue 
 notes and establish branches in 1696, and 
 in 1704 it issued £1 notes, and stiU con- 
 tinues to do so. After the union of Eng- 
 land with Scotland it undertook the re- 
 coinage, and conducted it with great success. 
 Its capital was increased to £2,000,000 in 
 1774, and to £2,300,000, its present amount, 
 in 1804, with power, if necessary, to raise it 
 to £3,000,000. It established an office in 
 London in 1867, the restrictions of English 
 joint-stock banks not affecting Scottish. 
 After the monopoly of the Bank of Scotland 
 expired, many unchartered banks started, of 
 which the Eoyal Bank of Scotland (1727) and 
 the British Linen Company (1746) were the 
 oldest and most successful. The smaller 
 banks, were, however, absorbed in the earlier 
 part of the century into seven or eight large 
 banks with constantl}' increasing branches 
 still in existence. In 1 844 Sir R. Peel's Bank 
 Charter Act allowed the Scottish banks then 
 issuing notes to continue to do so, provided 
 that for every note issued above the average 
 issue of the previous year, a corresponding 
 amount of specie should be kept in stock. 
 
 (5) The Bank of Ikeland was established 
 'n 1783 by charter in pursuance of a request 
 from the Irish Parliament, with the same 
 constitution and privileges as the Bank of 
 
 England, and a capital of £600,000, increased 
 to £1,000,000 in 1809, and lent to govern- 
 ment at 4 per cent. It was prohibited from 
 lending money on mortgage, and this re- 
 striction was not repealed until 1860. The 
 restrictions on joint-stock banks as to 
 paper issues caused such an amount of dis- 
 tress in Ireland, that in 1821 government 
 allowed the Bank of Ireland to increase its 
 capital to £3,000,000, while joint-stock banks 
 were to be estabHshed beyond fifty miles 
 from Dublin. 
 
 Gilbart, Siat. and Pi-mrfples of Barikmg, and 
 Htst. of Bankimg in Ireland; Moeleod, Theory 
 amd Practice of Banhing ; M'Culloch, Dictimmry 
 of Commerce; Sir H. Parnell, Ohservatiom on 
 Paper; Molesworth, Hist, of Eng. Statutes- 
 5 and 6 W. and M., o. 20 ; 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
 c. 98; 7 and 8 Vict., o. 32 ; and 25 and 26 Vict., 
 «-89. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Bankruptcy Iiegislation. In the 
 
 English Statute Book almost the first recog- 
 nition of bankrupts as distinguished from 
 fraudulent debtors is the Act 13 Eliz., c. 7, 
 by which the goods of a trader who failed to 
 meet his obligations were to be sold for the 
 benefit of his creditors. By Acts passed in 
 the fourth and tenth years of Queen Anne, 
 bankrupts who had paid a dividend might, 
 with the consent of their creditors, obtain 
 their discharge from the Court of Chancery. 
 Bankruptcy jurisdiction belonged to the 
 Court of Chancery, but by the Act 1 and 2 
 Wm. IV., c. 56, proposed and carried by 
 Lord . Brougham, a special Court of Bank- 
 ruptcy was established. It provided that 
 six commissioners and four judges should be 
 appointed to try all cases of bankruptcy. 
 The commissioners could adjudicate only in 
 cases where there was no dispute ; if the 
 matter was disputed it was to be referred to a 
 judge. By an Act of 1849 fraudulent bank- 
 rupts were rendered more certainly liable 
 to punishment, and composition by arrange- 
 ment made possible. In 1861 the provisions 
 of the Bankruptcy Acts were extended to 
 others besides traders. The most important 
 of the numerous Bankruptcy Acts of the 
 present century is that of 1869, which re- 
 modelled the Court, and made important 
 changes in the law. The commissioners were 
 abolished, and there were to be a Chief Judge 
 (usually a Vice Chancellor) and a number of 
 registrars. The county courts were consti- 
 tuted local bankruptcy courts with an appeal 
 to the Chief Judge. The property was to be 
 placed in the hands of trustees aijpointed by 
 the creditors instead of official assignees, 
 and there were provisions by which the 
 bankrupt could not obtain his discharge, 
 except with the consent of a majority of the 
 creditors, unless he had paid ten shillings in 
 the pound. The Act also provided for 
 " liquidation by arrangement," with the con- 
 sent of the ' creditors ; and repealed or con- 
 soUdated aU former enactments on the subject 
 
Ban 
 
 ( 126) 
 
 Sap 
 
 of bankruptcy. In 1883 a new Bankruptcy 
 Act was carried by Mr. Chamberlain. It 
 enacted severe punishments against fraudu- 
 lent bankrupts, and abolished the system 
 of trustees, substituting for them a staff of 
 official receivers appointed by the Board of 
 Trade. In Scotland bankruptcy was placed 
 on a legal footing by the Act of 1696. There 
 is no separate Bankruptcy Court, but by 
 7 Will. IV., 0. 56, the Sheriffa have juris- 
 diction as well as the Court of Session. In 
 Ireland, by an Act of the year 1872, the law 
 of bankruptcy was assimilated to that of 
 England. [Debt.] 
 
 Banneret, or Knight-Banneret, 
 
 was a degree of knighthood superior to that 
 of knight bachelor. Bannerets were privi- 
 leged to carry the square banner instead of 
 the pointed pennon borne by other knights. 
 The distinction was brigiuaUy awarded for 
 special bravery on the battle-field, and the 
 ceremony of cutting ofE the comer of the 
 pennon so as to make it a banner was per- 
 formed by the king in person standing 
 beneath his own royal banner. Bannerets 
 ranked before all other knights except those 
 of the Garter. The dignity was altogether 
 personal, and was never hereditary. It has 
 been sometimes regarded, but erroneously, as 
 a rank of peerage inferior to a barony. It 
 conferred no right to sit in Parliament. The 
 order gradually died out, and in modern times 
 has become extinct ; but a knight-banneret 
 was created by George III. as late as 1797. 
 
 The name is, of course, derived from baaner ; 
 bat it was sometimes supposed to be a deriva- 
 tive or dimiuutive of baron, and the Latin form 
 haronatus occasionally occurs in some writers 
 and old State-papers. 
 
 Stubbs's Const. Hist., iii., cbap. xx. ; Selden, 
 Titles 0/ Honour, 790—792. 
 
 Bannockburn, The Battle of (June 24, 
 1314), one of the greatest defeats the English 
 ever suffered, was fought near Stirling, on 
 the attempt of Edward II. to relieve the 
 castle of Stirling, which was being besieged 
 by Robert Bruce. The Scots were far outnum- 
 bered by the English troops, who, including a 
 krge body of Welsh and Irish auxiliaries, may 
 have numbered nearly 100,000 men. Bruce, 
 however, gained the victory in great part 
 by having previously dug holes in the ground 
 so as to impede the magnificent cavalry of the 
 enemy, and by massing his foot into solid 
 squares and circles — a system of receiving 
 cavalry hitherto unpractised, except at the 
 battles of Falkirk and Courtrai, where it had 
 been signally successful. The belief on the 
 part of the English that the camp followers 
 of the Scottish army formed part of a reserve 
 completed their discomfiture ; the rout was 
 thorough, and an immense booty fell into the 
 victors' hands. The Scotch generals, in 
 addition to Bruce, who slew in single combat 
 Henry de Bohun, one of the bravest of the 
 English knights, were Eando'ph, the king's 
 
 nephew, Edward Bruce, Walter Stewart, and 
 James Douglas ; the English were led by 
 Edward II. in person, and the Earls of Pem- 
 broke and Gloucester. Edward narrowly 
 escaped being taken prisoner, and had to ride 
 at full speed to Linlithgow, hotly pursued by 
 Douglas ; his privy seal fell into the hands of 
 the victors. The result of the battle was a 
 futile meeting of Scotch and English commis- 
 sioners with a view to bringing about a better 
 understanding between the two countries. 
 
 Sootichronicon, xii. : Dalrymple, Annals of 
 Scotland; Robertson, Scotla/nd under Early 
 Kings; and esp. Barbour's great poem, The Bruce. 
 
 Bantam, in Java, was the site of an 
 English settlement from 1603 to 1683, in 
 which year the English were expelled by the 
 Dutch. The place was again in the possession 
 of the British from 1811 to 1814. 
 
 Bautry Bay is a deep inlet on the west 
 of the county of Cork. Here, on May 1st, 
 1689, Chateau Renard anchored with a French 
 fieet and put on shore a quantity of stores. 
 Admiral Herbert followed him ; but an 
 engagement, claimed as a victory by both 
 parties, was all that took place. In Dec, 
 1796, a large French fleet of seven sail of the 
 line, three frigates, and seventeen transports, 
 sent to aid an Irish rising, anchored here for a 
 week. They did not immediately land their 
 men, owing to the absence of General Hoche, 
 their commander, who had got separated from 
 the squadron ; and subsequently a storm arose 
 and drove them back to France. In 1801, 
 the fleet under Admiral Mitchell mutinied 
 here. Twenty-two of the ringleaders in the 
 mutiny were condemcned to death at Ports- 
 mouth in Jan., 1802, but only eleven were 
 executed. 
 
 Baptists, The, are a sect of Protestant 
 Nonconformists who hold that the baptism 
 of ipfants is invalid. On the Continent, at 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century, a 
 body of men with similar views were known 
 to their opponents as the Anabaptists, or re- 
 baptisers. They spread over Switzerland, 
 Germany, and the Netherlands, but, in con- 
 sequence of the violence of their religious 
 and social doctrines, were forcibly suppressed 
 (about 1635) by the governments of those 
 countries. Some of the Dutch Anabaptists 
 fled to England, and were put to death by 
 Henry VIII. ; but the true sect never existed 
 here in large numbers, and the name was 
 vaguely applied to all who insisted on adult 
 baptism. The Anabaptists or Baptists suffered 
 for their faith under the Tudors, by whom 
 their secret conventicles were forbidden. The 
 last of them who was burnt alive was Weight- 
 man, in 1612. During the next few years 
 their views were, in part, adopted by the 
 Brownists or Independents, and it is difficult 
 to draw a distinction between the two sects. 
 In 1633 the Peculiar or Calvinistic Baptists 
 separated from the Independents, and founded 
 
Bar 
 
 (127) 
 
 £ar 
 
 a church of their own, and in 1644 the London 
 Baptist Churches published a Confession of 
 Faith. The story of their persecution after 
 the Restoration, and of the gradual removal 
 of their religious disabilities after the Revolu- 
 tion, does not differ from that of other dis- 
 senting churches. During the seventeenth 
 century the differences between the Peculiar 
 and General Baptists, principally on the 
 doctrine of the Redemption, became wider,' 
 and in 1770 the latter body became separated 
 into the General Baptists' New and Old 
 Connexion. The Scotch Baptists appear to 
 have become a recognised body about 1760. 
 As each church is complete in itself and the 
 form of government is congregational, con- 
 siderable differences of opinion prevail among 
 the Baptists on minor points. As a rule, neigh- 
 bouring churches unite into associations, and 
 the Baptist Union of Great Britain and 
 Ireland connects them all together. The 
 Baptists have displayed much energy in 
 mission-work, chiefly in India and the East. 
 Price, Protestant Noncfmformity in England; 
 Bogue and Benrett, Hist, of Dissenters ; "Wilson, 
 Hist, of Dissenting Churches ; Stoughton, Hist, of 
 Religion im England. 
 
 Baratariailia was the title of some letters 
 written in the Dublin journals by Henry 
 Flood and his followers in 1767. Barataria 
 was Ireland, and Townsbend was Sancho ; 
 the members of bis council were the officers 
 of Sancho' s household. These letters created 
 much sensation on account of their wit and 
 boldness. 
 
 Barbados, one of the "Windward Islands, 
 is supposed to have been discovered by the 
 Portuguese about 1518 ; it was first colonised 
 by an English expedition under Sir Oliver 
 Leigh, 1605, and in 1624 was granted by 
 James I. to Lord Ley, who sent out a number 
 of colonists. Shortly afterwards the whole of 
 the Caribbean Islands was made over to 
 Lord Carlisle, and a long dispute ensued as to 
 the ownership of Barbados ; the quarrel lasted 
 for some years, and frequent collisions between 
 the two parties took place in the island. In 
 1647 Lord Carlisle granted a lease of the 
 island for twenty-one years to Lord Wil- 
 loughby, who fortified the island for the 
 king, and in 1651 defeated a large Parlia- 
 mentary force which had been sent out 
 from England, under Admiral Ayscue. The 
 Barbadians, however, were shortly after- 
 wards compelled to capitulate, though many 
 of the leading men subsequently received 
 from Charles II. substantial rewards for 
 their loyalty. In 1663 the sovereignty of 
 Barbados became vested in the crown, and 
 the proprietary government was dissolved ; in 
 1675 and 1692 slave insurrections broke out, 
 but were speedily suppressed. In the next 
 century, especially during the administration 
 of Lord Howe (1733—35), the condition of the 
 Barbadians was much improved, both socially 
 aud politically, though property in the island 
 
 was almost entirely destroyed by a severe 
 hurricane in 1780. The condition of the 
 slaves in Barbados was almost as bad as in 
 Jamaica, and in 1826 there was an insurrection, 
 which was, however, soon quelled ; the slaves 
 were emancipated in 1834, and the apprentice 
 system done away with in 1838. On the 
 assumption of the sovereignty of the island 
 by the crown in 1663, a tax of 4J per cent, 
 was imposed on all native produce exported. 
 This tax proved a great burden upon the 
 planters, and was abolished in 1838. The 
 governor of Barbados is govemor-in-chief 
 of the "Windward Islands ; the administration 
 is representative, and is vested in a legislative 
 and executive council nominated by the 
 governor, aud a house of assembly of twenty- 
 four members elected by the freeholders.' It 
 is owing to the opposition of the Barbadians 
 that it has hitherto been found impracticable 
 to form a federation of the "Windward Islands, 
 as has been done in the Leeward Islands. 
 Barbados was divided into parishes as early 
 as 1629. 
 
 Ligon, Hisf. of Barhados ; B. Edwards, Hist. 
 
 of the West Indies ; Creasy, Britannic Empire ; 
 
 R. M. Martin, British Colonies. 
 
 Barbour, John (d. 1395), was the author 
 of the great national Scottish epic. The Bruce. 
 Of his life little is known. He was probably 
 bom about the year 1316 ; studied at Oxford, 
 and became Archdeacon of Aberdeen, Clerk 
 of the King's household, and one of the 
 Auditors of the Exchequer in Scotland. The 
 Bruce extends from the death of Alexander 
 III. to the death of King Robert. It is a 
 noble epic, fuU of spirit and vigour, and true 
 chivalrous feeling; aud is, moreover, highly 
 interesting historically, as being almost the 
 only Scottish authority for this period. 
 Barbour also wrote a book of Legends of the 
 Saints, and The Brute, dealing with the story 
 of Brutus. 
 
 The earliest edition of The Bruce was printed 
 at Edinlrargh in 1570. The poem has heen care- 
 fuUv edited by Mr. Innes for the Spalding Club 
 (1856) ; and by Mr. Skeat for the Early-BngUsh 
 Text Society (1875). 
 
 Barbuda, one of the Leeward Islands, 
 and celebrated for the salubrity of its climate, 
 is the property of the Codrington family, 
 who have held it under lease from the crown 
 since 1684. 
 
 Barcelona, the chief town of Catalonia, 
 played an important part in the Spanish 
 Succedsion "War. In 1704 an attempt was 
 made upon it by Sir George Eooke, who 
 landed the Prince of Darmstadt with some 
 marines, relying upon co-operation within 
 the city. The design, however, was be- 
 trayed by some of the conspirators, and 
 the prince hastily re-embarked. In 1705 
 the allies, under the Prince of Darmstadt and 
 the Earl of Peterborough, appeared before 
 the town. The fortifications were ancient, 
 but they had been repaired and strengthened, 
 
Bar 
 
 ( 128) 
 
 Bar 
 
 and the natural advantages of the town and 
 the strong castle of Montjuich were very 
 great. The besieging force was weak, and 
 the Spanish auxiliaries showed little disposi- 
 tion or capacity for regular siege operations. 
 After a fortnight the troops prepared to 
 embark ; but Peterborough suddenly an- 
 nounced his intention of attacking Montjuich. 
 Ascending the hill at dawn with 1,400 men, 
 he surprised the garrison and captured the 
 fortress. The castle of Barcelona, now ex- 
 posed to a fire from the hill, soon surren- 
 dered, and on Oct. 3rd the town capitulated. 
 The Archduke Charles was besieged in Barce- 
 lona in 1706, by a, fleet under the Count of 
 Toulouse, and an army of 20,000 men under 
 Marshal Tesse. Sir John Leake, with thirty 
 ships, came to the relief of the town, but 
 hesitated to attack the French fleet tiU Peter- 
 borough, who had put ofl: in an open boat, 
 arrived on board his ship with instructions to 
 supersede him. The French army retired, 
 and the fleet followed its example. After 
 the Peace of Utrecht the Catalans refused to 
 surrender Barcelona to Philip of Anjou ; but 
 the place was captured by the Duke of 
 Berwick in Sept., 1714. In the Peninsular 
 War, Barcelona was occupied by the French, 
 Feb. 13, 1808. In March, 1809, an attempt 
 on it was made by Lord Collingwood, in 
 conjunction with the Catalan levies and 
 Somatenes ; but the French continued to hold 
 it tOl the end of the war. 
 
 Barclay, William (i. 1541, d. 1605), a 
 Scotchman by birth, after serving many years 
 in France, came to England in 1603, and was 
 well received by James I. He had quarrelled 
 with the Jesuits, and, though stfll remaining 
 a Boman Catholic, was strongly opposed to 
 the temporal power of the Pope. He had 
 also written a work in favour of extreme 
 views of royal authority, which recommended 
 him to James I. His Catholicism, however, 
 prevented his preferment, and after spendino- 
 two years in England he returned to France 
 just before his death. His controversy 
 with Bellarmine respecting the Papal power 
 earued him considerable fame, and his views 
 as to the hmits of the Pope's authority 
 were adopted by a large number of English 
 Catholics. In poUtios he was a vigorous 
 upholder of extreme monarchical principles. 
 Barclay's chief works are Be Regno et Regali 
 rotestate Adversus SxKhananum, etc and De 
 Potestafc PaiKB, printed together at Hanover, 
 lau. bee Iiooke, Treatise on Government. 
 
 Bardolf, Thomas, Lord(*. 1367, A 1408) 
 was one of the nobles who joined Henry of 
 Lancaster in 1399, but he subsequently es- 
 poused the cause of the Percies, and joined 
 m the plot to put the Earl of March on the 
 throne. He fled to Scotland in 1405, and in 
 1408 took up arms in Yorkshire against the 
 tang, and was mortally wounded at Bramham 
 Moor. 
 
 Bards. [Druids.J 
 
 Barebones' Parliament (July 4th 
 
 to Dec. 12th, 1653) was the nickname given 
 to the Assembly summoned by Cromwell 
 and the council of officers after the expulsion 
 of the Rump (q.v.). It derived its name 
 from a certain Praise- God Barbon, or Bare- 
 bones, a, leatherseUer of Fleet Street, who 
 , took a somewhat prominent part as a member 
 of this Assembly. It consisted of 139 
 persona summoned as representatives — 122 
 for England (including 7 for London), 6 for 
 Wales, 5 for Scotland, and 6 for Ireland^ 
 who were chosen by Cromwell and his officers 
 from lists of persons " faithful, fearing God, 
 and hating eovetousness," furnished to them 
 by the various churches. Amongst them were 
 Blake, Montague, Monk, Ashley Cooper, and 
 other men of position and influence. They be- 
 gan by electing Cromwell and four other officers 
 to be members of their body. They set to work 
 to reform the administration of the law, re- 
 laxed imprisonment for debt, passed a Civil 
 Marriage Act, commenced the codification of 
 the law, and began the process of abolishing 
 the Court of Chancery. They decided to 
 aboKsh the power of patrons to present to 
 benefices, and the institution of tithes. These 
 resolutions, especially the latter, would have 
 rendered the existence of a State Church 
 impossible, and Cromwell and the country 
 at large were not prepared to go so far. 
 A sudden stroke solved the difficultj'. On 
 Dec. 12th Sydenham, one of the members, 
 having mustered his friends before many of 
 the other party had arrived, suddenly pro- 
 posed, with the concurrence of the Speaker, 
 that the Parliament (which he described as 
 useless and injurious to the Commonwealth) 
 should resign its power into the hands of 
 Cromwell. This motion was at once carried, 
 and those who dissented were expelled by a 
 company of soldiers under Colonel GroSe and 
 Major White. The "sober men" of that 
 meeting, as CromweU called them, resigned 
 their power into his hands. He accused the 
 other party of an intention "to set up thf 
 judicial law of Moses," and to aboUsh all 
 magistracy and ministrj"^ as anti-christian. 
 Some historians, objecting to the somewhat 
 ludicrous title of Barebones' Parliament, have 
 called this Assembly " The Little Parlia- 
 ment," while others prefer to style it " The 
 Assembly of Nominees." It has been de- 
 scribed as an assembly of obscure fanatics, 
 but AVTiitelocke says that "many of this 
 assembly" were "persons of fortune and 
 knowledge." 
 
 ■WTaitelocke, Memorials; ludlow, Memoirs; 
 Kanlie, Ht-t. o/:Biig. ; Guizot, Cromtoell: Carlyle, 
 Cromwell; Maseon, Life of Milton, -vol. y. 
 
 Barillon, French ambassador in England 
 (1677—1688), was employed by Louis XIV. to 
 keep Charles II. and James II. in dependence 
 upon France, or, at any rate, inactive in 
 
Bar 
 
 ( 129 ) 
 
 Bar 
 
 European politics. With this otject lie 
 fomented the quarrel between the court and 
 the country party, writing to his master in 
 1687, "It may be held as an indubitable 
 maxim that agreement between the King of 
 England and his Parliament is not for the 
 interest of your Majesty." When early in 
 1688 the national opposition seemed likely to 
 endanger James's position, it was Barillon 
 who advised the bringing over of Irish 
 troops. Yet he allowed himself to be duped 
 by Sunderland's assurances; and it was for 
 this reason that, after he had been obliged to 
 leave England by William, he was not ap- 
 pointed to attend James in Ireland. 
 
 Eajifce, Hist of Eng., vol. iv. Extracts from 
 BariUon's reports are translated in Dalrymple, 
 Memoirs of Great Bri'aijn^ and are given in Pox, 
 Bist. of James II., appendix. 
 
 Barkham, John [h. 1572, d. 1642), his- 
 torian, herald, and antiquary, assisted Speed 
 dn his work, The History of Great Britain, and 
 wrote the greater portion of Guillim's Display 
 of Heraldry. 
 
 Barking ATlbey was one of the oldest 
 and richest nunneries in England. It was 
 said to have been founded by St. Erkenwald, 
 Bishop of London, and after being sacked by 
 the Danes in 870 was restored by Edgar. 
 The revenues of the convent were very large, 
 and the abbess, holding more than thirteen 
 knights' fees and a half, held her lands from 
 the crown as a barony. The nuns were of 
 the Benedictine order, and after 1200 exer- 
 cised the right of electing their own abbess. 
 The convent was surrendered to Henrj' VIII. 
 in 1539. 
 
 • Lysons, Enwrons of London, iv. 
 History of Essex, 
 
 Morant, 
 
 Barkstead, John (d. 1662), a gold- 
 smith in the Strand, served in the City 
 train bands, and subsequently obtained a 
 colonelcy in the Parliamentary arm}'. He 
 took part in the king's trial, and was one of 
 those who signed the death-warrant. Sub- 
 sequently he became Lieutenant of the 
 Tower and Steward of the Household to the 
 Protector. At the Restoration he fled to the 
 Continent, but was betrayed, brought back, 
 and executed at Tyburn. 
 
 Barlow, Sm G-eobge, a civil servant 
 of the Bengal establishment, had risen by 
 a meritorious service of twenty-eight years 
 to a seat in Council, under Lord WeUesley. 
 His industry and official experience were 
 great, but he was quite unequal to the re- 
 sponsibilities of empire. On the death of 
 Lord ComwaUis, the government of India 
 was temporarily (1805—1807) in Sir George 
 Barlow's hands. The result of his determined 
 non-intervention policy was the restoration 
 to Scindiah and Holkar of many of the ad- 
 vantages which England had gained by the 
 Mahratta Wars. He was a great opponent 
 of missionary enterprise in India, and caused 
 Hist. -5 
 
 the Company to assume the whole manage- 
 ment of the temple of Juggernaut, including 
 the three hundred dancing girls. In spite of 
 the favour of the Directors, Sir George was 
 not appointed Governor- General, but was 
 nominated Governor of Madras in 1807. 
 His want of tact made him very unpopular 
 in this position, and he was involved in bitter 
 disputes with his subordinates. His obstinacy 
 and violence did much to produce the Madras 
 mutiny, but he displayed much firmness while 
 it lasted. The result of the mutiny was his 
 recall in 1811. 
 
 Malcolm, Folit. Hist, of India ; Mill, Hist, of 
 India. 
 
 Barnard Castle, in Durham, was occu- 
 pied by the Eoyahsts under Sir George Bowes 
 during the Northern rebellion of 1569. It 
 was subsequently taken by the rebels under 
 the Earl of Westmoreland in the course of 
 the same episode. 
 
 Barnard, Sir John (i. 1685, d. 1764), was 
 an eminent London merchant who became 
 Lord Mayor in 1757. He sat for London 
 from 1722 to 1758. He was a vigorous oppo- 
 nent of Sir Eobert Walpole's, and in 1733 
 attacked that minister's sinking fund and 
 the excise scheme, which he declared " could 
 not, even by malice itself, be represented as 
 worse than it really was." In 1737 he 
 introduced a Bill (which was rejected) 
 to lower the interest of the National Debt by 
 borrowing money at three per cent, to redeem 
 the annuities for which a higher rate was 
 being paid. In 1742 he declined to attend 
 the secret committee appointed to inquire 
 into Walpole's administration. He attempted, 
 but without success, to moderate the outcry 
 raised against Admiral Byng. He was a man 
 of high character, and was much respected 
 by all parties. 
 
 Coxe, Walpole ; Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Bamet, TheBattib op (1471), was fought 
 between Edward IV. and the Earl of War- 
 wick and the Lancastrians. On March 14th 
 Edward landed at Eavenspur and marched 
 towards London, no attempt being made to 
 check him. Having been welcomed by the 
 citizens of London, Edward, learning that 
 Warwick was posted at Barnet, marched out 
 to meet him, and drew up his army on Hadley 
 Green. The fight commenced at five o'clock 
 in the morning of April 14, which that year 
 was Easter Day. The Lancastrian right wing 
 under Lord Oxford was at first victorious, and 
 drove in Edward's left; but a heavy fog 
 occasioned them to mistake a part of their 
 own army for the Yorkist force ; confusion 
 ensued, of which Edward took advantage to 
 retrieve the fortune of the day. After very 
 severe fighting, in which no quarter was 
 given on either side, the Yorkists were 
 completely victorious, and Warwick and his 
 brother Montagu were slain. It is impossible 
 
Bar 
 
 (130 ) 
 
 Bar 
 
 to give any authentic statement of the num- 
 bers or the losses on either side. 
 
 Warkworth, Chronicle, vol. vi., 1883 (Camden 
 Soc.) ; Gentleman's Mag. (Oct., 1844) ; Htsto™ of 
 the Arrival of Edward IV. (Camden Soo.)j 
 ArduBologia, vol. xxix. ; and esp. Transactions 
 of Lond. and Middlesex Archxolog. Soc, vol. vi., 
 1883. 
 
 Baroda Commission, The (1875). 
 The Guicowar, Mulhar Eao, waa in this 
 year accused of attempting to poison the 
 Eesident, Colonel Phayre. He was tried by 
 a mixed commission of three English and 
 three uatives. The commission failed to 
 come to any satisfactory conclusion, as the 
 English members considered the case proved, 
 while the natives thought the charge had not 
 been substantiated. Lord Northbrook, the 
 G-overnor-General, however, held the former 
 opinion. The Guicowar was therefore 
 deposed by proclamation of the Viceroy, and 
 his widow allowed to adopt an heir. 
 
 Baron. The history of the word baron is 
 one of those cases in which questions hotly 
 disputed may be virtually settled by strict 
 discrimination of the meaning of a name. 
 The word, which originally meant " man " 
 or " freeman," has now come to mean the 
 simplest grade of the peerage. Between 
 these extreme points, it passes through im- 
 portant alterations of meaning. The word 
 first occurs in England after the Norman 
 Conquest. When William the Conqueror's 
 " barons " are spoken of, it is quite clear that 
 this means all who held lands directly of him 
 — that is, of course, if they held by mili- 
 tary service. In this large body of chief 
 tenants — some 1,400 in number, including 
 ecclesiastics — there was naturally from the 
 first a tendency to a practical division 
 between the great lord, who .had knights 
 holding under him, and the simple knight, 
 who held but his own small estate. But it is 
 unnecessary to say with Madox that this was 
 also a clear legal distinction, " an original 
 difference between tenure by barony and 
 tenure by knight service ; " and it would be 
 impossible aa yet to find any principle on 
 which to base such a legal distinction. But 
 already, under Henry I., the practical dis- 
 tinction had become accentuated, and it soon 
 came to be the custom that the greater " baron 
 of the king " should treat for payment of his 
 relief and aids directly with the king, instead 
 of paying through the sheriff ; that on the 
 rates becoming fixed hia relief should be 
 100 marks, while ordinary chief tenants paid 
 100s.; similarly, that he should lead his own 
 tenants to the host, while the other served 
 under the sheriff's banner; that he should 
 be amerced by hia equals in the King's 
 Court, not by the sheriff ; and, most decisive 
 of all, that he waa summoned propria nomine 
 by a special writ, not, like the "lesser barons," 
 by a general writ to the sheriff for each 
 shire. From the biography of Beoket and 
 
 the Dialogiis de Seaccario, we see that 
 this last distinction was recognised and 
 customary early in Henry II. 'a reign ; while 
 in Magna Charta it is claimed and conceded 
 in the Article 14, which deals with the mode 
 of convoking the Great Council; and it is 
 acted on thereafter, even though thia article 
 was dropped in the later re-issuea of the 
 Charter. The greater barons had, in one 
 aense, a quaKficatiou by tenure ; they would 
 all be holders of a barony, not (that is) 
 a definite number of knights' fees, as waa 
 sometimes stated — for some baronies conaisted 
 of no more than One or two such —but holders 
 of some group of knights' fees which had at 
 the Conquest been, endowed with such a 
 special character, or had since come to be 
 so regarded ; and in this sense the word is 
 used in the Constitutions of Clarendon, and 
 as early as Henry I.'s Charter. These lead- 
 ing landowners, with the earls, could not 
 well be left unsummoned. But outside this ' 
 inner necessary body, the king had a wide 
 circle of holders of baronies out of whom to 
 select those whom he should by his writ call 
 to special attendance in host or in council. 
 And here a further exclusion went on. For 
 throughout the reigns of Henry III. and 
 Edward I., special summonses to the host 
 were sent to more than 100 barons ; while to 
 Edward I. 'a Parliaments the number so called 
 was hardly half as great. And even so, 
 many of those who were called were not 
 holders of baronies, but of much smaller 
 estates; many, too, were called only occa- 
 sionally. Here, then, is to be seen Edward's 
 steady design of " eliminating the doctrine of 
 tenure from the region of government." iThe 
 reluctance of all but the greatest lords to 
 attend co-operated in thia direction ; and 
 " Edward I. is the creator of the House of 
 Lords almost as truly aa of the House of 
 Commons," in the sense that to him was due 
 the smaUness of its numbers, the selection (to 
 a great extent) of its members, and the final 
 establishment of the principle that it ia con- 
 stituted by writ of summons, not by tenure. 
 Nor would it be against the desires of the great 
 barons themselves to see the substitution of 
 summons for tenure as the qualification. 
 For mere tenure-in- chief, if accepted, might 
 have flooded the House with the lesser chief 
 tenants, and have brought into it any mere 
 purchaser of a baronial estate. During the 
 same period the "lesser barons" had gradually 
 ceased to attend as barons, and merged into 
 the mass of the country freeholders, whom 
 they inspired with their high spirit and 
 traditions of constitutional resistance, and to 
 whom they acted as leaders in shire moot and 
 in national Parliament. Under the policy of 
 Edward I. and the operation of his statute 
 Quia Emptores, and with the introduction of 
 the new idea — representation for all below 
 baronial rank, whether chief tenants or not— 
 tenure-in-chief lost its constitutional value, 
 
Bar 
 
 (131) 
 
 Bar 
 
 and the separation of chief tenants into barons 
 and knights, or nobles and gentry, was ac- 
 complished. To complete this, it was only- 
 required that the right to receive the special 
 summons should he regarded as hereditary ; 
 and this too, as a legal principle, dates from 
 Edward I.'s reign. A further limitation in 
 the sense of the word baron was effected when 
 the crown created barons by letters patent, 
 first in 1387 ; but the instances are very rare 
 till the close of Henry VII.'s reign. In these 
 patents the right is limited, as a rule, to heirs 
 male, while the older baronies, by writ of sum- 
 mons, could descend through females (so Sir 
 John Oldcastle became Lord Cobham in right 
 of his wife). The mere personal summons, ' 
 not inheritable, continued under Lancastrian 
 kings, but definitely ceased under the Tudors. 
 The attempt to create a life peerage was 
 disallowed as obsolete in the Wensleydale 
 case, 1856. Since the Earl of Bristol's 
 case in 1626 the receipt of such a writ is 
 an inherited right which cannot be denied. 
 Thus, out of the great mass of "barons" of 
 the Conquest, the leading families were 
 gradually selected (as it were) by the crown. 
 These families have long since disappeared; 
 the crown has supplied their place with a 
 body four times as numerous ; but this body 
 has now a right with which the crown can 
 no longer interfere. When the kings of the 
 fourteenth century introduced new grades 
 (duke, marquis, viscount) beside the old 
 baronial body of earls and barons proper, the 
 word baron sank to its narrowest meaning — - 
 that which it now bears, a peer who sits by 
 no higher title. The bishops, till the Eefor- 
 mation, sat both in their Old English character 
 and in their new character as barons. But 
 Henry VIII. 's new sees had no baronies 
 attached. The number of abbots who sat 
 had fallen from 100 or more in the thirteenth 
 century to a fixed number of 27 under 
 Edward III. ; those who could claim that 
 they did not owe the service of a whole barony 
 were glad to be excused. At the Reformation, 
 when the abbots were excluded, the balance 
 of numbers, for the first time, was left with 
 the lay lords. 
 
 The political history of the baronage may 
 be briefly summed up in three periods : — (1) 
 The feudal baronage, whose policy was the 
 weakening of the central power, and whose 
 alliances and habits were those of Normans, 
 was nearly eliminated by forfeiture before 
 Magna Charta. The last great baron of this 
 type may be found in Ranulf , Earl of Chester, 
 who died in 1232. The dispersed character 
 of their CKtates, the vigorous resistance of the 
 Old English spirit, the strong arm of the 
 Norman king, made this feudal class less 
 formidable than it proved on the Continent. 
 (2) On its ruins had been rising the new 
 families of the ministers rewarded by Henry I. 
 and Henry II., out of which was formed the 
 national baronage which took the lead in 
 
 winning the Charter, which defeated Henry 
 III. 's plan of personal government, and which 
 finally secured from Edward I. the results of 
 a struggle of a century. Their typical 
 representative is Richard, Earl Marshal in 
 Henry III.'s reign. (3) As the great fiefs 
 began to fall in to the crown, and as the 
 constitutional leadership passed on to the 
 knights, the baronage turns from national 
 aims to dynastic partisanship, family ag- 
 grandisement, and the ostentation of chivalry. 
 The people are still only too ready to believe 
 in and to accept them as champions. But 
 they become more and more a narrow class, 
 bound up with one or other of the two royal 
 houses ; and they are left alone at last to 
 fight out the Wars of the Roses by the aid 
 of their own retainers, and to be almost 
 exterminated in the struggle. Yet when 
 they were gone, and the Church was power- 
 less in its anti-national Romanism, the nation 
 was helpless at the feet of the new despotism. 
 For England still required its nobles, and in 
 their worst phases they had played a necessary 
 part on the political stage. Even the selfish 
 factiousness of the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 century nobility had been obliged to adopt 
 national grievances for its faction cries ; the 
 traditions of noble leadership had been found 
 still to have invaluable strength for the 
 purposes of the Hundred Years' War; and 
 for the rest, the nobles, busy with place- 
 hunting and court intrigues, left space for 
 the silent growth of literature, of commerce, 
 and of municipal Hfe. 
 
 The great barons may be roughly reckoned 
 at 400 in Domesday, nearly half of whom 
 held estates in two or more counties. The 
 number of lesser barons was rather smaller. 
 By the thirteenth century both classes have 
 decreased in numbers, but the former have 
 increased the average size of their estates. 
 By the end of the next century the baronial 
 body has sunk to something less than 100 
 families, still holding, however, a vast pro- 
 portion of the land of England. Soon after, 
 the two representative estates of clergy and 
 the Commons had risen up to share with 
 them the functions of legislation. The 
 baronial body retained separate and inde- 
 pendent privileges. They constituted a 
 great part of the standing council, which 
 took upon itself the administration when 
 the king was a minor. They held with 
 the king the supreme judicial power, both 
 original and appellate. They could be 
 judged only by their brother peers. Till 
 nearly the Yorkist period they were called 
 to give counsel and consent for legislation, 
 while the Commons only had the right of 
 petition. For general administration they 
 were called to " treat and give counsel ; " the 
 Commons only " to execute and consent." 
 
 Selden, Titles of Honour; Madox, Baronia 
 Anglioa; Dugdale, Baronage of England; Sir 
 H. Nicolas, Bistorio Peerage; Lords Reports on- 
 
Bar 
 
 ( 132 ) 
 
 Bar 
 
 the Digmty of Feer, 1825—26 and 1829, esp. ii., 
 pt. 1 ; Hallam, Middle Ages ; Stubbs, Const. Hist., 
 passim; Gneist, Vei-waltwngbrecht, i. 130—13*^. 
 [A. L. S.] 
 
 Baronets were first created by James I. 
 in 1611, when, being in want of money for 
 the support of the army in Ulster, he offered 
 the title of baronet to all "who would pay 
 into the Exchequer ^61,080, in three annual 
 payments, being the sum required for the 
 pay of a hundred foot soldiers for three 
 years." In Ireland baronets were instituted 
 in 1620, and in Scotland by Charles I. in 
 1625, and called baronets of Nova Scotia, 
 because it was originally intended to establish 
 them for the encouragement of the settling of 
 Nova Scotia. The principle of this dignity 
 was to give rank, precedence, and title without 
 privilege. A baronet was to remain a com- 
 moner, but his title (unlike that of a knight) 
 was to be hereditary. Since the time of Charles 
 II. it has been usual to remit the payment 
 due to the crown on creation of a baronetcy. 
 It was intended that the number of 
 baronets should be limited to 200, but the 
 number was exceeded even before the death 
 of James I. 
 
 Barons' War, The. The first distinct 
 appeal to arms of this war was made in 1263 
 by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. 
 Eive years before, the incurable misrule of 
 Henry III. had provoked the more public- 
 spirited of his barons to place him under the 
 control of a commission of reform, and then 
 of a council ; from this control he had now 
 been for three years struggling to free him- 
 self, but with little success. The situation 
 grew daily more distracted ; England had two 
 rival governments, the king and the Baronial 
 Council, each claiming obedience, and for- 
 bidding what the other commanded. From 
 time to time efforts had been made to arrange 
 the points in dispute, but in vain. Of these 
 points the principal were : the observance by 
 the king of the Provisions of Oxford, the 
 right of holding the royal castles, the power 
 of appointing and removingf the state officials 
 and cotmsellors, and the exclusion of all 
 foreigners from places of trust and profit. Not 
 one of these demands of the barons could 
 Henry be brought to loyally concede. Accord- 
 ingly, in June, 1263, the smothered disgust of 
 the barons burst into open war. But the cam- 
 paign had barely begun when Henry's astute 
 brother Richard, King of the Romans, inter- 
 posed and patched up a kind of reconciliation. 
 Some months of troubled peace followed, which 
 both parties spent in diligent search after the 
 means of getting a lasting peace. In Decem- 
 ber they agreed to submit their quarrel to 
 Louis IX. of France (St. Louis) ; and the 
 chief men of both sides swore solemnly to 
 abide by hia decision, whatever it might be. 
 At Amiens, in Jan., 1264, St. Louis heard the 
 case that the king in person and the barons laid 
 before him, and gave judgment. This was in 
 
 favour of the king on every one of the points 
 specified above, though the "liberties, statutes, 
 and laudable customs of the realm of England 
 that were before the time of the Provisions " 
 were left intact. [Amiens, Mise oe.] Not- 
 withstanding their oaths, the earl and his 
 party easily found, an excuse that satisfied 
 their consciences for refusing to be bound 
 by this decision. "War was now entered upon 
 in earnest ; and in March the hostile armies 
 were lying within a few miles of each 
 other — the king's at Oxford, the earl's 
 at Brackley. Here a last attempt at a 
 pacification proved fruitless. Then the com- 
 batants parted, the king marching to take 
 Northampton and Nottingham, the barons to 
 add the array of the Londoners to their own, 
 and to lay siege to Rochester. This operation 
 brought on the battle that decided the cam- 
 paign. For the king, alarmed for Rochester, 
 hurried to its relief, and finding the siege 
 raised on his arrival, went on to the reduction 
 of the Cinque Ports. De Montfort cautiously 
 followed, and on reaching Fletohing learned 
 that the royal army was but ten miles off, in 
 and around the town and Cluniao Priory of 
 Lewes. Thither, on May 14, he led his 
 followers, fuU of religious enthusiasm and 
 patriotic ardour, along the slopes of the bush- 
 less downs, and, almost with sunrise, burst in 
 upon the half-prepared Royalists. The fiery 
 onset of Prince Edward routed and made havoc 
 of the eaxl's left wing, where the Londoners 
 fought, but only rendered the baronial victory 
 more sure. Carried off the field by his fury, 
 Edward left his father and uncle to be crushed 
 by the right and centre of the attacking 
 force. Next day the two kings, Edward 
 himself, and his cousin Henry, were prisoners 
 in the earl's hands. De Montfort was 
 now master of king and kingdom. He 
 strove hard to effect a settlement ; called a 
 Parliament of the imperfect type then in use ; 
 drew up a new scheme of government ; and 
 was diligent in framing measures of reform. 
 At the end of the year he took the step that 
 has made him immortal : he summoned in 
 Henry's name a national assembly that was the 
 first to contain all the elements of a full Parlia- 
 ment, duly chosen citizens and burgesses, as 
 well as knights of the shire, barons, abbots, 
 and bishops. This body began its sittings at 
 London in January, 1265 ; and did its best to 
 strengthen the position of its creator. But 
 this position was already undermined. The 
 baronial party had split into sections, one of 
 which, under Gilbert, Earl of Gloucester, 
 openly thwarted Earl Simon's designs, and at 
 last broke away from the old leader altogether. 
 The end came swiftly on. While De Montfort 
 was suppressing disturbances in South Wales, 
 Edward escaped from his guards, gathered 
 round him his father's friends and De Mont- 
 fort's foes, and by rapid marches secured the 
 line of the Severn. Early in August, however, 
 the slow moving earl had forced a passage 
 
Bar 
 
 ( 133 ) 
 
 Bar 
 
 across this barrier, and, with the king still in 
 his possession, had reached Evesham, hopino- 
 to meet his son Simon, who was leading the 
 levies of the south and east to join him. With 
 this object, on Aug. 4, 1265, he was starting 
 from Evesham when he was caught by his 
 active opponent, who had shortly before 
 suddenly fallen upon and destroyed the 
 younger Simon's force at Kenilworth. By 
 wise and well-executed dispositions he now 
 enclosed the old warrior on every side ; and 
 after a stubborn contest, the great earl and 
 his bravest followers perished, fighting des- 
 perately. Yet the war lingered for two years 
 longer. The harshness of the victors, who 
 pronounced the lands of the rebels forfeit, 
 drove the vanquished to despair. The siege 
 of Kenilworth was prolonged tiU late in 1266 ; 
 and at Axholm, in Lincolnshire, another 
 obstinate band of outlaws held out stiffly 
 against the assaults of Edward. At length 
 Axholm was taken ; and by this time expe- 
 rience had taught its captor moderation. In 
 the Dictum of Kenilwoi-th he offered milder 
 terms to the defenders of the castle; and it 
 surrendered at last (Dec, 1266). In the 
 meantime others of " the Disinherited " had 
 seized Ely, and one more siege became neces- 
 sary. This lasted till the summer of 1267, 
 when Edward forced his way into the place, 
 and thus ended the Barons' "War. [Mont- 
 FOKT, Simon de.] 
 
 ,'W'. H. Blaauw, The Barms' War; Panli, Life 
 of Simon de Montfort; Protliero, Life of Simcm 
 de Mmtfort ; Stubbs, Const. Hist., ch. xiv 
 
 [J. E.] 
 Barosa, The Battle of (March 5, 
 1811), was fought between the EngKsh and 
 Spaniards, and the French, during the Penin- 
 sular War. General Graham, who had been 
 blockaded through the winter in Cadiz, learn- 
 ing that Soult had marched to Badajos, 
 resolved to rid himself of Victor's besieging 
 force. To effect this purpose he embarked 
 12,000 men, who landed atTarifa, in the rear 
 of the French. But with an iU-timed modesty 
 Graham gave up the chief command to La 
 Pena, the Spanish general, who systematically 
 neglected his advice. The low ridge of Barosa 
 was the key both to offensive and defensive 
 movements, and Graham was very anxious to 
 hold it ; hut La Pena ordered him to march 
 through a thick wood to Bermeja, and left the 
 heights of Barosa crowded with baggage and 
 defended only by a wholly inadequate force. 
 Victor no sooner saw Graham's corps enter the 
 wood than he attacked and took Barosa, cut- 
 ting off a Spanish division which was on its 
 march. Graham, on hearing of Victor's tactics, 
 at once faced about, and, marching back to the 
 plain, without a moment's hesitation resolved 
 ■to attack, although the key of the field of 
 battle was already in the enemy's possession. 
 He accordingly despatched one body of troops 
 to attack Laval, who was on the flank, while 
 Brown and Dilke attacked the heights. " The 
 
 Enghsh bore strongly onward, and their in- 
 cessant slaughtering fire forced the French 
 from the hiU with the loss of three guns and 
 many brave soldiers." Victor was soon in full 
 retreat, and the British, having been twenty- 
 tour hours under arms without food, were 
 too exhausted to pursue. In the meantime 
 Av ^^f' ^°°^^^ iiily on, so that the remains 
 o± the French army, retreating in the greatest 
 disorder, were allowed to escape. 
 
 Napier, Penimular War; A. M. Delavoyo, 
 £"538 J^!"»<'*"'li; Alison, Hist, of Emiie, 
 
 Barrackpore, an important military 
 station in Lower Bengal, fifteen miles from 
 Calcutta, was the place where, during the 
 First Burmese War (q.v.) the 47th Native 
 Eegiment, who were ordered for service, pre- 
 sented a memorial (Oct., 1824), setting forth 
 the extreme difficulty of procuring cattle, and 
 begging to be relieved of the burden of pro- 
 viding means of conveyance. The sepoys 
 were informed that they would receive no 
 assistance. On Nov. 1st the 47th broke out 
 into open mutiny, and refused to fall in at 
 the word. After vainly endeavouring to 
 reason with them, the Commander-in-chief 
 ordered up several European regiments and a 
 detachment of horse artUlery. The sepoys 
 were ordered to march at once, or ground 
 arms ; on their refusal a volley was discharged 
 on them by the artillery, and the European 
 regiments fell on them. The slaughter was 
 very great. The ringleaders were subse- 
 quently tried by court-martial and executed ; 
 and others were sentenced to hard labour in 
 irons. It was at Barrackpore that the first 
 mutinous demonstrations took place during the 
 Sepoy rebellion of 1857. In February of that 
 year the native troops quartered at this place 
 refused to bite the ends of their cartridges. 
 On Mar. 29 the 34th Native Infantry muti- 
 nied; it was disbanded May 5, the 10th 
 Native Infantry having been previously dis- 
 banded Mar. 31. 
 
 Kaj e, Sepoy War, i. 266 aeq. 
 
 Barr^, Isaac (4. 1726, d. 1792), in 1746 
 entered the army, and served in Flanders and 
 Canada. In 1759, he was present, and 
 severely wounded, at the storming of the 
 heights of Abraham, In 1761, Lord Shel- 
 bume gave his vacated seat for Chipping 
 Wycombe to Barre. Two days after taking 
 his seat, he made a most violent attack 
 on Pitt. He strongly supported Bute's 
 government in the debates on the Peace of 
 Paris in 1762, and was rewarded for his ser- 
 vices by being appointed Adjutant-General 
 to the British Forces, and soon afterwards 
 Governor of Stirling Castle. But on the retire- 
 ment of Lord Shelbume from the Board of 
 Trade, Barre voted in opposition to the Gren- 
 ville ministry in reference to the prosecution 
 of Wilkes for libel, and was summarily dis- 
 missed from his military appointments and 
 
Bar 
 
 ( 134 
 
 Bar 
 
 reduced to half-pay in Dec, 1763. He con- 
 tiiraed strenuously to oppose the ministry in 
 their action with regard to Wilkes and general 
 warrants, and his ability as a debater became 
 more and more conspicuous. On the intro- 
 duction of the Stamp Act in 1765, he was one 
 of the " two or three gentlemen who spoke 
 against the Act, and that with great reserve 
 and remarkable temper." He was a firm 
 supporter of the poHcy of the Eockmgham 
 government, and on Pitt's taking office m 
 1766 he received a minor appointment. But 
 in Oct., 1768, he retired with Lord Shel- 
 burne, on account of differences with the 
 Duke of Grafton, whom he forthwith attacked 
 in Parliament. During the long period of 
 Lord North's administration Barre was out oi 
 ofBce, and was especially active in advocating 
 the cause of the revolted colonies in America, 
 and the right of "Wilkes to his seat._ In the 
 second Rockingham administration in 1782, 
 Barre was appointed Treasurer of the Navy ; 
 but while Burke was proposing his Economical 
 Eef orms, and before the contemplated enact- 
 ments could have come to his knowledge, Barre 
 accepted an enormous pension of £3,200 a year, 
 which, however, he was subsequently induced 
 to resign in return for the clerkship of the Pells. 
 It has been attempted to identify Barre with the 
 author of the Letters of Junius; but the asser- 
 tion rests on no sufficient evidence. The closing 
 days of Barre, hke those of his old adversary, 
 Lord North, were darkened by blindness. 
 
 Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George III. ; 
 Stanhope, Hist. o/Ei.g.; Trevelyan, Earla Tears 
 of C. J. Fox; Britton, Junius Elucidated. 
 
 Barri, Gerald de. [Gikaidus Cam- 
 
 BBENSIS.] 
 
 Barrier Treaty, The (1715). The 
 project of giving the States-General a, 
 " barrier'' against France by means of a Une 
 of fortresses along the frontier had been raised 
 in the Grand Alliance negotiations of 1701, 
 and again in 1703, but was defeated by 
 the hostility of Austria. In 1709, however, a 
 treaty was concluded between England and 
 Holland, by which the former bound herself 
 to obtain for the Dutch the right of supply- 
 ing garrisons for the Flemish fortresses, in- 
 cluding Ypres, Menin, Lille, Toumai, Conde, 
 Valenciennes, Charleroi, Namur, Damm, and 
 Dendermonde. The treaty was signed by 
 Townshend on the part of England; as Marl- 
 borough refused to be a party to it. The 
 arrangements were revised and considerably 
 altered, much to the disadvantage of the 
 Dutch, by a second agreement which was 
 come to in 1713, in which the number of 
 barrier fortresses was greatly curtailed. The 
 treaty was, however, not definitively signed 
 till Nov. 15, 1715. The chief provisions 
 were that the Low Countries were guaranteed 
 to the house of Austria, and were not to be 
 alienated on any conditions whatsoever. 
 The Dutch were to garrison Namur, Tournai, 
 
 Menin, Fumes, Wameton, Ypres, and 
 Knoque; and Dendermonde was to be 
 garrisoned jointly by Dutch and Austmn 
 troops The Dutch were very dissatisfied 
 at this curtailment in the number of towns 
 ceded to them, and stiU more so at the com- 
 mercial stipulations by which England was 
 put on the same footing with Holland, as 
 regards the commerce of the Belgian towns. 
 But the treaty was altogether a disturbing 
 element in European poUtios, and an especial 
 source of friction in the relations of England 
 and Austria. It was one of the causes 
 of the ahenation of England and Austria 
 previous to the beginning of the Seven 
 Years' War. The Barrier Treaty was 
 annulled by the Treaty of Fontamebleau, 
 1785. [Utrecht, Treaty of.] 
 
 Kooh and SchoeU, Htstoire des TraitSs, ii., eh. 
 
 11 ; Lecky, Hist, of the Eighteenth, Cmtury ; 
 
 ■Wjon, Eeigft of Q. Anne. 
 
 Barrowists, The, who derived their 
 name from one of their leaders, Henry 
 Barrow, a lawyer, were a sect of Separatists 
 in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, closely 
 allied in their doctrines with the Brownists. 
 Henry Barrow was examined before the 
 Court of High Commission in 1587, for his 
 " schismatical and seditious opinions," and 
 imprisoned, but continued to issue inflam- 
 matory pamphlets urging the abolition of 
 episcopacy ; he was found guilty of " writing 
 and publishing sundry seditious books and 
 pamphlets tending to the slander of the 
 queen and government, and was executed at 
 Tyburn, April 6, 1593. The Barrowists 
 shared the aversion of the Brownists to legal 
 ministry ; and were deemed still more proper 
 subjects for persecution. _ They refused to 
 hold any communication with the Church on 
 the grounds : First, that the worship of the 
 English Church was idolatrous ; second, 
 that unsanotified persons were admitted into 
 the Church; third, that the preachers of 
 the Church of England had no lawful calling ; 
 and fourth, that the government was un- 
 godly. For these views many of them were 
 imprisoned, and in 1593, on the passing of 
 the Act making a monthly attendance at 
 church compulsory, a great number of the 
 sect went with the Brownists to Holland, 
 and subsequently founded a new home in 
 America. 
 
 J. B. Marsden, Christian GhwcTies and Sects; 
 Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History ; Bogue and Ben- 
 nett, Hist, of Dissenterst i. 175, &c. 
 
 Barton, Andrew {d. 1512), was a contem- 
 porary of Sir Andrew Wood, and one of Scot- 
 land's first great naval commanders. In 1497, 
 he was in command of the escort which accom- 
 panied Perkiu Warbeck when he left Scot- 
 land. In 1512, after doing considerable 
 damage to the English shipping, he was killed 
 in an engagement with two ships that had been 
 expressly fitted out against him, and had fallen 
 
Bar 
 
 (135) 
 
 Bas 
 
 in with him in the Downs. His death was 
 one of the grievances which led to the in- 
 vasion of Bngland by James V., and the 
 battle of Flodden Field. 
 
 Barton, Elizabeth {d. 1534), better 
 known as the Nun, or Holy Maid of Kent, 
 was the servant of Richard Masters, incum- 
 bent of the parish of Aldington in Kent. 
 The awe excited by the moral tone of some 
 of her ravings when under the influence of 
 epilepsy suggested to her master and others 
 the possibility of making her a means of fan- 
 ning the growing discontent against the king. 
 She was accordingly taught to counterfeit a 
 state of trance, and then to give utterance to 
 prophecies respecting matters declared to be 
 revealed to her by tiie Holy Ghost. As her 
 words were all in support of the clerical party 
 and against the king's recent legislation, she 
 was regarded with great favour by the clergy 
 generally; she corresponded with Queen 
 Catherine and Charles V., and became in a 
 short time a dangerous power in England. 
 When, however, she boldly declared, among 
 other things, that if Henry divorced Catherine, 
 and married again during her lifetime, he 
 should not be a king a month longer, but 
 die a villain's death, it was thought high 
 time to take particular notice of her madness, 
 and by the long's orders she and her more 
 prominent accomplices were arrested. Having 
 confessed their imposture upon examination 
 in the Star Chamber, Elizabeth Barton and 
 her fellow-conspirators were ordered to read 
 their confession the next Sunday at St. Paul's 
 Cross, immediately after the sermon. The 
 whole matter of the imposture was then 
 brought formally before the Parliament, and 
 Barton and six others were attainted of high 
 treason, and executed May 5, 1534. 
 
 Hall, Cfcromole; Fron de, H ist, of Eng., ii. 
 164, &o. ; Statute 25 Hen. THE., c. 12. 
 
 Basilicou Doron (The Royal Gift) is 
 the title of a work written by King James I. 
 in 1 599, and addressed to his eldest son. Prince 
 Henry. In this work he maintains that the 
 kingly office is ecclesiastical as well as civil, 
 and therefore the king is necessarily head 
 of the Church ; and that equality among 
 ministers is inconsistent with monarchy. The 
 tract advocates the establishment of epis- 
 copacy, and the banishment of the principal 
 Presbyterian ministers in the country. 
 
 The Basilicon Doron was printed at Edinbuigli 
 in 1603. 
 
 Basing Honse, the seat of the Marquis 
 of Winchester, was one of the Royalist strong- 
 holds in the Civil Wars. Standing as it did a 
 short distance from Basingstoke, it commanded 
 one of the principal roads to the West. It 
 was several times attacked by the Parlia- 
 mentarian forces without success. Finally, 
 after a long and brilliant defence, it was taken 
 by .Cromwell, October 16, 1645, and burnt to 
 the ground. "The jubilant Royalists had 
 
 given it the name of BmtiMg House," on 
 account of the difficulty experienced by their 
 opponents before it. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of fha Rebellion; Caxlyle, 
 Otromwell. 
 
 Bass Bock, The Foktkebs of, in the 
 Firth of Forth, was held by some of its Jacobite 
 prisoners, who overpowered their guard, for 
 James II. from 1691 to 1694, when the little 
 garrison, numbering about twenty men, capi- 
 tulated on honourable terms. 
 
 Bassein, The Treaty op (Dec. 31, 
 1802), was concluded between the English 
 and Bajee Rao, the Peishwa. Its stipu- 
 lations were that a, British force of 6,000 
 infantry, with a suitable complement of 
 artillery, should be stationed within the 
 Peishwa's dominions ; that districts in the 
 Deccan, yielding twenty-six lacs of rupees a 
 year, were to be assigned for their support ; 
 that the Peishwa should entertain no Euro- 
 peans in his service belonging to any nation 
 at war with the English ; that he should 
 engage in no hostilities or negotiations with- 
 out their concurrence, and should refer all 
 his claims on Surat, the Nizam, and the 
 G-uicowar, to the arbitration of the Governor- 
 General. The treaty also guaranteed their 
 rights to the southern jaghirdars, feudatories 
 of the Peishwa. [Bajee Eao ; Welleslet, 
 Mahquis.] 
 
 WeUesley, Despatches ; Mill, Sist, of India. 
 
 Basset, Philip {d. 1271), was a member 
 of the great judicial family which furnished 
 so many judges and ministers to the Angevin 
 kings, ii 1233 he joined in the revolt of 
 Richard Marshall, but quickly returned 
 to his allegiance, and was one of Henry's 
 staunchest supporters against the barons. In 
 1261 he was appointed Justiciar of England, 
 seemingly in conjunction with Hugh le 
 Despenser, and held the office till 1263. He 
 fought most bravely in the battle of Lewes 
 (" Sir Philip Basset, that brave knight, worst 
 was to overcome," says Robert of Gloucester), 
 but was eventually taken prisoner. The 
 king's victory at Evesham released him, but 
 he was not restored to his office, though 
 constantly employed in the royal service tUl 
 his death. 
 
 Bastwicb, John (S. 1593), a physician, 
 published in a work entitled Flagellam Ponti- 
 ficia (1635), attacks which he declared to be 
 directed solely against the Pope and the Roman 
 Catholic clergy, but which were considered by 
 the English bishops to reflect on themselves. 
 For this he was condemned by the High 
 Commission Court to fine and imprisonment. 
 While in prison he wrote two other works, 
 Apologeticus ad Premies Anglicanos (1636), 
 and The New Litany (1637), in which he 
 accused the bishops of an inclination to 
 Popery. For this he was sentenced, in 1637, 
 to a fine of £5,000, the loss of his ears, the 
 
Bas 
 
 ( 136 
 
 Bat 
 
 pillory, and perpetual imprisonment. In 1640 
 he was released by the Long Parliament, the 
 proceedings against him cancelled, and £5,000 
 given him in reparation. Bastwick was alive 
 in 1648, hut when he died is uncertain. 
 Clarendon speaks of him as " a half-witted, 
 crack-hrained fellow, unknown to either uni- 
 versity or the College of Physicians, hut one 
 that had spent hia time abroad between the 
 schools and the camp, and had gotten a 
 doctorship and Latin." 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the Rebellion, iii. 58. 
 
 Basutoland, the north-eastern province 
 of Cape Colony, with which it .was in- 
 corporated in 1871, was annexed by Great 
 Britain in 1868. It was placed under the 
 government of Cape Colony, and its local 
 affairs were administered by an agent ap- 
 pointed by the governor at Cape Town and 
 by ilve magistrates, each presiding over a 
 special district. But the government of the 
 colony found itself constantly in difficulty 
 with the native tribes ; and negotiations are 
 now (1884) pending for the resumption of the 
 control of the province by the Colonial Office. 
 
 Batavia, The Capture op (1811), is 
 chiefly interesting as being the conquest of the 
 last surviving French settlement in the East. 
 In the year 1810 the island of Java had come 
 into the possession of France by the incorpora- 
 tion of the kingdom of Holland with the French 
 empire ; and the Indian government was 
 bent upon its reduction. In March, 1811, 
 10,500 men were sent out under Sir S. Auch- 
 muty, and early in August landed about 
 twelve miles to the east of the town of 
 Batavia. The united French and Dutch 
 troops abandoned Batavia, and took up a 
 position in a very strong camp called Fort 
 Cornelius. On August 8th the outposts 
 were driven in, and the advanced works were 
 occupied by the English. At length it was 
 decided to make a desperate attack on the main 
 fort, as the lateness of the season necessitated 
 speedy action. The attack was delivered from 
 three sides at daybreak on the morning of the 
 26th. On the right Colonel Gillespie burst 
 m, and pushed the defenders before him 
 until they were met on the other side by the 
 assaulting parties in the centre and left, who 
 after a stubborn fight, had almost simulta- 
 neously overthrown the defenders and burst in. 
 The storming force lost 872 men in killed and 
 wounded. The few troops who escaped from 
 Fort Cornelius, after resisting for a few days 
 came in ; and with them the whole island was 
 surrendered to the British, to be, however, at 
 the close of the war restored to the Dutch. 
 
 Alison, Hist of Europe, ix. 684 ; James, Naval 
 
 Bist.; AmiwaSegister,1811. • ■a'^tiu.,, 
 
 Bate's Case (1606). The Levant Com- 
 pany, which had been granted by Elizabeth a 
 monopoly of the trade with Turkey and 
 Venice, had allowed non-members to import 
 
 currants on payment of 5s. 6d. per cwt. 
 Upon the dissolution of the company in 1603, 
 the government continued the imposition. 
 In 1606 a merchant,- John Bate, refused to 
 pay, and the case, was brought before the 
 Court of Exchequer, which gave judgment 
 for the crown. It was laid down from the 
 bench that the royal power was double, — 
 ordinary, unchangeable without authority of 
 Parliament, and absolute, varying according to 
 the king's wisdom ; under the absolute power 
 came all matters of commerce, including 
 customs. Relying upon this decision, Cecil 
 published, in 1608, a Book of Sates imposing 
 fresh duties on many axticles. In 1610 the 
 Commons declared that impositions without 
 consent of Parliament were unconstitutional, 
 and petitioned for their removal; from this 
 time the question constantly recurred in the 
 struggle between Parliament and the crown. 
 S. E. Gardiner, Bist. of Bng., 1803—1842, chap, 
 fci. ; HaUom, Const. Bist., chap. vi. 
 
 Bath, Okder of the, is generally supposed 
 to have been established by Henry TV. at his 
 coronation in 1399. After that it' became the 
 practice of English kings to create Knights of 
 the Bath previous to their coronation, and 
 upon other great occasions. But after the 
 coronation of Charles II. the practice fell into 
 abeyance, tiU the order was revived by 
 George I. in 1725. It was subsequently 
 remodelled by the Prince Regent in 1815, and 
 at present consists of three classes — Knights 
 Grand Cross, or G.C.B.'s; Knights Com- 
 manders, or K.C.B.'s ; and Companions, or 
 C.B.'s. -^ 
 
 Bath., William Pclten-et, Earl op 
 (S. 1682, a. 1764), was of good family and in- 
 herited a large fortune. He entered the 
 House of Commons (1705) and distinguished 
 himseU on the Whig' side during the last 
 years of Anne's reign, having contracted 
 a close friendship with Walpole. He 
 defended his friend when he was sent to the 
 Tower on the charge of corruption. [Wal- 
 pole.] On the accession of George I., Pul- 
 teney became one of the Secretaries of State. 
 In the political language of the day he, 
 Stanhope, and Walpole were known as the 
 three "grand allies." When Walpole's 
 quarrel with Stanhope resulted in hia retire- 
 ment from office, Pulteney foUowed his 
 patron (1717). When Walpole became 
 supreme in 1721, Pulteney naturally ex- 
 pected a position in the Cabinet. Instead, a 
 peerage was offered him. In disgust he, after 
 some hesitation, joined the Opposition (1725), 
 and m conjunction with Bolingbroke brought 
 out the Craftsman, a journal in which 
 Walpole was bitterly attacked. In 1728 he 
 conducted a vigorous assault on Walpole's 
 sinking fund, but without much success ; but 
 his speech against Walpole's excise scheme 
 was more successful, and the minister was 
 obliged to withdraw the obnoxious measure. 
 
Bat 
 
 137 ) 
 
 Bat 
 
 Pulteney's name had previously teen struck 
 off the list of privy councillors. He sup- 
 ported tlie Prince of Wales in opposition to 
 the kinj? and Walpole. In 1740 he was one of 
 those who seceded from the House — an unwise 
 step which he attempted in vain to excuse. In 
 1741 he conducted that last grand attack on 
 "Walpole's foreign policy which drove himfrom 
 office. Pulteney, however, declined to form a 
 ministry, and retired into the Upper House as 
 Lord Bath. He gradually sank into insignifi- 
 cance, and his popularity waned. In 1743 his 
 friends succeeded in persuading him to come 
 forward as candidate for the premiership in 
 opposition to Pelham ; he failed, however, 
 although supported by the splendid talents 
 of Carteret. In 1746, he and Granville 
 (Carteret) were commissioned hy the king 
 to form a ministry. This, the " Forty hours' 
 Ministry," was an egregious failure, and the 
 Pelhams returned to power. Long before 
 his death Pulteney had become altogether 
 / forgotten by the political world. His talents 
 were considerable, and his public life was 
 on the whole respectable, and marked by 
 uprightness and integrity ; but he was some- 
 what wanting in steadfastness of purpose and 
 discretion. His parliamentary eloquence ap- 
 pears to have been of a very high order. 
 Besides gome poems which were highly 
 praised by Pope, Pulteney was the author of 
 several vigorous political pamphlets. 
 
 Coxe, Memoirs of Walpole; H. Walpole, 
 George IL^ and Catalogue of Rohal and Nnhlo 
 AMhors. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Batlmrst, Ailen, 1st Earl (J. 1684, 
 d. 1775), entered Trinity College, Oxford, in 
 1699. He was returned for the borough of 
 Cirencester in 1705, and was created a baron 
 in 1711. In 1723, at the attainder of Atter- 
 bury, he bitterly taunted the bishops for their 
 animosity against their brother. As a Tory 
 politician, he supported the claim of Boling- 
 broke to be restored to his seat in the House 
 of Lords. During "Walpole's administration 
 he was an active member of the opposition. 
 From 1757 to 1760 he was Treasurer to 
 George, Prince of Wales, and in 1762 was 
 created Earl Bathurst. A somewhat acrimo- 
 nious politician, his speeches were marked by 
 their caustic wit and brilliancy of metaphor. 
 
 Bathnrst, Henry, 2nd Earl (J. 1714, 
 d. 1794), the son of Allen, first earl, entered 
 Parliament for Cirencester in 1736. He was a 
 steady opponent of Sir Eobert Walpole, and 
 in 1745 was made Solicitor-General to the 
 Prince of Wales by the Leicester House 
 party. On the death of the prince, he took 
 steps to conciliate the court, and was re- 
 warded in 1754 by a puisne judgeship. On 
 the death of Charles Yorke in 1770, he was 
 appointed one of the three Commissioners to 
 hold the Great Seal. " No one of the three,' 
 says Lord Campbell, "had any confidence 
 m himself or in his colleagues. And aiter 
 HlBT. -5* 
 
 the learned trio had gone on for a twelve- 
 month floundering and blundering, the public 
 dissatisfaction was so loud that some change 
 was considered necessary." The change 
 made was the appointment of Lord Bathurst 
 to the Woolsack. Left to himself, he got on 
 better than he had done with his two 
 colleagues, and reh'ed with such modesty on 
 the help of better men that he made few 
 mistakes. In 1778 he resigned the Great 
 Seal into the hands of Lord Thurlow, and 
 became President of the Council, which 
 office he held till Lord North's resignation. 
 His last years he s^jent in retirement in the 
 country. He has been justly called " one of 
 the weakest, though one of the worthiest - 
 our Chancellors." 
 
 Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors; I'oss, 
 Judges of England. 
 
 Bathurst, Henry, 3rd Earl (S. 1762, d. 
 1834), was the son of the second Earl 
 Bathurst. In 1804 he was appointed Master 
 Worker of the Mint. In 1807 he became 
 President of the Board of Trade. In 1809 
 he was Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 
 which beheld onlyfrom Oct. 11 to Dec. 6. On 
 June 11, 1812, he was appointed Secretary of 
 State for the Colonies, and discharged the 
 duties of the office for nearly sixteen years. 
 In 1828 he was appointed President of the 
 Council, which office he retained till the 
 resignation of the Welhngton administration 
 in 1831. 
 
 Bats, The Parliament op (1426), was 
 the name given to the Parliament which 
 assembled in this year when the quarrel 
 between the Duke of Gloucester and Cardinal 
 Beaufort was at its height. It received its 
 name from the bats or bludgeons carried by 
 the hostile and excited partisans of the rival 
 statesmen. 
 
 Battle Aljbey was founded by WiUiam 
 the Conqueror on the site of the battle of 
 Hastings, the high altar standing, it is said, 
 on the very spot where Harold planted his 
 banner. It was not consecrated till 1094. 
 The abbey, which was dedicated to St. 
 Martin, and filled with Benedictine monks 
 from Marmoutier in Normandy, was richly 
 endowed by the Conqueror, and enjoyed 
 many privileges, including that of sanctuary. 
 The abbot was mitred and was a peer of ParUa-- 
 ment. At the dissolution of the monasteries 
 in Henry VIII. 's reign, the income of the 
 abbey was estimated at £880 14s. I^A. The 
 buildings of the abbey, which are partly m 
 ruins, and have been partly converted into a 
 dwelling-house, show that the structure must 
 anciently have been of great extent and 
 magnificence. The Eoll op Battle Abbey, 
 which was lodged in the keeping of the 
 abbot, contained a list of all those who 
 f jught on the Norman side in the battle of 
 Hastings. The catalogue was, however, much 
 tampered with by the monks in later times, 
 
Bax 
 
 { 138 ) 
 
 Bea 
 
 and is of comparatively little value as an 
 authority. A remnant of the exceptional 
 position of Battle Abbey is to be found m 
 the fact that the incumbent of the parish 
 is stm included among the Deans of Peculiars, 
 though he does not appear to have any special 
 duties. 
 
 Camden, Britamnia; BvLgiale, Monadicon ; 
 Preeman, Norman Conquest, iv. 406. An account 
 of two manuscript Chronicles of Battle, ap- 
 parently of small value, is given by Hardy, De- 
 scrvptive Catalogue, iii. 23, 163. 
 
 Baxter, Eiohard (b. iel5, d. 1691), a 
 celebrated Nonconformist divine, was in earher 
 life a clergyman of the Church of England, 
 and in 1640 was presented to the Hving of 
 Kidderminster. During the Civil War he was 
 chaplain to Whalley's regiment, and in this 
 capacity was present at the sieges of Bridge- 
 water, Exeter, Bristol, and "Worcester. He 
 was a very moderate supporter of the Presby- 
 terian church polity, and in temporal matters 
 an adherent of hmited monarchy ; so that he 
 was a strong opponent of Cromwell during 
 the later years of the Protector's life. At the 
 Restoration Baxter was appointed one of the 
 royal chaplains, and took a leading part in the 
 Savoy conference. He was even offered the 
 bishopric of Hereford, which he refused. In 
 1662, however, on the passing of the Act of 
 Uniformity, Baxter quitted the Church and 
 remained for some years in retirement. In 
 1672 he settled in London, and lectured at 
 several Dissenting places of worship. Subse- 
 quently, however, he was much harassed by 
 legal proceedings under the Conventicle Act, 
 and in 1685 was brought before Jeffreys, who, 
 treating him with his usual brutality, sen- 
 tenced him to eighteen months' imprisonment, 
 and fined him 500 marks. Baxter was an 
 extraordinarily prolific writer of polemics and 
 works on divinity, and is said to have composed 
 over 160 treatises. Some of them, e.ff., The 
 Saints' Evn-lasling Rest, and Seasons for the 
 Christian Religion, are still widely popular. 
 
 Baxter's Practical WoWcs, with Life by W. 
 Orme, Lond., 1830 (23 vols.); TuUocb, English 
 Pilrifanism and its Leaders; Baxter's Narrative 
 of the Most Memorable Passages of his Life and 
 Times (1696) ; Sir J. Stephen, Essoys in Eccle- 
 siastical Biogra'phy. 
 
 Bayeux Tapestry, The, was in aU 
 probability the idea, and possibly, in great 
 measure, ithe handiwork, of Matilda, wife of 
 "William the Conqueror. It is a long narrow 
 strip of tapestry or needle- work representing, 
 in a number of pictures worked in woollen 
 thread, the battle of Hastings and the events 
 which led to it. It is twenty inches wide and 
 two hundred and fourteen feet' long; and is 
 divided into seventy-two compartments, with 
 Latin superscriptions indicating the objects 
 represented. The Tapestry is an authority of 
 the utmost value for the period with which 
 it deals. It was presented by Matilda to 
 the cathedral of Bayeux, of which sec her 
 hrother-iu-law Odo was bishop, and it is to 
 
 be seen at the present day in the museum at 
 
 Bayeux. 
 
 The Bayeux Tapestry has been reproduced in 
 engravings by Stothard, foUo, 1747, and m 
 photographs by J. Comte, 4to, 1879. It has 
 also been engraved by the Antiquarian Society, 
 with elucidations by G. C. Bruce, 18o5. For 
 an exhaustive and valuable discussion of the 
 character, origin, Ac, of the Tapestry, see Free- 
 man, Norma/n Conquest, iii. 563 seq. 
 
 Beachy Head, The Battle or (June 
 30, 1690), fought during the war of the 
 Austrian Succession between the EngHsh and 
 Dutch on the one side and the French on the 
 other, terminated in a, victory for the latter. 
 Lord Torrington, who commanded the com- 
 bined Enghsh and Dutch fleet, had abandoned 
 the Isle of "Wight to the French, under Tour- 
 viUe, and retreated up the Channel, when 
 peremptory orders from the Privy Council to 
 engage the enemy were sent him. Accordingly, 
 when the enemy were sighted, he bore down 
 upon them, placing the Dutch ships in the 
 van. He had less than sixty sail of the line, 
 and the French had eighty. But his ships 
 were superior in equipment and crews to 
 those of the enemy. The Dutch, under 
 Evertsen, fought bravely for several hours, 
 receiving very little assistance from the rest 
 of the fleet, and they finally drew off in a 
 shattered condition. Torrington thereupon 
 sought refuge in the Thames. His conduct 
 and motives on this occasion were loudly con- 
 demned, and the action was looked upon as a 
 highly disgraceful one for England. The 
 only use TourviUe made of his victory was to 
 burn Teignmouth. [Tokeington, "Viscount.] 
 Macaulay, Hist. o/Eng., iii. 608. 
 
 Beacons, or signal-fires on the coast and 
 on conspicuous positions in the inland country, 
 intended to give notice of the approach of an 
 enemy or of other danger, have been, used 
 from an early period in England. According 
 to Stow, beacons were set up hy Edward II. 
 when the landing of Mortimer and Queen 
 Isabella was expected. They were regularly 
 used at stated places along the line of the 
 Borders, to give warning of raids of the 
 Scots. Lord Coke says that regular heacons, 
 "pitch-boxes as they now be," were estab- 
 lished only after the reign of Edward III. 
 Inland beacons were erected by the sheriffs at 
 the expense of the country ; heacons on the 
 coast were originally under the superintend- 
 ence of the Lord High Admiral, and subse- 
 quently, by 8 Ehz., chap. 13, transferred to 
 the corporation of irriuity House. 
 
 Beaconslield, Benjamin Disraeli, Eabl 
 OF [b. 1805, d. 1881), was the eldest son of 
 Isaac Disraeli, the author of the Curiosities 
 of Literature. He was first destined for the 
 law, but he soon turned to Kterature. In 
 1827 he published his first novel, Vivian 
 Grey, and subsequently travelled on the 
 Continent and in the East for some years. 
 In the year 1832 he appeared as the Radical 
 
Bea 
 
 ( 139) 
 
 Bea 
 
 candidate for High "VVycomte. His opinions 
 ■were gradually changing, and in 1836 he 
 published a series called The Letters of Rimny- 
 mede, which was a violent attack on the 
 liberal party. In 1837 he was returned as 
 Conservative member for Maidstone. His 
 first speech in the House was a conspicuous 
 failure; it concluded with the well-known 
 words: "I have begun several times many 
 things, and I have often succeeded at last. I 
 shall sit down now ; but the time will come 
 when you will hear me." During the first 
 years of his parliamentary career he was a 
 supporter of Sir Eobert Peel ; but when Peel 
 pledged himself to abolish the Com Laws in 
 1845 Ulr. Disraeli turned towards the Pro- 
 tectionists, and at once became their leader. 
 In December, 1852, Lord John Russell re- 
 signed, and Lord Derby entered office with 
 Mr. Disraeli as Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 In 1858 he returned to office and brought in 
 a Reform Bill, which, however, did not meet 
 with much support. The Liberals again 
 returned to office, and for ten years longer 
 Mr. DisraeH led the opposition, and severely 
 criticised Lord Palmerston's foreign policy. 
 In 1867 the Liberals once more resigned, and 
 Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli came into power. 
 They immediately brought in and carried a 
 Reform BUI on the basis of household suffrage, 
 which was carried after a violent and bitter 
 struggle. In Feb., 1868, Lord Derby retired 
 and Mr. Disraeli became Prime Minister. 
 His tenure of office was, however, very short. 
 Mr. Gladstone carried his Irish Church Resolu- 
 tions against the government, and in the 
 general election which followed the Conserva- 
 tives were completely beaten. Mr. Disraeli 
 declined to take office in 1872, but in 1874 
 Mr. Gladstone dissolved, and when a general 
 election returned the Conservatives with a 
 majority of fifty, Mr. Disraeli became Prime 
 Minister, holding office for six years. Several 
 measures of domestic legislation were passed 
 during this period, including a Factory Act 
 (1878), an Artisans' Dwellings Act, and the 
 Agricultural Holdings Act. In March, 1876, 
 public indignation in England was violently 
 excited by the reports of atrocious cruelties 
 practised by the Turks on the Bulgarian Chris- 
 tians; and the support given by the government 
 to the Porte was made the text for vigorous 
 attacks by some of the leading Liberal states- 
 men. In Aug., 1876, Mr. Disraeli was raised 
 to the peerage by the title of Earl of Beacons- 
 field. Throughout 1876 and 1877, the Prime 
 Minister, in spite of much opposition in 
 the country, and the withdrawal of two of 
 his own colleagues, Lord Derby and Lord 
 Carnarvon, continued to maintain a guarded 
 and even hostile attitude towards Russia ; 
 and when the Russians seemed about to enter 
 Constantinople, the British fleet was ordered 
 to the Dardanelles, and an Indian contingent 
 was brought to Malta. When a treaty was 
 concluded between the belligerents at San 
 
 Stefano, Lord Beaconsfield insisted that the 
 document should be submitted to the great 
 powers. A general congress at Berhu 
 foEowed, which Lord Beaconsfield himself 
 attended as one of the representatives of 
 England, and in the summer of 1878 the 
 Eastern Question was temporarily set at rest 
 by the Treaty of Berlin. In the general 
 election of 1880 the Liberals were returned 
 by an enormous majority, and Lord Beacons- 
 field resigned. In the winter of 1881 
 he was prostrated by a complication of 
 maladies, and succumbed, after a severe 
 struggle, on April 19th. He was buried 
 at Hughenden, in Buckinghamshire, and a 
 memorial was voted to him in "Westminster 
 Abbey by Parliament. Lord Beaconsfield 
 was the author of a poem, Tlie Revolu- 
 tionary Epic, a Life of Lord George Bentinck, 
 several political pamphlets, and a number of 
 novels, in which many of his ideas and 
 theories on politics may be traced. The beet 
 known of these brilliant political romances 
 are Sybil, Coningsby, Tancred, and Endymion, 
 which last was published within a few months 
 of the writer's death. 
 
 G. Brandes, CharalderbiM; Cucheval-Clarigny, 
 lord BeacontfjieM et, son Temxts; T. P. O'Connor, 
 Life ; Clayden, ETigland under Lord Beaconsfield ; 
 Beaconsfield's Speeches. 
 
 Beadle, or Bedell (Old-Eng. hydel, from 
 Anglo-Saxon, beodan, to bid) , properly means 
 the apparitor of a court who summoned persons 
 to appear in answer to charges brought against 
 them. BedeUs seem before the Conquest to 
 have occupied a position on the Jurisdictions of 
 the liberties, and lauds held in sac and soc, 
 corresponding to that of under-bailiff. The 
 estate of Leominster had, according to Domes- 
 day Book, eight propositi, or reeves, and 
 eight bedelli. Their privileges were, to have 
 a little land of their own, and to be exempt 
 from manual labour. The king's bedells 
 were personages of considerable importance, 
 and are mentioned in the lists of tenants-in- 
 chief in Bedfordshire. After the Conquest 
 the office sank in importance, and the bedells 
 appear as criers in the manor courts, and in 
 Shakespeare's time as petty village function- 
 aries ; in the forest courts they made pro- 
 clamations and executed processes; while 
 rural deans employed bedells to cite clergy to 
 visitations, whence came the present parochial 
 beadles. At Oxford University there is 
 one esquire bedell and three yeomen bedells, 
 each attached to the faculties of law, 
 medicine, and arts ; they are elected in con- 
 vocation, and can be forced, if necessary, to 
 resign at the end of the year. Their duty 
 consists chiefly in bearing the maces before 
 the Chancellor and Vioe-Chancellor. At Cam- 
 bridge, where there are three esquire bedells 
 and one yeoman bedell, they are supposed to 
 attend professors as well. 
 
 Ellis, IntrochicfriOTi to Domesday ; Statuta Univ, 
 Oxoniensis, 
 
Bea 
 
 ( 140) 
 
 Bea 
 
 Beaton, David, Cardinal (b. 1494, li. 1546), 
 the sou of James Beaton, of Balfour, was 
 educated at the University of Paris, where 
 he became intimate with the Duke of Albany, 
 and in 1519 was appointed ambassador from 
 Scotland to the French Court. He was 
 employed in various negotiations at Paris 
 and Rome, in which he acquitted himself so 
 well that he was made a cardinal by Paul III. 
 in 1538. On the death of his uncle, Arch- 
 bishop James Beaton, in 1539, he succeeded 
 him as Archbishop of St. Andrews, in which 
 capacity he showed much zeal in the persecu- 
 tion of the Protestants. Three years later, 
 on the death of James Y., he endeavoured to 
 get possession of the infant Queen of Scots, 
 and to obtain the regency by means of a 
 forged will, but failed, and was for a time 
 imprisoned. On his release he became 
 Chancellor of Scotland in 1546, and distin- 
 guished himself by his zeal in bringing to 
 the stake those Protestants on whom he 
 could lay hands. His cruelty towards the 
 members of the Reformed party, together 
 with his French and Italian sympathies, 
 caused the cardinal to be bitterly hated by 
 the Reformers. A plot (to which Henry VIII. 
 and the English Privy Council were probably 
 parties) was concocted for his assassination. 
 On May 29, 1546, his. castle of St. Andrews 
 was seized by Norman Leslie, the Master of 
 Rothes, with Kirkaldy of Grange, and others, 
 and he was murdered. His character is thus 
 stated in the Iconcgraphia Scotica : — " The 
 cardinal was by nature of immoderate ambi- 
 tion; by long experience he had acquired 
 address and refinement, and insolence grew 
 upon him from continual success. His high 
 station in the Church placed him in the way 
 of great employments ; his abilities were 
 equal to the greatest of these, nor did he 
 reckon any of them to be above his merit. 
 .... He was one of the worst of men — a, 
 proud, cruel, unrelenting, and licentious 
 tyrant." 
 
 Icono:irap'hia Sooiica ; Tytler, Origvnal Letters ; 
 Knox, Hislory; Pitscotiie Chron., i. 488; Cook, 
 HiBt, of the Reformation m Scotland; T, H, 
 Burton, Klst, of Scotland, 
 
 Beaton, James (d. 1539), was made High 
 Treasurer of Scotland, 1505 ; in 1509 he was 
 appointed to the archbishopric of Glasgow, 
 and in 1523 was translated to St. Andrews. 
 He took part in the fray of "Cleanse the 
 Causeway" (1520) between the Douglas and 
 Hamilton factions, and subsequently became 
 an object of intense interest to English poli- 
 ticians, who sought to win him over to an 
 English alliance. He is said to have been 
 "very crafty and subtle," and he certainly 
 managed to evade "Wolsey's elaborate plans 
 for getting possession of his person. At last, 
 in a rash moment, the archbishop quitted the 
 castle of St. Andrews, and was seized and im- 
 prisoned for a short time. He finnlly became an 
 ally of England and a gTeat friend of Wolsey. 
 
 As Chancellor of Scotland, he granted Queen 
 Margaret a divorce from her husband, the 
 Earl of Angus, though she found it necessary 
 to obtain a papal dispensation as weU. 
 
 Beaton, James, a, nephew of Cardinal 
 Beaton, obtained the archbishopric of Glas- 
 gow, 1552. He was secretary to Mary Queen 
 of Scots, in whose behalf he pressed, on an 
 alliance with Spain, 1565. In later years 
 he became Mary's ambassador in France, 
 where he unsuccessfully attempted to obtain 
 aid for her. 
 
 Beauchamp, The Family op, was 
 founded in England at the Norman Con- 
 quest by Hugh de BeUo Campo or Beauchamp. 
 The earldom of Warwick was conveyed to 
 the family by Isabella, sister and heiress of 
 WiUiam de Mauduit. She married William 
 de Beauchamp, Baron of Elmsley {d. 1268), 
 the seventh representative of the family 
 from Hugh. Their son William was first 
 Earl of Warwick, and Guy, the second earl, 
 is tnovm to hil^tory as "The Black Dog of 
 Arden." Richard, the fifth earl, married 
 the widow of his uncle, Richard Beauchamp, 
 Earl of Worcester, and their son Henry was 
 created Premier Earl of England and Duke 
 of Warwick ; but he died without male issue 
 in 1445, so that the dukedom and the male 
 line of this branch of Beauchamps expired. 
 But his other honours passed to his daughter 
 Anne, and on her death at the age of six 
 they reverted to her aunt Anne, who mar- 
 ried the great King-maker, Richard Neville, 
 Earl of Salisbury, subsequently created Earl 
 of Warwick. [Neville.] On the death of her 
 daughters, Anne's inheritance was restored 
 to her, and by her transferred to King 
 Henry VII. The present Earl Beauchamp is 
 descended from the second son of William de 
 Beauchamp, Baron of Elmsley, in the female 
 line. The peerage was created in 1815. 
 
 Beaufort, The Family of, was descended 
 from John of Gaunt and Catherine, widow of 
 Sir Hugh Swynford. He married her in 1396, 
 but all their children were born before this 
 marriage. These children were four in number: 
 John, created Earl of Somerset and Marquis of 
 Dorset; Henry, afterwards Bishop of Win- 
 chester and cardinal ; Thomas, Chancellor and 
 Duke of Exeter ; and Joan, married to Ralph 
 Neville, Earl of Westmoreland. The name of 
 Beaufort which they bore was derived from a 
 castle belonging to the Duke of Lancaster in 
 Anjou. They were all legitimated by a statute 
 passed in 1397, by royal letters patent and a 
 papal decree. The letters patent were con- 
 firmed by Henry IV., who, however, introduced 
 a restrictive clause "excepta dignitate regali," 
 which now appears as an interlineation in the 
 patent roll of 20 Richard II. From John 
 Bea,ufort, Earl of Somerset, was descended 
 Margaret, the mother of Henry VII., and 
 thus arose the Tudor claim to the throne. 
 [Tudor.] Charles Somerset, the illegitimate 
 
Bea 
 
 ( l« ) 
 
 Bea 
 
 son of Henry, third Duke of Somerset, was 
 created Earl of Worcester by Henry VIII. 
 The fifth earl, a distinguished partisan of 
 Charles I., was created Marquis of "Worcester 
 in 1642. His grandson, the third marquis, 
 was created Duke of Beaufort in 1682. 
 
 Beaufort, Henkt, CARorNAL (b. 1377, 
 d. 1447), was the natural son of John of Gaunt 
 hy Catherine Swynford. In 1398 he was made 
 Bishop of Lincoln, and in 1405 translated to 
 "Winchester. In 1403 he was appointed 
 Chancellor, hut resigned the Great Seal on 
 his appointment to "Winchester. During the 
 latter part of Henry IV.'s reign, Beaufort 
 sided with the Prince of "Wales, and was 
 accused, apparently not altogether without 
 reason, of urging him to compel his father to 
 abdicate in his favour. On Henry V.'s 
 accession he once more received the Great 
 Seal, which he retaiaed tOI 1417, when he pro- 
 ceeded to Constance to attend the CouncU 
 which was endeavouring to heal the great 
 schism ui the Church. Beaufort exerted his 
 influence to induce the CouncU to elect a 
 Pope before proceeding with the reformation 
 of the Church. In gratitude for his assist- 
 ance, the new Pope, Martin V., offered 
 him a cardinal's hat, which, however, the 
 king refused to allow him to accept. On 
 the accession of Henry Yl., Beaufort was 
 appointed one of the members of the Coun- 
 cil of Eegency, and, in 1424, was for the 
 third time invested with the office of Chan- 
 cellor, which.he held tiU 1426. Throughout 
 the whole of Henry VI. 's minority, Beau- 
 fort's great aim was to counteract the dan- 
 gerous influence of Gloucester, whose selfish 
 schemes both at home and abroad threatened 
 the greatest danger to the State. The first 
 great quarrel between the rivals took place 
 in 1425, when riots occurred in London, and 
 things wore such a serious aspect that Bed- 
 ford had to return from France and effect a 
 reconciliation. In 1426 Beaufort committed 
 Ihe great mistake of his life in accepting the 
 cardinal's hat ; it laid him open to suspicion, 
 and caused him to be regarded with (Ustrust 
 by many who had previously sided with him. 
 In 1427 he led a, futile crusade against the 
 Hussites in Bohemia, and in 1429 he preached 
 a crusade with the same object in England, 
 got together troops, but took them to the 
 assistance of the English in France instead 
 of to Bohemia. From 1430 to 1434 Beau- 
 fort was for the most part abroad, and 
 the next six years of his life were chiefly 
 occupied in labouring for peace with France, 
 Gloucester being the leader of the war 
 party. One result of his efforts was the 
 assembly of the Congress of Arras, which, 
 however, failed to effect anything. In 1440 
 he attempted to accomplish the same object 
 by the release of the Duke of Orleans, who 
 had been a prisoner since the battle of Agin- 
 court, on the understanding that he should 
 
 do his best to bring about a treaty. This 
 was one of Beaufort's last public acts ; he 
 gradually retired from political life, and em- 
 ployed his last years in the affairs of his 
 diocese. In 1444 he had the satisfaction of 
 seemg a truce made between England and 
 Prance, and thus his policy was at last suc- 
 cessful. He died peacefully very shortly 
 after his great rival, Gloucester, and the 
 legends which make him the murderer of 
 the " Good Duke Humphrey," and paint the 
 agonies of his death-bed, are unsubstan- 
 tiated by the smallest particle of evidence. 
 He had been for many years, certainly since 
 the death of Bedford, the mainstay of the 
 house of Lancaster. "It must be remembered 
 in favour of Beaufort," says Dr. Stubbs, 
 "that he guided the helm of State during a 
 period in which the English nation tried first 
 the great experiment of self-government with 
 any approach to success ; that he was merci- 
 ful in his political eumities, enlightened in 
 his foreign policy ; that he was devotedly 
 faithful and ready to sacrifice his wealth and 
 labour for the kijig ; that from the moment 
 of his death everything began to go wrong, 
 till all was lost. " 
 
 The Chronicles of Monstrelet,Whetha,nistede, 
 Hardyng, and the Cootinuator of the Croyland 
 Chron.i Stubbs, Const. BM., vol. iii. ; M. Creigh- 
 ton, History o/tTie Papacy, &o. [p. S. P.] 
 
 Beaufort, Margaret [d. 1509), was the 
 daughter of John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, 
 and great granddaughter of John of Gaunt 
 by Catherine Swynford. Left by the death 
 of her father in the guardianship of "William 
 de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, she was married 
 by him to his son John at the early age of 
 nine years. Suffolk, however, was soon 
 afterwards attainted and murdered at sea, 
 and Margaret's marriage with John de la 
 Pole was, as a consequence, pronounced a 
 nullity. In 1455, when barely fifteen years 
 of age, Margaret Beaufort married Edmund 
 Tudor, Earl of Pichmond, eldest son of Sir 
 Owen Tudor, a "Welsh knight, by Katherine 
 of France, widow of King Henry V. This 
 husband died in 1456, before her son Henry, 
 afterwards Henry VII., was born, and she 
 then, in 1459, married Sir Henry Stafford, a 
 younger son of the Duke of Buckingham. 
 In 1481 Margaret was once more a widow, 
 and in the following year, 1482, she married 
 for the third and last time, her husband 
 being Thomas, second Lord Stanley. By 
 the Yorkist princes Margaret Beaufort ap- 
 pears to have been treated with an unusual 
 degree of leniency, considering the prominent 
 position she occupied among the Lancastrians 
 in virtue of her son. Her wealth, which 
 was great, was simply transferred, by Richard 
 III., from her own direction to that of her 
 husband, Lord Stanley, whose control over 
 its disposal appears to have been merely 
 nominal. She was the foundress of St. 
 John's College, Cambridge, and gave many 
 
Bea. 
 
 ( 142 ) 
 
 Bee 
 
 other ■benefactions to the two universities, and 
 to many religious houses. The Lady Margaret 
 Beaufort is the reputed author of The 
 Mirroure of Golde to the Soul, adapted from a 
 French translation of the Speculum Aureum 
 Peccatorum, and printed hy "Wy nkin de Worde ; 
 and of a translation of the Imitation of Christ 
 attributed to Gerson. 
 
 Walpole, Catalogue of UoyoX and No'bU Authors. 
 
 Beailge, The Battle op (1421), was 
 fought between the English, under the Duke 
 of Clarence, brother of Henry V., and a com- 
 bined force of French and Scots, under the 
 Dauphin and the Earl of Buchan. The 
 English were completely routed, and Clarence 
 was slain. The effect of this battle in 
 strengthening the Dauphin's party in France 
 was very great, and Henry had to undertake 
 another expedition to France to restore the 
 prestige of the English. 
 
 Beaulieu Abbey, a famous abbey and 
 sanctuary in Hampshire, was founded by King 
 JohuforCistercianmonksin 1204. ThereAnne 
 Neville, widow of the King-maker, took refuge 
 after her husband's defeat and death at Barnet 
 in 1471 ; and to Beaulieu it was that Perkin 
 "Warbeck fled in 1497, after the failure of 
 his attempts to seize the crown. 
 
 Beaiuuont, The Families of. (1) Turolf, 
 descendant of one of EoUo's comrades, married 
 the sister of Gunnor, wife of Duke Richard the 
 Fearless of Normandy. From this marriage 
 descended Robert de Bellomonte, or Beaumont, 
 who inherited the county of Meulan, in Nor- 
 mandy, from his mother, and, following the 
 Conqueror into England, obtained there 
 ninety-one manors. In reward for the support 
 he gave to Henry I., he received the earldom 
 of Leicester. His eldest son Waleran suc- 
 ceeded to the coimty of Meulan; his second 
 son Robert to the Enghsh earldom. "With 
 the death of the fourth earl, Robert, without 
 issue, 1204, the earldom expired. Simon de 
 Montfort, afterwards leader of the crusade 
 against the Albigenses, having married 
 Amicia, eldest sister of the last earl, received 
 a grant of the earldom from John. (2) Henry 
 de Beaumont, styled in 1307 " consanguineus 
 regis," and possibly a descendant of a natural 
 daughter of Henry I., was summoned to Par- 
 liament in 1309 as a baron. His descendant, 
 John Beaumont, sixth baron, was created 
 viscount 1440, being the first of that dignity 
 in England. His son, a partisan of the house 
 of Lancaster, was attainted 1461, and his estates 
 conferred on Lord Hastings. In 1485 he was 
 restored in blood and honour, but on his death 
 without male heir the viscounty became ex- 
 tinct. In 1840 the abeyance of the barony 
 was terminated in favour of Miles Stapleton, 
 a descendant of the last viscount's sister. 
 
 Beaumont, Henry de (d. 1340), was 
 the son of Louis of Brienne, and grandson of 
 John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem. He 
 
 was employed by Edward I. in Scotland, and 
 became one of Edward II.'s favoui-ite ad- 
 visers. In 1311 the Ordainers demanded his 
 banishment, but this does not seem to have 
 been carried out, as we find him subsequently 
 enjoying the royal favour. He deserted 
 Edward in 1326, and joined Isabella and 
 Mortimer, who confirmed him in his posses- 
 sions, and gave him some of the confiscated 
 lands' of the Despensers. 
 
 Bectet, St. Thomas, Archbishop oi' 
 Canterbury {h. 1118, d. 1170), was the son of 
 Gilbert Becket, a native of Rouen, a merchant, 
 and at one time port-reeve of London. His 
 mother was a native of Caen. Thomas was 
 put to school— first at Morton Priory, and 
 then in London. He was trained in knightly 
 exercises in the household of Richard de 
 L'Aigle at Pevensey, and grew tall and strong. 
 His father lost money, and Thomas became 
 a clerk in the o&ce of Osbern Eightpenny, his 
 kinsman, and there gained a good insight into 
 business. He was introduced into the house- 
 hold of Archbishop Theobald, and took minor 
 orders. As Theobald introduced the teach- 
 ing of canonical jurisprudence into England, 
 Thomas, who soon became his favourite, 
 devoted himseU to that study. He went to 
 Bologna, where Gratian was lecturing, and 
 stayed there a year, and then went to Auxerre. 
 On his return Theobald employed him in 
 some important negotiations. In 1152 he 
 prevailed on Pope Eugenius to forbid the 
 coronation of Eustace, and thus paved the 
 way for the success of Henry of Anion. The 
 archbishop richly rewarded Becket's services. 
 He was made rector of St. Mary-le-Strand and 
 of Otf ord in Kent, and prebendary of St. Paul's 
 and Lincoln; in 1164 Archdeacon of Canter- 
 bury and Provost of Beverley. When Henry 
 succeeded to the throne he made Thomas his 
 Chancellor. The early years of the reign 
 mast have been fuU of work for the new 
 Chancellor. Thomas was zealous for his 
 master. When Henry levied scutage on 
 Church lands the Chancellor approved the 
 step, while his old patron Theobald opposed 
 it. The scant regard which he had for eccle- 
 siastical pretensions is proved by the part 
 which he took in the suit between the Bishoj) 
 of Chichester and the Abbot of Battle (Chron. 
 de Bella, pp. 88—104). Much of the time of 
 the Chancellor was taken up with hearing 
 causes, and he visited some counties as an 
 itinerant justice. His style of living was 
 splendid, and many youngnobles were educated 
 in his household, ainong whom was the king's 
 eldest son, Henry. This splendour was re- 
 markably displayed in his embassy to Louis 
 VII., in 1158, to arrange the marriage of the 
 young Henry. In the expedition to 'Toulouse 
 the next year, he fitted out and maintained a 
 large force at his own expense, and, clad in 
 armour, led his troops in person, and dis-. 
 tinguished himself in the field. 
 
Bee 
 
 ( 143) 
 
 Bee 
 
 In 1161 Henry was anxious to make his 
 Chancellor archhishop. Thomas was un- 
 willing to accept the ofiSce, and told the king 
 that it would cost him the royal favour. The 
 next year he was elected by the monks of 
 Christ Church and hy the suilragan bishops and 
 clergy of Canterbury. He was ordained priest, 
 and the foUowiug day received consecration. 
 From that time the life of Thomas was 
 changed. Till then his sympathies and efforts 
 had been wholly for the king ; henceforward 
 they were devoted to the Church. The man 
 remained the same — impulsive, vigorous, ob- 
 stinate, and sensitive. He was not such as 
 would serve two masters, and soon resigned 
 the Chancellorship. He made some devoted 
 friends, and already had many enemies. 
 Gilbert Foliot, Bishop of London, a strict 
 ecclesiastic, disliked the appointment of one 
 who had led so secular a life, and this feeling 
 was probably shared by many. In reclaiming 
 the property of his see, Thomas made other 
 enemies, and seems to have acted with im- 
 pohtic violence. In 1163 he attended the 
 Council of Tours, and came back filled with 
 thoughts of the power of the Church. He 
 soon increased the feeling of distrust awakened 
 in the king's mind by the resignation of the 
 Chancellorship, for he excommunicated one of 
 the tenants of the crown, contrary to the rule 
 laid down by the Conqueror. He also opposed 
 a change which the king wished to' make 
 with reference to the assessment of a tax, 
 which Dr. Stubbs has thought (Const. Bist., 
 i. 462) to have probably been the Dane- 
 geld, and high words passed between the king 
 and the archbishop. The same year (1163), 
 in a Council at Westminster, Henry proposed 
 his plan of bringing criminal clerks under the 
 jurisdiction of the lay courts. Though this 
 change was necessary for the welfare of the 
 state, it was naturally offensive to churchmen. 
 Thomas was not alone in objecting to it ; he 
 was alone in daring to withstand it. Henry 
 complained of the exactions of the eccle- 
 siastical courts, and demanded whether the 
 bishops could agree to the customs of his 
 grandfather. By th& advice of the arch- 
 bishop they answered that they would do so 
 " saving their order." This answer enraged 
 the king, and Thomas was called on to 
 surrender the honours of Eye and Berkhamp- 
 stead. In Jan., 1164, at a Council at Claren- 
 don, the famous Constitutions were brought 
 forward which purported to be declaratory of 
 the ancient customs of the kingdom. These 
 Constitutions, by bringing the clergy under 
 secular jurisdiction, by their settlement of 
 the election and status of bishops, by taking 
 away the right of free appeal to Rome, and by 
 other provisions, tended to destroy aU clerical 
 immunities. Thomas was persuaded to con- 
 sent to them. After he had done so he 
 repented, withdrew his consent, and begged 
 the Pope to pardon him for his weakness. In 
 October the same year the archbishop was 
 
 cited to a council at Northampton. He was 
 not summoned personally, as was his right, 
 but through the sheriff of Kent, to answer a 
 plaint made against him by John the Marshal. 
 At this council a violent attack was made 
 upon him, and he was commanded to render 
 an account of his chancellorship, though he 
 had received an acquittance on his resignation. 
 The bishops did not stand by him. Some; 
 like the Archbishop of York and the Bishops 
 of London and Chichester, were his enemies ; 
 others were afraid of the king. The arch- 
 bishop saw that the king was determined to 
 crush him. He fled, took ship, and, landing 
 near Gravelines, found shelter iu the Abbey 
 of St. Berlin. Flanders was, however, no safe 
 place of refuge. Louis, glad of an opportu- 
 nity of embarrassing Henry, welcomed the 
 archbishop to France. Alexander III. was 
 at Sens, having been forced to leave Italy by 
 the Emperor Frederic. His fear of turning 
 Henry wholly to the side of the Emperor 
 made the Pope half-hearted and vacillating 
 in his support of the archbishop, and he com- 
 manded lum to take no steps against the 
 king for awhile. Henry confiscated the 
 revenues of the see, and banished all the 
 kindred of the archbishop. His violent 
 measures were carried out with great brutality 
 by Eanulf de Broc. Thomas found shelter in 
 the CistercianAbbey of Pontigny. There he led 
 a life of ascetic severity, and gave himself to 
 the study of the Canon Law, which must 
 have strengthened his resolution to defend the 
 rights of the clergy. In 1166 Alexander was 
 able to return to Eome. Freed from the 
 papal prohibition, the archbishop at Vezelay 
 solemnly excommunicated his most violent 
 enemies, and, with a voice broken with 
 emotion, declared that, unless the king re- 
 pented, he would excommunicate him also. 
 In return Henry, by threatening the Cister- 
 cians, compelled them to cause the archbishop 
 to leave Pontigny. He took shelter at Sens. 
 The Pope was still iu danger from Frederic, 
 and disapproved the Vezelay excommuni- 
 cations. In 1167 he thwarted the archbishop 
 by sending legates to Henry, and thus sus- 
 pending his legative power. The destruction 
 of Frederic's army by pestilence did not 
 enable the Pope to act more firmly, for he 
 was forced to remain in exile. In 1169 a 
 meeting took place between Henry and the 
 archbishop at Montmirail in the presence of 
 Louis. The archbishop refused to submit to 
 the judgment of the two kings, except with 
 the condition "saving the honour of God," 
 and no good was done. The same year 
 another meeting took place at Montmartre, 
 and ended in failure, for Henry refused the 
 archbishop the kiss of peace. Alexander was 
 anxious to end the quarrel. He was annoyed 
 by the violence of the archbishop, and excited 
 his indignation by absolving the Bishops of 
 London and Salisbury whom Thomas had ex- 
 communicated. Henry, in 1170, caused his 
 
Bee 
 
 ( H4 ) 
 
 ttea 
 
 eldest son to te crowned by the Archbishop 
 of York. This was a violation of the rights 
 of Canterbury, and Thomas threatened to lay 
 the kingdom under an interdict, which he 
 now had power from the Pope to pro- 
 nounce. Louis was enraged with Henry, and 
 formed a combination aga'nst him. [Henry 
 II.] A reconciliation was effected at Freteval, 
 July 21. Even after this the king and the 
 archbishop were on anything but friendly 
 terms. The king complained because Thomas 
 delayed his return to England, for he was 
 anxious to get him out of France. The arch- 
 bishop complained of the injuries done to his 
 see. Henry still put off the kiss of peace. 
 The archbishop landed in England Dec. 1, 
 and was greeted with delight by the people. 
 A morbid desire for martyrdom had taken 
 hold of his mind. He came back with no 
 intention of living in peace with his enemies ; 
 he would withstand them to the end, and lay 
 down his life for the cause of the Church. He 
 sent before him papal letters suspending and 
 excommunicating the bishops who had taken 
 part in the coronation. He went to London to 
 see his former pupil, the young king, and all 
 the city was moved with joy at his coming. 
 Young Henry refused to see him, and bade 
 him return to his see. His enemies, and 
 especially the family of De Broc, annoyed 
 him in every way in their power; and, on 
 Christmas Day, he uttered a violent anathema 
 against them. When the king heard of the 
 excommunication of the bishops he spoke the 
 well-known hasty words of anger against the 
 archbishop. Four of his knights, Hugh de 
 Morville, Res;inald FitzUrse, William de 
 Tracy, and Richard Brito, acted on these 
 words. They crossed to England, took with 
 them Eanulf r de Broc and a band of men, and 
 murdered the archbishop in his church, Dec. 
 29, 1170. Archbishop Thomas was canonised 
 1173, and his festival was appointed for the 
 day of his martyrdom. The impression that 
 the martyrdom made on the popular mind 
 was very deep, and for three centuries after 
 his death his shrine was the favourite place 
 of ijilgrimage for Englishmen. 
 
 The contemporary Lives; in verse, Gamier, 
 Vie lie Saint ThomaSy ed. Hippeau ; in prose, 
 "William FitzStephen, Herbert of Bosham, 
 Edward Grim, Eoger of Pontigny, nnd John of 
 Salisbury. Dr. Giles's imperfect edition of the 
 Letters of St. Thomas, of John of Salisbury, 
 and others, inFatrea Eccl.es. Anglic, is now being 
 superseded by Mattrlals for the History of Arch- 
 bishop Thomas Beclcet, ed. Canon Robertson (EoUs 
 Series). See also Bccfcet ; a BM)g"-ap?nj, byCanon 
 Bobertson : and Samt Thomas of Canterbury, in 
 Freeman, HistoHcal Esaai/s, 1st Series. 
 
 [W. H.] 
 
 Beckford, Alderman {i. 1708, d. 1770), 
 was an extremely wealthy merchant, owning 
 large estates in the West Indies. Going 
 through the regular steps of municipal dignity, 
 he became an alderman, and was also returned 
 to Parliament for the Citv of London. Both 
 in Parliament and in the Common Council 
 
 he was a firm and enthusiastic supporter of 
 Lord Chatham. In 1768 Beckford became 
 Lord Mayor, and in the following year 
 he was re-elected— an almost unprecedented 
 honour. With the City authorities the govern- 
 ment was very unpopular, nor had it a fiercer 
 opponent than the Lord Mayor. A petition 
 from the Corporation of London to the king 
 had been treated as unconstitutional and 
 unworthy of an answer. A remonstrance 
 was next sent, to which the king replied 
 with a dignified rebuke. Nevertheless, 
 Beckford, on May 23rd, laid another remon- 
 strance before the king, and, when the king 
 had expressed his annoyance and displeasure, 
 proceeded to argue with him. "The in- 
 solence of Beckford," says an eye-witness, 
 " exceeded all his or the City's past exploits." 
 Within a month he was dead of a fever, 
 which common report said was caused by the 
 excitement of his interview with the king. 
 Beckford's enormous wealth descended to his 
 son William, the eccentric author of Vathek. 
 
 Bedchamber Question, The (1839— 
 
 1841). On the resignation of Lord Melbourne 
 in 1839, Sir Robert Peel was summoned to 
 foi-m a ministry. On his mentioning in- 
 cidentally to the Queen the changes which 
 he thought it necessary to make in the royal 
 household, he received a letter from her 
 Majesty saying that the removal of the 
 ladies of her bedchamber would be repugnant 
 to her feelings. Finding that Sir Robert 
 would not give way on this point, the Queen 
 summoned Lord Melbourne to her aid. Lord 
 Morpeth's sister and Lady Normanby were 
 the two ladies to whom Peel specially ob- 
 jected. The dnsire to support the Queen 
 induced the Whig statesmen, in spite of their 
 previous humiliations, to return to their 
 posts. In 1841, on the downfall of the 
 Whig ministry, the question arose again. 
 The Prince Consort, however, arranged that 
 three great Whig ladies should resign the 
 situations which they held in the Household 
 of their own accord. This prudent com- 
 promise settled the diiSculty, and saved the 
 assertion of Peel's principle. 
 
 Hansard, Debates, 3rd series, xlvii. 979, &c. ; 
 Spencer Walpole, ffist. of Eng. from 1815. 
 
 Bede (B.kda) (J. 672, d. 735) was bom 
 probably at ,Tarrow, in the territory of the 
 abbey of Wearmouth, founded by Benedict 
 Biscop. By this learned man Bede was 
 educated, and eventually entered the monas- 
 tery of Jarrow, an offshoot of the Wearmouth 
 foundation. Here Bede spent the remainder 
 of his life, dividing all the time not 
 engrossed by religious teaching between 
 learning and teaching. He was a very 
 prolific author, as is sufficiently proved by 
 the long list of his writings which he ap- 
 pended in his fifty-ninth year to his Eccle- 
 siastical History, and even on his death-bed 
 he was busy with literary labour. His great 
 
Bed 
 
 (U5) 
 
 Bed 
 
 work is the Sistoria EceUaimtica Gentis 
 Anglorum, on whicli his fame rests. It is 
 divided into five hooks. The first twenty- 
 two chapters of the first hook form only an 
 introduction, wherein, after a short descrip- 
 tion of Britain and its ancient inhahitants, 
 we have the history of the country, reaching 
 from Julius Caesar to the introduction of 
 Christianity among the Angles by Gregory's 
 missionaries. From this point only (chap. 25) 
 begins the independent research of Bede. 
 The Church history of the English is then 
 carried down in this book to the death of 
 Gregory the Great (604). The second book 
 begins with a long obituary of this Pope, so 
 important for the English Church, and ends 
 with the death of Edwin, King of North- 
 umbria (633). The third book reaches to 
 635. Here begins the fourth hook, extending 
 to the death of Cuthbert (687), the famous 
 saint already twice celebrated by Bede him- 
 self. The last book (to the year 731) con- 
 cludes with a survey of the several sees, and 
 of the general state of Britain in that year. 
 Bede's History is our main and, indeed, almost 
 our only authentic source of information for 
 the century and a half that followed the 
 conversion of the English to Christianity, and 
 is therefore a work of much interest and 
 importance, apart from its attractions of 
 stj'le. Besides the Sistoria Eeclesiastica, 
 which was translated into Anglo-Saxon, 
 it is said, by King Alfred, Bede wrote a very 
 large number of minor works, among which 
 are a Life of St. Cuthbert; a Chronicon, 
 or general summary of history up to the 
 year 729 ; The Uvea of the Abbots of Wear- 
 mouth and of Jarrow, and An Epistle to Egbert, 
 Archbishop of Yorh, which gives an interesting 
 account of the state of the Church. All are 
 of considerable historical importance, though 
 they yield in interest to the Ecclesiastical 
 History. The greater number of Bede's com- 
 positions — said to have amounted to nearly 
 150 — were probably theological treatises or 
 conmientaries on the Scriptures. 
 
 The best edition of Bede is that of Dr. GHes, 
 in six vols., Lend., 1843, fee. ; and there is 
 a good edition of the Historical Works by 
 Mr. Stevenson (Eng. Hist. Sec), in two vols., 
 Lond., 1841. An edition of the Bist. Eaoles. 
 AngUrr. has been published by the Clarendon 
 Press, and there is a translation in Bohn's 
 Antiqwmm Library. A scholarly edition of 
 Books iii. and ir. of the Kietory has been pub- 
 lished by the Pitt Press, under the editorship 
 of Prof. Mayor and Mr. lumby, whinh contains 
 a vast amount of learning and research, and is 
 enriched with a translation of Ebert's account 
 of Bede, from which the main fa«ts stated' above 
 have been gathered. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Bedford first appears in history in 571, 
 when the Britons were defeated there by the 
 Saxons, under Culhwulf. The castle under- 
 went many sieges. In 1138 it was taken by 
 King Stephen, and in 1215, during the war 
 between John and the barons, it was captured 
 by Falkes de Breaute, who continued to hold 
 
 it till 1224, when he took one of the justices 
 prisoner. Thereupon a force was levied against 
 him , and Bedford was besieged. On its capture, 
 the castle was dismantled. During the Great 
 EebelKon Bedford declared for the Parliament, 
 but in 1643 was captured by the Royalists. 
 
 Bedford, Peehaoe of. In 1415, John, 
 third son of Henry IV., was created Duke of 
 Bedford. In 1549, John Eussell, Lord High 
 Steward of England, who had received' the 
 lands of the Abbey of Wobum, in Bedford- 
 shire, was created Earl of Bedford. In 1694 
 William Eussell, fifth earl, was created Duke 
 of Bedford. 
 
 Bedford, John,Duke op (5. 1390, d. 1435), 
 was the third son of Henry IV., and was 
 created Duke of Bedford in 1415. In 1416 
 he distinguished himself by defeating the 
 French fleet, and in the next year commanded 
 an expedition to Scotland to avenge the 
 "Foul Eaid" (q.v.). During Henry V.'s 
 absence in France, Bedford was appointed 
 Lieutenant of England, and on his death-bed 
 Henry constituted him Eegent of France. 
 To cement the Burgundian alliance, Bedford, 
 in 1422, married the sister of the Duke of 
 Burgundy, and by the vigour and ability of 
 his administration the English not only suc- 
 ceeded in maintaining their conquests for 
 several years, but even gained ground upon 
 their enemies. In 1424 he won the great 
 victory of Vemeuil; but the relief of Orleans 
 interfered with the progress of the English 
 arms, and in revenge for the powerful aid 
 she had given to the enemy, Bedford caused 
 Joan of Arc when she feU into his hands 
 to be burned to death as a witch. In 
 1432 his wife died, and in the next year he 
 married Jacquetta of Luxemburg, thereby 
 increasing Burgundy's estrangement from 
 the English. In home afEairs Bedford was 
 always ready to act as the mediator between 
 Gloucester and Beaufort, and by his in- 
 fluence over the former was able to restrain 
 his reckless and extravagant disposition to a 
 certain degree. The latter years of Bed- 
 ford's life were embittered by the folhes of 
 Gloucester, the successes of the French, and 
 the defection of Burgundy. With him 
 perished all hopes of EngUsh supremacy m 
 France, and all chance of retaining even 
 Normandy and Guienne. A brave soldier, a 
 skUful general, a prudent and far-sighted 
 poUtician, and, taken altogether, a just and 
 merciful governor, Bedford had in him many 
 of the elements of greatness. "He was 
 certainly equal," says Mr. Stevenson, •' pos- 
 sibly superior, to Henry the Fifth But 
 for the treacherous friendship of the Duke of 
 Burgundy, he would probably have overrun 
 France and expelled Charles the Seventh. 
 It is questionable whether the hero of 
 Agincourt would have been able to effect to 
 much as the hero of Verneuil did." _ His 
 misfortune was that he was the champion of 
 
Bed 
 
 (146) 
 
 Bed 
 
 a cause which was radically unjust, and 
 which was destined from the beginning to 
 ultimate failure. The greatest blot on Bed- 
 ford's memory is his treatment of Joan of 
 Arc, which it is difficult to palliate ; it was 
 equally cruel and impolitic. But, if we 
 except this episode, Bedford was seldom guilty 
 either of harshness or impolicy. 
 
 The Wars of the Engluh %n France (Rolls Series), 
 
 with Mr. Stevenson's valuable introductions ; 
 
 Lord Brougltam, jBugland, <md From^e umder the 
 
 Roiise of Lancaster ; Stubbs, Const, ifist., vol. ill. 
 
 [F. S. P.] 
 
 Bedford, John Russell, 1st Earl or 
 {d. 1555), was a gentleman of Dorsetshire 
 attached to the court of Henry VIII. 
 Russell obtained considerable grants out 
 of the monastery spoils, and thus laid the 
 foundation of the wealth of his family. In 
 1536 he co-operated energetically with the 
 Duke of Suffolk in repressing the first seeds 
 of discontent in Lincolnshire. Later on in his 
 career Russell again distinguished himself by 
 the complete suppression of the revolutionary 
 outbreak of 1549 in the western counties. 
 Defeatiug the insurgents in a pitched battle 
 at St. Mary's Clyst, he succeeded in re- 
 lieving the city of Exeter, which had just 
 prei-iously been hard pressed by the rebel 
 forces ; and in entirely destroying their hopes 
 in Cornwall and Devonshire, which were at 
 once placed under martial law. In the 
 Council, Russell, after these events, took 
 part with Warwick against Somerset, and 
 materially contributed to hasten the Pro- 
 tector's fall. For his services on this occa- 
 sion Russell, who had been made a peer in 
 1539, was now, in 1550, created, by North- 
 umberland's influence, Earl of Bedford. On 
 the death of Edward VI. Russell thought it 
 prudent to conform to the Catholic mode of 
 worship. He continued accordingly under 
 Mary to enjoy the royal favour, and he was 
 employed by her on several embassies of 
 importance. 
 
 Bedford, Fkancis Russell, 2nd Earl of 
 {b. 1528, d. 1585), was one of Elizabeth's most 
 trusted counsellors in the early part of her 
 reign. In 1561 he was sent on a special 
 embassy to the Court of France, and three 
 years later to Scotland in conjunction with 
 Sir Thomas Randolph. He subsequently com- 
 manded the Northern army at Berwick, and 
 m 1566 was sent to represent Elizabeth at 
 the baptism of James VI. In the course of 
 .his negotiations in Scotland he managed to 
 incur the displeasure of the queen, who ac- 
 cused him of taking part with the Scotch lords 
 against Mary, whose marriage with the Duke 
 of JSiorfolk he subsequently opposed. 
 
 Burghley Papers; Proude, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Bedford, Francis Russell, 4th Earl 
 OF (^. 1641), was the only son of LordRusseU 
 of Ihornhaugh, and on the death of his cousin, 
 the third earl, in 1627, succeeded him in the 
 
 earldom of Bedford. He was one of the 
 chief promoters of the great work of draining 
 the fens called the Great Level, afterwards, in 
 his honour, known as the Bedford Level. In 
 politics he occupied, a moderate position. He 
 was a personal friend of Pym, but was de- 
 sirous of devising a modus vimndi between 
 king and Parliament. He was the head of 
 the Commissioners who negotiated the Treaty 
 of Ripon with the Scots in 1640, and in the 
 early part of the next year, when Charles 
 conceived the idea of forming a ministry from 
 the more moderate of the opposition leaders, 
 he oilered Bedford the post of Lord Treasurer 
 and practically that of Prime Minister. This 
 scheme, which seemed to promise success, was 
 frustrated by the sudden death of the Earl of 
 Bedford from small-pox. Clarendon sums up 
 his character thus : — " He was a wise man, 
 and would have proposed and advised 
 moderate courses ; but was not incapable, for 
 want of resolution, of being carried into 
 violent ones if his advice was not submitted 
 to ; and therefore many who knew him well 
 thought his death not unseasonable, as well 
 to his fame as his fortune." 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the Eebellion; Dugdale, 
 Hist, of Embanking ; Lodge, Portraits. 
 
 Bedford, William Russell, 1st Duke of 
 (*. 1614, d. 1700), was the son of the fourth 
 Earl of Bedford. He was an opponent of the 
 arbitrary policy of Charles I. and StraflEord, 
 and a moderate supporter of the Parliament. 
 When the Civil War broke out he joined the 
 Parliamentary standard with a body of horse, 
 and took part in the battle of EdgehiU ; but 
 he separated from the Parliament in 1645, 
 and joined the king. He was present at the 
 battle of Newbury, on the Royalist side, and 
 greatly distinguished himself. His estates 
 were confiscated, but he succeeded in making 
 his peace with the Parliament and getting 
 them restored. He took some part in the 
 Restoration, and was a prominent supporter 
 of William of Orange at the Revolution of 
 1688, after which event (in 1694) he was 
 created Duke of Bedford. 
 
 Bedford, John Russell, 4th Duke op 
 (*. 1710, d. 1771), succeeded to the dukedom 
 m 1732. Ten years later he took an active 
 part against Sir Robert Walpole. In 1744 he 
 was appointed a Lord Commissioner of the 
 Admiralty, and a member of the Privy Coun- 
 cil. He was soon afterwards appointed First 
 Lord of the Admiralty. In 1748, on the 
 resignation of Lord Chesterfield, he was 
 appointed Secretary of State for the Southern 
 Department, but resigned in 1751, on the 
 dismissal of Lord Sandwich. Five years 
 later he was sent to Ireland as Lord Lieute- 
 nant. In that office he did not succeed, and 
 exasperated the Irish by asking for his sister- 
 m-law_a pension on the Irish establishment. 
 His principle of government was to silence 
 opposition by donatives : nor did he forget 
 
Bed 
 
 (147) 
 
 Bel 
 
 his friends, especiaUy Eigby, in the general 
 distnbution of Irish money. In 1761 he 
 resigned on Bute's accession to power. In the 
 following year he went to Paris as plenipoten- 
 tiary to negotiate for peace. In the Grenville 
 ministry he became President of the Council 
 He seems to have acted an independent part in 
 the king's closet, and to have insisted as firmly 
 as Grenville himself on the dismissal of Lord 
 Bute, to whom he was now thoroughly 
 opposed. He was in advance of his age in 
 the knowledge of political economy, and in- 
 curred the most violent hatred by opposing a 
 Bill to impose duties on foreign silks. In 
 1765 he was summarily dismissed from'office 
 along with Grenville, and, refusing the over- 
 tures alike of Lord Chatham and the Duke 
 of Grafton, remained for the rest of Ms life 
 out of ofSce. But he continued to take an 
 active part in poUtics, and in 1769 proposed 
 to resuscitate a statute of Henry VIII. in 
 order to dispense with juries in the American 
 Colomes. Walpole calls the duke " a man 
 of inflexible honesty and good-will to his 
 country," but says that "his manner was 
 unpetuous." To this unfortunate trait was 
 probably due his almost universal unpopu- 
 larity. Hie portrait has been drawn by 
 Jumus, exaggerated and distorted by the 
 rancour of personal animosity. 
 
 Bedford Corresp.; Chatham Corresp.; Trevelyan. 
 Early Sist. of C. J. Fox ; Letters of Jmiiis. 
 
 Bedford Level is the name given to 
 a flat district in the east of England, which 
 comprises the Fen country, and includes parts 
 of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Hunt- 
 ingdonshire, Northamptonshire, and Lincoln- 
 shire. During the earlier Middle Ages this 
 district was a vast swamp, partly inundated 
 by the sea. Attempts were made to reclaim 
 it in the reigns of Henrj' VI. and VII., and 
 an Act was passed for this purpose in 1601-. 
 In 1634, Francis, Earl of Bedford, and a 
 number of other landowners of the eastern 
 counties, obtained permission from the 
 crown to drain the district on condition of 
 receiving 95,000 acres of the reclaimed lands 
 for themselves. The works, however, owing 
 to disagreement with the crown, and the 
 Civil "War, were suspended for some years tiU 
 1649, when the undei-taking was renewed. 
 In 1664 the company was incorporated by 
 royal charter, and it still exists. The opera- 
 tions of the original projectors have been 
 largely supplemented by drainage works 
 undertaken in more recent times. 
 
 Begiun, an Indian word for queen, 
 princess, &c., is generally used as the title of 
 wives of a reigning or defunct monarch, or 
 of a woman regnant — e.ff., Begum of Bhopal, 
 Begums of Oude. 
 
 Beh,ar. [Olive, Lord.] 
 
 Bek, Anthony {d. 1310), son of Walter, 
 Baron of Eresby, accompanied Edward I. 
 
 on his Crusade (1271). On his return he 
 took orders, and was made Archdeacon 
 ?oQo t"" "" *^® y^ 1279, and bishop in 
 1283. In 1290 he was sent by Edward to 
 act m concert with the guardians of Scotland, 
 and with the advice of the Estates as heul 
 temnt for Queen Margaret and her husband: 
 and m 1294 he was employed as ambassador 
 to the Emperor. He accompanied the king 
 m his expedition to Scotland in 1296, com! 
 manded a division of cavalry at Falkirk in 
 1298, and was present at the siege of Caer- 
 laverock in 1300. In the same year he be- 
 came engaged m a quarrel with the monks who 
 constituted the chapter, which lasted the rest 
 of his Me. His first quarrel with Edward 
 was occasioned by his refusal to show his 
 franchises to the royal oflicers, but this 
 difference was soon compromised, and in 1295 
 Bek was appoiated one of the guardians of the 
 counties beyond the Trent. He obtained the 
 empty but high-sounding title of Patriarch 
 of Jerusalem from Clement V., to which 
 he added the title of "King of the Isle of 
 Man." After he got possession of the island by 
 mortgage, Edward I. compelled him to hold 
 it "as of the king's gift," and deprived him 
 of his palatine rights over Durham ; these were, 
 however, restored by Edward II., with whom 
 he was a great favourite, and he enjoyed 
 them tm his death in 1310. Bek represented 
 the Baronial party in the Church, which saw 
 in Edward I.'s consolidating and centraKsing 
 policy the overthrow of its own privileges. 
 
 BekcagSOg, The Contention op (Oct. 3, 
 1805), was concluded between Great Britain 
 and Sweden, in order to enable Sweden to 
 join heartily in the European coalition against 
 Napoleon. The terms of the convention 
 were very much the same as those of the Con- 
 vention of Helsingborg, which had been con- 
 cluded in the preceding August, and consisted 
 in an arrangement as to the subsidy to be sup- 
 plied by Great Britain. Sweden agreed to 
 employ 12,000 men in Pomerania, for whom 
 England was to pay at the rate of £12 IDs. 
 annually for each man. Pay for five months 
 was to be handed over to Sweden in advance, 
 and £50,000 was to be paid down at once for 
 the purpose of putting Stralsund into an 
 efElcient state of defence. 
 
 Alison, Hist, of Europe ; Fyfl'e, Modem Ewrope. 
 
 Beket, Thomas. [Becket.] 
 
 Belasyse, John, Lokd (d. 1689), was the 
 second son of Lord Fauconberg, and, like his 
 father, took a prominent part on the Eoyalist 
 side in the Civil "War. He took part in the 
 battles of Edgehill, Newbury, and Naseby, 
 and the sieges of Reading and Bristol, and 
 subsequently was made Governor of York. 
 He was wounded several times, and three 
 times suffered imprisonment in the Tower. He 
 was raised to the peerage in 1644, and at the 
 Eestoration was appoioted commander of the 
 
Bel 
 
 ( 1*8 ) 
 
 Bel 
 
 force in Africa and governor of Tangiers, 
 ■which offices he held till 1667- In the reign 
 of Jamea II. he was appointed one of the Lords 
 of the Treasury. 
 
 Belesme, Eobert o?, one of the Norman 
 followers of "William the Conqueror, and 
 eldest son of Earl Roger of Shrewsbury, was 
 created Earl of Montgomery. He was the 
 leader of the disaffected barons against the 
 Norman kings. In 1077 he joined Eobert 
 against his father, in 1087 he opposed William 
 II.'s accession to the English throne, and in 
 1101 supported Robert's claims against Henry 
 I. On this latter occasion he was banished 
 f I om England, to the great joy of the people, 
 and sought refuge in Normandy. In 1112 he 
 was sent to Henry as an ambassador by the 
 French kiug, but Henry served him as a rebel 
 and kept him a prisoner till his death, the 
 date of which is unknown. He stands out as 
 the very worst example of the feudal noble. 
 " His contemporaries," says Lappenberg, " are 
 unanimous in describing him as one of the 
 most detestable characters known in history, 
 to whom the most unheard-of barbarities 
 were not merely acts of revenge, but an in- 
 satiable enjoyment." Ordericus Vitalis ex- 
 claims, when mentioning his banishment from 
 England in 1101, " Rejoice, King Henry, and 
 ^ve thanks to the Lord God, for you became 
 a free ruler from the day when you banished 
 Robert of Belesme from your realm." 
 
 Ordericus Vitalia, 707, &c. ; Freemen, William 
 Rufus, i. 181, ffcc, and Normtjun Conquest. 
 
 Belfast was the site of an important 
 Norman castle which was in the possession of 
 the De Burghs, Earls of Ulster, in the thir- 
 teenth century. In 1333, William de Burgh 
 was murdered there by the rebellious English 
 of the Pale. The castle subsequently fell 
 into the hands of the O'Neils, from whom it 
 was taken after the rebellion of Shane O'Neil, 
 and forfeited to the crown. In 1604 the 
 castle and district was granted to Sir Arthur 
 Chichester, who settled there numerous 
 colonists from Devonshire. The castle was 
 rebuilt, and a town speedily grew up round 
 it. In 1611 the town was constituted a 
 borough, and became very flourishing. In 
 1637 Strafford gave it certain trading privi- 
 leges which did much to increase its pros- 
 perity. The town has ever since continued 
 to increase, and has become the chief manu- 
 facturing and commercial town in Ireland. 
 
 Belgse, The, were the inhabitants of part 
 of the south and south-west of ancient 
 Britain. Their districts included the modem 
 counties of Hants, Wilts, Dorset, and part of 
 Somerset. They were in all likelihood closely 
 connected with the Continental Belgse and 
 are generally considered to have belonged to 
 the Gallic branch of the Celtic stock, and to 
 have migrated to Britain from north-eastern 
 Graul. It is probable that they contained a 
 
 very considerable intermixture of Germanic 
 elements, and Mr. Wright, and some other 
 authorities, have maintained that the Belgse 
 were, in fact, a Teutonic tribe, and were 
 comparatively late settlers in this island. A 
 directly opposite opinion has, however, been 
 maintained by other Celtic scholars. [Bkitons ; 
 Celts.] 
 
 See for various views, Ebjs, Celtic Britain ; 
 Elton, Origins of Eng. Bist. ; Wright, The Celt, 
 t/jB iJoman, and the HOicm; Coote, The Eomajis 
 of Britain. 
 
 Belgaiutt, The District of, in the Bom- 
 bay Presidency, lying to the north-east of 
 the Portuguese state of Goa, was ceded to 
 the British by the Peishwa in 1817. 
 
 Belgian Question, The (1830—32). 
 
 The effect of the French Revolution of July, 
 1830, in Europe, was to cause a general up- 
 rising of nationalities. Belgium, among others, 
 threw off the yoke of Holland, and all Europe 
 now became interested in the settlement of 
 the difficulty. The Dutch government applied 
 to Lord Aberdeen for troops. Thereupon he 
 summoned the London Conference. This 
 Conference in vain attempted to solve the 
 question. It lingered on till Sept. 30, 1832, 
 and then separated, having effected nothing, 
 the final cause of separation being a difference 
 of opinion between the three Northern and 
 the two Western powers as to the employment 
 of force. A convention was immediately con- 
 cluded between England and France for 
 carrying out the stipulations of the treaty of 
 November. This treaty was signed Oct. 22, 
 and on the 6th Nov. an embargo was laid on 
 all vessels bearing the Dutch flag in British 
 ports. A French army entered Holland and 
 captured Antwerp ; and the war was over. 
 Belgium gained her independence with the 
 capitulation of Antwerp. 
 
 Annual Register, 1832 ; "Walpole, Hist, of Eng. 
 from 1815. 
 
 Belleisle, (l) The Battle op, was fought 
 Oct. 25, 1747, and resulted in the defeat of the 
 French by the English fleet commanded by 
 Admiral Hawke. Early in the day Hawke fell 
 in with a large fleet of merchant ships bound 
 for the West Indies, and convoyed by nine 
 men-of-war. Without waiting for his ships to 
 fall into line of battle, he vigorously attacked 
 the enemy, and was rewarded with the capture 
 of s^ven out of the nine men-of-war. The 
 French were completely defeated, and the 
 admiral received the honour of knighthood for 
 the exploit. — (2) The Capture of, took 
 place during the Seven Years' War. In 
 1761 (June 7), a fleet under Admiral Keppel, 
 conveying 8,000 troops under General Hodg- 
 son, arrived before the south-east point of 
 the island. The troops, after being once re- 
 pulsed, made good their landing, captured 
 Palais, the chief town of the island, and com- 
 pelled the garrison to capitulate. The island 
 was held till the close of the war (,17631. 
 
Bel 
 
 ( 149 ) 
 
 Ben 
 
 Belliugliaill, Sir Edward [d. 1549), was 
 sent to Ireland as Lord Deputy by Somerset 
 in 1548, liaving previously won fame for 
 himself in Hungary and at Boulogne, as 
 well as in tlie Isle of "Wight, where, in his 
 capacity of governor, he defeated the French 
 in 1545. His short period of rule in Ireland 
 was eminently successful, and was marked 
 by strong, wise, and vigorous administration. 
 
 BelucMstan is the territory of the 
 Khan of Khelat, situated on the Sciude 
 frontier, and lying to the south of Afghanis- 
 tan, and between that country and the sea. 
 [Khelat.] 
 
 Benares, The Treaty of (Aug., 1773), 
 was concluded between Warren Hastings and 
 the Vizier of Oude. Its stipulations were that 
 Hastings should lend the Vizier an English 
 force to be used against the Eohillas, and 
 should cede the districts of Corah and Allaha- 
 bad ; that the Vizier should give a donation of 
 forty lacs of rupees, and a monthly payment 
 of two lacs for the services of the troops ; and 
 that he should pay fifty lacs additionally for 
 the ceded districts. [Eohilla War.] 
 
 BenbO'V?, John, Acmieal (J. 1650, d. 1 702), 
 entered the merchant service very early in 
 life. In 1680 he was master of a ship 
 which traded in the Mediterranean. He is 
 said to have pickled the heads of a crew of 
 Sallee pirates, which he threw down as salt 
 provisions on the table of the Cadiz magis- 
 trates. On his return James II. placed him 
 in command of a ship in the Royal Navy. 
 William III. employed him in checking the 
 Dutch privateers, and in bombarding the 
 French ports, duties which he cEirried out with 
 courage and success. In 1698 he was sent with 
 a squadron to the West Indies. There he 
 attempted to settle the disputes which had 
 broken out between the Spanish and English 
 settlers owing to the attempted colonisation 
 of the isthmus of Darien by the Scotch. On 
 his return he was made Vioe-Admiral (1700). 
 He was sent out again in order to engage the 
 Spanish colonies to disown Philip, the French 
 claimant to the crown of Spain ; or, if they 
 refused this, to seize their galleons. He 
 arrived at Barbadoes in 1701 and sailed thence 
 for Jamaica, where he heard that Du Casse 
 had arrived with a squadron of French ships 
 in order to crush the English slave trade. On 
 August 19th, 1702, Benbow, while cruising 
 off St. Domingo, came in sight of Du Casse. 
 He resolved to attack, but the captains of his 
 three best ships, from motives of personal dis- 
 like, refused to bring their vessels into action. 
 Benbow, however, with his own ship, fought 
 the enemy for four days. At last the captains 
 addressed a written remonstrance to him, in 
 which they declared that the odds were too 
 great for a continuance of the conflict. Bpn- 
 bow, who was badly wounded, returned to 
 Jamaica to die. Before his death he had the 
 
 satisfaction of procuring the condemnation of 
 two of his captains, and the dismissal of the 
 third from the service. 
 
 Campbell, Lima of the A&mirals, vol. iii. ; 
 Biogra^liia Britannica. 
 
 Benburb, The Battlt? of (June 5th, 
 1646), was fought between Owen Roe O'Keil 
 and General Monroe with the Scottish and 
 English troops. O'Neil had his rear protected 
 by a wood, and his right by the Blackwater. 
 Monroe had ordered his brother to join him 
 with a considerable force, but this O'Neil pre- 
 vented, while he amused the Scots by feints 
 till his own forces, detached for this purpose, 
 had rejoined him. Monroe now tried to 
 retreat, but was at once charged by the Irish, 
 his horse fled, and the only formidable stand 
 was made by an English regiment under 
 Lord Blaney ; when they had been cut to 
 pieces the rest of the Scots fled in dis- 
 order. Lords Montgomery and Blaney, with 
 21 officers and 150 men, as well as all the 
 artillery and ammunition, were captured, 
 Monroe himself escaping with difficulty. 
 Altogether, 3,243 of the English and Scots 
 fell, while the victors lost 70 killed and 200 
 wounded. This battle was the last great 
 victory achieved by an Irish general on Irish 
 sou. 
 
 Whiteloeke, Memorials: MsLcGeoeliegan, Hist. 
 d'Irlande, 1758. 
 
 Bench, Kino's. [King's Bench.] 
 
 Bencoolen, in Sumatra, was held by the 
 East India Company as a trading settlement 
 from 1682 to 18'.i4. It was attacked and laid 
 in ruins by the French in 1760. In 1824 it 
 was given up to the Dutch in exchange for 
 their Malacca settlements. 
 
 Benedict Biscop was bom of a good 
 Northumbrian family, and was in the service 
 of King Oswy. In 653 he went on a pilgrim- 
 age to Rome, and on his return laboured hard 
 in missionary work in the north of England. 
 After two years he undertook a second journey 
 to Rome, and subsequently entered the Bene- 
 dictine monastery of Lerins, where he took the 
 tonsure, and remained some time. He then 
 went to Rome again, and was commissioned 
 to return to England as assistant and inter- 
 preter to Archbishop Theodoric. On their 
 arrival in England, Benedict was made abbot 
 of the monastery of St. Peter's, at Canterburj'. 
 At the expiration of two years he abandoned 
 this office, and undertook another journey to 
 Rome. On his return he received from 
 Egfrith of Northumbria a grant of land at 
 the mouth of the Wear (674). Here he 
 founded a monastery with a church of stone, 
 and glass windows, and endowed it with 
 numerous books, pictures, and relics, obtained 
 by him on his journeys to Rome. In 682 he 
 founded a second monastery at Jarrow, where 
 Bede spent most of his life. By the impulse 
 he gave to monasticism and to ecclesiastical 
 
Ben 
 
 (150) 
 
 Ben 
 
 art in England, Benedict did work of con- 
 siderable service to the Anglo-Saxon Church.. 
 
 Benedictines, The, were the most 
 important of the monastic orders, founded 
 529 by St. Benedict of Nursia (480—542). 
 Up to this time there had been neither 
 uniformity nor permanence in monastic so- 
 cieties. Benedict's work was that of organi- 
 sation; instead of fluctuating assemblies of 
 individuals, there was to be a careful grada- 
 tion of ranks and duties ; and though the 
 abbot was bound to consult the monks, his 
 authority was supreme. Moreover, though 
 the Benedictine rule was milder than previous 
 practices, the vow was rendered irrevocable. 
 Instead of devoting themselves entirely to 
 contemplation, the monks were to busy 
 themselves in manual labour or in reading. 
 Soon most of the monasteries of the West 
 were subject to the Benedictine rule. There 
 is some doubt as to the exact date of the 
 introduction of the Benedictine rule into 
 England. Probably it was introduced by 
 Augustine, whose companions were in all 
 likelihood Benedictine monks, but the first in- 
 troduction is also claimed for Benedict Biscop, 
 and for "Wilfrid. The order is mentioned in a 
 charter of Kenred's to the monks of Evesham 
 in 709 ; but Bede has no reference to it, nor ia 
 it alluded to in the act regulating the English 
 clergy at Clovesho in 747. It was not tUl 
 the time of Edgar that the strict Benedictine 
 rule, under the auspices of Ethelwold, Dunstan, 
 and Oswald (himself a Benedictine of Fleury), 
 became generally prevalent in England, and a 
 " Concord of Hules " was promulgated by 
 Dunstan for the guidance of English monks. 
 Henceforward the Benedictines became by 
 far the richest and moat powerful of the 
 monastic orders in England. All the cathedral 
 conventa, except Carlisle, and four of the 
 cathedrala instituted by Henry VIII., namely, 
 Chester, Gloucester, Oxford, and Peter- 
 borough, and all the English mitred abbeys 
 except Waltham and Cirencester, belonged to 
 the Benedictine order. So important are they 
 in comparison with all other orders of monks 
 in England, that the history of English monas- 
 ticism is to a large extent the history of the 
 English Benedictines. [Monasticism.] At 
 the time of the dissolution of the monasteries 
 the number of Benedictine abbeys and cells 
 was 113, with revenues amounting to over 
 £57,000, besides 73 Benedictine nunneries 
 with revenues of nearly £8,000. 
 
 MaMlon, Annales Ordirvis S BeneHirf! ■ Smi+li 
 
 WfnL*° f™?™'' "f- S- D^ toi; and the 
 tot four vols, of Dngdale's Monastiom. 
 
 Benefice denotes "the right which a clerk 
 nas to enjoy certain ecclesiastical revenues on 
 condition of discharging certain services." 
 J^or the enjoyment of a benefice four things 
 are necessary :-(l) Ordination us a priest; a 
 aeacon or a layman may be presented, but he 
 
 must be ordained priest before he can be 
 instituted. (2) Presentation by the patron. 
 In theory, a patron, himself a clerk, may 
 petition for his own admission ; but the usual 
 plan ia to make over the right to some other 
 person before the benefice becomes vacant. 
 (3) Institution to the cure of aouls by the 
 bishop, if satisfied of the sufficiency of the 
 clerk. If the bishop refuse, the patron has a 
 remedy by quare impedit in the common law 
 court, and must show satisfactory reasons for 
 his refusal. When the bishop is himself 
 patron, there is neither presentation nor 
 institution, but collation. (4) Induction to the 
 temporalities by the archdeacon or a neigh- 
 bouring clergjinan upon the bishop's mandate. 
 The papal power of granting dispensation 
 from that canon of the Lateran Council of 
 1215, which forbade the holding of two 
 beneficea by the same person, waa transferred 
 at the Eeformation to the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. But the evils of pluralism were 
 so great that by the Acts 1 and 2 Vict., c. 106, 
 and 13 and 14 Vict., c. 98, it was forbidden to 
 hold two benefices unless the churches were 
 within three miles of one another, and the 
 value of one waa not greater than £100. In 
 1867, 6,403 beneficea were in the patronage of 
 private persons, 6,485 in that of the crown, 
 public bodies, and f unctionariea. 
 
 Benefit of Clergy was the right 
 claimed by the clergy to immunity from 
 secular j'urisdiotion in certain cases. It was 
 never extended to high treason or ofEencesnot 
 capital, and where the punishment would not 
 touch the life or limb of the offender. It 
 was at first restricted to hond-fide clerics, but 
 subsequently got extended to aU who could 
 read a verse in the Psalter, known as the 
 "neck-verse," generally out of the 51st 
 Psalm. Should it be declared by the bishop's 
 commissary that the prisoner read it like a 
 clerk, he waa delivered over to the eccle- 
 siaatical jurisdiction. It was, however, an 
 indictable offence at common law to teach a 
 felon to read in order that he might claim 
 benefit of clergy. The abuse of this custom 
 was very great, and in the fifteenth and six- 
 teenth centuries it produced constant disputes 
 between the judges and ordinaries. Henry 
 yil., in 1488, restricted it by declaring that 
 it should not be allowed more than once to 
 persons not actually in orders, and in ftueen 
 Anne's reign the neck- verse was no longer re- 
 quired to be read. Benefit of clergy waa not 
 finally abolished till the reign of George IV. 
 Benefit of clergy never extended to women 
 till they were included by the Statute 3 and 4 
 Will. III. 
 
 Blaolcatone, iv., ch. 28 ; Hale, Pleas offhe Crtyim ; 
 btatiites 5 Anne, cap. 6 ; 7 and 8 Geo IV., 
 cap. 28. 
 
 Benevolences, a means of raising monev 
 by extorted loans, were first used by Edward. 
 iV. Probably in earlier times .the practice of 
 
Ben 
 
 ( 151 
 
 Ben 
 
 expecting and even asking for "free-will offer- 
 ings " was not unusual on the part of kings. 
 Edward II. and Eichard II. seem to have 
 made some use of this method of levying 
 money. But Edward IV. raised it to a system, 
 and by his popular manners was wonder- 
 fully successful in dealing with that large 
 number of his subjects who did not know 
 how to refuse a king's request. Such a method 
 of using personal pressure was, of course, un- 
 constitutional, and gave the king a dangerous 
 means of raising money without Parliament. 
 Under Eichard ill., in 1484, an Act of Par- 
 liament was passed abolishing benevolences 
 as "new and unlawful inventions ;" but in 
 spite of this, Richard III. continued to exact 
 them. Henry VII. also revived them, and 
 obtained . a quasi-parliamentary sanction by 
 an Act of I4y2, which enforced the payment 
 of arrears of money promised by private 
 persons to the king. It was often argued 
 seriously that the law of Eichard III., 
 being the act of a " usurper,'' was not vaUd. 
 Henry's Chancellor, Archbishop Morton, 
 used to beg for his master, and invented 
 a dilemma which -was known as " Morton's 
 fork." If a man lived handsomely he 
 told him that he clearly had money to spare ; 
 if he lived plainly, that he was saving 
 money, and must be rich enough to help 
 the king. Henry VIII., in 1545, appointed 
 commissioners, who, under the name of a bene- 
 volence, were to move men to grant to the 
 king twenty pence in the pound on the value 
 of their lands : those who refused were to be 
 summoned to answer before the Privy Council. 
 Elizabeth at times solicited loans, but she was 
 frugal, and generally repaid them in time. 
 James I., in 1614, had recourse to this, amongst 
 other schemes for raising money. The 
 Council wrote to the sheriffs requesting them 
 to solicit subscriptions in their counties. Lord 
 Bacon defended the proceeding, saying that 
 it asked for a free gift, and had nothing m 
 common with the extortions of previous 
 times. So many protests, however, were 
 made against this exaction, and so little 
 money was raised by it, that it was not again 
 used by the crown. Even Charles I., in his 
 worst straits, rejected proposals for reviving 
 so unpopular a usage. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., iii. ; HaUam, Const. Hist. 
 [F. S. P.] 
 
 Bengal. The province of British India 
 which lies about the lower portions and the 
 deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. It 
 includes the provinces of Bengal Proper, 
 Behar, Orissa, and Chota Nagpur, and has a 
 population of over sixty-four millions. Bengal 
 was conquered by the Mohammedans in the 
 thirteenth century, and was subsequently ruled 
 by Mussulman viceroys appointed by the 
 various reigning dynasties. In the eighteenth 
 century the Nawab of Bengal was a deputy 
 of the Mogul at Delhi. The first English 
 
 settlements were formed between the years 
 1620 and 1640. In 1696 the English bought 
 a small district at the mouth of the Gauges, on 
 which Fort "WiUiara (Calcutta) was erected. 
 For many years the English were involved in 
 frequent disputes with the native governors, 
 culminating in Suraj-ud-Dowlah's massacre 
 of the Europeans in 1756. [Black Hole.] 
 This was followed by Clive's great victory 
 at Plaasey, and some years of fighting. 
 [Clive.] In 1765 the dewanny of Bengal, 
 Behar, and Orissa, was ceded to the East India 
 Company, and the Nawab, Meer JafSer, was 
 pensioned off. A native dewan was, however, 
 appointed to collect the revenues. In 1773 
 Warren Hastings abolished the double govern- 
 ment, and placed the administration directly 
 in the hands of the Company. The Governor- 
 General of India was also Governor of Bengal, 
 tin 1864, when the offices were separated, 
 and Bengal was placed under a Lieutenant- 
 Governor. In 1793 Lord Comwallis effected 
 the "Permanent Settlement," by which the 
 zemindars, or tax collectors, were recognised 
 as proprietors on payment of a land tax to 
 the government; but the rights of the 
 cultivators were recognised and extended by 
 the Bengal Land Law of 1859. 
 
 "W. "W". Hunter, Orissa, and Annals of Rural 
 Bengal ; Stewart, Hist, of Bengal. [B. C. g.] 
 
 Bengal Mutiny (1795—6). One of the 
 chief results of Lord Cornwallis's adminis- 
 tration had been the abohtion of sinecures 
 and perquisites in both branches of the service. 
 The civilians had been compensated by in- 
 creased salaries, but this was impossible in 
 the army, and though the pay was very high, 
 it was disproportionate to that of the civilians. 
 Sir John Shore therefore found he had to 
 deal with a, widespread spirit of mutiny. 
 •Delegates were elected from each regiment to 
 form an executive board, and the terms offered 
 by it were that the Company's regiments 
 should not be reduced; that the king's troops 
 should be limited by law; that promotion 
 should go by seniority; that aU the old 
 allowances should be restored. If this was 
 not granted, they were prepared to assume 
 the government themselves by violence. The 
 matter was entirely mismanaged. At one 
 time obnoxious regulations were issued, which 
 merely enraged the mutineers; at another 
 the greatest concessions were made, one of 
 the ringleaders being promoted to a confi- 
 dential post in the India House. The arrival 
 of Lord Wellesley ended this. Seeing a 
 number of malcontent commanders congre- 
 gated at his first levSe, he peremptorily 
 ordered them to rejoin their regiments withm 
 twenty-four hour's. His commands were 
 obeyed, and the mutiny was at an end 
 quelled, it was said, by a glance of Lord 
 Wellesley' 8 eye. 
 
 Bennington, The Battle of (Aug. 16th, 
 1777), fought during the American War of 
 
Ben 
 
 ( 152 
 
 Ben 
 
 Independence, took place at Bennington, in 
 New Hampshire, where the Americans had 
 stored large supplies. Burgoyne had detached 
 a considerahle force, under Colonel Baum, 
 to seize the magazines at Bennington, and 
 thence to march on to Albany and join the 
 main army there. Finding the place stronger 
 than he expected, Baum entrenched himself, 
 and sent for reinforcements. General Stark, 
 with the New Hampshire men, in vain offered 
 him battle, and on being reinforced, determined 
 himself to attack. The movement was con- 
 ducted with great skill, and Baum's position 
 was secretly surrounded before he was aware of 
 an intended attack. The entrenchments were 
 gallantly held until ammunition failed the 
 defenders, who then made a bold attempt to 
 cut their way through the American lines. 
 Baum, however, was shot, and the rest of the 
 force laid down its arms. 
 
 Bensiugton, in Oxfordshire, near Wal- 
 lingford, although now a village, was in early 
 times a place of considerable importance. It 
 was one of the four towns that Cutha took from 
 the Britons in 571 ; and in 773 Offa defeated 
 Cynewulf of Wessex here, and took the town 
 from him. 
 
 J. E. Green, Tft-e Malci/ng ofEi>gland. 
 
 Bentham, Jeremy (*. 1747, d. 1832), 
 educated at Westminster and Queen's College, 
 Oxford, was originally intended for the bar, 
 but being possessed of private means, he 
 determined to devote his life to the reforma- 
 tion, rather than the practice, of the law, 
 and wrote numerous works with this object. 
 In spite of their unequal value, his books 
 remain a storehouse for the politician and 
 the law reformer. Indeed, there are few 
 administrative reforms which have not been 
 suggested wholly or in part by Bentham's 
 writings. But his value does not only con- 
 sist in being a suggester of reform on the 
 details of legislation and procedure ; he is 
 also one of the fathers of English juris- 
 prudence. His place in that science is mid- 
 way between Hobbea and Austin. Hobbes 
 had first discerned the doctrine that whatever 
 be the form of government the sovereign 
 authority is ultimately absolute ; but he had 
 deduced from this the theory of non-resistance. 
 Bentham perceived the fallacy in this deduc- 
 tion, and separated clearly the lei/al necessity 
 for obedience from the political duty of 
 resistance. The test of the propriety of 
 political resistance Bentham held to be 
 "Utility," in the sense of the greatest 
 happiness of the greatest number. This 
 maxim, whatever may be its value as the 
 basis of a philosophy, furnishes an excellent 
 rule for practical action. In fact, as 
 Sir Henry Maine has pointed out, by thus 
 making the good of the community take 
 precedence of every other object, Bentham 
 offered a clear rule of reform, and gave a 
 distinct object to aim at in the pursuit of 
 
 improvement. In this respect his influence 
 may be compared with that of the Jm natura 
 in Eoman law. 
 
 Bentham's woris, whicli are very numerous, 
 liave been collected by his disciple, Bowring 
 (London, 1837), who has prefixed to the collec- 
 tion a sketch of Bentham's method. Those of 
 his writings which will best repay perusal are 
 37ie Fragme^it on Government (1776), in answer to 
 Blackstone ; The Book of Fallacies, and The Tract 
 on Usury. His theory of puuishmenta is con- 
 tained in The Principles of Morals and Legislation 
 (published separately by the Clarendon Press), 
 and in a translation from the French of his dis- 
 ciple Dumont, entitled The Theory of Legislation. 
 For criticisms of Bentham's philosophy, see 
 preface to Green and Grose's edition of Kwme, 
 and "W". L. Courtenay, Criticism on tjie Philosophy 
 ofJ.S.MiU. [B. R. W.j 
 
 Bentinck, Lord George (4. 1802,^.1848), 
 acted for some time as secretary to .Canning, 
 and in 1828 entered Parliament for Lyme 
 Regis. He was chiefly occupied in sporting 
 matters till within a few years of his death. 
 He came prominently forward in the ranks 
 of the Opposition in 1846, after Sir Robert 
 Peel abandoned the cause of Protection. 
 Identifying himself with the Protectionists, 
 he quickly became their chief, and led 
 them in the bitter campaign which followed 
 against Peel. In this position he displayed 
 an energy, determination, and organising 
 power which seemed to mark him out 
 for high distinction as a political leader. 
 He, however, died suddenly from heart dis- 
 ease, within three years of the time when 
 he had first come prominently before the 
 public. 
 
 B. Disraeh', Lord George BentiMch: a Political 
 Biography (1861). 
 
 Bentinck, Lord William {*. 1774, 
 d. 1839), entered the army in 1791, and was 
 attached to the headquarters of Marshal 
 Suvaroff during the campaign of 1799 — 1801. 
 In April, 1803, he quitted England as 
 Governor of Madras, which post he filled till 
 Jan., 1808. In August of that year he was 
 appointed on the staff of the army in Por- 
 tugal under Sir Harry Burrard. He was 
 at the battle of Corunna, and later was 
 appointed minister at the court of Sicily 
 and Commander-in-chief of all his Majesty's 
 forces in the island. At the head of an 
 expedition he landed in Catalonia (1813), 
 and, after some successes, was repulsed 
 at Villa Franca. In 1814 he left Sicily, 
 repaired to Tuscany, and incited the Italians 
 to throw off the French yoke. In 1827 
 he went to India as Governor- General. 
 He arrived in 1828, and was compelled to 
 enter at once on the unpopular duty of 
 retrenchment, owing to the deficit caused by 
 the Burmese War. All allowances were 
 reduced, and an order was issued (Nov., 
 1828) to curtail the batta allowances at all 
 stations within 400 miles of Calcutta. This 
 impolitic and unjust order nearly pro- 
 duced a mutiny, but was forced on Lord 
 William by tbe Directors. The revenue was 
 
Beo 
 
 ( 153) 
 
 Ber 
 
 augmented by increasing the opium trade, 
 and by resuming all lands fraudulently 
 alienated from the state. In 1832, on the 
 murder of the Eajah of Cachar (a little 
 province on the north-east frontier of Bengal), 
 Lord William annexed it, in accordance 
 •with the general wish of the people ; and in 
 1834 Coorg was also annexed. In other 
 respects Lord William baaed his policy on 
 the principle of non-intervention. The 
 assumption of the government of Mysore 
 was, however, forced upon him by the in- 
 competence of its ruler. Attempts were also 
 made to establish a connection with the 
 independent states beyond the Company's 
 territories, and to form defensive alliances 
 with the Ameers of Scinde and Eunjeet 
 Sing, of Lahore, with whom Lord William 
 concluded treaties in 1831. The civil ad- 
 ministration of Lord William stands high 
 in the history of British India as an era of 
 progress. The reform of the law courts and 
 the laws, the admission of native Christians 
 to office, the settlement of the North- West 
 Provinces, the abolition of suttee and the 
 suppression of the Thugs, the introduction of 
 steam communication, and the encouragement 
 of education, serve to mark the period of his 
 rule with distinction. In 1835 Lord WiUiam 
 returned to England. He was elected M.P. 
 for Glasgow in 1837, but he did not take any 
 prominent part in home politics. 
 
 IVrm, Sist. oflni.t "book iii., cliap. 8. 
 
 Beom {d. 1046) was the son of XJIE, and 
 consequently the nephew of G-ytha, wife of 
 Earl Godwine. He attached himself to the 
 fortunes of his uncle, and probably about the 
 year 1045 received an earldom which seems 
 to have included the counties of Hertford, 
 Bedford, Huntingdon, and Buckingham. 
 On the outlawry of Swegen in 1046, 
 part of his earldom was granted to Beom. 
 On Swegeu's return Beom consented to in- 
 tercede for him with the king, but Swegen, 
 having lured him on board his ship, murdered 
 him and buried his body at Dartmouth. His 
 remains were subsequently translated with 
 great pomp to Winchester. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron, ; Freeman, Norm. Conq. 
 
 Berar. [Mahrattas, The.] 
 
 Berengaxia, Queen (d. ciro. 1230), was 
 the daughter of Sancho VI. of Navarre, and 
 in 1191 was married at Cyprus to Richard I. 
 She accompanied him to the Holy Land, 
 and it was owing to discourtesy shown to her 
 at Cyprus that Richard I. attacked and con- 
 quered the island. After the death of her 
 husband, she resided chiefly in the dower 
 city of Le Mans, and compounded with King 
 John for her dower lands in England, re- 
 ceiving in return « promise of 2,000 marks 
 a year, which was very irregularly kept. She 
 retired in 1230 to the abbey of L'Espan, to 
 which .she was a great benefactress, and here 
 
 she is supposed to have died shortly after- 
 wards. 
 
 Beresford, William Care, 1st Viscount 
 (4. 1770, d. 1854), a natural eon of the first 
 Marquis of Waterford, entered the army 
 in 1785, and first saw active service at the 
 siege of Toulon in 1793. In 1799 he went 
 to India, and took command of a brigade 
 of Sir David Baird's army, which was on 
 its way to oppose Napoleon in Egypt. In 
 Egypt he remained as commandant of Alex- 
 andria, till its evacuation, when he returned 
 home, and was sent to Ireland. In 1805 he , 
 shared in the conquest of the Cape of Good 
 Hope, whence he was despatched as brigadier- 
 general with a small force against Buenos 
 Ayres, which he took, only, however, in turn 
 to be compelled to surrender to an over- 
 whelming force. After remaining a prisoner 
 for six months, he managed to escape, and on 
 his return to England was sent in command 
 of an expedition against Madeira, of which, 
 on its capture, he became governor. In 1808, 
 with the rank of major-general, he joined the 
 British armies in Portugal. He accompanied 
 Sir John Moore's expedition, and rendered 
 good service, both on the retreat and in the 
 battle of Corunna. In the spring of 1809, 
 he was appointed marshal and generalissimo 
 of the Portuguese armies, and proceeded to 
 co-operate with the commander-in-chief. But 
 in May, 1811, he rashly engaged the French 
 at Albuera, and by good fortune rather than 
 skill of his own gained a victory, which, 
 however, weakened him so much that he was 
 unable to reap any benefits from it. 
 [Albuera.] In the campaigns of 1812 and 
 1813 he was second in command to Welling- 
 ton, and was present at Nivelle, Bayonne, 
 Orthes, and Toulouse [Toulouse], in the 
 last of which especially be took a most 
 important part. In 1814 he was raised to 
 the peerage, and was immediately charged 
 with an important mission to Brazil, where 
 he was delayed just too long to allow him 
 to be employed at Waterloo. In the year 
 1815 he was appointed to the command of the 
 Portuguese armies by the King of Portugal, 
 and for some time held that office, until he 
 came into political conflict with the people, 
 when he threw up his appointment, and 
 returned to England in 1822. Of his victory 
 at Albuera, Napier says:^ "No general ever 
 gained so great a battle with so little increase 
 of military reputation as Marshal Beresford." 
 But he deserves great credit for the vigour 
 and energy he displayed in the organisation 
 of the Portuguese armies; and, in a subor- 
 dinate position, he rendered most valuable 
 service on many occasions throughout the 
 Peninsular War. 
 
 Napier, PmmsviXar Wwr ; Clark, Qeoreria,n 
 Em. [W. R. S.] 
 
 Berlin, The Treaty oe (1878), was con- 
 cluded between Great Britain, Germany, 
 
Ber 
 
 (154) 
 
 Ber 
 
 Austria, France, Italy, Eusaia, and Turkey, for 
 the settlement of affairs in the East after the 
 war hetween Eussia and Turkey. Its chief 
 provisions were, that Bulgaria should he an 
 autonomous and trihutary principality under 
 the suzerainty of the Sultan, to he ruled hy 
 a Christian government and a prince freely 
 elected, and provisionally administered hy a 
 Eussian commissary ; and that Eastern Eou- 
 melia should remain under the direct political 
 and mOitary authority of the Sultan, under 
 conditions of administrative autonomy, and 
 should have a Christian governor-general, 
 to he nominated hy the Porte with the 
 assent of the powers. In the event of the 
 Porte and Greece being unahle to agree as to 
 the rectification of their frontier, the powers 
 would mediate. Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 were to be occupied and administered by 
 Austro-Hungary. The independence of 
 Servia, Eoumania, and Montenegro was 
 recognised. Ardahan, Kars, Batoum, and 
 other portions of Armenia, were ceded to 
 Eussia. Complete toleration, equality, and 
 protection of all religions was guaranteed in 
 Turkey. The plenipotentiaries who repre- 
 sented England in the Congress held under 
 the presidency of Prince Bismarck, which 
 preceded the treaty, were the Earl of Beacons- 
 field and the Marquis of Salisbury. 
 
 Bermudas, The, or Somers Islands, 
 
 situated in the west of the Atlantic Ocean, 
 were discovered in 1527 by a Spaniard named 
 Bermudas, who gave his name to the islands. 
 They are about three hundred in number, 
 though about twenty only are inhabited. In 
 1609 Sir George Somers, who was wrecked 
 there on his way to Virginia, took possession 
 of the Bermudas for the crown, and settlers 
 soon began to arrive from England. In 1616 
 a Bermuda Company was formed, and after the 
 Civil War many Eoyalists came out to settle. 
 The islands were strongly fortified and ren- 
 dered almost impregnable, a precaution which 
 alone preserved them for England during the 
 American War of Independence. The govern- 
 ment, which has been representative ever 
 since 1620, is vested in a governor, an execu- 
 tive council of nine members appointed by 
 the crown, and a House of Assembly of 
 thirty-six members. 
 
 K. M. Martiu, British Colonies; Coke, West 
 Indies. 
 
 Bernard's Case (1858). On January 
 14th, 1858, a desperate attempt was made by 
 a man named Orsini, and others, to murder 
 the Emperor of the French, by throwing 
 bombs filled with explosives at him near the 
 Opera-house in Paris. The attempt failed, 
 but many persons were injured and some 
 killed. Dr. Simon Bernard was indicted in 
 England for being an accessory to the attempt 
 before the act. There is little doubt that 
 Bernard was an active accomplice in the plot. 
 But a good deal of political feeling had been 
 
 imported into the matter. The French 
 Foreign Office had addressed a. despatch to 
 England on the subject of the conspiracy ; 
 this had caused great irritation, which was 
 increased by the insulting language towards 
 England used by some of the French officers 
 in their address of congratulation to the 
 Emperor Napoleon. It was felt that the 
 conviction of Bernard would be a mark of 
 subservience on the part of England, and a 
 triumph for the unconstitutional government 
 of the French Emperor. The trial took place 
 at the Central Criminal Court on April 14 ; 
 and after a six days' hearing the jury re- 
 turned a verdict of JHot Guilty. 
 
 Bemers, Sm John Bourchiee, Lord 
 (b. circa 1469, d. 1532), the holder of many 
 important state offices during the first part 
 of the reign of Henry VIII. , and the best of 
 the early writers of English prose, was born 
 at Therfield in Hertfordshire, and probably 
 educated at BaUiol College, Oxford. In 
 1474 he succeeded to the title of his grand- 
 father — John Bourchier — who had been 
 created Baron Bemers in 1455. In 1496 
 Berners aided in crushing the rebellion of the 
 Cornishmen, who had risen against Henry 
 VII.'s tax-gatherers, and after fighting 
 with the army in France at the taking of Te- 
 rouenne (1573), he accompanied the Princess 
 Mary to Paris, as her chamberlain, on the 
 occasion of her marriage with Louis XII. 
 (1514). Inl515he was appointed Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer, and was subsequently 
 English envoy in Spain, attended Henry VIII. 
 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and was 
 installed in the office of Deputy of Calais in 
 1520. Although in ill-health, and embarrassed 
 by debt, he zealously performed the duties of 
 the position until his death in 1532. It was 
 at Calais that he undertook a translation of 
 Froissart's Chronicles. The translation was so 
 skilfully executed in idiomatic English that it 
 might have been easily mistaken for an original 
 work, and to its popularity has been ascribed 
 the promotion of a taste for historical reading 
 and composition in England in the sixteenth 
 century. His other works include translations 
 of several French and Spanish romances, and 
 of the Golden Booh of Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 H:. Walpole, Royal ami Noble Authors, i. 239. 
 The edttio pHnceps of Bemers* Froissart was 
 printed by Pynson in London in two vols., 
 1623_ and_ 1525. After passing tkrough many 
 editions in the sixteenth century it was re- 
 printed by Mr. TJtterson in 1812. 
 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Beruicia. [Northumeria.] 
 
 Bertha (Bercta), Queen, was the 
 daughter of Charibert, King of Paris, and 
 the wife of Ethelbert of Kent. On her 
 marriage it was stipulated that she should be 
 allowed to profess Christianity and worship 
 as she pleased. The little Eoman church of 
 St. Martin at Canterbury was set apart for 
 her use. Her influence was of great service 
 
Ber 
 
 ( 155) 
 
 Bes 
 
 to Augustine in his missionaiy work. [Au- 
 gustine.] 
 
 Bede, Hist. EccUs.t i., cap. 25. 
 Bertric (Beorhtrio) {d. 800), King 
 of Wessex, succeeded on Cynewulf's death. 
 He married Eadburgh, daughter of Offa, 
 and is said to have met his death by drinking 
 a cup of poison prepared by her hands for 
 another person. His reign is chiefly remark- 
 able for the banishment of Egbert and the 
 first appearance of the Danes on the English 
 coast. Peace was secured by the practical 
 acknowledgment on the part of Wessex of 
 the supremacy of Mercia. 
 
 ^iigJo-Soicon Chron. ; Heniy of Huntkigdon. 
 
 Berwick was one of the fortresses de- 
 livered to the English in 1174, as security for 
 the fulfilment of the conditions of the Treaty 
 of Falaise, and it remained ia their hands 
 tin 1189. It was one of the four burghs 
 (Edinburgh, Roxburgh, and Stirling being 
 the other three) having a parliament, or 
 court, of their own, and from its importance 
 and wealth was for centuries a thorn in the 
 side of England. In March, 1296, it was taken 
 by Edward I., and most of the townsmen put 
 to the sword, but was recaptured by Wallace 
 in September, 1297. Having fallen again into 
 the hands of the English, it was taken by- 
 Bruce in 1318, and held by the Scots until 
 after the battle of HaUdon Hill, 1333, when it 
 was seized by Edward III. From this time it 
 was rarely in the hands of the Scots until it 
 was surrendered by Henry VI., in 1461, in 
 order tosecurea refuge in Scotland. It became 
 again an English possession in 1482. It was 
 made independent both of England and Scot- 
 land in 1551. In 1836 it was created a county 
 of itself. 
 
 Berwick, James Fitz-James, Duke op (J. 
 1670, d. 1734), was the natural son of James II., 
 by Arabella Churchill, the sister of the Duke 
 of Marlborough. At an early age he was 
 sent to learn the art of war under Charles of 
 Lorraine, and was present at the siege of 
 Buda in 1685. In 1687 he was created Duke 
 of Berwick. After the Eevolution of 1688, 
 Berwick fought for his father in Ireland, and 
 was present at the battle of the Boyne. He 
 accompanied James to France, and served 
 under Marshal Luxembourg in Flanders. 
 He was taken prisoner at Neerwinden, but 
 exchanged. In 1696 Berwick took a very 
 prominent part in the unsuccessful plot for a 
 Jacobite insurrection, which was to have been 
 aided by a French force ; but it is probable 
 that he knew little of the darker schemes of 
 some of the plotters, who aimed at removing 
 William III. by assassination. In 1704, 
 Berwick, whose m£itary talents were now 
 highly esteemed, was appointed to the com- 
 mand of the French army in Spain. In 1705 
 he suppressed the Camisard insurrection in 
 Languedoc. In 1 706 he was again sent to Spain, 
 and he did much to restore the French cause, 
 
 which previously appeared almost desperate. 
 In 1707 he completely routed the Enghsh and 
 Imperialists at the great battle of Almanza, in 
 which his opponent was a Frenchman, Ruvigny, 
 Marquis of Galway. In 1709, and the follow- 
 ing years, he was employed in Dauphiny, 
 and conducted a skilful defensive campaign. 
 In 1713 he returned to Spain and captured 
 Barcelona. In 1716 he was appointed com- 
 mandant of G-uienne ; and in 1718 he once 
 more led a French army into Spain, this time 
 in opposition to PhiUp V., whom he had done 
 so much to place on the throne. At the 
 conclusion of the interval of peace, which 
 terminated in 1733, Berwick was called to 
 superintend the operations on the Rhine. 
 He was kiUed by a cannon-ball at the siege of 
 Philipsburg. Berwick was created a peer of 
 France and a grandee of Spain. One of his 
 sons was created Duke of Liria, in Spain, 
 and the other Duke of Fitz-James, in the 
 peerage of France. Berwick's miUtary 
 talents were of a very high order, and per- 
 haps not altogether unworthy of comparison 
 with those of his celebrated uncle. In some 
 other respects his characteristics were not 
 unlike those of Marlborough. He had the 
 same coldness, and could be disturbed neither 
 by excitement nor by danger. His integrity, 
 piety, and high sense of duty were unques- 
 tioned, and his character has been very highly 
 praised by Montesquieu. BoHngbroke called 
 him the best great man that ever lived. 
 
 Berwick's Memoir&s, written by himself down 
 to 1716, and continued to 1734 by tbe Abbe 
 Hook, were published in 1778, with an Moge Hia- 
 torique by Montesquieu. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Berwick, The Pacification of (1639), 
 was the name given to the agreement con- 
 cluded between Charles I. and five Scotch Com- 
 missioners, the terms being that the Scottish 
 and the EoyaUst armies should be disbanded, 
 ecclesiastical matters referred to a free general 
 assembly, and civil matters to a parliament. 
 
 Berwick, The Treaty of (January, 1 560) , 
 was concluded between Queen Elizabeth (repre- 
 sented by the Duke of Norfolk) and the Lords 
 of the Congregation (q.v.). Its object was the 
 expulsion of the French garrisons and troops 
 from Scotland, Elizabeth engaging to send 
 troops to the North for that purpose. 
 
 Bessborough, John William Pon- 
 soNBY, 4th Earl of (*. 1781, d. 1847), better 
 known as Lord Duncannon, entered Parha- 
 ment for Knaresborough in 1805. He was 
 an active member of the Whig party for 
 many years, and had a considerable share in 
 drafting the Reform Bill. In 1831 he was 
 made Chief Commissioner of Woods and 
 Forests, in 1834 he received the seals of the 
 Home Office, and in 1835 the Privy Seal. In 
 1846 the Earl of Bessborough was appointed 
 Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland by Lord John 
 Russell. His accession was very popular, 
 as he was a resident Irish landlord, and had 
 
Bex 
 
 ( 156 ) 
 
 Bho 
 
 always displayed a patriotic and literal 
 interest in Irish affairs. His vioeroyalty ex- 
 _ tended over the period of the great famine, 
 and his efforts were earnestly directed to the 
 alleviation of that calamity. He died in 
 May, 1847, during his tenure of office. 
 
 Bexley, Nicholas Vansittaet, Lord 
 (i. 1766, d. 1831), the son of an East Indian 
 Director, was educated at Oxford and 
 called to the bar in 1792. In 1796 he was 
 returned to Parliament for Hastings. In 
 February, 1801, he was sent with plenary 
 powers to detach the court of Denmark from 
 the Northern Alliance. Returning to England 
 he was elected for Old Sarum, and supported the 
 Addington ministry, under which he held the 
 office of joint Secretary to the Treasury. He 
 continued in office when Pitt again resumed 
 the Premiership, and, in 1805, was appointed 
 Chief Secretary for Ireland. This place he 
 resigned in the same year through some 
 difference with Pitt in regard to Lord 
 MelviUe's conduct. In the ministry of Lord 
 Grenville he again became Secretary to the 
 Treasury. In 1812, having published some 
 letters on financial questions, he was appointed 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer by Lord Liverpool. 
 In this important office he remained eleven 
 years, and on his resignation was raised to the 
 peerage with the title of Lord Bexley, and 
 was at the same time appointed to the office 
 of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, which 
 he held for nine years. " Industrious and 
 plodding," says Mr. Walpole, "he had made 
 an excellent Secretary to the Treasury ; but 
 he had neither the knowledge of finance nor 
 the dexterity of debate which would have 
 qualified him for the post which, by a 
 strange fate, he occupied for a longer period 
 than any of his successors." 
 
 Memoirs of Lord Xiwerpool ; Castlereagh, Me- 
 moirs and Despatches; Spencer Walxaole, Hist, of 
 Emg. from ISIS. 
 
 Beymaroo, The Battle op (Nov. 23, 
 1841), was one of the disasters which befell the 
 English during the first Afghan War. The 
 English were in cantonments near Cabul ; and 
 on the 14th of November a large force of 
 .Afghans, which had assembled with cannon 
 on the BejTuaroo hills, was dislodged with 
 some difficulty by Brigadier Sheltou. On 
 the 22nd they appeared again at Beymaroo. 
 On the 23rd a strong force set out before 
 daybreak to dislodge them. The hiU was 
 carried without difficulty, but thousands of 
 men quickly swarmed out of the city, and the 
 Enghsh were overmatched, with only a 
 single gun to answer the long-range match- 
 locks of the Afghans. The troops, shot down 
 like rabbits, pining with cold and hunger, 
 lost courage and refused to follow their officers. 
 Finally, the whole body of English soldiers 
 abandoned the field and took to flight. 
 [Afghan Wars.] 
 
 Kaye, Afghan War; Abbott, Afghan War. 
 
 Beyrout, The Bombardment of (1840). 
 A joint British, Austrian, and Turkish squadron 
 in this year sailed to the coast of Syria, and 
 proceeded to bombard Beyrout, a sea-port at 
 the northern extremity of the Pachalic of 
 Acre, which was held by the troops of the 
 rebellious Pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali. 
 The tovm was quickly reduced to ruins. 
 
 Bhawulpore, or Doodpoutra, is a 
 
 native state of the Punjaub governed by a 
 prince called the Bhawul Khan, with Bhawul- 
 pore as his capital. The Bhawul Khan's 
 dominions extended at one time across the 
 Sutlej to the Upper Indus, but he was a 
 tributary of the Dooranee monarch. Eunjeet 
 Singh demanded the same tribute, and, on 
 failure of payment, seized the territory 
 between the rivers. The Ameers of Scinde 
 also took from the Bhawul Khan a large 
 district on the left bank of the Lower Indus. 
 Thus pressed, he readily accepted, in 1838, 
 the protection of the British, by whom his 
 dominions were guaranteed against further 
 encroachments on the part of his powerful 
 neighbours. 
 
 Bhopal is a small Indian native princi- 
 pality in Malwa, in the valley of the Ner- 
 buddah. In 1778 the reigning prince was 
 the only chief in Central India who afforded 
 any support to General Goddard in his adven- 
 turous march across the peninsula. This 
 created an undying friendship between the 
 Bhopal dynasty and the English, who pro- 
 tected Bhopal against the Mahrattas. In 1817, 
 during the Mahratta War, Lord Hastings con- 
 cluded a defensive alliance with this state, and 
 granted it five valuable provinces which had 
 been taken from the Peishwa. The Bhopal 
 state has long been governed by female rulers 
 or Begums, who have displayed great capacity 
 for administration. The principality is said 
 to be the best governed of the Indian native 
 states. In the Indian Mutiny the Begum of 
 Bhopal gave great assistance to the English, 
 and both she and her daughter and successor 
 were created Knights of the Star of India. 
 
 Bhonsla was the family name of the 
 Eajahs of Nagpore or Berar. [Mahbattas.] 
 
 Bhotan War, The (1864—1865). In 
 the year 1862 a quarrel arose between the 
 independent Bhotan state in the Eastern 
 Himalayas and the English government with 
 reference to some frontier territories in 
 Assam. "Various outrages were committed 
 by the Bhotias on English subjects, and in 
 1863 an embassy under the Hon. Ashley 
 Eden was insulted and ill-treated. War was 
 declared in Nov., 1864. It was badly con- 
 ducted, and the country was unhealthy. The 
 Bhotias struggled desperately, but finally 
 were compelled to sue for peace. The Bhotias 
 ceded the frontier districts of Assam, for which 
 the English agreed to pay a yearly grant of 
 25,000 rupees. 
 
Bhu 
 
 (157) 
 
 Bib 
 
 Bhnrtpore. A natiye state of Kajputana. 
 The town of Bhurtpore has been twice be- 
 sieged by the English. (1) In 1806, the 
 Bhurtpore Eajah having taken part with the 
 Mahrattas, General Lake determined on in- 
 vesting the place. It was a town and fortress, 
 eight miles in circumference, surrounded by 
 a lofty mud wall of great thickness, and pro- 
 tected by numerous bastions, and a deep 
 ditch filled with water. It was garrisoned 
 by about 8,000 of the Eajah's troops and the 
 remnant of Holtar'a infantry. Without a 
 sufficient siege train, without an engineer 
 officer of any experience, without even a 
 reconnaissance, Lake resolved at once to carry 
 the town by assault. Four unsuccessful 
 assaults were made, entaiHng the loss of 3,200 
 men in killed and wounded, and the British 
 finally were compelled to withdraw. This 
 memorable siege lasted from Jan. 4th to 
 April 21st. (2) In the year 1825, a disputed 
 succession to the throne of Bhurtpore occurred. 
 The expelled prince had been under British 
 protection, and so, though Lord Amherst was 
 at first inclined for non-intervention. Lord 
 Combermere, the commander-in-chief, under- 
 took to reduce the hitherto impregnable 
 stronghold. Having demanded the dismissal 
 of the women and children, which was refused, 
 he proceeded to bombard the town. After 
 two months' siege, the assault was given, and 
 in two hours the town was taken ; the fortress 
 was then razed to the ground, and the rightful 
 prince restored. 
 
 Bhye, in Hindustani, signifies "lady," 
 and was affixed to the names of all Mahratta 
 ladies of distinction— «.^., Tara Bhye, the wife 
 of the first Holkar ; Toolsye Bhye, the cele- 
 brated concubine of Jeswunt Eao Holkar, &c. 
 
 Bible, English Translations of the. 
 In the early times of English Church history 
 translations of portions of the Scriptures 
 were undertaken for the use of the less 
 learned priests. Bishop Aldhelm, of Sherborne 
 (who died in 709), is said to have translated 
 the Psalter. Bede translated the Gospel 
 of St. John, 'and finished the work on his 
 death-bed in 735. King Alfred encouraged, 
 if he did not actually undertake, the trans- 
 lation of the Gospels, which was current in 
 the tenth century. Towards the end of that 
 century, a Benedictine scholar, ^Urio (who 
 died Archbishop of Canterbury in 1005), 
 translated parts of the Books of Moses, 
 together with Joshua, Judges, Kings, Esther, 
 Job, Maccabees, and Judith. After the 
 Norman Conquest, the early form of the 
 EngEsh language gradually altered, and these 
 translations became obsolete. In the middle 
 of the thirteenth century a, version of the 
 whole Bible in Norman-French was current 
 amongst the nobles. In the fourteenth 
 century, about 1325, two translations of the 
 Psalms into English appeared almost at the 
 same time. One was by William of Shore- 
 
 ham, a Kentish priest ; the other by Robert 
 EoUe, who is known as the Hermit of Ham- 
 pole. The end of the fourteenth century 
 saw the first complete version of the Bible 
 into English, a work directed by John 
 WyoHf. Besides being a philosopher and 
 theologian, Wyclif was also a fervent and 
 dUigent pastor. He was struck by the 
 popular ignorance of the Bible, and resolved 
 to remedy it. He himself undertook the 
 New Testament, and his friend and follower, 
 Nicolas of Hereford, began the translation of 
 the Old Testament. Nicolas advanced in 
 his work as far as the Book of Baruch, when 
 he was called to account for a sermon which 
 he had preached at Oxford. Wyclif, most 
 probably, completed the unfinished work. 
 It would seem that this translation was done 
 by the end of 1382, and was rapidly dissemi- 
 nated among the people by itinerant preachers. 
 The translation was made from the Latin 
 version of St. Jerome, known as the Vulgate, 
 There was a great difi^erence in style between 
 the work of the two translators. Nicolas of 
 Hereford gave a, Hteral rendering of the 
 Latin in a stiff and bald manner. Wyclif 
 was less a slave to the original, and showed a 
 power of forcible and idiomatic writing which 
 sets his translation as the highest point in 
 the development of Middle English prose. 
 No sooner was the work done than Wyclif 
 was aware that it needed revision. This 
 task he at once began, and it was carried on 
 after his death by his follower, John Purvey, 
 who finished the revision in 1388, and thereby 
 gave greater uniformity and precision to the 
 work. The circulation of the Wyclifite 
 versions in manuscript amongst the people 
 did much to prepare the way for the doctrinal 
 changes which the influence of the German 
 reformers introduced amongst a growing 
 party in the English Church. But Wychf 's 
 translation existed only in manuscript, and 
 the printing-press had begun to work its 
 change in the spread of literature. A printed 
 Bible was necessary, and this work was 
 undertaken by a Cambridge scholar, WiUiam 
 Tyndale. He did not adopt Wyclif's version, 
 because its language was by this time anti- 
 quated, and it was a translation of the Vul- 
 gate, whereas the knowledge of the Greek 
 text had in his day made considerable pro- 
 gress amongst learned men. Tyndale trans- 
 lated the New Testament from the Greek 
 text of Erasmus, but was obHged to withdraw 
 to the Continent for the purpose of printing 
 it. In 1526 this translation, which was 
 printed at Worms in 1525, was secretly 
 introduced into England, and was largely 
 circulated, though efforts were made by the 
 bishops to seize the copies and commit them 
 to the flames. Tyndale next began the 
 translation of the Old Testament, and pub- 
 lished, in 1530, an English version of the 
 Pentateuch. He was continuing his labours 
 when, in 1535, he was imprisoned at Antwerp 
 
Bill 
 
 (158) 
 
 Bid 
 
 and was put to death aa a heretic in the 
 following year by the order of the Emperor 
 Charles V. A.t his death his translation had 
 advanced as far as the end of the Books of 
 Chronicles. His work was revised by his 
 friend and fellow-labourer, John Rogers, and 
 its publication, under the name of Thomas 
 Matthew (probably a wealthy merchant who 
 found the funds for the undertaking), was 
 begun secretly in Antwerp. Meanwhile, 
 another English translation of the Bible was 
 in progress at the hands of Miles Coverdale, 
 who was favoured by Cromwell. This trans- 
 lation was not made from the original, but 
 was the result of a comparison of the Vulgate 
 and the German translations. It was pub- 
 lished secretly (probably at Zurich) in 1535, 
 and dedicated to Henry VIII., to whom it 
 was presented by Cranmer and Cromwell. 
 Tyndale's version, as edited by Eogers, was 
 completed from Coverdale' s translation. It 
 was published by Grafton, an English printer, 
 in 1537, and received the king's licence. 
 The royal sanction given to this translation 
 marked the final victory of the party which 
 was in favour of doctrinal reform. From 
 this time the knowledge of the Scriptures 
 was no longer regarded as dangerous for the 
 people, but was expressly sanctioned. The 
 circulation of translations of the Scriptures 
 was eagerly promoted. In 1539 was published 
 at London an edition of Matthew's Bible, 
 slightly revised by E. Tavemer. In 1540 a 
 considerable revision of this version was 
 made under Cranmer's direction, and Cran- 
 mer's Bible, known also as the Great Bible, 
 was the first " appointed to be read in 
 churches " by royal eomjmand. In 1542 a 
 reaction set in. The Eoman party objected 
 to Cranmer's Bible, and endeavoured to obtain 
 a revision in their own favour. Henry VIII., 
 by Act of Parliament, forbade the perusal of 
 the New Testament in EngUsh to women, 
 labourers, and uneducated persons. During 
 the reigns of Edward VI. and Mary nothing 
 more was done in the way of translation. 
 But at the beginning of the reign of Eliza- 
 beth appeared a new version, known as the 
 Genevan Bible, because it was the work of 
 English exiles at Geneva, where it was first 
 published in 1560. Chief among the trans- 
 lators were Goodman, Whittingham, and 
 Knox. It was translated from the Hebrew 
 and the Greek, but, as was to be expected, 
 betrayed leanings towards the theology of 
 Calvin. In consequence of the existence of 
 these various translations, Archbishop Parker 
 thought it desirable to establish a uniform 
 and amended edition. He accordingly dis- 
 tributed the various books of the Bible, as 
 they stood in Cranmer's edition, amongst the 
 bishops for revision, desiring them not to 
 change the text save where it varied mani- 
 festly from the Hebrew or Greek original. 
 The result of two years of revision was the 
 publication, in 1568, of the Bishops' Bible. 
 
 The Conyooation of 1571 ordered that all 
 Church officers should provide copies for use 
 in their churches. Finally, the English 
 Bible assumed its present form in the reign 
 of James I. For the purpose of securing a 
 complete revision, forty-seven of the most 
 learned men in the kingdom were selected 
 for the task. They divided themselves into 
 three companies, which met at Westminster, 
 Oxford, and Cambridge. Twenty-five under- 
 took the Old Testament, fifteen the New 
 Testament, and seven the Apocrypha. They 
 worked under rules laid down by the king 
 for their guidance. They were bidden to 
 take as their basis the Bishops' Bible, and 
 depart from it only when necessary. The 
 work done by the separate committees was 
 afterwards supervised and reduced to regu- 
 larity by a committee of six persons. After 
 three years' labour the version known as the 
 Authorised Version was produced. Some 
 doubt, however, exists as to the nature of the 
 authorisation. It bears on its title-page the 
 words "appointed to be read in churches;" 
 but there exists no record of any authori- 
 tative or exclusive authorisation. However, 
 either by royal authority or by natural 
 selection, the version of 1611 has ousted its 
 predecessors, and for two centuries and a haU 
 has been exclusively used in England. In 
 1870 the conviction that increased knowledge 
 both of the text and of the language of the 
 original required an alteration of the Autho- 
 rised Version, found expression in the Con- 
 vocation of the Province of Canterbury. 
 Two companies for the revision of the 
 Authorised Version were appointed, one for 
 the Old Testament, the other for the New. 
 The members were chosen from Biblical 
 scholars of various Protestant denominations, 
 and committees were formed in America for 
 the purpose of acting with the English 
 revisers. Following previous precedent, the 
 object of the revisers was the revision of the 
 Authorised Version with as few changes as 
 was consistent with faithfulness. The re- 
 vised version of the New Testament was 
 published early in 1880. 
 
 Anderson, Ammls of the JEnglish Bible; 
 
 Cotton, Hist, of Udttions of the English Bible ; 
 
 Madden and Forslaall, W'iiclijlte Versions. 
 
 [M. C] 
 
 Bidassoa, The Passage or the (Oct. 7i 
 1813), by the English in the Peninsular War, 
 was a weU-planned surprise of a remarkably 
 strong position. The French held the heights 
 of a lofty mountain group — ^the Ehune, the 
 Commissari, and the Bay onette — and they had 
 also strengthened their position by artificial 
 works. Wellington, with great skill, con- 
 cealed the real point of his attack. Suddenly, 
 in the early morning of the 7th, the columns 
 of attack forded the river with such celerity 
 that the French had not even fired a gun 
 before the troops formed up on the right bank. 
 One after another the three ridges — the 
 
Big 
 
 (159) 
 
 Bil 
 
 Bayonette, Commissari, and Puerto de Vera — 
 •were successively carried; but Clausel fell 
 back on the Ehuue, the strongest of all, and 
 held it during the night. On the next day, 
 afraid of being cut off, he retreated, and 
 concentrated his forces on the ridge behind 
 Sarre. The loss of the allies was 1,600, that 
 of the French 200 less; but many of the 
 reported losses among the former were really 
 stragglers, who were becoming more numerous 
 every day. 
 
 Napier, Peninsular War ; Glmton, PmSinaulor 
 War. 
 
 Bigod, Family of. Eoger Bigod, a poor 
 Norman knight, entered England with Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror, and in 1075 received a 
 grant of a large part of the confiscated lands of 
 Ealph of Wader, Earl of East AngHa. His 
 elder son William was drowned in the White 
 Ship, 1120; his younger, Hugh, obtained the 
 earldom of Norfolk from Stephen (date uncer- 
 tain), was confirmed in it by Henry II., and 
 took part in the revolt of 1174. His son Roger, 
 second earl and godson (afterwards third 
 earl), was among the twenty-five executors 
 of Magna Charta. Hugh, third earl, married 
 Maud, eldest co-heiress of William Marshall, 
 Earl of Pembroke, and had two sons — Roger, 
 fourth earl, who inherited the Marshalship of 
 England through his mother, and died with- 
 out issue ; and Hugh, who was appointed 
 Justiciar by the Barons in 1258, and whose 
 son Roger succeeded his uncle in the earldom 
 in 1270. It was this Bigod who helped 
 to secure the Confirmation of the Charters. 
 He surrendered his earldom and estates, in 
 1302, to the Hng, and received them back for 
 life only ; and though he left a brother, upon 
 his death in 1307, the earldom became ex- 
 tinct in the Bigod family. 
 
 Billeting soldiers in private houses had be- 
 come such an oppressive burden under Charles 
 I. that one of the clauses in the Petition of 
 Eight is expressly directed against the practice 
 of quartering soldiers or mariners on private 
 individuals against their will. The practice, 
 however, still continued until an Act passed 
 in 1681 provided that "no officer, military or 
 civil, or other persons, shall quarter or billet 
 any soldier upon any inhabitant of the realm 
 of any degree, quality, or profession without 
 his consent." This Act is suspended annually 
 by the Mutiny Act, which allows soldiers to 
 be billeted on innkeepers and victuallers. 
 
 Bills, Pabxiamentart, are either public, 
 dealing with matters of public policy, or 
 private, being such as concern personal or 
 local interests. The system by which legis- 
 lation was founded on petition riiade it pos- 
 sible to alter the terms of the petition so that 
 fhe statute should not really answer to the 
 request, and even to found a statute on a 
 petition in which the Commons had not con- 
 curred. These evils were remedied in the 
 reign of Henry VI., when .bills in the form of 
 
 statutes began to be passed by both Houses. 
 As the Commons have the sole right of taxa- 
 tion, the larger number of bills must originate 
 with them. Bills on certain subjects, such 
 as religion and trade, must originate in Com- 
 mittee of the whole House. The mode of 
 procedure with reference to bills is nearly the 
 same in both Houses. In the Commons, 
 however, a member has to obtain leave to 
 bring in a biU, but this is not the case in the 
 Lords. When leave is moved for, the title 
 of the bill is read and its object is usually 
 stated. If the motion is agreed to, the bill is 
 ordered. It is then presented, and the ques- 
 tion is put that it be now read the first time. 
 This question must be decided, without 
 amendment or debate. If it is negatived, 
 the bill disappears from the orders, but the 
 question may be again brought forward. If 
 it is carried, the question is put that it be 
 read a second time, a day is fixed for the 
 second reading, and the bill is printed. 
 When the day comes the bill appears in the 
 orders, and the question is put that it be now 
 read a second time. This is the critical stage, 
 and the whole principle can now be made a 
 matter of debate. A biU may be opposed at 
 all its stages, but as it is at this point that 
 opposition is generally made, it is well to 
 speak of this subject here. It is usual, in 
 opposing a bill, to do so by an amendment of 
 postponement for three or six months, or by 
 some resolution contrary to the tenor of the 
 measure. " The previous question " may also 
 be moved. By this means, however, the bill 
 is not extinguished and can be ordered for 
 another day, whOe the postponement of a bill 
 to a time when Parliament will not be sitting, 
 or the adoption of an adverse resolution, puts 
 an end to it for the session. It is unusual to 
 reject a bill in direct terms, and such a course 
 would imply that it contained matter offen- 
 sive to the House. When the bill has been 
 read a second time, it is brought before the 
 Committee of the whole House, and receives 
 any amendments which may be made to it. 
 When it has received its final shape it is re- 
 ported to the House. It has then to be read 
 a third time, and after that the question is 
 pat " That this biU do pass," and on this it is 
 not usual to divide. It is then sent up to 
 the Lords or down to the Commons, as the case 
 may be, and may be amended or rejected by 
 the House which receives it. If it is amended, 
 it is again sent to the House in which it origi- 
 nated, and if the amendments are disagreed 
 upon, it is usual to send a message to state 
 the reasons of the disagreement, or to desire 
 a conference. When the bill is passed by 
 both Houses it receives the ro^al assent, 
 which may be given by commission, in the 
 words, " La reine le veult." The form of 
 dissent, "La reine s'avisera," has not been 
 used since 1707, so that the crown ma,y per- 
 haps be said to have relinquished its right in 
 this matter. AH money bills must originate 
 
Bin 
 
 C 160 ) 
 
 Bir 
 
 with the Commons, and, though the Lords 
 may reject a money bill, they may not amend 
 it. This gave rise to the unconstitutional 
 practice of " tacking," hy which, when the 
 House of Commons wished to force a measure 
 on the Lords, it was tacked on to a money 
 hill, so that the Lords had to pass the hill 
 entire or refuse the supply. This plan was 
 adopted on the questions of the Irish For- 
 feitures, 1699, and of the Occasional Con- 
 formity Bill, 1705. The rejection by the 
 Lords of the biU repealing the paper duty, 
 2 1st May, 1860, was viewed with much jealousy 
 by the Commons. Such rejection is now made 
 almost impossible hy including the whole finan- 
 cial scheme of the budget in a single Act. 
 
 Petitions to Parliament on private matters 
 occasioned the appointment of Receivers and 
 Triers of Petitions. These officers, if they 
 found no redress for the wrong complained of 
 in the Courts, referred the matter to Parlia- 
 ment. Petitions to the Commons are frequent 
 from the reign of Henry IV. From these 
 petitions private bills took their rise. These 
 pass through the same stages as public bills. 
 In dealing with them the judicial functions 
 of Parliament are especially prominent. Pri- 
 vate bills are brought in on petition and at 
 the expense of the promoters. Before a 
 private bill is brought in, it is subjected to 
 Examiners of both Houses, who see that the 
 standing orders are complied with. The 
 second reading of a private bill affirms the 
 claim, hut only on the supposition that the 
 facts stated in the preamble can he made 
 good. It is referred, if opposed, to a Select or 
 Special Committee to decide on this, and hy 
 this Committee the question between the 
 petitioners and their opponents is heard and 
 determined. [Parliament.] 
 
 Sir T. E. May, Parliamentajry Practice; and 
 the authorities given nnder Parliament. 
 
 [W. H.] 
 
 Bingham, Sir Eiohaed, who was em- 
 ployed in Ireland, 1580, was one of Elizabeth's 
 most able naval officers. In 1586 he was 
 employed on service in Ireland, and cut to 
 pieces a Scotch force which had landed to join 
 the rebels on the banks of the Moy. He was 
 subsequently made Governor of Connaught, 
 and, whilst holding that office, gained con- 
 siderable notoriety by putting to death all 
 the Spaniards who were wrecked on the coast 
 of Ireland after- the dispersion of the Armada 
 in 1588. 
 
 Birinus {d. 650), the apostle of Wessex, 
 was probably an Italian by birth, and was 
 commissioned by Pope Honorius to " scatter 
 the seeds of the holy faith in those farthest 
 inland territories of the EngKsh which no 
 teacher had yet visited," but landing in 
 Hampshire in 634 he found that Wessex was 
 still in heathenism, and accordingly preached 
 the Gospel there, meeting with immediate suc- 
 cess. The two kings, Cynegils and Cwichebn, 
 
 were baptised, and Birinus was established as 
 Bishop of Dorchester, from whence he " went 
 up and down among the West Saxons, 
 that is, from Dorset to Buckinghamshire, 
 from Surrey to the Severn, preaching, cate- 
 chising, baptising, calling many people to the 
 Lord by his pious labours, and building and 
 dedicating churches." 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chrm.; Bede, Hist. Eocles. ; W. 
 Bright, Early Eng. Church Hist. 
 
 Birmingham, John, Earl op Louth 
 {d. 1329), was descended fromthe Lords of 
 Athenry, and was nominated, in 1318, com- 
 mander-in-chief of the English forces in 
 Ireland. He won the battle of Dundalk, and 
 sent Edward Bruoe's head to Edward III. 
 As a reward for this service, and for his 
 prowess in fighting the O'Connors, he was 
 made Earl of Louth. He was afterwards 
 engaged as the ally of the Butlers and of 
 the Earl of Desmond in their feud with the 
 houses of De Burgh and Peer. In 1329 he, 
 together with some 160 noblemen and gentle- 
 men, was treacherously murdered by the 
 " Germans and savages." 
 
 Birm.ingham, as a market town, is of 
 ./ considerable antiquity. Previous to the 
 Conquest it formed part of the possessions of 
 a family of the same name, and the manor con- 
 tinued to belong to the Birminghams till the 
 sixteenth century. In Leland's time it was 
 already known for its cutlery and hardware 
 manufactures. During the Civil War Prince 
 Eupert's passage through the town, in 1643, 
 was resolutely opposed by the inhabitants, 
 and a sharp skirmish took place. Birmingham 
 shared largely in the industrial movement at 
 the close of the last century, and rapidly 
 reached a position of the first importance 
 among English towns. Its inhabitants took a 
 very prominent share in the transactions which 
 led to the Reform Bill, and have been distin- 
 guished by their activity in all political 
 movements since that time. It received the 
 franchise by that measure, a municipal consti- 
 tution by the Municipal Corporations Act of 
 1835, and a third representative in 1868. 
 
 Birmingham Political Union, The, 
 
 was an association formed in the beginning of 
 1830. Its original purpose was to obtain a 
 repeal of the Act of 1819 for the resumption 
 of cash payments ; but it soon adopted the 
 programme of Parliamentary Reform, and be- 
 came the centre of the agitation for that 
 purpose. As early as Feb., 1830, it was 
 noticed and denounced in the House of 
 Commons by Huskisson. Its leading member 
 was Mr. Attwood, who afterwards sat in the 
 reformed Parliament for Birmingham. The 
 original design was "to form a general 
 political union between the lower and middle 
 classes of the people ; " and as the political 
 unions of many other places were affifiated to 
 that of Birmingham, it may be said that the 
 reform agitators of that town were practically 
 
Bir 
 
 ( 161 ) 
 
 Bis 
 
 at the head of the movement. When the 
 House of Lords showed a disposition to reject 
 the Bill, immense meetings were held under 
 the auspices of the Birmingham Union, in 
 which threats of refusal to pay taxes, and 
 even of open violence, were freely used. In 
 1831 a proclamation was issued against 
 political unions, and, in consequence, the 
 Birmingham Union considerably modified 
 its organisation. It continued, however, to 
 display great activity, and on the 7th of 
 May, 1832, all the Unions of the Midland 
 Counties assembled at Newhall HiU, Birming- 
 ham, to the number of , 150,000 members. 
 Such proofs of the determination of the 
 country had their efEect on the House of 
 Lords, and brought about the final acceptance 
 of the BiU. 
 
 Binuingliaiu Biots (1791) arose out of 
 the intolerant party spirit which was largely 
 evoked in England by the events of the 
 French Revolution of 1789. In many places 
 associations had been formed for the celebra- 
 tion of the 14th July, as the anniversary of 
 the Revolution. The extreme Tories, who 
 styled themselves "the friends of order," 
 everywhere took alarm ; and in Birmingham 
 a handbill was circulated in which the 
 principles and objects of the association were 
 grossly exaggerated or misrepresented. The 
 association at once denied its authenticity, 
 and at first thought of giving up the meeting 
 in consequence of the feeling excited bj- the 
 circular. This opinion was, however, over- 
 ruled ; and the meeting took place on the 
 14th July. "While the members of the 
 association were at dinner, the hotel was 
 surrounded by a mob, who, after shouting, 
 " Church and King ! " for half an hour, retired 
 only to return in redoubled force. They 
 then broke into the house, but found that the 
 members had fled. Baffled and disappointed, 
 they diverted their fury upon two Dissenting 
 chapels, which they demolished. They next 
 attacked the house of Dr. Priestley, and set- 
 ting fire to it burnt it, together with the valu- 
 able library of its owner ; and for two days and 
 nights they carried on the work of destruction 
 against the property of prominent Dissenters. 
 On the third day their efforts slackened, and 
 on the fourth several squadrons of cavalry 
 coming into the town soon restored order. 
 
 Langford, Birmingham; AdolptuB, Hist, of 
 Ung. 
 
 Bishop. The highest order of clergy in 
 the Church. The early British Church was 
 organised under bishops, three of whom were 
 present at the Council of Aries in 314. Chris- 
 tianity, which died away before the invasion 
 of the English, was brought back in 
 southern England bj' the Roman missionary 
 Augustine, who, under the direction of Pope 
 Gregory I., established bishops to direct 
 the ecclesiastical affairs of his converts. In 
 Northumbria ..the Columban mis8ionarie3 
 
 Hist.— 6 
 
 had monastic bishops after their custom. 
 When the conversion of England was com- 
 pleted, and the Church united under the 
 Roman organisation. Archbishop Theodore 
 (669 — 693) carried out the work of diocesan 
 arrangement. The whole of England was 
 divided into dioceses which were the sphere 
 of administration of a bishop. England was 
 also divided into two ecclesiastical provinces, 
 over each of which was set an archbishop. 
 The mode of electing bishops seems to have 
 varied ; sometimes the clergy appointed, some- 
 times the king in the Witenagemot. The 
 bishops sat in the Witenagemot, and also in 
 the shire-moots ; they had temporal juris- 
 diction within their own lands; moreover, 
 they exercised a penitential discipline over 
 moral offenders, and judged the offences of 
 the clergy. The connection between Church 
 and State was close, and we find no disputes 
 between the ecclesiastical and secular juris- 
 diction. Similarly, national or provmcial 
 councils made canons for the Church, fie- 
 quently in the presence of the king and 
 ealdormen. Bishops soon showed themselves 
 statesmen, and Dunstan may be reckoned as 
 the first great English minister. After the 
 Norman Conquest WUliam I. recognised the 
 political importance of bishops by dis- 
 possessing the English occupants of their sees 
 and setting Normans in their stead. Arch- 
 bishop Lanfranc was in all things William I.'s 
 chief adviser, and by his influence the eccle- 
 siastical courts were separated from the 
 secular courts. The bishops no longer held 
 pleas in the hundred court or shire court, but 
 in courts of their own, which alone decided 
 spiritual cases according to canon law. 
 William II. applied to the lands of bishops 
 the full rigour of feudal extortion, and kept 
 bishoprics vacant that he might himself 
 receive their revenues. Under Henry I. 
 Anselm raised the question of investitures — 
 he refused to receive at the hands of the 
 king investiture to a spiritual oflice. The 
 result of this conflict was a compromise, by 
 which it was agreed that bishops were to 
 receive the emblems of their spiritual office 
 from spiritual persons, and were to do 
 homage to the king for their temporalities. 
 By this change the bishops were not really 
 benefited; their constitutional position was 
 made more like that of barons, and lost much 
 of its distinctive character. The election to 
 bishoprics, according to the canons, was in- 
 vested in the chapter of the cathedral 
 churches; but practically their right was 
 exercised in accordance with the royal will. 
 The methods of capitular elections frequently 
 led to disputes, which were referred to the 
 decision of the Pope. In 1206 Pope Innocent 
 III. rejected both the nominee of the king 
 and of the Chapter of Canterbury, and ap- 
 pointed Stephen Langton archbishop. From 
 this time the Popes frequently appointed, and 
 ?,ppeals were common. The system of pro. 
 
Bis 
 
 (162) 
 
 Bis 
 
 visions was in the next century extended to 
 ■bishoprics. But as the crown grew stronger 
 in the next century the king nominated, and 
 the Pope appointed the same person by pro- 
 vision. Papal interference was strong enough 
 to overthrow the rights of chapters, hut was 
 powerless against a strong king. 
 
 The bishops of the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries were a strong element in the re- 
 sistance to the royal oppression, and rank 
 amongst the staunchest upholders of English 
 liberties. But the growth of LoUardism in 
 the fourteenth century led them to support 
 the crown, and under Henry VIII. they 
 were unable to oppose the royal will. The 
 alternations of religious policy in the reigns 
 of Edward ,VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, led to 
 frequent deprivations, imprisonment, and in 
 the case of Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, to 
 the execution of bishops. In the reigns of 
 Edward VI. and Elizabeth the rapacity of 
 courtiers despoiled the sees of many of their 
 possessions. Elizabeth showed her bishops 
 scant courtesy, suspended them at her 
 pleasure, and even threatened them with 
 deposition. From that time, with the ex- 
 ception of the reign of Charles I., bishops 
 exercised little political influence. TJnder the 
 Commonwealth episcopacy was abolished and 
 bishops were dispossessed of their sees till the 
 Restoration. The petition of the seven 
 bishops to James II. against his declaration 
 of indulgence, and their subsequent trial for 
 libel and acquittal, is the last time when the 
 action of bishops materially affected the course 
 of English history. 
 
 At present a bishop is the head of the 
 clergy within his diocese. He has the power of 
 ordaining priests and deacons, of consecrating 
 churches, and performing certain ecclesiastical 
 acts according to the law of the Church ; he 
 is an ecclesiastical judge in certain cases 
 within his diocese, and exercises disciplinary 
 power over his clergy. There are two arch- 
 bishops and thirty-one bishops in England 
 and Wales. The Archbishops of Canterbury 
 and York, and the Bishops of London, 
 Durham, and Winchester, always sit as lords 
 spiritual in the House of Lords ; and of the 
 other bishops, twenty-one are summoned 
 to Parliament in order of seniority of crea- 
 tion. The Bishop of Sodor and Man is in 
 no case a lord spiritual, and by an Act of 
 1847, it was enacted that the number of 
 lords spiritual should not be increased by 
 the creation of new bishoprics. The 
 election to bishoprics was settled by an 
 Act of 1544; providing that the king send 
 to the dean and chapter his licence to elect, 
 called his c(mge (Velire, which is always ac- 
 companied by a statement of the person whom 
 he would have them elect ; if they delay 
 above twelve days the king may nominate. 
 In the year 1848 the Dean and Chapter of 
 Hereford elected, according to the royal congi 
 d'ilire. Dr. Hampden ; but at the time of his 
 
 confirmation objections against him were ten- 
 dered. The Court of Queen's Bench decided 
 that these objections need not be received, as 
 the conge d'elire was imperative. Thus the 
 appointment to bishoprics is practically vested 
 in the crown. 
 
 Stubbs, Conft. Eiat. ; Hook, Hues of the Arch- 
 Ushovs of Canterbury ; Diocesan Bistones, pub- 
 lished by the Society lor Promoting Chnstian 
 Knowledge ; Barns and Pkilliniore, EcclesiaM- 
 (m! iara ; Godwin, De Frmsulibus Anglits. 
 
 [M. C] 
 
 Bishopric. The sphere within which a 
 bishop exercises his authority. In the 
 British Church there seem to have been 
 three bishoprics corresponding to the three 
 provinces into which Britain was divided by 
 the Romans. When in 597 Pope Gregory I. 
 sent Augustine to evangelise England, his 
 scheme for ecclesiastical organisation was 
 that London and York shovild be the centres 
 of the island. Augustine was to be Bishop of 
 London with twelve suffragans, and was to 
 send another to York, who was in turn to 
 have twelve suffragans. This scheme was 
 not fully carried out ; but the formation of 
 sees marks the progress of the conversion of 
 England, and the sees followed the divisions 
 of kingdoms or tribes. Augustine at Canter- 
 bury was Bishop of Kent ; in 604 he set up 
 Justus at Rochester as Bishop of West Kent, 
 and MelHtus at London as Bishop of the East 
 Saxons. In 625, Paulinas was ordained 
 Bishop of the Northumbrians with his see at 
 York ; but the work of Paulinus did not last, 
 and Northumbria received Christianity from 
 the Columhan monks of lona, one of whom, 
 Aidan, was made Bishop of Lindisfarne in 
 635. In 630 Felix created the see of East 
 Anglia atDunwich. In 635 the West Saxony 
 received as bishop Birinus, who fixed his seat 
 at Dorchester. The see of Mercia was, in 
 650, set up at Lichfield. Thus the early 
 kingdoms received bishops, and were con- 
 verted into ecclesiastical dioceses. The 
 further organisation of England was due to 
 the energy of the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 Theodore, a monk of Tarsus, who laboured 
 from 669 to 693. He broke up the large 
 dioceses, but in so doing followed the lines 
 of tribal arrangements th§i,t were earlier than 
 the seven kingdoms. He divided East Anglia 
 into north and south, and set a bishop over 
 the northern part at Elmham in 673. He 
 established a see for the Hecanas at Hereford 
 in 676, and for the Lindiswaras at Sidna- 
 chester in 678. The Northumbrian Church 
 had before this conformed to the Roman use. 
 Its large extent was divided by the recog- 
 nition of York as the see of the Deirans, 
 while Bernicia was divided between Lindis- 
 farne and Hexham, which was made a see in 
 678 ; in 681 the Northumbrian dominions in 
 Strathclyde received a bishop at Whithern. 
 In 680 the Hwiccas had a bishop at Wor- 
 cester, and the Middle Angles at Leicester. 
 
Bis 
 
 ( 163 ) 
 
 Bis 
 
 In 705 Wessex was divided by a new see at 
 Sherborne, and in 709 a mission see for the 
 South Saxons was set up at Selsey. In 909 
 Xing Edward the Elder divided the see of 
 Sherborne, and gave the men of Somerset a 
 bishop at Wells, and the men of Devon 
 a bishop at Crediton. The troubles of 
 Northumbria affected its episcopal arrange- 
 ments; after 814 no Bishop of Hexham was 
 appointed, and through the ravages of the 
 Picts the bishopric of Whithern ceased about 
 810. In 875 the monks of Lindisfarne were 
 driven to quit their monastery, carrying with 
 them the body of St. Cuthbert. In 882 they 
 settled at Chester-le-Street, whence they were 
 again driven in 990, and finally settled at 
 Durham in 995. 
 
 At the time of the Norman Conquest 
 episcopal sees were transferred from villages 
 to cities, as being more convenient. Already 
 in 1050 the see of Crediton had been changed 
 to Exeter. In 1075 the see of Sherborne was 
 removed to Old Sarum, that of Selsey to 
 Chichester, and that of Lichfield to Coventry. 
 The see of Dorchester was removed to Lin- 
 cobi in 1085. In 1088 the see of Wells was 
 transferred to Bath ; that of Elmham, which 
 had been transferred to Thetford in 1078, was 
 finally established in Norwich in 1101. With 
 the gradual conquest of South Wales the 
 British Church lost its independence, and 
 received Norman bishops. The Archbishop of 
 St. David's (who had never perhaps exercised 
 any practical authority over the other Welsh 
 bishops) became a suffragan of the province of 
 Canterbury in 1 1 15 ; Bangor and Llandaff soon 
 afterwards; and the see of St. Asaph was 
 established (or possibly only re-established) 
 in 1143. Moreover, Henry I. cared for 
 the interests of the Church in England 
 by subdividing the huge diocese of Lincoln 
 in 1109, and setting a bishop over the great 
 minster of Ely. In like manner the allegiance 
 of the new English possession of Cumberland 
 was strengthened by the appointment of a 
 Bishop of Carlisle in 1133. 
 
 From this time tiU. the Reformation no 
 new sees were created. After the dissolution of 
 the monasteries, Henry VIIT. made some show 
 of restoring the goods of the Church by the 
 creation of six new bishoprics — Westminster 
 in 1540, Gloucester, Chester, Peterborough, 
 and Oxford in 1541, Bristol in 1542. The 
 see of Westminster did not long continue. 
 Its first occupant, Thomas Thirlby, wasted 
 its possessions ; he was translated to Norwich 
 in 1550, and the see was dissolved. In 
 1542 the ancient see of Sodor and Man, which 
 was founded by Pope Gregory IV., was 
 annexed to the province of York ; but as the 
 island of Man did not come into the possession 
 of the crown till 1825, its bishop was never a 
 peer of Parliament. No further creations were 
 made till the increase of population in the 
 present century led to the formation of the 
 see of Kipon in 1836, and of Manchester in 
 
 1847. In 1836 the sees of Gloucester and 
 Bristol were united. An attempt to unite St. 
 Asaph and Bangor proved abortive. Within 
 the last few years new sees have been created 
 by voluntary effort, according to the provision 
 of an Act of Parliament. The sees of Truro 
 and St. Albans were founded in 1877, that of 
 Liverpool in 1880, that of Newcastle in 1882, 
 and that of Southwell in 1883. 
 
 "Warton, Anglia Sacra; Le Neve, Fasti 
 Ecol6si(B AnglicaTiBB, TJjj;. C.I 
 
 Bishopric, The. A special title given to 
 the patrimony of St. Cuthbert, which was 
 ruled by the i3ishops of. Durham. On Cuth- 
 bert's consecration as Bishop of Lindisfarne 
 in 683, Egfrith, the Northumbrian king, made 
 him large grants of land round Lindisfarne, 
 as well as the vUl of Craik near York, and 
 the town of Carlisle. In 883 the monks 
 of Lindisfarne were fleeing with the body 
 of their patron saint before the Danish 
 invaders. The Danish king was dead, 
 and his host was without a leader. St. Cuth- 
 bert appeared in a vision to Abbot Eadred, 
 and bade him teU the Danes to take as their 
 king a young captive who was a slave. The 
 Danes obeyed the admonition, and their new 
 king Guthred, aided by the advice of Alfred 
 the Great, showed his gratitude by conferring 
 on St. Cuthbert the land between the Tj-ne 
 and the Tees. Over this new grant, and the 
 old lands of the church of Lindisfarne, the 
 bishop was given the rights and dignities of 
 the king. Bishop Cutheard (900—915) pur- 
 chased the ancient parish of Bedlington north 
 of the Tyne, with an area of thirty square 
 miles, and received a grant of similar juris- 
 diction over it. It is probable that WUKam 
 the Conqueror, finding this state of things, 
 considered it desirable to leave it unchanged, 
 and recognised the lands of the church of 
 Durham as a county palatine. [Palatine 
 Counties.] The Bishopric was not co-extensive 
 with the diocese of Durham. It consisted of 
 the modern county of Durham, and the dis- 
 tricts known as BedUngtonshire, Islandshire, 
 and Norhamshire. Within this the bishop 
 held his own courts and appointed his own 
 officers ; writs ran in his name, and he had 
 his own mint. The men of the bishopric 
 were similarly privileged, and wen.t by the 
 name of Haliwerefolc, men for the defence of 
 St. Cuthbert and his patrimony. This ex- 
 ceptional position continued till the Eccle- 
 siastical Commissioners recommended its 
 abolition in 1833, and with the death of 
 Bishop van MUdert, in 1836, the bishopric 
 came to an end. 
 
 Surfcees, History of Dur Jiam ; Baine, History of 
 Narth Durham Symeonis Monacht, Hiftovia 
 E^clesim DunelmensiSy in Twysdeu, Decern Scrip- 
 tores. [M. C] 
 
 Bishops, The Seven, is the appella- 
 tion usually given to the prelates who 
 were tried for their resistance to James II .'a 
 
Bla 
 
 164 ) 
 
 Bla 
 
 Declaration of Indulgence (q.T.). On April 
 25th, 1688, the king issued l^iis second Declara- 
 tion of Indulgence, and on May 4th an Order 
 in Council enjoined that it should be read in 
 all churches on two successive Sundays, the 
 bishops being required to distribute copies of 
 it in their dioceses. The Primate Bancroft 
 and six bishops (Ken of Bath and "Wells, 
 White of Peterborough, Lloyd of St. Asaph, 
 Trelawny of Bristol, Lake of Chichester, and 
 Turner of Ely) drew up and presented a 
 petition, declaring the loyalty of the Church, 
 but begging to be excused from reading in 
 Divine service an illegal declaration, since 
 Parliament had declared that the sovereign 
 had no power to dispense with statutes. 
 " This is the standard of rebellion," James 
 said as he read it; and, when only four 
 churches in London obeyed the order, he 
 determined to take his revenge by trying the 
 bishops for publishing a seditious libel. The 
 bishops, after having at the king's command 
 acknowledged their writing, were committed 
 to the Tower, where they were visited by 
 many Whig peers and a deputation of Non- 
 conformist sympathisers. When the trial 
 .came on, the handwriting was proved by the 
 evidence of the clerk, who had heard the 
 bishops' confession; and Sunderland, whom 
 they had begged to present it, proved the 
 publishing. Among the counsel for the 
 defence was Somers, afterwards Chancellor, 
 whose speech on this occasion created his 
 reputation. After some hours' disputing, the 
 king's brewer, who was on the jury, was 
 persuaded to risk the loss of royal patronage, 
 and a, verdict of Jfot Guilty was returned 
 ("luue 30th). The action of the king in this 
 matter lost him the active support of the 
 Church, and disposed it to at least acquiesce 
 in the measures of William of Orange. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist., ch. viii. ; llaiil£e,'Hi8t. ofEng., 
 bk. xvii. , ch. vii. 
 
 Black Act, The (1722), was the name 
 given to an Act passed to check the out- 
 rages committed by persons with their faces 
 blackened or otherwise disguised, who ap- 
 peared in Epping Forest, near Waltham, and 
 destroyed the deer. The penalty of death 
 was imposed on all such transgressions of the 
 law. 'The Act was made perpetual in 1758, 
 but was repealed in 1827. 
 
 Black Assize. [Assize.] 
 
 Blackburn Riots, The (1826), were a 
 demonstration bj' the weavers of Lancashire 
 against the use of machinery. In April a 
 large number of persons assembled at Hen- 
 field and proceeded to Aoorington, where they 
 demolished the machinery in several mills. 
 The mob then proceeded to Blackburn, and, 
 though a party of dragoons arrived there as 
 soon as the rioters, they could not prevent 
 them from breaking into the factory of 
 Messrs. Bannister, Eccles and Co. A collision 
 
 occurred; stones and firearms were freely 
 used by the mob ; and the Riot Act was read. 
 A great deal of Messrs. Eccles' machinery 
 was destroyed, and much damage done all 
 through the town ; and the excitement be- 
 came so dangerous that the dragoons were 
 ordered to clear the streets. The following 
 day a great deal of destruction was completed, 
 and another collision occurred -between the 
 rioters and the military, in which the former 
 were finally routed by a discharge of musketry, 
 nine persons being killed and several wounded. 
 Similar riots broke out next day in Man- 
 chester. Troops, however, quickly poured 
 into the disturbed districts, and the riotous 
 assemblages were at an end. 
 
 Black Death, The. This name has 
 been given to an epidemic disease of fearful 
 destructiveness which devastated England, 
 in common with the rest of Europe, 
 in 1348 — 9, and, burst forth anew in 1361 — 2, 
 and again in 1369. In contemporary and 
 later literature it is usually called the 
 " Pestilence," or the " Great Pestilence," 
 under the former of which expressions it is 
 mentioned by both Chaucer and Langland. 
 It is regarded as having been merely an 
 aggravated outburst of the ordinary plague, 
 which had been smouldering among the 
 papulation since 1342, and was suddenly 
 kindled into fatal activity by the working 
 of special causes, due to natural pheno- 
 mena of rare concurrence and exceptional 
 power. The forces of nature, we are 
 told, had been let loose ; for several years 
 mighty earthquakes, furious tornadoes of 
 wind and rain, violent floods, clouds of 
 locusts darkening the air or poisoning it with 
 their corruptiog bodies, and other abnormal 
 manifestations of elemental strife, had been, 
 from China to Europe, destroying men and 
 their works, blighting vegetation, turning 
 fruitful lands into noxious swamps, and 
 polluting the atmosphere. Whether these 
 disturbances of nature were answerable for 
 the visitation may be questioned; but there 
 is abundance of evidence to prove their 
 actual occurrence, and the ablest scientific 
 writer on the subject — Hecker — has no doubt 
 of the connection between the adulteration of 
 the air that followed them and the virulence 
 of the pestilence. "This disease," he says, 
 "was a consequence of violent commotions 
 in the earth's organism — if any disease of 
 cosmical origin can be so considered." It 
 would be safe at least to suspect that the 
 lingering traces of the epidemic of 1342, and 
 the general physical demoralisation produced 
 by the disturbance of the conditions of 
 life, left men's bodies an easier prey to the 
 malignant agency. The quickening power, 
 however, came from the East. Carried by 
 commerce across the Black Sea from Western 
 Asia to Constantinople, the disease spread 
 widely and swiftly from that centre^ and 
 
Bla 
 
 ( 165 ) 
 
 Bla 
 
 early in 1347 fell upon Sicily, Marseilles, 
 aad several towns on the coast of Italy. 
 After a brief pause at these places, it broke 
 out with unsparing fury at Avignon in 
 January, 1348 ; advanced thence to Southern 
 France, to Spain, to Northern Italy, and 
 early in April appeared at Florence, where it 
 came under the observation of Boccaccio, 
 who has left a detailed account of its action. 
 Passing through France and visiting, but 
 not as yet ravaging, Germany, it made its 
 way to England. This country it entered at 
 some point in Dorset, where it cut down 
 its first English victims in August, 1348. 
 Thence it travelled — by way of Devon and 
 Somerset, of Bristol, Gloucester, and Oxford 
 — ^to London, hut so slowly that winter had 
 begun before it reached the capital. Soon it 
 embraced the whole kingdom ; no spot, how- 
 ever isolated, escaped its rage ; England 
 became a mere pest-house. Its chief symp- 
 toms in this country were spitting, in some 
 cases actual vomiting, of blood, the breaking 
 out of inflammatory boils in parts, or over 
 the whole, of the body, and the appearance 
 of those dark blotches upon the skm which 
 suggested its most startling name. Some of 
 its victims died almost on the first attack, 
 some in twelve hours, some in two " days, 
 almost all within the first three. Before it 
 medical skill was powerless ; few recovered, 
 until, as the plague drew towards its close, 
 men bethought them of opening the hard, 
 dry boils — a treatment that relieved the 
 system of the venom and saved many lives. 
 Contagion bore it everywhere; the clothes, 
 the breath, everything the patient touched, 
 the very air that surrounded him, were 
 poisoned with it; even a glance of his eye, 
 men fancied, might strike down the onlooker. 
 Its career in England on this visitation lasted 
 for about a year ; but its destructive energy 
 would seem to have been at its height 
 between May, 1349, and the following 
 Michaelmas, the summer heats doubtless 
 stimulating its fury. The havoc it made in 
 the population far exceeded that made by 
 any similar scourge recorded in history ; the 
 exaggerations of a contemporary annalist, 
 gross as they are, help us to realise its 
 extent. " Towns, once close packed with 
 men, were stripped of their inhabitants ; and 
 to so pernicious a power did the plague rise 
 that the living were scarce able to burj- the 
 dead. In certain religious houses, out of 
 twenty inmates there hardly survived two. 
 By several it was reckoned that harely a 
 tenth part of the population had been left 
 alive." It is stated that it slew 100,000 
 human beings in London — 50,000 of whom 
 were buried in a plot of ground which Sir 
 Walter Manny had bought for the purpose, 
 a space now covered hy Smithfield — nearly 
 60,000 in Norwich, and proportionate num- 
 bers in Bristol and othpr leading cities. These 
 numbers are thought incredible; but one 
 
 scrupulously careful living writer has found 
 evidence which satisfies him that at least 
 half the population died by this outbreak, 
 whilst, another, of equal industry, admits 
 that the full sum of the victims cannot have 
 been less than a third. And the leaning of 
 historians is generally towards the higher 
 reckoning, by which the actual carnage 
 would amount, at highest, to 2,500,000, at 
 lowest, to 1,500,000, for the estimates of the 
 population at the time range from 3,000,000 
 to 5,000,000. For obvious reasons, the mor- 
 tality was greatest among the clergy and the 
 humbler classes ; yet the contagion reached 
 even the highest. A newly-elected Primate, 
 Bradwardine, and Edward Ill's, daughter, 
 Joan, caught it and perished. For a time its 
 progress seemed arrested by the Scottish 
 border, and " the foul death of the EngKsh " 
 is said to have been a favourite oath with the, 
 Scots, who felt a malicious pleasure in their 
 enemies' misfortunes ; hut the scoffers soon 
 involved themselves in the same disasters by 
 making a foolish raid into England, and the 
 work of death went forward in Scotland also. 
 The disease passed over to Ireland, where, if 
 report can be trusted, it discriminated between 
 the intruding English and the natives; the 
 former were taken and the latter left. Its 
 immediate effects on society were of the kind 
 usual in such frightful calamities. Humanity 
 showed itself at its worst and its best : there 
 was much reckless profligacy and revolting 
 selfishness, but not a few examples of self- 
 sacrificing devotion. The terror-stricken 
 rushed to religion for comfort and help ; 
 many gave up lands and goods, and sought a 
 haven in monasteries; an earlier and fierce 
 fanaticism — that of the Flagellants — was re- 
 organised, and fascinated or horrified men by 
 its ghastly ritual. The permanent impression 
 that the Black Death made on the human 
 memory is shown in several ways — in this 
 conspicuously, that it was set up as a fixed 
 mark to reckon time from; it was long a 
 practice to date charters and legal instru- 
 ments from it. Far more important were 
 its economic and remoter historical con- 
 sequences. The great social movement of 
 the fourteenth century gained by it an im- 
 petus, if not an originating force, and found 
 in it the most favourable conditions of 
 success; it led, by regular stages, to the 
 rising of the commons under "Wat Tyler; 
 and the whole system of farming was revolu- 
 tionised by it. It has even been surmised 
 that England owes to it the picturesque 
 hedge-rows that divide her fields. It is 
 certain that the wages of labour at once 
 more than doubled through the scarcity of 
 labourers ; that proclamations were issued 
 and statutes were passed fixing the price of 
 labour at its former rate, and imposing 
 penalties on all who demanded or gave more ; 
 that, these proving ineffective, others, and 
 again others, were passed with the same aim 
 
Bla 
 
 ( 166) 
 
 Bla 
 
 and a like result; that iU feeling- arose be- 
 tween those who lived by and those who lived 
 on manual labour, which at last drove the 
 working classes into rebellion. And the 
 diflSculty of getting their lands tilled by the 
 old method of villein services and hired 
 labour forced the lords and reiigious houses 
 to break up their estates, hitherto managed 
 for them by bailiffs, into farms, which they 
 let on leases to the actual tillers of the soil. 
 But this was the issue of a long and compli- 
 cated process, the details of which are too 
 abundant to be given here. The visitations 
 of 1361 — 2 and 1369 were also formidable in 
 the extent of their ravages, yet mild as com- 
 pared with their terrible predecessor.. They 
 may be regarded as stages in the gradual 
 settling down of the " great mortality " into 
 the endemic state that it remaiaed in for 
 centuries. 
 
 Hecker, Epidemics offhe Middle Ages ; J. E. T. 
 Rogers, History of Agriculture and Prices in 
 England, vol. i. ; Longman, Life of Edward lit. ; 
 Papers in vol. ii. and vol. iii. of Fortnightly 
 JtevieWf by F. Seebohm and J. E. T. Eogers. 
 
 [J. E.] 
 
 Black Dog of Arden, The, was the 
 nickname applied by Piers Gaveston to Guy, 
 Earl of "Warwick. " Does he call me dog t' " 
 said Warwick. " Let him beware lest 1 bite 
 him." 
 
 Walsingbam, Hist. Anglic. (Eolls Series), vol. 
 i. 115, 133. 
 
 Black Priday was the name given to 
 the 11th of May, 1866, when a commercial 
 panic was at its height. 
 
 Black Hole of Calcutta, The (June 
 20, 1756). Suraj-ud-Dowlah, the Nawab of 
 Bengal, a young man, cruel, effeminate, and 
 debauched, who succeeded Aliverdi Khan 
 early in 1756, was greatly enraged with the 
 English at Calcutta for concealing a fugitive 
 from him. He marched down on Calcutta on 
 June 18 on the pretence that the English had 
 erected some new fortifications without con- 
 sulting him. The town was ill-prepared to 
 resist an assault, and was moreover weakened 
 by the disgraceful desertion of Mr. Drake, 
 the governor, with the military comman- 
 dant, who slipped off unperceived, and 
 rowed down to the ships. Mr. Holwell was 
 thereupon placed in command by common 
 consent, and the fort was gallantly held for 
 forty-eight hours, when it became necessary 
 to surrender. The Nawab gave Mr. Holwell 
 every assurance of protection, and retired 
 about dusk to bis encampment. In spite of 
 this the prisoners, 146 in number, were 
 thrust into a narrow chamber, some twenty 
 feet square, which had been used as the 
 prison of the garrison, and, however suited for 
 the confinement of a few turbulent soldiers, 
 meant simply death to the crowd thrust into 
 it at the sword's point in one of the hottest 
 nights of the most sultry season of the year. 
 
 The agonies endured during this terrible 
 night were horrible beyond expression. The 
 night was intensely hot, and as the torments 
 of thirst and suffocation came upon them, 
 the prisoners struggled with one another for 
 a mouthful of fresh air at the windows. They 
 insulted the guards to induce them to fire on 
 them. The majority died in raving madness; 
 and the few who survived owed their hves to 
 the freer ventilation obtained by standing on 
 the bodies of their dead or dying companions. 
 Twenty-three ghastly survivors alone were 
 dragged out the next morning. Mr. Holwell 
 was so broken that he had to be carried before 
 the Nawab, who manifested no compunction 
 at the results of his infamous cruelty. 
 
 J. Z. Holwell's Genuine Narrative, &e., 1758 ; 
 Mill, Hist, of India, vol. Iv., chap. iii. j ajid tbe 
 striking account in Macaujay's Essay on Lord 
 Clive. 
 
 Black IXail was the compulsory pay- 
 ment exacted by the border chieftains from 
 the dwellers in the more civiKsed districts on 
 the English side in return for the protection 
 of their cattle and goods. The levy of black 
 mail was made a felony by 43 Eliz., c. 13 
 (1601). The name was also given to the pay- 
 ment made to the chiefs of some of the High- 
 land clans by those who lived in their 
 neighbourhood in return for the immunity of 
 their cattle from capture. It did not entirely 
 cease till 1745. 
 
 Black XXountaiu War, The (1868). 
 The Hussunzye tribe of Afghans, inhabiting 
 the Agror Valley in the Black Mountain 
 range, broke out into hostilities and attacked 
 a police station. As they showed no dis- 
 position to submit, General Wylde was sent 
 against them, Sept. 2Gth, and after various 
 operations, which lasted till the 7th of Nov., 
 reduced the iusixrgents, who submitted, and 
 the force was. withdrawn on the 10th. 
 [Lawbenoe, Loej).] 
 
 Black Prince. [Edwakd, The Black 
 
 PlUNOE.] 
 
 Black Sea Conference, The. In 
 
 1871, in consequence of a declaration by 
 Russia that she would no longer be bound by 
 the Treaty of Paris of 1856 with regard to 
 the navigation of the Black Sea, a Conference 
 of the Powers was invited to meet at Loudon 
 to settle the questions. In assuming a right 
 to abolish her own treaty engagements, there 
 can be no doubt that Russia counted upon 
 some general understanding she had arrived at 
 with Prussia, to the efiect that the latter power 
 would assist her in efiecting her wishes. Some 
 delay arose in the assembling of the Con- 
 ference owing to the anomalous position of 
 Prance, but on Dec. 18th, Lord Granville 
 received a formal intimation that a French 
 plenipotentiary would present himself at the 
 Conference. The emergency at Paris, how- 
 ever, prevented this, and the representatives 
 
Bla 
 
 ( ler ) 
 
 Bla 
 
 of the other, powers proceeded to deliberate 
 ■without France ; but the Duke de Broglie, the 
 Freuch plenipotentiary, eventually appeared 
 on March 1 3th. As the result of the Con- 
 ference the Treaty of London was concluded. 
 Its provisions were that articles XI., XIII., 
 and XIV. of the Treaty of Paris, 1856, are 
 abrogated; that the principle of closing the 
 Dardanelles and Bosphorus is maintained 
 with power to the Sultan to open the said 
 straits to the fleets of friendly and allied 
 powers, in the event that the execution of 
 the stipulations of the Treaty of Paris should 
 require it ; that the commission for managing 
 the navigation of the Danube should be con- 
 tinued in its present form for a further period 
 of twelve years. The result of this treaty 
 was to open the Black Sea to Russian .ships of 
 war, and to allow the Sultan to open the 
 Dardanelles to foreign ships of war if the 
 defence of his throne required it. 
 
 Black Watcb, The, was the name origin- 
 ally given to the semi-independent bodies of 
 Highlanders who were entrusted by the English 
 government with the duty of keeping order 
 in the Highlands. They 'were embodied as a 
 regiment of the regular army (the 43rd, 
 afterwards the 42nd) in 1740. Three years 
 afterwards they were removed to London. 
 In May, 1743, the greater part of the regi- 
 ment mutinied, and set out northwards. 
 They were pursued, surrounded, and com- 
 pelled to surrender. Three ringleaders were 
 put to death, and the remainder of the 
 regiment sent to the West Indies and to 
 Flanders. As a regiment of the regular army 
 the Black Watch has since borne a distia- 
 guished part in nearly all the wars in which 
 England has been engaged. 
 
 Blackheatli, The Battle op (June 22, 
 1497), was fought between the troops of 
 Hemy VII. and the Cornish rebels. The 
 rebels had taken up a strong position on a 
 hiH at Blackheath, within sight of London. 
 The king had recalled the troops destined for 
 service against Scotland, and had collected 
 together at London a large army composed of 
 all the fighting men in the neighbouring 
 counties. He stationed one portion of his army 
 (under his personal command) in St. George's 
 Fields. A second detachment, under the 
 command of the Earls of Oxford and Suffolk, 
 was ordered to make a circuitous march round 
 the hiU occupied by the rebels, and take up 
 as strong a position as possible in their rear. 
 The remainder of his forces, under Lord Dau- 
 heny, he sent forward to attack the rebels 
 in front. The Comishmen fought bravely; 
 but iU- armed, iU-led, without horse or 
 artillery, they were unable to offer any 
 long resistance to the discipUned, well- 
 equipped troops who attacked them in front 
 and rear simultaneously. Two thousand 
 of their number were slain, and the 
 remainder surrendered. Among the large 
 
 number of prisoners were the rebel leaders 
 Lord Audley, Michael Joseph, and Thomas 
 Flammock, who were put to death. 
 
 Blacklow Hill, an eminence between 
 Warwick and Coventry, was the scene of the 
 execution of Piers Gaveston by the revolted 
 barons under the Earls of Lancaster and 
 Warwick ia 1312. 
 
 Blackstoue, Sir William [h. 1723, d. 
 1780), was the posthumous son of a Cheapside 
 silk-mercer, and was educated at the Charter- 
 house and Pembroke College, Oxford. He 
 obtained a fellowship at All Souls, and was 
 called to the bar by the Middle Temple in 1 746. 
 His practice was never large, and after a 
 few years he devoted his attention mainly to 
 collegiate matters. As bursar of All Souls 
 he showed administrative skill and zeal for 
 reform ; and the building of the Codrington 
 Library was mainly due to his exertions. 
 In 1757 he was elected to a fellowship at 
 Queen's College, where his architectural acti- 
 vities again displayed themselves. A year 
 later he was elected to the newly founded 
 Vinerian Professorship of Law, and delivered 
 from that chair the lectures which were sub- ' 
 seqnently (1765) embodied in the " Commen- 
 taries." The fame of his lectures caused him 
 to return to a more active professional life. 
 In 1761 he was appointed Principal of New 
 Inn Hall, a post which he held for five years 
 in the vain hope of establishing at Oxford a 
 college for legal education. He also during 
 this period sat in Parliament for Hendon and 
 Westbury. From 1770 until his death he 
 was one of the Judges of the Common Pleas. 
 As a writer upon law his faults are mainly 
 those of his age — an unscientific arrangement 
 and a loose terminology. Benthamhas exposed 
 these faults with great vehemence, but at the 
 same time does full justice to Blackstone's 
 merits as an expounder. " He it is," he says, 
 "who, first of all institutional writers, has 
 taught jimsprudence to speak the language 
 of the scholar and the gentleman." This 
 sentence accurately represents Blackstone's 
 claim to be remembered, and wU explain 
 why laymen regard his work with reverence 
 and lawyers with indifference. 
 
 Besides the CommentarJes (m the Laws of 
 England, of which numerous editions have 
 apileared, Blackstoue wrote several tracts on 
 questions of constitutional law, that on the 
 Middlesex Election, and on the Extent of 
 the Powers of Parliament, being the two 
 test known. The Commentaries have been re- 
 arranged with doubtful advantage by B. M. Kerr 
 and Mr. Serjeant Stephen. A Life by J. C. 
 Clitherow is prefaced to Blackstone's Reports 
 (folio, 1781). A biography and list of works 
 published, and in manuscript, by a " Gentleman 
 of Lincoln's Inn" (Dr. Douglass), appeared in 
 1783. See also Montague Burrows, Worthies of 
 All Souls, and Junius, Letter xviii. 
 
 [B. E. W.] 
 
 Blackwater, The Battle of (1598), was 
 fought near the fort of that name in Tyrone. 
 Hugh O'Neil, called the " arch rebel," here 
 
Bla 
 
 ( 168) 
 
 Bla 
 
 defeated the English Marshal, Sir Henry 
 Bagnall, who had marched to the relief of 
 the fort. O'Neil killed the English leader 
 with his own hands. One thousand five hun- 
 dred of the English fell, and all their stores 
 and ammunition were captured hy the Irish, 
 as well as the fort itseH. The forces engaged 
 on each side amounted to something like 
 5,000 men. This victory led at the time to 
 an almost general revolt of the natives. 
 Sydney Papers; Froude, Sist, ofEng. 
 
 Bladens'berg, The Battle or (Aug. 24, 
 1814), fought during the American War, took 
 its name from a small village on the left bank 
 of the eastern branch of the Potomac. This 
 position commanded the only bridge over the 
 river; and here the American general, Winder, 
 prepared to oppose the advance of the British, 
 under General Boss, upon Washington. To 
 effect their object it was necessary for the 
 British to carry the bridge and the command- 
 ing position of the Americans. Eoss accord- 
 ingly formed his forces into two columns, one 
 under Thornton, the other commanded by 
 Brooke. The attack was entrusted to the 
 former; and so fierce an onslaught did his 
 column make upon the defenders of the bridge 
 that it was parried immediately, together with 
 a fortified house at the farther end. On the 
 other side of the river, Thornton's column 
 was joined by Brooke's men, and a general 
 attack was made upon the American position. 
 One impetuous charge carried it, and the 
 whole American army broke in confusion, 
 and, flying through Washington, never stopped 
 till they had taken up a position on the 
 heights of Georgetown. After a short rest, 
 the British advanced, and on the same evening 
 entered Washington without encountering 
 any further opposition. 
 
 Blake, Robert (S. 1597, d. 1657), was bom 
 at Bridgewater and educated at Oxford. He 
 sat in the Long Parhament as member for 
 Bridgewater. At the outbreak of the Civil 
 War he raised a regiment, took part in the 
 defence of Bristol, and successfully held 
 Taunton against the Eoyalists. In 1649 
 Colonel Blake was appointed one of the com- 
 manders of the navy, and shortly afterwards 
 Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was 
 eminently successful as a naval commander. 
 He drove Prince Rupert from the British 
 seas, and compelled him to take refuge in 
 the Tagus, and, in January, 1651, destroyed 
 almost the entire Royalist fleet in Malaga 
 Harbour. Later in the year he recovered the 
 Channel Islands from the Royalists, and was 
 made a member of the CouncU of State. In 
 May, 1652, he fought a sharp but indecisive 
 action with the Dutch in the Straits of Dover; 
 and on September 18 defeated them in the 
 Downs. In November he fought a terrible 
 engagement against the Dutch under Van 
 ' Tromp, whose forces were greatly superior. 
 The English were defeated and compelled to 
 
 take refuge in the Thames. Blake was present 
 in the bloody and obstinate engagements in 
 February and June, 1653, but, owing to ill- 
 health, took no part in the great English 
 victory of July 29, in which Van Tromp was 
 killed. When war broke out between England 
 and Spain in 1656, Blake was appointed to 
 command the English fleet in the Mediter- 
 ranean. In April he performed the daring 
 feat of sailing into the harbour of Tenerifie 
 in spite of the fire from the forts, and cap- 
 tured a large fleet of galleons which lay at 
 anchor there. He died the year following, 
 just as he was entering Plymouth Sound. 
 He was buried in Westminster Abbey, but 
 after the Restoration his remains were disin- 
 terred and hung at Tyburn. Clarendon 
 speaks in very high terms of his ability as a 
 naval commander. " He was the first man 
 that declined the old track, and made it 
 manifest that the science might be attained 
 in less time than was imagined ; and despised 
 those rules which had been long in practice, 
 to keep his ship and his men out of danger, 
 which had been held in former times a point 
 of great ability and circumspection ; as if the 
 principal art requisite in the captain of a 
 ship had been to be sure to come safe home 
 again." 
 
 Clarendon, Sist. of the Rebelli(m ; Whiteloc^e, 
 Memmials: Liruizot, CromwHl; Hepwortli Dixon, 
 Bohert Blake ; jldiniral and General at Sea. 
 
 [F. S. P.] 
 
 Blanche, Daughter or Henry IV. 
 (i. 1392, d. 1409), was married in 1403 to Louis 
 of Bavaria, eldest son of the Emperor Rupert. 
 
 Blauche of Lancaster. [Lancas- 
 ter.] 
 
 Blanche of ITavarre, wife of Edward 
 
 Crouchback (second son of Henry III.), and 
 mother of Thomas of Lancaster (executed 
 after the battle of Boroughbridge, 1320), 
 was the daughter of Robert of Artois, brother 
 of St. Louis, and the widow of Henry, Kingf 
 of Navarre. 
 
 Bland, John (July, 1555), the rector of 
 Adisham in Kent, was one of the martyrs of 
 the Protestant persecution of Mary's reign. 
 Being convicted of heresy by a commission 
 composed of Thornton, Bishop of Dover, 
 Collins, the deputy of Cardinal Pole, and 
 Nicholas Harpsfeld, the archdeacon, he was 
 burnt at Canterbury. 
 
 Bland's Case (1586). John Bland, a 
 currier of London, was brought to the bar of 
 the House of Commons for using slanderous 
 language, saying that the curriers could get no 
 justice in the House, and that the shoemakers 
 were unjustly favoured. On account of his 
 poverty he was dismissed upon making his 
 submission on his knees, and paying twenty 
 shillings to the sergeant. This is an impor- 
 tant precedent for the power of the House 
 
Bla 
 
 ( 169, ) 
 
 Blo 
 
 ol Commons to punish even persons who are 
 not memhers for ofEences against its privi- 
 leges. 
 
 D'Bwea, Jownals of the PorMaments of Queen 
 SUzabeth (1682), p. 366. 
 
 Blanketeers. The name given to a body 
 of Manchester workmen who met at St. 
 Peter's Field, March 10, 1817, each man 
 carrying a blanket or great coat with him. 
 It was intended to join the Derby rioters, and 
 march on London ; but the attempt proved 
 completely abortive. 
 
 Blasphemy. Before the Reformation, 
 offences against religion, of which blasphemy 
 was one, were almost exclusively dealt with 
 in the ecclesiastical courts, and several 
 statutes, passed in the fifteenth century, gave 
 the bishops power to deal with the offence. 
 These powers were not finally dropped till 
 the temporary suppression of the ecclesiastical 
 courts in 1640, and their revival after the 
 Restoration without the e2;-(j^«o oath. In 1677 
 the common law writ, de hceretieo comburendo, 
 was abolished by Parliament ; but the judges 
 henceforward treated blasphemy as an offence 
 at common law. It has been held to consist 
 of denial of the being and providence of God, 
 or uttering contumelious reproaches against 
 Jesus Christ or the Holy Ghost, or denying 
 the truth of Christianity. According to the 
 celebrated judgment of Lord Hales in the case 
 of Rex V. Taylor, " Christianity being parcel 
 of the law of England, to reproach the Chris- 
 tian religion is to speak in subversion of the 
 law : " but in a later case (1883) it has been 
 held that a person may attack the funda- 
 mentals of religion without being guilty of 
 a blasphemous Hbel " if the decencies of con- 
 troversy are observed." Penalties against 
 blasphemv were enacted by 9 and 1 1 WiE. III., 
 cap. 32, and by 53 Geo. III., c. 160. In Scot- 
 land a statute of 1661 prescribed the penalty 
 of death for blasphemy, which was mitigated 
 to fines and imprisonment by 6 Geo. IV., and 
 7 Win. IT., and 1 Vict., c. 5. 
 
 Sir J. Stephen, Hist, of (he Criminal Law, ii. 
 396, &c. 
 
 Blenheim, The Battle or (Aug. 13, 
 ■1704), was fought during the third campaign 
 in the "War of the Spanish Succession. 
 Louis XrV. had determined to menace 
 Vienna, hoping to strike at the heart of the 
 Austrian power, and at the same time to make 
 full use of the assistance of his Bavarian ally. 
 Marlborough, however, perceived his object 
 and effected a junction with Prince Eugene, 
 who commanded the Imperial forces in Wiir- 
 temberg. They were hampered by their 
 ooUeague, Prince Louis of Baden, a general of 
 the old formal school. The ScheUenberg, a 
 hiU above Donauworth, was stormed, and 
 the Bavarians driven from it. Next day 
 Marshal TaUard effected a junction with the 
 armies of Marshal Marsin and the Elector of 
 ■Bavaria. Marlborough and Eugene got rid 
 Hist.— 6* 
 
 of Louis of Baden by persuading him to attack 
 the fortress of Ingolstadt, and prepared for a 
 decisive battle near Blindtheim or Blenheim. 
 This village was situated on the northern bank 
 of the Danube, near the place where it is 
 joined by a little brook, the Nebel. About two 
 imles away, and nearly parallel to the river, is 
 a range of low wooded hiUs. The small stream 
 of the Nebel runs from these hills. The 
 Nebel divided the two armies. Marlborough 
 commanded the left of the allied forces, 
 Eugene the right. TaUard was opposed to 
 Marlborough, the Elector of Bavaria and 
 Marsin to Eugene. TaUard committed the 
 great error of throwing aU his best troops 
 into Blenheim, thereby weakening the centre. 
 The attack of Lord Cutts on the village was 
 repulsed. Marlborough, seeing the weakness 
 of the French centre, threw his cavalry across 
 the Nebel, and after a terrific struggle cut 
 the French line in two. Meanwhile, on the 
 right, Eugene only saved the battle by the 
 steadiness of his Prussian infantry. He 
 had been greatly hampered by the difficulties 
 of the ground. Marlborough's cavalry charge 
 on the French centre had won the day. The 
 French cavalry fled; TaUard was taken 
 prisoner. The French troops in Blenheim 
 were surrounded, and surrendered after a 
 gallant resistance ; but the forces opposed 
 to Eugene retreated in good order. The 
 allies are computed to have lost 11,000 
 men out of an army of 52,000, the French 
 altogether 40,000 out of 60,000, including 
 14,000 prisoners. The broken army of the 
 enemy retreated with extreme rapidity, and 
 withdrew beyond the Rhine. 
 
 Marlborough's Correspondence; Coxe, JJf art- 
 borough; Alison, Life of Marlborough j Stanhope, 
 Beign of Queen Anne. 
 
 Bligh, Captain WrLLiAM, weU known in 
 connection with the mutiny on the Bounty, 
 in April, 1789, which was caused by his 
 tyrannical conduct, was in 1806 appointed 
 Governor of New South "Wales, but his ap- 
 pointment was so unpopular, and his conduct 
 so harsh and despotic, that in January, 1808, 
 he was deposed by the colonists, and the other 
 civil and military officers of the colony, and 
 sent back to England. [Pitcairw Island.] 
 
 Blockade. [Neutrality ; Armed Neu- 
 trality ; Paris, Decl.\ration of.] 
 
 Blockade, The American. It is a prin- 
 ciple of international Hw that a State cannot 
 blockade its own portf "When, therefore, the 
 American Civil "War broke out in 1861, 
 President Lincoln had to choose between the 
 blockade or the declaration that the Con- 
 federate ships were pirates. The American 
 government chose the former, and on the 
 19th of April declared the ports of the revolted 
 provinces to be blockaded. This praoticaUy 
 recognised the existence of war with the 
 Confederates, and the English government 
 weiC therefore justified in recognising the 
 
Bio 
 
 ( 170) 
 
 Boa 
 
 Southern States as telligerents, which was 
 done May 14, 1861. The Federal govern- 
 ment protested that the recognition by Eng- 
 land was an unfriendly act, but subsequent 
 writers on international law, both American 
 and English, are agreed that England was 
 acting strictly according to the recognised 
 principles of the law of nations. 
 
 Wheaton, International Law ; Phillimore, 
 International Law. 
 
 Bloet, EoBEBT, Bishop of Lincoln {d. 
 1123), though bom of obscure parentage, was 
 Chancellor in 1090, which office he held till 
 his appointment to the see of Lincoln in 
 1093. He became one of Henry I.'s chief 
 ministers, and is the first man to whom is 
 given the title of Justiciar, indicating a 
 definite office. He held this office from 1100 
 to 1107, when he probably fell out of favour 
 with the king, and retired into private life. 
 Henry of Huntingdon, who was brought up 
 by the bishop, gives an interesting picture of 
 his household, and says that Bloet " excelled 
 all other men in grace of person, in serenity 
 of temper, and in courtesy of speech." 
 
 Henry of HnntiD^don, Eist. Anglor,. p. 300 
 (Bolls Series). 
 
 Blois, Petee op {d. 1200), was descended 
 from a noble family of Brittany, and studied 
 at Paris and Bologna. Subsequently he 
 opened a school at Paris, and was invited to 
 England by Henry IL He became Chancellor 
 of Canterbury Cathedral, and afterwards 
 Archdeacon of Bath, but was deprived of it 
 for his attachment to "William Longohamp. 
 Afterwards, however, he was made Arch- 
 deacon of Loudon and prebendary of St. 
 Paul's. He was the author of numerous 
 letters, more than 200 of which are extant. 
 Many of them are very valuable for their 
 notices of the politics and maimers of the 
 Writer's age. The Continuation of In- 
 gulfs History of Crowlandfrom 1089 to 1117 
 professes to have been written by Peter of 
 Blois ; but it is probable that it was composed 
 at a later date. 
 
 Hardv, Descriptive Catalogue, ii. 128. Peter of 
 BUiis' Epistles were printed by Dr. Giles in the 
 Patres EcoUsiae A':glicance, Oxford, 1817; and 
 tljey will be found in Migne, Potrologia, vol. 
 207. 
 
 Blondel, or Blondian, db Nesle, was 
 a celebrated French troubadour who became 
 attached to the court of Richard I. He is 
 said to have discovered the place of the king's 
 imprisoninent in Germany by singing the 
 king's own favourite lays before each keep and 
 fortress till the unfinished song was at length 
 taken up and answered from the windows of 
 the castle of Loewenstein, where Richard was 
 imprisoned. The story, however, does not 
 appear to be older than the fifteenth century. 
 
 Blondel, Robert (}. 1390 ? d. 1460 ?), was 
 a member of the court of Charles TIL 
 of France, and was chaplain to Queen Mary 
 
 of Anjou. He wrote several works designed 
 to excite his countrymen to shake off the 
 English yoke, and was the author of a work 
 called He JReduetione Normannice, which is a 
 highly valuable contemporary narrative of the 
 expulsion of the English from Northern 
 France. 
 
 Blondel's De ReA. Norman, is printed in Mr. 
 Stevenson's Expulsion of the Enylisk from Nor- 
 mandy (Eolls Series), 1863. 
 
 Blood, Colonel Thomas {d. 1681), was 
 an Irish soldier of fortune remarkable for 
 his reckless audacity. In 1663 he joined a 
 conspiracy to seize Dubliu Castle, but the 
 plot being discovered, he fled. In 1670 he 
 seized the Dnke of Ormond in the streets 
 of London with the intention of hanging him 
 at Tyburn, but the duke fortunately escaped. 
 In the next year Blood distinguished himself 
 by attempting to carry oif the Regalia from 
 the Tower, and very nearly succeeded in his 
 object. Charles H., however, pardoned him, 
 and gave him an estate worth £500 a year. 
 
 Blore Heath., The Battle op (1459), was 
 fought, during the Wars of the Roses, be- 
 tween the Lancastrians, under Lord Audley, 
 and the Yorkists, who were commanded by tha 
 Earl of Salisbury. The latter was marching 
 southwards with the intention of effecting a 
 junction with the Duke of York, and Lord 
 Audley was despatched to intercept him. 
 They met on Blore Heath, about two miles 
 and a half from Market Drayton, in Stafford- 
 shire. The Yorkists, though inferior in 
 numbers, were completely victorious. Lord 
 Audley, and many other leading men on the 
 same side, were kaied, and a large number of 
 prisoners were taken. Salisbury's further 
 march was uninterrupted, and he effected a 
 junction with the Duke of York at Ludlow. 
 
 Boadicea, Bnddig, or Bondicca (the 
 ordinary form of the name has been stigma- 
 tised as " the gibberish of editors ") {d. 62), was 
 the widow of Prasutagus, chief of the Iceni, 
 and was the leader of the great revolt against 
 the Romans in the time of Suetonius Paulinus. 
 The tyranny and oppression of the conquerors 
 had been brought to a climax by the atro- 
 cious treatment to which Boadicea and her 
 daughters were subjected, and the revolt 
 she headed was a national one, and included 
 most of the peoples of Central and Eastern 
 .Britain. Her success at first was very great. 
 The Romans were slaughtered in great 
 numbers, and many of their important towns 
 taken, including the colpnies of Camelodunum, 
 Londinmm, and Verulamium. But the re- 
 turn of Suetonius and his veterans turned 
 the tide, and the British were signally de- 
 feated m a great battle outside London. 
 According to Tacitus, Boadicea committed 
 suicide, but Dio Cassius asserts that she died 
 a natural death. Her revolt taught the 
 
Boa 
 
 ( 171 ) 
 
 Boh 
 
 Komans that the Britons were still capable of 
 resistance to oppression, and the recall of 
 Saetonius in the next year was the inaugura- 
 tion of a milder and more conciliatory policy. 
 
 Tacitus, AnnaU, xiv. 31, &c. ; AgricoUlf 15 ; 
 Dio Cassius, xii. 1, 12. 
 
 Board of Control, Board of Trade, 
 
 &C. [Control, Board of; Trade, Board 
 OP, &c.] 
 
 Bocher, Joan (Joan of Kent), was an 
 Anabaptist who was condemned by the com- 
 missioners appointed to inquire into heresy 
 in 1549. Their report being that she held 
 heretical and erroneous opinions on the 
 nature of the incarnation, she was burnt to 
 death May 2nd, 1550. "She died," says 
 Mr. Froude {Sist. of Mng., v. 291), "being 
 one of the very few victims of the ancient 
 hatred of heresy with which the Reformed 
 Church of England has to charge itself." 
 
 Bocland, in Anglo-Saxon legal phrase- 
 ology, was that land which was held by book 
 or charter. Originally, it was distinguished 
 both from the " Poldand," or public domain, 
 and from the "ethel," or estate, which was 
 held by an individual by prescriptive right. 
 But in later times the characteristics of ethel 
 land were lost, and bocland was equivalent to 
 "alod," or land which was held in full 
 ownership by an individual, whether it had 
 been inherited as part of an original allot- 
 ment, or whether it had been separated from 
 the public land and allotted to an individual 
 by the king and the Witan, by charter or 
 legal process. Bocland might be alienated 
 inter vivos, or devised by will, and it might 
 be entailed or otherwise limited in descent. 
 The owner was not liable to any public 
 burdens on his laud, except the trinoda neoes- 
 sitae. [Land, Tenure of.] 
 
 Schmid, Gesetze der AngelsacTiseVy p. 538 j Allen, 
 On the Frerogaime, p. 143 ; Eeeves, Hist, of Eng. 
 Law, i. 5 (ed. of 1869) ; Spelroau, Glossary ; 
 Lodge, Essays on Avglo-Saxon Law; Stubbs, 
 Cimst. Hist., 1. 85. 
 
 Boece, or Boetins, Hector (b. 1465 ? d. 
 1536), Scottish historian, was bom at Dundee, 
 studied at Aberdeen and Paris, and became 
 first Principal of the King's College at 
 Aberdeen. He was the author of a History 
 of Scotland, first published in Latin in 1526, 
 and translated into English by Bellenden ten 
 years later. It is composed with a good deal 
 of literary skill, but is altogether valueless as 
 an authority, the narrative being fuU of 
 legends and romantic tales of all kinds. 
 Boece's History was very popular, and 
 through it, as Mr. Burton says, "the won- 
 drous tale of the annals of Scotland got a 
 hold on the European mind." 
 
 A metrical version of the Buik of the Chronichs 
 of Scotland of Hector Boyis was executed by 
 WilHam Steward at tbe command of Margaret, 
 wife of James IV. It has been edited by 
 Mr. W. B. Tumbullin the EoUs Series (1858). 
 
 Bohemia, Relations with. Dealings 
 between England and Bohemia begin with the 
 grant of the Emperor Henry VII. to his 
 son John, which established a German line 
 of kings in Bohemia, and involved it in 
 Western politics. John constantly resided 
 in France, and, as the opponent of Louis of 
 Bavaria and the friend of PhiUp of Valois, 
 was led by his restless chivalry to take part 
 in the war against England, which ended by 
 his death at Creey (1346). His son, Charles 
 IV., was of a more practical temperament; 
 and the same Diet at Metz which accepted 
 the Golden Bull witnessed his attempted 
 mediation between France and England. In 
 time more intimate relations grew up on the 
 marriage of Anne of Bohemia, his daughter, 
 with Sicbard II. Under Weuzel, her 
 brother, still more than under Charles, the 
 Luxemburg house had become national Kings 
 of Bohemia at the expense of the Imperial 
 dignity, which degenerated into a mere title. 
 Hence close dealings between Bohemia and 
 England ; and as Catholicism and the Papacy 
 were associated with the hated German in- 
 fluence, the Bohemian national pai ty greedily 
 listened to the doctrines of Wichf, which 
 all the Bohemians at Richard's court had 
 ample opportunities of learning. "What in 
 England was mere abstract dialectic, and at 
 best the expression of inarticulate, discontent, 
 was turned by Bohemian patriotism into the 
 watchwords of a national party of religious 
 Puritanism. Prague became a more popular 
 Oxford. Jerome of Prague actually brought 
 Wiolif's teaching from the Thames to the 
 Moldau. The direction taken by Huss was 
 entirely the result of English influence. In 
 one library there are still five treatises of 
 Wiclif copied out in his own hand, with 
 copious notes. Henry V. had already become 
 intimately allied to Sigismund, by their com- 
 mon efforts to restore the unity of Christen- 
 dom. A fresh link of orthodox antagonism 
 to heresy united the sovereigns if it separated 
 the peoples. The Council of Constance 
 marks the time of their closest approxima- 
 tion. With the suppression of the national 
 movement, Bohemia sinks into insignificance 
 or dependence. Ferdinand I. unites its 
 crown with the Austrian house. Only on 
 the last attempt at the assertion of Bohemian 
 nationality, which in 1618 led to the en- 
 deavour to set aside Ferdinand of Styria for 
 Frederick of the Palatinate, the son-in-law 
 of James I., were direct relations between 
 the two States renewed. But though the 
 cause of the Protestant Pfalzgraf, was 
 exceedingly popular in England, James re- 
 fused to support him until it was too late. 
 The battle on the Weissberg (1620) destroyed 
 at once the fortunes of Frederick and Ehza- 
 beth, and the nationality and independence 
 of the Czech kingdom. 
 
 Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, is perhaps 
 the best general authority on Bohemian history. 
 
Boll 
 
 ( 172 
 
 Bol 
 
 Mr. Creighton's History of fhe Papacy (Bk. II., 
 ch. iii. and iv.) brings out very clearly the con- 
 nection between Huss and "Wiclii:. Cf. jMilman, 
 Latin Christianity (vol. viii.), and Lenz, Konig 
 Sigismund und Reinrich V. For the history oi 
 the Pfalzgraf's relations with England, see 
 S. E. Gardiner, Hist, of Mng., 1603—1642. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Bobun, The Family op, was founded by 
 a certain Humphrey de Bohun, said to have 
 been a kinsman of "William I. In 1199 
 Henry de Bohun was created Earl of Here- 
 ford by John (a,pparently inheriting the 
 office of Constable from his father Humphrey, 
 whose mother was the daughter of Miles, 
 Earl of Hereford and Lord High Constable) . 
 He married the daughter of Geoffrey Fitz- 
 Peter, Earl of Essex, and upon the death of 
 Ms brother-in-law, the last Earl of Essex of 
 the house of Mandeville, succeeded to his 
 estates. His son Humphrey, second Earl of 
 Hereford, was created Earl of Essex about 
 1236. William de Bohun — who fought at 
 Crecy — fourth son of the fourth Earl of 
 Hereford, was created Earl of Northampton 
 1337. Biis son succeeded to the earldoms of 
 Hereford, Essex, and Northampton, and died 
 1372, leaving two daughters, Eleanor — who 
 married Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of 
 Gloucester — and Mary — who married Henry 
 of Bolingbroke (afterwards Henry IV.), who 
 thus gained the earldoms of Hereford, Essex, 
 and Northampton. 
 
 Bois-le-Duc, The Battle of (Not. 12, 
 1794), was fought during the campaign of the 
 allies with the English contingent under the 
 Duke of York, in Flanders. For some time 
 past great preparations had been pushed 
 forward by Moreau in obedience to the in- 
 structions of the Committee of Public Safety 
 at Paris, who were resolved on subjugating 
 Holland while the severity of the winter 
 had neutralised the defensive advantages of 
 the country. To carry out this project, the 
 first step was to cross the Meuse, and, with 
 this object in view, boats for a, bridge had 
 been collected at Port Grfeveeoeur on that 
 river. When all preparations had been com- 
 pleted, the passage was attempted at day- 
 break on the 12th. But the firm resistance 
 of the allies, under the Duke of York, pre- 
 vented aU the attempts of the French, though 
 Moreau omitted no pains or skill ; and at 
 length, seeing that it was impossible to carry 
 the passage, that able engineer desisted from 
 the attempt, and placed his troops in winter 
 quarters between the Meuse and the Rhine. 
 Alison, Kist. of Europe. 
 
 Boleyn, Anne. [Anne Boletn.] 
 
 Bolesm, Mary. An elder sister of Anne 
 Boleyn, second queen of Henry VIII., and 
 at one time herself an object of the king's 
 passionate admiration. This, however, was 
 one of Henry's earlier attachments, and took 
 place at a period when his affection for 
 
 Catherine of Arragon was still sufficiently 
 strong to prevent his seriously entertaining 
 any idea of a second marriage by means of a 
 divorce. Mary Boleyn married, in July, 
 1521, Sir WiUiam Pavey, a descendant of the 
 Beaufort family, and, disappearing for awhile 
 from the vicinity of the court, was spared 
 any renewal of the fickle king's dangerous 
 attentions. 
 
 Boleyn, Sib Thomas. [Wiltshire, 
 Earl of.] 
 
 Bolingbroke, Henry. [Henry IV.] 
 
 Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Vis- 
 count (A. 1678, d. 1751), the son of Sir 
 Henry St. John, was educated at Eton and 
 Christ Church. In the year;1700 he married, 
 and in the following year entered Parlia- 
 ment for Woottou Bassett, and attached 
 himself to Harley and the Tories. When 
 Harley was appointed Secretary of State in 
 1706, St. John was made Secretary for War. 
 He retired with Harley in 1708, and re- 
 turned, when the Tories came in again 
 after the Sacheverell episode, in 1710, as one 
 of the Secretaries of State. The position of 
 that party was a doubtful and dangerous one. 
 Peace was loudly called for by a section 
 of the people, and was in itself a desirable 
 enough object. But there is little to be urged 
 in excuse of the steps by which it was brought 
 about. Under St. John's conduct, England 
 deserted her allies, and, in violation of all 
 her agreements, proceeded to enter into 
 private negotiations with France. [Utrecht, 
 Treaty of.] At home the Tory leaders were 
 engaged in a course of intriguts, with the 
 object of counteracting the predominance the 
 Whigs were sure to gain under the house of 
 Hanover. The army and the civil service 
 were being gradually filled with men who 
 were really Jacobites, and the design seems 
 to have been entertained of changing 
 the succession. The struggle for power 
 between Harley, now Earl of Oxford, and 
 Bolingbroke (called to the Upper House 
 as Viscount Bolingbroke in 1712) inter- 
 fered with this project, and verj' greatly 
 weakened the party. Through the influence 
 of Lady Masham with the queen, Oxford 
 was dismissed in July 2, 1714. But Boling- 
 broke's tenure of undivided power was very 
 short. On the 30th of July the queen was 
 seized with the attack of apoplexy which was 
 to prove fatal to her. At the council which 
 was summoned on the emergency, the Whig 
 Dukes Argyle, Somerset, and Shrewsbury 
 succeeded in carrying the resolution by which 
 the last-named became Lord Treasurer. On 
 the death of the queen (Aug. 1) Bolingbroke 
 deliberated, and was lost. The Whig dukes 
 seized the reins of government, proclaimed the 
 Elector king, and sent special messengers sum- 
 moning him to England. The new Parliament 
 was violently Whig. Bolingbroke, knowing 
 
Bol 
 
 ( 173 
 
 Bon 
 
 that he would be impeached, fled to France 
 (March 25, 1715). On the 10th of June he 
 was impeached, and on the 16th of September 
 his name was struck ofl the list of peers and 
 sentence of banishment was passed upon him. 
 He now entered the service of the Pretender, 
 and was nominated by that prince his Secre- 
 tary of State; but in 1716 he was dismissed 
 from the prince's employment, and a breach 
 took place between him and the extreme 
 Jacobites. For some years he remained in 
 France, devoting himself chiefly to study 
 and to the society of the Marquise de 
 Villette, a niece of Madame de Maintenon, 
 whom he ultimately married. In 1723 
 he was permitted to return to England, 
 and an Act of Parliament was passed al- 
 lowing him to enjoy his property ; but he 
 was still excluded from the House of Lords. 
 He joiaed the opposition against Walpole, 
 and for many years carried on relentless 
 hostilities with that minister by means of in- 
 trigue and political journalism. He con- 
 tributed largely to the Craftsman, a. periodical 
 which had a large circulation, anji a re- 
 putation very damaging to Walpole's cause. 
 In 1735, however, he found it prudent once 
 more to withdraw to France, where he re- 
 maiaed tOl 1742. On the faU of Walpole, 
 he found that his allies in opposition were 
 not disposed to admit him to any share of 
 power. He with drew altogether from politics, 
 and spent the remaining nine years of 
 his life in philosophical retirement at 
 Battersea. Bolingbroke's writings produced 
 more effect on the thought of the eighteenth 
 century than their intrinsic merits seem to 
 warrant. His political and historical works, 
 of which the chief are Letters on the Study 
 of Bistory, Remarks on the History of Eng- 
 land, A Dissertation wpon Parties, The Idea of 
 a Patriot King, and A Letter to Sir William 
 Windham, are evidently composed in great part 
 to justify his own action in public life; but 
 they contain a good deal of suggestive disqui- 
 sition, and some fine passages of declamatory 
 eloquence. 
 
 Bolingbroke's TTorfes were published by Mallet 
 in 1754 iii'~5 vols. His Corresji(md.efu:e appeared 
 in 1798, edited by Gilbert Parke. See also tbe 
 essayonBolingbrotein E^musat.L'jluglflterre au 
 Bw-huitiime Si^cle ; Gr. "W. Cooke,, Memoirs of 
 BoUnghrolee, 1835; MacknigM, Life of Boling- 
 Iroke, 1863; Brosoh, BoliTigbroke und die Whins 
 von seinnr Zeit, 1883 ; Coxe's Walpole ; and tbe 
 Stuart Papers. [S. J. L.] 
 
 BoUngbrobe, Eogek {d. 1441), a chap- 
 lain of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, was 
 executed for having conspired with Eleanor 
 Cobham, Duchess of Gloucester, to destroy 
 King Henry VI. by magical incantations. 
 
 Bolton Castle, in the Wpst Eiding of 
 Yorkshire, was the scene of Mary Stuart's 
 imprisonment, 1568. The intrigues of the 
 Queen ■ of Scots caused her to be removed 
 in the following year to the " straiter 
 
 custody " of the Earl of Shrewsbury at. 
 Tutbury. •' 
 
 Bombay. A presidency and governorship 
 of British India. The town and island of 
 Bombay were ceded to England in 1661, as 
 part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza 
 on her marriage with Charles II. A few 
 years afterwards it was handed over to the 
 East India Company in return for a nominal 
 annual payment. In 1687 Bombay was con- 
 stituted a separate presidency ; but in 1753 
 it was under t'he authority of the Calcutta 
 government. The dominions of the presi- 
 dency were very limited in extent until the 
 wars with the Mahrattas, comprehending only 
 the town and island of Bombay, with Salsette 
 and Bassein; but by the end of the adminis- 
 tration of the Marquis of Hastings it included 
 Surat, Broach, Ahmednuggur, Belgaum, 
 Sholapoor, and the whole dominions which 
 had belonged to the Poonah state, with the 
 exception of Sattara, which was annexed in 
 1848. In 1843, on the conquest of Scinde, 
 that province was also placed under the 
 Governor of Bombay. 
 
 Bond of Association (1584). [As- 
 sociation.] 
 
 Boniface of Savoy {d. 1270), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury (1245 — 1270), was th« 
 son of Thomas, Count of Savoy, and conse- 
 quently uncle to Eleanor of Provence, wife 
 of Henry III. To this connection he owed 
 his appointment to the archbishopric. He 
 was one of the most unclerical and most 
 unpopular of our archbishops ; his sympathies 
 were with the foreigners at Henry III.'s 
 court, and his tastes were military. At 
 times when his interests seemed to be opposed 
 by the Poitevins he sided with the Barons, 
 but his policy was a purely selfish one, and 
 seen through by all parties. During the 
 Barons' War he w^s absent from England, 
 but returned after the battle of Evesham, 
 and is said to have accompanied Prince 
 Edward on his Crusade. 
 
 Boniface, Saint (5. 680, (?. 755), born at 
 Crediton, was a monk of the Exeter monas- 
 tery. His original name was Winfrith. In 
 715 he set out for Eome, and received a 
 commission to preach to the heathen nations 
 of Germany. His earnest missionary labours 
 met with the greatest success in Friesland, 
 Thuringia, and Franconia, and immense 
 numbers were converted. He laboured' in 
 Central Germany for more than thirty years, 
 and established the bishoprics of Salzburg, 
 Passau, Freisingen, Eatisbon, Wurzburg, and 
 Erfurt, and a very large number of monas- 
 teries. His iafluence in civilising and evan- 
 gelising the wilder parts of Germany was 
 very great. Besides his labours as a mis- 
 sionary, and organiser of the newly converted 
 districts, Boniface was equally great as the 
 restorer of the older Churches on the Ehine 
 
Bon 
 
 ( 174) 
 
 Bor 
 
 and Danube. He became Archbishop of Mainz, 
 and his efforts made that see the Canterbury 
 of Germany. He was assisted by numerous 
 missionaries, whom he sent for from Britain, 
 and was high in favour with the Carolingian 
 princes. Pepin was crowned Mng by Boni- 
 face at Soissons. In 755 he made his last 
 missionary journey into Priesland ; but near 
 Dokkeim he was attacked and slain by a 
 band of the Pagans. His remains were huried 
 in one of the most famous of his abbeys — 
 that of Fulda. 
 
 The Works of St. Boniface were publislied by 
 Dr. Giles (liondon, 184i). See also Vita S. 
 Bimifaaii in Mabillon, vol. iv. ; Seiter, Boni- 
 facms, 1845 ; Weander, Church History. 
 
 Bonlagh. Common, in County Tip- 
 perary, was the place where, on July 29, 1848, 
 Smith O'Brien appeared before the house 
 of a widow named Cormao, which had been 
 taken possession of by fifty constabulary, and 
 took up a position in front of it with his 
 followers. The constables fired, and, another 
 party coming up at the same moment, under 
 the command of Mr. Cox and of Mr. French, 
 a magistrate, the rebels fled, leaving eighteen 
 dead and many wounded behind them ; none 
 of the constabulary were wounded. This 
 action, such as it was, put an end to the 
 Irish "insurrection" of 1848. 
 
 Bonner, Edmund {b. 1496, d. 1569), suc- 
 cessively Bishop of Hereford and of London, 
 said to have been the natural son of a priest 
 named Savage, studied at Broadgates Hall, 
 Oxford, and became one of Wolsey's 
 chaplains. He subsequently attached him- 
 self to Cromwell, and in 1533 was sent 
 on a mission to the Pope about the Divorce 
 question. According to Burnet, his de- 
 meanour greatly enraged Clement, " who 
 talked of throwing him into a cauldron of 
 melted lead, or of burning him alive." In 
 1538 he was made Bishop of Hereford, 
 and in 1.539 translated to London. During 
 Henry VIII. 's reign Bonner was a leading 
 member of the Anghcan Conservative party 
 led by Gardiner and Norfolk, but on the ac- 
 cession of Edward VI. he declined to foUow 
 the advanced Reformers, and protested against 
 Ctanmer's homilies and injunctions. For 
 this Bonner was committed to the Fleet, but 
 soon released; but in 1549 he was tried 
 by a special commission, deprived of his 
 bishopric, and imprisoned in the Marshalsea. 
 He was restored by Queen Mary, and was 
 one of the most active agents in carrying out 
 her reactionary policy. He restored the 
 Mass m St. Paul's even before the publi- 
 cation of the royal ordinance which com- 
 manded it, accepted the restoration of the 
 papal authority, despite his former poUcy, 
 and his diocese was distinguished by the 
 number of persons burnt in it, and the 
 vmdictive energy with which the bishop 
 pushed on the work of persecution. At 
 
 the accession of Queen EHzabethj when he 
 appeared before the queen to tender his 
 allegiance, she shrank from him with un- 
 disguised aversion. In May, 1559, refusing 
 to take the oath of supremacy, he was de- 
 prived and indicted for prcemtmire. He was 
 committed to the Marshalsea, where he passed 
 the rest of his life. 
 
 Calendar of State Papers ; "Wood, Athence 
 Oaioniffnses ; Biographia Britannica ; Burnet, 
 Sist. of the Reformation ; Proude, Kist. of Eng. 
 
 Book of Common Prayer. [Pbayek 
 Book.] 
 
 Book of Discipline. [Discipline, Book 
 
 OF.] 
 
 Book of Sports, &c. [Spokts, Book 
 OP, &c.] 
 
 Booth, Lawkence {d. 1480), Archbishop 
 OF York (1476 — 1480), after holding several 
 minor preferments, was in 1457 appointed 
 Bishop of Durham. He sided with the Lan- 
 castrians, and his temporalities were seized by 
 Edward IV., but he subsequently reconciled 
 himself with the Hng, and in 1473 was made 
 Lord Chancellor, and held the Great Seal for 
 eighteen mouths. He was appointed to the 
 archbishopric of York in 1476. 
 
 Borders, The. The English invasion 
 established in the north-east of Britain the 
 kingdom of Northumberland, which extended 
 from the Humber to the Forth. West of 
 this the Celtic kingdom of Strathclyde ex- 
 tended from the Dee to the Clyde. North 
 ■were the Celtic kingdoms of the Picts and 
 Scots. In 827 Northumberland submitted to 
 the supremacy of Egbert, King of Wessex, 
 and after the repulse of the Danes that 
 supremacy was still further extended. In 924 
 the princes of Northumberland, Strathclyde, 
 and Scotland submitted to Edward the Elder. 
 In 945 the kingdom of Strathclyde was con- 
 quered, but Galloway and Cumberland were 
 granted to the Scottish king. Similarly, Lo- 
 thian was granted to the Scottish king, either 
 by Edgar or Canute. In 1092 William II. 
 took Cumberland, and from that time the 
 boundaries between 'England and Scotland 
 were the Solway, the Cheviot Hills, and the 
 Eiver Tweed. At the time of the Norman 
 Conquest, Scotland hecame the refuge of 
 many of the English, and Lothian remained 
 the most purely English part of the two 
 kingdoms. WiUiam I., finding it difficult to 
 keep his hold on the northern part of Eng- 
 land, resorted in 1069 to the savage measure 
 of ravaging Northumberland. The northern 
 counties were laid waste, and the subsequent 
 inroads of the Scottish king completed the 
 work of devastation. The northern counties are 
 omitted in the Domesday Survey, probably 
 because they were not considered worth the 
 trouble of examining. The disputes between 
 England and Scotland exposed the Borders to 
 perpetual ravages. But attempts were made to 
 
Bor 
 
 { 175 
 
 Bor 
 
 introduce order, and the thirteenth century 
 saw Cumberland and Northumberland toler- 
 ably prosperous in agricultural pursuits. It 
 is probable that the necessities of constant 
 defence enabled the men of the Borders to 
 retain many of the old English customs more 
 definitely than was the case elsewhere. The 
 township organisation was not superseded by 
 the manor, and traces of its existence till 
 recent times are frequent. In 1249 an at- 
 tempt was made to promote peace on the 
 Borders by the issue of Border laws, which 
 were determined by an inquest of twelve 
 English and twelve Scottish knights. They 
 related to the trial of malefactors who fled 
 across the Borders, and the redress of griev- 
 ances amongst the Borderers themselves. 
 They recognised courts to he held on the 
 marches, at which English and Scots were 
 to meet and try their respective criminals. 
 Peace and prosperity were, however, destroyed 
 by the Scottish wars of Edward I. From 
 that time England and Scotland stood in 
 avowed hostility, and a perpetual warfare 
 was waged on the Borders of the two king- 
 doms. The land was divided into three 
 marches, the Eastern, the Western, and the 
 Middle, and over each was set a Warden to 
 provide for its defence. The chief military 
 road was along the east coast, from Newcastle 
 through Berwick or Coldstream, and along 
 this the chief battles between English an 1 
 Scots were fought. But the passes by the 
 valley which runs from the Cheviots were 
 mostly used for the incessant plundering raids 
 that marked Border life. Along the valleys 
 of the Jed, the Teviot, the Coquet, the Tyne, 
 and the Rede freebooters from both countries 
 were perp'etually ravaging. The state of life 
 along the Borders is sufficiently seen in the 
 aspect of the country. It is rich in ruined 
 castles, vast fortified piles in strong positions, 
 dating in their main parts from the fourteenth 
 century. Besides these are ruins of monastic 
 buildings (those along the Tweed being es- 
 pecially famous) which were the sole abodes 
 of peace, yet even they bear traces of careful 
 fortification, and were generally under the 
 shelter of a neighbouring castle. The only 
 other buildings of any antiquity are low 
 square towers, ca.Tleipeil towers, which sufficed 
 as shelter against a sudden raid of robbers. 
 They probably stood in an enclosure, which 
 contained the cattle hastily driven away. 
 Some of the older churches have towers of 
 the same kind, which were used for defence. 
 The dwellings of the people were mere hovels, 
 and their possessions were nothing but arms 
 and cattle. Of Border frays, the battle of 
 Otterbum (1388) is the most famous, and 
 has passed into legend under the name of 
 " Chevy Chase." The great families on the 
 Borders grew to be important men. The 
 Percies, Greys, Dacres, and Umphravilles are 
 famous in English history; and the Douglases, 
 Hepburns, Lindsays, and Durbans are no less 
 
 famous in the history of Scotland. Moreover, 
 famihes of freebooters formed themselves 
 mto powerful clans, and waged hereditary 
 feuds amongst themselves— the Armstrongs, 
 Elliots, Oharltons, and the like. After the 
 battle of Flodden Field (1513) Scotland was 
 greatly weakened, and Henry VIII. made 
 use of the robber warfare along the Borders 
 as a means of stiU further reducing the Scot- 
 tish power. The records of plunder and 
 bloodshed which have been preserved show 
 almost incredible barbaiity. The result of 
 this long-continued warfare was an entire 
 lawlessness among the Borderers : they re- 
 gai-ded plunder as their trade, and bloodshed 
 as an episode in their life. "When peace was 
 made between England and Scotland in 1549, 
 it became an object of importance for both 
 countries to bring their borders into order. 
 Regulations were made for that purpose ; but 
 they could not be enforced. A watch was 
 set _along the English borders ; each hamlet 
 sent its men to keep guard by night, and the 
 news of a Scottish inroad was flashed by 
 h.'acon light from place to place. The 
 Wardens' Courts were regularly held, and 
 the balance of bloodshed and rapine was ad- 
 justed between the two countries. But how 
 difficult it was to keep the peace was shown 
 in 1575, when, at a Wardens' Court held at 
 Redeguise, some disagreement led to an ap- 
 peal to arms, and the English Warden was 
 carried away prisoner. This occurrence 
 threatened to lead to a breach between the 
 two countries, and gave rise to long negotia- 
 tions. The carefulness of Elizabeth's govern- 
 ment is nowhere seen more clearly than in 
 the steady attempt to introduce order into 
 the English Border. The union of the 
 crowns of England and Scotland in the person 
 of James I. increased the general desire to 
 pacify the Border. There was no longer war 
 between England and Scotland; but theft 
 and murder had become hereditary. The 
 dwellers of one valley were the imme- 
 morial foes of those in another. It was 
 necessary to root out bloodfeuds and robbery 
 by strict justice, and Lord William Howard, 
 known as " Belted Will," did much to make 
 the law respected. The rudiments of civilisa- 
 tion had to be introduced, and the bad habits 
 of the past were slow in dying away. Redes- 
 dale, Tynedale, Liddesdale, and Teviotdale 
 were wild and lawless places, and retained 
 traces of their old characteristics up to 
 the beginning of the present century. Now 
 there are no more orderly people than 
 those of the Borders, and nowhere is agri- 
 cultural enterprise and prosperity more 
 marked. 
 
 Bishop Nicholaon, Leges Marchiarum; Eedpatli, 
 Border Histori/ ; Burn and Nicholson, Histor]/ of 
 Cumberland ; Hodgson, History of Northwmher- 
 land; Sir W. Scott, Border Antiquities; Baine, 
 Hilary of North Durham. [M. C] 
 
 Borh.. [Frankpledge.] 
 
Bor 
 
 ( 176 ) 
 
 Bos 
 
 Born, BERTaAND de {d. 1200), one of the 
 moat famous troubadours, played au important 
 part in the quarrels between Henry II. and 
 his sons. He took up the cause of Eleanor 
 of G-uienne, and subsequently joined the Poi- 
 tevin rebellion against Richard, inciting by 
 his verses the young Prince Henry against 
 his father. Taken prisoner at Limoges, he 
 was set at liberty by Henry II., and even- 
 tually ended his days in the monastery of 
 Citeaux. 
 
 Boroilghbridge, The Battle op (1322), 
 during- the barons revolt in Edward II.'s 
 reign, was fought between the royalists under 
 the command of the king and Sir Andrew 
 Harolay, and the baronial forces headed by 
 the Earls of Lancaster and Hereford. The 
 barons were totally routed, the Earl of Here- 
 ford slain, and the Earl of Lancaster taken 
 prisoner and subsequently executed at Ponte- 
 fract. 
 
 Boroug'h-Bnglish was the name given 
 in, England to a not unusual custom in certain 
 manors " that lands shall descend to the 
 youngest son, or, in default of issue, to the 
 younger brother of the owner." Certain 
 analogous extensions of the custom which, 
 for example, gives rights of succession to the 
 youngest daughter or sister, though not 
 strictly included in the recognised custom of 
 borougb-EngUsh, may be roughly grouped 
 with it under such a term as " ultimogeni- 
 ture " (suggested by the Heal Property Com- 
 missioners), " junior-right," or "juniority" 
 (Elton). The foreign "Droit de Mainete," 
 " Juveignerie," and "Jiingsten Eecht," are 
 closely analogous to borough- English. Con- 
 cerning its origin we can only guess. The theory 
 of the old lawyers that the youngest was natu- 
 rally the weakest and wanted most attention, 
 is obviously inadequate to explain it. Neither 
 does Sir Henry Maine's view — that it sprang 
 frpm^ the " patria potestas," and the youngest 
 son inherited because the least likely to have 
 forfeited his rights by emancipation — wholly 
 cover the ground. Mr. Elton, while admit- 
 ting that the problem is difficult, perhaps in- 
 soluble, suggests the theory that the custom 
 is a survival of very early times, perhaps pre- 
 Aryan, certainly before Celt, Teuton, and 
 Slav had branched off from their common 
 parent stock. Just as primogeniture sprang 
 from the Aryan domestic worship which it 
 was the special function of the eldest to con- 
 duct,' so "ultimogeniture" may be a sur- 
 vival of ancestor-worship in a race that saw 
 no pre-eminence in the eldest. The wide- 
 spread nature of the custom— and some more 
 direct evidence— supports this view. We read 
 of it in England so far back as Glanvil's time, 
 and by its modern name in the Year-book of 
 the First of Edward I. It occurs especially 
 m the south-east of England, Kent, Surrey, 
 and Sussex, and the environs of London, and 
 less so in the eastern counties. It is also 
 
 very common in Somerset, but rare in the 
 Midlands, and unknown north of the Humber. 
 A very early form of the custom appears in 
 the Welsh laws of the tenth century, and 
 also in Brittany and other Celtic districts. It 
 was also very common in North Prance, 
 Friesland, Westphalia, and, recently, in South 
 Bussia. 
 
 Elton, Origms of Unglisli History, chap, viii., 
 with the authorities there quoted, especially 
 Corner, Borough-English m fa-ussea; ; Ancient 
 Laws tmd Institutes of Wales (KoUs Series), Cod. 
 ' iyim.y ii. 23, and Cod. Vanad., ii. 12, 16. 
 
 [T. ¥. T.] 
 
 Boroughs. [Towns.] 
 
 Boscawen, Edwakd (J. 1711, d. 1761), 
 first distinguished himself at the attack on 
 Porto Bello in 1740. He was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of an expedition to the East 
 Indies. (1747). In 1765 Boscawen received 
 the thanis of Parliament for the capture of 
 two French ships, and became vice-admiral, 
 and in the following year admiral. In that 
 year he commanded the expedition to Cape 
 Breton Island, and took the townof Louisburg. 
 In the following year he defeated the French 
 fleet in Lagos Bay, and received the thanks 
 of Parliament. In 1760 he was sworn of the 
 Privy Council. Boscawen's career was brief, 
 but he was not the least remarkable of the 
 naval heroes who won such triumphs on the 
 sea during the closing period of George II.'s 
 reign. His personal courage was brilliantly 
 displayed in every engagement. 
 
 Boscobel, in Shropshire, the house of 
 Mr. John Giffard, was the hiding-place of 
 Charles II. after the battle of Worcester 
 in 1651. The fugitive king was committed 
 by Lord Derby to the charge of some wood- 
 cutters named PendereU. Here he remained 
 in concealment for some days, and at one 
 time it was even thought necessary that 
 he should pass some time in an oak-tree in 
 the Boscobel woods, so hot had the pursuit 
 become. The king eventually eflfected his 
 escape. From his hiding in the oak, the 
 fashion of wearing oak-leaves on the day of 
 the Restoration (May 29) originated. 
 
 Boston, in Lincolnshire, is said in the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to have been founded 
 by St. Botolph. It rose to great importance 
 in the twelfth century, and was one oi the 
 chief ports in the kingdom. Edward III. 
 made it one of the wool staples, and its 
 prosperity continued till the early part of the 
 sixteenth century, from which time it gradu- 
 ally declined. 
 
 Boston, in Massachusetts, was settled in 
 1630 by John Winthrop, most of the earliest 
 colonists coming from Lincolnshire. During 
 the Great Rebellion the settlers sided with 
 the Parliament, and even received two of the 
 regicides with rejoicing in 1660. The town 
 was on bad terms with the royal government 
 all through the latter half of the seventeenth. 
 
Bos 
 
 ( 177) 
 
 Bot 
 
 century, and in 1689 a retelliou broke out, 
 and tlie governor, Sir Edmund Andres, was 
 compelled to quit the country. The Boston 
 people ■warmly supported the revolution of 
 1688. The town increased greatly in wealth 
 and consequence, and was noted for the stern 
 Puritanism of its inhabitants, and their sturdy 
 spirit of independence. Boston took the lead 
 in resisting the attempt of the English govern- 
 ment to apply its revenue system to the 
 Colonies. On March 5th, 1770, the riot 
 known as " the Boston Massacre " took place, 
 and in Dec, 1773, the attack on the tea ships 
 was made in Boston harbour. For a time the 
 trade of the town was nearly ruined by the 
 Boston Port Bill (q.v.), and a large number of 
 English troops were sent to garrison the port. 
 The town was surrounded(1775) by anAmerican 
 force, between whom and the British the battle 
 of Bunker Hill was fought, June 17. The 
 British abandoned the place in March, 1776. 
 After the war Boston became one of the chief 
 cities in the United States, and the centre of 
 art, literature, and education. During the 
 quarter of a century preceding 1860, Boston 
 was the head-quarters of the movement for 
 the abolition of negro slavery. 
 
 Boston Port Bill, The (1774), is im- 
 portant as being one of the immediate causes 
 of the outbreak of the American War of 
 Independence. In the year 1773, in order to 
 find a market for the accumulated stores of 
 the East India Company, Lord North with- 
 drew the whole of the duty payable in Eng- 
 land on any teas exported to America by the 
 Company. The teas, however, were still 
 subject to a colonial tax of threepence on the 
 pound. On Dec. 16, 1773, the people of 
 Boston, excited by the speeches of Samuel 
 Adams and others, proceeded to the wharf 
 where three tea ships lay, and threw their 
 cargoes, valued at £18,000, into the water. 
 Popular indignation was aroused throughout 
 England by this act, and it was resolved 
 to make an example of the little port. On 
 March 14, 1774, Lord North brought in the 
 Boston Port Bill. The preamble set forth 
 that in the present condition of Boston, the 
 commerce of his Majesty's subjects could 
 not be safely carried on, nor the customs 
 be duly collected there ; and it was therefore 
 proposed that from and after the 1st of June 
 it should not be lawful for any person to lade 
 or unlade, to ship or unship, any goods within 
 the harbour. The king in Council was to 
 have the power, when peace and order should 
 be established at Boston, and full compensa- 
 tion paid for the teas destroyed, to restore the 
 town to its former position. Some opposition 
 ■was offered to the measure by Dowdeswell, 
 Burke, and Charles Fox, but on the whole 
 it was approved both by Parliament and the 
 country. The BiU, accompanied as it was 
 by the Massachusetts Government Bill, was 
 received with great indignation in America. 
 
 The 1st of June— the day appointed for the 
 Boston Port Bill to come into force — was set 
 apart as a solemn fast, On the meeting of 
 the Massachusetts Assembly, General Gage 
 found the spirit of resistance so imanimous 
 among the delegates that he felt compelled 
 to dissolve it immediately. 
 
 ParliammtoA-ii Hist,, xyii. ; Chatham Correnpon- 
 
 deuce ; Bancroft, Hist. ofAmenca,; Malion, Hist. 
 
 ofEtig., vi. 51. 
 
 Bosworth, Field, The Battle of (Aug. 
 21, 1485), was fought between Eichard III. 
 and Henry, Earl of Richmond, afterwards 
 Henry VII. On August 1, Henry landed at 
 Milford Haven and passed on without opposi- 
 tion to Shrewsbury, being joined by a large 
 number of Welshmen. He then marched on 
 to Tamworth, where he arrived on the 18th. 
 On the 20th he was at Atherstone, where he 
 was met by Lord Stanley and his uncle. Sir 
 WiUiam Stanley, who promised to desert 
 Richard during the battle. Meanwhile 
 Richard, ha'viug mustered his forces at Not- 
 tingham, marched to Leicester and encamped 
 at Bosworth on the 21st. On the next morn- 
 ing the two armies met between Bosworth 
 and Atherstone at a place known as White- 
 moors, near the village of Sutton Cheneys. 
 The battle was mainly a hand-to-hand en- 
 counter, the Stanleys for some time keeping 
 aloof from the fight till, at a critical moment, 
 they joined Richmond. Eichard, percei^Tug 
 that he was betrayed, and crying out, " Trea- 
 son, treason!" endeavoured only to sell his 
 life as dearly as possible, and refused to leave 
 the field till, overpowered by numbers, he fell 
 dead in the midst of his enemies. The 
 crown was picked up on the field of battle 
 and placed by Sir William Stanley on the 
 head of Richmond, who was at once saluted 
 king by the whole army. Among those that 
 perished on Richard's side were the Duke of 
 Norfolk, Lord Ferrers, Sir Eichard Eatclifile, 
 and Sir Robert Brackenbury, while the only 
 person of note in Henrj^'s army who was 
 slain was his standard-bearer, Sir WiUiam 
 Brandon, who is said to have been killed by 
 Eichard himself. 
 
 Continuator of the Croyland Chron., 574; 
 Hall, Chroniole, 418 ; J, (Jairdner, Eichard III. 
 
 B6t ■was a word which signified amends, re- 
 paration, either in the simple sense, as burh bot 
 
 i.e., repair of fortresses — or more often in the 
 
 sense of money compensation for wrongdoing. 
 In the earlier laws of the various Teutonic 
 tribes, most offences are regarded as in- 
 volving a breach of the general peace, and as 
 putting the offender in outlawry and at fend 
 with the community, till at any rate he has 
 come to terms with the injured party ; some 
 less grave offences regarded as merely 
 wrongs to the individual have a fixed com- 
 position attached to them; while in some 
 cases is seen the idea of crime as demanding 
 punishment. It is indisputable that these 
 
Bot 
 
 ( 178 ) 
 
 Bot 
 
 conceptions belong to very different stages of 
 thought, and respectively succeed each other. 
 Any ofience, it is clear, originally put the 
 offender at feud with all, and exposed him to 
 his victim's vengeance. The right of ven- 
 geance then became limited by the growth of 
 fixed compositions. And lastly, in the most 
 developed codes, the idea of punishment 
 has intruded upon the region of composi- 
 tion payments. In the code of Alfred, 
 a discrimination is made, and in ordinary 
 cases homicides paid for according to 
 the wergild of the slaio, while in ex- 
 traordinary cases, such as wilful murder of a 
 lord, the crime is to be punished by death. 
 The bdt, then, or money payment, represents 
 the view of a misdeed which regards it as so 
 much damage to the individual, reparable by 
 payment at a fixed tariff. For less grave 
 offences the amends must, by Anglo-Saxon 
 law, be accepted. In graver offences only, if 
 the amends be not paid or be unsatisfactory 
 to the party injured, does he re-enter on his 
 right of feud, under certain legal limitations. 
 These two are the " bdt-worthy " class of 
 offences. And even in the " bot-less " offences, 
 the king can at pleasure accept an amends in 
 money for them ; for instance, the perjurer is 
 to have his hand cut off, but the king can 
 aUow him to redeem it at half his wergild. 
 In case of treason against a lord, Alfred 
 says " the king and his witan dare not grant 
 mercy." The relation of the " b6t " to the 
 " wite " is very irregular, and indeed inexplic- 
 able. The amount of the bot itself is equally 
 perplexing ; 6s. is the amends for knocking out 
 a front tooth, only 3s. for breaking a rib ; 6s. 
 for breaking the arm, but lis. for destroying 
 the little finger, and 20s. for cutting off the 
 beard. On the whole it appears that the pay- 
 ment was on an estimate of the part affected, 
 and its value or appearance, the degree of the 
 affront, and the social position of the injured 
 paity, or even that of the offender. The 
 chief peculiarities of this Anglo-Saxon system 
 compared with that of other Teutonic tribes 
 are — (i.) the strict maintenance of rights of 
 private property by severe treatment of theft 
 and stringent enactments to secure bail ; (ii.) 
 the great attention paid to the privileges of 
 the Church and the enforcement of its pre- 
 cepts ; (iii.) the rapid growth of the kingly 
 power and its recognition as the source of 
 justice. There are many minute variations be- 
 tween West-Saxon and Anglian law as to the 
 ratios of the payments of bdt. 
 
 Wilda, Das Strafrecht der Bermanm ; K. von 
 Maurer, in Kritische Uebmc/iau, vol. iii. (the 
 best model n treatise on the subject) ; Schmidt 
 Gesetze del- Angelmchsmt ; Thorpe, Aiwimt Lam 
 and Insirt'utes; Sharon Turner, Hist, of the 
 Anqlo-Saxmis, vol. iii., Appendix T; Kemble, 
 ?^??iV f**?"^ *" Anglo-Hmon Law, Boston, 
 18/B (the best short account m English) 
 
 [A. L. S.] 
 
 Bothwell, Francis Stewart, 2nd Eahl 
 OF, the son of John Stewart, Prior of 
 
 Coldingham (an illegitimate son of James 
 v.), and Lady Jane Hepburn, sister of the 
 first Earl of Bothwell, was a favourite of 
 James VI., by whom he was created Earl 
 of Bothwell, 1587. His life was a series 
 of rebellions against the king, whom he 
 attempted to seize at Holyrood, 1592 — an at- 
 tempt which was frustrated by the citizens of 
 Edinburgh. The same year he made another 
 unsuccessful attack on the kiug at Falkland ; 
 and in 1593 suddenly appeared at Holyrood, 
 at the head of an armed band, to ask pardon, 
 as he said, for his treason. In 1 594 he again 
 attacked Edinburgh, being only beaten off by 
 the citizens; but from this time his power 
 was broken, and he was forced to quit the 
 country. 
 
 Bothwell, James Hepeukjt, 4th Earl or 
 (i. 1536, d. 1578), was Lord Warden of the 
 Scotch Marches, as well as Lord High Ad- 
 miral of Scotland, in which capacities he is 
 said to have acted more as a marauder and a 
 pirate than as an officer of state. In 1558 he 
 was one of the Lords of the Articles ; and in 
 the following year distinguished himself as a 
 partisan of the queen regent, and an opponent 
 of Arran and the reforming lords. He was 
 one of the nobles sent to Mary in France 
 after the death of her husband; and in 1561 
 was made a member of the Privy Council. 
 He was, however, in constant difficulties, 
 owing to his turbulence and violence. In 
 1562 he was impeached for having plotted 
 to carry off the queen, and outlawed ; but in 
 a few months he returned, and married Lady 
 Jane Gordon, a, sister of Lord Huntley, and 
 about the same time began to find favour in 
 the eyes of Queen Mary. Prom this time his 
 life becomes closely associated with that of 
 the queen. After Eizzio's murder, Mary fled 
 to Dunbar Castle, of which Bothwell had the 
 custody ; and subsequently he returned with 
 her to Edinburgh. In October, 1566, he re- 
 ceived a visit from her when lying wounded 
 in his castle of Hermitage ; and after he had 
 compassed the murder of Damley, 1667, he 
 was in constant attendance on Marj- at Seton. 
 An attempt on the part of Lennox to bring 
 the murderer of his son to justice ended in 
 Bothwell's acquittal, owing to the non-ap- 
 pearance of the accuser, and brought him 
 fresh proofs of the queen's regard in the 
 shape of large grants of land. In 1567 he 
 carried off Mary as she was going from 
 Stirling to Edinburgh, probably with her 
 own connivance, and, having obtained a. 
 divorce from his wife, married the queen. 
 May 15, 1567. Shortly afterwards a com- 
 bination of the leading barons of Scotland 
 forced Bothwell, who previous to his marriage 
 had been made Duke of Orkney and Shet- 
 land, to fly to Borthwick Castle, and thence 
 to Dunbar. On the queen's surrender to 
 Kirkcaldy, after the conference at Carberry 
 HiU, Bothwell had to escape as best he could 
 
Bot 
 
 (179) 
 
 Bon 
 
 to the Orkneys. Pursued thither, and driven 
 to sea, he was arrested by a Danish war-ship 
 ofE the coast of Norway, on suspicion of 
 piracy, and conveyed to Denmark. There he 
 was imprisoned by Christian IX., first at 
 Malmoe (1567 — 1573), then at Dragsholm 
 (1573—1578) ; but the king refused the de- 
 mands of the Scottish government for his 
 extradition or execution. The so-called 
 "Testament" he is said to have drawn up 
 during this period, is probably a forgery. 
 UothweU was, as Randolph said of him, 
 " despiteful out of measure, false and untrue 
 as a devil;'' and it is not the least extra- 
 ordinary feature in Mary's career that she 
 should have conceived any affection for this 
 brutal, ferocious, and unscrupulous border 
 chief. 
 
 P. E. ScMem, life o/ BothweU ; trans, "by 
 D. Berry, 1880. 
 
 Botbwell Bridge, The Battle of (June 
 22, 1679), was fought between the EoyaUst 
 troops, commanded by the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth, and the forces of the revolted Con- 
 ventiolers, or Covenanters. The insurgents 
 occupied a strong position, with the Clyde 
 between them and the enemy ; but, as they 
 attempted to defend instead of destroying a 
 bridge, Monmouth cleared the passage of the 
 river by his artillery. The insurgents were 
 forced to retire to a hill near by, known as 
 Hamilton Heath, where they were attacked 
 by the Eoyal troops and completely routed. 
 Bothwell Bridge is in Lanarkshire, near 
 Hamilton. 
 
 Bottle Plot, The (1823). This name 
 was given by Canning to a riot in a Dublin 
 theatre, got up by the Orangemen, when 
 a rattle and a bottle were thrown into 
 the box of Lord "Wellesley, the then Lord- 
 Lieutenant, who was supposed to favour the 
 Catholics. The grand jury threw out the 
 bin for conspiracy with intent to murder 
 which was brought in against those arrested. 
 
 Boulogne, Captuke of (1544). This 
 event, the one important result of the com- 
 b nation of Henry VIII. and Charles V. 
 for the subjugation of France in 1544, took 
 place September 14, 1544, after a pro- 
 tracted siege of nearly two months. Accord- 
 ing to the original plan of the campaign, 
 Charles was to strike across France by Cham- 
 pagne, Henry by Picardy, and neither Was 
 to stop till he reached Paris, where, in their 
 united might, they were to dispose of 
 the French monarchy. The first thing, 
 however, that Henry did was to sit down 
 with the bulk of his army before Boulogne; 
 and when Charles reproached him for not 
 adhering to the method of invasion deter- 
 mined upon between them, Henry retaliated 
 by accusing Charles of a similar breach of 
 their contract. The siege of Boulogne is 
 principally memorable for the length of the 
 
 resistance made by the garrison under the 
 disadvantageous circumstances of weak for- 
 tifications, and besiegers strong in numbers 
 and ofEensive engines. So great, indeed, was 
 the gallantry displaj'ed on this occasion by 
 the men of Boulogne, that when the faU 
 of the town was clearly an event of a few 
 days only, they were allowed, on the capitu- 
 lation of the town, to march out with their 
 arms and property; whereupon, according 
 to Hall's Chronicle, "the king's highness, 
 having the sword borne naked before him by 
 the Lord Marquis Dorset, like a noble and 
 valiant conqueror, rode into the town, and all 
 the trumpeters, standing on the walls of the 
 town, sounded their trumpets at the time of 
 his entering, to the great comfort of all the 
 king's true subjects." The town remained 
 in the hands of the English tiU 1550, and 
 was restored to the French on the conclusion 
 of peace. 
 
 Boulter, Hugh (J. 1671, d. 1742), Arch- 
 bishop of Armagh, studied at Merchant 
 Taylors' School, and was elected a demy 
 of Magdalen at the same time as Addison. 
 He was subsequently chaplain to Sir Charles 
 Hedges, and rector of St. Olave's, Southwark. 
 In 1719 he was consecrated Bishop of Bristol, 
 and in 1724 elevated to the archbishopric of 
 Armagh and the Irish primacy. He took an 
 active share in the political affairs of Ireland, 
 was strongly opposed to Swift on the policy of 
 diminishing the gold coin, though he con- 
 curred with him on the question of Wood's 
 patent, and was one of the chief promoters of 
 the system of Protestant Charter Schools. He 
 founded many charities in Armagh, Drogheda, 
 and elsewhere, and was no less than tliurteeu 
 times appointed one of the Lords Justices of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Bi^grapliia BHtannica. 
 
 Bonnty, Queen Anne's. [Queen Anne's 
 Bounty.] 
 
 Bourchier, Family of. The founder 
 of this family was Sir John de Bourchier, 
 Justice of the King's Bench in the reign of 
 Edward II. His son Robert became Lord 
 Chancellor in 1340 (the first layman who 
 held the oflice), was summoned to Parlia- 
 ment as a baron in 1342, and died 1349. 
 The barony devolved on Henry Bourchier, 
 Count of Eu, grandson of his younger son. 
 He was created Earl ol-Essex 1461, and was 
 succeeded by his grandson Henry, upon whose 
 death the peerage became extinct. 
 
 Bourchier, Thomas {d. 1486), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury (1454 — 1486), was the 
 son of WilUam Bourchier, Count of Eu, by 
 Anne, daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, 
 Duke of Gloucester. After holding minor 
 preferments, he was elected Bishop of Wor- 
 cester in 1435, and was translated to Ely in 
 1443. On the death of Archbishop Kempe, 
 
Boa 
 
 (180) 
 
 Boy 
 
 the Council, at the request of the Commons 
 prayed that the Pope would confer the 
 primacy on Bourchier. Accordingly, he was 
 appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1454. 
 In 1455 he was made Chancellor, and held 
 the Great Seal for eighteen months, both 
 Yorkists and Lancastrians being anxious 
 to conciliate a member of so powerful a 
 family. Bourchier was at first inclined to 
 act as a mediator between the contending 
 factions, but subsequently became a distinct 
 partisan of the Duke of York. He welcomed 
 the return of the Yorkist leaders in 1460, and 
 crowned Edward IT. in the next year. In 
 1464 he was made a, cardinal. He crowned 
 Eichard III., and two years after performed 
 the same office for Henry VII. He was a 
 patron of learning, and instrumental in 
 introducing printing into England, and left 
 a reputation for personal generosity and 
 kindness. 
 
 Hook, Lives of the Archbishops, 
 
 Bouvines, The Battle of (July, 1214), 
 was fought at a small town between Lille and 
 Tournay, between Philip Augustus of France 
 and the forces of the Emperor Otto IV. , with the 
 Flemings and some English auxiliaries, under 
 "William, Earl of Salisbury. John had joined 
 the alliance for the purpose of gaining the 
 assistance of the Germans and Flanders in 
 the war he was carrying on with Philip for 
 the recovery of his French territories. The 
 battle (in which the forces engaged on both 
 sides would appear to have been very large) 
 terminated in a signal victory for the French. 
 The defeat consummated the separation of 
 Normandy from England, and by depriving 
 John of further hopes of being able to rely on 
 his Continental dominions, as well as by the 
 loss of prestige it occasioned him, had some 
 effect in compeUing him to submit to the 
 demands of the barons. The battle is memor- 
 able as being one of the few occasions in 
 which men of English, High-German, and 
 Low-German race have fought side by side 
 against the French and have been completely 
 defeated. 
 
 Eoger of WendoTer, iii. 287 (Eng. Hist. See). 
 See Freemm, Worm. Cong., v. 706, who speaks of it 
 as "that day of darkness and gloom wiiea tkree 
 branches of the Teutonic race, the German, the 
 Fleming, and the Enghshman, sank before' the 
 arms of men of the hostile blood and speech." 
 In Sismondi, Hist, dcs Fram^ais, vi. 424, a some- 
 what different view is taken. 
 
 Bo-wes, Sir Robert, was a distinguished 
 soldier, diplomatist, and lawyer in the reigns 
 of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Mary. In 
 the great Northern rebellion of 1536, he was 
 among the prisoners captured at the surrender 
 of Hull to the rebel forces. In 1542, whilst 
 in command of a body of 3,000 cavalry, he 
 was defeated and taken prisoner at Halydon- 
 "gg by a Scottish force under, the Earl of 
 Huntley; and on the termination of hostili- 
 ties between the two countries, became 
 Warden of the East and Middle Marches. 
 
 During the exercise of this office he compiled 
 his Informations on the state of the Marches, 
 and their laws and customs — a work full of 
 curious and interesting details. In June, 
 1552, he was made Master of the Rolls, 
 a position which just then was environed 
 with dangers. As Master of the Rolls, Sir 
 Robert Bowes was one of the witnesses to 
 the wiU of King Edward VI., which fixed the 
 succession to the crown on Lady Jane Grey. 
 He retired from his oifice two months after 
 Mary's accession to the throne, and during 
 the remainder of his life he occupied himself 
 with his old duties on the Scottish border. 
 The precise year of his death is uncertain. 
 
 Boycotting^ was the name applied to the 
 system of social and commercial ostracism 
 which was extensively resorted to in Ireland 
 during the laud agitation of 1880 and 1881. 
 Landlords who were disliked by their tenants, 
 tenants who had paid rents to unpopular 
 landlords, and other persons who incurred 
 the hostility of the local branches of the Land 
 League, were rigidly isolated. No intercourse 
 was held with them, and no one could be got 
 to work for them, or even to supply them 
 with the necessaries of life. 
 
 The name was derived from Captain Boycott, 
 of Longh Mask House, a Mayo landlord and 
 agent, one of the first against whom the process 
 was put in force. Capt. Boycott was *' relieved" 
 by a number of Orangemen, escorted by a large 
 military and police force, Nov. 11, 1880. 
 
 Boyle, Charles, 1st Loud (4. 1676, d. 
 1731), second son of Roger, Earl of Orrery, 
 while an undergraduate at Oxford, took part 
 in the controversy with Bentley on the letters 
 of Phalaris. In 1700 he entered Parliament 
 as member for Huntingdon, and in 1703 
 succeeded to the Irish peerage of Orrery. In 
 1709 he fought at Malplaquet, and in 1713 
 was Envoy Extraordinary to the States of 
 Brabant and Flanders, and on his return 
 received an English peerage. He was a 
 favourite of George I., but in 1722 was com- 
 mitted to the Tower on a charge of being 
 concerned in Layer's Plot, of which, how- 
 ever, he was acquitted. His later years were 
 devoted to philosophical studies. 
 
 Boyne, The Battle op the (July 1, 1690), 
 was fought between the troops of WUliam III. 
 and the Irish under James IP. James, march- 
 ing from Dubiiu, had taken up a position 
 behind the river Boyne, and there waited for 
 the invading army. His position was strong, 
 and Sohomberg endeavoured to dissuade 
 William from the attack. Early in the 
 morning, however, the English right, under 
 young Sohomberg, was sent to cross the 
 nver by the bridge of Slane, some miles 
 higher up, and thus turn the Irish right. 
 The bridge was captured. Four miles to 
 the south of the Boyne the road to Dublin 
 runs through the passage of Duleek. If 
 Sohomberg secured this pass the Irish re- 
 treat would be cut off. Langon, commander 
 
Boy 
 
 ( 181 ) 
 
 Brae 
 
 of the Frenoli allies, marched to oppose him. 
 Thus the Irish alone were left to withstand 
 "William. At the head of his left wing, con- 
 sisting entirely of cavalry, he forced the pas- 
 sage of the river not far above Drogheda. 
 The centre of his army was commanded by 
 the elder Schomberg. The Irish infantry fled 
 without a blow ; the cavalry under Eichard 
 Hamilton fought bravely on. The gallant 
 Schomberg fell while rallying his trobps. 
 But at this moment William came up with 
 his left wing, and the battle was won. The 
 Irish cavalry retreated slowly, fighting to 
 the last; their leader, Hamilton, was taken 
 prisoner. James fled early in the day towards 
 DubHn. The fugitives poured through the 
 passage of Duleek, where the French had 
 steadily resisted Meinhart Schomberg's attack. 
 Considering the great importance of the vic- 
 tory, the loss on either side was not great. 
 About 600 English had faUeu, and 1,500 
 Irish. 
 
 A striking and detailed aocotint of the battle 
 is given in Ilacanlay's Ristory. 
 
 Boy-Patriots was a name given by their 
 enemies to a body of young and rising men 
 who formed part of the Opposition to Sir 
 Eobert Walpole's administration, but who 
 coalesced neither with the Tories nor with 
 the malcontent Whigs. The chief members 
 of this party were Lyttleton, George Gren- 
 viUe, Lord Cobham, and, above all, WiUiam 
 Pitt. 
 
 Bracton, Henet {d. 1268), the writer of 
 a valuable commentary on the laws of Eng- 
 land, was educated at Oxford, and devoted 
 himseU to the study of law. In 1245 he was 
 appointed one of the judges errant, and later 
 on was one of the king's clerks or secretaries. 
 He is supposed to have become an eccle- 
 siastic towards the close of his life, and to 
 have been Archdeacon of Barnstaple. His 
 work, entitled De Legibus et Consuetudinibus 
 Anglue, is our great authority for mediiEval 
 English law. An excellent edition is pub- 
 hshed in the Rolls Series (1878, &c.), with 
 a Translation, Notes, Eeferences to GlanviUe, 
 &c., and Introductions by Sir Travers Twiss. 
 The editor suggests that " the immediate 
 object which Bracton had in view in com- 
 posing his work, was to draw up a manual of 
 the common law of England for the use and 
 instruction of the Justiciaries of the Eyre." 
 See Sir Travers Twias's Introductions; 
 
 Eeeves, Hist, of Eng, Law ; Giiterfcock, Henricus 
 
 de Bracton u-nd sein VerhMtniss zwm, Romiselen 
 
 Sechte, 1862. 
 
 Braddock Down, situated between 
 Liskeard and Bodmin, in Cornwall, was the 
 scene of a battle during the Civil War. Here, 
 oa Jan. 19, 1643, the Eoyalist officers. Sir 
 Ralph Hopton and Sir Bevil GrenviUe, coming 
 from Bodmin, encountered and defeated the 
 commander of the garrison .of Plymouth, 
 Euthven, who, without waiting for the sup- 
 
 port of his superior officer, the Earl of Stam- 
 ford, had crossed the Tamar and occupied 
 Liskeard. The result of the battle was that 
 the Gornishmen resumed the ofiensive, drove 
 back Stamford and his forces, and carried by 
 assault Saltash and Okehampton. 
 
 -niere is a, full account of the battle in a letter 
 of Sir Bevil Grenville, printed in Torater's Life 
 0/ Pym. .See also Clarendon's Eist. of the Re- 
 oeltioti, VI. 248. 
 
 Braddock, Genekal. [Duquesne, Port.] 
 
 Bradshaw, John («. 1602, d. 16.59), 
 was a barrister, but was very little known, 
 either as a lawyer or a politician, when, in 
 1648, he was made President of the High 
 Court of Justice, instituted to try Charles I. 
 The reason for his appointment seems to have 
 been the refusal of all the leading lawyers to 
 serve on the trial, and the necessity of having 
 some one possessed of legal knowledge as the 
 president. For his services he was given the 
 house of the Dean of Westminster, the sum 
 of £5,000, and large grants of land, and 
 made Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 He subsequently presided at the trials of 
 the Duke of Hamilton and other Eoyalists, 
 and was President of the Councils of State 
 from 1649 to 1C51. He was a member of the 
 Parliament of 1654, and was probably one of 
 those excluded for refusing to sign the en- 
 gagement recognising Cromwell's authority. 
 In 1659 he was made one of the Council of 
 State, and shortly afterwards a commissioner 
 of the Great Seal; but he died before the 
 end of the year. He was one of those who 
 were styled "stiff Republicans," or " Common- 
 wealth's men," and was sincerely opposed to 
 the government of one person, whether king 
 or protector ; but he does not appear to have 
 been a man of any marked ability. After the 
 Restoration his body was disinterred and 
 hung in chains at Tyburn. 
 
 Bradwardine, Thomas (S. circa 1290, d. 
 1349), a native of Chichester, educated at Mor- 
 ton College, Oxford, was one of the most cele- 
 brated of the scholastic philosophers, and was 
 known by the title of Doctor Profundus. He 
 became Chancellor of the university. Professor 
 of Divinity, and subsequently chaplain to 
 Edward III. In 1349 he was appointed to 
 the archbishopric of Canterbury, but within a 
 few weeks of his consecration he was carried 
 off by the Black Death. 
 
 Bradwardine's great work, De Causa Dei, was 
 
 printed in 1618 (Lend., folio). His otber works 
 
 were chiefly mathematical. 
 
 Braemar Gathering, The (Aug. 26, 
 1715), was the name given to the great 
 assembly of disaffected nobles and Highland 
 chiefs which met ostensibly for the purpose 
 of a hunting in the Earl of Mar's forest of 
 Braemar, but in reality to organise measures 
 for raising the standard of insurrection in 
 favour of the Pretender, which was done 
 soon afterwards (Sept. 6). Among those at 
 
Bra 
 
 ( 182 ) 
 
 Bre 
 
 the Braemar gathering were the Earl of Mar, 
 the Marquis oil Tullibardine, Lords Southesk, 
 Errol, Kilsyth, Kenmure, Strathallan, Sea- 
 forth, and Glengary. 
 
 Braintree Case, The. In 1837 the 
 majority of the vestry of Braintree postponed 
 a Church rate for twelve months ; the church- 
 wardens, however, proceeded to levy it on their 
 own authority. A prohibition of the Court 
 of Queen's Bench restrained them. It was 
 suggested, however, that the churchwardens 
 and the minority of the vestry might legally 
 levy a rate, as it might be argued that the 
 votes of the majority who refused to perform 
 their duty were not valid. The church- 
 wardens and the minority of the vestry 
 voted a rate accordingly (July, 1841). On 
 the matter being once more brought before 
 the Court of Queen's Bench, that tribunal 
 now declared the rate valid. The decision 
 was affirmed by the Court of Exchequer 
 Chamber, but upset on appeal by the House 
 of Lords, which pronounced the rate invalid, 
 and altogether denied the right of the minority 
 of the parishioners to levy it. It was such 
 cases as this that led to the Act 31 & 32 
 Vict., cap., 109, which abolished compulsory 
 Church rates, because "the levying thereof 
 has given rise to litigation and ill-feeling." 
 
 May, Const. Hist., ii. 430. See the case of 
 
 Gosling V. Veley in Queen's Bench Rep., vii. 409 ; 
 
 and Souse of Lords Cases, iv. 679. 
 
 Bramham Moor, The Battle oe (1408), 
 was fought between the Earl of Northumber- 
 land, and the other nobles who had revolted 
 against Henry IV., and the royal troops, 
 under Sir Thomas Eokeby. The latter were 
 completely victorious, Northumberland being 
 killed on the field, and his chief associate. 
 Lord Bardolf, mortally wounded. Bramham 
 Moor is in Yorkshire, between Leeds and 
 Tadcaster. 
 
 Brandsrwine, The Battle of (Sept. 11, 
 1777), in the American "War of Independence, 
 was fought on the shores of Brandywine 
 Creek, about fifty miles from Philadelphia, 
 and ended in the defeat of the Americans, 
 under Washington. General Howe had 
 landed 18,000 men near the Brandywine. 
 Washington had only 8,000 troops fit for 
 action. Eor some days he baffled General 
 Howe's attempts to drive him back. At 
 length the two armies encountered one 
 another. While Howe and Cornwallis made 
 a flank movement with the greater part of 
 their forces, Washington resolved on a bold 
 attack on the British in his front. To render 
 such an attack successful, the co-operation of 
 Sullivan was necessary. But that general, 
 nsing his own discretion instead of obeying 
 orders, laid himself open to an attack while 
 his troops were in confusion. The rout of 
 Sullivan's troops threw the rest of the 
 American army into confusion, and soon they 
 
 were everywhere in retreat. The American 
 loss -was set down by Howe at 300 killed, 
 600 wounded, and 400 prisoners, as against 
 90 killed and 500 wounded and missing on 
 the EngKsh side. Washington made good 
 his retreat ; but ho had to abandon the idea 
 of saving Philadelphia when he found that 
 Cornwallis had forced his way between his 
 camp and that town. 
 
 Bancroft, Hist, of the United States, v., 
 chap, xxili. 
 
 Brantingliaill Roll is the name given 
 to the Issue Roll of the Exchequer for the 
 forty-fourth year of Edward III., when 
 Thomas of Brantingham, Bishop of Exeter, 
 was Treasurer, containing an account of the 
 various payments made during the year. It 
 was discovered in the ofiice of Pells, and pub- 
 lished in 1835, -with a general introduction, 
 on the character of the Exchequer Records 
 by Mr. Frederick Devon. 
 
 Braose, William be {d. circa 1212), was 
 one of the most powerful barons in England, 
 and received from Henry II., in 1177, the 
 grant of the whole kingdom of Limerick. 
 He was one of the itinerant justices in 
 Eichard I. 's reign, hut fell out of favour with 
 John, who in 1210 stripped him of all his 
 possessions, and, it is said, starved his wife 
 and son to death in Windsor Castle. De 
 Braose himself escaped to France, where he 
 died shortly afterwards. His youngest son 
 Reginald received back a great part of his 
 father's possessions, but, dying without heirs 
 in 1229, the family became extinct. 
 !Foss, Judges of Bng. 
 
 Bray, Sir Reginald {d. 1503), was one 
 of Henry VII.'s most trusted counsellors. 
 Together with the Lord Treasurer he was 
 the king's messenger in 1485 to the city of 
 London to ask the citizens for a loan of 6,000 
 marks, obtaining, after much negotiation, the 
 considerably smaller sum of £2,000. He was 
 the object of special hatred to the Cornish 
 rebels of 1497 as being the instrument of 
 Henry's extortion. 
 
 Bread Riots (1816). The cessation of 
 the great war, which caused many farms to 
 he thrown out of cultivation, and the failure 
 of the harvest, occasioned severe distress 
 and riots in aU parts of England, especially 
 in the eastern counties. Declaring that the 
 farmers had conspired to raise the price of 
 bread, the moh set farm buildings on fire, 
 demanded that wheat should he sold cheap, 
 and in several places broke into the bakers' 
 shops. The riots were suppressed by military 
 force, and the rioters tried by a special com- 
 mission. There were also occasional riots 
 caused by famine during the Chartist move- 
 ment. 'The most dangerous were those of 
 1842, in Yorkshire and Lancashire. 
 
 Spencer Walpole, Hist, of Eng., i., chap. v. 
 
Bre 
 
 ( 183) 
 
 Bre 
 
 Breaute, Falkes de, was a Norman of 
 mean birth, who had served King John 
 with unscrupulous fidelity as a mercenary- 
 captain, and was in 1208 rewarded by him 
 with the sheriffdoms of Glamorgan and 
 Oxfordshire, the castles of ChUham, North- 
 ampton, Cambridge, Oxford, and Bedford, and 
 the hand of Margaret Eedvers, widow of 
 Baldwin, son of the Earl of Devon. On 
 John's death, it was judged advisable to con- 
 ciliate this soldier, who had taken Bedford 
 Castle, burnt the suburbs of London, and 
 terrorised over John's enemies in the neigh- 
 bouring counties. In return for his aid 
 to the royal cause against Louis and the 
 rebel barons, he obtained the sheriffdoms of 
 Eutland, Cambridge, Huntingdon, Bucking- 
 ham, Bedford, Oxford, Northampton, for seven 
 years. But from 1220 onwards the vigorous 
 work of Hubert de Burgh was putting an end 
 to the state of things in which such a man 
 could move freely. Convicted at the Dun- 
 stable Assizes in 1224 of thirty-five acts of 
 violence, he audaciously captured one of 
 the justices, and imprisoned him in Bedford 
 Castle, under the care of his brother, William 
 de Breaute, who refused to surrender it, say- 
 ing " he was no liegeman of the King of 
 England." The siege took two months, 
 " with great slaughter of the king's nobles ;" 
 and it required an elaborate siege-train. 
 The castle was taken and the garrison at 
 once hanged. Falkes, now under excom- 
 munication, had fled to North Wales, 
 the prince of which district married his 
 daughter Eva ; but he soon returned and sub- 
 mitted himself to the king's mercy. The 
 judgment of the barons was that he should 
 surrender all his goods and abjure the realm. 
 His wife, too, obtained a divorce on the ground 
 of constraint ; and on his first setting foot in 
 Normandy, only his crusading vow protected 
 him from being hanged by the French king. 
 He prevailed with Honorius LEI. to send a 
 strong letter of intercession to the king. 
 While on his way back to England, however, 
 he died in Normandy. Falkes de Breaute 
 was a typical example of the unscrupulous 
 foreign adventurers whom the early Angevin 
 kings introduced into England as able tools 
 of royal misgovemmeut. 
 
 Matttew Paris, Chrrmica Majora, sub anno 
 1224; AnnalsofWaverley,-p.300; Royal Letters ot 
 Henry III., i. 543 sag.; and especially Walter 
 of Coventry, ii. 253, 272 aeg. [A. L. S.] 
 
 Breda, The Declaration of (April 14, 
 1660), was the manifesto sent by Charles II. 
 to both houses of the Convention Parliament. 
 By this the king granted a free and general 
 pardon to all " who within forty days after 
 the publishing hereof shall lay hold upon 
 this our grace and favour, and shall by any 
 public act declare their doing so," except 
 such as Parliament should except. It also 
 granted amnesty for all political ofiences com- 
 mitted during the CivU War, and the subse- 
 
 quent interregnum ; promised that the king 
 would rely on the advice and assistance of a 
 free parhamont ; and declared a liberty to 
 tender consciences, so " that no man shall he 
 disquieted or called in question for differences 
 of opinion in matter of religion." The king 
 also undertook that no inquiry should be 
 made into the titles of lands acquired under 
 the Commonwealth, and that the arrears of 
 Monk's officers and soldiers should be paid. 
 Parliameatary Hist., iv. 17. 
 
 Breda, The Treaty op (July 31, 1667), 
 was concluded between England on the one 
 side, and France, Holland, and Denmark on 
 the other. It was entered into after a naval 
 war between England and Holland, in which 
 the victories had been pretty evenly distri- 
 buted. France had joined the Dutch, fearing 
 that England would make herself supreme on 
 the seas, but she had not taken much share 
 in the war, her policy being to use the two 
 great naval powers as checks one upon the 
 other. The following were the terms of the 
 Treaty of Breda :— 1. The islands of St. 
 Christopher, Antigua, and Montserrat were 
 restored to England, and the province of 
 Acadia (Nova Scotia) to France. 2. England 
 and HoUand made peace on the principle of 
 uti possidetis; thus England retained New 
 York and New Jersey, and Holland retained 
 Surinam. 3. The Navigation Act was 
 modified in favour of the Dutch. 4. Friendly 
 relations were restored between England and 
 Denmark. 
 
 Kooli and Schoell, Hist, ies Traitts, i. 300. 
 Brehon, or, more correctly, Bkethom, in 
 Erse signifies a judge. From the earliest days 
 of Irish history of which we have any trace, 
 this class seems to have been a distinctly re- 
 cognised one, and previous to the conversion 
 of the Irish to Christianity we have proof that 
 the office had become hereditary. In fact, there 
 seems strong reason for connecting the Brehons 
 with the ancient Celtic priesthood in Ireland, 
 whether or no we choose to give to that priest- 
 hood the name of Druid. [Dhuids.] Some 
 of the chief Brehons, whose names have been 
 handed down to us, especially a very cele- 
 brated one, Dubhthach mac na Lugair, chief 
 author of the Senchus Mor, is by later writers 
 often called a Druid. Caesar tells us that the 
 Druids had acquired the office of judges in 
 both civil and criminal cases, and that they 
 were likewise bards who preserved the historical 
 traditions of the people. The Brehons as 
 they are known to history— that is to say, the 
 Brehons of Christian time— seem to have 
 united these two offices. " The Brehons and 
 feast poets of the men of Erin," says an open- 
 ing paragraph of the Senchus Mor. We can 
 easily understand that when a change of 
 religion came, and the priestly functions 
 passed to the men ordained by Patrick and 
 his successors, the more secular oflSces 
 would be retained by the Brehons, The 
 
Bre 
 
 (184) 
 
 Bre 
 
 •preaching of St. Patrick began about the 
 year 432, and was crowned with a rapid suc- 
 cess. One of the most important among his 
 early conversions was that of the Brehon 
 Dubhthaoh above spoken of. We may 
 suppose there were some mutual concessions 
 between the two. Dubhthach, who was 
 probably a Druid, renounced his magical and 
 idolatrous practices, and Patrick in his turn 
 ' ' blessed his mouth " (as we are expressly told 
 in the Senchus Mor) when he uttered secular 
 judgments. It was probably with St. Patrick 
 that the idea arose of writing down the Brehon 
 laws, or, as we should say, of codifying them. 
 We must remember that at this time Theo- 
 Qosius had just codified the Eoman law, a 
 precedent which would be present in the 
 mind of St. Patrick. In fact, from this time 
 forward we nearly always find that the con- 
 version of any barbarous people to Chris- 
 tianity is immediately followed by some sort 
 of codifying of their ancient traditional law. 
 The first Saxon code is that of Ethelbert, 
 King of Kent, which was undertaken by 
 St. Augustine. Whatever of the traditional 
 law is not inconsistent with the Christian 
 doctrine or the crown law, is in all cases 
 retained, but what is opposed to these is ex- 
 punged. Thus, in the introduction to the first 
 great code of Brehon laws, the Senchus Mor 
 (a.d. 438 — 441), we find a distinction made 
 between the " law of uatur? " and the " law 
 of God." The latter refers to the laws 
 which came with the revealed religion ; the 
 former term bears reference to the words of 
 St. Paul where he speaks of the Gentiles 
 " doing by nature the works of the law," and 
 therefore means all in the ancient code which 
 was not inconsistent with the revealed com- 
 mandments. The Senchus Mor is said to have 
 had nine authors, or co-operators, in its con- 
 struction, who are spoken of as "the nine 
 pillars of the Senchus Mor." Three were 
 kings, viz., Laeghaire, Over-King of Ireland ; 
 Core, King of Cashel ; and Dairi, King of 
 Ulster. Three were bishops or saints, 
 namely, Patrick, Benen (Benignus), and Cair- 
 nech : these we may suppose looked after the 
 Christian portion of the code. Finally, we have 
 three Brehons, who were, of course, the chief 
 authors of the law, viz., Dubhthach before 
 mentioned, assisted by Eossa and Ferghus. 
 These last two are sometimes spoken of 
 simply as " bards ; " but as we have before 
 said, it is not probable that there was any 
 distinct line of demarcation between the 
 Brehon and the bard. 
 
 See Ancient Lcm-s of Irelimd (Irish Bolls 
 Series) ; B. O'C urry, Manners of the Ancient 
 Irish: Sir H. S. JBaine, Early iftstorv of Insti- 
 tutions. rQ p^ ^~\ 
 
 Breitlber, Sm Nicolas (d. 1388), was 
 Lord Mayor of London in 1377, and again 
 from 1383 to 1385. He was the head of the 
 royalist party in the city, and in 1387 was 
 one of those who were appealed of treason by 
 
 the Lords Appellant. In 1388 he was im, 
 peached by Parliament, sentenced to be be- 
 headed, and' shortly afterwards executed. 
 [Appellant, Lokds.] 
 
 Brenneville, The Battle op (Aug. 20, 
 1119), was a cavalry skirmish fought during 
 the campaign in Normandy between Louis II. 
 of France and Henry I., and arose out of the 
 support given by the former to William Clito. 
 The French were united, and shortly aiterwards 
 Louis made peace and abandoned William. 
 There were only about 900 men engaged in 
 this combat, and not more than three were 
 killed. Both kings were present on the field. 
 Ordericus Titalis. xii. 854; Sismoudi, Hist, 
 des FranQais, v. 145. 
 
 Brentford, Patrick Ruthven, Earl op 
 {d. 1657), after having served in many foreign 
 armies, joined the Royalist troops, and was 
 at once made a field-marshal by Charles I. 
 He had an important command at the battle 
 of Edgehill, and on the death of the Earl of 
 Lindesay was made Commander-in-chief of 
 the Forces. He was created Earl of Forth, 
 and subsequently Earl of Brentford, by the 
 king, who had a high opinion of his military 
 ability. He was severely wounded in the 
 second battle of Newbury, and obUged to 
 resign his command, being succeeded' by 
 Prince Rupert. Clarendon remarks that, 
 " both by reason of his age and his extreme 
 deafness he was not a man of counsel or 
 words ; hardly conceived what was proposed, 
 and as confusedly and obscurely delivered his 
 opinion." 
 
 ClarendOD, Hist, of the BehelUon, viii. 29, &c. 
 
 Brentford, The Battle op (Nov. 12, 
 1642) , was fought between the Royalists under 
 Prince Rupert and the Parliamentarians 
 under DeuzU HoUes. After the battle of 
 Edgehill Charles marched towards London, 
 touching Reading and other places on the 
 way. At Brentford Rupert encountered 
 three regiments which were stationed there, 
 and after a sharp skirmish forced the barri- 
 cades they had erected, and occupied the town 
 of Brentford, taking fifteen hundred prisoners 
 and eleven cannons. The Parliamentary army 
 being subsequently reinforced, the king wa? 
 obliged to fall back from Brentford, and 
 retired into winter quarters at Oxford. 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the BehelUon, vi. 135. 
 
 Brest, The Expedition against (1694), 
 ■was a disastrous failure. The EngBsh 
 government had attempted to keep the desti- 
 nation of the expedition secret, but it had 
 become well known to the French govern- 
 ment. Information had been treacherously 
 conveyed to them by various persons in 
 England, among others by Marlborough, who 
 wrote a letter to James II. on the subject. 
 Thus forewarned, the French (jovernment 
 sent Vauban to put the defences in order. 
 On the 6th of June the fleet, under Berkeley, 
 
Bre 
 
 ( 185 ) 
 
 Bre 
 
 ■with Talmaeli in command of the land forces, 
 ■was off Cape Finisterre. It was proposed to 
 land in Camaret Bay. Ths Marquis of 
 Caermarthen, the eldest sou of the Duke of 
 Leeds, entered the basin to reconnoitre, and 
 reported the defences formidahle. But 
 Berkeley and Tahnash thought that he over- 
 rated the danger. Next day Caermarthen, 
 with eight ships, ■was followed hy Talmash 
 with a hundred boats fuU of soldiers. A 
 murderous fire from the batteries swept away 
 the men. Talmash, however, imagining 
 that he was confronted by peasants, refused 
 to retire, and fell mortally wounded as he 
 attempted to land. Ships and boats hastily 
 retired from the bay, but not without the loss 
 of four hundred sailors and seven hundred sol- 
 diers. The expedition returned ingloriously,, 
 after attempting to blow up the pier at 
 Dunkirk, and bombarding Dieppe, Havre, 
 and Calais. 
 
 London Gazette, 1694 ; Banke, Mist, of Eng. ; 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Bretigny, The Treaty of (May 8, 1360), 
 was concluded between England and France 
 after the continued successes of Edward III., 
 while the French king, John, who had been 
 taken prisoner at Poitiers, remained in cap- 
 tivity in England. The protracted negotia- 
 tions were brought to a close by a dreadful 
 storm, reSorded in history, which was inter- 
 preted to be a manifestation of Divine wrath 
 at the continuance of hostilities. The English 
 renounced their pretensions to the crown of 
 France, as well as to Normandy, Touraine, 
 Maine, and Anjou. France consented to 
 cede Grascony, G-uienne, Poitou, and their 
 dependencies and outlying districts; and in 
 northern France, Calais, Guisnes, and the 
 county of Ponthieu. King John was to pay 
 a ransom of 3,000,000 gold crowns. The 
 question of Brittany was left open. The 
 French were to break off their alliance ■with 
 the Scots, and to abstain from assisting them 
 against the English, and the English were to 
 give no further aid to the Flemings. By a 
 separate treaty, the Kings of France and 
 Navarre were to be reconciled. 
 
 The articles are in Kymer, Foedera, vi. 219, 
 232. See also Froissart, 209 ; Knyghton, 262-^ ; 
 Lingard, Sist. of Eng., iii. 180. 
 
 Bret'nralda. A title of supremacy among 
 the early Anglo-Saxon kings. Bede {Sist. 
 Becles., ii. 5) gives a list of seven kings who 
 had ruled over the English south of the 
 Humber. The first four— Ella of Sussex, 
 Ceawlin of "Wessex, Eedwald of East Anglia, 
 and Ethelbert of Kent — could have had no 
 power over the Northumbrians, even if they 
 all really possessed the influence Bede as- 
 signs to them. But the last three — Edwin, 
 Oswald, and Oswy — were Northumbrian 
 kings, and therefore their " imperium " or 
 " duoatus," according to Bede, must have ex- 
 tended over all South Britain. Oswald is, in 
 
 fact, called by Adamnan {Vit. S. • 
 "Totius BritannisB Imperator ordinatus a 
 Deo," and history proves the reality of their 
 power. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (s. a. 
 827), when enlarging on the exploits of 
 Egbert, quotes Bede's list, and adds to them 
 Egbert, saying, " And he , was the eighth 
 king that was Bretwalda.'" West-Saxon pre- 
 judice probably caused the chronicler to pass 
 over the great Mercians of the eighth century, 
 of whom Ethelbald claimed to be " King of 
 the South English," and Offa " Hex Anglorum " 
 {Cod. Dip., i. 96, 162, &c.), while Charles 
 the G-reat called the latter the " greatest 
 of the kings of the West." Besides this 
 passage, the remarkable word Bretwalda 
 occurs elsewhere only in a biUngual charter 
 of Athelstan in 934 {Cod. Dip., v. 218), which 
 describes him as " King of the Anglo-Saxons 
 and Brytamwalda of all the island" — in 
 Latin, " Anglo-Saxonum nee non totius 
 Britannise Eex." In seeking the meaning of 
 this rare title we must first distinguish between 
 the name Bretwalda and the fact of over- 
 lordship. Every one admits the successive 
 hegemony of Northumbria, Mercia, and 
 Wessex over English and British alike. But 
 the nature of this supremacy, and the relation 
 of the Bretwaldadom to it, have been much 
 debated. Eapin started a theory of an elec- 
 tive sovereignty, which Turner and Lingard 
 at least tacitly accept, and which Palgrave 
 worked out to' new consequences in his Eng- 
 lish Commonwealth. Palgrave connects the 
 title with the imperial position of the kings, 
 as inheritors of the remains of Roman Im- 
 perialism that still survived the withdrawal 
 of the legions. The Bretwalda was the suc- 
 cessor of Caxausius, the predecessor of Edgar. 
 He illustrates the continuity of Eoman and 
 British influence after the English Conquest, 
 and the all-pervading fascination of Eome. 
 " Heptarchic " England was af ederal monarchy 
 under an elective Bretwalda, the " wielder of 
 Britain." Out of this office grew the later 
 English kingship. Athelstan, the last Bret- 
 walda, the first " King of the English," marks 
 the contact of the two titles. Against this 
 brilliant but unsupported theory Kemlile 
 (Saxons in England) does his best to minimise 
 both fact and title. The word is not " ruler 
 of Britain," but " wide ruler " (from bryien, 
 broad; cf. trytencyning). The idea of elec- 
 tion among the " kites and crows," of con- 
 tinuity between rival races, of a meeting of 
 Welsh princes to transfer to Ella the " Em- 
 pire of Britain," is quite untenable. How 
 could the feeble princes of the south-east 
 make their influence felt up to the Humber ? 
 Hallam (Middle Ages, ii. 352—9, and Archaio- 
 logia, vol. xxxii.) inclines, though with 
 more moderation, to a similar view. Mr. 
 Freeman {Norm. Conq.; vol. i., note B) leans 
 to " an intermediate position between Kemble 
 and Palgrave." He accepts the title as 
 significant of a substantial hegem,ony, but 
 
Bre 
 
 C 186 ) 
 
 Bri 
 
 rejects Palgrave's doctrine of Eoman in- 
 fluence and continuity. The Bretwaldadom is 
 of "purely English growth." Dr. Stubbs 
 {Const. Hist., i. 162) seems to agree with Mr. 
 Freeman in a view that certainly best ac- 
 counts for the facts. If we could get rid of 
 Ella and the earlier Bretwaldas, there would 
 be some reason for connecting the triumph 
 of the Northumbrians over Cadwallon, and 
 the final catastrophe of the Britons, with 
 Edwin's assumption of imperial style and 
 emblems. (See Rhjs' Celtic Eritain, p. 134, 
 for an ingenious recent development of Pal- 
 grave's theory.) But there is no evidence for 
 a consistent theory, and there is always the 
 danger of making too much of a name that 
 occurs only twice in the authorities. 
 
 Besides the authorities referred to in the 
 text, see Freeman, liorman 'Conquest, -i. 542, 
 note B, where there is an exhaustive state- 
 ment of all that can be said on both sides of the 
 question, and a complete list of the Tarious 
 imperial titles assumed by early English kings. 
 [T. E. T.] 
 
 Brewer, William (d. 1226.), was em- 
 ployed as a minister, a judge, and an ambas- 
 sador by Henry 11., Richard I., John, and 
 Henry III. He was a strong supporter of 
 the royal prerogative under the two latter 
 mouarchs, and received valuable rewards for 
 his services. His generosity and piety are 
 celebrated by most of the chroniclers of these 
 reigns. 
 
 See Matthew Paris, ffist. Anglor., ii. 123, iii 
 253, &c. ; Hoveden, Chron., iii. 16, 264, &c. 
 
 Brian Boru (or Boroimhb) is said to have 
 been the son of Kennedy, King of Munster. 
 His first warlike exploits were performed 
 ■under the banner of his brother, the King of 
 Cashel. After his birother's assassination, 
 he became King of Munster, and as such com- 
 pelled the Danes of Dublin to pay tribute. 
 He was engaged in a long and finally success- 
 ful war against Malachy, the King of Tara, 
 and his nominal overlord. In the end he was 
 acknowledged as lord even by the O'Neils, and 
 Malachy, their chief, followed in his train as 
 an under-king. The whole island had now 
 submitted to him, but the Danes made an efliort 
 to^ re-establish their supremacy. Leinster 
 joined the Ostmen, but they were overthrown 
 by Brian in twenty-five battles and finaUy at 
 Clontarf (1014). Brian, who is said to have 
 been eighty-three years of age, did not com- 
 mand in person, but remained in his tent, 
 where, after the victory had been won, he 
 was killed. Tradition makes Armagh his 
 burial-place. Brian Boru must be regarded 
 as the popular hero of early Irish history, and 
 the stories told about his reign led to its'being 
 regarded as a sort of golden age. The O'Briens 
 and many other distinguished , Irish families 
 claim him as their ancestor. 
 
 .^raixls of Inisfall: Mala Saga; O'Connor. 
 JJer. Hiiicrn. Script. Tet. 
 
 Bribery. (1) Indikect Beibeky, by the 
 bestowal of titles and offices and the like, has 
 at some periods of our history been frequently 
 employed by the crown and by its ministers. 
 The practice became very common under the 
 later Stuarts, and under William HI. the 
 abuse had become so great that by the Act of 
 Settlement, 1701, it was enacted that no 
 person holding an office under, or receiving a 
 pension from, the crown, should be eligible 
 for election as a member of Parhament. This 
 Act was speedily repealed in favour of one 
 which rendered the holders of any new oflSce 
 created after Oct. the 25th, 1705, incapable 
 of sitting in the House, as well as persons 
 who were in receipt of a pension from the 
 crown during pleasure, and which further 
 obliged members to vacate their seats on 
 accepting any of the existing offices, though 
 they might be immediately re-elected. In 
 1742 another Act was passed against place, 
 men; and in 1782 government contractors 
 were prohibited from sitting in the House. 
 After the beginning of Mr. Pitt's administra- 
 tion, the practice of bestowing places as a 
 bribe to members gradually became much less 
 common, and almost ceased after the Reform 
 Bill ; though a certain amount of this in- 
 direct form of bribery is perhaps a necessary 
 accompaniment of our parliamentary system, 
 which places ofSces at the disposal of the 
 leaders of the successful party. [Pensions.] 
 (2) Direct Bribekt by sums of money 
 may be divided into three classes : — 
 
 (i.) Bribery of Members of Parliament by the 
 Crown or its Ministers was largely employed 
 during the age of Charles II., when the king 
 himself took the money of Prance, and partly 
 employed it in bribing members. Instances 
 had, however, occurred under Jatnes I., and 
 ,T'^-?r»*°^'^ *liat Richard II. occasionally used 
 gifts to secure the passing of unpopular 
 measures through the House of Commons. 
 William III. found it necessary to have 
 recourse to the same means of propitiating 
 obstinate members; and under George II. 
 (especially during the administration of Sir 
 Robert Walpole) bribery was " reduced to an 
 organised system." Under George III., Lord 
 Bute frequently bribed those whose votes 
 he wished to secure. In regard to the peace 
 of 1762, Horace Walpole says : " A shop was 
 pubhcly opened at the Pay Office, whither the 
 members flocked, and received the wages of 
 their venality in bank-bills, even to so low a 
 sura as £200 for their votes on the treaty, 
 ±25,000, as Martin, Secretary to the Treasury, 
 afterwards owned, were issued in one morn- 
 ing, and in a single fortnight a vast majority 
 waspurchased to approve the peace." In 1763 
 1-ord Saye and Sole returned Mr. Grenville a 
 bribe of £300, saying that " a free horse 
 wanted no spur." The. practice continued 
 under Lord North, but gradually died out 
 under the powerful and popular administration 
 of Mr. Pitt. The union with England in 
 
Bri 
 
 ( 18V) 
 
 Bri 
 
 1800 was, however, passed through the Irish 
 Parliameut by the systematic hrihery of the 
 Opposition members, carried out on an enor- 
 mous scale. 
 
 (ii.) Bribery of Judges and Ministers was, 
 even in early times, of very frequent occur- 
 rence ; and it was no uncommon thing to find 
 one or more of the judges corrupt. In 1401 
 a. statute was passed, to the efiect that all 
 judges, oflScers, and ministers of the king 
 convicted of bribery shall forfeit treble the 
 bribe, be punished at the king's will, and be 
 discharged from the king's service, whilst the 
 person who- ofliered the bribe was held guilty 
 of a misdemeanour. Under the Tudors and 
 Stuarts judicial bribery was common, the 
 best-known instance being that of Lord 
 Chancellor Bacon, who, in 1621, was found 
 guilty on his own confession of having re- 
 ceived extensive bribes, and was heavily 
 fined, sent to the Tower, and degraded. There 
 are, however, many other instances of judges 
 being removed for corruption. Judicial and 
 ministerial bribery has, however, been prac- 
 tically unknown since the Eevolution of 1688. 
 
 (iii.) Bribery connected with Elections, The 
 first instance of a penalty inflicted for bribery 
 in elections was in 1571, when a fine was 
 imposed on the borough of AVestbury for re- 
 ceiving a bribe of four pounds for the election 
 of Thomas Long as their member, " being a 
 very simple man, and of small capacity to 
 serve in that place," though Long himself 
 was not expelled from the House. Under the 
 Stuarts the practice of purchasing votes con- 
 tinued, and had become quite common by the 
 reign of Charles II. In 1696 an attempt 
 was made to pass a statute, which subse- 
 quently became law in the reign of Anne, to 
 impose a property qualification of £600 a year 
 from land on county members, and £300 a 
 year on borough members, in order to check 
 the system by which men who had made 
 money in trade or otherwise, used to buy 
 seats in places with which they had absolutely 
 no connection. Ten years before this, how- 
 ever, the first Bribery Act had been passed, 
 though bribery had even then been recognised 
 as an offence by the common law, and had 
 been condemned by resolutions of the House 
 of Commons. The increase of corruption 
 under George II. led to an Act in 1729 ia- 
 flioting severe penalties on persons receiving 
 bribes ; but it seems to have had little effect, 
 and in 1762 another Act was passed inflicting 
 pecuniary penalties for bribery. There were 
 two methods by which candidates might pur- 
 chase a seat : they could either buy the 
 borough outright from the corporation or 
 proprietor, or, if the electors happened to be 
 independent, they could buy individual votes. 
 Examples of the first method are by no means 
 uncommon. In 1767 the mayor and corpora- 
 tion of Oxford offered to return their sitting 
 members, Sir Thomas Stapylton and Mr. Lee, 
 at the next election for £567- The offer was 
 
 refused, and some of the aldermen were sent 
 to Newgate, but subsequently discharged, 
 after having been reprimanded on their knees 
 by the Speaker. The borough of LudgershaU 
 was sold for £9,000 ; and, says Sir Erskine 
 May, "it was notorious at the time that 
 agents, or ' borough-brokers,' were commis- 
 sioned by some of the smaller boroughs to 
 offer them to the highest bidder." Bribery 
 of individual electors also prevailed to a large 
 extent, prices generally ranging from twenty 
 guineas to one guinea a vote ; though it is 
 said that the electors of Grampound on one 
 occasion received £300 a-piece. In 1768, 
 1782, and 1786 attempts were ineffectual!}^ 
 made to secure the acceptance of bills to 
 restrain corruption ; and it was not until 
 1809 that a BUI was brought in by Mr. 
 Curwen to prevent the obtaining of seats by 
 bribery, and actually passed. Heavy penal- 
 ties were imposed by it on corrupt agreements 
 for the return of members ; and in the case 
 of persons returned by bribery or corruption, 
 it enjoined the forfeiture of their seats, but 
 does not seem to have been very effectual. 
 The Eeform Act of 1832 made no distinct 
 provision for the restraint of bribery, which 
 continued to be practised more or less operdy, 
 in many cases leading to the disfranchisement 
 of boroughs. In 1841 a new Bribery Act 
 was passed extending the powers of election 
 committees. In 1852 an Act provided for 
 the appointment of royal commissioners to 
 inquire into cases of corruption; and two 
 years later the offer or acceptance of a bribe 
 was rendered a misdemeanour, which might 
 be punished by fine, imprisonment, and for- 
 feiture of franchise; by this Act also the 
 accounts of election expenses were to be pub- 
 lished. In 1858 another Act permitted the 
 conveyance of voters to the poll, though no 
 money was to be given to the voters them- 
 selves for the purpose. In 1883 an Act, called 
 the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act, was 
 passed to prevent bribery, and limit the 
 expenses of elections. Stringent penalties 
 against corruption are enacted in it. A can- 
 didate found guilty of bribery is incapaci- 
 tated for sitting in the House of Commons, or 
 voting at an election for seven years. Persons 
 convicted of bribery, or "undue influence," 
 are liable to imprisonment for a year, and 
 a fine of £200. The practice of conve}^ng 
 voters to the poU is rendered illegal. Since 
 the year 1868, when the House of Commons 
 resigned its privilege of exclusive juris- 
 diction in cases of controverted elections, 
 the mode of questioning the vahdity of 
 an election is to present a petition against 
 it. This petition is tried before one of the 
 judges of the superior courts of common 
 law. The judge certifies the result of the 
 trial to the Speaker, and at the same time 
 reports any violations of the law relating to cor- 
 rupt practices which have been proved before 
 him. The House thereupon takes the requisite 
 
Bri 
 
 ( 188 ) 
 
 Bri 
 
 action on his certificate and report. [Elec- 
 tions.] 
 
 Broom, Const. Law; Sir T. E. May, Const. 
 Sist. ; Walpole, Memoirs ; Maeaulay, Hist: of 
 Eng. ; Mahon, Sist, of Eng. ; Moleswortli, Hist, 
 of the Seform Bill. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Bridgeuian, Sir Orlando (4. 1609, d. 
 1674), was the son of a Bishop of Chester, 
 and was returned as member for Wigan to the 
 Long Parliament in 1650. He took part with 
 the king, and in 1644 was one of the mem- 
 bers of the Oxford Parliament. In 1645 he 
 was one of the king's commissioners at the 
 Treaty of TJxbridge. During the Common- 
 wealth he lived in retirement, and devoted 
 himself' to conveyancing. Bridgeman and 
 Sir Geoffrey Palmer are credited with the 
 invention of an important legal expedient 
 during this period. " This was the notable 
 contrivance of ' trustees to preserve contingent 
 remainders,' of whici it is enough to say that 
 it protected the interests of tenants in tail 
 against the risk of being defeated by the- 
 wrongful act of preceding hfe tenants. From 
 this epoch must be dated the modern type 
 of settlement." On the . Restoration he 
 was appointed Chief Baron of the Ex- 
 chequer, and very shortly afterwards Chief 
 Justice of the Common Pleas. He presided 
 at the trial of the regicides. In 1667 he was 
 made Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and 
 held it till 1672. His eldest son, Sir Henry, 
 was created Lord Bradford. 
 
 Brodrick, English LaTid, p. 58. 
 
 Bridge pf Dee, The Affair of (1639)„is 
 the name given to the forcing of the bridge 
 over the Dee by Montrose and the Cove- 
 nanters. The bridge was gained by its de- 
 fenders being drawn ofi by a stratagem, and 
 access was thus obtained to the city of Aber- 
 deen. In Sept., 1644, Montrose, this time on 
 the Royalist side, again fought a successful 
 engagement at the bridge of Dee. 
 
 Bridge Street Gang (1820). A nick- 
 nime bestowed on the " Constitutional Asso- 
 ciition" formed for the suppression of sedi- 
 tious, libellous, and blasphemous literature, 
 which made itself very unpopular by its 
 activity in instituting prosecutions against 
 newspapers and other publications. 
 
 Bridgewater. An ancient town in 
 Somersetshire on the River Parret, and said to 
 derive its name (Burgh-Walter) from a "Walter 
 of Douay, to whom the manor was granted at 
 the Conquest. A fine caetle was built here in 
 Henry II.'s reign by William de Briwere. The 
 town was taken by the Royalists in 1643, but 
 m July, 1645, it was captured by Fairfax. By 
 this capture the Parliamentarians secured a 
 line of forts extending from sea to sea which 
 blocked up and practically isolated Devonshire 
 and Cornwall. Bridgewater was one of the 
 places that declared for Monmouth, and it 
 was within a few miles of this town that he 
 met with his overthrow at Sedgomoor. The 
 
 borough of Bridgewater was disfranchised in 
 1870. 
 
 Bridlington, John of (<?. 1379), a regu- 
 lar canon living in the diocese of York, was the 
 author of a curious poetical retrospect of the 
 reign of Edward III., "compiled," says Mr. 
 Wright, " in a form which is by no means 
 unknown in modern literature — namely, that 
 of a supposed old text, and of a recent com- 
 mentary." It has been printed in vol. i. of 
 Mr. Wright's I'olitical Foems and Songs (Rolls 
 Series, 1859). 
 
 Bridport, Alexander Hood, 1st Yis- 
 COUNT (i. 1726, d. 1814), entered the navy, 
 became a lieutenant in 1746, and post-captain 
 in 1756. In 1758 he served under Admiral 
 Saunders in the Mediterranean, and under 
 Sir Edward Hawke in the Channel. In 
 1766 he was appointed Treasurer of Green- 
 wich Hospital. In 1778, he took an active 
 share in the engagement off Ushant. In 
 Sept., 1780, he was appointed Rear- Admiral 
 of the White, and in 1782 commanded 
 the centre squadron of the fleet sent out 
 under Lord Howe to- relieve Gibraltar. 
 On Feb. 1, 1793,. he became Vice-Admiral 
 of the Red ;. and on the very next day 
 France declared war. On the 1st of June, 
 1794, the division of the Channel fleet 
 commanded by Lord Howe attacked and 
 utterly defeated the French fleet off the 
 Hyfees Islands. In. this action Hood played 
 a conspicuous part, and in the following 
 August he was created Ba,ron Bridport, in 
 the Irish Peerage. In the following June, 
 h-iving succeeded Lord Howe in the command 
 of the Channel fleet, he sailed with fourteen 
 ships from Spithead to cruise off the French 
 coast,, and chased a French fleet into 
 Port L'Orient. During his tenure of com- 
 mand in the Channel occurred the mutiny 
 of the fleet, which cannot, however, be in 
 any way attributed to his conduct. On 
 the contrary, the men disavowed all intention 
 of giving personal offence to- the admiral, and 
 called him their father and friend. At length, 
 through the combined efforts of Lord Brid- 
 port and Lord Howe, and the tact and 
 prudence displayed by both, the men were 
 brought back to their allegiance, and again 
 sailed, in 1799, under Lord Bridport in pur- 
 suit of the French fleet, which this time 
 eluded them and escaped to the Mediter- 
 ranean. On resigning his command he be- 
 came general of marines, and in 1801 was 
 raised to the rank of viscount. He lived on 
 for thirteen years, chiefly in retirfement. 
 
 Allen, TSaml Battles; James, Naval Hist.; 
 
 Lodge, Portraits. 
 
 Briefs, Church, were letters addressed 
 by the sovereign to the archbishops, bishops, 
 and clergy, empowering them to raise volun- 
 tary contributions for building churches, and 
 for charitable purposes generally. They do 
 not appear to have been issued before the' 
 
Bri 
 
 (189) 
 
 Bri 
 
 Reformation, and may possibly be derived 
 from the briefs given by the papal court to 
 mendicant friars, empowering them to collect 
 contributions. The granting of briefs appears 
 to have led to great abuses. It" was regulated 
 by Anne, cap. 14, and practically abolished 
 by 9 Geo. IV., cap. 42, though briefs have 
 been issued for special purposes since the 
 date of the latter statute. 
 
 Briefs, Papal. [Bulls ; Papacy.] 
 
 Brigantes, The, were a powerful tribe, 
 or confederacy of tribes, of ancient Britain. 
 They occupied the whole of the northern and 
 north-western part of Southern Britain, as far 
 as the Firth of Forth and Clyde, and appear 
 to have been driven northward from their 
 original southern possessions by later colo- 
 nists. According to the view of some authori- 
 ties, they were descendants of the earlier 
 [non-Celtic] inhabitants of the island. They 
 were, at any rate, among the rudest and 
 fiercest of the British tribes. Cartismandua, 
 the queen of one of the Brigantian tribes, 
 was an ally of the Romans, and delivered 
 Oaractacus to them when he sought refuge in 
 her kingdom. But the nation was weakened 
 by a civil war, which broke out between 
 Cartismandua and her husband, Venusius ; 
 and after being defeated by Cerealis in 69, 
 was subdued, after some difficult campaigns, 
 by Agricola. There was a tribe of Brigantes 
 (possibly a colony from Britain) which occu- 
 pied the present county of Wexford, in Ire- 
 laud. 
 
 Tacitus, Ar/ricola. 22, &c. ; Elton, Origins of 
 
 Enj. Hist. ; Skene, Celtic Scotland, i. 71 ; Wright, 
 
 Celt, Roman, and tiaxon. 
 
 Brigham, The Conference of (July, 
 1290), was a meeting held by the Scotch estates, 
 near Berwick, to decide about the marriage 
 of the Maid of Norway and Prince Edward of 
 England. A treaty was made, and accepted 
 by Edward, providing that the rights and 
 liberties of Scotland should continue unvio- 
 lated ; that the kingdom of Scotland should 
 remain separate from England, divided by its 
 proper boundaries ; and that no parliament 
 was to be held beyond the frontiers of Scot- 
 land to discuss matters respecting that king- 
 dom, and other points favourable to Scotland. 
 On Baliol obtaining the crown of Scotland 
 from Edward, the English king required as a 
 condition of its bestowal the renunciation of 
 the Treaty of Brigham. 
 
 Eymer, Fmdera, i. 735—6. 
 
 Bright, John {b. 1811), the son of Jacob 
 Bright, of Greenhank, near Rochdale, took an 
 active part in the Reform agitation of 1831 — 2, 
 and became, in 1S39, one of the earliest mem- 
 bers of the Anti-Corn Law League. In April, 
 1843, he unsuccessfully contested the city of 
 Durham, for which, however, he was returned 
 in July following; and he continued to sit 
 for Durham till 1847, when he was returned 
 
 for Manchester. He made his maiden speech 
 in Parliament on Mr. Ewart's motion for 
 extending the principles of Free Trade, Aug. 
 7, 1843. During the interval between his 
 election for Manchester and the accession of 
 the first Derby ministry to power, Mr. 
 Bright's activity in I'arliament and on the 
 platform was varied and continuous. In the 
 House of Commons he proposed to apply the 
 remedy of Free Trade in land to the state of 
 things which produced the Irish famine. Ho 
 appealed unsuccessfully for the despatch of a 
 royal commission to investigate the state of 
 India ; and in 1849 he was appointed one of 
 the members of the celebrated select com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons on official 
 salaries. In the Legislature and in the pro- 
 vinces, especially at Manchester, he co- 
 operated earnestly with Mr. Cobden in his 
 attempts to obtain financial reform, with a 
 view to the reduction of the naval and 
 military establishments. He also denounced 
 the Russian War with great energy, and 
 at the general election that ensued, he 
 was rejected by Manchester, but in a 
 few months was invited to fill a vacancy 
 at Birmingham. In 1868 he accepted offii'e 
 under Mr. Gladstone, as President of the 
 Board of Trade, but was compelled by ill- 
 health to retire from office in Dec, 1870. On 
 his recovery, he became Chancellor of the 
 Duchy of Lancaster, which office he con- 
 tinued to hold till the downfall of the Liberal 
 Government in 1874. On the return of the 
 Liberals to power, under Mr. Gladstone, in 
 1880, Mr. Bright became Chancellor of the 
 Duchy of Lancaster. He resigned in July 
 17, 1882, owing to a diSerence of opinion 
 with . his colleagues as to their Egyptian 
 policy. 
 
 J. Morley, Life of Cobden, 1E81 ; "W. Eobert- 
 son. Life and Times of Jolin Bright, 1883. 
 
 Brihtwald (*. circa 650, d. 731), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury (692—731), belonged to 
 the royal house of Mercia. During his arch- 
 bishopric, the much-vexed question of the 
 celebration of Easter was settled by almost 
 all the British bishops adopting the Eonian 
 practice. This period also saw the beginning 
 of missionary enterprise abroad, and the 
 English engaged in preaching the Gospel to 
 their heathen kinsmen in Germany. 
 
 Bede, Hist. EccUs. ; Hook, Lives of the Arch- 
 bisTiops. 
 
 Brihuega, The Battle of (1710), was u 
 great defeat sustained by the English arms 
 during the War of the Succession in Spain. 
 General Stanhope, with Staremberg, his 
 Austrian colleague, had occupied Madrid, but 
 it was found impossible to hold the city. 
 They therefore retreated into Catalonia, 
 marching in two parallel armies. The French 
 commander, the Duke of Vendome, pursued 
 with remarkable rapidity. Stanhope was 
 
Bri 
 
 (190) 
 
 Bri 
 
 surprised and surrounded at Brihuega. The 
 walls of the town were battered with cannon, 
 and a mine sprung under one of the gates. 
 The English kept up a deadly fire until their 
 powder was consumed, and then fought on 
 with the bayonet against terrible odds. At 
 length the British general saw that further 
 resistance could produce only a useless 
 slaughter of his troops. He concluded a 
 capitulation by which the remnant of hia 
 army, 500 in number, surrendered themselves 
 as prisoners of war. Scarcely was it signed 
 when Staremberg appeared. His slowness 
 had ruined hia cause; but the battle that 
 ensued, called that of Villa Viciosa, was ad- 
 mirably contested, when night put an end to 
 it. Staremberg remained master of the field, 
 but all the fruits of the battle remained with 
 Vendome. The Austrian general spiked his 
 cannon, and, with a sorry remnant of hia 
 army, consisting of 7,000, took refuge in 
 Barcelona. 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Reign of Queen Anne, 454. 
 
 Brisbane, the capital of Queensland, 
 was founded as a penal settlement in 1825, 
 and named after Sir Thomas Brisbane, 
 Governor of New South Wales, 1822—26. 
 It formed part of New South Wales tiU 
 1859. The penal establishment was abolished 
 in 1842. 
 
 Bristol has from an early period ranked 
 as one of the most important of English 
 towns. Until the rise of Liverpool and the 
 manufacturing towns of the North, it was the 
 second city in the kingdom. The castle was 
 granted by the Conqueror to Robert Pitz- 
 hamon, from whom it passed by marriage to 
 Eobert of Gloucester, natural sou of Henry I. 
 Robert of Normandy was for a time im- 
 prisoned here. In Bristol Castle Stephen 
 was imprisoned by the partisans of Matilda 
 in 1141, and sixty years later the ill-fated 
 Eleanor of Brittany was incarcerated at 
 Bristol by her uncle John, who was afraid 
 that her claims to the throne might be put 
 forward by his opponents. In 1399 Henry 
 of Lancaster took the town, and put to death 
 many of the adherents of Richard II. Sebas- 
 tian Cabot was born at Bristol, and sailed 
 from that port on his famous voyage, and in 
 1609 a colony of settlers from Bristol were 
 the first to establish themsel-9:es in New- 
 foundland. Bristol was made the seat of 
 one of Henry VIII. 's new bishoprics. The 
 town played a very prominent part in the 
 civil war of the seventeenth century. 
 At the beginning of the Great Rebellion 
 Bristol declared for the Parliament, and 
 received a garrison under the command of 
 Nathaniel Piennes. In July, 1643, the 
 Royalist successes in the west made the 
 possession of Bristol still more important, 
 as commanding the valley of the Severn, and 
 Prince Rupert was sent to besiege it. After 
 a very, brief attack, Piennes determined to 
 
 capitulate, and Rupert ofiered such good 
 terms that a large number of the Parliamen- 
 tary troops took service in his army. Bristol 
 remained in the possession of the Royalists 
 till September, 1645, when Rupert, who was 
 in command of the town, Surrendered it in 
 almost as unaccountable a manner as Piennes 
 had done two yeara before. In 1656 Briatol 
 Castle w'aa destroyed by the government. 
 In 1685 it was the one town in Somerset 
 that refused to receive Monmouth. In 1715 
 serious riots broke out here on the occa- 
 sion of the accession of George I. Violent 
 riots also occurred in 1793 in opposition to an 
 unpopular bridge-toll, and many persona lost 
 their livea before they were suppressed ; and 
 great rioting took place in 1831 [Bristol 
 Ri0Ts}in connection with the Reform Bill. The 
 church of St. Mary Redchfie, one of the finest 
 in England, was in great part built by Wil- 
 liam Cannynge, a wealthy merchant of 
 Bristol, in the later part of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 Seyer, Memoivs of Bristol, 1821 ; Evans, Chrono- 
 logical Sist, of Bristol, 1824. 
 
 Bristol, John Digby, 1st Eakl op 
 (*. 1580, d. 1653). He was bom a-t Coleshill, 
 in Warwickshire, was the youngest son of 
 Sir George Digby, knight, and of Abigail, 
 daughter of Sir A. Hevengham of Norfolk. 
 In March, 1606, he was knighted by James I. 
 In 1611, and again in 1614, he went as ambas- 
 sador to Spain. In 1616 James conferred on 
 him the manor' of Sherborne, in Dorset. In 
 1617 Digby went for the third time to Madrid 
 with the special mission of reviving negotia- 
 tions, commenced during his former embassies, 
 for a marriage between Prince Charles and 
 the Infanta Maria. On hia return in 1618 he 
 was made a peer with the title of Baron 
 Digby of Sherborne. In 1621 Digby went 
 first to Brussels and afterwards to Vienna, in 
 order to prevail on the Emperor Ferdinand to 
 restore the Palatinate to -James's son-in-law, 
 Prederic. Digby strove to negotiate peace on 
 the basis that the Emperor should restore the 
 Palatinate, and that Frederic in return should 
 renounce the title of King of Bohemia and 
 abandon the right of private war within the 
 Empire. But his efilorts were unavailing. 
 If Digby's policy was to succeed, it was 
 necessary that James should be able, in case 
 of need, to draw the sword. James, by his 
 angry dissolution of Parliament in 1621, 
 shattered the policy of his ambassador. In 
 1622 Digby againwent to Spain in order to 
 conclude the marriage treaty and obtain the 
 restoration of the Palatinate through the in- 
 fluence of Philip IV. He thought that, in 
 return for some modification in the treatment 
 of English Catholics, Spain would support a 
 compromise in Germany. But in this he was 
 mistaken, since the Spaniards were aiming at 
 no less than the conversion of the English 
 nation to the Catholic faith. In 1622 he was 
 created Earl of Bristol. The visit of Charles 
 
Bri 
 
 (191 ) 
 
 Bri 
 
 and Buckingham, to Spain in 1623 resulted 
 in the breaking ofE of the negotiation and 
 the recaU of Bristol. On his return Bristol , 
 was ordered to remain in confinement at his 
 own house, hecause he refused to admit that 
 he had been at fault and to make apologies to 
 Buckingham. In 1626 he appealed to the 
 House of Lords and brought accusations 
 against the Duke of Buckingham. Charles, 
 to defend his favourite, retaliated by ac- 
 cusing Bristol of high treason. In 1628 Bristol 
 opposed the king's first answer to the Peti- 
 tion of Eight. When Strafford was im- 
 peached, Bristol sought to save his life while 
 incapacitating him from holding oflice. On 
 the breaking out of the civil war, he took the 
 king's side. At its close he went to Paris, 
 where he died Jan. 16, 1653. 
 
 A few of Bristol's Despatches are printed in 
 the Appendix to the Clarmidon State Papera, 
 vol. i. For his defence of his conduct in Spain, 
 see the Ca/mden Miscellany, vol. vi, ; for his own 
 Impeachment, and the charges that he made 
 against Buckingham, Parliamejitwry Hist<n-y, 
 vol. vii. • for a general account of his political 
 career, S, B. Gardiner, Hist, of Enqland, 1603 — 
 iet2. [B. M. G-.] 
 
 Bristol, Geokge Digbt, 2nd Eaki, of (4. 
 1612, d. 1677), was theeldest son of the preced- 
 ing. He was educated at Oxford, and sat for 
 Dorsetshire both in the Short and the Long 
 Parliaments. He at first joined the Oppo- 
 sition, £ind was one of the managers of 
 StrafEord's impeachment, but soon went over 
 to the king, and voted against the Bill of 
 Attainder which the Parliamentary leaders 
 had brought in against Strafford. He re- 
 ceived a writ of summons to the House of 
 Lords as Baron Digby, and became one of the 
 king's confidential advisers. He was one of 
 the chief promoters of the scheme for the 
 arrest of the Five Members, after the failure 
 of which he was impeached by the Commons 
 and fled to Holland. On his return he was 
 captured and imprisoned at Hull, under the 
 care of Sir John Hotham, who connived at 
 his escape. He joined the king, and took 
 part in most of the important battles of the 
 Civil War, till, quarrelling with Prince 
 Eupert, he threw up his command. At the 
 conclusion of the war he fled to France, 
 where he distinguished himself in the war of 
 the Fronde; but, having formed a foolish 
 idea of supplanting Mazarin and becoming 
 Prime Minister of France, he was obliged to 
 escape to the Netherlands. On the Kestora- 
 tion he returned to England, but his flighty 
 and untrustworthy character prevented his 
 teing appointed to any office. In 1663 he 
 brought a charge of high treason against 
 Clarendon, which was, however, rejected by 
 the House of Lords, and after that he took 
 no part in public affairs. He was a man of 
 undoubted ability, and one of the foremost 
 orators of his time, but unstable and head- 
 strong to the last degree. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the Reb0llion, and Life; 
 ^Lodge, Po^-traits, 
 
 Bristol, Fredekick Augustus Hervey, 
 Earl op {d. 1S03), and Bishop of Derry, was 
 an eccentric nobleman who affected to adopt 
 the character of a prelate of the Middle Ages. 
 He raised three regiments of Volunteers, 
 which were commanded by his nephew. At the 
 second Dungannon Convention he was one 
 of the leaders. In 1784 he entered Dublin 
 in almost royal state, and expected to be 
 chosen president of the Convention there, but 
 he had identified himself too much with the 
 more extreme party, and was disappointed. 
 When the Convention dispersed, he went to 
 Ulster and made inflammatory speeches, so 
 that at one time his arrest was contemplated. 
 The earl was in favour of Catholic Emanci- 
 pation, Eef orm, and separation from England. 
 
 Bristol Riots (Oct. 29, 1831) were a 
 series of outbreaks produced by the popular 
 indignation which resulted from the rejection 
 of the Reform Bill by the House of Lords. 
 On the occasion of the public entry into Bris- 
 tol of the recorder. Sir Charles WethereU, a 
 bitter opponent of the BUI, a mob which seems 
 never to have greatly exceeded a few hundred 
 persons, took possession of the principal 
 streets, broke into the town-hall, and set fire 
 to several houses. For two days, the weak- 
 ness of the magistrates allowed the disorders 
 to continue unchecked; at length they in' 
 structed the military to re-establish order, 
 which was done without much difficulty, 
 though with some loss of life. The blanie 
 for the long continuance of the riots was laid 
 on Colonel Brereton, the commander of the 
 military, who might have used the discretion 
 with which the magistrates had armed him 
 (probably in order to avoid the responsi- 
 bility themselves) to suppress the disturbances 
 at an earlier period. He was tried by court- 
 martial, and, unable to face the consequences, 
 committed suicide. Four of the ringleaders 
 were hanged, and the town was compelled to 
 pay £68,000 damages. 
 
 Britain. [Britannia ; Romans in 
 Britain; Britons; and Great Buitain.] 
 
 Britain, Count or (Comes Britannise) , was 
 a Eoman officer who in Constantino's scheme 
 of governing the Empire, was the supreme 
 general of the military forces in Britain. 
 His iurisdiction was, however, subject to 
 that of the Masters of the Cavalry and 
 Infantry in the West. His power was not 
 localised within Britain, but under him were 
 the Dux Britanniarum, who seems to have 
 commanded the forces massed along the 
 northern wall, and the Comes Uteris Saxomei, 
 who was in command of the coast-hne be- 
 tween the Wash and Wight, which was 
 most exposed to piratical Saxon assaults. 
 The " Gwledig " is thought by some to have 
 inherited the power of the Bux Britanniarum. 
 Khjs, Celtio Brrfam, pp. 98, 99; Skene, 
 Aneimt Booto of Wales, i. seg.; Hubner m 
 i Corpus Itiscrip. Lat.t vii. 5. 
 
Bri 
 
 (192) 
 
 Bri 
 
 Britauuia, or Brittauia (the latter 
 very rare form is the " theoretically correct " 
 spelling), a name constructed by the Eomans 
 from the tribe-name Brittones, known to 
 them as Britanni, and used by them to denote 
 the larger of the " British IsJanda," originally 
 styled Albion. After Ceeaar's time this 
 is the general usage, but in an earlier form 
 " at PpeTuviKoi vrjiroi " are said to have in- 
 cluded leme (Ireland) as well as Albion. 
 [Britons.] 
 
 Ehys, Oeltii: Bi-iioiii, pp. 203—211. 
 
 Britannia, The Roman Divisions of. 
 Originally only one Province of Britain was 
 constituted, but it is possible that Severus 
 divided it into Upper and Lower Britain ; 
 though whether this statement rests on a mis- 
 conception of Dio Caasius, a merely popular 
 use of the words, or a regular legal sub- 
 division of the province, it is hard to deter- 
 mine. In Diocletian and Constantine's reor- 
 ganisation of the Empire, the " diocese " of 
 Britain was divided into four "provinces," 
 Britannia Prima, Britannia Seounda, Flavia 
 Caesariensis, and Maxima Caesarienais. To 
 these Valentia was added in 369. It consisted 
 of the district between the two waUs of 
 Hadrian and Antoninus. The situation of 
 the rest is absolutely unknown, for it is now 
 acknowledged that the chronicle of " Richard 
 of Cirencester," from which the ordinary 
 identification comes, is an eighteenth-century 
 forgery. 
 
 Hubner, Preface to vol. vii. of Corpus hiscrip. 
 Lat., gives a well-digested summary of all that 
 ia inown on this subject. C/. Eh^s, Celtic 
 Britain, and Elton, Origins of Eng. Htstorj/. 
 
 Britanny, Relations with. There is 
 no suiBcient evidence to warrant the belief 
 that Britanny received its present population 
 from Britons who fled from the Saxon 
 invaders. Individual cases of emigration, 
 settlements from the days of the soldiers of 
 Maximus downwards, there may well have 
 been. Intimate relations certainly existed 
 between Welshmen and Britons in the earliest 
 times. Similarity of language, place-names, 
 institutions, and traditions point to the racial 
 unity of Gaul and Briton. In their western 
 sea-girt highlands, each alike struggled 
 against^ the ever-flowing tide of Roman and 
 Teutonic influences, yet preserved unimpaired 
 their tongue and nationaUty. But the coloni- 
 sation theory is rather a popular attempt to 
 explain these phenomena than a proved fact. 
 If the Britons did conquer Armorica, whom 
 did they expel, and how did fugitives, dis- 
 organised by defeat, manage to win so large 
 and fair a territory ? The popular legends, 
 raoreover, speak as much of migrations from 
 Armorica to Britain (e.g., the legend of St. 
 Padam in Rees' Trdsh Saints) as from Britain 
 to Armorica. With the establishment of the 
 Bnghsh monarchy over Britain, the early 
 relations of Wales and Britanny became 
 fejver. But even in England Alfred sends 
 
 gifts to Breton Abbeys, and Athelstan gives 
 a shelter to Alan when the Breton revolt 
 against William Longsword of Normandy 
 had been put down. The superiority which 
 RoH had previously established over Britanny 
 thus continues, and accounts for the number 
 of Bretons in the Conqueror's army, and their 
 large grants of land in the west of England. 
 Alan of Britanny received that Honour of 
 Richmond which so long remained a link 
 between England and Britanny. It was from 
 Britanny that Walter Map brought the old 
 Welsh Book of Legends of Arthur that is 
 professedly the basis of G-eoffry of Mon- 
 mouth's history, and Rhys Ap Tewdwr's 
 return from his exile in Armorica marks a 
 new era in Welsh literature. Like the 
 Welsh, the Bretons were constantly harassed 
 by war and faction; and, in 1148, when the 
 Count of Porhoet defeated Hoel VI., the 
 defeated party invoked the aid of Henry of 
 Anjou as Rolf's successor. Henry granted 
 the duchy to his brother GeofEry, whose 
 death was succeeded by the triumph of the 
 native prince, Conon IV. But Henry, since 
 1154 King of England, compels Conon to 
 abdicate and marry his daughter Constance 
 to his son GeofEry. Thus Henry II. practi- 
 cally adds Britanny to the Angevin Dominions. 
 GeofEry died in 1186, and the rivalry of John 
 and Philip Augustus for his territory ulti- 
 mately led to his son Arthur's murder, the 
 French triumph, and a new line of Breton 
 princes sprung from Geoffry's daughter. In 
 1342 Edward III. found another opportunity 
 of intervention in favour of John of Mont- 
 fort, the native claimant, against Charles of 
 Blois, the friend of Philip YI. For many 
 years the Breton succession war was an epi- 
 sode in the great hundred years' struggle of 
 France and England. Left unsettled at the 
 Treaty of Bretigny, the question was at last 
 decided, at the battle of Auray, in favour of 
 the house of Montfort. In the early stages 
 of England's second struggle for France, 
 Britanny, though less energetically than 
 Burgundy, sided with the English. But 
 Arthur of Richmond, brother of the duke, 
 and inheritor of the old Honour of Alan 
 broke with the Enghsh, and became the great 
 supporter of Charles VII. In 1488 the death 
 of Francis II. produced a European contest 
 for the hand of his daughter Anne which, 
 despite the exertions of Henry VIL, resulted 
 m her marriage with Charles VIII., and the 
 ultimate annexation of Britanny to France. 
 Thus the old ally of England became a pro- 
 vince of her hereditary enemy. 
 
 ^sde, Nennius, the Anglo-Saxon Chron. and 
 the Brut y Tywysogion, contain: the earliest 
 references to the colonisation. Cf. Elton, 
 Ongins of Eng. Hist., p. 365, note, which refers 
 to the Histories of Britanny, by HallSguen and 
 ■ ^.i;°"''^°°- ^''eeman's ii/ormau Conquest {vol 
 1. 199, 206 ; vol. iii. 313 ; vol. iv. 172, 296) gives 
 an account of later deahngs. For Henry II.'s 
 relations, see Lyttelton, History ofHmry II. 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
Bri 
 
 im ) 
 
 Bro 
 
 British ^gion, The. On the out- 
 treak of the war between Isahella of Spain 
 and Don Carlos, in 1835, an Order in Council 
 was issued, on Lord Palmerston's sugges- 
 tion, authorising " any persons to engage 
 during the next two years in the military 
 and naval service of her Majesty Isahella II., 
 Queen of Spain." De Lacy Evans, a 
 colonel in the British . army, was selected 
 for the command. Recruits to the numher 
 of 10,000 were rapidly enlisted, and des- 
 patched imder his orders to the Peninsula. 
 They did not eifect much. In 1837 Evans 
 returned to England ; and in 1838 the 
 Ministry withdrew the Order in Council, 
 and the corps was dissolved. 
 
 Briton, The Nokth. [Wilkes.] 
 
 Britons. The general name given by the 
 Romans to the inhabitants of South Britain. 
 Its etymology has generally been traced to 
 the Welsh brtth (spotted or tattooed), but it 
 is more probably kindred with brethyu, the 
 Welsh for cloth. Thus, the Britons were 
 the clothed people, as opposed to the pre- 
 Celtic occupants, who probably wore but 
 httle clothing. The classical form "Bri- 
 tanni" passed away with the Romans, and 
 was superseded by the more correct form, 
 " Brittones." Modem inquirers have sought a 
 remedy for the vague use of the word Briton 
 by limiting it (in its Welsh form, Brython) 
 to that branch of the Celtic stock otherwise 
 called the Cymric ; and it has been pointed 
 out that large Gaelic survivals prevented 
 South Britain from being exclusively the 
 property of either group of tribes. [Celts.] 
 But as these vestiges of the Gael had 
 almost passed away before regular history 
 begins, we cannot do much harm in treating 
 of the Britons in the more general sense of 
 the ancient writers. But, politically and 
 socially, we have not sufficient information to 
 draw a clear line between Brython and 
 Goidel (Gael) ; especially if, with Mr. Elton, 
 we reject the accounts in Bede and his school. 
 The absence of heroic kingship, the nearer 
 approximation (especially in the South- 
 East) to the higher culture and civilisa- 
 tion of Gaul, the predominance of Druidism 
 [Druids] over the ordinary Aryan polytheism 
 are, perhaps, the chief marks of the " Bry- 
 thonic" tribes. Linguistically, they are 
 distinguished from the Gael by the use of 
 "p" instead of the older "qu" or "qv." 
 The tribes of the south were, from their 
 neighbourhood or their affinity to the Gauls, 
 the most advanced in culture, and the Cantii 
 were, according to Ctesar, the most civilised 
 nation. Besides these, the chief tribes of the 
 Britons were the Belgse, Atrebatii, the Eegni, 
 the Durotriges, and the Dumnonii (Goidelic) 
 of the South; the Dobuni, CatuveUauni, 
 Coritavi, and Comarii of Middle England; 
 the loeni, Cenimagni, and Trinobantes of 
 the Eastern Counties; the Silures, Demetse, 
 Hist. -7 
 
 and Ordovices of South-Eastern, South- 
 western, and Northern Wales; the Bri- 
 gantes, and some less important tribes — such 
 as the Parisi, Segantii, Otadini, Selgovse, and 
 Danmonii — of the district between the Hum- 
 ber and the Northern Wall. Beyond this 
 latter the Britons, in any precise sense, 
 hardly extended. 
 
 Elton, Origins of EnfflasJi ITisforw (especially 
 chap, ix.), with Eh^s's later Celtic Britain; 
 Sl£eue, Celtic Scotland, gives a rather different 
 ■view ; Camden, Britannia, has the fullest local 
 and arohffiologioal details. 
 
 For the ethnology and general characteristics 
 of the Britons, see Celts. The chief tribes are 
 mentioned under their varions numes. Tor 
 the political history of Britain, see Romans in 
 Bbitain. {"x. E. T.l 
 
 Britton is the title of an early summary 
 or abstract (" Summa de legibus Anglise quae 
 vocatur Bretone") of English law purport- 
 ing to have been written by command of 
 Edward I. Nothing is known with certainty 
 as to the authorship of the work. The theory 
 that it was the work of John le Breton, 
 Bishop of Hereford, is untenable, because 
 there are allusions in the work to events 
 which occurred after the death of that 
 prelate in 1275. Selden and others have 
 thought that the book was written by Henry 
 de Bracton, and is an abridgment of his 
 great work. [Bracton ] Britton is a 
 verj- useful guide to the English legal system 
 of the thirteenth century. It has been 
 printed, in 1640, by Edward Wingate, and 
 by Mr. F. M. Nichols, with an English trans- 
 lation, Oxford, 1865. 
 
 Broad Bottom Administration, 
 
 The (1744 — 1754), was a cant name given 
 to the ministry formed by the Pelhams, 
 after they had contrived to rid themselves of 
 Carteret by threatening to resign, because its 
 supposed policy was to admit to office the heads 
 of Opposition, both Whig and Tory, except 
 Carteret and Bath. Chesterfield and Pitt 
 were persuaded to relinquish their opposition 
 (the former becoming Lord-Lieutenant of 
 Ireland), the Privy Seal was given to the 
 Tory Lord Gower, and Sir John Hinde Cotton, 
 an undoubted Jacobite, was given a place about 
 the court ; while other posts were given to 
 the Dukes of Devonshire and Bedford, Lords 
 Cobham and Hobart, and Bubb Dodington. 
 In 1746 the Pelhams, finding themselves in 
 danger of being once more supplanted by 
 Granville (Carteret), demanded the admission 
 of Pitt to office, and on the king's refusal 
 resigned ; but on Granville's failure to form 
 a ministry they returned to office. 
 
 Coxe, Pelham; Stanhope, Hist. ofEng. 
 
 Broken IVEen was the name applied by 
 the Scottish government, in the fifteenth 
 century and subsequently, to such persons in 
 the Highlands as had no chief to be respon- 
 sible for them. The government had so far, 
 recognised the tribal institutions that, by an 
 
Bro 
 
 ( 194) 
 
 Bro 
 
 Act of Council of the reign of James IV., 
 the chiefs were held responsible for the 
 execution of writs against their followers. 
 
 Bromley, Sir Th-omas [h. 1530, d. 1587), 
 was in 1566 made Recorder of London, and in 
 1570 Solicitor-General, in which capacity he 
 took a leading part in the trial of the Duke 
 of Norfolk, 1572 ; he was subsequently em- 
 ployed in the attempt to extort concessions 
 from the Queen of Scots ; and, on the death 
 of Sir Nicholas Bacon, was made Lord Chan- 
 cellor, 1579. In 1586 he took an active part 
 in the prosecution of the conspirators in 
 Bahington's plot, and was President of the 
 Commission for the trial of Mary Stuart, 
 whilst he shared with Burleigh and Davison 
 the responsibility of despatching the warrant. 
 He died shortly afterwards, having never got 
 over the anxiety of the presidency. 
 
 Bromptou, John, Abbot of Jervaulx, 
 com"piled a chronicle about the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, consisting of selections 
 carefuUy made from older chroniclers. This 
 work, which embraces the period from 597 to 
 1199, possesses little authority, but curiously 
 enough is constantly quoted by historians. 
 . It was printed by Twysden in his Scriptores 
 Decern, 1652. 
 
 Brooke, Sir James (b. 1803, d. 1868), 
 after serving with credit in the Bengal army, 
 visited Borneo in his yacht in 1838, and 
 assisted the Sultan against the revolted Dyak 
 tribe. In return he received a grant of the 
 district of Sarawak from the Sultan of Borneo 
 with the title of Eajah. He did much to 
 ameliorate the condition of the natives, to de- 
 velop the resources of the island, and to sup- 
 press piracy, and earned on several occasions 
 the thanksof the British government, to whom 
 he more than once offered to surrender Sarawak. 
 The island of Labuan having been acquired 
 by the British, Brooke was appointed its 
 governor, 1847; but in 1851 serious charges 
 of cruelty were brought against him by 
 Joseph Hume. A Eoyal Commission was ap- 
 pointed to investigate the matter, but came to 
 no definite conclusion. Sir James Brooke 
 was, however, deprived of his governorship 
 His later years were spent in England ; but 
 he made frequent visits to Sarawak. 
 
 Part. Deba'es (3rd ser.), vol. 118 -n ivt ««« 4 
 collection of Sir J. Brooke's u!u?s 4S £ed 
 
 ,1.^??^^^^^ ^^^ Vanx, Henry, Lord 
 
 (i. 1778, d. 1868), the eldest son of Henry 
 Brougham, of Brougham Hall, Westmore- 
 Und, educatad at the High School and 
 University of Edinburgh, was admitted to 
 ^% ;; . "i' ^""^ ™ 1800. When the 
 mmburgh Heview was established in 1802, 
 Mr. Brougham became one of its most 
 active contributors, and exhibited an extra- 
 
 Z'^c^r7''"^^7 ^''■^ ^''*™' of knowledge. 
 In 1807 he resolved to qualify himself for the 
 
 English bar, and in 1808 he began to practise 
 in the Court of King's Bench, and on the 
 northern circuit. In 1809 he was returned 
 to Parliament for the borough of CameHord. 
 His powers of debate were soon recognised, 
 and he became the rival of George Canning, 
 and his most formidable opponent. In the 
 election of 1811, Mr. Brougham was beaten 
 at Liverpool by Mr. Canning, and was 
 excluded from JParliament tiU 1816, when 
 he was returned for Winchelsea. In 1820 
 he undertook, with Denman, the defence of 
 Queen Caroline. During the whole of the 
 trial his popularity was as unbounded as 
 the queen's. On Feb. 11, 1822, he moved a 
 resolution in the House of Commons for the 
 consideration of the public burdens, particu- 
 larly those pressing on the agTieultural in- 
 terest. This motion was, however, negatived. 
 In the same year he moved a resolution con- 
 demnatory of the unconstitutional influence 
 of the crown in the government, which was 
 also lost. In 1823 he delivered a powerful 
 speech exposing the designs of the Holy 
 Alliance. On April 17th of the same year, 
 he exchanged abuse of such an insulting 
 nature with Canning, that the Speaker was 
 compelled to order both into the custody ef 
 the Sergeant-at-Arms, and they only escaped 
 this by retractations. In the same year he 
 was engaged with Mr. Birkbeck in founding 
 the first Mechanics' Institute. In 1825 he 
 took a large share in the foundation of the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- 
 ledge, and also of the London University. 
 In 1828 he dehvered his famous six hours' 
 speech on Law Reform. In 1830 he came 
 prominently forward as the champion of 
 Parliamentary Reform, and the House of 
 Commons had no sooner met , than he an- 
 nounced his intention to bring in a Bill em- 
 bracing a comprehensive measure of reform. 
 A ministerial crisis, however, supervened. 
 The Duke of "Wellington, having been de- 
 feated on a government measure, resigned; 
 and the formation of a new government under 
 Earl Grey, including Brougham, who with 
 some difficulty was induced to accept the 
 Chancellorship, placed in the hands of the 
 ministry the great question of Parliamentary 
 Beiorm. But though no longer a representa- 
 tive of the people,' and porsonaUy relieved 
 from the charge of the Reform Bill, his best 
 powers were called forth in support of it ; and 
 his speech on the 7th Oct., 1831, when the 
 Bill was read a second time in the House of 
 Lords, was a display of eloquence of the 
 highest order. AsLordChanceUor. Brougham's 
 success was, not verv great. He was un- 
 acquainted with the details of English equitv, 
 jurisprudence, and with the practice of his 
 court, and his manners gave great offence to 
 the distinguished advocates who practised 
 before him. His extraordinary enero'v how- 
 ever atoned for many defects, and'he had 
 the distinction of getting through the arrears 
 
Bro 
 
 ( 195 ) 
 
 Bra 
 
 in his court -with unexampled rapidity. In 
 1834 Brougham resigned with the Whig 
 government. In 1835 they returned to 
 power under Lord Melbourne, hut Lord 
 Brougham, who had never acted cordially 
 with the leaders of his party, did not 
 return with them, and Cottenham, greatly to 
 Brougham's anger and chagrin, was made 
 Lord Chancellor. Released from party 
 ties he now acted independently, and even 
 showed a disposition to court the Tories, and 
 especially the Duke of Wellington. But for 
 the remainder of his long life the part he 
 played in politics was unimportant, though 
 his restless vanity still kept bim hefore the 
 public eye. As a law reformer, and a member 
 of the Privy Council, he continued to do 
 useful work ; and many of his judgments in 
 House of Lords appeals are of great import- 
 ance. Lord Brougham's powers of mind, his 
 remarkable activity, his ardent love of liberty 
 and justice, his versatility and his eloquence, 
 ma^e him one of the most conspicuous 
 figures in English politics for many years ; 
 and had these great qualities not been 
 neutralised by defects almost as striking — an 
 unbounded recklessness, an extraordinary 
 want of self-control, and an eccentricity which 
 sometimes bordered on insanity — ^he could 
 hai'dly have failed to rank among the most 
 illustrious of EngUsh statesmen. 
 
 Lord Brougham's Autohiogra'phyj whicli was 
 ■written during the closing years of his life 
 when his memory was failing, is often untrust- 
 worthy. The same must be said of Lord Camp- 
 bell's Life of Brougham, the work of a not* too 
 ' generous rival. Lord Brougham wrote largely 
 on a ^eat variety of topics, but his writings 
 are now little read. The best of his historical 
 works are the History of England under the 
 Mouse of Lancaster, and Sketches of the Statesmeu 
 of the Time of George III. His Speeches were 
 collected in four volumes, 1838. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Bronghton, John Cam Hobhousb, Lord 
 (4. 1786, d. 1869), the eldest son of Sir 
 Benjamin Hohhouse, was educated at West- 
 minster School and at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. , He was the intimate friend of Lord 
 Byron, accompanied him on his travels in 
 1809, and was with him during his first visit to 
 Turkey and Greece. He adopted advanced 
 Liberal views in politics, and was a zealous 
 advocate of Parliamentary Reform. In 1816 
 he wrote a work called Letters written by an 
 English Gentlemcm resident at Paris, which gave 
 great ofience to the English government. In 
 December, 1819, in consequence of one of these 
 letters, which contained some severe remarks 
 on certain members of the House of Commons, 
 and which was therefore declared a breach of 
 privilege by that assembly, he was arrested 
 and imprisoned in Newgate, hut was liberated 
 a few weeks after, when Parliament was 
 dissolved by the death of George IV. , in 1820. 
 The same year he was elected with Sir F. 
 Eurdett member for Westminster. In 1832 he 
 joined Earl Grey's government as Secretary 
 ' for War. In 1833 he was appointed Chief 
 
 Secretary for Ireland ; and in 1834 Chief Com- 
 missioner of Woods and Forests. He was 
 President of the Board of Control from 1835 
 to 1841 ; and again from 1846 to 1852. He suc- 
 ceeded to the baronetcy in 1 831 ; and was raised 
 to the peerage as Baron Broughton in 1851. 
 
 Brownists, The, were a religious sect 
 founded in the reign of Queen Elizabeth by 
 Robert Brown, a clergyman of the Church 
 of England, who began to preach his doc- 
 trines about 1580. They were ultra- 
 Puritans, regarded the Church of England 
 as impure, and, assuming the character of 
 Separatists, refused to hold any communica- 
 tion with her. They were violent op- 
 posers of episcopacy, and, in consequence, 
 sufllered much persecution at the hands of the 
 bishops. In 1593 a statute was passed enact- 
 ing the penalty of imprisonment against any 
 person above the age of sixteen who should 
 forbear, for the space of a month, to repair to 
 some church until he should make such 9pen 
 submission and declaration of conformity as 
 the Act appointed. In consequence of the 
 rigorous enforcement of this Act, a large pro- 
 portion of the Brownists sought an asylum in 
 Holland, whence subsequently, in 1670, many 
 of them sailed from Amsterdam to found a new 
 home in America. The members of the sect 
 who remained in England endured consider- 
 able persecution, until the principle of Tolera- 
 tion was recognised. During the Civil Wars 
 of Charles I.'s reign they became merged in 
 the sect of the Independents. The Brownists 
 objected alike to Episcopacy and to the 
 Presbyterian form of Church government, 
 and favoured a purely congregational system, 
 without convocation or sj-nod, and without 
 any separate order of priests. [Barrowists ; 
 Independents.] 
 
 Fuller, Church Wst. ; Neal, Hisf. of the Pm-i- 
 tans ; Mosheim, Bccles. Hist. ; Masson, Life of 
 Milton, vol. ii. 
 
 Bruce, The Family of (or de Bkus), was 
 of Norman descent. The founder of the Eng- 
 lish branch came over with Wilham the Con- 
 queror and obtained large grants of land in 
 Northumberland, where the family quickly 
 assumed a powerful baronial position, being 
 frequently involved in border warfare with the 
 Scotch. David I. of Scotland made over to 
 the house of Bruce the lands of Annandale 
 about 1 1 30, and thus it obtained its recognition 
 as a power in the south of Scotland. 1 sabella, 
 second daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, 
 the brother of Malcolm IV., married Robert de 
 Brus, Lord of Annandale, and their son became 
 a competitor for the crown of Scotland, 1291. 
 Their grandson was the great Robert Bruce, 
 King of Scotland 1306—1329. 
 
 Bruce, Edward (d. 1318), was the brother 
 of Robert Bruce. He commanded the reserve 
 at Bannookbum, and dispersed the English 
 archers. His restless spirit gave much trouble 
 to his brother, who gladly let him go to 
 Ireland, to assist the native rebels against 
 
Bra 
 
 (196) 
 
 Brrl 
 
 England. On May 25th, 1 3 1 6, he landed from 
 a fleet of 300 sail at Lome, on the coast of An- 
 trim. With some 600 men he took Dundalk, 
 and was joined by a large native force. The 
 O'Neil resigning his claims, he was crowned 
 king. At the River Boyne he defeated the 
 O'Connors and the Eed Earl of Ulster, and 
 proceeded to besiege Carrickfergus. In Meath 
 the Lord Justice Mortimer succumbed to him, 
 and the flight of another English force before 
 hira led to a rising in Munster and Leinster. 
 In 1316, however, want of provisions com- 
 pelled the Scots to retire into Ulster and 
 leave the Wioklow septs to their fate. The 
 De Burghs and Geraldines also agreed to a 
 truce in face of a common foe. But Eobert's 
 arrival counteracted aU this, and was at once fol- 
 lowed by the capture of Carrickfergus, though 
 the English victory at Athenry restored the 
 balance somewhat. The Bruoes, however, 
 followed by 20,000 men, now marched straight 
 on Dublin, and the De Lacys openly joined 
 them. Dublin was not taken, but the country 
 was wasted as far as Limerick ; and so com- 
 pletely was this done that the Scots themselves 
 suffered severely, on their retreat, from want, 
 and it was only the supinenesa of the. English 
 which enabled them to regain their old 
 position. In 1317, Hobert Bruce's good sense 
 induced him to give up the contest and leave 
 Ireland; aU his forces, however, remained with 
 his brother. The Anglo-Irish, stiU fighting 
 among themselves, were unable to gain any 
 advantage. In 1318, however, Edward Bruce 
 and the De Lacys, joining their forces, marched 
 to Dandalk, but were met near that place, on 
 Oct. 5th, by the now united English, were 
 routed, and Bruce himself killed. His 
 body was quartered, and the head sent to 
 Edward II. 
 
 Walsingham, Hist. AngUo. ; Moore, Hist, of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Bruce, Eobekt, King of Scotland (b 
 1274, s. 1306, a. 1329), was the grand- 
 son of Eobert de Bruce, the rival of John 
 Baliol. In 1297 he fought for Edward I. 
 against Wallace, then joined the Scottish 
 army, and, in the same year, returned to his 
 allegiance to the English king until 1298, 
 when he again joined the national party 
 in Scotland, and was chosen one • of the 
 guardians of that kingdom. In 1304 he 
 entered into an alliance of mutual support 
 with Lamberton, Bishop of St. Andrews, 
 and about the same time became reconciles! 
 to Edward, at whose court he resided until 
 Feb., 1306, when^-hearing that the king, 
 owing to some information that he had 
 obtained from Comyn, intended to put him 
 to death— he fled to Scotland. Having 
 stabbed Comyn at Dumfries in a quarrel, he 
 determined to assert hia right to reign over 
 bcotland aa the representative of David of 
 Huntingdon. He was accordingly crowned 
 at Scone (March 27th, 1306) by the Coun- 
 tess of Buchan, of the. house of Macduff. 
 
 Edward I. at orice procured from the Pope 
 the excommunication of Bruce, and was 
 on his way to revenge the death of Comyn 
 when he died at Burgh-on-the-Sands, in 
 1307. Before this, however, Bruce had 
 been twice defeated (at Methven and 
 Dulay), though he had somewhat re- 
 trieved his fortunes at Loudoun Hill. It 
 is to this period of his life that the 
 marvellous stories told by the chroniclers 
 about him mainly refer. There is no 
 doubt that Bruce had to conceal himself in 
 the fastnesses of the mountains, and to 
 support himself as best he could. In 1308 
 he routed his old enemy, the Earl of Buchan, 
 at luverury, harried Lome, and received 
 additional support by a declaration of alle- 
 giance on the part of the clergy. A feeble 
 incursion into Scotland, undertaken by Ed- 
 ward II., 1310, was revenged by Bruce in 
 the two following years, when he invaded 
 England and laid Durham waste. In 
 1313 Bruce ravaged Cumberland, and laid 
 violent siege to the castle of Stirling, the 
 attempted relief of which by the English led 
 to the Scotch victory of Bannockburu in 
 1314, a battle in which Bruce displayed as 
 much generalship and valour as he after- 
 wards did moderation in the use he made of 
 his victory. His attempts to bring about 
 peace were, however, unsuccessful. In 1316, 
 when he left Scotland for a time to aid 
 his brother Edward in Ireland, hia absence 
 was made the occasion 6f many unsuc- 
 cessful inroads by the English. " An at- 
 tempt at mediation on the part of the Pope 
 (John XXII.) having failed, Bruce, in 1318, 
 took Berwick, and harried Northumberland 
 and Yorkshire. The next year Edward II. 
 tried unsuccessfully to recover Berwick, only 
 drawing down on his kingdom retaliatory 
 raids on the part of Bruce, who, in 13'22, 
 entered into negotiations with the rebel 
 Earl of Carlisle. At length, on March 30th, 
 1323, a truce was concluded at Thorpe, 
 in Yorkshire, for thirteen years, and was 
 ratified by -Robert Bruce at Berwick. The 
 peace was, however, soon broken, and in 
 1326 Bruce again ravaged the north of 
 England, evading the English army, which 
 he reduced to great straits by destroying all 
 their provisions. In 1328, another treaty 
 very favourable to Scotland was made at 
 Northampton, by which Robert's son David 
 married Joanna, daughter of Edward II. 
 "The good King Robert" died at Cardross, 
 June 7, 1324, and by his patriotism, wisdom, 
 and courage left behind him the character of a 
 good man. He married, first, Isabella, daughter 
 of the Earl of Mar, and, secondly, Elizabeth 
 de Burgh, daughter of the Earl of Ulster. 
 
 Pordun, Scotichvonwon ; Barbour's ^eat poem. 
 The Bruce, which is the fullest account of 
 Bruce's exploits, and is valuable as being the 
 work of a nearly contemporaneous writer; 
 WalRineham, Hist. Anglic.; Buiton, Hist, of 
 Scotland,. 
 
Bru 
 
 (197) 
 
 Buc 
 
 Bruce, Robekt de W. 1295), and Lord of 
 Annandale, was of Norman origin, aud the son 
 of Robert de Bruce and Isabella, daughter 
 of David of Huntingdon. He was one of the 
 Scotch Commissioners who went to Salis- 
 bury to confer about the marriage of Prince 
 Edward and the Maid of Norway (1286). 
 On the dispute for the succession to the 
 Scotch crown, after the death of the Maid of 
 Norway (1290), Bruce put in a claim as the 
 descendant, in the nearest degree, of David 
 of Huntingdon. He also declared that in 
 1240 Alexander II. had, in an Assembly of 
 the Estates, recognised him as his heir in the 
 event of his dying childless (since that time, 
 however, other male descendants had been 
 bom). The only other competitor whom 
 Bruce had to fear was John Baliol, in whose 
 favour Edward finally decided (Nov., 1292). 
 On the resignation of Baliol in 1295, Bruce 
 tried ineffectually to persuade Edward to 
 bestow the kingdom on him. He died 
 shortly afterwards. 
 
 Bmde, Sox of Maklin, was a powerful 
 Pictish monarch (p. 556, d. 583) who had his 
 capital at Inverness. In 560 he defeated the 
 Scots of Dalriada, slaying their king, Gabran, 
 and driving them back to Kintyre. This 
 defeat was important, as it led to the mission 
 of St. Columba, by whom Brude was baptised 
 in 563. [PiCTs.], 
 
 BmnaiUllTirll, The Battle of (937), was 
 fought by Athelstan against the combined 
 forces of Anlaf the Dane, who came over 
 from Ireland, Constantine of Scotland, and 
 Owen of Cumberland. This powerful com- 
 bination was thoroughly routed by Athelstan, 
 and in commemoration of the great Saxon 
 victory over this great Danish and Celtic 
 league a noble war-song was composed, which 
 is preserved in the ^nglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
 The site of the battle is very doubtful; 
 it has been placed in the Lothians, in North- 
 umberland, in Yorkshire, and it has been iden- 
 tified, with some plausibility, with Brumby, 
 in Lincolnshire. 
 
 Anq.-Sax. Chron., i 290 (EoUs ed.); Free- 
 man, Gorman Conq., i. 61. For a spirited 
 translation of the "Song of the Fight at 
 Brunanburh," see Mr. Freeman's Old-English 
 iiistury, p, 155. 
 
 Bmtlis (or Brute) was the name assigned 
 to the fabulous hero who was supposed to 
 have given his name to the island of Britain. 
 According to the account given by GeofErey of 
 Monmouth, and universally believed in the 
 Middle Ages, Brutus was the great-grandson 
 of .S)neas. Having been banished from Italy, 
 he retired to Greece, where he became the 
 champion of the oppressed Trojans. After 
 many difiiculties, he succeeded in reaching 
 Albion, which at that time was inhabited by 
 giants. Having destroyed these monsters, 
 the Trojans occupied the country, which. 
 
 m honour of their leader, they called 
 Britain. Brutus died in the twenty-fourth 
 year after his arrival in the island. 
 
 Brnt y Tywysogion, or The Chho- 
 NicLE or THE Fhinces OF Wales, is the name 
 of a most important Welsh chronicle which 
 extends from the abdication of Cadwal at 
 Rome in the year 681 to the conquest of 
 Wales in 1282. It is printed with an 
 English translation in the Rolls Series (1860). 
 
 Buccaneers (the name is derived from 
 a word used by the Caribbean Indians de- 
 noting dried or cured meat) were associations 
 of piratical adventurers which flourished in 
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The 
 buccaneers were chiefly English and French, 
 and owed their origin to the attempts made 
 by other European nations, in the early part of 
 the sixteenth century, to acquire a share in the 
 rich American trade which the Spaniards at- 
 tempted to engross. The buccaneers, though 
 in later times they carried on general piracy, 
 directed their chief efforts against the 
 Spaniards, whom they regarded as their 
 natural enemies. In 1625 they took St. 
 Christopher, and in 1630 Tortuga, which they 
 made their head-quai-ters. In 1670, under 
 Henry Morgan, they captured Panama with 
 immense booty ; and in 1683 and 1684 made 
 the expeditions to the South Seas which are 
 described in Dampier's famous Voyages. In 
 1670 a treaty, called "The Treaty of 
 America," was concluded between England 
 and Spain for the suppression of the buccaneer 
 associations, but it was quite ineffectual. The 
 wars between England and France, by 
 making the English and French buccaneers 
 enemies, did much to weaken them, and after 
 the Treaty of Ryswick they gradually disap- 
 peared. The most noted buccaneer chiefs 
 were Montbars, Francois L'Olornais, Mans- 
 velt, and especially Henry Morgan, who was 
 knighted by Charles IL, and made deputy- 
 governor of Jamaica. 
 
 J. Bumey, Hist, of the Buccaneers^ 1816. 
 
 Bnch, Jean de Geailly, Captal de (d. 
 1377), was one of the most famous of the 
 English commanders in the French wars of 
 Edward III.'s reign. He was a native of 
 Aquitaine, and attached himself to the Black 
 Prince, with whom he fought at Poitiers and 
 Navarrete. In 1372 he was taken prisoner 
 by the French, and died in captivity five 
 years later. 
 
 Buchan, John Comyn, Eael of, was a 
 staunch adherent of Edward I. He was de- 
 feated by Bruce at Inverury, and had his ter- 
 ritory harried by the victorious troops. His 
 wife, Isabella Macduff, sister of the Earl of 
 Fife, was a supporter of Robert Bruce, and 
 crowned that king at Scone, March 27, 1306. 
 For this, she was imprisoned by Edward I. in 
 a cage at Berwick, as a warning to those who 
 dared to support Bruce. 
 
Bnc 
 
 ( 198 ) 
 
 Bnc 
 
 Bachau, John Stewaet, Earl of {d. 
 1424), the second son of Eobert, Duke of Al- 
 bany, led a Scotcli army of about 6,000 men to 
 France, to aid Charles V. against the English. 
 After winning the battle of Beauge, he was 
 created Constable of France and Count of 
 Aubigny, and was slain at Vemeuil, 1424. 
 
 Buchanan, Geokge (*. 1506, d. 1582), 
 studied at Paris and at St. Andrews, and be- 
 came tutor to the Earl of Casailisin 1532, and 
 subsequently to a son of James^V. He bitterly 
 assailed the friars in his Franeiscanus, which 
 subjected him to much persecution from 
 Cardinal Beaton. He found it unsafe to 
 reside in Scotland, and retired to Bordeaux. 
 In 1544 he went to Paris and taught at the 
 College, of Bourbon. Three years later he 
 ■went to Coimbra in Portugal. Here he was 
 seized as a heretic, and imprisoned in a monas- 
 tery, where he began his version of the Psalms. 
 On his release he remained for some years in 
 France, and in 1560 came to Scotland as Latin 
 tutor to Queen Mary. He received a pension 
 from the queen, and in 1567 was made 
 Moderator of the General Assembly. He ac- 
 companied the Eegent Murray to England, 
 and took a considerable share in political 
 afiairs, being among the most violent oppo- 
 nents of the Queen of Scots. He was present 
 at the Commission of Inquiry at York in 
 1568 as the representative of the Scottish 
 lords, and has been charged with the forgery 
 of the " Casket Letters " (q.v.). In 1571 he 
 printed his tract De Maria Scotorum Megina, a 
 very bitter attack on Mary. Meanwhile, in 
 1 570 he had become tutor to the young prince 
 James, and soon afterwards was made Director 
 of the Chancery and Lord Privy Seal, and sat 
 in Parliament for some years. He was a volu- 
 minous writer of Latin verse, and is among the 
 iirst, if not the very first, of non-classical poets. 
 He was the author of two important prose 
 works. The famous treatise, -D«/M»-eiJc^M«apKf? 
 Scotos, published in 1579, is a political dialogue 
 oa the source and origin of kingly power. It 
 is filled with the principles of liberal and con- 
 stitutional monarchy, and its author has been 
 not inaptly styled " the first Whig." The 
 Iterum Scoticarum Historia, published in 1582, 
 is an authoritative record of Scotch affairs in 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 Buchanan's TForfcs, 2 vols., 1725 (ed. Burman) ; 
 Irving, Merfioir of Buchana/ii. 
 
 Buckingham was an ancient borough 
 at the time of the Domesday Survey. It had 
 been fortified by Edward the Elder in the 
 early part of the tenth century, and oajitured 
 by the Danes in 1016. It was a place of 
 considerable trade in the Middle Ages, and 
 Edward III. fixed one of the wool staples 
 there. It received a charter from Mary in 
 1554, which was surrendered and restored in 
 1684. The borough formerly returned two 
 members to Parhament ; but it was deprived 
 of one of its representatives in 1868. 
 
 Buckingham, Peerage op. (i.) William 
 Giffard is said to have received the earldom 
 of Buckingham from William I. His son died 
 without issue, 1164. (ii.) Thomas of Wood- 
 stock, youngest son of Edward III., was 
 created Earl of Buckingham 1377, died 1397. 
 His son Humphrey died without issue, 1399. 
 (iii.) Humphrey, Earl of Stafford, who in- 
 herited the earldom of Buckingham from his 
 mother, sister of the last earl, was created 
 Duke of Buckingham, 1444. His great- 
 grandson, third duke, was beheaded, 1521, 
 and his honours forfeited, (iv.) George Vil- 
 liers, created Earl of Buckingham 1616, mar- 
 quis 1618 (his mother, being later in the year 
 created Countess of Buckingham for life, died 
 1632), and duke 1623. George Villiers, 
 second duke of this line, died without issue, 
 1687. (v.) John Sheffield, Marquis of Nor- 
 manby, created Duke of IJuckinghamshire, 
 1703. His son Edmund, second duke, died 
 without issue, 1735. (vi.) George Grenville, 
 Earl Temple (son of George Grenville, Premier 
 1763—66, and brother of Lord GrenvjUe, 
 Premier 1806—7), created Marquis of the 
 town of Buckingham, county Bucks, ,1784. 
 His son was created duke in 1822. 
 
 Buckingham, Henry Stafford, Ddke 
 OF (d. 1483), was the eldest son of Humphrey, 
 Duke of Buckingham, by Margaret Beaufort, 
 daughter and heiress of Edmund, Duke of 
 Somerset. He was doubly connected with 
 the royal family, and his marriage with 
 Catherine Woodville, daughter of Earl Rivers, 
 made him brother-in-law to Edward IV. He 
 was one of Richard III.'s great supporters, 
 and was the chief agent in obtaining the 
 crown for him. But before Richard had been 
 on the throne many months Buckingham 
 became alienated from him, the chief reason 
 being apparently Richard's refusal to give 
 him any portion of the inheritance of the 
 Bohuns, to which Buckingham had a claim. 
 Influenced by Morton, Bishop of Ely, he 
 entered into a project for calling over Henry, 
 Earl of Richmond. This scheme was sup- 
 ported by the Woodville party, and Bucking- 
 ham arranged that he should head a rising in 
 the west of England, while Richmond was to 
 land in the south. But the insurrection 
 ended in failure. Buckingham had raised a 
 small force in Wales, but all the bridges over 
 the Severn were broken down, while 
 . unusually heavy rains had so swelled the 
 rivers as to make them impassable. Being 
 unable to get provisions, most of his men 
 deserted, and Buckingham himself took 
 refuge in Shropshire, but was betrayed by 
 one of his retainers, taken to Salisbury, and 
 executed there. 
 
 Buckingham, Edward Stappoed, Duke 
 op {d. 1521), the eldest son of Henry, Duko 
 of Buckingham, was restored by Henry 
 VII. to all his father's dignities and posses- 
 sions. In 1521 he was tried and executed 
 
Buc 
 
 ( 199 ) 
 
 Buc 
 
 for high treason, the chief evidence for the 
 charge being that he had unguardedly let fall 
 some expressions to the effect that he would 
 be entitled to succeed to the throne should 
 the king chance to die without issue. No 
 doubt his connection with the royal line was 
 his real offence in the eyes of the king. ■ The 
 office of Constable, which the Dake of Buck- 
 ingham inherited from the Bohuns, Earls of 
 Hereford, was forfeited by his presumed 
 offence, and was never afterwards revived in 
 England. 
 
 Bnckmghaiu, George Villiers, Ddke 
 op, bom Aug. 20, 1592, was a younger son of 
 Sir George TiUiers of Brooksley. In 1614 
 he was first brought before the notice of 
 James I., and, being an active, handsome, 
 and intelligent youth, his companionship 
 served to amuse the leisure hours of the 
 king. In 1615, after the fall of the former 
 favourite, Carr, Earl of Somerset, Villiers 
 was left without a rival in the king's favour. 
 In 1616, he was created Viscount VUliers; 
 in 1617 he became Eaxl; in 1618, Marquis cf 
 Buckingham. By the royal bounty he was 
 made one of the richest noblemen in England, 
 and all the patronage of the court was placed 
 in his hands. Eew men could endure such 
 rapid and unmerited advancement without 
 detriment to their character. Buckingham 
 was a vain and arrogant man, not ready 
 to take advice, and not content that any 
 should hold office who did not owe their pro- 
 motion to his good-will. Charges of malver- 
 sation were brought against various officials, 
 and several noblemen of high birth deprived 
 of their offices. But although some reforms 
 were effected in the public service, and 
 although Buckingham was not personally 
 avaricious, the atmosphere of the court re- 
 mained venal. Those who sought promotion, 
 it they had not directly to purchase office, 
 were expected to requite the service in one 
 form or another, to win the favour of Buck- 
 ingham's dependants, or possibly marry one 
 of his needy relations. Over the direction 
 of James's foreign policy Buckingham, during 
 the first part of his career, exercised no 
 appreciable influence. In 1619 the Pro- 
 testants of Bohemia had risen in rebellion 
 against their king, the Emperor Ferdinand, 
 and had bestowed the crown on James's 
 Protestant son-in-law, the Elector Palatine. 
 The Palatinate had been in consequence 
 invaded by a Spanish army. James hoped 
 to get it restored to the Elector by nego- 
 tiating a treaty of marriage between Prince 
 Charles and the Spanish Infanta. Bucking- 
 ham, as personal motives prompted him, joined 
 those who approved of a Spanish alliance or 
 those who desired to render assistance to the 
 Protestant party in Germany. In 1620 he 
 had married a Catholic, Lady Catherine 
 Manners, and in 1622 his attitude became 
 Bjore decided. He entered into a close 
 
 friendship with the Spanish ambassador, 
 Gondomar, and the following year prevailed 
 on James to let him and the prince go to 
 Spain, under the behef that once there they 
 could readily prevail on Philip IV. to restore 
 his lands to the Elector. Arrived at Madrid 
 Buckingham soon discovered his delusion. 
 The Spaniards wanted toleration for the 
 English Catholics, but refused in return to 
 bind themselves in any way about the Pala- 
 tinate. During his absence James conferred 
 on Buckingham the title of duke. The new 
 duke and Charles both returned home, irate 
 with the Spaniards and eager to declare war. 
 A Parliament was summoned and its support 
 asked (1624). For a time the duke was 
 immensely popular, but his popularity was 
 short-lived. Ue had many schemes in his 
 head for the recovery of the Palatinate, but 
 he had not the qualities of a statesman, and 
 did not understand the first conditions of 
 success. A treaty was agreed on for the 
 marriage of Charles with Henrietta Maria, the 
 sister of Louis XIII., in which concessions 
 were made in favour of the English Catholics, 
 although a distinct promise had been given 
 to the Parliament that nothing of the sort 
 should be done. James and Buckingham 
 expected that in return Louis would aid them 
 to recover the Palatinate, but they were soon 
 undeceived. Dire misery and misfortune 
 befell an isolated body of 12,000 men sent to 
 pass through Holland and fight their way into 
 the heart of Germany. In March, 1625, 
 James died, and Charles, who was deeply 
 attached to the duke, came to the throne. ■ A 
 Parliament was summoned from which Charles 
 parted in displeasure because it expressed 
 distrust of the duke's capacity. A fleet 
 despatched to Cadiz to seize Spanish treasure- 
 ships returned without effecting its object. 
 Want of money led to the summoning of a 
 second Parliament, which impeached the duke 
 and was angrily dissolved by the king (1626). 
 Buckingham, always buoyant and sanguine, 
 believed that if he could achieve success he 
 should recover popularity. Anger against 
 the French king led to a declaration of war 
 with France, and Buckingham sailed in com- 
 mand of a fleet to succour the Protestant 
 town of La Eochelle, which had rebelled 
 against Louis (1627). He effected a landing 
 on the Isle of Rhe, but was subsequently 
 driven off by the French with heavy loss. 
 The king summoned a third Parliament, 
 which passed the Petition of Eight and after- 
 wards drew up a Remonstrance asking that 
 Buckingham should be removed from office 
 (1628). In consequence, the Parliament was 
 dissolved, and popular feeling became more 
 excited than ever against the duke. He was 
 at Portstnouth, preparing a second expedition 
 for the relief of Rochelle, when as he left the 
 room where he had breakfasted he was 
 stabbed to the heart by a discontented officer, 
 John Felton, who had served under him, and 
 
Bug 
 
 C 200 
 
 Sue 
 
 ■who thought with one Ijlow to avenge his 
 private wrongs and rid his country of a 
 public enemy (Aug. 22, 1628). 
 
 The fullest account of Buclringliain is to be 
 found in Jolin Forster's Life of Mioty and S. K. 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Bnglaiwt, ieOS—1642. 
 
 [B. M. G.] 
 
 Buckingham, George Villieks, 2nd 
 Duke op [b. 1627, d. 1688), was the son of the 
 firstduke. He served in the Royalist ariny,and 
 Vvas present at the battle of Worcester, after 
 which he retired to the Continent. He re- 
 turned to England in 1657, and married the 
 daughter of Lord Fairfax, through whose in- 
 fluence he was able to recover a portion of his 
 large estates. At the Eestoration he was made 
 lilaster of the Horse and a Privy GounciUon 
 In 1666 he took part with the Opposition in 
 Parliament, and on a charge of having en. 
 deavoured to excite a mutiny in the fleet he 
 was committed to the Tower, but in less than 
 a year he was pardoned. On tlie formation 
 of the Cabal ministry in 1668, he became one 
 of its chief members, and when it fell in 1673 
 he, like Shaftesbury, j oined the Opposition. B ut 
 hid health was so bad that he took httle further 
 prirt in public affairs, and spent the rest of 
 his life at his seat in Yorkshire. In his 
 private character he ranks as the most 
 profligate member of the most profligate court 
 England has ever seen. He was strongly 
 suspected of having hired Colonel Blood to 
 assassinate the Duke of Ormond, while his 
 seduction of the Countess of Shrewsbury and 
 the death of the earl in a duel with Bucking- 
 ham created a fearful sensation even in those 
 days. He is thus described by Dryden, imder 
 the name of Zimri, in some famous lines of 
 " Absalom and Achitophel " — 
 
 " A. man so various tha,t he seemed to be. 
 Not one, but all mankind's epitome ; 
 Sfciif in opinions, always in the wron^, 
 Was everything by starts, and nothing long . . . 
 Kaillng and praising were his usual themes ; 
 And both, to show his judgment, in extremes . . 
 He laughed himself from court ; then sought relief 
 By forming parties, but could ne'er bo chief." 
 
 "Buckingham," says .Ranke, " is a forecast 
 ot the Regent [Orleans] and Dubois. In 
 natures of this kind everything works to- 
 gether, amusement and labour, distraction 
 and exertion, good and bad; the most refined 
 culture can go with intolerable insolence • for 
 such men have every kind of ambition, they 
 must be first m everything 'and remain first 
 Social considerations and sympathies caused 
 by hatred of predecessors determine their 
 political action or inaction." Macaulav de- 
 scribes hira as "a sated man of pleasure, 
 who turned to ambition as to a pastime. ' ' 
 
 Carte, lAfeof Ormonde ; Burnet, Sist of Sh 
 
 But :f'iJ="^& ?/»'• "Z^"!/'.- MacSuIy! 
 Uist of Eng. Buckingham's misceUaneous 
 Works were printed in one vol., 8vo, 17S! 
 
 BucKngliamshire, John Shefeield, 
 BuKE OE (^ 1649, d. 1721), was the son of 
 
 Edmund, Lord Mulgrave. On his father's 
 death (1658), he became Earl of Mulgrave. 
 In 1666 ho served against the Dutch and 
 returned home to take command of a troop of 
 horse. Again, in 1672, he was appointed 
 captain of a ship of eighty-four guns, and as 
 soon as he came back from sea was made 
 colonel of a regiment of foot. Subsequently 
 he passed over to France to learn the art of 
 war under Turenne. On his return Mul- 
 grave engaged in a professional quarrel with 
 the Duke of Monmouth, and bitterly offended 
 the royal family by entertaining hopes of the 
 hand of Princess, afterwards Queen, Anng. 
 In 1680 he was sent to destroy Moorish 
 pirates who were attacking Tangiers. On 
 the accession of James II. he was created 
 Privy Councillor and Lord Chamberlain. 
 After the Eevolutidn Mulgrave readily took 
 the oath of allegiance to William and Mary. 
 William created him Marquis of Normanby, 
 and named him a Cabinet Councillor. In 
 1703 he was created Duke of Normanby, 
 and soon afterwards Duke of Buckingham, 
 shire, and in this year buUt Buckingham 
 House. He was compelled to resign office 
 for caballing with Nottingham and Rochester 
 against Godolphin and^Marlborough. Forth- 
 with he became a violent member of the Oppo- 
 sition, and was struck off the list of the Privy 
 Council (1707). In 1710, however, when the 
 Tories were restored to power, he was made 
 Steward of the Household, and on the death 
 of Rochester, Lord President. He entered 
 eagerly into the plots for the restoration of 
 the Stuarts, and is said by Swift to have been 
 the only man he knew who was sincere in his 
 intentions. The death of Anne destroyed his 
 hopes. ^ The remainder of his life was spent 
 m political disgrace. Buckingham wrote 
 some poems, the best known of which are the 
 Essay on Satire and the Essay on Poetry. 
 
 Johnson. Lives of tlie Foets ; Burnet, Eist. of 
 Mis Own Time. 
 
 Buenos A3rres, Expeditions against 
 (1806—1807). In the spring of 1806, Sir 
 Home Popham, who was in command of the 
 naval forces at the Cape of Good Hope, with- 
 out any authority from the home government 
 sailed from the Cape, taking with him all 
 the naval force, and 1 ,500 troops. The arma- 
 ment arrived off Buenos Ayres on the 24th 
 +i!™f ■ rJ' *™® "^^^ wasted, and on the 28th 
 the land forces surprised and captured Buenos 
 Ayres, while a feint was made by the fleet 
 against Monte Video. But the inhabitants 
 secretly organised an insurrection which broke 
 out on August 4th, and was assisted from 
 without by the militia of the surrounding 
 districts. The British garrison, after a stout 
 resistance, was overpowered; and the sur- 
 vivors were made prisoners of war, though 
 bir Home Popham escaped with the squadron, 
 and anchored for a while at the mouth of 
 the river. A fresh force of 3,000 troops 
 
Bui 
 
 (201 ) 
 
 Bur 
 
 was despatched, under Sir Samuel Auch- 
 muty, who, on the 2nd February, 1807, 
 assaulted Monte Video, and carried it by 
 storm after a most stubborn conflict, in which 
 the British loss was 600. In June, Auchmuty 
 was joined by General Craufurd with re- 
 inforcements, which brought up the total of 
 the British forces to 9,000 men ; and General 
 Whitelocke was sent out to take command of 
 the whole force. On the 5th July, an attack 
 was made, without due preparation or design, 
 on Buenos Ayres. The town had no regular 
 fortifications, and the inhabitants trusted 
 solely to their advantageous position on the 
 roofs and towers. From these points of 
 vantage the attacking troops were met by a 
 destructive fire. On the right, Auchmuty 
 seized the Plaza de Toros, with its large 
 stores of all sorts; but this advantage was 
 more than counterbalanced by the defeat 
 of the English at all other quarters. Next 
 morning the Spanish general offered to re- 
 store aJl British prisoners on condition of the 
 evacuation of Monte Video, and all the rest 
 of the region of the La Plata ; and the situa- 
 tion was so hopeless that the English general 
 was glad to obtain such easy terms. 
 Alison, Sist. of Europe. 
 
 Bulls, Papai, are the letters issued by 
 the Popes in their oflBcial capacity, addressed to 
 individuals or communities usually on matters 
 of .doctrine. Papal letters may be either Briefs 
 or Bulls. The latter are considered the.more 
 authoritative and important. They are in- 
 variably written in Latin on thick parchm.ent, 
 in angular archaic characters, and sealed 
 with the bulla or globular seal of lead attached 
 to the document by threads of silk or hemp. 
 The brief is written in cursive characters, on 
 paper or thin parchment, and sealed in wax 
 with the seal of the Fisherman {sub anmilo 
 Piscatoris). It generally refers to matters of 
 discipline. By an ordinance of the Conqueror, 
 ecclesiastics in England were forbidden to re- 
 ceive lettersfromthe Pope, unless they had pre- 
 viously obtained the royal permission. Royal 
 letters, forbidding the introduction of papal 
 bulls without licence, were issued by Edward 
 II. in 1307, and by Edward III. in 1327 and 
 1376. To procure or publish them was de- 
 clared high treason by 13 Eliz., cap. 2. [For 
 the various bulls of importance, see under their 
 titles, e.g., Clericis Laicos ; and for the 
 whole subject see Papacy.] 
 
 The various bulls relating to England, as well 
 as to other countries, are to be foirnd in the 
 SiillaWum Magnum. Romanum, Luxemburg, 1727, 
 &c. 
 
 Blllwer, Edward Lttton. [Lytton, 
 Lord.] 
 
 Bulwer, Sm Henry. [Dallinq, Lord.] 
 
 Bundelkhund. The name of the district 
 between Oiide, Malwa, Berar, and Bengal. 
 It was conquered by Eajput tribes in the 
 Hist.— 7* 
 
 fourteenth century, and, though exposed 
 to frequent attacks from the Mohammedans, 
 it always managed to resist them success- 
 fully. In the middle of the eighteenth 
 century, however, large portions passed into 
 the possession of the Peishwa, and towards 
 the end of the century the whole province 
 was in Mahratta hands. The Treaty of 
 Bassein ceded a portion of the territory to 
 England, and soon afterwards the Eajah 
 Bahadur was induced to part with his large 
 territories in Bundelkhund, receiving com- 
 pensation elsewhere. On the extinction of 
 the Peishwa's independence in 1818, all his 
 sovereign rights in Bundelkhund were finally 
 ceded to the British. 
 
 Bunker Hill, The Battle op (June 17, 
 1775), is noticeable as the first important 
 battle of the War of American Independence. 
 Boston is separated by a narrow channel or 
 arm of the sea from the suburb of Charleston. 
 On June 12th General Gage had declared 
 martial law, and was in possession of Charles- 
 ton and Boston. To secure his position in 
 the former, it was necessary for him to 
 occupy two hills which commanded it — 
 Breed HiU and Bunker HiU. The latter was 
 farther from Charleston, but was the higher 
 of the two, and dominated Breed Hill and 
 Charleston. On the night of the 16th a body 
 of American militia were sent to seize it. 
 When on the next morning they were 
 descried on the top of Breed HUl, which 
 they had occupied by mistake. Gage deter- 
 mined to attack them. Three thousand 
 regulars, under Howe and Pigot, assaulted 
 the position in. front, unsupported by any 
 movement from the rear. Twice they were 
 driven back, but in the third attempt they 
 were joined by Clinton, and succeeded in 
 dislodging the defenders, who, however, 
 made good their retreat to Prospect HiU, 
 where they encamped. The loss of the 
 assailants in so fierce an assault was 226 
 kiUed and 828 wounded and missing. In 
 the course of the assault, Charleston had 
 been set on fire by the British troops under 
 Howe, and the exasperation caused by this 
 act far more than counterbalanced any gain- 
 resulting to them from the battle, especially 
 as they remained idly watching Washington, 
 who was in the greatest difficulties, and quite 
 unable to offer any serious resistance to 
 vigorous measures. 
 
 Bancroft, Hisi. of America; Stanhope, Hist. 
 of Eng. 
 
 Burdett, Sir Francis (J. 1770, d. 1844), 
 the son of Sir Robert Burdett, entered Par- 
 liament in 1 796 as member for Boroughbridge 
 In 1797 he brought forward a motion for 
 Parliamentary Reform, and in the following 
 ■ year vigorously protested against the attempts 
 of the government to gag the press. Two 
 years later he devoted all his energies to 
 prevent the suspension of the Habeas Corpus 
 
Bur 
 
 C 202 ) 
 
 Bur 
 
 Act, and to secure better provision being 
 made for political prisoners. In 1802 he was 
 elected for Middlesex, and was re-elected at 
 the head of the poll on the former election 
 being declared void. At the election of 1806 
 he issued a celebrated address to the Middlesex 
 electors, and on being re-elected gave a warm 
 support to the administration of Fox and 
 Lord Grenville. On the resignation of that 
 government he stood for Westminster, and 
 was easily elected. In 1810 he was convicted 
 by the House of Commons of having com- 
 mitted a breach of privilege in a certain 
 letter addressed to his constituents. Burdett 
 refused to surrender to the Speaker's warrant, 
 and the people defended his house. The 
 result was a series of riots, in which the 
 people were fired upon, and some of them 
 killed. Burdett proceeded to bring actions 
 against the Speaker, and nearly every one 
 who had had a hand in his commitment to 
 the Tower, but was unsuccessful. His im- 
 prisonment terminated with the prorogation 
 of Parliament, and he resumed his place at 
 the beginning of the session of 1811, when 
 he chiefly occupied himself in opposing the 
 Regency Bill. In 1819, after in vain attempt- 
 ing to induce the House to consider the con- 
 duct of the Manchester magistrates at Peter- 
 loo, he vented his feelings in a letter to his 
 constituents, for which he was sentenced to 
 three months' imprisonment, with a fine of 
 £2,000. In 1822 he supported Lord John 
 Russell's proposed Reform Bill, and continued 
 one of its warmest advocates till it was 
 carried. After this Sir Francis gradually 
 fell away from the Liberals. He denounced 
 the alliance, which took place shortly after- 
 wards, between the ministry and O'Connell, 
 retired from Brookes's Club, and openly 
 joined the Tories. In 1837 he was returned 
 as Conservative member for North Wilts. 
 Till his death in 1844 he continued to repre- 
 sent that constituency. 
 
 Lord Holland's Memoirs; Life and Oj>inions 
 
 of Earl Grey; PeeVa Memoirs ; Walpole, iTist. 
 
 of Eng. from 1816; Epebuck, 22e/orm l^arlia- 
 
 ment. 
 
 Burford, The Battle of (752), between 
 the West Saxons, under Cuthred, and the 
 Mercians, under Ethelbald, resulted in the 
 victory of the former and the maintenance 
 of the independence of Wessex. 
 
 Burgess, A, is, properly speaking, the 
 inhabitant of a borough or town exercising 
 a trade there, and enjojdng the rights of 
 freedom or citizenship. In the early days of 
 the boroughs, the burgesses were " the owners 
 of land ; the owners of houses, shops, or 
 gardens ; the burgage tenants, from whose 
 burgages the firma burgi, or rent, was origi- 
 nally due. In a trading town they would . 
 be the members of the gild, and in the 
 judicial work of the town they were the class 
 who furnished the judices and curatores." 
 
 They were also the electors of the municipal 
 magistrates in cases where the corporations 
 had not become close, and were in most 
 cases the holders of the parliamentary 
 franchise. The privileges of the burgesses 
 were in former times very considerable — 
 e.^., participation in the income of the 
 corporation, exclusive right of trading within 
 the borough, and the like. These privileges 
 have, however, been swept away by the 
 Municipal Corporations Act of 1833, and the 
 burgesses are now simply the constituency 
 which elects the borough council. The term 
 burgess, too, is often applied to the represen- 
 tatives of a borough in Parliament. By a 
 law of Edward II., the burgesses returned 
 for any town were entitled to two shillings 
 a day for expenses, and the practice of 
 paying members of Parliament was occa- 
 sionally resorted to up to the reign of 
 Charles II. By an Act of Henry V. it was 
 decreed that a burgess of Parliament must 
 be resident in the borough which returned 
 him ; but this, however, was not enforced for 
 long. [Towns ; Elections.] 
 
 Mereweatlier and Stephens, Hist, of Borouglis ; 
 
 Grant, On Corporations ; Madox, Firma Burgi ; 
 
 Brady, On Boroughs; Stephen, Commentaries; 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Uist.^ especially chaps, xi. and 
 
 xxl. ; Gneist, Self-Government. 
 
 Burgh., Hubert de {d. 1243), first appears 
 in history as one of Richard I.'s ministers. 
 In 1199 John made him his Chamberlain. On 
 the capture of Prince Arthur, in 1202, he was 
 entrusted with the charge of the imprisoned 
 prince at Rouen, and continued a faithful 
 and active servant of John during the re- 
 mainder of that king's reign. In 1215 he 
 was appointed Justiciar, and in the next year 
 bravely defended Dover Castle against the 
 French, who were compelled to raise the siege, 
 and shortly afterwards defeated by De Burgh 
 in a naval engagement in the Channel. On the 
 death of William Marshall he became. Regent 
 of the kingdom, the custody of the king's per- 
 son being entrusted to Peter des Roches. Be- 
 tween these two there was constant rivalry, De 
 Burgh representing the English, Des Roches 
 the •foreign interest. In 1224 the reckless 
 turbulence of Falkes de Breaute gave De 
 Burgh an opportunity of getting rid of the 
 foreigners. De Breaute was banished, and, 
 on the king attaining his majority in 1227, 
 De Burgh attained supreme power by the 
 exile of his great rival, Des Roches. In this 
 year also he was raised to the earldom of 
 Kent ; and, in 1228, he was appointed 
 Justiciar for life. From this date till 1232 
 England was entirely in his hands, and was, 
 on the whole, well governed. In 1232 the 
 intrigues of Des Roches, who had been per- 
 mitted to return, and the king's weariness of 
 restraint, occasioned his fall. He was accused 
 of connivance with Twenge in his attacks on 
 the Italian clergy, and the emptiness of the 
 treasury was attributed to the mismanage- 
 
Sur 
 
 ( 203 
 
 Bur 
 
 ment of the minister. He was driven from 
 office, and for the next two years suffered the 
 cruellest persecution at the hands of the 
 monarch for whom he had done so much. 
 The disgrace of Des Eoches in 1234 restored 
 him to favour, but he did not resume his 
 office, and the remainder of his life was spent 
 LQ retirement, broken only by occasional 
 appearances in the political arena, as in 1238, 
 when he supported the king against the 
 powerful baronial confederacy headed by 
 Richard of Cornwall. Hubert's policy was a 
 thoroughly national one. He resisted the 
 encroachments of the Pope and the rapacity 
 of the foreigners, as well as the arbitrariness 
 of the king and the turbuleoce of the barons. 
 His aim was, how'ever, limited to a restora- 
 tion of the administrative system and policy 
 of Henry II. It is said that an Essex black- 
 smith, when ordered to put chains on Hubert, 
 replied, " Do what you will with me : rather 
 would I die than put fetters on him. Is not 
 he that faithful and magnanimous Hubert, 
 who hath so often snatched England from the 
 ravages of foreigners and restored England 
 to England ? "' 
 
 Eoger.of "Wendover ; Matthew Paris, Chronica 
 Majma ; Fobs, Judges of Eng. [p. g. p.1 
 
 BtirghjWALTEE HussET (4. 1743, a. 1783), 
 was a celebrated Irish barrister and politician. 
 He made a most successful practice at the 
 bar, and was appointed Prime Sergeant in 
 1779. As a member of the Irish Parliament 
 he belonged to the national party of Flood 
 and Grattan, he approved of the Volunteers, 
 and for a brilliant speech on a free trade 
 motion of Grattan's, in which he described 
 the condition of Ireland as one of " smothered 
 war," he thought it necessary to resign office. 
 Towards the end of his life he cooled towards 
 the Volunteer movement, fearing that it 
 would embroil England and Ireland, but 
 supported the cause of Irish independence 
 at the risk of all chances of preferment. Just 
 before his death he was appointed Chief 
 Baron of the Exchequer. Hussey Burgh is 
 described as the best every-day speaker of the 
 Irish Parliament, though his manner was 
 that of a lawyer. He was a vain and ostenta- 
 tious man, and died heavily in debt, but his 
 liabilities were paid by a Parliamentary grant 
 proposed by Grattan on account of his in- 
 tegrity and patriotism. 
 
 Lecky, Leaders of Public Ojpinion in Ireland ; 
 Grattan, lAfe and Times of Grattan. 
 
 Burshhead, The Battle of (1040), was 
 fought between Thorfinn, Earl of Orkney 
 and Caithness, and King Duncan, who was at- 
 tempting to seize the territories of the Earls 
 of Orkney on the mainland. It resulted in a 
 victory for Thorfinn. 
 
 Burghersh, Henry be {b. circa 1290, d. 
 1340), was a nephew of Lord Badlesmere, 
 through whose influence he Was made Bishop 
 of Lincoln in 1320. He was suspected of 
 
 complicity with his uncle in 1322, and was 
 deprived of his bishopric, though he seems to 
 have been restored before the end of the 
 reign. He sided with the queen and Mortimer 
 against Edward II., and for his support he 
 was made Treasurer, and, in 1328, Chancellor, 
 which office he held till the fall of Mortimer. 
 He was frequently employed by Edward III., 
 and died at Ghent, whither he had gone on 
 diplomatic business. 
 
 Burgoyne, John, Lieut.-Gen. (b. 1730, 
 d.^ 1792), a natural son of Lord Brugley, in 
 1762 acted as brigadier-general under Lord 
 Tyrawley in Portugal, where he greatly 
 distinguished himself by a most daring and 
 successful raid upon a strong body of troops 
 who were guarding the magazines at Valentia. 
 In 1775 he was appointed to a command in 
 America. The next year he was summoned 
 home to advise the king on colonial questions, 
 but returned to his command in 1777, when 
 he at once issued an invitation to the natives 
 to join the English flag. He then organised 
 an expedition in order to join CHuton, who 
 was advancing from the south. Before they 
 could meet, however, Burgoyne had en- 
 countered such diflSculties that he was com- 
 pelled to surrender on the 17th Oct. at 
 Saratoga. He was allowed to come home on 
 parole, and no sooner had he arrived than the 
 Opposition made overtures to him to lay the 
 blame of the disaster on the government. 
 He thus became odious to the ministry, whom 
 he charged with mismanagement in not 
 suppljdng him with proper resources ; and 
 the king meanwhile refused to see him, or to 
 allow him a court-martial, which he demanded. 
 This the ministry also strenuously opposed, 
 knowing that the corruption of the War 
 Department would come out if any inquiry 
 were held. In 1779 Burgoyne refused to go 
 back to America, on the ground that his 
 honour did not compel him to do so ; and the 
 ministry seized the opportunity to dismiss 
 him from the army. On the Rockingham 
 ministry coming in in 1782, he was reinstated, 
 and appointed Commander-in-chief in Ireland. 
 Burgoyne's previous services lead us to infer 
 that the disaster of Saratoga was not entirely 
 due to himself ; and this idea is confirmed by 
 the steady refusal of the government to 
 allow any inquiry. In the absence of that 
 inquiry, it is difficult to form a just estimate 
 of Burgoyne's merits. 
 
 Busse]l, Fox; Letters of Junius; Stanhope, 
 
 Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Burgoyne, Sir John {b. 1782, d. 18T1), 
 the son of General Burgoyne, was educated at 
 Eton and Woolwich, and, in 1793, received a 
 commission in the Royal Engineers. In 1800 
 he sailed for the Mediterranean with Sir 
 Ralph Abercromby, and saw active service 
 throughout the French wars in Sicily, Egypt, 
 Sweden, Portugal, and Spain. He was with Sir 
 John Moore at the retreat to Corunna ; and. 
 
Bur 
 
 ( 204 ) 
 
 Bur 
 
 in most of the great tattles and sieges of the 
 Peninsular War, he was first or second in 
 command of the Engineers. In 1812 he was 
 sent to New Orleans as commanding Engineer 
 under Sir Edward Pakenham, and, in conse- 
 quence, was not present at Waterloo, though 
 he returned in time to form one of the army 
 of occupation at Paris in the middle of July, 
 1815. During the long peace he held some 
 important civil appointments. When the 
 Russian War was on the verge of breaking 
 out he was sent to Constantinople to report on 
 the measures necessary for the defence of the 
 Ottoman Empire, and, on his return, was 
 appointed Lieut.-General on the staff of the 
 army of the East. It was Sir John Bur- 
 goyne who was most strenuous in dis- 
 suading Lord Raglan from attacking Sehas- 
 topol on the north, and supported with equal 
 warmth the flank march and attack on the 
 south side. From the first he pointed out the 
 Malakoffi as the key of the entire position ; and 
 conducted the siege operations hefore Sehas- 
 topol up to the middle or end of March, 1855, 
 when he was recalled to England, leaving 
 Sir Harry Jones to complete the work. Soon 
 after he was created a baronet, and subse- 
 quently received a field-marshal's baton, and 
 the appointment of Constable of the Tower. 
 
 Burgundy, Relations with. Of the 
 ten Burgundies that history knows, England 
 had important dealings only with the French 
 fief, the duchy of Burgundy, under its last 
 line of Valois dukes. The imperial free 
 county of Burgundy (Franche Comte) also be- 
 longed to them. They began with Philip the 
 Bold (le Hardi), whose valour at Poitiers was 
 rewarded by his father John with the grant 
 of the vacant duchy on his taking the hand of 
 its heiress (1363). The acquisition of Flanders, 
 so closely bound to England by economical 
 and political ties, hostility to Louis of Orleans, 
 whose championship of Richard II. and 
 absolutism involved his hostility to the Lan- 
 castrian monarchs, first brought the house 
 into intimate relations with England. The 
 Burgundians and Armagnacs fought for 
 supremacy under the mad Charles VI., and 
 their feuds gave ample opportunity to 
 Enghsh intervention. Both united to with- 
 stand Henry V., and met a common defeat at 
 Agincourt (1415). But the murder of John 
 the Fearless (1407—1419) on the bridge of 
 Montereau, at the instance of the Dauphin and 
 the Armagnacs, led to Burgundy throwing 
 its whole weight on the English side. Paris, 
 the centre of Burgundian influence, welcomed 
 the entry of Henry V. and the new duke, 
 Phihp the Good (1419—1467). Up to 1435, 
 this close alliance enabled the English to re- 
 tain their hold of North France. But the 
 nationalist revival stirred even Philip, the 
 death of the Duke of Bedford broke his close 
 family tie to the English house, and the 
 mad attempt of Humphrey of Gloucester on 
 
 Holland and Hainault completed the alien- 
 ation which led to the Peace of Arras (1435) 
 between Burgundy and France, and even an 
 attack on Calais from our old ally. In the 
 Wars of the Roses, Philip and his son 
 Charles generally sympathised with the 
 Lancastrians. Charles the Bold (1467 — 1477) 
 regarded his descent from John of Gaunt 
 through his Spanish mother as making him a 
 member of the Lancastrian house ; and he 
 showed the greatest sympathy with the exiles 
 whom Edward IV.'s accession had driven 
 to the Netherlands. But he could not afford 
 to quarrel with Edward, and as Louis XI. 
 definitely supported Warwick, and reconciled 
 him with Margaret of Anjou, Charles very 
 unwillingly joined the Yorkist cause, and 
 married Edward's sister Margaret. When in 
 1469 Edward was driven from England by 
 Margaret and Warwick, he found refuge in 
 the Netherlands, but a personal interview 
 only produced personal hostility between him 
 and Charles. Despite Charles's inadequate 
 support, Edward won back his crown; and 
 fear of France caused the renewal of the 
 political alliance. In 1474 a common ex- 
 pedition against France was determined upon, 
 but Charles lingered at Neuss, and came at last 
 without an army ; so Edward, in the Treaty- of 
 Pecquigny (1475), abandoned Burgundy for 
 France. The marriage of Mary, Charles's 
 daughter, with Maximilian I., brought 
 Flanders and England into new relations 
 that passed on to the Austro-Spanish Alliance. 
 But the conquest of Burgundy by Louis on 
 Charles's death (1477) put an end to the 
 independent existence of the House of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 Comines, Mirnoives ; Barante, Histoire des 
 Bucsde Bowgogne; Kirke, Charles the Bold; 
 J. Gairctaer, Prefaces to The Paston Letters. 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Burke, The Family or, was founded in 
 Ireland by William Fitzaldelm de Burgh, 
 a descendant of Robfert Mortain, and first 
 cousin of the great Justiciar, Hubert de Burgh. 
 He was the seneschal of Henry I., and was 
 made Viceroy of Ireland in 1176. In 1225 
 Henry III. bestowed the province of Con- 
 naught on Richard de Burgh, son of Fitz- 
 aldelm, who, after a violent struggle with the 
 O'Connors, succeeded in establishing himself 
 there. His son Walter became Earl of Ulster 
 in right of his wife Maude, daughter of Hugh 
 de Lacy, and at this point the De Burghs 
 split up into two famihes- those of Ulster and. 
 Connauffht. Of the Ulster line, Richard de 
 Burgh, known as the Red Earl, taking ad- . 
 vantage of the weakness of the Fitzgeralds, 
 raised the De Burghs to the position of the 
 most powerful family in Ireland. The Ulster 
 earldom expired with his grandson William, 
 murdered in 1333 by the English of Ulster. 
 His daughter Elizabeth afterwards married 
 Lionel, Duke of Clarence, son of Edward 
 III., whereby the earldom of Ulster became 
 
Btit 
 
 (205 ) 
 
 Bur 
 
 eventually attached to tlie royal family 
 in the person of Edward IV. The De 
 Burghs of Connaught, Booming to hold their 
 lands of a woman, and fearing that their 
 possessions might pass by marriage into 
 other hands, declared themselves independent 
 of EngKsh law, and renounced English 
 customs. They assumed the name of Burke, 
 and divided Connaught between them, Sir 
 William, ancestor of the Clanricardes, 
 taking Galway with the title of MacWOliam 
 Oughter (the Upper), and Sir Edmund, 
 ancestor of the Mayos, taking Mayo with the 
 title of MaoWiUiam Eighter (the Lower). 
 The first Earl of Clanricarde, created in 1543, 
 was William, or Ulick, " of the heads," so- 
 called from his victories over the Geraldines. 
 In 1576 the Burkes, fearing that Connaught 
 fvas to be colonised as Ulster had been, 
 broke out into open rebellion. Thereupon 
 their territories were utterly laid waste, 
 and the race was nearly extinguished. In 
 1635, Wentworth's commission of inquiry 
 into defective titles declared the lands of the 
 Burkes to have lapsed to the crown. UKck, 
 however, the fifth earl, and second Earl of 
 St. Albans, was created llarquis of Clanricarde 
 for his services in subduing the rebellion 
 of 1641, and he is the direct ancestor of the 
 present marquis. 
 
 Burke, Edmund (J. 1729, d. 1797), bom in 
 Dublin, was educated at Trinity College, and 
 came to London to study at the Middle 
 Temple in 1750. The study of law was not 
 congenial to him ; and he soon deserted it 
 for literature. His first attempts in this 
 field were made in 1756, and consisted of A 
 Vindication of Natural Society, which was 
 intended as a satire on Bolingbroke's theory 
 of the origin of society, and A Fhihaophical 
 Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas on the 
 Sublime and Beautiful, which was warmly 
 praised by such judges as Lessing and Kant. 
 In 1759 the first volume of the Annual Megis- 
 ter was published, and contained a survey by 
 Burke of the chief events of the year. In 
 1761 he accompanied " Single-speech " Hamil- 
 ton, who was private secretary to Lord Halifax, 
 to Ireland. The connection lasted four years, 
 at the end of which time Burke threw up 
 a pension which Hamilton had procured for 
 him, and returned to England. In tne same 
 year Eockingham came into ofiSce and ap- 
 pointed Burke his secretary. In Dec, 1765, 
 through the influence of Lord Vemey, Burke 
 was returned to Parliament for Wendover, 
 and lost no time in making himself known to 
 the House by a speech on the American 
 colonies, which won for him a compliment 
 from Pitt. In 1769 he wrote his remarkable 
 pamphlet, Observations on the [Present State^ of 
 the Nation. Burke was always on the side 
 of constitutional order and liberty on such 
 questions as the right of a constituency to 
 dioose its own representative, the freedom 
 
 of the press, the legality of general warrants 
 issued by Parliament, and the relations of a 
 colony to the mother country. In 1770 he 
 published Thoughts on the Present Discontents, 
 which, though unsuccessful as a pamphlet, 
 placed its author in the front rank of political 
 philosophers. In 1772 he was offered the 
 direction of a commission, which was to ex- 
 amine the details of every department in 
 India; but loyalty to his party made him 
 decline the offer. In April, 1774, he made 
 one of the most celebrated of all his great 
 speeches — that on American taxation. In 
 November, 1774, he was invited to stand for 
 Bristol, and represented that city for six 
 years. In March, 1775, he moved his resolu- 
 tions in favour of conciliation with America ; 
 he urged the government to recognise the old 
 constitutional maxim that taxation without 
 representation is illegal, to return to the old 
 custom of accepting what grants the general 
 assemblies of the colonies should freely con- 
 tribute, and above all things not to enter upon 
 civil war. Two years later Burke addressed 
 a letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol, in which, 
 in the clearest and most independent way, he 
 explained to his constituents the principles 
 which had guided him in his policy towards 
 the colonies. In Feb., 1780, he brought in 
 his resolutions for the amendment of the 
 administration. His first project was directed 
 against the corruption of Parliament and the 
 sources of that corruption, and was contained 
 in a plan for the better security of the inde- 
 pendence of Parliament, and the economical 
 reformation of the civil and other establish- 
 ments. In the same year Burke retired from 
 the representation of Bristol, finding that his 
 independence was distasteful to the electors. 
 Lord Kockingham's influence, however, ob- 
 tained for him the seat of Malton in York- 
 shire ; and on that nobleman succeeding Lord 
 North in 1782, he accepted the Paymastership 
 of the Forces. On the death of Lord Eocking- 
 ham in July, his ministry became divided 
 against itself; Lord Shelbume succeeded to 
 the Premiership ; and Burke, Fox, and Sheri- 
 dan resigned. The combination against him 
 proved too strong for Shelbume, and in April, 
 1783, he made way for a coalition ministry 
 under the nominal lead of the Duke of Port- 
 land. Burke returned to the Pay Ofiice, and 
 immediately committed a grave indiscretion 
 in restoring two clerks who had been sus- 
 pended for malversation . The most important 
 act of this administration was the introduction 
 of Fox's India Bill, which seems to have been 
 devised and drawn by Burke. Burke and Fox 
 advocated the measure with all their energy 
 and power ; but the king saw his opportunity 
 of getting rid of a ministry which he disliked, 
 and successfully used his influence to have 
 the BiU thrown out by the Peers. This suc- 
 cess he followed up by dismissing the minis- 
 try and sending for Pitt, who, in Jan., 1784', 
 became Prime Minister. The India Bill, 
 
Bur 
 
 ( 206 ) 
 
 BtUT 
 
 whicli Pitt introduced, was a compromise, of 
 much narrower scope than Fox's Bill, and 
 seems to have escaped any violent attack 
 from Burke. He, however, vigorously attacked 
 Pitt's Irish policy, as weil as the commercial 
 treaty with France. A more glorious field 
 for the exercise of his powers was now opened 
 for Burke in the prosecution of "Warren 
 Hastings. In April, 1786, Burke, in answer 
 to a challenge from Hastings's friends, laid 
 hefore Parliament his charges. The first 
 charge was thrown out ; the second and third 
 were supported by Pitt and carried by so 
 large a majority that in May, 1787, Burke 
 brought forward a resolution to impeach 
 Hastings. The management of the prosecu- 
 tion was entrusted by the Commons to Burke, 
 Fox, Sheridan, Windham, and Grey. The 
 trial began in Feb., 1788, and was opened by 
 Burke in a speech peculiarly impassioned 
 and persuasive. Seven years went by 
 before the Lords brought in their verdict 
 of acquittal. In the same year which 
 saw the impeachment of Warren Hastings, 
 politics were thrown into confusion by 
 the illness of the king. Pitt's Regency 
 Bill was vehemently attacked by the Opposi- 
 tion, and by no member of it more bitterly 
 than by Burke. The king's unexpected re- 
 covery, however, rendered all the prepara- 
 tions of the Opposition unnecessarj', and 
 gave Pitt a further lease of office. In the 
 following year the outbreak of the French 
 Revolution was the beginning of the last act 
 in Burke's career. For the remainder of his 
 life his thoughts continued to be centred on 
 France. His passionate love of order and 
 reverence for the past pre%-ented him from 
 ever sharing in the generous enthusiasm 
 which the earlier efforts of the French people 
 awakened in Fox, Wordsworth, and Coleridge. 
 He distrusted the Parisians, and foresaw too 
 surely that the popular outbreak would end 
 in something very different from liberty. It 
 was not, however, till Feb., 1790, that Burke, 
 in the House of Commons, openly avowed his 
 horror of the principles that were being 
 worked out in Paris. His ' avowal was 
 couched in such terms that it occasioned a 
 breach of his long-standing friendship with 
 Fox. In the next month the breach had so far 
 widened that Burke deserted Pox on a motion 
 for the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts 
 which he himself had suggested. At length, 
 in November, appeared the Reflections on the 
 French Revolution. Its success was wonderful, 
 and it did much to alienate the majority of 
 Englishmen from all sympathy with the 
 Revolution. In the course of the next year 
 Burke finally renounced his connection with 
 Fox. In August he published his Appeal 
 from the New to the Old Whit/s. He continued 
 in Parliament to storm against the murderous 
 atheists in France, and their advocates on 
 this side of the Channel. In 1794 he lost his 
 brother and his only son, and he never re- 
 
 covered from the blow. In the same year he 
 retired from Parliament, but he still watched 
 France with the same unmitigated apprehen- 
 sion. He found time, nevertheless, to give to 
 the world his sound views on the corn trade 
 in his Thoughts and Details on Scarcity. In 
 1796 he wrote his letter to a Uohle Lord — a 
 scathing answer to some objections raised by 
 the Duke of Bedford to the pension which 
 Pitt had generously bestowed. In the same 
 year appeared the first two Letters on a Regi- 
 cide Peace, briUiant specimens of Burke's 
 most gorgeous rhetoric, in which he protested 
 against any peace with the national govern- 
 ment of France. His work, however, was 
 ended, and he died at Beaconsfield on the 9th 
 of July, 1797. It is impossible within our 
 limits to give any adequate estimate of 
 Burke's character and genius. We may per- 
 haps be permitted to quote the words of 
 a competent critic (Mr. John Morley) ; 
 " There have been more important statesmen, 
 for he was never tried by a position, of 
 supreme responsibiUty. There have been 
 many more effective orators, for lack of 
 imaginative suppleness prevented him from 
 penetrating to the inner mind of his hearers. 
 . . There have been many subtler, more 
 original, and more systematic thinkers about 
 the conditions of the social union. But no 
 one that ever lived used the general ideas of 
 the thinker more successfully to judge the 
 particular problems of the statesman. No 
 one has ever come so close to the details of 
 practical politics, and at the same time re- 
 membered that these can only be understood 
 and only dealt with by the aid of the broad 
 conceptions of political philosophy." 
 
 The best edition of Burke's Worlts is that by 
 Eogers, 1834. The standard biography is Sir 
 J. Prior's Mfe ; and there axe more recent 
 memoirs by McKnight, Bisset, and McCormick. 
 See also John Morley, Edmund Burlce : an 
 Historical Study ; and the article in the Ency- 
 clopasdia Britannica (ninth ed.), by the same 
 writer. Also, Hazlitt, Political Essays and Elo- 
 quence of the Brit. Senate; Robertson, Lectures 
 on Buvhe; E.J. Payne, Select Worlcs of BtirTee with 
 excellent introductory essays ; Rockingham 
 Memoirs ; Bedford Papers ; Jesse, George 111. ; 
 Stanhope, Life of Pitt, and Hist, of Eng. 
 
 [W. R. S.] 
 
 Burleigh, or Burghley, William 
 Cecil, Lord (A. 1520, d. 1598), born at Bourne 
 in Lincolnshire, was the son of Robert Cecil, 
 Master of the Robes to Henry VIII., who 
 educated him for the law. Having married 
 the sister of Sir John Cheke, he became inti- 
 mate with the Protector Somerset, his friend- 
 ship being increased by his second marriage 
 with the daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, the 
 tutor of Edward VI. In 1547 he accompanied 
 the Protector on his expedition to Scotland, 
 and in the following year became Secretary 
 of State. On the fall of the Protector, he 
 was imprisoned for a short time, but speedily 
 restored to favour, and throughout the reign 
 of Edward VI. continued to perform the 
 
Bur 
 
 ( 207) 
 
 Bur 
 
 duties of Secretary of State. Though no 
 favourer of Northumberland's scheme for 
 altering the succession, he was at length 
 induced to sign "the device" as a witness; 
 and at this most critical period of his career 
 managed to avoid the displeasure of Mary; 
 he conformed to the Catholic religion, and 
 became very friendly with Pole. Before 
 Mary's death, Cecil entered into correspond- 
 ence with the Princess Elizabeth, on whose 
 accession he found himself at once in high 
 favour at court; he was immediately ap- 
 pointed Secretary of State, and for forty 
 years enjoyed the entire confidence of the 
 queen, to whom he was " the oracle she con- 
 sulted on every emergency, and whose 
 answers she generally obeyed. " During 
 almost the whole of Elizabeth's reign. Sir 
 William Cecil may be said to have practically 
 directed the affairs of the nation ; though on 
 one or two occasions, disgusted at the treat- 
 ment he received from his bitter enemies, the 
 courtiers, chief of whom was IJeicester, he 
 was on the point of retiring altogether from 
 public life. In 1560 he went to Scotland, as 
 Commissioner, to end the war, and on his 
 return counteracted the progress which the 
 Spanish ambassador, De Quadra, had made in 
 his absence, by strongly advocating an aUiauce 
 with the Huguenot leaders. In spite of his 
 anti-Spanish policy, Cecil was no favourite 
 with the people ; and the court party, headed 
 by Leicester, whose marriage with the queen 
 he strenuously opposed, strove hard to work 
 his ruin. The perfection to which he brought 
 his system of espionage, by which every plot 
 against the queen was known to her ministers 
 almost as soon as it was hatched, undoubtedly, 
 on more than one occasion, saved Elizabeth 
 from assassination and the country from an 
 internal war, though it provoked against 
 Cecil the wrath of men Uke Arundel and 
 Norfolk, whose aims he thwarted. His great 
 scheme was the formation of a Protestant con- 
 federacy, to consist of England, Sweden, Den- 
 mark, the German princes, the Scotch Protes- 
 tants, and the Calvinists in France and Flan- 
 ders, against the Catholic powers ; his great 
 stumbling-block was the Queen of Scots, 
 whose execution he did not cease to advise as 
 absolutely necessary for the safety of the 
 queen and of the realm. More than once 
 was the assassin's dagger directed against 
 Cecil himself, and in 1 572 the plot of Bemey 
 and Mather might have been successful but 
 for the minister's spies. The great blot on 
 his character and on his administration is the 
 persecution of the Catholics for practising the 
 rites and ceremonies of their religion, to 
 which Cecil, and even Elizabeth herself, had 
 not scrupled to conform in the time of their 
 need. To his economical spirit, too, may be 
 ascribed that unprepared state of the arsenals 
 and the navy which so materially increased 
 the danger to be apprehended from the Ar- 
 mada. The history of Cecil, who in 1571 had 
 
 been created Lord Burleigh, from the acces- 
 sion of Elizabeth to his death, August 4, 1598, 
 is the history of England, so closely is his 
 name identified with the whole current of the 
 foreign and domestic policy of the reign. He 
 can hardly, perhaps, claim to be called a great 
 man ; but he was an adroit, skilful, and sen- 
 sible statesman, of tried judgment, untiring 
 perseverance and application, and boundless 
 industry in mastering details. 
 
 The Bm-ghleii Papers, ed. by Murdin, 1769 
 Memoii-s, &o., by Ur. E. Nares (3 vols., 4to, , 
 1828—31). For very different estimates of Bur- 
 leigh see Troude, Hist, of Bng. ; Liugard, Iftst. 
 0/ Bv.g. ; and Macaulay's well-known Essay. 
 For general authorities see Elizabeth. 
 
 [P. S. P.] 
 Burmese Wars. (1) First Burmese 
 War (1824—1826) . At the time Clive laid the 
 foundation of the English Empire in India, 
 Alonipra had established a great dominion 
 on the other side of the Ganges. He united 
 under his sway the kingdoms of Siam, Pegu, 
 Ava, and Aracan. Both nations extended 
 their dominions until they became contermi- 
 nous ; and the Burmese became so confident 
 in their own success that they demanded of 
 Lord Hastings that he should surrender 
 Chittagong, Dacca, and some other places, 
 which they claimed as original dependencies 
 of Aracan. His refusal, and the encroach- 
 ments of the Burmese in seizing Cachar, a, 
 district of Bengal, and a little island on the 
 coast of Chittagong, produced war. In March, 
 1824, the English attacked and occupied Ran- 
 goon at the mouth of the Irawaddi. From 
 then to December the Burmese again and 
 again assaulted Eangoon, which had become 
 the stronghold of the English. Stockade 
 fighting continued till March, and then Sir 
 Archibald Campbell found it possible' to 
 advance up the Irawaddi to Prome, and 
 found it deserted. The English remained 
 there during the rainy season. In November 
 hostilities were renewed, and the English 
 gradually forced their way up to within forty- 
 five miles of Ava, the capital. There at length, 
 in .February, 1826, the Treaty of Yandaboo 
 was concluded, by which the Burmese ceded 
 Assam, Aracan, and the coast south of Marta- 
 ban, and gave up their claims to the English 
 provinces. 
 
 (2) Second Burmese War (1852). After 
 the Peace of Yandaboo, however, and espe- 
 cially after a change of dynasty, which oc- 
 curred in 1837, the English continued to be 
 treated with great insolence, and even out- 
 rage, by the court of Burmah. The successive 
 residents were insulted, and the traders were 
 subject to perpetual extortion. In 1851 Com- 
 modore Lambert, in the Fox, appeared, and to 
 him the EngHsh residents in Rangoon com- 
 plained. Communications were opened with 
 the court of Ava, but without success, and 
 thereupon Commodore Lambert proceeded to 
 blockade the port of Rangoon. The matter 
 was referred to the government, and, after three 
 
Bur 
 
 ( 208 ) 
 
 Eur 
 
 applications had teen made in vain for 
 redress, Lord Dalhousie (12th February, 1852) 
 determined on war. Two expeditions were 
 sent from Bengal and Madras, and the Bengal 
 column lauded in the Rangoon River on the 
 2ud April. After some stockade fighting the 
 town of Martahan was captured, and on the 
 11th April the siege of Rangoon commenced. 
 On the 14th the place was carried hy storm. 
 The natives of Pegu now came over and flocked 
 in numbers to the standard of General God- 
 win. On the 17th May, Bassein, the western 
 port of Burmah, was captured. In September 
 the army moved on Prome, which was cap- 
 tured 9th October. On the 20th December a 
 proclamation was issued, with the consent of 
 the Directors, annexing Pegu. A treaty of 
 peace was drafted, but the commissioners 
 could not come to terms. The war therefore 
 ended without any treaty being concluded. 
 It was not till 1862 that the relations of the 
 Burmese court and England were placed on a 
 regular diplomatic footing. In 1867 a treaty 
 was concluded by which British vessels were 
 allowed to navigate Burmese waters; and 
 several missions were subsequently despatched 
 into the interior of Burmah. In one of these 
 Mr. Margary, an Englishman, was murdered 
 by the Chinese at Manwyne in February, 1875. 
 Since 1867 there has been no further outbreak 
 of hostilities — though, on account of the 
 jealous and suspicious attitude of the Burmese 
 court towards England, and the anarchical 
 condition of the country, this has more than 
 once seemed imminent. 
 
 Mill, Hist, of India; Snodgrass, Burmese War, 
 
 1827; Tule, WarrattDe of the Missionto Ava, 1858; 
 
 McMalion, The larciis, 1876. 
 
 Bamed Candlemas was a name be- 
 stowed by the Scots on the spring of 1355 — 6, 
 at which time Edward III. completely ravaged 
 East Lothian. 
 
 Bnrnell, Robert [d. 1292), was one of 
 Edward I.'s great ministers. In 1265 he was 
 Secretary to Prince Edward, and soon after 
 the accession of that king was raised to the 
 Chancellorship. He was a great lawyer, and 
 assisted the king in his legal and constitu- 
 tional reforms. From 1274 to his death he 
 was practically Prime Minister, and it was at 
 his manor-house at Acton Bumell, in Shrop- 
 shire, that the important statute De Ma-ca- 
 torihus was passed. He was an ecclesiastic, 
 and in 1275 was made Bishop of Bath and 
 Wells. "As a statesman and a legislator," 
 says Lord Campbell, "he is worthy of the 
 highest commendation." 
 
 Campbell, lAves of the Lord Chancellors. 
 
 Burnes, Sir Alexander (4. 1803, <«. 1841), 
 when a young officer in the Bombay army, 
 was selected by Sir John Malcolm, in 1830, to 
 take charge of a mission to Runjeet Singh, 
 which was to proceed up the Indus, and at 
 the same time make an attempt to establish 
 friendly relations with the chiefs on its banks. 
 
 He was badly received in Scinde, and it was 
 only the energetic remonstrances of Colonel 
 Pottinger, Resident at Cutch, which procured 
 him means of transporting his convoy up the 
 Indus. He was well received by Kunjeet, 
 and proceeded to Simla and submitted a 
 report. He was directed to return to Bom- 
 bay, through Afghanistan, Balkh, and Bok- 
 hara, and to explore and report. In 1837 
 Capt. Burnes made his appearance at Cabul, 
 where he unsuccessfully attempted to con- 
 clude an alliance with Dost Mohammed. In 
 1839 he accompanied the Afghan Expe- 
 dition, and was entrusted with the important 
 task of concluding an alliance with Mehrab 
 Khan, ruler of Beloochistan, which he accom- 
 plished. In 1840 he was created a baronet, 
 and was left in Cabul to succeed Sir W. Mac- 
 naghten as envoy. In 1841 he was murdered 
 in the Cabul massacre. [Afghan "Wars.] 
 Kaye, Indian Officers. 
 
 Burnet, Gilbert {b. 1643, d. 1715), Bishop 
 of Salisbury, was bom at Edinburgh. He 
 studied at Aberdeen, and visited England, 
 France, and HoUand. In 1665 he was 
 ordained and presented to the living of Sal- 
 toun by the father of the celebrated Fletcher 
 of Saltoun, who himseli became Burnet's 
 pupil. In 1668 he "was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Divinity at Glasgow, and became 
 known to the Duke of Hamilton, a relation of 
 whom he married. He incurred the resent- 
 ment of Lauderdale, by whom he was ac- 
 cused of instigating the opposition to the 
 government, and thought it advisable to 
 leave Scotland and to settle in London. In 
 1675 he was appointed preacher at the Rolls 
 Chapel. He became very popular as a 
 preacher, and was well known at court. 
 During the Popish Plot he made great efforts 
 to save the victims of that delusion. In 1681 
 he published the first volume of his History of 
 the Heformation, and received the thanks of 
 the zealously Protestant Commons for it. In 
 1683 he accompanied Russell to the scailold, 
 and was examined by the Commons on the 
 charge of having written his dying speech. 
 On the accession of James, he withdrew to 
 the Continent, and after travelling for a year 
 arrived at the Hague, where he soon gained 
 the confidence of William of Orange, and 
 succeeded in bringing about a reconciliation 
 between the prince and his wife. He wrote 
 numerous tracts directed against James, 
 whose bitter enmity he excited. He accom- 
 panied William to England as his chaplain, 
 and after the Revolution, was rewarded with 
 the bishopric of Salisbury. He was a zealous 
 advocate of the claims of Mary to a share of 
 the throne. In religious politics he took the 
 unpopular latitudinarian side. While most 
 vigorously opposed to granting any rights 
 to Catholics, he was in favour of toleration 
 for Dissenters. Accordingly, he attempted, 
 with his friend Tillotson, to draw up a scheme 
 
Bur 
 
 ( 209 ) 
 
 Bur 
 
 of reconciliation with the Presbyterians, and 
 he supported Nottingham's Comprehension 
 Bill. In politics he was a thoroughgoing 
 Whig. He proposed to insert the name of 
 the Princess Sophia as secured in the Bill of 
 Eights, but the clause was rejected by the 
 Commons. He was therefore regarded by the 
 adherents of the house of Brimswick as the 
 chief supporter of their cause. He also claims 
 to have inserted in the BOl of Eights the 
 clause which forbids the sovereign to marry 
 a Papist. In 1693 it was resolved by the 
 Commons that a pastoral letter of his, in 
 which he had spoken of England as being 
 conquered by William, should be burnt by the 
 hangman. ' On the death of Mary he wrote a 
 warm eulogy on her character. In 1698 he 
 was appointed tutor to the young Duke of 
 Gloucester, the heir to the throne, whose 
 education he carefully superintended. In 1701 
 his Bxposition of the Thirty-nine Articles was 
 censured in Convocation; and the same year 
 an ineffectual attempt was made in the House 
 of Commons to get him removed from his 
 post about the young prince. He violently at- 
 tacked the Occasional Conformity Bill in 1704. 
 He was a staunch supporter of the Union 
 with Scotland, and was chairman of the Com- 
 mittee for considering the Articles in the 
 Lords. His care for the welfare of the Church 
 was shown by his scheme for the augmenta- 
 tion of small livings, which ultimately ri- 
 pened into Queen Anne's Bounty. In the 
 Sacheverell episode he enunciated the doctrines 
 of the Whigs in a speech against passive 
 obedience. He upbraided Queen Anne with 
 her supposed design of settling the crown on 
 the Pretender, and towards the close of his 
 life vehemently opposed the Tory Peace of 
 Utrecht. 
 
 The Kidory of the Reformation of the Church 
 of England is a valuable piece of historical 
 composition, despite its dtiacacter of parti- 
 zanship. Burnet's other important work is 
 the Histori) of His Own Time (1660—1713), 
 published postiiumously by his son in 1724 — 
 34. From fear of giviv^ offence the editor 
 had suppressed many passages in the orig i nal 
 manuscript ; but the suppressed passages are 
 restored in the edition published by Eouth 
 in 1823, The History is the work of a violent 
 Wh^, distorted aud discoloured by the author's 
 prejudices and partialities ; and it is written 
 with singular want of discretion and self-com- 
 mand. Still it is highly valuable as a copious 
 contemporary record of events as they appeared 
 to one who had home a prominent share in 
 them. Burnet also wrote numerous polemical 
 pamphlets, and several other historical and 
 literary worts, including The Life cmd Death of 
 John, Earl of Rochester, 1680; Tfee Life of Sir 
 MoMhew Hale, 1682; Memoirs of the Dukes of 
 Hamilton, 1677; and a translation of More's 
 Utopia, 1685. 
 
 The best edition of the Hist, of the Reforrmtion 
 is that in 7 vols, by N. Pocock, 1865 ; and of the 
 Hist, of His Own Time, that of Oxford in 6 vols., 
 1833. For an able criticism of the latter work 
 Bee Gruizot, Notice sur Bumei ; see also Oldmixon, 
 Critical Hist. ofEng., 1721; and P. Niciron, Mi- 
 moires. For Burnet's life and character see the 
 Life by Sir Thos. Burnet prefixed to the first vol. 
 of the Hist, of His Own Time in the edition of 
 
 1724; and Birch, TiUofsoit; Maoaulay, Hist, of 
 Sng.; Bwgraphia Britannica,; Wyon, Reign of 
 Qmen Anne. rg_ J. L 1 
 
 Burn's Hill, The Battle of (1847), was 
 fought in Kaflirland between a British force 
 which was endeavouring to seize SandilH, the 
 KafiBr chief, and the KafErs; the British 
 were defeated. 
 
 Burrard, Sm Hakry (*. 1755, d. 1813), en- 
 tered the army early in life, and first saw active 
 service in the American War, being present 
 at Camden, and under Lord Eawdon in South 
 Carolina in 1781. In 1798 he distinguished 
 himself in the unfortunate expedition to 
 Ostend. At Alkmaar he was posted on the 
 left in command of the brigade of Guards, and 
 rendered good service in supporting Aber- 
 cromby's attack. In 1807, he went as second 
 in command of the expedition to Copenhagen ; 
 and on his return he was made a baronet. 
 In the following year he was sent out with 
 reinforcements to Portugal. He arrived just 
 in time to find that WeUesley had defeated 
 Junot at Vimiero and was arranging every- 
 thing for a hot pursuit. Burrard at once 
 forbade any further advance, and recalled the 
 troops to their positions. The results of 
 this prohibition were disastrous, since they 
 prevented WeUesley from totally destroying 
 Junot's army, and rendered the Convention 
 of Cintra necessary. A court of inquiry was 
 held, in which Sir Harry was exonerated 
 from all blame ; but popular indignation pre- 
 vented him from ever being employed again. 
 Napier, a not too gentle critic, says that " it 
 is absurd to blame Sir H. Burrard for not 
 adopting one of those prompt and daring 
 conceptions that distinguish great generals 
 only." WeUesley himself acknowledged that 
 Sir Harry Burrard had acted on fair military 
 reasons. 
 
 Napier, Pen. War ; Eose, Biog. Diet. 
 
 Burrowes, Peter, was an Irish poli- 
 tician and barrister. He began Uf e as tutor 
 to one of the Beresfords, and was offered a 
 seat in the Irish Parliament, but declined to 
 become a mere placeman and to vote against 
 his convictions. He preferred to go to the 
 bar, and soon became famous. In 1783 he 
 was a delegate to the great Volunteer Con- 
 vention. He entered the Irish ParUament 
 shortly before the Union, and was one of the 
 many barristers who decUned to be bought 
 over by Lord Castlereagh, his friend Charles 
 Bushe, afterwards Solicitor-General, being 
 another. When Lord Cornwallis was sent to 
 Ireland as Lord-Lieutenant, Burrowes pro- 
 posed to his friends that an appeal should be 
 made to the Yeomanry to defeat the Union, but 
 he was dissuaded from the step, much to his 
 subsequent regret. His speeches were among 
 the best that were made on the anti-Union 
 side. In 1811 he appeared as counsel 
 for the arrested delegates of the Catholic 
 
Bur 
 
 (210) 
 
 But 
 
 Convention, and won his case. He was a, 
 particularly earnest man, and thoroughly in- 
 corruptible. 
 
 Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland; 
 Grattan, Life and Times of Grattan. 
 
 Burton, Henry (S. 1579, d. 1648), was 
 Clerk of the Closet to Prince Charles, but 
 after Charles's accession to the throne he was 
 removed, and for accusing Laud of Popery 
 was forbidden the court. In 1637 he was 
 accused before the Star Chamber of writing 
 schismatical and libellous books against the 
 hierarchy of the Church, and to the scandal 
 of the government. For this lie was sen- 
 tenced to stand in the piUory, lose his ears, 
 be fined £5,000, and imprisoned for life. 
 The first part of the sentence was carried out, 
 and he remained in prison till 1640, when he 
 was released by the Long Parliament, the 
 proceedings against him annulled, and £5,000 
 compensation given him. 
 
 Burton, John Hill (5. 1809, d. 1881), bom 
 at Aberdeen, studied at Marischal College, 
 and became an advocate at the Scotch bar, 
 1831, but devoted himself chiefly to litera- 
 ture. He became Secretary to the Prison 
 Board of Scotland in 1854, HistoriogTapher 
 Royal in 1867, and a Commissioner of Prisons 
 in 1877. He wrote ii»«s of Simon Lord Lovat 
 and Buncan Fories of Culloden, 1847 ; Narra- 
 tives from Criminal Trials in Scotland, 1852 ; 
 several works on legal and general subjects ; 
 A Sistory of Scotland to 1688, 1867 ; A Sis- 
 tort/ of Scotland from the Revolution to 174S, 
 1853 ; and A History of the Reign of Queen 
 Anne, 1880. Mr. Bm-ton's ifw^ory of Scotland 
 (issued in 8 vols., 1873) is a very able, careful, 
 and accurate work, and is the best general 
 Scottish history which has appeared in recent 
 times. 
 
 A memoir of Mr. Bxirton is prefixed to his 
 work, The Bookhwnter {new ed., 1882). 
 
 Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk, was 
 probably a Roman settlement of some im- 
 portance. Previous to the ninth century it was 
 known as Beodric's-worthe. It derived its 
 modern name from St. Edmund, Eling of the 
 East Angles, who was taken prisoner here by 
 the Danes in 870, bound to a tree, and shot 
 to death with arrows. In his honour an 
 abbey was founded here which became 
 famous in monastic history, and is now a 
 ruin of great interest. It was one of the most 
 celebrated Benedictine foundations in Eng- 
 land, and at the Dissolution was found to be 
 possessed of enormous wealth. In 1214 a 
 great meeting of the barons took place at 
 Bury, when they swore solemnly to compel 
 King John to grant a charter. It was one of 
 the centres of the Peasants' revolt of 1381. 
 Frequent Parliaments were held here, the 
 most famous in 1446, at which Duke Hum- 
 phrey of Gloucester was arrested. 
 
 E. Tatea, History of St. Mmmdsbury, 1805. 
 
 Busaco, The Battle of (Sept. 27, 1810), 
 secured Wellington's retreat to the lines 
 which he had prepared on Torres Vedras. 
 He had taken up a strong position on the 
 Busaco range of hills, with a very steep 
 front. On the 29th, in the early dawn, 
 Massena ordered the English position to be 
 assaulted in the centre, where the as- 
 cent was easiest. Picton was in command; 
 and here the French assault was so rapid 
 and determined that after driving back 
 the skirmishers they gained the Crest of 
 the hiU, and threw the third dirision into 
 confusion. At that moment General Leith, 
 who was on Picton's right, seeing the 
 danger, moved up a brigade to his assistance ; 
 and the French were driven over the hillside. 
 Meantime Ney, on the French right, had led 
 his men over more difficult ground, but with 
 equal gallantry attacked Craufurd, who com- 
 manded on the extreme left of the allied line. 
 When the French were on the point of carry- 
 ing the position, Craufurd launched against 
 them a reserve of 1,800 men, whose onslaught 
 it was impossible to withstand, and the 
 second assault of the French failed. It was 
 clearly impossible to take this strong post 
 by assault ; and Massena, in the evening, 
 hastily began to execute a flanking march 
 round the hills on the left of the allied 
 forces. Wellington perceived the movement 
 only lust in time, and ordered a retreat to 
 meet it. The allied troops were in great 
 danger on several occasions ; but the disorder 
 and confusion of the French army rendered 
 its movements slow, and saved the allies from 
 defeat. As it was, they were worsted in 
 several skirmishes with French scouting 
 parties, and the negligence of Craufurd at the 
 last moment imperilled the safety of the 
 allied army ; but at length Wellington had 
 the satisfaction of having all his forces en- 
 sconced behind the lines of Torres Vedras. 
 Napier, Peninsular War, book xi., chaps. 7 and 8. 
 
 Bnssy-Castelnau, Chables Joseph, 
 Marquis of (A. 1718, d. 1785), a distinguished 
 French ofiicer, was Dupleix's able lieutenant, 
 and was mainly instrumental in maintaining 
 French influence in the Deccan and Camatic. 
 In 1748 (Oct. 17) he caused the English to 
 raise the siege of Pondicherry. On the arrival 
 of Lally in India, Bussy found himself subor- 
 dinate to that officer, who rendered his plans 
 ineiiectual. Bussy was taken prisoner at 
 Wandewash and conveyed to England, but at 
 the trial of Lally he was released on parole 
 and allowed to return to France to clear 
 himself. He wrote a Memoire contre M. de 
 Lally, Paris, 1766. 
 
 See the Proems de LalV^ in Voltaire's "Works, 
 
 Bute, John Stuart, 3ed Earl of (b. 1713, 
 d. 1792), son of James, second earl, married, 
 in 1736, Mary, daughter of the celebrated 
 Lady Mary Wortley Montague, in whose 
 right he inherited a large fortune. In early 
 
But 
 
 (211 ) 
 
 But 
 
 life lie became ty accident acquainted with 
 Frederic, Prince of Wales, and soon acquired 
 great influence over him, though it is difficult 
 to see what were the charms which endeared 
 him to the prince, since he is described as 
 " cold and unconciUating in his manners, 
 proud and sensitive in his nature, solemn and 
 sententious in his discourse." During the later 
 years of George II. he had remained attached to 
 the court of the widowed Princess of "Wales ; 
 and scandal attributed to their relations a 
 character which there is no real evidence to 
 show that they possessed. But no sooner was 
 George III. seated on the throne than Bute took 
 advantage of his ascendency over the young 
 king to come to the front in politics. After 
 the dissolution of Parliament early in 1761, he 
 became one of the Secretaries of State as the 
 colleague of Pitt, to whom he was warmly 
 opposed on the question of the Continental 
 war. Pitt resigTied in October, leaving Bute 
 supreme. The discovery of the Family Com- 
 pact between France and Spain, which Pitt 
 had suspected, led to a necessary rupture with 
 Spain ; but Bute was none the less resolved to 
 come to terms with France and to desert 
 Germany, and to reverse the policy of his pre- 
 decessors. On Nov. 3, 1762, the preliminaries 
 were signed at Fontainebleau, and peace was 
 definitely concluded in the following February. 
 But the ministry was unpopular; and this 
 unpopularity gradually developed into a 
 fierce hatred, which amused itself in burn- 
 ing the Prime Minister in effigy in almost 
 every public place. This extreme feeling 
 can scarcely be said to have been justified 
 by Bute's public measures ; and two, at 
 any rate, of his chief sins in the popular 
 view are well set forth by a contem- 
 porary writer, who says that he was 
 utterly " unfit to be Prime Minister of 
 England, because he was (1) a Scotchman, 
 (2) the king's friend, (3) an honest man." 
 In April, 1763, he had to yield to the storm 
 of indignation which he had aroused; and 
 he never afterwards filled any prominent 
 office in the State. But he retained his 
 influence over the king, and was all-power- 
 ful in the Closet, until George Grenville, 
 after the failure of Bute's attempted in- 
 trigues with Pitt, insisted on his complete 
 dismissal from the court as a condition of his 
 own return to power. From 'this time for- 
 ward, there is little evidence that Bute had 
 any hand in the politics of the day, though 
 his withdrawal could not remove the suspicion 
 of his secret influence at the back of the 
 throne. During the last twenty-five years of 
 his life he lived in almost complete retirement 
 at Christchurch, in Hampshire, in the midst 
 of his family. 
 
 Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George III. ; 
 Al'bem!LTle,RockingTi,a'mandEis Contemporaries; 
 Jesse, George Selwyn and His Contemporaries, 
 and George III. ; Letters of Jrniius ; Macaulay's 
 ,i3econd Essay on Chatham. rw t? g i 
 
 Butler, The Family of, was founded in 
 Ireland by Theobald Gualtier or Walter (a 
 brother of Hubert Walter, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury and Chancellor of England), who 
 received grants of land in Leinster from 
 Henry II., together with the hereditary office 
 of Pincerna, or Butler, to the KingB of 
 England. 'The Butler family did not play 
 a very prominent part in Irish history until 
 the beginning of the fourteenth century, 
 when Edmond le Boteler was created Earl of 
 Carrick for his exertions against Edward 
 Bruce and the Scots. From him sprang two 
 lines, those of the Earls of Ormonde and the 
 Earls of Carrick. The earldom of Ormonde 
 was created in 1328, and James, the second 
 earl, who married Eleanor, daughter of Hum- 
 phrey Bohuu, Earl of Essex and first cousin of 
 Edward II., raised the family to a position of 
 equality with the Burkes and the Fitzgeralds. 
 The Butlers were powerful chiefly in the Pale, 
 and though they adopted some Irish customs, 
 yet, on the whole, they were faithful to their 
 English origin. They almost alone, in oppo- 
 sition to the Fitzgeralds, supported the house 
 of Lancaster and the English connection. 
 Kilkenny and part of Tipperary formed their 
 Palatinate, and they stood next in power to the 
 Fitzgeralds. The title of Ossory was created in 
 1627, when Pierce Butler consented to resign the 
 title of Ormonde to Thomas Boleyn, Viscount 
 Eochiort, but the latter honour was restored 
 to him after the execution of Eochf ort. The 
 Butlers joined the Desmonds in the Munster 
 insurrection of 1369. They played an im- 
 portant part in English history during the 
 seventeenth century; they were now Pro- 
 testants, and, though Irish in sympathy, 
 thoroughly Koyalist in their views, andanxious 
 to keep up the English connection. James, 
 Duke of Ormonde, who was created marquis 
 in 1642 and duke in 1661, commanded the 
 EoyaliBt troops for the suppression of the 
 Irish rebellion, and after the Eestoration 
 was governor of the country. His son 
 Ossory died in the service of William of 
 Orange. James, the second duke, was one of 
 the staunchest supporters of the old Pretender; 
 in consequence of his intrigues during the 
 last years of the reign of Queen Anne, his 
 honours were extinguished and his immense 
 estates forfeited (1716). His brother and 
 heir, Charles, was created Baron Butler of 
 Weston, Hunts. 
 
 Butler, Samuel (S. 1612, d. 1680), is the 
 author of one of the greatest political satires in 
 the English language. The early years of his 
 life are obscure, but he is said to have been at 
 one time employed by Selden as an amanuen- 
 sis, and to have been recommended by him 
 to the Countess of Kent. He subsequently 
 entered the service of Sir Samuel Luke, 
 a, rigid Presbyterian, where he had the op- 
 portunity of observing the various traits of 
 bigotry and absurdity which he subsequently 
 
But 
 
 ( 212 ) 
 
 Byn 
 
 wove into Hudibras. This work was pub- 
 lished in three parts; the first in 1663, the 
 second in 1664, and the third in 1678. The 
 work is a satire on the Independents and 
 Presbyterians, and is of considerable his- 
 torical interest as giving a striking picture 
 of many of their peculiarities. Its abounding 
 wit, and the extraordinary copiousness and 
 variety of diction displayed in the dialogues, 
 as weU as the genuine humour of some 
 of the comic situations, have made it one 
 of the most popular of political satires. 
 Butler was the author of a satire on the 
 Koyal Society, The Elephant in the Moon; a 
 collection of Characters, and some other works. 
 He seems to have gained little or no solid 
 reward from the court, and is said to have 
 died in the extremest poverty in London. 
 In 1721 tt cenotaph was erected to his 
 memory in Westminster Abbey which pro- 
 voked from Samuel Wesley a well-known 
 epigram. 
 
 An edition of Hudibras with copiOTis and 
 useful explanations of aliusions, &c., is that of 
 Grey, Lend., 1741. 
 
 Butt, Isaac {b. 1812, d. 1879), the son of 
 an Irish Protestant clergyman, educated at 
 Trinity College, Dubliu, in 1835, was made 
 Professor of Political Economy the following 
 year. In 1838 he was called to the Irish bar 
 and began to take an active part in politics 
 on the Conservative side. He was a strenuous 
 opponent of O'ConneU. In 1844 he was made a 
 Queen's Counsel, and in 1848 defended Smith 
 O'Brien. From 1852 to I860 he sat in Par- 
 liament as member for Youghal, but did not 
 distinguish himself. In 1871 he was elected 
 as Home Rule member for Limerick, and 
 assumed the leadership of the new party, 
 and in 1872 founded the Home Rule League. 
 But he was opposed by the more extreme and 
 violent section of his party, and by the end 
 of his life he had little authority left in the 
 Home Rule ranks. 
 
 Buxar, The Battle of (Oct. 23, 1764), 
 was fought between the English, commanded 
 by Major Muuro, and the army of the Vizier 
 of Oude. The latter was completely routed, 
 and obhged to abandon his camp, with all its 
 stores and 130 pieces of camion. This victory 
 was scarcely less important than that of 
 Plassey. It demolished the power of the 
 Vizier Sujah-Dowlah, the only chief of im- 
 portance in the north, and made the English 
 masters of the valley of the Ganges. 
 
 Buxton, SiE Thomas Fowell (*. 1786, 
 d. 1845), a member of the brewing firm of 
 Truman, Hanbury, and Co., in 183 6 esta- 
 blished a well-organised system of relief for 
 the poor in Spitalfields, and soon after 
 examined the state of the prisons, in which 
 he was aided by his sister-in-law, Mrs. Fry. 
 He wrote a pamphlet exposing the horrors of 
 the prison system, which excited great atten- 
 
 tion. He now stood for Weymouth, and 
 was triumphantly returned, lie continued 
 to represent this borough tiU 1837, when he 
 was defeated by Mr. ViBiers. In Parliament 
 he proved himself an important ally of Mack- 
 intosh on the question of the Amelioration 
 of the Criminal Code. In 1823 he brought 
 forward a resolution " that slavery, being 
 repugnant to the Christian Religion and 
 the British Constitution, ought to be abolished 
 at the earliest period compatible with the 
 safety of all concerned." It was not, how- 
 ever, till 1831 that the principle of eman- 
 cipation was conceded, chiefly owing to 
 Mr. Buxton's efforts, and in 1833 govern- 
 ment introduced a measure of emancipation. 
 Mr. Buxton did not, however, relax his 
 efforts, but laboured to effect the abolition 
 of the system of apprenticeship which was 
 still sanctioned by the law. In 1837, on 
 his defeat at Weymouth, he quitted Par- 
 hamentary life ; and in 1839 he published 
 The Slave Trade amd its Bemedy, in which 
 he proposed the colonisation of Africa. 
 An expedition with this object was sent 
 to the Niger, but it proved a complete 
 failure. In 1840 Mr. Buxton was created a 
 baronet. 
 
 Bye Plot, The (1603), was set on foot 
 by a Roman Catholic priest named Watson, 
 and was joined by ardent Catholics like Sir 
 Griffin Markham and Anthony Copley, as 
 well as by Puritans like Lord Grey of Wilton 
 and George Brooke, who were discontented 
 with the policy of James I. Their plan seems 
 to have been to secure the person of the king, 
 compel him to dismiss his ministers, and to 
 grant toleration to Catholics and Puritans. 
 Many were inveigled into joining on the 
 pretence that the meeting was merely for the 
 presentation of a petition in favour of general 
 toleration. The scheme was badly arranged, 
 no definite plan had been agreed upon, and it 
 proved a complete failure. It is certain that 
 the Bye Plot had no connection with the Main 
 or Raleigh's Plot, with which, however, Cecil 
 and the other ministers managed to mix it up 
 in popular belief. Watson was executed, 
 Markham reprieved on the scaffold. Grey 
 imprisoned in the Tower, and Copley banished. 
 S. E. Gardiner, Hist. ofEng., vol. 1. 
 
 Byng, Sib. Geoeoe. [Torkington, Vis- 
 count.] 
 
 Byngf, John, Ahmikal (5. 1704, (?. 1757), was 
 the fourth sou of Lord Torrington, and 
 served at sea under his father. In 1756 he 
 was sent out with a fleet of ten ships of war, 
 poorly manned and in bad condition, with 
 orders to relieve Minorca in case of attack. 
 Only three days afterwards the French fleet 
 attacked the castle of St. Philip in that 
 island. Byng arrived off St. Philip on May 
 19th, and tried in vain to communicate with 
 
Byr 
 
 (213) 
 
 Cab 
 
 the governor. On the following day the 
 engagement took place. Eear-Admiral West 
 on the right attacked the enemy with vigour, 
 and drove them back; but Byng held aloof, 
 and the action was indecisive. After a 
 council of war, he sailed ofi to Gibraltar 
 and left Minorca to its fate. Byng was 
 brought home under arrest, and tried by 
 court-martial. His judges acquitted him of 
 treachery and cowardice, but it was decided 
 that he had not done his utmost to relieve 
 St. Philip, or to defeat the French fleet. 
 He was recommended to mercy. Pitt in 
 vain tried to induce the king to pardon 
 him. Byng was shot at his own request 
 on the quarter-deck of his ship in Ports- 
 mouth Harbour ; he met his fate with great 
 courage. Voltaire, who had tried to help 
 him by sending him a laudatory letter of the 
 Duke of Richelieu, says that he was slain 
 " pour encourager les autres." It is probably 
 true that Byng had not done as much as he 
 might have done for the relief of Minorca. 
 But there can be no question as to the harsh- 
 ness and injustice of applying the severe 
 penalties prescribed by the twelfth article of 
 the navalcode in the case of an officer who was 
 rightly acquitted of treachery and cowardice. 
 Though Byng was perfectly honest and 
 sufficiently brave, it may, however, be con- 
 ceded that he was wanting in capacity. " He 
 trembled not at danger, but, like many other 
 weak men in high places, he did tremble at 
 responsibility." [Minorca.] 
 
 Loncion Ganette, 1756 — 57; Stanhope, Hist, of 
 England. 
 
 Byron, John, Lord {d. 1652), was the 
 eldest son of Sir John Byron. He was 
 one of Charles I.'s personal attendants, and 
 was by him made Lieutenant of the Tower 
 in 1641. As he was strongly attached to the 
 royal cause, the Parliament was anxious to 
 get rid of him, and, in 1642, the king con- 
 sented to appoint Sir John Conyers in his 
 place. On the outbreak of the war, Byron 
 raised a troop for the king, and at the battle 
 of EdgehiU was in command of the reserve. 
 He showed great bravery at Eoundaway Down 
 and Newbury, and, in 1643, was created a 
 peer, and shortly afterwards Governor of 
 Chester, where he sustained a long siege, capi- 
 tulating only when all the provisions were 
 exhausted. He was subsequently appointed 
 Governor to the Duke of York. He took 
 part in the second Civil War, and on the 
 failure of the Royalists returned to his charge 
 of the Duke of York, and died at Paris. 
 "Whitelocke, Memorials, 
 
 Cabal, The (1667 — 1673), was the 
 name given to the ministry formed in the 
 reign of Charles IL , after the fall of Clarendon. 
 
 The word " Cabal " had been used previously 
 to denote a secret Committee or Cabinet, 
 and answers to the " Jtoto " of a somewhat 
 later date. [Cabinet.] It happened, how- 
 ever, rather curiously that the initials of the 
 statesmen who formed this administration 
 spelt the word " Cabal." These ministers were 
 Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley- 
 Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury), and Lauderdale. 
 " They agreed," says Ranke, " in wishing to 
 strengthen the royal prerogative by moderat- 
 ing the uniformity laws with the help of 
 France, and during the excitement caused by 
 a foreign war ; but, otherwise, they were 
 attached to widely different principles. 
 Lauderdale was a Presbyterian; Ashley- 
 Cooper, a philosopher; Buckingham, if he 
 held any opinion at all, an independent; 
 Arlington, a moderate Catholic; CHfEord, a 
 zealous one." At first, in foreign policy, a 
 new departure was taken by the formation of 
 the Triple Alliance (q.v.), which compelled 
 Louis to desist from his sdiemes of aggression 
 in the Spanish Netherlands. But this line of 
 policy was not long pursued. War with the 
 Dutch and alliance with France followed, 
 with the infamous Treaty of Dover (1672). 
 Money was obtained by seizing that which 
 had been deposited for security in the Ex- 
 chequer, while Parliament, which might 
 have proved obstructive, was prorogued. A 
 Declaration of Indulgence, granting liberty 
 of worship to all sects, was issued. But the 
 war ended in failure, and the Declaration 
 was received with great suspicion even by 
 the Dissenters. The Treasury was empty, 
 and in 1673 Parliament had to be summoned 
 to grant supplies. Charles was compelled to 
 witiidraw the Declaration, and to assent to 
 the Test Act, which, by excluding all 
 Catholics from office, obliged CKfford and 
 Arlington to resign, and put an end to the 
 Cabal Ministry. 
 
 Eanke, Hist, of Eng.^ iii. 515 ; Macaulay, Fist. 
 ofSng.yi. 213. 
 
 Cabinet, The, although familiar by 
 name to every one as the most powerful 
 body in the Executive Government of the 
 State, is, properly speaking, unknown to 
 the Constitution. Theoretically, the Cabinet 
 is only an irregular Committee of the Privy 
 Council. By the theory of the Constitution, 
 the Privy Council is the proper body to 
 advise the sovereign ; yet the members of 
 the Privy Council do not attend unless they 
 are specially summoned, and they have only 
 formal business to transact. The Cabinet 
 Coimcil took its rise under the Tudors, but 
 was then only a small irregular body, con- 
 sisting of the members of the Privy Council, 
 whom the sovereign chose from time to time 
 to consult. After the Restoration, when the 
 distinction between the ordinary Council and 
 the Privy Council had ceased to exist, and 
 when all members of the Council were sworn 
 
Cab 
 
 (214) 
 
 Cab 
 
 as Privy Councillors, the Privy Council 'te- 
 came unwieldy from its numbers. Charles II. 
 complained that the great numher of the 
 Council made it unfit for the secrecy and 
 despatch which are necessary in great affairs. 
 He formed a select Committee of the Council, 
 caUed the Cabal or Cabinet, which deliberated 
 on all matters of business before they were 
 submitted to the larger CouncU. This method 
 of government was very unpopular — partly 
 from the character of the ministers who 
 composed t^ie Cabinet, and partly frojn the 
 imperfect understanding of the doctrine of 
 ministerial responsibility. In 1679 an at- 
 tempt was made by Sir "WiUiam Temple to 
 restore the Privy Council to its former 
 position. Its numbers were to be reduced 
 from fifty to thirty, of whom fifteen were to 
 be the chief ofiicers of State, and the rest 
 made up of ten Lords and five Commoners. 
 The joint income of the Council was not to 
 be less than £300,000, which was thought to 
 be nearly equal to the estimated income of 
 the House of Commons. Charles promised 
 that he would be governed by the advice of 
 this Council, but he continued to consult his 
 Cabinet as before. The Cabinet assumed 
 more definite duties under "William III. , who 
 also introduced his principal ministers into 
 Parliament. At the same time, the king 
 chose his Cabinet from the two great parties, 
 until, in 1693, he formed a Ministry ex- 
 clusively of Whigs, called the " J\mto." The 
 accession of George I. made a great difference 
 in the position of the Cabinet, because the 
 king, not understanding English, ceased to 
 attend its meetings. Both he and his suc- 
 cessor, George II., cared more for the affairs 
 of Hanover than for those of England. Under 
 their reigns, the fabric of constitutional 
 government was consolidated, although the 
 Tories, in consequence of the remains of Jaco- 
 bite sympathies among them, were excluded 
 from power. George III., on his accession, 
 determined to free himself from the domina- 
 tion of the Eevolution Whigs. He did not, 
 however, give up Cabinet government, 
 although he was accused of consulting " an 
 interior Cabinet " other than his responsible 
 advisers. It was not tiU the accession of 
 Pitt to ofBce, in 1783, that the Prime Minister 
 assumed the authority with which we are 
 familiar. As Mr. TraiU says [Central Govern- 
 ment, p. 20), there are three ways in which 
 Cabinet government has been matured and 
 strengthened during the last hundred years, 
 viz. : 1. Political "Unanimity — the principle 
 that a Cabinet should be formed on some defi- 
 nite basis of political opinion, or, in the case of 
 a coalition, of agreement on certain specified 
 points. 2. Unity of Responsibility — that is, 
 that the members of a Cabinet should stand 
 or fall together ; the first instance of this 
 dates from 1782. 3. Concert in Action — 
 that the Cabinet should not consist of a 
 number of units, each governing his own 
 
 department independently of the rest> but of 
 a body of men acting in concert for the 
 common welfare. In theory, the choice of 
 the Cabinet belongs to the crown, but in 
 practice it is in the. hands of the Prime 
 Minister, and even he has no absolute choice in 
 the matter. As Mr. Bagehot says {English 
 Constitution, p. 14), "Between the compulsory 
 list, which he must take, and the impossible 
 list that he cannot take, a Prime Minister's 
 independent choice in the formation of a 
 Cabinet is not very large : it extends rather 
 to the division of the Ca'binet offices than to 
 the choice of Cabinet Ministers. Parliament 
 and the nation have pretty well settled who 
 shall have the first places." The numbers of 
 the Cabinet generally vary from twelve to 
 fifteen. The following Ministers have usually 
 been members of it : — The First Lord of the. 
 Treasury, the Lord Chancellor, the Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer, the President of the 
 Council, the Lord Privy Seal, the Home, the 
 Foreign, and the Colonial Secretaries, the 
 First Lord of the Admiralty, the Secretaries 
 for India and for War, the President of the 
 Board of Trade, and the Chancellor of the 
 Duchy of Lancaster. The Postmaster- 
 General, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, the 
 President of the Local Government Board, 
 are sometimes members, and sometimes not. 
 The meetings of the Cabinet are entirely 
 secret, no minutes of proceedings are 
 taken, and what passes is not supposed to 
 be divulged. 
 
 Alpheus Todd, PorKamcjitorv Govenmmi m 
 MnijlmA, 3867; W. Bagehot, The English Con- 
 stituiim,; the Constitutional Histories of 
 Hallam and May; H. D. TralU, Central Govern- 
 mmi; Sir E. Peel's Memoirs; and the poUti- 
 cal histories of the seventeenth, eighteenth, 
 and nineteenth centuries — e.g., those of 
 Macaulay, Lord Stanhope, Massey, and Spencer 
 "Walpole. [0. B.] 
 
 Cabot, John {d. 1499), was a Venetian 
 merchant, who settled at Bristol in the reign 
 of Henry VI. In 1497, having obtained a 
 patent from the king for the discovery of 
 unknown lands, he set sail from Bristol, with 
 his son, in order to discover the North- West 
 Passage to India. In the course of the 
 voyage, they discovered Nova Scotia, New- 
 foundland, and Florida. John Cabot thus de- 
 serves the honour of discovering the mainland 
 of America, which he reached June 24th, 1497, 
 a year before Columbus. 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian {b. 1477, d. circa 1557), 
 was the son of John Cabot. In 1497 he accom- 
 panied his father on his great voj'age, in the 
 course of which the adventurers visited Nova 
 Scotia, Newfoundland, Labrador, and Florida, 
 In 1512 Ferdinand the Catholic induced Cabot 
 to enter the service of Spain ; but on the death 
 of the king, in 1516, he returned to England, 
 and in the following year made another 
 I attempt to discover the North- West Passage, 
 
Cab 
 
 (215) 
 
 Cad 
 
 visiting Hudson's Bay. In 1525 he sailed on 
 a voyage in the interests of Spain, and dis- 
 covered St. Salvador and the River Plate, 
 returning to Europe in 1531. In 1548 he 
 again settled in England, and received a 
 pension from Edward VI., with the title of 
 " Grand Pilot of England." In 1553 he did 
 ' good service to English commerce by heing 
 instrumental in establishing the trade with 
 Russia. 
 
 J. ¥. Nioholls, Life of SetasKam Cabot, 1869. 
 
 Cabnl, Massacre at ; Retreat from, &c. 
 [Afghan Waus.] 
 
 Cade's I&ebellioil is the name generally 
 given to the risiag ia south-eastern England 
 in the summer of 1450. Parliament was 
 sitting at Leicester vainly striving to frame 
 measures to check the enormous evils, finan- 
 cial and political, from which the country was 
 suffering, when, early in June, news came 
 that the commons of Kent had risen in arms 
 under a captain who called himself Moi-fcimer, 
 and whom Thomas Gascoigne, an Oxford 
 theologian of the day, represents as "a 
 descendant of Roger Mortimer, the bastard," 
 whoever he might be. But the captain proved 
 to be one Jack Cade, described by later writers 
 as an Irishman who had killed a woman of 
 Sussex, fled to Erance, fought there against 
 the English, come back to England, and 
 wedded the daughter of a squire. He 
 undoubtedly gave proofs of military capa- 
 city; and we are told that the Primate, 
 in a conference with him, found him 
 " sober in talk and wise in reasoning," if 
 " arrogant in.heart and stiff in opinion." At 
 any rate, the rising he led was no wanton 
 one. Misrule at home and failure abroad 
 had brought on men in power a hatred and 
 contempt almost universal. The amiable king 
 was as clay in the hands of his headstrong 
 queen and the friends of the late unpopular 
 Duke of Suffolk. The royal income had 
 dwindled by improvident grants ; the Ex- 
 chequer was well-nigh banikrupt; grievous 
 taxes oppressed the commons, whilst their 
 favourite, the Duke of York, was excluded 
 from the government. The bonds of law 
 were relaxing on all sides. The lawless 
 murder of the Duke of Suffolk at Dover, on 
 May 2nd, had been followed by a report that 
 tbe king's vengeance would fall on the county 
 of Kent. The men of Kent were in no 
 humour to submit to royal severities ; they 
 resolved on an immediate appeal to arms ; and 
 in combination with the men of Surrey and 
 Sussex, and headed by Cade, who called him- 
 self " Captain of Kent, " assembled, on June 
 Ist, in considerable force, on Blackheath. 
 This was no tumultuous gathering of a mere 
 clownish mob, but an organised enterprise, 
 deliberately carried out by means of the 
 regular local machinery; and men of good 
 birth are known to have taken part in it. In 
 
 their forma,l complaint we learn the provoca- 
 tion and aims of the rebellion. Prominent 
 among the first were the heavy taxation, the 
 abuse of purveyance, the appointment of up- 
 starts to high oifice, the treasonable loss of 
 France, undue interference of gTeat men at 
 elections, and exactions under colour of law ; 
 among the second it was urged that the 
 alienated crown lands should be resumed, the 
 friends of Suffolk discarded, and the king's 
 confidence given to York — in fact, redress 
 of grievances and change of counsellors. 
 The king at once mustered an army, and 
 marched to London ; and thence, after some 
 delay, moved on Blackheath. Cade fell back 
 before his advance ; and Henry, thinking the 
 brunt of the danger over, sent only a small 
 force, under Sir Humphrey and William 
 Stafford, in pursuit of him. Cade faced round 
 at Sevenoaks, and there, on June 18th, a fight 
 ensued, in which the king's force was routed, 
 and both the Staffords killed. Cade returned 
 to London, and occupied Southwark. The 
 Londoners resolved, by a vote of the Common 
 Council, to open their gates to the rebels ; and 
 on July 2nd, Cade led them across the bridge 
 and took formal possession of the city by 
 striking London Stone with his sword. For a 
 time he preserved the show, and something of 
 the reality, of discipline, making his men re- 
 spect the persons and properties of the citizens, 
 and returning with them every night to 
 Southwark. But he took Lord Say and Sele, 
 the Treasurer, who was in special ill-odour 
 with the country, out of the 'Tower, and had 
 him arraigned before the Lord Mayor, but 
 afterwards caused him to be carried off and 
 beheaded in Cheap. Crowmer, Say's son-in- 
 law and Sheriff of Kent, and another were 
 also murdered. Then discipline gave way; 
 robberies became frequent. Cade himself plun- 
 dering friend and enemy alike. This conduct 
 enraged the Londoners; they turned upon 
 Cade : and under the command of Matthew 
 Gough, a soldier of renown in the French 
 wars, sought, on July 5th, to hold the bridge 
 against the rebels. Cade promptly made a 
 furious onslaught upon them; drove them 
 with heavy loss to the drawbridge at the 
 centre, which he set on fire ; and killed their 
 leader. The contest lasted through the night ; 
 but the Kentish men fell back the next morn ■ 
 ing. The Chancellor (Archbishop Kemp) 
 seized this moment of discouragement to 
 tempt the insurgents with offers of pardon. 
 These were produced by Bishop Waynflete 
 at a conference with Cade, and were gladly 
 accepted. Soon almost every man of the 
 rebels was making for his home. But their 
 captain, distrusting his pardon, or yielding to 
 his instincts, flung open the gaols, and turned 
 the released prisoners into a new force. 
 With this he went to Rochester, whither his 
 booty had been sent by water. A price was 
 now set on his head ; and his men quarrelled 
 with him over the plunder. He left them 
 
Cad 
 
 (216) 
 
 Cad 
 
 and fled into Sussex. He was heading towards 
 Lewes, when he was canght at Heathfield 
 in a garden, hy Iden, the new Sheriff of 
 Kent, and struggling against capture, was 
 cat down and wounded to the death. He 
 died hefore his captors could get him to 
 London. 
 
 ■Paston Letters, with Mr. Gairdner's Preface 
 to vol. It. ; Mr. J. E. Thorold Eogers's Introdao- 
 tion to Loci e Lihro Yeritatwm, ; Hook, Life of 
 btafford in iwjes of the Archhishoxis, vol. iv. 
 
 [J. R.] 
 
 Cadiz, Expeditions against. The ^rst 
 (1596) was undertaken to create a diversion in 
 favour of Henry IV. of France, in accordance 
 with the terms of the Treaty of Melun. In June, 
 1596, a combined fleet of English and Dutch 
 imder Lord Howard of Effingham and the 
 Earl of Essex, entered Cadiz harbour, where 
 Sir Francis Drake had burnt the shipping 
 nine years before, and completely defeated 
 the Spanish vessels assembled there for the 
 defence of the city. Essex, with 3,000 men, 
 landed at Puntal, and captured the town, ex- 
 torting a ransom of 120,000 crowns from the 
 citizens. The expedition returned ten weeks 
 after it had left Plymouth, having done much 
 to lower the prestige of Spain, and to assert 
 the naval superiority of the English. The 
 second (1625) resulted from the rupture of the 
 negotiations for the Spanish marriage, and 
 the restoration of the Palatinate by Spanish 
 aid, and the consequent expedition planned by 
 the Duke of Buckingham to seize a Spanish 
 port and intercept the treasure fleet. An open 
 breach took place in "September, 1625, when 
 Charles concluded an alliance with Holland 
 (Sept. 8th), and a joint expedition was agreed 
 on. Sir Edward Cecil (Lord Wimbledon) 
 was entrusted with the chief command, with 
 Lord Denbigh as rear-admiral and the Earl 
 of Essex as vice-admiral. The combined 
 fleet arrived in Cadiz Bay on Oct. 22nd ; but 
 instead of at once attacking the ships in the 
 harbour and assaulting the city, the next day 
 was spent in capturing the fort of Puntal, 
 which guarded the entrance of the harbour. 
 The delay gave the Spaniards time to garrison 
 the before defenceless city, and made a surprise 
 impossible. On the 24th Wimbledon landed 
 his troops, and marched northwards to meet 
 a Spanish force of whose approach he had 
 heard ; but the Spaniards retreated, and, after 
 a useless and disorderly march, he returned 
 next morning to his fleet. The fleet, which 
 was to have destroyed the Spanish vessels at 
 the head of the harbour, found them posted 
 in an inaccessible creek, and accomplished 
 nothing. Cadiz was now too strong to 
 attack; so on Oct. 27th the soldiers were 
 re- embarked, the fort of Puntal was aban- 
 doned, and the fleet put to sea to intercept 
 the treasure ships. This portion of the enter- 
 prise also failed ; the ships were unseaworthy, 
 and disease raged among the crews ; and in 
 December the fleet returned to England. 
 
 The third (1702) occurred during the War 
 of the Spanish Succession, and the idea 
 appears to have been suggested by the Prince 
 of Hesse Darmstadt, who was convinced that 
 the Spaniards were to a man in favour of the 
 Archduke Charles, and that Cadiz would 
 form a good basis of operations. Accordingly 
 a joint expedition of English and Dutch was 
 fitted out and placed under the command of 
 the Duke of Ormonde ; Sir George Eooke, who 
 disapproved of the whole plan, being in com- 
 mand of the fleet of thirty ships of the line. 
 The land forces amounted to 14,000 men. It 
 was first designed to attack Gibraltar, but 
 this idea was given up. For a fortnight the 
 fleet was delayed by storms. Cadiz was 
 strongly fortified and was defended by the 
 veteran general Villadrias. Ormonde first 
 attempted to gain over the governor Bran- 
 caccio, and then the inhabitants, but without 
 success. As the town itself was supposed, 
 though utterly without reason, to be impreg- 
 nable, Villadrias having only 200 men, the 
 allies occupied the port of Santa Maria, which 
 they ruthlessly pillaged, the officers being 
 as imprincipled as the men (July 18th). An 
 attempt to take Fort Matagorda proved an 
 utter failure; dysentery, too, broke out 
 among the troops. Accordingly, on the 
 30th of September, Ormonde, sorely against 
 his will, was constrained to re-embark 
 his troops, and they set off homeward 
 "with a great deal of plunder and in- 
 famy." On their way home, however, the 
 expedition partly retrieved its character by 
 the destruction of the Spanish galleons in 
 Vigo Bay. 
 
 Cadogan, William 1st Eakl or (d. 
 1726), was one of the offiioers whom Marl- 
 borough most trusted. He was made colonel 
 of the 2nd Regiment of Horse in 1703, and 
 general in the following year for his gallant 
 attack on the Schellenberg. In 1705 he 
 was elected member for Woodstock. He 
 fought at EamiUiea, and towards the end 
 of 1706, he was taken prisoner, but soon 
 exchanged. In 1708 he was appointed am- 
 bassador to the States General. Cadogan 
 led the van at Oudenarde, having been sent 
 on to construct pontoons across the Scheldt, 
 by which the army efiected the passage. 
 He also supported General Webb, in his 
 gallant fight with the enemy at Wynen- 
 dale. At the end of the year he was made 
 lieutenant - general. He was again ap- 
 pointed envoy to the States General, but was 
 recalled by the Tory ministry. In Marl- 
 borough's last campaign he surprised Bou- 
 chain and Cambrai, and broke the barrier 
 which Yillars had termed his " non plus ultra." 
 On the disgrace of Marlborough he resigned 
 his appointments. On the accession of 
 George I. he was made Master of the Horse, 
 and envoy to the States General. When 
 the Jacobite insurrection of 1715 broke out, 
 
Cad 
 
 (217) 
 
 Cal 
 
 Cadogan was sent to Scotland after the dila- 
 toriness of Argyle had been proved, and soon 
 brought the campaign to a conclusion. He was 
 raised to the Peerage in 1716. He signed the 
 defensive alliance between England, France, 
 and Holland, and subsequently carried out 
 the execution of the Barrier Treaty, and 
 signed the Quadruple Alliance. His influence 
 in Holland was partly owing to his friendship 
 with Marlborough, and partly because he 
 had married a Dutch lady of good family. 
 On the death of the Duke of Marlborough, 
 he was appointed Commander-in-chief and 
 Master-General of the Ordnance. Later on 
 he supported Carteret in his quarrel with 
 Walpole. 
 
 MarlboroBgh's Despatches ; Cose, Marlborough; 
 Wyon, Reign of <^eeu Anne. 
 
 Cadsaud, The Battle of (1337), the 
 first fight of the Hundred Years' War against 
 France, was brought about by the attack of 
 the Count of Flanders on the party of Van 
 Artevelde, who sought aid from England. 
 Sir Walter Manny was sent with a small 
 force, and having effected a landing at Cad- 
 sand, an island at the mouth of the Scheldt, 
 inflicted a serious defeat on the troops of the 
 count. 
 
 Caen, The Treaty or (1091), was made 
 between William Eufus and Robert of Nor- 
 mandy, under the mediation probably of the 
 King of Fremce. Robert renounced his claim 
 to England, and was allowed to retain his 
 capital and the greater part of his duchy ; but 
 he recognised the commendations which many 
 of the Norman nobles had made to William 
 Eufus, who thus became a Continental neigh- 
 bour to his brother, " hemming in what was 
 left of Normandy on every side " (Freeman). 
 Cherbourg, Fecamp, and St. Michael's Mount 
 were among the places surrendered by Robert. 
 The treaty provided that if either Robert or 
 William should die without an heir the sur- 
 vivor should succeed to his dominions. 
 
 Freeman, Wniiam Eti/us, ii., in the Appendix 
 the different versions of the treaty are given. 
 
 Caerlaverock Castle, on the Nith, 
 
 in Dumfriesshire, was held for some days in the 
 year 1300 by sixty men against an overpower- 
 ing force commanded by Edward I. It was the 
 place where James V. of Scotland died, De- 
 cember 14th, 1542. In 1545, Hertford per- 
 suaded Lord Maxwell, its owner, to surrender 
 the castle to the English, by whom, however, 
 it was not held for long. The castle was 
 destroyed by Cromwell. 
 
 The siege of Caerlaverock hy Edward I. 
 forma the subject of a ourions French poem 
 giving a catalogue of the various barons and 
 knights present, with a description of their 
 arms, persons, and characters. It was printed 
 by Grove in 1809, and Sir H. Nicolas m 1828. 
 An elaborate edition has been issued by Mr. 
 Thos. Wright, Lond., 1864, 4th ed. 
 
 Cagliari Affair, The. In June, 1857, 
 some of the passengers on a trading steamer, 
 
 the Cagliari, seized the ship and attacked the 
 island of Perga. The ship, after being aban- 
 doned by its captors, was taken at sea by a 
 Neapolitan war-vessel, and two EngUsh engi- 
 neers aboard were imprisoned till Mar., 1858, 
 until one became mad, and the other seriously 
 ill. The afiair formed the subject of much 
 discussion in Parliament, representations from 
 the English government to that of Naples 
 ending in the payment of £3,000 compensa- 
 tion by the latter in June, 1858. 
 
 Cairns, Hugh McCalmont, 1st Earl {b. 
 1819, d. 1884), second son of William Cairns, 
 of Co. Down, Ireland, was called to the bar in 
 1844, and entered Parliament as member for 
 Belfast in 1852. In 1858 he was appointed 
 Solicitor-General by Lord Derby. On the 
 return of Lord Derby to power in 1866, he 
 was made Attorney-General, and subsequently 
 a Lord Justice of Appeal. In 1867 he was 
 elevated to the peerage. He became Lord 
 Chancellor in 1868, and held that office till 
 the downfall of Mr. Disraeli's ministry. In 
 Mr. Disraeli's second administration he again 
 held the Chancellorship. 
 
 Caithness is mentioned in the Pictish 
 Chronicle as the territory of Gait, one of the 
 sons of Cinge. The district seems to have 
 embraced the whole of the northern part of 
 the island from sea to sea. It passed under 
 the rule of the Norwegian Earls of Orkney in 
 the ninth century, though the Kings of Scot- 
 land claimed the territory as part of their 
 kingdom. William the Lion, about 1196, de- 
 prived Earl Harold of that part of the dis- 
 trict of Caithness which comprises Sutherland, 
 and bestowed it on the Morays. The Nor- 
 wegian Earls of Caithness held of the Scotch 
 king, and not of the King of Norwaj', as did 
 the Earls of Orkney. The old line of earls 
 came to an end, in 1231, with the death of 
 Earl John, and for the next century the earl- 
 dom was held by the family of Angus, after 
 which it passed to the St. Clairs, or Sinclairs. 
 The bishopric of Caithness was founded by 
 David I., with the cathedral at Dornoch. 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland, iii.. Appendix. 
 
 Caithness, John, Earl of {d. 1231), 
 son of Harold, was supposed to have connived 
 at the murder of Bishop Adam._ He was 
 in consequence deprived of half his earldom 
 by Alexander II., from whom, however, 
 he bought it back a year later. The earl 
 was burnt to death in his own castle, 1231. 
 
 Calais first passed into the possession of 
 the English in the reign of Edward III. It 
 was invested by the English in August, 1346, 
 and after the battle of Crecy Edward III, 
 appeared in person before the walls with the 
 army that had won the victory. The town 
 endured a siege for nearly a year with heroic 
 bravery, and finally surrendered, Aug. 4, 
 1347. According to Jean Le Bel, six of the 
 chief citizens offered their lives to the king in 
 
Cal 
 
 ( 218 
 
 Cal 
 
 ransom for their fellow-townsmen, but were 
 spared by the intervention of ftueen Ptilippa. 
 The town was unsuccessfully besieged by the 
 Duke of Burgundy in 1436, and remained in 
 EngKsh hands as the sole vestige of the 
 Enghsh conquests in France at the close of 
 Henrj"- VI. 's reign. In 1455, Warwick was 
 made Captain of Calais, but, in 1470, he 
 and Clarence were refused entrance to the 
 city. In July, 147o, Edward IV. landed at 
 Calais to begin his projected campaign in 
 France. In January, 1558, the town was 
 invested and easily captured by the Duke of 
 Guise, owing to the apathy of the English 
 government, which had left the town without 
 men or supplies to withstand a siege. By the 
 peace of Cateau Cambresis the French bound 
 themselves to restore Calais to the English at 
 the end of eight years, on pain of forfeiting 
 a large sum of money; but the engagement 
 was never carried out. It was while \ Ij'ing 
 off Calais on Aug. 7, 1588, that the great 
 Spanish fleet [Armada] was dispersed by the 
 flreships of the English. In 1596 Calais 
 was taken from the French by Philip of 
 Spain, a circumstance which so alarmed 
 England as to occasion the expedition to 
 Cadiz under Lord Howard of Effingham. 
 Calais was restored to Trance in 1598, and 
 has since remained in the hands of the 
 French. 
 
 Cal^thros. A district in the ancient 
 kingdom of Dalriada, lying between the 
 Roman wall and the Iliver Avon, now called 
 Callander. The Battle of Galathros (634) 
 resulted in the defeat of King Donald Brec, 
 who was attempting to wrest the district from 
 the English. 
 
 Calcutta first became an English trading 
 station in 1686, when the small factory estab- 
 lished at Hooghley was removed to this place. 
 In 1696 Fort William was built, and became 
 the head-quarters of the Bengal servants of 
 the East India Company. In 1707 it was 
 constituted a Presidency, and its trade soon 
 became considerable. In 1710 the population 
 was computed at nearly 12,000. The city 
 was strongly fortified, and in 1742 the trench 
 called the " Mahratta ditch " was dug round 
 it to protect it from the predatory Mahratta 
 horsemen. In 1756 the town was captured 
 and sacked by Surajah Dowlah, and the 
 tragedy of the " Black Hole" enacted [Black 
 Hole of Calcutta]. In Jan, 1757, the town 
 was reconquered by Clive, and rebuilt. In 
 1773 it became the capital of British India 
 aa well as of Bengal, by an Act of Parliament 
 which gave the Fort William government 
 superiority over those of the other Presidencies. 
 The Governor of Bengal was henceforth 
 called the Governor-General, and in 1834 his 
 title was changed to that of Governor-General 
 of India. Many magnificent buildings were 
 erected in the European quarter, including the 
 splendid Gpvemment House built by Lord 
 
 WeUesley in 1804. In 1854 the supreme 
 government was separated from the local 
 Bengal goverrmient by the creation of a 
 Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, who also has 
 his seat at Calcutta. The population of the 
 town and suburbs in 1876 was 794,000. , 
 
 Caledonia. The name given generally by 
 the Eomans to that part of Britain lying 
 north of the Firths of Forth and Clyde, and 
 first laid open by the conquests and explora- 
 tions of Agricola. The name first occurs in 
 Lucan, vi. 67, and Valerius ¥'\a.Q.Q,us, Argonaut., 
 i. 7. Tacitus says that the red hair and large 
 Kmbs of the Caledonians point to a German 
 origin. The Caledonians, according to Ptolemy, 
 extended from the Sinus Lemannonius (pro- 
 bably Loch Long) to the Varar Aestuariuni 
 (Beauly Firth). They occupied the tract of 
 wild country called Caledonia Silva, or Forest 
 of Celyddon, and were the most powerful of 
 all the tribes north of the Brigantes. At a 
 later period the name came to include 
 apparently all the barbarian and partially un- 
 subdued natives of the northern mountainous 
 district. In 201 the Caledonians joined the 
 revolt of the MeatiE. Severus conducted a 
 campaign against them in 208 ; but they 
 again revolted a year or two afterwards. 
 In the fourth century, and subsequently, the 
 name is used as eqmvalent to the whole of 
 Northern Britain — modern Scotland, as dis- 
 tinguished from England and Ireland. 
 
 Tacitus, Agricola ; Ptolemy, ii. 3 ; Pliny, iv. 16 ; 
 AnLViianus Marcellmus, xxvii. 8, 9 ; Skene, Cdtvi 
 Scotland^ i. 40, &c. ; Elton, Origins of Eng, Hist. 
 
 Calendar, The Eefokmation op the 
 (1751), was in great part due to the efforts of 
 Lord Chesterfield. The "Old Style," which 
 was now eleven days in error, had long since 
 befen abandoned by most civilised nations. 
 England, however, with llussia and Sweden, 
 still clung to the antiquated system. "It 
 was not," wrote Chesterfield, "very honour- 
 able for England to remain in a, gross and 
 avowed error, especially in such company." 
 Accordingly, having paved the way to his 
 measure by some letters to the World, Chester- 
 field drew up the scheme in concert with Lord 
 Macclesfield and Bradley the astronom'er. The 
 Bill successfully passed both Houses of Parlia- 
 ment. It ordained that the year 1752 should 
 begin on the 1st of January instead of the 1st of 
 March, and that the 3rd of the month of Sep- 
 tember should be called the 14th, so as to lose 
 the eleven days. Further, such changes should 
 be introduced as would make the solar year 
 and the lunar year coincide. In the matter 
 of payments, it was enacted that these should 
 not be altered, and that the 5th of April, the 
 5th of July, the 10th of October, and the 5th 
 of January should still continue to be the 
 days on which the dividends of the public 
 funds became due. This change met with a 
 good deal of ignorant opposition. The 
 common Opposition election cry was, " Give us 
 back our eleven days." 
 
Cam 
 
 (219 ) 
 
 Cam 
 
 Cambridge w-as the site of a Roman 
 station, named Camboritum. After the 
 English conquest the name of the town 
 was changed to Grantchester, the modern 
 name being derived from the great stone 
 bridge across the Cam. In 1267 it was forti- 
 fied by Henry III., and afterwards taken by 
 the barons. In 1381 it was attacked by the 
 insurgents, and many of the colleges were 
 pillaged and their charters burned. During 
 the Great EebeUion it was occupied and forti- 
 fied by the Parliamentarians. The town has 
 returned two members to Parliament since 
 Edward I.'s time. 
 
 Cam.bridge, TJnitehsity op. [Univer- 
 sities.] 
 
 Cambridge, Richakd Pl antagexet, Earl 
 OF {d. 1415), was the second son of Edmund 
 of Langley, Duke of York. He was created 
 Earl of Cambridge by Henry V., but in 1415 
 was concerned in the conspiracy with Lord 
 Scrope of Masham and others, to dethrone 
 Henry and place the Earl of March on the 
 throne. On the discovery of the plot Cam- 
 bridge was beheaded. He married, first, 
 Anne Mortimer, sister of the Earl of March, 
 through whom the claims of the house of 
 Mortimer were transferred to the family of 
 York; and, secondly, Maud, daughter of 
 Thomas, Lord Clifford. 
 
 Cam.bridge, George Frederick Wil- 
 liam Chahles, Duke of (b. 1819), son of 
 Adolphus Frederick, seventh son of George 
 III., was bom at Hanover. He became a 
 colonel in the British army, 1837 ; a major- 
 general in 1845 ; and a lieutenant-general in 
 1854. In the latter capacity he saw active 
 service at the battles of the Alma and Inker- 
 mann, as commander of the two brigades of 
 Guards and Highlanders. In 1862, he be- 
 came field-marshal; and on the resignation 
 of Viscount Hardinge was appointed Com- 
 mander-in-chief. 
 
 Cambnskenneth, The Battle of. 
 [Stirling, Battle of.] 
 
 Camden,THE Battle of (August 16, 1780), 
 fought during the American War of Indepen- 
 dence, arose out of an attempt made by the 
 Americans to save the Carolina provinces 
 from falling into British hands. In the early 
 part of the summer, Washington despatched 
 De Kalb with 3,000 men to join Gates in the 
 South ; and Virginia sent out a large body of 
 MiUtia. The centre of the British force, 
 which was widely extended over South Caro- 
 lina, lay at Camden, but CornwalUs, on hear- 
 ing of Gates's advance, concentrated a large 
 body on that place. A skirmish at daybreak 
 ' of August 16 between the vanguards of the 
 two armies soon developed into a general 
 battle. The British were outnumbered, but a 
 great part of the American force was raw and 
 undisciplined, the steady attack of the regulars 
 was irresistible, and the flight soon became a 
 
 hopeless rout. The American losses were 
 very heavy both in men and stores. Among 
 the former was De Kalb himself. The victory 
 was the most decisive advantage gained by 
 the British during the war. It placed South 
 Carolina and Georgia almost entirely in the 
 power of the British. [Coiinwallis.] 
 
 Bancroft, Hist, of Ar^erica, iv., chap. 15 ; Stan- 
 hope, Kiat. of Bng,, chap. b'± 
 
 Camden., Charles Pratt, 1st Earl 
 (J. 1713, d. 1794), was the son of Chief Justice 
 Sir John Pratt. He was educated at Eton, 
 and called to the bar in 1738. In Feb- 
 ruary, 1752, he defended a printer who was 
 prosecuted for an alleged libel. His practice 
 and his reputation continued steadily to 
 increase, until when Pitt came into office in 
 1757 he was appointed Attorney-General. 
 When Pitt resigned in October, 1761, Pratt 
 continued in office as Attorney-General, and in 
 the following January became Chief Justice of 
 the Common Pleas. While he held this posi- 
 tion, he continued to maintain constitutional 
 principles against tyrannical attempts to 
 oppress the subject, and decided in nu- 
 merous cases against the legality of general 
 warrants. To him Wilkes applied, and the 
 Chief Justice ordered his release on the 
 ground of his privilege as a member of 
 Parliament. On the formation of the Rock- 
 ingham cabinet, in 1765, he was raised to 
 the peerage as Baron Camden. In February, 
 1766, he made a great speech in favour of the 
 repeal of the Stamp Act, and against the 
 Declaratory Act. In the following July 
 Camden was raised to the woolsack. Lord 
 Camden's opinion on the right of Parliament 
 to expel Wilkes seems to have been at variance 
 with the action taken by the cabinet, though 
 in his perplexity as to the right course to take 
 he continued to belong to the government ; 
 but in January, 1770, he openly declared 
 his differences with his colleagues on that 
 subject of the Wilkes question, and re- 
 signed the Great Seal. In 1772 he warmly 
 opposed the Royal Marriage Act. In January, 
 1782, he supported Lord Shelburne's amend- 
 ment to the address on the King's Speech. 
 On the formation of the second Rockingham 
 cabinet in March, 1782, Lord Camden pre- 
 ferred the office of President of the Council 
 to the Great Seal. In 1783 he resigned, and 
 offered a vigorous opposition to the " Coali- 
 tion" Ministry. Soon after Pitt became 
 Prime Minister, Camden was again made 
 President of the Council. In May, 1786, 
 he received an earldom. He conducted, 
 in the House of Lords, the measures adopted 
 by the government in relation to the 
 Regency Bill. The last occasion on which 
 he addressed the House of Lords was the 
 debate on Fox's Libel Bill. On the eve 
 of fourscore years, he made his final and 
 successful effort to put on the statute-book 
 those principles as to the rights of juries 
 
Cam 
 
 ( 220 ) 
 
 Cam 
 
 ■which he had so consistently maintained 
 
 throughout his life. 
 
 Stats Trials, vols, xviii.— xx. ; ParUamentary 
 Hist., vols. xvi. — xxix. ; Campbell, Lives of tiie 
 Chancellors i Stanhope, Hist. 0/ Eng. 
 
 Camden, John jErriiEYs Pkatt, 1st 
 MiRauis (*. 1759, d. 1840), son of the pre- 
 ceding, entered Parliament in 1780 as mem- 
 ber for Bath. In 1795 he succeeded Lord 
 Fitzwilliam aa Viceroy of Ireland. On his 
 entry into Dublin in March, 1 796, there was 
 a serious riot, which could only he quelled 
 by bloodshed. In 1797 he was bitterly de- 
 nounced by Grattan, on account of the 
 severities he had found it necessary to 
 authorise in Ulster ; but the Parliament, now 
 thoroughly alarmed by the progress of dis- 
 affection, was on his side. The English 
 government was more uncertain how to act, 
 but ultimately supported Lord Camden, and 
 took his side in the dispute in which he was 
 involved with General Abercromby. He 
 was, after the beginning of 1797, in full 
 possession of all the rebel plans, but was 
 unable to act on his information during the 
 Rebellion of 1798. He was consequently 
 urging the gravity of the situation on the 
 English cabinet, but it was only after Father 
 Murphy's successes that the Guards and 
 other English troops were seat out to support 
 him. The Whigs in England, meanwhile, 
 continued to attack him as a tyrant of the 
 worst kind, Sheridan moving for his recall 
 in the Commons, and the Dukes of Leinster 
 and Norfolk in the Lords. Both motions 
 were defeated, but popular clamour was so 
 great that, in June, 1798, he was recalled. 
 In 1804 he was in the cabinet, and in 1812 
 was made a marquis. For nearly sixty years 
 he held the lucrative post of Teller of the 
 Exchequer ; but during more than half that 
 period he patriotically declined to draw the 
 enormous emoluments of the office. 
 
 Camden, Wiluam (J. 1551, d. 1623), 
 
 one of the most celebrated of English anti- 
 quaries, was born in London and educated at 
 St. Paul's Schooland at Oxford. In 1575 — 6he 
 became a master at "Westminster School ; in 1 5 89 
 received a prebend at Salisbury Cathedral; 
 in 1593 he became Head Master of West- 
 minster, and in 1597 Clarencieux King-at- 
 ' arms. In 1607 he was commissioned by 
 James I. to translate into Latin the account 
 of the trial of the Gunpowder Plot conspira- 
 tors. In 1622 he founded his Professorship 
 of History at Oxford, and died at Chiselhurst 
 the next year. Camden's most celebrated 
 work is the Britannia sire Flormtissimonim 
 Regnorum Angliai, Scotia, Ilibernia, et Insu- 
 larum Adjaeentinm, ex Intima Antiqidtate 
 Chorographica Sescriptio, which first appeared 
 "1 1586, and had gone through a ninth 
 edition in 1594. A new and enlarged edition 
 was published in 1607. It is an interesting 
 work, and the care and learning shown in its 
 
 compilation still make it of great value to 
 scholars. Though many of Camden's anti- 
 quarian theories have been dispelled by later 
 research, his work is important as a great store- 
 house of facts. He also wrote an English anti- 
 quarian work of less elaborate character, called 
 liemaines Concerning Britain, 1605, which has 
 been frequently reprinted. In 1615 he pub- 
 lished the first part of his Annates JRerum 
 Angiicarum Megnante Ji^lizabetha, the second 
 part of which did not appear till after the 
 author's death. It is not a work of special 
 value. 
 
 The BHtannia was translated into English by 
 P. Holland 1610 ; and by Bishop liibson in 169i, 
 which translation was reprinted in 1723 and 
 enlarged in 1752 and 1772. An enlarged trans- 
 lation was published by Gongh in 3 vols., 1789. 
 An edition of Caradeu's WorUs in 6 vols, was pub- 
 lished in 187U. 
 
 Camden Society, The, was founded in 
 1838 for the purpose of printing ancient 
 chronicles, documents, and memorials relating 
 to English history and antiquities. It has 
 published over 130 volumes, many of which 
 are of the greatest importance, and are, 
 indeed, indispensable to the historical student. 
 The Camden Society's works bear especially 
 upon the history of England under the 
 Tudors and Stuarts. [Authorities.] 
 
 Cameron of LocMel, "a gracious 
 master, a trusty ally, a terrible enemy," was 
 one of the staunchest adherents of James II. 
 in the campaign of 1689. He was in com- 
 mand of the Camerons at KiUiecremkie (q.v.), 
 but after the death of Claverhouse he refused 
 to serve under his successor. Cannon, the Irish 
 commander, and retired to Lochaber. In 
 1692 he took the oaths to William III. with 
 the other Highland chiefs. 
 
 Cam.eron, Richard {d. July 20, 1680), 
 the founder of the Cameronians, was born 
 at Falkland, in Fife, and was the son 
 of a village tradesman. He entered the 
 ministry and distinguished himself by his 
 violent opposition to the restoratioh of 
 episcopacy. He proceeded to still further 
 lengths by the Sanquhar Declaration, by 
 which he and his followers practically 
 declared themselves rebels, and announced 
 their intention of offering armed resistance 
 to the government. In 1677, Cameron was 
 compelled to flee to Holland ; but in the 
 spring of 1680 he returned, and was killed 
 in the skirmish of Aird's Moss. 
 
 Cameronians, Thu, took their name 
 from Richard Cameron, the author of the 
 Sanquhar Declaration. They were some- 
 times called " Covenanters," from their rigid 
 adherence to the Solemn League and Cove- 
 nant, and afterwards " McMiUanites " (from 
 the name of their first minister after the 
 Revolution) and "Mountain Men." Their 
 creed considered as enemies to righteousness 
 
Cam 
 
 (221 ) 
 
 Cam 
 
 Komanists, Epiaoopalians, and more espe- 
 cially those moderate Presbyterians who had 
 accepted the indulgence of Charles II. Be- 
 sides holding the binding obligation of the 
 Covenant on the three kingdoms, they main- 
 tained the Westminster Confession, and the 
 Scriptures as the absolute rule of faith and 
 conduct. The sect was not extinguished by 
 the defeat of Aird's Jttoss, and the death of 
 their leader. They issued a defiance to the 
 royal authority, Oct. 28, 1684, and in return 
 were proscribed and hunted about from place 
 to place by the royal troops. The Came- 
 roniane were most numerous in the wilder 
 parts of south-western Scotland, where, on 
 the accession of William III,, their warlike 
 temperament, which had been so unfortu- 
 nateiy displayed at Dunbar, Both well Bridge, 
 and Aird's Moss, was utilised by the forma- 
 tion of the Cameronian Regiment. The 
 Revolution secured for Scotland a Presby- 
 terian chui-ch government ; but many of the 
 more extreme Cameronians refused to swear 
 allegiance to WiUiam III., or to attend the 
 established places of worship. These Cove- 
 nanting nonjurors became the "Reformed 
 Presbyterians," or the "Old Presbyterian 
 Dissenters," and formed a Presbytery and 
 subsequently a synod in 1 743. They founded 
 numerous churches in England, Ireland, and 
 America, and their number in Scotland in 
 1840 was estimated at about 6,000. 
 
 Eobertson, Hist, of the Scottish Church. 
 
 Campbell, The Famut of, is, according 
 to tradition, descended in the female Une from 
 the ancient kings or chiefs of Argyle, and 
 from one of these, a certain Diarmid, the clan 
 is supposed to derive its name of Scol Diarmid, 
 by which it was known in Erse and Gaelic. 
 In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the name 
 was changed to Campbell by the marriage 
 of the heiress of the house with a person of 
 that name. A Sir CoHn Campbell, Lord of 
 Lochow, was among the Scottish knights and 
 barons summoned to the Council of Berwick 
 in 1291. His son. Sir Neil Campbell, was a 
 strong supporter of Robert Bruce, whose 
 sister he married. His son. Sir Colin, received 
 large grants of land in Argj'-leshire from King 
 Robert and his successor. His grandson, 
 Duncan, was made Chancellor of Scotland by 
 James I., and raised to the peerage as Lord 
 Campbell. The grandson of this peer, Colin, was 
 made Earl of Argyle in 1457. Archibald, the 
 eighth earl, was created Marquis of Argyle in 
 1641 ; but was executed, and his honours for- 
 feited in 1661. The earldom was restored to 
 his son, Archibald, the ninth earl, in 1663, who 
 was beheaded in 1685. His son, Archibald, 
 was restored under William III., and created 
 Dttko of Argyle in 1701. [Akgyle, Peekage 
 
 OF.] 
 
 Campbell, John, 1st Lord (*. 1779, 
 ^- 1861), descended from a junior branch of 
 
 the ducal house of Argyle, was the son of 
 Dr. George Campbell, minister of Cupar. 
 He was educated at the Grammar School at 
 Cupar, and at the University of St. Andrews, 
 and was called to the bar of Lincoln's Inn in 
 1806. He soon obtained a good practice. 
 In 1827 he obtained a silk gown, and in 
 1830—31 he represented Stafford in the 
 House of Commons. In 1832 he was made 
 Solicitor-General, and in Feb., 1834, was 
 appointed Attorney- General. During his 
 period of ofiice he inaugurated several im- 
 portant law reforms, among which were the 
 Act called Lord Campbell's Act for the 
 amendment of the law of libel as it affects 
 newspapers [Likel, Law of], and an Act 
 limiting the power of arrest in cases of 
 disputed debt. He was also engaged as 
 counsel in several cases of great importance, 
 notably the trial of Lord Cardigan, before 
 the House of Lords, for shooting Captain 
 Tuckett ; the case of Stoekdale v. Hansard ; 
 and the defence of Lord Melbourne in the 
 action for damages raised by Mrs. Norton. 
 In June, 1841, he was raised to the peerage 
 and received the Irish Chancellorship, which 
 post he held for only sixteen days. In 1846 
 Lord Campbell joined the Whig cabinet as 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. In 1850 
 he became Lord Chief Justice, and held that 
 office tin he was appointed Lord Chancellor of 
 Great Britain by Lord Palmerston in 1869. 
 Lord Campbell published, in 1849, The Lima of 
 the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great 
 Seal of England,^ seven volumes. It is a work 
 disfigured by inaccuracy, carelessness, and (in 
 the case of the more recent Chancellors) by 
 the prejudices and personal jealousy of the 
 author; but it nevertheless contains a good 
 deal of interesting matter. He also wrote 
 Lives of the Chief Justices, a much inferior 
 work. He was found dead in his chair on 
 the morning of Sunday, June 24th, 1861. 
 
 Lord Campbell's Jlfemoirs, edited by big 
 daugbter, Mrs. Hardcastle, 1879. 
 
 Campbell, John, LL.D. (i. 1708, i. 
 1775), was the writer of many useful historical 
 works which had a considerable reputation in 
 the last century. He was largely concerned 
 in the Ancient Universal History, and was 
 editor of the Modern Universal Sistori/. He 
 also wrote A Political Survey of Great Britain, 
 ni'l, and Lives of the Admirals, the latter of 
 which is a careful and interesting work. 
 
 Campbell, Sir Colin. [Clyde, Lokd.] 
 
 Camperdown, The Battle of (Oct. 11, 
 1797), was fought between the English and 
 the Dutch. In the autumn of 1797 a great 
 Dutch fleet was prepared to co-operate with 
 the French in the invasion of Ireland, Oct. 
 9. The Dutch, under De Winter, weighed 
 from the Texel. Admiral Duncan, who had 
 been lying in Yarmouth Roads, crossed th^. 
 
Cam 
 
 ( 222 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 German Ocean, and came in sight of the 
 Dutch on the morning of Oct. 11th, nine miles 
 from the coast, nearCamperdown. At half -past 
 eleven Duncan made the signal for the fleet to 
 engage, and at twelve o'clock determined to 
 pass through the enemy's line in two divisions 
 and engage to leeward. But the weather was 
 so hazy that the signal was not seen hy many 
 of the ships, which accordingly engaged in 
 close action as each captain "saw an opportu- 
 nity. The two flag-ships passed through the 
 line, followed hy a few leading ships, while 
 the others, for the most part, engaged the 
 enemy to windward. The action was fought 
 with the desperate stubhornness which had 
 always been so marked a characteristic of the 
 two nations. De "Winter in the Vrigheid, 
 assailed by the English admiral's ship and 
 two others, after a desperate contest, sur- 
 rendered, when he was totally dismasted, and 
 had scarcely enough men left to fight his 
 guns. One after another the Dutch ships 
 followed his example, and it only remained 
 for the British to secure the prizes before 
 night set in. Eight of the Dutch ships, with 
 over 6,000 prisoners, were taken. The English 
 lost 1,040 and the Dutch 1,160 killed and 
 wounded. In the action the English had 
 16 line-of-hattle ships carrying 8,221 men, 
 and the Dutch 16 line-of -battle ships carrying 
 7,137. The Dutch prizes were so shattered 
 as to be quite useless. 
 
 Allen, JTaua! Battles; James, Naval Rlst., 
 ii. 78, &o. ; Alison, Hist, of Europe, iv. 273. 
 
 Campian, Edmund (i. 1540, d. 1581), was 
 born in London and educated at Oxford, where 
 he became a Fellow of St. John's College ; 
 but ha^^ng openly embraced the Catholic faith, 
 to which he had long secretly inclined, suf- 
 fered a, short imprisonment. On his release 
 he went to Cardinal Allen's college at Douay, 
 where he became noted for his learning and 
 virtues. His affability and high moral cha- 
 racter made him an invaluable assistant to 
 the Jesuits, and in June, 1581, he undertook 
 a " missionary journey " to England, in com- 
 pany with Robert Parsons. Their zeal was 
 such as to cause the Parliament of 1581 to 
 pass the harsh statute against any one har- 
 bouring a, Jesuit, and active measures were 
 taken for the apprehension of the two mis- 
 sionaries. In July, 1581, Campian was taken 
 at Lyfljord, in Berkshire, and sent to the 
 Tower, where he was tortured, in order to 
 extort from him the names of Catholics who 
 had given him shelter. He was then indicted 
 for compassing and imagining the queen's 
 death, and, after wha,t appears to have been 
 a very unfair trial, was executed at Tvburn, 
 Dec, 1581. 
 
 State TriaU ; Pronde, Hist, of Eiig. ; Camden, 
 Annates ; Lingard, Hist, of Mn'g. 
 
 Cam-nloduntiin, a town of Celtic and 
 Boman Britain, is now generally allowed 
 
 to be identical with the modern Colchester. 
 It became the capital of the Trinobantes under 
 Cunobelin, or Cymbeline (q.v.). In 44 it was 
 taken by Aulus Plautius, and in 60 was made 
 a Roman colony. Two years later Boadicea 
 and the Iceni captured and burnt the 
 city and defeated Petilius Cerealis, but 
 shortly afterwards, in the neighbourhood 
 of Camulodunum, Suetonius Paulinus re- 
 trieved by a complete victory the honour of 
 Rome. 
 
 Canada was probably discovered by John 
 Cabot in 1497, and by him taken possession 
 of for England, though the occupation of the 
 country was never formally entered upon. In 
 1525 an expedition, sent out by Francis I., 
 under the leadership of Giovanni Verrazano, 
 a Florentine, took possession of the country, 
 which had previously been claimed for Eng- 
 land by Cabot, giving it the name of " La 
 jSTouvelle France." In 1541 another French 
 expedition, under M. de Robesval, gave 
 Canada its present name, mistaking the Indian 
 word " kanata " (huts) for the native name 
 of the country. In spite of various attempts 
 on the part of England to establish her claim 
 on Canada, the country remained in the 
 hands of the French until 1763, when it was 
 ceded to Great Britain by the terms of the 
 Treaty of Paris. The Quebec Bill, passed in 
 1774, established the government of Canada, 
 with a careful regard to the rights and feel- 
 ings of the French inhabitants, and was the 
 means of securing the allegiance of the great 
 mass of French Canadians, by whose aid the 
 American invasion of Canada, in 1776, was 
 easily repulsed. In 1790 the province of 
 Canada was divided, at the suggestion of 
 Pitt, into Upper (or Western) and Lower (or 
 Eastern) Canada, mainly for purposes of 
 representation, whilst the division also served 
 to mark out the locality where the English 
 and French elements respectively prepon- 
 derated. Each province had a Governor 
 and an Executive Council, a Legislative 
 Council appointed by the crown, and a Re- 
 presentative Assembly appointed by the 
 people. For some years after the establishment 
 of the Houses of Assembly, there were fre- 
 quent disputes between them and the Legis- 
 lative Council, giving rise to such discontent 
 that, in 1812, the Americans projected an 
 invasion of Canada, under the impression that 
 they would be joined by a large majority of 
 the inhabitants. The Canadians, however, 
 stood firmly by the British during the 
 American War of 1812—15, and the attacks 
 on East and "West Canada were repulsed. On 
 the conclusion of peace in March, 1815, the 
 disputes again broke out, varying in degree 
 according as the policy of the governors was 
 conciliatory or the reverse. The grievances 
 of the French or national party seem to have 
 had real existence. The Executive and the 
 Upper Legislative Chamber were composed 
 
Can 
 
 ( 223 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 of crown nominees, and in no sense repre- 
 sented the feelings of the bulk of the in- 
 hahitauts. The administration (especially in 
 matters of local government) was clumsy, 
 inefficient, and perhaps corrupt. The discon- 
 tent among the French Canadians continued 
 to increase. The refusal of the government 
 to make any concessions at length brought 
 matters to a crisis, and in 1837 a rebellion 
 broke out in Lower Canada. This insurrec- 
 tion, though crushed almost at its first out- 
 break, had still the effect of opening the eyes 
 of the Home Government to the danger of 
 neglecting any longer the demands for reform 
 which were being urged upon them by the 
 French Canadians, and accordingly, in 1838, 
 Lord Durham was sent out to Canada to 
 report on the best method of adjusting the 
 future government of the province. The 
 result was the union of the two Canadas in 
 1840, from which time discontent and insur- 
 rection have been at an end. The changes 
 introduced by the union were considerable. 
 A single government was instituted, with a 
 single parliament, consisting of a Legislative 
 Council of twenty or more life members, and 
 a Lower House of eighty -four deputies, ap- 
 pointed by popular election every four years. 
 The reforms of 1840 were consolidated by 
 Lord Elgin (1847), to whose practical and 
 far-sighted administration of his office of 
 Governor-General much of the prosperity of 
 Canada is due. In 1856 the Upper House 
 was made elective. In 1867 Canada and the 
 other provinces of British North America 
 were united, under the title of the Dominion 
 OF Canada. The Dominion embracing the 
 whole of British North America, with the 
 exception of Newfoundland, includes the 
 various provinces of Upper and Lower 
 Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, 
 Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, 
 Manitoba, and the North-West Territories. 
 The government of the Dominion is exercised 
 by a Governor-General, who is advised by a 
 Privy Council ; whilst there are two Legisla- 
 tive Chambers called the Senate and the 
 House of Commons, the members of which 
 meet at Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion 
 and the seat of the Executive Government. 
 The various provinces are administered by 
 Lieutenant - Governors, appointed by the 
 Governor-General, and have separate cham- 
 bers of legislature. The Province of Canada 
 proper in the Dominion of Canada consists of 
 the two districts of Ontario and Quebec, each 
 having a provincial government, vested, in 
 the case of Ontario, in a Lieutenant-Governor 
 and a Legislative Assembly consisting of 
 eighty-two members elected for four years; 
 in the case of Quebec in a Lieutenant- 
 Governor, a Legislative Assembly of sixty- 
 five members, and Executive and Legislative 
 Councils appointed by the Governor. Since 
 the constitution of the Dominion, the connec- 
 tion with England has shrunk to very slight 
 
 proportions. Canada has a supreme Court of 
 Appeal, and .there is therefore now no appeal 
 from the law-courts of Canada to the Judicial 
 Committee of the Privy Council, or any other 
 English court of law. The legal system in 
 the older provinces is somewhat complicated, 
 and in Quebec the old laws and customs of 
 French Canada, founded on the j urisprudence 
 of the Parliament of Paris, the edicts of the 
 French kings, and the Civil Law, are still 
 recognised by the courts for certain purposes. 
 The trade, population, and agTicnltural pros- 
 perity of the Dominion of Canada have ad- 
 vanced greatly of late years, especially in 
 the North -West Territory. The area of 
 the Dominion of Canada is about 3,500,000 
 square miles, and its population, which 
 is increasing fast, was 4,320,000 in 1881, 
 of whom over a million are of French 
 descent. 
 
 P. Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada ; J. 
 MaoMuUen, Hist, of Canada, 1868 ; H. C. Lodge, 
 Short Rist. of the Enci. Colonies in America; A. 
 Todd, Farliamerdary^ Govt, in the British 
 Colonies; K. M. Martin, Bntish Colonies; Mur- 
 doch, Life of Lord Sydenham. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Canning, George (4. 1770, d. 1827), was 
 bom in London, the son of a poor barrister. 
 His mother, left in needy circumstances, went 
 upon the stage, and afterwards married an 
 actor. George was sent by his uncle, Strat- 
 ford Canning, a London merchant, the father 
 of Lord Stratford de Redcliife, to Eton, where 
 he had a briUiant career. AVhilst at school 
 he founded and contributed largely to a 
 school magazine called The Microcosm. In 
 1787 he went to Oxford, where he at- 
 tracted the attention of Pitt, and formed a 
 close friendship with Mr. Jenkinson, after- 
 wards Earl of Liverpool, which was of great 
 service to him in later life. He was at this 
 time a Whig, devoted to Fox and Sheridan, 
 and inclined to look favourably on the French 
 Eevolution. On leaving 0.xford, he at first 
 went to the bar, but in 1793 was induced to 
 enter Parliament as member for Newport 
 (Isle of Wight), and as a follower of Mr. 
 Pitt. He spoke frequently during his first 
 years in the House of Commons, and always 
 as a supporter of the ministry. In 1796 he 
 became member for Wendover and Under- 
 Secretary for Foreign Affairs. In the autumn 
 of 1797 he pubhshed, in conjunction with 
 John Hookham Frere, Jenkinson, George 
 Ellis, and GifEord, a satirical paper called The 
 Anti-Ja(yMn. Some of Canning's contribu- 
 tions have taken a permanent place in litera- 
 ture. In the year 1799 Canning laboured 
 earnestly with Pitt to effect the union 
 with Ireland, on the basis of giving 
 equal political rights to the Roman Catholics. 
 When this measure failed, owing to the per- 
 sistent opposition of the Ising, Canning left 
 the government with his chief. Pitt was 
 succeeded by Adding-ton, who was' assailed 
 by Canning "with untiring ridicule. " Pitt is 
 
Can 
 
 ( 224 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 to Addington," he said, " as London to Pad- 
 dington." In 1799 he married the daughter 
 of General John Scott, who brought him 
 a large fortune. In 1804 he returned to 
 office, with Pitt, as Treasurer of the Navy. 
 On the death of Pitt in 1806, Fox came 
 into office, and Canning had to retire. In 
 March, 1807, he took office, under the Duke 
 of Portland, as Minister for Foreign Affairs. 
 In this capacity he executed the bold stroke 
 of securing the Danish fleet lest it should fall 
 into the hands of Napoleon (Sept., 1807). 
 He also organised the assistance given by 
 England to Spain against Napoleon, which 
 eventually tended more than anj'thing else 
 to effect the emperor's downfall. He could 
 not agree with Lord Castlereagh, the 
 Secretary at "War, and after the failure of 
 the disastrous Walcheren expedition, for 
 which Castlereagh had been largely respon- 
 sible, resigned his office. Castlereagh became 
 aware that Canning had intrigued against 
 him with the Duke of Portland, and chal- 
 lenged him to a duel. They met at Putney, 
 and Canning was wounded in the shoulder. 
 Canning's resignation of office was an event 
 which long retarded his advancement. He 
 remained a strong advocate of the Emancipa- 
 tion of the Catholics. After the murder of 
 Perceval in May, 1812, Canning andWellesley 
 received the king's commands to form a 
 ministry, but they were imable to come to 
 terms with Grey and GrenviUe. Lord Liver- 
 pool became Prime Minister instead. Lord 
 Liverpool offered him the post of Foreign 
 Secretary, which Canning refused. In 1814 
 he went as ambassador to Portugal. Two 
 years later his impatience of being out of 
 office led him to accept the post of President 
 of the Board of Control in Lord Castle- 
 reagh's cabinet. In this ministry he was 
 forced to sanction measures of repression 
 of which he could not approve. He agreed 
 with his colleagues in their dislike of 
 Parliamentary reform, but differed from them 
 both with regard to the Emancipation of the 
 Catholics and the harsh measures adopted 
 towards the Princess of Wales. During the 
 trial which followed at the accession of George 
 III., Canning travelled abroad and refused 
 the Home Office offered him by Liverpool. 
 In November, 1820, he came to London, 
 resigned office, and then returned to France. 
 In 1822 the directors of the East India Com- 
 pany appointed him to succeed Lord Hastings 
 as Governor-General. He made all prepara- 
 tions for departure, and went down to Liver- 
 pool to take leave of his friends, when Lord 
 Castlereagh (the Marquis of Londonderry, 
 and Secretary for Foreign Affaire) suddenly 
 committed suicide. Canning gave up the 
 brilliant prospect of the Viceroyalty, and 
 succeeded Londonderry. He now showed 
 his resemblance to those English states- 
 men, who, like Chatham and Palmerston, 
 have been able to sympathise with the as- 
 
 pirations of foreign Liberals. He supported 
 constitutional principles against the re- 
 actionary efforts of Mettemich. He protested 
 against the Congress of Venice, and against the 
 intervention of France in the affairs of Spain. 
 He opposed the policy of the Holy Alliance. 
 He was the first to recognise the inde- 
 pendence of the Spanish colonies in America ; 
 as he said he " called a new world into exist- 
 ence to redress the balance of the old." He 
 protected constitutional government in Por- 
 tugal, and effected the severance of Portugal 
 and Brazil. He still longed anxiously for 
 the Emancipation of the Catholics, but this 
 was temporarily hindered by the agitation of 
 O'Connell, and was not effected till two years 
 after Canning's death. He supported Hus- 
 kisson in preparing the way for free trade, 
 and laboured to effect the abolition of the 
 slave trade. On the death of Lord Liver- 
 pool in Feb., 1827, Canning became Prime 
 Minister. His last act was to secure the 
 liberation of Greece by the Treaty of 
 London, July, 1827. He died on the follow- 
 ing August 8th. His death was felt as a 
 shock to the whole of the civilised world, 
 for he was the most prominent opponent 
 of the system of reaction which was en- 
 deavouring to stamp out aspirations for 
 liberty wherever they were found, and 
 which afterwards led to the violent outbreaks 
 of 1830 and 1848. Few names stand higher 
 on the roll of English ministers. 
 
 Canning's Speeches, published in 6 vols., 
 London, 1828. The best authorities for his 
 life are the two works of his private secre- 
 tary, Stapleton, The Political Life of the 
 Rt. Ron. George Canning, 3 vols., 1831, and 
 George Canning and Sis Times, 1859. There 
 is a brilliant sketch of his career in Lord 
 Balling's ifistorica! Characters. [0. B.l 
 
 Canning, Charles John, Viscount (i. 
 1812, d. 1862), third son of George Canning, 
 was bom at Gloucester Lodge, Kensington, 
 Dec. 14, 1812. He was educated at Eton and 
 Christ Church. In August, 1836, he was 
 returned for "Warwick, and remained a member 
 of the House of Commons for six weeks. On 
 the death of his mother. Viscountess Canning, 
 March 16, he succeeded to the title in con- 
 sequence of the deaths of his two elder 
 brothers. He gradually acquired the reputa- 
 tion in the House of Lords of a conscientious, 
 painstaking young statesman, without taking 
 any very prominent part in the debates. In 
 1841 he was offered office by Sir Robert Peel, 
 as Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs. In 
 1846 he became Chief Commissioner of "Woods 
 and Forests, and began to take a larger share 
 in the business of the House. In 1848 he 
 supported the Jewish Disabilities Bill; in 
 1850 he supported Lord Derby's resolution 
 condemning Lord Palmerston's foreign policy, 
 and spoke against Lord John Russell's Eccle- 
 siastical Titles BiU. In 1851 Lord Derby 
 offered him the Foreign Office, but he refused, 
 feeling himself really a Liberal. In 1852 
 
Can 
 
 ( 226 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 the Coalition Ministry of Lord Aberdeen 
 came into office, and Canning became Post- 
 master-General. This office he continued to 
 hold under Lord Palmerston. In 1855 he was 
 appointed Govemor-G-eneral of India, and on 
 Feb. 1st, 1856, he disembarked at Calcutta. 
 He was a cold, impassive man, to whom 
 few would have ventured to make known the 
 public agitation at the close of 1856 and 
 opening of 1857 ; and he may be entirely 
 acquitted of the charge of not having made 
 himself acquainted with, or not following up 
 jf he did hear them, what were as yet intan- 
 gible and confused rumours. When, however, 
 the nmtinies did begin. Lord Canning issued 
 order after order, warning the sepoys against 
 any false reports, and disclaiming any idea of 
 4eprivation of caste. Unfortunately, stronger 
 measures than these were necessary to have 
 stifled the Indian Mutiny. When once it 
 had broken out he did his best to bring up 
 troops to the front, and he endowed every 
 person in authority with extra powers, while at 
 the same time refusing to allow any retaliatory 
 massacres. In 1858, on the termination of 
 the Mutiny, he ordered the confiscation of aU 
 Oude, though this was repudiated by the 
 Board of Control. In August, 1858, he issued 
 from Allahabad the proclamation providing 
 for the sole dominion of the crown, and put- 
 ting an end to the rule of the East India 
 Company. The rest of Lord Canning's ad- 
 ministration was chiefly remarkable for the 
 judicial reforms in 1860 — 61, the completion 
 of many railways and canals, and the famine 
 in the North-west Pro%'inces, 1860 — 61. In 
 1862 Lady Canning died; this hastened the 
 departure of the viceroy. His health had 
 been considerably impaired by the cares of 
 the previous six years; and he died three 
 months after his arrival in England (June 17, 
 1862), "leavingthe reputation of an industrious 
 and conscientious public servant " (Times). 
 
 Canon Law. [Ecclesiastical Jubis- 
 
 • DICTION.] 
 
 Canterbury was probably a place of no 
 importance before the Eoman occupation of 
 Britain. By the Romans it was called Duro- 
 vernum, a Latinised form of its Celtic name, 
 which means the town of the rapid river. 
 The fact that the Saxons called it the burgh 
 of the Kent men would show that it was the 
 most important place in the pro'\'ince. Under 
 the descendants of Hengist it became the 
 capital of Kent, and owing to this circum- 
 stance the first bishopric, and the metropolitan 
 see, of England. The town was ravaged 
 several times by the Danes, and almost de- 
 stroyed by them in 1011. In 1067 the Danes 
 burnt down the cathedral. It was rebuilt by 
 Lanfranc and Anselm ; but partially destroyed 
 (including the choir) in 1174. It was rebuilt 
 Dy William of Sens immediately afterwards. 
 Important additions were made in the two 
 ^flowing centuries, but it was not tiLL 1495 
 Hist.- 8 
 
 that the great central tower was completed. 
 Its importance was considerably increased 
 after the canonisation of Beeket, when it be- 
 came the principal centre of pilgrimage in 
 England. It was a town on the royal demesne, 
 and was governed by a portreeve, or provost, 
 till the time of John, when two bailiffs were 
 appointed : the right of electing the bailiffs 
 being granted in the eighteenth year of 
 Hemy III.'s reign. A charter was granted in 
 26 Henry VI., which established a mayor, 
 aldermen, and common councilmen. Edward 
 IV. enlarged the jurisdiction of the city, and 
 formed it into a county. The city came under 
 the operation of the Municipal Reform Act of 
 1835. The city has returned two members to 
 Parliament since 23 Edward I. 
 
 Canterbury, Archbishops of; See or. 
 [Akohhishop.] 
 
 Canterbury, Charles Manners Sutton, 
 IstViscol'nt (i. 1780, d. 1845), the eldest son 
 pf Charles Manners Sutton, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, was called to the bar, 1805, and 
 first sat in JParliament for Scarborough, 1807. 
 In 1817 he succeeded Mr. Abbot as Speaker 
 of the House of Commons, which office he 
 held till 1834. The activity of commercial 
 enterprise which followed the re-establishment 
 of peace led to a rush of private business in the 
 House of Commons, and Mr. Maimers Sutton 
 showed great skill in dealing with it. When 
 Earl Grey resigned in 1832, Manners Sutton 
 assisted the Duke of Wellington to form his 
 temporary ministry; this was apparently to 
 oblige the king, who rewarded him with the 
 order of the Bath. In 1834, when Lord 
 Melbourne was suddenly dismissed from 
 office, a rumour was started that Manners 
 Sutton was to be the Tory premier ; and in 
 consequence of this and of his active negotia- 
 tions in forming the Peel ministry, the Whigs 
 threw him out, and elected Mr. Abercromby 
 Speaker in his place. In 1835 he was called 
 to the Upper House. 
 
 Cantii, The, were a British tribe, occu- 
 pying a portion of the present county of 
 Kent (which derives its name from them) and 
 a part of Surrey. They were divided into 
 four kingdoms, and were the most important 
 of the peoples of south-eastern England. 
 From their proximity to Gaul, the)- seem 
 likewise to have been the most civilised of all 
 the native tribes at the time of Caesar's 
 invasion. 
 
 Cantilupe, Walter de (d. 1265), was 
 the son of William de Cantilupe, one of the 
 itinerant justices, and in 1231. he was himself 
 appointed an itinerant judge. In 1236 he 
 became Bishop of Worcester, when he boldly 
 resisted the exactions of the Pope. He sup- 
 ported Simon de Mcntfort in the Barons' , 
 War, and was one of the twenty-four coun- 
 cillors appointed to watch the execution of the 
 Oxford Statutes, and he solemnly absolve^ 
 
Can 
 
 ( 226 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 the tarons before the battle of Lewes. For 
 the part he took in the contest, he was ex- 
 communicated by the Pope. 
 
 Cantilupe, St. Thomas de {d. 1282), 
 the nephew of Walter de Cantilupe, was a 
 man greatly respected for his piety and learn- 
 ing. In 126.5 he was appointed Chancellor 
 by Simon de Montfort, but relinquished the 
 office in the same year, after the battle of 
 Evesham. He is remarkable as being the 
 last Englishman who was canonised. 
 
 Canton was first visited by the English 
 about 1634. From 168& to 1834 the East 
 India Company had a monopoly of the trade 
 with that port. In 1841, during the first 
 China War, Canton surrendered to Sir Hugh 
 Gough, and the following year foreigners 
 were granted permission to settle in the town. 
 In 1856, after the affair of the lorcha Arrow, 
 war was declared between England and China, 
 and Canton was bombarded by the English. 
 The bombardment led to an exciting debate 
 in the House of Commons (beginning Feb. 
 26, 1857), in which men of all parties strongly 
 condemned the action of Lord Palmerstou's 
 government, and a motion, proposed by Mr. 
 Cobden and seconded by Mr. Milner Gibson, 
 was carried against the ministry by a majority 
 of 16. Canton was occupied by the English 
 and French in Dec, 1857, and held, under 
 English and French Commissioners, till Octo- 
 ber, 1861. 
 
 Canute (called Cnut in the English of his 
 own day — a word that Pope Paschal II. could 
 not pronounce, and therefore Latinised into 
 Canutus), King [b. circa 995, s. 1017, 
 d. 1035), was the younger son of Swegen, 
 or Sweyn, King of Denmark, and the first 
 foreign conqueror of all England. His 
 connection with England began in 1013, 
 when, being still a lad in years, he accom- 
 panied his father on the great expedition that 
 forced the English to take Sweyn as their 
 king and drove Ethelred into exile. Young 
 as he was, his father entrusted him with the 
 command of the fleet and the care of the 
 hostages when starting on his southward 
 march from Gainsborough. But a few 
 months later (Candlemas, 1014) SwejTi ended 
 his days; and the Danish fleet, with one voice, 
 chose Canute as his successor. By his 
 father's death he became, for a time, a land- 
 less viking, a splendid adventurer; for the 
 English at once restored their native king to 
 the throne, and the Danish crown fell to 
 Sweyn's elder son Harold. Caught unpre- 
 pared by a sudden march of Ethelred, he 
 sailed away from Lindesey, cut ofB the hands, 
 ears, and noses of the hostages, put the 
 wretches ashore at Sandwich, and went off to 
 Denmark. Next year (1015) he was back 
 • again at Sandwich with a powerful fleet and 
 army. Coasting round to Poole Bay, he 
 landed his men, and in a few months was 
 master of Wessex. The first days of 1016 
 
 saw him in Mercia also ; his burnings and 
 ravagings soon compelled submission; at 
 Easter he was getting ready to lay siege to 
 London, the only part of England that still 
 defied his power. But at this moment the 
 death of Ethelred, and the accession of his 
 vigorous son Edmund to the command of the 
 national cause, gave a new turn to the conflict. 
 Inside London, Edmund was chosen king; 
 outside, Canute ; and a fierce and chequered 
 struggle between the rivals began. Edmund 
 rallied the men of Wessex to his standard ; 
 there were two Danish sieges of London, both 
 unsuccessful ; five minor battles, four of 
 which are given as English victories, one as 
 doubtful ; and one last great battle, that of 
 Assandun, in Essex [Ashington or Aahdon). 
 This was a terrible, seemingly a crushing, 
 overthrow of Edmund. But while this 
 triumph assured Canute a kingdom in Eng- 
 land, it failed to tear Wessex from' the 
 indomitable Edmund. At Olney, in the 
 Severn, the rivals came together, and agreed 
 on a division of the land between them which 
 made the Thames the common boundary of 
 their dominions. This compact had, however, 
 but a brief trial. On St. Andrew's Day (Novl 
 30) Edmund died; and in 1017 Canute was 
 accepted as king of the whole kingdom (1017 
 —1035). Hisreign was comparatively unevent- 
 ful. He began it by dividing the realm into 
 four earldoms, giving two of them to Danes, 
 a third to Edric, the treaonerous Englishman, 
 and keeping Wessex under his own immediate 
 rule. He put away his Danish wife and 
 married Emma, King Ethelred's widow, a 
 lady nearly double his age. He slew the one 
 son of Ethelred who was within his reach, 
 Edwy, and sent the two little sons of his dead 
 antagonist to Norway, to be made away with 
 there. He had three other Englishmen of 
 high rank put to death, and soon took the same 
 course with the traitor Edric Next year 
 (1018) he wrung from the country a payment 
 of £83,000 to satisfy his fleet, the bulk of . 
 which thereupon carried his army back to 
 Denmark. Having thus established his throne, 
 he entered upon the line of conduct that has 
 gained him the good word of modem his- 
 torians, purposing henceforward to rule 
 England for the English and by the English. 
 One by one the leading men of Danish birth 
 were removed from England or slain, and 
 their places given to Englishmen. Thus the 
 famous Godwin and renowned Leofric came 
 to hold posts of the highest trust ; indeed,' 
 after a little, Canute handed over to the' 
 former his own special care, the earldom of 
 Wessex. He confirmed the laws of King 
 Edgar, who had made no distinction between 
 the Danish and purely English parts of his 
 kingdom,treatingallhi8subjectsasmembersof 
 the same body politic. He sought to gain the 
 favour of the people by religious foundations, 
 by gifts to monasteries and churches, by 
 doing reverence to the saints and holy places 
 
Cap 
 
 ( 227 ) 
 
 Car 
 
 they revered, by preferring the church- 
 men they honoured, and by many other 
 gracious and politic acts. Though other coun- 
 tries demanded h'-s care, ho bestowed the 
 largest share of his time and attention on 
 England, making her interests his peculiar 
 concern. "We are told that he even placed 
 English bishops in Danish sees, and brought 
 English workmen to instruct his Danish sub- 
 jects in their handicrafts. And in England 
 itself he seems to have favoured Wessex most. 
 Nor is this strange. It is true that he was 
 supreme lord of many lauds ; Harold's death 
 in 1018 gave him Denmark; Norway he con- 
 quered in 1028 ; in 1031 he invaded Scotland, 
 and made King Malcolm admit his superiorit)'; 
 Sweden is also reckoned among his vassal 
 kingdoms. But no one of these could in real 
 worth compare with England; and of England, 
 Wessex was the fairest portion. In 1027 he 
 made a journey to Eome, and wrote from 
 thence a letter to his English people, full of 
 penitence for the past, good promises for the 
 future, and lofty moral sentiment. He was 
 in high esteem among foreign princes ; his 
 sister Edith married Robert, the Norman 
 duke; his daughter Gunhild, King Henry 
 III. of Germany. He died at Shaftesbury in 
 November, 1035, perhaps stUl under forty 
 years of age. Canute has been greatly 
 praised by some modem historians. Dr. Stubbs 
 reckons him among the " conscious creators 
 of English greatness ;" Mr. Freeman's judg- 
 ment of his policy and character is exceedingly 
 favoura"ble. Clearly his rule brought many 
 blessings to England ; under it she enjoj^ed 
 long unbroken peace, a firm, yet humane, 
 administration of the laws, and a comparative 
 ■freedom from vexatious imposts and oppres- 
 sions. In his later years he issued a body of 
 laws which testify to his preservation, in full 
 integrity, of the national constitution, to his 
 regard for religion, to his strict impartiality, 
 and respect for the people's rights. The quiet 
 that settled down on the land may, perhaps, 
 be explained in part by his institution of the 
 Suscarla, a permanent force of fighting-men, 
 3,000 or 6,000 in number, owing obedience to 
 a military code — the earliest approach to a 
 standing army in England. Not without 
 reason did the common folk cherish his 
 memory, if only by repeating simple tales of 
 his sayings and doings. 
 
 Anglo-Sa;xon Chronicle; Freeman, History of 
 tTifi Norman Conqueft. vol. i. j Lappenberg, 
 Anglo-Saaion Kings, vol. ii. [J. R.l 
 
 Cape Breton, which Hes to the east of 
 Nova Scotia, and is now incorporated with it, 
 was first discovered by Cabot in 1497, but 
 remained practically uninhabited until 1714, 
 when it was occupied by the French for fish- 
 ing purposes ; a few years later the town of 
 Lonisbourg was built, and the French estab- 
 lished a regular settlement on the -island, 
 which formed a convenient basis for hostilities 
 against Nova Scotia. , In 1744, an attack 
 
 was made upon Port Royal, the capital of 
 ^lova Scotia, by De Quesnay, the Governor of 
 Cape Breton ; the English, in retaliation, 
 attacked and took Louisbourg, and held Cape 
 Breton until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in' 
 1748. In 1758 Louisbourg was again taken 
 by the Enghsh under the command of Admiral 
 Boscawen and General Wolfe, and all its 
 fortifications destroyed. A few years after- 
 wards, Cape Breton was created a separate 
 colony, and Sydney, its present capital, was 
 founded in 1820. However, it was incorpo- 
 rated with Nova Scotia, and has ever since 
 that time remained a county. 
 
 E. Brown, Hist, of Cape Breton, 1869. 
 Cape Coast Castle. [West Africa.] 
 Cape Colony. [South Afkica.] 
 
 Capgrave, John (i. 1393, d. 1404), was 
 Prior of Lynn in Norfolk, and provincial of the 
 order of Augustinian Friars in England. He 
 wrote a Chronicle of Evgland extending from 
 the creation to the year 1417, and a work 
 entitled Tlie Book of tlie Illustrious Henries, 
 ■which contains the lives of great men who 
 have borne the name of Henry. Capgrave is 
 one of our few contemporary authorities for 
 the early part of the fifteenth century and 
 reign of Henry VI., and his works are of 
 some value. His Chronicle and Book of the 
 Illustrious Henries have been edited, in the 
 Rolls Series, by Mr. F. C. Hingeston. 
 
 Caradoc (Cauactacus) {d. circa 54). A 
 British chief, said to have been son of Cuno- 
 belin or Cymbeline. At the head of the 
 Silurians of the West, Caradoc carried on a 
 struggle of nine years against the Romans 
 under Vespasian and Plautius. After sus- 
 taining frequent defeats, he was at length 
 driven out of his own district and compelled 
 to take refuge with the Brigantes, whose 
 queen, Cartismandua (q.v.), delivered him up to 
 Ostorius Scapula (a.d. 51). He was carried 
 in chains to Rome, where his dignity and 
 noble bearing are said to have induced the 
 Emperor Claudius to order his release. His 
 subsequent history is unknown. 
 
 Tacitus, ^imal., lib. xii., and Hist., lib. iii. ; 
 Dio Casaius, lib. ix. 
 
 Caransius {d. 293) was a native of 
 Batavia, and the first " Conies Littoris Sax- 
 onici." In this office he managed to accumu- 
 late great wealth, and, in 286, with the aid 
 of some Frankish warriors, seized the great 
 naval station of Gesoriacum, and proclaimed 
 himself one of the Emperors of Rome. His 
 talents enabled him to keep this position and 
 maintain his power in Britain till 293, when 
 he was murdered by his own oificer, AUectus. 
 
 Carberry Hill (near Musselburgh) is 
 the place where the forces of Bothwell and 
 Queen JIary met those of the Confederate 
 Lords, June 14, 1567. There was no actual 
 collision, but Bothwell, seeing that his chances 
 of victory were almost hopeless, made- hip 
 
Car 
 
 { 228 ) 
 
 Car 
 
 escape, while Mary surrendered herself to 
 Kirkcaldy of Grange. 
 
 Cardmaker, John, a notorious preacher 
 of the Reformed doctrines, was burnt at 
 Smithfield during the Marian persecution, 
 May, 1555. He recanted when examined 
 before Gardiner, but subsequently withdrew 
 his recantation. 
 
 Cardwell, Edward, Viscount (b. 1813), 
 was educated at "Winchester, and BaUiol 
 College, Oxford, where he was elected to 
 a fellowship. He entered Parliament in 
 1842 as member for Clitheroe. He supported 
 Sir R. Peel in the financial changes of 1845— 
 46. He was Secretary to the Treasury from 
 1845 — 46, and President of the Board of 
 Trade in Lord Aberdeen' s administration. In 
 1859 he accepted the office of Chief Secretary 
 for Ireland under Lord Palmerston, and was 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster from 
 1861 to 1864, when he became Secretary of 
 State for the Colonies. In Dec, 1868, he 
 became Secretary for "War under Mr. Glad- 
 stone, and a member of the Committee of 
 Council on Education. In his former capacity 
 his name is associated with the abolition of pur- 
 chase in the army. In 1874 he resigned with 
 his colleagues, and was raised to the peerage. 
 
 Car^nage Bay, in St. Lucia, is famous 
 as having been, in 1778, the scene of a severe 
 conflict between the French, under the Count 
 d'Estaing, and the British, under Admiral 
 Barrington and General Meadows. The 
 French were completely defeated. 
 
 Carew, Sir George [d. 1613 ?), was 
 secretary to Sir Christopher Hatton and a 
 distinguished diplomatist, being sent by 
 Elizabeth as her ambassador to Poland, 1597, 
 and by James I. to France, 1605 — 9. He 
 was the author of A Relation of the State of 
 France, printed by Dr. Bird in 1749. 
 
 Carew, Sir Nicholas {d. 1539), was a 
 courtier and favourite of Henry VIII., who 
 made him a Knight of the Garter. He was 
 executed March 3, 1539, for the offence of 
 having held conversations with the Marquis 
 of Exeter about "a change in the world," 
 which was supposed to imply a design of 
 " setting Cardinal Pole on the throne in place of 
 the king. Bletchingley Park, in Surrey, one 
 of his forfeited possessions, was subsequently 
 granted to Anne of Cleves, as a portion of her 
 separation allowance. 
 
 Carew, Sib Peter {d. 1575), of Mohun 
 Ottery, in Devonshire, spent his boyhood at 
 the. court of Franco, and on his return to 
 England entered the service of Henry VIII. 
 On the outbreak of the "Western rebellion, in 
 1549, Sir Peter and his brother were sent down 
 to Devonshire with orders to crush the insur- 
 gents ; they were, however, unable to make head 
 against them until the arrival of reinforce- 
 ments nnder Lord Russell and Lord Grey ; 
 in fact, the violence of the Carew party was 
 
 said by Somerset to have widely extended 
 the rebellion. After the defeat of the insur- 
 gents, Carew espoused the cause of Mary, 
 whom he proclaimed in Devonshire, 1553. 
 Very soon afterwards, however, he joined the 
 anti-Spanish party, and was entrusted with 
 the task of raising Devonshire, while Sir 
 Thomas "VVyatt was to raise Kent. His action, 
 however, in the rebellion of 1649 had made 
 him so unpopular with the country people 
 that he was unable to do anything effectual 
 against the government, and was compelled 
 to seek an asylum in France for the re- 
 mainder of Mary's reign. In 1560, Carew 
 was appointed one of the commissioners to 
 negotiate the Treaty of Leith (q.v.), and in 
 the same year was entrusted with a mission 
 to reorganise the army in Scotland. A few 
 years later Sir Peter became one of the 
 colonists of Munster, where many cruelties 
 are attributed to him. He joined the expedi- 
 tion of Essex in 1575, but died the same year. 
 Carew'3 Life, by John "Vowel, was edited by 
 Mr. Maclean, Lend., 1867. 
 
 Cargill, Donald, one of the most extreme 
 of the Covenanting clergy, was a chief pro- 
 moter of the Sanquhar Declaration, 1680. 
 For having excommunicated Charles II. and 
 the Duke of York, he was, on his capture at 
 Glasgow, taken to Edinburgh and executed, 
 July 26, 1681. [Oameronians.] 
 
 Carleton, Sir Dudley. [Dorchester, 
 Lord.] 
 
 Carleton, Guy. [Dorchester, Lord.] 
 
 Carleton, Henry Boyle, 1st Baron 
 {d. 1725), was a leading "Whig politician. In 
 1701 he was created Lord Chancellor and Under 
 Treasurer of the Exchequer. He was one of 
 those who opposed the "tacking" of the 
 Occasional Conformity Bill. He was em- 
 ployed by Godolphin to request Addison to 
 write a poem on the battle of Blenheim ; the 
 result of his negotiations being The Campaign. 
 In 1707 he was made Secretary of State. 
 He was one of the managers of Sacheverell's 
 trial, and in consequence of that ill-advised 
 step was compelled to resign his office. On 
 the accession of George I., Boyle was raised 
 to the peerage, and created Lord President 
 of the Council, an office he held untU his 
 death. " He was," says Budgell, " endowed 
 with great prudence and winning address ; 
 his long experience in public affairs gave him 
 a thorough knowledge of business. " 
 Budgell's Xiues of the Boyles, 
 
 Carlisle was probably a Roman station, 
 and has been identified with LuguvaUum in 
 the Itinerary of Antoninus, fi-om which, indeed, 
 the name has been derived — Caer-Luel. The 
 town was sacked by the Danes in 875, and re- 
 built with a strong castle by "WUliam Rufus. 
 It was held by the Scots during their 
 tenure of Cumberland, and the beginning of 
 the great church of St. Mary's is attributed to 
 
Car 
 
 ( 229 ) 
 
 Car 
 
 David I., King of Scotland. Subsequently 
 it was frequently besieged in the course of 
 the border wars, one of the most celebrated 
 sieges being the unsuccessful one by WiUiam 
 the Lion (1173). The place surrendered to 
 Charles Edward in 1745, and the mayor and 
 corporation proclaimed him king. The cathe- 
 di-al, begun ia the reign of William Ruf us, was 
 partly destroyed by CromweU in 1648. 
 
 Carlisle, George William, 7th Earl 
 OF (J. 1802, d. 1864), was educated at Eton 
 and Christ Church. In 1826 he accompanied 
 his uncle, the Duke of Devonshire, on his visit 
 to Russia at the coronation of the Emperor 
 Nicholas. He was afterwards returned to the 
 House of Commons for the family seat of 
 Morpeth, and one of his earliest speeches 
 was in defence of the character of the 
 Russian emperor. During the agitation of 
 the Reform Bill he enlisted on the side of 
 Earl Grey, and on the dissolution of Parlia- 
 ment which followed the success of General 
 Gascoyne's motion, he was returned for York- 
 shire, which seat he held till the passing of 
 the Reform Bill in 1832. He was Chief 
 Secretary for Ireland from 1835 to 1841, and 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster from 
 1849 to 1851. In 1855 he became Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland, and began a career of 
 popularity almost without parallel among 
 Irish viceroys. A change in the government 
 removed him for a short time; but he re- 
 turned again in 1859, and held this office till 
 the summer of 1864, when illness compelled 
 him to lay it down. 
 
 Carlisle, Lucr, Col-ntess op [h. 1600, 
 d. 1660), was the daughter of Henry Percy, 
 ninth Earl of Northumberland. In 1617 she 
 was married to the Earl of Carlisle, who died 
 in 1636. She was a favourite attendant of 
 Queen Henrietta Maria, and is supposed to 
 have been StraflEord's mistress. After his 
 death she became the confidante, and it was 
 said the mistress, of Pym, to whom she be- 
 trayed all the secrets of the court, and it 
 was by her that he was made acquainted with 
 the king's desire to arrest the Five Members 
 in January, 1642. In 1648 she seems to have 
 assisted the Royalists with money towards 
 raising a fleet to attack England, and on the 
 Restoration .she was received at court, and 
 employed herself in intriguing for the return 
 of Queen Henrietta to England, which was 
 opposed by Clarendon and others. Very soon 
 after the queen's return she died suddenly. 
 
 Carlisle, The Statute of (1307), passed 
 by Edward L in Parliament, after he had pre- 
 viously obtained the consent of the barons to 
 it in 1305, was intended to prevent the drain 
 of English gold to Rome by clerical exactions. 
 It forbade the payment of tallages on 
 monastic property, and rendered illegal other 
 imposts by which money was to be sent out 
 
 of the country. Though never acted upon, 
 this statute is most important as the precedent 
 on which the Acts of Provisors and Priemunire 
 and the whole series of anti-papal assertions 
 of the mdependence of English nationality 
 were based. 
 
 Statutes of (he ReaXm, i. 150. 
 
 Carlow, the seat of one of the great 
 castles founded by the Norman conquerors of 
 Ireland, was often taken and re-taken in the 
 rebellion of 1641. In July, 1660, it was 
 occupied by the Royalists, and after a short 
 siege taken by the Parliamentarians, under 
 Sir Hardress Waller. In May 25, 1798, a 
 skirmish took place between the royal troops 
 and the rebels, in which 400 of the latter 
 were kiUed. 
 
 Carnarvon, Henry Howard Molyneux 
 Herbert, 4th Earl of (*. 1831), was 
 Under Secretary of State for the Colonies 
 in Lord Derby's second administration, 
 1858 — 9, and Secretary of State for the 
 Colonies in Lord Derby's third administra- 
 tion, 1866. He, however, resigned on account 
 of a difference of opinion respecting Parlia- 
 mentary Reform, in 1867. On the formation 
 of Mr. Disraeli's cabinet in 1874, he was ap- 
 pointed for the second time Secretary of 
 State for the Colonies. In 1878 he resigned, 
 on account of a difference with his colleagues 
 with regard to the Eastern question. 
 
 Camatic was the name formerly given 
 to the district in south - eastern India ex- 
 tending along the coast from the Guntoor 
 Cirear to Cape Comorin, now included in the 
 Presidency of Madras. In the middle of the 
 eighteenth century the country was governed 
 by the Nabob of the Camatic at Arcot. It was 
 cut up, however, in the south by the Mah- 
 ratta kingdom of Tanjore, the British and 
 French settlements, and the almost indepen- 
 dent districts of the Polygars of Madura, 
 Tinnevelly, &c. It was feudally subject to 
 the Viceroy, or Nizam, of the Deccan. In 
 1743 Anwur-ud-Deen was appointed Nabob 
 by the Nizam-ul-Mulk. On his death, the 
 succession was disputed between Chunda 
 Sahib, who was assisted b}' the French, and 
 Mohammed Ali, who was supported by the 
 English. The latter succeeded in estabhshing 
 their nominee as Nabob over the greater part 
 of the Camatic ; but both he and his son, 
 Omdut-ul-Omrah, who succeeded in 1795, 
 failed to raise themselves from a position of 
 dependence on the English. The discovery 
 of their correspondence with Tippoo Sahib 
 (q.v.) determined Lord Wellesley-.on annex- 
 ing the country, under the conviction that the 
 alliance treaties had thereby been broken. 
 On the death of Omdut-ul-Omrah, therefore, 
 an arrangement was made (1801) with Azim- 
 ul- Omrah, his nephew, to the effect that the 
 entire civil and military government of the 
 state should be resigned to the Company, and 
 
Car 
 
 ( 230 ) 
 
 Car 
 
 one-fifth of the revenue should be reserved 
 for his support. On his death, in 1825, 
 the title was continued to his infant son, and 
 on the death of the latter, childless, in 1853, 
 the title was extinguished. 
 
 Carne, Sir- Edward [d. 1561), was a 
 graduate of Oxford, where he became Doctor 
 of Civil Law in 1524. He was frequently em- 
 ployed as envoy to various foreign princes by 
 Henry VIII. In 1530 he was sent by the 
 king to Home to argue against the citation of 
 Henry to appear at the Papal Court., He 
 frequently represented the English sovereign 
 at Rome under Mary, and in the earlier years 
 of Elizabeth's reign ; but was finally detained 
 by Paul IV. at Home, and compelled to 
 become governor of the Enghsh Hospital 
 there. This was declared to be a gross 
 violation of the privilege of an ambassador; 
 but it is probable that Sir Edward, who dis- 
 liked the religious changes of Elizabeth, was a 
 willing captive. 
 
 Caroline, Que^.n (J. 1682, d. 1737), 
 wife of King G-eorge II., was the daughter 
 of John Frederick, Margrave of Branden- 
 burg Anspaoh. In the year 1705 she married 
 Prince G-eorge of Hanover, over whom, in 
 spite of his immorality, she maintained the 
 greatest influence .during his life. Daring 
 the quarrels of her husband and his 
 father, she retained her influence over . the 
 first without forfeiting the esteem of the 
 second. In 1727 she was crowned with her 
 husband. "When Walpole was displaced from 
 power, at the commencement of the reign, 
 she espoused his cause, being persuaded of 
 his financial abilities, and attracted by the 
 jointure of £100,000 a year he secured in her 
 favour. She therefore persuaded the king that 
 Compton was unfitted for the post of minister. 
 During her life she continued the firm friend 
 of Walpole, and upheld his policy of peace 
 at home and abroad. She was deeply morti- 
 fied when he was obliged to relinquish his 
 Excise scheme. In 1737 she reprieved 
 Porteous, who was condemned for firing on 
 the crowd at Edinburgh. On the otttbreak of 
 the quarrel between Frederick, Prince of 
 Wales, and her husband, she violently es- 
 poused the cause of the latter. In consequence, 
 she and her son were on extremely bad 
 terms, and the queen often expressed a 
 wish for the prince's death. Her influence 
 over the king continued unimpaired till the 
 end of her life, and on her death-bed the 
 monarch gave a rather curious testimony of 
 it. The dying queen besought her husband 
 to marry again. " Non," answered the 
 sobbing prince, " j'aurai des maitresses." 
 ",Oh,^mon Dieu!" was the reply; " oela 
 nempeche pas." Caroline was a woman of 
 considerable intellectual ability. She knew 
 something of philosophy and theology, and 
 affected the character of patroness of litera- 
 
 ture and poetry. She took creditable pains 
 to get the higher posts in the Church filled 
 by men of learning and character. She was 
 a valuable ally of Walpole, and materially 
 assisted him in carrying out his policy. 
 
 The best account of the queen is gained from 
 
 Hervey's memoirs. See also Horace Walpole; 
 
 Memoirs, and Stanhope, Eist. of Eng, 
 
 Caroline of Brunswick, Qveen, 
 wife of George IV. {b. 1768, d. 1821), was the 
 daughter ci D'lke Cha;rles William Frederick 
 of Brunswicii, <vho died after the battles of 
 Jena and Auerstadt, 1806, and sister of Duke 
 William Frederick, who was killed at the 
 battle of Ligny, 1815. Her mother, Augusta, 
 was daughter of Prince Frederick of Wales, 
 and sister of George III. At the age of 
 twenty-seven the prinCeSs was married to 
 George, Prince of Wales,' afterwards -Eegent 
 and king. A more unfortunate choice could 
 not ha-i'c beeti made. The prince was already 
 married to Mrs. FitzHerbert, and although that 
 marriage was considered void under the 
 Royal Marriage Act, he was averse to con- 
 tracting any other similar tie. The princess 
 had been badly brought up, was clever, 
 but uneducated and undisciplined, im'- 
 pulsive and indiscreet, with a ■ good heart, 
 but devoid of' regulating judgment. The 
 marriage took place on April 8, 1795. A 
 daughter, afterwards Princess Charlotte of 
 Wales, was bom on January 7, 1796. Even 
 before this the prince had treated his wife so 
 badly as to call forth a remonstrance from his 
 father. He now wrote,. on April 30, 1796, to 
 say that they were to live apart.. This rei- 
 pudiatipn of his wife -Hfithout any_ reason 
 except personal dislike, within a year of their 
 marriage, is sufficient to account for, and 
 almost to excuse, any conduct of which she 
 might afterwards have been guilty. Matters 
 remained thus for the next ten vears. The 
 princess lived quietly at Blackheath. In the 
 year 1806 rumours were set afloat that the 
 conduct of the princess had been improper. 
 She always had a fancy for children, and 
 before her death had adopted half-a-dozen. 
 At this time she had adopted a child named 
 William Austin, and scandal said she was his 
 mother. A delicate investigation was ordered, 
 evidence was laboriously collected, and a report 
 laid before the king. The report acquitted 
 the princess of improper conduct, but seemed 
 to fix upon the charge of indiscretion'. 
 Assisted by Perceval and others, she vigor- 
 ously defended herself, and was entirely 
 acquitted by a Minute of Council in 1807. 
 Princess Charlotte of Wales was heir to the 
 crown. As a chili she had been allowed to 
 see her mother regularly, but as she was 
 growing up, the permission began to be 
 refused. Canning and Brougham took the 
 side of the Princess of Wales. She had the 
 whole force of popular opinion with her, for 
 the prince was very much disliked, and the 
 wrongs of the princess were calculated ib 
 
Gar 
 
 ( 231 ^) 
 
 Cat 
 
 touch the heart of the multitude. The queen 
 took a strong dislike to her, and about 1813 
 she was forhidden to attend the royal 
 drawing-room. In June, 1814, she went 
 abroad, with an allowance of £35,000 a year. 
 She went first to Brunswick, and then to 
 Switzerland and Italy. Her conduct was 
 very eccentric, and her suite gradually left 
 her, upon which she fell into the hands 
 of an Italian family named Bergami. She 
 went to Jerusalem, and then returned to 
 Italy, living at the ViUa d'Este, on the Lake 
 of Como. On January 29, 1820, George IV. 
 succeeded to the throne, and his wife assumed 
 the title of queen. Before this a commission 
 had been sent out to Milan to collect evidence 
 of the queen's conduct during her sojourn at 
 the Villa d'Este. The king ordered her 
 name to be omitted from the Liturgy, and 
 forbade royal honours to be paid her at 
 foreign courts. The queen, finding herself 
 thus treated at Rome, determined to come to 
 England. She was received with great en- 
 thusiasm in London. Immediately after her 
 arrival steps for commencing her trial were 
 taken in theHouse of Commons. OnNovember 
 6 the Bill was passed by a majority of twenty- 
 six, and on the third reading it was passed 
 only by a majority of nine, when it was with- 
 drawn. This resiUt was received with general 
 delight throughout the country. On November 
 .29 the queen went in procession to St. Paul's, 
 to return thanks for her deliverance from a 
 . great peril and affliction. In the next session 
 of Parliament she accepted a pension of 
 £50,000 a year from the government, and from 
 that time her popularity gradually declined. 
 In 1821 George IV. determined to be crowned 
 with great pomp in Westminster Hall. The 
 queen claimed, according to ancient pre- 
 cedent, to share the ceremony with him. At 
 an earlj' hour on the day of the coronation 
 the queen set out with a coach and six. She 
 had no ticket of admittance, and was re- 
 pulsed by the officials. As she retreated the 
 jeers of the crowd followed her. This was 
 on July 19, and she died on August 7. 
 However much she may have been deficient 
 in moral dignity, we may feel convinced 
 that there was no foundation for the grave 
 charges brought against her character; and 
 that for the lighter indiscretions of her life, 
 her education and the treatment of her 
 husband are quite sufficient both to account 
 and to atone. 
 
 - Paali, Englisc\e G&ichichte zeit 1815 ; Spencer 
 Walpole, Hisf. of EnQ. since 1SI5; The Qreville 
 Memoirs- G. Eose, Diary; Duke of Backing- 
 llaan, -Memoirs of the Court of the Regency. 
 
 [6. B.] 
 
 Carstares, William (J. 1649, d. 1715), 
 was educated at Utrecht, where he became ac- 
 quainted with William III. He was accused 
 of being implicated in the Eye House Plot 
 and was tortured at Edinburgh. After the 
 Ecvolution, he acquired great influence with 
 
 William, to whom he acted as a sort of un- 
 othcial secretary for Scotch afltairs. The 
 kmg appointed Carstares his chaplain in Scot- 
 laud In 1704 he became Principal of Edin- 
 burgh University, and was one of the active 
 supporters of the Union. " Sprung of that 
 respectable middle class," says Mr. Burton, 
 "to whom it has been in a manner the 
 pecuhar pride of the Scots priesthood to 
 belong, he rose to hold in his hands the 
 destinies of the proudest heads of the proud 
 feudal houses of Scotland." Carstares was 
 a man of undoubted ability, and is honour- 
 ably distinguished among the pubUc men of 
 his age by his firmness and honesty. A 
 volume of Carstares's State Fapers and Letters 
 was pubhshed in 1774, and is of considerable 
 value as illustrating Scottish affairs during 
 the Revolution. 
 
 M'Cormick, Life of Carstares prefixed to the 
 State Papers; Story, Character and Career of 
 William Carstares, 1874; Macaulay, Hist, of 
 aig. ; and Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Carte, Thomas (*. 1686, d. 1734), born 
 at Clifton, studied at Oxford, and entered the 
 Church. He was a strong partisan of thd 
 Stuarts. He dechned to take the oath to 
 George I., and abandoned the priesthood ; and, 
 being suspected of compHcity in the Jacobite 
 plots of 1715 and 1722, he was obliged to flee 
 to France, where he resided for twelve years. 
 He was the author of a Life of James, Duke of 
 Ormonde, 3 vols, f oho; a.nd a. History of England 
 to the year 1654. Both are valuable works, 
 showing much learning and industry on the 
 part of the author, though the strong Stuart 
 partisanship of the writer is very marked, es- 
 pecially in the life of Ormonde. 
 
 Carteret, Lokd. [Gkanville, John 
 Cauteket, Eahl.] 
 
 Cartlmsiaus, The, one of the regular 
 monastic orders, was an offshoot of the 
 Benedictines. The order was instituted 
 at Chartreuse, by Bruno of Cologne, in 
 1080. The rule resembled that of the Bene- 
 dictines, but was much more rigorous and 
 austere. The Carthusians came into England 
 about 1180; but they faOed to make much 
 way in the country. There were only nine 
 monasteries of the order in England : the 
 Charterhouse (the name, of com-se, is a 
 corruption for Chartreuse) in London, and- 
 those at Witham, Henton, Beauval, St. Anne's 
 Covontr}^ Kingston-on-HuU, Mountgrace, 
 Eppworth, and Shene. There were no Car- 
 thusian nunneries in England. 
 
 Cartismandua was the Queen of the 
 Brigantes, from whom Caractacus, after his 
 defeat by the Romans (a.d. 51), sought shelter 
 and assistance, nnd by whom he was treacher- 
 ously betrayed to his enemies. [Caradoc] 
 According to Tacitus, Cartismanduaquitted her 
 husband, Venusius, and married his armour- 
 bearer, Vellocatus. Venusius drove her from 
 her territories, and forced her to seek an asylum 
 
Car 
 
 ( 232 ) 
 
 Cas 
 
 in the camp of the Eomans, who marched 
 into the district and took possession of it. 
 Tacitus, Annal., xii. 36, 40 ; Ri^> ii. 45. 
 
 Cartwright, Thomas (*. 1535, d. 1603), 
 .the leader of the Church of England part}' in 
 Elizabeth's reign which advocated the aholi- 
 tion of episcopacy, was educated at Cambridge, 
 whence he was compelled to withdraw during 
 the Marian persecution. On the accession of 
 Elizabeth he returned, and acquired great re- 
 putation as a preacher, becoming so active 
 a supporter of a Presbyterian polity, and so 
 determined an opponent of episcopacy that 
 he was prohibited from occupying the pulpit, 
 and expelled from the university. In 1572 
 he published his Admonition to Parliament 
 (q.v.), and was drawn into a long controversy 
 with Archbishop Whitgift. In 1584 he was 
 imprisoned by order of Bishop Aylmer, but 
 released by the queen. In 1590, after the 
 death of his patron, Leicester, Cartwright 
 was examined by the Court of Star Chamber, 
 and sent to the Fleet Prison, " for setting up a 
 new discipline and a new form of worship," 
 remaining in confinement for nearly two years. 
 Hook, Lives of the Archhi&ho^s. 
 
 Carncage was a tax on every carucate or 
 hundred acres of land, and was first imposed 
 over the whole countrj' by Richard I. in II 98, 
 when the tax was five shillings. John, in 
 the first year of his reign, fi.xed it at three 
 shillings. A carucate was originally as much 
 land as could be ploughed by one team in a 
 season, but it afterwards became fixed at one 
 hundred acres. 
 
 Cashel, The Synod of (1 1 72), was a great 
 assembly of the Irish Church, attended by 
 all the archbishops and bishops. The eccle- 
 siastical disorcJers, which had formed one at 
 least of the causes which led to the Bull of 
 Pope Adrian, and the invasion of Ireland by 
 Henry II., were condemned. Thus the mar- 
 riage of the clergy was forbidden, the tithe 
 introduced, the appropriation of benefices by 
 laymen, and levying of cashery on the 
 clergy abolished. In other ways, too, the 
 Roman discipline and the authority of the 
 Pope were recognised. 
 
 Qiraldua Cambrensis, Be Expugnat. Sibem. 
 
 Casket Letters are a celebrated col- 
 lection of documents, supposed to be the 
 correspondence between Bothwell and Mary 
 Stuart. Bothwell left in Edinburgh Castle 
 a casket containing some papers, for 
 which he sent after his flight from Car- 
 berry HUl. His messenger was intercepted 
 whilst returning, and the casket and its 
 contents fell into the hands of the Earl of 
 Morton. On a letter from the queen to Both- 
 well contained in it, the charge that she was 
 an accomplice in Damley's murder was 
 founded. The letters were laid before the 
 Scotch Council of Government, and the 
 Scotch Parliament adjudged the charge 
 
 proved (Dec. 1567). They were agjain pro- 
 duced before the English Commissioners at 
 Westminster, compared with some other 
 writings of the queen's, and accepted as 
 genuine (Oct., 1568). The letters descended 
 from one Scottish regent to another, and 
 finally passed into the hands of the Earl of 
 Gowrie. After his execution (1584) they 
 disappeared. They had, however, been 
 translated into diiferent languages and pub- 
 lished. Mary continually asserted them to 
 be forgeries, and demanded first to see the 
 originals, then to be provided with copies. 
 Neither of these requests was granted. An 
 argument in favour of the theory that the 
 letters were forgeries is furnished by the fact 
 that the two most . criminatory letters wer6 
 evidently originally written in Scotch, and 
 the copies published were a translation of this 
 Scotch original into French. But Mary, until 
 after her flight into England, always used the 
 French language in her letters. Therefore 
 the conclusion is that she could not have 
 written these letters. But the question of the 
 genuineness of non-existent documents is 
 naturally diflScult to solve. Amongst English 
 historians, Froude, Burton, and Laing believe 
 the letters genuine ; Caird and Hosack take 
 the opposite view. Of foreign writers on the 
 subject, Eanke, Pauli, Mignet, and Gtiedeko 
 accept the letters, whilst Schiem, Philippson', 
 Gauthier, and Chantelauze, deny their authen- 
 ticity. 
 
 Gauthier, Marie Stuirt ; Mignet, Mane SfuaHi . 
 
 Sohiern, Botlmell ; Philippson, West Eurapaim 
 
 Zeitalter von Philipp IX. 
 
 Cassiterides, The, or Tin Islands, first 
 mentioned by Herodotus, and alluded to by 
 Polybius and other early writers, are gener- 
 ally identified with the Scilly Isles ; but under 
 the name Cassiterides it is very probable that 
 the adjacent parts of Devon and Cornwall 
 were included. [Scilly Isles.] 
 Elton, Ovigins of Sng. Sist. 
 
 Cassivellanuxis (Caswallon), at the 
 time of Caesar's second invasion of Britain (b.c, 
 54), was chief of the Cassi, and had shortly 
 before usurped the sovereignty of the Trino- 
 bantes and murdered the lawful king. The 
 Roman invasion drove the tribes of the south- 
 east of Britain to form a league, at the head of 
 which Cassivellaunus was placed. For a short 
 time he succeeded in repelling the Romans, 
 but his stronghold being captured, and the 
 other tribes having deserted him, he sub- 
 mitted to Caesar, gave up the country of the 
 Trinobantes to Mandubratius, son of the, late 
 king, and contented himself with keeping his 
 own domains. After the departure of CiEsar 
 we hear nothing more of Cassivellaunus. 
 
 Castillon, The Battle or (1453), was 
 the last engagement in the Hundred Years' 
 War between England and France. In 1452 
 the Gascons rose against the French, and 
 besought aid from England. Talbot, Earl of 
 
Cas 
 
 ( 233 ) 
 
 Cas 
 
 Shrewsbury, was sent out, and was at first 
 very successful. In June, 1453, hearing that 
 the French were besieging Castillon, a fortress 
 on the Dordogne, he marched with a small 
 force to relieve it, hut the French were 
 stronger than he imagined, and he was 
 defeated and slain. With his death all the 
 hopes of the English were at an end. 
 
 Castlebar Races (1798). The name 
 given to the engagement fought near Castle- 
 bar on August 26, 1798, during the French 
 raid on Ireland. Generals Lake and Hutchin- 
 son, with 2,000 Irish militia, a large body of 
 yeomanry, and Lord Eoden's fencibles, ad- 
 vanced against General Humbert, who had 
 landed at Killala on the 17th of the month. 
 Humbert had with him 800 French troops, 
 and about 1,000 of the Irish rebels. The 
 militia, however, would not stand their ground, 
 and at once ran ; and the yeomanry following. 
 Lake's guns were taken, and Roden's horse 
 were unable to save the day. Of Lake's men 
 fifty-three were killed and thirty-four wounded; 
 the French loss was heavier, but they took 
 fourteen guns and 200 prisoners, and the town 
 of Castlebar fell into tiie hands of the insur- 
 gents, with whom it remained for about a 
 fortnight, till the surrender of Humbert at 
 Ballinamuck, on September 8th. 
 
 Castlereagh, Viscount. [London- 
 
 BEREy.] 
 
 Castles, of which there are remains of 
 nearly 500 in England alone, belong chiefly to 
 the period between the Norman Conquest and 
 the middle of the fourteenth century. It is true 
 that strong places were fortified by Alfred 
 and his successors ; but these would rarely 
 be more than a mound and a ditch, with 
 wooden tower and palisade; and Domesday, 
 which mentions forty-nine castles, gives only 
 one stone castle, viz. , Arundel, as existing under 
 the Confessor. They were a Norman product, 
 even when, as at Hereford and Warwick, 
 strong earthworks in place of masonry show 
 that the Norman builder used an existing 
 English fortress. They are identical in type 
 with the great castles of Normandy, and 
 keep pace with them in development. Thus 
 the essential point of the Norman castle is the 
 massive rectangular keep, with walls as much 
 as 20 feet thick, and, as at Rochester, over 100 
 feet high, with its stairs, chapel, chambers, 
 kitchen, well — making it complete in itself as 
 a last resort. The base court in the castles 
 built immediately after the Norman Conquest 
 [e.g., Oxford, London, Newcastle) was for 
 some years left to the protection of a stockade. 
 When this was replaced by circuit walls, with 
 a strong gatehouse, we have complete the 
 Norman system of fortification by solid works 
 of great passive strength. The " Edwardian" 
 castle (e.g., Carnarvon) exhibits a system, 
 which completely superseded this, of concen- 
 tric works, with skilful arrangement of parts, 
 60 as to include a far larger area. Such. 
 Hist.— 8* 
 
 a castle as Bamborough could accommodate 
 a large garrison with stores, horses, and 
 cattle, and could be stormed only in detail. 
 The duke in Normandy had exercised the right 
 of holding a garrison in the castles of his 
 barons, and the Norman kings of England 
 ]■ ealou sly maintained the requirement of a royal 
 Kcence for their erection. Of the forty-nine in 
 Domesday, thirty were built by the Conqueror 
 himself. In the anarchy of Stephen's days, 375 
 were built, or, according to Ralph de Diceto, 
 1,115. Henry II., on his accession, had to 
 besiege and recover for the crown the 
 " adulterine " castles ; and after the revolt of 
 1173 it became a definite policy of the crown 
 to ^ keep down their numbers, and have a 
 voice in the appointment of castellans. One of 
 the first steps of the barons of 1258 was to sub- 
 stitute nineteen of themselves for the alien 
 favourites as guardians of the royal castles, 
 and the last stand of the defeated party was 
 made in De Montfort's castle of Kenilworth 
 from Oct., 1265, to Dec, 1266. After this the 
 castles ceased to be a menace to royal power. 
 The Edwardian castles were chiefly national 
 defences on the coast or the Welsh and Scotch 
 Marches. The number of licences to "crenel- 
 late and tenellate " rises to its height in the 
 reigns of Edward II. and Edward III.; 
 the Commons in 1371 even petition that 
 leave to do this may be given freely for all 
 men's houses and for the walls of boroughs. 
 But these were castellated mansions rather 
 than true castles. In them the keep sinks to 
 a, guardhouse, the waUs Eire less solid, the 
 windows are adapted to convenience rather 
 than defence. However, under the Stuarts 
 such fortified mansions proved capable of 
 standing a siege. But the last castles are not 
 later than Tudor times, and even the " Peel " 
 towers, for defence against the Scots, fall 
 into ruin after the union of the kingdoms. 
 The castles had been a heavy cost and 
 trouble to the crown. Bridgnorth alone had 
 cost in repairs £213 during Heniy II. 's reign ; 
 the Constable of Bridgnorth besides was paid 
 40 marks salarj'; and the jurors of 1258 
 declared it required £20 a year to keep it up 
 in time of peace. The temu-e of castle guard, 
 at the rate of forty days' service for a knight's 
 fee, commuted often for a mark on the fee, 
 was a, burden vexatious both to nobles and 
 gentry. Some castles, like Lancaster and 
 Richmond, were associated with a quasi-royal 
 jurisdiction over the district. In others the 
 lords would be only too ready to arrogate 
 such rights. Many, no doubt, like Bridg- 
 north, served as centres of tyranny, even 
 when in royal hands. And this tendency 
 probably accounts for the frequent changes 
 made by the crown in the persons chosen as 
 royal constables, and for the fact that Ed- 
 ward I. finds it necessary, even after Henry 
 II.'s determined assertion of royal rights, to 
 make the Quo IVarrnnlo inquiry into the 
 jurisdictions claimed by each of his barons. 
 
Cat 
 
 ( 234 ) 
 
 Cat 
 
 It is only by closely tracing the local history 
 of some one great castle that the justice can 
 he realised of Matthew Paris's description of 
 them as " nests of devils and dens of thieves," 
 or the bitter words of the contemporary Eng- 
 lish monk of Peterborough on the castles of 
 Stephen's reign ; — " They fiUed the land full 
 of castles, and -when they were finished, filled 
 them with devils and evil men ; . . . then 
 they tortured men and women for their gold 
 and silver ; . . . then plundered they and 
 burned all the towns; . . . they spared 
 neither church nor churchyard; . . . they 
 robbed the monks and the clergy; . . 
 the eaith bare no corn ; the land was all 
 ruined by such deeds; and it was said 
 openly that Christ slept and His saints." 
 The castles of England, on many sides 
 illustrate the national history. Berkeley has 
 its story of royal tragedy, Kenilworth of 
 constitutional struggle, Carlisle of border 
 romance. The names of Montgomery and 
 Balliol and Granville recall the baronial 
 families who brought into England the titles 
 of their Norman castles. And the immense 
 households which the later spirit of chivalry 
 gathered together into Alnwick, or Lancaster, 
 or Warwick made the castle of the fourteenth 
 and fifteenth centuries a local centre of vast 
 social influence, even when the days of its 
 military and constitutional domination had 
 
 Viollet-le-Duc, Essay on MUitary Architec- 
 ture; J. H. Parker, Domestic Architecture ; 
 G. T. Clark in Arch(Bolog. Journal, i. 93, xxiv. 
 92; King, Munimenta Antiqua ; the Begistrum 
 de Sichmmide ; Selden, Titles ofSonowr; iffadox, 
 Baronia Anglioa; Dugdale, Baronage of Eng- 
 land ^ Lords' Bcport <m the Dignity of a Pecj-, 
 1825-9, 2nd Report, pt. i. ; and the good county 
 histories, such as Surtees, Durham, Byton, 
 Shropshire, &c. rj^^ L S 1 
 
 Catean Cambresis, The Treaty of 
 (April 2, 1559), was concluded between France, 
 Spain, and England after the accession of 
 Elizabeth. The chief difiiculty in bringing 
 about the^ peace had been the question of 
 Calais, which the French were determined to 
 keep. Finally it was arranged that the 
 French should keep the town for eight years, 
 and then restore it. The French gave up 
 their claims on Milan and Naples ; they also 
 agreed to evacuate and raze the fortresses 
 they had built on the Scottish border, and to 
 give substantial bonds for the restitution of 
 Calais. The Dauphin and Dauphiness were 
 to confirm the treaty, and to agree to re- 
 cognise Elizabeth's right to the English 
 crown. 
 
 The treaty is given in Eymer, Foidera, xv. SOS. 
 Catesby, William {d. 1488), one of 
 Kichard Ill.'s ministers, was Speaker of the 
 House of Commons in 1484, and seems to 
 have owed his rise to Lord Hastings, of 
 whom he was at first a close follower, though 
 he afterwards deserted his cause when 
 Hastings fell under the displeasure of 
 
 Richard. He was taken at the battle of 
 Bosworth and put to death by the orders of 
 Henry VII. The three principal advisers of 
 Richard III. — Catesby, Sir Richard Ratcliff, 
 and Lord Lovel, are held up to opprobrium 
 with him in the weU-known contemporary 
 rhyme : — 
 
 "The Cat, the Eat, and Lovel the Pog, 
 Bule all England under the Hog." 
 
 Cathedral is properly the chief church 
 of the diocese, in which the bishop's seat was 
 established. The ecclesiastical organisation 
 on the Continent generally followed the lines 
 of the political organisation of the Roman 
 Empire. The province usually became the 
 diocese, and the church of the provincial capital 
 became the seat of the bishop. In England, 
 however, Christianity was largely brought 
 by missionaries, who lived together under 
 monastic rules. Hence, among others, many of 
 the English cathedrals — e.g., Worcester — were 
 originally monastery churches, over which a 
 bishop was set. In other cases the bishop 
 was set over a district, and chose his own 
 cathedral church. Hence the bishops' seats 
 were frequently changed, till after the Norman 
 Conquest they were ordered to be fixed in cities 
 and walled towns. Thus, among others, the 
 older cathedrals of Sherborne, Selsey, and 
 Dorchester gave place to those of Salisbury, 
 Chichester, ■ and Lincoln. [Bishopric] 
 English cathedrals were of two classes, accord- 
 ing to their origin. The clergy attached to them 
 were in some cases monks, in others secular 
 canons. In the first case the bishop reckoned 
 as abbot of the monastery, in the second case 
 he was the head of his chapter. In both 
 cases, however, the secular and official duties 
 of the bishop tended to sever him from his 
 cathedral, and the chapter took possession of 
 it. The dean became more powerful than 
 the absent bishop, who was gradually driven 
 from his own church, and retained little save 
 a visitatorial power over his chapter. The 
 annals of most medijEval episcopates are full 
 of the quarrels between the bishop and the 
 monks or chapter, leading to constant appeals 
 to Rome and a diminution of the episcopal 
 authority. In the reign of Henry VIII., 
 after the suppression of the monasteries, the 
 monastic cathedrals were re-modelled. These 
 " cathedrals of the new foundation " are 
 Canterbury, Carlisle, Durham, Ely, Norwich, 
 Rochester, Winchester, and Worcester. The 
 bishoprics founded by Henry VIII.— Bristol, 
 Chester, Gloucester, Oxford, Peterborough, 
 and Westminster — were provided with cathe- 
 drals after the same model. Westminster, 
 though it lost its bishop, has retained its dean 
 and its position as a cathedral church. In 
 recent times new bishoprics have been founded, 
 and the bishop's seat established in old 
 collegiate and parish churches, which have 
 been turned into cathedrals at Manchester, 
 Ripon, Liverpool, St. Albaus, and Newcastle. 
 [Cha,pter.] 
 
Cat 
 
 ( 235 ) 
 
 Cat 
 
 "Walcott, Cathedvalia; Freeman, Cathedral 
 Church of Wells, and Norm. Conq., iv. 414—^0 ; 
 DioccMn HisioriMj published by the Society for 
 Promoting Christiau Knowledge. fM. C.l 
 
 Catherine of Aragon, Queen, first 
 
 wife of Henry VIII. {b. 1485, d. 1536), was 
 the youngest of the four daughters of Ferdi- 
 nand, King of Aragon, and Isabella, Queen 
 of Castile. The foreign policy of Henry VII. 
 waa based on a renewal and development 
 of the traditional mediajval alliance between 
 England and the Spanish kingdoms. Hence, 
 as early as 1492 a treaty was made between the 
 two monarchs to cement their friendship by 
 intermarriage. In 1498, Arthur, the eldedt 
 son of Henry VII., was contracted to Cathe- 
 rine by proxy, and in loOl, when Arthur was 
 fifteen years old, Catherine was sent to England. 
 The marriage was then celebrated in St. 
 Paul's Cathedral; but four months afterwards 
 Arthur died. It was agreed that Catherine 
 should be married to Henry, Arthur's younger 
 brother. A papal dispensation was obtained 
 to legaKse such a marriage, and a contract of 
 marriage was made. When Henry VIII. 
 ascended the throne, in 1509, his first act was 
 to marry Catherine. He was then eighteen 
 years old, and she was twenty-four. Catherine 
 was not handsome, but she was lively, of an 
 amiable disposition, well-informed, and de- 
 voted to her husband. Her married life was 
 at first happy. But of her three sons and 
 two daughters, all died in infancy except 
 Mary. She ceased to bear children, and 
 showed the effects of advancing years much 
 more than did Henry VIII. She had lost 
 Henry's affections, but still retained his 
 festeem, when Anne Boleyn appeared upon 
 the scene. "With the growth of the king's 
 attachment to Anne scruples about the 
 validity of his marriage with Catherine 
 arose in his mind. In 1527 these scruples 
 went so far that he consulted with Cardinal 
 Wolsey how to obtain a divorce. Through- 
 out the complicated negotiations for that 
 purpose Catherine, alone and friendless as she 
 was, preserved a firm and dignified attitude. 
 She was submissive to Henry's will on all 
 small points, but refused to make any ad- 
 missions which might facilitate a divorce. 
 She stood upon the justice of her cause, and, 
 though Wolsey and the papal nuncio, Cam- 
 peggio, plied her in every way, she remainnd 
 firm. On June 1, 1529, she and the king 
 appeared before the legate at Windsor. 
 Catherine refused to admit the jurisdic- 
 tion of the court, sajdng she had appealed 
 to Rome. The Pope, Clement VII., being 
 in the power of the Emperor Charles V., 
 who was Catherine's nephew, was driven to 
 receive the appeal and advoke the case to 
 Rome. Wolsey had failed, and his disgrace 
 followed. Still Henry patiently pursued his 
 object of obtaining a divorce from Rome ; 
 as this became more improbable, he attempted 
 ^ intimidate the Pope. In 1531 Catherine 
 
 was ordered to leave Windsor ; she retired to 
 Ampthill, and was no longer treated as queen. 
 She still remained firm in her position that she 
 was the king's wife by lawful marriage, and 
 would so abide till the court of Rome shall 
 have made thereof an end." But Henry VIII. 
 made an end his own way. On March 30, 
 1533, Cranmer was made Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. He cited Catherine to appear 
 before him at Dunstable. Catherine paid no 
 heed to his citation, and was pronounced con- 
 tumacious. On May 23 Cranmer gave his 
 decision that the marriage was null and void 
 from the beginning, as contracted in defiance 
 of the Divine prohibition. From this time 
 Catherine was styled in England the Dowager 
 Princess of Wales. At Easter, 1534, Pope 
 Clement VII. pronounced Henry's marriage 
 with Catherine to be lawful, and ordered the 
 king to take back his legitimate wife. Henry 
 VIII. replied by an Act of Parliament de- 
 claring the marriage unlawful, and making it 
 treason to question the lawfulness of his 
 maniage with Anne Bole)Ti. Catherine 
 lived in retirement in one of the royal 
 manors. Henry VIII. did not cease to en- 
 deavour to procure from her submission to his 
 will, but she constantly asserted the lawful- 
 ness of her marriage. She died at Kimbolton 
 in January, 1536, and on her deathbed wrote 
 Henry a letter assuring him of her forgive- 
 ness, and commending to his care their 
 daughter Mary. By Henry's orders she was 
 buried with becoming pomp in the abbey 
 church of Peterborough, which was soon 
 after erected into a cathedral. 
 
 The State Papers of Henry VIII.'s re'gn ; 
 J. S. Brewer, The Be^gn of Heii.ru VIII. ; Froude, 
 History of England; Strickland, Lives of the 
 Queens of England. [M. C.] 
 
 Catherine of Braganza, Queen, wife 
 of Charles II. (b. 1638, d. 1705), was the 
 daughter of John, King of Portugal. She was 
 married to Charles II. in 1662. Her married 
 life seems not to have been happy, owing to 
 her husband's infidelities and the harshnebs 
 and neglect with which he treated her. She 
 mixed very little in politics, and, though a 
 sincere Roman Catholic, never made any real 
 attempts to get Romanism re-established in 
 England. Notwithstanding this, she was ac- 
 cused by Titus Gates of plotting against the 
 king's life, but the informer's equivocations 
 were detected by Charles, and the charge was 
 dropped. After her husband's death she 
 lived quietly in England till 1692, when she 
 returned to her native country, where she 
 spent the rest of her life. 
 
 Catherine of France, Queen, wife 
 of Henry V. (4.1401, <?. 1438), wasthedaughter 
 of Charles VI. In 1420 she was married to 
 Henry V., in accordance with the terms of 
 the Treaty of Troyes. By him she had only 
 one son, Henry VI. In 1423 she took for 
 her second husband Owen Tudor, a Welsh 
 
Cat 
 
 ( 236 ) 
 
 Cat 
 
 gentlemaiL attached to the court, " the small- 
 ness of whose estate was recompenced hy the 
 delicacy of his person, heing every way a 
 very compleat gentleman." By him she had 
 three sons, the eldest of whom, Edmund 
 Tudor, was the father of Henry VII. 
 
 [TUDOES.] 
 
 Catherine Howard, Queen, fifth wife 
 of Henry VIII. (l>. ?1522, d. 1542), was the 
 daughter of Lord Edmund Howard, the son 
 of the Duke of Norfolk. Educated under the 
 care of the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk, she 
 early developed a taste for levity and frivolity. 
 Henry VIII. was captivated by her beauty 
 and vivacity, and married her, July 28, 1540. 
 But the levity which had marked her before 
 her marriage continued afterwards, and there 
 can be little doubt that she was guilty of 
 improper conduct with at least one of her 
 former lovers, Derham. In Nov., 1541, she 
 was charged with adultery, and sent to the 
 Tower. On Dec. 10 two of her paramours, 
 Derham and Culpepper, were beheaded. In 
 1542 a Bill of Attainder against her was 
 passed; and on Feb. 12 foUowiug she was 
 executed. Immediately afterwards a bUl was 
 passed making it high treason for any woman 
 whom the king mamed or sought in marriage 
 to conceal any questionable circumstances in 
 her past life. 
 
 Strickland, Queens of England. 
 
 Catherine Parr, Queen, sixth wife of 
 Henry VIIX. (b. 1513, d. 1548), daughter of 
 Sir Thomas Parr, was connected by birth 
 with the Nevilles and other great families. 
 She was carefully educated, and married, at an 
 unusually early age, to Edward, Lord Borough, 
 who left her a widow, and in her sixteenth 
 year she was married, for the second time, to 
 John Neville, Lord Latimer, with whom she 
 lived happily for several years. During this 
 period she became greatly attiched to the 
 doctrines of the Reformers. Lord Latimer 
 died in 1542, and Catherine was besieged 
 by many suitors. She was beautiful, and 
 famed tor her accompUshments, and her 
 husband's death had left her in possession of 
 one of the finest properties in the kingdom. 
 The most favoured of her suitors was Sir 
 Thomas Seymour, who, however, prudently 
 withdrew his pretensions when the kin"- cast 
 his eyes upon the lady. In July, 1543, she 
 was married to Henry, and this, unlike the 
 king's previous matrimonial alliances, excited 
 no dissatisfaction among any class of his 
 Bubjeets. In the very difficult position of 
 queen she acted with great prudence. She 
 ministered to the growing bodily infirmities of 
 the king, and endeared herself to his children. 
 But there is no doubt that she was a sincere 
 and, as far as prudence allowed her, an active 
 supporter of the Reformers. In spite of her 
 great caution, Henry conceived a mistrust of 
 her theological learning, and was prevailed 
 upon by Bishop Gardiner to sign articles of 
 
 impeachment against her, and to order her 
 arrest ; but Catherine's skilful management 
 succeeded in averting the danger. It is 
 probable, however, that Henry was meditating 
 a fresh charge of treason against her when he 
 was overtaken by death. Almost immediately 
 after this event Catherine married her former 
 suitor, Sir Thomas Seymour of Sudeley, the 
 Lord High Admiral. Her husband, however, 
 neglected her, and had obviously fixed his 
 affections on the Princess Elizabeth. The 
 union was unhappy, and in August, 1548, she 
 died in childbirth. From some words spoken 
 by Catherine during her last illness, it has 
 been supposed that Seymour poisoned her; 
 but there is no evidence to confirm the sus- 
 picion. Catherine was the author of a volume 
 of Prayers and Meditations, and a tract 
 called, The Lamentations of a Sinner, which 
 is written with a good deal of vigour, and in 
 parts with some genuine eloquence. 
 
 Strype, Memorials; Strickland, Qi'^eens of 
 England. 
 
 Catholic Association, The, was 
 founded by Daniel O'Connell in 1823. It 
 embraced all classes, and was really repre- 
 sentative in character, though not nominally 
 so. It received petitions, appointed com- 
 mittees, ordered a census of the Catholic popu- 
 lation, and collected the Catholic Sent. This 
 was a subscription raised all over Ireland by 
 means of officers called Wardens, appointed by 
 the Association. O'Connell managed all the 
 money that came in, without accounting for 
 it to any one. In 1825 Parliament attempted 
 to put down the Association by means of the 
 Convention Sill, but the Association dissolved 
 itself before the BiR came into force. This, 
 however, was merely in appearance; as a 
 matter of fact, it continued to exist, and the 
 Catholic Rent was still raised. In 1829, after 
 the victory won at the Clare election, the 
 Convention Bill having expired, the old Asso- 
 ciation was renewed, and it declared that 
 none but Catholics should in future be elected 
 for Irish constituencies. The members also 
 began to assemble at monster meetings, to 
 which they marched in military array ; but 
 a, proclamation against these meetings was 
 obeyed by the Association. When the Eman- 
 cipation Act was passed it was accompanied 
 by a measure for suppressing the Association. 
 But, its object being fulfilled, the Association 
 was dissolved before the Bill became law. 
 Shell and Wyre were the leaders, next to the 
 " Liberator " himself. 
 
 Catholic Committee, The, was an as- 
 sociation of some of the leading Cathohcs in 
 Ireland, which was established in the reign 
 of William III., and was intended to watch 
 over Catholic interests. The Committee be- 
 came extremely active during the agitation of 
 the last quarter of the eighteenth century. 
 In 1791 there was a split in the Committee, 
 the bishops and the noblemen, like Lord 
 
Cat 
 
 ( 237 ) 
 
 Cat 
 
 Pingal and Lord Kenmare, separating from 
 the more violent party; the latter pressed 
 for instant emancipation, while the former 
 were willing- to wait. The violent party 
 determined on a convention, and on an 
 alliance with the United Irishmen, under 
 Byrne and Keogh. The consequence was the 
 Back Lane Parliament (q.v.). Meanwhile, how- 
 ever, the Committee itself, after a hot debate, 
 accepted the ReHef Bill of 1793, and the Back 
 Lane Parliament dissolved. But from this 
 time the moderate party lost influence, and in 
 1798 the Committee dissolved itself. In 1809 
 and 1871 it was reconstituted, and reassembled 
 fora short period. [Catholic E.maxcipation.] 
 
 Catholic Emancipation. In the 
 
 reign of "William III. various statutes had 
 been passed against the Eoman Catholics 
 which forbade them to hold property in land, 
 iind subjected their spiritual instructors to 
 the penalties of felony. These acts had 
 ceased to be applied, but they were a blot 
 upon the statute book, and served as a temp- 
 tation to informers. In 1778 an Act, 
 brought in by Sir G. Savile, repealed these 
 penalties with general approval. These 
 Acts did not apply to Scotland, but it 
 was contemplated to repeal similar enactments 
 which stiU disgraced the Scotch statute book. 
 This stirred up fanaticism in Edinburghand 
 Glasgow in 1779 ; riots took place in the 
 Scotch capital, and the houses of Eoman 
 Catholics were attacked. A Protestant Asso- 
 ciation was estabHshed in Scotkind, and Lord 
 George Gordon, who was more than half a 
 madman, was chosen as its president. The 
 association spread to England, and a branch 
 was established in London, and in consequence 
 the disturbances known as the Gordon Riots 
 (q.v.) broke out. In 1791 Mr. Mitford'brought 
 in a Bin for the relief of " Protesting Catholic 
 Dissenters'' — that is, Roman Catholics who 
 protested against the Pope's temporal author- 
 ity, and his right to excommunicate kings and 
 absolve subjects from their allegiance, and 
 the right of not keeping faith with heretics. 
 Mr. Fox opposed the measure on the ground 
 that relief should be given to all Roman 
 Catholics. Mr. Pitt expressed similar senti- 
 ments. The Bill was altered during its pro- 
 gress, and at last it passed in a form which 
 allowed Roman Catholics who took an oath 
 of allegiance to secure to themselves free- 
 dom of education, of holding property, and 
 of practising the profession of the law. It 
 also allowed CathoHo peers to approach the 
 king. Roman Catholics were still worse off 
 in Ireland. Their public worship was pro- 
 scribed; they were excluded from all offices 
 in the learned professions; they were deprived 
 of the guardianship of their children ; if they 
 had landed estates they were forbidden to in- 
 termarry with Protestants. In 1792 some of 
 the worst of these disabilities were removed by 
 the Irish Parliament, and in 1 7 93 this relief was 
 
 further extended. The restraints on worship 
 and education, even the disposition of property, 
 were removed ; they were admitted to vote at 
 elections on taking the oath of allegiance and 
 abjuration; they could hold some of the 
 higher civil and military offices, and could 
 enjoy the honours and endowments of the 
 University of Dublin. In the same year a 
 similar Bill was passed for the rehef of Scotch 
 Roman Catholics. In 1799, when the Union 
 with Ireland was in contemplation, Pitt in- 
 tended to admit Irish Eoman Catholics to the 
 Parliament of the United Kingdom. But 
 George III. was strongly opposed to this step, 
 and would not allow his minister to give any 
 direct pledge. When Pitt attempted, after 
 the Union, to carry out his tempered scheme 
 of relief, the king refused his consent, and 
 Pitt resigned office. After this the question 
 slept, but in 1803 the Catholics obtained a 
 further slight measure of relief on condition 
 of subscribing the oath of 1791. In May, 
 1805, Lord Grenville moved for a committee 
 of the whole House to consider a petition 
 from the Eoman Catholics of Ireland; but 
 his motion was negatived by a majority of 
 129. A similar motion was made by Fox in 
 the House of Commons, but it was lost by a 
 majority of 112. In 1807 an attempt was 
 made b J' the ministry to admit Eoman Catholics 
 in Ireland to the higher staff appointments of 
 the army. This attempt they were obliged by 
 the king to abandon, and as his Majesty went 
 on to require from them a written declaration 
 that they would propose to him no further 
 concession to the CathoUcs, they were obliged 
 to resign. Their successors, under the Duke 
 of Portland and Mr. Perceval, were opposed 
 to the Eoman Catholic claims ; still numeious 
 petitions were presented by Irish Eoman 
 Catholics, and similar petitions were presented 
 in 1810 in favour of English Eoman Catholics. 
 Many Protestants began to petition for the 
 relief of their Catholic brethren, and the feehug 
 in the universitiesbecame less strongly opposed 
 to change. After the murder of Mr. Perceval 
 the Marquis' WeUesley was charged with the 
 formation of a ministry, and made the settle- 
 ment of the Catholic claims the basis of his 
 programme. He did not, however, succeed. 
 In the same year Mr. Canning carried a 
 motion for the consideration of the laws 
 affiectingCatholicsby amajorityofl29. In the 
 Lords a similar motion was lost by a single vote. 
 A Catholic Association (q.v.) had been formed 
 in Ireland in 1823. During Mr. Canning's 
 tenure of office it had been dissolved, in the 
 hope that he would be sure to carry out his 
 well-known views. After his death, in 1827, 
 it was reconstructed. In 1828 it secured the 
 return of Daniel O'Connell for the county of 
 Clare. Mr. Peel and the Duke of Wellington 
 were convinced that the time for settling the 
 question of the Catholic claims had now 
 arrived. Besides other difficulties, they had 
 to face the strong opposition of the king. 
 
Cat 
 
 ('238 ) 
 
 Cav 
 
 George IV., who now expressed as much ob- 
 jection to the measure as his father had 
 done. At last the king was pi-rsuaded to allow 
 the ministry to draw up three measures, 
 one to suppress the Catholic Association, one 
 a Relief Bill, and the third to revise the 
 franchise in Ireland. After some delay 
 caused hy the king, Peel introduced the 
 measure of Catholic Relief. It admitted 
 Eoman Catholics, on taking a new oath instead 
 of the oath of supremacy, to hoth Houses of 
 Parliament ; to all corporate offices ; to all 
 judicial offices, except in the ecclesiastical 
 courts ; to all civil and political offices, except 
 those of Regent, Lord Chancellor in England 
 and Ireland, and Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 
 Roman Catholics were still restrained in the 
 exercise of Church patronage. The motion 
 to go into Committee was agreed to hy a 
 majority of 188. The Duke of WelHngton 
 said, on the second reading of the BiU, in the 
 House of Lords : " I, my Lords, am one of 
 those who have probably passed a longer 
 period of my life engaged in war than most 
 men, and principally, I may say, in civil war, 
 and I must say this, that if I could avoid,' by 
 any sacrifice whatever, even one month of 
 civil war in the country to which I am 
 attached, I would sacrifice my life in order to 
 do it." The Bill was opposed in the Lords 
 hy the Archbishop of Canterbury and several 
 others of the episcopal bench, but it was 
 carried on April 10, 1829, by a large majority. 
 The king gave his consent with great reluc- 
 tance. Sir Robert Peel writes in his memoirs 
 a solemn declaration that he acted throughout 
 in this measure from a deep conviction that 
 they were not only conducive to the general 
 welfare, but that they had become impera- 
 tively necessary to avert an imminent and 
 increasing danger from the interests of the 
 Church, and of the institutions connected 
 with the Church. 
 
 Peel's Memoirs ; Stapleton, George Canning 
 and his Times ; Pauli, Eng. GescJiichts zeit 1815 ; 
 Adolphus, Hist, of Eng. ; May, Const. Hist, of 
 ^19- [0. B.] 
 
 Cato Street Conspiracy (1820) was 
 
 the name given to a wild plot formed by a 
 number of desperate men, having for its chief 
 object the murder of Lord Castlereagh and 
 the rest of the ministers., The originators 
 were a man named Arthur Thistlewood, who 
 had once been a subaltern officer, Ings, a 
 butcher, Tidd and Brunt, shoemakers, and 
 Davidson, a man of colour ; and they had 
 arranged to murder the ministers at a dinner 
 at Lord Harrowby's on the night of the 23rd 
 February, to set fire to London in several 
 places, seize the Bank and Mansion House, 
 and proclaim a provisional government. The 
 plot, however, had been betrayed to the 
 police by one of the conspirators, named 
 Edwards, some weeks before. The conspira- 
 tors were attacked by the police as they were 
 arming themselves in a stable in Cato Street, 
 
 near the Edgware Road. A scuffle ensued, in 
 which one policeman was stabbed and several 
 of the criminals escaped. Thistlewood 
 was among these, but he was captured next 
 morning. He and four others were executed, 
 and five more were transported for life. A 
 good deal of discussion took place in the 
 House of Commons on the employment of 
 the informer Edwards by the authorities. 
 Annual Register, 1820. 
 Catyeiichlani (or Catuvellani), The, 
 were an ancient British tribe occupying the 
 present counties of Hertford, Bedford, and 
 Buckingham. 
 
 Cavaliers. In December, 1641, frequent 
 tumults took place round the Houses of 
 Parliament, in the course of which more 
 than one collision occurred between the mob 
 and the officers and courtiers who made 
 Whitehall their head- quarters. The . two 
 parties assailed each other with nicknames, 
 and the epithet, "Cavalier," was apphed by 
 the people to the Royalists. The original 
 meaning of the, term, which was to become the 
 designation of a great political party, is diffi- 
 cult to discover. Professor Gardiner says that 
 it " carried with it a flavour of opprobrium as 
 implying a certain looseness and idleness of 
 military life." Mr. Forster thinks that it was 
 used as a term of reproach on this occasion "to 
 connect its French origin with the un-EngUsh 
 character of the defenders of the queen and 
 her French papist adherents, to whom it was 
 chiefly applied." According- to the statement 
 of William Lilly, an eye- witness of these riots, it 
 referred at first rather to the personal appear- 
 ance of the Royalists than to anything foreign 
 or sinister in their characters. "The courtiers 
 having long hair and locks, and always wear- 
 ing swords, at last were called by these men 
 ' CavaHers ; ' and so aU that took part or ap- 
 peared for his Majesty were termed Cavaliers, 
 few of the vulgar knowing the sense of the 
 word ' Cavalier.' " It thus exactly corresponded 
 to the term Roundhead [Roundhead]i The 
 earliest uses of the word in the Journal of Sir 
 S. D'Ewes are found under the dates of Jan. 
 10,andMarch4, 1641. The king complained of 
 its use, accusing his opponents of attempting 
 " to render all persons of honour, courage, and 
 reputation odious to the common people under 
 the style of Cavaliers, insomuch as the high- 
 ways and villages have not been safe for 
 gentlemen to pass through without violence 
 or affront." The name at first used as a 
 reproach came to be adopted by the Royalists 
 themselves as a title of honour. " A complete 
 Cavalier," wrote Dr. Symons, in a sermon 
 preached before the royal army, " is a child of 
 honour. He is the only reserve of English 
 gentility and ancient valour, and hath chosen 
 rather to bury himself in the tomb of honour 
 than to see the nobility of his nation vas- 
 salaged, the dignity of his country captivated 
 or obscured by any base domestic enemy, or. 
 
Cav 
 
 ( 239 ) 
 
 Cea 
 
 by any foreign fore-conquered foe." The 
 
 name thus originated continued to be used to 
 
 describe the Church and King party till the 
 
 introduction of the epithet " Tory." [Tory.] 
 
 Gardiner, Hist. ofBng. 1603— 164i; Torster, Five 
 
 Members; Warburton, Memoirs and CorrespmidencB 
 
 of Prince Ru-pen and. the CavaXiers. For a list of 
 
 Cavalier Members of Parliament see Sanford, 
 
 Studies and Htusirations of the Great KeheUion; 
 
 and for a list of officers, Peacock, Army Lists of 
 
 Cavaliers and Boundheads. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Cavendish., Family op. [Devonshire 
 Peerage.] 
 
 Caveudish., William, &c. [Devonshire.] 
 
 Cavendisll, William. [Newcastle.] 
 
 Cavendish, Thomas (4. 1564, d. 1592), a 
 gentleman of Suffolk, fitted out in 1586 an 
 expedition for discovery and privateering, 
 having imbibed a love for sea adventure 
 during a voyage with Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
 in 1 585. A futile attack on Sierra Leone was 
 followed by a descent on the coasts of Chili 
 and Peru, where he met with more success, 
 capturing some of the Spanish treasure-ships, 
 notably the " Santa Anna " from the Manillas. 
 He returned to Pljinouth in September, 1588, 
 by the Moluccas, Java, and the Cape of Good 
 Hope, with the honour of being the second 
 Englishman who had circumnavigated the 
 globe, and was knighted by the queen. He 
 died off the coast of Brazil whilst engaged in 
 another voyage of discovery. 
 
 Cawnpore, Massacre of (1857). On 
 June 5th the Cawnpore regiments mutinied, 
 plundered the treasury, and set off to Delhi. 
 On the 6th they were brought back by Nana 
 Sahib, and invested the Residency. Not less 
 than 1,000 persons had taken refuge there, 
 and they prolonged the defence from June 6th. 
 to June 24th, till the ammunition and pro- 
 visions were all gone. Then Nana Sahib 
 offered to transmit them safely to Allahabad 
 on condition of surrender. The offer was 
 accepted, and on the 27th, the survivors, men, 
 women, and children, were marched down to 
 the boats which had been prepared for them, 
 in number about 450. They had no sooner 
 embaiked than a murderous fire was opened 
 on them from both banks. ' ' Many perished, 
 others got off in their boats ; but their crews 
 had deserted them, and one by one they were 
 again captured. A considerable number were 
 at once shot, and otherwise put to death, but 
 122 were reserved." After Havelock's victory, 
 July 15th, it was decided that they should be 
 put to death with those who had escaped from 
 Futtehgurh. They were all brutally destroj'ed 
 on the 16th; some by shot, some by sword- 
 cuts; the bodies were cast into a well, and 
 there is no doubt that many were thrown in 
 while stUl alive. [Indian Mutiny.] 
 Kaye, Sepoy War. 
 
 Caxton, William (J. ? 1421, d. ? 1491), the 
 first English printer, was born near Hadlow, 
 in Kent, and apprenticed to a rich London 
 
 mercer in 1438. He left England in 1441 to 
 transact business in connection with his trade 
 in the Low Countries, and finally took up his 
 residence at Bruges, where he remained for 
 thirty-five years. He joined there the gild 
 of Merchant Adventurers, who had a dep6t in 
 the city. In 1463 Caxton was promoted to the 
 office of governor of the gild. Soon after- 
 wards he, together with another English 
 envoy, was entrusted by Edward IV. with 
 the task of renewing an expiring commercial 
 treaty between England and Burgundy. In 
 1470, Caxton used his influence at Bruges in 
 behalf of Edward IV., who was taking refuge 
 there from the Lancastrians, and in the next 
 year the Duchess of Burgundy offered him a 
 post at her court. By the duchess's command 
 he completed, in 1471, a translation into 
 English of a popular French collection of 
 romances concerning the Trojan War. He 
 became acquainted with Colard Manson, who 
 had some knowledge of the new art of printing 
 which Gutenberg had perfected some sixteen 
 years before. Together they printed Caxton's 
 translation — The Mecuyell of the Historyes of 
 Troye — and 1474 has been the year assigned 
 as the date of the production of this, the 
 first English-printed book. The experiment 
 proved eminently successful to another of 
 Caxton's translations — The Game and Flaye of 
 the Chess — issued from the same press in 1475. 
 In 1476 Caxton arrived in England with new 
 type, and set up a press near the western 
 entrance to Westminster Abbey. During the 
 following fifteen years, he printed many 
 works — chivalric romances, religious works, 
 and translations. His patrons included 
 Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry VII., 
 and the chief noblemen and many merchants of 
 the day. Caxton was buried in St. Margaret's 
 Churchyard, outside Westminster Abbey. 
 
 The best biogrraphy of Caxton is that by Mr. 
 "William Blades, which has practically super- 
 seded all its predecessors. [S. L. L.] 
 
 Ceadwalla, King of Wessex (685—688), 
 was descended from Cerdic through Ceawlin. 
 His name is generally considered to be- 
 speak a British origin, the same as the 
 Welsh Cadwallon, and in support of this 
 view it may be mentioned that his brother 
 . was called Mul, j.c, "mule," a man of mixed 
 descent. On being banished from Wessex, he 
 retired to Sussex, which kingdom he subdued. 
 He was, however, subsequently expelled, 
 returned to Wessex, and, on the death or 
 abdication of Centwine, became king. He 
 then conquered Sussex and the Isle of Wight, 
 and twice ravaged Kent. In 688 he ab- 
 dicated, and went on a pilgrimage to Rome, 
 where he was baptised by the POpe, and 
 received the name of Peter. He died on 
 Easter Day, 689. 
 
 Anglo-Saxm Chron. ; Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 Ceawlin, King of Wessex, succeeded to the 
 throne in the latter half of tho sixth century on 
 
Cec 
 
 ( 240 ) 
 
 Cel 
 
 the death of his father Cymric. Under hia 
 leadership the West Saxons enlarged their 
 boundaries and the Britons were driven hack. 
 In 568 he defeated Bthelbert of Kent at 
 Wimbledon, and three years later gained a 
 great victory over the Britons at Bedford, 
 which brought the important towns of Ayles- 
 bury, Bensington, and Eynsham under his 
 dominion. In 577 he won a victory at Dere- 
 ham, in which three British kings fell, and 
 as a result of this success he obtained posses- 
 sion of the three cities of Bath, Gloucester, 
 and Cirencester. In 584, again attempting 
 to extend his conquests to the upper Severn 
 vaUey, he fought a doubtful battle at Fad- 
 diley in Cheshire, defeated the Britons 
 at Frithem in Shropshire, but after this 
 is said to have made an alliance with 
 them against Ethelbert, by whom he was 
 defeated at Wodnesbeorh (P Wanborough, 
 about three miles from Swindon) and driven 
 out of his kingdom (P 590). Two years after 
 this he died. Ceawlin is reckoned as the 
 second Bretwalda in the Anglo-Saxon Chroni- 
 cle ; and William of Mahnesbury says of him 
 that "he was the astonishment of the English, 
 the detestation of the Britons, and eventually 
 the destruction of both." 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; Will, of Mahnesbury. 
 
 Cecil, SiK EoBERT. [Salisbury.] 
 
 Cecil, Sir William. [Burleigh.J 
 
 Celts in the British Isles. The 
 
 Celts form one among that large group of 
 peoples which is commonly called the Aryan 
 group, and which includes nearly aU the 
 present inhabitants of Europe with several 
 considerable peoples of the East. The 
 name Celt was that by which the people 
 were first known to the Greeks, whereas the 
 Romans always knew them under the name 
 of GaUi, or Gauls ; both these words probably 
 mean the same thing, namely the warriors, or 
 according to Professor Ehys, the kilt-wearing, 
 or clothed people. Another name by which 
 the Celts of South Britain were known is 
 Cymry, which is still the name by which the 
 Welsh designate themselves, and which 
 possibly reappears in the Cimbri spoken of 
 by the Roman historians. There can be no 
 doubt that the Celts at one time formed the 
 most powerful confederacy of nations in 
 Europe. Gradually the Celtic peoples were 
 driven back from their more easterly 
 possessions by the Romans and the kindred 
 races in the south, and in the north by 
 the Teutonic peoples : so that at the time 
 when the light of history first shines on 
 them with any clearness we find them in 
 possession only of the three most western 
 lands of Europe— namely, the Iberian Penin- 
 sula, Gaul, and the British Isles. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the inhabi- 
 tants of these lands, though they consisted 
 fundamentally of the same race, formed in 
 
 any sense a single nationality, or spoke an 
 identical language. In the British Islands 
 some dialects of Celtic are still spoken 
 and others are but recently extinct. These 
 we can classify. They are the Welsh, 
 or Cymric (Kymraeg), the Cornish, the 
 Manx (dialect spoken in the Isle of Man), 
 the Irish (Erse or GaidheUc), and the Highr 
 land Scottish, or Scottish Gaelic. To these 
 we must add the only other Hving Celtic 
 tongue, the Breton of Britanny, otherwise 
 called Armorio. These six dialects divide them- 
 selves into two classes, the Gaidhelic (Goidelic) 
 and the British or Cymric. The first in- 
 cluded Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic ; the 
 second comprises the Welsh, Cornish, and 
 Armorio. It is quite possible that this divi- 
 sion was in force as long ago as the date of 
 the first Roman invasion, so that the inhabi- 
 tants of the British Islands then consisted of 
 two great nationalities, the Britons in the 
 lower part of Britain, and the Gaels in the 
 Highlands of Scotland and in Ireland. There 
 can be little doubt that of the two the nation- 
 ality of the Britons was most nearly allied 
 to that of the Gauls. 
 
 Many of our geographical names serve to 
 remind us of these two main divisions of the 
 Celtic race. The word Gaidhel (which is, of 
 course, etymologically allied to Gaul) is pre- 
 served in the words Gael and Gaelic, now 
 used only for the Scottish Gaels, though in 
 the native Irish the same word (Gaedhil) is 
 applied to that nationality and language ; it 
 is preserved again in Galway in Ireland, and 
 in Galloway in Scotland, and in many lesser 
 local names. The word Cymrj', which is still 
 the name by which the Welsh call themselves, 
 has been for us Latinised into Cambria, and 
 remains again in Cumberland (Cumbria) 
 which once included a much larger area than 
 it now includes. Britain, Briton, are names 
 which have been bestowed from without — 
 namely, by the Greeks and Romans — while 
 Wales, Cornwall, have likewise been bestowed 
 from without by the Teutonic invaders of 
 Britain. All the Celtic nationalities were, as 
 we know, an immigrant peopleinto Europe, and 
 it is not to be supposed that when they made 
 their way into these islands they found them 
 empty of inhabitants, or that no traces of 
 these earlier races continued to exist after 
 the Celts had been long settled there. Some 
 among the tribes which Ceesar counted 
 among the Celtic inhabitants of Britain may 
 have belonged to this earlier stock, in parti- 
 cular the Silures, who inhabited the south of 
 Wales and Monmouthshire, near Caerleon 
 (Isca Silurum) , and a part at least of the tribes 
 of Devonshire and Cornwall have been desig- 
 nated as representing these more primitive 
 inhabitants of the British Isles, who were, 
 it is generally believed, allied to the original 
 mhabitants of Spain, the Iberians, and to the 
 Basques, their modem representatives. It 
 would seem that the Gaelic branch preceded 
 
Cel 
 
 ( 24t ) 
 
 Cel 
 
 the Cymric in the course of invasion, and that 
 the latter as they advanced drove the Gaels 
 towards the north and west. At the time of 
 Caesar's invasion the Cymric Celts may be said 
 to have composed the hody of the population 
 south of the Firths of Forth and of Clyde ; and 
 as the names Britannia, Briton, were by the 
 Romans bestowed only on the country and 
 the people in the southern part of the island, 
 the word Briton may be used synonymously 
 with Cymric-Celt. In fact, the Cymric 
 people came in after-times to designate 
 themselves as Brythous. When first known 
 to the Eomans, therefore, the Britons are to 
 be looked upon as one nation, with a certain 
 admixture of more primitive elements, 
 and with the addition of one intrusive 
 nationality, the Belgae, who had made a 
 settlement in the south of the island. The 
 Belgse were likewise Celtic by blood, 
 but were not closely allied to the native 
 inhabitants of Britain. These Belgas seem 
 to have been more civilised than the rest 
 of the inhabitants, and to have offered the 
 most formidable resistance to the Roman 
 arms. The exact districts over which they 
 extended cannot be ascertained. The centre 
 of their possessions probably lay somewhere 
 near the borders of Sussex and Hampshire. 
 With the exception then of some primitive 
 tribes and the intrusive Belgae, the Britons 
 from the Channel to the Firths of Forth and 
 Clyde were, at the time of Cassar's invasion, 
 essentially one people belonging to the Cymric 
 branch of the Celtic family [Britons]. North 
 of the firths the land was inhabited by a 
 people who were to the classic writers first 
 known as Caledonians, but afterwards by the 
 Komans known as Plots. This name, it is well 
 known, means simply the painted or stained 
 (Pieti), and was bestowed upon all those who 
 had not adopted the Roman civilisation, but 
 adhered to their national system of staining 
 themselves with woad. Concerning the na- 
 tionality of the Picts there is considerable 
 dispute. Tacitus says that they were of Ger- 
 man origin. This assertion was formerly very 
 generally accepted, and still is by some 
 scholars. It is more probable that they were 
 of a Celtic stock. Mr. Skene, who has 
 undertaken an exhaustive examination of the 
 question, arrives at the conclusion that they 
 belonged, not to the Cymric but to the Gaelic 
 branch of the Celtic family [Picts]. In 
 Ireland again the inhabitants were probably 
 to be divided into several nationalities. There 
 was, in the first place, undoubtedly a sub- 
 stratum of the same primitive stock of which 
 we have noticed traces in England. Irish 
 tradition tells us of four nationalities who, at 
 different times, held rule in the island, 
 namely, the Nemidians, the Firbolgs, the 
 Tuatha da Danaim, and the Milesians, or 
 Scots. Should we set aside what seems purely 
 mythical in the tradition, and with that the 
 Nemidians, of whom nothing can be made, it 
 
 is not unlikely that the three names which 
 remain do really represent three peoples, out 
 of which the Irish nation is composed. The 
 Firbolgs, who are described as a dark and 
 slavish race, very likely represent the oldest 
 inhabitants of Iberian stock, while the 
 Tuatha da Danann and the Milesians were 
 two different branches of the Gfelic race, 
 having somewhat different appearances and 
 national characteristics. The Milesians, who 
 eventually obtained the supremacy, seem, to 
 be identical with the Scots, who gave its 
 name first to Ireland, and later on to Scotland 
 [Scots]. 
 
 Such is the general ethnology of the Celtic 
 people of Great Britain and Ireland. What 
 we know of their social life and religion at 
 the time of the Roman conquest is. gained 
 almost solely from the testimony of Roman 
 historians, and therefore applies chiefly to the 
 inhabitants of South Britain, who were the 
 only people to come in contact with the 
 invader. We have some other sources of 
 information in the Welsh and Irish traditions, 
 and in all that is most ancient of what has 
 been preserved of their ancient laws, especially 
 of the Brehon Laws of the Irish [Brehon]. 
 This last source of inf onnation shows us that 
 the Celts, where untouched by Roman civilisa- 
 tion, adhered to a form of social organisation 
 which was, at one time, pretty general among 
 the Aryan peoples. The distinctive features 
 in their state of society were that each tribe, 
 or, more strictly speaking, each village, con- 
 stituted a state in itself, a. political unit 
 whose tie of union with any other village was 
 only of a very loose character. At the same 
 time, the tie which united together the in- 
 habitants of any single village was remark- 
 ably close, most of the land, for example, 
 being held, not individually, but in common, 
 by the whole body. This form of society is 
 commonly distinguished by students as the 
 Village Community {see Sir H. S. Maine, 
 Village Communities of the East and West), 
 The religion of the inhabitants of Britain 
 must have been the same as that of the Gauls, 
 if, as Ccesar tells us, the special home or 
 college of the Gaulish priests, the Druids, 
 was in this island [Druids]. Of this creed 
 we do not know much. There are, however, 
 good reasons for believing that it very closely 
 resembled the religion of the Teutonic neigh- 
 bours of the Celts, of which some traces have 
 come down to us. As with the German races, 
 and as with the Romans themselves, the 
 highest divinity was probably a god of the 
 sky and of the thunder. Beside him stood 
 a sun-god whom the Gauls, when they be- 
 came Latinised, identified completely with 
 Apollo, and who perhaps corresponded to 
 the Freyr or Fr& of the Teutonic peoples. 
 His original Gaulish name may have been 
 Granus. To form with these a trilogy we have 
 a god of war, probably similar to the Teutonic 
 Zio or Tiw, and called by the Roman writers 
 
Cen 
 
 ( 242 ), 
 
 Ceo 
 
 Mars. The chief goddess of the Gauls is called 
 ty Csesar Minerva, but we have proof that 
 they worshipped another mother goddess who, 
 like the Eoman Lucina, presided over births, 
 and whose image, holding on her lap a child, 
 is frequently dug up in France, and always 
 taken by the peasantry for an image of the 
 Virgin and Child. To this pantheon of 
 nature-gods was joined a lower form of nature- 
 worship, especially an adoration of trees and 
 streams. As to the Teutons, the oak was 
 to the Gauls an especially sacred tree. The 
 Celtic worship of streams was more peculiar, 
 and the traces of it still survive in the special 
 reverence paid to weUs in Britanny, in the 
 more Celtic parts of Great Britain, and in 
 Ireland. 
 
 For Celtic ethnology and religion ; Zeuss, 
 Grommatica CeUica; G-liick, Celtische ifligen- 
 namen; H. "W. Bbel, Celtic Studies (translated 
 by Sullivan) ; T. O'Donovan, Irish trrammar ; 
 Amedee TMerry, Histoire des Gaulois ; Boget 
 de Ballnquet, Ethnoghiie Gaulowg; Gaidoz, 
 Bsquisse de la Religion des Gaulois and La Religion 
 Gauloise et le Gui de CMne; also, Revue Celtiqiie, 
 especially vol. iv., article by Pustel de Cou- 
 langes j Cffisar, De Bell. Gall. ; Tacitus, Ann. and 
 Agricola. 
 
 For Celts in Great Britain and Ireland : J. 
 Ehys, Celtic JBritoin ; W. P.Skene, Celtic Scotland ; 
 C. Elton, Origins of Efglish Historv; J. H. 
 Burton, History of Scotland, vol. i. ; B. O'Curry, 
 Manners and Customs of fh^ Ancient Irish; 
 C. O'Conor, Rerwm Ribemicarum Scri-ptoves 
 Veteres ; J. O'Donovan, Annals of the Four 
 Masters; Chronicvn Scotoru/m. 
 
 [C. F. K.] 
 
 Census, The, a numbering of the popu- 
 lation of Great Britain and Ireland, was 
 appointed to be taken every tenth year by 
 Act 41, George III., u. 15 (Dec, 1800). The 
 first census was accordingly taken in 1801, 
 and has been repeated every tenth year since. 
 At each recurrence of the census it has 
 been rendered more complete, and at the 
 present time elicits a vast amount of valu- 
 able and accurate information. It is taken 
 simultaneously throughout the kingdom by 
 special officers. The official figures of the 
 various enumerations since 1801 are as fol- 
 lows (the whole of the inhabitants of the 
 United Kingdom being included) : — 
 
 1801 
 18H 
 1831 
 
 1831 
 1811 
 
 . 16,237,300 
 . 18,509,116 
 . 21,272,187 
 . 24,392,485 
 . 27,239,404 
 
 18.51 
 1861 
 1871 
 1881 
 
 27,958,143 
 29,571,644 
 31,857,338 
 35,246,633 
 
 The first Imperial Census of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, the colonies and dependencies, 
 was taken in 1871, when the population was 
 found to be 234,762,593. 
 
 ,, Central India. The official name for 
 the group of feudatory native states in the 
 centre of India, comprising the dominions of 
 llollcar and Scmdiah, and the states of Bhopal 
 and Dhar. [Hoikar, &c.] 
 
 Central Provinces, a chief commis- 
 sionership of British India, formed out of the 
 old Ifagpore province and Nerbudda terri- 
 
 tories, in 1861, Ue to the south of Eewah 
 and Bundelcund. It is divided into nine- 
 teen districts and four divisions, and has 
 an area of 84,000 square miles, and a popula-- 
 tion of about 8,200,000 (in 1872), of whom 
 nearly six millions are Hindoos. [Nagpore.] 
 
 Cenwealh, King of the West Saxons (643 
 — 672), was the son and successor of Cyne- 
 gils. He tried to effect in Wessex a relapse 
 into Paganism, but his expulsion by Penda, 
 whose sister he had repudiated, led to his 
 seeking refuge in East Anglia, where he was 
 converted to Christianity. After having re- 
 covered his kingdom, he defeated Wulfhse, 
 the son of Penda, at Ashdown, and took him 
 prisoner (661). He also won two great 
 victories over the Britons at Bradford and 
 Pen, and extended hia dominions on every 
 side. 
 
 CenWTllf, King of the Mercians (796 — 
 819), was descended from Cenwealh, the 
 brother of Penda. His reign was a very pros- 
 perous one, and he retained for Mercia that 
 supremacy which had been won by Offa. He 
 completed the conquest of Kent, which he 
 granted out to his brother Cuthred ; while to 
 conciliate the Church, he suppressed the arch- 
 bishopric of Lichfield, which Offa had founded. ' 
 He was victorious over the Welsh, and his. 
 army is said to have penetrated as far as 
 Snowdon. 
 
 Ceoluoth, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (833 — 870), made his episcopate important 
 in many, ways. In 838 he assisted at 
 the Council of Kingston, when a treaty 
 of peace and alliance was agreed upon 
 between the Kentish clergy and the two 
 kings, Egbert and his son Ethelwulf. This- 
 treaty laid the foundation of those amicable 
 relations which we find existing ever after 
 between the descendants of Cerdic and the 
 successors of Augustine. Twice during 
 Ceolnoth's life, Canterbury was sacked by the 
 Danes; but the church and the monastery 
 of St. Augustine were spared, probably by 
 the payment of a heavy ransom on the part 
 of the archbishop, who also contributed 
 towards raising a fleet against the Danes. 
 
 William of Malmesbury ; Hook, Archbishops. 
 
 Ceolwnlf, King of the Northumbrians 
 {d. 737), succeeded his brother Cenred. In713 
 he was seized by his enemies, and confined in. 
 a cloister, but was afterwards released by his 
 friends and reseated . on the throne. He 
 was a patron of learning, and to him Bede' 
 dedicated his Eeclesiastieal Bistory. After 
 reigning eight years he abdicated, and spent 
 the remainiag years of his life as a monk at 
 Liudisfarne. 
 
 Bede ; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 Ceorl is a word which occurs in the laws 
 of the kings before the Norman Conquest in 
 
Ceo 
 
 (243) 
 
 Cey 
 
 the following senses : — (1) man — vir, maritua ; 
 (2) peasant, rustious ; (3) the ordinary non- 
 nohle freeman. In this, its .ordinary consti- 
 tutional sense, we find (a) ceorl opposed to 
 eorl, as simple to gentle ; (i) the ceorlisc man 
 opposed to geaithcundman and thegen, and in 
 the Northumhrian ecclesiastical law to 
 landdgend eyninges-thegen ; [e) ceorl used as 
 equivalent to twyhyndeman in the West- 
 Saxon and Mercian laws, and in opposition to 
 the sixhyndeman and twelfhyndeman. Origin- 
 ally, the simple freeman was the corner-stone 
 of the old German state. Even the good 
 hlood of the eorl only brought with it social 
 estimation and easy access to political power, 
 rather than a different position in the eye of 
 the law. But in historical times the ceorl had 
 fallen from his old status. . He stood midway 
 between the " ingenuus " of Tacitus and the 
 mediaeval villein. With the development of 
 the constitution he gradually sinks towards 
 the latter condition. Legally the ceorl still 
 was a full citizen ; but if he possessed no land, 
 his position in a territorial constitution be- 
 came extremely precarious. The establish- 
 ment of private property in land had deprived 
 him of his old right of sharing in the common 
 land of the state. Though still a member of 
 the local courts and of the host, though still 
 fuUy " law-worthy," and though his wergild 
 was still paid to the kindred, the landless 
 ceorl was compelled, by a law of Athelstan, 
 to choose a lord to answer for his good be- 
 haviour. The right of selecting his own 
 master alone distinguished him from the 
 predial serf. In a later stage,, even the small 
 land-owning ceorl was practically obliged to 
 commend himself for safety's sake to some 
 great proprietor; and the "liber homo qui 
 ire potest cum terra quo voluerit " of Domes- 
 day represents this large class of voluntary 
 dependents. Many grades of ceorls thus 
 spring up according to their relations to their 
 "hlaford." But while the less prosperous 
 ceorls thus lost their freedom, the disappear- 
 ance of the blood nobility of the eorl helped 
 the more thriving of their class to attain that 
 higher status which no longer depended on 
 birth alone. The ceorl with five hides of land 
 (600 acres), with house and church, a special 
 relation to the crown, and a special jurisdic- 
 tion over his property, became " of thegn 
 right worthy." Tet, on the whole, the growth 
 of thegnhood depressed the " ceorlisc man." 
 Its first principle was dependence ; and, as on 
 the Continent, the old freedom withered away 
 before feudalism. The very name ceorl is 
 not found in Domesday, and its equivalents, 
 bordarius, cotarius, ootsetus, socmannus, 
 villauus, indicate that the process which 
 degraded him to the "unfree viUein" had 
 almost become complete. The lawyers of the 
 twelfth century completed the process. The 
 bad meaning attached to the word " churl " 
 is an indication of the disrepute into which 
 this once honourable title had fallen. 
 
 Sclimidt, Gestiz6 der Angil-Sachien ; AniUinar. 
 Glossal-., sub verb. J Stubbs, Cou-t. Hist., i. 64, 
 80, 155, 162, 175, ii. 453; Kemble, The Saxous 
 Ml Englimd; Gneist, B.iglisohs Verfastmgs 
 GescliicMe. [X. K. T.l 
 
 Cerdic, King of the West Saxons {d. 
 534 f), is said to have been ninth in descent 
 from Woden, and, in company with his son 
 Cymric, to have come to Britain in 495, " at 
 the place which is called Cerdices-ora " (pro- 
 bably in Hampshire). His early wars were 
 not attended with great success ; but in 
 508, having made an alliance with Aesc and 
 Aolle (Ella), he totally defeated the Britons. 
 In 514, reinforcements having arrived, he 
 continued his conquests, and in 519 "Cerdic 
 and Cymric obtained the kingdom of the 
 West Saxons." In 530 they conquered the 
 Isle of Wight, and made a terrible slaughter 
 of the Britons at Whitgaresburh (probably 
 Carisbrooke). Four years later Cerdic died. 
 From Cerdic all our kings, with the exception 
 of Canute, Hardicanute, the two Harolds, and 
 William the Conqueror, are descended. 
 Antjlo-Samn Chr(ynicle. 
 
 CeroneSi The, were an ancient Celtic 
 tribe occupying' the west coast of Inverness 
 and part of Argyle. 
 
 Cessation, The, was the name given, 
 during the Ulster EebeUion of 1641, and the 
 following years, to a truce for one year, agreed 
 on Sept. 15th, 1643, between the Marquis of 
 Ormonde and the confederate Irish at 
 Drogheda. The English Parliament im- 
 peached Ormonde on account of it, and the 
 Scots refused to recognise it. The native 
 Irish party, headed by the Legate, were also 
 opposed to it ; it had a very bad effect on the 
 Eoyalists in England ; and, after all, the king's 
 object of getting help from Ireland in troops 
 and money was only very partially gained. 
 
 Ceylon, an island in the Indian Ocean, 
 lying south-east of India, and separated from 
 it by the Gulf of Manaar, has been known 
 since very early times. It was visited by the 
 Macedonians, and was much frequented by 
 merchants in the sixth century. It was first 
 visited by the Portuguese in 1505, and a few 
 years later a fort was built by them at 
 Colombo. In 1656 the Portuguese were 
 expelled from the island by the Dutch, who 
 were in their turn driven out by the British 
 in 1795, Ceylon, or at least as much of it as 
 had belonged to the Dutch, being annexed to 
 the Presidency of Madras ; but, in 1801, it 
 was made a separate colony. In 1803, on the 
 refusal of the King of Kandy to accept the 
 British terms, Kandy was attacked by a large 
 force, under General Macdowal; but_ the 
 expedition ended most disastrously in a 
 massacre of the British troops. In 1815 
 Kandy was occupied by the British, and the 
 king deposed ; a few years later the natives 
 rebelled, and tried ineffectually to drive the 
 English out of the interior of the country. 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 244 ) 
 
 Cba 
 
 In 1831 a commission was sent out from 
 England to inquire into the condition of the 
 island, with the result that a charter pro- 
 viding for the administration of justice 
 hy supreme district and circuit courts was 
 issued; trial by jury was adopted; every 
 situation was thrown open to the competi- 
 tion of the Singhalese ; and three natives 
 of Ceylon were appointed members of the 
 legislative council, on a footing of perfect 
 equality with the other unofficial European 
 members. Notwithstanding the attempts 
 at reform, insurrections took place in 1835 
 and 1848, both of which were organised 
 by the Buddhist priests, who dreaded the 
 diminution of their influence under British 
 rule ; but the rebellions were crushed before 
 they had spread to any very alarming ex- 
 tent. The government of Ceylon was vested 
 in a governor, assisted by an executive coun- 
 cil of five members, viz., the Colonial Secre- 
 tary, the Commander-in-chief, the Queen's 
 Advocate, the Treasurer, and the Auditor- 
 Greneral. There is also a legislative council 
 of fifteen, including the members of the 
 executive council, four other ofiicial and six 
 non-official members nominated by the gover- 
 nor. This form of government has existed 
 since 1833. The Roman-Dutch law, as it 
 prevailed in the colony in 1795, is that which 
 is still suffered to apply, except where it has 
 been modified by direct local enactments, 
 which have introduced trial by jury, the 
 English rules of evidence in criminal cases, 
 and the English mercantile law in some 
 important matters. 
 
 Martin, British Colonies; Creasy, Britannic 
 Em-pire; Teunant, Ceylon; Tumour, Hifit, of 
 Ceylon. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Cha/lgrove Tield, The Battle of (June 
 18, 1643), was fought between the Royalist 
 cavalry, under Prince Rupert, who had 
 pushed forward from Oxford on a raid, and 
 a body of Parliamentary troops, under 
 Hampden. The encounter, which was more 
 of the nature of a skirmish than a battle, 
 is memorable as the one in which John 
 Hampden received his death-wound. Chal- 
 grove is a small village about twenty-two 
 miles east of Oxford, between the Thames 
 and the Chiltem Hills. 
 
 Chalouer, Si« Thomas (i. 1516, d. 1565), 
 a statesman, a soldier, and a man of letters, 
 whilst quite a boy entered the service of the 
 Emperor Charles V., whom he accompanied 
 on the expedition to Algiers, 1541, barely 
 escaping with his life. Soon afterwards he 
 returned to England, and was present at the 
 battle of Pinkie Cleugh, 1547, where he 
 greatly distinguished himself. He was Clerk 
 of the Council to Henry VIII., and a faithful 
 servant to Edward VI., though his religion 
 debarred him from the favour of Mary. 
 Under Elizabeth he acquired considerable 
 renown as an able diplomatist, and was sent 
 as ambassador to Germany and Spain, re- 
 
 maining at Madrid for two or three years 
 before his death. Sir Thomas was the author 
 of a treatise, De EepuUiea Anglorum Instau- 
 randa (Lond., 1579), and some other tracts. 
 
 Chalons, The Battle or (1274), began 
 with a tournament, to which Edward I. 
 was invited by the Count of Chalons-sur- 
 Marne. Foul play endangered the king's 
 life, and resulted in a fight between the 
 English and French, in which a, considerable 
 number of the latter were slain. 
 
 Chaluz-Chatrol, a castle in Poitou, 
 belonging to the Viscount of Limoges, was 
 besieged by Richard I. in 1199. It was be- 
 fore the walls of this fortress that the king 
 received his death- wound. [Richard I.] 
 
 Chamberlain, The Loed Gkeat, is 
 one of the great officers of state, the sixth in 
 order of precedence. This oflBce early became 
 one of comparatively small importance, and 
 has for many centuries been a purely titular 
 dignity. It was granted to the De Veres, 
 Earls of Oxford, by Henry I. in 1101, and 
 was for many centuries hereditary in that 
 family. On the death of John de Vere, 
 sixteenth Earl of Oxford, his daughter Mary 
 married Lord "WiUoughby de Eresby ; and in 
 1625 the House of Lords declared that the 
 office passed to this nobleman. On the death 
 of the last male descendant of this peer, it 
 was decided, after much litigation, in July, 
 1779, that the honour passed to his female 
 descendants, the Lady Willoughby de Eresby 
 and the Lady Charlotte Bertie. 
 
 Chamberlain, The Lord, or the 
 Household, or King's Chamberlain, is still 
 an officer of some importance. Notices of 
 bi-m are found early in the thirteenth 
 century. In 1341 he was ordered to take 
 an oath to maintain the laws and the 
 Great Charter, and in 1 Richard II. it was 
 enacted that he should be chosen in Parlia- 
 ment. He derived considerable political 
 importance from the fact that it was his duty 
 to endorse petitions handed to the king ; and 
 frequent complaints in Parliament show that 
 this prerogative was generally exercised, and 
 occasionally abused. In 1406 it was declared 
 in Parliament that the King's Chamberlain 
 should always be a member of the Council. 
 Under the later Plantagenets and Tudors the 
 Lord Chamberlainbecame the chief functionary 
 of the royal household ; and his duties are still 
 not altogether nominal. By 31 Henry VIII. 
 he takes precedence after the Lord Steward. 
 By modern usage, he is always a peer of high 
 rank, and he goes out with the ministry. He 
 has also a peculiar authority over dramatic 
 entertainments, which arises from the fact 
 that the players attached to the Royal House- 
 hold were under his jurisdiction. But the 
 Lord Chamberlain's function as Licenser of 
 aU plays dates only from 10 George II., 
 cap. 28, 1736, when "Walpole brought in an 
 Act of Parliament requiring that all dramas 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 245 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 and plays should receive the licence of the 
 Lord Chamberlain before being acted, power 
 being given to this officer to prohibit the 
 representation of any piece which seemed to 
 offend against morality, decency, or public 
 order. The duty of examining and licensing 
 plays, however, is not actually exercised by 
 the Lord Chamberlain himself, but by one of 
 the officers of his department, called the 
 Licenser or Examiner of Plays. 
 
 Chamberlain, The Eight Hon. Joseph, 
 was returned as M.P. for Birmingham in 
 1876, having two years previously unsuccess- 
 fully opposed Mr. Roebuck at Sheffield. On 
 the formation of the second Gladstone admin- 
 istration he was nominated President of the 
 Board of Trade with a seat in the Cabinet. 
 
 Champion of England, The, is an 
 
 officer whose business it is to appear at 
 the coronation of a sovereign, challenge all 
 comers to deny the title of the king or 
 queen, and, if necessary, to fight them. 
 The office is a very ancient one, and is 
 popularly supposed to have been instituted 
 by "WiUiam the Conqueror. According to 
 Dugdale (Baronage of England) the Conqueror 
 conferred the office on Robert de Marmion, 
 with the castle of Tamworth and manor of 
 Scrivelsby, in Lincolnshire. At the corona- 
 tion of Richard 11. the office was claimed by 
 Sir John Dymoke, of Scrivelsby, and Baldwin 
 de TrevUle, of Tamworth. It was finally 
 decided that the office went with the manor, 
 and belonged to Sir John Dymoke, in whose 
 family it remained down to the coronation of 
 Queen Victoiia. 
 
 Chancellor, Richard [d. 1554), was the 
 founder of the English-Russian Company. 
 Whilst on a voyage of discovery, to find the 
 north-west passage to China, under the direc- 
 tion of Cabot, in 1553, he doubled the North 
 Cape (a feat never before accomplished by the 
 English), and reached Archangel. Thence 
 he made an inland journey to Moscow, and 
 established the first trading relations between 
 England and Russia. On his return to 
 England he estabhshed a company to trade 
 with Muscovy, which was incorporated by 
 Queen Mary. He set out for Russia a second 
 time ; but on his return voyage, accompanied 
 by the Russian envoys, he was wrecked on 
 the coast of Norway, and perished. 
 
 Chancellor. [Chancery.] 
 
 Chancery. The Court of Chancery and 
 its equitable jurisdiction have occupied in 
 England a unique position, and exercised a 
 paramount influence on the development of 
 the English legal system, especially on the 
 laws relating to land. But the Chancery and 
 the office of Chancellor existed for more 
 than three centuries before it became a court 
 of jurisdiction at all. The office was at 
 first purely ministerial. The cancellarius of [ 
 
 Rome, the officer who sat behind the screen 
 (eancelli) was merely a secretary; and the 
 Chancellor of the Norman kings, under whom 
 this official first comes into notice, was simply 
 the chief of the royal clerks who superin- 
 tended them in drawing up writs, and kept 
 the seal. Asa clerk he was an ecclesiastic ; 
 and as an ecclesiastic nearest to the royal 
 person, he was the king's chaplain, and 
 " keeper of the king's conscience." Becket, 
 when Chancellor, is described as secundus 
 a rege; he had fifty clerks under him; he 
 held pleas with the constable and judges of 
 the cwia regis. This came to him only by 
 way of delegation from the Council, when 
 to the king in Council, as the foun- 
 tain of justice, there came appeals from the 
 lower royal courts, and petitions in cases 
 where these courts would not or could not 
 do justice. By the ordinance, 22 Edward III., 
 all petitions that were " of grace " were to 
 be referred to the Chancellor. Henceforth pe- 
 titions are addressed to the Chancellor directly. 
 Of these early petitions most seek redress 
 under circumstances where ordinary justice 
 might miscarry ; as against a partial sheriff, 
 an encroaching lord, or the keepers of a gaol. 
 So far the Chancellor was exercising only the 
 natural authority of a king's representative,', 
 since these were cases of trespass (vi et armis) , 
 in which cases the curia regis always in- 
 terfered ; and till modern times a bill in 
 Chancery preserved the formal statement of a 
 conspiracy to commit a trespass, as the ground 
 on which the court was asked to interfere. 
 The theory of trespass was soon enlarged, 
 and the desire to avoid the ,procedures by 
 compurgation or by ordeal of battle would 
 cause many petitions for a hearing in the 
 Chancery. The court was charged, too, with 
 the preservation of royal rights, and the 
 decision of technical points touching writs, 
 patents, and grants issued by its clerks. 
 Under Richard II. it was to supervise the 
 justices of the peace ; under Henry VI. to 
 try Admiralty cases, and so on. But all this 
 would not have created in the Chancery its 
 distinctive jurisdiction, nor have thrown it into 
 rivalry and even hostilitj' with the common 
 law courts. Many great lawyers have treated 
 this as a necessity inherent in the nature of 
 law, and one paralleled in the actual system 
 of Roman law. But the anomaly peculiar to 
 England is that the equity, which is more or 
 less truly said to soften and correct while it 
 follows the law, is administered by a separate 
 tribunal ; so that the law itself has been 
 thrown into an attitude of jealousy towards 
 the equity, which was to supplement and ex- 
 pand it, and " a man might lose his suit on 
 one side of Westminster Hall and win it on 
 the other." This anomaly mav be historically 
 traced to the common lawyers' own resistance 
 to progress. They took up too early the view 
 that their system was complete ; for every 
 wrong there existed a remedy, and the remedy 
 
Cha 
 
 (246) 
 
 Cha 
 
 must be by a form of writ. Cases, therefore, 
 that could not be brought under the existing 
 forms of writ, would fail to obtain a hearing 
 in the courts. The statute 13 Edward I., 
 cap. 24, therefore ordered that the Chancery 
 should draw up new forma of writ " for like 
 cases falling under Hke law and requiring like 
 remedy." But the judges were now dis- 
 inclined to allow their system to expand. In 
 their jealousy of the Chancery clerks, they 
 construed the statute as narrowly as possible, 
 were loth to allow that any new case was a 
 " like case," and declined to admit new forms 
 of defence at all. It followed that new 
 grounds of action and defence were left to 
 the Chancery Court, which, in the next cen- 
 tury, began rapidly to extend its action. The 
 earliest recorded equity suit before the 
 Chancellor is a married woman's petition on 
 an ante-nuptial agreement for a settlement, 
 in the reign of Edward III. 
 
 The hostility shown by the Commons in 
 Parhament to this jurisdiction was due 
 to the vagueness in the summons of the 
 subpoena " to answer on certain matters," 
 to the searching mode of inquiry pursued, 
 perhaps also to the generous hearing os- 
 tentatiously offered to the poor. But their 
 hostility embodied also the jealousy against 
 investigation into land titles, and inter- 
 ference with the sacred franc-tenements, 
 and the jealousy of a jurisdiction so closely 
 connected, by its principles and its ad- 
 ministrators, with the Church. It is to be 
 noticed that except from 1371 to 1386, all 
 the Chancellors down to Sir Thomas More 
 were ecclesiastics. The device itself of "a 
 use," or grant, of lands to A to hold to 
 the use of others, had originated with the ■ 
 Church, which had then protected the use 
 by spiritual sanction. On the other hand, 
 this and other modes of acquiring rights in 
 land for the Church had been checked by 
 successive Mortmain Acta: those of Henry 
 III., Edward I., 15 Richard II. The similar 
 attempts made by the Commons to check 
 this growing Chancery jurisdiction failed; 
 the first recorded enforcement of a use by 
 the Chancellor is in Henry V.'s reign ; in 
 that of Henry VI. uses were firmly estab- 
 lished ; till by the Wars of the Roses moat of 
 the land of England was held subject to uses. 
 By this condition of things the legal was 
 divorced from the actual ownership of land ; 
 the feqfee to uses merely served as a 
 screen to cestui qui use-; this latter, being 
 " he that had the use," enjoyed the profits 
 unburdened with the liabilities. The 
 machinery of a use made it easy to evade 
 m every direction the rigour of the feudal 
 land-law; so that land could thus be con- 
 veyed by mere word of mouth, could be 
 conveyed freely or devised by will, or charged 
 m any way for the benefit of others ; the 
 Chancellor recognised and enforced all 
 such dispositions. So far, it was a boon 
 
 to society that the land system should th\is 
 have escaped from the feudal trammels ; 
 but it had now become an intolerable evil 
 that the ownership of land should be just 
 what the feudal law had guarded against, 
 viz., secret, uncertain, and easy of transfer. 
 Attempts had been made to remedy this ; a 
 statute of Henry VII., following a similar 
 Act of 50 Edward IV., had set a precedent 
 for regarding the beneficiary as the real 
 owner in the case of debts secured on the 
 land. So, 1 Richard III., cap. 1, allowed the 
 beneficiary's conveyance to be valid with- 
 out assent of the feofiiees, and by 4 
 Henry VII., cap. 15, the lord could claim 
 wardship over the heir to lands held through 
 a use. But the final blow at the system of 
 uses was dealt by Henry A''III. In 1534 he 
 carried the Act which made uses forfeitable 
 for treason, and two years later, introduced 
 the great Statute of Uses, 27 Henry VIII., cap. 
 10, to put an end to the system once for aU. 
 But the narrow conservatism of the common 
 lawyers, disguising itseH as philosophical 
 strictness of interpretation, was able to defeat 
 the great legislative design. In the end the 
 whole e£fect of the statute has been said to 
 consist " in adding four words to every con- 
 veyance." For,following servilely the wording 
 of the statute, the judges managed to exclude 
 from its scope uses where the use was founded 
 on a leasehold interest, where the use implied 
 some active duties, or where a f ui-ther use was 
 raised upon the first use. It was held also 
 not to apply to copyhold lands at all, nor 
 where a use was held by a corporate body. 
 Here, then, were a number of cases of obliga- 
 tion unrecognised by the common law, and 
 left to be enforced by the Chancery courts, 
 which had thus by Coke's time recovered under 
 the name of " trusts " all that hold over trans- 
 actions in land which the statute was to have 
 transferred to the law courts. In the reign 
 of Elizabeth the first collection of Chancery 
 precedents was made and published, and by 
 the time of the Stuarts the jurisdiction of 
 the court was well settled to give relief in the 
 same main subjects as it does now, viz.: trust, 
 fraud, accident, extremity. Ita chief develop- 
 ments since that time have been in the direc- 
 tion of " implied trusts," and especially in the 
 protection of mortgagors' " equity of redemp- 
 tion," the settled property of married women, 
 and the estates of minors. The doctrine of 
 " specific performance " has been its own 
 creation. The court's main instrument 
 besides imprisonment has been the adjudica- 
 tion of costs, and its strongest arm the in- 
 junction. The benefits conferred on English 
 society by the Court of Chancery have been 
 immense. Much of its semi- criminal j urisdic- 
 tion has been renounced since the seventeenth 
 century ; but the year-books and petitions en- 
 able us to judge of the value of a strong court 
 arm ed with the directest authority of the crown , 
 and deciding on enlightened principles with 
 
Cha 
 
 (247) 
 
 Cha 
 
 a prompt and elastic procedure in the ages 
 whose supreme and chronic grievance was 
 lack of governance. It must be admitted 
 that this equity was not always ideal justice ; 
 the very completeness of the inquiries necessi- 
 tated the long delays of a Chancery suit, just 
 as the very elasticity of the procedure intro- 
 duced a certain confusion and prolixity into 
 the pleadings. Too much was left to the 
 Masters in Chancery and done in "secret 
 chamher-work : " and above all, misled by 
 the half truth that equity follows the law, 
 there were hardships against which the 
 Chancellors had not, in the face of the judges, 
 the courage to grant relief. But there were 
 others which they boldly followed up, as in 
 resisting, on grounds of " public policy," the 
 creation of perpetuities, or in acting on the 
 maxims, "He that seeks equity must do 
 equity ; " " Equity looks to the intent rather 
 than the form ; " " Equity considers as 
 done that which ought to be done." But the 
 greatest triumph has been the influence exerted 
 by equity on the common law, which adopted 
 the rules of equity as to the construction of 
 deeds, the admis.-'ibility of " set-off," the 
 power to change the venue and grant a new 
 trial, the repudiation of penalties in a contract. 
 So, too, the right to make a will of land, 
 denied at law, was granted by Chancery, 
 and had to be adopted by statute (32 Henry 
 Vin.). Finally, the Married Women's Pro- 
 perty Act of 1883 is a practical monument 
 of the victory of the Chancery and Eoman 
 law view as to the status of a married woman 
 over the barbarous code in which her per- 
 sonalty was merged in that of her husband. 
 The lay Chancellors who succeeded Sir 
 Thomas More down to Lord Nottingham, i.e., 
 from 1532 to 1673, contrasted unfavourably 
 with the clerical founders of the great edifice. 
 The Eeformation interrupted the traditions 
 of the office, and broke up the study of civil 
 law ; in the want of precedents the Chancel- 
 lors relied too much on intuition and common 
 sense (as Lord Shaftesbury, in a more settled 
 time, 1672, essayed to do, to his own discom- 
 fiture). This explains Selden's famous re- 
 proach, half-jesting, no doubt, " Equity is a 
 roguish thing .... 'Tis all one as if we 
 should make the standard for the measure of 
 a foot the Chancellor's foot. One Chancellor 
 has a long foot ; another, a short foot ; a 
 third, an indifierent foot." The Tudor Chan- 
 cellors certainly seem to have deferred to the 
 personal leanings of the sovereign. But no 
 such reproach could be made of this or the 
 last century, when equity became as much " a 
 laboured connected system, governed by estab- 
 lished rules, and bound down by precedents, 
 as the common law" (Lord Eldon). Still the 
 abuses of the court were numerous, and some 
 of them . had reached a monstrous pitch. 
 Venality was the old canker of the court, and 
 the memory of Bacon's offence was revived 
 by similar charges against Lord Clarendon, 
 
 by the impeachment of Lord Somers (1700) 
 for corruption, by the flagitious sale of Church 
 patronage by Sir N. Wright, tiU the accumu- 
 lated popular indignation burst upon Lord 
 Macclesfield, who was dismissed and heavily 
 fined in 1725 for misuse of the "suitors' 
 fund " and open sale of offices. But even had 
 every official had clean hands, the abuses of 
 delay and prolixity would have remained 
 an intolerable burden. The Restoration 
 gave these abuses a fresh lease of life ; the 
 use of English was not enacted tiU 1730, nor 
 registries till Anne's reign, and then only for 
 Yorkshire and Middlesex. Meantime, the 
 abolition of the ancient Courts of Wards and 
 of Requests, increased the business, which 
 accumulated with the wonderful growth of 
 wealth and population in George III.'s reign, 
 and with the proverbial dilatoriness of Lord 
 Eldon, who held the scale almost continuously 
 from 1801 to 1827. Even the new office of 
 Vice-ChanceUor of England, established in 
 1813, failed to relieve the congestion of 
 causes, because an appeal lay against him to 
 the Chancellor. A successful commission was 
 at last appointed in 1825, whose labours were 
 not wholly thwarted either by the apathy 
 of Eldon or the presence of a number of 
 Chancery lawj-ers; forthe energy of Brougham, 
 Campbell, and Westbury in time carried out 
 these reforms, and that which was a necessary 
 preliminary to them, the simplification and 
 amendment of the law of real property. The 
 present and preceding reigns have done more 
 for these objects than aU the previous centuries 
 put together; additional Vice-Chancellors and 
 clerks have been appointed, a court of appeal 
 established, the common law side of the 
 court and its bankruptcy business transferred 
 elsewhere, the suitors' fund re-arranged, 
 and the procedure gradually simplified, while 
 the court has been empowered (1858) to 
 impose damages, try matters of fact by a jury, 
 and take a judge as assessor without applica- 
 tion to a common law court. When, about 
 the same period (1854), common law courts 
 were given the powers of an equity court as 
 to examination of parties, discovery of docu- 
 ments, injunctions, &c., it became clear that 
 the two ancient rivals were approximating to 
 each other, and would soon be prepared to be 
 reconciled or even amalgamated. The biU 
 (I860) for this purpose was cut down by the 
 infiuence of the Chancery lords; but in 1873 
 the Judicature Act was passed, which followed 
 the advice of Lords Brougham, Westbury, 
 and St. Leonards, and harmonised, without 
 attempting completely to fuse, the two 
 systems. 
 
 In LiELAND, there was a Lord Chancellor 
 presiding over a separate court of equity, the 
 growth of which has followed very closely 
 the development of the English equity 
 system. The earliest Chancellor was Stephen 
 Ridel, appointed in 1189. In Scotland, the 
 functions of the Chancellor's Court in the 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 248 ). 
 
 Cha 
 
 thirteenth century were probablj' not very 
 different from those of the same office in 
 England. But as the Civil Law formed the 
 
 hasis of the Scottish legal system, the 
 Chancellor became the chief administrator 
 of law, not of an equitable system. In 1553, 
 when the Court of Session was established, 
 he became the chief judge of this court. In 
 Scotland tiU the Reformation he was generally 
 a churchman ; and afterwards became a mere 
 officer of state. On the union with England 
 his separate functions were merged in those 
 of the English Lord Chancellor. 
 
 [A. L. S.] 
 
 Lord High Chancellors and Lord Keepers of 
 England. 
 
 Ariastus (Herefast) 1068 
 
 Osbert, Bishop of Exefer . . . . 1070 
 
 Osmond, Bisliop o£ Salisbury . . . 1073 
 
 Maurice 1078 
 
 "William Welson, Bishop of Thetford . . 1083 
 
 "William Giffard ... ... 108S 
 
 EobertBloet . . .... 1090 
 
 "Waldrio . ... 1093 
 
 ■William Giffard .... . . 1094 
 
 Boger, Bishop of Salisbury .... 1101 
 
 "William Giffard . . . . 1103 
 
 "Waldric . 1104 
 
 Arnulfh ... . 1107 
 
 Geoffrey Enfus . ... 1121 
 
 Eoger of Salisbury 1135 
 
 Philip . 1139 
 
 Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury . . 1142 
 
 Thomas Beclcet 1154 
 
 Ealph de "Warneville 1173 
 
 Geoffrey Plantagenet, Archbishop of Tork . 1182 
 
 "William de Longehamp 1189 
 
 Eustace, Bishop of Ely 1198 
 
 Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury . 1199 
 
 "Walter de Grey, Archbishop of Tork . . 1205 
 
 Peter des Eocbes, Bishop of Winchester . 1213 
 
 "Walter de Grey . . . . Jan. 1214 
 
 Eichard de Marisco .... Oct. 1214 
 
 Ealph Neville . . ' . . . 1218 
 
 Simon de Cantilupe 1238 
 
 Eichard, Abbot of Evesham . . 1240 
 
 Silvester of Eversden . . . 1242 
 
 John Mansel .... . . 1246 
 
 "William de Kilkenny 1250 
 
 Henry "Wiugham, Bishop of London . 1255 
 
 "Walter de Merton, Bishop of Rochester . . 1258 
 
 Nicholas of Ely 1260 
 
 "Walter de Merton . . . 1261 
 
 Nicholas of Ely . . ' 1263 
 
 Thomas de CantUupe . , Feb. 1265 
 
 "Walter Giffard . . Aug. 1265 
 
 Godfrey Giffard . . . l^gg 
 
 John Ohishull . . . . , 1268 
 
 Eichard Middleton . '. [ i26S 
 
 John Kirkeby . . " . 1272 
 
 "Walter de Merton 1272 
 
 Eobert Bumell ... [ [ I274 
 
 John Langton . , '. '. 1292 
 
 "William Greenfield . . '. ! ! 1302 
 
 "William Hamilton ....'! 1304 
 
 Ealijh Baldock '■..'..', 1307 
 
 John Langton •...'.*.' 1307 
 
 "Walter Eeynolds, Bishop of "Worcester '. '. 1310 
 
 John Sandale 131^ 
 
 John Hotham, Bishop of Ely ! .' ! ! 1318 
 
 John Salmon, Bishop of Norwich . ' 1320 
 
 Eobert Baldock * ' 1323 
 
 John Hotham . . '. . . Jan! 1327 
 
 Henry deClyff j^.^^. 1327 
 
 Henry de Burghersh, Bishopof Lincoln May 1327 
 
 John Stratford, Bishop of "Winchester . . 1330 
 
 Eichard Bmy, Bishop of Durham . . . 1334 
 
 John Stratford, Archbishop of Canterbury . 1335 
 
 Eobert Stratford . , . . . 1337 
 
 Eichard Bynterworth, Bishop of London 
 Archbishop Stratford .... Ap. 
 
 Eobert Stratford, Bishop of Chichester July 
 William Kildesby .... Dec. 
 
 ~" ~ " ~ ■ ■ . . Deo. 14 
 
 1338 
 1340 
 1340 
 1340 
 1340 
 1341 
 1343 
 1345 
 1348 
 1356 
 1363 
 1367 
 1371 
 
 Sir Eobert Bourchier . 
 
 Sir Eobert Parnyng . 
 
 Eobert Sadyngton 
 
 John Ufford 
 
 John Thoresby, Bishop of St. Davids 
 
 William Edington, Bishop of "Winchester 
 
 Simon Langhara, Bishop of Ely 
 
 William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester . 
 
 Sir Eobert Thorpe 
 
 Sir Eichard Scrope 1372 
 
 Sir John Knyvett .... July 1372 
 
 Adam Houghton, Bishop of St. Davids . . 1377 
 
 Sir E. Scrope 1378 
 
 Simon of Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury 1379 
 
 Eichard, Earl of Arundel 1381 
 
 Eobert Braybrooke, Bishop of London . . 1382 
 
 Sir Michael de la Pole .... 1383 
 
 Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury . 1386 
 
 William of Wykeham . . 1389 
 
 Archbishop Arundel 1391 
 
 Edmund Stafford, Bishop of Exeter . . 1396 
 
 Archbishop Arundel ... . . 1399 
 
 JohnSearle ... . . . 1399 
 
 Edmund Stafford 1401 
 
 Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Lincoln . . 1403 
 
 Thomas Langley, Bishop of Durham . 1405 
 
 Thomas Arundel 1407 
 
 Thomas Beaufort Earl of Dorset . 1410 
 
 Archbishop Arundel 1412 
 
 Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester , . 1413 
 
 Bishop Lougley . . . . 1417 
 
 Simon Ganstede 1422 
 
 Henry Beaufort 1424 
 
 John Kemp, Bishop Of London . . . 1426 
 
 John Stafford, Bishop of Bath and Wells . 1432 
 
 John Kemp, Archbishop of "Tork . . 1450 
 
 Eichard Neville, Earl of Salisbury . . . 1454 
 
 Thos. Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury . 1455 
 
 William of Waynflete, Bishop of "Winchester . 1456 
 
 Thos. Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury 1460 
 
 George Neville, Bishop of Exeter . , 1460 
 
 Eobert Kirkeham 1463 
 
 Eobert SbiUington, Bishop of Bath and Wells 1467 
 
 Laurence Booth, Bishop of Durham . 1473 
 
 Thomas Eotheram, Bishop of Lincoln . . 1475 
 
 John Eussell, Bishop of Lincoln 1483 
 
 Thomas Barowe . ... 1485 
 
 Bishop Alcock .... . 1485 
 
 Archbishop Morton . . . 1487 
 
 Henry Deane 1600 
 
 William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury . 1604 
 
 Cardinal Wolsey .... . 1525 
 
 Sir Thomas More 1529 
 
 Sir Thomas Audley 1632 
 
 Thomas, Lord Wriothesley .... 1644 
 
 WiUiam Paulet, Lord St. John . . . 1547 
 
 Eichard, Lord Eich ... . . 1547 
 
 Thomas Goodrich, Bishop of Ely . . . 1551 
 
 Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester . 1553 
 
 Nicholas Heath, Archbishop of "Tork . , 1656 
 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon 1558 
 
 Sir Thomas Bromley ... . 1579 
 
 Sir Christopher Hatton 1587 
 
 William Cecil, Lord Burleigh .... 1691 
 
 Sir John Puckering 1592 
 
 Sir Thomas Egerton .... . 1596 
 
 Sir Francis Bacon 1617 
 
 John Williams, Bishop of Lincoln . . ! 1621 
 
 Sir Thomas Coventry . . , . . 1626 
 
 Sir John Pinch 1640 
 
 Sir Edward Lyttelton . . . 1641 
 
 Sir Eichard Lane 1645 
 
 Great Seal in Commission . . . 1649—1660 
 
 Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon . . . 1660 
 
 Sir Orlando Bridgeman . . . 1667 
 
 Anthony Ashley, Earl of Shaftesbury . . 1672 
 
 Heneage Finch, Lord Nottingham . . 1675 
 
 Francis North, Lord Guildford . . . 1682 
 
 George, Lord Jeffreys 1685 
 
 Great Seal iu Commission . . . 1689—1693 
 
 John, Lord Somers . , , . 1693 
 
Cha. 
 
 ( 249-) 
 
 Cha 
 
 Sir Nathan Wright .... . 1700 
 
 William, Lord Gowper 1705 
 
 Simon, Lord Harcourt . ... 1710 
 
 Lord Cowper . 1714 
 
 Thomas, Lord Parker 1718 
 
 Peter, Lord King 1725 
 
 Charles, Lord Talbot 1733 
 
 Philip Yorke, Lord Hardwicke . , , 1737 
 
 Robert, Lord Henley 1757 
 
 Charles, Lord Camden 1766 
 
 Cbarles Yorke, Lord Mordeu .... 1770 
 
 Henry Bathurst, Lord Apsley .... 1771 
 
 Edward, Lord Thuilow . . 1778 
 
 Alexander, Lord Loughborough , 1793 
 
 John Scott, Lord Eldon . . . 1801 
 
 Thomas, Lord Erskme 1806 
 
 Lord Eidou 1807 
 
 John Singleton Copley, Lord Lyndhurst . 1827 
 
 Henry, Lord Brougham 1830 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst 1834 
 
 Charles Pepys, Lord Cottenham , . 1836 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst 1841 
 
 Lord Cottenham 1846 
 
 Thomas Wilde, Lord Truro .... 1850 
 
 Edward Sugdeu, Lord St. Leonards Feb. 27 1852 
 
 Eobert Eolt'e, Lord Cranworth . Dec. 18 1852 
 
 Frederic Thesiger, Lord Chelmsford . . 1858 
 
 John, Lord Campbell .... 1859 
 
 Richard Bethell, Lord Westbnry . . . 1861 
 
 Lord Cranworth 1865 
 
 Lord Chelmsford 1866 
 
 Hugh Cairns, Lord Cairns 1868 
 
 William Page Wood, Lord Hatherley , . 1868 
 
 Eoundell Palmer, Lord Selborne . . . 1872 
 
 Earl Cairns 1874 
 
 Earl Selborne 1880 
 
 Chandos, Sir John {d. 1369), was one 
 of the most famous of the English generals 
 during the French wars of Edward III.'s 
 reign. He took part in all the great opera- 
 tions of the war. In 1362 he was appointed 
 Constahle of Guienue, and, in 1364, was 
 sent over to Britanny to assist De Montfort, 
 where he took Du Guesclin prisoner. In 
 1369 he was made Seneschal of Poitou, and, 
 in the same year, fell in a skirmish with the 
 French. Froissart gives him high praise 
 both fof his bravery and his clemency 
 towards his prisoners. 
 
 Chaudos of Sndeley (Sir John 
 BsYDGEs), Lord, accompanied Henry VIII. 
 to France, 1513, when quite a hoy. He greatly 
 distinguished himself at the Battle of the 
 Spurs (q.v.), and in 1549 successfully de- 
 fended Boulogne, of which ho was deputy 
 governor, against the French. He sub- 
 sequently became Lieutenant of the Tower, 
 and had the custody of Lady Jane Grey 
 and the Princess Elizabeth. He was a 
 bigoted Papist, and assisted Mary, with 
 whom he was a great favourite, in her per- 
 secution of the Reformers. 
 
 Channel Islands, The, comprise the 
 Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey, the latter 
 of which includes Sark, Herm, and Alderney, 
 together with the small and unimportant 
 islands of Jethou, Le Marchant, and the 
 Gaskets. They are interesting as being the 
 last portion of the dukedom of Normandy 
 remaining to England, which has possessed 
 them ever since the Norman Conquest. In 
 550 they were granted hy Childebert to a 
 Saxon bishop, who soon afterwards con- 
 
 verted most of the inhabitants to Christianity. 
 The Channel Islands came into the possession 
 of the Dukes of Normandy in the tenth 
 century by the grant of Charles IV., 
 and remained attached to the English 
 crown when Philip II. conquered tho 
 rest of Normandy from King John. After 
 the loss of Normandy by John, the Channel 
 Islands were attacked by the French in 
 the reign of Edward I., and again in that 
 of Edward III., when Du Guesclin, the 
 Constable of France, almost succeeded in 
 reducing them. In the reign of Henry IV., 
 they did fall into the hands of the French 
 for a short time, but were retaken shortly 
 afterwards hy Sir Henry Harleston. Under 
 Edward VI., Sark was also lost for a time. 
 Towards the close of the sixteenth century, 
 the Channel Islands were governed by Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, and, during the Parlia- 
 mentary wars, espoused warmly the side of 
 the king, for which their government was 
 put in commission by Cromwell. In 1779 
 the French made an ineffectual attempt to 
 land, and in December, 1780, sent another 
 expedition, under the Baron de Rullecourt, 
 who succeeded in taking St. Holier in 
 Jersey, although he was subsequently de- 
 feated and slain by the British troops. 
 About the time of the Reformation, the 
 islands became Protestant, and were at- 
 tached to the diocese of Winchester. The 
 Channel Islands, though under a governor 
 appointed by the crown, have a constitution 
 of their own. Jersey and Guernsey (with 
 its dependencies) have each a lieutenant- 
 governor and a bailiff, who presides over the 
 States of Deliberation, and is nominated by 
 the crown. The States of Deliberation of 
 Jersey and Guernsey are composed of certain 
 officials — the rectors of parishes, the judges 
 of the courts, and constables of parishes 
 (elected in Guernsey by the " States of 
 Election," which consist of 222 ratepayers). 
 The courts of justice are presided over by 
 the bailiff, and judges elected by the rate- 
 payers. This constitution has existed with 
 but little alteration since the time of John. 
 Guernsey is divided into ten parishes, and 
 Jerse5' into twelve, some of which are in- 
 cluded in municipal corporations, called 
 " Central Douzaines." The official language 
 of the law courts (whose procedure is based 
 on the Norman) and of the legislature is 
 French. The Queen's writ now runs in the 
 Channel Islands. 
 
 Berry, Kist of Guertisey ; Inglis, Channel Is- 
 lands; Austed, Channel Inlands. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Chapter, The, is the body of clergy at- 
 tached to the cathedral. OriginaUy, this body- 
 was the assembly of the priests of the diocese 
 round their bishop. It was the bishop's 
 general council, and contained within it 
 the bishop's officials for the administration 
 of the diocese, and the clergy who had the 
 care of the services of the cathedral itself; 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 250 
 
 Cha 
 
 The chapter in the bishop's council soon fell 
 iato disuse, and the name was applied almost 
 entirely to the clergy of the cathedral church 
 itself, who soon gained a position almost 
 independent of their bishop. Chapters in 
 England were of two kinds — monastic and 
 secular [Cathedkal]. The monastic chapters 
 were Hke monasteries, over which the bishop 
 ranked as abbot, though the resident prior 
 was the real head. These monks were in 
 England Benedictines, except in the case of 
 Carlisle, where they were Auguatinians. In 
 the secular chapters, the dean rises into 
 prominence in the eleventh century. The 
 work of his diocese, the necessity of con- 
 stant journeys, and the increase of secular 
 business undertaken by the bishop left the 
 cathedrals without a head, and the chapters 
 everywhere began to manage their business 
 without their bishop. The theory that the 
 chapter elected the bishops gave them at 
 times a position of some importance, both 
 towards the king and the Pope. Chapters 
 frequently appealed to Eome against their 
 bishops, and often were successful in obtaining 
 privileges from the Pope. The separation of 
 the chapter from the bishop became more 
 and more definite, till the bishop was left 
 with no powers save those of visitor over 
 his chapter. The chief officers of the secular 
 chapter were : the dean, who was head of the 
 body; the prcecentor, who superintended the 
 services ; the chancellor, who was head of the 
 educational and literary works of the chapter; 
 and the treasurer, who had the care of all the 
 treasures of the Church. Besides those 
 there were the archdeacons, who were the sole 
 survivors of the diocesan organisation of the 
 chapter. Its other members were canons, 
 as bound by the rule, or prebendaries, if 
 they held an endowment besides their share 
 of the corporate fund. This last body was 
 generally non-resident, and their duties were 
 peiformed by vicars, who are now called 
 vicars-choral or minor canons. Under Henry 
 VIII. the monasteries attached to the 
 cathedrals were suppressed, and their 
 chapters were refounded as secular chapters 
 under a dean. After the same model the 
 cathedrals of the new bishoprics founded 
 by Henry VIII. were arranged. Hence 
 came the two clsts&ea —Cathedrals of the Old 
 Foundation and Cathedrals of the New Founda- 
 tion. [Cathedral.] An Act of 1838 reformed 
 cathedral chapters by diminishing the num- 
 ber of canons, reducing their incomes, and 
 brmgmg all chapters to greater uniformity. 
 Chapters at present generally consist of a dean 
 and four canons, though some of the richer 
 cathedrals have six canons. 
 
 WaXtMtt, Catheiralia; Essays on Cathedrals, 
 eclited by Dean Howson ; Ecport of the Oa- 
 thearals Commission. ,-., _ , 
 
 [M. C] 
 
 Charford, near Fordingbridge, in Hamp- 
 shire, has been identified with Cerdioesford, 
 
 the site of a .battle, in which, in 519, Cerdic 
 and Cymric defeated- the Britons. Another 
 fight in 627 may have taken place at the 
 same spot. ' 
 
 Anglx)-Saxon Chrou. ; Henry of Huntingdon, 
 IList. Ariglor. 
 
 Charlemont, James Caulfield, IstEakl 
 OF (5. 1728, d. 1799), was elected by the 
 Irish Volunteers " General of the Patriot 
 Army," in July, 1780. Soon after, he re- 
 viewed them in the north. In 1781 he 
 opposed Catholic Emancipation, and was one 
 of the leaders in the first and second con- 
 ventions at Dungannon, and president of the 
 Dublin convention. He went over to Eng- 
 land with the Eegency BiU, and signed the 
 "Round Robin" of 1789. He was also the 
 founder bt the Northern Whig Club. On 
 his estates the rebellion of 1798 assumed 
 a peculiarly dangerous form. Mr. Eroude 
 speaks of him as " the most enthusiastic and 
 the most feeble of revolutionary heroes." 
 
 Charles I., Kins (J. Nov. 19, 1600, 
 s. March 25, 1625, d. Jan. 31, 1649), second 
 sou of James I. and of Anne, daughter of 
 Frederick II., King of Denmark, was born 
 at Dunfermline. He was a handsome and 
 athletic youth, with reserved and diffident 
 manners. James'sbrilliant favourite, Bucking- 
 ham, gained complete ascendency over him, and 
 in 1623 the two young men went to Madrid, 
 with the object of bringing back with them, 
 as Charles's bride, the Infanta. Buckingham, 
 who had expected that he would readily 
 prevail on the Spaniards to effect the restora- 
 tion of the Palatinate, soon discovered his 
 mistake ; but the prince, unwilling to return 
 home foiled in his object, refused to leave the 
 country, making promises that it was im- 
 possible for him to perform, and allowing the 
 Spaniards to suppose that he would become 
 a Catholic. At last, finding that if he married 
 the Infanta he would not be allowed to take 
 her to England until his promises were per- 
 formed, he returned, along with Bucking- 
 ham, to England. In opposition to promises 
 made to Parliament, Charles gained the 
 hand of Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis 
 XIII. of Franco, by consenting that the laws 
 against English Catholics should not be en- 
 forced. Shortly before the man-iage was 
 consummated, James died, and Charles as- 
 cended the throne. Thus, he began his 
 reign under iU auspices. He had made 
 to Parliament and to the King of France 
 promises incompatible with one another; 
 and he was under the guidance of a 
 man whose temerity and self-confidence were 
 about to involve his country in a series 
 of military disasters. Charles dissolved his 
 two first Parliaments because they refused to 
 support the policy of the duke. To war with 
 Spain was added war with France. Money 
 was raised by means of a forced loan, and 
 persons refusing to lend were imprisoned. 
 In 1628 a third Parliament met. Charles 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 251 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 made concessions to public opinion by passing 
 the Petition of Eight (q.v.). Soon after the 
 prorogation of Parliament, Buckingham was 
 murdered hy Felton; and the king for the 
 future him self directed the policy of his govern- 
 rnent. Though Buckingham was removed, 
 there was small hope of good understanding 
 Between Charles and the nation. Charles had 
 no desire to make alterations in government. 
 He, indeed, prided himself, when involved in 
 any dispute with a subject, on having the 
 law on his side ; but he was content to rest 
 his case on legal subterfuges, or to obtain his 
 end by the appointment of subservient j udges. 
 Moreover, while he claimed the right to 
 nominate ministers at will, and to pursue 
 whatever policy seemed good to himself, he 
 failed to perceive that the authority of his 
 predecessors had remained unquestioned only 
 when they had ruled in accordance with 
 national desires and aspirations. Charles 
 had no sympathy for the holders of Calvin's 
 creed, who formed the majority of thoughtful 
 and earnest men at that time. Within the 
 Church had grown up a small party, the so- 
 called Arminians, holding doctrines akin to 
 those of the Church of Eome. Each party 
 desired to suppress the other, and Charles, 
 "who favomred the Arminians, was incapable 
 of holding the balance evenly between the 
 two. Parliament met again in 1629, only to 
 be angrily dissolved, because the Commons 
 refused to give the king a grant of tonnage 
 and poundage until he shoiild consent to 
 ■pursue the Church policy approved by them. 
 For eleven years Charles ruled without 
 ■Parliaments. His government became in- 
 tensely unpopular. Peace was made with 
 both France and Spain ; but it was difficult 
 to provide for the ordinary expenses out of 
 ■the fixed revenue, and hence old rights of the 
 crown were once more enforced, and money 
 raised by means which brought little into the 
 exchequer, while they irritated large numbers 
 of persons. The system culminated in the 
 imposition of ship - money, when Charles, 
 being desirous of having a fleet in the 
 Channel, imposed what was reaUy a heavy 
 tax on the country. North of the Humber, 
 the Court of the North, under the presidency 
 of Lord Wentworth, in the south, the Court 
 of Star Chamber, punished by fines and im- 
 prisonment persons who refused to submit to 
 demands of which the legality was question- 
 able. At the same time, under the direction 
 of Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, an 
 ecclesiastical policy was pursued which ran 
 directly contrary to the current of popular 
 feeling, and rendered both the bishops and 
 the Court of High Commission objects of 
 general odium. The attempt to impose a 
 ■ Church service, similar to the English, in 
 Presbyterian Scotland, led to the rising 
 in arms of the Scots. Charles summoned 
 Wentworth, now created Earl of Strafford, 
 to his side from Ireland, and called a Parlia- 
 
 ment, -which he dissolved in three weeks, 
 because it refused to support him in carrying 
 on war against the Scots. The advance of a 
 Scottish army into the kingdom compelled 
 him in the autumn of this year (1641) to 
 summon another — the celebrated Long Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Charles was for the time unable to resist 
 the demands of the popular representatives. 
 He gave his consent to whatever bills were 
 offered to him, and passed a bill of attainder 
 against his faithful servant Strafford, to whom 
 he had promised that not a hair of his 
 head should be injured. [Strapfokd ; Long 
 Parliament.] In 1641 he went to Scotland, 
 with the object of forming a royalist party 
 there, and on his return to London went 
 in person to the House of Commons, to 
 arrest five members, whom he accused of 
 high treason (Jan. 3, 1642). [Five Mem- 
 ii3ERS.] The attempt having failed, he left 
 London, to prepare for war ; and on Aug. 22 
 the royal standard was unfurled at Notting- 
 ham. A considerable army soon gathered 
 round him. Men who thought that the 
 concessions already made were sufficient to 
 prevent abuse of the royal authority, as well 
 as all lovers of the existing form of Church 
 ser^vioe, took his side. At EdgehUl, his 
 cavalry, composed of country gentlemen, 
 readily proved its superiority to the Parlia- 
 mentarian horse. But want of subordination 
 prevented his officers acting in union, and 
 deprived him of victory. Charles could not 
 maintain discipline himself, nor did he depute 
 authority to those who possessed the art. 
 High commands were given to the wrong men, 
 and officers were allowed to act independently 
 of one another. Hence, the royal strategy 
 broke down, while the gallantry of individuals 
 was spent in vain against the disciplined 
 troops that Cromwell brought into the field. 
 The passing of the SeU-Deuying Ordinance 
 (q.v.) placed aU the forces of the Parliament 
 under the control of the Independents. Led 
 by Fairfax and Cromwell, the remodelled army 
 destroyed at Naseby (.Time 14, 1645) the last 
 army which Charles was able to bring into 
 the field. The king now authorised Gla- 
 morgan to conclude a secret treaty with the 
 Irish Catholics, promising to allow them the 
 free exercise of their religion if they would 
 place 20,000 men at his service (Aug. 12). 
 In April, 1646, to avoid being made a prisoner 
 by the Parliament's officers, Charles took 
 refuge with the Scotch army near Newark. 
 The Scots, however, were not ready to take 
 the part of the king while he refused to 
 allow the establishment of a Presbyterian 
 Church in England ; and on the withdrawal 
 of their army into Scotland in January, 1647, 
 they surrendered him into the power of the 
 English Parliament. 
 
 The Parhament demanded of Charles that 
 he should abandon his right to appoint either 
 ministers of state or officers of the militia. 
 
Cha 
 
 (■252 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 and that he should consent to the establish- 
 ment of the Presbyterian Church in England. 
 On the other hand, the Independents were 
 willing that Episcopacy should be maintained, 
 if toleration were gxanted to Dissenters. 
 Charles expected to be able to play one party 
 off against the other, and by such means to 
 recover the whole of his former prerogatives. 
 During the war, he had negotiated at once 
 with Presbj'terians, Independents, and Irish 
 Catholics; and, in spite of the distrust that 
 his conduct excited, he still pursued the same 
 course. From Hampton Court, where he was 
 under the charge of the army, he iled to the 
 Isle of Wight, and put himself under the 
 protection of Colonel Hammond, the governor 
 of Carisbrooke Castle. Here he concluded a 
 secret treaty with the Scots, promising to 
 establish the Presbyterian Church in England 
 for three years if they would send an army 
 into England to restore him to his throne. 
 The Civil War again revived ; zealots rose in 
 arms, while the Scots, led by the Duke of 
 Hamilton, crossed the border. Fairfax 
 suppressed the Royalists, while Cromwell 
 crushed the invaders at Warrington, in 
 Lancashire (Aug. 19, 1648). The army 
 returned to London, demanding that Charles 
 should pay with his life for the blood that he 
 had caused to be shed. The Commons, 
 forcibly purged of the more moderate Presby- 
 terians, voted that it was treason for the 
 King of England to levy war against the 
 Parliament and the kingdom, and passed an 
 ordinance for instituting a High Court of 
 Justice, composed of men of their own party. 
 As the House of Lords refused to take part 
 in the proceedings, they further resolved that 
 whatever is enacted by the Commons has the 
 force of law without the consent of the king 
 or the House of Peers. The trial was held 
 publicly in Westminster Hall. One hundred 
 and thirty-five Judges had been named on 
 the ordinance ; but only about eighty, 
 amongst whom were Cromwell and Ireton, 
 attended the sittings of the court. Bradshaw, 
 Cromwell's cousin, presided. Charles was 
 accused of having endeavoured to overturn 
 the liberties of the people, and of being a 
 tyrant, traitor, and murderer. He refused 
 persistently to answer to the charge, on the 
 ground that the court had no lawful authority 
 derived from the people of England by which 
 to try him. Sentence of death was pronounced 
 against him; and on Jan. 30, 1649, he was 
 executed on a scaffold' raised in front of the 
 Banqueting House at Whitehall, in presence 
 of a vast crowd, which, had the decision 
 rested with it, would eagerly have delivered 
 him from death. [Great Rebellion; Com- 
 monwealth ; Long Parliament.] 
 
 Internal affairs during the reign of Charles I. 
 are best studied in the CaUmUrs of Stntc Pa, era 
 (Domestic Series) . The Hardwiclce Papers con- 
 tain materials relating to the French and 
 Spanish matches, the expedition to the Isle of 
 Khi, and the Scotch troubles of 1637—41 
 
 The Memoi"ials and Letters published by Sir 
 Daniel Dalrymple ; The Cowrt cmd Times of 
 Charles I., by Thomas Birch; Halliwell's Letters 
 of the Kings of England,- The Letters of Charles I. 
 to Henrietta Maria, edited for the Camden Society 
 by John Bruce j The Arrest of the Five Men hers, 
 by John Forster — are works which throw light 
 on the character of the king and the motives 
 of his actions. A Royalist account of the years 
 1644 and 1645, and of the negotiations carried 
 on in the Isle of Wight in 1648, is to be found in 
 Sir Edward "Walter's Sistoncal Discourses ; and 
 of the king's personal history during the last 
 two years of his life, in toir Thomas Herbert's 
 Memoirs. Por modem accounts see Bauke, Hist. 
 ofEng.; and esp. S. R. Gardiner, Sist. ofEng. 
 1603—1642, 10 vols., 1883—84. 
 
 [B. M. 0-.] 
 
 Charles II., King [b. May 29, 1630, «. 
 May 8, 1660, d. Feb. 6, 1685), was the 
 eldest son of Charles I. and Henrietta 
 Maria. In his ninth year he was created 
 Prince of Wales, and when the Civil AVar 
 broke out he accompanied his father at the 
 battle of Edgehill. In 1644 he was the 
 nominal head of the royal forces in the west 
 of England ; but on the decline of the royal 
 cause he was obliged to retire to SciUy, to 
 Jersey, and eventually to France. When 
 matters appeared to be drawing to extremity 
 with the king, several of the ships of the 
 Parliament went over to the prince, who 
 made some attempts to blockade the Thames, 
 and even landed near Deal, but was soon 
 obliged to withdraw to Holland, whence, in 
 the hope of saving his father's life, he 
 despatched to the intending regicides a 
 paper signed and sealed, but otherwise blank, 
 for them to insert their own conditions. 
 On the death of his father in January, 1649, 
 Charles assumed the title of king, and in 
 February he was proclaimed King of Scotland 
 at Edinburgh. In 16,50 he came over to 
 Scotland, and, having taken the Covenant, 
 was crowned at Scone on January 1, 1651. 
 Charles exhibited courage and conduct in 
 opposing CromweU's troops before Edinburgh, 
 but his cause was hopeless from the first, 
 owing to the discord among his supporters. 
 He suddenly determined to leave Scotland 
 and march into England, and succeeded in 
 getting as far as Worcester, where (Sep- 
 tember 3, 1651) he received so severe a defeat 
 that his cause seemed utterly ruined. Charles 
 escaped from the battle, and after an adven- 
 turous flight of forty-four days, through 
 the western counties and along the south 
 coast — during the early part of which he 
 owed his safety entirely to the fidelity 
 of a labouring family — he succeeded in 
 finding a ship near Brighton, which landed 
 him safely in France. For the next nine 
 years he led a wandering life in France, 
 Germany, and the Low Countries, sometimes 
 relieved and sometimes repulsed, according as 
 the various sovereigns or their ministers 
 threw off or yielded to their dread of Crom- 
 well. He was accompanied by a few faithful 
 adherents; but his little court was also beset 
 
Cha 
 
 { 253 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 by intriguing tirrbulent men and spies, 
 who betrayed bis counsels and caused the 
 numerous attempted risings of his friends 
 both in England and Scotland. At length, 
 on the death of Cromwell, it became obvious 
 to most persons in England that the oidy 
 hope of establishing a settled form of govern- 
 ment and of saving the country from a 
 military despotism, lay in restoring the 
 monarchy; and, chiefly through the instru- 
 mentality of General Monk, Charles was 
 invited to return to England. He at once com- 
 pUed, and entered London in triumph on May 
 29, 1660, having previously signed theDeclara- 
 tion of Breda (q.v.). During the first years 
 of his reign, when the king was largely under 
 the guidance of Clarendon, matters went 
 smoothly. The Parliament was ardently 
 Eoyalist, and supported the English Church 
 by passing stringent laws against Catholics 
 and Dissenters ; but the failure of the Dutch 
 War in 1665, the maladministration of the 
 government, and the misappropriation of the 
 pabKc money, led to the downfall of Clarendon 
 (1667). In 1668 (January) Sir William 
 Temple concluded the Triple Alliance be- 
 tween England, France, and Sweden. But 
 the " Cabal " ministry speedily came into 
 office, and reversed this policy for one of 
 alliance with the French king and hostility to 
 Holland. Finally, the infamous Treaty of 
 Dover was signed (1670) ; Charles became 
 a pensionary of Louis, and war was de- 
 clared against Holland. The attempt of 
 the king to get toleration for the Catholics 
 by issuing a Declaration of Indulgence 
 caused the passing of the Test Act (1673) by 
 Parliament, and the consequent fall of the 
 Cabal administration. With this began the 
 great struggle between the king and the 
 opposition, headed by Shaftesbury, during 
 which Charles showed the greatest prudence. 
 He yielded to the storm caused by the pre- 
 tended Popish Plot (q.v.), but steadily re- 
 fused to alter the succession by excluding his 
 brother James. The violence and cruelty of the 
 Whig leaders, together with the discovery of 
 the Eye House Plot (q.v.), turned the tide in 
 the king's favour. He gained a complete 
 victory over his opponents, and was able for 
 the last three years of his life to reign with- 
 out Parliament and free from all opposition. 
 In 1662 Charles married Catherine of Bra- 
 ganza, daughter of John of Portugal, but had 
 no children by her. His private life was 
 characterised by great profligacy, and he had 
 a large number of mistresses, and no less 
 than twelve illegitimate children, among 
 whom were James, Duke, of Monmouth ; 
 Henry Fitzroy (son of the Duchess of Cleve- 
 land), ancestor of the Dukes of Grafton ; 
 Charles Beauclero (son of Nell Gwynn), an- 
 cestor of the Dukes of St. Albans; and 
 Charles Lennox (soA of the Duchess of Ports- 
 mouth), ancestor of the Dukes of Richmond. 
 Charles, in spite of his licentiousness and his 
 
 extreme selfishness, was possessed of much 
 talent. The natural champion of the prin- 
 ciple of hereditary right at a time when 
 hereditary right was exposed to attack, 
 Charles's position was one of considerable 
 difficulty. He played his part dexterously, 
 and with considerable ability, and it cannot 
 be denied that he showed much capacity for 
 governing. 
 
 Clarendon, Life, and Burnet, Hist, of His (him 
 Time, both of which must be read with caution ; 
 Baxillon's letters, and Temple's Wm-ks (and espe- 
 cially the Memoir/rom the Peace), contain much 
 information on the diplomatic history. See also 
 Carte, Life o/ Ormonde, andMacpherson, Stewart 
 Papers; Baxter, Life anA Times; Eeresby, 
 Memoirs; Pepys, Diary; Evelyn, Mary ; Shaftes- 
 bury, Letters and Speeches (ed. W. D. Christie) ; 
 B'Avaux, l^egoGia'iotisenKoUande; Masson, ir;e 
 of MiHon. There is a brilliant sketch of the 
 reign in Macaulay's History, The best general 
 modem accouut is in Kauke's Hist of Eng. 
 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Charles, Edwakd. [Pretender, The 
 Young.] 
 
 Charlotte Angpista, Princess (b. 
 Jan. 7, 1796, d. Nov. 6, 1816), was the 
 daughter of George TV. and Caroline of 
 Brunswick. Owing to the disunion of her 
 parents, her earlier years were passed in re- 
 tirement, away from the court, under the 
 care of the Dowager Duchess of Leeds, Lady 
 Chfiord, and the Bishop of Exeter. She 
 eaiiy gave proofs of a noble character and 
 intellectual qualities above the average. She 
 was destined by her father to marry William, 
 Prince of Orange ; but her own affections had 
 been fixed on Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who 
 became, in 1830, King of the Belgians, 
 yielding to her father's desire, the princess 
 agreed to marry the Prince of Orange, and the 
 betrothal was arranged between them, when 
 the princess broke off the match, partly in 
 anger at her. father's conduct to her mother, 
 partly because of her repugnance to the 
 prince. In 1815 she was married to Leopold 
 of Saxe-Coburg, and in the following year 
 (Nov.) died in giving birth to a son, who did 
 not survive her. Her death caused great 
 grief throughout the entire nation " 
 
 Charmoath. is a village on the Dorset- 
 shire coast, about two miles from Lyme 
 Eegis. In 836 Egbert was defeated here by 
 the Danes, and in 840 his son Ethelwulf met 
 with a Hke disaster at the same place. 
 
 Charnock, Robert [d. 1696), a Fellow 
 of Magdalen College, Oxford, became a 
 Roman Catholic, and supported James in 
 his illegal ejection of the Protestant Fellows 
 of his college by means of the Court of High 
 Commission. After the Revolution, he be- 
 came one of the most active of the Jacobite 
 conspirators, and was among the chief 
 organisers of the Assassination Plot (1696). 
 He was arrested, and his trial began on 
 March 11. The new Act for regulating 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 254 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 procedure in cases of high_ treason was not to 
 come into force until the 25th. It allowed 
 the prisoner to examine his witnesses on oath, 
 compel their attendance at court, and have 
 the service of counsel. The prisoners, Char- 
 nock, King, and Koyes, claimed, not without 
 reason, to have their trial postponed till that 
 date. Their request was, however, refused, 
 and they were all condemned. Chamock left 
 behind him a paper in which he justified the 
 plot, on the ground that William was a 
 usurper, and hy an appeal to the laws of 
 human society. [Assassination Plot.] 
 
 Charter, The Ubbat, &c. [Gkeat Chab- 
 
 TEE, &c.] 
 
 Charter Schools (Ireland). In 1730, 
 an association, with the primate. Archbishop 
 Boulter, and the Lord Chancellor, at its head, 
 was formed to provide Protestant education 
 gratis for the Catholic poor. Before that 
 time, in spite of a statute of Henry "VTII., 
 Protestants had to rely on private enterprise 
 entirely as far as education was concerned. 
 In 1733 a charter was granted to the associa- 
 tion, but only on condition that the endow- 
 ment was not to exceed £2,000 a year. On 
 Oct. 24, 1733, the corporation began its 
 work ; day-schools and boarding-schools were 
 established. They were really industrial 
 schools. After five years' schooling, children 
 were bound out as apprentices at the expense 
 of the society (girls got a small portion on 
 marrying), and the whole cost of education for 
 one child came, in the day-schools, to only £9 
 per annum. The boarding-schools increased 
 from four to fifty, and George II. granted 
 £1,000 from his privy purse in their support. 
 The day-schools soon came to an end, but the 
 boarding-schools were supported by parliamen- 
 tary grants after 1745, when a special tax was 
 devoted to this object. Altogether, by 1767, 
 £112,000 had been devoted to the Charter 
 schools. In 1750, parents were forbidden to 
 take back their children, when once they had 
 entered, and thus to prevent their becoming 
 Protestants. Soon afterwards the society was 
 allowed to take up a,ll children between five 
 and twelve found loitering about, and put 
 them into their schools. However, by 1757 
 whether it was on account of the determina- 
 tion of the Catholics not to be enticed into 
 changing their children's religion, or for 
 other reasons, it became clear that the Charter 
 schools were a failure. Howard, in 1758, 
 investigated this school system, and brought 
 to^ light great abuses ; a parUameutary com- 
 mittee appointed in consequence found chil- 
 dren who had been at school for twelve years 
 unable to speU. Still, for twenty-five years 
 after the Union they continued to exist, and 
 vast sums were spent on the education of 
 some 2,000 children. Mr. Froude calls the 
 Charter schools "the best-conceived educa- 
 tional institutions which existed in the 
 world, while Mr. Lecky says of them that 
 
 they " excited in Ireland an intensity of 
 bitterness hardly equalled by any portion of 
 the penal code." Of one thing there can be 
 no doubt : they completely failed in their 
 object — the conversion of the Irish peasantry 
 to Protestantism. 
 
 Stevens, The Charter Schools; Froude, English 
 
 m Ireland; Lecky, Hist, of Eng. in the Eighteenth 
 
 Century^ vol. ii. 
 
 Chartists (1838 — 48) was the name given 
 to the members of a party in England who 
 supported certain reforms which were gene- 
 rally known as the " People's Charter." The 
 Charter consisted of six points, viz. ; (1) man- 
 hood suffrage; (2) equal electoral districts; 
 (3) vote by ballot ; (4) annual Parliaments ; 
 (5) abolition of property qualification for 
 members; (6) payment of members. These 
 points seem first to have been urged to- 
 gether at a meeting held at Birmingham on 
 August 6, 1838, where the chief speakers 
 were Attwood, Scholefield, and Feargus 
 O'Connor. A similar meeting was held in 
 London in the following September. During 
 the following year the cause was advocated 
 by tumultuous meetings and processions, 
 which had to be pnt down by the law, and 
 a petition, the size of a coach- wheel, said to 
 be signed by a milhon and a quarter peti- 
 tioners, was rolled into the House of Com- 
 mons. Riots took place at Birmingham, 
 Newcastle, and Newport. Feargus O'Connor 
 was arrested. On May 2, 1842, another 
 monster petition, purporting to contain more 
 than three million signatures, was brought 
 to the House of Commons. Mr. T. Dun- 
 combe proposed that the petitioners should be 
 heard at the bar by counsel, while Macaulay, 
 Peel, and Roebuck spoke on the other side: 
 After this the agitation slumbered till 1848, 
 when a huge meeting was held on Kennington 
 Common on April 10. The intention was 
 to carry to the House of Commons a monster 
 petition with five million signatures. There 
 was great fear lest London should be the scene 
 of a rising, and the Duke of Wellington took 
 measures for protecting the Bank, Custom 
 House, Exchange, Post Office, and other public 
 buildings. A quarter of a million inhabitants 
 of London were enrolled as special constables. 
 The duke disposed his troops with masterly 
 skill, so as to keep them out of sight. The 
 meeting proved a failure, owing to dissensions 
 between the leaders of the Chartists, and no 
 disturbance took place. Similar precautions 
 were again taken in June, but the threatened 
 demonstration ended in smoke. On August 16 
 an arrest of armed Chartists was made at the 
 "Orange Tree" public-house, in Orange 
 Street, London, and some more in Green 
 Street. It was understood that there vv'as a 
 plot to attack the dififerent clubs about 
 midnight, and also the principal buildings in 
 the metropolis. The chief ringleaders were 
 tried and punished. This latter outbreak of 
 Chartism was connected with the revolu/ 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 255 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 tionary disturbances which took place through- 
 out Europe in 1849. After this, Chartism ex- 
 pired, and agitation took a different form. It 
 is strange that reforms so unequal in impor- 
 tance, and some of them so little calculated to 
 effect the end aimed at by their promoters, 
 should have been advocated with such an 
 amount of passion. 
 
 Annual Register ; S. "Walpole, Hist, of Evg, ; 
 McCarthy, Mat. of Our Oim Times. 
 
 [0. B.] 
 Chartley Manor, in Staffordshire, was 
 at one time the place of Mary Queen of Scots' 
 imprisonment. In 1583 — 86 she was at her 
 own request removed here from the care of Sir 
 Amyas Paulet at Tutbury. Chartley was 
 well known to Walsingham's spy Grifford, 
 and this afforded the latter exceptional 
 facilities for copying the treasonable cor- 
 respondence of the captive queen. 
 
 Chatham was a village of small impor- 
 tance till the estabhshment of a dockyard 
 and naval arsenal in the time of Queen 
 Elizabeth, when preparations were being 
 made to resist the Spanish Armada. The 
 dockyards were improved under Charles I. 
 and the Commonwealth, and the fortifications 
 strengthened after the attack of the Dutch in 
 1667. These were enlarged and strengthened 
 between 1757 and 1808, and during the 
 present century Chatham has been rendered 
 one of the most important dockyards and 
 strongest naval fortresses in the world. 
 
 Chatham, "William Pitt, 1st Eakl op 
 (i. Nov. 15, 1708, d. May 11, 1778), was the 
 grandson of a former governor of Madras, who 
 had returned to England to buy estates and 
 rotten boroughs, one of which. Old Sarum, he 
 represented in Parliament. His son Robert 
 succeeded him, and sat in turn for the two 
 boroughs of Old Sarum and Oakhampton. 
 Of Robert Pitt's two sons, William was the 
 younger. He was educated at Eton and at 
 Trinity College, Oxford, but he left Oxford, 
 without taking a degree, to travel on the 
 Continent on account of the gout, to which 
 he was throughout his life a victim. He 
 came back from his tour to find his father 
 dead and himself but slenderly provided for. 
 As a profession he chose the army, and 
 obtained a cometcy in the Blues ; but his 
 family interest in 1735 procured for him the 
 seat of Old Sarum. In April, 1736, the 
 Prince of Wales married Augusta, Princess 
 of Saxe Gotha ; and it was on the address 
 which was presented to the king on this 
 occasion that Pitt took the opportunity of 
 delivering his first speech, which made a deep 
 impression on the House. This impression 
 was soon justified, as he became so trouble- 
 some to the government, that Sir Robert 
 ^alpole dismissed him from the army. The 
 Prince of Wales, however, recompensed him 
 by making him his Groom of the Bedchamber, 
 from which position .he could in security de- 
 
 claim against the peace policy of the ministry. 
 In 1741 Walpole resigned; and it was for 
 some time doubtful who would succeed him. 
 Pitt seems to have made overtures to Walpole, 
 which the retiring minister rejected. In the 
 new government that was formed under 
 Carteret, Pitt was entirely left out. He 
 vented his disappointment in the fiercest 
 invectives against Walpole, and in advocating 
 the most violent measures for his prosecution. 
 AU his violence failed to injure Sir Robert, 
 now the Earl of Orford, who retired into 
 private life, and left Pitt free to transfer his 
 attacks to Carteret, who now held the reins. 
 The chief object of his indignation was the 
 prevailing method of subsidising with English 
 money petty German States, for the benefit 
 of the family estates of the House of 
 Brunswick. The old Duchess of Marl- 
 borough died in October, 1744, and left 
 Pitt a legacy of £10,000 "in consideration 
 of the noble defence he had made for the laws 
 of England, and to prevent the ruin of his 
 country." But Pitt's ambition did not lie' 
 in the direction of money ; and on the 
 elevation of Carteret to the House of Lords 
 he saw a chance of advancement. To take 
 advantage, however, of the chance, it was 
 necessary for him to conciliate the king ; and 
 he accordingly resigned his office in the 
 household of the Prince of Wales, and by the 
 exertions of the Pelhams, against the king's 
 wishes, he was appointed early in 1746 to the 
 post of Paymaster of the Forces. The govern- 
 ment continued in security until the deatji of 
 Henry Pelham, in 1754, threw it into con- 
 fusion. It devolved on the Duke of Newcastle 
 to form a ministry. His great difficulty was 
 as to the leadership of the House of Commons ; 
 and the rival claims of Pitt and Fox to that 
 office were settled by a compromise in the 
 person of Sir Thomas Robinson, an inoffensive 
 mediocrity. Pitt was appointed secretary of 
 state, and Fox retired to the , lucrative Pay 
 Office ; but before a year was over they had 
 combined to render their leader so ridi- 
 culous that Newcastle was compelled to 
 make a change. Pitt was intractable on 
 the subject of subsidies; and the duke 
 turned to Fox, who became secretary of 
 state, with the entire lead of the House 
 of Commons and the management of the 
 funds for corruption. On the resignation of 
 Newcastle, in November, 1756, the Duke of 
 Devonshire succeeded him as fir-st. lord of 
 the Treasury, with Pitt as first secretary 
 of state and virtual prime minister. The 
 ministry was odious to the king, who said 
 that he was not a king while he was " in the 
 hands of these scoundrels ; " and in April, 
 1757, Pitt and Lord Temple were dismissed; 
 from their offices. But the contumely which; 
 Pitt had experienced from the court only served; 
 to raise him in the estimation of the country 
 at large. The freedom of the City was granted 
 to him; all the great towns of England 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 256 
 
 Cha 
 
 followed the example set by the Corporation 
 of London ; and " for some weeks," says 
 Walpole, " it rained gold hoxes." During his 
 short term of office Pitt found time and 
 courage to pass several important measures, 
 including his hold scheme of pacifying the 
 discontented Highlanders by embodying them 
 in the regular army. Newcastle having 
 failed to form a ministry, an agreement was 
 at length arrived at between the duke and 
 Pitt, through the mediation of Lord Chester- 
 field. The king, however, refused to receive 
 Pitt as a minister, and persuaded Lord 
 Waldegrave to accept with great reluctance 
 the premiership. But without Pitt it was 
 impossible for any ministry to work ; and 
 Lord Waldegrave's broke up almost before it 
 was formed. The king was obliged to j'ield 
 to necessity. Newcastle took the Treasury ; 
 Pitt became secretary of state, with the lead 
 of the Lower House ; and Fox was silenced 
 by the gains of the Pay Office. Pitt had told 
 the Duke of Devonshire that he was sure he 
 could save the country, and that no one else 
 could. And he lost no time in setting about 
 the task. His early plans, however, were not 
 attended with success. An expedition against 
 Kochefort failed through the bad management 
 of the land forces. In Germany, Cumberland 
 was compelled to sign the humiliating 
 Convention of Kloster-Seven. In India, the 
 conspicuous success of Clive in some measure 
 compensated for these misfortunes. The war 
 was vigorously carried on throughout 1758 in 
 evei?y part of the globe where Frenchmen 
 could be found ; still the year was marked by 
 no great victories on either side. But in 
 1759 Pitt's energy, and his tact in choosing 
 men, were everywhere rewarded by the 
 extraordinary successes by land and sea 
 which marked that year of victory. These 
 victories gave Pitt a position of extraordinary 
 influence. He was known as the "great 
 commoner ; " and the Houses of Parliament 
 no less than the people at large were hushed 
 into awe and reverence by the success of his 
 measures. But the death of George II. on 
 October 25, 1760, changed the face of 
 affairs ; and it was clear that the new king's 
 partiality for Lord Bute would be more 
 powerful than the nation's love of Pitt. In 
 March, 1761, Parliament was dissolved; and 
 with it the ministry began to break up. 
 Bute was made secretary of state in the 
 place of Lord Holderuess. But Pitt was 
 determined, if possible, to save the country 
 from a, degrading peace; and he held on 
 until finding his brother-in-law. Lord Temple, 
 alone supported him in the council in his 
 desire for war with France and Spain, he re- 
 signed on October 5, 1761. He had scorned 
 all promotion and all gains for himself, but 
 accepted a peerage for his wife, who was 
 created Baroness Chatham. In Nov., 1762, 
 peace was made with France ; and Bute could 
 no longer stand before the open opposition 
 
 of Pitt and the fury of the nation, and in 
 April, 1763, he resigned. A new ministry 
 was formed out of the foUowers of the 
 Duke of Bedford and those of Grenville, 
 whose tenure of office was signalised by the 
 persecution of Wilkes, and the still more 
 fatal attempt to tax the American colonies. 
 Pitt meanwhile opposed all his eloquence 
 to the doctrine of the legality of general 
 warrants, and pointed out the mischief of 
 Grenville's scheme for colonial taxation. His 
 health became very bad, and he retired into 
 the country and took no part in the debates 
 on the Regency Bill. This bill, however, 
 was the ruin of the Bedford ministry ; and the 
 king resolved to be rid of Grenville's bully- 
 ing arrogance. Overtures were twice made 
 to Pitt through the Duke of Cumberland ; 
 but they failed. He retired to his estate in 
 Somersetshire, as if bent on finally withdraw- 
 ing from public life; and the Rockingham 
 ministry was formed. In January, 1766, 
 Pitt came up to London, and by his able 
 assistance enabled the ministry to carry the 
 repeal of the Stamp Act. The government 
 was, however, too weak to stand ; and in July 
 Pitt at length consented to break with 
 Temple, and to form a ministry without him. 
 But he was suffering both mentally and 
 physically : he could not stand the strain of 
 the House of Commons; he accepted the 
 Privy Seal, and was created Earl of Chatham. 
 It was felt throughout the country that he 
 had been gained over to the court ; and the 
 popularity, which had been so lavishly be- 
 stowed on him as the " great commoner," 
 failed to follow him to the Upper House, 
 His policy was as energetic and comprehensive 
 as ever ; hut his mind was unhinged, and at 
 last gave way so far as to incapacitate him for 
 all public business. He was taken to Hayes, 
 and remained there in gloomy seclusion for 
 two years. In October, 1768, he resigned the 
 Privy Seal, and the ministry came to an end. 
 Soon after his resignation, Chatham's mental 
 malady passed away before an attack of the 
 gout sharper than usual. In July, 1769, 
 he once more appeared at court, after a 
 reconciliation had been effected with the 
 Grenvilles, and in the following January 
 he again took his place among the Lords. 
 He had lost none of his old power, and 
 his_ first speech, inveighing against the 
 policy pursued by the government towards 
 America and in relation to tlie Middlesex 
 election, was the signal for the resignation of' 
 Lord Camden and the Marquis of Granby. 
 The Duke of Grafton himself, wearied by the 
 continual onslaughts made upon him, and 
 finding it impossible any longer to prop up ' 
 his falling ministry, sent in his resignation on 
 January 22. Lord North proceeded to form 
 a ministry after the king's own heart, which 
 would be content to carry out the king's 
 wishes. Wilkes and America continued to 
 be the chief topics; North in -both points 
 
Cha 
 
 (257) 
 
 Che 
 
 adhered to the policy of his predecessors, 
 and Chatham continued to wage war against 
 it. He warmly advocated the repeal of the 
 Test Acts, for which a bill was introduced. 
 During the greater part of 1773 he employed 
 himself in the study of India, and heoame 
 strongly convinced of the " necessity of a 
 reformation of Indian iniquities." But as 
 the clouds every month thickened in America, 
 they dispelled all other thoughts, and caused 
 him more and morfe to dread the applica- 
 tion of coercion to the colonists. The Boston 
 Port BiU heightened his alarm ; and in May, 
 1774, he appeared in Parliament " to stand 
 for England and America." In Jan., 1775, 
 he moved an address to the king, pray- 
 ing him to adopt a conciliatory policy to- 
 wards America by removing the forces from 
 Boston, and he followed up this motion by 
 presenting to Parliament a plan for the pre- 
 vention of civil war. The object of his con- 
 duct was, as he himself briefly expressed it, 
 "to secure to the colonies property and libertj', 
 and to ensure to the mother country a due 
 acknowledgment on the part of the colonies of 
 their subordination to the supreme legislative 
 authority and superintending power of the 
 Parliament of Great Britain." As long as 
 there was any hope of the attainment of these 
 two ends, Chatham was as warm an advocate 
 as anyone for granting liberty to the colonies ; 
 but when the news of the capitulation of 
 Burgoyne came in Dec, 1777, followed almost 
 immecflately by the announcement of the 
 alliance of America and France, it became 
 clear that the Americans would be content 
 with nothing short of entire independence ; and 
 Chatham was as firm in his opposition to this 
 concession as he had been zealous in favour of 
 granting them liberty and justice. At this point 
 Chatham broke away from his long agree- 
 ment with Rockingham's party, but carried 
 Shelbume with him. On April 7th, 1778, 
 he made his last speech in Parliament; 
 and the effort was too much for him. 
 He was carried to Hayes, and there died on 
 May 11th. A monument was raised to him in 
 Westminster Abbey at the expense of the 
 nation. Lord Chatham was essentially a war 
 minister. It has been said of him that 
 whenever a cannon in Europe was fired he 
 required to know the reason. The epitaph on 
 his monument in Westminster Abbey says, 
 truly enough, that during his administration 
 Great Britain was exalted " to a height of 
 prosperity and glory unknown to any former 
 age." 
 
 P. Thackeray, Hist, of Wm. Pitt. E. of Chat- 
 ham (2 vols., 1827) ; 'Chatham Correspondence 
 (4 vols., 1833 — 10) ; Albemaxle, Bockinnham and 
 his Conteni'pcyraries ; Almon, Anecdote!^ and 
 Speeches of Cftatfiam (1792) ; Massey, Ei< of 
 ■ ftij., vols, i., ii. ; Adolphus, Hist, of Er.n., 
 1 vols, i., ii. J "Walpole, Hist, vol. i. ; Stanhope, 
 Hist. 0/ Bug. [W. E. S.] 
 
 Chatsworth., in North Derbyshire, the 
 property of the Cavendish family, was in 
 '.Hist.— 9 
 
 1570, 1578, and 1581 the prison of Mary 
 Queen of Scots. It was subsequently garri- 
 soned by the Roundheads in 1643, and by the 
 Cavaliers two years later. 
 
 Cheke, Sir John (A. 1514, d. 1557), is well 
 known as the tutor of King Edward VI., whose 
 education he undertook in conjunction with 
 Sir Anthony Cook. In reward for his ser- 
 vices he was made Provost of King's College, 
 Cambridge, and a Privy Councillor. On the 
 accession of Mary, Cheke was imprisoned for 
 the sympathy which he had shown for the 
 cause of Lady Jane Grey, from whom he had 
 accepted the office of Secretary of State. 
 On his release he went abroad and 
 settled at Strasburg, but, having gone to 
 visit Sir John Mason at Brussels, was cap- 
 tured on the way, and sent to England, where 
 he was confined in the Tower. Cheke, who 
 was a zealous Protestant, and " one of the 
 most godly men of those days," was kept in 
 confinement until hard usage wrung from 
 him a renunciation of his real convictions. 
 He was then released, but is said to have 
 died of shame at his recantation. He was 
 a voluminous and able writer, and did 
 much for the literature of England. Besides 
 being the tutor of King Edward VI., he was 
 also the tutor of WiUiam Cecil, Lord, Bur- 
 leigh. He was one of the earliest and 
 greatest of English Greek scholars of the 
 Renaissance ; and in particular set himself to 
 reform the corrupt pronunciation of his time. 
 His fame was stiU living at Cambridge in 
 Milton's days, and the poet refers to him in 
 Sonnet XI. : — 
 " Thy Age, like ours, O soul of Sir John Cheke, 
 
 Hated not learning worse than toad or asp, 
 
 When tbou taught" st Camhridge and King Edward 
 Greek." 
 Strype, Life of Cheke; Puller, TTorthies. 
 
 Cliester was probably a Roman military 
 station, as its Celtic name, " Caerleon Vawr," 
 would seem to attest. It is called J)eva in the 
 Roman geographical writings, and would 
 seem, at any rate, to have been a trading- 
 place of importance. In 894 it was captured 
 by the Danes, who were, however, forced to 
 surrender it to the English. It was a place of 
 considerable importance as being the frontier 
 town of the Welsh Marches. The Conqueror 
 established an earldom of Chester, and Hugh 
 Lupus, his nephew, became its palatine. He 
 built the castle and founded the abbey of 
 St. Werburgh. In 1237 the earldom was 
 seized by Henry III., and has since been a 
 royal appanage. In 1300, Edward, Prince of 
 Wales, received the homage of the Welsh 
 princes at Chester ; and here for a time Henry 
 IV. held Richard II. captive. The city 
 suffered severely in the plagues of the six- 
 teenth and seventeenth centuries, and espe- 
 cially in 1602 — 5. In 1642 Charles I. arrived in 
 Chester. The citizens were warmly Royalist. 
 From July, 1643, until 1646, the city was 
 continuously besieged or blockaded by the 
 
Che 
 
 ( 258 ) 
 
 Chi 
 
 Parliamentarian forces, and at last honourably 
 surrendered in February of tbe latter year. 
 Great riots, however, occurred on the occasion 
 of the visit of the Duke of Monmouth in 1683. 
 Chester was created a bishopric by Henry 
 VIII. in 1541, and its fine abbey church of 
 St. Werburgh became the cathedral. 
 
 Chesterfield,PHiLip Dormer Stanhope, 
 4th Earl of (b. 1694, d. 1773), was educated 
 at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. On the accession 
 of George I., he was made Gentleman of the 
 Bedchamber to the Prince of Wales. He sat 
 as member for St. Germains in 1.715. The 
 division between the Prince of Wales and 
 the court soon drove him into opposi- 
 tion in spite of the entreaties of his rela- 
 tive, General Stanhope, and he joined the 
 discontented Whigs. [Walpole.] He 
 had great expectations from George II. on 
 his accession; but had the misfortune to 
 offend Queen Caroline. The death of his father 
 in the previous year removed him to the 
 Upper House. In 1728 he was sent as ambas- 
 sador to the Hague, and on his return was made 
 High Steward of the Household, but was dis- 
 missed in 1733 by Walpole for his opposition to 
 theBxcise scheme. Forthwith he became a pro- 
 minent member of the Opposition, and in 1737 
 made a magnificent speech against the Play- 
 house Bill. In 1741 he went abroad ; and at 
 Avignon met Ormonde, with whom it is said he 
 attempted to concert measures for a Jacobite 
 combination against Walpole. He was excluded 
 from office under Pelham's administration ; and 
 continued in opposition, directing his attacks 
 especially against the employment of Hano- 
 verian troops, and the foreign policy of 
 Carteret. At length, in 1744, the king's 
 repugnance was so far overcome that he was 
 made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. His ad- 
 ministration of this office deserves the highest 
 praise, and his firm government checked 
 any tendency there might be to imitate 
 the example of the Scotch revolters in 1745. 
 In 1745 he was again sent to Holland, 
 where his negotiations induced the Dutch 
 to send troops to the campaign which ter- 
 minated in the battle of Fontenoy. In 
 1746 he became Secretary of State. He 
 aimed at governing the king through his 
 mistress, Lady Yarmouth, but finding that he 
 could make no progress in bringing about a 
 peace, he resigned in 1748. He still con- 
 tinued to speak, and in 1751 proposed and 
 carried out, the reformation of the calendar. 
 In 1752 he lost his hearing. In 1757 he was 
 asked to negotiate between Pitt and New- 
 castle during the intrigues which led to the 
 formation of that great ministry known by 
 their names. In 1768 his natural son, Philip, 
 the object of the greatest care and affection 
 on his part, and to whom he had addressed 
 his famous letters to his Son on which his 
 literary fame largely rests, died, and from that 
 time Chesterfield's life was desolate and cheer- 
 
 less. " Chesterfield was," says his biographer^ 
 Dr. Maty, " a nobleman unequalled in his time 
 for variety of talents, brilliancy of wit, and 
 elegance of conversation." Lord Stanhope, 
 referring to his political career, says that 
 " diplomacy was especially suited to his 
 tastes and talents. At home, his career, 
 though never inspired by a high and per- 
 vading patriotism, deserves the praise of 
 humane, liberal and far-sighted policy. His 
 defects were a want of generosity, dissimu- 
 lation carried beyond justifiable bounds , . . 
 and a looseness of religious principle." 
 
 Maty's I<i/e, prefixed to Chesteriield's Works, 
 2 vols., 1777. 
 
 Chevalier. [Pretender.] i 
 
 Chevy Chase. [Otterbourne.] 
 
 Cheyne, Sir Thomas, Treasurer of the 
 Household to Henry VIII., was appointed one 
 of the Council of Executors by the king's 
 will, 1547. Having served in the Scottish 
 expedition of 1547, he was made Warden of 
 the Cinque Ports, and in 1549 he was sent on 
 behalf of the Council to the Emperor 
 Charles V. In 1553 he is found in strong 
 opposition to Northumberland's scheme of 
 altering the succession in favour of Lady 
 Jane Grey, and in Wyatt's Rebellion (q.v.), 
 1554, he did good service for the queen in 
 Kent. 
 
 Chichele, Henry (5. circal362, d. 1443), 
 is said to have owed his education to William 
 of Wykeham, and certainly was a student on 
 Wykeham's foundations at Winchester and 
 Oxford. He was frequently employed on 
 diplomatic business by Henry IV., and in 
 
 1408 was made Bishop of St. Davids. In 
 
 1409 he was one of the English delegates to 
 the Council of Pisa, and in 1414 was raised 
 to the see of Canterbury. He accompanied 
 Henry V. on his second and third expeditions 
 to France, and crowned Queen Catherine. 
 Chichele has been greatly blamed for inciting 
 Henry V. to go to war against France, and 
 it was generally believed that the French 
 war was encouraged by the clergy, to divert 
 popular attention from the wealth, luxury, 
 and corruption of the Church. But this view 
 rests on no historical basis, though it is not 
 improbable that Chichele and the other 
 bishops did lend their sanction to the king's 
 ambition. Chichele is also accused of being 
 a persecutor, but it would seem that his 
 aversion to the Lollards was political rather 
 than religious ; for that sect was regarded as, 
 hostile to the dynasty, and a foe to all social 
 order as well as to the Church. During 
 Henry VI.'s reigTi, Chichele seems to have 
 confined himself almost entirely to his clerical 
 duties. In 1437 he founded All Souls College 
 at O.xford, and was meditating the resignation 
 of his see when he was removed by death. 
 Chichele boldly resisted the pretensions of 
 the Pope, who was desirous of getting the 
 
Chi 
 
 ( 259 ) 
 
 Chi 
 
 Statute of PrEemunire repealed, and when the 
 papal party retaliated by accusing him of 
 avarice, the barons, the bishops, and the 
 University of Oxford came forward to bear 
 testimony to the merits of the archbishop. 
 
 Chichester, Arthur, Lord {d. 1625), 
 was Lord-Deputy of Ireland from 1604 to 
 1616, when he became Lord High Treasurer. 
 It was under his government that the Planta- 
 tion of Ulster was carried out. In 1613, he 
 held a Parliament for the first time in twenty- 
 seven years; but in order to diminish the 
 CathoHc majority he was lavish in the creation 
 of new boroughs. The opposition was in the 
 end overcome after some disgraceful scenes, 
 but only on the understanding that the Penal 
 Laws would not be enforced. They then con- 
 sented, to the attainder of O'Neil and his 
 associates. The lands of Sir Cahir O'Doherty 
 of Innisowen were granted to Chichester, and 
 formed the bulk of the large estates left by 
 him to the present representatives of the 
 family, the Marquises of Donegal. 
 
 Chichester, a cathedral town, is built on 
 the site of a Roman settlement, and is generally 
 identified with Eegnum mentioned in the 
 Itinerary of Antoninus. It appears to have 
 been a place of some trade. The town was 
 destroyed by Ella, and restored by his son, 
 Cissa, from whom it received its modern 
 name. In 1083 the Sussex bishopric of 
 Selsey was removed to Chichester. The 
 cathedral, consecrated in 1108, was burnt 
 down, and rebuilt at the close of the twelfth 
 century. The city was incorporated in 1213. 
 The town was -Royalist in the Ci\'il War, and 
 was captured and held for the Parliamentarians 
 by Sir W. WaUer. 
 
 Chief Justice. [Justices.] 
 
 Childers, Hugh Cullino Eardley (5. 
 1827), was educated at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, and proceeded to Australia in 1850. 
 He was a member of the Victoria govern- 
 ment from his arrival tiU his return to 
 England as agent-general for that colony in 
 1857. He was elected member for Pontefract 
 (1860), and served on various commissions 
 and select committees. He became a Lord 
 of the Admiralty in April, 1864, and Financial 
 Secretary to the Treasury, 1865, retiring with 
 his party, 1866. In 1868 he accepted office 
 under Mr. Gladstone as First Lord of the 
 Admiralty, but was soon compelled to resign 
 owing to ill health. In Jan., 1872, he again 
 accepted the office of agent-general for 
 Victoria in this country, and the same year 
 became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 In 1883, he was appointed Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer in Mr. Gladstone's second ministry. 
 
 Chillianwalla, The Battle op (Jan. 14, 
 1849), was fought during the second Sikh 
 War. After an interchange of shots from 
 the Sikh and English pickets. Lord Gough 
 gave the word to attack the position of Shere 
 
 Sing at three in the afternoon. General Camp- 
 bell [Clyde] moved forward his division in 
 two brigades. His own victoriously advanced 
 to the front, seized and spiked the guns ; but 
 the second was torn to pieces by a fire of 
 grape and musketry, and the attack would 
 have faUed had not General Campbell advanced 
 rapidly to the rescue, and captured the guns 
 which were pouring in this deadly fire. Sir 
 Walter Gilbert's two divisions were success- 
 ful on the right, but not without serious loss. 
 The cavalry brigade under Brigadier Pope 
 got entangled in trees and brushwood, and 
 owing to some mistake, retreated, but the 
 left brigade, under Sir Joseph Thackwell, 
 behaved with great gallantry. The result 
 was that when darkness put an end to the 
 struggle Lord Gough found himself master 
 of unknown ground in the dark, and un- 
 certain as to the whereabouts of the enemy, 
 after a victory which was the nearest possible 
 approach to a defeat. He was compelled, 
 therefore, to withdraw to Chillianwalla. 
 [Sikh Wars.] 
 
 Chillingworth, William (5. 1602, d. 
 1644), was educated at Oxford, and obtained a 
 fellowship at Ti-initj^ College. By the efforts 
 of a Jesuit, John Fisher, he was converted 
 to the Roman Catholic communion, and 
 went to Douay; but he was induced by 
 Laud to return to England and re-enter 
 the English Chm-ch, in 1631. He became 
 Chancellor of Salisbury and Prebendary of 
 Brixworth. In the Civil War he was zealously 
 Royalist, and took an active part in the opera- 
 tions at the siege of Gloucester, and was taken 
 prisoner at the capture of Arundel Castle. 
 Being very ill, he was allowed to remove to 
 the palace of Chichester, where he died. He 
 was the author of a famous tract, called, TJ/e 
 Heligion of IProtestants : a Snfe Way to Sal- 
 vation, first published in 1638, and very 
 frequently reprinted. 
 
 Chilteru Hundreds, The, as the 
 hundreds of Bodenham, Desborough and 
 Stoke, in Buckinghamshire, are called, have 
 attached to them a Stewardship, the holder of 
 which office was charged with the duty of 
 keeping down the robbers who infested the 
 woods of the Chiltern Hills. At the present 
 time the office is used for an interesting 
 purpose. As a member of the House of 
 Commons cannot by parliamentary law re- 
 sign his seat unless he becomes disqualified, 
 a member wishing to retire applies for the 
 stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, the 
 acceptance of which, as a place of honour 
 and profit under the crown, necessarily entails 
 the vacation of the seat. This method of 
 e%'ading the restriction as to the resignation 
 of a member of Parliament appears to have 
 come into practice in the reign of George II., 
 about 1760. In the event of two applications 
 being made for the post at the same time, the 
 stewardship of the majiors of East Hundred, 
 
CM 
 
 ( 260 ■) 
 
 Chi 
 
 Hempholme and Northstead, is testowed on 
 one of the applicants. 
 
 China, Delations with, cannot te said 
 to have existed much earlier than the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century, though 
 there was, no douht, indirect intercourse at a 
 much earlier date between English merchants 
 and " Cathay." For instance, the Florentine 
 house of Bardi, which had extensive monetary 
 dealings with Edward III., had also a con- 
 siderable trade with China. The first attempts 
 of the East India Company to establish a com- 
 mercial station at Canton, in 1637, were un- 
 successful, as were others made in 1668, but 
 in 1670 a trade was opened with Formosa, and 
 a treaty concluded. Ten years later, a factory 
 was established at Canton. After the acces- 
 sion of the Manchoo or Tartar dynasty, 
 however (1679), a hostile policy, caused, 
 perhaps, by the misconduct of the Portuguese, 
 was adopted towards foreign traders. Trade, 
 which had spread to several ports, was con- 
 fined to Canton, and was there conducted 
 with difficulty, owing to the dishonesty of the 
 Hong merchants and the extortions of the 
 mandarins. This unsatisfactory state of 
 affairs, varied by quarrels between the 
 East India Company, the French, and 
 Portuguese, continued down to 1792, when 
 Lord Macartney was sent as the first English 
 ambassador to the court of Pekin, but he was 
 unable to effect the removal of the restric- 
 tions on trade, and Lord Amherst, who was 
 despatched thither in 1816, was dismissed for 
 refusing to perform the " kowtow," or prostra- 
 tion, before the emperor. In 1834, when the 
 monopoly of the East India Company expired, 
 it was determined to send out a trade commis- 
 sioner to the port of Canton. Lord Napier 
 was the first, but he soon gave way beneath 
 the anxieties of his position. Soon after- 
 wards the Chinese authorities began to pro- 
 test against the introduction of opium by 
 English traders, an import forbidden by law. 
 The irritation grew, until, in 1839, the Chinese 
 authorities insisted on the confiscation of a 
 large quantity of the drug, which they burnt. 
 This proceeding Captain Elliott, the Commis- 
 sioner of Trade, seems to have considered as a 
 declaration of war. "With the arrival of the 
 fleet from India in the following year, the First 
 Chinese War (April, 1839— March, 1841) began. 
 The island of Chusan was promptly taken, and 
 ihe capital threatened. The Chinese there- 
 upon sued for peace, hut negotiations were 
 broken off, and Hong Kong and Amoy fell, 
 and ^ Nanking was menaced. Thereupon 
 hostilities were again suspended, and in 1842 
 Sir Henry Pottinger concluded a treaty by 
 which the Chinese agreed to throw open five 
 additional ports to European trade and pay an 
 indemnity of some four and a half millions 
 sterling, together with a million and a quarter 
 as compensation for the destroyed opium, 
 which sum the English merchants declared to 
 
 be below their loss. The relations between 
 England and China continued to be fairly 
 pacific until 1855, when the seizure of the 
 lorcha (or cutter), Arrow, by the Chinese 
 authorities, on the charge of piracy, was the 
 cause of the Second Chinese War (Oct., 
 1865 — May, 1858). The vessel was un- 
 doubtedly of a suspicious cbaracter, but 
 she had obtained a British registration, and 
 in consequence Sir John Bowring demanded 
 the surrender of the captured men, which was 
 done, but all apology was refused by Yeh, the 
 governor of Canton. Thereupon the town 
 was bombarded and taken by the English, the 
 Taku forts fell in 1858, and the English com- 
 missioner. Lord Elgin, concluded a treaty at 
 Tientsin by which transit-dues were consider- 
 ably reduced, and an indemnity of four 
 millions agreed upon. In 1859, however, the 
 English minister. Sir F. Bruce, was fired 
 upon from the Taku forts while sailing up 
 the river to carry out the ratification of the 
 treaty at Peking. Lord Elgin was promptly 
 sent out, together with a force under Sir 
 Hope Grant, who was assisted by the French. 
 The Taku forts fell, and the emperor, in 
 order to save Peking, agreed to the ratification 
 of the Treaty of Tientsin. Shortly afterwards 
 Major Charles Gordon entered the Chinese 
 service, and aided the government in crushing 
 the Tai-ping rebels. Once more (1875) the 
 relations with England became strained, 
 partly owing to the murder of Mr. Margary 
 on the Chinese frontier, and partly to the 
 refusal of the government to publish the 
 treaties by which the British were empowered 
 to establish a trade route from China to 
 Burmah. At one time war seemed imminent, 
 but it was averted by the firmness and tact 
 of Sir Thomas Wade, who, in the following 
 year, by the Chefoo Convention, established 
 the rights of foreigners to travel and protec- 
 tion. The question of the opium traffic — to 
 the importation of which the authorities are 
 opposed, though the plant is cultivated to a 
 large extent in 'the interior of the country — 
 still remained unsettled. 
 
 Sir John Davis, China; Prof. Douglas, Cliina; 
 L. piipliaut, Narrative of Lord Elgin's Mission to 
 China; MacCarthy, History of our own Times; 
 Annual Register, 1875—76. r-r n G ■) 
 
 Chivalry. This word, which variously 
 meant "horsemanship," "knighthood," "a 
 fully-armed array of horsemen or knights," 
 " the knightly ideal of conduct," and other 
 things akin to these, in its widest application 
 embraced the whole brotherhood of trained, 
 approved, and dedicated men of the sword, 
 who had undertaken with elaborate and 
 solemn ceremony to do their fighting in a 
 peculiar spirit, on principles and with aims 
 of a special character, as well as the whole 
 body of laws and usages that these select 
 warriors were bound to observe. Defined by 
 a friendly historian, it was "a fraternal 
 
Chi 
 
 (261 ) 
 
 Chi 
 
 association, or rather an enthusiastic compact 
 between nieri' of feeling and courage, of 
 delicacy and devotion," who had chosen the 
 profession of arms and fitted themselves for 
 it by a long and severe apprenticeship. It 
 was an institution in which each faithful 
 member was animated by a sentiment of con- 
 scious dignity, and regulated his life in con- 
 formity with a code of military ethics that 
 raised a naturally demoralising occupation 
 into a chastening discipline and ennobling 
 pursuit. It owed to feudalism the conditions 
 which enabled it to play its part ; but it was 
 no essential feature or direct offspring of 
 feudalism; it was rather a corrective of the 
 ferocity and injustice that make the chief 
 reproach of feudal institutions. 
 
 The times of its beginning and ending, and 
 its origin, are stiU controverted points among 
 historians. But we cannot be far astray in 
 Umiting its flourishing period as an efficient 
 and earnest motive and rule of action to the 
 twelfth and thirteenth centuries, though its 
 spirit and forms can be traced much earlier, 
 and, in show at least, are perceptible much 
 later. Mr. Freeman sees the dawn of English 
 chivalry in William Eufus's making a certain 
 line of conduct "a point of honour;" and 
 the French wars of Edward III. display the 
 glitter and afEectations, the serious mockeries, 
 that outlived the decay of real chivalry. As 
 to its origin, some find it in the Crusades, 
 some in the necessity of confronting the 
 evils that harassed France in the eleventh 
 century by " a consecration of the arms of 
 the strong ; " and some in the slow rise to 
 ascendency of certain ideas and customs — 
 one or two as old as the days of the Germania 
 — amid the anarchy that followed the death of 
 Charlemagne. This last seems the safest 
 conclusion: the ceremonial with which a 
 young German warrior assumed arms; the 
 duty of serving on horseback laid on certain 
 landholders in later times ; and the personal 
 attachment to a superior obligatory on an 
 aspirant to a military career, needed but the 
 glow of religious feeling and the sense of 
 individual honour as the master-motive of 
 action, to complete the chivalrous character. 
 For the grand creation and central figure 
 of chivalry was the knight ; and it is the 
 union in him of religious fervour and sense 
 of duty, with a recognition of honourable 
 obligation, devotion to all women and con- 
 stancy to one, and a horror of doing any- 
 thing unworthy of a true knight, that is the 
 very essence of the chivalric idea. Yet 
 chivalry owed to the Crusades its summons 
 into energetic life ; in Milman's words, " all 
 the noble sentiments which, blended together, 
 are chivalry — the high sense of honour, the 
 disdain of danger, the love of adventure, 
 compassion for ^he weak or the oppressed, 
 generosity, self-sacrifice, self -de motion for 
 others— found in the Crusades their animat- 
 ifig principle, perpetual occasion for their 
 
 amplest exercise, their perfection, and con- 
 summation." As the unit of chivalry was the 
 knight, or chevalier, care was therefore taken 
 to make and keep knighthood select. In most 
 places, though not in all, gentle birth was a 
 necessary qualification ; from his seventh to 
 his fourteenth year the aspirant must serve in 
 some noble or knightly household as page or 
 varlefc; he had then to choose, from among 
 the well-born ladies of the society he lived 
 in, some one as a special object of loyal 
 devotion, and was allowed to receive at the 
 altar from the hands of the priest the con- 
 secrated sword that proved him an esquire. 
 His manifold duties as an esquire had as 
 their general drift to make him perfect in 
 the virtues and accomplishments of a knightly 
 character. Having "borne him well" in 
 his long and trying noviciate, he was 
 " ordained " a knight with a most impressive 
 ritual. After being bathed, and clothed in 
 symbolic garments, he fasted for twentj'-four 
 hours, watched the arms he was to wear for 
 a whole night in a church, confessed, com- 
 municated, had the sword that hung from his 
 neck blessed by the priest, was armed by 
 ladies or knights, and from one of the latter 
 received the accolade. His most imperative 
 obligations, taken on oath, were: to serve 
 God and his prince ; to uphold the weak ; to 
 be true to his word ; to despise gain ; to love 
 honour ; to persist to the end in anjf adven- 
 ture he undertook; to reverence purity in 
 women ; to be faithful, courteous, and humble ; 
 and to protect maidens from danger and 
 insult. 
 
 Chivalry had its absurd side : in its name 
 men now and then played very fantastic 
 tricks; Single combats, tournaments, Jousts, 
 the splendid frivolities dear to an age of 
 empty show, were its outcome. But its 
 nobler gifts to mankind far outweigh these ; 
 from it sprang the Knights Hospitaller 
 and the Teutonic Order, which, along with 
 not a little that is questionable, certainly 
 bore excellent fruit. Above all, it set a curb 
 on the passions of men, and thus softened 
 the horrors of war ; held up before them an 
 elevating ideal; made active the virt;?es of 
 loyalty, courtesj', respect for women, valour, 
 justice, and veracity. Its chief bequest to 
 mankind was the " chastity of honour which 
 felt a stain like a wound," which still lives. 
 It is significant, too, that the clearest English 
 eye of the fourteenth century saw in the' 
 knight " who lovede chivalrie " 
 
 " Trouthe and honour, fredom and curtesie." 
 
 Hallam, Middle Ages, cip. ix., p. ii. j Milman, 
 Latin Christiarity, book yii., cap. vi., rreemau, 
 Norman Conquest, vol. v., 481—9 ; Laoroix, Fie 
 Militaire. et Religieuie an Moyen Age ; Guizot, Hia- 
 toire de la Civilisation, 6tli lecture of last course. 
 
 [J. E.] 
 
 Chivalry, The Coukt of, was held before 
 the Constable and the Marshal of England 
 for the trial of military offences, and for the 
 
Chu 
 
 ( 262 ) 
 
 Chu 
 
 decision of questions relating to coat armour, 
 personal honour, and the like. By 13 Eich. 
 II., cap. 2, it is declared that this court has 
 cognizance over aU matters of this kind, 
 e.xcept such as may be determined by the 
 common law. The court has long ceased to 
 be held ; the last instance of its sitting being 
 in 1737. 
 
 Chunda Sahib [d. 1752) married the 
 daughter of Dost Ali, deputy of the Carnatic, 
 and became chief minister. He -was made use 
 of by Dupleix as a pretender to the throne of 
 Arcot against the English candidate, Mahomed 
 Ali. In alliance with MozufEer Jung, the 
 French candidate to the throne of Hyderabad 
 on the death of the Nizam-ool-Moolk (1748), 
 he overran the Carnatic, and obtained inves- 
 titure from Dupleix and MozufEer Jung, 
 dive's defence of Arcot and the death of 
 MozufEer broke the confederacy ; and Chunda 
 Sahib surrendered to Monackjee, the Tan- 
 jorine general, who was in alliance with 
 Mahomed Ali and the English. The general 
 took a solemn oath to convey him to a 
 French settlement, but immediately after- 
 wards caused him to be assassinated at the 
 instigation of Mahomed Ali. 
 
 Church of England. Christianity 
 came to Britain in the wake of the Roman 
 occupation, and the British Church was so 
 fur organised that it sent three bishops to the 
 Council of Aries in 314. [Chukch, The 
 Celtic] The English invaders were heathens, 
 and British Christianity was swept westward 
 before them. The conversion of the English 
 was efliected by missionaries from Eome in the 
 south, and missionaries from lona in the north. 
 As the ritual of these two sets of missionaries 
 difEered in some points, difierent usages were 
 found to be productive of confusion, till at 
 the Synod of Whitby (664) the Northumbrian 
 kingdom adopted the Eoman use ; and from 
 that time England obtained ecclesiastical 
 unity as a daughter of the Church of Eome. 
 The work of ecclesiastical organisation was 
 begun by Archbishop Theodore in 668, and 
 the example of unity given by the Church 
 was one of the chief influences to produce 
 unity in the State. Church and State worked 
 harmoniously together, and there were no 
 questions to bring them into collision. The 
 bishop sat by the side of the ealdorman in the 
 shire court, and ecclesiastical causes were 
 decided in the same way as others. The 
 period of the Norman Conquest coincided 
 with that of the ecclesiastical reforms 
 wrought by Hildebrand on the Continent; 
 and the influence of his ideas is apparent in 
 the ecclesiastical policy of William I. 
 Ecclesiastical courts were established for 
 ecclesiastical causes, which were to be tried 
 by canonical, not by customary, law. This 
 change was considered necessary for the sake 
 of a uniform system of law, to introduce 
 more regular discipline into the Church ; but 
 
 it brought with it a vexatious extension of 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and led to the 
 recognition of the right of appeal to the 
 papal court, which ultimately proved ruinous 
 to the authority and independence of bishops. 
 But while making this change, William I. 
 was careful to protect himself from papal 
 interference by laying down three rules: — 
 (1) That the Pope of Eome should not be 
 recognised as apostolic, except at the king's 
 command, and that letters for the Pope be 
 first shown to the king. (2) That the 
 resolutions of ecclesiastical synods should 
 have no legal force till sanctioned by the 
 king. (3) That no baron or royal servant 
 be excommunicated, except by the king's 
 consent. These regulations of William I. 
 show a feeling of distrust about the relations 
 between Church and State which was speedily 
 realised. Under Henry I., Archbishop An- 
 selm raised the question of the lawfulness of 
 lay investiture to a spiritual office. The 
 tenure of clerical lands was, by the growth of 
 the royal power, assimilated to: 'that of lay. 
 The nomination of bishops, and their investi- 
 ture with the emblems of their spiritual 
 dignity, had passed into the hands of the 
 crown. Hildebrand strove to check the grow- 
 ing secularisation of the Church ; but the State 
 answered, with some show of reason, that it 
 could not allow of the existence of powerful 
 land-holders who did not recognise the king as 
 their lord. In England a compromise was at 
 length made between Henry I. and the Pope. 
 The king agreed that chapters should elect 
 their bishops, but the election was to be made 
 in the King's Court; he gave up the in- 
 vestiture with ring and crosier, but the 
 bishops were to do homage for their tem- 
 poralities. The crown retained the real 
 appointment of bishops, and the rights of 
 suzerainty over them, but abandoned its 
 encroachments upon their spiritual dignity. 
 Anselm showed that the Church was the only 
 power which could withstand the tyranny of 
 the crown. In like manner, Becket resisted 
 Henry II.; and Bishop Hugh, of Lincoln, 
 offered a constitutional resistance to the 
 demands for money made in the name of 
 Eichard I. During the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries the Church fought the battle of the 
 people, while it defended its own rights 
 against the threatening power of the king. 
 
 But though the Church succeeded in a 
 measure in holding its own against the king, 
 it was less successful against the Pope. The 
 Pope, as judge in all disputed cases, gained 
 considerable power over episcopal elections, 
 where disputes were frequent. In 1204 Pope 
 Innocent III. rejected the contending candi- 
 dates for the see of Canterbury, proposed 
 Stephen Langton, and confirmed his informal 
 election without the king's consent. Gradu- 
 ally, the king and the Pope came to a sort 
 of tacit understanding that they would share 
 between them the appointment to bishoprics, 
 
Chn 
 
 ( 263 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 and the result was that the powers of the 
 chapters became taore and more shadowy, till 
 they practically died away. . Papal provisions 
 and reservations over-rode the rights of 
 patrons, and though the Statute of Provisors 
 (1350, 1364, 1390) was enacted and re- 
 enaoted to check this abuse, the Pope and 
 the king found their interests to coincide in 
 keeping a tolerably close partnership in the 
 disposition of patronage. Yet the Statute 
 of Pnemnnire (16 Rich. II., c. o, 1393), which 
 forbade the prosecution of suits in foreign 
 courts, gave the king a powerful weapon 
 against the Pope, and was resented as an 
 infringement of the papal supremacy. Papal 
 taxation weighed heavily on the clergy, and 
 the attempt made by Pope Boniface VIII. to 
 exempt them from national taxation was 
 powerless before the resolute character of 
 Edward I. [Papacy.] 
 
 In the fourteenth century, the results of 
 the organisation of the Constitution by 
 Edward I., and the steady growth of royal 
 and papal interference with the appointment 
 and powers of the bishops, gradually di- 
 mini^ed the political influence of the Church, 
 and its spiritual activity declined. The 
 teaching of Wiclif marked dissatisfaction 
 against the Papacy, social discontent, and, 
 in a minor degree, desire for doctrinal 
 change. The social side of the Lollard 
 movement was the most largely developed, 
 and it was this especially that led to legis- 
 lation against heresy. In 1401 was passed 
 the statute De Htsretico Comburendo (2 Hen. 
 IV., 0. 15, 1401). The Church lost its hold 
 upon the people, and became more and more 
 dependent on the Pope and the king. There 
 was an acknowledgment of abuses on all 
 sides, but there was no power to work a 
 reformation. The machinery of the Church 
 had been mined by papal interference. 
 Reform was possible only at Eome ; but the 
 Popes showed no inclination to undertake it. 
 The clergy gradually put themselves more 
 and more under the royal protection as 
 against the Pope, tiU Henry VIII., freed 
 from any power of the baronage, and willing 
 to serve the interests of the commons, found 
 the Church reduced to obsequious dependence 
 on the crown. Henry VIII. quarrelled with 
 the Papacy about one of the few points in 
 ■which the papal interference with legislation 
 was possible without the king's consent. 
 At length he put forth the fulness of the 
 royal power. By suppressing the monasteries, 
 he deprived the Church of a third of its 
 revenues. He severed the union between 
 the English and the Roman Churches, and 
 compelled the reluctant clergy to recognise 
 the king as supreme head of the Church in 
 England. He practically deprived the Church 
 of legislative power by requiring the royal 
 licence for all decrees of Convocation. 
 Henry VIII. broke with the Papacy be- 
 cause the Papacy was an obstacle in the 
 
 way of his personal gratification; but he 
 aimed at a reformation of ecclesiastical prac- 
 tice and a re'- adjustment of the ecclesiastical 
 system to the needs of England as it was. 
 Still, the breach with Rome would have been 
 impossible to Henry VIII. if there had 
 not been a serious breach in the European 
 obedience to the Papacy. New theological 
 opinions were rapidly spreading in Germany, 
 .and had already attracted the attention of 
 scholars in England; and Henry VIII.'s 
 wish to confine his changes to mere points of 
 ecclesiastical organisation was impossible. 
 Yet, so long as he lived he held the balance 
 between the old and the new learning, and 
 checked the progress of doctrinal change. 
 Under Edward VI. the reforming party came 
 into power, and Archbishop Cranmer moved 
 forward towards the German Protestants. The 
 steps in his advance may be traced in the his- 
 tory of the formularies of theEngUsh Church. 
 [Akticles.] But the reforming party was a 
 minority of the nation, and its rapid changes 
 shocked the popular mind ; it owed its 
 political support to the selfish greed of a, 
 body of courtiers, who were willing to use 
 the Reformation as a means of enriching 
 themselves. Hence, the reaction under Mary 
 was greeted with delight; but it was too 
 complete to be permanent. The Cathohcisra 
 of Mary was anti-national, and the successive 
 failures of Protestants and Catholics under 
 Edward VI. and Maiy prepared the way for 
 the religious settlement of Elizabeth. 
 
 Elizabeth reverted to the policy of her 
 father, and strove to effect a compromise be- 
 tween the now hostile parties of the Catholics 
 and Protestants. The Catholics held to the 
 old formularies; the more advanced Protes- 
 tants, who had been in exile during Mary's 
 reign, had adopted the logical system of 
 theology laid down by Calvin, and demanded 
 that nothing should be adopted but what 
 could be proved by Scripture to be true. 
 Elizabeth favoured the opinion of the 
 moderate Reformers, who held that nothing 
 should be discarded but what could be shown 
 from Scripture to be false. The Prayer Book 
 of Edward VI. was revised, and two statutes 
 were passed in 1559 which established the 
 legal relations between Church and State. 
 The Aet of Supremacy required all beneficed 
 ecclesiastics, and all laymen holding office, to 
 take the oath of supremacy, and renounce all 
 foreign jurisdiction. The Act of Uniformity 
 prohibited the use by any minister of any 
 liturgy save that contained in the Prayer 
 Book, and imposed a fine on all who absented 
 themselves from Church. The Liturgy and 
 the Articles, under the direction of Archbishop 
 Parker, were devised so as to retain much of 
 the old uses, while purging them of much 
 that might offend the Calvinistio party. 
 The ideal of Elizabeth was comprehension 
 uniformly enforced. It was impossible that 
 such a scheme should be entirely successful ; 
 
Cliu 
 
 264 ) 
 
 Clin 
 
 yet it so far succeeded that the national 
 feeling of England gathered round the 
 Church, which embraced the large majority 
 of the people. But a considerable Catholic 
 party stood aloof ; and the excommunication 
 of Elizabeth by the Pope in 1570, the secret 
 visits of Jesuit missionaries, and the plots in 
 favour of Mary Queen of Scots, occasioned a 
 rigorous persecution of the Catholics. Simi- 
 larly, the Calvinistio party, or Puritans, dis- 
 liked manj"- practices of the prescribed ritual 
 as superstitious, and disregarded them. In 
 1563, Archbishop Parker issued a book of regu- 
 lations, known as the ' ' Advertisements " (q. v.) , 
 which afterwards received the royal sanction. 
 He attempted to enforce regularity in the con- 
 duct of services, and thereby only drove the 
 Calvinists into more pronounced opposition. It 
 is true that their spirit was narrow, and their 
 opinions tended towards the establishment of 
 the tyranny of an ecclesiastical democracy. 
 Yet the persecution of Archbishop Whitgift 
 was injudicious and ineffective. The High 
 Commission Court, to which was entrusted 
 the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the crown, 
 grew to be a means of royal tyranny. 
 
 One result of the legislation of Elizabeth 
 was that the Church became definitelj' sub- 
 ordinate to the State ; jurisdiction and legis- 
 lation for the Church could only be exercised 
 with the consent of the crown, and the rites 
 and discipline of the Church could not be 
 altered without the consent of Parliament. 
 The appointment of bishops was exercised 
 by the crown, and Elizabeth demanded that 
 they should be crown officials, for the purpose 
 of enforcing the ecclesiastical uniformity which 
 she required. They became, and have to some 
 extent still continued to be, disciplinary officers 
 executing the law, rather than Fathers in God 
 to their clergy. The Elizabethan bishops 
 were not men of lofty or commanding 
 character, and were indecorously dictated to 
 by Elizabeth and her Council. On the death 
 of Elizabeth there were loud demands for con- 
 cessions. But James I. lectured the Puritan 
 ministers in the Sampion Court Conference 
 (1604), and agreed to a few insignificant 
 alterations in the Prayer Book which recon- 
 ciled no one. Archbishop Bancroft continued 
 the persecution of the Puritans, and deprived 
 many Puritan clergy of their benefices. The 
 Puritan party became more and more identified 
 with the party of constitutional opposition 
 to the crown ; and in the Church itself a 
 party began to arise which insisted on the 
 necessity of Episcopacy as a divine institution, 
 and, by excluding Presbyterians from the 
 Catholic Church, seemed to draw nearer to 
 the Church of Rome. This party advocated 
 the divine right of kings, and preached the 
 doctrine of passive resistance. Under Arch- 
 bishop Laud it attained to great influence, 
 and aided Charles I. in his arbitrary and 
 unconstitutional conduct. The result was 
 that Puritanism in England combined with 
 
 Presbyterianism in England, Charles I. lost 
 his throne and his life, and the Church of 
 England was abolished. But rigid Presby- 
 terianism would have laid a heavier yoke on 
 England than the rigid Anghcanism of 
 Laud. Cromwell gathered round him the 
 sects, especially the Independents, and saved 
 England from Presbyterianism by advocating 
 the liberty of each congregation. But the 
 Puritan supremacy was intolerable to England, 
 and the restoration of Charles II. brought 
 back the Church of England, endeared to the 
 people as a bulwark against Puritanism. 
 There was some show of desire to meet the 
 scruples of the Puritans, and a Conference 
 was held in the Savoy Palace, 1661. But 
 Dr. Sancroft, who presided, was of an un- 
 yielding temper, and the demands of the 
 Puritans were unreasonable. Both parties 
 separated in anger. A few changes were 
 made in the Prayer Book — but they in- 
 creased rather than diminished the objections 
 the Puritans had to it. Then, in' 1662, 
 was passed an Act of Uniformity, which 
 required all beneficed clergy not only to use 
 the Prayer Book, and that only, but also to 
 declare " unfeigned assent and consent to all 
 and everything contained and prescribed in 
 it." About two thousand of the clergy were 
 ejected from their benefices for refusing to 
 make this declaration. Charles II. was 
 willing to grant indulgences to the Puritans, 
 that he might also grant them to the Catholics. 
 Parliament and the bishops regarded the 
 maintenance of the Established Church as 
 the only means of saving England from the 
 dangers of complications in foreign poUtios 
 which might come through Catholicism and 
 the dangers of the tyranny of an organised 
 minority in domestic afiairs. The royal 
 indulgence was opposed, and Acts against 
 Nonconformity rapidly succeeded one another; 
 the Corporation Act, the Conventicle Act, the 
 Five Mile Act, the Test Act, and the Act for 
 disabling Papists from sitting in either House 
 of Parliament, were all passed between 1661 
 and 1679. 
 
 In 1 664 an important change was made in 
 the relations between Church and State. 
 Hitherto the clergy had taxed themselves in 
 Convocation, but it was found that they con- 
 sequently were taxed more heavily than the 
 laity. In 1664 it was quietly agreed that the 
 clergy should be taxed in the same manner 
 as the laity — by Parliament. Though Con- 
 vocation had lost its power of making canons 
 without the king's consent, it still could 
 petition for redress of grievances before 
 granting supplies. Now that it ceased to 
 grant supplies, its proceedings became merelj' 
 formal, and after giving occasion to a theo- 
 logical controversy in 1717, it was not again 
 summoned for business till 1861, when it was 
 revived. J^Convocation.] 
 
 The policy of Charles II. seemed to favour 
 the Catholics, and popular suspicion led to a 
 
Chu 
 
 (265) 
 
 Chu 
 
 persecution of the Catholics in consequence 
 of the false evidence of a pretended Popish 
 plot. Notwithstanding a vigorous attempt 
 to exclude James II. from the throne, on the 
 ground that he was a Catholic, the general 
 desire of England for a settled government 
 led men to accept him as king. But James 
 II. strove to impose by his prerogative a 
 toleration which would enable him to put 
 CatBolics in all the important offices of state. 
 He ordered a general declaration of liberty 
 of conscience suspending all penal laws 
 about religion, to be read in all the churches. 
 Seven bishops, headed by Archbishop San- 
 croft, petitioned the kiug to recall this step. 
 They were committed to the Tower, and were 
 brought to trial for uttering a hbel against 
 the king, and their acquittal was a sign of 
 the public opinion against James, which 
 led to the Eevolution. The accession of 
 William III. and Mary was largely due to 
 the fact that the Dissenters preferred to wait 
 for toleration from the Church rather than 
 to accept it unconstitutionally from the king. 
 In 1689 a Toleration Act was passed, which 
 granted some reKef to the Dissenters, but 
 none to the Catholics. Moreover, the Revo- 
 lution overturned the doctrine of the divine 
 right of kings, which had been a tenet of 
 AngUcanism ; and Archbishop Bancroft, with 
 three hundred others, resigned their offices 
 rather than take the oath of allegiance to 
 William. The sect of the Non-jurors soon 
 died away, and Anglicanism was strong 
 enough to resist the changes which William 
 III., in the interests of comprehension, 
 wished to introduce into its system. Anne 
 showed herself favourable to the Church, and 
 in 1704 formed the fund which is known as 
 Queen Anne's Bounty, by giving up_ for the 
 augmentation of small benefices certain eccle- 
 siastical, dues which the English crown had 
 inherited as the heir of the papal claims.. 
 The old High Church doctrine of passive 
 obedience was revived in a modified form, 
 and the impeachment of an obscure divine, 
 Dr. SachevereU, for a sermon embodying 
 this view, was one of the causes of the fall 
 of the Whig ministry. The toleration given 
 to Dissenters under Wilham III. was dimin- 
 ished by the Act of 1711 against occasional 
 conformity, and the Schism Act of 1714, 
 which required all teachers to have a licence 
 from a bishop. But these were the last Acts 
 which savoured of exclusiveness. With the 
 accession of George II. a more tolerant spirit 
 prevailed. A yearly Act of Indemnity began 
 to be passed in 1727 for Dissenters who held 
 office contrary to prohibitive Acts. From 
 this time forward there was a gradual pro- 
 gress in practical tolerance, and in the last 
 thirty years of the century efforts were made, 
 ■with some success,- to repeal the disabling 
 Acts. The Corporation and Test Acts were 
 not, however, repealed till 1828, and in 1829 
 the Catholic Eehef Bill became law. 
 HIS1.-9* 
 
 Meanwhile, religious lethargy had invaded 
 the Church and Nonconformists alike. This 
 was broken by the efllorts of the Wesleys and 
 Whitfield, and their movement to Christianise 
 the masses met with great success. It was 
 looked upon by the Church with coldness 
 that deepened into dislike, and Wesley's 
 followers formed themselves into a sect known 
 by the name of Methodists. This movement 
 largely swelled the ranks of Nonconformity, 
 but also awakened the zeal of the Church. 
 Still, at the beginning of the present century, 
 the Church was violently assailed by Noncon- 
 formists ; ecclesiastical abuses were remorse- 
 lessly exposed, and claims resting solely on the 
 fact that they were " by law established" were 
 seen by their champions to be untenable. The 
 wave of Liberalism that carried the Reform 
 Bill was seen to be dangerously threatening 
 the Church itself. In the earlier portion of the 
 present century, the most active party in the 
 Church were the revived Puritans, under 
 Simeon and Melvill. A movement which 
 had its seat at Oxford, and was begun "by 
 Newman, Keble, Pusey, and HurreU Froude, 
 revived the old High Church party. In a 
 flow of tracts and pamphlets, the leaders of 
 this movement laboured to restore the dog- 
 matic basis of the Church. Their proposi- 
 tions awakened' considerable alarm, which 
 increased when some of the leading minds, 
 notably Newman and Ward, joined the 
 Church of Rome. Theological activity again 
 awakened, and questions as to the limits of 
 comprehension allowed by the formularies of 
 the Church of England to its clergy were 
 raised with much frequency. When these 
 questions had slightly subsided, another of 
 equal importance emerged — the question of 
 the limits allowed to the clergy in criticising 
 the Scriptures, and of individual opinion 
 as to their interpretation. The result of this 
 revival of theological interests was to bring 
 forward many points for settlement. In 
 early times appeals in cases of dispute were 
 decided by the Pope ; after the Reformation 
 they were decided by the king in council, and 
 a Court of Delegates was appointed when 
 occasion required. In 1832 this Court of 
 Delegates was abolished, and ecclesiastical 
 appeals were transferred to the appellate 
 jurisdiction of the king in council. In the 
 first heat of party feeling, the composition of 
 this court was not much regarded ; but more 
 recently this question has become one of the 
 chief difficulties in the relations between 
 Church and State. Another consequence of 
 theological differences was to show that the 
 Church was powerless to influence the election 
 of bishops by the crown. In 1847 objections 
 were made on theological grounds to the 
 appointment of Dr. Hampden to the see of 
 Hereford; but it was found that there was 
 no legal means of having these objections 
 brought to trial. In 1861 the meetings of 
 Convocation were revived, and though the 
 
Chn 
 
 ( 266 ) 
 
 Chu 
 
 constitution of that body is not entirely 
 representative of the clergy, it gives expres- 
 sion to many of their grievances. By its 
 agency a revision of the translation of the 
 Bible was undertaken. The Church has 
 become in the present century more vigorous, 
 and more highly organised, and has recognised 
 within its body considerable variations 
 of theological opinion. On the other hand, 
 Nonconformists have been freed from all dis- 
 abilities and from all legal obligations towards 
 the Church. An Act passed in 1868 abolished 
 compulsory Church rates for the maintenance 
 of parish churches, and the Burials Act of 
 1880 permitted Nonconformists to bury their 
 dead in the parish churchyards with their 
 own rites and ceremonies. In Ireland, the 
 Established Church, being a mark of English 
 ascendency, had never commended itself to 
 the Irish people, who remained Catholics. 
 It was felt to be a grievance that the Church 
 of the minority should be upheld by the 
 State, and in 1869 the Irish Church was 
 disestablished and partially disendowed. 
 
 The relations between Church and State 
 are closer in England than in any other 
 country. The Church, after the Reformation, 
 drew up its own services and formularies, and 
 is recognised by the State on that basis. It 
 cannot alter its services without the permis- 
 sion of the State, and the interpretation of 
 its formularies is in the jurisdiction of the 
 State, while the appointment af its bishops is 
 likewise in the hands of the State. 
 
 Berle, Historia Ecclesiastica ; Bi-iglit, Early 
 English Church Sistorn : Fuller^ Chwuah Bistmii 
 of Britain: Collier, JEcclesiastical Historij of. 
 Great Britain ; Blunt, Beformaiton of the Chwch 
 of England; Short, History of the Church of Eng. 
 land to the Bcuolufion ; Perry, Histoni of the 
 Church of England from the Death of Eliialetk ; 
 Molesworth, Htstoi-j/ of the Church of England 
 from 1660. rjl Ql 
 
 Church, The Eakly Celtic Two sharply- 
 contrasted periods are to be distinguished in 
 the early Church history of Celtic Britain. 
 So long as the Romans ruled in South 
 Britain, the Christianity which gradually 
 permeated from Gaul into the island was 
 weak, mainly confined to the Roman settle- 
 ments, and affected very little the native 
 population. The efforts made by Ninian, 
 Palladius, and Patrick at the conversion of 
 the Celts outside the province had very little 
 result ; but a very remarkable ecclesiastical 
 revolution seems to have closely followed the 
 withdrawal of the Roman legions. A wave 
 of religious enthusiasm, excited perhaps by 
 reaction from the Saxon conquerors, ran 
 through the whole Celtic portion of the 
 island. The first impulse came, as before, 
 from Gaul. Gallic churchmen, like Germanus 
 of Auxerre, re-kindled the dying embers of 
 Christianity in Britain, and led the orthodox 
 alike against Pelagian heretic and Saxon or 
 Pictish heathen. Monasticism, brought by 
 St. Athanasius from the East, found in St. 
 
 Martin of Tours its greatest Western ex- 
 ponent. From St. Martin's great Abbey of 
 Marmoutier the monastic current flowed 
 through Britanny into Wales and Cornwall, 
 and thence into Ireland, where it developed 
 itself to its extreme limits, and to Scotland, 
 to which the monastic movement first gave 
 Christianity. But the Saxon Conquest cut 
 off all communication between the Celtj of 
 Western Britain and the Continent. Separated 
 from civilisation by a wedge of heathenism, 
 the Celtic Church gradually acquired a 
 character of its own that marks it off sharply 
 from the Churches of the Continent. When, 
 in the seventh century, the conversion of the 
 English again renewed intercourse between 
 the Celtic Christians and the Western world, 
 the differences between the Celtic Churches 
 and the Catholic Christians had become so 
 great that intercommunion was regarded as 
 impossible, and a struggle for mastery 
 between the two Churches set in that ter- 
 minated only with the defeat of the Celts. It 
 was not that the Celtic Chiistians were in any 
 formal sense heretics. The only points that 
 could be alleged against them were their 
 habit of celebrating Easter according to an 
 erroneous cycle, which the better-instructed 
 Romish Church had abandoned, their pecu- 
 liar form of tonsure, a few unimportant 
 liturgical differences, and a willingness to 
 respect the Roman Church as the caput ecelesi- 
 anim, but a steadfast refusal to yield it that 
 canonical obedience which the Popes had now 
 begun to claim. But though the formal 
 differences of the Celtic and Catholic Churches 
 were thus few — though not on that account 
 the less hotly contested — the difference of 
 organisation, system, and spirit between the 
 two Churches was of the last importance. 
 The child of the monastic revival, Celtic 
 Christianity had become through and through 
 monastic. Monasticism had in many places 
 absorbed diocesan episcopacy. Great monas- 
 teries had grown up everywhere, which faith- 
 fully reproduced the tribal characteristics of 
 the Celtic State, whose abbots, themselves 
 often of royal houses, exercised a jurisdiction 
 that left nothing to the bishops save the mere 
 maintenance of the apostolical succession. In 
 the great abbeys of Ireland, and still more at 
 lona — ^the great foundation of Columba (q.v.), 
 which was the source of the Christianity of 
 Scotland and the seat of a jurisdiction 
 practically episcopal over its dependent 
 Churches — the swarms of bishojis were, 
 despite their higher rank in the Church orders; 
 subject to the jurisdiction of the abbot, who 
 was generally a mere presbyter. As centres 
 of education, of Church worship, of spiritunl 
 life, of an extreme asceticism, and of all ecclesi- 
 astical jurisdiction, the monasteries enjoj'ed a 
 far-reaching infiuence. Their intimate rela- 
 tion to the tribe enabled them to permeate 
 the whole life of the nation with a real, if 
 irregular, spiritual enthusiasm. The sixth 
 
Chu 
 
 ( 267 ) 
 
 Clia 
 
 and seventh centuries were the great period 
 of the Welsh and Irish saints, of the earliest 
 "Welsh literature, of successful resistance to 
 the English, to whose conquests a limit was 
 at last set. ■ Heathenism was driven out of 
 Celtic Britain. When Augustine and Pauli- 
 nus failed, Aidan from lona succeeded. At 
 least half of the conversion of England is due 
 to the Columhan monks. On the Continent 
 Celtic missionaries carried their own usages 
 and planted their own monasteries. Columha 
 founded Luxeuil, in the Vosges, St. Gall the 
 great abbey caUed after him in Upper Swabia. 
 In Gaul, Italy, and Germany a new wave of 
 religious enthusiasm was excited by the 
 strange missionaries from Britain. [Abbot ; 
 
 MONASTICISM.] 
 
 But the monastic Church of Celtic Britain, 
 though fertile in saints and missionaries, had 
 a fatal weakness in its want of definite 
 organisation. Even in Wales, where the 
 functions of abbot and bishop were generally 
 conjoined — the founders of the great Welsh 
 monasteries were also founders of the Welsh 
 sees (St. David, for example) — the work of 
 discipline and supervision which belonged to 
 the bishop could be very imperfectly performed 
 by a recluse who chose the remotest solitudes 
 for his abode. Efficient in exciting religious 
 emotion, the Celtic Church failed in its more 
 regular and routine duties. The monks were 
 better missionaries than parish priests. A 
 society that aimed at abjuring the worid could 
 not thoroughly make its influence felt in the 
 world. Shut up in an extreme comer of the uni- 
 verse, rigidlj^ opposed to all external influences, 
 its doom was sealed when the triumph of Wil- 
 fred at Whitby and the alliance of Oswy of 
 Northumbria and Theodore of Canterbury 
 expelled the Celtic customs from Britain. 
 [Whitby, Synod of.] Henceforth confined to 
 the north and west of the island, the monastic 
 Church lost, with its capacity for expansion, 
 its powers of vitality. It was affected by 
 two. opposite influences from without and from 
 within. The triumph of the Roman party in 
 England gave the secular clergy a position 
 side by side with the Celtic regulars. The 
 ascetic impulse which had established the 
 monasteries continued so far that monasticisra 
 itself was no sufiicicnt expression of the severe 
 spirit of renunciation that saw in the life of 
 the solitary anchorite the highest expression 
 of spiritual emotion. Even the tribal con- 
 nection which in the first flow of the move- 
 ment had done so much service to the monas- 
 teries ultimately proved a snare. The secular 
 aspect of the tribe began to assert itself, and 
 an abbey whose head was an hereditary oflicial 
 soon became a monastery simply in name. 
 As the abbey had earlier absorbed the tribe, 
 so the tribe now absorbed the abbey. 
 
 Thus assailed from within and without, the 
 monastic Church could offer no efficient oppo- 
 sition to the strong reaction in favour of 
 . communion with Western Christendom, even 
 
 at the expense of a loss of the national usages. 
 In 634 the Southern Irish, in 692 the Northern 
 Irish, accepted the Roman Easter. On the 
 death of Adamnan (704), an effort to introduce 
 the Roman customs into lona itself led to a 
 schism in that monastery. In 717 the 
 Columban monks were expelled from the 
 kingdom of the Picts. In the middle of the 
 eighth centurj' the Welsh gave up the Celtic 
 Easter. Foi-mal schism was thus ended, but it 
 was centuries before the monastic peculiarities 
 of the Celtic Churches entirely disappeared. 
 The Danish invasions, the English overlord- 
 ships, both had their effect, yet it was not 
 until the days of Matilda, wife of Malcolm 
 Canmore, that complete diocesan episcopacy 
 and the rule of St. Benedict were imposed on 
 the Scots, and the Culdees (q.v.) reduced to the 
 position of canons regular. In the same way 
 the Norman kings reorganised the Church of 
 Ireland on a territorial, instead of a tribal, 
 basis. Wales, where the Celtic Church 
 had never developed so far, where diocesan 
 episcopacy always continued in a way, gradu- 
 ally became subject to Canterbury, as well as 
 to the English kings. The Norman Conquest 
 imposed on the Welsh Church a, foreign 
 hierarchy, that completed the process of union. 
 Centuries earlier the Scottish monks on the 
 Continent had been compelled to accept the 
 Rule of St. Benedict. 
 
 The true history of the old Celtic Church 
 has been obscured by a cloud of fable and 
 legend which has seen in it a Protestant 
 witness against the errors of Rome, and a 
 Presbyterian polity worthy of Calvin, which 
 has regarded its characteristics as survivals of 
 the mystic lites of Druidism, and which has 
 found the explanation of its Easter observance 
 in the Quartodeciman practice of the Churches 
 of Asia. 
 
 The chief material s for the history of the Celtic 
 Church are in Haddau and Stubbs's Councils 
 and in Adamuan's L'fe of Columha. Dr. Eeeve's 
 introduction and notes to Adamnan, and Mr. 
 Skene's Celtic Scotland^ vol. ii,, may be mentioned 
 as leading modern authorities for Ireland and 
 Scorlaud. In the Lives of the Caraiiro British 
 Scinta, amidst much that is wild legend, son e- 
 thing authentic may he gleaned. Bees' Welsh 
 Saints is an ingenious attempt at reconstructing 
 one aspect of early Welsu Church history. 
 Pryce's AnHent Briiisli Church is a useful com- 
 pendium of that portion of the subject. The 
 essays on the Churches of the BHtish Confession 
 and The Scots on the Continent, in A. W. Haddau's 
 Remains, are a masterly summary of the whole 
 question. Montalemhert's Monlis of the West 
 gives an eloquent, if often mislea-^iug, picture of 
 the monastic aspect of the Church. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Church of Ireland. [Ibish Chuhch.] 
 Church of Scotland. [Scotland, 
 Chcrch of.] 
 
 Church Bates, or rates levied (for the 
 maintaining of the church and churchyard in 
 good condition) from the parishioners and 
 occupiers of land within a parish, are voted 
 and assessed by a majority of the parishioners 
 
CllTl 
 
 ( 268 ) 
 
 Cin 
 
 assemtledinavestry meeting. Churcli rates are 
 of very ancient origin ; and as early as 9(0 
 Archbishop Elfric ordained that Tithes (q.v.) 
 should be divided into three parts, one of which 
 was to be set aside for the repairing of the 
 church. This Church rate, at first voluntary, 
 became gradually obligatory, and though up to 
 1 8 1 7 the only method of enforcing payment was 
 through the action of the ecclesiastical courts, 
 it was in that year enacted that the payment 
 might be enforced by the county justices. 
 The objection of the Dissenters to pay these 
 rates led to much litigation on the subject. 
 Frequent bills were brought in for their 
 abolition, and in 1858 a bill of Sir John 
 Trelawney actually passed the House of 
 Commons, but was rejected by the Lords. 
 The opposition of the Dissenters at the vestry 
 meetings was frequently so strong as to 
 prevent the levying of any rate at all, and 
 " in 1859," says Sir J. Erskine May, " Church 
 rates had been refused in no less than 1,525 
 parishes or districts." The question was 
 settled in 1868 by the abolition of compulsory 
 Church rates and the substitution of voluntary 
 pavments. 
 
 May, Const. Hist. ; Lord Campbell's Letter an 
 the Law of Church Rates. 
 
 Churchill, Arabella (*. 1648, d. 1730), 
 was the daughter of Sir Winston Churchill, 
 and sister of the Duke of Marlborough. She 
 became the mistress of the Duke of York 
 (afterwards James II.) and by him the mother 
 of James Fitz-James, Duke of Berwick, and 
 three other children. She subsequently 
 married Colonel Charles Godfrey. 
 
 Churchill, Admiual George, was a 
 younger brother of the Duke of Marlborough. 
 In 1693, when in command of a brigade, he 
 took his nephew, the Duke of Berwick, 
 prisoner at the battle of Landen. On the 
 accession of Queen Anne he was placed on 
 the Admiralty Board. He had complete 
 ascendency over the head of the Admiralty, 
 Prince George of Denmark, the husband of 
 the queen, and thwarted the councils of 
 Admiral Rooke. In 1707 he was vehemently 
 attacked by the Whigs for his mismanage- 
 ment ; it was alleged that he had altogether 
 neglected to counteract a junction of the 
 French fleets, by means of which several 
 men-of-war acting as convoys to merchant 
 ships had been destroyed. He was again 
 attacked by Wharton, with aview to injuring 
 the Duke of Marlborough. His reply to the 
 Commission of Inquiry, written in a spirit of 
 cool defiance, served to exasperate his enemies 
 still more. On the death of Prince George 
 he was dismissed from office (1709). " The 
 mental constitution of this man," says Mr. 
 Wyon, " was the opposite of that of his 
 illustrious relative. He was a Tory of the 
 extreme school — virulent, domineering, and 
 foolish." 
 
 Coxe, Life of Marlborough; Wyon, Beign of 
 Queen Anne, 
 
 Churchwardens are parish oflicers who 
 are charged with the duty of looking after 
 the condition of the parish church, of provid- 
 ing what is necessary for the celebration of 
 the sacrament and the services, of summoning 
 vestries, and of superintending church matters 
 generally. They are usually two in number 
 (though occasionally there is one only), and 
 are chosen either by the parson and the 
 parishioners jointly, or one by the minister 
 and the other by the parishioners. In the 
 Canons of 1603 it is enacted that the "church- 
 wardens shall be chosen yearly in Easter 
 week by the joint consent of the minister 
 and parishioners, if it may be, but if they 
 camiot agree, the minister shall choose one 
 and the parishioners the other." Practically, 
 in nearly every parish, one churchwarden is 
 chosen by the minister and the other by the 
 people. 
 
 Burns, Eccles. Law, 
 Cinque Ports, The, are a group of 
 seven towns, situated in Sussex and Kent, 
 which still possess, in some degree, their 
 old and peculiar jurisdiction. The original 
 members of the group were Hastings, Eom- 
 ney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich, to which 
 the " ancient towns " of Winchelsea and Eye 
 were afterwards added. They still retain 
 the privilege of holding two courts — viz., the 
 Court of Brotherhood and the Court of 
 GuestHng ; but these exercise now only a 
 very small part of their former functions. 
 The Cinque Ports owe their existence as a 
 corporate body to the fact that in our early 
 history there was no standing navy. Hence, 
 whenever invasion was threatened or con- 
 templated, it was necessary to rely mainly on 
 the services of the seaboard towns, although 
 even before the Conquest the inland counties 
 had, under Ethelred, to furnish their quota 
 of ships. Dover is returned in Domesday as 
 owing twenty vessels in return for its liberties, 
 and other towns of the later group had 
 similar duties. But as yet we have no record 
 of the Cinque Ports as a body possessed of 
 special privileges in return for definite 
 duties.. By the beginning of Henry III.'s' 
 reign, however, the name has emerged. It 
 was the Cinque Ports that contributed largely 
 to the defeat of Eustace the Monk in 1217, 
 and four years later we find the same body 
 summoned before Hubert de Burgh for piracy 
 against the men of Calais. In 1242 Henry 
 issued orders to the officers of this corpora- 
 tion to prey upon French merchants and 
 travellers — an order whose terms they en- 
 larged upon, to the hurt of their fellow- 
 countrymen. By this time, then, we may 
 consider the Cinque Ports to be a recognised 
 institution, with its own officers and warden, 
 and in this capacity its members espoused the 
 cause of De Montfort, and were summoned 
 to send " barons" to the Parliament of 1265. 
 Local historians have claimed for these barons 
 a position higher than that of the borough 
 
Ciu 
 
 ( 269 ) 
 
 Cis 
 
 members, or even the knights of the shire. 
 It is not, however, till the reign of Edward I. 
 that we have absolute proof that the Cinque 
 Ports possessed a charter. But, on the other 
 hand, the terms of Edward's charter speak 
 definitely of certain rights possessed by this 
 body in the time of Henry II., and more 
 vaguely of others dating back through almost 
 every previous reign to that of the Confessor. 
 And we may consider Edward I.'s charter, 
 though somewhat enlarged by later sove- 
 reigns, as a fair summary of the privileges of 
 the Cinque Ports. By the terms of this 
 charter the Cinque Ports were to have 
 criminal and civil jurisdiction within their 
 limits ; exemption from aU taxes, aids, and 
 toUages ; the right of assembling in their own 
 parliament at Shepway, near Hythe, for the 
 jjurpose of making by-laws ; and several other 
 privileges, including the right of regulating 
 the Yarmouth fishery and fair. In return for 
 these concessions, they were to furnish the 
 king at call with fifty-seven ships for fifteen 
 days each year, and there is at least one in- 
 stance where they had to victual the ships sup- 
 plied by another town (London). The officer 
 in command of the ships furnished b)' the 
 Cinque Ports was called the Warden ; and 
 under Edward I. the Warden of the Cinque 
 Ports acted as admiral of the fleet from Dover 
 to Cornwall. 
 
 The Cinque Ports continued to be the main 
 strength of our navy till the time of Henry 
 VII. In the reign of this king we find 
 signs that they had already fallen, or were 
 falling, under the ordinary taxation of the 
 kingdom, though they are still allowed to 
 deduct £500 from their own share of any 
 tenth or fifteenth levied on the counties of 
 Sussex and Kent — a privilege which Elizabeth 
 confirmed as a reward for their ser™es 
 against the Armada. The Charters of the 
 Cinque Ports were surrendered to the crown 
 in 168.5, and most of their-peculiar privileges 
 and obligations -were abolished by the Eeform 
 Act (1832), and Municipal Corporations Act 
 (1835). 
 
 Jeakes, Charters of the Cinque Ports; Great 
 and Ancient Charter of the Cinque Ports ; Lyons, 
 Biatcrry of Dover. [T. A. A.] 
 
 Ciutra, The Convention of (Aug. 30, 
 1808), was an agreement made atthe beginning 
 of the PeninsiSar War between the French 
 and English after the battle of Vimiero. The 
 conditions would have been much more 
 favourable to the British had not the timid 
 caution of Sir Harry Burrard and Sir Hew 
 Dalrymple prevented Sir Arthur _ Wellesley 
 from following up the advantage gained in the 
 battle. An advance was cautiously begun 
 towards Lisbon ; and almost immediately an 
 envoy was sent by Junot to treat. Terms 
 were drawn up, subject to the approval of the 
 English admiral, and this he would not give. 
 Negotiations were accordingly begun afresh, 
 while the English advanced still nearer to 
 
 Lisbon. Junot on his side threatened to fire 
 the public buildings of Lisbon ; and the threat 
 had the effect of hastening on the negotiations. 
 Finally, the Convention of Cintra was signed 
 at Lisbon, the terms being that the French 
 troops should evacuate Portugal, and should 
 be transported to France in English ships. 
 After some trouble it was also decided that 
 the Russian fleet in the Port of Tagus should 
 pass into the hands of the English. 
 Much indignation was felt in England on the 
 news of the convention, although four months 
 previously it would have been hailed with 
 delight. Burrard, Dalrymple, and Wellesley 
 were ordered home to take their trial, and Sir 
 John Moore was appointed to the command in 
 the Peninsula. 
 
 Napier, P&ainsular War. 
 
 " Circnmspecte Agatis " was the 
 
 title of a writ or statute issued by Edward I. 
 in 1285, defining the duties of the ecclesias- 
 tical courts, and fixing the boundaries between 
 the temporal and spiritual jurisdictions, thus 
 putting a stop to the gradual encroachment 
 of the ecclesiastical courts in matters of 
 which the cognisance belonged to the crown. 
 By this statute breaches of morality, such as 
 adultery and false swearing, are assigned to 
 the Courts Christian, together with questions 
 of tithes, mortuaries, or battery of a clerk. 
 
 Cirencester is situated on the site of an 
 important Eoman militarj- station, named 
 Corinium. It was captured by the Danes in 
 878. An ahbey of some importance was 
 founded by Henry I., and a fine church built 
 in the fifteenth century. During the Civil 
 War the town was held by the Parliamen- 
 tarians, and captured by Prince Rupert in 
 1642, and surrendered again to the Round- 
 heads, in 1643. 
 
 Cissa {d- 520 ? ) was the son of Ella 
 (q.v.), whom he is said to have succeeded in 
 517. His name is traced in Chichester (Cissa- 
 ceaster) and possibly in Cissbury Camp. 
 
 Cistercians, The, were a religious order, 
 an ofil-shoot of Benedictines, founded in 1098 
 at Citeaux. The order owed much to its second 
 abbot, Stephen Harding, an Englishman, who 
 enjoined especially the strictest adherence to 
 the austere Benedictine rule, from which the 
 Benedictines themselves had long departed. 
 It was Stephen Harding also who, at the 
 chapter of the order in 1119, established the 
 system of government which allowed a large 
 amount of independence to each abbey, under 
 the supervision of the general chapter of the 
 order. The order became very popular all 
 over Western Europe, and in no country more 
 than in England. They first settled at 
 Waverley, in Surrey, in 1129, and from 
 thence spread all over England. _ Their 
 houses were very numerous, especially in 
 Yorkshire. [Monasticlsm.] 
 
 J. H. Newman, CMercinn Saints ofUng., 1844; 
 Annates Cisferciences, 4 vols , Lyons, 164S. 
 
Ciu 
 
 ( 270 ) 
 
 Cla 
 
 Ciudad RodrigO, The Siege op, during 
 the Peninsular "War, January, 1812, was 
 the opening operation of Wellington's 
 campaign of 1812. The fall of the works 
 was hastened, in spite of many natural 
 and artificial ohstacles, on account of the 
 approach of Marmont with a relieving force. 
 Oil the 13th the Santa Cruz convent was 
 t.iken ; a well-organised sally, however, de- 
 Iived the bombardment; hut on the evening 
 of the 14th it was begun, and in the confusion 
 that arose, the 40th Regiment seized the 
 convent in the suburbs to the east of the 
 town. The bombardment was kept up almost 
 continuously, till on the 18th the great 
 breach became a wide gap. On the 19th, 
 soon after seven o'clock, the assiult was 
 begun : the fausse-braye was cleared by the 
 stormers ; but the French, driven back, held 
 their ground behind the retrenchment, and 
 wrought great havoc among the British. 
 Meanwhile, the attack at the smaller breach 
 had been made with reckless impetousity, 
 which carried the fausse-hraye ; and sweep- 
 ing onward, led by Major Napier, the light 
 division dashed into the narrow ope.jing, and 
 at the point of the bayonet broke down all 
 resistance, until they had gained a foothold 
 in the town. Then part of the light division, 
 driving all before them, fell upon the flank of 
 the defenders at the great breach, and by 
 their overthrow made a way for the entrance 
 of the storming party ; while the rest of the 
 light troops cleared the streets and houses in 
 the town. The town very soon became the 
 scene of the wildest excesses and frenzied 
 disorder. The loss of the allies was 90 officers 
 and 1,200 soldiers. 
 
 Napier, Pfiimswlar War; Clinton, Peninsular 
 War. 
 
 Civil Iiist, The, is a sum of money 
 granted annually by Parliament for the 
 support of the royal household, and the 
 personal expenses and bounty of the sove- 
 reign. It originated in the reign of 
 William and Mary, and at first comprised 
 the payment of civil offices, and pensions. 
 Its amount was fixed at £700,000 (£400,000 
 being derived from the hereditary revenues 
 of the crown and £300,000 from the Excise 
 duties). This continued to be the nominal 
 sum — although frequent debts were incurred 
 — until the reign of George II., when it was 
 increased to £800,000, being further raised in 
 1777 to £900,000; this sum, however, proved 
 quite inadequate for the necessary expenditure, 
 and debts on the Civil List had continually 
 to be paid throughout the whole of the reign 
 of George III. ; and it was found advisable 
 to remove from the list many charges, such 
 as salaries of state officers and the like. On 
 the accession of WiUiam IV. these extraneous 
 charges were further reduced, and the Civil 
 List fixed at £510,000, a sum which included 
 a pension;list of £75,000. The Civil List 
 paid to the Queen by 1 Vict., o. 2, amounts 
 
 to £385,000, and is exclusively devoted (with 
 the exception of £1,200 annually, which 
 may be granted in pensions) to the pay- 
 ment of her Majesty's household and personal 
 expenses. 
 
 May, Const. Htst. 
 
 Civil Wars. [Babons' War; Eoses, 
 Waks of ; GitEAT Rebellion.] 
 
 Claim of Right, The, passed by the 
 Scottish Estates in April, 1689, declared 
 that James VII. had forfeited the crown for 
 various offences committed against the con- 
 stitution of the kingdom and the privileges 
 of the subjects, and that no Papist could ever 
 in the future rule over Scotland ; it further 
 declared the necessity of frequent Parlia- 
 ments, and the burdensome nature of prelacy. 
 It was, in fact, a statement of the term 
 on which the Scottish crown was offered 
 to William of Orange. [Convention ojp 
 Estates.] 
 
 Claimants of the Scottish Crown 
 
 in 1291. On the death of the Maid of 
 Norway (1290), the last of the descendants of 
 Alexander III., a number of competitors for 
 the Scottish crown appeared. Chief amongst 
 them were John Bali ol, Robert Bruce, and John 
 de Hastings, the descendants of three sisters, 
 daughters of David, Earl of Huntingdon. 
 Baliol claimed as the grandson of the eldest 
 sister, Bruce as the son of the second, and 
 Hastings, as the son of the youngest daughter, 
 claimed one-third of the kingdom, con- 
 tending- that it was di\'rsible like other inheri- 
 tances. This disputed succession Edward I. 
 determined to settle, and accordingly sum- 
 moned a conference of Scottish and English 
 nobles to meet at Norham, May, 1291. It 
 was there determined to accept Edward's 
 appointment as lord paramount, and to 
 appoint commissioners to decide upon the 
 merits of the claimants. Forty were named 
 by Baliol, forty by Bruce, and twenty-four 
 by the English king. In June, 1292, these 
 commissioners, after much deliberation, re- 
 ported in favour of Baliol, stij-ing that " By 
 the laws and usages of both kingdoms, in 
 every heritable succession the more remote 
 in one degree lineally descended from the 
 eldest sister, was preferable to the nearer in 
 degree issuing from the second sister." 
 Edward accordingly declared John BaUol 
 king. 
 
 Besides these three chief, there were ten 
 minor, competitors : Nicholas de Soulis, the 
 grandson of Marjory, natural daughter of 
 Alexander II., whom he declared to have 
 been legitimatised ; Florence, Earl of Holland, 
 great grandson of Ada, daughter of Prince 
 Henry, and sister of William the Lion ; 
 Robert de Pinkeny, great grandson of Mar- 
 jory, daughter of Prince Henry ; William de 
 Ros ; Patrick, Earl of March, and William de 
 Vesa and Roger de Mandeville, the descen- 
 dants of illegitimate daugriters of William 
 
Cla 
 
 (271) 
 
 Cla 
 
 the Lion; Patrick SalytUy, son of an 
 illegitimate son of "William ; John Comyu of 
 Badenoch, who claimed as the descendant of 
 King Donald Bane ; and Eric, King of 
 Norway, who claimed as the heir of his 
 daughter, the Maid of Norway. None of 
 these claims were of any validity, and they 
 were not pushed to an open trial. 
 
 Claims, The Court or, was estahlished 
 in 1662, in accordance with the first Act 
 of Settlement to examine the case of all 
 dispossessed Irish proprietors. It decided very 
 largely in favour of the natives, and very 
 soon such large grants were made to the 
 Duke of York and others, that it hecame im- 
 possible to provide for any other claimants. 
 Thus, after it had heard ahout 600 claims 
 its labours came to an end, and the second 
 Act of Settlement, 1665, hecame necessary. 
 
 Clanricarde, TJlick Burke, or Eb 
 BuBGH, 1st Marquis of (S. 1604 ? d. 1655), 
 was so created in 1645. Though a Roman 
 Catholic, he continued faithful to the king 
 all through the EebeUion of 1641 (q.v.). 
 His sympathies were largely with the 
 insurgents, but he refused the supreme com- 
 mand they offered him. At court, in 1647, 
 he was able to combine his loyalty with his 
 attachment to the ancient faith, and began 
 to take a prominent part in affairs. When, 
 in 1649, Ormonde left the country, he made 
 Clanricarde Lord Deputy, who in 1650 
 induced the Irish to reject the terms offered 
 them by Parliament. He continued to hold 
 out for some time longer, but was finally 
 compelled to surrender to Coote on the usual 
 terms of personal freedom, and the restoration 
 of part of his estates. He was succeeded by 
 his cousin as Earl of Clanricarde, the mar- 
 quisate dying with him as he had no issue. 
 At the Restoration all his estates were at 
 once restored to his heirs. His Memoirs 
 Concerning the Affairs of Ireland from 1640 to 
 less were published in 1722. 
 
 Clare, Gilbert de, Earl of Gloucesti^ 
 (i. 1295). [Gloucester.] 
 
 Clare, John, Earl -of. [fiTxoiBBOif.] 
 
 Clare Election (July,, 1828) was the 
 famous contest in which Daniel O'Connell 
 was, after five days' polling, returned 
 against Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, a supporter of 
 Catholic Emancipation, but a Prote5ta,nt, 
 who was seeking re-olection on becoming 
 President of the Board of Trade. O'Connell 
 was the first Catholic returned te Parliament 
 since 1690. He owed .his election to the 
 "forties;" the £50 freeholders and_ the 
 gentry without distinction of political opinion 
 voting to a man for his opponent. When he 
 was elected he refused to take the oaths ; but 
 after the Catholic Emancipation Bill he was 
 re-elected without opposition, and look his 
 seat April, 1829. 
 
 Clarence, Georoe, Duke of (i. 1449, d. 
 1478), was the third son of Richard, Duke of 
 York, and brother to King Edward IV. After 
 the battle of Wakefield and the death of his 
 father, he was taken to Flanders for security, 
 but returned to England in 1461, on the 
 accession of Edward IV. He was made 
 Lieutenant of Ireland for seven years in 1462. 
 Being greatly vexed at the king's marriage, 
 he intrigued with the Earl of Warwick 
 against Mm, and, in 1469, married Warwick's 
 eldest daughter, Isabel, contrary to Edward's 
 wishes, at Calais, whither he had retired with 
 Warwick. In 1470 Edward fell a jjrisoner into 
 their hands, and for a time Clarence and AVar- 
 wick had everything their own way. But the 
 escape of the king and the defeat of the Lin- 
 colnshire insurgents, whose avowed intention 
 it was to place Clarence on the throne, changed 
 the aspect of affairs, and Clarence and Warwick 
 had once more to flee to Calais. Thence they 
 invaded England towards the end of the year, 
 landed in JJevonshire, and soon found them- 
 selves at the head of a large :army. Edward 
 was again obliged to flee from tihe kingdom. 
 Warwick with Clarence entered London, and 
 re-crowned Henry VI. But Clarence was 
 playing a double game. When Edward IV. 
 landed at Eavenspur and marched south- 
 wards, Clarence was in correspondenoe with 
 him, and when Edward advanced towards 
 London, Clarence marched out and }oined 
 him, and fought aguinst his old confederate at 
 Bamet. But Clarence soon quarrelled again 
 with his brother. He claimed the inheri- ^ 
 tance of Warwick as the husband of Isabel, 
 and was unwilnng to divide the earl's 
 possessions with Richaxd of York, who 
 married the second daughter, Anne. On 
 the death of Isabel, Clarence was anxious 
 to marry Mary of Burgundy, but the mar- 
 riage was prevented by Edward IV. A 
 violent quarrel ensued. A gentleman of 
 Clarence's household was condemned for 
 using necromancy against the king. Clarence 
 interfered with the execution of the sentence, 
 and was impeached by the king in person 
 before the House of Lords. He was con- 
 demned to death in 1478, and was made 
 away with secretly in the Tower. Accord- 
 ing to a well-known story, which is not sup- 
 ported by authentic evidence, he was di'owned 
 in a butt of jnalmsey wine. 
 
 Clarence, Thomas, Duke of (S. 1389, d. 
 1421), was the second son of Henry IV. In 
 1401 he was made Lieutenant of Ireland, and 
 in 1412 created Duke of Clarence. He played 
 an important part in the French wars of 
 Henry V.'s reign, and in 1421 he was 
 defeated and slain at Beauge by a combined 
 force of French and Scots. He married 
 Margaret, daughter of Thomas HoUaud, Earl 
 of Kent, and widow of John Beaufort, Duke 
 df Somerset, hut left no issue. 
 
 Clarendon, Assize of. [Assize.] 
 
Cla 
 
 { 272 ) 
 
 Cla 
 
 Clarendon, The Constitutions op (1 164), 
 received their name from the royal hunting- 
 lodge of Clarendon, near Salishury, where they 
 •were enacted. They were the outcome of the 
 determination of Henry II. to settle the rela- 
 tion between Church and State in matters of 
 jurisdiction. The eccleaiaBtioal courts which 
 had been separated from the national courts 
 by 'William the Conqueror had gradually ex- 
 tended their jurisdiction, and their pretensions 
 had been favoured by the anarchy of Stephen's 
 reign. Now, however, that justice was once 
 more fairly administered in the civil courts, 
 it became an absolute necessity to assert the 
 supremacy of the State over clergy and laity 
 alike, the more so since the ecclesiastical courts 
 had shown themselves unable to perform the 
 work they had undertaken. Many other 
 points connected with the relations between 
 Church and State had to be settled, such as 
 questions of advowson and excommunication, 
 of election to bishoprics, and of ecclesiastical 
 appeals, and on all these points the Constitu- 
 tions are very firm in insisting on the rights 
 of the crown. " They are," says Bishop 
 Stubbs, "no mere engine of tyranny or 
 secular spite against a churchman : they are 
 really a part of a great scheme of adminis- 
 trative reform, by which the debateable 
 ground between the spiritual and temporal 
 powers can be brought within the reach of com- 
 mon justice, and the lawlessness arising from 
 professional j ealouaies abolished. " The Consti- 
 tutions were drawn up by a committee of bishops 
 and barons, the Justiciar, Richard de Lucy, 
 having the chief hand in them. Their purport 
 is as follows : — 
 
 1. Any controversy- concerning advowson 
 or presentation to livings to be tried in the 
 king's court. 
 
 2. Churches in the royal demesne not to 
 be' given away in perpetuity without the 
 king's leave. 
 
 3. Clerks accused of any civil offence to be 
 brought before the king's court, and there to 
 claim their benefit of clergy. 
 
 4. No archbishop, bishop, &c., to leave the 
 realm without the king's consent. 
 
 5. Excommunicated persons not to give 
 excessive bail. 
 
 6. Laymen not to be accused, save by 
 certain legal accusers and witnesses, in pre- 
 sence of the bishop. If those who are 
 arraigned are such that no one is willing or 
 dares to accuse them, the sheriff shall, on 
 demand of the bishop, cause twelve lawful 
 men of the neighbourhood to swear before the 
 bishop that they will declare the truth in 
 that matter according to their conscience. 
 
 7. No tenant-in-ehief to be excommuni- 
 cated or to have his lands put under interdict 
 without the king's leave. 
 
 8. Appeals shall be from the archdeacon's 
 court to the bishop, from the bishop to the 
 archbishop, and no further (that is, to 
 Eome) without the king's leave. 
 
 9. If a dispute arise between a cleric and a 
 layman, whether a fief is held by ecclesiastical 
 or lay tenure, it shall be settled 'by the declara- 
 tion of twelve lawful men, in the presence of 
 the king's justice. 
 
 10. A man refusing to appear before an 
 ecclesiastical court shall not' be excommuni- 
 cated till an oflicer of the king has inquired 
 into the matter. 
 
 11. Archbishops, bishops, &c., shall hold 
 their possessions of the king as baronies, and 
 answer for the same to the king's justices, 
 and do suit and service and observe all the 
 king's customs, except in cases of life and 
 limb. 
 
 12. 'When an archbishopric, bishopric, &c., 
 in the royal demesne shall be vacant, it shall 
 remain in the king's hand, and he shall 
 receive from it all the revenues and proceeds. 
 
 13. If anj' of the barons refuse justice to 
 an ecclesiastic, the king shall give him 
 justice. 
 
 14. The chattels of those who are in for- 
 feiture to the king shall not be detained in a 
 church or churchyard. 
 
 15. All pleas concerning debts are to be 
 tried in the king's court. 
 
 16. The sons of villeins are not to be 
 ordained without the consent of their lords. 
 
 It is important to notice that the mention 
 of a jury in clause 6, and of the principle of 
 recognition by twelve lawful men in clause 9, 
 are the earliest instances of such mention in 
 anything like statute laws, though, no doubt, 
 the practice of such recognitions prevailed 
 long before this date. [BECiiET.] 
 
 Stubbs, Covst. Hist., i. 525. The Acts are 
 given in Stubbs's Select Charters, p. 137. 
 
 Clarendon, Edwakd Hyde, 1st Eakl 
 or (6. Feb. 18, 1609, d. Dec. 9, 1674), son of 
 Henry Hyde of Dinton, 'Wilts., entered Mag- 
 dalen Hall, 1622, the Middle Temple, 162.'j. 
 'When the Short Parliament was summoned, 
 Hyde, who had obtained considerable reputa- 
 tion as a lawyer, was elected member for 
 Wootton Bassett. In the Long Parliament 
 he represented Saltash, and took a prominent 
 part in the attack on the maladministration 
 of the last twelve years. Legal abuses, such 
 as the extraordinary courts, the ship-money 
 judgment, the misconduct of the judges, and 
 other causes which had brought into contempt 
 " that great and admirable mystery the law," 
 met with his chief attention. He shared in 
 the earlier portion of the proceedings against 
 Strafford, and his name is not among the list 
 of those who voted against his attainder. 
 But the question of Church government led 
 to his separation from the popular party, and 
 brought him into connection with the king. 
 In the autumn of 1641 he became, though 
 without any ofScial position, the confidential 
 adviser of Charles, and the real leader of his 
 party in. the Commons. He thoroughly dis- 
 approved of the king's attempt to seize the 
 Five Members, but nevertheless continued in 
 
Cla 
 
 ( 273 ) 
 
 Cla 
 
 his service, drew up in secret the royal 
 replies to the manif est9e3 of the Parliament, 
 and finally joined the king at York. His 
 great work was the formation of the party of 
 Constitutional Royalists, whose leader and 
 spokesman he was, and he now succeeded in 
 persuading the king to abstain from unconsti- 
 tutional action, and take his stand on his legal 
 rights. Thus he gave the king a policy, and 
 gathered round him a party. In the spring 
 of 1643 he was knighted, made a Privy- 
 Councillor, and appointed Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer. It was hy his counsel that the 
 king summoned the Parliament which met 
 that autumn at Oxford. In all negotiations 
 he was the king's chief agent and adviser, 
 and the Parliament recognised his importance 
 hy excepting him from pardon. When, in 
 1645, the Prince of Wales was sent into the 
 West of England, Hyde accompanied him as 
 one of his council, and also accompanied him in 
 his flight from the advance of Fairfax, first to 
 the Scilly Isles, then to Jersey (April, 1646). 
 In September, 1648, the outbreak of the 
 second Civil War, and the rumour of an ex- 
 pedition to England caUed him to HoUand to 
 join Prince Charles, but in the spring of the 
 next year he was sent as ambassador to 
 Madrid, and remained in Spain till 1651. At 
 the end of 1652 he rejoined the young king, 
 and from that time till the Restoration acted 
 as his chief minister, being promoted in 
 1658 to the dignity of Lord Chancellor. 
 During these. years he managed the king's 
 finances, conducted his negotiations with 
 foreign courts, and carried on a constant cor- 
 respondence with the disaffected in England, 
 which survives in the collection entitled the 
 Clarendon State Papers. At the Restora- 
 tion he drew up the Declaration of Breda, 
 and it was by his suggestion that the king, 
 instead of attempting to arrange the terms on 
 which he should be restored, referred them 
 unreservedly to the future judgment of Par- 
 liament. The king's return placed him at 
 the head of the administration ; he was 
 elected Chancellor of the University of 
 Oxford, and created Earl of Clarendon (April, 
 1661). His daughter's (Anne Hyde) mar- 
 riage with the Duke of York, which had at 
 first seemed to endanger, in the end confirmed, 
 his power. In his domestic policy he tried 
 to maintain the balance of the Constitution 
 against both king and Parliament. He 
 opposed the attempt to convert the king's 
 Declaration of Indulgence into law (1663). 
 It was afterwards charged against him that, 
 when he might have secured for the king a 
 revenue which would have made the king inde- 
 pendent of Parliament, he preferred not to do 
 so. "He had the mind" it was said, "to 
 put the king out of the necessity of having 
 recourse to his Parliament." On the other 
 hand, when the Cavalier majority of the 
 House of Commons wished to repeal the Act 
 of Indemnity (1662), he set his influence 
 
 against it, and kept the king to his promi&es. 
 " He often said it was the making those pro- 
 mises had brought the king home, and the 
 keeping them must keep him at home." When 
 Parliament introduced the principle of appro- 
 priation of supplies (1665), and the system of 
 auditing expenditures (1666), it was against 
 his advice that the king yielded to them. In 
 ecclesiastical matters he aimed at restoring the 
 state of things which had existed before 1640. 
 The Declaration of Breda had held out to the 
 Nonconformists promises of comprehension 
 and indulgence which were not observed. 
 Clarendon, after some hesitating attempts at 
 a compromise in favour of the Presbyterians, 
 urged the re-establishment of the old ecclesias- 
 tical system in all its rigidity, and supported 
 the enactment of the Corporation Act (1661), 
 the Act of Uniformity (1662), the Conventicle 
 Act, and the Five Mile Act (1665). Abroad, 
 the alliance with France, which began under 
 Cromwell's rule, was continued under Claren- 
 don. He favoured the Portuguese match 
 (1662) and negotiated the sale of Dunkirk 
 (1662). He opposed the war with Holland 
 (1665), but continued in office, and was made 
 responsible by public opinion for its misman- 
 agement. He had already been unsuccessfully 
 impeached by the Earl of Bristol (1663). In 
 August, 1667, he was dismissed from the 
 Chancellorship, and two months later the 
 House oH Commons decided on his impeach- 
 ment. The charges brought against him 
 were corruption, the intention of introducing 
 arbitrary government, and treachery in the 
 late war. In obedience to the king's com- 
 mand. Clarendon fled to France. Parliament 
 summoned him to return and stand his trial, 
 and as he did not do so, sentenced him to 
 exile for life. He therefore remained in 
 France until his death, which took place on 
 December 9th, 1674. As a statesman Claren- 
 don was honest, and constant to his principles. 
 His attachment to the Church never failed, 
 and his influence with both his masters was 
 always used to prevent changes in its govern- 
 ment or discipline. " He did really believe 
 the Church of England the most exactly 
 formed and framed for the encouragement and 
 advancement of learning and piety, and for 
 the preservation of peace, of any church in 
 the world." For the Constitution he had " a 
 most zealous esteem and reverence; and 
 believed it to be so equally poised that if the 
 least branch of the prerogative was torn off 
 or parted with, the subject suffered by it and 
 that his right was impaired ; and he was as 
 much trouiiled when the crown exceeded its 
 just limits, and thought the prerogative hurt 
 by it." During his first exile he wrote the 
 first seven books of the History of the Rebel- 
 lion and portions of the three subsequent 
 books (1646 — 1648). His object was to ex- 
 plain to posterity the success of the Rebellion, 
 and " to vindicate the memory of those few 
 who out of duty and conscience had opposed 
 
Cla 
 
 ( 274 ) 
 
 Cla 
 
 and resisted that torrent," i.e., to justify the 
 Constitutional Koyalists. The rest of the 
 History of the Mebellion wac written during 
 the second exile. Clarendon at first (1668 — 
 70) set to work on an Autohiojjraphy in which 
 he recounted his life down to the Keatoration, 
 and related over again much ihat he had 
 written in the History. He then changed his 
 mind, and decided to unite the two workfi, in- 
 corporating portions of the Life in the earlier 
 work, and also using it to form the latter 
 hooks of the History. Thus fke History of the 
 Mebellion consists of two parts, written at two 
 periods ; the first composed with rthe intention 
 of writing a history, the second with the 
 intention of writing a hiograpky. Of these 
 parts the first is the most valuable aiid the 
 most accurate. The Continuation of the Life 
 is an apology for Clarendon's administration, 
 written in 167.2 for the information of his 
 children. The Histony of the Rebellion in Ire- 
 land was written to vindicate Lord Ormonde. 
 Hwtorii nf the Rebellion, 1702 ; Life, 1769 ; Bis- 
 tovii of the itehellion in Ireland, 1712 ; State Papers, 
 1767 ; Lister, Life of Clarendon, 1838 ; Calendar 
 of the Ul-arendon Staie Paiiers, 1869. 
 
 .In tlie .first edition of the Ristory of the Re- 
 Sellion, edited by Sprat, Bisbop of Worcester, 
 some small alterations were made in the text ; 
 these were in part restored in the edition of 
 1826, and the original text was exactly printed 
 iu,1849. r(5^ |j_ p ] 
 
 Clarendon., Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl 
 OF (S. 1638, d. 1,709), was the son of Charles II.'s 
 great minister. In 168.5 he was appointed 
 Lord J?rivy Seal. At the end of the year he 
 was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 
 He found himself completely eclipsed in 
 that country hy the influence of Tyrconnel 
 and (as he was a sincere Protestant) 
 his alarm was great when several Roman 
 Catholics were bwoeu .of the Privy Council. 
 He, neveitheless, submitted to Tyrconnel's 
 dictation, and when -James threatened to 
 dismiss him for his reluctant compliance in 
 the reform of the army and administration, 
 he wrote humble letters, of a,pology. He was, 
 however, dismissed in 1687, shortly after his 
 brother, Rochester. He was invited to the 
 consultation in aid of ihe Seven Bishops. 
 When the Declaration of the Prince of Orange 
 was published, he told the king that he had 
 had no part in summoning him to England. 
 He was much grieved at hearing that his son, 
 Lord Cornbury, had deserted James, but 
 at length joined the Prince of Orange at 
 Salisbury. Finding that he wks coldly 
 received by William, he soon resumed 
 his Tory principles, and endeavoured to 
 persuade the Princess Anne to insist on 
 her rights to the throne. He took part in 
 the Jacobite plots of 1690. Before setting out 
 for Ireland William sent warning to him 
 through his brother, Rochester. He was 
 subsequently arrested by order of the Privy 
 Council. He again engaged in Jacobite 
 plots, and letters from him to James were 
 
 seized among Preston's papers. He was 
 confined in the Tower for six months, but 
 afterwards suffered to go free. On the death 
 of Queen Mary he lost his influence with the 
 Princess Anne. The remainder of his life 
 was spent in obscurity. 
 
 Clarendon, Sir Roger {d. 1402), was a 
 natural son of the Black Prince. He was a 
 personal attendant of Ridhard II. ; and in 
 1402, on a rumour that Richard was still 
 alive, attempted to raise a rebellion, but was 
 seized and executed. 
 
 Clarendon Code, Tke, is the name 
 given "to ithe four Acts passed during Lord 
 Clarendon's administration, directed against 
 Nonconformists — viz., the Act of Uniformity, 
 the Corporation Act, the Conventicle Act, and 
 the Five-Mile Act. 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas (S. '176-0, d. 1846), was 
 born at Wisbeach, and educaited at St. Paul's 
 School, and St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 In 1785 he carried ofE the Latin Essay, the 
 subject being, " Is it lawful to make men 
 slaves against their "will?" He -was so 
 thoroughly convinced by what he read on the 
 sifbj-ect of the horrors •«{ the slave traffic, that 
 he resolved to devote all his energies towards 
 its abolition. Clarkson began "with inde- 
 fatigable zeal to prosecute inquiries at -every 
 port. The result of his researches he em- 
 bodied in a pamphlet, entitled, A Summary 
 View of the Slave Trade. Most of the lead- 
 ing men among the Whigs encouraged the 
 msvement, and Pitt, in 1788, supported a 
 bill for mitigating the horrors of -the Middle 
 Passage. Clarkson's next publication was an 
 Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave Trade. 
 When the French Revohrtien broke -out, he 
 went over to Paris to try to induce the 
 National Assembly to -sot an example 'to the 
 world by introducing real equality for both 
 white and black men. So unceasingly did he 
 labour that in 1794 his health completely 
 broke down, and he had to cease from all 
 active Tvork. He occupied his enforced 
 leisure in writing c 'History tjf the Abolition 
 of the Slave Trade, w»hich appeared in 1808j 
 the year after the Act for its abolition had 
 passed through Parliament. In 1823 he 
 was appointed one of the 'vice-presidents of 
 the Anti-Slavery Society, which had just 
 been formed. To Clarkson's exertions is the 
 abolition of the slave trade in large measure 
 due, since it was his researches which enabled 
 Wilberforce to bring such convincing proofs 
 of its horrors before Parliament. 
 
 Clarkson's Memoirs; Wilberiorce's Life. 
 
 Classes, The Act of (1649), passed by 
 the Scotch Estates, disqualified four " classes" 
 of men from sitting in Parliament or holding 
 office for various periods. The classes con- 
 sisted of the enemies of the Covenant, Malig- 
 nants, those who had ent ered i nto the ' ' Engage- 
 
Cla 
 
 (275) 
 
 CIS 
 
 merit" with Charles I., and persons of immoral 
 life. 
 
 Claverhouse. [Dundee.] 
 
 Cleanse the Causeway (1520) -was 
 
 the name given to a' street iight xn Edinburgh, 
 between the partisans of the Douglas family 
 and the followers .of the crown and the 
 Hamiltons. The Douglases overpowered their 
 antagonists, and drove them from the streets ; 
 hence the name of the combat, in .which the 
 Earl of Angus, .the head ,of .the Douglases, 
 slew Sir Patrick Hamilton, brother of the 
 Earl of .Arran. 
 
 Cleargrits, The, was the .name given to 
 the extreme democratic party in Canada, 
 about 1850, who were in favour of seceding 
 from England and annexing Canada to the 
 United States. They were at different times 
 joined for a short period by discontented 
 members .bath of .the conservative and liberal 
 parties. 
 
 Clergy is the general name given to the 
 body of men set apart in England for the 
 performance of public worship. Christianity 
 in England was at first monastic, and churches 
 were chiefly served by .monks. [Church, 
 The Celtic] The clergy were maintained 
 by the ofierings ef the people .or by 
 the lords. The ecclesiastical organisation 
 of Arehbishep Theodore began from the 
 top and was diocesaji.; but it spread down- 
 wards, and parishes were formed on the 
 basis of ,towiiship8. The Levitical ordinance 
 of giving a tithe to God was first recom- 
 mended, and in 787 was esnacted by eccle- 
 siastical councils which had the authority of 
 witenagemots. At first this tithe went to the 
 bishop, who distributed it into four parts : 
 one for himself, lOne for the fabric of the 
 church, one far the poor, and one for the in- 
 cumbent. It was, however, frequently given 
 by the lords of lands to monasteries, and so 
 the system of appBopriation began. The 
 appropriators were bishops, monasteries, or 
 spiritual corporations who received the tithe, 
 and paid only a portion which they deemed 
 Sufficient to the vicar or curate who discharged 
 the spiritual duties of the parish. Where the 
 parson received the endowments of his office 
 he was styled rector. This system of appro- 
 priation led to the growth and wealth of 
 nionastic orders, and to an inadequate pro- 
 vision for the parochial clergy. Its prevalence 
 in England rendered easy the transf errence to 
 Henry VIII. of ecclesiastical revenues which 
 were held by appropriators in this anomalous 
 way. ^ _ ■ 
 
 In early times the clergy were the civilisers 
 and educators of England. Their system, 
 their councils, and their learning made them 
 powerful in influencing the growth of the 
 organisation of the state. After the Norman 
 Conquest their status became more definite, 
 as everything else became more definite like- 
 
 wise. The growth of the canon law into a 
 regular system, and the establishment of 
 ecclesiastical courts gradually led to clerical 
 exemptions from ordinary jurisdiction, which 
 produced disorders. Henry 11. strove to 
 remedy this by the Constitutions of Clarendon; 
 but criminous clerks were still handed over 
 to ecclesiastical tribunals if: they claimed 
 Benefit of Clergy (q.v.), a privilege which 
 was not entirely abolished tUl 1830. 
 
 The tenure of Church property was regu-- 
 lated by the concordat ^between Henry J^ 
 and Anselm, which established, the obligation 
 of homage on all temporalities. This led to 
 the taxation of Church lands on the same 
 footing as lands -held by other barons. The 
 taxation of the spiritual revenue of the clergy 
 ^^■as attempted by John,. but was withstood. 
 The claim of the Pope to tax the clergy for a 
 crusade gradually helped the king to break 
 dowji clerical immunities on this head. The 
 crown demanded g-rants from the spirituality, 
 who considered these demands in Convoca- 
 tion. In this way the clerical assembly 
 took part in secular business, and the clergy 
 became more definitely organised into an 
 estate of the realm. They were recognised as 
 such by Edward 1. in his Parliament of 1295, 
 to which iie summoned the pi»ctors of chapters 
 ajid of the parochial clergy. But the clergy 
 preferred io tax themselves in Convoca- 
 tion, and therefore did not foi-m sl clerical 
 .estate. Probably they .considered that they 
 were sufficiently lepi-esented by .the lords 
 spiritual. [Contocatiok.] 
 
 The clergy in the Middle Ages were a 
 wealthy body. Their share -of indirect taxa- 
 ition was nearly a, .third of Ihe whole amount. 
 Their landed^states were spread over England, 
 andiheir revenues from tithes and oflerings 
 were -still gireater. The monastic orders 
 especially w-eie good farmers, and did much 
 ,to bring the soil of England under cultivation. 
 The clergy were mild landlords, and stimulated 
 .the national industry. The numbers of the 
 clergy were very large, and they were taken 
 from -every class of society. Even villeins 
 sought ordination as a means of obtaining free- 
 -dom. But the wealth of the Church was un- 
 equally divided. Pluralities were common, 
 and many of the higher clergy were devoted to 
 the business of the .State. Parishes were not 
 well served, in spite of the number of clergy. 
 A'ery many of them were chaplains, or were 
 endowed iby private persons to say masses for 
 their dead. Abuses grew up in proportion as 
 the mechanism of the English Church was 
 broken down by Papal interference, and 
 appeals to Rome rendered futile the authoritj' 
 of the bishops. Till the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century the clerical order was 
 amongst the most resolute supporters of 
 natural liberties against the crown. .The 
 growth of clerical corruption gave weight 
 to the attacks of the Lollards upon the 
 clergy, and the clergy finding themselves 
 
Cle 
 
 (276) 
 
 Cle 
 
 threatened made closer alliance with the 
 crown. Yet the clergy, though ready to unite 
 in defence of their own privileges, never 
 made a compact political power. They were 
 divided amongst themselves. The regular 
 clergy opposed the seculars, the monks 
 disliked the friars, Dominicans were set 
 against Franciscans. In current politics the 
 clergy were as much divided as the nation. 
 They represented the education of the 
 country, and their influence was spread into 
 every class. Their moral influence was not 
 so good. The excessive numher of clergy, 
 their wealth and idleness, rendered them on 
 the whole frivolous. The obligation of 
 celibacy was frequently evaded by con- 
 cubinage, for which in. some cases licences 
 were purchased from bishops. 
 
 After the Reformation the wealth of the 
 Church and the number of the clergy were 
 greatly diminished. The connection with the 
 Papacy ceased, and the clergy became closely 
 united with the crown. Ecclesiastical courts 
 were not, however, abolished ; and under 
 Elizabeth a new court, the Court of High 
 Commission, was created for the purpose of 
 exercising the powers of the royal supremacy. 
 Elizabeth used the bishops as State oificials 
 for the purpose of reducing to uniformity the 
 body of the clergy. The clergy were allowed 
 to marry, but were ill-provided for, and no 
 longer had an intellectual superiority over the 
 laity. In the struggle against Popery on one 
 side and Puritanism on the other, the clergy 
 became more and more firm adherents of the 
 royal prerogative. The State, in its desire for 
 internal unity, recognised no other religious 
 system save that of the Church of England, and 
 refused to extend its limits. At the same time 
 the Court of High Commission was used to 
 sanction "oppressive proceedings on the part 
 of the crown. The Great Rebellion destroyed 
 monarchy and Church alike, and at the 
 Restoration the clergy returned as staunch 
 Tories. Even the avowed intention of James 
 II. to re-estabhsh Romanism did not, in the 
 eyes of some of the clergy, justify the Revo- 
 lution. Nearly four hundred followed Arch- 
 bishop Sancroft in resigning their benefices 
 rather than take the oath of allegiance to 
 WiUiam III. 
 
 The clergy of the seventeenth and the 
 early part of the eighteenth century as a 
 body were poor, and very many of the in- 
 cumbpnts laboured with their own hands. 
 Ecclesiastical incomes were still very un- 
 equally divided, and there was a great 
 difference between the wealthy and learned 
 clergy and the ordinary incumbents, who 
 were on the same level as their people. 
 The first attempt to raise the position of the 
 poorer clergy was made by Queen Anne, who 
 resigned the claims of the crown on annates 
 and first-fruits, dues levied by the Pope on 
 benefices which had passed into the hands of 
 the crown. Out of these dues was formed a 
 
 fund, known as " Queen Anne's Bounty," for 
 the augmentation of small Kvings. From 
 this time the average position of the clergy 
 has slowly increased. In 1836 a body called 
 Ecclesiastical Commissioners was established 
 for the improved management and distri- 
 bution of the revenues of the Church. The 
 number of clergy attached to cathedrals was 
 reduced, and the surplus revenues are applied 
 to the increase of small benefices. In the 
 same year the Tithes Commutation Act con- 
 verted tithes into a rent-charge upon the 
 land; and so ended the numerous disputes 
 between the clergy and their parishioners 
 which the system of tithes encouraged. 
 
 From the reign of Anne the clergy ceased 
 to have any direct political importance. In 
 1717 the sittings of Convocation were practi- 
 cally suspended. Since Anne's reign no bishop 
 has held any office of State. During the 
 eighteenth century the clergy were not 
 zealous in the discharge of their duties, till a 
 new stimulus was given to religious zeal by 
 the Wesleyan movement. The clergy were 
 content to rest on their position as officers of 
 a Church "Ijy law established," and there 
 were many scandals in reference to simoniacal 
 appointments. The Tractarian movement of 
 1833 did much to deliver the Church from 
 Erastianism, and to develop the zeal of the 
 clergy. In 1838 the PluraUties Act did away 
 with many of the abuses caused by the non- 
 residence of wealthy clergymen at the bene- 
 fices whose revenues they received. 
 
 Politically the clergy have been gradually 
 deprived of exclusive privileges, and the 
 State has removed all the disabihties which 
 it had formerly placed on those who were not 
 members of the Established Church. The 
 clergy are now subject to the same juris- 
 diction as laj'men in all civil matters. As 
 regards their orthodoxy, their morals, and 
 the conduct of their ministrations, they are 
 subject to the jurisdiction of their bishops 
 and to the law of the Church. The procedure 
 of the Bishops' Court is regulated by the 
 Church Discipline Act, 1840. Appeals from 
 this court were formerly made to a Court of 
 Delegates appointed by tho king ; but in 
 1832 this was transferred to the king in 
 Council. [Chl'hch.] 
 
 Admission into the clerical body is given 
 by episcopal ordination. Candidates must 
 have reached the age of twenty-three, must 
 prove themselves fit in character, education, 
 and orthodoxy, and must show that they 
 have a definite sphere within which they can 
 exercise their clerical functions. By canon 
 law, ordination conferred an indelible cha- 
 racter on the recipient, and a clergyman 
 could not relinquish the priesthood. The 
 Clerical Disabilities Act (1870) provides 
 that a clergyman may execute a deed of re- 
 linquishment, which is to be recorded by his 
 bishop in the diocesan registry. After this 
 registration, the priest or deacon is incapable 
 
Cle 
 
 (277) 
 
 cai 
 
 of officiating as such, and loses all Ms rights 
 as a clergyman. 
 
 To enable the clergy to discharge their 
 duties more efficiently, the State exempts 
 them from certain civil responsibilities. They 
 cannot be compelled to serve on a jury or 
 to hold any temporal office. Ecclesiastical 
 revenues cannot be seized ia payment of 
 debts, but are subject to sequestration, i.e., 
 the churchwardens pay the sum due out of 
 the profits of the benefice, after making pro- 
 vision for the performance of the services of 
 the Church. On the other hand, the clergy 
 labour under certain disabilities owing to 
 their spiritual avocations. They are pro- 
 hibited from trading, and may not sue for 
 debts due from commercial transactions. In 
 1800 they were declared incapable of being 
 elected members of the House of Commons. 
 Stubbs andHaddan, Councils; 'Wilkins, Co?i- 
 taXia; Stubbs, ConstitutiojiaX History, ch. xix. : 
 Perry, Histon; of the Church of England; Short, 
 Hisiory of tlie Church of England; Blaotstone, 
 Commentaries, book iv. rjl_ Ql 
 
 "Clericis Laicos" are the opening 
 words of the famous BuU issued by Pope 
 Boniface VIII., forbidding the king tp take, 
 or the clergy to pay, taxes on their eccle- 
 siastical revenues. The result of this was 
 that, in 1297, Archbishop Winchelsey refused 
 to agree to a money grant, whereupon Ed- 
 ward I. outlawed the clerg}', and confiscated 
 the estates of the see of Canterbury. Upon 
 this, many of the clergy gave in ; but the 
 archbishop still held out, till eventually a 
 compromise was made, whereby Winchelsey 
 promised that if the king would confirm the 
 charters, he would do his best to obtain 
 money from the clergy, the Pope having de- 
 clared that his prohibition did not afiect 
 voluntary grants for purposes of national 
 defence. [Confibmatio Caktakum.] 
 
 Cleveland, Barbara Villiers, Duchess 
 of (*. 1640, d. 1709), was the daughter of Lord 
 Grandison, and wife of Eoger Palmer. About 
 1659 she became one of Charles II. 's mis- 
 tresses. In 1662 her husband was made Earl 
 of Castlemaine, and it is as Lady Castlemaine 
 that his wife is generally known. Her beauty 
 and strong will gave her immense influence 
 at court, while in the number of her in- 
 trigues she almost eclipsed the king. In 1670 
 she was created Duchess of Cleveland, and 
 shortly afterwards left England for France, 
 ■where she spent the rest of her life. In 1705 
 she married Robert (Beau) Fielding ; but the 
 marriage was subsequently annulled, on the 
 ground of the husband's having committed 
 bigamy. Of- her sons by Charles II., the 
 eldest became Duke of Cleveland, the second 
 Duke of Grafton,, and the youngest Duke 
 of Northumberland. 
 
 Harailton, Memoirs of Grammont; Pepys, 
 
 Diary ; Evelyn, Diary. 
 
 Clifford, John, Lord {d. 1461), was the 
 sou of Thomas, Lord Clifiord, who fell in the 
 
 first battle of St. Albans. He was a strong 
 Lancastrian, and took part in the battle of 
 Wakefield, after which, in revenge for his 
 father's death, he killed in cold blood the 
 young Earl of Rutland, son of the Duke of 
 York. In 1461 he was defeated and slain at 
 Ferrybridge. 
 
 Clifford, Thomas, Lord (i. 1630, d. 1673), 
 descended from an old Catholic family, highly 
 distinguished himself by his bravery in the 
 Dutch War of 1665, and in 1666 was made a 
 Privy Councillor. He joined the Cabal 
 ministry in 1667, and took a prominent part 
 in the 'Treaty of Dover, and in advocating the 
 war with Holland. In 1672 he was made 
 Lord High Treasurer and a baron. In 1673 
 the passing of the Test Act compelled him, 
 as a Catholic, to resign his office, and shortly 
 afterwards he died. Clifiord was one of the 
 most zealous Catholics at court, and therefore 
 a strong advocate of tolerance of all religious 
 opinions. [Cabal.] 
 
 Bauke, Hist. ofEng. 
 Clinton, Edward, Lord {b. 1512, d. 1584), 
 an able commander and astute diplomatist, 
 was, in 1550, appointed Lord High Admiral 
 of England, having in the previous year held 
 the post of Governor of Boulogne. On the 
 accession of Elizabeth, he was confirmed in 
 his office of Lord High Admiral, though he 
 had just before shown some want of energy 
 whilst commanding the fleet in the expedition 
 against Brest, 1558. He subsequently became 
 a trusted adviser of Elizabeth, and in 1669 
 did much to suppress the rising in the 
 North. In 1572 he was created Earl of Lin- 
 coln, and in the same year sent to Paris to 
 ratify the treaty with France. His policy 
 was strongly anti-Spanish 
 
 Clinton, George (J. 1739, rf. 1812), Vice- 
 President of the United States, entered Con- 
 gress May 15, 1775, and voted for indepen- 
 dence. In 1776 he was a deputy to the New 
 York Provincial Congress. He was appointed 
 brigadier-general, and defended Forts Mont- 
 gomery and Clinton against Sir H. Clinton, 
 Oct., 1777. He was chosen Governor of New 
 York in 1777 and 1795, and Vice-President of 
 the Union 1804—12. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry (5. 1738, d. 1795), a 
 grandson of the sixth Earl of Lincoln. On 
 the prospect of a rupture with the American 
 colonies, he was sent out with Howe and 
 Burgoyne in command of reinforcements. He 
 distinguished himself at Bunker Hill, and was 
 soon afterwards despatched to Charleston. 
 He was appointed commandant of Long 
 Island. He did not, however, hold it long, 
 as he was compelled to capitulate to Gates. 
 In January, 1778, he was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief in America, and was fairly 
 successful in this position. In 1780 he made 
 an expedition to South Carolina and captured 
 Charleston, and at one time had almost won 
 back the Carolinas and Georgia. This cam- 
 
Cli 
 
 ( 278 ) 
 
 cu 
 
 paigri was stained by his tampering with 
 General Arnold to induce him to deliver up 
 West Point — a transaction which cost Major 
 Andre's life— he failed also to succour Corn- 
 wallis. Circumstances which would have tried 
 a much greater general than he, were opposed 
 to him, and he was superseded. On his return 
 to England a pamphlet war of mutual re- 
 criminations ensued between the two generals. 
 He was afterwards Governor of Limerick, and 
 in 1793 was transferred to Gibraltar, in com- 
 mand of which post he died in December, 1795. 
 Banoioft, Hist, of ^mpi-tca ; Gordon, American 
 Bevohition ; Clintoa's Narrative, 1782, and Obser- 
 vations mi Coynwallib's Answer, 1783. 
 
 Clinton, Sik Henry, G.C.B. (rf. 1830), 
 entering the army in 17S7, first saw 
 active service, as aide-de-camp to the Duke 
 of York, in the campaigns of 1793—4 in the 
 Netherlands. On his return to England in 
 1795, he was appointed lieut.-colonel of the 
 66th, and proceeded to the West Indies to 
 join his regiment. There he served under 
 Sir Ralph Abercromby, and was present at 
 most of the expeditions against the different 
 islands. On his return from the West Indies, 
 he served under Lord Cornwallis in Ireland, 
 as his aide-de-camp, and was present at the 
 surrender of the French invading force at 
 Ballinamuck. In April, 1799, he was at- 
 tached to Lord William Bentinck on a 
 mission to the Austro-Russian army in 
 Northern Italy, and was present at the 
 battles of Trebia and Novi, and the siege of 
 Alessandria. Being afterwards appointed to 
 join Suwarof, he was with him throughout 
 the enterprising campaign in Switzerland. 
 On his return to England he was appointed 
 adjutant-general in India, where he served 
 under Lake at the battle of Lasswaree, and 
 where he remained until the spring of 1805. 
 In 1806 he commanded the Guards in Sicily, 
 and held Syracuse from December, 1806, to 
 the following November. He was then 
 appointed to the command of a brigade in 
 Sir John Moore's expedition to Sweden, and 
 on his return became adjutant-general to the 
 army in Portugal, in wifiich capacity he was 
 present at the battle of Vimiero. Almost 
 immediately afterwards, he accompanied Sir 
 John Moore through the Spanish campaign 
 and the retreat to Corunna. His next em- 
 ployment was in Ireland, where he remained 
 two years, until he found a more congenial 
 sphere in the command of a division under 
 Wellington. He rendered conspicuous service 
 at Salamanca, and was left in command on 
 the Douro when Wellington advanced to 
 Madrid, and was present at the siege of 
 Burgos. For his services he received . the 
 thanks of Parliament, and obtained pro- 
 motion, but continued to serve in Spain, and 
 was present at neaily all the battles and 
 sieges in the north oif Spain and the south 
 of France. His last public services were 
 rendered to the countrj' at Waterloo, where 
 
 he commanded a division of infantry. During 
 the peace that followed, he had no opportunity 
 of displaying his great tactical abilities. 
 
 Napier, PeninsularWar ; Rose, Biographical Diet. 
 
 Clive, Robert, Lord (b. 1725, d. 1774), was 
 the son of an obscure country gentleman of 
 good lineage, but small fortune. He had 
 been' sent to India in the capacity of a writer 
 in 1744, and was present at the surrender of 
 Madras to Labourdonnais in 1746. The 
 counting-house was little adapted to his 
 genius, and he soon exchanged the pen for 
 the sword. Having obtained an ensign's 
 commissiori, he distinguished himself in the 
 operation before Devicotta, where he attracted 
 the admiration of Major Lawrence (1749). 
 He was also present at the disastrous siege of 
 Pondicherry, under Admiral Boscawen. By 
 this time, the success of the confederation 
 which Dupleix had aroused against the 
 English had rendered the French masters of 
 all South India. Clive successfully persuaded 
 Mr. Saunders, Governor of Madras, to allow 
 him to undertake the celebrated expedition 
 to Arcot, which, by dividing the forces of 
 the enemy, saved the Enghsh garrison 
 cooped up in Trichinopoly. Olive's defence 
 of Arcot laid the foundation of the British 
 Empire in India. After fifty days, the troops 
 of Chunda Sahib raised the siege. A series of 
 successes, culminating at Trichinopoly, led to 
 the surrender of the French general D'Auteuil 
 to Chunda Sahib, and this in its turn brought 
 about the recall and disgrace of Dupleix. After 
 the capture of Coulong and Chingleput — two 
 strong places in the Carnatic— Clive returned 
 to England, in 1 752, with his health greatly 
 impaired. He was received with great dis- 
 tinction by the Company and by the 
 ministers, and on his return to India was 
 appointed Governor of Fort St. David. In 
 1756 Clive was entrusted with the task of 
 revenging the tragedj' of the Black Hole of 
 Calcutta (q.v.) on Surajah Dowlah. With 
 Admiral Watson in command of the fleet, he 
 soon recovered Calcutta, and forced the nabob 
 to treat for peace. But no sooner had Clive 
 been called away than Surajah Dowlah began 
 to intrigue with the French. It was evident 
 that the English power was in serious danger 
 unless a prompt blow were struck ; and Clive, 
 after entering into negotiations with the 
 nabob's discontented subjects, utterly de- 
 feated the native army at Plassey (1757). 
 Meer Jafifier was appointed to the govern- 
 ment of Bengal ; but his fellow-traitor, 
 Omichund, whose services had been secured 
 by a forged promise of £300,000, received 
 nothing. From the new nabob Clive ob- 
 tained for the Company a concession of the 
 land 600 yards around the Mahratta Ditch, 
 and the zemindary rights of the country 
 lying to the south of Calcutta. The victory 
 of Plassey was followed by the assassination 
 of Surajah Dowlah ; the reconstitution of the 
 
Clo 
 
 ( 279 ) 
 
 Cly 
 
 government of Calcutta, with Olive at its 
 head ; the rout of the invading army of Ali 
 Gehur, the heir of the Mogul Empire (1759) ; 
 and the return of Clive to England, in 1760. 
 On his return, he was received with great 
 distinction by all ranks, and honoured with 
 an Irish peerage. In 1765 he returned once 
 more to India, as G-ovemor of Bengal, pledged 
 to reform the luxury and corruption of the 
 civil servants of the Company — who had made 
 large fortunes by the cruellest extortion — and 
 to settle the disturbed afiairs of Bengal. He 
 put an end to these practices by enforcing 
 the laws prohibiting the acceptance of presents 
 from the natives ; while, at the same time, he 
 raised the pay of the civU service by appro- 
 priating to this purpose the proceeds of the 
 salt monopoly. The Nabob of Moorshedabad 
 [Meer CossfM] was pensioned off, the 
 dewanny of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa was ob- 
 tained for the Company by imperial firman, and 
 a mutiny in the army was successfully quelled. 
 In 1767 Clive finally returned to England, 
 with his health shattered by severe attacks of 
 disease, when his enemies in the India House 
 tried to impeach him for corrupt practices ; 
 but the House of Commons passed a resolu- 
 tion that "Robert Lord Clive had rendered 
 great and meritorious services to his country." 
 Broken, however, by the pressure of bodily 
 and mental suffering, he put an end to his 
 existence in November, 1774. [India , East 
 India Compani'.] 
 
 Mill, India ; Macaulay, Essays ; Gleiff, lAfe of 
 Clive; Sir J. Malcolm, Life of Clive. [B. S.] 
 
 Clbntarf, The Battle op, was fought on 
 Friday, April 23, 1014. Brian Boru (q.v.) 
 and his son, at the head of the Irish of 
 Monster, Connaught, Meath, and Ulster, 
 were opposed to the Ostmen (q.v.) of Ireland, 
 reinforced by their countrymen from the 
 Baltic and the Orkneys, and supported by 
 ■ the Leinster Irish. The result was a victory 
 for !Brian ; but both he and his son fell in the 
 fight. The Danes are said to have lost 
 6,000 men, and they never became formidable 
 to the native Irish after this defeat. 
 Xiala Saga; AnnaU of Innisfall. 
 
 Clontarf, Meeting at. A monster 
 meeting in support of the Repeal of the 
 Union was to be held on this historical spot 
 on Oct. 8, 1843. The government issued a 
 proclamation for its prevention, and military 
 precautions were taken. O'Connell (q.v.) and 
 the priests exerted themselves to keep the 
 people from assembling, and succeeded, in 
 spite of the short notice given. But it thus 
 became evident that O'Connell would not 
 fight, and that the Repeal movement was 
 virtually dead. 
 
 Anrmal Register (1843) ; May, Const. Sist. 
 
 Close Bolls, The, are certain Records of 
 the crown containing letters, mandates, &c., 
 of a private nature. They begin in 1204, and 
 treat of an infinite variety of subjects. They 
 
 are of very great importance in the thirteenth, 
 fourteenth and fifteeuth centuries as contain- 
 ing materials for local and family histories, 
 and also as shedding light on many obscuie 
 parts of our national annals. The Close Rolls 
 of John and the first eleven years of Heniy III. 
 have been printed by the Record Commission 
 under the editorship of Sir T. Hardy. 
 
 Closter-Seven, The Convention of 
 (1757), was one of the incidents of the Seven 
 Years' War. In July, the EngUsh com- 
 mander, the Duke of Cumberland, was de- 
 feated at Hastonbeck by the French. Hameln, 
 Gottingen, Hanover, Bremen, and Verben 
 were occupied by the French. Cumberland 
 retired under Stade, but his communications 
 with the Elbe were soon cut off. He there- 
 fore accepted the mediation of the King of 
 Denmark, and on Sept. 8 signed a conventiun 
 with the Duke of Richelieu. The terms were, 
 that the assaiUng troops, such as those of 
 Hesse and Brunswick, should be sent home, 
 and that the Hanoverians under Cumberland 
 should pass the Elbe, and. be dispersed into 
 different quarters of cantonments, leaving only 
 a garrison at Stade. The convention was very 
 violently denounced in Prussia, and in Eng- 
 land it was generally looked upon as extremely 
 disgraceful. But perhaps Cumberland took 
 the wisest course under the circumstances. 
 The French were in vastly superior force, and 
 his own army was ill-disciplined and not to be 
 depended on in any way. The convention was 
 not rigidly kept on either side, and was sub- 
 sequently, at the suggestion of Pitt, repu- 
 diated by the English, and the Hanoverian 
 army equipped afresh. 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. ; Lecty, Hist ofEng. 
 
 ClovesllO was the place where synods 
 were held in Anglo-Saxon times. There 
 have been numerous conjectures as to its 
 situation, but it may perhaps be identified 
 with Cliffe-at-Hoo, in Kent, though it is also 
 said to be a place nearer London. 
 
 See, for the discussion of the suhject, Mr. 
 Kerslake's pamphlet On the Supremacy I'fMerda. 
 
 Clu1>, The, was a name given to the 
 Parliamentary majority of the Scotch Parlia- 
 ment, 1689, who used to meet in a tavern in 
 Edinburgh to concert their measures against 
 the government. The Club, which was com- 
 posed of various elements, including Tories, 
 discontented Whigs, and men of other poli- 
 tical creeds, soon attained considerable power, 
 and proved an immense hindrance to the 
 government. In 1690 its chief members, 
 Annandale, Ross, and Montgomery, began to 
 intrigue with the Jacobites, the result being 
 the revelation of the Montgomery plot. 
 
 Clyde, Colin Campbell, Lord (J. 1792, 
 d. 1863), entered the army at an early age, and 
 first saw service in the Peninsular War. Ho 
 received his lieutenant-colonelcy in 1832, ami 
 in the Chinese War in 1842 went out in 
 
Cob 
 
 ( 280 ) 
 
 Cob 
 
 command of hia regiment, the 98th. In the 
 Sikh War of 1848 — 9 he obtained considerable 
 distinction, was wounded at Chillianwallah, 
 and largely contributed to the victory of 
 Goojerat. In the Crimean War he was iu 
 command of the Highland Brigade, and 
 greatly distinguished himself at the Alma, 
 after which battle he received the personal 
 thauks of Lord Eaglan. On the morning 
 of the battle of Balaclava, the Highland 
 Brigade, under Campbell, was entrusted with 
 the defence of the British landing-place, 
 and the repulse of a squadron of Eussiau 
 cavalry was one of the results of the 
 day's fighting. In July, 1857, Sir Colin 
 CampbeU. was ordered to India to assume 
 command against the mutineers. Leaving 
 England at twenty-four hours' notice, he 
 arrived at Calcutta on Aug. 13, and hastily 
 collecting what troops he could, he marched 
 on Lucknow, the relief of which city was 
 effected with consummate skill and general- 
 ship. One after another the rebel strongholds 
 were reduced, and Sir Colin's talents as a 
 commander-in-chief were hardly more con- 
 spicuous than his tact and temper in the 
 diificult position in which he was placed. On 
 the complete suppression of the Mutiny by 
 this able general and his brilliant lieutenants, 
 Campbell was raised to the peerage, and 
 received the thauks of both Houses of Parlia- 
 ment, with a pension of £2,000 a year. He 
 was created a field-marshal shortly before hia 
 death. 
 
 Eaye, Sepoy War; Kinglake, Invasion of the 
 Crimea. 
 
 Cobbett, William (5. 1762, d. 1835), the 
 son of a Surrey farmer, was bom at Farnham. 
 After spending some years as a solicitor's clerk 
 and a private in the army, he went to America 
 iu 1792, and opened a bookseller's shop in 
 Philadephia. Here he issued a series of 
 pamphlets under the title of " Peter Porcu- 
 pine." In 1801 he returned to England and 
 set up a morning paper, in which he warmly 
 supported Mr. Pitt. This failed, and he after- 
 wards stai-ted the Weekly Register. At first 
 he was patronised by the ministry, but in 1805 
 he became an eager Radical, and a formidable 
 opponent to the ministry. In 1810 he was 
 prosecuted for some remarks on a military 
 flogging, and imprisoned for two years, but 
 still continued to write. It was at this time 
 that he issued Twopenny Trash, a series of 
 papers wherewith he harassed the administra- 
 tion. In 1817 he again settled in America ; 
 but returned in 1819 and took an active part 
 in the trial of Queen Caroline. He also un- 
 successfully contested Coventry and West- 
 minster.. Bene wing his attention to agri- 
 culture, he took a farm, and attempted to 
 introduce Indian com as a staple article of 
 English produce, but the project proved a 
 failure. In 1831 he was prosecuted for pub- 
 lishiog a Ubel with intent to rouse discontent 
 m the minds of the labourers. In defending 
 
 himself he made a defiant speech, declaring 
 that "the Tories had ruled the country 
 with rods, but the Whigs scourged it with 
 scorpions." The jury disagreed and he 
 was discharged. In 1832 he was returned to 
 the Eeformed Parliament for Oldham. The 
 exertion of speaking on the Marquis of 
 Chandos's motion on agricultural distress on 
 May 25, 1835, and remaining late to vote 
 were too much for him. He went down 
 to his farm early next morning, and died 
 three weeks afterwards. He was a most 
 prolific and popular writer, and the vigour of 
 his style and his extraordinary mastery of 
 the resources of the language have been 
 deservedly praised. Among his works are 
 the Farliamentary History to 1803, in 12 vols., 
 a well-known and useful compilation ; the 
 Political jRegister ; Cottage JEconomy ; and a 
 translation of Marten's Law of Nations. 
 
 There is a good sketch of Cobbett in Lord 
 Dalliug, Historical Cha/racters. 
 
 Cobden, Eichabd (*. 1804, d. 1865), was 
 born at Midhurst, in Sussex, and became early 
 in life a traveller for a cotton firm, settling in 
 Lancashire. In 1830 he started a business iu 
 partnership with some of his relatives. He was 
 highly successful in his new sphere of work, 
 and travelled abroad in Greece, Turkey, and 
 the United States, in the interest of the house 
 to which he belonged (1834 — 35). On his return 
 from the latter country he addressed several 
 letters on economical and political subjects 
 to the Manchester 2'imes, strongly advocating 
 the theories of his later years, peace, retrench- 
 ment, non-interference, and free trade. Mean- 
 while the Anti-Corn-Law League had been 
 established at Manchester (1838), and when 
 Mr. Cobden and Mr. Bright joined its ranks, 
 they roused its energies to the fuU. At the 
 election of 1841, when Lord Melbourne made 
 his appeal to the country in favour of a fixed 
 duty on corn, Mr. Cobden was elected member 
 for Stockport. He now had every oppor- 
 tunity of advocating his views; and at last Sir 
 Robert Peel declared himself in favour of the 
 repeal of the Corn Laws (1845) and repealed 
 them the following year. Sir Robert Peel on 
 this occasion paid a just tribute to Mr. Cobden's 
 efilorts. While absent on the Continent, Mr. 
 Cobden was returned for the West Riding of 
 Yorkahire (1847). He had before this refused 
 to join Lord Russell's ministry, but offered a 
 strong opposition to the Derby government of 
 1852, and the Coalition cabinet of Lord Aber^ 
 deen. He condemned the war with Russia en- 
 tirely ; and in this matter, though he succeeded 
 in causing a dissolution of Parliament by 
 carrying a vote condemning the proceedings of 
 Sir John Bowring in China, his course was so 
 distasteful to his constituents that he did not 
 offer himself again for the West Riding, and 
 remained out of Parliament till 1859, when 
 he was elected, in his absence, for Rochdale. 
 In 1860 he negotiated the commercial treaty 
 with the French ; but always steadily refused 
 
Cob 
 
 ( 281 ) 
 
 Coi 
 
 to take office. To his latest years he con- 
 tinued an ardent advocate of free trade, 
 and was one of the few English politicians 
 who, in the early years of the American Civ.l 
 War, were steady supporters of the Northern 
 States. He died on the 2nd April, 1865. 
 
 J. Morley, Life of Richard Cohdm ; W. Eobert- 
 son, lAfe ami Times of John Brisfet. 
 
 Cobham, Eleanok, was first the 
 mistress and then the wife of Humphrey, 
 Duke of Gloucester, to whom she was 
 married in 1426. She was the daughter of 
 Reginald, Lord Cobham. In 1441 she was 
 arraigned on a charge of treason and witch- 
 craft, and it appeared that two of her 
 accomplices had by her ordeis constructed a 
 waxen image of King Henry VI., which they 
 gradually melted before a fire, it being ex- 
 pected that the king's life would waste 
 away as the image was acted upon by the 
 heat. In the event of Henry's death, the 
 Duke of Gloucester, as the nearest heir of 
 the house of Lancaster, would have succeeded 
 to the throne. For these crimes Eleanor 
 Cobham was compelled to do public penance 
 in the streets of London, and was .imprisoned 
 for life in the Isle of Man. 
 
 Cobbam, "William Brooke, Lokd {d. 
 1598), was Warden of the Cinque Ports 
 when Bailly's treasonable letters were captured 
 in 1571 ; by his connivance, Leslie, Bishop of 
 Eoss, was enabled to change the packet before 
 it was laid before the Council. In 1578 he 
 was sent on a mission to the Low Countries, 
 in conjunction with Sir Francis Walsingham, 
 and again in 1588 with Lord Derby, Sir 
 James Croft, and Sir Amyas Paulet, as his 
 companions. He was subsequently created 
 Lord Chamberlain. 
 Cobbam, Lord. [Oldcastle.] 
 Cochrane, Eobert, a stonemason, was the 
 favourite and principal adviser of James III. 
 of Scotland, whom he is said to have instigated 
 to murder his brother, the Earl of Mar. On 
 Mar's df ath, Cochrane obtained a grant of his 
 estates, a circumstance which roused the 
 Scotch nobles to fury. No audience could be 
 obtained with the king except through his 
 favourite. He was hanged, together with 
 some other favourites of the king, at the 
 bridge of Lauder, by Archibald " Bell-the- 
 Cat," in 1482. 
 
 Cochrane, Thomas. [Dundonald.] 
 
 Codringtou, Christopher {b. 1668, 
 d.nil), was born in Barbadoes, and having 
 served with distinction in Europe, being 
 present at the siege of Namur, was rewarded 
 with the post of Governor of the Leeward 
 Islands. In 1703 he planned and carried out 
 the attack on the French at Guadaloupe. 
 
 Codrington, Admiral Sir Edward (S. 
 1770, d. 1851), entered the navy in 1783, and 
 was present at the battles oft' the De Croix and 
 Trafalgar ; he accompanied the expedition 
 
 to Walcheren; and was employed off the 
 coast of Spain co-operating with the Cata- 
 lonian patriots during the Peninsular War. 
 Durmg the war with the United States 
 which followed, he was promoted to the rank 
 ^ rear-admiral. In 1815 he was nominated a 
 K.C.B., was promoted to the rank of vice- 
 admiral, 1821, and was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of the Mediterranean squadron, 1826. 
 It was in this capacity that he took the lead- 
 ing part in the battle of Navarino, Oct. 20, 
 1827. In reward for this, Codrington was 
 advanced to the dignity of the Grand Cross 
 of the Bath; while from the Emperor of 
 Eussia he received the Grand Cross of St. 
 George ; and from the King of France the 
 Grand Cross of St. Louis. But at home 
 opinions were divided as to the necessity of 
 what the Duke of Wellington called " an un- 
 toward event," and Sir Edward was thought to 
 have been unduly influenced by his Philhellenic 
 ideas; he was recalled in AprU, 1828. He 
 obtained the rank of fuU admiral, and was 
 appointed in 1839 commander-in-chief at 
 Portsmouth. In 1832 he had been elected 
 for Devonport in the Liberal interest, and 
 was re-elected in 1835 and 1837 ; but resigned 
 his seat upon taking the command at Ports- 
 mouth. 
 
 Coggeshall, Ralph of, wrote a chronicle 
 exteudingfrom 1066 to 1224. The earlier part 
 is a compilntion from various sources, but from 
 1187 this chronicle is important and valuable. 
 Beyond the fact that Ralph was Abbot of 
 Coggeshall from 1207 to 1210, and resigned 
 in the latter year on account of ill-health, 
 nothing is known of him. 
 
 Ralph of Coggeshall's Chronicle is published 
 in the BoUs Series. 
 
 Coinage. The Britons first learnt the 
 art of coining from the Gauls about a hun- 
 dred years before the invasion of Julius 
 Caesar. The Gaulish native coinage at this 
 era consisted chiefly of rude imitations of 
 the gold staters of Philip II. of Macedon, 
 which almost from the time that they were 
 struck, or say from about B.C. 300, began to have 
 a currency in that country. These copies 
 passed over into Britain, and were again in 
 their turn copied stiU more rudely by the 
 Britons. The coins of Philip which thus 
 afforded a prototype to both the Gaulish and 
 British coins, represented upon one side the 
 laureate head of Apollo (or possibly Ares or 
 Heracles), and on the reverse a two-horse 
 chariot or biga. The British imitations of 
 these pieces are so rude that at first sight no 
 resemblance between the original and the 
 copy can be detected. The barbarous 
 artists, unable to copy the head, have repre- 
 sented it by only a few lines and dots, and 
 have at last confined their attempts at copy- 
 ing to the hair and the laurel wreath. On 
 the reverse, the chariot and charioteer have 
 almost, or totally disappeared, and the horse 
 
Coi 
 
 ( 282 ) 
 
 Coi 
 
 is tarely recognisable. At first the Britisli 
 currency was entirely of gold, but a short time 
 before the Eoman invasion, silver, copper, and 
 tin coins were also issued. These began by 
 being imitations of the gold coinage, but after- 
 wards copied the silver and other metal coins 
 of Gaul. The British coins were at first entirely 
 without legend; but about the time of the 
 Roman invasion names began to appear upon 
 them. Some of these names are otherwise 
 known to history, as is, for example, Cuno- 
 belinos, the Cymbeline of Shakespeare. Al- 
 though Caesar's invasion did not immediately 
 affect the political condition of the country, a 
 tendency to imitate the Eoman civilisation 
 (which was beginning to take a firm hold in 
 Gaul) set in in Britain, and of this there is 
 abundant evidence on the coins. The Mace- 
 donian type gradually disappears, and we 
 have designs copied from the contemporary 
 Eoman coinage. 
 
 After the subjugation of South Britain by 
 the Eomans, the regular imperial series was 
 substituted for the native currency, the British 
 towns of mintage being Londinium and 
 Camulodunum (Colchester). The last Eoman 
 coins struck in Britain were probably some 
 which bear the name of Magnus Maximus the 
 usurper, and which were apparently issued 
 in A.D. 383. 
 
 From this time forward a considerable 
 interval occurs. Doubtless, Eoman coins 
 were still current in Britain, though as time 
 went on they must have diminished in 
 numbers. Then came the rise of the Saxon 
 currency. The first coins issued by the 
 Saxons seem to have been some small silver 
 pieces usually called seeattas, weighing twenty 
 grains, and bearing generally no name, whose 
 precise date, on this account, it would be 
 very hard to determine. Those of the seeattas 
 which are probably the latest are some 
 which have Eunic letters, and which can be 
 dated in the middle of the seventh century. 
 While we are speaking of these coins it is the 
 proper place to notice a series of copper 
 pieces, very like the seeattas in size and shape, 
 which were confined altogether to the king- 
 dom of Northumbria, and which belong to a 
 rather later period than the seeattas, namely, 
 to the eighth and part of the ninth centuries. 
 They are called stycas. 
 
 We then come to the coin which long 
 remained almost the sole money of the Eng- 
 lish, with the insignificant exception of a few 
 gold coins, which were struck from time to time. 
 This was the penny. It was copied from the 
 silver denarius, which in the course of the 
 eighth century, and under the Carolingian 
 dynasty had come to supplant the goldcurrency 
 of the Merovingian time. The penny, like the 
 Carolingian denarius, was a thin and flat silver 
 coin, weighing some twenty to twenty-four 
 grains; the full weight being twenty-four, 
 whence the twenty-four grains which make up 
 our pennyweight. The usual type of the penny 
 
 showed on one side a rude head or bust, in- 
 tended conventionally to represent that of 
 the king, whose name was written round 
 the head, while on the reverse, the piece 
 showed some device, most frequentlj' a form 
 of cross : around this device was written the 
 name of the moneyer, i.e., the fabricator of the 
 coin, and of the town in which the piece was 
 made. The pennies begin with Offa, King of 
 Mercia (a.b. 755 — 794), and they continue 
 (with trifling exceptions) the sole English 
 coins until the reign of Edward I. (1272). 
 
 The student must be placed upon his 
 guard against confounding the actual 
 denominations of coins with the denomina- 
 tions of money of account. In early times 
 calculations were constantly made in money 
 of account which was unrepresented by 
 au}' coined pieces. This was a reminis- 
 cence of the days when money was com- 
 puted altogether by weight. In fact, it 
 may be said that the name of almost every 
 coin which has ever existed has denominated 
 a weight before it denominated a coined 
 piece {e.g., the Greek stater, the Jewish 
 shekel, &o.) . The Saxon money of account was 
 of two kinds. One was derived from their 
 weight system, which was a combination of 
 the Eoman, and a non-Eoman Teutonic 
 system, and whose chief denominations were 
 the pound and the mark. The second money 
 of account was simply taken from the Eoman 
 (or Byzantine) gold coin, the solidus, which 
 in English was called the shilling. We fre- 
 quently read of sums computed in pounds, 
 marks, and shillings. Occasionally a solidus 
 in gold was actually struck. The value of 
 these moneys of account relative to the current 
 coin has remained unaltered. The pound 
 contained twenty shillings, or 240 pence ; the 
 mark two-thirds of the pound, or 160 pence. 
 The mark eventually fell out of use, leaving 
 the three forms of money by which we still 
 compute — the pound (liber)', the shilling 
 (solidus), and the penny (denarius). From 
 these Latin names come our symbols, £, s., d. 
 
 The Norman Conquest produced at first no 
 material alteration in the English coinage. 
 The penny continued to be the sole currency 
 down to the reign of Edward I. The pennies 
 of the first two Williams were as varied in 
 their types as those of any previous monarch ; 
 but after these reigns the types diminished 
 rapidly in number, and from the time of 
 Edward I. downwards, through many subse- 
 quent reigns, this coin was made upon one 
 uniform pattern, which showed on the obverse 
 a fuU face crowned, and on the reverse a long 
 cross ; the whole displaying a distinctly 
 architectural design. The groat (first coined 
 in the reign of Edward I.) was in type almost 
 identical with the penny. The next important 
 change was made by Edward III., who intro- 
 duced a gold currency into England. For a long 
 period in the Middle Ages — that is to say, from 
 the beginning of the ninth century to the 
 
Coi 
 
 ( 283 ) 
 
 Coi 
 
 middle of the thirteenth — the gold coins in 
 use in Western Europe had been supplied hy 
 the Emperors of Byzantium, whence these 
 pieces acquired the name of bezants. Florence 
 and Venice, in the course of the thirteenth 
 century, instituted a gold currency of their 
 own, and this example was speedily followed 
 by other countries of Europe. Henry III. 
 had made the experiment of a gold coinage 
 by striking gold pennies worth thirty times 
 as much as the silver coins ; but this was only 
 an experiment. Edward III. introduced a 
 regular gold currency, first of florins (named 
 after the gold coin of Florence), and after- 
 wards of nobles, so called on account of the 
 iineness of their metal. In value they were 
 equal to eighty pence — i.e., to half a mark. 
 The noble represented on one side the king in 
 a ship (an allusion to the victory of Sluys), 
 and on the other a highly ornamental cross. 
 Half and quarter nobles were issued at the 
 same time. The type was slightly altered by 
 Edward IV., who replaced the reverse cross 
 by a sun, and on the side of the ship placed a 
 rose, from whence his pieces got the name of 
 ruse nobles. They were also called ryals 
 (royals). Silver having declined in value 
 ia comparison to gold, the rose nobles were 
 now worth ten shillings, and to represent the 
 Older value of half a mark a new piece was 
 siruck, having on one side the figure of St 
 Michael trampling upon Satan, and on the 
 other a ship bearing a cross. This coin was 
 called the angel noble, or, more shortly, the 
 angel; its half was the angelet. 
 
 Further changes of importance are to be 
 noted in the reign of Henry VII. In the 
 gold currency, the pound sovereign was added 
 to the pieces already in circulation. This 
 coin, which was larger than any previously 
 struck and current for twenty shillings, re- 
 presented upon the obverse the king en- 
 throned, and on the other side the royal arms 
 over a rose. Shillings were now first struck, 
 and the type of the groat was changed from 
 a front to a side face. Henry VIII. struck 
 some double - sovereigns, as well as half- 
 sovereigns, and crowns, or quarter - sove- 
 reigns, in gold, and he issued a new type of 
 noble (not continued in subsequent reigns) 
 called the george noble. It nearly resembled 
 the angel, but displayed St. George in place 
 of St. Michael on the obverse. This king is 
 unfavourably distinguished as the first who 
 persistently debased the coinage of this 
 country. The debasement continued during 
 the two following reigns ; but in the reign of 
 Elizabeth the coinage was restored to its 
 former purity. Edward VI. first struck the 
 crown and the half-crown in silver, as well as 
 the sixpence. In the reign of Mary we have 
 sovereigns, rose nobles, angels, half-angels, 
 half-crowns, shillings, groats, pence, and the 
 divisions of the penny; but in the reign of 
 Elizabeth we find the highest complement in 
 the number of its denominations which the 
 
 English coinage ever attained. It now con- 
 sisted of no less than twenty distinct kinds of 
 coin, viz., in gold, of the sovereign, half-, 
 quarter-, and half-quarter-sovereign, rose 
 noble or ryal, angel (now equal to a half- 
 sovereign), angelet and quarter-angel, crown 
 and half-crown ; in silver, of the crown, half- 
 crown, shilling, sixpence, groat, half-groat, 
 three-penny, and three-halfpenny pieces, 
 the penny, the three farthings, the half- 
 penny, and farthing. Queen Elizabeth also 
 struck coins for the use of the East India 
 Company, which may be reckoned the begin- 
 ning of the EngHsh colonial coinage. In the 
 reign of James I. there was no substantial 
 alteration, though some of the above denomi- 
 nations were changed, and some abandoned. 
 The sovereign was now generally known as the 
 broad, and this name was continued through 
 the reign of Charles I. and through the Com- 
 monwealth. Charles I. struck some pieces of 
 the value of three pounds, and subsequently, 
 during the scarcity of gold which he expe- 
 rienced during the Civil War, he melted 
 plate and coined it into silver pieces of the 
 values of twenty and of ten shillings. 
 
 From the accession of James I. until the 
 reign of Charles II. , considerable fluctuations 
 took place in the value of gold, and therefore 
 in the value of the chief gold coin. At one 
 time the broad was worth as much as thirty 
 shillings. In the reign of Charles II. it 
 became fixed to the somewhat arbitrary value 
 of twenty-one shillings, and as the gold from 
 which the money of this reign was made 
 came chiefly from the Guinea coast, the 
 highest gold coins of this period acquired the 
 name of guinea-pounds, or of guineas. Hence- 
 forth, until nearly the end of the reign of 
 George III., the guinea entirely replaced the 
 sovereign, and the gold currency, from the 
 reign of Charles II. to George III., uniformly 
 consisted of pieces of five, two, one, and half 
 guineas. In 1817 George III. reintroduced 
 the sovereign, and the gxiinea was abandoned 
 save as a money of account. The first copper 
 pennies, half pennies, and farthings were coined 
 in 1672, and the first bronze coins in 1861. 
 
 The coinage of ' Scotland began at a much 
 later date than did that of England. With 
 the exception of a few rude pennies (imitative 
 of the contemporary English coins) struck by 
 Danish invaders during the eleventh century, 
 we have no Scottish money until the reign of 
 David I., about the year 1124. The first 
 coinage of Scotland followed as closely as 
 possible the types of the English money, 
 consisting, like the English coinage, at first 
 exclusively of pennies, and about the end of 
 the thirteenth century (David II. ) of the penny 
 and the groat. The noble was likewise intro- 
 duced by David II., but not continued in 
 subsequent reigns. But after her long struggle 
 for independence had come to an end, Scot- 
 land began to issue a series of new denomina- 
 tions, which we will briefly mention in the 
 
Coi 
 
 ( 284) 
 
 Cok 
 
 order in which they were introduced. Robert 
 II. coined gold pieces called from their types, 
 St. Andrew and Lion (having the shield of 
 Scotland upon one side), and equal respec- 
 tively to a half and a quarter of the noble. 
 These two names and types were afterwards 
 united for one piece. James I. struck a coin 
 called demy, and equal in value to haH an 
 English noble. In the reign of James III. were 
 issued the first coins in base silver, or billon, 
 and of a very low value, which went by the 
 names of placks and half-placks. The Scot- 
 tish coinage was now completely separated 
 from the English, though some of the nominal 
 values were still retained. The actual values 
 of the Scottish currency deteriorated so 
 rapidly that when, in the reign of James VI. 
 (I.), the coinages of the two countries had to 
 be brought into agreement, the Scottish 
 shilling was found to be worth only one- 
 twelfth of the English shilling. Therefore, 
 when we read of a certain number of shil- 
 lings Scots, we may pretty generally reduce 
 that to the same number of pence in English 
 reckoning. In the reign of James III. we 
 notice the introduction of two new gold 
 coins, the rider, which shows the king on 
 horseback, and the unicorn, on which that 
 animal is holding a shield. Divisions of these 
 pieces and of the St. Andrew were struck. 
 Two other gold coins, not differing much 
 from these in value, but different in type, 
 belong to the reign of James V. — viz., the 
 ecu, or crown, giving (as the name implies) 
 the shield of Scotland on the obverse, and the 
 bonnet piece, where the king's bust is repre- 
 sented in a square cap. The same prince 
 coined a billon piece, known as the bawbee, 
 a corruption irorabas piece in Scottish French. 
 In the reign of Mary we have a number of 
 new coins, which by their names show an 
 approach to the contemporary English coinage 
 — viz., the twenty shilling piece, the ryal 
 in gold, the testoon, equal in value to an 
 English sixpence, and a billon piece called 
 hardhead. A separate Scottish coinage was 
 continued in the reigns of James I. and 
 Charles I., but the coins were more and more 
 assimilated to the English type. 
 
 The Irish coinage calls for little remark. 
 The Danish kings of Ireland in the tenth and 
 eleventh century struck pennies, some of which 
 bear the names of known kings. The first 
 coins struck after the Anglo-Norman Conquest 
 were issued by John while still a prince, and 
 governor of Ireland. Henceforward the Irish 
 coinage follows that of England, with these 
 differences— that it contains no gold coinage, 
 nor the higher denominations of silver, and is 
 generally of a more alloyed metal. The harp 
 for Ireland and the three crowns are the most 
 distinctive types. The principal Anglo- 
 Irish mint places were Dublin and Water- 
 ford. Edward IV. struck a considerable Irish 
 currency, and at various mints, Dublin, Cork, 
 Drogheda, Limerick, Trim, Waterford, and 
 
 Wexford. During the period that James II. 
 remained in Ireland, after his flight from 
 London, he issued a coinage of bronze, 
 generally called gun-money, which assumed 
 the denomination of coins of corresponding 
 size and type in silver. On the accession of 
 William and Mary this coinage fell to its 
 metal value, that is to say, a nominal value 
 of £22,500 was bought back for £640. 
 
 The Kev. E. Euding, AnnaXs of the Coinage of 
 England; Ed. Hawkins, The Silver Coins of 
 England; J. Evans, The Coinage of the Aneieni 
 Britons ; Dirks, hes J.nglo-Sait'ons et les Sceattas ; 
 E. W. Cochran Patrick, Records of the Coinage of 
 Scotland ; J. Lindsay, The Coinage of the K&p- 
 tavchy; Id., Ihe Coinage of Scotland; Id., The 
 Coinage of Ireland ; Aquila Smith, IHsh Coins of 
 Edauard IV.; C. F. Keary, The Coinage of Western 
 Earove from HonoHas to Oharlerfiagne. 
 
 [C. F. K.] 
 
 Coke, Sib, Edward {b. 1552, d. 1633;, 
 Chief Justice of England, was born at 
 Mileham, in Norfolk. After leaving Cam- 
 bridge, he became a member of the Inner 
 Temple, and was called to the bar early in 
 1578, when his extraordinary ability speedily, 
 became manifest. Appointed Recorder of 
 Norwich, 1586, he fulfilled the duties of his 
 office with such acuteness that, in 1592, he 
 was made Recorder of London, and in the 
 same year Solicitor-General. As Speaker of 
 the House of Commons, in 1593, he distin- 
 guished himself by the flowery nature of his 
 addresses to Elizabeth, and a few months 
 later became Attorney-General, in which 
 capacity he conducted the prosecution for the 
 crown of the Earls of Southampton and 
 Essex (1601). In 1603, Coke, who had re- 
 ceived the honour of knighthood from James I., 
 was the crown prosecutor at the trial of Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, on which occasion he displayed 
 unfeeling harshness and arrogance. Three 
 years later Sir Edward Coke was engaged to 
 prosecute the conspirators in the Gunpowder 
 Plot, and displayed great ability in his 
 management of the case. Shortly afterwards 
 he became Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, 
 and, in 1613, was transferred to the King's 
 Bench and made a Privy Councillor. His 
 enemies were, however, many and powerful ; 
 Lord Chancellor EUesmere, Buckingham, 
 and Sir Francis Bacon were his implacable 
 foes, and in 1616 Coke refused to assist 
 the court by giving judgment for the 
 king in the case of Commendams, and thus 
 gave them an opportunity to procure his 
 downfall. The Chief Justice was removed 
 from his office on the charge that in his re- 
 ports of decided cases he had introduced 
 several things in derogation of the royal 
 prerogative. The enmity of Bacon con- 
 tinued, but Coke, by the alliance of his 
 daughter with a brother of Buckingham, 
 regained some small share of the royal favour, 
 and was subsequently one of the managers of 
 Bacon's impeachment. In 1621 he entered 
 Parliament, where he speedily drew upon 
 himself the hostility of the court by his 
 
Cok 
 
 ( 285 ) 
 
 Col 
 
 opposition to monopolies, and by his deter- 
 mined assertion of the power of Parliament, 
 At the end of the year he was imprisoned in 
 the Tower, but was released alter a few 
 months, and continued to take an active part 
 in Parliamentary aifairs, whilst, in 1628, he 
 originated and carried the Petition of Eight 
 (q.v.). Sir Edward Coke's reputation as a 
 lawyer and as a judge was unequalled in 
 his age. As the author of the celebrated 
 Heports, 1600 — 1616, and the Commentary 
 upon Littleton, 1628, he is still a writer of the 
 greatest importance to those who would know 
 anything of the history of English law and 
 practice. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Coke, Roger, was the author of a work 
 called Detection of the State of England during 
 the Four Last Reigns, Lond., 1697, which is of 
 some historical value. 
 
 Coke, William, in 1552, was made a 
 judge of the Common Pleas. He is said to 
 have been one of the witnesses to the will of 
 Edwaid VI., altering the succession in favour 
 of Lady Jane Grey ; but there is some doubt 
 as to whether he actually signed the document. 
 He died 1553. 
 
 Colchester, generally identified with 
 the Roman Camulodunum, was one of the most 
 important Roman stations in England. Im- 
 mense quantities of Roman relics have been 
 found here. It was an important centre under 
 the kings of the West Saxon line, and was 
 strongly fortified by Edward the Elder. It 
 appears in Domesday as a place of consider- 
 able importance. In 1218 it was taken by 
 Louis of France. The town enjoyed con- 
 siderable trade aU through the Middle 
 Ages. During the Great Rebellion it was 
 captured by the Royalists under Lord Goring 
 in 1648. Fairfax besieged it for eleven 
 weeks, and finally took it. The abbey was a 
 Benedictine foundation, instituted in the 
 reign of Henry I., and suppressed after the 
 execution of the last abbot for treason in 
 1539. The town has returned two members to 
 Parliament since 23rd Edward I. It received 
 a charter from Richard I. in 1089. 
 
 Colchester, Charles Abbot, Lord (J. 
 1757, d. 1829), was educated at Westminster, 
 and Christ Church, Oxford, and attained 
 much practice at the bar. He entered 
 Parliament in 1795, and strongly supported 
 the Seditious Meetings' Bill. In 1801 he 
 was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland. 
 In 1802 he became Speaker of the House 
 of Commons, in which capacity he gave 
 a casting vote against Lord Melville in 1805. 
 He strongly opposed the Catholic Relief Bill, 
 effected several important improvements in 
 the mode of managing business in the 
 House, resigned his seat in 1817, and was 
 raised to the Peerage. 
 
 Colet, John (h. 1466, d. 1519), Dean of 
 St. Paul's, was the son of Sir Henry Colet, 
 
 and was educated at Magdalen CoUege 
 Oxford. About 1493 he went to the Conti- 
 nent, and studied Greek in Italy and Paris, 
 makmg the acquaintance of Erasmus and other 
 scholars. Returning in 1497, he lectured 
 at Oxford on Divinity and Greek. In 1505 
 he was made Prebendary and Dean of St 
 Paul's. Between 1508 and 1512 he founded 
 and endowed St. Paul's School. Colet was 
 one of the most efeeotive of the teachers of 
 the "New Learning" in England in the 
 early part of the sixteenth century, and one 
 of the most earnest of the knot of churchmen 
 who aimed at the reformation and purification 
 of the Church of England without actually 
 separating from Rome. 
 
 P. Seebohm, TJie Oxford, Reformers. 
 
 Coleman, Edward {d. 1678), was secretary 
 to the Duchess of York. He was a Roman 
 Catholic, a convert from Protestantism, and a 
 busy intriguer, who corresponded secretly 
 with the French court. He was one of the 
 first accused by Titus Oates of complicity in 
 the Popish Plot. His papers were seized, 
 and he was arrested. In his possession were 
 found letters addressed to Pere La Chaise, 
 Louis XIV. 's confessor, in which he asked for 
 money to be employed in giving " the greatest 
 blow to the Protestant religion it has received 
 since its birth," together with other expres- 
 sions of a similar character. These were con- 
 sidered to be conclusive jjroofs of his guilt. 
 On his trial Oates and Bedloe bore witness 
 against him, and he was executed. 
 
 Colepepper, John, Lord {d. 1660), after 
 having spent many years abroad in foreign 
 service, returned to England, and was elected 
 to the Long Parliament, where he distin- 
 guished himself by his vigorous opposition to 
 monopolies. In 1642 the king made him 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, and he acquired 
 great influence in the royal councils. On the 
 outbreak of the Civil War he joined the king, 
 was made Master of the Rolls in 1643, and a 
 peer in 1644. He accompanied Prince Charles 
 to Holland, where he remained till the Resto- 
 ration, when he was reinstated as Master of 
 the Rolls, but died very soon afterwards. 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the Rebellion, 
 
 College, Stephen {d. 1681), known as 
 " the Protestant joiner," was a citizen of 
 London, celebrated in Charles II.'s reign 
 for his intemperate zeal against the Roman 
 Catholics. In 1681 he was sent to Oxford 
 by Shaftesbury to watch the proceedings of 
 the court party during the session of Parha- 
 ment. While at college there, he distinguished 
 himself by inventing a " Protestant flail " for 
 beating out the brains of Papists, and by 
 writing coarse rhymes against the king. He 
 was indicted in London on a charge of high 
 treason, but the bill was thrown out by tho 
 grand jury. Subsequently he was tried in 
 Oxford, found guilty of a conspiracy to seize 
 
Col 
 
 ( 283 ) 
 
 Col 
 
 the king, on the evidence of Dugdale and 
 other informers, and executed. 
 
 Collier, Jekemy (S. 1650, d. 1726), was 
 rector of Ampton, in SuSolk, and in 1685 was 
 appointed lecturer at Gray's Inn. He was a 
 zealous partisan of the Stuarts, and was 
 committed to Newgate for writing against 
 William. III. ; he was, however, released with- 
 out trial. But having granted absolution to 
 the prisoners executed for the Assassination 
 Plot (q.v.), he was obliged to leave the country. 
 Returning to London, he wrote several works. 
 In 1698 he produced his Short View of the Im- 
 morality and JProfaneness of the English Stage, 
 in which he attacked Dryden and other 
 dramatists of the day. The book was widely 
 read, and had considerable effect in bringing 
 about the gradual reformation of the stage. 
 Collier also produced, among other works, an 
 Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain, which 
 involved him in a controversy with Burnet. 
 
 CoUingwood, Cuthbeiit,.Lord (5. 1750, 
 d. 1810), was born at Newcaslle-on-Tyne, and 
 was very early sent to sea. In 1774 he 
 served under Admiral Graves in America, 
 and led a party of seamen at Bunker Hill. 
 In 1776 he proceeded to the West Indies, 
 where his promotion was rapid, as he stepped 
 into each place vacated by Nelson, and in 
 1780 he accompanied Nelson in the expedition 
 against San Juan, where his strong constitu- 
 tion stood him in good stead among the 
 pestilential marshes. During the three next 
 years he did good service in the capture of 
 French merchantmen, and on peace being 
 concluded in 1783, rejoined Nelson in the 
 West Indies. In 1786 he returned to England, 
 but did not long remain idle ; and on the 1st 
 of June, 1793, he greatly distinguished him- 
 self, though his services were passed over by 
 Lord Howe. In command of the jExcellent, he 
 was present at the battle of St. Vincent, and 
 took more than his share of the hard fighting. 
 After this he was employed in blockading the 
 enemy's ports, but managed to obtain a short 
 hoHday in 1798. The next year he was 
 made a rear-admiral, and was appointed to 
 serve in the Channel fleet under Lord Brid- 
 port, by whom he was shortly afterwards 
 despatched with reinforcements to Lord Keith 
 in the Mediterranean. In May, 1802, he 
 obtained a year's quiet enjoyment with his 
 family, and was then sent ofE to join Admiral 
 CornwaUis off Brest. In 1804 he was engaged 
 in the blockade of Cadiz, until the union of 
 the French and Spanish fleets compelled him 
 to retire. But he soon resumed his position, 
 and only left it to join Nelson's fleet in its 
 pursuit of Villeneuve. In command of the 
 Itoyal Sovereign he was second in command 
 to Nelson at Trafalgar, and, leading one divi- 
 sion of the fleet, was the first to engage the 
 enemy. On Nelson's death the command 
 devolved on CoUingwood, who has now been 
 acquitted of any blame for not having saved 
 
 more of the enemy's ships after the battle. 
 He was at once raised to the peerage with a 
 life pension of £2,000 per annum. He 
 continued actively employed in annoying the 
 French coast, and guarding the relations of 
 England with the countries bordering on the 
 Mediterranean. So unremitting were his 
 exertions, that they produced a disease which 
 finally, on March 10, 1810, killed him almost 
 at his post, and before he could reach Eng- 
 land. He was of all the able captains of his 
 day second only to Nelson, nor was he less 
 beloved by his men for his gentle considera- 
 tion and his daring courage. 
 
 Collingwood's Life ; James, ISaxaX Hist. 
 
 [W. E. S.] 
 
 Colonies, The, may be said to date 
 from the time of the enterprising navigators 
 of Queen Elizabeth's reign — such as Gilbert 
 and Raleigh (q.v.), by whom the infant 
 colony of Virginia was first planted, in 
 1587 — but it was not until the persecutions 
 of James I. and Charles I. drove many 
 Puritans to seek an asylum in New England 
 that colonisation became at all general 
 amongst Englishmen. Henceforward the 
 colonies on the Atlantic seaboard of North 
 America increased rapidly, absorbing the 
 settlements of other nations, such as the 
 Dutch on the Hudson, the Swedes on the 
 Delaware, and, finally, the French on the 
 Mississippi. [Colonies, The American.] 
 When these colonies seceded from England 
 in 1783, a new area for colonisation in tem- 
 perate climates had already been opened up 
 by the discovery of Australia. [Australia.] 
 The town of Sydney was founded in 1787, 
 and the progress of the various settlements of 
 the Australasian group has been continuous 
 since that time. Another group of colonies 
 ai'e those which have been acquired by con- 
 quest from other powers, chiefly France, 
 Spain, and Holland. Of these the most im- 
 portant is Canada (q.v.), conquered in the 
 Seven Years' War (1757—63), and the islands 
 of the West Indies, many of which were 
 acquired in the same war, and the Cape of 
 Good Hope, taken in the war of the French 
 Revolution (1793—1815). The term Colony is 
 used somewhat loosely to include the various 
 dependencies (whether true colonial settle- 
 ments or not) administered by the department 
 of the Secretary of State for the Colonies. 
 They may be classed roughly as : — 
 
 (1) Agricultural colonies, where cultivation 
 of the soil and sheep-farming is the chief 
 source of wealth — such as the Australian 
 colonies and those of British North America. 
 
 (2) Plantation colonies, " where the main 
 object of those who go to them is to plant 
 and rear certain vegetable productions which 
 abound in hot climates only, and which are 
 of great value in European markets " — such 
 as Ceylon, the West Indian colonies, and 
 Mauritius. 
 
Col 
 
 ( 287 ) 
 
 Col 
 
 (3) Trading colonies — suoli as Singapore. 
 
 (4) Naval or military stations, such as Malta 
 or Gibraltar, which are considered colonies. 
 
 The class of penal colonies which existed 
 at au early period no longer remains. 
 
 Colonies may be subjected to a further 
 division, according to the means by which 
 they were acquired : — 
 
 ( 1 ) Colonies obtained by conquest or cession , 
 legislation for which is absolutely vested in 
 the crown, until a representative assembly 
 has once been granted, in which case the 
 crown cannot legislate further, though the 
 colony is still subject to the Imperial Parlia- 
 ment. The law in conquered or ceded 
 colonies remains as it was, unless altered by 
 the sovereign in council. 
 
 (2) Settled colonies, acquired by occupation 
 when uninhabited. Although such colonies 
 become the property of the crown, the crown 
 has no power of legislation by virtue of its 
 prerogative, but can only act by orders in 
 council. It must be remembered that a, 
 ceded colony is not bound by Acts of Parlia- 
 ment passed before its cession ; nor is the colony 
 bound by Acts made after its acquisition, 
 unless the Act is intended to embrace all 
 British colonies, or the colony is specially 
 named. 
 
 British colonies are officially divided into 
 three classes : — 
 
 (1) Crown colonies are ceded or conquered 
 colonies, where the crown has the entire 
 control of legislation and of the officials. 
 
 (2) Colonies with representative institutions, 
 hut without responsible government^ where 
 the crown retains only a veto on legislation. 
 
 (3) Colonies having both representative in- 
 stitutions and responsible government. Such 
 institutions and government were introduced 
 iirst into Canada in the year 1847, owing 
 to Lord Durham's report. " In colonies 
 with responsible government, the control 
 of all public departments is practically 
 placed in the hands of persons command- 
 ing the confidence of the legislature ; and the 
 ministers are responsible to the legis- 
 lature, as in England. The Home Govern- 
 ment has in such cases no control whatever 
 over any official except the governor, though 
 the crown retains a veto on legislation. By 
 the adoption of the principle of re- 
 sponsible government," says Sir J. Erskine 
 May, " a colonial constitution has become the 
 very image and reiiection of Parliamentary 
 government in England. The governor — 
 like the sovereign, whom he represents — 
 holds himself aloof from and superior to 
 parties, and governs through constitutional 
 advisers who have acquired an ascendency 
 in the legislature." The English constitution, 
 in fact, is generally the type of the colonial 
 governments, which have a governor acting 
 as viceroy of the crown, an Upper Chamber 
 either appointed by the governor or elected 
 by a limited suffrage, and a Lower Chamber, 
 
 corresponding to the House of Commons, and 
 Hke it retaining the exclusive privilege of 
 originating money bills. The transactions of 
 such colonies with the Home Government are 
 chiefly confined to foreign and commercial 
 affairs. The former are managed by tho 
 Colonial Office ; while for the latter purpose 
 the various colonies have commissioners in 
 London called Crown Agents or Agents- 
 General. The colonies administer justice by 
 their own courts of law, but an appeal lies 
 from all colonial supreme courts, except those 
 of Canada, to the Judicial Committee of the 
 Privy Council. 
 
 E. M. Martin, Bnlish Colonies; Creasy, 
 CmiBtii. ofBrilannic Empire; Sir E. May, Cons*. 
 Sist, ; Merivale, Colonisation ; Sir G. C. Lewis, 
 Govt, of Uepmdenciea ; A. Todd, Pari. e.ovt. in 
 British Colomes. See also the articles on the 
 various colonies. ("F. g, p _] 
 
 Colonies, The Apkican. [South Afmca. ] 
 
 Colonies, The American, were for the 
 most part founded in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. The North American continent was 
 first discovered in 1497 by John Cabot, to 
 whom a patent was granted by King 
 Henry VII. ; but the first attempts at coloni- 
 sation were made by the Spaniards in 1521 
 and onwards, on the coast of Florida, whither 
 the French followed them in 1562. The 
 French also soon after 1535 began to make 
 settlements in the North, over Canada, Cape 
 Breton, and Nova Scotia, then called Acadia. 
 Nova Scotia was seized by England in the 
 War of the Spanish Succession (1701 — 1713), , 
 and Canada in the Seven Years' War (1757 — 
 1763). [Canada.] The first abortive attempt 
 at English colonisation was made in 1578 by 
 Frohisher; then followed two by Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert (lo79and 1583), and two by Sir Walter 
 Ealeigh, the first of which, in what is now 
 North Carolina, was for a little while success- 
 ful. At length, in 1607, the London Com- 
 panydespatched an expedition which efiectr-d 
 the first permanent settlement of the English 
 in North America on the banks of the James 
 River in Virginia. 
 
 The thirteen American colonies which 
 afterwards formed the United States of 
 America are usually di^dded into three groups 
 — those of Virginia, New York, and New 
 England. 
 
 (1) The Virginia group. Tirginia, a name 
 given by Ealeigh to one of his ui.suc- 
 cessful attempts at colonisation in honour 
 of Queen Elizabeth, at first had a very strug- 
 gling existence. It was kept alive chiefly by 
 the exertions of a hardy adventurer, John 
 Smith,* who explored the country, and ma.lo 
 friends with the Indian chief Powhatan, the 
 theme, with his daughter Pocahontas, of some 
 romantic stories. Freshimmigrantssoonbegan 
 to strengthen the colony ; it grew rich by the 
 sale of tobacco, and in 1619, theVirginian House 
 
 * The Adventuvei* ond Discourses of Captain John 
 Smith, by John Ashton. 
 
Col 
 
 ( 288 ) 
 
 Col 
 
 of Burgesses assembled for the first time. The 
 next few years witnessed some dangerous 
 struggles with the Indians, in which the 
 colony suffered greatly until the submission 
 of the savages in 1646, which was confirmed 
 by a great treaty at Albany in 1684. In 
 1624 James I. dissolved the London Company, 
 and Virginia became a crown colony ; but 
 soon afterwards the valuable monopoly of the 
 import of tobacco to England was secured to 
 Virginia and the Somers Islands by proclama- 
 tion. Its position under the Commonwealth 
 was one of practical independence. Fortune 
 changed, however, with the Eestoration, when 
 Charles II. restricted the commerce of the 
 colony by "Navigation Acts, while theAssembly, 
 which was extremely Eoj^alist, persecuted 
 Nonconformists and limited the suffrage. 
 Finally the whole of Virginia was handed over 
 for thirt3--one years to Lord Colepepper and 
 Lord Arlington. From these causes sprang 
 a rebellion, known from its leader as " Bacon's 
 EebeUion," in 1675, which was crashed two 
 years later by Sir George Berkeley. Lord 
 Colepepper was made governor for life, and 
 the position of the colonists during the 
 remainder of the Stuart period was dis- 
 astrous. After the Revolution, however, 
 Virginia recovered her prosperity, and the 
 separate history of the colony consists 
 chiefly in a series of disputes between the 
 governors and the assemblies. Mary- 
 land, named after Q,ueen Henrietta Maria, 
 was originally part of Virginia, but was 
 made into a separate colony by charter 
 in 1632, when it became the property of 
 a Catholic, Lord Baltimore, under a most 
 liberal constitution, equality being conceded 
 to all Christian creeds. Its condition was 
 one of great prosperity untU Clayborne, 
 a man of republican sympathies, opposed the 
 authority of Lord Baltimore, and threw the 
 colony into confusion, which lasted for ten 
 years until 1660. Under William and Mary, 
 the colony passed into the hands of the 
 crown, and Eoman Catholicism became 
 illegal; but in 1716 it was restored to the 
 descendants of its founder, now become Pro- 
 testants. The Carolinas were so called in the 
 first instance by the French settlers in honour 
 of Charles IX. of France, and North Carolina 
 was the scene of most of Ealeigh's attempts 
 at colonisation, being then part of Virginia. 
 The name was given to them afresh by 
 Charles II., in whose reign it was granted by 
 charter to proprietaries, and a constitution 
 known as the " Grand Model," prepared for 
 it by Locke and Shaftesbury. It was, how- 
 ever, found unworkable; the colonists took 
 matters into their own hands, divided them- 
 selves into two governments, began to import 
 negro slaves, and to treat the Indian tribes 
 with great brutality. Finally, in 1729 the 
 proprietors sold their rights to the crown. 
 Georgia, originally part of Carolina, was 
 founded by Colonel Oglethorpe, with some 
 
 government assistance, as a refuge for insol- 
 vent debtors and persecuted Dissenters whom 
 he rescued from English prisons. Its 
 religious ideas were strongly influenced by 
 the advent of some Moravian settlers, and by 
 the visits of the two Wesleys and Whitfield. 
 In 1739 Oglethorpe invaded the Spanish 
 colony of Florida without success, and the 
 counter attack also failed. Slavery was in- 
 troduced into the colony about 1760, and two 
 years later it was annexed to the crown. 
 
 (2) The New York group. Of these New 
 York and New Jersey have a common history. 
 They were in the first instance Dutch 
 colonies. Delaware Bay was discovered by 
 Henry Hudson in 1609, and a settlement 
 made at Albany in 1615. Soon New Am- 
 sterdam, at first a trading station, became a 
 permanent town, and the island of Manhattan 
 was bought from the Indians. After a 
 struggle for existence with the English 
 colonies, with the Indians, who nearly 
 destroyed them, and with the Swedes, whose 
 settlement, " New Sweden," was annexed in 
 1655, the state and city of New Amsterdam 
 became very prosperous. In 1664, however, 
 the country was granted by Charles II. to 
 James, Duke of York ; it surrendered to Sir 
 Eobert Holmes without a struggle ; New 
 Amsterdam became New York, and the dis- 
 trict between the Hudson and Delaware 
 New Jersey. For a few years the Dutch 
 recovered it again, but it was finally ceded 
 to England in 1674. James II. united New 
 York and New England under the governor- 
 ship of Sir E. Andrews, but at the Revolution 
 he was driven out, and the connection dis- 
 solved. The rights of the proprietors in 
 New Jersey were bought by the Quakers in 
 1682, but surrendered to the crown in 1702. 
 Pennsylvania, a district originally occupied 
 by the settlement of New Sweden, was also 
 purchased from Charles II. by William Penn 
 in 1682, when its capital, Philadelphia, was 
 founded, and a treaty concluded with the 
 Indian tribes. Soon afterwards a boundary 
 dispute arose with Maryland, which ter- 
 minated in the cession, in 1701, to Penn of the 
 tract on the south of the Delaware, which was 
 known as the Delaware Territory, and which 
 was attached to Pennsylvania, though with a 
 separate legislature, tiU 1776, when Delaware 
 declared itself an independent State. After 
 the English Revolution Penn's proprietary 
 rights were confiscated. 
 
 (3) The New England group. This was so 
 named by John Smith, who made one of the two 
 early and unsuccessful attempts to found a 
 settlement there. In 1620, however, some 
 PuritanNonconf ormists, known as the " Pilgrim 
 Fathers,' ' sailed from England in the Maijlower, 
 and, landing in Plymouth Bay, effected a per- 
 manent occupation. Their relations with the 
 Indians were on the whole friendly, and fresh 
 settlements were made, viz., New Hampshire 
 (1622), Massachusetts in 1628, Shade Island 
 
Col 
 
 ( 289 ) 
 
 Col 
 
 by Roger Williams (1631), and Connecticut 
 colonised from Massachusetts from 1633 and 
 onwards. This last settlement involved the 
 New Englanders in two Indian wars, which 
 resulted in the defeat of the Pequod and 
 Narragansett tribes. The northern colonies 
 were subjected by Charles I. to severe 
 restrictions, but in 1643 formed themselves 
 into a federation known as The United 
 Colonies of New England, which proved 
 the germ of the present United States. 
 Massachusetts soon proved itself the most 
 powerful of the four colonies, and in 1676 
 crushed the Indians in a great war called, 
 after the chief of the Wampanoags, "King 
 Philip's War." New England was severely 
 oppressed after the Restoration by Andros 
 and other governors ; Massachusetts forfeited 
 her charter in 1684, but with the Revolution 
 better times came. In 1690 the Massa- 
 chusetts government instigated a war for 
 the conquest of Canada, which lasted with a 
 long interval after the Peace of Utrecht (q.v.) 
 down to the close of " King George's War," 
 i.e., the War of the Austrian Succession. 
 Such was the origin of the thirteen American 
 colonies, of which it may be said that the 
 southern, where slave-labour was universal 
 with the exception of Georgia, were in the 
 main aristocratic, and the northern sectarian 
 and democratic. Their constitutions varied 
 considerably, but as a rule they consisted of 
 a house of assembly elected by the burgesses, 
 or freemen, reinforced frequently by nominees 
 of the proprietaries, a council nominated, as 
 a rule, by the governor, but in Massachusetts 
 by the freemen, and a governor appointed in 
 crown colonies by the king and proprietors, 
 in the others by the council. 
 
 Before the commencement of the Seven 
 Years' War in Europe, a border warfare 
 known as the "French and Indian War" 
 broke out in America, during which occurred 
 the occupation of the Ohio valley by the 
 French, who built there Fort Duquesne, and 
 the defeat of General Braddock and George 
 Washington when they advanced against it, 
 
 1755. War was not formally declared until 
 
 1756, when the newly-built Fort WiUiam 
 Henry was taken by the enemy. Towards 
 the end of the war, however, fortune 
 changed, and the great success of Wolfe in 
 Canada was anticipated by the capture of 
 Port Duquesne (subsequently re-named Pitts- 
 burg) in 1758 by General Forbes supported 
 by Washington. After the Peace of Paris 
 (1763), the Virginians defeated the Ottawas 
 and their aUies in the last great war, waged 
 by the colonists against the Indians. 
 
 _ It is impossible here to do more than just 
 hint at the events which from that date tended 
 to embitter the relations between the colonies 
 and England. There were, in the first place, 
 the Navigation Laws (1657—1660), by which 
 the colonies were prohibited from procur- 
 ing a large number of articles except from 
 
 HIST.-IO 
 
 England and, after the Treaty of Utrecht, 
 Irom bpam, and laid duties on the e.xport of 
 articles from colony to colony. These laws 
 were largely evaded by smuggling, and in 
 consequence Greriville in 1764 enforced them 
 ^^™ great severity, and by a, Sevenue Act 
 laid heavy dutits on various imports, includ- 
 ing wines. The Stamp Act (1765) followed, 
 which imposed duties ranging from ^A. to 
 £10 on printed publications, but it was 
 received with such outcry and riots all over 
 America, that it had to be repealed in the 
 followmg year, while a Declaratory Act at. 
 the same time insisted on the dependence of 
 the colonies on the king and Parliament of 
 Great Britain. This conciliatory policy did 
 not continue long. In the same year the 
 New York Assembly was suspended for 
 refusing to supply stores to the royal troops 
 in obedience to the Quartering Act, and 
 Charles Townshend's fatal Revenue Act, im- 
 posing import duties on paper, glass, tea, and 
 other articles followed in the next year. 
 War was from that moment inevitable ; the 
 Massachusetts Assembly was dissolved in 1768 
 for refusing to rescind a letter of protest, and 
 there was a collision between the citizens of 
 Boston and the British troops, known as the 
 " Boston Massacre," in 1770. Lord North's 
 Tea Act (1770), which removed the re- 
 strictions except that on tea, postponed the 
 war for awhile, but the rejection of Dunning's 
 petition for the removal of Hutchinson from 
 the governorship of Massachusetts by the 
 EngHsh government was followed, in conse- 
 quence of the burning of the tea ships in 
 Boston harbour, by the Boston fort Act, the 
 spark which set the incendiary forces of a 
 centuiy ablaze. [Boston Port Act ; Ameri- 
 can Independence, War of ; United States, 
 Relations with.] 
 
 _ Bancroft, Hist, of America ; J . T>oy\e, The Eng- 
 lish in America; Heiwiug, Enquiry inti Colonisa- 
 tion; Belknap, Hist, of New Eampshire ; Massa- 
 chusetts Historical Collections; Clartson, JUemoirs 
 of Wiiliam Fenn ; Stanhope, HlsI. of England ; 
 Maeaulay's Essay on Chatham ; Ludlow, War of 
 American Independence. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Colonies, The Australian. [Australia.] 
 
 Columba, St. (S. 521, d. 597), was a 
 native of Gartan, in Donegal; he was the 
 son of Feidlhim and Ethne, both of Irish blood 
 royal. Educated for the Church, he founded, 
 in 545, the monastery of Derry, and subse- 
 quently established many churches in Ireland. 
 The victory of the heathen king, Brude 
 MacMaclen, over the Scots of, Dalriada, in 
 660, led, three years later, to the mission of 
 Columba, undertaken for the purpose of con- 
 verting the Picts : though another account 
 ascribes the departure of Columba from Ire- 
 land to his action in bringing about a batt'e 
 between two Irish tribes. Columba landed in 
 lona 563, receiving the grant of the island 
 from Conal, King of Dalriada, or, as some 
 think, from Brude, the Pictish monarch ; here 
 
Col 
 
 ( 290 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 he founded his church, which hecame for 150 
 years the national Church of Scotland. The 
 Columhan church, always intimately connected 
 with the Church of Ireland, was in some points 
 of doctrine and ceremonial opposed to that of 
 Eome, to which it owed no allegiance. [Chuboh, 
 The Celtic] After two years spent in the 
 establishment of his monastery, Columba, in 
 565, went on a, mission of conversion to the 
 court of Brude, King of the Picts, at Inver- 
 ness ; having won over the monarch to the new- 
 faith, he proceeded to establish monasteries 
 .throughout the Pictish territory. In 575 he 
 caused Aidan, King of Dalriada, to assert his 
 position as a king, independent of the Irish 
 Dalriads ; the remaining years of his life were 
 chiefly spent in founding churches amongst 
 the southern Picts. Shortly before his death, 
 which took place in June, 597, he revisited 
 Ireland. The clouds of tradition and romance 
 in which the facts of his life are enshrouded 
 render it somewhat diflicult to estimate his 
 true character ; he is called by his biographer 
 Adamnan a man of contrasts, " at once 
 tender and irritable, rude and courteous, 
 grateful and revengeful." The verdict of 
 Mr. Skene may be quoted: — " He was evi- 
 dently a man of great force of character and 
 determined zeal in effecting his purpose, but 
 he could not have been the object of such 
 tender love and implicit devotion from all who 
 came under the sphere of his influence if the 
 softer and more amiable features pictured in 
 the earlier descriptions of him had not pre- 
 dominated." In later years, part of his relics 
 were removed to ICells, in Meath, and part by 
 Kenneth MacAlpine to Dunkeld. 
 
 Adamuan, Lifi of St. Coitirnha (Reeves's pd , 
 
 1857) ; Forbes, Ka'endar of Scottish Saints ; 
 
 Skeae. 
 
 Columbia, Bmtish, was formerly part of 
 the Hudson's Bay Territories. It rose into im- 
 portance owing to the discovery of gold there 
 (1858—1861) and the consequent influx of 
 settlers. It was created a crown colony in 
 1858. In 1866 Vancouver's Islandand Queen 
 Charlotte's Islands were incorporated with it, 
 and in 1871 the whole district became a pro- 
 vince of the Dominion of Canada (q.v.). The 
 government, which, like those of the other 
 provinces of the Dominion, is subject to the 
 central authority at Ottawa, consists of a 
 lieutenant-governor and a legislative assembly 
 of twenty-four members, 
 
 Combermere, Stapleton- Cotton, 1st 
 Viscount (A. 1772, d. 1865), took part in the 
 last Mysore War. He served with distinction 
 through the Peninsular War, was commander 
 of all the allied cavalry after 1810, and 
 decided the fortune of the day »t Salamanca 
 by a grand cavalry charge. In 1814 he was 
 for his services created Baron Combermere. 
 In 1817 he was made Governor of Jamaica. 
 In 182.5 he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 in India, and accomplished the reduction of 
 
 Bhurtpore at the close of the Burmese War. 
 He was created Viscount Combermere of 
 Bhurtpore, Feb., 1827. 
 
 Com.m.eudam3. On the vacancy of a 
 benefice, it was sometimes customary to 
 assize it to the care of a bishop, to be held in 
 commendam until a proper person could be 
 found on whom to bestow it. This system 
 was employed for the purpose of evading the 
 law against pluralities, and was frequently 
 abused. In 1616 occurred the famous Case of 
 Commendams, when an action was brought 
 against Neile, Bishop of Lichfield, for holding 
 a living, in commendam, to which it was 
 alleged he had been illegally presented by 
 the king, whose general prerogative of grant- 
 ing a commendam was disputed. The case is 
 famous for the subserviency of the judges, 
 who, having made some slight effort to resent 
 the king's attempt to obtain a verdict favour- 
 able to himself, subsequently sued for pardon 
 on their knees. Sir Edward Coke's opposition 
 to James's unconstitutional act entailed his 
 dismissal shortly afterwards. 
 
 Commeudaitiou. [Feudalism.] 
 
 Com.m.erce. The history of English 
 commerce is naturally divided into two paits 
 — the progress of navigation and the routes 
 taken by traders. But for the sake of con- 
 venience and brevity they must be taken 
 together in the present article. 
 
 The chief objects of mediaeval maritime 
 enterprise were the fisheries and the trade with 
 the East. The former were principally in the 
 hands of the Dutch and English ; the latter, 
 as far as Europe was concerned, in those 
 of the Venetians, Genoese, and Florentines. 
 Fish was a far more important article of diet 
 in the Middle Ages than it is now. It was 
 prescribed during certain times of the j'ear or 
 week by religion, and it supplemented as well 
 as varied the coarse salted food of our ances- 
 tors in winter. The principal ports engaged 
 in this trade were Yarmouth and the neigh- 
 bouring towns for herrings, and Scarborough 
 for cod. There were also extensive salmon 
 fisheries in the Thames, the Tweed, and the 
 Severn, barrelled salmon being an important, 
 though comparatively expensi ve, article of diet. 
 In the early part of the fifteenth century, i.e., 
 before 1436, Bristol mariners, by the use of the 
 mariner's compass, reached Iceland by the 
 Irish Channel and Atlantic, and successfully 
 competed with their Scarborough rivals. 
 Bristol gained considerable opulence by this 
 trade, and during this century became the 
 second city of the kingdom for opulence, 
 and numbers. The magnificent church of 
 St. Slary Redcliff, near Bristol, was the gift 
 of a rich Bristol merchant in this century. 
 
 The trade of England during this period 
 was very considerable, and was doubtlessly 
 much assisted by their posses-sions in France; 
 The English claimed, by virtue of the situation 
 
Com 
 
 (291 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 of tlie port of Calais, to have the control of the 
 narrow seas, and, as long as they held Nor- 
 mandy and Guienne, with the suzerainty over 
 Britanny, could regulate traffic along the coast 
 from Flanders to Bayonne. Hence the efforts 
 which the Lancastrian kings made for the 
 maintenance of Henry T.'s conquests had a 
 commercial as well as a military purpose. 
 The Emperor Si^smund told Henry V. that 
 Dover and Calais were the keys of the 
 Channel, and should be kept as the special 
 strength of England. The trade with the 
 Baltic and the coasts of Scandinavia and 
 Denmark was in the hands of the Hanse 
 towns, which were closely connected with 
 London, where a powerful corporation 
 called the Alderman and Merchants of the 
 Steel-yard, had important privileges from 
 the thirteenth century till towards the close 
 of the sixteenth. When the English occupa- 
 tion of Normandy was gone, English com- 
 merce was seriously affected by the numerous 
 corsairs which hid in the Breton ports, and, 
 after the loss of Guienne, this part of 
 France was similarly affected by the decline 
 of trade with England, and vainly strove, by 
 the revolt of 1433, to renew its old relations 
 with the English crown and people. The 
 commercial relations between England and 
 Portugal were intimate. But after the war 
 with France was practically over, aniLouis XL 
 left no means untried to conciliate Edward IV., 
 the coasting trade of England became again 
 extensive and profitable, for we learn from a 
 remarkable treatise of the time, that the 
 English mercantile marine had nearly all the 
 carrying trade of the coast, while that of 
 France was unimportant. The writer, a 
 Frenchman, therefore recommends a stringent 
 navigation law. 
 
 In the fourteenth century the produce of 
 the East was conveyed to Europe by three 
 routes at least : two by land, a third 
 mainly by sea. The two land routes started 
 from Bagdad, one passing through Mesopo- 
 tamia to Antioch, the other through the high- 
 lands of Armenia to Trebizond. The third 
 was to Aden, up the Red Sea, then by a short 
 land journey to the NUe, and down the Nile 
 to Cairo and Alexandria. This road ultimately 
 superseded the others. Central Asia, owing 
 to the gradual advance of the Turks, and 
 finally the conquest of Constantinople, and 
 the fall of the Greek empire, became impass- 
 able for commerce, and the only road which 
 remained open was through Egypt, where heavy 
 tolls were exacted, though not so as to entirely 
 spoU the trade. The goods brought from the 
 East, chiefly spices, which were eagerly pur- 
 chased by all who could afford them, were 
 carried through Italy, across the Alps, and 
 down the waterways of the Ehine, the Tipper 
 Danube, and their affluents, enriching the 
 towns of Lower Germany and Flanders. It 
 is possible that some Eastern produce still 
 found its way into Europe by the Caspian,. 
 
 Astrachan, and Russia, and that the eajly 
 opulence of Novgorod was due to this com- 
 merce. 
 
 Meanwhile, the avenues of trade with the 
 Bast were being closed up, and the Western 
 nations began to be alarmed at the risk of 
 being excluded from the use of products 
 which had become necessaries to many. 
 Maritime enterprise had been stimulated by 
 the example of the Portuguese and their 
 successful explorations of the African coast. 
 Simultaneously, Vasco de Gama, under the 
 patronage of the King of Portugal, and 
 Columbus, under that of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, strove to find a waterway to the 
 East, and so escape from the flow of bar- 
 barism which had nearly destroyed commerce. 
 At the close of the fifteenth century, Vasco 
 de Gama achieved the Cape passage ; Colum- 
 bus, the discovery of the New World. The 
 Pope granted them, in an age when no one 
 was prepared to dispute his authority in the 
 matter, the dominion over their discoveries, 
 and exclusive privileges of trading thither. 
 The result in the New World was the Spanish 
 conquest and the establishment of Spanish 
 monopoly. In the East, factories were es- 
 tablished, especially on the western side of 
 Hindostan, which, after the union of the 
 crowns of Spain and Portugal, became also 
 part of the vast Spanish empire. These 
 discoveries were made only just in time. 
 In less than twenty years after the voyages 
 of Columbus andDe Gama, Selim I. conquered 
 Egypt, annihilated what Kttle trade was left 
 by this route, and ruined the prosperity of 
 the Itahan and free German cities. 
 
 The sea route was for a long time costly 
 and unprofitable. It was protected by a 
 monopoly — due to the papal grants. It was 
 in the hands of a small power, which, after a 
 brief period of extraordinary activity, showed 
 signs of early decay. From these discoveries 
 the English were excluded, owing, amongst 
 other causes, to the timid avarice of Henry 
 VII., to the respect stUl entertained for 
 the Pope's authority, and when that was 
 discarded, to the fear of the Spanish power. 
 Hence, in the middle of the sixteenth century 
 an attempt was made to develop trade in 
 another quarter. In the year 1553 Sir Hugh 
 Willoughby attempted a North-East passage, 
 with three ships. Two were driven into a 
 desert harbour of Lapland, and .the com- 
 manders and crews frozen to death. The 
 third reaching Archangel, its commander had 
 an interview with Ivan the Terrible, and ob- 
 tained for his employers the charter of the 
 Russian Company. The first map of Russia 
 was published in 1560 by an agent of this 
 company ; but for a long time the operations 
 of the company were trivial. Similar at- 
 tempts were made to open up a trade with 
 the Levant and Morocco. These were dis- 
 tinct advances, though as yet without de- 
 cisive results. In the reig^ of Henry VIII. 
 
Com 
 
 292 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 — as we learn from one of his statutes, regu- 
 lating the price of freights, and directing 
 what should be the goods transported to 
 various countries — it appears that Malaga 
 was the furthest port to which at this time 
 the English ship-master ventured. It is 
 plain that England had fallen far behind 
 other nations in the extent and activity of 
 her mercantile marine. 
 
 The resuscitation of English enterprise was 
 due to Frobisher, Davis, and Drake, especially 
 the latter. In 1.579 Elizabeth entered into an 
 alliance, offensive and defensive, with Holland, 
 and thus informally declared war against 
 Spain. Two years before this, Drake had 
 set out on his famous voyage. His distinct 
 purpose was the plunder of Spanish commerce, 
 and he probably started with the queen's 
 concurrence, certainly with her connivance. 
 In those days it was very difficult to prevent 
 private warfare, especially when the object of 
 such warfare was opulent, and possessed of 
 lucrative privileges, held under what had now 
 become a discredited authority, and was 
 wholly unable to defend those privileges by a 
 blockade or a police of the seas. The practical 
 exclusion of all ships but those of one nation 
 from these ancient and these new markets 
 explain, though they may not justify, the 
 buccaneering exploits of Drake and his 
 followers. It was the only way of breaking 
 in upon a monopoly intelligible to the wild 
 spirit of the time, when England declared war 
 against Spain and Spain had added the 
 possessions of Portugal to her own. The 
 commerce and factories of the East became 
 lawful prize to the English and the Dutch. 
 The latter were early successful, and estab- 
 lished an Indian empire in the Archipelago. 
 But the English built up their commerce 
 with the East very slowly ; . and after many 
 reverses, Elizabeth granted charters, towards 
 the conclusion of her reign, to the Levant and 
 East India Companies, and made considerable 
 sacrifices of revenue in order to foster their 
 early efforts. 
 
 When the rupture with Spain was im- 
 minent, England began to plant colonies in 
 North America, Ealeigh being the pioneer of 
 those settlements. But they were practically 
 private adventures. The settlers found 
 neither fertile localities abounding in mineral 
 wealth nor opulent kingdoms, the plunder of 
 which would enrich monarchs as weU as 
 soldiers of fortune, such as were Mexico and 
 Peru. The settlers in the English plantations 
 had to contest their occupation with vigorous, 
 poor, and resolute savages, who had probably 
 dispossessed and annihilated a wealthier and 
 more civilised race, The later settlers of 
 New England planted themselves on sterile 
 Land, and in a climate of extremes. The 
 struggle for existence, as we know, was 
 severe, and a long time elapsed before these 
 settlers could acquire a few comforts. They 
 became, indeed, the nucleus of a vast empire, 
 
 the opulence and resources of which already 
 are beyond parallel, and will be beyond 
 rivalry at no remote date. But for a long 
 time they were weak and profitless to Eng- 
 land, 
 
 After many disappointments, the East India 
 Company began to prosper. During the 
 reign of Charles II, its profits from trade 
 were very large, and the fortunes of many a 
 noble and wealthy family were founded on 
 East India stock and the sales of its imports. 
 Like every similar institution, in the extra- 
 ordinary period of stock- exchange and stock- 
 jobbing activity, which became a frenzy from 
 the Revolution to the collapse of the South 
 Sea Scheme, the East India Company had its 
 rivals for privilege and monopoly. The 
 Parliament had taken from the crown the 
 right of giving patents for exclusive trade, 
 and had assumed the power itself. The 
 crown was not unwilling to transfer the 
 odium of such grants from itself to the 
 Parliament, especially as the companies were 
 perfectly willing to assist the financial em- 
 barrassments of the government by loans on 
 favourable terms, or even by the handsel of 
 large sums down in return for concessions. 
 Nor is there any doubt that much of the 
 corruption of Parliament was due to votes 
 bought by those who were eager to obtain 
 the lucrative monopoly of a Parliamentary 
 title. The habit of gambling in companies' 
 shares was greatly furthered by the almost 
 unH censed practice of ofllering lotteries on 
 every conceivable subject. 
 
 The theory of the seventeenth and eigh- 
 teenth centuries was that the development of 
 commerce was of supreme importance to the 
 community, and that commerce was best 
 secured by monopoly. But monopoly in the 
 existing condition of commercial Europe was 
 to be secured only by war — an improveinent, 
 indeed, on the old system of buccaneering, 
 but for a long time accompanied by it. James 
 was too timid to make war on any pretext. 
 Charles could not rely on his subjects, even 
 if he had possessed the means whereby to 
 carry on a warlike policy. But Cromwell 
 consulted the impulses of his age and race 
 when he declared war against Spain. He 
 demanded trade with the Spanish colonies, 
 and religious freedom for English settlers in 
 such colonies. His demands were refused, 
 and he seized Jamaica (intending to seize 
 Cuba), in the Antilles, and Dunkirk, on the 
 Flemish coast. He intended to control the 
 narrow seas, and to found an empire in the 
 West. He defeated the Dutch, humbled 
 them and broke their prestige, and designed 
 to ruin their trade by his Navigation Act. 
 But had CromweU lived to the natural 
 span of human life, instead of dying in his 
 fitty-ninth year, he could assuredly have 
 founded an English empire in the Gulf states, 
 and have expelled the Spaniards, nearly two 
 centuries before Canning's famous boast was 
 
Com 
 
 ( 293 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 uttered, that he had called the New World 
 into heing in order to redress the balance of 
 the Old. 
 
 The commerce of England grew rapidly 
 during the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 "Wild speculation was checked hy the losses 
 of the South Sea scheme, capital was accumu- 
 lated, agriculture prospered, and the pacific 
 poUcy of Walpole and Fleury aided pro- 
 gress. The Seven Years' War, avowedly 
 carried on by England in order to secure 
 commerce by conquest, had, and continues to 
 have, lasting effects on mankind. It gave 
 India and North America to the English 
 race and to English civilisation. But it also 
 brought with it the refutation of the old 
 commercial doctrine that war makes trade 
 and conquest secures trade. England sought 
 to impose part of the charges of the war on 
 the American colonies, and the War of Inde- 
 pendence followed. The East India Company 
 found that they could not Hve and pay 
 dividends on trade, though they clung to their 
 monopoly, and therefore they began to pay 
 dividends out of the tribute of conquered 
 races. 
 
 It was supposed that after the loss of the 
 American colonies English commerce had 
 sustained a fatal blow. The leading Ameri- 
 cans of the Revolution thought so. The great 
 majority of public men in England held the 
 same opinion. But in a short time it was 
 found that the United States were better 
 customers than the Plantations were. The 
 fact is, commerce, unless it be violently pre- 
 vented from seeking its own career, has no 
 preference beyond what is suggested by 
 cheapness and convenience. Besides, the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century was 
 an age of practical invention. Watt made 
 the steam-engine a power. The invention 
 of Arkwright increased the handiness of man 
 ten or twentyfold. There is a story that this 
 man offered, if his patents were continued to 
 him, to defray a moiety of the extraordinary 
 charges of government in England. The 
 story is perhaps an exaggeration, but it has a 
 basis of truth. It implies that the consuming 
 power of mankind was enormously increased 
 by invention, and that this consumption was 
 supplied by the machinery of trade and 
 commerce ; for it is manifest that Arkwright 
 looked for his customers beyond the wants of 
 his own countrymen. But even more impor- 
 tant than invention was the great boon of 
 commercial freedom granted in 1846. The 
 advocates of Free Trade may regret that their 
 views are not accepted by all civilised nations. 
 But they know that the members of every 
 community wish to sell, and, though the laws 
 may limit their choice in buying, that they 
 must buy in order to sell. The effects of that 
 conimercial freedom which we have adopted 
 are that we always buy in the cheapest 
 market, not only by choice, but perforce, as 
 those who restrain themselves have to give 
 
 more and take less, and that the mercantile 
 marine of this country is of unexampled 
 magnitude. 
 
 Sanuto, Gesta Dei per Francos j The Zibel of 
 English PoUcy; Dibats des Heraidts a'Armes; 
 Bchanz, Englische Kandelspolitik ; Macpherson, 
 Historn of Commerce; Porter, Pro';re.-,a of t/ie 
 ■''''"''»»■ [J. E. T. K.] 
 
 Com.inissaries, The Couut or, for Scot- 
 land, was an ecclesiastical court created in 
 1563, "to fill up the gap caused in the ad- 
 ministration of civil justice " by the abolition 
 of the Consistorial Court. It was a court for 
 the settlement of divorce cases, sentences of 
 excommunication, and other ecclesiastical 
 matters. 
 
 Commissions are instruments issuing 
 from the crown, and delegating authority to 
 particular persons to perform certain acts. 
 Thus, in military matters a commission is, 
 properly speaking, the document issued to 
 every military officer, and authorising him 
 to perform duties on behalf of the state. 
 Commissions of array were royal warrants 
 authorising barons and others to raise men 
 for the purpose of exercising and ti'aining 
 them in war. [Militaky System. ] Among 
 the permanent bodies of commissioners, who 
 perform regularly duties delegated by the 
 crown, are the Commissioners in Lunacy, 
 who are required to supervise the care of 
 lunatics, and the Justices on the Commission 
 of the Peace. [Jx'stices.] Royal Commissions 
 are frequently issued to small bodies of 
 persons — members of either House of Parlia- 
 ment, and others — empowering them to 
 inquire into the operation of laws, into 
 alleged grievances, or social, economic, or 
 educational matters ; generally with a view 
 to future legislation. They are empowered to 
 collect evidence, and to examine witnesses, 
 though not on oath; and their proceedings 
 are recorded and usually published in the 
 form of a report. 
 
 Com.Iuissioiiers, Eoyal, are appointed 
 by the crown, on the address of the Houses 
 of Parliament, to the effect that the judge 
 who has tried any election petition has 
 reported the prevalence of corrupt practices. 
 They inquire into the matter; and on their 
 report the action of Parliament in the way 
 of disfranchisement or prosecution is based. 
 Eoyal Commissions were established in 1853. 
 
 Committee. [Parliament.] 
 
 Common Iiands are unenclosed and 
 uncultivated spaces, not held in individual 
 ownership, where the neighbouring land- 
 owners and tenants enjoy certain rights of 
 pasturage, of turbary, or cutting turf for 
 fuel, and sometimes of estovers, or the liberty 
 of taking wood for the furniture or use of a 
 house. These rights are, in all probabihty, 
 of very ancient origin, and are probably a 
 survival of the old Germanic system of 
 
Com 
 
 (. 294 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 common pasturage on the fol/cland, or public 
 land. As, however, from the time of Alfred 
 the folklaud became, for the most part, royal 
 demesne, and large estates were formed, the 
 idea of individual ownership tended to sup- 
 plant that of common ownership. This 
 change was completed by the feudal lawyers, 
 who held commons to be the wastes of 
 manors, and minutely defined the rights of 
 common pasturage. It was either appendant, 
 as belonging to the. occupiers of arable land, 
 or appurtenant — i.e., founded on a special 
 grant — or hecause of vicinage, or in gross. The 
 common lands being regarded as the property 
 of the lord of the manor, he claimed the right 
 of enclosure. This was resisted by the free- 
 hold tenants, and the Statute of Merton 
 (1235) allowed the owner to enclose or ap- 
 prove against common of pasture, but only 
 provided that he could show that there was 
 left common sufSoient for such as were en- 
 titled thereto. "When the customary right of 
 copyholders became recognised — i.e., about 
 the time of Henry IV. — they also claimed 
 rights of pasturage, and resisted enclosures. 
 The inhabitants of villages, however, had not 
 this privilege, and as late as 1603 the claim 
 of the people of Stixwold, in Lincolnshire, to 
 exercise rights of past\irage in the waste of 
 the manor was overthrown by the courts of 
 law. Under the Tudors the practice of en- 
 closures, together with the still more oppres- 
 sive plan of converting arable land into 
 pasture-land, became a crying evil. Bacon 
 commented upon it in the History of Henry 
 VI J. ; it was one of the causes of the formidable 
 insurrection in the eastern counties in 1549 ; 
 and Bishop Latimer, in his famous Sermon 
 of the Plough, preached before the court of 
 Edward VI., denounced the nobles as " en- 
 closers, graziers, and rent-raisers." One or 
 two attempts were made to check these 
 practices. Henry VIII. ordered the houses 
 which had been pulled down to be rebuilt, 
 and limited the number of sheep on each 
 farm to 2,000 ; and the Protector Somerset 
 appointed a Royal Commission " for the re- 
 dress of enclosure." Such efforts, however, 
 were of no avail, and complaints were fre- 
 quent throughout the reigns of Elizabeth and 
 of the Stuarts. 
 
 Gradually the Statute of Merton came to 
 be regarded as obsolete, and it was thought 
 necessary to obtain the sanction of Parlia- 
 ment for enclosure. The first Local Enclosure 
 Act was passed under Anne, and since then 
 the permission of the legislature has generally 
 been regarded as a necessary preliminary to 
 enclosure. Between 1700 and 1845 some 
 4,000 of these Acts were passed, and 7,175,000 
 acres of land enclosed, whereby the class of 
 small yeomen became almost extinct. The 
 legislation on the subject, which was con- 
 solidated in 1801, provided that the consent 
 of three-fourths of the freeholders and copy- 
 holders of the manor was necessary, that the 
 
 common should be divided among them in 
 proportion to their holdings, the lord being 
 awarded one-sixteenth. He had also the 
 power of vetoing enclosures. The General 
 Enclosure Act of 1846 established a new prin- 
 ciple, that of local inquiry through Enclosure 
 Commissioners, so that the poor could make 
 known their grievances, and also set apart 
 certain portions of land for recreation and 
 garden allotments. Passed, however, before 
 the nation had adopted the doctrine of Free 
 Trade, it tended to promote rather than check 
 enclosure ; the land set apart for recreation 
 was miserably inadequate, and the great 
 commons and forests were threatened every- 
 where. Accordingly a Society for the Pro- 
 tection of Rural Commons was formed by 
 Mr. Fawcett, M.P. , and one for the Preserva- 
 tion of Commons near London by Mr. G. 
 Shaw Lefevre, M.P. The- exertions of the 
 former were successful in preventing the 
 Parliamentary sanction of enclosures between 
 1869 and 1876, and the necessity of such a 
 step was proved by the fact that the area of 
 common land in England and Wales was not, 
 as was imagined, 8,000,000 acres, but only 
 2,632,000. The question of urban commons 
 was not decided until after a violent struggle 
 in the law courts, owing to the fact that 
 while the right of a village to its green was 
 recognised by law, that of a town to- its com- 
 mon was not. The crucial case was that of 
 Epping _ Forest, over which the crown has 
 several important forestal rights, which had, 
 until about 1840, prevented enclosure. When 
 the neighbouring landlords began to appro- 
 priate the land, an old man named WilHn- 
 gale resisted them on behalf of the villagers 
 of Loughton, and his cause, taken up by the 
 Corporation of London, resulted, in 1874, in a 
 complete overthrow of the landlord's preten- 
 sions. Soon afterwards a Royal Commission de- 
 cided that the enclosures were illegal, and that 
 the forest should be restored to its originial con- 
 dition. In 1878, therefore, an Act was passed, 
 directing that Epping Forest should be pre- 
 served for ever, open and unenclosed, for the 
 benefit of the people of London. The Cor- 
 poration of London were made its conserva- 
 tors — and subsequently of all common lands 
 within twenty-five miles of London. Finally, 
 the Commons Act of 1876 substituted regula- 
 tion and improvement in place of the enclosure 
 of common lands, and laid down the principle 
 that no enclosure should be sanctioned by the 
 commissioners -without distinct evidence that 
 it would be beneficial to the inhabitants 
 generally. In Ireland and Scotland the 
 question of common lands is not so important, 
 owing to the fact that the comparative barren- 
 ness of the soil offers less temptation to en- 
 closures. The first Whiteboy rising in 
 Ireland, however, in 1692, was in great part 
 due to this cause. 
 
 Elton, r/ie Law of Commons and Waste lanis ; 
 Wmgrove Cook, Incloeurcs ; Brodriok, Bmslioii 
 
Com 
 
 ( 295 ) 
 
 Ccm 
 
 Xafid and English Landlords; Shaw Lefevre, 
 Enqluh and IHsh Land Questions ; Nasse, The 
 AQricultuval Comm'miit]! of tlie Middle Ages ■ 
 Statutes 8 and 9 Vlot., o. lis, and 39 and 40 Vict.' 
 "■ ^^- [L. C. S.] 
 
 Common Ijaw may be defined as that 
 part of the law of the land which, before the 
 Judicature Act of 1873, was administered by 
 those courts which were called courts of 
 common law, in distinction to the courts of 
 eq^uity. It was founded on the old popular 
 law of the nation, and has grown by the 
 process of legislation and by the assimila- 
 tion in whole or in part of other systems ; 
 just in the same way as the judicial system 
 of the royal courts introduced after the Con- 
 quest, became part of our common law. It 
 consists of written laws or statutes, and of 
 unwritten laws, or customs; though the term 
 " common law " was generally used in a more 
 restricted sense to describe the system of 
 customary law grounded on the recorded 
 decisions of successive judges, as opposed to 
 the " written " or statute law. Such decisions 
 of judges which are preserved in year-books, 
 reports and digests of cases, as well as certain 
 famous law books such as the Institutes of Sir 
 E. Coke, are of high authority in our courts. 
 The appKcation and interpretation of the sta- 
 tute law is entrusted to the j udges. By the way 
 in which they carry out this work the law is 
 modified. They are, however, not free to inter- 
 pret statutes as they choose, but must observe 
 certain rules in their dealings with them ; 
 as, for instance, that all Acts of Parliament, 
 except in cases where the effects would be 
 manifestly absurd or unjust, and so contrary 
 to the clear intention of Parliament, are to be 
 interpreted according to the plain meaning of 
 the words. For judges are not set to specu- 
 late on, but to carry out, the intentions of 
 Parliament. In order to ascertain the mean- 
 ing of a statute, the preamble, though not in 
 itself law, may be consulted as an authority. 
 As regards the administration of statutes, it 
 " is to be observed that no statute is of retro- 
 spective force unless the same is expressly 
 declared ; that repealed statutes are not to be 
 taken into account except as having had 
 force before their repeal ; that general terms 
 used after particular cases apply only to 
 cases which are strictly ejusdem generis; and 
 that all penal statutes and such statutes as 
 relate to taxation are to be construed strictly. 
 The statute law begins with 9 Hen. III., the 
 Great Charter. Customary law has the same 
 force as statute lawas to the assent of the people. 
 For lex nonscripta " consists of those rules and 
 maxims concerning persons and property which 
 have obtained by the tacit consent and usage 
 of the inhabitants of the country." Customs 
 are either general or particular. General 
 customs bind all men equally who are under 
 the same conditions, though they may not 
 have been the subjects of enactment. For 
 a general usage, if ascertained and established. 
 
 becomes part of the common law and is 
 recognised by the courts. Particular customs 
 are exceptional in their application. For a 
 custom to be good it must have arisen before 
 legal memory, which has been fixed at the 
 first year of Richard I. This doctrine has, 
 however, been regulated by statute (2 and 3 
 WiU. IV., c. 71, 1 and 2). A custom must, 
 moreover, be continuous as regards right ; it 
 must be peaceably enjoyed; not unreasonable; 
 it must be certain, or at least such as can be 
 ascertained; and it must be consistent or 
 compulsory in its application. A particular 
 custom which is contrary to general rights 
 must be construed strictly. The customary 
 law is declared by the judges, and their 
 decisions collectively exhibit the common law 
 both as regards the application of statutes and 
 the declaration of customs. 
 
 Broom, Commentaries mi the Common Lam; 
 Beeve, History oj English Law. rw tt -i 
 
 Common Order, The Book of, was 
 
 the service book of the Scottish Reformers, and 
 was compiled, 1567, by Knox from a manual 
 issued by Calvin. It long continued to be 
 used by the Presbyterians, both in Scotland 
 and England. 
 
 Commons, The House of, is the Lower 
 Chamber or representative branch of theEnglish 
 Parliament, appointed by popular election. The 
 peculiar feature in the constitutional position 
 of the Commons, when they secured their place 
 as one of the estates of Parliament, is that they 
 had little more than a formal share in legis- 
 lation ; in control of the administration, only 
 the power of petition ; and no share at all in 
 the function of justice ; while almost from 
 the first they take the chief part in the grants 
 of taxation. This theoretic position is trace- 
 able even at the present time, when the 
 Commons alone settle taxation, whereas their 
 share of legislative and administrative power 
 won by the conversion of the petition into a 
 " bill," is only concurrent with that of the 
 House of Lords, and the Lords retain exclu- 
 sively the powers of justice. These peculiarities 
 are due to the historical conditions of the de- 
 velopment of the House of Commons. Another 
 peculiarity, which only these historical condi- 
 tions can explain, is the meaning which came 
 to be attached to the word " Commons," 
 including freeholders and burgesses at once, 
 and which thus differentiated essentially the 
 English Parliamentary system, both in its 
 construction and in the course it has run, 
 from the representative systems of other 
 countries. Lastly, the history of the third 
 estate brings out the original character of 
 the members of the House of Commons as 
 being mere delegates, and the gradual re- 
 placement of this by the higher character 
 of senators, so that each member is not the 
 deputy of a locality but a representative of 
 the whole. 
 
 The word " Commons " {communitatea, coin- 
 
Com 
 
 ( 296 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 munauU) iu found in the thirteenth century 
 often in the simple sense of the whole body 
 of the nation. But under the influence of 
 the French use of the word for an organised 
 body such as the town corporations, it comes 
 to "be also used for smaller organised repre- 
 sentative bodies, such as the county courts 
 or the corporate body controlling the boroughs, 
 or again, the body .of tenants -in -chief. 
 The barons at Oxford in 1258 speak of the 
 twelve appointed per le commun, i.e., by the 
 baronial tenants-in-chief, to consult pour le 
 eommun de la terre, i.e., for the whole nation. 
 Indeed the whole constitutional struggle 
 between classes in this century' may be put 
 in the formula of a struggle as to the 
 practical interpretation of the word eommu- 
 nitas. And for some time it seemed that the 
 English Constitution would be cast in a mould 
 like the French, constituted of clergy, chief 
 tenants, boroughs ; or at least that it would 
 resemble that of Aragon (clergy, magnates, 
 knights, towns) ; for each of these bodies had 
 in England at one time an identity of its own. 
 What, then, defeated this tendenc)- ? What 
 common ground brought the burgesses and 
 freeholders' class together in England alone of 
 all countries ? The answer is, the shire-moot, 
 or county court. Here the two classes had 
 been long used to meet and work together 
 under royal orders, the communitas seirm had 
 contained not only freeholders from hundred 
 and township, but also the representative bur- 
 gesses from each borough, entrusting the duties 
 laid on the shire to three or four of the more 
 discreet knights; and after the dangerous 
 precedent had been set aside of Simon de 
 Montfort's dealing with the boroughs apart 
 from their shires, from 1283 the writ for 
 knights and burgesses alike was executed in 
 the shire-moot. The shire had brought over 
 the knights from the baronial body to the 
 freeholders, and had now associated the 
 knights with the burgesses. The only thing 
 which threatened to keep them still separated 
 in Parliament was the system of taxation, 
 and when the old feudal taxation by aids, 
 scutages, and caracages [Aid] had yielded to 
 the national taxation by subsidies and customs, 
 it became natural for the knights and bur- 
 gesses, as the representative and taxing body, 
 to part off from the barons, and to sit together 
 in one House of Commons, i.e., about the 
 beginning of Edward III.'s reign. 
 
 The English Parliament, then, in the four- 
 teenth century, consisted of two " estates," 
 the clergy and the lords, and a third body, 
 which had more the character of a representa- 
 tion of localities. It had seemed not impos- 
 sible under Edward I. that two other estates 
 might be added — the lawyers and the 
 merchants. The former would have been 
 fatal to the Commons' acquisition of adminis- 
 trative supervision ; the latter, fatal to their 
 monopoly of taxation, and so to their one 
 weapon against the crown. However, not only 
 
 was this not realised, but the actually existing 
 estate of clergy entered on the suicidal pohcy 
 of escaping their position between "the 
 hammer and the anvil"— Pope and king— by 
 taking up a position of jealous constitutional 
 isolation, and persisted in dropping out of the 
 Parliamentary system. The Commons were left 
 alone, the sole body representative of the nation, 
 and the sole body too which could be fairly 
 deemed able to impose a national tax. For while 
 the making of laws and the administering of 
 supreme justice nad been the business of the 
 king and his great council, it had been always 
 necessary to obtain the active concurrence of 
 the shire-moot to raise a tax. Thus the 
 terms in which the representatives are called 
 to Edward I.'s Parliaments are merely "to 
 hear;" under Edward II., "to hear and 
 consent to," as against the Lords " to treat 
 of " the matters. But the separatio?i of the 
 Houses increased the powers of the represen- 
 tative House, as did also the appeals to them 
 made by the contending parties of the court 
 and the opposition baronage in 1322, 1327, 
 1386, 1387, 1399. Also through the reign of 
 Edward III. the Commons felt, as their song 
 said, that they were the " shippe's mast, That 
 with their chattel and their good. Maintained 
 the war from first to last." Aiid moreover, the 
 knights of the shire were now taking up that 
 attitude of bold, yet wary and unsleeping 
 opposition which justifies Hallam in saying 
 that they " bore the brunt of the battle for 
 constitutional liberty." Thus it was almost 
 wholly their energy which, in the battle over 
 taxation, secured to Parliament in 1340 the 
 sole right to direct taxation, and in 1362 to 
 the increase of the customs ; while, under 
 Richard II., the indirect control by appro- 
 priation and audit, and the rule settled in 
 1401, that grants be made the last day of the 
 session, permanently secured the principle 
 that redress precedes supply, as the downfall 
 of Richard II. decided against the claim of 
 the crown to an ordaining power tantamount 
 to the law-making power of Parliament. 
 " The year 1341 distinctly marks the acquisi- 
 tion by the third estate of its full share of 
 Parliamentary power, the Commons asserting, 
 and the Lords allowing them, an equal share 
 in the common demand of right and control " 
 (Stubbs). 
 
 In legislation it had already in 1327 be- 
 come the rule to say " at the petition of the 
 Commons," instead of "by their assent." 
 And this was made a reality, the real initia- 
 tive was given to them, when in 1439 the 
 petition was transformed into a "bill, con- 
 taining in itself the form of an act," a usage 
 which became regular under the Tudors. To 
 the control of administration the Commons 
 had made their first step by their great peti- 
 tion against grievances in 1309, and this 
 attitude they maintained by indefatigable 
 petitioning through the century, e.g., in 1376 
 especially; while their being called on to 
 
Com. 
 
 ( 297) 
 
 Com 
 
 ratify the depositions of Edward II. and 
 Kichard II. strengthened their claim im- 
 mensely, as did the period of regency after 
 Edward III., and ahove aU the fact that, up 
 to 1437, the Lancastrian dynasty's Parlia- 
 mentary title obliged the kings to suhjeot 
 their Council to instructions from Parlia- 
 ment, and to constitute it of such members as 
 would be agreeable to the Commons. Even 
 Edward IV. evaded rather than defied their 
 interference. The Tudors had the confidence 
 of their subjects, but they packed the House 
 with creatures of the court, and by the intro- 
 duction of more than eighty new boroughs ; 
 yet, in the last resort, even the Tudors knew 
 how to yield when the temper of the House 
 had been dangerously stirred by anxiety as 
 to the succession, by an ecclesiastical measure 
 for which they were not prepared, or by 
 some great defect in the ordinary administra- 
 tion, such as the abuse of monopolies in 
 Elizabeth's reign. In the seventeenth century 
 a common spirit animated the whole House. 
 It was far better attended, the grant of freedom 
 of speech became more of a reality than the 
 warning with which it was conjoined against 
 abuse of the grant. The old weapon of im- 
 peachment, which had proved so formidable 
 to unpopular royal ministers in 1377, and in 
 1386, and in 1449, had lain unused since then, 
 but was brought forth once more against 
 MompesBon and Bacon in 1621, and against 
 the Earl of Middlesex in 1624, and, as used 
 against Straflord in 1640, gave the death- 
 blow to ministerial reliance on crown support. 
 No part of the Commons' work is now more 
 thoroughly carried out than this supervision 
 of aU public departments by the machinery 
 of motions for a resolution, motions before 
 supply, and questions to ministers. Similarly 
 the House, by its representative character 
 and its hold of the purse, has long had practi- 
 cally the' final voice in deliberation on such 
 matters as foreign policy, and the determina- 
 tion of war and peace. In the fourteenth 
 century the Commons had mostly avoided 
 direct interference in such questions, but the 
 failure of the French wars had roused them to 
 more straightforward interposition, and this 
 jealousy was afterwards revived by distrust 
 of the action of the court. In taxation 
 the fourteenth centuiy had seen the sole 
 right to impose taxes won for Parliament 
 by the Commons, the fifteenth sees the 
 Commons secure the fruits of this viotorj' 
 solely for themselves, for in 1407 it was 
 allowed that a tax could originate only 
 with the Commons ; the Lords and the clergy 
 in Convocation have nothing to do but prac- 
 tically to follow with corresponding grants. 
 This claim they did not relax under the 
 Tudors, though it was evaded by benevolences, 
 ind it was this which brought them first into 
 collision with the Stuart theory of prerogative, 
 which took nowhere a more offensive form 
 than in the ship-money and customs duties by 
 
 HlST.-lO* 
 
 which it aimed at superseding the representa- 
 tive control of taxation. The Petition of Right 
 (1628) and the Bill of Eights (1689) embodied 
 this as a cardinal principle of the constitu- 
 tion, and it was completed by the doctrine 
 first heard in 1671 and 1680, and finally 
 vindicated in 1861 by their resolute action in 
 rejecting the Lords' amendments to the Bill 
 for Repealing the Paper Duties, that no 
 amendment can be made in a money bill of 
 the Commons, nor can the Lords even in- 
 directly impose any charge. And this the 
 language of the Acts of Parliament and of 
 the Queen's Speech formally recognises. It 
 is this principle as much as the necessity 
 to renew the Mutiny Act, that gives the 
 Commons control over the numbers of the 
 standing army. But with all their sole con- 
 trol, and the annual Appropriation Act, and 
 Budget, and elaborate machinery for audit 
 and for criticism of each item, it may be 
 doubted whether the growth of jjublic expen- 
 diture is not beyond the power of the House, 
 as at present constituted, to restrain. The 
 Grand Committees recently (1882) established 
 may lead to some more feasible means towards 
 this. 
 
 In the course of their long advance to 
 supreme power in the state, the Commons 
 have sometimes made errors ; thus they were 
 defeated in their attempts to tax the clergy 
 (1449) and to claim a share of the Lords' 
 judicial powers (1400, and Floyd's Case, 
 1621), and they -have abandoned the practice 
 of forcing bills through the Lords bj' tacking 
 them to a money bill ; but most of all 
 have they misjudged their dignity in the 
 interpretation they have sometimes given to 
 Privilege of the House. As to the elections 
 in the shires, Acts had been passed in 1406 
 and 1430 to check the interference .respec- 
 tively of the sheriff and of others than 
 freeholders; but the' cognisance of disputed 
 elections lay with king and Council until 
 the Commons took notice of such cases in 
 15.53 and 1586, and in 1604 entered on an 
 indecisive conflict with the Chancery, since 
 which date, however, or indisputably since the 
 Aylesbury Case (q.v.) in 1704, the House has 
 been judge of its own elections, a function 
 it deputed to a committee from 1790, and 
 from 1868 more honourably delegated to 
 the judges, with marked results on the 
 purification of the public tone in relation to 
 bribery, as can be seen in the stringent clauses 
 of the Bill of 1883. [Bribery.] As to privi- 
 lege of members of theHouse of Commons from 
 arrest, the first important case to be noticed 
 is that when the Speaker, Thorpe, was im- 
 prisoned on an action of trespass brought by 
 the Duke of York in 1453. But Henry VIII., 
 ia Ferrers' Case (1543) supported their claim, 
 and James I. had to allow it in his first 
 Parliament {Shirley's Case), and it has been 
 allowed consistently ever since, with the 
 exception that it has ceased to be extended to 
 
Com 
 
 ( 298 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 members' servants. The House has always 
 exercised jurisdiction over its own members 
 by committal or expulsion, though the former 
 expires at a prorogation, and is so far inferior 
 to the internal jurisdiction of the Lords. 
 The important privilege of freedom of speech 
 •was not acquired till the Lancastrian reigns, 
 and was little respected by the Tudor kings, 
 but under the Stuarts the release of Sir John 
 Eliot and others (1029), and the failure of 
 the attempt upon the Five Members (1642), 
 led to the recognition of the principle by the 
 King's Bench and its final enunciation iu 
 the BiU of Eights (1689). It still was found 
 necessary, after the undigniiied dispute with 
 Stockdale C1837-40), to pass an Act protecting 
 printers of Parliamentary papers from liability 
 to actions for libel. On the other hand, in 
 appealing to privilege to prevent the publica- 
 tion of debates, the Commons had put Willces 
 into the position of a representative of a just 
 and irresistible popular demand (1771) and 
 they have more prudently given up this pre- 
 tension, as well as the idconvenient custom 
 of excluding strangers at a single member's 
 request. 
 
 The constitution and structure of the House 
 of Commons has also a history of its own. 
 In 1295, 37 counties and 116 boroughs were 
 represented; the Tudor period saw the addition 
 of two English counties with two members, 
 and 12 "Welsh counties with one member each, 
 and more than 80 boroughs. It was not until 
 Charles II.'s reign that the Palatinate of 
 Durham first sent members to the House 
 of Commons. The number of boroughs 
 increased up to 1832, and in the inter- 
 val 45 members had been added for Scot- 
 land, 100 for Ireland, and five for the Uni- 
 versities. After many propo.sals for reform 
 extending to the middle of the eighteenth 
 century, the Eeform BiUs of 1832 and 1868 
 transferred members from many boroughs to 
 the counties, and increased the representa- 
 tion of Scotland and Ireland; the total now 
 being 658. [Repobm.] In 1430 the franchise 
 was declared to belong only to 40s. free- 
 holders ; iu 1707 a property qualification for 
 members was requiied; but the former was 
 enlarged by the BiU of 1832, the latter 
 abolished in 1858. [Fkanchise.] The origi- 
 nal theory of the representative system under 
 which a member was a delegate from a parti- 
 cular place had always tended to be tacitly 
 dropped in favour of the wider senatorial 
 theory that each member represents the whole 
 Commons ; and occasional endeavours in the 
 fifteenth century to require from candidates 
 residence as a qualification were fortunately 
 never acted on. A greater necessity was to 
 strengthen the independence of the House 
 and make its representative character a reality 
 by excluding lawyers (1372, 1404), maintainors 
 (1350, &c.), and sherifis(1372 and afterwards) ; 
 but the " undertakers " of the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries, and the placemen of 
 
 the eighteenth century, were not satisfactorily 
 excluded till the rule established in 1707 
 disqualifying pension holders, and even 
 obliging members appointed to office to seek 
 re-election. 
 
 But the essential defect in the Commons as 
 a representative House up to 1832 lay else- 
 where. The representative system which 
 when first constituted in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury was an honest reflex of the social state, 
 failed to expand to meet the expansion of 
 society ; the villeins who were unfit for 
 representation in 1295 had acquired practical 
 independence before 1381 ; the boroughs 
 which were worthy of representation at 1295 
 fell into decay as the centre of gravity of the 
 population shifted from the south of England 
 to the north. Thus the Commons of the six- 
 teenth century had ceased to be a just repre- 
 sentation of contemporary wealth and intelH- 
 gence ; yet reform was delayed till it was 
 almost enforced by revolution, a pregnant 
 lesson which statesmanship will do weU to 
 learn of history. [Pakliament.] 
 
 Hatsell, Precedents ; Hallam, Middle Ages 
 and Constitutional History ; Gneist, Verwaltunns- 
 reckt and Das Self-government; May, Coustiiu- 
 tionol Sisiory ; Cobbett, Parliamentary History, 
 and Journals of House of Commons ; and especially 
 Stubbs, ConstilMtional History; andMay, Treatise 
 on Frocedure and Fractice of Parliament. 
 
 [A. L. S.] 
 
 Comm.OU'nrealth, The, a term for- 
 merly employed to signify the general weal, 
 and the nation with its inhabitants, was 
 specially adopted to designate the government 
 which intervened between the death of Charles 
 I. in Jan., 1649, and the establishment of 
 Cromwell's Protectorate in Dec, 1653. After 
 the forcible ejection of certain of its mem- 
 bers by Colonel Pride, Dec. 6, 1648, the House 
 of Commons consisted of eighty members. On 
 Feb. 6, 1649, seven days after the execution 
 of Charles, this mutilated House resolved that 
 the House of Peers ought to be abolished, and 
 on the next day adopted a similar resolution 
 with regard to the oifioe of a king. These 
 resolutions were afterwards enlodged in Acts 
 of Parliament, and a further Act passed 
 enacting that the people of England and of 
 aU the dominions thereto belonging should 
 be governed as a Commonwealth and free 
 State (May 19, 1649) ; the executive was 
 vested in a Council of State of forty-one 
 members, re-elected by the Parliament yearly. 
 With the exception of three or four members, 
 this Council always consisted of members of 
 Parliament. The average attendance of the 
 House was about fifty, and as the most active 
 members of the Council were also the most 
 active merabers of Parliament, it was the 
 Council which was mainly responsible for the 
 policy of the government. There was no indi- 
 vidual responsibility ; aU work being done by 
 committees formed of members of the CounoU, 
 and of the Parliament, and of both bodies 
 united. 
 
Com 
 
 ( 299 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 The Eepublio rested entirely for its main- 
 tenance on the army. Yet amongst the mass 
 of officers and soldiers no desire was felt for 
 the continued existence of the present Parlia- 
 ment. Before the execution of Charles a 
 project drawn up hy Ireton had been pre- 
 sented to Parliament, demanding its speedy 
 dissolution, and proposing the election of 
 triennial Parliaments, a reform of the elec- 
 toral system,, and a redistribution of seats. 
 The Parliament was, however, unwilling to 
 decree its own dissolution, and the dangers 
 with wh'ch the new government was sur- 
 rounded justified its refusal to take the ques- 
 tion into consideration. It had to face the 
 hostility of the Presbyterian section of the 
 Puritan party, as well as of old Royalists and 
 Irish Catholics. Both in Ireland and Scotland 
 the Prince of Wales was proclaimed king of 
 the three countries. Prince Rupert ruled the 
 Channel at the head of some revolted ships. 
 Foreign princes refused to recognise the 
 Kepublic. Dangerous mutinies broke out 
 amongst the Fifth-Monarchists and Levellers 
 in the army. These, however, were quickly 
 suppressed, by the energy and decision of. 
 Cromwell and Fairfax in dealing with the 
 mutineers. An Act was passed to restrain the 
 press (Sept. 20, 1649). An engagement to be 
 true and faithful to the Commonwealth, 
 as established without king or House of 
 Lords; was required as a necessary pre- 
 liminary to holding any office in Church or 
 State (Oct. 12), and by a subsequent Act was 
 rendered universal (Jan. 2, 1650). In Ireland 
 Cromwell in nine months brought the greater 
 part of the country again into subjection to 
 England. The following year his great 
 victories gained over the Scots at Dunbar 
 (Sept. 3, 1630) and Worcester (Sept. 3, 1651) 
 destroyed for the time aU hope of a Presby- 
 terian or Royalist reaction, and reduced Scot- 
 land to the condition of a subject province. 
 A bill was introduced into Parliament for 
 the union of the two countries. An Act 
 was passed for the settlement of Ireland, 
 which excepted from pardon aU persons who 
 had taken part in the massacre of 1643, and 
 confiscated a large amount of land belonging 
 to Irish Catholics (Aug. 12, 1652). A further 
 biU was brought in for the planting of 
 Protestant families on the land thus confis- 
 cated. 
 
 ■ In March, 1649, the Council of State 
 appointed Milton its secretary for foreign 
 tongues. After the victory of Worcester, 
 foreign princes, who before refused to recog- 
 nise the Republic, sought its friendship. 
 During the two years in which Cromwell was 
 reducing Ireland and Scotland, the Repub- 
 licans in London had raised a formidable 
 navy — Prince Rupert, driven by Admiral 
 Blake from the mouth of the Tagus when he 
 sought refuge, saw his fleet dispersed and de- 
 stroyed on the Mediterranean (1649). Com- 
 mercial jealousy led to the passing of the 
 
 Navigation Act (Oct. 9, 1651), intended to 
 transfer the carrying trade of the Dutch to 
 Englishmen, and in the ensuing summer to 
 the opening of hostiUties with the United 
 Provinces. In an engagement off Dover the 
 English under Blake were worsted by the 
 Dutch under Van Tromp. In Feb., 1653, 
 the hostile fleets again engaged off Portland 
 Isle, when the Dutch were defeated and driven 
 for refuge into the Texel. 
 
 After the restoration of internal peace the 
 question of the dissolution of the Parliament 
 again rose into prominence. Various Acts 
 had been passed by which the House sought 
 to express its regard for religion and morality, 
 but the chief reform demanded remained un- 
 executed, nor did it seem probable that the 
 government, as at present constituted, would 
 ever have the energy requisite for the attain- 
 ment of practical results in the directions 
 required. The reform of the law, a definite 
 settlement with regard to the Church and the 
 appointment of ministers, the termination of 
 the system of sequestering the estates of 
 former delinquents, and of governing by means 
 of committees, appeared no nearer attainment 
 than at the time of the institution of the Re- 
 public. The impracticability of compromise 
 between the so-called Repubhcans, Vane, 
 Ludlow, and others, who sought to maintain 
 the existing form of government, and those 
 who were indifferent to the form the govern- 
 ment should assume, so long as the pre- 
 dominance of the Puritan party was assured, 
 led to the sudden and forcible ejection of the 
 members from their seats by Cromwell (April 
 .19, 1653). 
 
 From this tiine, Cromwell was practically 
 at the head of the government, which was 
 for the time carried on by a council of thirteen, 
 including himself and eight other officers. 
 In July, in answer to his summons, there 
 met an assembly of 139 persons, known as 
 the Little Parliament, or as Barebones' Par- 
 liament, from the name of one of its members, 
 a leather-seller — Barbon, a London Baptist. 
 It was representative of the reforming party, 
 and was divided nearly equally between a 
 more radical but small majority, and a larger 
 less radical, minority. It passed Acts for the 
 relief of debtors, for the registration of births, 
 marriages, and deaths, and the institution of 
 civil marriages. It also brought in bills 
 affecting the Poor Laws and the administra- 
 tion of justice. It voted the abolition of the 
 Court of Chancery. It further voted that the 
 choice of ministers should be vested in their 
 parishioners, and rejected by a majority of 
 two the report of a committee in favour of 
 the continuance of tithes. These votes on 
 the Church question represented the triumphs 
 of those who desired to effect the severance of 
 Church and State. The minority, opposed to 
 a voluntary system, took opportunity in the 
 name of the Parliament of resigning their 
 authority to Cromwell. The officers of tho 
 
Com 
 
 ( 300 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 army determined to restore tlie executive into 
 the hands of a single person, and, on Dec. 16, 
 Cromwell was installed head of the govern- 
 ment with the title of Lord Protector of the 
 Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland. 
 
 Calendars of State Papers (Domestic Series) 
 during the Commonwealth, edited toy Mrs. 
 Green; Scobell, Collection of Acts and Ordi- 
 nances made in Parliament from 1640 — 1656; 
 Thiwloe, Collection of State Papers ; WMte- 
 locke, Memorials of English Affairs ; Ludlow, 
 Memoirs ; The Memoirs and Life of Colonel 
 Sufchinson, by his Wife : Brodie, Constitutional 
 Sistory from the A-ccession of Charles I. to the 
 Hestoration ; Godwin, Sistory of the Common^ 
 vealth of Ihigland from its Commencement to the 
 Restoration oj Charles II.; Guizot, Sistory of 
 Oliver Cromwell and the English Commonwealth. 
 For Scotland, see especially Letters and Journals 
 ofRoheH Bailtie, which extend from 1637 to 1662; 
 and Burton, History of Scotland; for Ireland, 
 Carte, Collection of Original Letters and Papers, 
 and A History of the Life of James, Dufce of 
 Ormojid, by the same author, rig M G 1 
 
 Compounders, The, were a section of 
 the Jacobite party who wished for a restora- 
 tion of the Stuarts, " but for a restoration 
 accompanied by a general amneaty, and by 
 guarantees for the security of the civil and 
 ecclesiastical constitution of the realm." 
 They obtained their name about 1692. The 
 Compounders formed the main strength of 
 the Jacobite party in England ; but the more 
 violent party or Non-Compounders were all- 
 powerful at St. Germains. Their leader at 
 St. Germains was the Earl of Middleton, who 
 resigned in 1693. They were much oifended 
 by James's Declaration in 1692, and shortly 
 aiterwards recommended that James should 
 resign in favour of his son, on his refusal to 
 accept these conditions, part of which was the 
 observance of the Test Oath. The remainder 
 ot their history is merged in that of the party. 
 [Jacobites.] 
 
 Comprehension Bill, The (1689), was 
 a scheme for the relief of Protestant Dis- 
 senters proposed by the Earl of Nottingham. 
 A measure of similar tendency had beenadvo- 
 cated on the occasion of the enactment of the 
 Test Act, but had been allowed to drop. 
 Another proposal of similar tendency, a bill 
 to relieve Protestant Dissenters from the 
 penalties of the 3.5th of Elizabeth, suffered a 
 similar fate in 1680. Nottingham's Bill pro- 
 vided that all ministers of the Established 
 Church, and members of both Universities, 
 should be freed from the necessity of sub- 
 scribing the Thirty-nine Articles, on signing 
 a declaration that they approved, and would 
 support, " the doctrine, worship, and govern- 
 ment of the Church of England ; " scrupled 
 ceremonies, such as the wearing of a surplice, 
 the sign of the cross in baptism, the admission 
 of godfathers and godmothers to christening, 
 and the reception of the Eucharist in a iineel- 
 ing position, were left at discretion ; a Pres- 
 byterian minister might acquire all the privi- 
 
 leges of a clergyman of the Church of England 
 on submitting to the imposition of the hands 
 of a bishop. This bill was mutilated in 
 the Upper House, and a petition substituted 
 that the king woiild call the houses of Con- 
 vocation " to be advised with in ecclesiastical 
 matters." The Nonconformist clergy, them- 
 selves accustomed to independence, and dis- 
 liking formal subscriptions of faith and com- 
 pulsory uniformity, were not anxious for the 
 passing of the measure ; and so the scheme of 
 comprehension was allowed to fall absolutely 
 and finally to the ground." 
 
 Compton, Henry (b. 1632, d. 1713), was a 
 younger son of the Earl of Northampton. 
 After studying at Oxford he entered the army, 
 but soon after relinquished the military for 
 the clerical profession. In 1669 he was made 
 a canon of Christ Church; in 1674, Bishop of 
 Oxford; and in 1675 was translated to 
 London. He incurred the displeasure of 
 James II. by disregarding the royal order pro- 
 hibiting controversial sermons, and was sus- 
 pended from his episcopal functions. He 
 joined Danby and others in inviting William 
 of Orange to England, and took a leading 
 part in the Revolution. He assisted in the 
 coronation of William and Mary, but, being 
 disappointed in his hopes of obtaining the 
 archbishopric of Canterbury, from that time 
 took little further part in public affairs. 
 
 Compurgation was a mode of defence 
 allowed by Anglo-Saxon law. When a man 
 was accused of any crime, he might, if he 
 chose, purge himself by the oaths of twelve 
 men, if he could find that number to swear to 
 his innocence. After the Conquest, compur- 
 gation gradually fell into disuse, though it 
 was specially retained as an alternative to 
 ordeal of battle in certain chartered towns. 
 The compurgators were not a jury, but 
 a body of sworn witnesses to character. 
 Compurgation was a custom common to all, 
 or nearly aU, the Teutonic tribes, and the 
 number of compurgators required in early 
 times varied according to the ieinousness of 
 the offence, the rank of the accused and the 
 accuser, and in some cases reached one 
 hundred ; in England it was usually twelve. 
 /Hhorpe, Ancient Laws, 76; Bmrniex, Schwurge- 
 
 Hchi ; Stnbbs, Const. Hist. ; Guizot, Civilisoiion 
 
 in France, 
 
 Com^ll., John, Lord or Badenoch, mar- 
 ried Marjory, daughter of Alan of Galloway. 
 He was a man of vast wealth and influence, 
 and, on the competition for the Scotch throne 
 in 1291, put in a claim as a descendant of 
 Donald Bane. He had been named a regent 
 of the Maid of Norway, and, in 1289, was one 
 of the Scotch commissioners sent to Salisbury 
 to confer about the marriage of the young 
 queen to Prince Edward of England. 
 
 Comyn. John, called " f«e Bed " {d. 1306), 
 was the son of John ComyR, -of Badenoch, 
 and Marjory,, sister of-^Jahn BaUol. In 
 
Con 
 
 (301 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 1298, after the tattle of Falkirk (q.v.), he 
 was chosen one of the three guardians of 
 Scotland, and in 1302 defeated the English 
 troops at Eoslin, while in the following 
 year he made an unsuccessful attempt to 
 relieve Stirling. In Feb., 1304, he kid down 
 his arms and suhmitted to Edward I. , whom 
 he is said to have counseUed to put Bruce to 
 death. Bruce met Comyn in the convent of 
 the Minorites, at Dumfries, charged him with 
 his treachery, and stabbed him, Feb. 10, 
 1306. Bruce and Comyn were at this time 
 the two rival claimants for Scotland — Comyn 
 as the grandson of DevorguiUa, having the 
 same claim which John Baliol had success- 
 fully established in 1292. 
 
 Couadh Cerr {d. 629) was the son of 
 Eocha, who resigned the kingdom of Dalriada 
 in his favour, 627. In this year Conadh 
 fought at the battle of Ardcorran in Ireland 
 on the side of the Irish Dalriads ; and two 
 years later was defeated at another battle 
 in Ireland, fighting against the Cruithough 
 and his own father, who was now apparently 
 king of the Galloway Picts. 
 
 Confirmatio Cartarum (1297) was 
 the name given to an important document in 
 which Edward I., under pressure from the 
 barons and clergy, confirmed and extended 
 the constitutional rights established in the 
 two preceding reigns. It was obvious 
 that flie Great Charter, in the mutilated 
 condition in which it had been left in 1225, 
 was not sufficient guarantee against arbitrary 
 taxation on the part of the king. The 
 barons accordingly drew up a series of new 
 articles to be added to the Great Charter, and 
 these the king -was obliged to concede. The 
 articles were seven in number: — (1) The 
 Charters are confirmed, and are to be kept 
 in every point without breach. (2) Any 
 judgment given henceforth contrary to the 
 points of the Charters aforesaid by the 
 justices, or hy any other royal ministers, to 
 be undone, and holden for nought. (3) Copies 
 of the Charters are to be sent to the cathedral 
 churches of the realm, and read twice a year 
 to the people. (4) The bishops are to ex- 
 communicate all who break the Charters. 
 (5) The exactions by which the people have 
 in former times been aggrieved not to be 
 a precedent for the future. (6) For no busi- 
 ness henceforth will the crown take such 
 manner of aids, tasks, or prizes but by the 
 common assent of the realm, and for the 
 common profit thereof, saving the ancient 
 aids and prizes due and accustomed. (7) For- 
 asmuch as the commonalty of the realm have 
 been sore grieved with the maltote of wools, 
 we, at their requests, have clearly released it, 
 and have granted for us and our heirs that 
 we wiU not take such thing nor any other 
 without their common assent and good-will, 
 saving to us Stnd to our heirs the custom of 
 Tools, skina, and leather granted before by 
 
 the commonalty aforesaid. The confirmation 
 of the Charters may be held to complete the 
 work begun at Eunnymede. " It estab- 
 lished," says Bishop Stubbs, "the principle 
 that for all taxation, direct and indirect, the 
 consent of the nation must be asked, and 
 made it clear that all transgressions of that 
 principle, whether within the letter of the 
 law or beyond it, were evasions of the spirit 
 of the constitution." 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Sist. ; Select Charters^ 487, seg. 
 
 Conge d'Elire— "leave to elect"— is a 
 Norman-French phrase, signifying the sove- 
 reign's permission for the deau and chapter 
 of a vacant see to proceed to the election of a 
 bishop. In pre-Norman times, the bishops 
 were, as a rule, appoipted by the king in the 
 witenagemot, though there occasionally occur 
 instances of an election more or less free — as 
 in the case of Helmstan, Bishop of Winchester 
 (839). After the Norman Conquest, the elec- 
 tion became by degrees canonical, though 
 even then the election was held in the king's 
 chapel, and so much under his influence as to 
 be little more than nominally free ; and the 
 dispute about investiture between Henry I. and 
 Anselm ended in a compromise, by which the 
 sovereign was to confer the temporal power, 
 and the election was to be made by the chapters. 
 In 1 1 64 a clause in the Constitutions of Claren- 
 don mentions the custom that elections to 
 bishoprics should be " by, the chief clergy of 
 the Church, assembled io the king's chapel, 
 with the assent of the king ; " whilst, in 1214, 
 John, by a special charter, made a grant to 
 the chapters of free canonical election, re- 
 serving, however, to the king the right of 
 licence and approval. This charter was con- 
 firmed by Magna Charta, and again in 1361 
 by Edward III. ; and in spite of various 
 attempts at interference on the part of the 
 Pope, the crown as a rule managed to secure 
 the appointment of its nominees. In 1.534, 
 an Act of Henry VIII. provided that with 
 the conge d'elire the king was also to send the 
 name of the person he wished to be elected ; 
 and that if the election is delayed beyond 
 twenty days after the issuing of the royal 
 licence, or if any other than the royal nomi- 
 nee was chosen, the dean and chapter were to 
 incur the penalties of Prsemunire (q.v.). It 
 was also provided that after a delay of twelve 
 days on the part of the chapter the king 
 might fiU up the vacant see by letters patent. 
 This is stiU the method of appointing to 
 bishoprics in England. In Ireland, before 
 the Irish Church Act of 1869, the nominations 
 were made by letters patent. [Bishop.] 
 
 ConSleton, Henry Bkooke Pahnell, 
 LoKD (J. 1776, d. 1842), was the second 
 son of the Eight Hon. Sir John Parnell, 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer in Ireland. His 
 elder brother being bom a cripple without the 
 use of speech, the estates were settled upon 
 Henry by a special Act of Parliament, 1789. 
 
Con 
 
 ( 302 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 He entered Parliament in 1802 as member 
 for Portarlington. He devoted himself, espe- 
 cially during his Parliamentary career, to 
 the questions of the Corn Law Reform and 
 Catholic Relief, and soon became promi- 
 nent as a champion in the Opposition. He 
 also published several pamphlets of some 
 weight on these questions. He was chairman 
 of the Finance Oomrnittee in the session of 
 1828. His motion, in 1830, with regard to 
 the Civil List, on which the ministry was out- 
 voted, produced the downfall of the "Welling- 
 ton administration. He afterwards sat for 
 Queen's County for twenty-seven years, and 
 subsequently represented Dundee. He was 
 created a peer August 11, 1841. He died by 
 his own hand. May, 1842. 
 
 Coniugsby, Thomas, Bael {d. 1729), was 
 member for Leominster during the reign of 
 "William III. He was " a busy and unscru- 
 pulous Whig." He accompanied the king to 
 Ireland in the capacity of Paymaster-General. 
 On the departure of "William to England he 
 was created one of the Lords Justices. To- 
 gether with his colleagues, he was guilty of 
 hanging a man named Gafney, who turned 
 informer in a murder case. He superintended 
 and signed the Treaty of Limerick. During 
 the next six months, by his unprincipled 
 rapacity, and by the favour he showed to 
 Roman Catholics, he succeeded in alienating 
 all classes, and was recalled. In 1701 we find 
 him voting for the Resumption Bill, although 
 he had received considerable grants of Irish 
 land. " He was," says Macaulay, " an un- 
 principled man : he was insatiable of riches ; 
 and he was in a position in which riches were 
 easily to be obtained by an unprincipled 
 mfin." After the death of Queen Anne, 
 Coningsby was created a peer of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Conuaaght. The ancient kingdom of 
 Connaught, originally called Olnegmacht, 
 comprised, roughly speaking, the present 
 counties of Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Roscommon, 
 Leitrim, and Cavan, afterwards added to 
 Ulster. According to tradition, when the 
 Scoti established themselves in Ireland, their 
 great chief, Tuathal {d. circa 160 a.d.), 
 reigned over Munster, Leinster, and Olneg- 
 macht, and in the great division of the 
 country between his grandson Con, or Cond, 
 " of the hundred battles," and the rival king, 
 Mug of Munster (whence came the terms 
 Leith-Cuinon, " Con'shalf," for north Ireland, 
 and Leith-Mog:ha, "Mug's half," for south 
 Ireland), the district now known as County 
 Clare, which had originally belonged to 
 Olnegmacht, was transferred to Munster. 
 About this time the name of the kingdom was 
 changed from Olnegmacht to Connaught. In 
 the reign of King Laeghaire, Connaught was 
 converted to Christianity by St. Patrick 
 (about 433). In the time of the so-called 
 Irish Pentarchy, Connaught was a fairly com- 
 
 pact kingdom, owing allegiance to the Ard- 
 Riagh, or chief monarch of Ireland, usually 
 chosen from the kings of Meath. Its power 
 was at its height in 561, when Fergus 
 defeated the Ard-Riagh Diarmid at the battle 
 of SHgo ; but soon afterwards the kingdom 
 split up into principalities, and continued 
 through the Danish invasion, in which the 
 nobles unpatriotioally sided with the invader, 
 though they afterwards changed sides and 
 aided Brian Boru in winning the great battle 
 of Clontarf (1014). Soon after this, the great 
 sept of the O'Connors of Roscommon be- 
 came prominent in Connaught, and began to 
 wage civil war with the O'Niiils of IJlster 
 and the O'Briens of Munster. Turlogh 
 O'Brien drove the reigning O'Connor from 
 his kingdom in 1079, but 'Turlogh O'Connor 
 overran the whole of Munster in 1118, and 
 followed this up by taking Dublin. His sou, 
 Roderio O'Connor, claimed the title of Ard- 
 Riagh of Ireland, and was crowned with great 
 pomp in Dublin in 1 166. Soon afterwards he 
 droveDermot Macmurrough, King of Leinster, 
 from his kingdom, whereupon the latter 
 sought help from Henry II. of England, and 
 the English invasion followed. Roderic, a 
 man of indolent disposition, made little at- 
 tempt at resistance, but did homage to Henry 
 in 1175, when the sovereignty of Ireland 
 was reserved to him with the exception of 
 Dublin, Meath, Leinster, "Waterford, andDun- 
 garvan. His son, Cathal, pursued the same 
 policy on John's visit to Ireland in 1210. 
 Henry III., however, by a great breach of 
 good faith, granted the country, in 1225, to 
 Richard de Burgh, and after a terrible 
 struggle he succeeded in holding his own 
 against the O'Connors, who were, as usual, 
 split up into several factions ; and the sept 
 was almost annihilated in the reign of Edward 
 II., when Felim O'Connor joined Edward 
 Bruce, and was defeated by his kinsman Rory, 
 supported by the Burghs and Berminghams 
 at Athenry (1316). About the middle of the 
 century the Burghs of Connaught, the younger 
 branch, threw off their allegiance to the 
 English crown, and Connaught was divided 
 between their leaders, while they changed 
 their name at the same time to that of Burke. 
 The race rapidly degenerated ; they adopted 
 Irish manners and intermarried freely with 
 the O'Connors, in spite of the Statute of 
 Kilkenny (1367). The power of tho latter' 
 revived, so that by the commencement of the 
 reign of Henry VIII. they still claimed to be 
 kings, and had extended their dominions to 
 within twenty miles of Dublin. Their 
 strength was, however, checked in the reign 
 of Edward "V"I. by Sir Edward Bellingham, 
 who built a castle at Athlone to curb Con- 
 naught. In the reign of Elizabeth the Burkes 
 suffered a sterner punishment ; they had re- 
 niained quiet during the Ulster and Munster 
 insurrections, but at last, in 1676, when the 
 hated Sir Nicholas Malby was appointed 
 
Con 
 
 303 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 President of Connaught, they arose in rebel- 
 lion. Tlie whole of the country was in 
 return laid waste by fire and sword, and the 
 unfortunate race nearly exterminated in that 
 and the following years. In 1560 Connaught 
 ceased to be a kingdom, and was divided into 
 counties by Act of Parliament. Clare, or 
 Thomond, originally part of Connaught, 
 was soon afterwards added to it again, but 
 after a little while again became part of 
 Munater. [Burke ; O'Connoe.] In the reign 
 olChaxlesl. an. Inguiri/ into Titles in Comiaught 
 was made at the instance of Wentworth, 
 afterwards Lord Strafford, when Lord-Lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland. The idea was first mooted 
 in 1634, but was laid aside in order to con- 
 ciliate the Irish Parliament. As soon, howeyer, 
 as they had voted the necessary supplies, 
 Charles broke his promise of making sixty 
 years' possession a bar to the claims of the 
 crown, and, in 1635, issued a commission to 
 inquire into defective titles in Connaught, 
 wishing to dispossess the landlords and colonise 
 the country on the plan which James I. had 
 pursued in Ulster. After the juries had been 
 warned what the consequences of contumacy 
 would be, the commission went to work, and 
 soon declared that the lands of the Burkes 
 about Athlone — in fact, nearly three-fourths 
 of the province — belonged to the crown. For 
 this the foreman of the jury, Sir Lucas DiUon, 
 was permitted to retain some of his own 
 lauds. In most cases the landlords had no 
 title-deeds to show, and those who had were 
 forced to pay large fines for their confirmation. 
 In Gal way alone the jury refused to find for 
 the king ; they were fined £4,000 each and 
 imprisoned, when the sheriff, on whom a 
 penalty of £1,000 was imposed, died. Tlu 
 Transplantation to Connaught was effected 
 during the Protectorate. CromweU deter- 
 mined, in 1653, to confine the Irish nation 
 to the desolated province of Connaught, 
 and declared that they must transplant them- 
 selves thither within seven months on the 
 penalty of death. There ttiey were to be 
 enclosed by a cordon of soldiers, to whom a 
 strip of land, a mile wide, running round the 
 coast and the Shannon, was assigned. The 
 population was now reduced by war and banish- 
 ment to about 850,000, and for them 800,000 
 acres was set apart. By a summary process the 
 estates of the Catholic gentry were confis- 
 cated, according to their degree of complicity 
 in thelrish rebellion and their resistance to the 
 Protectorate, in various proportions, from one 
 to two-thirds, which were handed over to 
 adventurers and Parliamentary soldiers, while 
 they were forced to accept an equivalent 
 across the Shannon. After the appointed time 
 had passed, an Irish gentleman was hanged for 
 refusiug to transplant, and many hundreds, 
 ■with their families, were sent as slaves to 
 Barbudoes. Many qthers were removed bodily, 
 with what they conld save of their posses- 
 sions, to Connaught. The utmost severity was 
 
 used m the process, noble ladies, for instance, 
 bemg compelled to go on foot, and all being 
 reduced to the greatest misery. Some of the 
 sons of the banished owners wandered about 
 their old estates, living by outlawry and the 
 hospitality of their fathers' tenants. A sum 
 of £20 was laid on the heads of these "Tories," 
 in 1657, and their extermination decreed, to- 
 gether with that of two other "beasts," the 
 woK and the priest. After the Restoration an 
 attempt was made (1661) to soften these con- 
 ditions, the result of which was that it was 
 declared that aU Catholics who were innocent 
 of rebellion should be restored to their estates. 
 Those, however, who had accepted lands in 
 Connaught were forced to abide by their 
 bargains, and of those who returned from 
 exile but few obtained any redress. 
 
 O'Curry, Mauuscitjit ilatmals of Ancient Irish 
 Histm-y ; Proude, English m Ireland, vol. i. : 
 Cusaok, Hist, of the Irish Nation ; McGee, Hist, 
 of Ireland ; Haverty, Hist, of Ireland.. 
 
 [L. C. S.] 
 Connecticut. [Colonies, American.] 
 Conservative. [Tory.] 
 Conservators of the Peace. These 
 
 predecessors of our modem justices of the 
 peace were persons entrusted with the duty 
 of maintaining order and police in their 
 counties. Dr. Stubbs traces their origin to 
 an edict of Hubert "Walter in 1195. Accord- 
 ing to this proclamation an oath against har- 
 bouring or aiding thieves and robbers was to 
 be taken by every one above fifteen years of 
 age. This usage dates from Anglo- Saxon 
 times; but its execution was now assigned 
 to special knights appointed for the purpose. 
 In 1230 and 1252 two or three knights are 
 appointed in each shire for the conservation 
 of the peace, and in 1263 we find the sheriffs 
 summoning four men, and the reeve from 
 each township, and twelve burghers from 
 each borough, to execute the same functions ; 
 and in the fifth year of Edward I. an officer 
 bearing the title of " Custos Paois," or 
 guardian of the peace, is elected in the county 
 courts. Conservators of the same kind were 
 appointed to carry out the provisions of the 
 Statute of Winchester, which deals so largely 
 with questions of local police. I)r. Stubbs 
 considers that these offices were originally 
 filled by the crown, but when vacant, by 
 election of the shire-moot. In the first 
 year of Edward III. "good men" were ap- 
 pointed to guard the peace in each county, 
 but apparently were not elected like 
 Edward I.'s " Custodes Pacis." In the 
 eighteenth year of Edward III. these Con- 
 servators of the Peace were commissioned to 
 hear and determine felonies, and sixteen years 
 later received authority to do so regularly, 
 and they became regular officials of the crown, 
 from whom they henceforth derive all their 
 authority._ 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist, 
 
Con 
 
 (304) 
 
 Con 
 
 Consilt, The Pass or, near Flint, is 
 memorable for a narrow escape of Henry II., 
 who was surprised here in 1157 by the Welsh 
 under Owen Gwynnedd. 
 
 Consistory Courts. [Ecclesiastical 
 
 JuKISDICTION.] 
 
 Consols is the usual abbreviation for the 
 government stock, properly entitled Three 
 per Cent. Consolidated Bank Annuities. It 
 originated in the year 1751, when an Act was 
 passed consolidating several separate stocks 
 bearing interest at 3 percent. In 1787 the 
 public debt was further consolidated by the 
 union of the Aggregate, General, and South 
 Sea Funds. By the Act 56 Geo. III., c. 98 
 (1816), it was united with the Irish Govern- 
 ment Fund. [National Debt.] 
 
 Constable (derived from the Latin comes 
 stabuli, count of the stable) was originally 
 an office in the Byzantine court, the name 
 appearing in the West about 580 a.d. In 
 England it is used in several different senses. 
 (1) It appears to have been first attached 
 after the Conquest to the keepers of the royal 
 castles, e.g., the Constable of the Tower, of 
 Baynard's Castle, of Chester Castle, &c., who 
 rapidly acquired hereditary privileges, and 
 exercised under weak kings usurped jurisdic- 
 tions in common pleas, together with oppres- 
 sive powers of imprisonment, which were not 
 finally aboUshed until 1403. 
 
 (2) The lord Sigh Constable appears 
 about the time of Stephen as one of the 
 domestic dignitaries of the court. The 
 office existed indeed under the Norman 
 kings, but was comparatively unimportant, 
 and the first High Constable who is at all 
 prominent in history is. Miles of Hereford, 
 one of the chief supporters of the Empress 
 Matilda. The High Constable may be con- 
 sidered to have succeeded to the duties of the 
 officer who, before the Conquest, was known 
 as the Staller ; he was quartermaster-general 
 of the court and army. From the Dialogus 
 de Scaccario we learn that he was also, in the 
 time of Henry II., one of the officers of the 
 Exchequer, where he helped the Treasurer to 
 check the accounts of the king's household 
 servants. As was the case with the other 
 great offices of the royal household, the Lord 
 High Constable had, before the end of the 
 reign of Henry II., become an hereditary 
 dignity, and went, together with the tenure 
 of certain manors in Gloucestershire, and the 
 castle of Caldecot in Monmouthshire, into the 
 family • of Bohun, through Humphrey de 
 Bohun, who married the daughter and heiress 
 of Miles of Hereford, and on the extinction 
 of that line in 1372 it was held by Thomas 
 of Woodstock (d. 1397), who married the 
 heiress of the seventh Earl of Hereford. With 
 the accession of the house of Lancaster (1399), 
 the office ceased to be hereditary. The Earl 
 of Northumberland was made Constable by 
 Henry IV. in 1399, but the office was taken 
 
 from him in 1403 and given to the Duke of 
 Bedford. Subsequently the Duke of Somer- 
 set was made Constable in 1450, but there 
 seem to have been considerable gaps between 
 many of the appointments. The Lord High 
 Constable, together with the Marshal, had 
 by the time of Edward I. acquired great 
 powers in the management of the army ; 
 he superintended the mustering, billeting, 
 and formation of troops, took care that 
 those who owed service by their tenure 
 sent the proper amount of men, and during 
 the campaign held court for the trial of mili- 
 tary offences. In 1296, Humphrey de Bohun, 
 Earl of Hereford, together with Bigod the 
 Marshal, refused to take charge of an army 
 destined for Guienne, availing themselves of 
 the legal quibble that they were only bound 
 to serve the king in person, and they gained 
 their point. From this date also the judicial 
 functions of the Lord High Constable became 
 important ; besides administering martial law, 
 he was, with the Marshal, whose functions 
 are by no means distinct, the presiding officer 
 of the Court of Chivalry (q.v.), and, as such, 
 decided questions of honour and heraldry. 
 These powers became considerably enlarged, 
 and tended to encroach on the jurisdiction of 
 the courts of common law, and were strictly 
 limited in 1 389. Edward IV., however, revised 
 and increased the illegal powers for the pur- 
 pose of punishing the Lancastrians. The 
 Lord High Constable was empowered to take 
 cognisance of all cases of high treason, "to 
 hear, examine, and conclude them, even 
 summarily and plainly, without noise or show 
 of judgment, on simple inspection of fact." 
 Richard III. bestowed the office on Henry 
 Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, partly, per- 
 haps, with the idea of making it hereditary 
 again, for Buckingham was a descendant 
 of the Bohuns. The honour was conferred on 
 his son Edward by Henry VII. Henry 
 VIII., however, in 1614, finding that the fees 
 of the office were exceedingly burdensome 
 to the crown, discharged Buckingham from 
 his office. Since Buckingliam's discharge 
 the Lord High Constable has only been 
 appointed for special occasions, such as 
 the king's coronation, and, in one single 
 instance (in 1631), for trial by combat. The 
 Duke of Wellington officiated as Lord High 
 Constable at the last three coronations. 
 
 (3) The Constables of the Hundred, or High 
 Constables, were officers who, under the 
 Angevin kings, performed in a subordinate 
 capacity some of the duties which before the 
 Conquest were entrusted to the head man, or 
 reeve of the hundred. In a writ of Henry 
 III. (1252), it is provided that "one or two 
 chief constables should be constituted in 
 every hundred, at whose mandate all those 
 of his hundred sworn to arms should as- 
 semble,'' and by the Statute of Winchester 
 (1285) it was ordered that in every hun- 
 dred or franchise there should be chosen two 
 
Con 
 
 ( 305 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 or more constables to make the view of 
 armour. They were elected by the court leet, 
 and sworn in by the lord or his steward. 
 In the reign of Elizabeth we find that 
 they had the power of holding petty sessions 
 for the hiring of servants. In 1844 it was 
 provided that in default of appointments in 
 the court leet, high constables might be 
 chosen by justices at their special sessions. 
 After the establishment and regulation of 
 the county constabulary (between the years 
 1839 and 1859), high constables having be- 
 come practically useless, the ]' ustices of each 
 county were directed to consider and de- 
 termine whether it was necessary to continue 
 the ofBce in each hundred. [Hundhed.] 
 
 (4) The Fetty Constable, or Constable of 
 the Vill, may, on the analogy of the constable 
 of the hundred, be considered as the de- 
 generate descendant of the tithing man. He 
 also was elected in the court leet until the 
 reign of Charles II., when, in virtue of a 
 statute passed in 1673, the duty of nominating 
 and swearing-in constables was bj' degrees 
 transferred to justices of the peace. In the 
 reign of George II. it was provided (in 1751) 
 that no constable could be sued without making 
 the justice who signed the warrant a joint de- 
 fendant. In 1842 it was declared that, with the 
 exception of certain privileged classes, every 
 able-bodied man between the ages of twenty- 
 five and fifty-five who contributed to the poor 
 rates, or held a tenement of the annual value 
 of £4, was liable to serve as constable. The 
 election of the constabulary of boroughs 
 under the Municipal Corporations Act was 
 placed in the hands of a wfitch committee in 
 1832, and the duties of special constables, 
 who might be sworn in to keep the peace on 
 emergencifs, were regulated by legislation in 
 1827 and 1832. 
 
 (5) Tlie Zord Sigh Constable of Scotland 
 pan be traced back to the time of David I. 
 In Scotland, the duties of the High Constable 
 consisted in commanding the army while in 
 the field, in the absence of the king, and, in 
 conjunction with the Marshal, judging aU 
 transgressions committed within a certain 
 distance of the king's palace, known as the 
 chalmer of peace. In 1321, when Sir Gilbert 
 Hay was made Earl of Errol, the ofiice 
 was made hereditary in his family. It was 
 expressly reserved by the treaty of Union, 
 and by Act of Parliament in 1747. It is now, 
 however, purely honorary. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., i., oh. u. and iii. 18. 
 Select Charters ; Coke, Inatiivtes, iv. ; Lambard, 
 Duties of Constables; Stephen, Commentaries. 
 Statutes 5 and 6 Viot., o. 109; 32 and 33 Vict., 
 c. 47, and' 35 and 36 Vict., c. 92. 
 
 Constance, fourth daughter of "William 
 the Conqueror, married Alan, brother of the 
 Duke of .Britanny, to whom her father gave 
 the earldom of Richmond. In 1090 she died, 
 it is said poisoned by some of her husband's 
 vassals, who found her harsh and oppressive. 
 
 Constance op Britanny (d. 1201) was 
 the daughter and heiress of Conan, Duke of 
 Britanny. She was married to Geoffrey, son 
 of Henry II., by whom she had two children, 
 Arthur and Eleanor. After Geoffrey's death, 
 in 1186, she obtained the guardianship of her 
 son and the government of the duchy, but 
 was soon afterwards compelled to marry 
 Eanulf, Earl of Chester, who made himself so 
 hated in. Britanny that on Henry II. 's death, 
 in 1189, he was driven out, and Constance 
 restored to power. In 1196 she was seized 
 by a body of troops under her husband, and 
 imprisoned for eighteen months ; her conduct 
 during this period in asserting the rights of 
 the Bretons was most adverse to the interests 
 of her son, in addition to which, she had 
 quarrelled with her powerful mother-in-law, 
 Eleanor, as well as with her husband, from 
 whom she obtained a divorce in 1198. She 
 now married Guy, brother of the Viscount of 
 Thouars, by whom she had three daughters, 
 from the eldest of whom, Alix, sprang the 
 Dukes of Britanny who played such an impor- 
 tant part in the French wars of Edward III.'s 
 reign. 
 
 Constance of Castile {d. 1392) was 
 the eldest daughter of Pedro the Cruel, and 
 became the second wife of John of Gaunt, 
 who inherited, through her, claims to the 
 crown of Castile. 
 
 Constantino {d. 820), son of Fergus, ex- 
 pelled ConaU, King of the Picts, and obtained 
 the Pictish throne (789), having in all proba- 
 bility authority over Dalriada also. In 796 some 
 monks from Lindisfame visited his court, and 
 for them he founded the church of Dunkeld. 
 He was succeeded by his brother Angus. The 
 reign of Constantino is chiefly memorable as 
 marking the date of the first historical attacks 
 of the Norsemen on the British shores. It 
 was in 793 that they harried the holy island 
 of Lindisfame, and a few years later seized 
 upon the western islands, and slaughtered the 
 monks of lona. By these pirates, who hence- 
 forward for several centuries continued their 
 ravages, nearly all communications between 
 Ireland and Scotland were in time broken ofi. 
 
 Constantino {d. 877), son of Kenneth, 
 succeeded his uncle Donald as King of the 
 Picts, 863. His reign is chiefly remarkable for 
 a series of conflicts with the Northmen, under 
 Olaf the White, the son of Norsten the Red. 
 This chieftain, is said to have conquered Caith- 
 ness and Sunderland. When the Norwegians 
 drove the Danes out of Ireland, the latter 
 invaded Scotland, and defeated the Scotch 
 king at Dollar and Inverdoret, at which last 
 battle Constantino was killed. 
 
 Constantino {d. 952), son of Aedh, 
 reigned over the kingdom of Alban, 900 — 
 943. He was a man of vigour and an 
 experienced warrior. In 904 he cut to pieces 
 in Stratheme an invading body of Danes, 
 
Con 
 
 ( 306 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 under Ivan. Soon afterwards he united 
 the Pictish and Scottish Churches at an 
 ecclesiastical council held at Scone. In 908 
 he procured the election of his hrother 
 Donald to the throne of Strathclyde, and 
 in 918 joined the Northumhrians against 
 the Norsemen, whose advance was checked 
 by the allied armies at the battle of Cor- 
 bridge-on-Tyne. Under the year 924 the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells us that amongst 
 other nations the Scots chose Edward the Elder 
 for father and lord. But these peaceful re- 
 lations cannot have lasted very long, for in 
 934 we find Edward's successor, Athelstan, in- 
 vading Scotland, and penetrating as far as Dun- 
 otter, and ravaging the coasts of Caithness with 
 his fleet. Constantino, in retaliation, Joined 
 with the Norsemen and the Britons of Strath- 
 clyde in an attempt to wrest Northumbria 
 from the English king, but the united forces 
 were defeated at Brunanburh (q.v.), 937. In 
 943 Constantino resigned his crown, and be- 
 came abbot of the monastery of St. Andrews, 
 where he died, 952, having, however, emerged 
 for a short time, in 949, to do battle with King 
 Edred. 
 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland ; Anglo-Saxon Chran. ; 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Constantius Chlorus, Emperor of 
 Rome (292 — 306), ruled over the provinces of 
 Spain, Gaul, and Britain, and seems to have 
 spent most of his time in the latter country. 
 The story of his having married a British 
 princess named Helena rests on no good 
 authority. He defeated Allectus, and re- 
 united Britain to the Empire. He died at 
 York in the year 306. 
 
 Constitutions, Colonial. [Australia ; 
 Canada ; Colonies.] 
 
 Constitution, The Irish, op 1782. In 
 1779 the Irish Volunteers, whom the care- 
 lessness of the government and the undefended 
 state of Ireland had allowed to become formid- 
 able, had succeeded in frightening the govern- 
 ment into repealing the trade restrictions. The 
 movement was continued, and, under the direc- 
 tion of Grattan, aimed at legislative indepen- 
 dence. In 1781 Lord Carlisle, the new viceroy, 
 was instructed to resist all eiforts at legislative 
 independence, but nevertheless, bills for the 
 repeal of Poynings' Act (q.v.) and of the 
 Mutiny Act were given notice of. The 
 repeal of the first, placing the Irish Parlia- 
 ment more or less in the position of the 
 English Parliament, could not be resisted, and 
 was carried in Dec, 1781. The repeal of the 
 Mutiny Bill, however, was not carried, though 
 moved by Grattan. When Parliament again 
 met, in Feb., 1782, the Volunteers assumed a 
 very threatening attitude, and the patriot 
 party, backed by theresolutions of Dungannon, 
 and aroused by the mention of Ireland in 
 some unimportant Acts passed in England, 
 proceeded, through Grattan, on Feb. 22, 
 1782, to move a sort of declaration of inde- 
 
 pendence, but they were beaten by 137 to 68. 
 But, though the resolutions were lost, the 
 principle on which they were based had 
 been admitted by every one. The Parliament 
 was now adjourned, and when it met again, in 
 March, the North ministry was overthrown, 
 and the Whigs were in office. On April 17th 
 Grattan was content to move an amendment 
 in the address demanding complete indepen- 
 dence, and the House then adjourned to wait 
 for an answer from England. On May 1 7th re- 
 solutions were passed in the English Parlia- 
 ment conceding the repeal of Poynings' Act, 
 and of the statute 6 George I. and a biennial 
 Mutiny Bill. On May ■27th the Irish Parlia- 
 ment received the news, and immediately voted 
 £100,000 and 20,000 men for the war. Flood 
 indeed attempted to declaim against Eng- 
 land's concessions as insufficient, but failed, 
 and the House resolved "that the right of 
 legislation of the Irish Parliament in all rases, 
 internal and external, had been already 
 asserted by Ireland, and fully admitted by 
 England." The constitution of 1782 was thus 
 conceded ; though hailed with enthusiasm at 
 the time, it made corruption on a large scale 
 necessary, and convinced thinking men of the 
 necessity of the Union as achieved in 1800. 
 
 Grattan, Life of Grattan; Stanhope, Hist, of 
 i!iig. ; Adolphus, Hist, of George III. 
 
 Consuls are persons empowered to take 
 charge of the trading and commercial interests 
 of British subjects in foreign towns. They 
 were introduced in the sixteenth century, but it 
 was not tiU the end of the seventeenth that 
 it became customary to appoint them regu- 
 larly. Their duties are to give advice and 
 assistance to English traders ; to settle their 
 disputes where possible ; to guard the legal 
 rights of British subjects under foreign juris- 
 diction ; and to report on the trade of the 
 country in which they are resident. By the 
 Consular Marriage Act (12 and 13 Vict., c. 68), 
 consuls are empowered to celebrate marriages 
 between British subjects resident in their 
 district. They can take evidence on oath as 
 to crimes committed on British ships, and are 
 empowered to send home the offenders for 
 trial ; and they are also to exercise a general 
 superintendence over British shipping, so as 
 to see that the Merchant Shipping and other 
 Acts are not violated. In some cases British 
 consuls are also diplomatic agents or charges 
 d'affaires, empowered to communicate with 
 the Foreign Offices of the states in which 
 they are stationed, and in this case they are 
 called Consuls-General. In Turkey and the 
 Levant the consuls-general exercise the powers 
 conceded under the capitulations between 
 England and the Porte, and are supreme 
 judges of the consular coui-ts. British consuls 
 are allowed to trade in some towns, while at 
 other stations this privilege is refused. 
 
 Control, Board op. [East India Com- 
 pany.] 
 
Con 
 
 ( 307 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 Conventicle Act, The (1664), enacted 
 that any one over sixteeu years of age pre- 
 sent at an unlawful assembly or conventicle 
 ■was to incur fine or imprisonment. A con- 
 venticle was defined as an assembly of more 
 than five persons, besides the members of a 
 family, met together for holding worship not 
 according to the Church of England. In 
 1670 the Act was amended, and the penalties 
 greatly lessened, but a severe fine imposed on 
 any one who lent his house for such meetings. 
 The Conventicle Act was repealed by the 
 Toleration Act of 1689. 
 
 Convention, The (1688—9), is the name 
 given to the Parliament which met after the 
 abdication of James II. to settle the succes- 
 sion. It met on Jan. 22nd. It first placed 
 the administration and the disposal of the 
 revenue in the hands of William of Orange. 
 The Commons declared the throne vacant, and 
 voted that it was inconsistent with the safety 
 of the kingdom that it should be govei-ned by a 
 Popish king. The Lords, after much discussion, 
 negatived the resolution that the throne was 
 vacant, Danby's party asserting that the 
 crown had devolved on Mary. Disputes there- 
 upon broke out between the two Houses. After 
 a conference, the Lords yielded, and a resolu- 
 tion was passed that the Prince and Princess 
 of Orange should be declared King and Queen 
 of England. Soon afterwards William and 
 Mary arrived in England, and the crown was 
 tendered to them, and accepted (Feb. 13). 
 As soon as the new ministry was established, 
 the question was broached whether the Con- 
 vention should be turned into a Parliament. 
 A bill declaring the Convention a Parliament 
 passed the Lords, and after a sharp debate was 
 accepted by the Commons. It contained a 
 clause requiring members of both Houses to 
 take the oaths to the new king and queen. 
 " Such," says Hallam, " was the termination 
 of that contest which the house of Stuart 
 had maintained against the liberties, and of 
 late against the religion, of England; or 
 rather, of that far more ancient controversy 
 between the crown and the people which had 
 never been wholly at rest since the reign of 
 John." [Revolution.] 
 
 Parliamentary Hist.; Banke, Hist, of Eng. ; 
 
 Bnmet, Eist. of His Own Time; Macaulay, Hist. 
 
 ofSng.; Hallam, Cimst. Hist. 
 
 Convention Bill, The, passed by the 
 Irish Parliament in 1793, declared the assem- 
 blage of persons calling themselves represen- 
 tatives of the nation, under any pretence 
 whatsoever, illegal. Fitzgibhon carried it, in 
 spite of the violent opposition of Grattan and 
 the Duke of Leinster. 
 
 Convention of Estates, The (1689), 
 
 was the name given to the Scottish Parlia- 
 ment which assembled on March 14, 1689, 
 after the Eevolution. On the 4th of April 
 the Estates passed a resolution declaring that 
 King James VII., " being a professed Papist, 
 
 did assume the reg-al power and acted as king 
 without taking the oath required by law, 
 and hath by the advice of evil and wicked 
 councillors invaded the fundamental constitu- 
 tion of this kingdom, and altered it from a 
 legal limited monarchy to an arbitrary 
 despotic power, and hath exercised the same 
 to the subversion of the Protestant religion, 
 and the violation of the laws and hberties oi 
 the nation, inverting all the ends of govern- 
 ment, whereby he hath forfaulted all right to 
 the crown, and the throne is become vacant." 
 On the 1 1th of April the Estates adopted the 
 Claim of Eight which declared the funda- 
 mental hberties of the kingdom of Scotland, 
 and stated that no Papist could be King of 
 Scotland, and that the Scottish Church was 
 Presbyterian, and finally declaring that 
 William and Mary were King and Queen of 
 Scotland. Two days later (April 13) a 
 number of resolutions, called the Articles of 
 Grievances, were voted. These set forth a 
 number of acts done under the authority of 
 bad laws which the Estates desired to have 
 repealed. The Convention exercised the 
 executive authority in Scotland till the crown 
 had been duly offered to and accepted by 
 William III., when it became a Parliament. 
 Acts of Parliament of Scotlandj ix. ; Burton, 
 Hwt. of Scotland, Tii. 285. 
 
 Convention Parliament, The (1660), 
 is the name given to the assembly which es- 
 tablished the Kestoration of Charles II. It 
 assembled April 26, 1660, on the dissolution of 
 the "Eump." It immediately accepted the 
 Declaration of Breda (q.v.), and issued an 
 address inviting Charles to accept the crown. 
 On the return of Charles, the discussions of the 
 Convention turned chiefly upon the questions 
 of the amnesty, the settlement of the claims of 
 property which had changed hands, the settle- 
 ment of the Church, and the royal revenue. In 
 regard to the first, the amnesty was voted for all 
 hut the judges of Charles I. In regard to the 
 second, an Act of Indemnity mid Oblivion was 
 brought in to prevent holders of land seques- 
 trated during the interregnum regaining 
 possession of their property. The old feudal 
 claims of the crown for fines upon alienation, 
 reliefs, wardships. Sec, were aboKshed, and 
 the crown revenue was fixed at £1,200,000 
 a year, raised partly from the excise, and 
 partly from tannage and poundage now 
 granted to the king for Ufe. After much dis- 
 cussion, the settlement of the Church was left 
 open when the Parliament was dissolved on 
 December 29th, 1660. 
 
 Convocation is the name given to 
 the general assembly of the clergy of the 
 kingdom. The organisation of the Church 
 gave its councils great importance in 
 early times, and under the Norman kings 
 this conciliar activity was still further de- 
 veloped. The Church had its synods of the 
 nation, the province, and the diocese ; they 
 
Con 
 
 ( 308 )■ 
 
 Con 
 
 were attended by prelates, chapters, arch- 
 deacons, and the parochial clergy. In general 
 history, these synods became important as 
 clerical taxation was introduced. As this 
 became customary, diocesan representatives 
 were sent to the provincial Convocations 
 lor the purpose of giving their assent to 
 taxation. The first definite instance of re- 
 presentation in Convocation is found under 
 Archbishop Stephen Langton, in 1225. In 
 1283 a rule was laid down that each bishop 
 should summon to Convocation two proctors 
 of the clergy of his diocese and one proctor 
 from each cathedral or collegiate church, who 
 were to have full power of consenting to such 
 measui'es as the community of the clergy 
 think fit. This was the constitution of the 
 Convocation of the province of Canterbury. 
 That of the province of York, dating from 
 1279, contained two proctors from each arch- 
 deaconry. Besides these elected members 
 were bishops, abbots, priors, deans, and 
 archdeacons, as ex-offlcio members. 
 
 The jealousy between the two archbishops, 
 and the difiiculty in reconciling their claims, 
 led, in the twelfth century, to quarrels. 
 National Church councils became almost 
 impossible, and ecclesiastical questions were 
 discussed separately bj' the two Convocations. 
 Such matters as concerned ordinary discipline 
 were decided for themselves. On other 
 matters they presented petitions to the king, 
 which were called gravamina. 
 
 When Edward I., in 1295, organised 
 more completely the parliamentary repre- 
 sentation of the several estates, he wished 
 also to incorporate the clergy with the 
 parliamentary system. For this purpose he 
 summoned to ParUament, by separate writs 
 ' addressed to each bishop, the proctors of the 
 chapters and the parochial clergy, together 
 with bishops, deans, and archdeacons per- 
 sonally. Thus the Convocations were sum- 
 moned as spiritual councils of the archbishops, 
 and the proctors were further summoned to 
 Parliament by the clause of the king's writ 
 to the bishops, known, from its first word, as 
 the " praemunientes " clause. In this way the 
 two Convocations were to be worked into the 
 parliamentary system, while retaining their 
 position as spiritual councils besides. 
 
 The clergy, however, showed great reluc- 
 tance to enter into this arrangement. Pro- 
 bably they thought that they were sufficiently 
 represented by the lords spiritual, and did 
 not wish to be drawn into parliamentary dis- 
 putes, in which their own privileges might 
 suffer. The crown in vain addressed letters 
 to the archbishops, urging them to compel 
 the attendance of the clerical estate. After 
 1340 the crown acquiesced in the rule that 
 clerical taxes should be granted in Convoca- 
 tion, and in the fifteenth century the attend- 
 ance in Parliament of clerical proctors died 
 away. The duty of voting taxes led to the 
 summons of Convocation at the same time as 
 
 Parliament, but this was from motives of 
 convenience, and did not affect the indepen- 
 dence of Convocation. 
 
 In the weakness of the clergy before the 
 royal power. Convocation was used by Henry 
 VIII. to bring about the separation of the 
 English Church from the Church of Eome. 
 The clergy were infoi-med that they had in- 
 curred the penalties of the Act of Prsemunire 
 by recognising Wolsey'a legatine authority, 
 which had been recognised by the king him- 
 self. Iniquitous as was this penalty, the 
 clergy were helpless against the king, and 
 Convocation, in 1530, assented to a large sub- 
 sidy to appease the royal wrath. In the bill 
 which granted it, the royal supremacy was 
 admitted, with the proviso " as far as Christ's 
 law allows." The Act of Submission, 1533, 
 practically abolished the legislative powers of 
 Convocation. It established that Convocation 
 "is, always has been, and ought to be, 
 summoned by royal writ ; " there was to be 
 thenceforth no legislation without the king's 
 licence, and a revision of the existing canon 
 law was committed to a mixed commission of 
 clergy and laity. 
 
 Henceforth, during the sixteenth century, 
 the Convocation of the province of Canter- 
 bury was recognised as expressing the 
 opinions of the clergy, and worked with Par- 
 liament in framing the formularies and laws 
 of the Church. The Prayer-book and the 
 Articles received the sanction of Convocation 
 before being submitted to Parliament. In 
 1604 Convocation drew up a new body of 
 Canons, which were sanctioned by the king, 
 but were not ratified by Pai-hament. These 
 Canons remain as the basis of ecclesiastical 
 law for the clergy, but are not legally binding 
 on clergy or laj'men except where they in- 
 corporate previous laws. 
 
 After the Restoration Convocation was sum- 
 moned, in 1661, to revise the Prayer-book and 
 re-model the Canons. In this matter it did 
 little ; but this assembly is remarkable as being 
 the last Convocation which granted a clerical 
 subsidy. During the Commonwealth the 
 clergy had been taxed with the laity, and 
 there seems to have been a general agreement 
 that this method was more convenient. Ac- 
 cordingly, this clerical privilege was abolished 
 by a private compact between Lord Chan- 
 cellor Clarendon and Archbishop Sheldon. 
 The important constitutional change was made 
 without any parliamentary authority (1662). 
 Convocation thenceforth ceased to grant 
 taxes and to have any political importance. 
 The clergy, being merged in the estate of the 
 Commons, became electors for meihbers of 
 the Lower House. 
 
 In 1689 William III. was desirous of ex- 
 tending the limits of the Church, and of in- 
 troducing alterations which would allay the 
 scruples of Dissenters. A commission was 
 appointed to draw up a scheme which was to 
 be submitted to Convocation. Convocation 
 
Con 
 
 ( 309 ) 
 
 Coo 
 
 sat in two Houses : the bishops in the Upper 
 House, the other officials and proctors in the 
 Lower. The struggle of parties took place 
 over the election of a prolocutor, or president, 
 of the Lower House, and those opposed to any 
 change were in a considerable majority. 
 After this the Lower House showed such de- 
 cided difference of opinion from the Upper 
 that nothing could be done, and Convocation 
 was soon prorogued. It was not summoned 
 again for ten years (1700), when the differ- 
 ences between the Upper and Lower House 
 were still more openly shown. Finally, the 
 Lower House refused to submit to the arch- 
 bishop's prorogation, and adjourned by its 
 own authority. The next Convocation, in 
 1702, resumed the question of the archbishop's 
 right of prorogation, and the conflict between 
 the two Houses continued. At length, in 
 1717, the writings of Hoadley, Bishop of 
 Bangor, excited great wrath amongst the 
 clergy, and gave rise to what is known as the 
 " Bangorian controversy." As it was clear 
 that the Lower House of Convocation would 
 censure Hoadley, who was a favourite with 
 the government. Convocation was prorogued 
 by royal writ, and was not again summoned 
 for business till 1861. It is true that it met 
 formally till 1741, when the Lower House 
 agreed to admit the president's right of pro- 
 rogation, but it refused to receive a commu- 
 nication from the Upper House. Being 
 judged incorrigible, it was not agaia called 
 together, till its revival in 1861, owing to the 
 increased interest in ecclesiastical affairs. 
 
 The Convocations of the two provinces 
 now meet with the sessions of Parliament. 
 They are summoned by a writ from the 
 crown to the archbishops. In the Convo- 
 cation of Canterbury the Upper House 
 consists of twenty-three members, the Lower 
 House of one hundred and fifty-four. The 
 Convocation of York contains nine mem- 
 bers in the Upper House, and sixty-nine in 
 the Lower. 
 
 Bp. GibsOD, Synodus Aiiglicfini; Wilkins, 
 Condlm; Cardwell, S'lnodalia; Hody, Sigt. of 
 Councils and ConvocatUyti ; Lathbury, Hist, of 
 Convocatiim, [M. C] 
 
 Conway, Heney Seymour, Marshal 
 (i. 1720, d. 1795), was the second son of the first 
 Lord Conway. He entered the army at the 
 age of twentj', and distinguished himself 
 at Fontenoy and Culloden. In 1741 he 
 was returned to Parliament for Higham 
 Ferrers. In 1757 he was appointed second 
 in command of the Eochefort expedition, 
 under Sir John Mordaunt. In 1761 he 
 commanded the British troops in Germany, 
 in the absence of the Marquis of Granby. At 
 the end of George II.'s reign, Conway had 
 been appointed Groom of the Bedchamber, 
 and he was continued in that office by the 
 new king, until his independent conduct and 
 , his opposition to the ministry on the question 
 of general warrants, cost him alike this post 
 
 and all his military commands. On Eocking- 
 ham'saccession to power, Conway wasappointed 
 joint Secretary of State with the Duke of 
 Grafton, and leader in the House of Commons ; 
 and, unfortunately for himseU, was persuaded 
 by " his evil genius," Horace Walpole, to hold 
 his ground, until he could no longer retreat 
 with credit in 1768. During the later years 
 of that period, the poUcy of the cabinet towards 
 the American colonies had been directly opposed 
 to Conway's views. On the king's demand for 
 Wilkes's exclusion from Parliament, he " con- 
 fessed that he had not the courage to face the 
 consequences of a step which would make 
 every second Englishman a rebel at heart, and 
 convert London into a hostile capital." He 
 accordingly resigned the seals, but acted as 
 an unpaid member of the cabinet until the 
 return of Lord Chatham and the resignation 
 of Lord Camden, when he refused any longer 
 " to provide respectability for the whole ad- 
 ministration." When the Marquis of Granby 
 was dismissed from the command of the army, 
 his place was offered to Conwaj', and declined. 
 Iri 1772 he was appointed Governor of Jersey. 
 Ten years later he became Commander-in-chief 
 of all the Forces. In the same year he brought 
 forward a motion, praying that his Majesty 
 would terminate the war with the Colonists. 
 This was lost by only one vote ; and when he 
 brought forward the same motion a few 
 months later, he carried it against Lord North 
 by a majority of nineteen. In the following 
 year he retired into private life. Conway 
 was a brave soldier, and a man of unsullied 
 integrity. Of his character as a statesman 
 Lord Stanhope says : — " Brave though he was 
 in the field, spirited and ready though he was 
 in debate, he ever seemed in counsel irresolute 
 and wavering ; so eager to please all parties 
 that he could satisfy none, and quickly swayed 
 to and fro by any whisperer or go-between 
 who called himself his friend." 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of l!ng. ; Trevelyan, Early 
 
 Tears of C. J. Fox; Walpole, Mem. of George 
 
 III.; Chatham Correspondence. 
 
 Conyers, Sir John. [Eobin of Eedes- 
 
 EALE.] 
 
 Cook, Captain James (5. 1728, d. 1779), 
 the famous navigator, first gained notoriety 
 in Canada, where he did good service at 
 the siege of Quebec, 1759, and subsequently 
 surveyed the coast of Newfoundland. In 
 1768, being sent to the Pacific for the 
 purpose of observing the transit of Venus, 
 he discovered New Zealand and New South 
 Wales (April, 1770) ; and four years later 
 made a second voyage of discovery, in which 
 he again visited New Zealand. His conduct 
 to the natives at first was such as to excite 
 their hatred, but in his subsequent voyages 
 he invariably followed a conciliatory policy. 
 On Cook's third voyage, undertaken with the 
 view of discovering a north-west passage to 
 India, he visited the Sandwich Islands, and 
 
Coo 
 
 ( 310) 
 
 Coo 
 
 pushed his explorations to the western coast 
 of America. He was murdered as he was 
 returning from this voyage hy the natives of 
 Owhyhee, in the Sandwich Islands. Captain 
 Cook's ahility as a surveyor and explorer is 
 the more noteworthy from the fact that he 
 began life as a common sailor, and was entirely 
 without education. 
 
 Cooke, Sir Anthony {b. 1504, -rf. 1576), 
 a man of great learning, was selected as 
 preceptor to Edward VI. when Prince of 
 Wales. In 1553 he was committed on sus- 
 picion of being concerned in the plot to put 
 Lady Jane Grey on the throne. 
 
 Coomassie, the capital of King Coffee 
 Calcalli, King of Ashantee, was entered by 
 the British troops, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, 
 Feb. 5, 1874, in the course of the war with 
 that chief. [Ashantee War.] 
 
 Co-operation. The aim of co-operation 
 may be said to be to enable workers to work 
 " not in the interest of, nor in order to enrich, 
 one individual, or a few, but in the interest 
 of the general body of those who are con- 
 cerned, both as workers and as consumers of 
 the ordinary necessaries of life" (Acland 
 and Jones). The societies that have as yet 
 been formed with this view are of three 
 kinds. (1) The Distributive Societies, or Re- 
 tail Stores. Of these there were, in 1884, 
 about 1,200 in Great Britain, with 640,000 
 members, and £6,000,000 share capital. They 
 sell goods for ready money only, and at the 
 o;rdinary market prices. The profits at the 
 end of every quarter are divided amongst the 
 members according to the amount of their 
 purchases. (2) The Wholesale Societies — one 
 in England (founded in 1864), and one in 
 Scotland (founded in 1868). They supply 
 the retail stores with goods ; in 1884 their 
 combined sales amounted to six millions 
 sterling. Their managing committees are 
 elected by the stores. (3) About twenty-two 
 Manufacturing or Productive Societies, and five 
 Federal Com Mills. The com miUs do a 
 business of about £1,300,000 a year, and the 
 other productive societies a business of about 
 £220,000 a j'ear. These societies, with some 
 exceptions, are combined in a Co-operative 
 Union, founded in 1869. It is the object of 
 this Union to abolish false dealing in any 
 shape or form, and " to conciliate the con- 
 flicting interests of the capitalist, the worker, 
 and the purchaser." The Union holds an 
 Annual National Congress, at which matters 
 that concern co-operation are discussed — such 
 as the best method of voting in societies, the 
 check system, education, store management, 
 surplus capital, co-operative journalism, &c. 
 
 "Co-operation," it has been said, "con- 
 siders profit to belong to the public, and not 
 to any one section of it, whether they are em- 
 ployed in selling goods over the counter, 
 keeping the accounts, buying the goods, or 
 
 making them." The co-operative movement is 
 thus an effort on the part of labour to emanci- 
 pate itself from the bondage of capital. This 
 efiort is seen assuming organic shape in the 
 early part of the century, when several co- 
 operative stores were started in England and 
 Scotland. These, however, on a close in- 
 spection, can in no way be distinguished from 
 Joint Stock Companies, for the profits were 
 divided according to the capital invested. Of 
 such societies there were by 1830 upwards 
 of 200 in existence, besides co-operative 
 mills. In 1844 the Rochdale Pioneers intro- 
 duced its distinctive feature into the co- 
 operative movement, and divided profits on 
 the amount of purchases. The example set 
 by this society, together with the beneficial 
 legislation — such as the Repeal of the Corn 
 Laws, the Public Libraries Act, and the 
 ' abolition of the Newspaper Duty — of the 
 next dozen years, gave a new impetus to 
 co-operation, and by 1862 we find 430 societies 
 in existence, with a membership of 90,000, 
 a capital of £450,000, annual sales, £2,350,000, 
 and profits £166,000. Two years afterwards 
 (1864), the Co-operative AVholesale Society 
 had sprung into existence, and became the 
 mainstay of the whole system. In 1869 the 
 National Co-operative Congresses began. It 
 was at the first of these congresses that the 
 Co-operative Union was formed, and its aim 
 of reconciling the interests of the capitalist, 
 the workers, and the purchaser, " through an 
 equitable di^nsion among them of the fund, 
 commonly known as profit, . was soon after 
 formulated." The Supply Associations in 
 London, such as the " Civil Service " and 
 "Army and Navy," have attained great im- 
 portance. These associations cannot be re- 
 garded as co-operative at all. The destination 
 of the profits that accrue to them is the same 
 as in a private firm, and goes to capital, 
 whereas the essential feature of co-operation 
 is in diverting the profits to labour. 
 
 Hughes, History of Co-operation; Stuart, 
 AMvess to the Congress, 1879; Huglies and 
 Heale, Manual for Co-OTfteratovs ; Holyoake, His- 
 tory of Co-operation; Marshall, ^Economics of 
 Industry, bk. iii., ch. 9 ; Aclanrl and Jones, 
 Working Men Co-operators. [W. B. R.l 
 
 Coovg. A province of India on the Mala- 
 bar coast, between Mj'sore and the sea, com- 
 prising an area of about 1,500 square miles, 
 no portion of which is less than 3,000 feet 
 above the level of the sea. At the close of the 
 eighteenth century the Rajah of Coorg was 
 practically an independent prince. He had 
 been imprisoned hy Tippoo on the annexation 
 of his country, but had contrived to escape, and 
 to wage a successful guerilla warfare in the 
 hills of his own country, till he drove out the 
 troops of his enemy. During this warfare 
 many of his exploits, which are related at 
 length by Colonel "Wilks, exhibit not only 
 great gallantry, but also good faith and 
 chivalrous generosity to an extraordinary 
 degree. The assistance which he rendered 
 
Coo 
 
 ( 311 ) 
 
 Cop 
 
 to Lord Cornwallis ia the second Mysore War 
 procured the recognition of the freedom of his 
 country at the Peace of Seringapatam. He 
 died in 1809, and was succeeded by his 
 brother, who bequeathed the crown to his 
 son, in 1820. This prince ruled so badly, 
 and with such ferocity and cruelty, while 
 exhibiting such hostility to the English, that 
 when, in 1832, his sister and her husband fled 
 for .their Hves, and revealed his barbarities to 
 the British Resident at Mysore, the latter, after 
 in vain remonstrating with the Rajah, pro- 
 claimed him a public enemy. In 1834, after 
 a gallant resistance, Coorg was subdued and 
 annexed to the Madras presidency. Twenty 
 years later it was discovered that Coorg 
 was eminently suited for the cultivation of 
 coffee, and it is now one of the most prosperous 
 of the Indian provinces. 
 Wilts, Mys(yre. 
 
 Coote, Sir Eyre (i. 1726, rf. 1783), first 
 saw service against the Jacobite insurgents 
 in 1745. On the breaking out of the Seven 
 Years' "War, the hostilities were renewed 
 in the Camatic, which had died out after the 
 recall of Dupleix. General Count LaJly was 
 sent to India with a powerful fleet and army. 
 At first he was successful : captured Fort 
 St. David, besieged Madras, and re-took 
 Arcot in 1758. The arrival of Admiral 
 Pocock and the English fleet prevented an 
 assault on Madras, and the next year Colonel 
 Coote took the command. He re-captured 
 Wandewash, and compelled Lally to fight a 
 battle in the neighbourhood of the town, in 
 which the latter was completely routed. 
 Coote, in 1760, gradually deprived Lally of 
 aU his conquests, and finally blockaded and 
 captured Pondicherry, which was razed to the 
 ground. In 1769 he was made commander- 
 in-chief of the Company's army, and the 
 following year returned to England. The 
 disasters of the English in 1780, during 
 Warren Hastings' Mahratta War, rendered 
 it necessary to send out General (now Sir) 
 Eyre Coote, to take the command in Bengal. 
 The news of Hyder All's invasion of the 
 Camatic induced Hastings to send Coote to 
 Madras. In January, 1781, he began his 
 advance. Hyder had captured Arcot, and was 
 besieging five other forts. Coote pushed on 
 to Cuddalore and Porto Novo. Hyder re- 
 solved to risk an engagement, and took up a 
 strong position, which he began to fortify. 
 A long and arduous engagement ensued near 
 Porto Novo (July 1, 1781), which lasted 
 six hours, and at the end the British were 
 completely victorious, with the loss of only 
 300 men, while Hyder, who had lost 10,000 
 men, was compelled to raise the siege of 
 Trichinopoly. Seven weeks later Hyder 
 was again completely routed at PoUilore, 
 Aug. 27, 1781. Another victory on Sept. 
 27, allowed Coote to retire unmolested 
 into winter quarters. In 1782 the arrival of 
 
 the French fleet under Sufirein brought 
 Hyder again into the field, and Coote in vain 
 endeavoured to bring on a general action. 
 The French were victorious everjTvhere, and 
 Hyder ravaged the Carnatic to the very gates 
 of Madras. In October Sir Eyre Coote's 
 shattered constitution obliged him to return 
 to Bengal, and surrender his command to 
 General Stuai-t. In 1783, April 25, two days 
 after his return to Madras, once more to 
 undertake the conduct of the Mysore War, 
 the veteran died. 
 
 Willcs, Mysore; Mill, Hist, of India. 
 
 Copenhagen, The Battle of (2nd April, 
 1801), resulted in the breaking up of the 
 Northern coalition against England, which 
 had been one of Napoleon's most cherished 
 schemes. After safely passing Cronenberg 
 Castle, Nelson persuaded Parker to commence 
 the attack without delay. Two days were 
 spent by Nelson in sounding the King's 
 Channel, which Kes between Copenhagen and 
 a large shoal, and is only three-quarters of a 
 mOe broad. Along the land side of this 
 channel the Danes had ranged nineteen ships 
 and floating batteries. Everything being in 
 readiness. Nelson made the signal for action 
 early in the morning of the 2nd. The pilots 
 entirely lost their presence of mind, and the 
 Againemnon, the second ship, went aground, 
 as did the Sellona and the Russell. Nelson, 
 in the Elephant, came next, and profiting by 
 their example, took a new course, and so 
 guided the rest of the fleet. The action 
 began at ten o'clock. Riou, with the frigates, 
 at once attacked the Crown Batteries, and 
 maintained the unequal contest for three 
 hours, until he was killed. The battle raged 
 for three hours without any apparent advan- 
 tage being gained, and Sir Hj'de Parker 
 made the signal for recall. Nelson, affecting 
 not to see it, continued the action, and about 
 two o'clock the greater part of the Danish fire 
 ceased. It was impossible, however, to take 
 possession of the ships that struck, because 
 they were protected by the batteries on shore. 
 Nelson, wishing to save further bloodshed, 
 sent ashore a flag of truce, saying that he 
 must be allowed to take possession of the prizes, 
 if only for the sake of the wounded men on 
 board of them; and during the next day, 
 Good Friday, the work still went on. The 
 following days were spent by Nelson in 
 maturing the negotiations, and on the 9th he 
 succeeded in concluding an armistice for four- 
 teen weeks, his object being to gain time to 
 attack the Russians. The opportune death of 
 the Czar Paul rendered any active hostility 
 with that country uimecessary, and the 
 armistice resulted in a treaty between England 
 and the Northern powers. 
 
 Soiithey, Ijife of Nelson ; Nelson Dispatches ; 
 Alison, Hist, of Europe ; James, Naval Hist. 
 
 Copenhagen, Bombardment op (Sept. 
 2, 1807). The English ministry had learnt 
 
Cop 
 
 ( 312 ) 
 
 Cop 
 
 in the summer of 1807 of the existence of 
 certain secret articles in the Treaty of Tilsit 
 between the Czar and the Emperor Napoleon, 
 by which the Danes and the other Baltic 
 powers were to be induced or compelled to 
 lend their fleet to the French for service 
 against England. The danger appeared so 
 imminent that the ministry determined to 
 seize the Danish fleet, though England and 
 Denmark were nominally at peace. Accord- 
 ingly, in July, 1807, twenty-seven ships of 
 the line, with 20,000 men on board, under 
 the command of Lord Cathcart and Admiral 
 Gamhier, sailed for the Baltic, passed the 
 Sound, and anchored off the island of Zea- 
 land. The English commanders demanded 
 that the Danish fleet should be given up to 
 them to be held as a deposit till the end of 
 the war. This the Danes refused. On the 
 16th of August the British troops disembarked 
 and invested the town, and under the com- 
 mand of Sir Arthur Wellesley fought a sharp 
 engagement with the Danish militia at Kioje, 
 whom they completely defeated. On Sept. 
 2nd the bombardment began, and was con- 
 tinued for three days, till eighteen hundred 
 houses were destroyed, and the city was on 
 fire in several places. On the 5th the Danes 
 surrendered, and agreed to give up their fleet, 
 which, accordingly, to the number of 
 eighteen ships of the line, besides smaller 
 vessels, was conveyed to England. The 
 triumph, great as it was, was received with 
 doubtful f eehngs in England, as the imminence 
 of the danger to England was hardly under- 
 stood, and the affair looked like an arbitrary 
 and dangerous violation of the rights of 
 neutrals. After an animated debate in 
 Parliament both Houses supported the minis- 
 ters by a majority of more than two to one. 
 
 Farliamentarij Delates, x. 224; Annual Segister, 
 1807 ; Alison, Hist, of Europe, viii. 249. 
 
 Copenhagen Fields, Meeting in (April 
 21, 1834). On the conviction of the Dorset- 
 shire labourers for administering illegal oaths, 
 the whole body of labour unionists summoned 
 a meeting in Copenhagen Fields on the 21st 
 April, with the object of overawing the 
 ministry. A plan was also formed for the 
 violent seizure of Lord Melbourne, the Prime 
 Minister, and for other illegal acts. Due 
 warning being, however, given to the govern- 
 ment, preparations were made. Melbourne 
 did not meet the deputation of the union; 
 troops were held in readiness, the public 
 offices defended with artillery, and 5,000 
 householders sworn in as special constables. 
 Melbourne's under - secretary received the 
 deputation, and informed them that it was 
 illegal for a petition to be presented by 60,000 
 men. The crowd, seeing the preparations 
 made to receive them, withdrew quietly, and 
 no disturbance followed. 
 
 Copyhold is a, species of tenure which 
 had its origin in viUenage. In the latter 
 
 half of the twelfth century, when the degra- 
 dation of the agricultural class seems to have 
 been completed, and former distinctions were 
 merged into a uniform condition of villenage, 
 they who held land by villein tenure, whether 
 they were villeins or freemen, had no means of 
 asserting their rights to the land as against 
 the lord. Tliey held part of the demesnes of 
 a manor for the lord's advantage, and at his 
 will. They had no rights in the court of the 
 manor, and no remedy by assize, for these 
 institutions were concerned solely with free- 
 holders. In effect, however, the uncertainty 
 of their tenure was remedied in Bracton's 
 time by covenants with the lord, and his will 
 was restrained by custom. Attending the 
 court baron to make surrender, or crave 
 admission, or pay their dues, tenants in 
 villenage had their transactions entered in the 
 rolls of the court, which became the evidence 
 of their title, and of the custom of the manor. 
 The court, while engaged in business of this 
 kind, became separate from its original cha^ 
 racter, and as a new court, was called the 
 customary court, to distinguish it from the 
 court baron, of which the freeholders were the 
 suitors. A copy from the rolls of this court 
 constituted the title of the tenant in villenage, 
 who was hence called a copyholder. In the 
 reign of Edward IV. the judges allowed the 
 copyholder to maintain an action for trespass 
 against his lord when wrongfully disturbed. 
 From this time " copyholders stand on sure 
 ground." This kind of tenure still exists. 
 In it the freehold remains in the lord, and 
 the tenant holds by copy of the court roll, 
 at the will of the lord, according to the 
 custom of the manor. Copyhold land must 
 therefore always be part of a manor. It may 
 be assumed that no land can have been 
 brought for the first time under this tenure 
 since 18 Edward I. Though the copyholder is 
 independent of the wiU of the lord, yet the free- 
 hold being in the lord subjects the former to 
 some disadvantages. For the lord has a right 
 to the minerals beneath and the timber upon 
 the soil, though he cannot, unless the custom ■ 
 of the manor allow, come on the land to 
 exercise these rights without the copyholder's 
 leave. There are species of tenure, such as 
 customary freeholds, which resemble copy- 
 hold. AH questions as to the freehold in any 
 such tenures should be decided by ascertaining 
 " whether the well-known rights of free- 
 holders, such as to cut timber and dig 
 mines, are vested in the lord or in the 
 tenant." It is in the power of copyholders 
 freely to aKenate their lands. In the process 
 of alienation the old character of the tenure 
 becomes apparent, for it is effected by first 
 of all surrendering the property to the lord, 
 or, instead of him, to his steward, and 
 is completed by the admission of the new 
 tenant. An estate in copyhold may be in 
 fee simple, tail, or for life. An estate in 
 fee in copyhold is subject to the incidents of 
 
Cop 
 
 { 313) 
 
 Cor 
 
 fealty, suit, escheat, in many cases to rent, 
 and more rarely to relief. Other incidents 
 may pertain to it, according to the custom of 
 the manor. Copyholds could formerly he 
 enfranchised or converted into freeholds hy 
 agreement. Now, by the Copyhold Acts 
 (15 and 16 "Vict,, c. 51, s. 7, and 21 and 22 
 Vict., c. 94, s. 21), the tenant or the lord, by 
 making application to the Copyhold Com- 
 missioners, can secure a compulsory en- 
 franchisement of copyhold upon equitable 
 terms. The origin of copyhold is an ex- 
 ceedingly obscure subject, and many con- 
 flicting theories upon it have been broached. 
 The view here taken is that of many modein 
 historians. For a different explanation see F. 
 Seebobm, English Village Community. [Land 
 Tenure.] 
 
 Elton, on Copi/Tiolds; K. Bigby, Mist, of the Law 
 of Real Properly; J. Williams, Law of Real Pro- 
 perty ; Seebohm, Eng. Village Community ; an 
 Essay in Economic Hist. r w tt -i 
 
 Copyrigbt Acts. The first of these 
 was b Anne, c. 19, which gave an author the 
 copyright of his works for fourteen years, 
 with extension if the author or his representa- 
 tive was hving for a further term of fourteen 
 years. By the decision of the House of Lords 
 in 1774 (in case of Donaldson v. Beckett), this 
 statute was held to have done away with any 
 commonlaw right which the author might have 
 in his work beyond the prescribed term of years . 
 By the Act 54 Geo. III.,c. 146, the author was 
 granted copyright for the term of twenty- 
 eight years, and for the residue of his life 
 should he live beyond that period. By the 
 Act of 1842 (5 and 6 Vict., c. 45), the copy- 
 right of a hook endures for the life of the 
 author, and for seven years afterwards. If 
 this term expires within forty-two years of 
 the first publication, the copyright of the 
 author or his assignees is to be extended to 
 that term of years. Copies of aU books are to 
 be deposited in the Hbrary of the British 
 Museum, and, if required, in the Bodleian 
 Library, in the libraries of Cambridge Uni- 
 versity, Trinity College, Dublin, and of the 
 Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh. Dramatic, 
 artistic, and musical copyright has been pro- 
 tected by 3 and 4 WiU. IV., c. 15, 8 Geo. 
 IL, 0. 13, 38 Geo. in., c. 71, and 5 and 6 Vict., 
 c. 45. 
 
 Corbenil, William of. Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (1123 — 1136), was a canon regu- 
 lar, and Prior of St. Osyth's, in Essex. On 
 the death of Archbishop Ealph, a contest 
 arose between the regulars and seculars about 
 the appointment of his successor, which was 
 settled by a compromise : William, who be- 
 longed, strictly speaking, to neither of these 
 parties, being elected. The quarrel between 
 the sees of Canterbury and York continued, 
 and to establish his supremacy, William got 
 himself appointed Papal legate, this being the 
 first instance of an Archbishop of Canterbury 
 
 holding this office. He was zealous in en- 
 forcing the ceUbacy of the clergy, and after 
 Hemy's death supported the claims of 
 Stephen to the throne. AU his contempora- 
 ries paint him in dark colours. The author 
 of the Gesta Stephani describes him as "a 
 man of smooth face and strictly religious 
 manners, but much more ready to amass 
 money than to spend it." " Of his merits," 
 says Henry of Huntingdon, "nothing can be 
 said, for he had none." 
 
 Henry of Huntingdon ; 'William of Malmea- 
 bury ; Hook, Lives of the Archhisho'ps. 
 
 Cork was built in the sixth centurj-, and 
 was in ancient times the principality of the 
 McCarthys. In 1172 it received a garrison 
 from Henry II., who also in 1185, granted a 
 charter to the town. In 1492, the citizens 
 were conspicuous as supporters of Perkin 
 Warbeck (q.v.). Later it was taken by Crom- 
 well (1649), and Marlborough (1690). At the 
 beginning of this century (1810), one of the 
 Queen's Colleges was established in the city. 
 
 Cork, Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of [b. 
 1566, d. 1645), the son of a Herefordshire 
 gentleman, went to Dublin about 1588, and 
 acquired large landed properties in Ireland. 
 Having gained the favour of Queen Elizabeth, 
 he was specially recommended to the notice 
 of Sir George Carew, Lord-President of 
 Munster, and was much employed by him. 
 In 1612 he was made a Privy Councillor of 
 Ireland; in 1616 raised to the peerage as 
 Lord Boyle ; and in 1620 made Earl of Cork. 
 In 1629 he was made one of the Lords-Justices, 
 and two years later Lord Treasurer of Ireland, 
 in which position he quarrelled violently with 
 Strailord. At the beginning of the Rebellion 
 he raised a large body of horse for the royal 
 service. 
 
 Coruavii, or Cornubh, The, were an 
 ancient British tribe, inhabiting the modem 
 counties of Warwick, Worcester, Stafford, 
 Salop, and Chester. They are reckoned by 
 Mr. Rhys to have been of the Brythonie, and 
 not of the Goidehc, stock. [Celts.] 
 
 Corilbtiry,EDWARD,ViscorNT (afterwards 
 Earl of Clarendon) , was the son of Henry, Lord 
 Clarendon, brother of the Earl of Rochester. 
 On the landing of the Prince of Orange, 
 he led three regiments from Sahsburj' over 
 to WiUiam's side ; but, finding he could not 
 completely accomplish this act of treachery, 
 stole to the prince's quarters with^ a few 
 followers. His signature, together with that 
 of several other leading men, was appended 
 to a forged association in favour of James 
 by William Young, the Jacobite informer, 
 but nothing could be proved against him 
 (1692). He was subsequently Governor of 
 New York for six years, a post in which he 
 displayed great incapacity. He is said upon 
 one occasion to have dressed as a woman in 
 order to represent the queen. 
 
Cor 
 
 314 ) 
 
 Cor 
 
 Cornells, The Capture of (Aug., 1811), 
 ■was effected during the war of the French 
 Eevolution. Cornells, in Java, was an en- 
 trenched camp between two rivers, one of 
 which was not fordable, and the other was 
 defended by extremely formidable redoubts 
 and batteries. It was resolved to carry it by 
 a coup de main, and Colonel Gillespie was 
 selected for that purpose. On Aug. 26, his 
 column reached the redoubt at dawn, and, 
 feeling that delay would be dangerous, he did 
 not wait for his rear division, but attacked at 
 once, and carried the redoubt with the 
 bayonet. Seizing the bridge, he attacked 
 and captured a second redoubt, and with his 
 full force vigorously assaulted the enemy's 
 reserve, which was posted with powerful 
 artillery in front of the barracks and lesser 
 fort. They broke and fled, and the place fell 
 into the hands of the English. 
 
 Corn Laws is the name generally given 
 to the various Acts of Parliament regulating 
 the exportation and importation of grain, and 
 especially wheat. They have been passed 
 with two objects, which have prevailed to a 
 different extent at different times : to secure 
 a plentiful supply of cheap com at home, and 
 to keep up the price of corn produced in 
 England. There have also been laws to regu- 
 late the traffic in com by the com dealers, 
 and to prevent the practices called engrossing, 
 forestalling, and regrating ; and occasionally, 
 as in the reign of Henry VI., exportation 
 of com has been absolutely prohibited. Im- 
 portation was practically free till the reign 
 of Queen Elizabeth, but very little com was 
 imported. An entirely new system was 
 adopted on the accession of "William III. 
 In the supposed interests of agriculture and 
 of the landowners, the exportation of corn 
 was not only permitted, but encouraged by 
 bounties. This legislation did not have the 
 effect which was expected, and the price of 
 corn continued to be very low. When, after 
 the Peace of Paris, in 1763, the commerce and 
 manufactures of the kingdomlargely increased, 
 and when the increase was coincident with 
 a growth of population, the export of com 
 diminished, and the restrictions on imports 
 were felt as a hardship. This led to Burke's 
 Act of 1773, by which foreign wheat was 
 allowed to be imported at a nominal duty of 
 6d. whenever the home price was at or above 
 48s. a quarter, and the bounty and the ex- 
 portation were together to cease when the 
 price was at or above 44s. Com might be 
 imported, at any price, duty free, in order to 
 be again exported. This Act led to a large 
 importation of corn, which did no injury to 
 the agricultural interests, but only served to 
 maintain the increasing manufacturing popu- 
 lation. At this time, also, large quantities of 
 waste land were taken into cultivation, with- 
 out any fall of agricultural prices. In 1791, 
 under the pressure of the landed interest, the 
 
 law of 1773 was repealed, and there was 
 substituted for it an arrangement by which 
 a limit of 54s. for importation, at 6d. a quarter, 
 was substituted for 46s. ; between o4s. and 50s. 
 there was a middle duty of 2s. 6d. a quarter, 
 and below 60s. a prohibitive duty. The 
 bounty was continued as before, and exporta- 
 tion without bounty was allowed to 46s. In 
 1804 a new law, passed at the bidding of the 
 farmers, imposed a prohibitory duty on all 
 wheat imported, when the price was 63s., a 
 middle duty of 2s. 6d. between 63s. and 66s., 
 and a nominal duty of 6d. above 66s. In 
 1815 the limit of the price for importation was 
 fixed at 60s. It was hoped that this regula- 
 tion would maintain the price of wheat at 
 about the same standard ; but still greater 
 fluctuations followed. The effect of this 
 legislation was to raise the price of corn very 
 largely, and to force a wide extent of land 
 into arable cultivation which was not suited 
 for it. Another Act was passed in 1822, in- 
 tended to lessen the disastrous eft'ects of the 
 Act of 1815; but it never came into opera- 
 tion. The attempt to regulate the price of 
 com by Act of Parliament was so disastrous 
 that the Council was authorised to issue orders 
 to suspend the operation of the Acts, and to 
 permit the importation of foreign com under 
 circumstances of necessity. This fact, with 
 others, gradually convinced agriculturists 
 that the Corn Laws were based on a mistaken 
 principle; and in 1827 Canning carried 
 resolutions in the House of Commons pointing 
 to a more liberal policy. A bill, founded on 
 these resolutions, passed the Lower House ; 
 but, owing to the change of ministry and the 
 opposition of the Duke of Wellington, the 
 bill was given up. Mr. Charles Grant, in 
 1828, carried resolutions similar to those of 
 Mr. Canning, and they eventually became 
 law. The grievance of the Com Laws was 
 always found to vary with the prosperity of 
 the seasons, and the bad seasons which followed 
 each other from 1837 to 1842 gave rise to the 
 agitation by which the Corn Laws were 
 abolished altogether. In 1842 a measure 
 was introduced by Sir Robert Peel which 
 still maintained the vicious principle of a 
 sliding-scale of duties, although the scale was 
 less onerous than those which preceded it. 
 This did not diminish the agitation for the 
 repeal of the Com Laws, and the argument 
 of the repealers was strengthened by the fact 
 that the alteration of the tariff in 1842, which 
 allowed the importation of live cattle and 
 fresh provisions, did not affect the price of 
 these articles to the disastrous extent which 
 had been anticipated by the agriculturists. 
 In 1843 the principle of the Com Laws was 
 virtually abandoned, by allowing corn to be 
 imported from Canada at a very small duty. 
 It wAs now possible to import com from 
 America through Canada, and therefore there 
 seemed to be no reason why direct importation 
 from America should not be allowed. In his 
 
Cor 
 
 ( 315 ) 
 
 Cor 
 
 budget of 1 845, Sir R. Peel abolished the duties 
 on 430 articles out Of 813 then taxed. This 
 ■was a virtual abandonment of the principle of 
 protection. In the same year the harvest 
 was very bad, and the potato crop in Ireland 
 failed entirely. It was then impossible to 
 avoid the temporary suspension of the Corn 
 Laws, and it was a question whether it was 
 not better to aboHsh them altogether. The 
 country was deluged with the free trade tracts 
 of the Anti-Com-Law League. Sir E. Peel 
 was convinced that protection was no longer 
 tenable ; but his cabinet would not follow 
 him. Lord Stanley resigned, and the minis- 
 try broke up. Lord J. RusseU was unable to 
 form a cabinet, and Sir E. Peel was induced 
 to take office again. It was known that he 
 would meet Parliament in 1846 pledged to 
 support the cause of iree trade. The agitation 
 for the repeal of the Corn Laws had begun in 
 Manchester towards the end of 1836. In a 
 season of financial pressure, it appeared to 
 some of the most influential manufacturers of 
 that thriving town that the only remedy for 
 the evil lay in free trade, and that by artifi- 
 cially keeping up the price of corn the 
 manufacturing interests of the country were 
 sacrificed to the supposed benefit of the 
 agricultural interests. The year afterwards 
 the Anti-Com-Law League was formed. 
 Among its most prominent members from 
 the first were BIr. Cobden and Mr. Bright, 
 who in a great measure sacrificed their 
 worldly prosperity to the work of con- 
 verting their countrjTnen to their principles. 
 Large sums of money were collected for the 
 purposes of the League. A Free Trade Hall 
 was built in Manchester. In 1843 the Lords 
 acknowledged that the League was a great 
 fact, and compared it to the wooden horse by 
 which the Greeks were secretly brought 
 within the walls of Troy. At the end of 
 1845 it was stronger than ever in men, money, 
 and enthusiasm. When Parliament assembled 
 in 1846, the Queen's Speech and the Address 
 in reply to it gave indication of the coming 
 change. Sir E. Peel rofee immediately after- 
 wards, and avowed honestly the alteration in 
 his opinion. He said that he had observed 
 during the last three years (1) that wages do 
 not vary with the price of iood, and that with 
 high prices you do not necessarily have high 
 wages; (2) that emploj-ment, high wages, 
 and_ abundance contribute directly to the 
 diminution of crime ; (3) that by the gradual 
 removal of protection, industry had been 
 promoted and morality improved. Mr. Dis- 
 raeli took the opportunity of violently assail- 
 mg the minister for his change of opinion. 
 In February, Sir E. Peel announced a fixed 
 duty on corn for three years, and after that 
 its entire abolition. The free traders at- 
 tempted to get rid of this delay ; but they 
 'were beaten by a large majority, and the bill 
 passed. There was a fear lest it might be 
 rejected in the House of Lords, but the Duke 
 
 of Wellington secured its passing in that as- 
 sembly. The free trade in corn which followed 
 the repeal of the Corn Laws has been so com- 
 plete a success, and has become so indispensable 
 to the country in the growth of population, 
 that there can be little chance of their revival, 
 r ^"?^ Peel's Memoirs and Speeches; J. Morlev, 
 ^/""fOoiden; Brandes, LifeofLorcl Beacmijield: 
 W. Eobertson, Life and Times o/JoIm hrigld. 
 
 [0. B.] 
 
 Cornwallis, Chaeles, 1st MAuauis (*. 
 1738, d. 1805), entered the army at an early 
 age, and served under the Marquis of Granby 
 m 1761. He entered Parliament for Eye, and 
 was appointed Governor of the Tower in 
 1770. He served in the American "War of 
 Independence, and won much distinction at 
 the battle of Brandywine, and the siege of 
 Charleston. He was appointed to the com- 
 mand of the British forces in South Carolina, 
 and in 1780 won the victory of Camden 
 over Gates, the following year defeating 
 Greene at Guildford. In 1782, blockaded at 
 Yorktown by the American armj^ and the 
 French fleet, he was forced to surrender. A 
 violent controversy took place on his return, 
 between Cornwalhs and Sir Henry Clinton, 
 as to the party deserving of blame for the 
 disaster. In 1786 he went to India as 
 Governor-General, and Commander-in-chief 
 of the Bengal army. His administration 
 lasted from 1786 to 1793, and is remarkable 
 for the Mysore War ; the arrangements with 
 Oude, Arcot, and the Nizam ; the negotia- 
 tions with Scindiah and the Mahrattas ; the 
 Permanent Settlement; and a series of im- 
 portant judicial and revenue reforms. In 
 1790 Tippoo's attack on Travancore caused 
 Lord Cornwallis to conclude the Triple Alliance 
 with the Mahrattas and the Nizam, and the 
 campaign began on the Malabar and Coro- 
 mandel coasts. In 1791 Lord Cornwallis de- 
 termined to take the command himself, and 
 marched straight to Bangalore, which he 
 captured March 21. Tippoo had hastened 
 back to defend his capital. The Nizam's 
 force and the Mahrattas were wasting their 
 time in sieges in the north. On May 13, 1791, 
 was fought the battle of Arikera, in which 
 Tippoo was beaten. In March, 1792, the 
 Treaty of Seringapatam was signed, ending 
 the war, and leaving Tippoo with reduced 
 territory and prestige. As an administrator, 
 Lord Cornwallis devoted himself to the correc- 
 tion of abuses. He increased the salaries of 
 the public servants in order to give them the 
 possibihty of acquiring a competence by 
 economy, and made war on all frauds and 
 peculation. On his return to England he was 
 employed in 1 794 as a diplomatist in Flanders, 
 and carried on fruitless negotiations with 
 the emperor at Brussels. In 1795 he 
 was appointed Master- General o'f the Ord- 
 nance. In 1798 he was appointed Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland during the violence of 
 the Irish rebellion. In 1801 he returned to 
 
Cor 
 
 ( 316 ) 
 
 Cor 
 
 England, and was selected as the British 
 ]jlenipotentiary to negotiate the Peace of 
 Amiens. On July 30, 1803, he arrived in 
 India as Governor-General, pledged to reverse 
 the policy of Lord WeUesley. His avowed 
 policy was to end the war ; to break up the 
 system of subsidiary alliances ; and to bribe the 
 minor princes of Hindostan to give up their 
 alliance with us by resigning to them jaghires 
 out of the lands south and west of Delhi. 
 In spite of the remonstrances of Lord Lake 
 he proceeded up the Ganges with the intention 
 of carrying this plan out, but his health 
 failed rapidly. He resigned the government 
 to the senior member of the council. Sir George 
 Barlow, and died at Ghazeepore, Oct. 5, 1805. 
 Comwallis. Despatches ; Owen, Selections from 
 CornwdllU Bespatckes ; Kaye, Lives of Indian 
 OJJicers; Grant Duff, B/lahrattas ; Wilks, Sist. of 
 Mysore ; Mill, Hist, of India. [J3. S.] 
 
 Coromandel Coast. The popular name 
 appKed to the east coast of the Deccan. It 
 is supposed to be a corruption of Cholaman- 
 dalay, in the region of the ancient Chola 
 dynasty. The Coromandel coast extends 
 from Cape Calimere to the mouth of the 
 Kistnah, and is within the territory of the 
 Madras presidency. 
 
 Coronation. This rite is of great an- 
 tiquity. In England it seems to have been in 
 general use, even before the union of the 
 several kingdoms ; and a coronation service of 
 uncertain date, but as old at least as the 
 eighth century, is still extant. The Anglo- 
 Saxon Chronicle represents OJfa's son, Egfirth, 
 as having been " hallowed to king " in 785. In 
 the same authority we find distinct records 
 of the consecration of Edgar, Ethelred II., 
 Edward the Coirfessor, and Harold II., to the 
 kingly office with the same rite. And the 
 two essential parts of the ceremony, the 
 placing of the crown on the king's head, and 
 the anointing, had then been fully established ; 
 but to neither had any exceptional sacredness 
 been yet assigned ; at most they were but 
 symbols of 'the divine approval of the choice 
 the people had made. The ritual used at 
 Ethelred II.'s coronation has survived, and 
 contains both these and the form of oath 
 taken by the king. By this he promised 
 three things— to hold God's Church and the 
 realm in peace, to forbid rapine and injustice, 
 and to judge justly and mercifully. The 
 place varied ; though generally Kingston-on- 
 Thames, in Edgar's case it was Bath, and in 
 Edward's 'Winchester. Since the coronation 
 of Harold, however, it has been the abbey 
 church at "Westminster. 
 
 With differences of detail the ceremonial 
 has not materially changed since the Conquest. 
 The form of asldng the clergy and people 
 present for their voices, lasted tiU Henry 
 VIII.'s time ; but is now a mere presentation 
 of the sovereign to the spectators. The chief 
 variations have been in the oath. Till 1308 
 
 this pledged three things only — ^peace and 
 reverence to God and Holy Church, justice 
 to the people, and the removal of bad and 
 upholding of good laws. But at Edward II.'s 
 coronation it became more comprehensive and 
 precise, and took the form of question and 
 answer. Besides the three things above 
 mentioned, the king promised to keep and 
 defend " the laws and righteous customs 
 which the community of the realm should 
 have chosen." For centuries no vital al- 
 teration was made in the body of the oath, 
 though liberties were taken in Tudor and 
 Stuart days with its wording. 
 
 The existing form was settled at the Revo- 
 lution of 1688. By it the sovereign undertakes 
 (1) to govern "according the statutes in Par- 
 liament agreed on," (2) to cause " justice in 
 mercy to be executed," and (3) to maintain 
 " the Protestant reformed religion established 
 by law." It follows the declaration against 
 transubstantiation deemed necessary to prove 
 that the sovereign is not a Roman Catholic. 
 
 This ceremony has long lost its importance. 
 Once it marked the beginning of the new 
 reign. It afterwards came to be regarded as 
 giving the king a sacred character, making 
 him the Lord's anointed, against whose 
 authority it was an impiety to raise one's 
 hand. But it is now a mere pageant. 
 
 Taylor's Glory of Regality ; Stubbs's Constiiii- 
 tional History; Freeman's Norman Conquest, 
 Appendix, note H, to vol. iii. ; Benedict of Peter- 
 borough, vol. ji., pp. 80—83 (Bolls Series). 
 
 [J. R.] 
 Coroner, an official first appointed by 
 Richard I. in 1194, had originally very con- 
 siderable powers. He was elected by the shire, 
 and was to keep the pleas of the crown in the 
 place of the sheriff. By 3 Ed. I., c. 10, the 
 coroner is required to be of the status of a 
 knight, and to hold inquests in cases of sudden 
 death, and by 14 Ed. III., o. 8, he is required 
 to hold land in fee. By the 28 Ed. Ill,, c. 6, 
 their election was to be made by the free- 
 holders assembled in the county court, in the 
 same manner as that of the sheriffs. The 
 power of the coroner to hear cases of felony 
 was abolished by Magna Charta, § 17, and the 
 functions of holding inquests in cases of 
 violent or sudden death expressly confirmed 
 by the statute 4 Ed. T., c. 2, called, De Officio 
 Coronatoris. Gradually the coroner lost all 
 his other duties except that of taking in- 
 quisitions of death. The position and election 
 of coroners have been regulated by several 
 statutes in recent times. By the Municipal 
 Reform Act of 183.5, coroners were appointed 
 to boroughs as well as counties. 
 
 Corporation Act, The (1661), was 
 passed by the first Parliament of Charles II., 
 with the intention of destroying the power of 
 the Dissenters in the towns. By this statute 
 it was enacted that all officers of corporations 
 should take the sacrament according to the 
 rites of the Church of England, within twelve 
 
Cor 
 
 { 317 ) 
 
 Cot 
 
 months of their election to office ; and on 
 their election should take the oaths of supre- 
 macy, allegiance, and non-resistance, and 
 abjure the Solemn League and Covenant. The 
 Corporation Act was repealed in 1828, though 
 long hef ore that date it bn,d become a dead letter. 
 
 Corporations, or bodies corporate, formed 
 for the continual maintenance and enjoy- 
 ment of certain privileges, or the holding of 
 certain property in perpetuity, ar« of two 
 kinds : — (a) Corporations sole, which consist of 
 one person, such as the king or a bishop, who 
 in the eye of the law never die ; and (i) Cor- 
 porations aggregate, which consist of a num- 
 ber of persons so bound together as to be by 
 law considered as one individual, and which 
 by the constant introduction of fresh members 
 have a continuous existence. Both sole and 
 aggregate corporations are divided into 
 ecclesiastical and lay. The former division 
 comprised such corporations as a bishop, or 
 the chaplain of a cathedral, and the latter 
 being again sub-divided into [a) civil corpora- 
 tions, such as the universities of Oxford, Cam- 
 bridge, and Durham ; the municipal corpora- 
 tions, and private corporations of the nature 
 of joint-stock companies ; and (i) eleemosynary 
 corporations, which are charged with the duty 
 of administering the bounty of the founder, 
 as in the case of the various colleges at the 
 universities, and the hospitals. [Municipal 
 
 CORPORATIOIS'S.] 
 
 Corrichie, The Battle or (1562), was 
 fought near Aberdeen between the forces of 
 Mary Queen of Scots, led by Murray, and some 
 Highlanders, headed by the rebellioiis Earl 
 of Huntly. Huntly was killed, and his son, 
 Sir John Gordon, captured and executed. 
 
 Corsned was a species of ordeal in which 
 the accused had to swallow a large piece of 
 bread or cheese. If this were performed freely 
 and without hurt, the accused was pronounced 
 innocent ; but if it stuck in his throat, guilty. 
 With the introduction of Christianity, the 
 host was used for this purpose. [Ordeal.] 
 
 Corunna, The Battle of (Jan. 16, 1809), 
 between the English and French, was 
 fought during the Peninsular "War at the 
 close of Sir John Moore's retreat from 
 Madrid, pursued by Soiilt. After a march 
 in which the severity of the elements and 
 neglect of discipline were more disastrous to 
 the troops than the pursuit of the French, 
 Moore, on Jan. 11, took up a position round 
 the town of Corunna, and, having occupied 
 the road to Santiago de Compostella with his 
 best troops, awaited the arrival of the English 
 transports from Vigo. On the 14th the ships 
 anchored in the bay, and before daybreak on 
 the 16th the cavalry (the ground being im- 
 practicable for cavalry operations), the sick 
 and wounded, and all but nine pieces of 
 artillery, had been embarked. Soult had 
 20,000 infantry and cavalry, and a strong 
 
 force of artillery, while Moore had only 
 14,500 infantry. The battle was begun with a 
 fierce attack by the French on the village of 
 Elvina, which they carried, only, however, to 
 be in turn driven out by General Baird's 
 division. While the battle was still doubtful, 
 Moore ordered up the reserve, imder General 
 Paget, to oppose a flank movement directed 
 against the English right. This was most 
 successfully effected; and almost simulta- 
 neously the whole of the British line began 
 to gain ground, until at nightfall they had 
 everywhere driven the French from their 
 positions. During the following night a 
 retreat was effected to the shore, and the em- 
 barkation of the troops was carried out with 
 but little loss. In the battle the English 
 were said to have lost 800 men, including 
 their brave general. Sir John Moore; the 
 French, between 3,000 and 4,000. 
 Napier, Peninsular War. 
 
 Coshery was an ancient Irish custom, by 
 which the chief had the right of using the 
 houses and taking the provisions of his 
 tenantry for himself and following at his 
 own discretion. The Norman barons, not 
 unnaturally, adopted so advantageous a cus- 
 tom. After the final confiscation of Irish 
 land by Cromwell, the descendants of the 
 ancient chiefs long led a precarious existence 
 by such means, and numerous statutes failed 
 to put a stop to it. 
 
 O^Cwrry, Ancient Irish Gustoms; Lecky, History 
 of the Eighteenth Ct-ntu-ry. 
 
 Cottenliaill, Charles Christopher 
 Pepys, 1st Eakl of (i. 1781, d. 1851), the 
 second son of Sir William Pepys, was called 
 to the bar 1804. He was appointed solicitor- 
 general to Queen Adelaide in 1830, and 
 solicitor-general to the king in 1834. In 
 1831 he was returned to Parliament for 
 Higham Ferrers. In 1834 he became Master 
 of the Eolls, and in 1835 one of the Commis- 
 sioners of the Great Seal, the Whigs not 
 being prepared with a Chancellor in whom 
 they could confide. In 1836 he became Lord 
 Chancellor, and continued in this office till 
 1841. In 1846, on the return of the Whigs 
 to power, Lord Cottenham again became 
 Chancellor; but his health was bad, and in 
 1850 he received an earldom, and the Great 
 Seal was put in commission. 
 
 Cotter, James (J. 1690, d. 1719), the son 
 of Sir James Cotter, a distinguished supporter 
 of James II. , was, in spite of the Irish Court 
 of Chancery, brought up as a Catholic in 
 England. In 1713 he headed an attack on 
 the Protestant voters in Dublin. He was 
 the idol of the Ii-ish Jacobites ; and his 
 execution for rape in 1719 brought about a 
 savage persecution of the Quakers, who had 
 been instrumental in securing his punishment. 
 
 Cottinffton, Francis, Lord (4. 1676, 
 d. 1653), oT a Somersetshire family, was for 
 
Cot 
 
 (318) 
 
 Cou 
 
 many years one of the English diplomatic 
 agents at Madrid. He accompanied Prince 
 Charles to Spain, took part in negotiating the 
 marriage treaty, and lost the favour of his 
 patron, Buckingham, by supporting it. In 
 1628 he was created a haronet and privy 
 councillor. In the following ' year he was 
 appointed Chancellor of the _ Exchequer, and 
 sent as ambassador to Spain, and concluded a 
 treaty which developed (Jan. 2, 1631) into an 
 agreement for the partition of Holland. On 
 his return he was raised to the peerage, and 
 became, in 1635, Master of the Court of 
 Wards. Clarendon describes him as Laud's 
 chief opponent in the Council. To avoid 
 impeachment by the Long Parliament for his 
 share in the fiscal oppressions of the previous 
 ten years, he resigned both his offices. During 
 the Civil War he sided with the king, and, 
 in consequence, took refuge in Prance. In 
 1652 he was appointed, together with Claren- 
 don, ambassador to Madrid, and died, in 1653, 
 at Valladolid. During his first stay in Spain 
 he turned Eoman Catholic, reverted to Pro- 
 testantism on his return to England, and 
 became a Catholic again in 1652. Clarendon 
 praises his self-control and power of dissimu- 
 lation. Mr. Gardiner calls him, "a man of 
 the world without enthusiasm." 
 
 Clarendon, History of the KebelMon; S. E. 
 Gardiner, ITist. o/Ejij., 7ff03 — 16^3. 
 
 Cotton, Bartholomew de, was a monk 
 of Norwich, who wrote a Chronicle of England 
 from the arrival of the Saxons to the year 
 1298, about which time he died. The latter 
 portion of this history is of great valae, 
 as the writer was contemporary with the 
 events which he records. This Chronicle, 
 edited by Mr. Luard, has been published 
 in the Rolls Series. 
 
 Cotton, Sir John Hinde, was one of 
 the small band of Jacobite politicians who 
 formed part of the Opposition to Sir Robert 
 Walpole's ministry in the reign of George II. 
 In 1740, when the Jacobites were concocting 
 one of their usual plots, we find him described 
 as " doubtful of others, but answering clearly 
 for himself ; " and he arranged to remain in 
 London as the channel of communication with 
 James's friends. In 1742, after the fall of 
 Walpole, his appointment to the Admiralty 
 Board was pressed by the Duke of Argyle, but 
 the king absolutely refused to raise him to that 
 office. In 1744, however, in spite of the re- 
 luctance of George, he was taken into the 
 administration. In 174.5, the French minister, 
 Oardmal Tenom, a friend of the Stuarts, de- 
 manded that as a pledge of his sincerity he 
 should resign office, but this he declined to do. 
 He was, however, soon afterwards dismissed, 
 and continued to lead a small body of Jacobites 
 m the Lower House. 
 
 Cotton, Sir Robert (J. 1570, d. 1631), 
 was a distinguished antiquary and collector 
 
 of manuscripts. He assisted Camden (q.v.) 
 in his labours on the Britannia, On the 
 accession of James I. he was knighted, and 
 frequently consulted by the Privy Council on 
 constitutional points. He was one of those 
 who suggested to James I. the idea of creating 
 baronets, and was himself raised to this rank 
 in 1611. Sir Robert wrote numerous anti- 
 quarian tracts and pamphlets. But his chief 
 title to remembrance is due to the magnificent 
 manuscript library he collected, which passed 
 to his heir intact, and was acquired by the 
 nation in 1706. After being partly destroyed 
 by fire in 1731, it was placed in the British 
 Museum in 1757. 
 
 Cotton, Sir Willoughby, was com- 
 mander-in-chief in Jamaica during the slave 
 rebellion of 1831 — 32. The insurrection was 
 crushed owing to his promptness of action, 
 whilst his leniency to the offenders was in 
 marked contrast to the unwarrantable cruelty 
 with which the negroes were usually treated. 
 His clemency di-ew upon him the hatred of 
 the planters. 
 
 Cotton Famine, The, 1862. The out- 
 break of the American Civil War, which was 
 followed by a total blockade of the Con- 
 federate coast, was productive of very disas- 
 trous results inEngland. The cotton supply, on 
 the manufacture of which the greater part of 
 the Lancashire operatives depended foraliveli- 
 hood, failed, and in consequence the Lancashire 
 mill-owners began to work short time, and 
 finally to close the mills entirely. A certain 
 amount of work was kept up and many 
 large fortunes were made by running the 
 blockade of the Confederate ports and bring- 
 ing out cotton; but the general result was 
 that two millions of people were to a great 
 extent reduced to destitution. The Cotton 
 District Relief Fund was started in July, 
 1862, and nearly two millions were subscribed 
 within a twelvemonth. By the Relief Act 
 passed in Aug., 1862, loans were granted to 
 the guardians of the poor for the purpose of 
 instituting relief works. The famine came to 
 an end in the summer of 1865. 
 
 Councils, Civil. 
 
 (1) The National Council. {a) In 
 Anglo-Saxon Times. The Witenagemot. The 
 more primitive German tribes had no kings, 
 and the supreme authority resided either 
 in temporary magistrates or the national 
 council of all freemen that met periodically 
 to discuss all matters of great importance. 
 When monarchy became universal, this 
 council became the adviser and controller 
 of the king. In the Campus Martins, or 
 Madius of the Frank monarchy, we see its 
 continued survival until it gradually dis- 
 appeared through feudal influence. In 
 England its history was different. In the 
 original kingdoms of the migration, a demo- 
 cratic assembly of the freemen, such as still 
 
Cou 
 
 (319 ) 
 
 Cou 
 
 exists in the forest cantons of Switzerland 
 [see Freeman, Eng. Const., chap, i.), certainly 
 existed. But when the " heptarchic " states 
 were consolidated to form larger kingdoms, 
 no consolidation of the popular assembly 
 followed. The " greater council" of Tacitus, 
 the Campus Martius of the Franks, was only 
 continued in the Shiremoot, the highest 
 folkmoot of the English previous to the 
 establishment of a representative House 
 of Commons. But the idea of a national 
 assembly lived on in the gathering of 
 magnates, which was consolidated in pro- 
 portion as the kingdom was consolidated. 
 Similarly with. Wessex, and when the West 
 Saxon monarchs became kings of all the 
 English, they gathered together the wise men 
 of all the land into their Great Council or 
 Witenagemot. [For the details of the consti- 
 tution, power, origin, and activity of the 
 Witenagemot, the reader is referred to the 
 article under that head.] It is enough to 
 observe here that it was composed of the chief 
 ecclesiastical and temporal magnates of the 
 kingdom, that the functions of the Witan 
 were almost co-ordinate with those of the 
 king, and supreme on the vacancy of the 
 throne by death. They were the Parliament, 
 Senate, Privy Council, Supreme Court of 
 Justice, Civil Service, and Cabinet in one. 
 Their powers were legislative, judicial, de- 
 liberative, taxative, and executive. Though 
 in practice a council of officials, it remained 
 in idea the council of the nation, virtually 
 represented by their natural leaders. But of 
 direct popular representation there is no 
 trace. 
 
 (5) In Norman Times. The Great Council. 
 The accession of "VVilKam I. produced no 
 sudden revolution in the constitution of the 
 national council. The Great Council of the 
 Norman reigns was in most respects a 
 continuation of the Witenagemot. But 
 feudal influence, the analogy of the council 
 of Normandy, and the changed condition 
 of the country, soon produced a gradual 
 feudalisation of the whole institution — which, 
 although not completed before the reign of 
 Henry II., gradually more and more obscured 
 the old official character of the assemblage. Yet 
 the national idea lived on. The convocation 
 in 1086 and 1116 of Great Councils of all the 
 landowners, of whomsoever they held land, 
 is a striking instance of this. The gradual 
 change of theory was obscured by the fact 
 that the members of the assembly were the 
 same as before the Conquest, though bishop 
 and earl sat now as holders of great fiefs 
 immediately under the crown just as much as 
 in their official capacity of magnates. But 
 the practical change was greater than the 
 theoretical. Nominally possessed of all the 
 prerogatives of the Wise Men before the Con- 
 quest, their power became very formal in the 
 presence of such monarchs as William and 
 his sons, to whose practical despotism revolt 
 
 in arms rather than opposition in council was 
 the appropriate check. Moreover the in- 
 creasing sanctity which environed the monarch 
 deprived the national council of the last 
 vestiges of that unique position which made 
 the earUer Anglo-Saxon monarchs littll more 
 in theory than chairmen of a Board. 
 
 (c) In Angevin Times. The Feudal Council 
 of Henry II. Under Henry II. the change 
 in the theory of the constitution of the 
 national council became complete. The 
 accepted usage of his reign was to summon 
 the whole body of the tenants in chief to the 
 council. But the ordinary form of the 
 council was, doubtless, much the same as in the 
 earlier period. Except on special occasions 
 none but the magnates, the bishops, earls, and 
 royal officers, the "greater barons," were 
 likely to attend. We learn from Magna 
 Charta that the " greater barons " alone 
 received special summonses addressed to them 
 individually on each occasion that the council 
 met. A general writ addressed to the sheriif 
 of each county summoned the " lesser 
 barons " to these assemblies, and their attend- 
 ance was generally nominal. The Angevin 
 council thus became a regularly organised 
 feudal assembly. But the powers of the 
 Great Council could not but have been un- 
 favourably influenced by the change. In 
 becoming feudal it ceased to be national. 
 Even the small place left by the administrative 
 system of Henry II. for external checks could 
 not be satisfactorily filled up by a body out of 
 relation with a people who rather reposed 
 confidence in the crown, and which was 
 representative mainly of the crushed baronial 
 party which Henry had subdued. Still, 
 its formal consent was invariably given to 
 Henry's great legislative and executive 
 measures. We even hear of resistance to 
 the royal wDl, of which in Anglo-Saxon 
 times there is no record. But the most pre- 
 judicial influence on the immediate future of 
 the council was the development of new and 
 more efficient consultative bodies out of the 
 administrative system which centred round 
 the Curia Eegis (q.v.). Thus under Henry II., 
 the national council tended to become baronial 
 merely, and was superseded in many of its 
 functions by a royal council. 
 
 Yet the absence of a more adequate repre- 
 sentation of the nation lent a good deal of 
 national character even to this feudal council. 
 Such an assembly gave us Magna Charta, and 
 so well did the baronage fulfil their new part 
 of national representation that throughout 
 Henry Ill.'e reign an opposition at once 
 popular and baronial found in it itS' appro- 
 priate mouthpiece. But the gradual growth of 
 a directly representative Parliament brought 
 the old council into comparative disuse. 
 Edward I.'s completion of the parliamentary 
 system at once annihilated the political im- 
 portance of feudalism and of the feudal Great 
 Council. Superseded as a national assembly 
 
Cou 
 
 ( 320 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 by Parliament, and as a consultative and 
 executive body by the royal council, the Great 
 Council remained as a survival throughout the 
 Middle Ages. Often it was hardly to be dis- 
 tinguished from a Parliament, as for example, 
 the council which sanctioned so many of 
 Edward I.'s laws. Often it was no more than 
 an " afforced " assembly of the " Concilium 
 ordinarium," strengthened for important 
 business by the addition of spiritual and 
 temporal magnates, and other " wise men," 
 selected at discretion. Such an assembly was 
 not uncommon in the fourteenth and early 
 part of the fifteenth centuries (e.g., in 1379), 
 and Richard II. 's evil councillors were accused 
 of inducing the king to summon councils com- 
 posed of certain lords without the assent or 
 presence of the " Lords of the Great Council." 
 But these assemblies may largely be regarded 
 as attempts to bridge over the distinction 
 between the Eoyal Council and the Council of 
 the nation, and give to the former body that 
 prestige which historical continuity and full 
 baronial support could in a large measure 
 afiord. No such assembly was convoked 
 in Tudor times, and Charles I.'s summons of 
 a Great Council at York in 1640 'was the last 
 instance of its being called together. 
 
 (2) The EoYAL Council. Besides the Great 
 Council, or the Common Council of the nation, 
 there must have existed, as soon as organised 
 government began, a smaller council of the 
 royal ministers and confidants, by whose 
 advice and co-operation the government was 
 carried on. The small numbers generally 
 attending the Witenagemot before the Con- 
 quest, and the lack of definite centraHaed 
 authority; make this assembly very hard to 
 discern in Anglo-Saxon times ; but with the 
 reigns of the sons of "William I., the Curia 
 Regis (q.v.) comes into importance ; and from 
 this general court there gradually developed 
 by a process of differentiation not only the 
 courts of Judicature, but also the organised 
 Royal Council of the Middle Ages. The 
 exact relation of the Curia Regis to the 
 national great council is not clear, but it is 
 improbable that they were entirely separate 
 organisations. Thus in a sense the Royal 
 Council was a specialised form of the Great 
 Council. 
 
 The active despotism of the Norman and 
 Angevin kings, while reducing the national 
 council to a form, greatly stimulated the 
 growth of the Eoyal Council : for when the 
 king had so much on his hands he must have 
 the help of clerks and ministers, who always 
 tended to become his advisers. The existence 
 of such a Eoyal Council is dimly foreshadowed 
 by the act of Henry II. in 1178, when that 
 monarch reserved the decision of knotty judi- 
 cial or financial cases to a small circle of 
 " sapientes," or councillors. But under Henry 
 II. we have the merest reference to its action 
 — none to its constitution or powers. The 
 personal retinue of Richard II., the foreign 
 
 councillors of John, may well have been organ- 
 ised in a similar body ; but it is not until the 
 minority of Henry III. that the real histoiy 
 of the Royal Council begins. I'he Regent, 
 the legate, the great officers of state consti- 
 tuted that "supremum concilium," traces of 
 whose activity are to be discerned in every 
 department of government. In this body the 
 hated foreign courtiers exercised their in- 
 fluence. Against it the Great Council cf the 
 realm fought with increasing success. Thrice 
 oaths were imposed on this Council and 
 baroniaj nominees added to it ; but it con- 
 tinued to maintain its existence through the 
 crisis, and after acting as a practical Council 
 of Regency during Edward I.'s absence in 
 Palestine, received from that king definition 
 and organisation. 
 
 The special characteristic of the Eoyal 
 Council was its permanence. It was always 
 sitting, always occupied in the continuous 
 business of the court. Its usual name was 
 the " Concilium perpetuum," or " ConciHura 
 ordinarium," in opposition to the " Con- 
 cilium commune," or "Concilium magnum" 
 of the nation, already discussed. Besides its 
 constant sessions for executive business, it 
 held terminal sittings to help the king in 
 receiving petitions and hearing suits. Its 
 functions were so wide as to be practi- 
 cally incapable of definition. Nothing was 
 too great, nothing was too small to escape 
 its interference. It advised the king, exe- 
 cuted his resolutions, shared in his judicial 
 and appellate powers. The ordinary members 
 of the Council were — the chief ministers, the 
 judges, some of the bishops and barons, and 
 a few other royal confidants summoned by 
 royal writ, and bound by a solemn oath of 
 office. 
 
 The power of the Eoyal Council was always 
 growing ; but it acquired a special prominence 
 during the weak reign of Richard II. ; and it 
 is from the history of the fifteenth century 
 that we can first get a really clear and definite 
 idea of the functions of a body whose whole 
 previous history it is impossible to trace but 
 obscurely. Under Richard II. and the Lan- 
 castrians the Royal Council, the engine and 
 mouthpiece of the prerogative, gradually 
 begins to subserve constitutional ends. The 
 strong and organised parties of the time are 
 represented upon it. Parliament asserts control 
 over it, and the recognition by the Lancastrian 
 monarchs of the right of Parliament to nomi- 
 nate its members is a remarkable anticipation 
 of the cabinet government of modern times. 
 In 1406 Parliament protest their great regard 
 for the " Lords of the continuous Council," in 
 language almost anticipating a vote of confi- 
 dence in a modem ministry. In turns caressed 
 by king and Parliament, the " Privy Council," 
 as it now began to be called — though it is 
 possible that the Privy Council was in its 
 origin an inner and secret committee of the 
 ordinary Council — acquired more and more 
 
Cou 
 
 (321 ) 
 
 Cou 
 
 authority. Under Henry VI. it became a 
 virtual Council of Regency, and its members 
 practically held the royal authority in com- 
 mission. This enhanced their' authority, but 
 broke their connection with Parliament. After 
 1437 the king resumed absolute power of 
 nomination. Efforts to remedy this state of 
 things led to no result : and under Edward 
 IV. and the Tudors, it assumed the character 
 of an " irresponsible committee of govern- 
 ment," the agent of the prerogative, and the 
 representative of the royal pleasure. It sent 
 forth outshoots, such as its judicial committee, 
 the Star Chamber ; and many of the anomalous 
 councils that in the sixteenth century with- 
 drew half England from the cognisance of the 
 common law were in close relation to it. 
 The temporising policy of a Henry VIII. 
 and an Elizabeth, which allowed some di- 
 vergence of opinion amongst its supporters, 
 kept up at least the semblance of government 
 by discussion. Its elaborate organisation into 
 committees under Edward VI. illustrates the 
 width of its ramifications. 
 
 The Privy Council ha^Tng attained theheight 
 of its power, it will be convenient to summarise 
 its functions. The great variety and extent 
 of its activity has already been noticed. Its 
 claim in 1427 " to have the execution of all 
 the powers of the crown during the king's 
 minority needs only," says Dr. Stubbs, " to 
 be slightly altered to make it applicable to 
 their perpetual functions." The only limit to 
 their usurpations was the common law ; and 
 this, while but partly confining their judicial 
 activity, left the whole field of general politics 
 open to their aggressions. They had a very 
 large share in all executive business. Their 
 power of passing ordinances (q.v.) gave them 
 a practical share in legislation ; and the con- 
 fidence, indifference or impotence of Parlia- 
 ment allowed them taxative functions of the 
 greatest importance. They lent money to 
 the king on their own security, or used their 
 influence over rich lords or merchants to 
 negotiate loans. Sometimes they got direct 
 authority from Parliament to levy taxes, 
 sometimes^ especially during the sixteenth 
 century, they did so of their own authority. 
 Wherever no positive law checked them they 
 pushed their way. Even in judicial matters, 
 despite the common law and the jurisdiction 
 of the Chancery, they were still, as in 1178, 
 the advisers of the crown on knotty points, 
 and the arbiters of private disputes. 
 
 Rigorous nnder the Tudors, the powers of 
 the Council became oppressive nnder the 
 Stuarts; but besides the ever-increasing 
 parliamentary check, the tendency of the 
 Council to become unwieldy, by the inclusion 
 of a very large number of nobles and officials, 
 led to a habit of transacting great secrets of 
 state in an unauthorised and informal cabal, 
 or group of " cabin counsellors ; " a system 
 which was complained of early in the seven- 
 teenth century, and accepted unwillingly 
 Hist.- 11 
 
 towards its end. The Cabal of 1667, though 
 in profession a committee of the Privy 
 Council for foreign affairs, was practically 
 an anticipation of the modem Cabinet. Sir 
 William Temple's plan of reform in 1679 
 proved abortive, and the definite recogni- 
 tion of Cabinet [Cadinet] government by 
 William III., made the Privy Council again a 
 constitutional check, that conservatives desired 
 to maintain in power as a safeguard against 
 the new-fangled and illegal ministerial as- 
 sembly. The Act of Settlement of 1701 con- 
 tains several clauses which tried to effect the 
 restoration of the Privy Council to its old 
 constitutional position under the Plantagenets 
 and Tudors ; but they had little result. The 
 Council remained as it does to this day a body 
 of great dignity and importance, into which 
 aU statesmen of position were formally ad- 
 mitted, and whose members were distin- 
 guished by the appellation of Eight Honour- 
 able. But the nature of its composition, and 
 its unwieldy dimensions, prevented its being 
 generally summoned as a whole for the 
 transaction of general business. Councils in 
 the presence of Eoyalty are still constantly 
 held, but they conast of a very few coun- 
 cillors, and transact formal business. The 
 Privy Council Office exercises the functions of 
 a department of the executive. The President 
 and Vice-President of the Council are im- 
 portant ministers. Eecent legislation has 
 given special powers to these officers or the 
 Judicial Committee of the Council. New 
 business, such as the ever-increasing state re- 
 gulation of education, is put into its hands, 
 and the Vice-President is practically Educa- 
 tion Minister. But as a whole and as a 
 deliberative assembly, the Privy Council is 
 practically obsolete. 
 
 (3) Local Councils. Besides the above, 
 councils were appointed at various times in 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to govern 
 parts of the kingdom remote from the centre 
 of authority, or imperfectly united to it. 
 They were modelled generally on the Privy 
 Council, both in constitution and functions, 
 and often exercised a jurisdiction of certain 
 oppressiveness and doubtful legality. Such 
 were the Coimcil of Wales and the Marches, 
 established by Edward IV. in 1478, at Lud- 
 low, to govern the southern and border 
 districts of Wales, which until then had 
 uncontrolled enjoyment of Palatine privi- 
 leges. This court, though losing its chief 
 reason for existence when Henrj' VIII. 
 incorporated Wales with England, and, 
 limited in its jurisdiction in 1640, was not 
 abolished until the 5th of William and Mary. 
 Similar was the Council of the North, estab- 
 lished at York after the revolt of 1569, 
 famous through Strafford's tenure of the 
 presidehcy, and abolished with similar 
 councils in the first session of the Long Parha- 
 ment. The Council of Calais was of older 
 foundation, and continued until the loss of 
 
Coti 
 
 ( 322 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 that town under Queen Mary. The Stannaries 
 Court, which extended its special function of 
 governing the estate of the Duchy of Corn- 
 wall, and superintending the mines there, to 
 general business, and had become one of the 
 most oppressive engines of prerogative, was at 
 the same time deprived of its capacity for 
 aggression. The Council of the Palatinates 
 of Chester, Lancashire, &c., were mere con- 
 tinuations of the old feudal courts of these 
 franchises, continued after their incorporation 
 with the crown, and administered with such 
 regard for the prerogative, that, like the 
 other courts mentioned, they attracted the 
 notice of the Long Parliament. 
 
 Tlie whole subject of councils is one of ex- 
 ceptional difficulty and obscurity. The chief 
 autboritiea include, Stubbs, Const, Hist. ; 
 Gneist, Englische V''rfassungsgesc}iichte and Ver- 
 waMwagsrechi ; Pa^grave, Essay on the King's 
 Council-; Dicey, Essay oa the Piivy Cowncil ; 
 Nioh(^as, Proceedings of the Privy Cowncil, and 
 for the local councils, the various county his- 
 tories, &c, rrp ■p m -1 
 
 Councdl of State was the name given 
 to the assembly elected on Feb. li, 1649, 
 immediately after Charles I.'s execution. It 
 received a combination of military, diplomatic, 
 police, and judicial powers that in the aggre- 
 gate gave it a greater control over the State 
 and a wider exercise of executive power than 
 the kings had ever had. Appoi^ted by the 
 " Rump," and representing their views, the 
 Council of State' waa dissolved by Cromwell 
 immediately after his coup d'etat against the 
 Parliament. Their successful conduct of the 
 Dutch "War attests the \'igour of their 
 government. A new Council of State was 
 established in 1659, as the successor to the 
 temporary " Committee of Safety " in the 
 exercise of the executive power ; but on the 
 second expulsion of the Rump by Lambert it 
 gave way to the more famous " Committee of 
 Safety," which acted as the mouthpiece of 
 the army. The army scheme for the per- 
 manent government included a Council of 
 State that never sat. Revived again when 
 Monk restored the Rump, it naturally found 
 no place when the Restoration brought back 
 the old Constitution. 
 
 Kanke, History o/ Bjijlaiid; Gui'ot, Oliver 
 
 Cmmwell, and Bi-.hard Cromwell; Whitelocke. 
 
 jHemori'ils. 
 
 Councils, Ecclesiastical, are of the 
 following kinds : — 
 
 (1) GeNER,4L, or ECVMENICAL CoVNCILS, 
 
 i.e., assemblies of the Catholic Church from 
 every nation. To these, bishops from Britain 
 were sent from the time of the Council of 
 Aries m the fourth century to the Councils 
 of Constance and Basel in the fifteenth. 
 Then: decrees were accepted in England as 
 a part of the law of the Church, though in 
 later times, as the case of the Council of Basel 
 shows, hardly without some ratification from 
 the royal authority. The gxeatest interest 
 was at various times shown by the English 
 
 Church in these councils, and their acts often 
 profoundly affected the course of English 
 history. But their influence is too indirect 
 to necessitate any detailed treatment of it in 
 a work on English historJ^ 
 
 (2) National Councils. Of the details of 
 the history of the pre-English British Church 
 we know little; but when Archbishop Theodore 
 completed the systematic organisation of the 
 English Church that the failure of Augustine's 
 mission necessitated, one of his chief cares 
 was to arrange for the assembling every 
 August of a council of the whole Church over 
 which he was metropolitan. The councils of 
 Hertford and Hatfield, in which most of 
 his reforms were arranged, were themselves 
 precedents for the future action of the 
 Church. These councils can only by anti- 
 cipation be called national, for as yet the 
 English nation was not in existence, but 
 they exerted a most beneficial influence on 
 the development of national unity by habi- 
 tuating subjects qf hostile but neighbouring 
 states to meet under the peace of the Church 
 to discuss amicably matters of common interest. 
 Their common place of meeting was some 
 border town such, as Clovesho, an unknown 
 spot near London, where Mercia, Wessex, . 
 Kent, and Essex met together at a point. 
 They were constituted mostly of bishops, 
 though abbots often, and diocesan clergy once, 
 figure among the members ; and, as the line 
 between Church and State was as yet but 
 slackly drawn, kings, ealdormen, and other 
 temporal magnates frequently attended them. 
 But the assertion of the independence of the 
 archbishopric of York by Archbishop Eg- 
 berht, created a jealousy between that see and 
 Canterbury that made these national councils, 
 whieh had never met with the regularity 
 prescribed by Theodore, very few in number. 
 They practically ceased with the decline of 
 all conciliar activity in the tenth century; 
 and though revived after the Conquest, when 
 a papal legate could summon a national 
 council with an authority .which neither 
 archbishop could gainsay, the vindication of 
 the archiepiscopal powers of the see of York 
 by Thurstan revived the old jealousy that 
 made the union of both provinces in a common 
 assembly ridiculous or abortive. The legatine 
 councils of Otto in 1237, and Ottobonin 1268, 
 are the chief later exceptions to this rule. 
 
 (3) Provincial Councils. — The rarity and 
 practical cessation of national councils left room 
 for the full development of the synods of the 
 two provinces of Canterbury and York ; even if 
 the comparative unimportance of the northern 
 province did not often invest the councils of 
 the southern with a practically national 
 character. The thirteenth century saw the 
 completion of the systematic representation 
 of the provincial synods, to which the name 
 Convocation (q.v.) became gradually applied. 
 They play an important part in both the 
 ecclesiastical and civil history of England. 
 
Con 
 
 ( 323 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 (4) Diocesan Councils, which were ex- 
 haustive assemblies of the clergy of the 
 individual sees, were ocoasionaUy summoned, 
 and even — 
 
 (5) Archidiaconal Couscils are occa- 
 sionally heard of. But these later varieties 
 were of inferior importance, and never 
 originated business of any weight. 
 
 Stubbs and Haddan, Cuuucils and Ecclesian- 
 iical Documents; Stubbs, Constitutvmal History; 
 Wilkins, Concilia; Hody, Hiatory of Convoca- 
 tions, Uefele's Co-nciUengeschichte, is tbe best 
 authority for coundls generally. fT F T 1 
 
 Counties, The English. The word county 
 is due to the Norman invaders' identification 
 of the old English " shire " with their own 
 " comitatus," the district of a count. But the 
 shire had had a very different history from the 
 Frankish comitatus. In the first place, the 
 forty counties of England differ considerably 
 in their origins. The southern counties are, no 
 doubt, much the older, and are stUl identical 
 with the original shires of Wessex. Wilt- 
 shire may, for instance, be imagined to 
 have originated with some few hundred 
 Saxon families who towards the end of 
 the fifth century drove back the Britons 
 from this district, attained to an indepen- 
 dent individuality as the "folk" of the 
 Wilssetas, and soon coalesced with neigh- 
 bouring "folks" in Dorset, Hampshire, Berk- 
 shire, &c., to form the "shares" or divisions 
 of the kingdom of the West Saxons. It is 
 possible that these shires had often such a 
 twofold unity, as was long traceable in the 
 two divisions of Kent, or the two " folks " of 
 the East Angles. At any rate, the West- 
 Saxon shire is characterised by a primitive 
 independence, having its own "folk-moot," 
 its independent king or semi-royal ruler, the 
 caldorman and its chief town, whose name is 
 cognate to the shire name (Wil-sastas, Wil- 
 ton). This had been the history also of 
 Sassex, Surrey, Essex, Middlesex, and even 
 Jutish Kent, when these, with others, were 
 amalgamated into the kingdom of Wessex. 
 But the Midland shires, on the contrary, are 
 fibviously artificial areas, and do not corre- 
 pond to the original " folks " of the Mercians, 
 South Angles, Mid-Angles, &c. They were 
 probably marked out when re-conquered 
 from the Danes by Alfred and his successors 
 in the tenth century : a town was taken as a 
 centre, and a line, as it were, drawn round 
 it. Such was the formation of Leicestershire, 
 Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire. (But 
 sometimes those older divisions are preserved 
 in the bishoprics ; the diocese of Worcester, 
 for example, corresponded to the old kingdom 
 of the Hwiccas, and was far more extensive 
 than the modem Worcestershire ; so with the 
 ancient kingdoms of Essex, East and West 
 Kent, and Sussex.) The shire system then, 
 which was indigenous to Wessex, spread 
 thence later oh. Thus, again, in the north 
 only Yorkshire and Durham.appear as shires 
 
 in Domesday Book; Northumberland, Cum- 
 berland, and Westmoreland were not formed 
 into shires tiU the reigns of WiUiam Eufus 
 and Henry I. But the origin of one shire, 
 Rutland, stiU remains " an unsolved problem 
 in the heart of our history" (Freeman). 
 Furthermore, not till long after the Norman 
 Conquest was it certain that there would not 
 be other shires formed, for the district of 
 Richmond was often called a shire, as also 
 were HaUamshire and Norhamshire, &c. 
 The number of shires which sent representa- 
 tives to Parliament was during the Middle 
 Ages thirty-seven ; for Cheshire and Durham 
 were not incorporated tUl 1535 and 1673 
 respectively, and Monmouth added to the 
 English shires also in 1535. The boundaries 
 of shires — as, for example, in Essex and Nor- 
 folk — are usually the natural Hnes of rivers and 
 hiUs ; and in many cases would be explained 
 if we could only trace the ancient forests 
 and marshes, as on the western border of 
 Notts ; in other cases again — as in the sinuous 
 northern boundarj- of Wilts, which seems to 
 cross and recross the Thames with a sort of 
 methodical irregularity — there must have 
 been accidents of local formation, tribal re- 
 lations, or personal circumstances, which we 
 can hardly now hope to trace. The anomalous 
 fragments belonging to one shire, but outlying 
 in another, had often a great historical in- 
 terest ; such as the hundred of West Meon, 
 in Sussex, but belonging to Hants, a striking 
 survival from the settlement of Jutish Meon- 
 waras soon absorbed by the West Saxons of 
 Hants. These have in many cases been 
 consolidated and rectified. When we come 
 to compare the social characteristics of the 
 several counties, we find that in wealth and 
 population the southern and eastern part of 
 England preponderated during the Anglo- 
 Saxon times, as in political superiority. 
 With the rise of the woollen manufacture 
 after the thirteenth century, the balance of 
 population spread towards the eastern counties, 
 and along the banks of Thames and Severn. 
 At last, the appHcation of steam-power to 
 manufacture opened out the coal and iron 
 fields of the north and west, and reversed the 
 long predominance of the plains over the hiU 
 districts. As to the relative prevalence of 
 feudal sentiments, it is to be noticed that the 
 home counties after the Norman Conquest 
 continued to be divided among smaller land, 
 lords than the great lordships of the midlands 
 and the north ; it is therefore the barons of 
 the north and centre who are conspicuous in 
 the series of revolts under the Norman kings, 
 in the struggles of Henrj' II.'s and Henry 
 III.'s reigns, in Magna Charta, and in the op- 
 position led by the house of Lancaster against 
 the Plantagenets ; and during the Wars of 
 the Roses one striking element in the array 
 of the trading and popular forces against the 
 feudal, the array (that is) of Kent, London, 
 the eastern and- " home counties," against the 
 
Cou 
 
 ( 324) 
 
 Con 
 
 less advanced northern and western border 
 lands. The same division is to he found 
 during the next century in comparing the 
 Protestant risings (such as Wyatt's) with the 
 reactionary'Pilgrimage of Grace supported by 
 the gentry of Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and 
 the north. To take another instance : the 
 Socmen, whom Domesday shows so numerous 
 in the eastern counties, and whose presence 
 points to the revived spirit of freedom that 
 the Danes brought in, bequeathed their hold 
 traditions to the revolted peasantry of 1381, 
 and to the Puritan j'eomen of the Eastern 
 Association two centuries later. But this 
 tenacious individuality of the shire comes out 
 in stiU minuter distinctions. Kent, Cheshire,' 
 Durham, in particular, had each its own 
 legal customs or social traditions; each, in 
 fact, its own inner history. Charles II. in 
 his flight was once detected by his horse's 
 shoes having been made in four different 
 counties. It is only the developed means of 
 communication of our own day, and the 
 operation of broad economic laws, that have 
 begun to obliterate such distinctiveness. 
 [For authorities, see County Coukt.] 
 
 [A. L. S.] 
 
 Counties, The Irish. The history of 
 the shiring of Ireland is involved in more 
 obscurity than the history of the shiring of 
 England, though not for the same reason in 
 the two cases. In England the division into 
 counties was the result of a slow process of 
 growth, the history of which is hidden in the 
 remote past. We can trace only some of its 
 stages. But the shiring of Ireland was purely 
 the result of the English conquest. The 
 persons who undertook it were strangers, were 
 aliens in the country, ignorant of its language 
 and most of its local traditions. The Irish 
 shires are therefore distinct, formal, and legal 
 divisions, not local and popular ones. This 
 being the case, it might have been supposed 
 that it would have been an easy matter to 
 trace the stages by which these divisions came 
 into existence. And perhaps this would not 
 have been difficult if there had remained to us 
 more of the State papers relating to Irish 
 affairs. But it is wefl. known that an immense 
 number were destroyed during the diffel-ent 
 periods of Irish rebellion. Especially was this 
 the case with the papers which relate to the 
 early period of Anglo-Norman rule. There 
 were in reaUty two conquests of Ireland, one 
 m the reign of Henry II. and his immediate 
 successors, another in that of Henry VIII. and 
 his successors. For during a long interme- 
 diate period (almost from the death of Henry 
 III.) the country lapsed into an independence 
 almost as complete as if it had never known 
 English rule. Now, though we cannot dis- 
 tinctly trace all the steps of the shiring of 
 Ireland, we must unquestionably refer it to 
 these two periods of English supremacy, and 
 what was not done during the first we may 
 
 feel sure was not accomplished in the interval 
 between it and the second. Up to the end of 
 the reign of Henry III. English law was ad- 
 ministered regularly to the English subjects 
 throughout the greater part of Ireland. Jus- 
 tices in eyre travelled for gaol delivery in the 
 same way that they did in England. The 
 country, therefore, must have been divided 
 into districts, which in every way corresponded 
 to the English shires. Of course this division 
 of Ireland was a gradual process, beginning 
 with the districts first conquered, and gradually 
 extending. Nor, so far as concerns the present 
 county divisions, does the process seem to have 
 extended beyond Leinster and Munster. The 
 other two provinces were treated as each one 
 county. Thus very early we read of sheriffs 
 of some of the counties of the Pale — a sheriff 
 of Dublin, for example, is mentioned in a docu- 
 ment of the year 1201, or not more than thirty 
 years after the firsi landing of the Earl of 
 Pembroke. This, however, does not prove the 
 existence of the division now known as the 
 county of Dublin, for the city of Dublin was 
 constituted a county before the county was 
 formed. But it proves the existence of so 
 much of county government in this year, as 
 is implied by the existence of a sheriff. As a 
 matter of fact, the "county of Dublin" — 
 evidently here distinct from the city — is 
 mentioned only six years after, in 1207. The 
 county of Kildare is first mentioned in 1249 ;. 
 "Wexford (Wesford) in 1251 ; Kilkenny, in 
 1252, but more clearly in 1279; of Louth 
 (also called Uriel), the sheriff is spoken of in 
 1290 ; but it is not distinctly called a county 
 before the year 1301. . Wicklow, though it is 
 nowhere called a county in the early docu- 
 ments, cannot have been behind the other 
 places of the Pale. Meath is the only excep- 
 tion to the general rule of a very early shiring 
 of the counties round Dublin. It seems only 
 to have been settled during the thirteenth 
 century, and it is generally referred to in the 
 papers of that age as De Lacji^'s country. In 
 1297 we read of the lands held in Meath, 
 " without the boundary of any county," which 
 implies that at this date only a part of it had 
 been shired. Three counties of Leinster, by 
 their English names, imply a late formation 
 — Longford, King's County, and Queen's 
 County. The last two did, of course, receive 
 their names in the reign of Mary and Philip, 
 as the names of their capitals — Philipstowii 
 and Maryborough sufficiently indicate. But 
 before this time they were known as Offialy 
 (also called "O'Connor's country") and Leix 
 ("O'Moore's country"), and there is no evi- 
 dence that their boundaries were in any way 
 changed with their names. Longford seems 
 to have been a later division, as we might ex- 
 pect from the smallness of its size. We find 
 incidental mention of it in a document of the 
 year 1207; but there is no evidence to show 
 that the county came into existence before the 
 sixteenth century. Munster was divided intq 
 
Cou 
 
 (325) 
 
 Cou 
 
 counties almost as early as was Leinster, for 
 aU its counties except one are distinctly men- 
 tioned as such in documents of the thirteenth 
 century, viz., Cork first called a county in 
 1207,* Limerick in 1245, Waterford in 1251, 
 Tipperary in 1275, and Derry in 1281. Of 
 Clare we do not happen to have any early 
 record ; hut we need not suppose that it was 
 much hehind the others. It is the one county 
 of Munster which has an English-derived 
 name, as it was called after the De Clares, 
 Earls of Gloucester, &c., who settled in the 
 country, and was for a long time known as 
 " l)e Clare's country." After the return of 
 Ireland to practical independence, and the re- 
 lapse of the Northern families to the condition 
 of native chieftains, the country may he said to 
 have heen practically unshired over its greatest 
 part. Gaol deliveries were restricted to the 
 four counties constituting what was now 
 known as the Pale, viz., Dublin, Kildare, 
 Louth, and Meath. It seems that at the he- 
 ginning of the reign of Henry VIII. there 
 were only parts of five counties which re- 
 mained faithful to the English crown — Uriel 
 (Louth), half of DubUn, half of Meath, half 
 of Kildare, and half of Wexford. Of course 
 the counties which had heen already consti- 
 tuted continued to bear their old names, hut 
 the jurisdiction which made them really shires 
 had ceased. In the document from which 
 these particulars have heen taken, Ulster 
 ("Wolater) and Connaught are called counties. 
 It is, however, the case that as early as 1260 
 we hear of the county of Down, and in 1283 of 
 the sheriff of Antrim, and in 1290 of the 
 sheriff of Eosoomjnon. In 1296 Sligo is known 
 in the State papers of Ehzahethas " O'Connor 
 SUgo's counbry." This isin 1565. Five years 
 later we find an Order in Council concerning 
 the shiring of Ireland, but no details are given 
 as to what new counties were constituted. The 
 completion of the work did not take place tiH 
 1607, after the famous rebellion and flight of 
 Tyrone and Tyrconnel, which led to the Plan- 
 tation of Ulster. In a State paper of this 
 year, we find a proposal, which was shortly 
 carried into effect, for dividing the whole of 
 Ulster into shires. In this paper there are 
 three old counties mentioned — Louth, Down, 
 and Antrim — and it is proposed to create six 
 new, viz., Armagh, Tyrone, Coleraine (London- 
 derry), Monaghan, Fermanagh, and Donegal. 
 The addition of London to the older name of 
 Deny is the most evident remaining trace of 
 the Plantation of Ulster, recalling as it does 
 the settlement of that part by a colony from 
 London. That settlement was begun in the 
 year 1607. In the list of James I.'s Parlia- 
 ment of 1611 the names of the counties of 
 Ireland stand almost as at present, save that 
 Carlow is still called by its earlier name of 
 
 * According to the Hiiernian Gassetteev it was 
 BhiredmlSlO. It was again shired in the reign of 
 James I. (Gibson, Hist, of Corle). 
 
 Cathelagh, and that Cavan is absent from 
 
 the number. 
 
 Docwmmts relating (o Irel"nd from 1187—1300. 
 Calendar, in four vols. ; State Papers, 1509— 
 1613. Gibson, Hii^. of Cork; Hihernian Gasetteer ; 
 Topographica Hihernica. There are numerous 
 county histories for Ireland, but little informa- 
 tion is to be got from them upon the present 
 suhjeot. [C. F. K.] 
 
 Counties Palatine. [Pai,atinb.] 
 
 Counties, The ScOTTisir, The history of 
 the erection of the counties of Scotland as they 
 now exist is involved in much obscurity. The 
 boundaries in some cases were not definitively 
 fixed till the beginning of the present century. 
 It was part of the augHcising poHcy of the 
 sons of Malcolm and Margaret to divide their 
 kingdom into sheriffdoms, after the English 
 model ; therefore, in Scotland, the sheriff was 
 not the Gerefa of the aheady existing shire, 
 but an officer appointed by 'the crown, for 
 whom a district had to be appropriated. 
 The boundaries of these districts were for 
 long vague and undetermined. They must be 
 divided into two distinct classes — those of the 
 Highlands and those of the Lowlands. 
 
 (1) Lowland Counties. At the time when 
 sheriffs were introduced, Scotland south of 
 the Firths consisted of three distinct pro- 
 vinces — Lothian, Galloway, and Strathclyde. 
 Lothian formed part of the English kingdom 
 of Northumbria, and was held in fief by the 
 Scottish kings. It is represented by the 
 counties of Berwick, Roxburgh, Peebles, and 
 the Lothians — i.e., Edinburgh, Haddington, 
 and Linlithgow. Each of these counties takes 
 its name from the chief town within its 
 bounds. From incidental mention in charters 
 and other documents, we gather that each of 
 them had a sheriff in the time of David I. or 
 his successors, but there is no certain evidence 
 of their first institution. The extent of these 
 counties would seem to have been determined 
 by existing local divisions. Thus Peebles is 
 known as Tweeddale before its erection into a 
 county. Ettrick Forest becomes Selkirk, and 
 Teviotdale and Liddesdale form Roxburgh. 
 
 Strathclyde has been divided into the pre- 
 sent counties of Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew, and 
 Dumbarton. Ayr was formed of the districts 
 of Kyle, Cunningham, and Carrick, which was 
 separated from Galloway by "William the 
 Lion. The first sheriff of Ayr was appointed 
 in 1221, but the three districts were ruled 
 severaEy by baiUies, who in many points 
 acted as sheriffs. Lanark, which was made a 
 sheriffdom in the time of David I., was 
 divided into two parts, the over ward and the 
 nether ward of Clydesdale ; Lanark being the 
 seat of justice of the one, and Rutherglen of the 
 other. Renfrew was erected by Robert III. into 
 a barony, with rights of regality, for his son 
 James. It first appears as an independent 
 sheriffdom in 1414. Dumbarton, formerly the 
 Lennox, or Vale of Leven, first appears as a 
 sheriEEdom in the reign of William the Lion. 
 
Coa 
 
 ( 326 ) 
 
 Cou 
 
 Galloway was divided into the sherifEdoms of 
 Dumfries and Wigton. The sheriffdom of 
 Dumfries nominally included the districts 
 of Nithsdale and Annandale, and that half 
 of Galloway which forms the modern county 
 of Kirkcudbright. A sheriff is mentioned in 
 the time of William the Lion, and it is dis- 
 tinctly recognised as a shire at the time of 
 the death of Alexander III. But as Annandale 
 on the one hand, and Kirkcudbright on the 
 other, were both stewardries, the jurisdiction 
 of the sheriff must have been virtually limited 
 to Nithsdale. Wigton, the remaining part of 
 Galloway, was certainly a sheriffdom by the 
 end of the thirteenth century, but powers of 
 regality were joined to the earldom by David 
 II. In every county there were regalities 
 and baronial jurisdictions, and hereditary 
 constables of royal fortresses, and baillies of 
 the lands belonging to religious hou.ses, 
 whose powers " clashed with those of the 
 sheriff. The office almost invariably became 
 hereditary in the family of the most powerful 
 man of the district, and tended more to swell 
 his consequence than to maintain law and 
 order, till the Act of 1747 abolished hereditary 
 juiisdiotions. 
 
 (2) Highland Counties. In the Celtic king- 
 dom north of the Firths, where the clan 
 system prevailed, the country was divided 
 into vaguely defined districts, whose several 
 Mormaors or earls, while professing a 
 nominal allegiance to the King of Scots, each 
 claimed to represent the royal authority 
 within his own territory. The introduction 
 of sheriffs was therefore very gradual, and 
 was not completed tiU the sixteenth century. 
 In many cases the powers of the sheriff were 
 conferred upon the local chief, who had thus 
 the right of " pit and gallows," or power of 
 life and death, within his own territory. 
 These powers were only done away with by 
 the abolition of hereditable jurisdictions in 
 1747. The boundaries of the Highland shires 
 were not definitely fixed tiU the beginning of 
 the present century. Previously, their limits 
 were marked more by custom and tradition 
 than by law, and Arrowsmith's map, pub- 
 lished in 1805, is the first in which the 
 counties are defined accurately. 
 
 Robertson, Scotland wnder her IBarly K^Tigs ■ 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland; Chalmers, Caleionia 
 vols. ii. aDd iii. ; Arrowsmith, Memoir relative to 
 the Map of Scotland. r^, ■. , , 
 
 Counties, The Welsh, are mainly ad- 
 ministrative divisions of the Mercian rather 
 than the West Saxon type. They are conse- 
 quently of late origin, and in most cases re- 
 ceive their name from the shire town. In a 
 country so well subdivided off by natural 
 boundaries as Wales, their limits have, how- 
 ever, in certain cases, coincided so far with 
 these, that they represent real dialectic and 
 physical distinctions. Moreover, some coun- 
 ties correspond, i£ roughly, with ancient tribal 
 
 or local divisions, and still more to the 
 ancient ecclesiastical divisions of the land. 
 But despite these exceptions, the Welsh shires 
 are in the main artificial " departments " 
 rather than natural " provinces ; " they are 
 " shires " rather than " gauen." 
 
 The Welsh counties fall into three classes 
 according to the period of their creation — viz., 
 (1) ancient palatine counties, (2) the counties 
 formed by Edward I., (3) the counties formed 
 by Henry VIII., who also finally fixed the 
 limits of the other two classes. 
 
 (1) Ancient Palatine Counties — i.e., Pem- 
 brokeshire and Glamorganshire. These repre- 
 sent the two greatest " Marches " which the 
 conquering activity of the Norman barons of 
 the twelfth century establishedallover Western 
 and Southern Wales. In the west, the 
 districts thus conquered were largely included 
 in the indefinite limits of the English border 
 counties, Cheshire, Shropshire, and Hereford- 
 shire, whose earls under William I. acquired 
 regalian privileges. Up to the thirteenth 
 century, and even the sixteenth, large dis- 
 tricts now in " Wales " were included locally 
 within these counties, although their in- 
 clusion was but nominal, so long as the lesser 
 lords retained palatine powers, even after the 
 crown had annexed the earldoms themselves. 
 Another class of lordships marchers were 
 never included within these counties, but al- 
 though independent, were not of sufficient 
 importance to be regarded as equivalent to 
 counties. The lordships of Denbigh, the 
 " honour " of Montgomery, the lordships of 
 Brecon and Gower, were among others of this 
 description. But Morganwg, the conquest of 
 Fitz-Hamon, and the inheritance of Robert 
 of Gloucester, and the great house of Clare, 
 though never formally constituted an earldom 
 or county palatine, was so virtually. Its 
 lords were always earls, either of Gloucester 
 or, as later, of Pembroke. They had fullest 
 regalian rights and privileges, as much as the 
 Palatine Lords of Cheshire and Durham 
 had, and they were the greatest family 
 of the realm. So early as 1146 we read of 
 the " comitatus " (shire-moot) of Cardiff, and 
 in 1148 Earl William speaks of his "vice 
 comes " (sheriff). Pembroke was inore 
 definitely created an earldom in 1138, and 
 became organised on the model of an English 
 county. The boundaries of both were 
 narrower than those of the modern shires; 
 Gower, for example, was a separate lordship, 
 although much of Gwent was within the lord- 
 ship of Morganwg. Similarly Dewisland and 
 Kemes were outside the Pembroke Palatinate. 
 The .modern boundaries were assigned by 
 Henry VIII. adding to the old nuclei the 
 adjoining marcherships. 
 
 (2) Edward I.'s Counties — viz., Anglesey, 
 Caernarvonshire, Merionethshire, Cardigan- 
 shire, Caermarthenshire. After the conquest 
 of LleweljTi, Edward I. divided the district 
 which aclmowledged his sway, and to which 
 
Cou 
 
 ( 327 ) 
 
 Cou 
 
 the title of the " Principality " is rightly con- 
 fined, into districts called shires, but which 
 rather hear to the regular shire the relation 
 of a United States Territory to a State', than 
 fuUy represent the seU-governing district 
 forming an integral factor of the body pohtio 
 of England. In the districts more imme- 
 diately subject to Llewelyn, the shires of 
 Anglesey, Caernarvon, and Merioneth were 
 erected. They so far regarded old Hues 
 that they consisted of an aggregation of 
 cantreds and commots. A sheriff in each 
 shire, with coroners and baiUfis in each 
 commot, were appointed. A coimty court was 
 to be held once a month, and the sheriff's 
 toum twice a year, at which all the inhabi- 
 tants were to be present. Sheriffs, &c., were 
 also appointed for more southern regions, 
 where the power of the Welsh princes at least 
 nominally extended, one to hold his court at 
 Cardigan and Lampeter, another at Caermar- 
 then, though the powers of the marchers must 
 have limited the area of their jurisdiction to 
 narrower bounds than modem Cardiganshire 
 and Caermarthenshire. A sixth new county 
 was formed in Flint, which consisted of the 
 western and more exposed portion of the 
 Chester Palatinate, but which remained in a 
 sort of half dependence on Cheshire. The 
 rest of "Wales remained in the hands of the 
 marchers. 
 
 (3) Henry VIII.'s Counties — viz., Denbigh- 
 shire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecon- 
 shire, and Monmouthshire. Henry VIII.'s 
 incorporation of Wales with England involved 
 the division of the whole country into shire- 
 ground. Hence, by the 27 Hen. VIII., the 
 local self-government, of which the shire was 
 still the base, was introduced into the whole 
 land. The lordships marchers lost their 
 palatine rights, and were either (e.g., Gower, 
 as above) incorporated into existing counties, 
 or aggregated into new ones. Besides the 
 new shires of Western Wales, the boundaries 
 of Cheshire, and still more of Shropshire and 
 Herefordshire, were readjusted ; and the old 
 Welsh counties of Edward I., and the still 
 older palatinates, were assimilated to English 
 shires ; and the power of returning to Parlia- 
 ment one member for each county, and one 
 for the amalgamated boroughs (except in 
 mountainous Merioneth) was conferred. Mon- 
 mouthshire had two members given it, and 
 was treated as a part of England, so far as 
 the words England and Wales had now an 
 antagonistic meaning. Its enclosure under 
 Charles II. in an English circuit completed 
 its severance from Wales. 
 
 The chief Statutes creating Welsh counties 
 
 are 12 Ed. I., Siatuium Wallia or the Statute 
 
 ofRhnddlan, and 27 Hen. VIII., a. 24, 26. See also 
 
 • 26 Hen . VIII. , o. 4, and 27 Hen. VIII. , c. 5, 7, 24, 26. 
 
 A summary will be found in Reeve's History of 
 
 gngKsfe Law, ii. 93—99, and iv. 195—205. For 
 
 Pembrokeshire and Glamorganshire the Des- 
 
 . eription of Pemhrolceshire written in 16C3 
 
 , (MS. Harl., No. 6260), c. 24, fol. 24", s(j., is 
 
 Valuable. For the Marches, see Pennant's 
 
 Tour m Wales, Appendix ii. For Glamorgnn- 
 shrre, Mr. Clark's papers on The Land of JUorsnu, 
 m the Arclueological Journal, are useful. The 
 Welsh county histories are not, as a rule, good. 
 Jones s BreconaUre is perhaps the best. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 County Court. The "county court," 
 or " shire-moot," was for five or six centuries 
 the _ most vital of our national institutions. 
 As its being often held in the open air perhaps 
 indicates, it was anciently a " folkmoot," 
 that is, included all landowners in the shire ; 
 and in the submission of laws to the shire- 
 moot for formal acceptance, a piece of cere- 
 monial which is only recently obsolete, we 
 may discern the ancient independence of the 
 several " folks." While in this aspect the 
 shire-moot has the ealdorman and bishop at 
 its head, " to declare the law, secular and 
 spiritual," its newer aspect of dependence on 
 a central power is embodied in the shire- 
 reeve, who convenes it, and connects it with 
 the king. This gradually tends to supplant 
 the ealdorman and bishop in it, and after the 
 Norman Conquest it passes wholly into his 
 hands. Its business was to hear appeals 
 from the hundred courts, to execute the 
 instructions of royal writs, and to attest 
 wills and transfers of lands. Meantime, 
 however, a tendency to what may be called 
 delegation, which had already affected the 
 hundred and township courts, had now also 
 much modified the old assembly. And thus 
 in historic times an ordinary shire-moot is 
 not the full folk-moot, but contains also the 
 reeve and four "best-men " from each town- 
 Ship, and perhaps the twelve thegns from 
 each hundred or borough ; and it appears 
 that this quasi-representative court is called 
 monthly, instead of twice a year, like the old 
 folk-moot. It is possible this more frequent 
 summoning was due to Eufus's minister, 
 Flambard, who " drove all the moots; " and 
 Henry I. in his charter promised to amend 
 it. At the same time, the older and fuller 
 form of the court was still called twice 
 a year, chiefly for the purposes of the crown, 
 such as taking the oath of the peace, and 
 meeting the justices itinerant. Indeed, 
 the shire-moot after the Conquest gained 
 in connection with the central power what it 
 lost in independent action. Thus, its civil 
 justice — by the use of writs calling up cases, 
 and by the attraction of the Common Pleas 
 Court— was drifting up to Westminster ; its 
 criminal pleas belonged to the king, and were 
 executed by his itinerant justices. But both 
 for presentment of criminals and for decision 
 of civil cases (at least, as to land) the crown 
 always used " recognitors," that is, called in 
 the shire to co-operate ; and its co-operation 
 was demanded in other ways, as for view of 
 armour and election of coroners, for the 
 negotiation, assessment, and collection of 
 carucage, for exacting oaths of allegiance, 
 and above all, after 1254, for the election of 
 
Cou 
 
 ( 328 ) 
 
 Coti 
 
 knights and burgesses to Parliament. At 
 this fuller shire-moot the attendance of all, 
 from archhishopa to villeins, was req^uired. 
 The barons in vain begged for exemption ; in 
 1258, at Oxford, among the other grievances 
 set forth, the barons complained that the 
 attendance required of them was increasing ; 
 till, by the Statute of Merlon, they won their 
 point — that their attendance might be by 
 attorney; while the Statute of Marlborough, 
 L267, exempted all above the degree of knights, 
 unless specially summoned. Already indi- 
 vidual exemptions had been so largely granted 
 that by 1258 there was a scarcity of knights 
 for the "inquests" of the court; and in 1293 
 a qualification of 40s. freehold was required 
 for service as a juror. So that on aU sides 
 the old folk-moot had been attacked, and by 
 the thirteenth century was attenuated to an 
 occasional formality; but not before it had 
 given birth to the fruitful idea of local repre- 
 sentation, according to which a small body of 
 knights could act for the whole shire, and 
 stand between the crown and the county in the 
 business of government. Thus, in 1194 four 
 knights act for the whole shire to elect the grand 
 jury of each hundred ; under Henry III. four 
 knights of each shire come to "Westminster to 
 discuss the interpretation of articles in Magna 
 Charta ; and, chief of aU, knights (two, three, 
 or four in number) from time to time assess, 
 or assess and collect, the carucages. As soon 
 as these knights cease to be nominated by the 
 crown or sheriff — and the precedent for their 
 election by the whole county court is finally 
 given in 1254 — the stages are complete by 
 which the shire-moots could be dispensed 
 with, and yet transmit all their authority to 
 a Parliament. As " Parliament is the con- 
 centration of the shire-moots," it follows that 
 in creating a Parliament, in making the 
 election to be by all the freeholders, not 
 merely the chief tenants, and, above all, in 
 closely uniting the burgesses with the knights, 
 the shire has done its work. The rapid 
 growth of the justices of the peace stripped 
 it of the rest of its functions, except that of 
 electing and instructing the representatives 
 sent to Parliament, perhaps- after discussion, 
 of the grounds of its summons as stated in 
 the king's writ, and (till 1334) that of assess- 
 ing and collecting from the townships the tax 
 granted in Parliament. It was particularly 
 during the Tudor period that this non-elective 
 body of landowners completed the process by 
 which they had stripped the old shire-court 
 of its powers — judicial, police, military, and 
 fiscal. The statutes of the early fifteenth 
 century, which attempted to further regulate 
 the rektion between Parliament and the 
 shires in the interests of the gentry, were 
 aimed to check the misdoing of the sheriffs 
 (1406), and to insure the election of loiights 
 or squires and the exclusion of maintainors : 
 and in 1430 it was declared that the right of 
 voting belonged only to freeholders of 40s. 
 
 and upwards. Thus it had now come about 
 that the villeins, who had once, as the free 
 ceorls, made up the folk-moot itself, and 
 embodied in their decisions of " folk-right " 
 the principle that the judges were no other 
 than the suitors ; the villeins, who even in 
 their later period of subjection to the lord 
 had still represented their township before 
 the royal justices, were now, at the very 
 epoch when they had attained to a political 
 consciousness and practical emancipation, 
 irrevocably excluded from a share in the 
 political life of their shire — an exclusion still 
 the lot of their descendant, the agricultural 
 labourer. One side of the old principle of 
 local government — viz., co-operation with the 
 crown by unpaid local work — is still pre- 
 served ; but the other side of it has long been 
 lost to view — viz., the principle that this work 
 is shared by aU the full freemen of the shire ; 
 and now the quarter and petty sessions, aided 
 by a few permanent officials, and relieved 
 by the central power's larger assumption to 
 itself of local duties (as in the regulation of 
 prisons), have supplanted the freeholders' 
 county court, as this supplanted the shire- 
 moot of representatives from the townships, 
 and this in its turn the primitive folk-moot. 
 The county court for general purposes now 
 only exists for the election of coroners, and 
 (in theory) for the proclamation of outlawry 
 and publication of Acts of Parliament. But 
 the shire retains its own officers, lord-lieutenant 
 and sheriffs, justices, coroners, and chief con- 
 stable ; through the justices it manages its 
 own police, highroads, and bridges, and im- 
 poses rates. And a tendency now appears to 
 be growing up which — ^by the establishment of 
 more representative county boards, and by 
 the extension of the county franchise — ^will 
 no doubt go further than can yet be fully 
 realised to revive the long-dormant activity 
 of the shire and its local hfe. The county- 
 courts, under paid judges, set up in 1846 for 
 better despatch of the lesser judicial business, 
 vary in number according to the needs of 
 each county. Their institution has been a 
 great success, and they have been justly 
 described as a national boon. But in size 
 and functions they are more like hundred 
 courts revived and centralised ; and from the 
 historical point of view their name of county 
 court is a misnomer. 
 
 Bede, Ecclesiastical Histori/ ; Ellis, IfdrodAUition 
 to Domesday ; Palgrave, Unglish Commonwealth; 
 Freeman, English Towns and IHstricts; Gneist, 
 Ve-rwaltungsreckt, Das Scl/- Government; G-uest, 
 Papers iu Archtsological Journal ; Green, Mafcing 
 of England; Commissioners' Introdueiwn to 
 Census Report of 1851. r^ j^^ g 1 
 
 Conrteuay, Edward. [Devon.] 
 
 Courtenay, William {b. circa 1327, d- 
 1396), Archbishop of Canterbury, was the son 
 of Hugh Courtenay, Earl of Devon. After 
 holding many valuable preferments he became 
 Bishop of Londonin 1375. He strongly opposed 
 
Con 
 
 ( 329 ) 
 
 Cov 
 
 John of Gaunt, and "Wiclif , and it was before 
 Courtenay that the latter was tried ia 1376. 
 In 1381 he was appointed Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, and Chancellor, but the latter office 
 he held only for a few months. He again 
 attacked "WicHf, obtained ^a condemnation of 
 his views by Convocation, and obliged the 
 University of Oxford to withdraw their sup- 
 port from him. Courtenay, though opposing 
 Wiolif's views, was strongly anti-Papal, and 
 readily assented to the passing of the Statute 
 of Praemunire. He also resisted the attempt 
 of Parliament to tax the clergy without their 
 consent, and the king was compelled to allow 
 the money to be voted by Convocation. The 
 election of Courtenay marks an epoch in the 
 history of the Church ; he was the first of the 
 aristocratic primates, and after his time the 
 see of Canterbury and many other bishoprics 
 were conferred upon members of noble houses, 
 instead of being given as a reward to minis- 
 ters or judges, or as a recognition of learning 
 to some great scholar. 
 
 Walsingliain, Hist. Anglic.; WaUon, BicTuird II.; 
 Stubbs, Const, Hist., chap. ivi. 
 
 Conrt-baron. [Manok.J 
 
 Conrt-leet. [Manor.] 
 
 Courts of Law. {See The Index.] 
 
 Contances, Wai.tek se, was one of 
 Henry II.'s ministers, and became succes- 
 sively Bishop of Lincoln and Archbishop 
 of Eouen. He accompanied Kichard I. on 
 his crusade, and in 1191 was sent to Eng- 
 land by the king, for the purpose of re- 
 placing Longchamp. The archbishop held 
 the justiciarship from 1191 to 1194, and 
 was active in raising the king's ransom. In 
 1196, however, he quarrelled with Richard, 
 and the king refusing to give way, he laid 
 Normandy under an interdict, until a com- 
 promise was effected. He supported the 
 claims of John, and died during that king's 
 reign. 
 
 Covenant, The. It was the old Scottish 
 custom for those who were united in any 
 great cause to bind themselves together by a 
 bond to stand by one another to the death in 
 its support. Such a bond was the Covenant 
 which plays so large a part in the history of 
 the Reformation in Scotland. It was origin- 
 ally a private bond, by which the barons who 
 upheld the first preachers of reform bound 
 themselves together for mutual support and 
 the destruction of Popery in 1557. In 1581, 
 when there was a general dread of the revival 
 of Popery, a similar bond, entering more into 
 detail concerning the superstitions and reli- 
 gious errors that were to be combated, was 
 drawn up by the Protestant ministers. The 
 Iring, James I., was the first to sign it, and his 
 example was followed by the courtiers and 
 then by the people. This is generally 
 ioiown as the First Covenant. In 1638, when 
 
 HlST.-ll* 
 
 Charles I. tried to force the English liturgy 
 on the Church of Scotland, the popular indig- 
 nation found a vent in a revival of this cove- 
 nant, with a clause added to it directed against 
 the bishops. The enthusiasm about it was 
 universal. It was signed through the length 
 and breadth of the land, by high and low alike, 
 and from this time the " Covenant " became 
 the watch- word and war-cry of the Presby- 
 terian party. In 1643, when the English 
 Parliament sought Scotch aid, the Scotch de- 
 manded that the mutual engagements of the 
 two nations should be confirmed by a pact to 
 which both nations should he sworn. Ac- 
 cordingly the Solemn League ami, Covenant 
 was drawn up by Henderson, amended by- 
 Vane, adopted by the Westminster Assembly 
 (q.v.), passed by the Parliament, and ordered 
 to be subscribed and sworn to by the nation. 
 But the Assembly of Divines at "West- 
 minster, in 1643, though they approved 
 the Covenant, disappointed the Scots, who 
 hoped to see it imposed on the whole 
 English nation. When Charles II., on the 
 invitation of the Estates, came to Scotland to 
 claim the kingdom in 1650, he was compelled 
 to sign the Covenant before he was allowed to 
 land, and the signature was repeated at his 
 coronation. Notwithstanding this, after the 
 Restoration, by the king's order, the Covenant 
 was burned by the common hangman in 
 London, and an Act abjuring and condemning 
 it as an unlawful oath was passed by the Privy 
 Council of Scotland in 1662. The extreme 
 Presbyterian party were greatly disappointed 
 that the Act of 1690, approving the Confession, 
 did not enjoin the renewing of the Covenant. 
 The Covenant was not merely a declaration 
 of belief, but a solemn engagement binding 
 its adherents to force their belief upon others. 
 The name of Covenanters was first taken 
 by the popular party after the renewal of the 
 Covenant in 1 638, and borne by them through- 
 out the Civil War. But it is more generally 
 associated with the insurgents of the reign of 
 Charles II. who took arms in defence of the 
 Presbyterian form of church government. As 
 the Covenant had by that time been de- 
 nounced as a seditious oath, those who per- 
 sisted in maintaining it were naturally looked 
 upon as rebels against the government. They 
 were, however, treated with unwarrantable 
 severity. When, in 1662, the Act was passed 
 for the re-establishment of episcopacy, the 
 Presbyterian ministers who refused to ac- 
 knowledge the bishops were ejected from 
 their parishes. Round these "outed minis- 
 ters," as they were called, the Covenanters 
 ralHed, and gathered in crowds on the hill- 
 sides or any " lonely place, to attend their 
 ministrations. These meetings, called " con- 
 venticles," were denounced as seditious, and to 
 frequent them or to hold any " interCommun- 
 ing " with any persons who frequented them, 
 was forbidden on pain of death. These 
 severe measures provoked the Covenanters to 
 
Cov 
 
 ( 330 ) 
 
 Cov 
 
 take up arms ia defence of their religious 
 opinions, and led to a rebellion so widespread, 
 that it almost amounted to a civil war. The 
 first serious action between the king's troops 
 and the Covenanters was in the hitt-country 
 on the borders of the counties of Ayr and 
 Lanark. Here, at Drumclog, a farm near Lou- 
 don Hill, a party of armed Covenanters who 
 were gathered at a conventicle were attacked 
 by a body of dragoons under John Graham, 
 of Claverhouse, and gained a victory over 
 their assailants (1679). After this success, the 
 numbers of the insurgents increased so rapidly 
 that the govenmient became alarmed, and an 
 army, 15,000 strong, was sent against them 
 .under the command of the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth. He defeated them on the banks of 
 the Clyde, at Bothwell Bridge, where 1,200 
 were made prisoners, June 22, 1679. In 
 consequence of a treasonable protest called 
 the Sanquhar Declaration^ put forth by 
 the Covenanters, aU persons who wished to 
 free themselves of suspicion of complicity with 
 them were required to take what was called the 
 Abjuration Oath; and the soldiers who were 
 sent to scour the country in search of rebels, 
 were empowered to kill any one who refused 
 to take the oath. The sufferings of the 
 Covenanters were extreme. Numbers of them 
 were put to death with great cruelty, but 
 suffering only strengthened their fanatic 
 spirit, and it was not until after the accession 
 of WUliam, when the " outed ministers " were 
 restored to their pulpits, and adherence to the 
 Covenant ceased to be a crime, that the 
 Covenanters abandoned their attitude of 
 defiance. But some extreme Covenanters re- 
 fused to acknowledge a king whose acceptance 
 of episcopacy in England was, they thought, 
 treason against the divine right of presbyters. 
 They formed the earliest dissenting Presby- 
 terian sects in Scotland. [Cameeonians.] 
 
 "Woodrow, Analecta and History of the Suffer- 
 ings : Grub, Ecclesiastical History of Scotland ; 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland. r-Tyr -xr -i 
 
 Coventry seems to have owed its im- 
 portance to the magnificent Benedictine abbey 
 founded by Leofric and his wife, Godiva, in 
 1044. The town became a prosperous trading 
 centre. According to Leland, its walls were 
 built in the reign of Edward II. In 1451 
 it was created a separate county. The 
 beautiful abbey church was almost destroyed 
 by Henry VIII. ; but several fine specimens 
 of medicBval ecclesiastical architecture remain. 
 The "Laymen's Parliament of Henry IV." 
 met at Coventry in 1404. In the fifteenth, 
 sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries Coventry 
 was an important centre of the cloth and 
 woollen trade. Its citizens were strongly 
 Parliamentarian in the Great Rebellion ; and 
 to punish them their walls were levelled after 
 the Restoration. The town has returned two 
 members to Parliament since the reien of 
 Edward I. 
 
 Coventry, Walter op, was a writer of 
 whom little is known. He probably wrote be- 
 tween the year 1293 and the end of Edward I.'s 
 reign, and may have been a monk, probably 
 of some house in the diocese of York. He is 
 the author or compiler of a Memoriale, or 
 analysis of history extending from the arrival 
 of Brutus to the year 1225. The earlier 
 portions are merely transcripts from Geoffrey 
 of Monmouth, Henry of Huntingdon, Roger 
 of Hoveden, &c., but for the first quarter of 
 the thirteenth century Walter is a valuable 
 authority. 
 
 The Memoriale of Walter of Coventry was first 
 discovered by Leland in the sixteenth century. 
 It has been edited, with most valuable Intro- 
 ductions, by Dr. Stubbs (EoUs Series, 1872j. 
 
 Coventry, Thomas, 1st Lord (5. 1578, 
 d. 1640), son of Sir T. Coventry, Judge of the 
 Common Pleas, in 1616 was chosen Recorder 
 of London, and in 1617 was made Solicitor- 
 General, being advanced four years later to 
 the Attorney-Generalship. In 1625, chiefly 
 through Buckingham's interest, he was made 
 Lord Keeper, and in 1628 was created Lord 
 Coventry. He has been accused of advising 
 some of Charles's most arbitrary acts, as the 
 refusal of the summons to Lord Bristol, and 
 the imprisonment of the Earl of Arundel ; but 
 Mr. Foss maintains that he was little more 
 than " the messenger of the king and the 
 organ of the House." In 1635 and 1636 he 
 enjoined the judges in their charge to the 
 grand juries to urge the people to pay the 
 ship-money with cheerfulness, but he took no 
 part in the trial of Hampden for refusing to 
 pay his share. One of his last acts was to 
 advise the king to summon Parliament, but 
 he died before the summoning of the Short 
 Parliament. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist. oftTie Rebellion. 
 
 Coventry, Sir William (h. 1626, d. 1686), 
 was the youngest son of Lord Keeper Coventry. 
 In 1662 he was appointed Commissioner of the 
 Admiralty, in 1665 was knighted and made a 
 Privy Councillor, and 1667 a Commissioner 
 of the Treasury. Having quarrelled with the 
 Duke of Buckingham he challenged him to 
 fight a duel, for which he was banished from 
 the court, and retired into private life. " He 
 was," says Burnet, " the best speaker in the 
 House of Commons, and a man of great 
 notions and eminent virtues." He was the 
 author of several political tracts, the most 
 interesting of which is The Character of a 
 Trimmer, published in 1689. 
 
 Coventry, Sir John, was the grandson of 
 Lord Coventry and nephew of Sir William 
 Coventry. He was a member of Parliament 
 in 1670, when, having somewhat freely ex- 
 pressed his opinion about the royal mistresses, 
 he incurred the displeasure of the court, was 
 set upon by a band of ruflians sent by 
 Monmouth, half-murdered, and his nose slit 
 with a penknife. This outrage led to the 
 
Cov 
 
 ( 331 ) 
 
 Coy 
 
 passing of an Act against unlawful maiming 
 and woimding, which, was known as the 
 Coventry Act (1670). 
 
 Coverdale, Miles {b. 1487, d. 1568), was 
 one of the earliest English Reformers. In 
 1532 he is said to have assisted Tyndale in his 
 translation of the Bible, and three years later 
 issued a version of his own. He was on 
 close terms of friendship with Cromwell, and 
 in 1535 was sent by that minister to Paris to 
 bring out the translation of the New Testa- 
 ment known, as the Lord Crom.well's Bible. 
 On Cromwell's fall Coverdale went to Tubin- 
 gen, and travelled in Denmark and other 
 Continental countries. On Edward VI. 's acces- 
 sion he was appointed chaplain to the king. 
 In 1551 he was made Bishop of Exeter, but 
 was removed from his see and imprisoned by 
 order of Queen Mary. He was subsequently 
 released, and retired to Holland and after- 
 wards to Geneva. He returned to Eng]a,nd 
 after the accession of Elizabeth, and assisted 
 at the consecration of Archbishop Parker, 
 though he did not obtain his see again, owing 
 to his Calvinistic views. 
 
 Two vols, of selections from Coverdale's 
 
 numerous works were publislied by the Parker 
 
 Soc., 1844-46. 
 
 Cowell, John (J. 1554, d. 1611), was a 
 Cambridge civiUan who became Master of 
 Trinity HaU and Reader in Civil Law. In 
 1607 he published a work called Tlie Inter- 
 preter, which was an explanation of legal 
 terms and theories. The book gave great 
 offence to the common-lawyers. At the insti- 
 gation probably of Coke, a great enemy of 
 Cowell, an inquiry into the character of the 
 book was ordered by the House of Commons in 
 1610, and the king was ad\'ised to suppress it, 
 because of the imconstitutional doctrines it 
 contained on the subject of the royal pre- 
 rogative and the rights of the people. 
 
 Cowper, William, 1st Eakl {b. 1664, 
 d. 1743), was bom at Hertford. After 
 studying at the Temple, he was, in 1688, 
 called to the bar, and from this time rose 
 rapidly in his profession. On the landing 
 of the Prince of Orange, he raised a troop 
 of horse in his support. His abilities as a 
 Chancery barrister soon attracted Somers's 
 notice, and in 1695 he was returned to Parlia- 
 ment for Hertford. In 1696 he supported the 
 bill for the attainder of Sir John Fenwick. 
 In 1702 William Cowper lost his seat for 
 Hertford, owing to the unpopularity caused 
 in the borough by the trial of his brother 
 Spencer for murder. In 1705, on the dis- 
 missal of Sir Nathan Wright, he became Lord 
 Keeper and Commissioner of the Scotch 
 Union. In 1707 he was raised to the Upper 
 House, and became the first Lord Chancellor 
 of Great Britain ; but the sentence pronounced 
 by him in this capacity on SachevereU was 
 influenced by party spirit, and unworthy of 
 liis reputation. In opposition to the rest of 
 
 the ministry, he was in favour of making 
 peace with France during the last years of 
 the Succession War ; and he vigorously op- 
 posed Marlborough's request to be made 
 Captain-General for life. [Marlborough.] 
 On the fall of the Whigs, Cowper resigned, 
 in spite of the solicitations of Harley, who 
 wished for a composite ministry. On the 
 accession of George I., he received the Great 
 Seal, and was favoured with the king's 
 entire confidence. His sentences on the rebels 
 of 1715 have been censured as too severe. He 
 was one of the chief advocates of the Septennial 
 Act (q.v.). In 1718 he resigned office, probably 
 because George accused him of espousing the 
 Prince of Wales's side in his quarrel with the 
 court. He promptly became leader of the 
 Opposition, and withstood almost alone 
 the Peerage BUI, and the biU of pains and 
 penalties against Atterbury. In his later 
 years he was accused, probably without 
 reason, of tampering with the Jacobites. 
 
 Campbell, Xiufs offhe Lord Chancellors ; Mac- 
 aulay, Kist. of Bng. ; Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Coxe, Richard (J. 1499, d. 1581), Bishop 
 of Ely, made Dean of Christ Church and of 
 Westminster by Henry VIII., was one of 
 the tutors of Edward VI., the others 
 being Sir John Cheke and Sir Anthony Cooke. 
 During the reign of Mary he was compelled 
 with the Protestants to take refuge at Frank- 
 fort ; but returned to England on the acces- 
 sion of Elizabeth, by whom he was made 
 Bishop of Ely. It was a remonstrance from 
 Bishop Coxe against the injustice done him 
 by the bestowal of his land on Sir Christopher 
 Hatton that drew forth the celebrated letter 
 from Queen Ehzabeth : " Proud prelate, you 
 know what you were before I made you what 
 you axe. If you do not immediately comply 
 with my request, by God I wiU un fr ock you." 
 Coxe is described as " an honest but narrow- 
 spirited and peevish man." 
 
 Strype, Annals; Burnet, Hist, offhe Reformation. 
 Coxe, William (*. 1747, d. 1828), Arch- 
 deacon, was educated at Eton and King's 
 College, Cambridge, of which he became a 
 Fellow. He entered the Church, became in- 
 cumbent of Kingston, Canon of Salisbury, 
 and Archdeacon of Wiltshire, 1805. Coxe 
 travelled a good deal on the Continent, and 
 was a careful student of English and foreign 
 history, especially that of the eighteenth 
 century. His numerous works, though 
 written in a rather uninteresting style, con- 
 tain a good deal of information, and are of 
 considerable value. The most important are 
 Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole, Memoirs of 
 Marlborough, Memoirs of the Administration of 
 Mr. Felham, and the History of the House of 
 Austria. 
 
 Coyne and Livery was an ancient 
 
 right or custom in Ireland which enabled 
 the lord or chief to quarter his soldiery on 
 his tenants. The Irish name for it was 
 
Cra 
 
 ( 332 ) 
 
 Cra 
 
 "bonaght." Its adoption by tlie Norman 
 settlers was so general that even the loyal 
 Butlers enforced it. Both branches of the 
 house of Fitzgerald adopted it in Edward 
 III.'s time. This custom was the subject of 
 constant complaints by the Irish Parliament. 
 It was forbidden by the Statute of Kilkenny, 
 1367, and made treason in 1409, and finally 
 abolished in 1603. Spenser complains of its 
 abolition as a wrong done to the Irish land- 
 lord. 
 
 Spenser, View of the State of Ireland. 
 
 CraggS, George {d. 1721), was Postmaster- 
 General daring the earlier years of George I.'s 
 reign. He was accused with his son of frauds 
 in connection with the South Sea Company, 
 and while the accusation was stOl pending he 
 took poison and killed himself. 
 
 CraggS, James {d. 1721), son of George 
 CraggS, was a "Whig poKtician. During the 
 reign of Anne he was employed in minor 
 diplomatic business. He was consulted by 
 Marlborough on the question of the duke's 
 obtaining the appointment of Captain-General 
 for Ufe. In 1714, as the queen lay dying, he 
 was despatched to Hanover, with instruc- 
 tions to bid Lord Stafford to request 
 the States General of Holland to guarantee 
 the Protestant succession. In 1717 he be- 
 came Secretary at War, and, on the retire- 
 ment of Addison, Secretary of State (1718). 
 He was accused of fraud in connection 
 with the South Sea Company, but died 
 of small-pox on the day that the report was 
 presented to the Commons. " Whatever," 
 says Lord Mahon, " may have been his con- 
 duct in the South Sea afiaira (for his death 
 arrested the inquiry), he undoubtedly com- 
 bined great talents for business with a love of 
 luxury and Uterature ; and his name, were it 
 even to drop from the page of history, would 
 Kve enshrined for ever in the verse of Pope." 
 Boyer, Political Hist.; Stanhope, Reign of 
 Queen Anne. 
 
 Craig, General Sik James (i. 1748, d. 
 Jan. 1812), after greatly distinguishing him- 
 self in the American War of Independence, 
 especially at the battles of Lexington 
 and Bunker HiU (q.v.), was, in 1793, ap- 
 pointed Governor of Jersey. In 1795 he 
 went out to the Cape, and held the post of 
 governor for two years, when he was sent to 
 India, where his military experience was 
 much needed. In 1808 Sir James Craig be- 
 came Governor-in-chief of British North 
 America, and in that capacity rendered him- 
 self extremely unpopular. His measures 
 were arbitrary in the extreme, and it is to his 
 treatment of the Assembly, and his refusal to 
 grant any concessions or to consider the 
 question of any redress of grievances, that the 
 discontent which was so prevalent in Canada 
 at this time was due. His unpopularity in- 
 duced the Americans in 1812 to attempt an 
 invasion of Canada, under the impression that 
 
 they would be joined by a large majority of 
 the people. 
 
 Craig, John {d. 1600), was the friend and 
 coadjutor of John Knox, on whose death he 
 became for a time the acknowledged leader of 
 the Kirk party, for whom he drew up the 
 National Covenant in 1580. In 1584, how- 
 ever, on the Scotch Estates taking action to 
 restrain the power of the clergy, Craig went 
 over to the opposite side, 
 
 Craig, Thomas (5. 1538, d. 1608), n cele- 
 brated Scottish judge, and an author of no 
 Httle repute, was a great favourite of James 
 VI. He was the writer of a famous treatise 
 on feudal law. Jus Feudale, and a tract on 
 the succession to the throne of England. 
 
 Craigmillar Castle, three miles from 
 Edinburgh, was the scene of the murder of 
 the Earl of Mar, brother of James III. It 
 was burnt by Hertford, 1544, but afterwards 
 rebuilt for Queen Mary, who spent a good 
 deal of time there. It was at CraigmUlar that 
 Bothwell, Murray, Morton, and Maitland of 
 Lethington, formed their agreement to kUl 
 Darnley (1566). 
 
 Crampton Question, The (1856).- The 
 Crimean War brought England into some 
 difficulties with foreign powers on account of 
 the attempt to enlist a foreign legion. Mr. 
 Crampton, the English minister at Washing- 
 ton, carried out the instructions of the govern- 
 ment in the matter so thoroughly that the 
 United States government dismissed him from 
 Washington, and a coolness arose between the 
 two countries, which was with difficulty healed. 
 
 Cranbroob, Gathokne Hakdt, 1st 
 
 Viscount (S. 1814), son of John Hardy, 
 member for Bradford, was elected member 
 for Leominster in 1856, and defeated Mr. 
 Gladstone for Oxford TJniversity in 1865. 
 He was Under-Secretary of State for Home 
 Affairs in 1858, Home Secretary in 1867, 
 Secretary of State for War in 1874, and 
 Secretary of State for India in 1878. 
 
 Cranmer, Thomas (i. 1484, rf.l556). Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, the son of a Notting- 
 hamshire gentleman, at the age of fourteen 
 entered Jesus College, Cambridge, where he 
 was, in 1510, elected to a fellowship. In 
 1523 he was ordained, and continued at the 
 university, lecturing and teaching. Forced 
 to leave the town to avoid infection in the 
 sweating sickness of 1528, he was accident- 
 ally thrown into the company of Foxe and 
 Gardiner, the commissioners engaged on 
 the question of the royal divorce, and in 
 course of conversation mentioned his own 
 conclusion, that the marriage was not merely 
 voidable, but void, being contrary to the law 
 of God, and that its dissolution could therefore 
 be pronounced by the English ecclesiastical 
 courts without reference to Eome. The com- 
 missioners were greatly struck, and reported 
 
Cra 
 
 ( 333 ) 
 
 Cra 
 
 the matter to Henry, wto lost no time in 
 sending for Cranmer and ordering him to 
 ■write a treatise in support of his thesis. Soon 
 after we find him employed as legal adviser 
 to two important embassies to the Pope and 
 the Emperor respectively, which, though un- 
 successful, were not fruitless. The Papal 
 mission discovered a singular consensus among 
 Italian jurists in Henry's favour, while in 
 Germany Cranmer's visits to the theologians 
 proved more favourable to his own than to 
 his master's suit, and before his return he was 
 secretly married to Margaret Anne, daughter 
 of Osiander, a prominent Eef ormer, a marriage 
 which, being uncanonical, though not illegal, 
 put him entirely at the king's mercy when he 
 became Primate. Henry's plans had mean- 
 while been maturing ; further delay would 
 have ruined the legitimacy of Anne Boleyn's 
 offspring, and on the death of Warham the 
 archbishopric of Canterbury was offered to 
 Cranmer. No sooner was the ceremony of 
 installation over than the new archbishop 
 wrote the king a collusive letter, demanding, 
 in the name of the nation, that the scandal 
 should be terminated; and, the case being 
 fairly brought before his court, gave judg- 
 ment that the marriage was void ab initio, 
 Feb. 23, 1633. He had now performed his 
 task, and withdrew iuto a literary retire- 
 ment, which, broken only in 1536 and 1540 
 to pronounce two more iniquitous sentences 
 of divorce, lasted till the fall of Cromwell, a 
 minister as little inclined to endure a rival as 
 Cranmer to become one. From that date his 
 greater prominence is attested by two plots 
 formed by the reactionary party for his de- 
 struction, from which he was preserved only 
 by the unswerving confidence of the king. 
 Yet at no time can he be called a politician : 
 his influence was wholly personal, and con- 
 iined to Henry, on whose death he again sank 
 into the background. But in this retirement 
 Cranmer was laying the foundations of the 
 new order of things. On his elevation to 
 the primacy he had but two points of sym- 
 pathy with the continental Protestants — repu- 
 diation of the Papal supremacy and the 
 translation of the Scriptures. But the 
 patristic studies with wMch he maintained 
 the attack on the Papacy gradually unveiled 
 to hiTn the features of a more apostolic and 
 spiritual Christianity, whose truths he ac- 
 cepted, one by one, as conviction was forced 
 upon his mind, till, in 1550, he published his 
 book against Transubstantiation, wherein is 
 maintained the Anglican doctrine of the Real, 
 as against the Corporeal, Presence. Cran- 
 mer's reconstitution of the Church services 
 remains his real title to greatness. His was 
 a formative, not a creative, intellect, and, 
 while his revision of the old Uses may be 
 ranked for beauty and dignity with the Au- 
 thorised Version of the Bible, his attempt to 
 replace the Roman Canon Law is a monument 
 of mistaken energy. Throughout aU these 
 
 reforms, his appeal is not from superstition to 
 reason, but from the Church corrupt to the 
 Church pure ; nothing illustrates his catholic 
 position better than Ms own words before the 
 commission at Oxford : — " If it can be proved 
 by any doctor above 1,000 years after Christ, 
 that Christ's body is there in the eucharist 
 really present, I wiU give all over." 
 
 During Edward's reign Cranmer was con- 
 cerned in two political acts of great importance. 
 At the coronation the archbishop, on his own 
 responsibility, altered the position of the 
 coronation oath, putting it after the expres- 
 sion of the popular assent. This innovation, 
 by destroying the conditional character of 
 that assent, amounted to the assertion of 
 absolute hereditary right. The second act 
 was the signiag of Edward's illegal device for 
 the succession, which was, however, per- 
 formed with the greatest reluctance, and on 
 the assurance of the judges. It sufficed to 
 secure his condemnation for high treason on 
 Mary's accession. The new government seems 
 at first to have had no desire to shed blood ; but 
 Cranmer, the pilot of the Reformation, could 
 not seize the numerous opportimities of escape 
 which were ofiered ; he remained, either over- 
 rating his own strength or underrating the im- 
 pending danger. With his two bosom friends, 
 Latimer and Ridley, he was taken to Oxford 
 (Mar., 1554) to hold an academical disputation. 
 After a parody of controversy, all three were 
 summoned before a synod of presbyters and 
 condemned as heretics. His friends suffered 
 before him: the archbishop's case was de- 
 layed by the necessity of application to the 
 Papal court, and by the desire of Cardinal 
 Pole to ruin the cause of heresy by the re- 
 cantation of the heresiaroh. In the latter 
 aim he succeeded. Cranmer was at first in- 
 duced to accept the Papal supremacy, not as 
 a doctrine, but as a fact, and his defence once 
 broken down, and honour lost, he was led on 
 to sign a detailed abjuration of aU his anti- 
 Papal convictions. Fortunately for the Re- 
 formation, the queen had resolved on his 
 destruction, and to the public eye Cranmer 
 died a martyr (Mar. 21, 1556). How far 
 repentance preceded the knowledge of his 
 fate must be left to conjecture. At the 
 worst, he should be judged by his Hfe, not by 
 one failure under an overwhelming tempta- 
 tion. He was a man of deep piety and honesty 
 of purpose, and in private life his sweet temper 
 exercised a peculiar fascination ; but a certain 
 moral weakness taints his whole career, and 
 leaves his character one of the most difficult 
 to estimate in history. 
 
 State Papers (Henry VIII., Ed. VI., Mary) ; 
 Cranmer's Miscellaneous Writings and Letters 
 (Parker Soc, 1846) ; Pole, EpistoUe; Poxe, Boole 
 0/ Martyrs ; Strype, lAfe of Cranmer ; Burnet, 
 History of the Reformation ; Hook, Llms of the 
 ArchUshops of Oamterhitry ; Blunt, History of the 
 Mng. Chwroh. [H. E. R.] 
 
 Crayford is a village in Kent, about 
 thirteen miles from London, and is usually 
 
Cve 
 
 ( 334) 
 
 Cri 
 
 identified with Creccanford, where, in 457 (?), 
 the Britons were entirely routed by Hengist 
 and ^sc. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. 
 
 Crecy, The Battle of (Aug. 26, 1346), 
 was fought between the English, under King 
 Edward III., and the French, commanded by 
 Philip VI. The English army had landed on the 
 coast of Normandy, near La Hogue, on July 
 12, and Edward had then intended to cross 
 the Seine, march through Picardy into Artois, 
 and there join his Flemish auxiliaries, who 
 had already crossed the French frontier. 
 But when he arrived at Rouen, he found the 
 bridges over the Seine broken, and the 
 French army on the opposite shore. Edward 
 marched along the river almost to the suburbs 
 of Paris, and burnt St. Germain and NeuiUy, 
 and at length (Aug. 17) by a stratagem 
 succeeded in crossing the river near Pontoise, 
 advanced towards the Somme, and crossed at 
 Blanchetaque, near Abbeville. Not far from 
 this town, at Crecy, he halted, and aRowed 
 the French to come up (Aug. 26). The army 
 was drawn up the following morning in three 
 divisions. The first, under the command of 
 the Black Prince (or rather of the Earls of 
 Warwick and Oxford), consisted of 800 men- 
 at-arms, 1,000 Welshmen, and 2,000 archers. 
 The second division, placed behind them, and 
 slightly on their flank, consisted of 1,200 
 archers and a body of men-at-arms. The 
 third division was held in reserve under the 
 king, on some slightly rising ground in the 
 rear, and consisted of 2,000 archers and 700 
 men-at-arms. According to Froissart, the 
 whole army did not amount to more than 
 8,000 men; but this estimate is probably 
 much too low. The French forces are com- 
 puted at from 60,000 to 120,000. The French 
 army marched from Abbeville at sunrise, and 
 arrived at Crecy in considerable confusion. 
 The battle was begun by the advance of a 
 large body (stated at 15,000) of Genoese, 
 armed with crossbows. But the Genoese fell 
 into disorder before the shooting of the 
 English archers. The French cavaSy, under 
 the Duke of Alenijon, then feU upon the 
 English first and second divisions. After a 
 desperate conflict, during which the king was 
 more than once requested to bring up the 
 reserves, the French cavalry retired in the 
 greatest disorder, and Philip himself fled from 
 the field. The French fought on in a 
 desultory manner till night, and not till the 
 following morning was it discovered that the 
 French army was completely scattered and 
 routed. Many thousands of Frenchmen were 
 found dispersed about the field, and were 
 slain. Their whole loss consisted of 1,200 
 knights and a number of inferior rank esti- 
 mated at 30,000, the most distinguished being 
 John, King of Bohemia. 
 
 The moBt interesting and detailed aoeount of 
 the battle is in Froissart, o. 126. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Creones, The, were an ancient Celtic 
 tribe, who dwelt on the west coast of Ross. 
 
 Cressmgham, Hugh (d. 1297), was ap- 
 pointed Treasurer of Scotland by Edward I. 
 in 1296, at the same time that the Earl of 
 Surrey was appointed Guardian. He carried 
 out to the best of his ability the command of 
 the English king that Scotland was to be 
 reduced to a state of order, and as a conse- 
 quence was hated by the Scotch. He was 
 slain at the battle of Stirling, which was lost 
 by the English in a great measure owing to 
 his precipitancy. 
 
 Crevant, The Battle of (July 31, 1423), 
 was won by the English and Burgundian 
 troops, under the Earl of Salisbury and 
 others, against a combined force of French and 
 Scotch, and levies from Spain and Lombardy. 
 The English were completely victorious, and 
 Buchan, the Constable of France, was taken 
 prisoner. This victory, which was fought on 
 the banks of the Yonne, near Auxerre, saved 
 Burgundy from invasion, and greatly crippled 
 the power of the French. 
 
 Crichtou, Sir William, Chancellor of 
 Scotland, was Governor of Edinburgh Castle 
 at the death of James I. (1437). In his en- 
 deavours to get possession of the young king's 
 person, he was brought into rivalry with Sir 
 Alexander Livingston, from whom he carried 
 off James II., only, however, to surrender 
 him again on consideration of receiving cer- 
 tain lands as a reward. In conjunction with 
 Livingston, he planned and carried out the 
 murder of William, Earl of Douglas, and his 
 brother. He was for some time at war with 
 the Douglas family, and was besieged by them 
 in Edinburgh Castle. 
 
 Crimean War, fought between Russia 
 on the one hand, and England, France, 
 Turkey, and Sardinia on the other, began 
 in 1854, and lasted till 1856. It is called 
 the Crimean War because the main opera- 
 tion of it consisted in the attack made 
 by the allied forces on the peninsula of the 
 Crimea in the south of Russia. The dispute 
 between Russia and Turkey had ostensibly 
 arisen about the guardianship of the Holy- 
 Places, especially the Holy Sepulchre, ia 
 Jerusalem; but the cause of it lav much 
 deeper. Turkey, the old enemy of" Russia, 
 had gradually retired from the countries she 
 had originally conquered, and, as her power 
 decayed, had become more and more unfit to 
 rule over Christian populations. Russia, who 
 had emancipated herself from Tartar thral- 
 dom, was deeply interested in protecting the 
 Slavonic races stiU under Turkish rule, who 
 were of the same blood and origin as herself. 
 She also had a natural desire to extend her 
 power to the Dardanelles, and to open a 
 way for her commerce into the Mediterranean. 
 The Emperor Nicholas wrote of Turkey as 
 " a sick man dying," and his plan for dividing 
 
Cri 
 
 ( 335 ) 
 
 Cro 
 
 his possessions included the formation of 
 the Danubian principalities, Servia and Bul- 
 garia, into principalities under the suzerainty 
 of Eussia, and the occupation of Egypt and 
 Candia hy England. Constantinople was to 
 be held neither by Russia, France, England, 
 nor Greece. Sir Stratford Canning, the 
 English ambassador at Constantinople, was 
 an enemy of Eussia. The Emperor of the 
 French was desirous of a European war for 
 the consolidation of his throne. On July 2, 
 1853, the Russian troops crossed the river 
 Pruth, and occupied the principalities. On 
 November 1, war was declared, and on the 
 80th of the same month the Turkish fleet was 
 destroyed in the harbour of Sinope. Lord 
 Aberdeen, the Prime Minister, strained every 
 nerve to preserve peace, but Lord Palmerston, 
 Foreign Secretary, declared that he would 
 resign, unless a strong course against Russia 
 were adopted. The country gradually ' ' drifted 
 into war." On Feb. 27, 1854, an ultimatum 
 was sent by our government, which declared 
 that unless the Russian troops retired behind 
 the river Pruth before the end of April, it 
 would be considered as a declaration of war. 
 No reply was made, and the war took its 
 course. Austria and Prussia contracted an 
 offensive and defensive alliance, by which 
 they guaranteed each other's possessions in 
 case of attack. They also prepared their 
 forces in readiness for war. The alliance 
 between England and France was signed on 
 April 10. The plan of operations was very 
 simple. As Eussia could be attacked only in 
 her extremities, and England could act only 
 upon a sea base, there were not many places 
 into which the two combatants could come 
 into conflict. A fleet sailed into the Baltic, 
 under Admiral Napier, with great expectations 
 of success, ■which were not realised. On Sept. 
 14 the allied forces landed in the Crimea. 
 They consisted of 24,000 English, 22,000 
 French, and 8,000 Turks. Their object was 
 to capture Sebastopol, a powerful fortress, 
 which the Russians had recently constructed 
 at great expense. On Sept. 20 the Russians 
 were defeated by the alljed armies at the 
 passage of the Alma. It might have been 
 possible to have tafcen Sebastopol by a cowp 
 (fe main, but it was thought more prudent to 
 besiege it from the south. A brilliant flank 
 march was executed, and the harbour of 
 Balacjava was occupied by the English as a 
 Ijase of operations. On October 25 was fought 
 the battle of Balaclava, signalised by the famous 
 iharge of the six hundred light cavalry upon 
 the Russian guns, from which few returned 
 alive, and the far more efEective charge of the 
 heavy cavalry, under Greneral Scarlett. OnNov. 
 S the English troops were attacked in the early 
 morning by large masses of Russians, and held 
 their ground with great steadiness until the 
 afternoon. This was the battle of Inkerman, in 
 which we lost 2,612 kiUed and wounded, and 
 the Russians, it is said, 12,000. The winter 
 
 tried our troops severely, encamped as they 
 were on a bleak plateau. Notwithstanding 
 the devotion of Miss Florence Nightingale in 
 nursing the sick, the supply of hospital ac- 
 commodation was insufficient, and the com- 
 missariat broke down. This caused great 
 indignation in England, and Lord Aberdeen 
 was succeeded as Prime Minister by Lord 
 Palmerston. In December the allied fleet 
 in the Baltic was broken up, and returned 
 home ; and on March 2 the Emperor of 
 Eussia died. This caused but a slight hope 
 of peace ; the fleet returned to the Baltic on 
 April 4, and the bombardment of Sebastopol 
 began five days later. On June 7 the French 
 succeeded in carrying the Mamelon, one of the 
 Sebastopol forts, but an attack made by the 
 allied forces on the Redan and the Malakhoff 
 forts, on June 18, was unsuccessful; and on June 
 28 Lord Eaglan, the English commander-in- 
 chief, died. On August 16 the French distin- 
 guished themselves greatly in the battle of 
 the Tchemaya. After a month's incessant 
 bombardment, a final attack was made on the 
 works on Sept. 5, the result of which was 
 that the Eussians evacuated Sebastopol, and 
 retreated to the north side of the harbour. 
 They blew up their forts as far as they could, 
 and left their wounded behind them. The 
 news reached England on Sept. 10. This 
 practically put an end to the war in the 
 Crimea. Before the end of the year negotia- 
 tions for peace were begun by the friendly 
 interventioii of Austria. The French govern- 
 ment were even more anxious for a settlement 
 than the English. The points on which 
 Eussia found it most difficult to make conces- 
 sions were the limitation of her power in the 
 Black Sea, and the cession of a part of Bess- 
 arabia to Eoumania. The Peace of Paris was 
 signed on Sunday, March 20, 1856. The 
 last English forces left the Crimea on July 12. 
 The English lost 24,000 soldiers during the 
 war, the French 63,500, and the Russians, it 
 is said, 500,000. The war added £41,000,000 
 to the National Debt. [0. B.] 
 
 The history of the war has been narrated in 
 great detail by Mr. £inglaj£e, in his Iiivasioii of 
 the Crimea. 
 
 Crinau (Cronan, d. 1045), lay Abbot of 
 Dunkeld, was a powerful and warlike chieftain, 
 who married a daughter of Malcolm I., by 
 whom he had a son, Duncan, King of Scot- 
 land 1034 — 1040. Crinan, who was also 
 known as Hundi Jarl (the hound earl), was 
 slain in battle (1045) whilst fighting against 
 Macbeth. His son Maldred was the father of 
 the famous Gospatrick, Earl of Northumbria. 
 
 Crofbs (or Ceoft), Sir James (d. 1590J, 
 was in 1553 made Deputy of Ireland, his 
 tenure of office being marked by the distress 
 suffered by the country owing to the debase- 
 ment of coinage. In 1554 he took arms 
 against Queen Mary in Sir Thomas Wyatt's 
 rebellion, and for this was sent to the Tower. 
 Under Elizabeth, Crofts became commander 
 
Cro 
 
 ( 336 
 
 Cro 
 
 on the Scottish border, and in 1560 crossed 
 the border with the English expedition under 
 Lord Grey, and visited the regent, Mary of 
 Guise, at Edinburgh, with the object of 
 arranging the preliminaries of a peace. His 
 mismanagement at the assault on Leith in 
 1560 caused the repulse of the English, and 
 in consequence Crofts was deprived of his 
 command and sent to London. He sub- 
 sequently played a prominent part in parlia- 
 mentary life, was made Controller of the 
 Queen's Household, and became a paid agent 
 of the King of Spain, to whom he made 
 important revelations, though the influence 
 he had acquired over Elizabeth prevented his 
 paying the just penalty of his treachery. 
 He was a commissioner at the trial of Mary 
 Queen of Scots in 1586. 
 
 Cromwell, Bkidget (b. 1624, d. 1681), 
 was the eldest daughter of Oliver Cromwell. 
 She is described as being " a gloomy enthu- 
 siast, and so bigoted a republican that she 
 even grudged her father the title of Pro- 
 tector." She married in 1647 Henry Ireton 
 (q.v.), and subsequently Charles Fleetwood 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Cromwell, Elizabeth (5. 1629, d. 1638), 
 was the second and favourite daughter of the 
 Protector. She is said, notwithstanding her 
 parentage, to have been firmly attached to 
 the Eoyal cause, and it is certain that she 
 frequently interceded on behalf of Royalist 
 prisoners. She was married in 1646 to John 
 Claypole, a Northamptonshire gentleman, who 
 survived her. 
 
 Cromwell, Henry (5. 1628, d. 1673), was 
 the youngest son of Oliver Cromwell. He 
 entered the Parhamentary army in 1642, and 
 before he was twenty obtained a troop in 
 Fairfax's life-guards. In 1649 he attained 
 the rank of a colonel, and accompanied his 
 father to Ireland. He was a member of the 
 ■' Barebones " Parliament of 1653, and in 1655, 
 after being sent over to Ireland to observe 
 the condition of affairs in that country, was 
 shortly afterwards made Lord Deputy. His 
 government of Ireland was exceedingly 
 popular, and the moderation and justice of 
 his measures pleased all except the extreme 
 men on either side. On the death of his 
 father he was deprived of much of his power 
 in Ireland, and was made Lord-Lieutenant 
 instead of Lord Deputy, and on the triumph 
 of the Parliamentary party over the Pro- 
 tector he was superseded. He now retired 
 into private life, and at the Restoration was 
 allowed to remain unmolested. He spent 
 most of his time at Ms estate in Cambridge- 
 shire. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver (S. April 25, 1599, 
 d- Sept. 3, 1658), was a native of Huntingdon, 
 the son of Robert CromweU and Elizabeth 
 bteward, and connected by blood with the 
 family of Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex. 
 
 He was educated at Huntingdon School, 
 and at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, 
 where he entered as a feUow-commoner 
 on April 23, 1616. On his father's death in 
 the following year he returned home, married 
 Elizabeth Bourchier (Aug., 1620), and settled 
 down to farm his own landi. He was elected 
 member for Huntingdon in 1628, and com- 
 plained against the Bishop of Winchester for 
 silencing controversial preaching. In the 
 Short Paiiiament and the Long Parliament he 
 represented Cambridge, and soon attained 
 considerable influence. It has been ascer- 
 tained that within the first ten months of 
 the Long Parliament CromweU was specially 
 appointed to eighteen committees, exclusive 
 of various appointments which he shared with 
 the knights and burgesses generally of the 
 eastern counties. He moved the second 
 reading of the Annual Parliament Bill (Dec. 
 30, 1640), and was one of those who drew up 
 the Root and Branch BiU. On religious 
 questions he was specially active, and he had 
 decided to emigrate if the Grand Remonstrance 
 had not passed. He was also one of the fore- 
 most in laying hands on the executive power, 
 and moved (Nov. 6, 1641) to entrust the 
 Earl of Essex with power over the trained 
 bands till Parliament should take further 
 order. In the summer of 1642 he commenced 
 arming and drilling the Cambridge Trained 
 Bands, and seized the plate of that university 
 to prevent it from being carried to the king. 
 He served at EdgehiU at the head of the 
 troop of horse which he had raised, and is 
 mentioned by Fiennes as doing good service. 
 In January, 1643, he secured the town of 
 Cambridge, and arrested the Royalist sheriff 
 of Hertfordshire. In March he suppressed a 
 rising at Lowestoft; in April he raised the 
 siege of Crowland; on May 13 defeated the 
 Royalists of Newark at Grantham; in July he 
 retook Stamford, captured Burleigh House, 
 and relieved Gainsborough. His services 
 were recognised by his appointment as 
 Governor of the Isle of Ely, and second in 
 command of the army of the Eastern Associa- 
 tion, which his activity had made it possible 
 to form (Aug., 1643). Next month he joined 
 the cavalry of Sir Thomas Fairfax, in Lincoln- 
 shire, and helped to gain the victory of 
 Winceby, where he commanded the van (Oct. 
 11, 1643). In the following year he led the 
 left wing at MarstonMoor, which, after driving 
 Prince Rupert's division from the field fell on 
 Newcastle's foot in the centre and decided 
 the victory. He was also present at the 
 second battle of Newbury (Oct. 27, 1644), 
 and a mouth later charged his commander, 
 the Earl of Manchester, with slackness in 
 making use of the advantages then gained. 
 Lest the war should be protracted by the self- 
 interest 6r incapacity of members of Parlia- 
 ment, he supported the Self-denying Ordinance, 
 and the formation of a regular army officered 
 by professional soldiers. In spite of that law. 
 
Cro 
 
 ( 337 ) 
 
 Cro 
 
 his services were too valuable to be dispensed 
 with. In February, 1645, he was sent on an 
 expedition into the west under Waller. When 
 he returned to resign his conunand he was 
 ordered into Oxfordshire to intercept a 
 convoy going to Oxford, which he performed 
 at Islip (April 24th). On May 10th he was 
 continued in his command for forty days 
 longer, and Fairfax was authorised to appoint 
 him to command the horse, and this appoint- 
 ment was confirmed and extended from time 
 to time. At Naseby he commanded the right 
 wing, totally routed the forces opposed to 
 him, and, keeping his troopers weU in hand, 
 led them against the king's centre with equal 
 success. With Fairfax he then went into the 
 west, was present at the storming of Bristol, 
 and at the battle of Langport. Winchester, 
 Basing House, and other fortresses were taken 
 by him, and he took part in the siege of Oxford. 
 During these three years Cromwell had also 
 become the head of a political party. From 
 the moment he took up arms he had 
 sought to enlist men with a religious spirit 
 in them, thinking them the only men able to 
 oppose gentlemen of honour and courage. 
 "What their particular form of creed was he 
 cared little. " The state," he declared, " in 
 choosing men to serve it, takes no notice of 
 their opinions ; if they be willing to serve it 
 faithfully, that suflBces." His enemies termed 
 him " the great Independent," and saw in him 
 the champion of the opposition to the imposi- 
 tion of Presbyterian orthodoxy on England. 
 This question of toleration, with two other 
 questions then at issue between the army and 
 the Parliament — the right of the soldiers to be 
 fairly paid for their services, and their claim 
 to have a voice in making a safe and proper 
 settlement with the king — ^brought him into 
 opposition with the Parliament. Matters 
 came to a crisis when, in the spring of 1647, 
 Parliament voted the disbandment of the 
 army. Cromwell did his best to prevent a 
 rupture, attempted to mediate and reconcile, 
 and when these attempts failed and he found 
 himseU in danger of arrest, cast in his lot 
 with Fairfax and the army {June 3, 1647). 
 After the exclusion of the eleven members he 
 took an active part in the debates of the 
 Commons and the negotiations with the king. 
 There he endeavoured to fix a limit to the 
 establishment of Presbyterianism (Oct. 13), 
 and supported the continuance of the ne- 
 gotiations with the king in spite of his 
 rejection of the nineteen propositions. He 
 hoped to come to an agreement with Charles 
 on the basis of the new propositions, which 
 were a compromise between the demands of the 
 army and the Parliament. Even after the 
 king's flight (Nov. 3) he still continued this 
 policy, until the rejection of the four Bills 
 (Dec. 28, 1647), and the outbreak of the 
 second Civil War, May, 1648, taught him the 
 impossibility of trusting Charles. Probably, 
 in March or April, 1648, at a prayer meeting 
 
 of the officers at Windsor, where CromweU 
 was present, it was decided to call the king 
 to account as soon as peace was restored. 
 Then he marched against the Welsh insur- 
 gents (May), took Pembroke (July 11), 
 hurried north to meet the Soots, and totally 
 defeated them at Preston and Warrington 
 (Aug. 17 — 19, 1648). He was stiU in the 
 north, when the army again seized the 
 king, and put an end to the Newport 
 Treaty; nor had he any part in Pride's 
 Purge, though he approved of both these 
 acts. He was present every day during 
 the king's trial, and his name stands third 
 amongst the fifty-nine attached to the 
 warrant. Naturally he was nominated one 
 of the Council of State, but as he was ap- 
 pointed commander of the army destined for 
 Ireland (March 15), he could not long 
 take part in their sittings. He landed at 
 Dublin August 15, 1649. The storming of 
 Drogheda (Sept. 10) was followed by the mas- 
 sacre of the garrison, which Cromwell justi- 
 fied: first, as a righteous judgment of God; 
 secondly, as tending to prevent the efiusion 
 of blood for the future. Trim, Dundalk, and 
 other towns were at once abandoned ; Arklow 
 and Enniscorthy terrified into surrender; 
 Wexford held out, and shared the fate of 
 Drogheda ; and the campaign closed with the 
 unsuccessful siege of Waterford. In seven 
 months Leinster had been regained. In the 
 following spring, Kilkenny (March 28, 1650) 
 and Clonmel (May 9) were taken. At the end 
 of May Cromwell returned to England, to 
 command — as Fairfax refused to do so — the 
 army ordered to invade Scotland. For about 
 a month the forces of Cromwell and Lesley 
 manoeuvred round Edinburgh, the Scots 
 refusing to give battle, the English declining 
 to attack positions too strong for them. At 
 the end of August Cromwell was forced to 
 retreat to Dunbar, where Lesley attacked him, 
 and was routed with the loss of 3,000 men 
 killed, and 10,000 prisoners (Sept. 3, 1650). 
 Edinburgh and Leith fell into Cromwell's 
 hands; the west of Scotland followed, and 
 before Christmas all the country south of the 
 Forth was in his possession. From February 
 to June, 1651, he was ill, and his army inactive. 
 On June 2.5th he marched against Lesley, who 
 was posted at Stirling, and failing to dis- 
 lodge him, crossed into Fifeshire, subsequently 
 capturing Perth (Aug. 2). The king's army 
 marched straight into England, and estab- 
 lished itself at Worcester, where Cromwell 
 attacked and destroyed it (Sept. 3, 1652). 
 The great influence these services gave him, 
 Cromwell used to secure as speedily as 
 possible the settlement the country _ so 
 much needed. In less than a fortnight 
 after his victory he raised the question of 
 a new Parliament (Sept. 16), and succeeded 
 in inducing the House to fix a limit for its 
 own power. He became an active member of 
 the commission for law reform, a very zealous 
 
Ci'o 
 
 ( 338 ) 
 
 Cro 
 
 supporter of the " Bill for General Pardon and 
 Oblivion," and the champion of freedom of 
 conscience in the committee for the propa- 
 gation of the gospel. His great object was to 
 use his influence and his position to secure the 
 speedy meeting of the new reformed Parlia- 
 ment, which, according to the decision of the 
 Rump, was not to meet till Nov., 1664. The 
 impatience of the army urged him on, and a 
 petition from the Council of Officers (Aug. 
 13, 1652) demanded more alacrity in the 
 necessary reforms. The bill which was to 
 settle the constitution of the new assembly 
 seemed to . Cromwell and the officers to be 
 meant rather to perpetuate and recruit the 
 Rump than to secure these reforms. He 
 therefore endeavoured to stop this bill by 
 agreement, or to persuade the Parliament to 
 delegate their powers ; and when he found 
 them still hurrying through the objectionable 
 bill, he put an end to their sitting (April 20, 
 1653). The result of this action was the 
 separation of the civil and military elements 
 of the republican party, and the continued 
 refusal of the former (with some considerable 
 exceptions) to recognise the authority of the 
 other as legitimate. Cromwell and the 
 Council of Officers began by appointing a 
 Council of State of thirteen persona (April 29 
 — July i, 1653). Then a representative as- 
 sembly of Puritan notables was summoned by 
 the Council of Officers, to effect the necessaiy 
 reforms. But its reforming zeal seemed to 
 threaten the foundations of law and religion, 
 so the more conservative members resigned 
 their authority into the hands which had en- 
 trusted it to them (July 4— Dec. 12, 1653). 
 The Council of Officers renewed their delibera- 
 tions under Oliver Cromwell's presidency, 
 and decided to make a single person head of 
 the government. Cromwell was accordingly 
 installed Lord Protector (Dec. 16, 1653), to 
 govern with the aid of a permanent Council 
 and a Parliament, to be summoned every three 
 years. For nine months Protector and 
 Council governed, raised money, and legis- 
 lated without a Parliament. His first 
 Parhament met on September 3rd, 1654, and 
 immediately called in question the " Instru- 
 ment " of government, and claimed to revise 
 the constitution and limit the Protector's 
 powers. In spite of the exclusion of a 
 hundred members, it persisted in this claim, 
 and Cromwell dissolved it (Jan. 22, 1655). 
 He had to struggle not only against discon- 
 tented republicans, but against fresh out- 
 breaks of the Royalists. He replied by a 
 further development of military rule, and by 
 partially abandoning his pohcy of toleration. 
 England was divided (Aug., 1655) into twelve 
 military districts, governed by major-generals, 
 the expenses of whose administration were 
 supplied by an income tax on Royalists, and 
 the public services of the Church of England 
 were suppressed (Nov., 1655). Abroad, how- 
 ever, the prospect was more favourable. 
 
 Cromwell had signalised the first months of 
 his rule by the conclusion of advantageous 
 treaties with Holland (April 5, 1654), Sweden 
 (April 28), Portugal (July 10), and Denmark. 
 Spain and France contended for his alliance. 
 His influence forced Savoy to restore the 
 privileges of the Vaudois (Aug. 19, 1655) ; the 
 conquest of Jamaica announced his rupture 
 with Spain, and a treaty of commerce sealed 
 his friendship with France (Oct. 24, 1655). 
 These successes, and the desire to obtain some 
 constitutional sanction for his government, 
 led Cromwell to call a second Parliament 
 (Sept. 17, 1656). The preliminary exclusion 
 of about a hundred refractory members 
 secured a more docile assembly, in deference 
 to whose vote Cromwell gave up his insti- 
 tution of the major-generals. They went 
 on to revise the constitution, to establish a 
 new House of Lords, and to offer Cromwell 
 the title of king. His refusal of the title, 
 maiidy dictated by the opposition of the army, 
 did not prevent him from accepting their con. 
 stitutional amendments, and he was again, 
 with legally defined powers, installed as 
 Protector (June 26, 1657). But the House of 
 Commons, whose composition was materially 
 altered by the admission of the excluded 
 members and the absence of the new lords, 
 rejected the authority of the other House, and 
 Cromwell indignantly dissolved it (Jan. 20, 
 1658). This confusion at home was perhaps 
 compensated by brighter prospects abroad. 
 If his plan for the union of the Protes- 
 tant powers failed, the alliance with France 
 ripened into an offensive and defensive league 
 against Spain, and the battle of Dunkirk 
 (June 4, 1658) made his arms renowned 
 through Europe. Cromwell's vigour was 
 now be ginn ing to decay, and being attacked 
 by a fever, he died Sept. 3, 1658. Crom- 
 well's person and character are thus described 
 by a gentleman of his household : — " His 
 body was well compact and strong ; his 
 stature under six foot (I believe about two 
 inches) ; his head so shaped as you might see 
 it a store-house and shop both of a vast 
 treasury of natural parts. His temper ex- 
 ceeding fiery, as I have known, but the flame 
 of it kept down for the most part, or soon 
 allayed with those moral endowments he had. 
 He was naturally compassionate towards 
 objects in distress, even to an effeminate 
 measure ; though God had made him a heart 
 wherein was left little room for any fear, but 
 what was due to himself, of which there was 
 a large proportion, yet did he exceed in 
 tenderness towards sufferers. A larger soul, 
 I think, hath seldom dwelt in a house of clay 
 than his was." ".He was a strong man," 
 adds another observer ; " in the dark perils of 
 war, in the high places of the field, hope 
 shone in him like a pillar of fire when it had 
 gone out in all the others.'' [Commonwealth.] 
 Carlyle, CromwelVs Letters and Speeches; 
 Noble, House ofCronrnell: Gardiner, History oj 
 
Cro 
 
 ( 339 ) 
 
 Cro 
 
 England, 1603^1642; Masson, lAfe of Milton; 
 Guizot, Sistoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre; 
 Sanford, Studies and nVastrations of the Great 
 if ebflllion ; Thurloe Papers ; Clarendon, History of 
 the Behellion; Whitelocke, Memorials. 
 
 [C. H. F.] 
 
 Cromwell, Ralph, Loee {d. 1455), was 
 one of the Council of Regency during Henry 
 VI.'s minority. He sided with. Beaufort 
 against Gloucester ; in the year 1443 he was 
 appointed Treasurer, and held this important 
 office for ten years, during which time he 
 showed considerable financial ability. In 
 1449 an, attempt was made to assassinate 
 him, which he attributed to Suffolk, to whom 
 he was bitterly opposed. He supported the 
 Lancastrian party, but died shortly after the 
 first battle of St. Albans. 
 
 Cromwell, Richard (i. 1626, d. 1712), 
 third son of the Protector, was educated at 
 Felstead School, entered at Lincoln's Ion 1647, 
 and married Dorothy Mayor 1649. During 
 his father's life he lived as a private gentle- 
 man in the country. In July, 1657, he was 
 elected, after his father's resignation, Chan- 
 cellor of the University of Oxford, and about 
 the same time he was admitted into the 
 Council of State. His father on his death-bed 
 nominated him as his successor, and he was 
 accepted as such in England and by the 
 European powers. In -ins new position he 
 is said to have carried himself discreetly, and 
 better than was expected. A Parliament was 
 assembled on Jan. 27, 1659, which recognised 
 him as Protector, but the republican minority, 
 headed by Vane and Haselrig, united with the 
 officers of the army, headed by Lambert, 
 Fleetwood, and Desborough, to force him 
 to dissolve Parliament (April 22, 1659). His 
 supporters urged bim to meet force by force, 
 bat he replied, " I will not have a drop 
 of blood spilt for the preservation of my 
 greatness, which is a burden to -me." He 
 signed a formal abdication (May, 1659), in 
 return for which the restored Kump under- 
 took the discharge of his debts. After the 
 Restoration he fied to the Continent, where 
 he remained for twenty years, returning in 
 1680. 
 
 Crom.we]l, Thomas, Eari of Essex 
 (d. 1540). The early lite of Thomas Cromwell 
 is obscure, and the various stories told con- 
 cerning it are scarcely consistent. He is 
 said to have been the son of a blacksmith at 
 Putney. In early youth he served as a com- 
 mon soldier in the wars of Italy. He began 
 a commercial career with a Venetian trader ; 
 next he was a clerk at Antwerp, and then 
 a wool merchant at Middleburgh, in Zea- 
 land. He returned to England, and did 
 business as a scrivener, being haH lawyer, half 
 money-lender. He lent money to the poor 
 nobles, who at the extravagant court of Henry 
 Vm . were often reduced to sore straits. While 
 engaged in these pursuits he showed great 
 
 aptitude for business, and became widely 
 known. In 1524 he was employed by Cardinal 
 Wolsey to manage the details of business 
 connected with the suppression of the smaller 
 monasteries and the foundation of "Wolsey's 
 Colleges at Ipswich and Oxford. In this 
 occupation Cromwell showed himself unscru- 
 pulous, and became very unpopular. On 
 Wolsey's fall, in 1529, he showed his ex- 
 treme cleverness by using his fidelity to a 
 fallen master as a means of promoting his 
 own ioterests. He advised Wolsey to buy off 
 the malice of his enemies by judicious grants 
 of pensions out of the revenues of his bishopric. 
 In carrying out these arrangements he com- 
 mended himself to many powerful friends, 
 and prepared the way for passing over to the 
 service of the king. He suggested to Henry 
 VIII. that he should settle the divorce ques- 
 tion by declaring himself supreme head of 
 the Church of England, and prosecuting 
 the matter in his own ecclesiastical courts. 
 The advice struck Henry. He made Cromwell 
 a member of the Privy Council, and soon 
 afterwards a Secretary of State. Cromwell 
 devoted his energies to raising the royal power 
 above aU other authority, and establishing by 
 its means a new order of things. His pohtical 
 text-book, according to Cardinal Pole, was 
 Machiavelli's Frincipe. He looked to the 
 strong hand of absolutism to work reforms. 
 By his advice the royal supremacy was 
 declared, appeals to Rome were forbidden, 
 and the king's divorce was pronounced by the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1534 the Act 
 of Supremacy vested authority in matters 
 ecclesiastical solely in the crowu, and in the 
 next year Cromwell was appointed " Vicar- 
 General," or the king's vicegerent in matters 
 ecclesiastical. He was already Chancellor, so 
 that he now held in his own hands the chief 
 authority in things seciilar and spiritual. 
 Cromwell set himself to reduce the Church 
 into obedience to the crown. He humbled 
 the bishops by treating them as royal officials. 
 He struck at the wealth of the Church by 
 ordering a general visitation of the religious 
 houses. In consequence of the report of the 
 visitors, the lesser monasteries, to the number 
 of 400, were suppressed, and their revenues 
 granted to the crown. Cromwell's hand was 
 felt everywhere. He directed the clergy 
 what they were to preach about, and revoked 
 the licences of those who would not obey. His 
 spies filled the land, and words of discontent 
 were wrested into proofs of conspiracy, and met 
 with condign punishment. The execution of 
 More and Fisher taught men that they were 
 to expect no mercy unless they obeyed. The 
 northern rebellion was crushed, and led to the 
 suppression of the remaining monasteries. 
 But when Cromwell's success seemed certain, 
 there came a reaction. The violence of the 
 advanced Protestant party awakened general 
 discontent. Henry VIII. found that in fol- 
 lowing Cromwell he had become allied with 
 
Cro 
 
 ( 340) 
 
 Cro 
 
 doctrines which he was not prepared to accept. 
 The Act of Six Articles (1539) marked a 
 Catholic reaction, which seriously affected 
 Cromwell's position. But it was the progress 
 of foreign affairs which brought about his fall. 
 The changes which had been made in England 
 were viewed with anger by the Emperor 
 Charles V., who was hindered from inter- 
 fering in England only by his war with 
 France. Henry VIII. trusted to his French 
 alliance ; but as France also looked suspiciously 
 on the new English policy, Cromwell sought 
 a new alliance with the Lutheran princes of 
 Germany. He hoped to make a strong coali- 
 tion, by which France, England, and the 
 German Lutherans should unite to crush the 
 power of the house of Austria. As an earnest 
 of this policy, he laboured for the marriage of 
 Henry VIII. with Anne, daughter of the 
 Duke of Cleves, and niece of John Frederick, 
 Elector of Saxony, who was the head of the 
 Smalcaldic League. He carried his point, 
 and received a new sign of the royal favour 
 by being created Earl of Essex. But the 
 marriage with Anne of Cleves was unsuccess- 
 ful both on personal and political grounds. 
 Henry VIII. was disappointed in his new 
 wife, and conceived an aversion for her. The 
 political schemes of Cromwell did not prosper. 
 France drew nearer to the Emperor; the 
 Lutheran princes still held by their principle 
 of passive resistance, and showed no signs of 
 taking active measures. Henry VIII. was 
 willing to allow his minister full power so 
 long as he succeeded; at the first sign of 
 failure, at the first appearance of difiiculty 
 to himseU, he remorselessly sacrificed his 
 favourite. Cromwell had few friends, and 
 his disgrace was a sure means of bringing 
 back the king's popularity. On June 10, 
 1540, Cromwell was arrested in the Council 
 Chamber on the charge of high treason. A 
 bin of attainder was rapidly passed through 
 Parliament. CromweU was not allowed to 
 speak in his own defence, and was executed 
 on July 28, 1540. Cromwell hved simply, 
 and devoted himself entirely to his political 
 occupations. His influence over the king was 
 supreme while he was in power, and the 
 separation of the English Church from the 
 Papacy was due entirely to his skilfully 
 devised measures. He was resolute and 
 unscrupulous, with a clearly-defined policy. 
 But he advanced too fast, till he stood abso- 
 lutely alone, and when he lost the royal 
 favour he had nothing on which to fall back. 
 He risked everything on the marriage of 
 Henry VIII. with Anne of Cleves. Had Anne 
 been personally attractive to the king, Crom- 
 well's policy might have developed results 
 of more permanent influence. 
 
 Pole, Apologia acl Carolvm, V.; Strype, ll«mo- 
 rials of Oranmei- ; CaXmiar of State Pavers oftlw 
 Reign of Smry VIII. ; Froude, History of Eng- 
 tand; Greon, Bistmy of the Snqlieh People ; 
 J. a. Urewer, Hist, of the Beign of Henry Fill. 
 [M. C] 
 
 Cropredy Bridge, The Battle of (June 
 29, 1644), was fought near Banbury, between 
 the Royalists, led by Charles I. in person, and 
 a part of the Parliamentary forces, commanded 
 by Sir William Waller, whose attempt to 
 cross the Cherwell and attack the king's 
 troops in the rear proved unsuccessful. The 
 loss on the side of the Parliament was very 
 considerable. 
 
 Clareudon, Kist, of the "Rehellvm ; "Whitelocke, 
 Memorials. 
 
 Crotoye, Battle of (1347), between the 
 English and French fleets, was occasioned 
 by the attempt of the latter to relieve Calais, 
 during the siege of the town by Edward III. 
 The French fleet ^as entirely defeated, and 
 all attempts to relieve Calais by sea were 
 abandoned. 
 
 Crowland, or Crotland, a town of 
 Lincolnshire, about eight miles north-east of 
 Peterborough, is the site of a, great abbey 
 founded in 714 by Ethelbald of Mercia. It 
 was burnt by the Danes in 870, restored by 
 King Ethelred II., and again burnt in 1091. 
 In 1112 it was a second time restored on a 
 scale of considerable splendour. [For Crow- 
 land Chronicle see Ingulphl'S.] 
 
 Crown, The. In England monarchy was 
 one direct product of the Anglo-Saxon conquest 
 in the fifth and sixth centuries. In their Ger- 
 man home the Saxons were ruled by elected 
 magistrates [ealdormen) in time of peace, and 
 led to battle by elected generals (heretoga), 
 whose authority expired with the war. UnUke 
 their old tribal forays, the expedition to Britain 
 entailed a chronic struggle between natives 
 and invaders, which lasted several generations ; 
 and as the duration of the heretoga' s excep- 
 tional powers were defined by the duration of 
 the war, the mere force of circumstances now 
 rendered those powers permanent. This 
 change, amounting to the creation of a new 
 office, was recognised, and sanctioned by the 
 adoption of a title already in use amongst 
 other Teutonic tribes, the title King, or 
 Oyn-ing (head of the Mn). The new king 
 was ealdorman and heretoga in one ; he was 
 still elected, but the danger of interregnum 
 in the presence of an endless war leading to 
 the practice of electing his successor in his 
 lifetime, the influence of the victorious general 
 was usually sufficient to secure his son's 
 nomination. The prescription thus estab- 
 lished gradually confined the national choice 
 to descendants of the first king, and myth 
 soon explained and shallowed the preference 
 by investing them with the halo of a divine 
 pedigree. Christianity swept away the claim 
 to descent from Woden, but more than com- 
 pensated by the introduction of Old Testa- 
 ment ideas and the example of the Empu-e. 
 The king, who had hitherto differed from 
 his subjects only in degree, began to assume 
 the style and arrogate the pretensions of 
 the Byzantine court. The oath of homage 
 
Cro 
 
 341 ) 
 
 Cro 
 
 taken by his thanes was assimilated to the 
 sacramentum (or Eoman oath of military 
 ohedience, originally taken hy the army alone, 
 hut extended later to the holders of civil office, 
 and finally to aU subjects), and by the time of 
 the reign of Edmund had become the oath of 
 allegiance exacted from every freeman of full 
 age. The king was now lord of the race {cyne- 
 Maforct) ; plots against his life were punishable, 
 like treason against any hlaford (lord), with 
 death and forfeiture ; and finally, the Statute 
 of Treasons, 25 Ed. III., by abolishing this 
 penalty for petty treason, left the king on a 
 constitutional pinnacle, no longer the first 
 among equals. 
 
 It is from this fusion of Imperial and Teu- 
 tonic ideas that the theory prevalent in most 
 European systems of law has sprung. The 
 lawyers distinguish carefully between two 
 kings — the ideal and the real. The former is 
 the state : the fountain of legislation, of jus- 
 tice, of honour ; i.e., the despot of Imperial 
 law. This ideal person resides from time to 
 time in the real Hng, who is subject to all 
 the imperfections of human nature, and repre- 
 sents tile Teutonic head of the kin, limited by 
 the caprice and free instincts of his subjects. 
 The relation of these two persons forms the 
 main subject of constitutional history,\their 
 identification leading to despotism, their sepa- 
 ration to limited monarchy. In England that 
 separation is enshrined in the famous resolu- 
 tion of 1642, in which the Lords and Commons 
 declare themselves a " council ... to pro- 
 vide for the necessities . . . of the kingdom, 
 and to declare the king's pleasure in those 
 things that are requisite thereunto, and that 
 what they do therein hath the stamp of royal 
 authority, although his Majesty, seduced by 
 evil counsel, do in his own person oppose or 
 interrupt." This victory was mainly the 
 result of financial struggles. 
 
 The Eevenues of the Cbown were of two 
 kinds, ordinary and extraordinary : i.e., those 
 which belonged to the crown in its own right, 
 and those which came as a free gift from its 
 subjects ; and their history is the history of 
 the absorption of the ordinary by the extra- 
 ordiuary. The former consisted of (1) tlie 
 rents of crown lands (1,422 manors at the date 
 of the Domesday Survey, 1085) ; (2) purvey- 
 ance (the right exercised on royal progresses 
 of buying at the lowest prices, and using forced 
 labour) ; (3) feudal incidents (the three regular 
 aids, escheat, forfeiture, relief, marriage, 
 wardship) ; (4) customs on imported goods 
 (price paid by foreign merchants for the pro- 
 tection of theroyal peace) ' The latter consisted 
 of (1) aids granted by the free tenants and 
 clergy; (2) tallage, a tax taken from towns 
 lying in the ancient demesne (its true character 
 is shown by the alternative name, donum) . The 
 crusade of Richard I., the wickedness of John, 
 and the weakness of Henry III., impaired the 
 ordinary revenue at a time when difficulties 
 with Prance were yearly augmenting the 
 
 expenditure. Edward I. met the deficiency 
 of the one by an expansion of the other. 
 To this end he remodelled Parhament, intro- 
 ducing representatives of the tax-paying 
 classes, the country gentr}', and the city mer- 
 chants ; and so rapidly did the power of the 
 new assembly grow, that in 1275 it confirmed 
 to the king the old customs on wool and 
 leather, known thenceforth as " magna et 
 antiqua custuma : " a grant which at one blow 
 transferred customs from the hereditary to 
 the parhamentary revenue. In 1660, the 
 abolition of feudal tenures and of purveyance 
 narrowed the former down to the proceeds 
 of the crown estates ; and these have in their 
 turn been resigned in consideration of a fixed 
 pension. At first the powers of Parliament 
 were limited to the making of the grant, the 
 expending of which lay wholly with the crown ; 
 but in 1378, during Eichard II.'s minority, 
 that principle of appropriation was introduced 
 (by the provision that the tax granted for the 
 French war should be paid over to two parlia- 
 mentary treasurers, Philpot and Walworth), 
 which, after a temporary collapse in the period 
 of Tudor and Yorkist despotism, revived under 
 James I., was confirmed by the Common- 
 wealth, adopted as a momentary expedient by 
 the Eoyalist Parliament (1665), and finally, 
 by the insertion of Lord Somers's Clause 
 (March, 1690), acquired a permanent position 
 as an essential element of the original grant. 
 
 The Crown WAS THE Fount OF Law. "Lex 
 fit consensu populi, constitutione regis," the 
 maxim of the Teutonic empire was also the 
 theory of the English constitution, and endured 
 in its original freshness tiU in Henry TI.'s 
 reign the Commons adopted the form of bill 
 instead of the older petition. Yet though this 
 change practically reversed the legislative 
 position of king and Commons, the old maxim 
 still represents the legal theory. The crown 
 was also the Fount of Justice. This prin- 
 ciple is of somewhat later origin, the shire 
 and hundred courts in their earliest form 
 deriving authority, not from the king, but from 
 the nation. Even so late as the reign of Henry 
 III., the king might be sued in his own courts 
 by a writ' of the form " Prsecipe Henrico Eegi 
 Angliae ;" nor was it till the present century 
 that the aboHtion of private appeals in crimi- 
 nal cases left the crown sole prosecutor, and 
 removed the last limitation on the royal right 
 of pardon. The process by which the national 
 courts became the king's courts, and the 
 national peace the king's peace, was the work 
 of Norman centralisation operating through 
 the Curia Regis (q.v.). To strengthen the 
 local courts against feudal encroachment, 
 Henry I. occasionally sent justices of the Curia 
 Regis to preside in them. This practice, 
 brought to a system by Henry II., superia- 
 duced, to the mutual satisfaction of king and 
 people, the royal upon the national peace, till 
 in the end the second was entirely overgrown 
 and choked by the first. The crown was 
 
Cro 
 
 ( 342 ) 
 
 Cro 
 
 further the Fount of Honour. In the days 
 of chivah-y any leiight could confer the 
 honour of knighthood. But with the decay 
 of feudal service the political nohUity of the 
 peerage threw the social nobiUty of the 
 knights completely into the shade. The class 
 which owed title and privilege to the special 
 writ of the crown hecame far the most promi- 
 nent in the state ; the legal mind soon con- 
 cluded that the monopoly enjoyed by the 
 crown of conferring the highest dignity must 
 extend a fortiori to aU inferior titles of 
 honour. 
 
 Crown Supbeme Landowner. Like jus- 
 tice, the land belonged originally to the 
 nation, part beiug divided into alodial hold- 
 ings for the freemen, the rest preserved, 
 under the name of folk-land, as a common 
 stock for future allotments. These were 
 effected by charters granted by the witan and 
 king, and hence were called hoc- or charter- 
 land. The king's influence growing with the 
 number of his thanes, the witan came to be 
 regarded as the witness rather than the author 
 of the deed of grant, the folk-land changed 
 insensibly into terra regis, and the thanes 
 into feudal vassals. The Norman Conquest 
 completed the process. By the simple opera- 
 tion of the law, which punished rebellion with 
 forfeiture, alodial tenure had, by the time of 
 the Conqueror's death, disappeared, and every 
 landholder in the kingdom had become a 
 tenant mediate or immediate of the crown. 
 But the growth of the constitutional system 
 and the abolition of feudal tenures (1660) 
 have degraded this once all-important maxim 
 into a legal pleasantry. 
 
 Succession to the Grown. The king, it has 
 been shown, was in early times elected ; elected, 
 that is to say, by the witan and accepted by the 
 people, their choice being hmited by unwritten 
 custom to the members of a particular family. 
 Primogeniture, the ofEspring of feudal tenure, 
 did not affect the succession till the king of 
 the people had become also the feudal lord of 
 the soU. Yet so late as 1199, Hubert "Walter, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, could assert with- 
 out contradiction,, in his opening speech at 
 the coronation of John, that the English king 
 rules not by hereditary right, but in virtue of 
 his election, and that the national voice which 
 gave could also take back the crown. The 
 old form was observed even at the coronation 
 of Charles I. (1625), of presenting the new 
 king to the crowd at the four comers of a 
 raised platform, and demanding their assent 
 to his nomination. The ground won by the 
 solemn deposition of two kings, Edward II. 
 and Eichard II., seemed lost in the Yorkist 
 reaction, but the accession of Henrj' VII. 
 brought in a fresh parliamentary dynasty, 
 and though the Stuarts for a time forced 
 on the nation the absolutist maxims of the 
 Scotch court, the triumph of the popular 
 party was in the end complete, and the Eevo- 
 lution (1688) established for ever the consti- 
 
 tutional principle that the King of England is 
 
 an official and not aproprietary ruler. [Kino.] 
 
 Allen, On the Prerogative; Taylor, Qlory oj 
 
 Eeflality ; Hearn, The floiieriiment o/ MnglamA; 
 
 Stubbs, Constitutional History, rjj_ j^^ jjn 
 
 Crown, The Weaking of the. As part of 
 the regalia, the crown seems to have been at 
 first nothing more than a fiUet of linen or 
 cloth, intended to represent the halo symbolical 
 of deity. Like most of the other regal orna- 
 ments, and the general apparatus of court 
 ceremonial, the gold crown was borrowed from 
 the Emperors of the East, who, on the estabhsh- 
 ment of Christianity as the state religion, 
 claimed for themselves the theocratic position 
 of the ancient Jewish kings. The crown 
 has been worn by the Enghsh monarchs — 
 
 (1) At their Coronation. After the adminis- 
 tration of the coronation oath by the Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, a special service is cele- 
 brated in Westminster Abbey, in the course of 
 which the Dean of "Westminster solemnly 
 anoints the new king with holy oil, the great 
 dignitaries invest him with the regaha, the 
 imposition of the crown, performed by the 
 archbishop himself, constituting the essential 
 act of investiture. At that moment "the 
 trumpets sound, the drums beat, and the 
 people with loud and repeated shouts cry 'God 
 save the king ! ' A signal is also given from 
 the battlements of the church, at which the 
 twenty-one great guns in St. James's Park are 
 fired, and also the ordnance of the Tower." 
 
 (2) In the Norman and Angevin periods at the 
 Courts or Farliaments held on the three great 
 Church festivals of the year, Christmas, Easter, 
 and Michaelmas. Edward I. first omitted 
 the custom, " saying merrily," that "crowns 
 do rather onerate than honour princes." 
 
 The regalia used for the coronation were, 
 till the Reformation, kept in the custody of 
 the Dean and Chapter of "Westminster, both 
 for security and as an assertion of the national 
 character of investiture. On the dissolution 
 of the monasteries, they were transferred 
 from the national to the royal keeping in 
 the Tower. The Long Parliament destroyed 
 them, as a protest aga.inst monarchical govern- 
 ment. On the Restoration a n^w set was 
 made, which exists at the present day. 
 
 [H. E. E.] 
 
 Crown ]^ands were in pre-Norman times 
 of wide extent, all ths folk-land (q.v.) gradually 
 becoming terra regis, and the amount of this 
 was considerably increased by the confiscations 
 of William I. [Crown.] The re-grants, how- 
 ever, to the king's followers and' friends soon 
 reduced the amount of land held by the crownj 
 and under Henry III. it was necessary to pass 
 an Act of resumption, while in the reign of 
 Edward II. an Act was for some time in force 
 forbidding the alienation of crown lands: 
 The royal demesnes were largely increased by 
 forfeitures in the Wars of the Eoses, by the 
 acquisitiveness of Henry VII., and by the 
 
Cru 
 
 (343) 
 
 Cul 
 
 ecclesiastical confiscations of Henry VIII. ; 
 but the necessities of James I. and Charles I., 
 and the action of the Long Parliament, dis- 
 posed of all the royal estates, which were only 
 recovered in part by the Parliamentary sales 
 being declared void at the Eestoration. The 
 wholesale granting away of the crown lands 
 has a distinct constitutional importance, as 
 having compelled the king to apply to Parlia- 
 ment and the nation for his income, which 
 was often granted only on condition of good 
 government. The lavishness of William III. 
 necessitated an Act in the reign of Anne, by 
 which the alienation of crown lands was 
 greatly checked ; though, in 1800, this Act 
 was declared not to apply to the private 
 property of the sovereign, acquired by pur- 
 chase or inheritance from any one not being 
 a sovereign of England. Since George III., 
 the sovereign on his accession has always sur- 
 rendered the crown lands to be disposed of by 
 Parliament, Uke the other revenues of the 
 state, for the public service ; their superinten- 
 dence lies with the Commissioners of Woods, 
 Forests, and Laud Eevenues. 
 
 Cmsades, The. The general history of 
 these religious wars does not come within the 
 scope of the present work, but a few words 
 must be said regarding the influence of the 
 Crusades on English history. In the first 
 place, the fact that Robert of Normandy joined 
 the first Crusade and, in his anxiety to raise 
 money for his expedition, pawned Normandy 
 to William Eufus, perpetuated for 120 years 
 the connection of England with that duchy. 
 Again, the eager crusading spirit of Richard 
 I. necessitated his raising money by every 
 expedient. Thus charters were sold to towns 
 many of which thereby obtained privileges 
 which they would otherwise probably never 
 have acquired ; the feudal rights of England 
 over Scotland were renounced, and the inde- 
 pendence of that kingdom recognised for the 
 first time ; offices of all kinds were bought from 
 the king, and the buyers were anxious to 
 recoup themselves out of the pockets of the 
 people. But Richard I.'s Crusade did more 
 than this ; not only did the king's absence 
 from England and the oppressive government 
 of his minister Longchamp (q.v.) give John 
 the opportunity of coming forward as the 
 champion of the barons and the people, and 
 thereby of earning for him a popularity which 
 did much to support him when he came to the 
 throne himself, but the heavy taxes imposed 
 in Richard's absence, and the large sum that 
 had to be raised to pay his ransom, combined 
 with the harsh. rule of the royal ministers, 
 greatly alienated the people from the king ; 
 and whereas, up to this time, there had been 
 an alliance between the king and the people 
 against the oppression and turbulence of the 
 feudal nobles, now parties are changed it is 
 the king who is the oppressor of the people, 
 while the barons come forward as their 
 
 champions, and thus the way is paved for that 
 alliance which, in the next reign, produced 
 Magna Charta. Of later Crusades the 
 most important in English history is the one 
 led by Richard of Cornwall in 1240 ; while 
 Edward I., by taking the Cross in 1268, 
 relieves England of the presence of many of 
 the leading nobles whose absence for a while 
 was necessary if the wounds caused by the 
 Barons' War were to be healed. But on the 
 whole the direct iniluences of the Crusades 
 were felt less in England than in most of the 
 countries of Europe. 
 
 Cnldees, The. There has been great 
 controversy both as to the origin and appHca- 
 tion of the name Culdee. The derivation is 
 probably the Celtic Cele De, worshipper of God 
 (not Ceelicola, Caelebs, or Columha, as some have 
 tried to prove). The name does not appear 
 until after the expulsion of the Columban 
 monks from the Pictish kingdom by Nectan 
 Mac Derili in 717 ; so the Culdees are 
 in no way to be identified with the early 
 Columban monks ; they were anchorites 
 rather than monks, practically independent, 
 being under the control of their own abbots, 
 and owning no allegiance to Rome until they 
 were forced to conform hy the action of 
 Alexander and David. Mr. Skene says 
 of them, " They originally sprang from that 
 ascetic order who adopted a solitary service 
 of God in an isolated cell as the highest form 
 of religious hf e, and who were termed Deicolse. 
 . . . They were finally brought under the 
 canonical rule along with the secular clerg}', 
 retaining, however, to some extent, the 
 nomenclature of the monastery, until at 
 length the name of Keledens or Culdee be- 
 came almost synonymous with that of 
 ' secular canon.' " 'The chief Culdee mon- 
 asteries in Scotland were at Lochleven, St. 
 Andrews, Abemethy, Dunkeld, Brechin, 
 and Dunblane. The Culdees were known in 
 Ireland as early as the ninth century, and 
 continued to exist as a sect of secular priests 
 -up to the time of the Reformation. Their chief 
 establishment was at Armagh. 
 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland; Eobei-tson, Earij/ Kings 
 
 of Scotland; Grvib, Ecclee. Hisf. of Scotland; 
 
 Lanigan, Eccles. Srst. of Ireland, 
 
 Cnllen, Cakdinai, (S. 1804, d. 1878), was 
 Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin, 
 Primate of Ireland, and Apostolic Delegate. 
 Descended from an ancient Celtic family, he 
 entered the priesthood and became head of 
 the Irish College in Rome, and, for a short 
 time, of the Propaganda. Before he became 
 Primate he had been Archbishop of Dubliuj 
 The government owed much to him in the 
 Fenian rising, against which he spoke with 
 great vigour ; he also did much to encourage 
 the temperance cause. 
 
 CuUoden, or Drummossie Moon, was 
 the scene of the closing effort on the part 
 of the Stuarts to regain the English crown. 
 
Cul 
 
 ( 344 ) 
 
 Cum 
 
 The Pretender, Charles Edward, commanded 
 an army of Highlanders, who were utterly- 
 defeated by the royal troops under the Duke 
 of Cumherland (q.v.). This memorable battle 
 was fought April 1 6, 1746. [Pretender, The 
 Young; Jacobites.] 
 
 Culpepper, Sir Thomas [d. 1541), was 
 a relative of Catherine Howard, and one 
 of those executed on a confession of having 
 committed adultery with her. Sir Thomas 
 Culpepper, it appears, had not only carried on 
 a criminal correspondence with the queen 
 before her marriage, but had had the hardi- 
 hood, when the court was staying at Lincoln 
 in 1941, to get introduced, by the agency of 
 Lady Eochford, into the queen's bed-chamber. 
 On inquiries being made as to the queen's 
 conduct both after as well as before her 
 marriage, Culpepper and Lady Rochf ord were 
 both executed for high treason. 
 
 Cnm'berlaiicl, George Clifford, 3rd 
 Earl op [b. 1558, d. 1605), " one of the most 
 remarkable characters of his age," early dis- 
 played a taste for naval adventure. In 1586 
 he inflicted considerable damage on the Por- 
 tuguese commerce, and two years later com- 
 manded a ship in the attack on the Spanish 
 Armada off Calais. He subsequently engaged 
 in several marauding expeditious against the 
 Spaniards, and in 1598 took Porto Eico. The 
 earl, besides being renowned for his dashing 
 exploits by sea, was an accomplished courtier 
 and a great favourite of the queen, by whom 
 he was made a Knight of the Garter, though 
 his character was not altogether free from 
 stain. " Before his death," says Mr. Cun- 
 ningham, " he had squandered his fortune ; 
 nor, high as he may rank as a man of talent, 
 science, enterprise, and chivalry, is his 
 memory as a husband free from the charge of 
 cruelty." 
 
 Campbell, Britisk .Admirals; Cuimingliam's 
 Liues of Bvninent Englishmen. 
 
 Cnmberland, Henry Clifford, 1st Earl 
 OF {d. 1542), was famous as the only northern 
 noble who remained loyal to the king's cause 
 during the formidable insurrection of 1536, 
 known as the " Pilgrimage of Grace." His 
 successful defence of Skipton Castle against 
 the vigorous attack of the rebels was an im- 
 portant check to their otherwise triumphant 
 progress through the districts north of the 
 Humber, and considerably advanced him in 
 the conBdence and favour of the king. He was 
 created Earl of Cumberland in July, 1525. 
 
 Cum'berlancl, William Augustus, Duke 
 OF (S. 1721, d. 1765), was the second son of 
 George 11. and Queen Caroline. He adopted 
 a military career, and in 1743 was wounded at 
 the battle of Dettingen. In 1745 we find him 
 objecting to his projected marriage with a 
 deformed Dutch princess, and sending to the 
 dying Lord Orford [Walpole] for advice. 
 Orford recommended him to agree, on con- 
 
 dition of receiving an ample establishment, 
 which would at once cause the king to drop 
 the project. The plan was successful. In 
 the same year he was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of the allies in Elanders. He fought 
 with distinguished gallantry at the glorious 
 defeat of Fontenoy. He was then recalled 
 to oppose the advance of the Young Pretender 
 through England, and made Lichfield his 
 head-quarters. He was out-manoeuvred by 
 the insurgents, however, and the Scotch got 
 between him and London. On their retreat 
 from Derby, he started in pursuit, but was 
 defeated in a skirmish at Clifton, and allowed 
 the Highlanders to retire unmolested. After 
 the defeat at Falkirk, he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief in Scotland, and arrived 
 at Holyrood on Jan. 30, 1746. He utterly 
 defeated Charles Edward at CuUoden (q.v.). 
 The defeated Highlanders were treated 
 with great brutality, many of them being 
 put to death in cold blood, and the country 
 was systematically harried. By these cruel- 
 ties the duke gained the title of " the 
 Butcher." The thanks of Parliament, and a 
 pension of ^625,000 a year, were voted him. 
 In 1747 he again commanded in Flanders, 
 but was defeated at the battle of Lawfeldt. 
 Shortly afterwards he transmitted to the 
 French overtures of peace. In 1757 he 
 was sent to command the army in Hanover. 
 He was worsted in July at the battle of 
 Lawfeldt, and his disorganised army being 
 surrounded by the enemy, he was com- 
 pelled to sign a convention at Closter-Seven. 
 " Here," said George II., when he received 
 him, " is my son, who has ruined me and 
 disgraced himself." The duke promptly re- 
 signed his military appointments. For the 
 remainder of his life he lived in seclusion, his 
 chief friend being Henry Fox. In 1765 
 George III., wishing to rid himself of Gren- 
 ville and Bedford, applied to his uncle for 
 help. The latter applied to Pitt, but found 
 that statesman, influenced by Temple, inclined 
 to proposals which could not be accepted. 
 The duke, therefore, turned to "Whig houses, 
 and prevailed on them to form a ministry, 
 with Rockingham at its head. His death at 
 Windsor was remarkably sudden, although he 
 had previously suffered from a paralytic 
 stroke, and his constitution had been utterly 
 broken. " Of aE the members of the royal 
 family," says Mr. Leoky, " with the excep- 
 tion of Queen Caroline, he was the only one 
 who possessed any remarkable ability." 
 
 Walpole, George II. ; Lecky, Hist, of Sng.-; 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Cnm'bria — (1) etymologioally, is a more 
 correct form of Cambria, and equivalent to 
 Cumberland, i.e., the land of the Cymry or 
 Welsh ; (2) historically, is used first in a 
 wider sense to denote the Brythonio district 
 between the Clyde and the Eibble, and west 
 of the Pennine Eange and Ettrick Forest, 
 
Cnm 
 
 ( 345 ) 
 
 Cur 
 
 ■which, retained ita native (Cymric) population 
 after the English Conquest, and heoame in 
 the sixth century a single state ; secondly, in a 
 narrower sense it is confined to the southern- 
 most portion of that district, the modem 
 Cumherland, the northern portion being- 
 called Eeged and Strathclyde. But Strath- 
 clyde (i.e., valley of the Clyde) is also used as 
 equivalent to Cumbria in the wider sense. 
 The dissolution of the Roman power in 
 Britain seems to have led to. a reversion to 
 the primitive divisions of the Britons, hut the 
 constant pressure of the enemy forced them, 
 no leas than the English themselves, to 
 greater union. Hence, by the sixth century, 
 the larger Cumbria was consolidated by 
 lihydderch Hael (561), into a sin^e state. It 
 had already been, according to one theory, 
 the main seat of the power of Arthur and the 
 Gwledigau, had sent Cunedda to Gwynedd, 
 and had produced the Four Bards, Taliesin, 
 Aneurin, Marddyn, and Llywarch Hen. If 
 the Goidel atUl ruled in. much of North 
 Wales, it was the largest homogeneous British 
 state. In conjunction with the Kings of 
 Scots and North 'Welsh, Ilhydd43rch, in 573,. 
 finally defeated the heathen party at the 
 battle of Ardderydi (Arthuret, near Carlisle). 
 He brought Kentigem back from, St. Asaph 
 to found the bishopric of Glasgow. Alcluyd, 
 the modern Dumbarton (fort st the Britons), 
 became at once the northernmost stronghold 
 and capital of the state. Carlisle was the 
 chief fortress of its southern portion^ The 
 Cumbrian state became so powerful that it 
 attempted before long to^ attack the Angles of 
 Northumbria; but the terrible ^thelfrith 
 revenged himself by the conquest of Chester 
 and the massacre of the monks of Bangor 
 Iscoed ; and as the conquests of Edwin 
 included the two Monas, they could hardly 
 have left out " Strathclyde," as Cumbria was 
 now often called.. Whether Cadwallon, the' 
 ally of Penda, was or was nat a Cumbrian 
 cannot be decided ; but his fall, in conjunction, 
 with the severance of the communication be- 
 tween Gwynedd and Cumbria,, prevented the 
 formation of a single great Welsh state. A 
 long gap in Cumbrian history marks the 
 overlordship of the NorthumbriajiBretwaldas. 
 At their fall, kings of the "-Strathclyde 
 Wealas" again appear {e.ff., their deaths are 
 mentioned in 694 and 722), but they possess 
 only local importance ; and the continuance of 
 the Anglian influence in Galloway (q.v.) 
 must have almost cut their state in two. In the 
 ninth century we read of the desolation of 
 Alcluyd by the Danes, and a, later Welsh 
 legend speaks of a migration from the Vale of 
 Clyde to the Vale of Olwyd. But the false 
 etymology involved in the identification of two 
 words sufficiently refutes this unlikely story. 
 In the tenth century a line of Scottish princes 
 became rulers of Cumbria, and, in 946, 
 Edmund of Wessex conquered the whole 
 country. He probably annexed the district 
 
 south of the Derwent, and certainly bestowed 
 all north of that stream on Malcolm, King of 
 Scots, in return for allegiance and help against 
 the Danes. But the connection with England 
 did not cease, at least for the part south of 
 the Solway, which William Rufus, in 1092, 
 annexed to England. Its ruler, Dolfin, was 
 an. Englishman, so that, before the possible 
 colonisation, of Rufus, which revived Carlisle, 
 almost in ruins since Danish devastations in 
 the eighth century, the Cymric character of 
 the district had not been entirely kept up. 
 The county of Cumberland and bishopric of 
 Carlisle were now founded ; but the northern 
 part still remained in the main an appanage of 
 Scotland, and was bestowed by the Scottish 
 kings on their sons. Yet a twelfth, century 
 charter speaks of the " Walenses" as a sepa- 
 rate race, and it is possible that their speech 
 lingesed in remote valleys until the Reforma- 
 tion. The last lemnant of Cumbrian in- 
 dependence wasi confined tO' the Pictish or 
 Goidelio enclave of Galloway, and their 
 amalgamation with the- " Scots" into a single 
 homogeneous nation by the common bond of 
 anti-English feeling was the result of the in- 
 judicious legalism of Edward I. 
 
 The meagre Welsli Chronicles, Annales Cambl-wB 
 and Brut y Tyviysogion, piiblished in tlie Rolls 
 Series, andithe Chronicles of the Picts and Scots, 
 edited by Mr. Skene. In Celtic Scotland Mr. Skene 
 has collected all that is known of the early XJoliti- 
 cal, ecclesiastical, and social history of Gumbria. 
 The FameAuthor's FourAncientBooks of Wales col- 
 lects theremainsofthe possible Cumbrian bards, 
 and some points of its history are luminously 
 discussed in cha^. x. of the IntrodiicHon. See 
 aJso Rhja, CclttC' Brttom,; Paljrave, English 
 Cbmrnonu'ealth, w)1. ii., pp. cccxxv.— eccxxixj ; 
 and Freeman, William, Mufus. rrjj -p. T.] 
 
 Curfew, The, was introduced into Eng- 
 land by William the Conqueror. By this 
 custom a. bell was rung in every town at eight 
 o'clock in winter andat sunset insummer, when 
 aU fires and lights had to be extinguished. 
 This regulation caused a great clamour _ in 
 England, although the custom was at that time 
 almost universal throughout Europe ; it was 
 a call to prayers, an intimation that it was 
 bed-time, and a means of guarding against 
 fire. According to William of Malmesbury, 
 Henry I. allowed candles to be used at 
 court after curfew-bell. The custom of 
 ringing, the curfew as an intimation of the 
 approach of night was continued down to the 
 seventeenth century, or even later, though 
 the obligation to extinguish fires had, of 
 course, been long since abandoned. 
 
 Curia Begis. The name Curia Regis 
 was at different times applied to three dis- 
 tinct bodies :— (1) The feudal assembly of the 
 tenants-in- chief; (2) the Privy Council, 
 organised under Henry I. ; (3) the Court of 
 King's Bench, founded in 1178. (1) In the 
 first signification, the Curia Regis combined 
 the characters of Saxon witan and Norman 
 
Cnr 
 
 ( 346 )• 
 
 Cnr 
 
 feudal court, and constituted the Great 
 ' Council of the Realm, whose consent was 
 required for the imposition of extraordinary- 
 taxes and the enactment of new laws, and 
 whose advice on questions of State policy the 
 king was expected at least to consult. In the 
 presence of this body was undertaken every 
 royal measure of national importance, judicial, 
 financial, executive, and legislative, for as 
 yet no distinction between the difilerent 
 functions of government was recognised ; and 
 thrice «■ year, on the great Church festivals, 
 Christmas, Easter, and "Whitsuntide, the 
 king wore his crown in a solemn session 
 convened at one of the provincial capitals. 
 (2) But such a body was at once too un- 
 wieldy for the prompt despatch of business, 
 and too intermittent to preserve adminis- 
 trative continuity. An inner council soon 
 appeared, the nucleus of which was provided 
 in the royal household, and took shape under 
 Henry I. as the Curia Regis proper. It was 
 practically a committee of the first, entrusted 
 with the administration generally, legislation 
 remaining, of course, with the national 
 council, and composed of the great oflicers 
 of State, Justiciar, Chancellor, Treasurer; 
 the members of the royal household. Con- 
 stable, Marshal, &c. ; a number of clerks, 
 chosen by the crown. This mixed composi- 
 tion was typical of the character of the body, 
 which in difilerent aspects might be regarded 
 as {a) the Privy Council, (A) a Bureau of 
 Administration, (c) a High Court of Justice, 
 and out of which have sprung all the ad- 
 ministrative institutions of the kingdom. 
 In Henry I.'s eyes, finance was at once the 
 end and the means of government. It was 
 in his reign, therefore, that the Curia threw 
 out the first of its many offshoots, the Court of 
 Exchequer, organised by the Great Justiciar, 
 Roger le Peer, Bishop of Salisbury, unless, 
 indeed, the two bodies are parallel develop- 
 ments of the household, sitting in different 
 capacities. From this moment the Curia 
 Regis confines itself mainly to judicial work, 
 and its members are styled Justices. All 
 appeals, such cases of first instance as 
 touched either the royal interest or the 
 rights and conduct of tenants-in-chief, came 
 before this court, whose jurisdiction was 
 further extended by the system of writs to 
 cases in which the customary law of the 
 local courts could give no sufficient remedy. 
 [Justices.] How far the Exchequer and the 
 Curia Regis were co-extensive is uncertain; 
 this at least is known : that every baron of 
 the Exchequer sat also as a justice of the 
 Ouria Regis, and that to the intimate con- 
 nection between the two we owe the system 
 of ^ judicial circuits. The first itinerant 
 visitation by members of the inner council 
 was directed solely to the assessment and 
 collection of the royal dues; but as an im- 
 portant fraction of the revenue was derived 
 from the fines inflicted in criminal cases, one 
 
 duty of the Treasury officer was to enter the 
 shire court, and hold the pleas of the crown. 
 What was begun by the Exchequer from 
 financial considerations, the Curia Regis con- 
 tinued and extended from motives of policy. 
 It was not, however, till the reorganisation 
 under Henry II., after the anarchy of Stephen's 
 reign, that the system became part of the 
 regular judicial maehineiy ; and on the 
 reservation to the Curia Regis of the three 
 assizes of Novel disseisin (disputed claim to 
 land) , Mort d'ancester (inheritance) , Darein pre- 
 sentment (advowsons), regular circuits were 
 established. [Assize.] (3) TheCuriaRegisstill 
 continued to sit collectively, accompanying 
 the king's movements from place to place. In 
 1178 the increasing importance of the judicial 
 work induced Henry to establish a separate 
 committee of five judges to hear the pleas of 
 the crown (criminal actions), who were to be 
 fixed to one spot. This is the origin of the 
 Court of King's Bench, the Curia Regis in the 
 third and most restricted sense, " the judicial 
 committee of the conciliar committee of the 
 full Curia Regis." To art. 17 of Magna 
 Charta is due the separation of the third law 
 court, that of Common Pleas (civil actions), 
 which enacts that "The Common Pleas shall 
 not follow our court, but shall be held in 
 some fixed place." But the complete separa- 
 tion of the three bodies by the establish- 
 ment of a separate staff of justices for each 
 was not accomplished till late in the reign of 
 Henry III. 
 
 The Court of Equity is but another offshoot 
 of the Curia Regis. Petitions for redress of the 
 hardships often inflicted by the common law 
 continued to be heard by the king, in the 
 presence of the Privy Council. As these multi- 
 plied, it soon became the custom for the Chan- 
 cellor to arrange them before their submission 
 to the king, and reject the more extravagant. 
 Insensibly, this preliminary sorting assumed 
 greater prominence, till by the reign of 
 Richard II. it superseded the final examina- 
 tion altogether, and the Chancellor's juris- 
 diction took its place among the regular law 
 courts. 
 
 This fecundity, however, did not alter the 
 character, though it impaired the vitality, of 
 the Curia Regis, which, after an intermittent 
 activity during the Lancastrian period, was 
 organised, on the accession of the Tudors, into 
 the Star Chamber, a supreme court, specially 
 directed against the lawlessness of the great 
 feudal houses; and to this day the Privy 
 Council retains, though it never exercises, 
 its ancient judicial competence- As head of 
 the Executive, the Curia Regis is also the 
 lineal ancestor of the present Privy Council, 
 and its infinitely more important offspring, 
 the Cabinet. 
 
 Stuljbs.Pref.toBeltcdictusylWiiis, vol.1i.(Eons 
 Series) J Heame, fiwt. of England, chap. xi. } 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Gneist, BnQ. Terfa-smga-' 
 geschichte. rxr T? T? T 
 
Cur 
 
 ( 347 ) 
 
 Cus 
 
 Cnrran, John Philpot [h. 1750, rf. 1817), 
 ■was bom of humble parents at Newmarket, 
 county Cork, and in 1775 he was called 
 to the Irish bar. He soon rose to emi- 
 nence. In 1782 he took silk, and in the fol- 
 lowing year was returned by a friend for a 
 close borough in Westmeath. Jle at once 
 took up the popular cause in Parliament, 
 and was soon recognised as one of -the .most 
 brilliant orators in the assembly. In 1785 
 Fitzgibbon, the Attorney-General, challenged 
 him to a duel, on acount of some sarcastic 
 words which Curran had uttered about him 
 in Parliament. The duel .ended without 
 bloodshed, but Fitzgibbon, as Lord Clare, 
 throughout his life did his best to ruin his 
 adversary. In Parliament Curran was, in 
 abUity at least, if not in position, the leader 
 of the "Whig party, and as such he strongly 
 opposed the measures of Pitt's government 
 with regkrd to Ireland. During the last four 
 years of the century Currau's voice was con- 
 stantly heard, both in the courts, defending 
 the leaders of the rebellion, and in Parliament, 
 • loudly protesting against the rDnion. The im- 
 dying hatred of .Lord Clare almost reduced 
 Curran to beggary, since it was a recognised 
 fact that he had.no chance -of winning a case 
 in Lord Clare's court, and practice rapidly 
 left the great orator. JHowever, in 1806, 
 when Fox came into power, and Ponsonby 
 became Lord Chancellor of jreland, Curram 
 was appointed Master of the HoUs. Jn 
 1814 he retired on a pension. He then 
 visited Paris and London, where he became 
 acquainted iwith Home Tooke, Sheridan, and 
 Lord Erskine, his only rival in eloquence at 
 the English bar. He spent the .last few years 
 of his Hfe partly in Ireland, partly in this 
 country; but his health was gradually break- 
 ing down, and in his-enfeebledstate his mind 
 gave way, and he put an end to his life at 
 Chelsea on the 13th Oct., 181"7. " Mr. Curran's 
 place at the Irish bar," says his biographer, 
 "has not lever been approached since his 
 departure. There is no man, inot merely 
 next him,.but near him." 
 
 Phillips, i.i/e of Curran; Plowden, Hisf. df 
 Ireland; Moove, Life of FiU^eraldi; Hardy, I'/e 
 0/ ChaWemont ; Grattam'sJ-tfe; Eroude, ItrglUh 
 in Ireland, 
 
 Cnstoms first appear in England in the 
 thirteenth century, as the duties levied on 
 wine, wool, and general merchandise. The 
 tax on vrine, which was taken in kind, was 
 called pHsage. Wool, the ichief source of 
 Enghsh wealth, was often made'the subject of 
 violent extortion, andthe'exorbitantitoU taken 
 on it was called the maletote. General 
 merchandise was subject to an ad'Valm'emtoVi.. 
 By the Great Charter, art. 41, the king 
 promised liberty of trade according to the 
 ancient and lawful customs, without any male- 
 totes. Much uncertainty prevailed as to the 
 amount which should be levied on merchan- 
 discj until the first Parliament of Edward I., 
 
 1276, granted the king a fixed amount on 
 wool, skins, and leather, which is called the 
 custuivm magna et antiqua. This grant is the 
 constitutional foundation of the customs. 
 To this grant the king, in the Confirmatio 
 Cartarum, 11297, promises to conform. He 
 did not consider that he broke his word 
 by making an arrangement with the foreign 
 merchants for the payment of higher duties 
 both on the export of wool, &c., and on the 
 import of wine and other -merchandise. This 
 increase wais called the,'parv(t, or nova custnma. 
 It was abolished and restored in the reign of 
 -Edward II., and in the next reign became 
 part of the ordinary revenue, and was recog- 
 oiised by statute. The popularity which 
 attended the early part of the French war 
 caused Parliament to grant the king extra- 
 ordinary and" oppressive customs on wool, 
 which amounted tto the maletote. ~A. statute 
 of il340 provided :that this exaction should not 
 be made a precedent, and that the king 
 should take no duties without the consent of 
 his Parliament. During the latter part of 
 his reign he obtained increased customs by 
 arrangement -with the merchants. .At last, 
 after a, considerable struggle, all such 
 arrangements were, in 1362, declared illegal. 
 In the first haU of the fourteenth century 
 the customs on ■.wine and merchandise were 
 taken at a certain rate per 'tun and per pound, 
 by fecial agreement with .merchants and 
 towns. These customs were, in 1373, made 
 the subject of a^grant by Parliament, and are 
 then Bailed tunnage and poundage. From 
 ithe fourth year of Henry IV. to the ninth 
 year of "William III. the duty per pound on 
 all export and import merchandise, except 
 wool,';&c., was Is., and for this cause the term 
 subsidy came to denote a general duty of 
 5 per cent. Henry V. first received the 
 grant of tunnage and poundage for Kfe, and 
 this grant was made ;to all subsequent sove- 
 leigns until the rejgn'of 'Charles I. In spite 
 •of the settlement of .the right to levy customs, 
 -both Mary and Elizabeth acted on their own 
 authority in the matter. Yet so trifling was 
 the exaction in either case, that the very in- 
 .novations of these queens seemed to acknow- 
 ledge the .strength of the claim which 
 Parliament had-so long upheld. James added 
 fresh "impositions," as these arbitrary cus- 
 'toms <were called. These impositions were 
 resisted, but were declared legal by the 
 judges in Bat&'s Case. Their decision was 
 followed by the production in 1608 of a new 
 book of rates, which added imposition to the 
 amount of £70,000 to the lawful customs. 
 Against this usurpation the Commons 
 ' vigorously protested. "When Charles came to 
 the throne, the Commons, for the first time in 
 two hundred years, would not grant tunnage 
 and poundage to the king for life. The king 
 leried the tax without the grant, and (1628) 
 seized the goods of the merchants who refused 
 to pay it. In 1640, however, an Act was 
 
Cus 
 
 (348) 
 
 Cut 
 
 passed (16 Car. I., o. 8), declaring that no such 
 payments ought to be imposed without com- 
 mon consent in Parliament. At the Eestora- 
 tion the customs were again granted to the 
 king for life, and a hook of rates was 
 authorised hy Parliament, and signed hy the 
 Speaker. The settlement of the revenue after 
 the EsYolution closed the history of the 
 political importance of the customs. By 
 9 Anne, c. 6, tunnage and poundage became 
 part of the national income, and was made 
 liable for the public debt ; and in the reign of 
 George II. the last remnant of the old 
 customs was obliterated by the purchase of 
 the right of prisage from the Duke of Grafton, 
 to whose family it had been granted. The 
 system of levying customs by books of rates, 
 which often caused confusion and loss, was 
 abohshedby 27 Geoi.III., C..13, the Customs 
 Consolidation Act,, which provided a simple 
 and uniform scheme of taxation. Since that 
 date several alterations have been made in, 
 the customs.. Among these changes, the most 
 remarkable ajre those efEected by the Customs 
 Tariff Amendment Act of 1860. This was 
 the result of atreaty with France, and by the 
 reduction of the duty on wine efEected by Mr. 
 Gladstone, it has made the light wines of 
 France cheap in England. Beneficial as this 
 Act has been, it falls short in two. lespects of 
 the highest standard of policy as regards 
 customs. It made the regulation of onr 
 finances the subject of a treaty with a foreign 
 country, and it introduced an element of un- 
 certainty into a tax; by levying the duty on 
 wine in proportion to the alcohol it contained. 
 The whole subject of duties on merchandise 
 is regarded in a different light now to that 
 which ruled our poUcy ineoiinection.with the 
 customs a century and a hali ago. Them 
 taxes on commodities were' imposed with a 
 fiew to protecting native industry, and to 
 benefit particular trades. Now the only 
 principle which causes their imposition is the 
 necessity of obtaining revenue,, and no idea 
 exists of trying to favour home produce at the 
 expense of the foreign producer. It was also 
 widely held that a nation, acted wisely in 
 prohibiting or checking' ths' export of useful 
 commodities, and for this reason in early 
 times the export customs formed the principal, 
 and even in later times a considerable,- part 
 of the taxes on merchandise. Sir E. Walpole 
 saw the fallacy of this theory, and made a 
 step towards free trade by abolishing in one 
 year duties on 106 exports and 38 imports. 
 The system of drawbacks, originally looked 
 on simply as a means of encouraging our 
 shipping, has now been perfected by allowing 
 the repayment of the whole import duty on 
 the re-exportation of foreign goods. By the 
 use of bonded warehouses, the merchant is 
 enabled to pay the custom at the time most 
 convenient to himself. This system was con- 
 ceived by Sir E. "Walpole, and carried out in 
 1803. The management of the customs is in 
 
 the hands of a chairman and a board of 
 commissioners (6 Geo. IV., c. 106), who are 
 under the control of the Commissioners of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. History, c. xvli. ; McCulloch's 
 Smith's Wealth of Nations; MoCulloch's hict. of 
 Commerce. [W. H.] 
 
 Custos EiOtulomm is an officer of 
 great antiquity who serves the function of 
 keeper of the records of the sessions of a 
 county. Acts were passed in 37 Henry VIII. 
 (ilo45) and 3 & 4 Ed. YI. (1349) considerably 
 limiting his importance, and the ofiice was 
 finally regplated iu 1688. He must be a 
 justice of the peace, and of the quorum, and 
 is now usually the lord-lieutenant of a county, 
 though the two oflBces are quite distinct, 
 the one being military, the other civU. 
 
 Cutch iS' a native state of India which 
 forms a peninsula to the south of Scinde. 
 The Eao of Cutch entered into an agree- 
 ment with the East India Company in 1809, 
 and concluded treaties with Great Britain in 
 1816. Piracy was largely carried on by the 
 inhabitants, and on this account, and in 
 order to check the misgoverrtment of the 
 province,, the^ Eng'lish intervened and de- 
 posed the Eao. By a treaty with Great 
 Britain made in 1822, the country became 
 tributary to England, and received a Eesi- 
 dent appoinlied by the Bombay government. 
 
 Cuthbert, St; (if. 687), was in all pro- 
 bability a native of Northumbria, and bom 
 in the district which afterwards became the 
 Lothians. Early in life he became a monk, 
 and afterwards prior,, at Melrose, under its 
 first abbot, Eata, one of the disciples of 
 Aidan, and followed him when he was trans- 
 ferred to Eipon. Subsequently,. Eata was 
 appointed Abbot of Lindisf arne, and Cuthbert 
 accompanied him thither as prior, whence he 
 retired to a hermitage on the adjacent island 
 of Fame. At the entreaties of Egfred of 
 Northumbria he quitted hi'S' retreat and 
 allowed himself to. be consecrated Bishop of 
 Lindisfame by Archbishop Theodore (685). 
 Before his death, he again retired to his 
 seclusion at Earne, where- he died, March 20, 
 687. Cuthbert's life while at Melrose and 
 Lindisfame was one long missionary effort. 
 He travelled over all northern Northumbria, 
 and converted great numbers from heathen- 
 ism. His fame was very great in the north, 
 and many miracles were ascribed to his relics. 
 Throughout the Middle Ages his shrine at 
 Durham was. a. great centre of pilgrimage, 
 and he continued to be the favourite saint 
 of northern England. 
 
 The Life of St. Cufhln-t was written by Bede, 
 and tliere is anotlier Life written by an anony- 
 mous and evidently conteraporaneous author. 
 See also Bede's 3Scclesiasiical History. 
 
 Cuthred, King of Wessex (740—754), 
 was a kinsman of .lEthelheard, whom he 
 succeeded. He restored the position of 
 
Cut 
 
 349 ) 
 
 Bac 
 
 Wessex to what it had teen in the days of 
 Ini. In 743, in conjunction with the Mer- 
 cians, he defeated the Britons. In 752 
 Cuthred and his people rose against the 
 yoke of the Mercians, and utterly defeated 
 the Mercian king Ethelhald at Burford, on 
 the herders of Oxfordshire and Gloucester- 
 shire. In the next year he once more de- 
 feated the Britons, and died in 754 or 755, 
 after a prosperous and victorious career. 
 [Wessex.] 
 
 Cuttack. The country on the Coroman- 
 del coast forming the northern portion of 
 Orissa, and lying eastward of Berar. It was 
 conquered hy the Mahrattaa in 1751, and 
 taken from them by the British at the outset 
 of the campaign of 1803, the fort of Cuttack 
 surrendering on Oct. 14 in that year. 
 
 Cntts, John, Lord {d. 1707), served with 
 great gallantry in the wars of the reigns 
 of William III. and Anne. At the battle 
 of the Boyne, he led the English regiments 
 that had served under the States General, 
 and was rewarded hy an Irish peerage. 
 He volianteered for the unfortunate expe- 
 dition against Brest. He led the forlorn 
 hope at the siege of Namur, and for his utter 
 contempt of danger on that occasion obtained 
 the honourable nickname of " the Salaman- 
 der." In 1702 he led the storming party 
 against Fort St. Michael, the stronghold of 
 Venloo ; and at the battle of Blenheim he 
 conducted the assault on the village, but was 
 repulsed with terrible loss. Seeing the 
 strength of the opposition, Marlborough 
 directed him to keep up a, feigned attack, 
 while the main effort was made against the 
 French centre. In 1705 he was made Com- 
 mander-in-chief, and one of the Lord Justices 
 of Ireland. 
 
 Marlborough, Dvfpatches; Macaulay, Hist, of 
 Enyland. 
 
 Cwichelm (*■ 611, d. 636) was the son of 
 Cynegils, King of the West Saxons, and for 
 some time shared the throne of his father. 
 Jealous of the power of Edwin of North- 
 umbria, in 626 he sent off one of his ser- 
 vants with a poisoned dagger to murder that 
 king, whose Ijfe was saved only by the devo- 
 tion of his dependant, Edmer. Two years 
 later Cwichelm and his father were worsted 
 in a battle near Cirencester by the Mercian 
 king Penda. In 636 Cwichelm was baptised 
 at Dorchester by Birinus, and died the same 
 year. 
 
 071111)611116 (Cunobelin) was a British 
 chief, whose capital was at Camulodunum 
 (Colchester) and who, from the number of 
 coiaa bearing his name, seems to have been a 
 very powerful prince. [Coinage.] It is said 
 that one of his sons, Adminius, rebelled 
 against him, and having been banished, by 
 
 his father, sought aid from the Emperor 
 
 Caligula. Another of his sons was the weU- 
 
 known Caractacus. 
 
 Die CasBius ; Wright, The Celt, the Roman, and 
 the Saxon, 
 
 Cymry is the native name of the Welsh. 
 [Celts; Biutons; Wales.] There are ob- 
 jections to the very common use of this word 
 in a more general sense in contrast to Gael, 
 as denoting that great branch of the Celtic 
 race of which the Welsh are the type. 
 
 EhJ'a, Celtic Britain, who suggests Brythons 
 afl a better term for the geueiic seuse of Cymry. 
 
 Cyil6gils, King of Wessex (611—643), 
 was the son of Ceolric, and nephew of Ceol- 
 wuU, whom he succeeded. His son or brother, 
 Cwichelm, seems to have been associated 
 with him in the government. In 614 they 
 fought against the Britons at Bampton, 
 and routed them. They appear to have 
 been hard pressed by the Northumbrians 
 and Mercians, under Edwin and Penda 
 respectively. In 628 Penda attacked Ciren- 
 cester, and a treaty was made there which 
 probably circumscribed the boundaries of 
 Wessex on the north-west. In 635 Cynegils 
 was converted to Christianity by Birinus, and 
 was baptised at Dorchester, his sponsor being 
 the Northumbrian king Oswald, who after- 
 wards became his son-in-law. 
 
 Cyuewulf, King of Wessex (755 ?— 
 784 ?), was descended from Cerdic, and became 
 king on the deposition of Sigebert. He en- 
 gaged in several hard-fought though success- 
 ful, conflicts with the Britons, but at what 
 place and in what year we are not informed. 
 He had a formidable rival in Offa of Mercia, 
 and in 777 the stronghold of Bensington 
 (near WaUingf ord) was captured by that king. 
 In 784(?) Cynewulf was murdered at 
 Morton, in Surrey, by Cyneheard, the 
 brother of the former kirfg, Sigebert. This 
 tragedy is very finely related in the Anglo- 
 Saxon Chronicle, and the story is, as usual, 
 amplified by Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 Cyuric (<^- 560 ?), the son of Cerdic, seems 
 to have been recognised as King of the West 
 Saxons, , conjointly with his father, in 519. 
 He extended his kingdom after his father's 
 death to the west and north, defeating the 
 Britons at Old Sarum, and afterwards fighting 
 a drawn battle with them at a place which 
 has been plausibly identified with Banbury. 
 
 Sacres, Leonard, op Nawobth [d. 1581, 
 " of the crooked back," a powerful gentleman 
 of Northumberland, and the inheritor of the 
 lands of Naworth. Dacres was privy to the 
 Catholic Eebellion of theNorth in 1 569, though 
 he did not take an active part in it, and even. 
 
Dae 
 
 ( 350 ) 
 
 Dal 
 
 sided with the royalista when he saw all was 
 lost. His arrest was, nevertheless, ordered, but 
 could not be carried into execution, owing to 
 the large number of men who assembled at 
 Naworth to protect its lord. On the first op- 
 p rtunity Dacres escaped into Scotland, and 
 subsequently joined the Duke of Alva's army 
 in the Low Countries. 
 
 Aiken, Elizabeth ; Sadler, State Papers. 
 
 Dacres, Lord of Hurstmonceaux [d. 
 1.541) (Lord Dacres of the South), was a 
 young nobleman who, in company with 
 several friends, had engaged in a deer-stealing 
 expedition to the park of an unpopular neigh- 
 bour. During the affray which ensued one 
 of the foresters was killed, and the whole 
 party were brought up for trial, and a verdict 
 of wilful murder was returned. Despite all 
 the efforts of Daeres's friends, Henry VIII. 
 would not consent to spare the young man's 
 life, saying he would deal out equal justice to 
 all ranks. Lord Dacres was accordingly 
 executed in 1541. 
 
 Dsegsastan, or Dawston, was the scene 
 of the great victory won by Ethelfrith of 
 Northumbria (1603) over Aidan, King of the 
 Scots, who was followed by a large force of 
 Irish Picts and Britons. Ethelfrith was 
 assisted by the Dalriads, and gained a signal 
 victory. Dsegsastan is probably Dawston in 
 Eoxb urghshire. 
 
 Dalhousie, 9th Earl op (b. 1770, d. 
 1838), distinguished himself as a soldier 
 in the earlier years of his life. For his ser- 
 vices in the French War, and especially at 
 the battle of Waterloo, he was raised to a 
 peerage in the United Kingdom. In 1816 he 
 was appointed Governor of Nova Scotia, and 
 four years later Governor-General of Canada. 
 More of a soldier than a statesman, he failed 
 to conciliate the democratic party, who were 
 clamouring for reforms. About this time a 
 select committee of the House of Commons 
 declared the grievances of the Canadians to 
 be real, and in 1828 Lord Dalhousie was 
 recalled. 
 
 Dalhousie, James Andrew Brown-Ram- 
 say, 1st Makodis and 10th Earl of [b. 1812, 
 d. 1860), was the third son of the ninth Earl 
 of Dalhousie, and was educated at Harrow 
 and Oxford, where he had for his fellow- 
 students Lord Canning and Lord Elgin, his 
 Successors in the Indian Viceroyalty. He 
 entered the House of Commons young, but 
 was soon called to the Upper House, on his 
 father's death. Under Sir Robert Peel's 
 ministry he was suceeSsivelv Vice-President 
 andPresident (1844) of the Board of Trade— 
 a post in which he perhaps did more than any 
 other statesman for the development of our 
 railway system. On the fall of Sir Robert 
 Peel's government he did not quit office, but 
 was soon appointed Governor-General of 
 India (1848). It was a time of great peril for 
 
 British India, where the Sikhs were threaten- 
 ing much trouble, and in such an emergency 
 Dalhousie determined to be on the scene of 
 danger. After the victories of Goojerat and 
 Moultan, he re-organised the government of 
 the Punjaub, and in 1852, by the capture of 
 Pegu, completed the frontier of British 
 Burmah. The remainder of his term of ofSce 
 was occupied in consolidating the great 
 empire under his rule. Oude and Nagpore, 
 in addition to Pegu and the Punjaub, were 
 brought directly under our government, while 
 the Civil Service was more and more thrown 
 open to all natural bom subjects of the crown, 
 English and Hindoo alike. The administrative 
 departments received fresh energy from his 
 reforms, and the railway system, the tele- 
 graph, and education were fostered by his 
 care. Under the strain of such work his 
 health began to fail, and in 1856 he resigned 
 office, and soon afterwards left Calcutta for 
 Europe. The Indian Mutiny, which so 
 swiftly followed his resignation, was by 
 captious critics of the time attributed to his 
 passion for change ; but Parliament passed a 
 vote of thanks to him for his services, and the 
 government showed its sense of his merits by 
 creating him a marquis. He died soon after his 
 return to England, while still comparatively 
 a young man, in Dec, 1860. 
 
 Duke of Argyle, Xniia wider Balh(yus'e and 
 Caimmj. rx. A. A] 
 
 Dalling, Lord. [See Appendix.] 
 
 Dalriada — Dal-Eiada, " the home of the 
 descendants of Riada " — was (1) a district in 
 Ireland, including the northern half of county 
 Antrim, apparently one of the oldest settle- 
 ments of the Scots among the Picts of Ulster; 
 (2) the name given to the district of Argyle- 
 shire, settled by the immigrant Scots from 
 Ireland. [For the history of the Kingdom of 
 Dalriada, see article on Scots.] 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland, vol. i. 
 
 Dairy, The Battle op, was an en- 
 gagement fought between John of Lorn, a 
 relation of Comj-n, and Robert Bruce. In 
 this engagement the Scottish king distin- 
 guished himself by the slrill with which he 
 moved back his armoured knights from the 
 swarm of half-naked Highlanders, who made 
 the attack upon ground that was essentially 
 unfavourable for the operations of cavalry. 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir Hew (A. 1750, d. 1830), 
 obtained an ensign's commission in the 31st 
 Regiment in 1762. After holding various 
 other commands, he was in 1806 appointed 
 Governor of Gibraltar, where he remained 
 until August, 1808, when he was placed in 
 command of the British army in Portugal. 
 He arrived at head-quarters the day after 
 Wellesley's victory at Vimiero, and super- 
 seded Burrard, who had already superseded 
 Wollesley, and had prevented him from 
 
Dal 
 
 (351 ) 
 
 Dan 
 
 taking full advantage of his victory. On 
 Junot's proposal, terma were very soon made 
 ty Dalrymple with the French, which were 
 emhodied in the Convention of Cintra. The 
 news of that convention was received with the 
 loudest indignation in England, and the three 
 commanders were recalled, and put on their 
 trial. Sir Hew was deprived of his command ; 
 hut his disgrace was of brief duration, and 
 terminated in 1812, when he was restored to 
 the rank of general, while two years later he 
 was made a haronet. In 1818 he was 
 appointed Governor of Blackness Castle, which 
 post he seems to have held up to the time of 
 his death. [Vimieko ; Cintra.] 
 
 CuniiinghEnn, Eminent Englishmen; Napier, 
 Piminsular War. 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir James. [Stair, Vis- 
 count.] 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir John. [Stair, 2nd Vis- 
 count.] 
 
 Dalrymple, Batid. [Hailes, Lord.] 
 
 Dalrymple, Sm James, Master of Stair 
 (4. 1619, d. 1695), was one of the commis- 
 sioners sent to London (1689) to offer the crown 
 of Scotland to William III. He was an able 
 and imscrupulous man, so unpopular that the 
 Scotch Parliament endeavoured to pass a 
 measure disqualifying him from holding 
 office, on the ground that he had assailed the 
 liberties of the country in the previous reigns. 
 His name will, owing to the orders issued by 
 him as Secretary for Scotland, ever be execrated 
 in history, in connection with the Massacre 
 of Glencoe (q.v.). After an inquiry into the 
 matter, he was severely censured by the 
 Estates, who " begged that his Majesty 
 would give such orders concerning him as he 
 might deem necessary for the vindication of 
 his government." Lord Macaulay calls him 
 " one of the first men of his time — a jurist, a 
 statesman, a fine scholar, an eloquent orator, " 
 and considers that his treacherous cruelty to 
 the Macdonalds arose from the fact that 
 regarding them as he did in the light of 
 enemies of law, of industry, and of trade, he 
 came altogether to forget the turpitude of 
 thu means in the excellence of the end. 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir John (J. 1726, d. 1810), 
 was bom in Edinburgh, educated at Cam- 
 bridge, and became an advocate at the Scotch 
 bar, and afterwards a judge of the Scotch 
 Exchequer. He wrote, besides some legal 
 works, Memoirs of Great Britain from the 
 hst Parliament of Charles II. to the Battle of 
 la Hague, 3 vols., 1771. 
 
 .Dalssiel, Thomas, General {d. 1685?), 
 distinguished himself as an officer on the 
 royal side in the Parliamentary wars. He 
 was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, 
 and sent as a prisoner to the Tower, from 
 which, however, he managed to escape to 
 
 Muscovy, where heservedagainst thePolesand 
 Tartars. After the Restoration, he returned 
 home (1665), and was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of Charles II.'s forces in Scotland— a 
 post which he held till his death, excepting 
 for the few days when he was superseded by 
 the Duke of Monmouth, whom Dalziel is said 
 to have refused to serve. He defeated the 
 Covenanters at the battle of Pentland Hills 
 (1666), only losing five men on his side, and 
 after this victory is said by Burnet to have 
 "acted the Muscovite too grossly," threaten- 
 ing to spit and roast all the disaffected. 
 After the battle of Bothwell Bridge (1679), 
 General Dalziel arrived at the royal camp 
 with his commission renewed, and reproached 
 the Duke of Monmouth for his leniency to- 
 wards the insurgents. He was remarkable 
 for the eccentricity of his appearance, and at 
 London, whither he always went once a year 
 to kiss the king's hand, drew around him a 
 rabble of boys to stare at his huge white 
 heard, which, not having been shaved since 
 the death of Charles I., reached to his waist. 
 He died soon after the accession of James II., 
 in the year 1685 or 1686. 
 
 Smitli, JUtmoirs o/ Crichion ; Bumet, History 
 of his Oum Time; Granger, Biographical History. 
 
 D'Amory, Roger {d. 1322), married one 
 of the three sisters of Gilbert of Clare, Earl 
 of Gloucester. In 1317, when war broke 
 out between the Earls of Lancaster and 
 Warenne, Roger joined with the Earl of 
 Pembroke to obtain supremacy in the king's 
 councils. In 1320 Lancaster received his 
 help in his attack upon the Spencers ; and 
 his name is included in a list of peers who 
 received pardon for any illegalities they might 
 have committed in bringing the favourites to 
 justice (1321). His quarrel with the younger' 
 Spencer was probably due to their joint 
 claims in the Gloucester inheritance : for 
 they had married sisters. Later in the same 
 year, when Edward II. took arms, Roger 
 D'Amory was one of the first to feel the 
 effects of the king's recovered strength. 
 His castles were attacked, and before long he 
 fell into the hands of his enemies at Tutbury — 
 a misfortune which he did not long survive. 
 
 Dauegeld, The, was a tax of two 
 shillings on each hide of land, and was levied 
 primarily as a tribute for the Danes, though 
 it continued long after the occasion for which 
 jt was first levied had passed away. It seems 
 originally to have been a tax on cultivated 
 lands, and to have been first levied in the 
 times of Ethelred II., probably for the first 
 time in 991. Edward the Confessor abolished 
 it, but WiUiam the Conqueror seems to have 
 revived it again at a threefold rate of six 
 shillings the hide (1084). This tax was con- 
 tinued until the reign of Henry II. An im- 
 position apparently almost identical in cha- 
 racter with the Danegeld, of two shillings on 
 the hide, formed one of the earliest points of 
 
Dan 
 
 ( 352 
 
 San 
 
 dispute between Henry II. andBecketm 1163; 
 and as from this very year the Danegeld 
 ceased to be a distinct item in the kings 
 revenue, it is inferred that the Danegeld was 
 thus abolished by the energetic opposition of 
 the archbishop. From this time it was for 
 some years represented in the accounts by a 
 tax, under the name of donum, or auxilium 
 [Aid], which, according to Dr. Stubbs, was 
 still levied on a new computation of hidage, 
 till under Richard I. it acquired tke new 
 name of carucagej^q.v.l). 
 
 Stubbs, Const, fl'st. ; rreeinan, Norman Con- 
 quest, vol. iv., 
 
 ' Banelagh (Danelaw, or Denalagu). 
 The name given to that part of England 
 where Danish blood, customs, and laws had 
 to a greater or less extent modified, or 
 usurped the place of, the corresponding 
 Anglian features. Roughly speaking, we 
 may say that the Danish influence gradually 
 lessened as the distance from Yorkshire in- 
 creased. The extent of Daneland varied 
 at different periods. The great stretch of 
 country that was in later times included under 
 the general name of the Danelagh seems to 
 have been due to three, if not four, different 
 colonisations. First came the settlement in 
 Deira, which, beginning with the conquest of 
 York in 867, was consummated when Halfden 
 separated from the southern here in 875, 
 and next year divided Deira among his host. 
 The southern part of this province may be 
 considered as the very heart of the settle- 
 ment, the district where the Danes were most 
 numerous. Here the typical Danish endings 
 thorpe and caster and by occur in the 
 greatest profusion. But the Danes do not 
 appear to have spread into Lancashire in 
 any numbers, and the Norse names in 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland are pro- 
 bably due to invasions of another time 
 and family. Nor do the Danes seem to 
 have colonised beyond the Tees. Across 
 this boundary river, with a few excep- 
 tions, ^the tons and the hams are the 
 rule, and it is said that only four bys are 
 to be found north of the last-named river. 
 Beyond its banks are Chester-le-Street and 
 Chesterwood ; Stockton and Middleham take 
 the place of Doncaster, Whitby, and Barwick. 
 But even within the more strictly Danish 
 districts of the north, we must not suppose an 
 extirpation of the Anglian inhabitants. These, 
 being very near by blood and language to their 
 conquerors, came in merely as new lords, with- 
 out any violent change, to an entirely fresh 
 state of things. So CoUingham lies close by 
 Netherby and Alverthorpe by Wakefield, and 
 Chester House not very far from North Aller- 
 ton. The second great Danish colony was that 
 of Lincoln, which seems to have spread down 
 to the borders of Holland (a district distinctly 
 non-Danish in its local nomenclature) , and is 
 marked by the same general features as the 
 
 colony in Deira, only in a less degree. The 
 heart of this settlement seems to have been 
 in the Lindsey uplands. The partition of this 
 part of the country took place probably in 
 877. The colonisation of Lindsey seems 
 to be distinct from that which included 
 Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, and North- 
 ampton, and which, in some parts, even 
 extended a few miles beyond Watling Street. 
 In later years this settlement appears in 
 history as embracing Lincoln, and is then 
 known as the " Five Boroughs." The fourth 
 and last important Danish conquest was that 
 of East Anglia and Essex. But here the 
 colonisation must have been very slight. The 
 typical Danish endings are comparatively rare 
 both in Norfolk and Suffolk, and there is only 
 one district that is largely characterised by the 
 bt/ termination: that lying round the mouth 
 of the Yare. Such were the three or four great 
 divisions of the Danish settlements in Eng- 
 land, and their furthest extent is marked by 
 the Treaty of Wedmore between Alfred and 
 Guthrum, as up the Thames to the Lee, along 
 the Lee to its source, then to Bedford, and 
 thence up the Ouse to Watling Street. But 
 the whole of this territory can never have 
 been in any strict sense Danish, and the 
 greater part was gradually won back, and in- 
 corporated with the West Saxon monarchy. 
 Under Edward the Elder, the greater part of 
 Mercia and Essex was recovered ; East Anglia 
 submitted in 921, as did the Danish earldom of 
 Northampton; while in 941, the Five Boroughs 
 were finally won for the West Saxon crown. 
 Meanwhile, the Danish kingdom of the 
 north had been tottering, and was deprived 
 of its independence by Edred (854). 
 
 There are, unfortunately, very few materials 
 remaining from which to reconstruct the 
 special features even of those divisions of the 
 Danelagh where the Scandinavian influence 
 was strongest. The two great settlements of 
 Deira and Lindsey were divided into ridings, 
 or trithings, and these again sub-divided 
 into wapentakes — a term which corresponds 
 with the hundreds of the south. The court 
 of the trithing was superior to that of the 
 wapentake, and this arrangement has been 
 considered to point to a systematic division of 
 the land, more especially as, in Yorkshire, all 
 three ridings converge towards the town of 
 York. In Domesday, Leicestershire, Notting- 
 hamshire, and Derbyshire appear as divided 
 into wapentakes, but the trithing, as was to 
 be expected, is not to be found in these 
 counties. Northamptonshire and Rutland 
 had both wapentakes and hundreds ; while, 
 the East Anglian counties had neither 
 trithing nor wapentake. East Anglia was for 
 a time governed by its own Danish king, as 
 was Deira in the north ; but there does not 
 appear to have been any such dignity in 
 Lindsey or the Five Boroughs, though each of 
 the five towns may have had its own army, 
 with its own earl, and the occurrence of 
 
Dan 
 
 ( 353 ) 
 
 Dan 
 
 twelve lawmen in Lincoln and Stamford may 
 perhaps point to a similar form of govern- 
 ment in Leicester and the other two towns. 
 The difference in law between Danish and 
 West Saxon Britain cannot have lieen very 
 great. " The customs of compurgation, wer- 
 geld, and other pecuniary compositions for 
 the breach, of the peace, were common to 
 both races. But, while by Alfred's treaty 
 with Guthrum, English and Danes were in 
 East AngUa reckoned equally dear, in York- 
 shire, the wergeldof the Danish AoW was gi-eater 
 than that of the Angliau or Saxon thegn, 
 Mr. Robertson considers that the Northern 
 Danes " eradicated every vestige of proprie- 
 tary rights in the districts actually colonised," 
 whereas the Eastern Danes quietly settled down 
 alongside of the earlier Anglian inhabitants ; 
 and Dr. Stubbs has noticed how fully the 
 allodial tenure must have been reinstated in 
 Yorkshire and East Anglia. But in any 
 case, however trifling they may have been, 
 certain easily recognisable distinctions did 
 separate the laws and customs of the Danelagh 
 from those of Mercia and Wessex. It is to 
 this fact that Edgar alludes when he wills 
 that " with the Danes, such laws should stand 
 as they best may choose; " or, again, when he 
 bids the Danes inflict punishment " according 
 to their law." Canute recognises the same 
 distinction, which re-appears even after the 
 Conquest, till it vanishes away during the 
 wars of Stephen. With Henry II. the king's 
 justice was in every land, and the historians 
 of his reign, in using the term, show them- 
 selves uncertain what shires belong to this 
 division. 
 
 The following are the shires reckoned in 
 the Danelagh at different periods : — Yorkshire, 
 Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Nottinghamshire, Lin- 
 colnBhire, Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Rutland, 
 Northamptonshire, Cambridgeshire, Hunting- 
 donshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, 
 Hertfordshire. [Danes.] 
 
 Robertson, ScfftlaiKl nnder her Early Kings; 
 Stubbs, Constitutional History ; Freeman, Nm-- 
 nan Conquest; Green, The Conquest of England ; 
 Tborpe, Ancient Laws and Institutes of England; 
 Worsaae, Danes in England ; I. Tiiylor, Words and 
 Places; Streatfeild, Lincolnshire and the Danes. 
 [T. A. A.] 
 
 Danes (also called Northmen, orWiKiNGs) 
 are geuerically the Scandinavian freebooters 
 and immigrants (not only those from Den- 
 mark proper), whose incursions and settle- 
 ments fill a large space in English history 
 from the eighth to the eleventh century. 
 
 Mr. Freeman has distinguished three stages 
 of Danish invasion, in which the objects were 
 plunder, settlement, and conquest respectively. 
 (1) The first stage begins with the devasta- 
 tion of Northumbria, in 787. Every year saw 
 fresh swanns of pirates pillaging the coasts, 
 and sometimes penetrating far inland. Not 
 only England, but all Northern Europe, was 
 exposed to these inroads, and as the triumphs 
 H;sT.-12 
 
 of Charles the Great had made access to 
 North Germany difficult, it was by sea that 
 they commonly went on their forays. Their 
 object was mainly plunder. Settlement or 
 conquest was impossible. Scandinavia was 
 cut up into so many petty states, that the 
 necessary degree of cohesion was hardly yet 
 obtainable for combined efforts. Sated 
 with booty, the sea-kings returned to their 
 native dales and fjords, to sally forth again 
 at the approach of summer. Fierce heathens 
 as yet, they destroyed every Christian shrine 
 and sanctuary, spread universal misery and 
 want, and added a new and terrible danger to 
 the many terrors of early mediaeval times. 
 (2) "Within a century of the first inroads 
 of the Wikings, a great revolution in Scandi- 
 navia began a new era. Great kings arose in 
 the north, who subjected to themselves the 
 wide districts that became known as Norway, 
 Sweden, and Denmark. The Juris or petty 
 kinglets who ruled each harad (district or 
 county) of Scandinavia were crushed into de- 
 pendence on a new centralising national power. 
 Harold the Fair-haired (Harfagr) in Norway, 
 Gorm the Old in Denmark, raised themselves 
 by sheer personal vigour into the position of 
 kings of the whole land. Eric of Upsala, to 
 a lesser extent, made every district of Sweden 
 and Gottland acknowledge the political and 
 religious supremacy of the protector of the 
 great sanctuary of Upsala. It was the same 
 process that was consolidating England into 
 a single state, and which afterwards became 
 the source of the national idea. But as in 
 England and Gei-many, the new development 
 proved a deadly foe to the primitive Teutonic 
 polity, which had survived tiU the eighth 
 century in Scandinavia, just as it had been de- 
 scribed by Tacitus in the first century in Ger- 
 many. All conservative instincts revolted 
 against the degradation of the sovereign jarl 
 to the condition of personal subordination to 
 the new monarch. The best and bravest of 
 the Northmen abandoned their native land, 
 and sought to win by their swords a new 
 home for their old polity. Hence the great 
 Scandinavian migrations of the ninth century. 
 Again the Northmen poured into England, 
 seeking, like the English themselves thi-ee 
 centuries earlier, a definite settlement. The 
 second half of the ninth century is the limit 
 of this period ; at its close half Britain was 
 Danish. The formidable alliance of Danes 
 and West Welsh, which Egbert crushed at 
 Hengestesdun, perhaps marks the beginning 
 of the change. Under Ethelred I. of Wessex 
 the crisis was reached. Between 867 and 869 
 Northumbria, long distracted by anarchy, 
 accepted as monarch the dependent of the 
 pagan invaders. In 868 Mercia was overrun, 
 and in 870 the martjTdom of the sainted King 
 Edmund attested the completeness of their 
 conquest of East Anglia. In 871 the ruling 
 kingdom of the West Saxons was invaded. 
 A brilliant series of hard-fought battles 
 
Dan 
 
 (354) 
 
 Dan 
 
 taught the invader that Wessex was not so 
 easy a prey as the subject states. When 
 Ethelred died in the middle of the contest, 
 his hrother Alfred kept up the struggle. He 
 succeeded in clearing his own territory at the 
 expense of the overlordship won by Egbert. 
 But Deira, Northumbria, and East Anglia 
 were regularly occupied and symmetrically 
 divided among the conquerors with the same 
 numerical precision as marks the allotment of 
 Iceland. A fresh invasion of Wessex in 878 
 reduced Alfred to the lowest pitch of degra- 
 dation, but his marvellous revival led to the 
 Treaty of Wedmore, that acknowledged the 
 status quo, and gave the Danes all the land 
 north-east of Watling Street (i.e., Chester to 
 Hertford), and the Lea and Lower Thames. 
 Within this Danelagh a, new Scandinavia 
 arose; and a new swarm of haraclskonmigr, 
 like Gutharm of East Anglia, seemed to undo 
 the work of the Pendas and Edwins. North 
 of Deira an English line continued to reign 
 in Bamborough. While this was going on 
 in England, other settlemeuts were being 
 effected in the north and west. Fresh swarms 
 of Wikings, who fled " from the t)Tanny of 
 Harold Fairhair," colonised the Orkneys, 
 Shetland, Faroe, Hebrides, and the southern 
 isles as far as Man, and in Sutherland and 
 CaithAess effected a settlement on the main- 
 land. Indignant at their desertion, Harold 
 went in person to subdue them to his sway. 
 The boldest sought a remoter home in the 
 hitherto desert Iceland, and thence in Green- 
 land and Vinland (Massachusetts) are said to 
 have established the first European colonies in 
 the New World. Others went to the east coast 
 of Ireland, where such names as Waterford 
 and Wexford perpetuate the memory of the 
 Wiking state. Thence they inflicted severe 
 blows on Wales and Strathclyde. The abun- 
 dance of fords, holms, and garths in the region 
 round Milf ord Haven testifies that the wander- 
 ing sea-king found amidst the deep inlets of 
 south-western Dyfed the likeness of the fjords 
 of his northern home. Fainter traces of a pos- 
 sible settlemect in Anglesea, clearer ones of 
 an occupation of the lands round Solway Firth, 
 mark the ubiquity of the sea-kings' ravao-es. 
 Sometimes, as in the Orkneys and Shetlands, 
 and in the extreme north of Scotland, they 
 drove away the old Celtic inhabitants. In 
 others they displayed that capacity for assimi- 
 lation with the subject race that always marked 
 their descendants. Outside the bounds of 
 Britain, similar colonising bands won Nor- 
 mandy from the Oarolings, and effected smaller 
 settlements on other parts of the Gaulish 
 coast. Eastwards over the Baltic, Rurik and 
 his Wikings founded a dynasty in Russia, 
 whence the waranger carried the terror of the 
 Scandinavian name to the court of the Eastern 
 Caesars. The Peace of Wedmore began a new 
 period in the relation between English and 
 Danes. For a century we hear little of fresh 
 invasions from beyond sea, but a constant 
 
 war went on between the Danes in England 
 and the West Saxon monarchs who endea- 
 voured to subdue them. Even the constant 
 devastations of the "black pagans," which 
 laid waste Carlisle, and harried with fearful 
 effects Wales after the death of Howel Dha, 
 were the work mostly of Danish settlers in 
 Ireland, or of colonists among the Brythons 
 themselves. The steps of this new struggle 
 are as follows : Alfred rested content with 
 the acknowledgment of his overlordship and 
 the recognition of Christianity among the 
 Danish settlers. Edward the Elder and his 
 sister ^thelflsed, the " Lady of the Mercians," 
 went a step farther by building a strong line 
 of fortress along the frontier of the Danelagh, 
 which prevented further invasions of Wessex 
 and West Saxon Mercia, and were starting- 
 points for the subjection of the sons of the' 
 Wikings. Athelstan exceeded this by estab- 
 lishing friendly relations with the princes of 
 Scandinavia, by defeating the great confe- 
 deracy' of Danes and Celts at Brunauburh, and 
 by beginning the direct re-conquest of the 
 lands ceded at Wedmore. Edred, or Dunstan 
 his minister, completed the process by the 
 conquest of Northumbria and the assumption 
 of imperial titles. Edgar, called first to 
 power by the northern and Danish haU of the 
 nation, consolidated the process by renewing 
 the liberal, yet effectual, policy of Dunstan. 
 Under him, the Danes became Englishmen, 
 and the Danelagh a merely legal distinction. 
 The re-conquest was thus completed. With 
 Ethelred the Unready everything went 
 wrong, and before long the dangers of the 
 eighth and ninth century were revived by 
 fresh pluuderings of new Wiking hordes from 
 Scandinavia. But the first stage thus renewed 
 soon led to the second coming back, and the 
 kings of the north were now too powerful to 
 brook subj'ects establishing new Normandies 
 or Icelands at their expense. Hence they 
 resolved to take part in these expeditions of 
 plunder and settlement, and thut Mr. Free- 
 man's third stage of political conquest, a 
 stage never attained on the Continent, begins. 
 The King of all Denmark now sets to work 
 to conquer all England. After many failures, 
 Swegen succeeded in his attempt, and handed 
 down his power to his greater son, Canute, who 
 reigned as legal King of England with theassent 
 of the English people, which, if formal at first, 
 became ultimately as real as any such popular 
 recognitions were, and was only withdrawn 
 when the quarrels and misconduct of Hartha- 
 canute and Harold led to the restoration of 
 the West Saxon line in Edward the .Confessor. 
 The really important Danish period of 
 English history now ends ; but Wiking 
 forages were still not unknown, and expe- 
 ditions of Danish and Norse princes still con- 
 tinued for nearly a century. In England, the 
 great invasion of the heroic Harold Ilardrada 
 in 1066 might, if successful, have placed 
 another Danish dynasty on the throne. All 
 
Dan 
 
 ( 355 ) 
 
 Dan 
 
 througli the Conqueror's reign similar, if 
 iainter, assaults were feared in the nominal 
 interest of the English cause. The extra- 
 ordinary career of Magnus of Norway among 
 the Western Isles, ending in his war in Angle- 
 sea with the Earls of Chester and Shrewsbury 
 in 1098, was the last exploit of the Wikings 
 that has any direct relation to English history. 
 Brian Boroimhe's victory of Clontaif (1014) 
 ■was the death-blow to the Scandinavian states 
 in Ireland. But in Scotland, though Caith- 
 ness was annexed in 1196, it was not till 1263 
 that the battle of Largs put an end to their 
 capacity for aggression, and led to the annex- 
 ation of the Western Islands to Scotland ; but 
 they retained their ecclesiastical dependence 
 on Trondhjem tiU the fifteenth centuiy, when 
 also the Orkneys and their dependencies were 
 practically handed over to James III. 
 
 Apart fi'om the general misery and want, 
 these plunderings were too irregular to leave 
 any deeply-seated effects behind them. A 
 retrogression towards barbarism, the decline of 
 learning and culture that attended the sack of 
 the Mercian abbeys, a partial forcing on of the 
 feudalising tendency as best adapted for de- 
 fence, is all that can safely be ascribed to them. 
 Little positively can be affirmed of the results 
 of the Danish Conquest, either on the nation 
 generally or on those special districts which 
 became Danish by the Treaty of Wedmore. 
 That they had a bracing effect upon the nation 
 can safely be coniectured, but Mr. Robertson's 
 argument that " a greater amount of freedom 
 existed in the Danelagh than in Wessex and 
 English Mercia " is based on too imperfect an 
 induction to be safely admitted as a proved 
 fact. Still, there can be no doubt that the 
 advent of a new race, whose very object in 
 emigration was to preserve their old Teutonic 
 poHty unstained by the innovations of Har- 
 fagr, did largely tend to strengthen at a time 
 of weakness the traditional, national, and 
 Teutonic constitution of England, and so in 
 this respect to retard the territorialising 
 tendency. On the other hand, however, the 
 effect of the increased militarism which 
 foreign invasion necessitated was directly 
 feudal. If the Danes put off the unity of 
 England by undoing the work of Offa, Ed- 
 win, and Egbert, they made it more certain 
 in the end by the effacement of tribal distinc- 
 tions, and by the consolidation of what re- 
 mained EngMsh, which directly followed the 
 struggle with them. But it is very impro- 
 bable that the Danes introduced many definite 
 changes in law or custom. The peculiar 
 usages of the Danelagh may as much be 
 Anglian as Danish. Anyhow, the fact that 
 the Danelagh was a territory, within which 
 all of whatever race acknowledged the 
 "Danish custom," shows that absence of 
 personal law is important in English history. 
 The Danes never dispossessed the Anglian 
 population; their institutions, so far as we 
 know them, were fundamentally the same as 
 
 the English. As soon as they became Chris- 
 tians they were practically Englishmen, just 
 as the Normans became Frenchmen, only in 
 both cases there was a superior vigour, a sur- 
 vival of the old Wiking days. Traces in local 
 nomenclature; the substitution of "by" for 
 "tun;" the "forces," "nesses," "fords," and 
 I' holms" of North England; the division 
 into wapentakes and ridings, are clearly 
 Danish; but such effects are purely super- 
 ficial. The same thing took a new name. 
 The wite, the doom, the ealdorman, the frith, 
 became the lahslit, lab, jarl, and grith. But 
 as the Northman became Fi-ench in Noi-mandy, 
 60 he became Anglian in Mercia and Goidelic 
 in Man — which, though the very centre of 
 Norse power, retains to this day its Celtic 
 speech, while half the place-names of the island 
 keep their original form. Only in the region 
 of government where a thoroughly Norse in- 
 stitution was superimposed on a Celtic polity, 
 to the extinction of the latter, is the Danish 
 influence clearly displayed. In the Hebrides 
 the clans survived the Norse jarls, although 
 the local names betray Norse influence. We 
 may conjecture that the Danish settlement 
 began the series of events that has made 
 South Pembrokeshire an English-speaking 
 district. In Orkney and Shetland, Caith- 
 ness and Sunderland, alone did the Conquest 
 extend so thoroughly as to supersede the 
 old language for one which, under later 
 influences, easily became English. Though 
 great changes followed Canute's domination, it 
 is very hard to say what part of them followed 
 on the introduction of Northern customs and 
 institutions. Even the introduction of huscarls 
 added no new element to English develop- 
 ment. No one now believes that Canute's 
 " forest-law " was Danish. Canute's idea of a 
 northern empire could more easily be got from 
 the history of Edgar than from any precedents 
 of anarchic Scandinavia. In fact, England 
 had more influence on Denmark and Norway 
 than these latter had on her. Canute's reign is 
 of the greatest political importance, as pro- 
 ducing on a small scale the same tendencies 
 that were afterwards developed to a greater 
 extent by the Norman Conquest. But only 
 very indirectly can Danish influence be said 
 to be a factor in this process. The Northern 
 antiquaries, who refer every point of similarity 
 with their own state to Danish influence on 
 England, ignore how much both have in 
 common, and the assimilative capacity of a 
 barbarous but vigorous race in contact with 
 one of superior, though only slightly superior, 
 civilisation. 
 
 "Worsaae's Vanes and Norwegians in England, 
 Scotland, and Irelamd is the fullest special worlc 
 on this object, hut its nsefulnesa is impaired 
 by the readiness with which every English insti- 
 tution is assigned to a Scandinavian original, 
 Stubbs's Constftutionol History, i. 5 77, gives an 
 exhaustive summary of the general effects of 
 the Danish invasions. Cf. Eobertson, Scotland 
 ■uniJer her Early Kings, ii. , Essay on the Dane Law ; 
 and Freeman, 'Norman Conquest, especially for the 
 
Ban 
 
 ( 356 ) 
 
 Dar 
 
 reign of Canute. Konrad Maurer, whose Island 
 gives the best account of the purest form of 
 Scandinavian polity developed in isolation, has 
 also, in his Kritische Veberschau, treated parts of 
 the subject with great discrimination. For the 
 Scindinavians at home, Snorro's Seimskringla, 
 translated by Laing, abridged in Carlyle's Early 
 Kingn of Jforaiai/, is the great authority, and 
 Dahlmanu's GeschicUe von Datwiemarfc a good 
 modern account. I'or the islands. Hunch's 
 edition of Chronicon Begum Manni(B and Ander- 
 son's Ofhipy inga Saja are important. Cf. Skene's 
 Celtic Scodand. especially i. 302, 325—6, 338, 386, 
 482. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Dangerfield, Thomas (rf. 1685), the 
 inventor of the " Meal-Tub Plot" (q.v.), was 
 a man of profligate life, -who had been more 
 than once branded, whipped, and imprisoned 
 for felony. His disclosures implicating the 
 Presbyterian leaders were not believed, and 
 his retractation and subsequent accusation of 
 the Catholics led fortunately to no Judicial 
 murders, as in the case of his fellow-informers, 
 Oates and Bedloe. [Popish Plot.] On the 
 accession of James II., Dangerfield was con- 
 victed of libel in connection with the Meal- 
 Tub Plot, and was put in the pillory and 
 whipped. On his way back to prison, he was 
 brutally assaulted by a Roman Catholic lawyer 
 named Francis, and a few days afterwards 
 died. 
 
 D'Arblay, Madame {b. 1752, d. 1840), 
 was the marriage name of Frances Burney, 
 the daughter of Dr. Johnson's friend, Charles 
 Burney, and the authoress of Evelina, Cecilia, 
 &c. Her Memoirs, which were first published 
 in 1842, are of some value for the informa- 
 tion they afford us concerning the court of 
 George III. 
 
 Darcy, Thomas, Lorb (d. 1539), was a 
 faithful subject of the crown through- 
 out the reign of Henry VII. During the 
 Cornish outbreak of 1497, being made one 
 of the royal commissioners appointed for a, 
 thorough investigation of the various cir- 
 cumsbmccs of the rebellion, he showed his 
 zeal for the king by the merciless severity 
 of his proceedings. Later on, in the same 
 year, Darcy accompanied the Earl of Surrey 
 in his hasty march to the relief of Norham 
 Castle, then closely besieged by the Scotch 
 under James IV. and Perkin Warbeck; 
 and it was presumably as a reward for his 
 services on this occasion that he was ajj- 
 pointed to the Constableship of Bamborough 
 Castle, and in 1498 to the Captaincy of the 
 town of Berwick and the Wardenship of the 
 East and Middle Marches of Scotland. 
 Darcy's suspected sympathy with the insur- 
 rection that broke out in Lincolnshire in 
 1537, and his unmistakable co-operation with 
 the Yorkshire nobles in the popular rising 
 known as the " Pilgrimage of Grace," which 
 immediately succeeded the Lincolnshire re- 
 volt, were circumstances which at once 
 singled him out for the vengeance of Thomas 
 Cromwell. A very brief examination was 
 
 sufficient to prove Darcy's treasonable con- 
 nection with the rioters of 1537, and he was 
 accordingly beheaded June 20, 1539. [Pil- 
 grimage OF Grace.] 
 
 Bacon's Life of Henry VII. ; Froude, Hist, of 
 England. 
 
 Dardanelles, The Passage of the, was 
 accomplished in 1807 by Sir John Duck- 
 worth, who thus lent considerable aid to the 
 Russian troops invadiiig Moldavia and Wal- 
 lachia. A desultory fire was opened on the 
 English ships from both the European and 
 Asiatic sides of the Straits, but without much 
 effect. An ultimatum was sent to the Turkish 
 government, which opened negotiations so 
 as to save time. So successful and speedy 
 were their defences that the English admiral 
 determined at last to retrace his steps (March 
 1, 1807) — a feat which he accomplished under 
 heavy fire. Admiral Duckworth then con- 
 tented himself with blockading the Strait's. 
 This expedition, though unsuccessful in its 
 results, was well planned, and calculated, had 
 it succeeded, to have strengthened very 
 materially the resistance offered by Russia 
 to Napoleon. 
 
 Darien Company, The. After found- 
 ing the Bank of England in 1694 [Banking], 
 Robert Paterson conceived the idea of inau- 
 gurating a company in which the Scotch 
 should find a field for their enterprise equal 
 to that possessed by the English in the East 
 India Company. The trade with Eastern 
 and Southern Asia had long been passing round 
 by the Cape, and was virtually in the hands of 
 this great Company. Paterson therefore argued 
 that by establishing a colony at Darien, the 
 Eastern world might more directly exchange, 
 its products with the Western. In 1695 an 
 Act was passed in the Scottish Parliament, 
 giving to the newly -formed African Company, 
 whose directors were equally divided between 
 England and Scotland, special and peculiar 
 powers to make settlements and build cities, 
 harbours, and fortifications in Asia, Africa, 
 or America. They were likewise authorised to 
 make alliances with distant powers in these 
 three parts of the world, and to defend them- 
 selves if attacked ; while to restrain private 
 adventurers, all other Scotchmen were pro- 
 hibited from trading in the districts occupied 
 by the said company. But when the news of 
 this concession reached England the Parlia- 
 ment at Westminster was loud in condemning 
 such unwarranted privileges granted to the 
 Northern kingdom, and William was forced 
 to disown his Commissioner's Act, and with- 
 draw, as King of England, the charter which 
 as King of Scotland, he had grantt:d his repre-' 
 sentative. The result of this outcry was that 
 the English capital was withdi'awn from the 
 scheme, and its whole burden thrown on the 
 Scotch, who soon subscribed a nominal sum of 
 £400,000, of which, however, it appears that 
 only a little more than half was actually paid 
 
Dar 
 
 (367) 
 
 Dar 
 
 up. It was not all at once that Paterson made 
 known the exact spot at which he would fix 
 his great station, and even when the fleet was 
 ready to sail, in 1698, its destination was not 
 precisely known. A few vessels had been 
 procured from Amsterdam and Hamburg, the 
 largest of which would have been one of the 
 smallest in the EngHsh navy, and the expedi- 
 tion set sail under the guidsmce of a council of 
 seven. The cargo laid in seems to have been 
 just the things which would not be wanted 
 by the inhabitants of the region to which 
 they were being sent. Huge periwigs, heavy 
 woollen stuffs, and hundreds of English Bibles 
 were scarce likely to meet the wants of the 
 Spaniards or Indians dwelling in a tropical 
 cUme. After suffering some privation for lack 
 of provisions, the fleet anchored off' the Isthmus 
 of Darien, and taking possession of the country, 
 called it New Caledonia, and at once com- 
 menced to dig trenches for their new city of 
 New Edinburgh. Negotiations were opened 
 with the natives, and the representative plan of 
 government which had been decided upon at 
 home was commenced to be eai-ried into effect. 
 Meanwhile the site of the new settlement 
 became known in Europe; the Spanish am- 
 bassador was loud in his complaints, and pre- 
 parations were made in the Spanish ports for 
 an expedition against the intruders. But in 
 Scotland the frenzy increased, and in August, 
 1699, four more ships were despatched to the 
 isthmus, with thiiteen hundred men on board. 
 But by the time the new expedition reached 
 its destination the preceding one had disap- 
 peared. Unable to toil in the tropical heat, 
 and unaccustomed to tropical foods, the Scotch 
 settlers perished by scores, till at last the sur- 
 vivors, disregarding Patersou's entreaties to 
 be left with a few companions to welcome the 
 reinforcements from home, put off for New 
 York ; and four months later the second expe- 
 dition found the site of New Edinburgh a 
 wilderness. It was in vain that they at- 
 tempted to reconstruct the colony. Dissensions 
 broke out, and mortality was high ; and to 
 crown all, a Spanish squadron anchored off 
 their walls. With great diflSculty a negotia- 
 tion was opened between men of two nations 
 who seem not to have had any acquaintance 
 with each other's language, and by the 
 middle of April the Scotch party had set sail 
 for home, having alreadj-, in little more than 
 four months, lost nearly a quarter of their 
 number. 
 
 A striMiig account is ^ven in Macaulay, Kist. 
 of England. 
 
 Darlington, Chaklotte Sophia Kil- 
 MAN'SEGGE, Countess of {d. 1730), was one 
 of the mistresses of George I. In 1721 
 she was created Countess of Leinster, and in 
 the following year Countess of DarUngton. 
 We find her, with her sister Madame de 
 Platen (in opposition to the rival mistress, 
 the Duchess of Kendal), supporting Carteret 
 in his struggle for power with Townshend and 
 
 Walpole. "She was," says Lord Stanhope, 
 " younger and more handsome than her rival-; 
 but, like her, unwieldy in person and rapacious 
 in character. From her great size she was 
 called ' the Elephant.' " 
 
 _Damley,HENiiy Stuaut, Lord {i..loil,d. 
 1567), was the son of the Earl of Lennox and 
 Lady Margaret Douglas, a niece of Hem-y VIII. 
 In 1565 Mary of Scotland, his cousin, saw and 
 at once fell in love with him. The marriage 
 was celebrated in the summer of the same 
 year, in spite of -s-iolent opposition on the 
 part of Murray and the Protestants, who 
 viewed the union of their queen with a 
 Homan Catholic family with gi-eat distrust. 
 Damley was created Duke of Albany, and 
 was soon aftei-wards, by order of his wife, 
 illegally proclaimed King of Scots. Mary 
 soon found her mistake in marrj-ing a man 
 who was at once foolish and ijrofligate. A 
 coldness sprang up between them, and the 
 murder ■ of Kizzio, to which Darnley was 
 a pai-ty, only increased it. Loathed as 
 he was by the queen, and endangered by 
 her reconciliation to his bitterest enemies, 
 Damley endeavoured to escape to France, but 
 was not permitted to leave Scotland. After 
 the birth of his son, afterwards James VI., 
 whose christening he refused to attend, 
 Darnley was seized at Glasgow with a violent 
 illness, from which he had barely recovered 
 when Mary paid him a visit and urged his 
 removal to Edinburgh. He was accordingly 
 conveyed to a small house close to the city 
 walls, in a district known as Kirk-of-Field. 
 In the night (Feb. 10, 1567), the house was 
 blown up with gunpowder, and Damley's 
 body was found next morning lying in the 
 garden by that of his page ; but neither 
 corpse bore traces of violence. Public feeling 
 at once pointed to Bothwell as the murderer, 
 and more than suspected Mary to have been 
 an accomplice in the crime. The strongest 
 circumstantial evidence points to the same 
 conclusion. 
 
 ScMem, Bothwell ; Gauthier, Marie Stuart ; 
 
 Hosack, Mary Qaeeii o}' Scots; Burton, Hist, of 
 
 Scotland^ 
 
 Baxrein Presentment. [Assize.] ■ 
 Dartmouth, William Legge, 1st 
 Eakl of (b. 1672, d. 1750), was a prominent 
 statesman in the reign of Queen Anne. His 
 principles were those of a strong Tory and 
 High Churchman. He man-ied a daughter of 
 the Earl of Nottingham. On the accession of 
 the queen he became a member of the Privy 
 Council ; and on the downfall of Godolphil;fe 
 ministry he was made Secretary of State aiffl 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland (1710). 
 It was by making use of him that Marlborough 
 tried to avoid dismissal from his appointments 
 by a close union with the Tory ministry. 
 Dartmouth was one of the persons appointed 
 by Anne to confer with the French envoy 
 Menager on the preliminaries for the Treaty 
 
Das 
 
 ( 358 ) 
 
 Dav 
 
 of Utreclit. Tie wholesale creation of twelve 
 peers did not meet with his approval, hut he 
 continued in the ministry, and was created 
 Lord Privy Seal (1714). On the accession of 
 George he ceased to take any share in politics. 
 " Dartmouth," says Lord Stanhope, " who was 
 suspected, not without reason, of being iuclined 
 to a restoration of the exiled family, was a 
 good-humoured and accomplished nobleman 
 who made no enemies." 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. ; Coxe, JfarBorougli. 
 
 Dashwood, Sir Fkangis, created Baron 
 le Despencer {d. 1781), the son of Sir 
 Francis Dashwood by Lady Mary Fane, ob- 
 tained his chief claim to celebrity in early life 
 by his reckless immorality and profaneness. 
 From such scenes as those of his " Francis- 
 can Abbey" at Medmenham, Sir Francis was 
 summoned to becomeTreasurer of the Chamber 
 in 1761, in which office Bute found him so 
 convenient a creature, that on becoming Prime 
 Minister he appointed him Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer. Wilkes well understood the ab- 
 surdity of the appointment, when he said that 
 " from puzzling all his life at tavern bills he 
 was called by Lord Bute to administer the 
 finances of a kingdom above one hundred 
 millions in debt." To remedy this deficit the 
 new Chancellor proposed to levy a tax on cider, 
 which at once produced an outcry so loud that 
 the proposed tax had to be much reduced. 
 Even then it was productive of much hardship, 
 and served only to add to the unpopularity of 
 Bute's administration. Dashwood had at any 
 rate the good sense to perceive his own incom- 
 petence. " People," he said, " will point at 
 me in the streets, and say, ' There goes the 
 worst Chancellor of the Exchequer that ever 
 appeared.'" As a reward for his services he 
 was created Baron le Despencer, and with his 
 elevation to the peerage he retired from the 
 political world. 
 
 Stanhope, Kist. of Eng. ; Jesse, Seltoyn and Ms 
 
 Cottjmporaries ; "Walpoles Memoirs of the Reign. 
 
 of George III. 
 
 Saulieney, Giles, Lord {d. 1507), was 
 raised to the peerage in 1486, in recognition 
 of his services during the period of Henry 
 VII.'s exile. Shortly after receiving this prqof 
 of royal favour,he was made deputy governor of 
 Calais, and while acting in that capacity he 
 ■ headed the expedition despatched from Eng- 
 land with secret instructions to lend all possible 
 assistance to the Emperor Maximilian. These 
 orders Daubeney executed with marked success, 
 and compelled the French to raise the siege 
 of Dixmude. By a well-timed attack on their 
 camp, too, he inflicted upon them severe losses, 
 slaying over 8,000 men, and capturing a con- 
 siderable quantity of military stores. During 
 the Cornish revolt Daubeney was a trusted 
 leader of the king's forces. His energetic attack 
 on the rebels at Deptford Bridge precipitated 
 the general engagement at Blaekheath (1497), 
 which ended so victoriously for Henry. 
 
 David 1., King of Scotland («. April 27, 
 1124; d. May 24, 1153), youngest sou of 
 Malcolm Canmore and Margaret, succeeded 
 to the crown of Scotland on the death of 
 his brother, Alexander I. Educated at the 
 English court, owing to the marriage 
 of his sister Matilda with Henry I., he 
 became thoroughly imbued with the spirit of 
 feudaUsm. On his brother Edgar's death 
 (1107) he returned to Scotland as earl of the 
 country south of the Forth and Clyde. David 
 had at this time married Matilda, daughter 
 of Waltheof, and in her right held the 
 English earldoms of Northampton and Hun- 
 tingdon. On the death of his brother Alex- 
 ander (1124), he added the territory north of 
 the Forth and Clyde to that which he already 
 ruled, and thus united the whole of Scotland. 
 The result of his early education speedily 
 became apparent in his introduction of feudal 
 institutions and ideas hitherto unknown in 
 his native land. These innovations, hateful 
 to most of the northern nobles, led, during 
 David's absence in England, to a rebeUiou, , 
 headed by Angus, Earl of Moray, and Mal- 
 colm, natural son of Alexander (1 1 30) . The in- 
 surgents, however, were soon defeated, and their 
 leader slain. Four years later a fresh insurrec- 
 tion was planned, but was defeated by Anglo- 
 Norman aid. In 1 1 36 David entered England 
 at the head of a large army to support his 
 niece Matilda, Empress of Germany, against 
 Stephen, her rival claimant for the English 
 crown. A peace was, however, concluded 
 which lasted until 1138, when David under- 
 took another expedition with the same object 
 in view. He was, however, defeated at the 
 famous Battle of the Standard (q.v.). Shortly 
 afterwards, in 1139, another peace was made 
 at Durham, through the exertions of the 
 Papal legate. In 1141, after the capture of 
 Stephen at Lincoln, David again joined his 
 niece, narrowly escaping capture at Win- 
 chester; and in 1149 knighted Henry of 
 Anjou at Carlisle. He died at Carlisle in 
 May, 1153. David I. acquired a very con- 
 siderable reputation for sanctity. He was 
 the founder of several new abbeys — notably 
 those of Holyrood and Melrose — and was 
 the re-organiser at least of several Scotch 
 bishoprics. 
 
 Kobertson, Scotland under her Early Fiivis ; 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland; Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 David II., King of Scotland (s. June 7, 
 1329, d. Feb. 22, 1371), was the son of King 
 Robert Bruce. In accordance with the terms 
 of the Treaty of Northampton, he was mar- 
 ried (1328) to the Princess Joanna of England. 
 At the time of his father's death (1329) he 
 was only five years of age, and the kingdom was 
 consequently governed by regents. In 1 332, on 
 the invasion of Edward Baliol (q.v.), he fled 
 to France, and did not return till 1341. 
 While in France his hostility to England 
 increased, as well as his friendship for the 
 
Dav 
 
 359 ) 
 
 Bea 
 
 land that sheltered Mm, and he was led by 
 these feelings to cross the border in 1346. In 
 Edward's absence the northern barons were 
 hurriedly called to arms, and defeated the 
 invading army at NeviUe's Cross. David was 
 himself taken prisoner, and was not released 
 tiU 1357. This long sojourn in England 
 seems to have begotten a love of English ways 
 in the king's mind. An imprudent marriage 
 soon gave disgust to his cousin, the High 
 Steward of Scotland, and this disgust was in- 
 tensified when he proposed (1363) that Prince 
 Lionel of England should be accepted as his 
 successor, but the Scotch Estates unanimously 
 rejected the proposal. The remainder of his 
 reign was occupied in disputes with his Par- 
 liament, which showed a " surly resoluteness " 
 in checking the abuses of the royal preroga- 
 tive. He died in the year 1371. 
 
 David, Prince of Wales, was the brother 
 of Llewelyn, by whom he had been de- 
 prived of lus patrimony. In revenge for this 
 injustice David called together several Welsh 
 chieftains — among whom Khys ap Maredudd, 
 the scion of the ancient princes of South 
 Wales, was the most eminent — to espouse 
 his cause. At the same time he began to 
 intrigue with Edward I. (1276). Next year, 
 when Llewelyn surrendered to the EngHsh 
 king, one of the first conditions of the peace 
 was the reconciliation of the two brothers. 
 But David, although Edward had married 
 him to the daughter of the Earl of Ferrers, 
 and granted him extensive territories in 
 Wales and England, soon found cause of 
 complaint against his patron. The two 
 brothers united against the stranger. David 
 surprised Hawarden Castle, and the marshes 
 were laid waste. After Llewelyn's death, 
 he was taken prisoner and tried at Shrews- 
 bury (Sept. 30, 1283). Earls, barons, judges, 
 knights of the shires, and twenty borough 
 members, were all present on this solemn 
 occasion; but the baronage alone can be 
 considered as the peers of the culprit. He 
 was condemned to death and executed with 
 circumstances of special horror as a traitor 
 and a murderer. 
 
 Eishanger, Chronicle; The Greatest of the 
 Pla/nta^ene's. 
 
 Davis, John {d. 1605), one of the famous 
 explorers of Elizabeth's reign, was born near 
 Dartmouth. He made three voyages in search 
 of a north-west passage to the Pacific. In 
 the first he coasted round the south of Green- 
 land and Baffin's Land across the strait that 
 now bears his name, and in the third he 
 reached the entrance of Hudson's Strait. In 
 1591 he accompanied Thomas Cavendish (q.v.) 
 to the South Sea, continuing his voyage when 
 the rest of the expedition had returned. In 
 later years his services were employed in 
 journeys to the East Indies on behalf of the 
 newly founded company; and it was on his 
 return from one of these expeditions that he 
 
 met with his fate — being killed by Japanese 
 pirates off the coast of Malacca in 1605. 
 
 Davis, Mary, or Moll, was a natural 
 daughter of the Earl of Berkshire, and 
 one of Charles II.'s mistresses. She had 
 by the king one daughter, Mary Tudor, who 
 was married to the Earl of Derwentwater. 
 
 Davison, William (d. 1608), one of 
 the diplomatists of Queen Elizabeth's reign, 
 was in 1575 sent to the Low Countries to 
 report on the state of affairs; in 1579 he re- 
 visited Holland, and four years later was 
 again employed to counteract Scotch influence 
 there. In 1586 he became a principal 
 Secretary of State, and was in favour of the 
 execution of Mary Queen of Scots ; it is well 
 known how he was made the scapegoat of the^ 
 other ministers for his excess of zeal in des- 
 patching the warrant for the execution (1587), 
 after he had procured Elizabeth's signature to 
 it. It wiU always remain a moot point how far 
 the queen was really ignorant of the nature 
 of the paper she had signed, and of its des- 
 patch, but it is probable that she found it 
 convenient to act as she did towards Davison 
 in order to clear herself as far as possible of 
 the charge of having desired Mary's death; 
 whilst Davison's repeated declarations that the 
 queen herself had ordered the warrant to be 
 sent off did not tend to pacify her resentment. 
 The unfortunate secretary was brought to 
 trial, Feb., 1587, heavily fined and imprisoned, 
 and in spite of the attempts of Essex and 
 Burleigh to procure his pardon, was never 
 restored to favour. 
 
 Day, GrEOKGE, Bishop of Chichester (S. 
 1501, d. 1556), was educated at Cambridge, 
 and became Provost of King's College, 1538. 
 Under Edward VI. he was a strenuous op- 
 ponent of the religious changes, and for this 
 offence was committed to the Fleet (1550), 
 and soon after deprived of his bishopric, which 
 he had held since 1543. Under Mary he was 
 released, and appointed, with Gardiner, 
 Bonner, and Tunstall, members of a com- 
 mission to purify the episcopal bench (1553). 
 
 Deaue, Henry (d. 1503), was Prior_ of 
 Lanthony, in Monmouthshire, and entering 
 Henry VII.'s service, was employed in 
 several public offices. When Sir Edward 
 Poynings was appointed Lord-Deputy of 
 Ireland, Deane was appointed Chancellor of 
 Ireland (1495), and did valuable service in 
 aiding Poynings' work of restoring order and 
 regular government in that country. At 
 the time of his Irish Chancellorship, Deane 
 was Bishop-elect of Bangor, and in 1501, on 
 the death of Morton, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was appointed to succeed him as Pri- 
 mate of all England. Whilst Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, Henry Deane was in some degree 
 a patron of Wolsey, whom he made his 
 domestic chaplain. He died February 16, 1503. 
 Hook, Lives of the Archhishops. 
 
Sea 
 
 ( 360 ) 
 
 Dec 
 
 Seane, Eichard (4. 1610, d. 1653), son of 
 Edward Ueane, of Temple Guyting, Glouces- 
 tershire, entered the Parliamentary army at 
 the beginning of the Great Rebellion, served in 
 the artillery under Essex, until taken prisoner 
 in the unfortunate Cornish campaign of 1644. 
 In the " New Model " (q. v.) he was Comptroller 
 of the Ordnance, and in 1648 had risen to the 
 rank of adjutant-general. He commanded 
 tbe right wing of Cromwell's army at Preston, 
 was present also at Worcester, and took part 
 in the subjugation of the Highlands. He was 
 deep in the confidence of Cromwell, sided 
 with the army against the Parliament, and 
 with the Independents against the Presby- 
 terians, took his seat in the court which tried 
 the king, and helped to secure the adhesion 
 of the fleet to the Protectorate. In 1649 he 
 had been appointed one of the three generals 
 at sea, in which capacity he commanded in 
 the Dutch "War, and was killed in the battle 
 off the North Foreland, June 2, 1653. He 
 seems to have deserved the character Essex 
 gives of him in 1644 : " an honest, judicious, 
 and stout man." 
 
 Debt, Legislation concerning. Among 
 the Teutonic tribes it does not seem that a 
 contract was concluded by any set form of 
 words or, by writing, as was the custom 
 among the Romans : earnest money was paid, 
 or the bargain concluded by the delivery of a 
 straworsome similar token. Butin questionsof 
 sale it was necessary to have witnesses to the 
 transaction, and in early English law a var)'- 
 ing number of upright men were assigned to 
 each hundred and burh, for the purpose of 
 testifying every such negotiation. So a 
 statute of Ethelredl. runs: "Let no man either 
 buy or exchange unless he have burh and wit- 
 ness ; " while Edgar's law requires thirty- 
 three witnesses for the larger burhs, but only 
 twelve for the hundreds and smaller towns. 
 No one in Anglo-Saxon times was allowed to 
 take the law into his own hands and right 
 himaoU before bringing his claim before 
 the proper court, and demanding justice four 
 times. We may suppose similar methods of 
 procedure in matters of debt to have con- 
 tinued in the local courts, subject to more 
 or less change, during the reigns of the Nor^ 
 man and Early Planta.fenet kings ; though, 
 as Dr. Stubbs has remarked, alterations are 
 slowest in the routine business of the petty 
 courts. There are still extant several writs 
 for debt issued by Henry I., several being 
 addressed to the defendant. Two reigns 
 later the writs for debt found in Glanvil are 
 addressed to the sherifi, who is to refer the 
 case, if necessary, to the king at West- 
 minster. Debt was just commencing to be a 
 question for the king's court. In Glanvil's 
 time the method of deciding questions of debt 
 was unsettlefi, both compurgation and the 
 duel being allowed. Later on, compurgation 
 won the day. With the reign of Edward I. 
 
 we find a statute upon the question, for- 
 bidding anyone to be distrained for debts 
 not due (3 Ed. I.). By an Act passed in the 
 21st year of James I., a term of six years 
 is set, within which alone the recovery of 
 debts is legal; while another Act under the 
 same king forbids a tradesman's books to be 
 given in evidence for a debt unless the action 
 be brought within a year. An Act of George 
 II. allowed the debt of the plaintifl: to be set 
 off against the debt of the defendant. In Nor- 
 man times there was considerable difficulty in 
 making lands liable for the debts of a man 
 after his decease; and even in the debtor's 
 lifetime there must have been a similar dif- 
 ficulty, till Edward I., in the Second Statute of 
 Westminster, empowered a creditor who had 
 obtained a j udgment in his favour to take a 
 moiety of the debtor's lands, and satisfy him- 
 self so far as he could. Imprisonment for 
 debt was finally abolished by 32 & 33 Vict., 
 c. 62 (1869), and punishments were provided 
 for fraudulent debtors. 
 
 Essays in, Anglo-Saxon Law ; Bvelow, History of 
 Procedure ; Cuuningham, Law Dictivnary. 
 
 Deccan was the name originally applied 
 to the whole peninsula of India south of the 
 Vindhya hills. It was conquered by the 
 Mohammedans in the fourteenth century 
 and formed into a kingdom. Long before 
 the advance of the English into Central India 
 it had been broken up among a variety of 
 princes and feudatories, and the term Deccan 
 came to be technically confined to the domi- 
 nions of the Nizam (q.v.). 
 
 Decianns, Catus, was Procurator of 
 Britain when Boadicea rose in rebellion 
 against the Romans, and his extortion is said to 
 have been one of the chief causes of the revolt. 
 At the siege of Camulodunum, the Roman 
 colonists appealed to Catus for help, as 
 Suetonius Paulinus, the legate, was away ' 
 in Mona, and he accordingly sent 200 soldiers 
 to their aid. After the fall of Camulodunum, 
 Catus fled to Gaul, and was succeeded in his 
 office by Petilius Cerealis. 
 
 Declaratory Act, The. In 1788 Mr. 
 Pitt brought in a bill to explain the purport 
 of the India Act of 1784. It declared that 
 there was no step which could have been 
 taken by the Court of Directors before the 
 passing of that bill touching the military and 
 political concerns of India, and the collection, 
 management, and application of the revenues, 
 which the Board of Control had not a right to 
 take by the provisions of that bill : that, in 
 fact, the whole powers of government had 
 been transferred to the crown. [East India 
 Company.] 
 
 Declaration, The Royal (Nov. 30, 
 1660). When Charles II. was restored, the 
 Irish Royalists naturally hoped for the resto- 
 ration of their lands; but though, strictly 
 speaking, their hopes were justifiable, it was 
 
De 
 
 361 ) 
 
 Def 
 
 practically inexpedient, il not impossible, for 
 Charles to entirely upset existing arrange- 
 ments. After a commission had sat, and the 
 conflicting claims of the Irish and the Puritans 
 had been argued before it, a document called 
 " The Eoyal Declaration " was issued. This 
 «xcepted from all indemnity two classes : 
 those concerned in the Ulster Massacre, 
 and those concerned in regicide. Protestant 
 loyalists and certain favoured persons, like 
 Claniicarde and Mountgarret, were to be re- 
 instated in their possessions at once ; innocent 
 Papists were also to be restored, but the 
 adventurers and soldiers were to be left un- 
 disturbed or compensated. Those who had 
 accepted lands in Connaught were, however, 
 to abide by their bargains; but those who 
 had not done so were to have their cases 
 considered in due time. This declaration 
 formed the basis of the Act of Settlement and 
 Explanation (q.v.). 
 
 Froude, Eng, in Ireland; Lecky, Hist. oflBng, ; 
 Carte, Irish Statutes. 
 
 De Donis Conditionalibus (1285) is 
 the title by which the first article of the 
 Second Statute of Westminster is generally 
 known. This law is extremely important, 
 as bearing on the relations between lord and 
 vassal. Up to this time land granted to a 
 man and his heirs became, on the death of an 
 heir, the absolute property of the grantee, 
 who could alienate it as he pleased. It was 
 now enacted that land could never be 
 alienated, but that on failure of heirs it must 
 revert to the original grantor. Thus per- 
 petual entail was established, and the power of 
 the king considerablj' increased by great fiefs 
 constantly falling into his hands through such 
 failure. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Sist. 
 
 Dee, The Bridge of (1639), was in 1639 
 held by the Cavalier party in Aberdeen against 
 the Covenanting forces under Montrose. The 
 Cavaliers had hurriedly run up defences of 
 tiurf and stone to protect the crooked and 
 narrow passage of the seven-arched bridge, 
 and held out against the enemy's cannon for 
 a whole day. Next day Montrose, by a 
 feigned attempt to cross the liver at a neigh- 
 bouring ford, drew off a great part of the 
 Cavalier forces, and with his remaining troops 
 forced the bridge, despite the opposition of the 
 fifty Cavaliers still left to defend it. 
 
 Deeg, The Battle of (Nov. 13, 1804), was 
 fought between the English, commanded by 
 General Eraser, and the army of Holkar, 
 consisting of fourteen battalions of infantry, 
 a large body of horse, and 160 guns. The 
 English did not exceed 6,000, but among 
 them were the gallant 76th Highlanders, who 
 bore the brunt of the battle. The enemy were 
 completely routed, and left eighty-seven 
 pieces of cannon on the field. But the victory 
 was purchased by the death of the general, 
 and a loss of 643 killed and wounded. The 
 
 HIST.-12* 
 
 command devolved on Colonel Monson, who 
 had the satisfaction of recovering fourteen of 
 the guns he had lost in his retreat. During 
 the engagement a destructive fire was openea 
 on the British from the fort of Deeg, which 
 belonged to the Kajah of Bhurtpore. A 
 battering-train was ordered up from Agra, 
 and the fortress captured Nov. 23. 
 
 "Wellesley, Des^atciies ; Mill, Kist. of India. 
 
 Deering, Eather {d. 1534), was a monk of 
 Henry VIII. 's reign, who was executed May 5, 
 1534, for the active part he took in the pro- 
 motion of the conspiracy set on foot under 
 the auspices of the so-called "Holy Maid of 
 Kent." 
 
 De Facto King, Statute of (1495), 
 was passed in the eleventh year of Henry VII., 
 and was probably due to the insecurity which 
 most people, in those times of constant civil 
 war and rebellion, must have felt, no matter 
 to what side they adhered. By this Act it is 
 provided that all people are bound by their 
 allegiance to serve the king for the time being, 
 and that no person attending upon the king 
 of the land for the time being shall be con- 
 victed of high treason, or by Act of Parliament 
 or other process of law suffer anj' forfeiture 
 or imprisonment. This statute was the sub- 
 ject of much discussion at the trial of the 
 regicides at the Bestoration, and after the 
 Revolution of 1688. 
 
 Defender of the Faith (Eidei De- 
 fensor). A title first conferred on Henry 
 VIII. by Pope Leo X., in 1521. Even so 
 early as June, 1518, when Luther's doctrines 
 were only just beginning to make a stir in 
 Europe, we find allusions to Henry's book of 
 controversy against the Eeformer ; but it was 
 not tiU more than three year? later, when the 
 king's zeal had received a fresh impulse from 
 the publication of Be Captivitate Jiabylonica, 
 with its fierce attack upon the seven sacra- 
 ments of the Eomish Church, that the royal 
 author put the finishing touches to his work. 
 Clerk, the English ambassador at Rome, 
 received instructions to present the book to 
 the Pope, who read with avidity the opening 
 pages, expressing his pleasure at almost every 
 line by a nod or word of approval. The 
 king said the Pope had passed the clerks in 
 their own fields. Several copies were, at Leo's 
 request, placed in the hands of some of 
 the principal cardinals ; and a little later Leo 
 received the ambassador in a consistorj' of 
 twenty bishops, approved the book, and next 
 day conferred on its author the title " Eidei De- 
 fensor " (Oct. 1 1, 1521). This title, according 
 to Lingard, was intended as a compensation for 
 the title " Rex Christianissimus," which Julius 
 II. had declared to be forfeited by the King of 
 Erance, and had conferred upon the King of 
 England, but which Leo could never be 
 brought to recof{nise. Henry's defence of 
 the seven sacraments, Assertio Septem Sacra- 
 
Bef 
 
 ( 362 ) 
 
 Dei 
 
 mentorum was putlisted at London in July, 
 1521, and rapidly passed through, many 
 editions; it was translated into German in 
 1523, and into English a few years later. 
 Luther published a fierce reply within a year, 
 and affected to consider the work so con- 
 temptible a treatise that it must have been 
 written by a " parcel of empty-headed sophists, " 
 who abused the king's name by prefixing it 
 to a work " stuffed full of their own lies and 
 ■virulence." 
 
 Lingard, Hist, of ^ng. 
 
 Defenders, The, were a party in Ireland 
 that owed their origin to a faction fight 
 between Catholics and Protestants on July 4, 
 1784. The Protestants were called Peep o' 
 Day Boys (q.v.), as they visited the dwellings 
 of the Catholic Defenders early in the morn- 
 ing and took away their arms. The great 
 faction fight of these two parties was the battle 
 of Diamond (q.v.). In 1793 they rose in great 
 numbers, nominally to prevent the enrolment 
 of the militia, and, although pacified in Sept. , 
 1795, were soon in activity again. The name 
 disappears from history after 1798. The causes 
 of their existence were to a large extent 
 agrarian. 
 
 Defoe, Daniel (S. 1661, <?. 1733), was the son 
 of a London butcher, named Foe — the former 
 himself adopted the French prefix. He was 
 educated in the doctrines of Dissent and 
 Whiggism. As an opponent of the designs of 
 James II., he fought in the rebellion of the 
 Duke of Monmouth, and was fortunate enough 
 to escape. Shortly afterwards he published 
 a pamphlet, warning the Dissenters against 
 the designs of the king. After the Revo- 
 lution, he engaged largely in trade, and 
 was appointed secretary to the commission 
 for managing the duties on glass. In 1 697 his 
 Essay on Projects appeared. He also published 
 a treatise on Occasional Conformity, and 
 another in favour of a standing army, " with 
 the consent of Parliament ; " one against the 
 impending French war, and one On the Original 
 Power of the Collective Body of the People of 
 England. In 1701 his True-born Englishman 
 appeared, a satire with the object of reproach- 
 ing those who abused William as a foreigner. 
 The same year he drew up the Legion 
 Memorial, an expression of public opinion 
 in favour of William's European designs, 
 and elicited by the treatment that the pre- 
 senters of the Kentish petition received from 
 the Commons. In 1702 he published his 
 famous pamphlet. The Shortest Way with 
 Dissenters, an ironical performance, written 
 in High Church language, which deceived 
 even the Dissenters themselves. The High 
 Church party brought the work before the 
 notice of the House, and it was condemned 
 to be burnt by the common hangman. Defoe 
 surrendered himself to justice, and was fined, 
 put in the pillory, and imprisoned. From 
 Newgate he issued the Bevuw, a periodical 
 
 paper, that was the predecessor of the more 
 famous Spectator of Steele. In 1704 he was 
 released by the exertions of Harley, who 
 sought to win him over to the Tory side. 
 Money was sent him by the queen to pay 
 his fine. In 1706 he published a satire on 
 the High Churchmen. He was sent to Scot- 
 land to assist the Commission for the Union ; 
 and his commercial knowledge proved of use 
 to the English goveiTunent, while he at the 
 same time aided them with his pen. His 
 history of the Union was published in 1709. 
 A satirical piece, entitled A Seasonable Caution, 
 against the Pretender, which he vindicated 
 in the Seview, caused his second imprisonment 
 in Newgate (1711); again Harley procm-ed 
 his freedom. On the accession of George, he 
 was treated with neglect, and exposed to 
 attacks from the Whigs on account of his 
 friendship with Harley. He therefore pub- 
 lished An Appeal to Honour and Justice, though 
 it be to my Worst Enemies, as a vindication of 
 his political career. After this he ceased to 
 wi-ite openly on political subjects, though it 
 is probable that he was largely engaged in 
 surreptitious political journalism. In 1719 he . 
 produced the immortal Robinson Crusoe, and 
 subsequently a large number of other romances. 
 Defoe's Life and. Works, ed. by W. Lee (1869) ; 
 W. Wilson, lAfe of Be/be (1830) ; Prof. W". Minto, 
 Befoe (1879). [S. J. L.] 
 
 De Grey, Earl (5. 1781, d. 1859), was the 
 eldest son of Thomas Robinson, second Lord 
 Grantham. On his father's death, he entered 
 the House of Lords as Lord Grantham, 1786, 
 and, on the death of his maternal aunt, the 
 Countess de Grey, succeeded to the earldom. 
 In 1834—5 he held the ofiice of First Lord of 
 the Admiralty under Sir E. Peel. When Sir 
 Robert Peel again took ofiice, in 1841, Earl de 
 Grey was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ire- 
 land. He discharged the functions of his 
 office with much credit up to June, 1844, 
 when he retired, to the great regret of the 
 people of Dublin. 
 
 De Hseretico Combiirendo was the 
 
 title of a statute enacted in 1401 against 
 the Lollards. It was gi-anted by the king, 
 with the assent of the Lords, on the petition 
 of the clergy, a petition couched in similar 
 terms being presented at the same time by 
 the Commons. By this statute a heretic con- 
 victed before a spiritual court, and refusing to 
 recant, was to be handed over to the civil 
 power to be burned. Archbishop Arundel 
 was the prime mover in the matter, and 
 Henry was probably not unwilling to crush 
 the Lollards, who were more or less closely 
 connected with the party of Richard II. 
 
 Deira was the name given to the ancient 
 Anglian kingdom stretching from the Tees or 
 the Tyne to the Humber, and extending inland 
 to the borders of the British realm of Strath- 
 clyde. Like Kent and some other districts of 
 Britain, it seems to have retained a British 
 
Dei 
 
 ( 363 ) 
 
 Del 
 
 name, toth for tlie land and its inhabitants, 
 long after it liad been conquered by the 
 Teutonic tribes : for the words Deira and Deiri 
 appear to be both related to the old Welsh Deivr. 
 In all probability, both Deira and its northern 
 neighbour, Bernicia, were, like Mercia, origin- 
 ally colonised by several tribes, each under its 
 own leader. Later we read in the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle that Ida established the kingdom of 
 Northumbria in 547 — a phrase which may 
 fairly enough be interpreted as implying that 
 he united into one all the petty settlements 
 existing in his time. Ida's kingdom, however, 
 may very well have been only co-extensive 
 with the later Bernicia, for we are told that 
 in 560 EUa came to the throne, and he seems 
 to have added the district from the Tees to 
 the Humber to his realm. On his death (588), 
 Ethelfrith of Bernicia drove out Ella's young 
 son, Edwin, and usurped Deira. Edwin, 
 meanwhile, had taken refuge with Eedwald, 
 King of the East Angles, and the two together 
 met, and overthrew Ethelfrith in 617. Edwin 
 now seems to have once more united Deira and 
 Bernicia ; but as if to show how very imper- 
 fectlyeven the southern part of his realm was 
 knit together, we read of his having to subdue 
 the small British kingdoms of Lodis (Leeds) and 
 Elmet, both lying within the bounds of his 
 native country, Deira. The two kingdoms 
 were once more divided, only, however, to be 
 permanentlv re-united under Oswy, the son of 
 Ethelfrith (642—670). From this time the 
 separate kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia may 
 be considered as merged in that of North- 
 umbria. But, though no longer independent 
 kingdoms, both Deira and Bernicia reappear 
 as separate earldoms under the great West 
 Saxon kings, and Deira at least was regularly 
 partitioned among the Danes in 876. Under 
 Ethelredthe two provinces appear to have been 
 often disjoined, but were once more imited by 
 Ethelred towards the beginning of the eleventh 
 century (1006). Canute continued this ar- 
 rangement ; but there was probably a subject- 
 earl for the Danes of Deira. Before the 
 accession of Edward the Confessor, Siward 
 was Earl of Deira alone tiU, by the murder of 
 Eardwulf, he once more united Bernicia to its 
 southern neighbour. On Siward's death all 
 Northumbria was given to Tostig (1055) ; but 
 on his banishment, in 1065, the old division 
 appeared once more, when Morkere ruled 
 in Deira, and Oswulf in Bernicia. With the 
 Conquest we may look upon the old name of 
 Deira as being politically extioct. Nominally, 
 the two earldoms of the North lingered on for 
 a few years under Morkere and Gospatrio, but 
 finally disappear in the time of the great harry- 
 ingof 1069. This strong act of policy or cruelty 
 may have done much to obliterate the distinc- 
 , tion between the two provinces — whether this 
 distinption arose from purely political con- 
 siderations, from a difference of race between 
 the Anglian settlers of Deira and the possibly 
 Jutish settlers of Bernicia, or was in later 
 
 years mainly due to the large infusion of 
 Danish blood that was from 975 undoubtedly 
 present in the more southern district. [Noeth- 
 UMBRIA.] [T. A. A.] 
 
 De la Mare, Sir Peter (/. 1376), one of 
 the knights of the shire of Hereford in the 
 Good Parhameut ( 1 3 76 ) , of which he was chosen 
 Speaker. In this capacity he laid the opinion 
 of the Parliament before John of Gaunt and 
 the Council, and though the duke adjourned 
 the House, continued the attack on the offend- 
 ing parties next day. When the Parliament 
 dispersed, De la Mare was imprisoned by 
 Lancaster's order, and was not released till 
 Richard II. 's accession, although a strong 
 minority in the Parliament of January, 1377, 
 demanded his liberation. 
 
 Delaware, Henry Booth, Lord (b. 1651, 
 d. 1694), sat as member for Chester in the 
 reign of James II. He was accused of taking 
 part in Monmouth's rebellion, and tried in 
 the Lord High Steward's Court. Although 
 Jeffrey, whom Delaware had formerly called 
 a " drunken jack-pudding," employed all his 
 brutality against him, Delaware was acquitted. 
 The verdict was most popular. On the arrival 
 of the Prince of Orange in England, Delaware 
 rose for him at the head of his tenants in 
 Cheshire, and marched to Manchester. He was 
 one of the messengers sent by the House of 
 Lords to James, requesting him to retire to 
 Ham on the Thames. He was placed on the 
 Treasury BencK and made Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer. He soon quan-elled with his 
 colleagues, Mordaunt and Godolphin, and 
 attempted to di-ive Halifax from office. On 
 the appointment of Caermarthen as chief 
 minister, he retired from office, and was 
 created Earl of Warrington (1690). Large 
 grants of lands belonging to Jesuits were 
 made to him, and a large sum paid him for 
 expenses incurred at the time of the Revolu- 
 tion. Nevertheless, he complained bitterly of 
 the injustice of his treatment. He is supposed 
 to have written a bitter pamphlet when Tory 
 lord-lieutenants were substituted for Whigs. 
 He protested against the rejection of the Place 
 Bill of 1692. "He was," says Macaulay, "a 
 zealous Whig . . . gloomy and acrimonious." 
 
 Delaware, State of. [Colonies, Ameri- 
 can.] 
 
 Delgon, The Battle of (574), was fought 
 between the Scots under Conall, and the Picts, 
 who were victorious, killing ConaU's son Dun- 
 can. Delgon is in Kintyre. 
 
 Chronicle of the Piets ami Scots. 
 
 Delhi was formerly the capital of the 
 Mogul empire, and was definitely annexed by 
 the Enghsh, Dec 4, 1803. 
 
 Delhi, The Battle of (Sept. 11, 1803). 
 General Lake (q.v.), with a British force 
 4,500 strong, discovered Bourquin, Scindiah's 
 general, encamped in a. fortified position 
 
Del 
 
 ( 364 ) 
 
 Hem. 
 
 before Delhi. The Mahrattas amounted to 
 19,000 men, and were drawn up with their 
 rear resting on the Jumna, and a formidable 
 train of artillery in front. So situated, the 
 position of the enemy appeared impregnable ; 
 and Lake ordered hia oavaky, who were 
 advancing in front, to execute a feigned 
 retreat. The enemy, deceived, left their posi- 
 tion, and rushed forward yelling. The British 
 infantry, led by the 76th Highlanders and by 
 Lake in person, advanced steadily amid 
 showers of grape, and after firing one round, 
 charged with the bayonet. The shock was 
 irresistible ; the ranks of the enemy broke and 
 fled down to the river, in which the greater 
 number perished. " The British loss was only 
 about 400, of which one-third was from the 
 ranks of the Highlanders. 
 
 "Wellesley, De^atches; Mill, Hist, of India. 
 
 Delhi, Siege of (1804). After Colonel 
 Monson's unfortunate expedition into Holkar's 
 territory had been forced back upon Agra, 
 Jeswunt Rao made a sudden incursion to the 
 very gates of Delhi (Oct. 7). This city was 
 some ten miles in circumference, defended 
 only by dilapidated walls and ruined ramparts, 
 and filled with a mixed population, not yet 
 accustomed to British rule. The garrison 
 was so small as not to admit of reliefs, and 
 provisions and sweetmeats were therefore 
 served out to them on the ramparts, but 
 the British Resident, Colonel Ochterlony, 
 animated by the spirit of Clive, and nobly 
 seconded by the commandant. Colonel Brown, 
 defended the place for nine days against 
 20,000 Mahrattas and 100 guns, till at length 
 Holkar, despairing of success, drew off his 
 army. 
 
 Wellesley, Desjiatches ; Mill, Hist, of India; 
 Grant Duff, Mahrattas. 
 
 Delhi, Siege of (1857). On May 11, 1857, 
 the mutineering Sepoy regiments from Meerut 
 appeared before Delhi, and, despite the efforts 
 of Brigadier Graves and Lieutenant Wil- 
 loughby, the town fell into the hands of the 
 rebels on that day. All the Europeans who 
 could do so fled precipitately, and the city of 
 the Great Mogul soon became the centre of 
 the revolt. It became necessary to re-capture 
 so important a post, and on -the 8th of June, 
 Sir Henry Barnard, after defeating an advance 
 division of the enemy, occupied the Ridge, a 
 rising ground some two miles from the city. 
 Delhi was defended by a series of bastions 
 sixteen feet high, connected by long cm-tains, 
 with here and there a martello tower. Bas- 
 tions and curtains were alike of solid masonry, 
 twelve feet thick, and the whole was further 
 strengthened by a wide and deep ditch. The 
 besieging army consisted of English troops, 
 Sikhs, Afghans, and Ghoorkas, whilst the 
 rebels were 30,000 strong, with ample provi- 
 sions and ammunition. It was not till June 
 23 that operations really began with a sally 
 from the city, which was beaten back, after 
 a day's hard fighting. During August and 
 
 September the English quickened their pre- 
 parations for the attack. Brigadier Nicholson 
 arrived at the camp with the requisite siege- 
 train, and the heavy artillery came soon 
 after. On Sept. 8 four batteries opened fire 
 on the city, and by the 13th a breach was 
 made. The next morning saw the final 
 assault. Three columns were led to the walls, 
 while a foui-th was held in reserve. For six 
 days the fighting continued in the streets, 
 and no quarter was extended to men with 
 weapons in their hands. At last, on Sept. 20, 
 the gates of the palace were forced; but Baha- 
 dur Shah had in the meanwhile escaped to the 
 tomb of Homayun, outside the city. Here he 
 was captured by Captain Hodson, and his two 
 sons shot as they were re-entering the city. 
 This was the turning-point of the revolution, 
 which could no longer threaten any consider- 
 able danger, when its nominal head, the Great 
 Mogul king, was a prisoner in the hands of 
 the English. 
 
 Malleson, Indian MuUny ; Eaye, Sepoy War. 
 
 De Lolme, JeanLodis (J. 1740, d. 1806), 
 was born at Geneva, where he studied for the 
 bar, and practised as an advocate tiU forced 
 to leave the town, from the offence he gave to 
 the authorities by the pubHcation of his 
 Examen des trois points de droit. He took 
 refuge in England, and while resident in this 
 country, made a careful investigation into our 
 government and laws, the results of which 
 he first published in French at Amsterdam, in 
 1 77 1 , in his work on The Constitution of England. 
 This was almost at once translated into English, 
 and was for many years a standard work on 
 the subject with which it deals. De Lolme 
 had returned to Switzerland many years 
 before his death, which occurred in 1806. 
 
 Delviu, Lord, was an Irish nobleman 
 concerned in the rebellion of Tyrone and 
 TjTconnel (1605). He was imprisoned in 
 Dublin, but succeeded in making his escape. 
 Afterwards he was pardoned by James I., and 
 created Earl of Westmeath. 
 
 Demesne ILands were the estates which 
 belonged to the crown, and in early dayswere 
 one of the main sources of the royal revenue. 
 When these had been held by the crown 
 since the time of Edward the Confessor, they 
 went by the name of manors of ancient 
 demesne ; and each of these manors of ancient 
 demesne was reckoned as a hundred in itself, 
 and, like the hundred, subject to the shire- 
 court. In the times of Stephen large grants 
 of the royal property were made for the sake 
 of purchasing adherents to either party ; the 
 resumption of these grants was one of the 
 first reforms brought about by Henry II. A 
 similar course of conduct had been pursued 
 by William Marshall in the early days of 
 Henry III., and again by Hubert de Burgh. 
 In later years it became a custom for the 
 kings to impoverish themselves by these im- 
 prudent grants, and then appeal to the Estates 
 
Dem 
 
 { 365 ) 
 
 Sen 
 
 for support. It is to this atuse that the oft- 
 repeated cry of reform pointed — that the king 
 should " live of his own.' ' In 1 3 1 the Ordaf ners 
 forhade the king to make these gifts without 
 their consent. A similar spirit was shown by 
 the Parliaments of li04, 1450, and other 
 years. In the latter half of the fifteenth 
 century the crown had grown so poor that 
 Fortescue, in his De Laudibus Legwn Anf/lia^ 
 suggests a general resumption of the royal 
 possessions, which he says at one time 
 extended over a fifth part of the kingdom ; 
 and he suggests that for the future the 
 king should only grant estates for life. 
 Several towns {e.g., Northampton) were 
 in royal demesne, and all perhaps to be 
 considered as so being unless they had a 
 special lord. The king was considered to 
 have a peculiar claim upon both manors and 
 burghs held in demesne — tallage ; and this 
 right Edward I. continued to exact even after 
 the " Confirmatio Cartarum." This example 
 was followed both by Edward II. and Edward 
 III., though not without resistance ; but from 
 the latter reign we may regard the imposition 
 as extinct. 
 
 Stnbbs, Const, Hist.; HaUam, Hid. Ages and 
 
 Const. Hist. ; Digby, Hist, of Law of Beat Fro- 
 
 jjerfy. 
 
 Demetse, The, were an ancient tribe in- 
 habiting the south-west comer of Wales. 
 According to Mr. Ehjs, they consisted of 
 Goidels, or the earlier Celtic immigrants, 
 largely mixed with the remnants of the 
 earlier pre-Celtio occupants of our island. 
 
 Denbigh., Basil Feilding, 2nd Eari. (d. 
 1675), son of William Feilding, and Mary, 
 sister of the Duke of Buckingham, was 
 ambassador in Italy from 1634 to 1638. 
 When the Civil War began, he took the side 
 of the Parliament, in opposition to his father 
 and family, and commanded a regiment at 
 Edgelull. In June, 164 3, he was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief in the associated counties of 
 Warwick, Worcester, Stafford, and Shropshire, 
 and exercised his trust with zeal and vigour 
 till the passing of the Self-denying Ordinance. 
 He represented the Parliament at the Treaty 
 of Uxbridge and in other negotiations. 
 Though he refused to take part in the king's 
 trial, declaring that he would " rather be 
 torn in pieces than have any share in so 
 infamous a business," he became a member of 
 the first two Councils of State of the Common- 
 wealth. A zealous Presbj-terian, he assisted 
 his party in bringing about the Restoration, 
 and exerted his influence on the side of mode- 
 ration after that event. 
 
 Denman, Thomas, Lord {b. 1779, d. 1854), 
 was the son of Thomas Denman, a London 
 physician. After completing his education 
 at Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 
 1806. Distinguishing himself by the conduct 
 of many cases, such as the defence of Lord 
 Cochrane, he was returned to Parliament for 
 Wareham in 1818, and later for Nottingham 
 
 — a town which he continued to represent till 
 he was made Chief Justice, in 1832. But his 
 greatest success was obtained when, in 
 company with Lord Brougham, he was 
 selected to defend Queen Caroline in 1820, 
 though before this he had gained great repu- 
 tation for his exertions on behalf of the 
 Luddites (q.v.), and for the repeal of the Six 
 Acts. In 1834 he was appointed Lord Chief 
 Justice, an office which he discharged with a 
 conscientious love for truth, even if, as was 
 said, with something of the spirit of an advo- 
 cate. Amongst his many titles to renown 
 must be enumerated his passion for liberty, 
 his exertions against the slave trade, and his 
 ardour for the amelioration of the criminal 
 laws. 
 
 Arnold's Life. 
 
 Denmark, Relations with. The consoli- 
 dation of the Danish state by " Gorm the 
 Old," in the ninth centuiy, had a twofold 
 effect on English historj'. Firstly, it sent 
 the fiercer jarls and chiefs to find new 
 homes of liberty beyond the sea ; secondly, it 
 established in the old home of the new con- 
 querors of England a state adequate to cope 
 with the West Saxon monarchy itself. The 
 dealings of England with the Wiking in vadei s 
 are summarised in another article [Danes in 
 England], but with the conquest of all Eng- 
 land, by Swegen (Svend) and Canute (Knud), a 
 political relation of the most intimate cha- 
 racter between the two nations resulted, for 
 England, in important consequences — for 
 Denmark in little less than the introduction 
 of civilisation from English sources. Vic- 
 torious Denmark was in danger of becoming 
 dependent on conquered England, when the 
 death of Harthacanute, in 1042, severed the 
 two countries. Despite the internal confusions 
 which resulted from the decay of the old 
 Danish dynasty, the successors of Canute did 
 not at once give up all hopes of re-conquering 
 his great prize. Among their many abortive 
 attempts may be specially mentioned those of 
 Saint Canute (1080-1086), who, both before 
 and after his accession to the Danish throne, 
 strove earnestly to achieve this object. But 
 it is in commercial rather than in political 
 dealings that the relations between Denmark 
 and England were now kept up. In the 
 twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Scandi- 
 navian states were economically bound to 
 England by ties as close as those which 
 kept England in dependence on the Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 The rise of the Hanseatic League drove the 
 English away from the monopoly of the 
 Danish trade; but when the Scandinavian 
 kingdoms sought a protector from the over- 
 bearing Hansa, it was to England that they 
 turned. In 1490 Henry VII. concluded a 
 commercial treaty with King Hans, by which 
 the English, in return for paying the Sound 
 dues, were allowed to have great privileges 
 for their merchants, including the right of 
 
Deo 
 
 ( 366 ) 
 
 Dep 
 
 appointing consuls with, jurisdiction over 
 offenders of their own nationality. Chris- 
 tian II. sought in England assistance against 
 the revolted Swedes, but his close relative, 
 Christian III., demanded all the trading 
 rights of the English as the price of their 
 alliance. The general friendship between 
 Sweden and France led Denmark to an 
 English alliance. James I. married a Danish 
 wife, and supported Christian IV. in his 
 attack on the Empire in 1625. But the estab- 
 lishment of friendly relations between Eng- 
 land and France may probably have led to a 
 certain amount of hostility between England 
 and Denmark during the seventeenth century. 
 In 1652 Frederick III. powerfully assisted 
 the Dutch in their struggle against the Long 
 Parhament and Cromwell. But the changed 
 relations of England and Holland, a new 
 intimacy with the great Elector, on the whole 
 a friend of England, produced another turn 
 in Danish politics. The hostiUty which 
 Charles XII. of Sweden showed to England 
 at the end of his reign only resulted in Eng- 
 land, Hanover, and Denmark uniting to divide 
 a great part of the German territories of 
 Sweden. The close connection of Denmark 
 with Russia was, before the days of the younger 
 Pitt, a new' guarantee of English friendship, 
 which not even the divorce of the English 
 princess Matilda from Christian VII. and the 
 short-lived French policy of Struensee could 
 affect. In 1780, and again in 1801, Denmark 
 joined the League of the Neutrals against Eng- 
 land ; but in the former case peace was main- 
 tained, while in the latter the bombardment of 
 Copenhagen by Parker and the death of Paul 
 of Eussia ended the dispute. In 1807 England, 
 fearful lest JSTapoleon should use the Danish 
 navy against England, sent an expedition to 
 Copenhagen, which effected its object by 
 seizing the Danish fleet at the expense of our 
 friendly relations with Denmark. When peace 
 was made in 1815, England retained of her 
 Danish conquests Heligoland. Dui-ing the 
 present century the Schleswig-Holstein ques- 
 tion has been at the root of most of the 
 dealings between England and Denmark. 
 The Treaty of London, which settled the 
 Danish succession, was largely the result of 
 English 'intervention. The war against Ger- 
 many in 1864 was rashly entered into by the 
 Danes, in the belief that England would help 
 them to retain their hold over the duchies. 
 They were, however, disappointed, and their 
 loss of the much-disputed territories to Prussia 
 largely neutralised the good effect which the 
 marriage of the daughter of their new king to 
 the Prince of "Wales had occasioned. 
 
 Dahlmann's Geschichte von Bditnemarlc is a 
 good authority on Danish history to the Eefor- 
 matiou ; Freeman, Nornum, Conquest, brings out 
 the early dealings; Schanz, Englische Handels- 
 politik, the tradiug relations. ("T. F. T.l 
 
 Deogaom, The Treaty or (Dec, 1803), 
 was concluded between the East India Com- 
 
 pany and the Rajah of Berar. Its stipulations 
 were that Cuttack should be ceded to the 
 English ; that the lands west of the Wurdah, 
 which had belonged to the Nizam, should be 
 restored to him ; that the English should 
 arbitrate on his differences with the Nizam 
 and Peishwa; and that all Europeans of 
 any nation at war with England should be 
 excluded from Berar. 
 
 Seorham, The Battle of (577), is the 
 name given to the great victory by which 
 Ceawlin of "Wessex broke up the territory 
 stiU held by the Welsh into two parts, by 
 severing the Britons south of the Bristol 
 Channel from those north of that estuary. 
 As a consequence of this victory, Bath, 
 Gloucester, and Cirencester fell into the hands 
 of the West Saxons. Deorham has been 
 identified with Dereham, a village between 
 Bath and Chipping Sodbury. 
 
 Deposition, The Eight op. It is very 
 difficult in early English history to disen- 
 tangle the true instances of a king's 
 solemn deposition hy the act of his Witan 
 or his people from those where it may 
 merely have been the result of a domestic 
 intrigue or disorderly rebellion. Of the 
 latter kind Northumbria offers the best 
 examples, for out of fifteen kings ruling 
 over this realm in the eighth century, only 
 two seem to have met with a natural death 
 while still in possession of the throne. But 
 of these thirteen unfortunate kings, only 
 three can be claimed as in any way exempli- 
 fying Kemble's fifth canon, " that the Witan 
 had the power to depose the king if his 
 government was not conducted for the benefit 
 of his people." If we turn to Wessex, the 
 question becomes a little clearer. According 
 to Henry of Huntingdon, Sigeberht was de- 
 prived of his kingly office in 755, after the 
 mature deliberation of the nobles and people, 
 and with the consent of the whole nation. 
 This reads like the formal act of a Witan, 
 conscious of its own rights, and not fearing 
 to assert them to the full ; but it is only fair 
 to add that one version of the " Chronicle " 
 makes the statement in a more personal 
 manner than that just given, and runs : " In 
 this year Cynewulf deprived King Sigeberht 
 of his kingdom." But another text is even 
 more explicit than Henry of Huntingdon in 
 ascribing the action to the Witan. More than 
 two centuries and a half later it appears that 
 the crown of England was duly transferred 
 by the English Witan from Ethelred to 
 Swend. The same inherent right of a people 
 to discard its ruler if he neglects its interests 
 may be seen in the action of the Northum- 
 brians when they deposed Tostig from his 
 earldom— an instance which seems somewhat 
 forcibly to bring out the fact that down to 
 the very latest times some traditions, how- 
 ever faint, of their old independence clung to 
 the great English kingdoms, long after they 
 
Dep 
 
 367 ) 
 
 Der 
 
 had teen incorporated witli the West Saxon 
 monarchy. To sum up the foregoing remarks, 
 it seems evident that the power of deposition 
 was in early English times recognised as 
 heing quite within the compass of the rights 
 of that body which undoubtedly had elected 
 the sovereign to the throne ; and it is unne- 
 cessary to call in examples of similar pro- 
 ceedings from the annals of kindred Teutonic 
 races on the Continent. 
 
 The same twofold power of election and 
 deposition seems to have been recognised for 
 many hundred years after the Conquest. That 
 which gave had the right to take away also. 
 But by the time of our next instance of the 
 execution of this power, things were wearing 
 a somewhat different aspect. The royal 
 power had been growing for many centuries ; 
 a vague feeling of indefeasible right was 
 abroad ; the Church lawyers had done much 
 to magnify the power and the sacredness of 
 the kiigly office. Accordingly, when Bishop 
 Stratford brought his detailed charges against 
 Edward II. before the Parliament of 1327, it 
 was considered necessary to secure the king's 
 own consent to his son's election. Again, in 
 1399 the same problem had to be faced ; for 
 even then partisans of Bolingbroke did not 
 seem quite sure of the extent of the rights 
 of Parhament. The question was debated 
 whether Richard II. should be requested to 
 resign or be deposed, and it was finally deter- 
 mined to make things perfectly legal by 
 adopting both courses. Kichard consented to 
 perform his part of this programme, and Par- 
 liament, after hearing the long catalogue of 
 charges brought against the king, voted that 
 they formed a sufficient ground for his depo- 
 sition. In these two last instances of deposi- 
 tion we seem to see signs that Parliament 
 hesitated as to the extent of its powers, and 
 required the king's resignation before ventur- 
 ing to assert its own authority. The case of 
 Charles I. is so exceptional that it hardly 
 comes under view of this article. But by the 
 time of the Eevolution of 1688, the doctrine 
 of the king's divine right had been formu- 
 lated in definite terms, and whether accepted 
 or not, had a strong influence even on the 
 minds of Whigs. Unable to muster up 
 sufficient courage to state boldly its right of 
 deposition, Parliament on this occasion took 
 refuge in the theory of ahdication, and made 
 the king's act in fleeing from the kingdom 
 equivalent to the verbal resignation which 
 had been extracted from the unwilling lips of 
 Edward II. and Eichard II. 
 
 To sum up, it may be said that the power of 
 deposition was in early English times a prac- 
 tical, if not a theoretical, right, belonging to 
 the Witan and the nation ; but after the 
 Conquest, men being less and less inclined to 
 break in upon the divinity which to their 
 eyes hedged round a king, while still exer- 
 cising the old right upon occasion, justified 
 it to themselves by requiring a voluntary 
 
 renunciation on the part of the king himself 
 of the powers conferred on him at his conse- 
 cration ; and when this could not be obtained, 
 allowed the fact of the king's "absence to be 
 translated into an act of abdication. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., esp. vol. i., ch. vi,, for the 
 
 deposition of tlie Anglo-Saxon kings; Lingard, 
 
 Eist. of Bug., and Pauli, Hist, of Eng., (or 
 
 Eiohard II. ; Hallam, Const. Hist, for James II. 
 
 [T. A. A.] 
 
 Derby. The chief town of Derbyshire 
 was originally known by the name of North- 
 worthig, and owes its modern name of 
 Derby, or Deorby, to the Danes, by whom it 
 , was held from 874 to 918, when Ethelfleda, 
 Alfred's daughter, re-captured it. Later 
 it was restored to them as one of the five 
 boroughs, but again united to the English 
 crown hy Edmund. "Under Edward the 
 Confessor it was a royal borough. William 
 the Conqueror conferred it on William de 
 Ferrers, and Henry I., who seems to have 
 conferred on the town its first charter, 
 granted it to the Earls of Chester. In the Civil 
 War of the seventeenth century, though at first 
 Eoyalist, it was soon taken by the Parliamen- 
 tarians, and remained in their hands till the 
 end of the war. In later history it is chiefly 
 famous as marking the farthest point reached 
 hy the Young Pretender in 1745. 
 
 Derby Dilly, The. In 1834 Lord 
 Stanley resigned office on the question of 
 secularising the surplus of the Irish Church 
 revenues, and with Sir James Graham, 
 Lord Eipon, the Duke of Eichmond, and 
 some others, formed an intermediate party 
 between the Whigs and the Tories, de"- 
 clining all connection with either. This 
 unnatural state of isolation deprived the 
 country for some time of the services of some 
 of its ablest statesmen. The clique was 
 derisively known as the "Derby Dilly," from 
 its leader. Lord Stanley, the heir to the earldom 
 of Derby. In 1841, however, this third party 
 came to an end, most of its members Joining 
 Sir Eobert Peel's government. 
 
 Derby, Eabldom op. Eobert de Ferrers, 
 lord of 'Tutbury, was created Earl of Derby in 
 1138. The earldom continued in his family 
 for eight generations, until Earl Eobert (de 
 Ferrers) was deprived, in consequence of his 
 action in the Barons' revolt, by the Dictum 
 de Kenilworth, 1266. The earldom was re- 
 vived, 1337, in favour of Henry Plantagenet, 
 afterwards Duke of Lancaster, and father- 
 in-law of John of Gaunt, whose son Heniy, 
 afterwards king, is styled Earl of Derby 
 during his father's lifetime. In 1485 the 
 title was granted to Thomas Stanley, second 
 Lord Stanley, in whose family it stiU re- 
 mains. The elder line came to an end with 
 the death of James, tenth earl, 1736, when 
 the title devolved upon Sir Edward Stanley, 
 descendant of a brother of the second earl, and 
 the lineal ancestor of the present holder of 
 the title, Edward, fifteenth earl of this creation. 
 
Der 
 
 368 ) 
 
 Der 
 
 Derby, Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of, 
 and 2nd Baron Stanley (d. 1504), was a noble- 
 man who played a prominent part during the 
 reigns ol: Edward IV., Richard III., and 
 Henry VII. He married Warwick's sister 
 Eleanor, and gained Edward IV.'a favour. 
 In Edward's pretended war upon France 
 (1475), in support of Charles the Bold, 
 Stanley was the ready recipient of the 
 tribes of the French king, and it was in a 
 great measure in consequence of his counsel 
 thus inspired that Edward IV. became a 
 party to the Treaty of Pecquigny, Sept. 13, 
 1475. During the brief reign of Edward V. 
 Lord Stanley figured as a loyal upholder of 
 the rights of his young sovereign, and was 
 one of the nobles arrested at the council 
 board in Richard of Gloucester's coiip d'etat 
 of the 13th June, 1483. Gloucester, however, 
 not only forbore proceeding to extremities 
 with him, but sought to secure his service 
 by conferring upon him the high office of 
 Constable of England. , On the death of his 
 first wife, Eleanor Neville, Lord Stanley 
 mairied Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry 
 Tudor, Earl of Richmond. On the landing 
 of Henry Tudor at Milford Haven, Lord 
 Stanley, on a plea of illness, refused to join 
 Richard, and was only kept from following 
 the example of his brother, Sir William 
 Stanley, who had openly united with the in- 
 vader, by the fact of his son, Lord Strange, 
 being detained in Richard's hands as a 
 security for his father's good faith. He 
 stin, however, kept in the neighbourhood of 
 the invaders with a force of some 5,000 men, 
 and it was his sudden support of Richmond in 
 the heat of the battle that decided the day. 
 At the coronation of his step-son, Henry VII., 
 at which he ofSciated as High Constable, he 
 was raised to the dignity of Earl of Derby ; 
 and apparently continued in friendly relations 
 with Henry VII. to his death. 
 
 Derby, Edwakd Stanley, 3kd Eael 
 OF [d. 1572), on the death of Edward VI., 
 declared in favour of Mary, and by his ex- 
 ample aided materially in preventing any 
 recognition of Lady Jane Grey by the country 
 at large. He filled the office of Lord High 
 Steward at Mary's coronation, and subse- 
 quently did all he could to prevent the 
 queen's marriage with Philip of Spain, 
 tinder Elizabeth, Lord Derby's religion pre- 
 vented him from finding any great favour at 
 court ; but in spite of strenuous efforts made 
 by the Catholic peers to entice him into 
 taking an active part in the Northern rebellion 
 of 1569, he refused to implicate himself. 
 
 Derby, Fermnando Stanley, 6th Earl 
 OF (d. 1594), was the grandson of Eleanor, 
 Countess of Cumberland, who was herself the 
 gTanddaughter of Henry VII., through his 
 daughter Mary, the wife of Charles Brandon, 
 Duke of Suffolk. The Jesuits, upon his suc- 
 cession to the title, urged him, through an 
 
 agent named Hesketh, to assume the title of 
 King of England ; but the earl revealed the 
 plot to the government, and was poisoned 
 for his loyalty by the conspirators. 
 
 Derby, James Stanley, 7th Earl of {b. 
 1596, d. 16ol),attheoutbreakof theCivU War 
 was appointed by the king Lord-Lieutenant 
 of Cheshire and Derbyshire, as he was then 
 generally believed to have a great influence 
 upon the people of those two counties. He 
 is said to have shed the first blood of the 
 Civil War in a skirmish at Manchester, 
 July 15, 1642. But his influence was over- 
 rated, and his ability apparently insufficient 
 for the post he held : he was distrusted by the 
 king, and not supported by the people. In spite 
 of several successes, he was forced to abandon 
 the struggle and retire to the Isle of Man. 
 Lathom House was heroically defended by his 
 countess, Charlotte, till December, 1643. In 
 1651 he joined Charles II. on his march into 
 England, but whilst endeavouring to raise 
 Lancashire, was surprised and defeated by Col. 
 Robert Lilburn at Wigan. He himself escaped, 
 and took part in the battle of Worcester, but 
 was taken prisoner, tried by court-martial, 
 condemned to death, and beheaded at Bolton, 
 October 15, 1651. The countess continued to 
 hold the Isle of Man till it was reduced by 
 Fairfax in Nov., 1651. " He was a man," says 
 Clarendon, " of great honour and clear courage, 
 and all his defects and misfortunes proceeded 
 from his having lived so little time amongst 
 his equals that he knew not how to treat his 
 inferiors." 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the Beiellim, ; Whitelooke, 
 MemoHals. 
 
 Derby {i. Vllo, d. 18S1), Edward Smith 
 Stanley, 13th Earl of, was first returned 
 to Parliament in 1796. for Preston. In 1812 
 he was elected for Lancashire, which he con- 
 tinued to represent till the changes effected by 
 the Reform Bill. In 1832 he was called up to 
 the House of Lords, by the title of Baron 
 Stanley of Bickerstaffe, to strengthen the Whig 
 ministry. In 1834, on his father's death, he 
 succeeded to the earldom of Derby. 
 
 Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stan- 
 ley, 14th Earl of [b. 1799, rf. 1869), entered 
 Parliament in 1820 as member for Stockbridge. 
 He made his first speech, after three years' 
 silent voting, in favour of a private bill for 
 lighting Manchester with gas, and its abilitv 
 was noticed by Sir James Mackintosh. In 1827 
 he took office under Mr. Canning as Under 
 Secretary for the Colonies. On the death, of 
 Canning, Stanley refused to join the Goderich 
 ministry. He was a strenuous advocate of 
 Catholic Emancipation, Parliamentarj- Re- 
 form, reciprocity in free trade, with a moderate 
 fixed duty on com, and the foreign policy of 
 Mr. Canning. Therefore, from 1828 to 1830 
 he remained in opposition. He then took 
 office under Lord Grey as Chief Secretary for 
 Ireland. Mr. Stanley was quite as earnest as 
 
Der 
 
 ( 369 ) 
 
 Des 
 
 Lord John Russell himself, and muuh more 
 vehement, in his advocacy of the Eeform Bill. 
 The state of Ireland was full of danger. 
 The triumph in the matter of Catholic 
 Emancipation, and many grievances, real or 
 fancied, had incited the people to attempt 
 an agitation for repeal of the Union, and 
 every kind of outrage was rife. It fell to 
 Mr. Stanley's lot to- introduce a Coercion 
 Act in this emergency, and, as a consequence 
 of this, he hecixme very unpopular in Ireland, 
 and was frequently embroiled with Daniel 
 O'ConneU. In May, 1833, Mr. Stanley was 
 charged with the duty of hringing forward 
 the measure for the emancipation of the slaves, 
 and made a speech of remarkable eloquence. 
 In 1834, heing now by courtesj' Lord Stanley, 
 he separated himseU from the Whigs on the 
 question of the Irish Church, and with Sir 
 James Graham, the Duke of Richmond, and 
 some others, formed the intermediate party 
 Imown as the " Derby Dilly " (q.v.). He 
 rejected the overtures made to him by Sir 
 R. Peel in 1834, but accepted them in 
 1841, and took oiEce as Secretary of State for 
 the Colonies. But on the question of free 
 trade in 1846 Stanley, separated from Peel, 
 and was formally, and by the advice of the 
 Duke of Wellington, installed in the leader- 
 ship of the Tory party, with Lord George 
 Bentinck and Mr. Disraeli as his heutenants. 
 In 1852 he held office for ten months, but 
 by the end of the year had to give way to the 
 Coalition ministry of Lord Aberdeen. In 
 1858, being Prime Minister again, he suc- 
 ceeded in passing his India Bill, but was 
 defeated on the question of Parliamentary 
 Reform. An appeal to the coimtry was in- 
 effectual, and he resigned office in June, 1859. 
 In 1866 his party succeeded in defeating 
 Lord Russell's new Reform Bill, but only to 
 pass next year a similar one, which its 
 opponents declared to be of a still more 
 sweeping character. Early in 1868 Lord 
 Derby surrendered the leadership of his party 
 into the hands of Mr. Disraeli, and retired 
 into private life on October 23, 1869. Lord 
 Derby was for many years Chancellor of the 
 University of Oxford. He was a man of cul- 
 tured taste, and a good Greek scholar, and in 
 1864 published a blank verse translation of 
 the liiad, which attracted a considerable 
 amount of notice at the time. Lord Derby's 
 speeches were greatly admired for their elo- 
 quence and fire, and he is often spoken of as 
 the " Rupert of Debate." 
 
 Derby, Edward Henry, 15th Earl or 
 {h. 1826), son of the preceding Earl of Derby, 
 entered Parliament as member for Lyme 
 Regis, and became Under Secretary for 
 Eoreign Affairs in his father's first ministry. 
 In Lord Derby's second administration, in 
 1858 — 9, he was Secretary of State for India, 
 and managed the transfer of the government 
 from the directors of the East India Company 
 
 to the crown. He was Secretary of State for 
 Foreign Affairs in 1866, and succeeded to his 
 peerage in 1869. In 1874 he was Secretary 
 for Foreign Affairs in Mr. Disraeli's cabinet, 
 but resigned simultaneously with the Earl of 
 Carnarvon, the Colonial Secretary, owing 
 to differences with his colleagues on the 
 Eastern Question in 1878. In 1882 he 
 abandoned the Conservatives, and joined Mr. 
 Gladstone's ministry as Colonial Secretary, 
 in which capacity he had to deal with the 
 demand on the part of the Australians for the 
 annexing of New Guinea. 
 
 Dering, Sir Edward (J. 1598, d. 1644), 
 was a gentleman of Kent, created baronet in 
 1627, and member for the county in the Long 
 Parliament. In the discussions on ecclesias- 
 tical questions he distinguished himself by his 
 opposition to Laud's innovations, and was 
 even persuaded to introduce the " Root and 
 Branch " Bill, which he afterwards opposed. 
 He also opposed the Grand Remonstrance, 
 and was, in February, 1642, sent to the 
 Tower for printing his speeches. At the be- 
 ginning of the war he raised a regiment for 
 the king, but in 1644 took the Covenant, 
 paid a composition for his estate, and returned 
 home to die (June 22, 1644). Sir Edward 
 published a volume of his speeches without 
 the leave of the House of Commons, and for 
 this reason was expelled the House, and his 
 book was ordered to be burnt by the hangman. 
 Proceedings in Kent (Camden Soc), 1861. 
 
 Serwentwater, James Ratcliffe, Earl 
 OP (d. 1716), was a grandson of Charles II. 
 by his mistress, Moll Davis. He was a 
 Roman Catholic, and deeply implicated in 
 the rebellion of 1715, for which he was tried 
 and executed in the following year, at the 
 early age of twenty-eight. 
 
 Desborough (or Disbrow), John, second 
 son of James Desborough, of Eltisley, 
 Bucks, was bred an attorney, and married in 
 1636 Jane, sister of Oliver Cromwell. In 
 1642 he became quartermaster in the troop 
 raised by his brother-in-law, served through- 
 out the war, and rose to the rank of major- 
 general. He was nominated one of the 
 commissioners to try the king, but refused to 
 act. During the Protectorate he was in suc- 
 cession Commissioner of the Navy, member of 
 the Scotch Council, Major-General in charge 
 of the counties of Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, 
 Devon, and Cornwall, and one of the admirals 
 of the fleet after Blake's death. He was one 
 of Cromwell's Council of State, and appointed 
 a member of his House of Lords, but opposed 
 his taking the crown. After Cromwell's death, 
 he joined the Wallingford House party, helped 
 to overthrow Richard, and to turn out the 
 restored Long Parliament. At the Restora- 
 tion he was incapacitated from all public 
 employment. The date of his death is un- 
 certain, but he appears to have lived tiU 1686. 
 Noble, The Souse of Cromwell. 
 
Bes 
 
 ( 370 ) 
 
 Bes 
 
 Desmond, Gakrett, Eakl of {d. 1583), 
 ■was the head of the great house of the 
 southern Fitzgeralds, who were all-powerful 
 ia Munster. Sir Henry Sidney had recom- 
 mended that this province should be made into 
 an English presidency and English colonists 
 introduced. But the queen, who had set 
 herself against this plan, demanded that 
 Desmond's influence shoald be attacked in 
 another way. He was consequently soon ar- 
 rested for treason. In 1568 he submitted 
 to Elizabeth, and surrendered his property 
 into her hands. Bat in 1574 he broke 
 oat in rebellion again, and once more in 
 1579- Next year he was cooped up with the 
 Spaniards by Lord Grey at Smerwick, but 
 escaped the horrible fate of the garrison. At 
 last, after wandering about for more than 
 two years, his hiding-place was betrayed to 
 the English, who surrounded his cabin, and 
 murdered him in his bed (1583). 
 
 Sesmond, Sm John {d. 1581), was the 
 brother of Garrett, Earl of Desmond. In 
 the hope of compromising his brother with 
 the English he murdered two English officers 
 at Tralee (1579). The whole clan then sprang 
 to arms. Sir John was taken prisoner at the 
 fall of Kilmallock, in 1580, but as he spoke 
 English fluently, he managed to escape. In 
 December next year he fell in with Sir John 
 Zouch on the Avonmore River ; that officer 
 slew him, and sent his head to Dublin. 
 
 Desmond, Maurice Fitzgerald, Earl 
 OF, was one of the early Norman conquerors of 
 Ireland. Having engaged to give help to Der- 
 mot. King of Leinster, he landed at Wexford 
 in 1169. In conjunction with that monarch 
 he conquered Dublin, where he was besieged 
 by Eoderic and an immense host of Irish in 
 1171. By his advice the beleaguered English 
 sallied forth in three small troops, and utterly 
 routed the enemy — a disaster which led to 
 the dispersion of the other Irish armies. 
 "When, in 1171, Henry II. visited Ireland, he 
 appointed Maurice one of the three chief 
 governors of Dublin. He was with his 
 colleague De Lacy when that baron was so 
 nearly murdered by O'Rourke's treachery. 
 Later, Wexford was given him as a fief, and 
 here he died, 1176. Giraldus Cambrensis 
 describes him as a man of action rather than, 
 of words, valiant, and second to none in 
 activity of enterprise. 
 
 Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio Kiheimix. 
 
 Despard, Edwaud Marcus, Colonel (J. 
 1750 ? d. 1803), was bom in Ireland, and was 
 early employed in military service in the 
 West Indies and the Bay of Honduras, where 
 he was made superintendent of the English 
 colony. His conduct in this office seems to 
 have given offence to the settlers, and he was 
 recalled, but could never obtain an official 
 investigation. When the French Revolution 
 broke out, he adopted the new principles, and 
 
 was, in consequence, put in prison. On 
 his release he attempted the assassination 
 of George III. ; for this offence he was tried 
 and executed in March, 1803. 
 
 Despencer, Barony OF. The first baron 
 of this name is Hugh le Despencer, a Steward 
 of Henry I. In 1264 Hugh le Despencer, 
 Justiciar of England, was summoned to 
 iParliament ; in 1265 he was killed at the 
 battle of Evesham [Despencer, Hugh le, 1]. 
 His son Hugh was created JEarl of Win- 
 chester in 1322, but in 1326 was declared 
 a traitor, and hanged. The same fate befell 
 his son Hugh " the Younger " a month later ; 
 and the honours of both became forfeit. 
 Hugh, however, the son of the latter, appears 
 to have been summoned to Parliament from 
 1338 — 1349, when he died, and the title 
 devolved upon a nephew, whose son Thomas, 
 fifth baron by writ, procured the reversal of 
 the Act declaring his ancestors (Edward II. 's 
 ministers) traitors. Thomas was created Earl 
 of Gloucester, 1397, but was degraded, 1399, 
 and beheaded by the populace, 1400, when his 
 honours became forfeit. His attainder was, 
 however, reversed in 1461, and the barony of 
 Despencer fell into abeyance among the issue 
 of his daughter and eventual heiress, Isabel, 
 until in 1604 it was conceded to Mary NeviUe, 
 wile of Sir Thomas Fane, in the person of 
 whose son it became united to the earldom of 
 "Westmoreland. In 1762, and again in 1781, 
 it once more fell into abeyance, but ulti- 
 mately devolved upon Sir Thomas Stapleton, 
 in whose family it still remains. 
 
 Despencer, Hugh le (d. 1265), was one 
 of the leaders of the baronial opposition to 
 Henry III. In 1258 he was chosen as one of 
 the commissioners on the part of the barons 
 at the Oxford Parliament, and in 1260 was 
 appointed Justiciar, which office he held till 
 1262. In the next year he was once more 
 advanced to the justiciarship, and when the 
 war broke out he headed the citizens of 
 London in their attacks on the houses of the 
 royalists. He fought bravely at Lewes, took 
 a prominent part in the government of 
 De Montfort, and fell with Earl Simon in the 
 battle of Evesham. His death is celebrated in 
 one of the political songs of the time, which 
 Mr. Blaauw translates as foUows : — 
 
 "Despencer true, the good Sir Hugh, 
 Our justice and our friend, 
 Borne down with wrong amidst tlie throng, 
 Has met his wretched end," 
 
 Despencer, Hugh le {d. 1326), son 
 of the above, and known as " the Younger," 
 married Eleanor de Clare, one of the co- 
 heiresses of the Earl of Gloucester. He 
 was sopn involved in quarrels with the 
 husbands of the other co-heiresses, while 
 the favour shown him by the king arrayed a 
 great part of the baronage against him. He 
 
Bes 
 
 { 371 ) 
 
 Dev 
 
 ■was banished in 1321, "but recalled soon after 
 to acquire more possessions, andalinost supreme 
 power on the defeat of the Earl of Lancaster 
 at BoTOughbridge (1322). The success of the 
 queen and Mortimer in 132G obliged him to 
 flee, but he was captured, and beheaded at 
 Hereford by Mortimer's orders. The objects 
 of the Despencers seem to have been primarily 
 selfish, and they cared but little for the 
 interests of the king. At the same time, it is 
 evident that they wished to increase the 
 importance of the House of Commons, and 
 use it to counterbalance the baronage. But 
 they entirely failed in their aims : for while 
 they alienated the barons, they did not secure 
 to themselves the affections of the people. 
 
 Sespeucer, Henry le {d. 1406), was the 
 grandson of Hugh le Despencer the Younger. 
 In 1370 he was made Bishop of Norwich, and 
 in 1381 distinguished himself by putting 
 down the revolt in Norfolk. In 1383 he 
 undertook an expedition to Flanders, by 
 ■which, under the guise of a crusade against 
 the adherents of the anti-Pope element, he 
 hoped to inflict injury on the French. He 
 captured Gravelinea, Ypres, and other places, 
 but was eventually obliged to retire, and on 
 his return to Englemd was stripped of his 
 temporalities by the king. 
 
 Be Tallagio uou coucedendo, 
 
 Statute of (1297), is the name given to the 
 Latin form of the great statute known as 
 the Confirmatio Cartarum, ■which forbade (1) 
 any tallage or aid to be taken by the king 
 ■without the consent of the bishops, earls, 
 barons, knights, and other freemen of the 
 realm ; (2) any prize in com, leather, or wool, 
 &c., ■without the owner's consent; (3) the 
 maltote (q.v.). Other clauses confirmed the 
 charters and liberties of both clergy and 
 laymen, pardoned the great earls and their 
 partisans, -whose firmness had securedEdward's 
 consent to this law, and gave orders for the 
 publication of the Charter. Dr. Stubbs con- 
 siders that the Latin form of this statute 
 is not the original, but rather the French one, 
 which does not contain the word tallage, and 
 is couched in more general terms. He suggests 
 that the Latin form may be the rough draft, 
 or informal statement, of the terms of the 
 pacification, and may stand in the same 
 relation to the French form, which became 
 the permanent law of the land, as the Articles 
 of the Barons stand in to the Great Charter 
 of 1215. It was, however, referred to as a 
 statute in the Petition of Eight. The chief 
 points to be noticed in comparing the Con- 
 firmatio Cartarum with the De TaUagio are 
 that the former does not contain the word 
 "taUage;" the latter does not reserve the 
 rights of the king; the former renounces 
 only "such manner of aids," &c., while the 
 latter contains no such qualifying words. 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist, and Select Charters. 
 
 Dettingen, The Battle op (July 27, 
 1743), was fought during the War of the 
 Austrian Succession. Lord Stair, who was 
 the English commander, wished to drive 
 the French from Germany, and also, if 
 possiblej to invade Alsace and Lorraine. The 
 Kuke de Noailles, the French commander, 
 marched into Franconia against him. Staii" lay 
 idly on the Maine with 40,000 men, awaiting 
 12,000 subsidised Hanoverians. Noailles 
 scoured the country to the south of the river. 
 Suddenly Stair marched up the river towards 
 Franconia. He passed Hanau, and moved 
 towards Aschaffenberg. About half-way be- 
 tween the two is the village of Dettingen. 
 On reaching the plain of Dettingen, the 
 English found that De Noailles had out- 
 marched them, and thus cut them off from 
 Aschaffenberg. Here they were joined by 
 King George II. and the Duke of Cum- 
 berland. It was determined to secure, if 
 possible, the retreat to Hanau. But Noailles 
 had sent his nephew, the Duke de Grammont, 
 across the river to occupy Dettingen. Bridges 
 were thrown across the Maine, and Noailles' 
 cannon played on the retreating English. It 
 was determined to cut a way through Gram- 
 mont's forces. The French commander, 
 however, leaving a strong position behind a 
 ra^vine, advanced to the attack, thinking he 
 was only opposed by the advanced troops of 
 the English. Led on by King George, the 
 English infantry broke through the enemy. 
 Grammont retired across the Slaine ; but the 
 retreat became a rout, and 6,000 men were 
 left on the field. George, wishing to extricate 
 himself from his dangerous position, refrained 
 from pursuit, and pushed on for Hanau. 
 Stair, furious that his advice should be dis- 
 regarded, sent in his resignation, which was 
 accepted. NoaiUes withdrew into Alsace, 
 whither he was followed by the king, and 
 negotiations for peace were begun. 
 
 Leoky, Hist, of Eighteenth Cent.; Stanhope, 
 Hist, of Eng. ; Arneth, Mrn-ia Theresia. 
 
 Bensdedit, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (655 — 664), was a. West Saxon by birth. 
 His native name was Frithona, which 
 he changed for his Latin appellation on 
 being elected to the see of Canterbury. He 
 is remarkable as being the first Englishman 
 elevated to the archbishopric. He was con- 
 ciliatory towards the British Church, and 
 Christianity was widely extended in Mercia 
 and Northumbria during his episcopate. 
 
 Bevizes. The town of Devizes appears 
 in English history for the first time when 
 Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, built his great 
 castle here, during the reign of Henry I. It 
 was surrendered to Stephen by his son Nigel, 
 Bishop of Ely, when that last-mentioned 
 monarch threatened to hang Bishop Roger's 
 son if the rebellion was persisted in. A few 
 years later it was held by Fitz-Hubert on 
 behalf of the Empress Maud. 
 
Dev 
 
 ( 372 ) 
 
 Dev 
 
 Devizes, Richard of, was the author of 
 a chronicle of the reign of Eichard I. from 
 1189 — 1192. This fragment is of consider- 
 able historical value, hoth for the incidents of 
 the Third Crusade and for the condition of 
 England in Richard's absence. Of the writer 
 little is known, except that he was a member 
 of the Priory of St. Swithin at Winchester, 
 and that he probably died before the completion 
 of his work. 
 
 Devon, or Devonshire, Pebraoe op. 
 The "third penny" of the county of Bevon is 
 said to have been granted to Richard de Red- 
 vers. Baron of Okehampton, who died 1137. 
 His descendants bore indifferently the title of 
 Earl of Devon or of Exeter until the failure 
 of the eldest line, on the death of Isabel de 
 Redvers, wife of William de Portibus, Earl 
 of Albemarle, in 1293. The earldom was, 
 however, successfully claimed, 1335, by a 
 cousin of the late countess, Hugh Courte- 
 nay, fifth Baron Courtenay, and it re- 
 mained in his family until the attainder of 
 Thomas Courtenay, sixth earl, 1461. In 1469, 
 Humphrey Stafford, Baron of Southwicke, 
 was created Earl of Devon ; but he was be- 
 headed in the course of the same year, and 
 the patent of his creation was annulled by a 
 statute of 1485, when the earldom was re- 
 stored to the Courtenays in the person of 
 Edward, great nephew of the third earl. 
 Edward's grandson, Henry Courtenay, was 
 created Marquis of Exeter , in 1525, but 
 on his attainder, in 1539, his honours 
 became forfeit. His son Edward was re- 
 stored to both titles; his death without 
 issue, in 1556, left the earldom of Devon with- 
 out a claimant until 1830—1, when it was 
 restored to William Courtenay, heir male of 
 the last earl of the Courtenay family. In the 
 interval, in 1603, another earldom of Devon 
 had been created in favour of Charles Blount, 
 eighth Baron Mount] oy, in whose person it 
 became extinct, 1606. William Cavendish, 
 Baron Cavendish of Hardwicke, was created 
 Earl of Devonshire in 1618. His great- 
 grandson, William, fourth earl, was created 
 Duke of Devonshire and Marquis of Hart- 
 ington, 1694, for his services in connection 
 with the Revolution of 1688 — 9. 
 
 Devon, William Courtenay, Earl or 
 {d. loll), was brother-in-law of Henry VII. 's 
 queen, by his marriage with Edward IV.'s 
 daughter, Catherine. When Perkia Warbeck, 
 in the latter part of the year 1497, followed 
 up his landing in Cornwall by the active 
 siege of the city of Exeter, the Earl of 
 Devon was foremost among the English 
 nobles in a show of loyalty to Henry VII., 
 and made a special effort to relieve the 
 city before the arrival of the succours sent 
 for that purpose by the king himself. In 
 1504, however, being implicated in the pro- 
 ceedings of the fugitive Earl of Suffolk by 
 
 the evidence of one of Henry VII. 's spies. Sir 
 Robert Curson, Courtenay was attainted, 
 and deprived of his estates by the Parliament 
 of that year, under the Speakership of Dudley, 
 and was kept a close prisoner in the Tower 
 during the remainder of the king's life. 
 
 Devon, Edward Courtenay, Earl of 
 (d. 1556), was the son of Edward Courtenay, 
 Marquis of Exeter, who was the sou of Sir 
 William Courtenay and Catherine, daughter 
 of Edward IV. After the execution of his 
 father, in 1539, for conspiring in favour 
 of Reginald Pole, he was sent to the Tower, 
 and confined there until his release by Mary, 
 in 1553. Whilst still in prison he was spoken of 
 as the probable future husband of the queen. 
 On the announcement of Mary's determination 
 to wed Philip of Spain, a strong party gathered 
 round Courtenay, and urged him to marry the 
 Princess Elizabeth and to declare her queen, 
 whilst they undertook to rouse the country, 
 and to gather together a sufficient number of 
 men to ensure success. The chief of the 
 conspirators were Sir Thomas Wyatt, Sir 
 James Crofts, and the Duke of Suffolk. The 
 plot was, however, betrayed to Gardiner by 
 Courtenay, and the rebellion was easily 
 crushed by the courage of the queen. 
 Courtenay, mistrusted and despised for his 
 weakness, was sent back to the Tower, and 
 shortly afterwards exiled. He died at Venice 
 in 1556. Dr. Lingard says that the dissolute- 
 ness of his life was the sole cause why Mary 
 would not consent to take him as her h\isband. 
 His character is thus summed up by Mr. 
 Eroude : " He was too cowardly for a dan- 
 gerous enterprise, too incapable for an intri- 
 cate one, and his weak humour made men 
 afraid to trust themselves to a person who, to 
 save himself, might at any moment betray 
 them. 
 
 Noailles, .4mba.ssades en Angleterre 
 Amuds; Troude, Hist. ofEng. 
 
 Stowe, 
 
 Devon, Charles Blount, Earl or (J. 1563, 
 d. 1606), was the second son of Lord Mountjoy. 
 Having won the favour of Queen Elizabeth, he 
 became a rival of Essex, with whom he fought 
 a duel, though afterwards the two became 
 great friends. In 1594, Blount, who had 
 now become Lord Mountjoy by the death of 
 his brother, was made Governor of Ports- 
 mouth, and three years later accompanied 
 Essex on his unfortunate expedition to the 
 Azores. In 1601 he was made Lord Deputy 
 of Ireland, and successfully crushed the re- 
 bellion. He was created Earl of Devon- 
 shire by James I. in 1603, and died in 1606. 
 
 Devonshire, William Cavendish, 4th 
 Earl OP, afterwards Duke of (6. 1640,(?. 1712), 
 sat as member for Derby in 1661. He was 
 sworn of the Privy Council in 1679, but at the 
 end of the year he petitioned for his dismissal. 
 He was a zealous Protestant and opponent of 
 the court party. In 1685 he was insulted in 
 
Dev 
 
 ( 373 ) 
 
 Sia 
 
 a gambling house by a bravo named Colepepper. 
 Indignant at meeting this man at court, con- 
 trary to the king's promise, he publicly insulted 
 him, after he had declined his challenge. He 
 was tried before the King's Bench, pleaded 
 guilty, and was fined the enormous sum of 
 £30,000. He was imprisoned, but hearing that 
 he was about to appeal from the judgment of 
 the King's Bench, James allowed him to go free, 
 on giving a bond for the amount of the fine. 
 He eagerly joined the Eevolution scheme, and 
 was one of those who signed the invitation to 
 WiUiam of Orange. When WUliam landed 
 in England, Devonshire appeared in arms at 
 Derby, and proceeded to Nottingham, which 
 became the head-quarters of the Northern in- 
 surrection. A meeting of peers was held at 
 his bouse to discuss the settlement of the 
 crown. Soon after the Eevolution he was 
 made Lord High Steward, and Knight 
 of the Garter. On the departure of 
 William to Ireland, Devonshire was created 
 one of the Council of Nine, and vigorously 
 superintended the fitting-out of the fleet. In 
 1691 he accompanied the king to Holland. 
 He was accused, apparently falsely, by 
 Preston of dealings with St. Germains, but 
 the king declined to listen to the confession 
 of the informer. He was created Duke of 
 Devonshireand MarquiSof Hartingtoniu 1694. 
 On William's departure for the Netherlands, 
 he was appointed one of the Lords Justices. 
 We subsequently find him declaring against 
 the bill on the Irish land-grants. He also 
 opposed the second Partition Treaty, on which 
 his opinion had not been asked. He was 
 present at the death of William III. He was 
 created Lord Steward in the reign of Queen 
 Anne, and, greatly to his indignation, dis- 
 missed from office in 1710. He was also very 
 indignant at the appointment of his kinsman 
 Ormonde to the command of the army. " In 
 wealth and influence," says Macaulay, " he was 
 second to none of the English nobles, and the 
 general voice designated him as the finest 
 gentleman of his time. His magnificence, 
 his tastes, his talents, his classical learning, 
 his high spirit, the grace and urbanity of 
 his manners, were admitted by his enemies. 
 His eulogists, unhappily, could not pretend 
 that his morals had escaped untainted from 
 the widespread contagion of that age." 
 
 Bnmet, Hist, of His Ovm Time ; Boyer, Annals ; 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; Rennet, CavBTidish 
 Memoirs. 
 
 Sevorgoil, or Devorguilla, was the 
 daughter of Alan of Galloway and of Margaret, 
 daughter of David of Huntingdon. In 1233 
 she married John de Baliol, the Lord of Har- 
 court and Castle Barnard, in England. Upon 
 the death of Alan (1234), the husbands of his 
 three daughters divided his territory amongst 
 them. It was Devorgoil who, after she had 
 become a widow, founded and endowed 
 Balliol College, Oxford ; and it was her son 
 
 who is known in history as the King of Soot- 
 land and competitor of Robert Bruce. 
 
 D'Ewes, SiK Symonds (i. 1602, d. 1650), 
 was educated at Cambridge. He was knighted 
 by Charles I. , and received a baronetcy in 1 641 . 
 When the Civil War broke out, however, he 
 joined the Parliamentary party. He com- 
 piled a Journal of all the Parliaments (both 
 Lords and Commons) of Queen Elizabeth's 
 reign — a work which was published several 
 years after his death, in 1682, and is of the 
 greatest importance for the domestic events 
 of the last half of the sixteenth century. His 
 Memoirs were pubHshed from the MSS. in 
 1845, by Mr. HaUiweU. 
 
 Beydras, John (1324), was an impostor, 
 who claimed to be the true son of Edward I. , 
 asserting that he had been changed in his 
 cradle. The unpopularity of Edward II. led 
 some people to give credence to his story, 
 but his followers were few, and he was 
 quickly seized and executed. 
 
 Dhoondia Waugh was an Afghan chief 
 who took service with Tippoo Sahib. On the 
 final capture of Seringapatam, 1799, he es- 
 caped, and commenced a career of plunder 
 on his own account, but was pursued by 
 Colonel Wellesley, defeated, and killed Sep- 
 tember 10, 1799. 
 
 Dialogus de Scaccario is the title of 
 
 a work compiled in the twelfth century 
 by Richard Fitz-Nigel, at one time Treasurer 
 of the Exchequer, and Bishop of London 
 from 1189 — 1198. This treatise is divided into 
 two books, both of which are thrown into the 
 form of a dialogue between a master and a 
 scholar. The first book, in eighteen chapters, 
 describes what the Exchequer is : the origin 
 of its name, the duties of its various officers, 
 with their rights and honours, the definition 
 of the various legal terms used in the govern- 
 ment of the country, such as hundred, mur- 
 drum, danegeld, county, &c., and the busi- 
 ness of the Treasury. The second book, 
 divided into twenty-eight chapters, treats of 
 summonses, the rendering of accounts into 
 the Exchequer, and of the sheriffs and the 
 different branches of the king's revenue. The 
 Dialogus de Scaccario was first printed by 
 Madox in his History of the Exchequer, and 
 has been again published by Dr. Stubbs in his 
 Select Charters. The date of its composition is 
 probably about the year 1176 or 1177. It is 
 a work of great importance, and throws a flood 
 of light upon the administrative system of the 
 Angevin kings. 
 
 Diamond, The Battle op, was a great 
 faction fight fought near a' hamlet bear- 
 ing this name in Armagh, on September 21, 
 1795, between the Peep o' Day Boys and the 
 Defenders (q.v.). The victory remained with 
 the former party, who slew forty-eight of 
 their opponents. It was shortly after this fight 
 that the first Orange Lodge was founded. 
 
Die 
 
 ( 374) 
 
 Sis 
 
 Diceto, Ealphde [d. 1210), was a chroni- 
 cler, whose writings are of considerable 
 importance for the reigns of Henry II. and 
 Eichard I. This author was for a long period 
 Dean of St. Paul' s and Archdeacon of Middle- 
 sex. The former office he appears to have held 
 as early as 1163, while to the latter he was 
 elected in 1181. In this last capacity he 
 caused a survey of the estates of that church 
 to be made, part of which is still preserved, 
 and has been issued by the Camden Society, 
 under the title of The Domesday of St. Paul's. 
 Ralph seems to have been employed in many 
 important missions by Henry II., and assisted 
 Archbishop Baldwin at the coronation of 
 Richard I. His two priucipal works are 
 Abbreviationes Ghronicoriim and Imagines Sis- 
 toriarum. The former of these consists of a 
 history of the world from the Creation down to 
 1147, and is largely composed of extracts from 
 classical and mediaeval writers. In parts it is 
 largely based on Robert de Monte, a writer who 
 is the primary authority for the early years 
 (1147 — 1158) of Ralph's more important 
 Imagines. But even this last work can only be 
 described as contemporaneous, in the strict 
 sense of the word, from the year 1173 to its 
 conclusion, 1201, for which period it i's of 
 considerable value. Several minor historical 
 documents are ascribed to the same hand. 
 Ralph de Diceto's histories have been edited 
 by Dr. Stubbs for the Rolls Series. 
 
 Digby, Sir Kenelm (b. 1603, d. 1665), 
 was son of Sir Everard Digby, who was 
 executed for his share in the Powder Plot. 
 In 1628 he undertook a privateering voyage 
 to the Mediterranean, in ■ which he distin- 
 guished himself by defeating a Venetian 
 squadron at Scanderoon. In 1636 he became 
 a Catholic, and was employed by the queen, 
 three years later, to obtain money from his 
 co-religionists. During the greater part of 
 the Civil War and the Protectorate he lived 
 abroad, occupying himself with the study of 
 natural philosophy. A literary contempo- 
 rary compared him to Pico della Mirandola 
 for the universality of his knowledge, and a 
 scientific one styled him "the Pliny of his 
 a!»e for lying." "The truth is," says John 
 Evelyn, " Sir Kenelm was an arrant mounte- 
 bank." 
 
 Digges, Sm Dudley (J. 1583, d. 1639), was 
 a member of Parliament in James I.'s reign, 
 and was occasionally employed by the king 
 on public business : as, for example, on the 
 embassy to Russia in 1618. He was one of the 
 chief managers of Buckingham's impeach- 
 ment in 1626. He was imprisoned on more 
 than one occasion for his language against 
 the court, and in the Parliament of 1628 he 
 strongly advocated the Petition of Eight. He 
 subsequently made his peace with the king, 
 and in 1630 had a reversionary grant of the 
 Mastership of the Rolls. He held that office 
 from 1636 to his death in 1639. 
 
 Dilke, Sir Chaeles (i. 184;3), the son of 
 Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, was educated 
 at Trinity College, Cambridge. After leaving 
 college, he made a prolonged tour through the 
 United States and the British Colonies and 
 India. On his return, he published a volume 
 called Greater Britain, which attracted much 
 attention. He was elected in 1868 in the 
 Radical interest member for Chelsea. In 1872 
 he moved in the House for an inquiry into the 
 Civil List. In 1880 he took office as Under 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies, andinl882 
 became President of the Local Government 
 Board. 
 
 Dinkur Kao. The title of the chief 
 minister of Scindiah. In 1861, under the new 
 Act, he became one of the Legislative Council 
 of India. 
 
 Dirletou Castle, seven miles north of 
 Haddington, was, after a long siege, taken by 
 Bishop Anthony Beck for Edward I., in 1298. 
 It was destroyed in 1650 by General Lambert. 
 
 Disarming Acts (Ireland). By the 
 7 Will, and Mary, 1695, aU Catholics were 
 ordered to deliver up their arms, excepting only 
 those who were protected by the Treaty of 
 Limerick and other Articles, and who were 
 consequently allowed to keep a sword and 
 pistols, also a fowling-piece. By the same Act 
 any horse must be given up to a Protestant 
 on tender of five guineas. All gun-makers 
 were to be Protestants, and to admit only 
 Protestant apprentices. Every justice of the 
 peace might search for arms. The Act was 
 not very strictly carried out. In 1730, for 
 instance, a Catholic gentleman was convicted of 
 carrying arms, but acquitted because the Act 
 applied only to those aUve at the time. In 1 732 
 Lord Gormanstown and some other gentlemen 
 appeared at Trim Assizes with their swords ; 
 they were convicted, but after an apology, par- 
 doned on the petition of the Grand Jury. In 
 1739 a new Disai-ming Act was passed, but 
 little observed. In 1793 these Acts were re- 
 pealed as regards Catholics, but a new Act (33 
 George III.) was passed forbidding any person 
 to keep arms without a licence, and allowing 
 a search for arms to be made. 
 
 Discipline, The Book op (1561), was 
 the name given to a compilation adopted by 
 the Reformers in Scotland as a basis for 
 the re-organisation of their Church and its 
 practice. It did not, however, receive -the 
 sanction of the Estates. In 1581 the Second 
 Book of Discipline was issued, with a view to 
 regulate the whole system of the Church of 
 Scotland, but likewise failed to pass the 
 Estates. 
 
 Disinherited, The, was the name 
 given to the remnant of the baronial party 
 who held out after the battle of Evesham, a 
 general sentence of forfeiture having been 
 issued against all those who had fought 
 on the side of De Montfort. The disin- 
 herited lords occupied Kenilworth and the 
 
Sis 
 
 (875) 
 
 Dis 
 
 Isle of Ely ; the former place surrendered 
 at the end of 1266, on the terms given by the 
 " Dictum of Kenilworth," but those who 
 ■were unwilling to accept them maintained 
 the struggle in the Isle of Ely. The latter 
 party was not reduced till 1267, but was 
 even then allowed the same terms that the 
 defenders of Kenilworth had obtained. 
 
 Disinherited Barons, The, were 
 certain lords who had claims in Scotland, and 
 on whose behalf it was provided by the 
 Treaty of Northampton, 1328, " that they 
 should be restored to their lands and estates, 
 whereof the King of Scots had taken posses- 
 sion." The Scotch regency, on various pre- 
 texts, delayed to carry out this article, the 
 result being that the barons resolved to 
 support Edward Baliol and to invade 
 Scotland. Chief amongst them were Beau- 
 mont Earl of Buchan, Thomas Lord "VVake, 
 David de Strathbogie, and Henry de Ferrers. 
 On the success of Baliol (1334), the barons 
 began to -quarrel amongst themselves over 
 their spoils, and Baliol soon had to quit the 
 kingdom he had partially won. 
 
 Dispensing Poorer, The, was the name 
 given to the royal prerogative, by which the 
 sovereign was enabled to exempt individuals 
 from the operation of the penal laws. It is 
 analagous to, and frequently confused with, 
 the Suspending Power, by which a right was 
 claimed to abrogate one or more statutes 
 entirely. The origin of this idea may be 
 traced to the ancient royal prerogative of 
 pardoning individual ojBEenders, from which, 
 in an age of unscientific legislation, the 
 transition to a power of previously annulling 
 the penalties of a statute was easy. It found 
 countenance in the clause non-obstante, " any 
 law to the contrary," introduced by the 
 Popes into their Bulls in the thirteenth 
 century. Henry III. imitated this clause in 
 proclamations and grants, but not without 
 protest ; and in 1391 the Commons granted 
 to Richard II. the right, with the consent of 
 the Lords, of dispensing with the Statute of 
 Provisors until the next Parliament, assert- 
 ing, however, that this was a novelty, and 
 should not be drawn into a precedent. The 
 free use of the dispensing power alone made 
 it possible to combine the retention of the 
 Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire with 
 friendly relations with the Papacy. The 
 power was frequently disputed by Parlia- 
 ment, and although asserted by Henry V. in 
 1413, with regard to a law for expelling 
 aliens from the kingdom, a statute passed in 
 1444, limiting the patents of sheriffs to a 
 year, especially forbade the king to dispense 
 with this provision, or to remit the penalties 
 for breaking it. Under Henry VII. the dis- 
 pensing power was frequently employed (the 
 judges even deciding that the king might 
 grant exceptions to the statute of _ 1444) ; 
 but in this roign an important limitation was 
 
 introduced, by an agreement among lawyers, 
 that the king could not dispense with the 
 penalties for an offence against the common 
 law (malum in se), but only of one created by 
 statute (malum prohibitum) . In the reign of 
 Henry VIII., however, the dispensing power 
 became almost unlimited ; it was true that the 
 king could not dispense with future Acts of 
 Parliament, but he could "with things in 
 future whereof he hath an inheritance." The 
 ingenuity of lawyers failed to decide finally 
 the limits of this prerogative, either during 
 the Tudors or the two first Stuarts, by whom 
 it was frequently exercised : Lord Coke, for 
 instance, leaving the question as he found it 
 by deciding that "no Act of Parliament may 
 bind the king from any prerogative which is 
 inseparable from his person, so that he may 
 not dispense with it by a non-obstante" 
 After the Eestoration the dispensing power 
 was revived by Charles II. for the new 
 purpose of admitting Catholics to office, and 
 in virtue of it, he issued the Declaration of 
 Indulgence. In 1673 the country party 
 ventured to challenge the right, asserting, 
 though on insufficient grounds, that it was 
 confined to secular matters, and by threaten, 
 ing to withhold supplies, induced the king to 
 cancel the Declaration. James II., however, 
 determined to use the power on a wholesale 
 scale for the purpose of admitting Catholics 
 to ecclesiastical as well as secular offices, 
 and, after dismissing refractory judges and 
 barristers, brought the question to an issue 
 in Sir Edward Hale's case (1686). This was 
 a eoUueive action — the plaintiff, Godden, 
 being the defendant's servant, who claimed 
 as an informer a penalty of £500, to which 
 his master was liable for holding the com- 
 mand of a regiment without taking the 
 Sacrament. The defendant pleaded letters 
 patent from the king, and the judges, with 
 one exception, decided that the king might 
 dispense with penal statutes in particular 
 cases. This decision, by perpetuating a legal 
 anomaly, is said by Hallam to have " sealed 
 the condemnation of the House of Stuart." 
 Armed with this weapon, James immediately 
 proceeded to admit Roman Catholic lords to 
 the Privy Council, and to authorise clergy- 
 men to hold benefices. For these and other 
 arbitrary acts he lost the crown, and the Bill 
 of Rights abolished both the Suspending 
 and Dispensing power, declaring that "the 
 pretended power of suspending laws and the 
 execution of laws by regal authority without 
 Act of Parliament is illegal; and that the 
 pretended power of dispensing with laws by 
 regal authority without Act of Parliament, as 
 it hath been assumed and exercised of late, 
 is illegal." 
 
 Matthew Paris, ffist. Major,, 810 and 854; 
 Coke, Eeports, 18 ; State Trials, xi. 1165—1280 ; 
 Broom, G(yfi^. Law; Macanlay, Hint o/Eng., 
 vols, i, aud ii. ; Halla^, Const. Hist., cb. xiv. 
 
 Disraeli, Benjamin. [Beaconsfield.] 
 
Bis 
 
 ( 376 ) 
 
 Sod 
 
 Dissenters. [NotjcoNFOP,MisTS.] 
 
 Dissenters' Chapels Bill (7 and 3 
 
 Vict,). In 1844 Lord Lyndhurst carried this 
 measure, which provided that where the 
 founder had not expressly defined the doctrines 
 or form of worship to be observed, the usage 
 of twenty -five years should give trustees a title 
 to their endowment. Its occasion was an attack 
 by some of the Nonconformists on the ten 
 Presbyterian congregations which had diverged 
 into TJnitarianism during the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, and which had in most instances con- 
 siderable endowments. 
 
 Divine Biight. In England the doctrine 
 of divine right of sovereigns grew up during 
 the sixteenth century, flourished during the 
 seventeenth, and died a natural death in the 
 eighteenth. The idea of the sacredness of 
 hereditary right had made great progress 
 during the fifteenth century. The false pedi- 
 gree put forth by Hem-y of Lancaster to 
 justify his claim to the crown, the history 
 of the Duke of York's pretensions to the 
 throne, the theory by which Richard III. 
 strove to justify his usurpation, and the care 
 with which Hemy VII. guarded his heredi- 
 tary title against anjiihing which might seem 
 to impair it, mark the advance of this view. 
 The theory of election fell more and more 
 into the background. At the coronation of 
 Edward VI., the king was presented to the 
 people as their lawful and undoubted sovereign 
 before he took the oath to preserve the laws 
 and liberties of the realm. Thus the very 
 form of an election contract was destroyed. 
 The accession of James I. was the triumph of 
 hereditary over Parliamentary title. The 
 resolution which recognised Mm as king 
 stated, " that immediately on the decease of 
 Elizabeth, late Queen of England, the impe- 
 rial crown of the realm of England . . . 
 did by inherent birthright, and lawful and 
 undoubted succession, descend and come to 
 your most excellent Slajesty, as being lineally, 
 justly, and lawfully next and sole heir of the 
 blood royal of this realm." Already in two 
 of the religious confessions of Henry VIII.'s 
 reign — the Institution of u, Ghristiim Man 
 (1.537) and the Necessary Doctrine and Erudi- 
 tion (1543) — the duty of passive obedience had 
 been established as a necessary consequence 
 of the fifth commandment. In the Canons of 
 1606 the clergy went so far in enforcing this 
 view that the king felt that the obedience 
 they demanded for a de facto king under- 
 mined his hereditary title. He was also 
 obliged, at the complaint of Parliament, to 
 condemn the theory of his absolute power 
 put forth by Cowell, the Professor of Civil 
 Law at Cfipibridge, in his Law Dictionary. 
 Under Charles I. the House of Commons 
 complained of the sermons of Sibthorpe and 
 Mainwaring (1627), and in their remonstrance 
 of May 26, 1642, asserted that the " erroneous 
 maxim being infused into princes that their 
 
 kingdoms are their own, and that they may 
 do with them what they will, as if their 
 kingdoms were for them and not they for 
 their kingdoms . . . was the root of all 
 the subjects' misery." The Act by which 
 Charles II. was made to succeed immediately 
 on his father's death, and his reign dated ac- 
 cordingly, was a practical acknowledgement of 
 the doctrine of divine right. The Church of 
 the Eestoration made the absolute duty of 
 non-resistance part of its teaching, and it was 
 also made part of the oath of allegiance. Both 
 Oxford and Cambridge proclaimed this duty, 
 and the former university burnt theworks of its 
 opponents. Closely connected with the doc- 
 trine of the divine right was the custom of 
 touching for the " king's evil," which was, in 
 the eyes of the people, "a visible, palpable 
 attestation of the indefeasible sanctity of the 
 royal line." A Latin service for this ceremony 
 had been drawn up under Henry VII. ; under 
 Charles I. an English one took its place, and 
 dm-ing the reign of Anne was inserted in the 
 Prayer Book. In a single year Charles II. 
 touched 8,500 persons ; in the course of his 
 reign it is estimated that one hundred 
 thousand persons received his healing touch. 
 William III. naturally never attempted to 
 exercise this power, but Anne revived the 
 ceremony. It was again abandoned by the 
 Hanoverian kings, and the practice was only 
 maintained by the exiled heirs of the Stuarts. 
 During the same years the theory of divine 
 right was passing away. It revived under 
 Anne, and its efficacy was preached by Sache- 
 verell and other divines. But when George I. 
 came to the throne, with a title based on the 
 Act of Settlement alone, it was impossible for 
 any party which accepted the Hanoverian 
 succession to still maintain this doctrine. 
 Moreover, as the Tories were in opposition, 
 they had no motive for exalting the monarchy. 
 The sole party which continued to make this 
 tenet part of their faith was the Jacobite 
 party, and it became practically extinct by the 
 accession of George III. 
 
 Sh- Tl. Pilmer, Original of Gomrnment, 1652, and 
 Political Discowrses, 1680. 
 
 Dodington, George Bube (S. 1691, 
 d. 1762), was a politician of some prominence 
 in the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 He entered Parliament in 1715 as member 
 for "Winchelsea, and was almost at once 
 despatched as ambassador to Spain, where 
 he signed the Treaty of Madrid, and re- 
 mained till 1717. He inherited a mag- 
 nificent property, and attached himself to 
 Walpole's party, but deserted that minister 
 in 1741. Before this he had, in 1737, used 
 all his influence with Frederick, Prince of 
 \Vales, to dissuade him from openly setting 
 his father at defiance, but was one of the lead- 
 ing friends and counsellors of the prince for 
 many years. After holding several offices, 
 he became the confidential friend of Lord 
 Bute, in the first year of George III.'s reign, 
 
Sod 
 
 ( 377 ) 
 
 Bom 
 
 and was by that nobleman's influence created 
 Baron Melcombe. He did not, however, 
 .long enjoy his new honours, but died the next 
 year. He had some claims to being a patron 
 of men of letters, and it was to him that 
 Thomson dedicated his Suimner. Among his 
 friends were Young, Fielding, and Lyttleton. 
 He left behind him a Diary (published in 
 1784), which is stiU one of the leading- 
 authorities for the minor history of the times 
 in ■which he lived. 
 
 Dodowah, The Battle op (1826), took 
 place on the Gold Coast, between a British 
 force, under Colonel Pm-don, and the 
 Ashantees, who, after lighting with des- 
 perate bravery, were compelled to give way. 
 
 Dollar, The Battle of (875), resulted in 
 a complete victory for the Danes, under 
 Thorstem, over Constantine and the men of 
 Alban. As a consequence of this defeat, 
 Constantine was compelled to cede Caithness, 
 Sutherland, Ross, and Moray to the invaders. 
 Dollar is on the borders of Fife and Perth- 
 shire. 
 
 Dolly's Brae, The Riot at, occurred on 
 July 12, 1849. Fifteen hundred Orangemen 
 marched through this defile, which is near 
 . Castle wellan, to congratulate the Earl of 
 Eoden, their provincial grand master. On their 
 way back they were fired on by the Eoman 
 Catholics, an attack which the Protestants 
 were not slow to return. The result of the 
 affray was that the latter body drove back 
 their opponents, who left four dead and forty 
 wounded on the field. The question was 
 taken up in Parliament, ajid the Earl of 
 Eoden was eventually dismissed from his lord- 
 lieutenancy. 
 
 Annual Register ; Sannard^s Debates, 1849. 
 
 Domesday is the name given to the 
 great survey of England, made by order of 
 William the Conqueror. The name is not 
 found before the Diahgus de Scaecario (q.v.), 
 in which (i. 16) it is said that the English 
 called the book of the survey " Domesdei," 
 or "the day of judgment," because of the 
 strictness of the examination. It has also 
 been held to refer to the day of holding the 
 courts at which the inquest was made. In 
 1084 England was threatened with invasion 
 by Canute of Denmark. At the beginning of 
 that year the king laid a heavy " geld," or 
 tax, on all England of six shillings on the 
 hide. The invasion of the Northmen was 
 not made. The threatened danger, however, 
 and the tax which seems connected with it, 
 probably made the Conqueror anxious to as- 
 certain the capabiKties of his kingdom, both 
 as regards defence and taxation. At the 
 mid-winter meeting of the Witan, after " deep 
 speech" with the great men, the king ordered 
 that a survey of the kingdom should be made. 
 For the purpose of the survey the country 
 was divided into distiicts, and a body of 
 
 commissioners was sent to hold an inquest in 
 each district. The names of those sent into 
 the midland counties are preserved, and show 
 that men of high position were employed in 
 the work. They were bidden to inquire who 
 held each estate in the time of King Edward, 
 who held it at the time of the inquest, what 
 its value was at the two dates, whether that 
 value could be raised, and by what title it 
 was held. In order to find out whether an 
 estate was capable of contributing a larger 
 sum to the royal treasury, minute inquiries 
 were to be made as to its extent, and the 
 men and beasts it supported. The commis- 
 sioners gained their information in the way 
 in which such matters were usua,Ily managed 
 in England. They took the same witness of 
 the sheriif and the French (foreign) baions, 
 and the whole hundred, of the priest, the 
 reeve, and six villeins of each township : that 
 is, they learned the particulars they wished 
 to know by answers made on oath in the 
 hundred court. It was not the first time 
 that an inquest had been held to ascertain 
 the value of the land throughout the countiy 
 for the purpose of taxation ; for in the time 
 of Ethelred the country had been surveyed 
 and divided for the assessment of the 
 danegeld, and an inquest seems to have been 
 held for the geld of 1084. It is evident, 
 however, that these had not been of the 
 searching nature of the Domesday Survey. 
 Such an inquiry was hateful to Englishmen. 
 " It is shame to tell," writes the chronicler, 
 ' ' what he thought it no shame for him to do. 
 Ox nor cow nor swine was left that was not 
 set down upon his writ." The commissioners 
 wrote their reports on separate rolls, and 
 their notes were afterwards abridged ,and 
 arranged by the king's clerks. The inquest 
 was finished in the summer of 1086. With 
 its completion must be connected the 
 assembly on Salisbury Plain and the oath 
 taken to WilUam. As the king appeared in 
 the survey as the one lord of every man's 
 land, so on its completion all landholders 
 swore fealty to him, " whose men so ever 
 they were." He added a fresh obligation, 
 which bound all landholders equally to the 
 mere bond of tenure which connected his 
 tenants with himself. 
 
 Questions of right, as well as the nature of 
 the inquest, led to irritation and to some blood- 
 shed. With matters of title the conunissioners 
 did not concern themselves further than to re- 
 cord the conflicting claims, and in doing this, 
 they treated the people of each race alike. 
 Cases of illegal occupation are often ranged 
 in a class by themselves, and include 
 possessions gained by defective or disputed 
 titles, as well as by acts of violence. These 
 are the terra occtipatce of the western shires, 
 and the initasiones of Essex, &c. Few in- 
 dications can be found in the record of the 
 violence of the Conquest. The rights and 
 obligations of each landholder are settled 
 
Som 
 
 ( 378 
 
 Dom 
 
 by those of his antecessor, and the date at 
 which these are ascertained is that of the death 
 of King Edward, expressed in the Winchester 
 edition of Domesday by T. E. E., and 
 in the Exeter edition by the phrase ea die qua 
 rex E. mvusfuit et mortuus. There is seldom 
 anything to show that the new possessor did 
 not succeed his antecessor peacefully, and, as far 
 as possible, all reference to the reign of Harold 
 is avoided. Nevertheless, the record bears 
 witness to a sweeping confiscation of the lands 
 of the wealthier and more powerful class, 
 and in a lesser degree of the smaller owners 
 also, to widespread devastation, and to the ruin 
 of many boroughs. Two systems of measure- 
 ment are used in Domesday : the one by the 
 hide, the other by the carucate. The hide is 
 used to signify an area of a certain rating 
 value. It is an old English term, and though 
 it implies an area, seems in Domesday at least 
 to be of uncertain extent. The foreign caru- 
 cate is the co-relative of the hide, but has a 
 more constant reference to area. It is some- 
 times used of land which is non-hidated, i.e., 
 not rated for the payment of taxes. In both 
 hide and carucate the terra ad unani carucam, 
 or one plough-land of definite extent, is a 
 principal factor. (On these matters reference 
 should be made to Mr. Eyton's learned works.) 
 As regards feudal organisation, Domesday 
 tells us nothing. The king has become the 
 overlord of all ; to him all alike are bound, all 
 title is derived from his grant. But there is 
 no sign of any condition of tenure different 
 from those winch existed before the Conquest. 
 Knights' fees and feudal incidents are matters 
 of later development. 
 
 The results of the survey are preserved in 
 different books. The Domesday Book is the 
 name which properly belongs to the two 
 volumes called the Exchequer Domesday, or, 
 to use the title contained in the book itself, 
 the Liher de Wintonia. The first of the 
 volumes gives, in a short form, the survey of 
 thirty counties ; the second contains longer 
 reports of Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk. AH 
 the survey is thus embraced by the two 
 volumes, for no report was made of the four 
 northern counties, nor of Lancashire, except 
 as regards the Fumess district. The 
 volume called the Exon Domesday, from 
 being in the care of the chapter of Exeter, 
 contains a detailed account of Wiltshire, 
 Dorset, Somerset, Devonshire, and Cornwall. 
 The Inquisitio Eliensis is devoted to the 
 possessions and claims of the abbey of Ely. 
 Mr. Freeman considers that " these three, 
 the second volume of the Exchequer Domes- 
 day, the Exon Domesday, and the Inquisitio 
 Eliensis, are the original record of the 
 survey itself, which appears in the first 
 volume of the Exchequer Domesday in an 
 abridged shape." Though this may be true 
 of the other two volumes, as regards the 
 Exon Domesday, Mr. Eyton has shown that 
 it is unlikely that it stood in any such re- 
 
 lation to the more concisely expressed re- 
 cord, and from internal evidence is led to 
 believe that no " single entry of the Ex- 
 chequer codex was copied or abstracted from 
 the Exeter edition." With the Exon Domes- 
 day some leaves of the geld-inquest of 1084 
 are carelessly bound up. 
 
 Freeman, JVorman Conquest, iv., c. 21, v., c. 22, 
 and App. ; Eyton, Key to Bomebday., Domesday 
 Studies, Dorset and Somerset; Sir H. Ellis, In- 
 troduction to Domesday. The Domesday Book 
 wfis reprinted by the KecordCommiaaion, 1783 — 
 1810, and in fao-simile 1864^5. [J. E.] 
 
 Dominica, the largest, though not the 
 most important, of the Leeward Islands, 
 was discovered by Columbus, 1493, on a 
 Sunday, and named by him in commemora- 
 tion of the day. It was at first colonised by 
 the French, but in 1754 was captured by the 
 . British forces, and was formally ceded to 
 England by the Treaty of Paris, 1763, though 
 many French remained on the island. In 
 1778 it was ravaged by the French, and was 
 taken by them in 1 78 1 , and retained for a period 
 of two years. In 1795 another attack was 
 made on Dominica, and in 1805 the island 
 was once more ravaged by a French force 
 under La Grange. In 1813 Dominica was 
 the scene of a Maroon war, but the insur- 
 gents were speedily crushed ; and the insur- 
 rection was made a pretext for the emploj'- 
 ment of most severe measures against the 
 slaves. In 1871 Dominica joined the federa- 
 tion of the Leeward Islands (q.v.), having 
 previously enjoyed a representative govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Attwood, Hist, of Dominica. 
 
 Dominica, The Battle or (April 1 2, 1 782) , 
 resulted in the destruction of the French naval 
 power in the West Indies. On the 9th of April 
 the division of Sir Samuel Hood, which, con- 
 sisting of eight ships, had got separated from 
 the rest of the fleet under Eodney, had main- 
 tained for an hour an unequal contest with 
 fifteen French ships, and the French admiral 
 had thought it wise to retire when the rest of 
 the British fleet came up. The next two daj'S 
 were occupied in trj-ing to bring the French 
 to action, and on the 12th Eodney succeeded 
 in doing so. Favoured by the wind, he took 
 advantage of a break in the French line, and 
 advancing in column, cut the French fleet in 
 two. ^ Sir Samuel Hood, who was leading the 
 English van, at once became engaged with 
 that of the French fleet, while Eodney was 
 busy with the enemy's centre. The action 
 was vigorously carried on, and the atmo- 
 sphere, which was very still, soon became so 
 enveloped in smoke that the fleets mutually 
 ceased firing. When at length the smol;'e 
 cleared away, the French were seen in full 
 retreat. A chase was immediately begun, and 
 five ships were taken or destroyed, including 
 the enormous Ville de Paris. Four more 
 were soon afterwards captured by Hood when 
 cruising among the islands. The English 
 
Som 
 
 ( 379 ) 
 
 Don 
 
 loss in the two actions of the 9th and 12th 
 was comparatively small. Eodney and Hood 
 were both raised to the peerage. The hattle 
 itself is famous in naval history as heing the 
 first in which the manoeuvre of breaking the 
 line was practised. 
 
 Allen, Naval Battles ; Stanhope, Hist, of .Eug. 
 
 Somiuicans, The, or Black Fkiars. 
 This order was founded by Dominic in the 
 beginning of the twelfth century, and ap- 
 proved by Innocent III. in 1215. Thirteen 
 brethren of this order crossed into England 
 in 1221, and before long fixed their abode 
 at Oxford, where they soon became prominent 
 in the schools. Their second English house was 
 the Blackfriars in London, originally situated 
 where Lincoln's Ttiti now stands, but removed 
 from this place about 1279. At the time of 
 the dissolution of the monasteries there were 
 fifty-eight Dominican houses in England and 
 Wales, several of them being situated in the 
 principal towns, such as Bristol, Northampton, 
 Salisbury, York, and Leicester. [Friars.] 
 
 Dominis, Marco Autonio db (A. 1566, 
 d. 1624), was a Jesuit, who, in 1604, became 
 Archbishop of Spalatro. He made the ac- 
 quaintance of Bishop Bedell in Italy, and was 
 induced by him to quit his archbishopric and 
 come to England, where he published his 
 work, Se Eepubliea Ecclesiaatica (1617), which 
 was aimed at some of the evils, temporal and 
 ecclesiastical, of the Papal system. De 
 Dominis professed himself a Protestant, and 
 was much patronised by James I. and the 
 High Churchmen in England. He received 
 the Mastership of the Savoy, and was made 
 Dean of Windsor. In England he saw that 
 his ambition was not likely to be gratified by 
 the highest honours of the Church. He, 
 therefore, returned to Rome (1622), where his 
 old schoolfellow, Gregory XV., was Pope, 
 and seems to have entertained the idea that 
 by his efforts England might be restored to 
 the Church of Rome. But on the death of 
 Gregory, De Dominis was arrested by the 
 Inquisition, and imprisoned in the castle of 
 St. Angelo, where he died. 
 
 Newland, Life of De Dominis; Gardiner, Hist. 
 of Bug., 1603—1642. 
 
 Donald, son of Constantino and King 
 of Alban {d. 910), was the first ruler styled by 
 the chroniclers " King of Alban." He reigned 
 ■from 889 to 900, and was occupied during the 
 early part of his reign in repelling the attacks 
 of Sigurd, the brother of Harald Harfagr, 
 and the newly-aiipointed earl of those Nor- 
 wegians who had fled from their native 
 country on the accession of the new king, 
 and had already begun to colonise the Orkney 
 Islands. The new-comers invaded Caithness 
 and Sutherland, and the presence of the 
 King of Alban was constantly required in those 
 parts to keep them at bay, though their incur- 
 sions could hardly affect that part of Scotland 
 over which Donald really reigned. Later on. 
 
 a fresh body of Danes from Dublin swept 
 down upon the kingdom of Alban itself, and 
 Donald was slain at Dunotter in contest with 
 them. 
 Donald Baloch of the Isles was a 
 
 relative of Alexander of the Isles, on whose 
 captivity he raised a, force and defeated the 
 royal troops under the Earl of Mar at 
 Lochaber (1431). James I. of Scotland was 
 exceedingly angry at the ill-success of his 
 lieutenant, and increased the taxes throughout 
 his dominions five-fold for the purpose of 
 finding funds for a royal progress through 
 the Highlands. Shortly after, Donald was 
 compelled to seek refuge in Ireland, where he 
 was killed. 
 
 Donald Bane, King of Scotland, was 
 brother of Malcolm Canmore, whom he 
 succeeded in 1093. After reigning six 
 months, he was driven out by his nephew 
 Duncan. In 1094, however, on Duncan's 
 death, he recovered the throne, which he 
 shared for three years with Edmund, son of 
 Malcolm. For some three years Donald Bane 
 continued to rule over the Scots north of the 
 great firths, while Edmund, as the son of the 
 Saxon Margaret, reigned over the more Saxon 
 population of the Lowlands. At last, in 1097, 
 Edgar Atheling, with the assistance of an 
 English force, after defeating and imprisoning 
 his nephew Edmund and Donald Bane, set his 
 other nephew Edgar on the Scotch throne. 
 Two years later Donald Bane was taken pri- 
 soner, and after being bKnded, was con- 
 demned to perpetual imprisonment till his 
 death. He was buried in Dunfermline 
 Abbey. 
 
 Skene, Celtic Scotlamd ; Eobertson, Earhj Kings 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Donald Bane MacWilliam {d. 1187) 
 claimed to be a descendant of Duncan, son of 
 Malcolm Canmore. In 1181, during the 
 absence of William the Lion at the English 
 court, he tried, with the aid of many of the 
 Scottish barons, to make himself king of the 
 country north of the Forth and Clyde, and 
 for six years he there maintained a sort of 
 irregular warfare, which ended in his defeat 
 and death in the Spey VaUey (July, 1187). 
 
 Donald Brec, or Domnal Breac, 
 
 the son of Eocha (q.v.), was King of 
 Dalriada (629—642). In 634 Donald was 
 defeated by the Angles at Calathios, while 
 attempting to wrest from their hands the 
 district between the Avon and the Pentland 
 Hills. In 637 he crossed over to Ireland with 
 a large army to aid Congal Claen, King of 
 Ulster, against the King of Ireland, but was 
 utterly routed at the battle of Magh Rath. 
 After another attack upon the Anglian terri- 
 tory, ill which he was assisted by the Britons 
 of Alclyde, he seems to have fallen out with 
 this last race upon the death of the great 
 Ehydderch Hael, and was slain in battle with 
 the new King of Alclyde at Strathcarron 
 
Dor 
 
 ( 380 
 
 Dor 
 
 (642). On Ms death, the kingdom of Dal- 
 riada reverted to anarchy. 
 
 Dorchester, Dudley Caeleton, Vis- 
 GOONT (4. 1573, d. 1632), was ambassador to 
 the repuhlic of Venice from 1610 to 1615, 
 and to the United Provinces from 1615 to 
 1626. During the second Parliament of 
 Charles I. he maintained the cause of the 
 king in the House of Commons, and attached 
 himself to the party of Buckingham. In 
 May,' 1626, he was created Baron Carleton, 
 and on July 25, 1628, Viscount Dorchester. 
 On December 14 in the same year he was 
 appointed Secretary of State, and in that 
 capacity advocated peace with iFrance and 
 alUanoe with the German Protestants. Cla- 
 rendon says "he understood all that related 
 to foreign employment, and the condition of 
 other princes and nations, very well, hut was 
 utterly unacquainted with the government, 
 laws, and customs of his own country, and 
 the nature of the people." 
 
 DDr Chester, an ancient Eoman station, 
 called Durnovaria, or Durinum, was a place 
 of some importance under the Anglo-Saxon 
 kings, and was made the seat of a mint by 
 Athelstan. The remains of the ancient 
 Roman fortifications were destroyed, and a 
 Franciscan priory built from the materials 
 in the reign of Edward III. The town was 
 incorporated in the same reign, and returned 
 two members to Parliament from the year 
 1295 onwards. 
 
 Dorchester, Cathemnb Sedley, Coun- 
 tess OF [d. 1717), was the daughter of Sir 
 Charles Sedley, and mistress of James II., by 
 whom, in 1686, she was made Countess of 
 Dorchester. She was more celebrated for her 
 wit and vivacity than for her beauty ; and not- 
 withstanding her ridicule of the Eomish priests 
 who thronged his court, seems to have main- 
 tained her ascendency over James. After his 
 exile she was married to the Earl of Portmore. 
 It was with reference to her disgrace, and to 
 the part he himself took in the Revolution of 
 1688, that Sir Charles Sedley said of James 
 II. : " He has made my daughter a countess , 
 I will make his daughter a queen." 
 
 Dorislaus, Isaac {d. 1649), was the son 
 of a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church. 
 He was appointed Judge Advocate of Essex's 
 army on account of his great knowledge of 
 civil law, and assisted in the preparation of the 
 charge against Charles I. In May, 1649, he 
 was sent as ambassador from the Common, 
 wealth to Holland, where he was murdered at 
 the Hague by some servants of Montrose, 
 headed by Colonel Whitford (May 12 or 15, 
 1649). He was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey, but exhumed at the Restoration. 
 
 Peacock, Army Lists cf Cavaliers and Round- 
 heads, 
 
 Dorset, Peerage of. In 1397 John 
 Beaufort, Earl of Somerset, eldest son of 
 
 John of Gaunt, was created Marquis of Dorset, 
 as weU as Marquis of Somerset ; the title was 
 continued in this branch of the Beaufort 
 family tiU the execution and forfeiture of 
 Henry, Duke of Somerset, 1463. In 1475, 
 Thomas Grey, Lord Eerrera of Groby, was 
 created Marquis of Dorset ; his grandson, 
 Henry, third Marquis of Dorset, and Duke of 
 SufEolk, was attainted in 1554. In 1603 
 Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst, was 
 created Farl of Dorset. Lionel, seventh earl, 
 was created Duke of Dorset in 1720. In 1843 
 Charles, the fifth duke, died unmarried, and 
 the dukedom became extinct. 
 
 Dorset, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquis op 
 {d. 1501), was a son of Elizabeth Woodville, 
 the subsequent wife of Edward IV., by 
 her first husband, Sir John Grey. Sharing 
 in his mother's prosperity, he was created 
 Marquis of Dorset in 1475, and escaped the 
 hostility displayed by Gloucester in 1483 to 
 all the members of the queen-dowager's 
 family by taking refuge in the Sanctuary 
 at Westminster. Escaping thence in safety, 
 he joined with his uncle. Sir Richard Wood- 
 ville, in an attempt to seize the Tower and 
 raise a fleet ; but failure drove him once again 
 to concealment, until Buckingham's rebellion 
 afforded him another opportunity of being ac- 
 tively hostile to Richard III. This movement 
 hkewise failing, he forthwith fled over the 
 sea to make one of the powerful party of 
 malcontents supporting the Earl of Richmond 
 in Britanny. On his return from Prance, 
 where he had been left by Henry VII. as 
 security for the French king's loan, he en- 
 joyed the royal favour, though during the 
 Simnel imposture he was imprisoned in the 
 Tower, but soon released. In the same reign 
 he served against the French (1491) ; four 
 years later was one of the leaders when the 
 rebels were vanquished at Blackheath. 
 
 Dorset, Henry Grey, 3ri) Marquis 
 OP (d. 1554), married Frances, daughter of 
 Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, and 
 Mary, sister of Henry VIII. By her he 
 became the father of Lady Jane Grey. His 
 weak and ambitious character caused him 
 to lend a ready ear to Northumberland's 
 proposals for obtaining an alteration of the 
 succession in favour of his daughter. When 
 this plot failed, Suffolk was pardoned on pay- 
 ment of a fine, but in the following year 
 raised a rebellion in the midland counties, in 
 conjunction with that of Sir Thomas Wyatt 
 (q.v.) in Kent. His few troops were defeated 
 near Coventry by the Earl of Huntingdon, and 
 the duke, having taken shelter with one of his 
 retainers named Underwood, was by him be- 
 trayed to his pursuers. He was condemned, 
 and executed Feb. 23, 1554, a few days after 
 his daughter. Lady Jane Grey. 
 
 Tytler, Eng. midei- Edward 71. au'I Mary. 
 Dorset, Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl op 
 (b. 1536, d. 1608), was the son of Sir Richard 
 
Dor 
 
 (381 ) 
 
 Don 
 
 Saokville. He was educated at Oxford and 
 Cambridge, studied at the Inner Temple, 
 and served in various diplomatic employments 
 on the Continent. In 1567 he was created 
 Lord Buckhurst. In 1587 he was ambassador 
 to the United Provinces, and succeeded 
 Burleigh as Lord Treasurer. In 1604 he was 
 created Earl of Dorset. He was the joint 
 author with Thomas Norton of the tragedy 
 of Gorboduc (1561), the earliest hlank-vers'e 
 drama in oar language. 
 
 Dorset, Chahles Sackville, 6th Earl 
 OP [b. 1637, d. 1706), sat for East Grinstead 
 as Lord Buckhurst in 1660, hut declined all 
 public employment. In 1675 he became 
 Gentleman of the Bedchamber, and next year 
 succeeded to his father's title. In the reign 
 of James II. he was dismissed from the lord- 
 lieutenancy of Sussex. He entered into com- 
 munication with the Prince of Orange, and on 
 the landing of William, assisted the Princess 
 Anne in her flight from Westminster. He 
 became Lord Chamberlain, and employed his 
 patronage in helping genius and misfortune. 
 On the departure of William for Ireland, he 
 was appointed in Mary's Council of Nine. In 
 1691 he accompanied WilHam to Holland. 
 He was declared by Preston, on the detection 
 of his plot, to be in communication with the 
 Jacobite court of St. Germains. The accusa- 
 tion was probably untrue, although Dorset 
 was no doubt angry at William's leanings to- 
 wards the Tories. Dorset is better known as 
 the patron of Prior, Dryden, Congreve, and 
 Addison, than as a politician. Macaulay thinks 
 that "had he been driven by necessity to exert 
 himself, he would probably have risen to the 
 highest posts in the State." 
 
 Johnson, Jjife oj Dorset; Macanlay, Mist, of 
 England. 
 
 Dost Haliomed (<?. 1863) was the brother 
 of Futteh Khan, the vizier of Mahmood Shah 
 in Afghanistan. In conjunction with his 
 brothers, he succeeded to the throne of Cabul 
 on the expulsion of Mahmood, brother of 
 Shah Soojah. In 1834 Dost Mahomed suc- 
 cessfully quelled the attempt of Shah Soojah 
 to recover Afghanistan, but during this war 
 he lost the province of Peshawur definitely to 
 Kunjeet Singh. In 1836 the Dost made over- 
 tures to Lord Auckland for arbitration, and on 
 his refusal appealed to the King of Persia. 
 In 1837 he sent an expedition to Peshawur, 
 and at Jumrood won a fruitless victory. In 
 1838 overtures for an alliance were made to 
 Dost Mahomed, and an embassy sent to Cabul 
 under Captain Bumes. Dost Mahomed de- 
 clared his willingness to dismiss the Russian 
 and Persian envoys, provided the English 
 would assist him to recover Peshawur. This 
 the Governor-General refused, and Dost 
 Mahomed therefore turned to Persia and 
 Russia, and the latter power guaranteed the 
 defence of Candahar. 'Thereupon the English 
 determined to depose him, and to attain this 
 
 object, the Afghan expedition of 1839 was 
 despatched. Deserted by Persia, with a 
 British army advancing on Cabul, Dost 
 Mahomed fled with a handful of followers to 
 the Hindoo Koosh. After being kindly re- 
 ceived by the chief of Khooloom, he passed 
 on to Bokhara, where he was detained by the 
 Ameer; but on effecting his escape, he re- 
 turned to Khooloom, gathered an army of 
 Oosbegs, and crossing the Hindoo Koosh, 
 proclaimed a religious war. He was defeated, 
 however, September 18th, by Brigadier 
 Dennie. After another attempt to raise the 
 country against the English, he surrendered 
 to Sir William Macnaughten, and was brought 
 to Calcutta. He was released in 1842. In 
 the second Sikh War he made common 
 cause with the Sikhs, and captured Peshawur, 
 from which, however, he was shortly after 
 driven out. In 1856 — 7 an English army was 
 despatched to aid him against the Shah of 
 Persia, who had seized Herat. Before he died, 
 he had succeeded to some extent, at least, in 
 imiting the Afghan power. On his death, 
 which occurred io. 1863, the country waS 
 divided between the partisans of his eldest 
 son, and the younger one, Shere Ali, to whom 
 Dost Mahomed had bequeathed his throne. 
 [Afghan Wars.] 
 
 Dougbty, Thomas, was Drake's second in 
 command in the famous voyage of 1577. He 
 was appointed captain of a Portuguese vessel 
 captm-ed near Santiago. Soon after quitting 
 the Plate River, Doughty deserted with his 
 men, but was soon overtaken, and his crew 
 transferred to Drake's own ship, the Peliean, 
 On the Patagonian coast the adventurers came 
 upon a gibbet, on which, more than fifty years 
 before, Magellan had hanged his mutineers ; 
 and this spot was now put into fresh service 
 for the execution of Doughty. A court- 
 martial was extemporised ; Doughty was found 
 guilty, and beheaded, after first embracing the 
 admiral and partaking of the holy com- 
 munion. A story of the time makes Drake 
 to have been the executioner in person. 
 
 Douglas Castle (in Lanarkshire), dm-ing 
 the wars of Scotland with Edward I., obtained 
 the name of the " Perilous Castle of Douglas," 
 from the difticulty of holding it against the 
 Scots. It was three times re-captured from 
 the English by Sir James Douglas, and 
 its garrison destroyed. About the year 1451 
 it was demolished by James II.'s orders, while 
 the eai'l was absent in Rome. It was, how- 
 ever, rebuilt, and was in 1639 garrisoned by 
 the Covenanters. 
 
 Donglas, The Family of, is supposed to 
 be of Flemish origin. The first member of 
 the family known to history is Sir William 
 Douglas, the friend and supporter of Wallace. 
 The vast possessions of the Douglas family in 
 the south of Scotland rendered them for- 
 midable antagonists to the royal power, and 
 the fact that Archibald Douglas married a 
 
Sou 
 
 ( 382 ) 
 
 Bon 
 
 daughter of Baliol's sister, while the Stuarts 
 were only descended from a younger daughter 
 of David of Huntingdon, made it at one 
 time by no means impossible that a Douglas 
 would succeed in driving the Stuarts from 
 the throne. Besides their estates in Soot- 
 land, the Douglases had at one time ex- 
 tensive lands in England, Just as the Percies 
 had similar claims in Scotland. These claims 
 were to have been satisfied for both families 
 according to the Treat}' of Northampton ; and 
 it has been remarked that a slight difference 
 in the distribution of the estates of either 
 family would have " inverted their position, 
 and made the Percies national to Scotland, 
 the Douglases to England." 
 
 Douglas, The Peera&e of, dates from 
 Sir William Douglas, who was created Earl 
 of Douglas in IS.'jT. The earldom came 
 to an end in 1455 with the attainder 
 of James, ninth earl, after the battle of 
 Arkenholm and the unsuccessful Douglas 
 rebellion. The Feerage of Angus had been 
 conferred on George, illegitimate son of the 
 first Earl of Douglas, in 1389. In the 
 Douglas rebellion the Anguses adhered to the 
 crown, and got a large portion of their 
 relatives' estates. In 1633 William, eleventh 
 Earl of Angus, was created Marquis of 
 Douglas. In 1703 Ai-chibald, third marquis, 
 was created Duke of Douglas. The dukedom 
 of Douglas became extinct with him in 1761. 
 The estates of the Douglas family were the 
 subject of a protracted law-suit, known as the 
 Douglas Cause, between the Duke of Hamilton 
 and Archibald Stewart, nephew of the Duke 
 of Douglas, who obtained the estates by a 
 judgment of the House of Lords in 1771, and 
 was created Baron Douglas in 1790. The 
 peerage became extinct in 1857. The mar- 
 quisate of Douglas and earldom of Angus 
 passed to James, seventh Duke of Hamilton, 
 on the death of Archibald, Duke of Douglas, 
 in 1761, who was descended, by a second 
 marriage, from William, first Marquis of 
 Douglas [d. 1633.) [Hamilton.] 
 
 Douglas, William, 1st Eabl oi?, was 
 the son of Sir Archibald Douglas. On 
 his return from France, where be had been 
 educatea, in 1346, his first exploit was to 
 drive the English out of Douglasdale and 
 Teviotdale. He was the godson of Sir 
 William Douglas, the Knight of Liddesdale 
 (q.v.), whom he murdered in Bttrick Forest 
 (1353) in revenge. In 1356 he was present 
 at the battle of Poictiers; and in 1357 was 
 created Earl of Douglas. On the death of 
 David II. he is said to have intended to 
 have disputed the succession of the house of 
 Stuart, but was bought ofi by an alliance 
 between his son and Margaret, daughter of 
 Eobert II. 
 
 Douglas, James, 2nd Eabl oe {d. 1388), 
 the son of William, Earl of Douglas, mai-ried 
 
 Margaret, daughter of Eobert II. He suc- 
 ceeded to the title in 1384. He was renowned 
 for his bravery and skilful generalship. In 
 1386 he took part in a raid upon England in 
 conjunction with a body of French troops 
 under John of Vienne. In 1388 he penetrated 
 as far as the gates of York, and was carrying 
 away Henry Percy's (Hotspur) pennon to 
 Scotland, when he was met by the Percies at 
 Otterbui-n. This battle resulted in the defeat 
 of the EngKsh, who fled from the field, leaving 
 their leader. Hotspur, in the hands of the 
 enemy ; but it was dearly purchased by the 
 Scots with the death of the Earl of Douglas. 
 
 Douglas, Ahohibai.d, 4th Earl op [d. 
 1424), was the son of Archibald, third Earl of 
 Douglas. In 1400 his ambition procured the 
 marriage of his sister Marjory with the Duke 
 of Eothesay (q.v.), the heir to the Scottish 
 crown, and he is said to have been privy to 
 the mm'der of that j'oung prince in 1402. In 
 the September of the .same year he headed an 
 army collected for the invasion of England, 
 but was defeated and taken prisoner at the 
 battle of Homildon Hill. On his release, 
 he joined Percj', in whose cause he was again 
 defeated and taken prisoner at Sbi-ewsbury 
 (q.v.), 1403. In 1421 he crossed over to France 
 to fight against the English in that country. 
 There he was created Duke of Touraine, and 
 falling in the battle of Verneuil, was buried 
 at Tours. 
 
 Douglas, William, 6th Eaul op [d. 
 1440), and third Duke of Touraine, was 
 the son of Archibald, fifth Earl of Douglas, 
 who died 1439. On succeeding to the earl- 
 dom, he incurred the enmity of Sir William 
 Crichton, who invited him to pay a visit to the 
 young Mng, James II., at Edinburgh Castle, 
 and there, after some form of trial, had him 
 beheaded, along with his brother David (1440). 
 The young earl was, but some eighteen years 
 old at the time of his death. 
 
 Douglas, William, 8th Earl op {d. 
 1452), succeeded to the estates on the death 
 of his father, James the Gross (1443). 
 He was a man of turbulent spirit and vast 
 power, possessing a large part of southern 
 Scotland. Having been appointed Lieutenant- 
 Governor by James II., he rapidly concen- 
 trated his power by entering into alliances 
 with the Earls of Crawford and Ross and 
 other great nobles, and by setting on foot 
 intrigues with foreign powers and with the 
 English, whom he had defeated on the 
 borders. In 1450 he passed in state across 
 the seas to spend the Jubilee in Eome. He 
 speedily lost the king's favour, and was 
 deprived of his office : a judgment for which, 
 however, he retaliated by various acts of 
 defiance of the royal authority. He ravaged 
 the lands of many of the king's more imme- 
 diate friends, even daring to put to death Sir 
 John Herries, and assumed the position of 
 an independent prince la 1452 James II. 
 
Don 
 
 f 383 ) 
 
 Don 
 
 summoned him to an interview at Stirling, 
 during which the king, eni'aged at his insolence, 
 stabbed him ia the throat, whereupon he was 
 quickly despatched by Sir Patrick Gray. 
 He married his cousin, Margaret Douglas, the 
 " Fair Maid of GaUoway," and so re-united the 
 possessions of the house of Douglas. 
 Pitscottie, Chronicle. 
 
 Douglas, James, 9th Earl op {d. 1488), 
 was the brother of William, Earl of Douglas 
 (stabbed by James II. of Scotland), whom he 
 succeeded as head of the family, Feb., 1452. 
 Almost his first act was to nail a defiance of 
 the king to the walls of the Parliament House, 
 charging him with murder and perjury. He 
 then declared war against James, for which 
 act his lands were subsequently declared for- 
 feited to the crown by an Act passed in 1454. 
 But before long the Angus branch of his own 
 family sided with the king, and in 1455 the 
 Earl of Douglas was defeated at Arkenholm, 
 two of his brothers perishing in the battle. 
 James Douglas was compelled to seek refuge 
 in England, where he remained until he was 
 taken prisoner in a border foray, 1484, and 
 was soon after confined in the monastery of 
 Lindores, where he died in 1488, the last of his 
 line. 
 
 Douglas, Sir Archibald {d. 1333), was 
 the youngest brother of the famous Lord 
 James Douglas, and a warm adherent of 
 David II. In 1362, having defeated Edward 
 Baliol at Annan, he made a successful raid into 
 Cumberland. On the capture of Sir Andrew 
 Murray (1333), Douglas was chosen Regent 
 of Scotland ; but in the same year he was de- 
 feated and taken prisoner at Halidon Hill, 
 and shortly afterwards died of his wounds. 
 
 Douglas, Sir George {d. 1547), was a 
 brother of Archibald, sixth Earl of Angus. 
 Having given offence to James V. of 
 Scotland, he was banished to England along 
 with his brother (1528). Some years later he 
 took part (1532) in a raid on Scotland, to 
 which coimtry he did not return until the death 
 of James V., 1542, when his forfeiture was 
 rescinded. He was one of the Assured Lords 
 (q. V. ) , and was urgent in promoting the mar- 
 riage of Mary with Edward, but did not do 
 much real service to Henry VIII., except by 
 giving good advice to hia ambassador. Sir 
 Ealph Sadler. He perished at the battle of 
 Pinkie (1647). 
 
 Douglas, James, Lord {d. 1330), called 
 "The Good,^' was the son of Sir William 
 Douglas, the friend of Wallace. Many stories, 
 more or less incredible, are told of him, 
 as of most of the other patriots who were 
 fighting for Scotland at this time. He was an 
 able and gallant partisan of Robert Bruce, 
 his first exploit in the king's cause being the 
 capture of the castle of Douglas from the 
 English in 1306, and the massacre of its 
 garrison. He was in command of one of the 
 
 divisions of the Scottish army at Bannock- 
 bum in 1314, and in the same year harried 
 Northumberland in conjunction with Edward 
 Bruce. On the departure of Robert Bruce for 
 Ireland, in 1316, the charge of the kingdom 
 was committed to Douglas, who managed to 
 defeat all attempts at invasion on the part of 
 the English nobles. In 1319 he invaded 
 England to create a diversion in favour of the 
 beleaguered castle of Berwick, and won a 
 complete victory at Milton, in Yorkshire. In 
 1327, whilst on a similar expedition, he sur- 
 prised the English camp by night at Stanhope 
 Park, in Durham, cutting, it is said, the very 
 ropes of King Edward's tent. Later on, he 
 was one of the Scotch commissioners at the 
 conclusion of the Treaty of Northampton. 
 After the death of Bruce (1329), Douglas set 
 out on an expedition to Palestine for the 
 purpose of conveying the king's heart to 
 Jerusalem, but being diverted from his 
 original enterprise, was slain in battle with 
 the Moors in Andalusia, 1330. His body was 
 brought back to Scotland, and buried at 
 Douglas. 
 
 Dalrymple, Annals of Scotland^ Buxton, Hist, 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Douglas, Sir William {d. 1353), the 
 Knight of Liddesdale, was taken prisoner 
 (1332) by Sir Antony de Lucy in a raid into 
 Scotland, and by order of Edward III. was 
 put in irons. On his release, he did good 
 service against the English, whom he ex- 
 pelled from Teviotdale (1338). In 1342 he 
 took Alexander Ramsay prisoner owing to 
 a private feud, and starved him to death in 
 his castle of Hermitage ; but this crime was 
 pardoned by David II., who even made its 
 perpetrator Governor of Roxburgh Castle. 
 Douglas was taken prisoner at the battle of 
 Neville's Cross, and while in captivity, 
 entered into treasonable negotiations with 
 Edward III. He was assassinated in 1353, 
 whUst hunting in Ettrick Forest, by his god- 
 son, William, Lord Douglas. 
 
 Dalrymple, Annals of Scotland. 
 
 Douglas Rebellion, The (1451). When 
 WiUiam, the eighth Earl of Douglas, returned 
 from Rome in 1451, he found the king's 
 movements directed by Oriohton, and 
 unable to brook a sense of inferiority, he per- 
 suaded his own dependants and the Earls of 
 Crawford and Ross to enter into a con- 
 federacy with him. In February, 1452, he 
 was murdered by James's own hand, leaving 
 his title and estates to his brother James, who 
 at once took up arms to avenge his relative's 
 fate. Though reconciled to the king for a 
 time, he soon grew restless, and entered into 
 treasonable communications with the Duke of 
 York, and even sent a letter of defiance to 
 James, who soon drove him to the borders, where, , 
 however, the rebellious nobleman gathered 
 a, force of 40,000 men, and was forced to 
 retreat to Fife. At Arkenholm the two armies 
 
Dov 
 
 ( 384) 
 
 Dra 
 
 met, but the power of Douglas was thinned 
 hy the desertion of his kinsman, the Earl of 
 Angus, and the defection of the Hamiltons. 
 Abandoned by almost all his followers, the 
 Earl James fled to Annandale, and thence to 
 England. His estates were declared for- 
 feited by the Scotch Parliament, and in 1484 
 the earl himself was taken prisoner while in- 
 vading his native land, and condemned to 
 lead a monastic life till his death (1488). 
 
 Dover, called by the Romans Dubris, was 
 a place of considerable importance in the 
 early history of England. It was one of the 
 Cinque Ports, and a very usual port for em- 
 barkation to the Continent. It was here that 
 Eustace, Count of Boulogne, committed the 
 outrage which led to the banishment of Godwin 
 (1051). At this time the town held its pri- 
 \-ileges by supplying the crown with twenty 
 ships for fifteen days. Harold founded a 
 castle here. After the battle of Hastiags the 
 town was burnt by "William's troops, and a 
 few years later Eustace of Boulogne attempted 
 to seize it by force during WUliam's absence 
 abroad (1067). It was taken by the French 
 in 1296 ; ia 1520 it was the scene of Henry 
 VIII.'s interview with Charles V., and in 
 1670, of the negotiations which led to the 
 Treaty of Dover. [Cinsue Pokts.] 
 
 Dover, The Treaty op (1670), was con- 
 cluded between Charles II. and Louis XIV., 
 chiefly through the instrumentahty of Charles's 
 sister, the Duchess of Orleans. By this treaty : 
 — (1) England and France were to declare war 
 against Holland ; and England was to receive 
 the province of Zeeland in case of success. 
 (2) The Prince of Orange was, if possible, to 
 receive an indemnity. {3) Charles was to assist 
 liOuis to make good his claim on the Spanish 
 succession, and to receive as his reward Ostend, 
 together with any conquests he might make 
 in South America. (4) Charles was to receive 
 a subsidy of £300,000 a year from Louis. 
 These four clauses comprised the whole of the 
 public treaty, which was signed by Shaftes- 
 bury and the other ministers, but there were 
 secret clauses known only to Clifford, Arling- 
 ton, and Arundel, by which Charles was to re- 
 establish Roman Catholicism ; while to enable 
 him to crush any opposition in carrying out 
 this scheme, Louis was to give him £200,000 
 a year and 6,000 French troops. 
 
 Rauke, Hist. ofEng. ; Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 Downing, G-eouge {d. 1684?), was member 
 for Carlisle in 1657. It was he who seems to 
 have first suggested that the " Instrument of 
 Government " should be abolished, and a new 
 constitution, which aimed at reproducing the 
 old constitution under a dynasty of Cromwell's, 
 substituted for it. After the Restoration, he 
 was English ambassador at the Hague, and 
 in 1664 was strongly in favour of making 
 reprisals on the Dutch, a course of conduct 
 which was adopted, though not in the king's 
 name. A year later he proposed in the House 
 
 of Commons that the method of contracting 
 government loans through the goldsmiths 
 should be abolished, and that the Treasury 
 should constitute itself a bank; and when 
 his plan was adopted, he received a subordinate 
 part in that department of State. In 1672 he 
 was again ambassador in Holland, and in 167? 
 had once more to defend his financial schemes 
 in the House, but this time without effect. 
 
 Downs, The Battle op the (1666), was 
 fought between the English fleet, commanded 
 by the Duke of Albemarle, and the Dutch, 
 under De Euyter, De AVitt, and "Van Tromp. 
 The battle lasted for several days, com- 
 mencing on the 1st of June. On the 3rd, 
 Monk retired, after sotting fire to his dis- 
 abled ships, and late in the evening was 
 joined by his colleague. Prince Rupert. 
 The battle was one of the most obstinate and 
 bloody of all the indecisive battles fought 
 between the Dutch and the English in the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 D'Oyley, Colonel, the president of the 
 first military council in Jamaica (1656), suc- 
 ceeded Major Sedgewicke as governor, and by 
 his severe measures compelled the disbanded 
 soldiers to colonise the island for England, in 
 accordance with the wishes of Cromwell. 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis (i. 1545, (f. 1596), was 
 born at Tavistock, in Devonshire. Early- 
 inured to a sea life, he accoro.panied his 
 relative. Sir John Hawkins, to the Spanish 
 main, and subsequently, in 1570, undertook a 
 voyage on Ms own account to the "West Indies. 
 In 1572 he sailed with two vessels to make 
 reprisals upon the Spaniards for the previous 
 losses he had sustained at their hands, and 
 made an unsuccessful attack on Nombre de 
 Dios. On his return to England, Drake was 
 at first employed by Elizabeth in Ireland; 
 but in 1577 sailed, with her sanction, on 
 another expedition. Ho plundered all the 
 Spanish towns on the coasts of Chili and 
 Peru, captured immense booty, and finally 
 crossing the Pacific (Jcean, returned to 
 England round the Cape, thus circumnavi- 
 gating the globe. On arriving in England, 
 he was knighted by the queen, in . re- 
 cognition of his daring (1680). Five years 
 later. Sir Francis was sent with a fleet to the 
 "West Indies, where he captm-ed the cities of 
 St. lago, St. Domingo, and Carthagena. In 
 1587, during the preparations for the Spanish 
 Armada, he commanded a fleet which did 
 much damage in the port of Cadiz, where he 
 is said to have burnt 10,000 tons of shipping, 
 an operation which he styled " singeing the 
 King of Spain's beard." He then captured 
 an immense treasure-ship off the Azores, and 
 returned home in time to take a very active part 
 in the defeat of the Armada, as vice-admiral 
 of the fleet. In 1595, in conjunction with 
 Sir John Hawkins, Drake sailed on an expe- 
 dition to the "West Indies, but nothing effectual 
 was done ; and Sir Francis died on board his 
 
Dra 
 
 ( 3S5 ) 
 
 Bru 
 
 own ship ofi Porto Bello, Jan. 28, 1596, and 
 was buried in mid-ocean. 
 
 Southey, Lives of the Admirals; Purchas, 
 
 Pilgrvma; Barrow, Naval W<yrtliieit; Proude, 
 
 Hist. ofMng. 
 
 Drapier's Letters (1724) is the name 
 of a pamphlet written by Swift against the 
 new copper coinage which the government 
 were attempting to introduce into Ireland, 
 and the monopoly for coining which had 
 been granted to a person named Wood. They 
 profess to be the production of a, certain 
 M. B., a drapier, or draper, of DubHn, and he, 
 writing as an ignorant, unskilled shopman, 
 gives utterance to his own apprehensions of 
 ruin. While professing extreme loyalty to the 
 king, the honest shopman shows, or attempts 
 to show, that the patent was unjust, to begin 
 with ; that its teims had been infringed, and 
 that the new coins themselves were base. In 
 this publication Swift hit the public taste of 
 Ireland, and became unrivalled in popularity. 
 So great was the impression produced by this 
 work, that the patent had to be withdrawn 
 from Mr. Wood, who was, however, compen- 
 sated by a pension of £3,000 a year. 
 
 Drogheda is noted iu history as being the 
 place -vSiere the Papal legate Papera held a 
 synod in 1152, on which occasion the authority 
 of the Eoman Church was greatly strengthened 
 in Ireland. It was at this town that PojTiings' 
 Act was passed in 1494, and about the same 
 time a mint was established there. In Decem- 
 ber, 1641, Drogheda was besieged by O'Neil 
 with a large force of Irish, but was for 
 three months successfully defended by Sir 
 Henry Tichbome. On Sept. 3, 1649, Crom- 
 well appeared before the town, which had 
 been garrisoned by Ormonde with his best 
 regiments, most of them English, alto- 
 gether 2,500 men, commanded by Sir Arthur 
 Aston, an officer of great reputation. On 
 the 9th the bombardment began; a storm 
 attempted by the Puritans on the 10th faUed, 
 and the garrison refused to surrender. On 
 the 12th the storming of the place was again 
 attempted, and succeeded, after a desperate 
 struggle. The whole garrison was put to 
 the sword, and Sir Arthur himself had his 
 brains beaten out. Cromwell admits "that 
 the officers were also knocked promiscuously 
 on the head except two." Altogether, it 
 seems that about 4,000 people perished, about 
 half of whom must have been unarmed — so, at 
 least, it would appear from the depositions of 
 eye-witnesses. In 1690 Drogheda surrendered 
 to Wmiam III., directly after the battle of 
 the Boyne. 
 
 Cromwell's Letters ; Carte, Life of Orirumie ; 
 Froude, Bng. in Ireland,. 
 
 Droit d'Aubaine is an old rule by 
 which the property of a deceased foreigner was 
 claimed by the State unless the defunct man 
 had a special exemption. This rule was not 
 peculiar to England, but common to other 
 Hist.- 13 
 
 countries. The derivation of the word 
 "aubaine" has been variously explained as 
 from ttUbinatus, or aihena. 
 
 Droits of Admiralty are the rights 
 
 claimed by the government of England on 
 the property of an enemy in time of war. 
 It has been customary in maritime war to 
 seize the property of an enemy if found 
 within our ports on the outbreak of hostilities, 
 and this is then considered as forming part 
 of the Droits of Admiralty. Prizes captured 
 by non-commissioned vessels are also said to 
 be subject to the same conditions. In the 
 Eevolutionary and Napoleonic wars large 
 sums were obtained by the enforcement of 
 these regulations, but for the most part the 
 money so gained was devoted to the public 
 service. By an Act of William IV. 's reign 
 the Droits of Admiralty for that reign were 
 to be put to public use, and the Lord High 
 Admiral is no longer in possession of his 
 claim to the tenth part of property captured 
 on the seas. 
 
 Kent, CommeiitaTtes ; Bonner, Law Dictionary ; 
 BurreU, Law Dictionary. 
 
 Druids, The, were the priests of the Celtic 
 people in Britain. Our chief, and it may 
 almost be said our only, information touching 
 the Druids comes from Caesar. He tells us that 
 there were in Gaul only two classes who 
 obtained any consideration, the common people 
 being in a condition little above slavery. 
 These two classes were the noble order, 
 Equites, as Caesar calls them, and the priestly 
 order, the Druids. The last presided over 
 all the religious functions. They had the 
 care of public and private sacrifices, and they 
 interpreted the religious mythology. To 
 them the youth flocked in crowds for instruc- 
 tion. They were too, we find, the judges in 
 all cases, both criminal and civU, settling 
 questions of disputed boundaries or affairs of 
 inheritance, as well as those connected with 
 infractions of the law. If any one refused to 
 abide by their decision, they could inflict on 
 him the penalty of excommunication or inter- 
 diction from the sacrifices, which deprived 
 him of aU his civil rites, and cut him oft' from 
 all commerce with his fellow-men. At their 
 head was one chief Druid, who succeeded by 
 election. Generally, the claim of one person 
 to succeed to the vacant post was universally 
 recognised ; sometimes, however, disputed 
 claims led to bloodshed. Once a year all the 
 people who had any cause for hearing 
 assembled in the most central part of Gaul, 
 the country of the Brmites (Chartres), and 
 were judged by the Druids : much, one may 
 fancy, as the IsraeUtes were judged by their . 
 judges. As has been already said [Celts], 
 Britain was considered the especial nursery 
 of Druidism. 
 
 Ca3sar tells us, as a distinction, that the 
 Germans had no Druids. Bat if by this were 
 meant that the Germans had no sacerdotal 
 
Dm 
 
 ( 386 ) 
 
 Dry 
 
 class, the statement certainly requires modi- 
 fication. The Germans, like most of the 
 Aryan races after their earliest days, had 
 a class of priests who stood side by side with 
 their kings or chiefs. The Celtic Druids 
 were, we may feel sure, a sacerdotal class, of 
 the same kind as that which was found among 
 their kindred nationalities: that is to say, 
 their essential function was to stand foremost 
 in the sacrifices, and to preserve by oral 
 tradition the mythic histories, whether of 
 gods or heroes, which had been composed in 
 verse, as well as to compose fresh forms when 
 required. They were both priests and bards : 
 gleemen, as the Saxons said, or, as the Norse- 
 men would have said, scalds. This was their 
 essential character. It was in degree chiefly 
 that their functions diifered from those of the 
 priests of, say, the heathen Saxons. The Celts 
 were undoubtedly, as Ctesar describes them, a 
 very religious people, and being such, they 
 had raised their priesthood to a position of 
 exceptional power, and from this exceptional 
 position arose their functions as judges. 
 We easily gather this much from Caesar's 
 account of the Druids; for we see that the 
 enforcement of their decrees was not 
 secured by ordinary legal, but by distinctly 
 religious, penalties : they forbade men the 
 sacrifices. If the people had not been ex- 
 ceptionally religious, this penalty would not 
 have carried with it such exceptional terrors. 
 Too much has been made of Pliny's de- 
 scription of the ceremonies which accompanied 
 the cutting of the mistletoe ; for we have no 
 reason to think that this was in any degree 
 the central point of the Druidic ritual, or 
 that, if anything, more than one among twenty 
 similar rites. Nor, again, must we take too 
 literally a beautiful passage in which Lucan 
 describes the high doctrines of the Druids 
 concerning the future life, for these doctrines 
 were not essentially different from those 
 which have been held by aD. the Aryan 
 nations. [Celts.] 
 
 Being raised to such a high position, it is 
 probable that the Druids took unusual care to 
 fence themselves round with the mystery of a 
 priestly caste. It is quite possible that they 
 may among themselves have cherished doc- 
 trines above those of the common herd ; but 
 the theory that they had a great and secret 
 philosophy, which by oral tradition they 
 handed down far into the Middle Ages, is 
 an extravagant notion which has been 
 cherished by enthusiastic and uncritical 
 minds. [Brehons.] 
 
 Eoget de Balloquet, EthnogHie Gauloiee, tome 
 iii. ; H. G-aidoz, ^squisse de la Eelitiion Gauloase. 
 and Les Druides et la Qui de CJiSne : Fustel 
 de Coulan^e in tlie Revue Celtigue, tome iv. 
 [C. F. K.] 
 
 Drnmclog, The Battle of, was fought on 
 the borders of Lanarkshire and Ayi'shire, June 
 11, 1679, between a party of the Covenanters 
 who had been surprised at a " conventicle " 
 
 and the royal troops under Claverhouse. The 
 Covenanters, who were led by Balfour of 
 Burleigh and Hackston of Rathillet were 
 victorious. 
 
 Drumcrub, The Battle of (965), was 
 fought between Dufi, King of Alban, and 
 Colin, son of Indulf, a rival claimant to the 
 throne. The latter was completely defeated, 
 two of his chief supporters, the Lord of Athol 
 and the Abbot of Dunkeld, being slain. 
 
 Drumiaond, Sir G-ordon, was one of 
 the English generals during the American 
 "War of 1812—14. In 1814 he defeated the 
 Americans at Fort Oswego, and soon after- 
 wards gained a second victory over them at 
 Lundy's Lane. In August of that year, how- 
 ever, he was himself defeated at Fort Erie, 
 to which he afterwards laid unsuccessful 
 siege. In 1815 he was appointed Governor- 
 General of Canada. 
 
 Driuumond, Sir William {d. 1828), en- 
 tered Parliament in 1795 as member for St. 
 llawes. In 1 796 'he was sent as envoy ex- 
 traordinary to the court of Naples, and in 
 1801 he was appointed ambassador at Con- 
 stantinople. Sir William was more distin- 
 guished as a scholar than as a diplomatist, 
 and published several learned works on 
 archaeology and classical antiquities. 
 
 Drtmbeu Parliament, The (1661), 
 was the name given to the Scotch Parliament 
 elected just after the Restoration. This Par- 
 liament, which was strongly Eoyalist, passed 
 a measure restoring the Lords of the Articles 
 (q.v.), and annulling all Acts of the preceding 
 twenty-eight years. 
 
 Drury, Sir William {d. 1579), attained 
 considerable fame in the reign of Elizabeth 
 as an able general and administrator. In 1567 
 he was in command of the border forces, and 
 in 1570, in conjunction with Lennox took 
 Hamilton from the Duke of Chatelherault. 
 In 1573 he conducted the siege of Edinburgh 
 to a successful issue, and received the thanks 
 of the queen. Three years later Druiy was 
 made President of Munster, and inaugurated 
 his entrance upon the office with a succession 
 of vigorous measures. He died at Cork, 1579. 
 
 Dryden, John (i. 1631, d. 1700), wasedu. 
 cated at Westminster and Cambridge. At the 
 Restoration he appears to have changed his 
 politics ; for after having, in 1659, written an 
 elegiac poem on the death of Oliver Cromwell, 
 we find him in 1660 ready with another in 
 honour of the new Mng. Prom this time there 
 hardly occurred any political event of impor- 
 tance that is not alluded to in his pages; The 
 Dutch were satirised in 1662 ; and five years 
 later the wonderful events of 1665 — 6 were 
 celebrated in the Annus Mirabilia. In 1681 
 he published his greatest work, Absalom and 
 Achitophel, a political satire, directed mainly 
 against the intrigues of Shaftesbury and 
 Monmouth on the 'question of the accession of 
 
Dub 
 
 ( 3S7 ) 
 
 Dud 
 
 the Duke of York. All the characters in this 
 poem are intendfed to represent the chief 
 statesmen of the day under the thin disguise of 
 Hehrew names. Thus David is Charles II. ; 
 Ahsalom, his favourite son, the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth. ; Achitophel, the Earl of Shaf teshury ; 
 ■while the versatile Duke of Buckingham ap- 
 pears as Zimri. The attack on Shaftesbui-y 
 was before long continued in The Medal, 
 while by the next year, ia the Religio Laid, he 
 was again engaged upon one of the leading- 
 topics of the day, defending the Church of 
 England against the attacks of the Dissenters. 
 Under James II. Dry den turned Roman 
 Catholic, and his pension as Laureate, an 
 office to which he had been appointed about 
 the year 1668, was renewed after a temporary 
 cessation. Shortly after this the poet's grati- 
 tude evinced itself in the publication of the 
 Hind and the Panther (1687), another political 
 and religious poem, in which the "milk-white 
 hind, unspotted and unchanged," represents 
 the Church of Rome ; while the panther, " the 
 noblest creature of the spotted kind," stands 
 for the Church of England, and other sects 
 are represented under the guise of various 
 beasts. This work may be considered as 
 Dryden's last contribution to political writings. 
 With the Revolution his various offices were 
 taken away from him, and he henceforward 
 confined himself to purely poetical work. 
 
 An edition of Dryden's Works, with a L'fe by 
 Sir Walter Soott, was published in 1808. 
 
 _ Dublin has been from the very earliest 
 times a place of great importance ia Irish 
 history. Its name bespeaks a Celtic origin, 
 and it has been identified with the Eblana 
 of Ptolemy. In the ninth century it fell 
 into the hands of the Ostmen, or Danes, 
 who, with occasional reverses, kept their 
 footing in Ireland till the time of the Eng- 
 lish conquest. In 1171 the town was unsuc- 
 cessfully besieged by Roderick, Kang of Con- 
 naught, with an immense host of Irish ; and in 
 the same year was the place where Henrj' II. 
 received the homage of the Irish chiefs. The 
 •government of Dublin was then conferred on 
 Hug-h de Lacy. In 1207 the new English 
 colony was granted a charter, and two years 
 later was nearly exterminated by a native 
 rising, which has given to the day of its oc- 
 currence the title of Black Monday. Richard 
 
 II. appears to have visited Dublin twice, and 
 was being entertained there when news came 
 of Bolingbroke's invasion. In 1591 a charter 
 of Queen Elizabeth founded Trinity College 
 and the University of Dublin. A mediiEval 
 foundation, which had never flourished, came 
 to an end at the Reformation. In 1646 
 Dublin was besieged by the Papists, and 
 was next year surrendered to the Parlia- 
 mentarian forces. After the Revolution of 
 1688, James I. held a Parliament in this citj', 
 which, however, fell into the hands of "William 
 
 III. soon after the battle of the BojTie. In later 
 
 times Dublin has been the head-quarters of 
 several plots and seditious projects, such as the 
 plot of Lord E. Fitzgerald (1798), of Emmett 
 (1803), the Fenian Conspiracy of 1867, and 
 theplotoftheInvinciblesinl882. [Ireland.] 
 
 Dublin, The Tkeaty op, conducted by 
 Ormonde on behalf of Charles I. and the Irith 
 Council of Kilkenny, became substantially, 
 after the failure of Glamorgan's mission, the 
 public part of Glamorgan's treaty (q.v.), and 
 was concluded on March 28, 1646. The Papal 
 nuncio and Owen Roe O'Neil strongly op- 
 posed it, and a synod at Waterford excommu- 
 nicated all who adhered to it. It was practi- 
 cally set aside by the Irish advance on Dublin. 
 Clsirendon, Hist, of the Rei. ; Carte, Onnondc. 
 
 Duclair Episode. In 1870 six British 
 vessels were seized by the Germans at Du- 
 clair in the coui-se of their military operations, 
 and sunk in the Seine ; their crews, moreover, 
 it was said, being, treated with brutality. 
 This excited considerable irritation in Eng- 
 land. On explanations being demanded. 
 Count Bismarck showed himself ready and 
 desirous to avoid all cause of quarrel by satis- 
 factorily explaining away all causes of ofEence, 
 and offering the fullest compensation to the 
 parties entitled to claim it. 
 
 Dudley, Sir Edmund {d. 1.510), was 
 one of the unprincipled agents of Hem-y 
 VII.'s rapacity, to which he contrived to 
 lend a kind of legal support by founding it 
 in many cases upon a revival of obsolete 
 statutes. In 1492 he accompanied Heniy to 
 France, and it was on his return from this 
 expedition that he united with Empson in 
 inaugurating that system of exaction for 
 which he has obtained so unenviable a 
 notoriety. In 1504 he provides an example 
 of the completeness of Henry's power at 
 that time by his appearance as Speaker of 
 the House of Commons, while the king con- 
 ferred upon him also the rank and oflice 
 of a baron of the Exchequer. Dudley and 
 his partner Empson were naturally very 
 unpopular; they were men, to use the 
 words of Lord Bacon, " whom the people es- 
 teemed as his [Henry VII.'s] horse-leeches and 
 shearers, bold men and careless of fame, and 
 that took toll of their master's grist." On 
 the death of Henry VII., his successor could 
 find no better way to ensure popularity at the 
 opening of his reign than by the surrender to 
 the people's fury of these agents of his father's 
 oppression. Dudley and Empson were accord- 
 ingly arrested on a charge of high treason, 
 were at once condemned, and executed in 
 August, 1510. So general was the disgust 
 and indignation which Dudley and Empson- 
 had excited, that it was thought necessary to 
 pass a special Act of Parliament to prevent 
 the recurrence of the illegalities of which they 
 had been guilty. 
 
 Bacon, Hemry Yll, 
 
Bad 
 
 ( 388 ) 
 
 Dug 
 
 Dudley, Lord Guilfokd [d. 1554), son of 
 the Duke of Northumberland (q.v.), was 
 married in 1553 to Lady Jane G-rey (q.v.), 
 whose claim to the throne the duke intended 
 to assert on the death of Edward VI. Upon 
 the failure of his plot, he was dondenmed to 
 death in company with his wife, but the 
 sentence was not carried into effect till 1554, 
 when the insurrection of Sir Thomas "Wyatt 
 (q.v.) and the solicitations of Simon Eenard, 
 the ambassador of Charles V., induced Mary 
 to order his instant execution. [Gkey, Lady 
 Jane ; Mahy.] 
 
 Froude, Hist, of Eng. ; Stowe, AnnaU; Sir 
 H. Nicolas, Life of Lady Jane Gi'Sj^. 
 
 Dudley, Sir Andrew, brother of the 
 Duke of Northumberland (q.v.), was sent in 
 1553 to the Emperor Charles V. for the 
 purpose of mediating between the Spaniards 
 and the French. In the same year he received 
 instructions- from his brother to bribe the 
 King of France to send an army to England 
 in furtherance of the scheme for placing Lady 
 Jane Grey on the throne. For this he was 
 put on his trial and condemned to death, but 
 was afterwards I'eprieved. 
 
 Dudley, Siu Henry, a cousin of the 
 Duke of Northumberland (q.v.), formed (in 
 1556) a conspiracy in favour of the Princess 
 Elizabeth, the avowed object of the plot being 
 to free England from the yoke of Catholicism 
 and Spain. Elizabeth was to be married to 
 Courtenay, Eai'l of Devon, who had been the 
 cause, of the previous rebellion of 1554. A 
 plan was also laid to carry off a large amount 
 of Spanish silver from the Treasury ; but the 
 whole plot was betrayed by one of the accom- 
 plices, named Thomas "White, and most of the 
 conspbators were arrested. Dudley himself, 
 however, escaped abroad. 
 
 Dudley and Ward, John William 
 Ward, 4th Earl of (i. 1781, d. 1833), was 
 elected member for Downton in 1802, and soon 
 distinguished himself as a speaker in the House 
 of Commons. In 1820 he succeeded his father 
 in the peerage, and on the formation of Can- 
 ning's ministry became head of the Foreign 
 Office (1827), in which capacity he signed the 
 Treaty of London, and the same year was 
 raised to the dignity of an earl. In 1828 he 
 left the Duke of Wellington's Cabinet with 
 Huskisson and Palmerston, and died a few 
 years later, in 1833. He was a man of ec- 
 centric manners, with a habit of thinking 
 aloud. It was of him that Eogers wrote his 
 celebrated coiplet — 
 
 " They say "Ward lias no heart, hut I deny it ; 
 He has a heart, he gets his speeches by it." 
 
 Duelling. The practice of duelling 
 seems to have originated from the Teutonic 
 custom of trial by battle. But it is evident 
 that this method o;f deciding rights did 
 not exist in England before the Conquest. 
 Under William the Conqueror it was ren- 
 dered compulsory only between two Normans, 
 
 but was gradually extended in certain cases 
 to both races. 'This law, though it had long 
 fallen into desuetude, was not finally abrogated 
 till 1818, after it had in the preceding year 
 been claimed as his right by a ceiiain Thornton, 
 who was accused of murder. The practice of 
 duelling not as a solemn appeal to heaven for 
 justice, but for the satisfaction of a personal 
 affront, has arisen from the legal custom, and 
 does not seem to have occurred in England 
 earlier than the sixteenth century, though 
 they became very common indeed in the next 
 one, and so continued till the last generation. 
 It was not till about the year 1843, when 
 Colonel Fawcett perished at the hands of his 
 brother-in-law, that the public feeling was 
 unmistakably expressed against the custom. 
 After this, the army, in whose ranks the 
 sense of honour and claim to satisfy it by 
 shedding blood, might be supposed to be 
 strongest, was forbidden to have recourse to 
 this practice under heavy penalties. This 
 regulation, mainly brought about by the 
 humanity of the Prince Consort, seems to 
 have been of almost equal eifect in every class 
 of the community, and duelling in England 
 has now been for many years a thing of the 
 past. 
 
 Duff, King of Alban, was the son of 
 Malcolm I., and succeeded Indulf, 962. In 
 965 he defeated Colin, son of Indulf, at Drum- 
 crub, but was expelled by him in 967. 
 Duff took refuge in Forres, where he was 
 slain at the Bridge of Kinloss, 967. 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland. 
 
 Duffindale, The Battle op (1549), re- 
 sulted in a complete defeat of the Norfolk 
 rebels, under Robert Ket (q.v.), at the hands 
 of the royal troops under Warwick. 
 
 Dugdale, Sir William (b. 1605, rf. 1686), 
 one of the most famous of the English seven- 
 teenth century antiquaries, was descended 
 from an old Lancashire family. Marrying at 
 the early age of seventeen, he soon settled at 
 Blyth, in Warwickshire, where his enthu- 
 siasm for the past was kindled by the ac-' 
 quainlances he made there. In 1635 he was 
 introduced to Sir Henry Spelman, like himself 
 a famous antiquary, and before long com- 
 menced collecting materials for his great 
 work, the Monasticon Anglioanum. Fearing 
 the ruin to our national monuments that 
 might ensue from the Civil War that was on 
 the point of breaking out, in 1641 he made 
 copies of aU the principal monuments in 
 Westminster Abbey and other great English 
 Churches and cathedrals. Next year he 
 attended Charles I.'s summons to York, and 
 was present at Oxford when it surrendered to 
 the Parliament in 1646. After the Restora- 
 tion he was appointed Garter king-at-arma. 
 Besides his great work, the Mmiasticon Angli- 
 cmmm, the recognised authority on EngUsh 
 monastic foundations — first published in 
 
Duk 
 
 ( 389 ) 
 
 Dun 
 
 separate volumes 1655, 1661, 1673 — Dugdale 
 was the author of the Antiquities of Warwick- 
 shire (1656), the History of St. Fawl's Cathe- 
 dral (1658), Origines Jadieiales (1666, &c.),the 
 Baronage of England (1675 — 6), and A Short 
 View of the Late Troubles in England (1681), 
 being am account of the rise and progress of 
 the Civil War. All these works, except the 
 last, are perfect mines of valuable informa- 
 tion, and in many cases the more remarkable 
 for being, in some instances, the first serious 
 attempts in their various lines. 
 
 Duke, the highest title in the English peer- 
 age, originated in the reign of Edward III., 
 who in 1337 created his son, the Black Prince, 
 Duke of Cornwall. The first instance of a 
 person not a member of the royal family 
 being created a duke is Robert de Vere, who 
 in 1386 was made Duke of Ireland. The title 
 has been very rarely given, and at present 
 there are but twenty-one dukes of the United 
 Kingdom, exclusive of the princes of the 
 blood royal. The word " duke " is a heritage 
 of the Roman Empire, under which the 
 " duces " were military leaders ; from 
 Merovingian and Carolingian times it passed 
 into the nomenclature of medifeval Europe, 
 where England was one of the last countries 
 to adopt the title. EtymologicaUy it is the 
 same word as the Italian " doge." 
 
 Dumbarton, the "fortress of the 
 Britons," is a lofty rock on the right bank of 
 the Lower Clyde. Originally it was called 
 Alcluyd, and was the chief town of the 
 Strathclyde Welsh. Its later name must 
 have been given it by the Picts. In 756 it 
 was taken by the Picts and Northumbrians 
 under Egbert. Granted to John Baliol by 
 Edward I., it was in 1562 given up by Arran 
 to Queen Mary, and held for her by Lord 
 Meming. It "was to Dumbarton that the 
 queen was trying to force a passage when 
 she was defeated at Langside, 1568. In 1571 
 it was taken from Henry by Captain Craw- 
 ford, and in 1640 it fell into the hands of the 
 Covenanters. 
 
 Dumnonia, Damxonia, or West Wales. 
 The British kingdom in the south-western 
 peninsula of England; Besides the quite 
 separate Dumnonii of the district round the 
 Roman Wall, there was in Roman times a 
 tribe called the Dumnonii, who occupied the 
 whole country west of the modem Hampshire 
 and the Bristol Avon. Some recent inquirers 
 have regarded them as Goidelic in race, and 
 therefore to be distinguished sharply from 
 their British (Brythonic) neighbours. But, 
 if so, it is difScult to see how the Brythons, 
 driven westwards by the Saxons, were able in 
 their defeat to conquer and assimilate these 
 Goidels, for in later times the speech of 
 Cornwall certainly was more kindred to the 
 Brythonic than the Goidelic group of Celtic 
 languages. Perhaps there remained traces of 
 
 an earlier race, though the Dumnonii were 
 roughly Brythonic. Anyhow, the sixth cen- 
 tury saw a Celtic race still supreme in these 
 regions, and, by its possession of the lower 
 Severn valley, in communication with the 
 " North Welsh " beyond the Bristol Channel. 
 In Gildas's time, the tyrant Constantino was 
 king of this region ; but with the advance of 
 the West Saxons westwards, the Dumnonian 
 kingdom was forced into narrower limits. 
 The conquests of Ceawlin in 577 (battle of 
 Deorham) separated it from the modem 
 Wales. The victory of Cenwealh at Pen 
 drove the "Brytwealas" over the Parret 
 (658), and the tales of Armorican migration 
 attest the disorganisation of the defeated 
 race. Centwine extended the West Saxon 
 State as far as the Exe, and Geraint, the 
 Dumnonian monarch was signally defeated in 
 710 by Ine, whose organisation of the Sher- 
 borne bishopric, and refoundation of Glaston- 
 bury Abbey, shows the completeness of his 
 conquests. Yet even in Egbert's time the 
 West Welsh retained theii- freedom, and 
 revenged their defeat, if not conquest, in 815, 
 by joining the Danes against the West Saxon 
 Bretwalda. Their defeat at Hengestesdun 
 (835) may have led to their entire subjection, 
 if et it was only temporary ; for Exeter con- 
 tinued to be jointly inhabited by English and 
 Welsh until Athelstan expelled the latter ; 
 an act which led to the confinement of the 
 Welsh to the modern Cornwall. When they 
 were subdued directly to the West Saxons we 
 hardly know; but no king of the West Welsh 
 can be proved to have existed laier than the 
 Howel who did homage to Athelstan. The 
 retention of the Celtic language, at least till 
 the end of the seventeenth century, still 
 marked off Cornwall from the rest of the 
 country. But the last trace of any separate 
 organisation was the appointment in 1051 of 
 Odda as Earl of the " Wealas." The modern 
 duchy is of much later date. Even in Domes- 
 day there are hardly any British proper names 
 in the old Dumnonia, though to this day the 
 great majority of the place-names among the 
 dwellers of the more western portion are 
 purely Celtic. 
 
 Tlie original authorities are a few meagre 
 entries in the chronicles, "Welsh and English, 
 of battles. PbUology and local antiquities may 
 give something more. Foramodem account see 
 Palgrave's English CommonwealtTi, I., pp. 403 
 
 411, and II., cclxiii.— ochdv. (with an attempt 
 
 toestahlish the successionof West Welshkings.) 
 For the ethnological question see Ehjs' Celtic 
 Bntam; and for the ancient Dumnonii, Elton's 
 Origms of English Hisforv, pp. 233-238. Pol- 
 whele's History of Comwalt gives ciu-ious details 
 of the survival of the Cornish language. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Dxinljar, Black Agnes of. In 1339 the 
 Earl of Salisbury laid siege to the fortress of 
 Dunbar, which was defended in the absence 
 of its governor, the Earl of March, by his 
 wife Agnes, the sister of Randolph, Earl 
 of Murray. So successful was the Countess 
 
Dun 
 
 ( 390 } 
 
 Dun 
 
 in her resistance to the English that the 
 English leader was ohliged to withdraw his 
 forces. 
 
 Dun'bar, The Battle op (April 27, 1296), 
 resulted in a complete victory for the English 
 forces under Edward I. and EarlWarenne over 
 the Scots under the Earl of Athol and Sir 
 Patrick Graham. 
 
 Dunbar, The Battle of (Sept. 3, 1650), 
 resulted in a complete victory for the Parlia- 
 mentary army under Cromwell, Monk, and 
 Lambert, over the Scots under David Leslie. 
 Leslie had taken up a strong position, and 
 fortified all the heights between Edinburgh 
 Castle and Leith. For a whole mouth Leslie 
 kept his impregnable position till it seemed 
 that Cromwell must be starved into submission. 
 Fearing this fate, the English general removed 
 to Dunbar, where he could command the sea, 
 and Leslie followed him along the slopes, 
 settling finally upon the hill of Don, cutting 
 ofi the retreat of the enemy, and looking down 
 on them in the town. On the night of 
 Sept. 2nd the Scottish army forsook its strong 
 position and foolishly descended to the lower 
 ground. Leslie's caution had been overcome 
 by the rash zeal of the preachers in his camp. 
 At daybreak Cromwell ordered his whole 
 force to advance against the Scottish horse, 
 which was crossing the glen of the Broxburn 
 in advance of the main body, and before they 
 had time to form their lines they were driven 
 back on their own ranks behind, and the day 
 was lost. It was on this occasion that Crom- 
 well uttered his memorable quotation as the 
 sun cleared away the mist from the hills and 
 showed the certain rout of his enemies, " Let 
 God arise, and let his enemies be scattered." 
 Three thousand men perished in this engage- 
 ment, and nearly ten thousand were taken 
 prisoners. From Dunbar Cromwell passed on 
 to Edinburgh, and in a short time all Scotland 
 was in his power. 
 
 CELTlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, 
 
 Dunbar Castle, in Haddingtonshire, 
 was granted to Gospatric, Earl of March, by 
 Malcolm Canmore. It was taken by Edward 
 I. and Earl Warenne, April 1296, and in 
 1314 it gave shelter to Edward II. after his 
 flight from Bannockburn. In 1339 it was 
 successfully defended for nineteen weeks 
 against the Earl of Salisbury by Black Agnes 
 of Dunbar. It was garrisoned by French 
 troops during Albany's regency in the time 
 of James V., who greatly strengthened its 
 fortifications after its evacuation by the 
 foreigners. It gave shelter to Mary and 
 Darnley after the murder of Eizzio, 1561, and 
 again received the queen, this time in com- 
 pany of Bothwell, on the rising of the Con- 
 federate Lords, 1567. Its castle was destroyed 
 by the regent Murray. 
 
 Duncan, Adam, 1st Viscount Camper- 
 down (i. 1731, (?. 1804), entered the navj' early 
 
 in life. In 1749 he served in the Mediterranean 
 under Zeppel, and in 1755 was sent out to 
 America in the fleet which conveyed General 
 Braddock's troops. He was wounded in the 
 attack on Goree, and obtained his lieutenancy 
 soon after the battle. In 1761 he took part 
 in the expeditions against Belleisle and 
 Havannah, and was entrusted by Keppel with 
 the difficult task of landing the troops in 
 boats. In 1779 he was employed in the 
 Channel tiU he accompanied Rodney to the 
 relief of Gibraltar, and in the action of 
 Jan. 16, 1780, Duncan did as good ser^e 
 as any one, and was so hardly used in the 
 battle that he had not a boat wherewith to 
 take possession of his prizes. In 1782 he 
 proceeded again to the relief of Gibraltar, on 
 this occasion under Lord Howe, and in 1787 
 was made rear-admiral. Seven years later he 
 received the command of a fleet stationed in 
 the North Sea, and in this office had to watch 
 the Dutch fleet at the Texel. Meanwhile the 
 mutiny at the Nore broke out, and Admiral 
 Duncan found himself left with only two 
 ships to blockade the enemy. His firmness 
 upon this occasion contributed in no small 
 degree to the suppression of this outbreak; 
 but at the same time he kept up the semblance 
 of a watch upon the Dutch admiral. Later, 
 by retiring to Yarmouth, he gave De Winter, 
 the Dutch admiral, an opportunity of putting 
 out to sea. The chance was immediately 
 taken by the Dutch, while the English fleet 
 made every effort to cut off their retreat. On 
 Oct. 11, 1797, he managed by skilful tactics 
 to get between the enemy and the land. He 
 then broke through their line, and after a stub- 
 born contest off Camperdown gained a complete 
 victory, capturing two frigates and eight line- 
 of-battle ships, including the admiral's ship. 
 Duncan was at once rewarded by a peerage 
 and a large pension. He remained, however, 
 for two years more in the North Sea before 
 coming home to spend his last days in retire- 
 ment. He died suddenly in London on Aug. 
 4, 1804. [Camperdown.] 
 
 James, Na^'al Hist. ; Alison, Sist of Europe ; 
 Stanhope, Hist. ofEnij, 
 
 Duncan I., King of Scotland {d. 1040), son 
 of Crinau, lay abbot of Dunkeld, succeeded 
 his maternal grandfather Malcolm, in 1034. 
 Defeated before the walls of Durham in the 
 first year of his reign by Eardulf, Earl of 
 Northumbria, Duncan next attempted to 
 wrest Caithness from Thorfinn, Earl of 
 Orkney, in order that he might bestow it 
 upon his relative Moddan. In this attempt, 
 however, the king was worsted in a naval 
 engagement near the shores of the Pentland 
 Forth, and in a battle at Burghhead, in Elgin. 
 About this time, his general, Macbeth 
 Mormaor, of Moraj^, went over to Thorfiim's 
 side, and slew Duncan by treachery near 
 Elgin, Aug. 14, 1040. Duncan, who is called 
 in the Sagas Karl Hundason (hound's son), 
 
Sun 
 
 ( 391 ) 
 
 Dun 
 
 married a daughter of Siward, Earl of North- 
 umberland. It is from the legendary accounts 
 preserved of the incidents of this reign and 
 the next that Shakespeare has formed the 
 hasis of his great tragedy Macbeth. 
 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland; Robertson, Early 
 KiJigs of Scotland. 
 
 Duncan II., King of Scotland («. 1094, d. 
 1095), though some obscurity surrounds his 
 birth, was, probably, the son of Malcolm Can- 
 more by his first wife. When quite a boy, in 
 1072, Duncan was sent as a hostage to the 
 English court after the Treaty of Abernethy. 
 Thereheremained till 1093, when, withNormau 
 aid, he succeeded in driving his uncle, Donald 
 Bane (q.v.), from the Scotch throne. Six 
 months afterwards, however, Donald proctired 
 his murder at the hands of Malpedir MacLean, 
 Mormaor of Meams. The scene of this crime 
 was Mondynes, in Kincardineshire, and a 
 huge monohth that is still found there 
 probably commemorates the event. The 
 secret of his fate seems to be in the fact that 
 he was a Norman by education and character, 
 and had perhaps agreed to hold the kingdom 
 as a vassal of the English sovereign. He 
 does not seem to have ever been fully recog- 
 nised except in Lothian and Cmnbria ; for the 
 Gaelic districts north of the Forth were at 
 most only divided in his favour. He married 
 the daughter of Torpatric, Earl of Northum- 
 berland, by whom he is said to have had a son 
 William. 
 
 Eobertson, Early Kings of Scotland ; Burton, 
 Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Dnncom'be, Chables, was originally 
 "a goldsmith of very moderate wealth." 
 He amassed a large fortune by banking, 
 and purchased for £90,000 the estate of 
 Helmsley, in Yorkshire. He subsequently 
 accepted the place of Cashier of the Excise, 
 from which he derived great wealth ; 
 but Montague dismissed him from the 
 office liecause he thought, with good reason, 
 that he was not a man to be trusted. 
 In 1697 we find him defending SunderJand 
 in Parliament. He accused Montague of 
 peculation, but failed to make good the 
 charge, and was in turn accused of fraud and 
 forgery in connection with the Exchequer 
 Bills. A biU of pains and penalties 
 was accordingly brought in against him, after 
 he had 'previously been sent to the Tower and 
 expelled the House. The bOl, providing for 
 the confiscation of the greater part of his 
 property and its application to the public 
 service, passed the Commons. It was felt, 
 however, that the measure was open to censui-e, 
 and that his judges had strong motives for 
 voting against him. Urged by these and 
 other reasons, the Lords threw out the biU, 
 and the prisoner was released. He Vas, how- 
 ever, again arrested by order of the Commons, 
 and kept in prison for the remainder of the 
 session. 
 
 Bundalk is noted as the scene of the 
 great defeat suffered by John de Courcy 
 at the hands of the Irish (1180). In 1.560 
 the town was unsuccessfully besieged by the 
 O'Neils ; and, in 1649, Dundalk sun-endered 
 to Cromwell. 
 
 Bundalk, The Battle op (Oct. 5, 1318), 
 was fought during the invasion of northern 
 Ireland by the Scots under -Edward Bruce. 
 Edward Bruce had 3,000 men with him; 
 among the commanders were the De Lacys. 
 The Anglo-Irish army was led by John de 
 Bermingham. The victory was won at the first 
 onset of the English forces; twenty-nine 
 baimerets, five knights, and eighty others 
 feu on the Scottish side. Bruce himself was 
 killed, and his head was sent to Edward as a 
 trophy. This battle put an end to the Scottish 
 invasion. 
 
 Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville 
 (4. 1740, d. 1811), was the son of Robert 
 Dundas, who was for many years President 
 of the Court of Session. Having adopted 
 the bar as his profession, he made his 
 way with wonderful rapidity to the top of 
 the ladder, being Solicitor-General in 1773 
 and Lord- Advocate two years later. In this 
 position he threw himself eagerly into poli- 
 tics, abandoning the law. Attached to a 
 ministry which, after a long period of ofiice, 
 was at last falling beneath a weight of obloquy, 
 Dundas exhibited so much spirit and ability 
 that he was at once recognised as promising 
 to rise to the highest power. Not the smallest 
 source of his rising reputation was the minute 
 knowledge he displayed with regard to 
 Indian affairs. On the fall of North's minis- 
 try. Lord Rockingham was not slow to avail 
 himself of Dundas' s services, which were em- 
 ployed iu the treasury of the navy, an office 
 which he held also imder Lord Shelbume. 
 He retired, however, on the formation of the 
 Coalition (1783), but did not have long to 
 wait before he resumed his old post under 
 Pitt. In June, 1788, he resigned that 
 place to become President of the Board 
 of Control with a seat in the Cabinet. 
 With Pitt he resigned in 1801, and was 
 raised to the peerage. In 1804 he again 
 followed Pitt into office, and was appointed 
 First Lord of the Admiralty, where he re- 
 mained until 1806, when he was impeached for 
 misappropriation of public money during his 
 former period of control over the Navy 'Trea- 
 sury. Pitt defended his faithful follower and 
 colleague with his utmost ability, but a 
 strong case was brought against him, and 
 when the numbers on division were equal, the 
 Speaker gave his casting vote against Lord 
 Melville. Pitt was quite broken down by the 
 blow, and did not live long enough to see the 
 censure reversed by the Lords in 1807, after 
 which the name of Lord Melville, which had 
 been erased, was restored to the Privy Council 
 list. He had retired, however, to Scotland, 
 
Dun 
 
 ( 392 ) 
 
 Dun 
 
 and never again took any part in putlio 
 affairs; and in retirement he died in May, 
 1811. That Dundas had been "guilty of 
 highly culpable laxity in transactions relating 
 to public money," no one can doubt ; but no 
 loss had accrued to the State in consequence, 
 and it was undeniable that he had exhibited a 
 most praiseworthy energy in taking some 
 steps to remedy the hopeless confusion and 
 mismanagement which had for many years 
 prevailed at the Admiralty. 
 
 Annual Register; Gvenville Papers; Pellew, 
 
 Sidmouth; Rassell, Poai; Cunnmgtam, Eminent 
 
 " " hmen. 
 
 Dundee, in Forfarshire, was granted by 
 William the Lion to his brother David of 
 Huntingdon (q.v.). It was taken from the 
 English by Robert Bruce in 1306, by Edward 
 Bruce, 1313, and pillaged by the Protector 
 Somerset. In 1645 it fell into the hands of 
 Montrose, and in 16.51 was stormed by Monk, 
 who put the whole of the garrison to the 
 Bword. 
 
 Dundee, Viscount. [Graham, John.] 
 
 Dunfermline, in Fifeshire, was long a 
 favourite residence of the Kings of Scotland, 
 some of whom were buried in the monasterv 
 ■which was founded by Malcolm Canmore and 
 burnt by Edward I. in 1304. 
 
 Dungal, the son of Sealbach, obtained 
 the throne of Dalriada by his father's abdica- 
 tion in 723. He was soon afterwards driven 
 out by Eochaidh, the head of the Cinel 
 Gabran, who subsequently resisted Dungal's 
 attempt to regain the throne at Boss Foichen, 
 though the old king, Sealbach, had himself 
 issued from his monastery to assist his son, 
 727. On the death of Eochaidh, 733, he 
 regained the kingdom of Dalriada, but a 
 year afterwards was compelled by Angus 
 MacFergus to take refuge for a time in 
 Ireland. In 736 Angus invaded Dalriada, 
 and threw Dungal and his brother into 
 prison. 
 
 Chron. Picts and Scots ; Robertson, Early Kings, 
 
 Dunganhill, Battle op. The Enghsh 
 army under Colonel Michael Jones here 
 defeated the Irish on August 8, 1647. Six 
 thousand of the latter fell, while the English 
 loss was inconsiderable. 
 
 Dungannon Convention, The (Sept. 
 8, 178.5), is the name given to the meeting of 
 the representatives of 270 of the Irish Volunteer 
 companies assembled at Dungannon under 
 Grattan's influence. These delegates passed 
 several resolutions to the following effect : — 
 (1) That freedom is the indefeasible right of 
 Irishmen and Britons, of which no power on 
 earth has a right to deprive them. (2) That 
 those only are free who are governed by no 
 laws, but those to which they assent, either in 
 person or by representatives freely chosen. 
 (3) That the electoral franchise should be ex- 
 tended to those only who will use it for the 
 
 public good. The object of these resolutions 
 was to secure Parliamentary reform for 
 Ireland, and if the Enghsh government 
 objected to them the supplies were to be 
 withheld. In order to keep the Parliament 
 active a convention of delegates was to have 
 met at Dublin had not the Duke of Rutland 
 prevented this by his fij-mness. Lord Charle- 
 mont and Grattan were among the leading 
 spirits of the Convention. 
 
 Froude, Eng. in Ireland ; Grattan's Life, 
 
 Dnnkeld is chiefly remarkable as being the 
 site where Constantine, King of the Picts from 
 789 to 820, founded a church, perhaps about the 
 year 796, to which Kenneth MacAlpin trans- 
 ferred the relics of Columba from lona in 861. 
 This last event marked the date of the final 
 decay of the ecclesiastical rule of the Abbots 
 of lona, whose representatives, as heads of 
 the Pictish Church, were henceforth to be 
 the Abbots of Dunkeld. In time Dunkeld 
 Abbey fell into the hands of a lay abbot, 
 while the bishopric of Forti-enn, which in 
 earlier times had been filled by the Abbot of 
 Dunkeld, passed on to Abernethy. One of 
 the most famous names in early Scottish 
 history is that of Crinan, lay Abbot of Dunkeld, 
 whose son Duncan became King of Scotia. 
 Duncan's grandson, David I., either restored 
 or established it as a bishopric about the year 
 1127. The name of Dunkeld often emerges 
 in later Scotch historj', notably in 1689, when 
 it was valorously defended by the Cameronian 
 regiment under William Cleland against the 
 Highlanders. [See below.] 
 
 Dunkeld, The Battle op (Aug. 21, 1689), 
 was a victory gained by the Cameronians over 
 the Highlanders, and followed closely after 
 Mackay's victory at St. Johnston's. The dis- 
 orders in the Highland army had increased, and 
 Lochiel had left them in disgust. Meanwhile, 
 the Scottish Privy Council, against Mackay's 
 wish, had sent a regiment of Cameronians to 
 garrison Dunkeld under Cleland. Cannon, 
 at the head of 300 men, advanced against the 
 town. The outposts of the Cameronians were 
 speedily driven in; but the greater part of the 
 regiment made its stand behind a wall which 
 surrounded a house belonging to the Marquis 
 of Athol. After all ammunition was spent, and 
 when both Cleland and his successor in com- 
 mand. Major Henderson, had been shot dead, 
 the Cameronians succeeded in setting fire to 
 the houses from which the Highlanders were 
 firing on them. Soon disorder spread among 
 the Highland host, and it returned hastily to- 
 wards Blair. "The victorious Puritans 
 threw their caps into the air and raised, with 
 one voice, a psalm of triumph and thanks- 
 giving. The Cameronians had good reason to 
 be joj-f ul and thankful, for they had finished 
 the war." 
 
 Dunkirk. The port of Dunkirk was 
 throughout the seventeenth century the head- 
 
Dun 
 
 ( 393 ) 
 
 Dun 
 
 quarters of pirates and privateers who preyed 
 on British commerce. Accordingly, when 
 Cromwell allied himself with Louis XIV. 
 against Spain (March, 1657), it was stipulated 
 that DmSdrk and Mardyke should be be- 
 sieged by a combined French and English 
 army, and belong to England when captured. 
 Six thousand men,- first under Sir John 
 Reynolds, afterwards under General Thomas 
 Morgan, formed the English contingent. 
 Mardyke was captured in September, 1657, 
 and Dunkirk besieged in the following May. 
 On June 4th, a Spanish army under Don 
 John of Austria, and the Prince of Conde, in 
 which the Dukes of York and Gloucester were 
 serving, attempted to raise the siege, and was 
 defeated with great loss. The town sur- 
 rendered four days later, and remained in 
 English hands till 1662, when it and its 
 dependencies were sold to Louis XIT. for the 
 sum of five million livres (Oct. 27, 1662). 
 The attacks on English trade still con- 
 tinuing, Dunkirk was unsuccessfully attacked 
 by a combined Dutch and English fleet in 
 1694, and it was stipulated by the Treaty of 
 Utrecht that the fortifications should be 
 destroyed, and the port blocked up (1713). 
 This stipulation was repeated by the Treaties 
 of Aix-la-Caiapelle (1748) and Paris (1763). 
 Nevertheless, the city and port were con- 
 tinually restored, and in the yea,rs 1778 to 
 1782, the corsairs of Dunkirk captured 1,187 
 English vessels. In 1793 it was besieged by 
 an English army under the Duke of York, 
 with the intention of retaining it as a com- 
 pensation for the expenses of the war, but the 
 victory of Hoondschotten, by which the corps 
 posted to cover his operations was forced 
 to retreat, obliged the duke to abandon the 
 enterprise. 
 
 Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton (i. 
 1731, d. 1783), was called to the' bar in 1756, 
 and was six years later employed in defending 
 the English East India Company against the 
 complaints made by its Dutch rival. In 1763 
 he defended Wilkes, and in 1767 was ap- 
 pointed Solicitor-General, an office which he 
 held tin 1770. It was he, who in 1780 
 (April 6th), brought forward the memorable 
 motion, " That the influence of the crown 
 has increased, is increasing, and ought to be 
 diminished," a resolution which was supported 
 by Fox, and carriedby a majority of eighteen. 
 George III. was severelj' wounded by this 
 • and the following votes, feeling, as he said at 
 the time, that they were levelled at him in 
 person. Two years later Dunning became 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, under 
 Lord Rockingham's administration, and was 
 raised to the peerage by the title of Lord 
 Ashburton. 
 
 Dnnotter (Dun Nother), in Kincardine- 
 shire, a few miles south of Stonehaven, is 
 memorable for its siege by Brnde MacBile in 
 681. It was again besieged in 694, and in 
 
 HI8T.-13* 
 
 900 was the scene of the murder of Donald 
 II. by the Danes. In 934 Athelstan advanced 
 as far as Dunotter with his invading army. 
 The castle of Dunotter was taken by Sir 
 William Wallace in 1298, and by Sir Andrew 
 Mory, 1356 ; in 1645 it was besieged by Mont- 
 rose, and taken by Cromwell's troops, 1651. 
 The castle belonged to the family of the 
 Keiths, Earls Marischal. 
 
 Dunstallle, The Annals op, comprise one 
 of the most valuable of the monastic chronicles. 
 They extend from the Incarnation to 'the year 
 1297, and are particularly valuable for the 
 reigns of John and Henry III. They are 
 published in the EoUs Series under the 
 editorship of Mr. Luard. 
 
 Dunstable, The Tovtn of, in Bedford- 
 shire, is known in Enghsh history as the place 
 where the barons met in 1244, and ordered 
 the papal envoy to leave England ; and where 
 the commissioners for the divorce of Queen 
 Catherine sat in 1533. Dunstable was the 
 seat of tt great abbey of monks, and was 
 made the property of the foundation in 1131. 
 
 Dunstan, St., Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (960 — 988), the son of Heorstan and Cyneth- 
 ryth, was bom near Glastonbury. Two 
 of his kinsmen were bishops, and others 
 were attached to the court, while his 
 brother as " reeve " looked after the 
 secular interests of Glastonbury Abbey. 
 Kings Athelstan and Edmund lived very 
 often in that neighbourhood, and Dunstan 
 began both his court life and monastic train- 
 ing at a very early age. He became guar- 
 dian of the "hord" of Edmund, and was 
 consequently rewarded with the abbacy when 
 still very young. Glastonbury was then 
 only a monastery in name, served by 
 married secular clerks, though even in its 
 degradation very famous, and largely fre- 
 quented by Irish pilgrims as the shriue of 
 St. Patrick. Dunstan reformed this state of 
 things, in the iaterests of education rather 
 than as a fanatic of asceticism. Many tales 
 are told of this early period of Dunstan's 
 life, which are to be received only with the 
 utmost caution. Nearly all the details of 
 his biography are mythical. In 946 Edred 
 succeeded Edmund. . He was very sickly, 
 of the same age as Dunstan, and the pro- 
 bable companion of his youth. Dunstan, 
 who had closely attached himself to the 
 king's mother, Eadgifu, and other great 
 ladies, now began his political career. His 
 policy resulted in the brilliant successes of the 
 West Saxons, under Edred, culminating iu 
 the conquest of Northumbria from the Danes 
 and the assumption of the title of Cassar by 
 the English king in 955. But Dunstan stiU 
 continued his activity as a teacher at Glaston- 
 bury, and refused the bishopric of Crediton. 
 The death of Edred led to a reversion of 
 Dunstan's policy. He had "aimed at the 
 
Dun 
 
 ( 394 
 
 Dap 
 
 unity of England under the West Saxon 
 Basileus, but giving home rule to each state." 
 This policy was disliked by the West Saxon 
 nobility, who regarded the vassal kingdoms 
 as their own prey, and desired to make each 
 state a, dependency of Wessex. Their in- 
 fluence triumphed at the accession of Edwy, 
 a boy of under fifteen. The ordinary detaUs 
 of the story of Dunstan's fall are quite in- 
 credible, but it remains a fact that the next 
 year saw him banished. His stay at a great 
 Benedictine abbey in Flanders first brought 
 him in connection with the monastic revival 
 with which his name has been so closely as- 
 sociated. Meanwhile the dependent states re- 
 volted from Edwy, whose ministers, besides 
 their reactionary policy, had set themselves 
 too much against the monks to retain their 
 position. The Mercians and Northumbrians 
 revolted, and chose Edgar king ; he recalled 
 Dunstan and made him Bishop, first of Wor- 
 cester, and then of London as weU. His re- 
 tention of a chapter of secular canons at both 
 sees shows that he was at least not zealous for 
 the monastic cause. On the death of Edwy, 
 Wessex also acknowledged Edgar, and 
 Dunstan was made Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 and for a second time his policj^ triumphed. 
 The glorious reign of Edgar the Peaceful 
 was the result of the realisation of Dunstan's 
 ideas. The hegemony of Wessex was estab- 
 lished on a firm basis, without the degrada- 
 tion of the other states. In ecclesiastical 
 a:ffair8 also the monastic question came to a 
 head, but how far Dunstan was identified 
 with this movement it is hard to say. As a 
 Benedictine, he doubtless preferred monks to 
 secularcanons, but he was no fanatic to force 
 them on a reluctant race. In his own see he 
 did not expel the canons, but in Mercia, where 
 the fervour of monasticism was perhaps needed 
 to repair the Danish ravages, monks came in 
 everywhere. ButJEthelwold of Winchester, 
 " father of monks," was the real monastic 
 hero, although the late biographers of 
 Dunstan connected naturally his great name 
 with what to them was the great movement 
 of the age. His spiritual activity, how- 
 ever, was rather the activity of teacher and 
 organiser, and after all he was more of a 
 statesman than an ecclesiastic. If the coro- 
 nation of Edgar at Bath was his work, and 
 if it was a conscious reproduction of the 
 ceremony which made Otto I. Emperor of 
 Home, his claim to statesmanship must be 
 exceptionally high. 
 
 With Edgar's death a new period of con- 
 fusion begins. After the troubled reign of 
 Edward, the accession of Ethelred the 
 Unready put power again into the hands 
 of Dunstan's enemies, and ended finally his 
 political career. We do not loiow who was 
 the ruler of England during Ethelred' s 
 minority ; but it does not seem to have been 
 Dunstan. He lived on till 988, devoting his 
 last years to the government of his diocese 
 
 and his province, and in the pursuits of 
 literature, music, and the finer handicrafts, to 
 which he was always addicted. In his old 
 age, as at Glastonbury in his youth, he 
 reverted to the same studies and objects. He 
 was, as Bishop Stubbs says, the Gerbert, 
 not the Hildebrand, of the tenth century. 
 The unreal romances of later biographers 
 that have obscured his life in a cloud of 
 myth must be disregarded for earlier, if 
 scantier, authorities, if we desire to find out 
 what the real man was. 
 
 The materials for Dunstan's Mography are 
 collected fcy Dr. Stubbs, in his Memorials of 
 Bwnstan, in the Rolls Series. Tbe liitvoductum 
 contains all that is known of tbe saint's career. 
 Dr. Stubbs's collection includes a life by_ an 
 almost contemporary Saxon monk, whicb, 
 nevertheless, has a large legendary element, 
 and later biographies by Adalbert and by Ostaern , 
 and still later by Eadmer and "William of 
 Malmesbury, to correct Osbern's mistakes. It 
 is from these later sources that accounts like 
 Milman's in Latin Ctiristianiiy are drawn, and 
 which consequently give entirely false im- 
 pressions of the subject. Hume's famous 
 account represents the reaction against the 
 monastic idea that; inspired Osbem and Eadmer. 
 Like that in most of the ordinary histories it is 
 historically worthless. Mr. Bobertson's JSssai/s 
 on Dunstan's Policy, and the Coronation of Edgar, 
 in his Historical Essays, are extremely sugges- 
 tive, but their theories are not always based on 
 definite facts. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Dupleix, Joseph {d. 1750), was appointed 
 Governor of Pondicherry for the French East 
 India Company in 1742. Before this final 
 promotion he had spent over twenty j'ears in 
 the East, where he had acquired an enormous 
 fortune. The outbreak of the war in 1744 
 gave him, as he thought, an opportunity for 
 establishing the French ascendency. Laboux- 
 donnais, the French admiral, captured the 
 town of Madras, and Duploix, acting as 
 Govemor-in-chief, and intending to destroy 
 all the English settlements, refused to ratify 
 the treaty which provided for the restoration 
 of the town. But this act of perfidy was 
 rendered useless by the Peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (1748), which stipulated for an ex- 
 change of conquests in India. On the death 
 of the Nizam-ul-Mulk of the Deccan, and the 
 dispute for the successionbetween his son, Nazir 
 Jung, and his grandson, Muzuffer Jung, Du- 
 pleix formed a confederacy with Chunda Sahib, 
 the pretender to the Camatio, and Muzufier 
 Jung to oust the English candidates, Nazir 
 Jung and Mohammed Ali, and eventually, as 
 he hoped, drive the English from India. 'The 
 whole Carnatic was overrun by the French, 
 and the English and their nabob were cooped 
 up in Trichinopoly. Dupleix was equally 
 successful in the Deooan. A conspiracy broke 
 out at his instigation. Nazir Jung was mur- 
 dered, and Muzufier Jung, assuming the vacant 
 (iigvtyi conferred the nabobship of the 
 Carnatic on Chimda Sahib, and the vice- 
 royalty of all India south of the Kistna on 
 Dupleix. Olive's daring expedition to, and 
 defence of Arcot, divided the forces of the 
 
Dup 
 
 ( 395 ) 
 
 Dur 
 
 allies, and the long string of successes which, 
 followed, caused the complete failure of Du- 
 pleix's plans. As his success deserted him 
 his employers became alienated. In 1754 he 
 was recalled to die in misery and poverty a 
 few years afterwards in Paris. 
 
 Duplin, The Battle op (Aug. 12, 1332), 
 was fought in Strathearn between Edward 
 Baliol the leader of the discontented barons, 
 and the army of David H., under the Earl of 
 Mar. Baliol, though at the head gf a much 
 smaller body of men, and in a most dis- 
 advantageous position, won a complete victory, 
 owing to the over-confidence of the royalist 
 troops. 
 
 Duq^iiesue, Fort. [Eoet Duquesne.J 
 Dnrliaill. This city is chiefly memor- 
 able in early English history as the site to 
 which the bishop and clergy from Holy 
 Island finally transferred the relics of St. 
 Aidan to escape from the ravages of the 
 Danes towards the end of the tenth century. 
 The town seems to have suffered at the hands 
 of William the Conqueror, when he laid waste 
 the North in 1070. The same king built a 
 castle here in 1072. Some twenty years later 
 Bishop William of St. Calais commenced to 
 build the great cathedral (1093). In later 
 history, Durham was, for its position near the 
 borders, a place of great military importance 
 in the wars between England and Scotland. 
 As the seat of the coiirts of the Palatine juris- 
 diction of its bishop, it was a place of much 
 political importance. Its chapter was ex- 
 ceedingly wealthy; and the plan of Oliver 
 Cromwell, to establish a university out of 
 the capitular revenues, was revived and car- 
 ried out in 1833. [Palatine Counties.] 
 
 Durham, John George Lambton, Earl 
 op [b. 1792, d. 1840), descended from one of 
 the oldest faraiHes in England, was the son 
 of William Henry Lambton. After serving 
 for a short time in a regiment of hussars, he 
 was returned to Parliament in 1814 for the 
 county of Durham, and soon distinguished 
 himself as a very advanced and energetic re- 
 former. In 1821 he brought forward a plan 
 of his own for Parliamentary Eeform. In 
 1828 he was raised to the peerage with the 
 title of Baron Durham. When the ministry 
 of Lord Grey was formed in November, 1830, 
 Lord Durham became Lord Privy Seal. 
 During the diflSculties which arose out of 
 the Belgian question, he was sent to St. 
 Petersburg on a special mission as suc- 
 cessor to Lord Heytesbury. The object 
 of his journey was to persuade the Rus- 
 sian cabinet to give immediate instruc- 
 tions to the Russian plenipotentiaries in the 
 London Conference to co-operate, on behalf 
 of his Imperial Majesty, cordially and effec- 
 tively, on whatever measures might ap- 
 pear to be best calculated to effect the early 
 execution of the treaty. Russia, however. 
 
 was as yet unwilling to join the Western 
 powers in measures of coercion towards Hol- 
 land, and hence the mission was a failure. In 
 1833 he was created Earl of Durham in reward 
 for his services of the previous year when 
 sent on a special mission to Russia, a court to 
 which he was accredited ambassador in 1836. 
 In 1838 he was sent to Canada during the 
 time of the Canadian Rebellion. His firmness 
 and arbitrariness, though they saved Canada, 
 excited a great opposition, which was increased 
 by his lavish display, and when his Cana- 
 dian policy was attacked by Lord Brougham, 
 the ministry threw him over. He was re- 
 called and returned to England, where he 
 died soon after at Cowes, in the Isle of 
 Wight, in July, 1840. 
 
 AnnxiaX Register: S. "Walpole, Hist, of Eng. 
 from 1815. 
 
 Durham, Simeon op [d. 1129), was a 
 historian who appears to have been a monk 
 and precentor of Durham. He was certainly 
 living in 1104, and probably died in 1129, 
 as for that year his great work is continued 
 by a different hand. The chief writings 
 attributed to him are a history of Christianity 
 in Northumbria, and a history of- the Danish 
 and Enghsh kings from the time of Bede's 
 death to the reign of Henry I. He appears 
 to have preserved many facts of Anglian 
 history which are not to be found in any of the 
 existing versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle^ 
 and which would otherwise have entirely 
 perished in those ages when, after the irrup- 
 tion of the Danes, Northumbria was Uttle 
 better than a waste. But it is doubtful 
 whether all the works that pass under his 
 name are really to be ascribed to his pen. 
 
 The works of Simeon of Durham were printed 
 by Twysden, in his Smptoi-es Decern. They 
 have also been published by the Surtees Society 
 and in the Bolls Series. 
 
 Durotriges, The, were an ancient British 
 tribe, occupymg the present county of Dorset. 
 Prof. Rhys considers them to have been, like 
 the Dumnonii of Cornwall and Devon, in 
 the main Goidels— that is, members of the 
 earlier Celtic invasion, and therefore more 
 likely to be to a considerable extent infused 
 with the blood of the pre-Celtio races — rather 
 than Brythons. 
 
 Rhys, Celtic Britain. 
 
 Durward, Allan (d. 1275), was Justiciar 
 of Scotland in the middle of the thirteenth 
 century, and married to an illegitimate 
 daughter of Alexander II. He served with 
 great credit in the French wars under Henry 
 III., who afterwards supported his cause in 
 Scotland. The Durward family was opposed 
 to the influence of the great Norman family 
 of the Comyns, and succeeded in wresting the 
 young king, Alexander III., from his subjec- 
 tion to their rivals. This was accomplished 
 by the seizure of Edinburgh Castle, after 
 which the aspect of affairs in Scotland looked 
 so serious that Henry III. was obliged to 
 
Dyn 
 
 ( 396 ) 
 
 Ear 
 
 come norttwards and personally adjust the 
 government (1255). But the party of the 
 Comyns soon gained ground, and Allan 
 Durward was forced to flee to England, where 
 he seems to have been always in favour with 
 Henry III. The Comyns, however, lost their 
 great leader, the Earl of Menteith, upon which 
 Allan Durward seems to have secured his old 
 position. At the close of the thirteenth century 
 Nicholas de Soulis, one of his descendants 
 through his wife Maryoz, claimed the suc- 
 cessiou to the throne of Scotland, a claim 
 which, to some extent, explains the charge 
 brought against Allan, in his lifetime, of 
 intriguing with the Pope for the legitimisa- 
 tion of his wife, so as to make her next heir to 
 the throne. 
 
 Dyuham, John, Lord {d. 1509), was a 
 YorEst leader who, in 1459, sallied forth 
 from Calais, and, proceeding across to Sand- 
 wich, captured two of the Lancastrian nobles. 
 Lord Rivers and Lord Scales, whom he led 
 back with him to Calais. He was also en- 
 gaged in the battle of Towton, and for his 
 services received large grants of land from 
 Edward IV. 
 
 Eadmer [h. circa 1060,(?. 1124)>was amonk 
 of Canterbury, and the confidential adviser of 
 Anselm. He was elected Bishopof St. Andrews, 
 biit, owing to a misunderstanding, was never 
 consecrated. He wrote several ecclesiastical 
 biographies and theological tracts, besides a 
 " Life of St. Anselm " ( Vita Anselmi), and a 
 " History of His own Times " {Sistoria Novo- 
 rum), extending from 959 to 1122. Both 
 these works rank very high as authorities for 
 the reigns of William II. and Henry II., and 
 the Vita Anselmi is one of the chief sources 
 of information with regard to the archbishop. 
 Eadmer's works were published at Paris, 
 1721. [Anselm.] 
 
 ■Wiarton, Anglia Sacra ; Wright, Biographia 
 Brit. Literaria; Church, Life of Anselm. 
 
 Ealdfrith. [See Index.] 
 
 Ealdgyth, wife of Harold, was thewidow 
 of Grifyad, King of North Wales, daughter 
 of Elfgar, and sister of Edwin and Morkere. 
 The date of her second marriage is doubtful, 
 but its motive, viz., to secure the friendship 
 of her powerful brothers, is sufficiently plain. 
 [Hakold.] 
 
 Ealdorman. [Alderman.] 
 
 Eanfred, King of Bernicia (633—634), 
 was the son of Ethelfrith. After his father's 
 death he fled to Scotland, where he was con- 
 verted to Christianity. On the death of 
 Edwin he returned to Northumbria, and 
 obtained his father's kingdom. But, like 
 Osric, he relapsed into Paganism, and like 
 him, was slain by Cadwallon. 
 
 Ziarl is a word which in the earliest Anglo- 
 Saxon is a simple title of honour, denoting 
 a man of noble blood. It was thus used 
 in the laws of Ethelbert {circa 600): "If 
 any man slay a man in an eorl's town, 
 let him make compensation for twelve 
 shillings.'' Its use was, however, restricted 
 until the time of the Danish invasions ; in the 
 days of Bthelred the title began to supplant 
 that of the official ealdorman, owing probably 
 to its similarity in sound with the Danish 
 Jarl, with which it became confused. This 
 change was completed by Canute, who, finding 
 that the connection between the sovereign and 
 the Danish jarl was closer than that of the 
 sovereign and the English ealdorman, gave the 
 earl a permanent status among the servitial 
 nobility. Finally, he divided the kingdom 
 into four great vice-regal earldoms, which 
 continued dovm to the Conquest. Under the 
 Norman kings the title of earl became easily 
 amalgamated with the French title of count, 
 both having comes as a Latin equivalent. The 
 nature of the office became changed ;' it ceased 
 to be a magistracy, and became an hereditary 
 fief. The first earls of William I., who, even 
 before the conspiracy of 1075, bestowed the 
 title sparingly, were men who already held 
 the title of count in Normandy, or were 
 merely the successors of the English magis- 
 trates of the same name. Exceptions to this 
 rule were the great palatine earldoms of 
 William, which he created probably as a part 
 of the national system of defence. Such were 
 the earldom of Chester on the Welsh Marches, 
 and the bishopric of Durham between England 
 and Scotland; the earldom of Kent, and 
 the earldom of Shropshire. These earls were 
 practically independent princes ; land was 
 for the most part held of them, not of the 
 king ; they held their own councils, appointed 
 the sheriffs, and received the profits of the 
 courts. It should be observed that they were 
 all created before the earls' conspiracy of 
 1075. The sons of the Conqueror were also 
 cautious in creating earldoms, but Stephen 
 and Matilda, in order to gain adherents, 
 created many of these dignities, which were 
 for the most part perpetuated, though they 
 were at first titular, supported by pensions 
 on the Exchequer, and had little or no land in 
 the districts from which their titles were 
 taken. The number of the earls was carefully 
 kept down by the earlier Angevin kings. 
 These dignities were hereditary, and were 
 conferred by special investiture, the swor(J of 
 the shire being girt on by the king, and by 
 this ceremony the rank was conferred. As 
 the successor of the ealdorman (or rather the 
 ealdorman under another name, the earl also 
 received the third penny of the county, which 
 after the thirteenth century was changed into 
 a creation fee of £20. His relief was higher 
 than that of the baron. Gradually these 
 dig-nities ceased to imply a territorial juris- 
 diction, and became merely honorary. They 
 
Ear 
 
 (397 ) 
 
 Has 
 
 could be created by charter, or by letters 
 patent, or by Act of Parliament, a custom 
 introduced by Edward' III. The title con- 
 tinued to be taken from a county, or county 
 town (with the exception of the earldoms of 
 Arundel and of March, the latter being 
 derived from the Welsh border districts), 
 long after all local authority had disappeared. 
 Later it became the custom for commoners and 
 barons created earls — for instance, Earl Spen- 
 cer and Earl Grey — often to keep thoir own 
 names instead of adopting local titles. An 
 earl is entitled right honourable, and takes 
 precedence next after a marquis, and before a 
 viscount or baron. [Albekman; Palatine 
 Counties.] 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., cliaps. VJ., xi., xx. ; 
 Seidell, Titles of Honour ; Lords' Fiftl^ Report on 
 the Dignity of a Peer ; Kicholas, Hist. Peerage i 
 Madox, JBaroiua Anglica, 
 
 Earthquake, Council op the (1381), 
 was the name given to the Synod whidi 
 condemned the tenets of Wiclif and his 
 followers. [Wiclif.] It was so called from 
 a shock of earthquake which was felt during 
 its first sitting. 
 
 East Auglia. There is no account left 
 us of the settlement of the Angles on the 
 eastern shires of central England, nor have we 
 even any such entry as that of the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle, which for the more northern Anglian 
 district relates that Ida assumed the kingdom 
 of Northumbria in the year 647. Nothing of 
 the details of the conquest is known to us 
 now, and we can only dimly infer a twofold 
 settlement, which has perpetuated itself down 
 to our own days in the two counties of the 
 North Folk and the South Folk (Norfolk and 
 Suffolk). According to Mr. Green's surmise, 
 the conquest of Norfolk at least was the work 
 of the Gyrwas, and may have been achieved 
 towards the middle of the sixth century. 
 The first historical king of the East Angles is 
 Eedwald, the protector of Edwin (q.v.), who 
 reigned from about 593 — 617. This Eedwald 
 was, according to Bede's account, the grand- 
 son of one XJffa, from whom the East 
 Anglian kings took their gentile name of 
 TJfiings. In his days. East Anglia was to 
 some extent dependent on the kingdom of 
 Kent, and Eedwald seems to have become 
 half Christian under the pressure of his over- 
 lord. But the new creed was not as yet 
 thoroughly acceptable to the mass of the 
 people. Redwald's son and successor, Eorp- 
 wald, was slain by one of his own subjects 
 in 627 or 628, the year of his conversion, and 
 for three years at least the land reverted to 
 paganism. But at last Eorpwald's half- 
 brother, Sigebert the Learned, who had 
 received the new faith during his exile among 
 the Franks, returned to rule the kingdom. 
 Tinder his protection, FeKx the Burgundian 
 commenced the work of re-conversion or con- 
 version at Dunwich. Two years later, Fursey, 
 an Irish monk, came over to East Anglia, and 
 
 before long Sigebei-t himself resigned his 
 throne, and retired into a monastery (634). 
 Next year, however, he was dragged forth 
 from his retreat by his people, who were now 
 yielding before the growth of Mercia, and 
 perished in the battle against Penda. Anna, 
 the nephew of Eedwald, succeeded, and is 
 noted chiefly for the sanctity of his four 
 daughters, who all eventually, embraced a 
 rehgious life. It was at his -court that Cen- 
 wealh of Wessex took refuge, when driven 
 out of his own country by Penda, and it was 
 while resident in the East Anghan reahn that 
 he became a Christian. For the hospitable 
 shelter afforded to Cenwealh, Anna incurred 
 the resentment of Penda, who now fell on the 
 East Anghans and utterly destroyed Anna 
 and his host. East Anglia seems now to 
 have been dependent on Mereia to some 
 extent, smd Penda seems to have used 
 Anna's brother iEthelhere as a tool against 
 Northumberland. But with the battle of 
 the Winwaed, the sceptre of Britain passed to 
 Oswiu of Northumbi-ia, and doubtless the 
 East Angles from this time, though retaining 
 their own king, became dependent on the 
 great kingdom of the north. But Mercia was 
 not long in reviving, and it may well be that 
 by the time of Oswiu's death the power of 
 Northumbria was only nominal in East 
 Anglia. During the reign of Wulphere 
 (658 — 675), the East Angles seem to have 
 been practically under the rule of Mercia. 
 Towards the beginning of the reign of Aldwulf , 
 King of the East Angles, the new diocese of 
 Elmham was founded for the Northfolk. 
 The seat of this see was removed to Thetford 
 about the year 1078, and to Norwich in 1101, 
 having towards the end of the ninth century 
 incorporated Dunwich, the diocese of the 
 Southfolk. [Bishoprics.] From this time 
 we may regard East Anglia as being 
 something of an appendage of Mercia, till on 
 the fall of that kingdom it was attached to . 
 Wessex. In accordance with this view, we 
 find Ethelbald of Mercia leading the East 
 Angles to fight against the West Saxons at 
 •the battle of Burford (752). On Ethelbald's 
 death, East Anglia seems for a time to 
 have thrown ofi: the Mercian yoke ; but before 
 the close of his reign it must again have been 
 subject, though of course still retaining its 
 own kings. East Anglia and Mercia were the 
 two kingdoms whose frontiers marked the 
 boundaries of Ofta's short-Hved archbishopric 
 of Lichfield. But by this time the days of 
 Mercia's greatness were almost numbered, and 
 it had already laid up a deep store of hatred 
 in the subject kingdom of East Anglia. For 
 in 792, Offa had caused Ethelbert, the King of 
 the East Angles, to be put to death, and had 
 thereupon seized his kingdom. Hence it is 
 no wonder that when Egbert of Wessex had 
 defeated Beomwulf of Mercia at the battle of 
 EUandune (823), the King of the East Angles 
 should request the victorious West Saxon 
 
Eas 
 
 ( 398 ) 
 
 Eas 
 
 sovereign to lielp them to throw off the 
 Mercian yoke, and, encouraged hy his promise, 
 defeat his tyraimical overlord and his successor 
 in two battles. East Anglia seems to have 
 still clung to its old kings under the "West 
 Saxon overlordship till the days of the Danish 
 invasion, when its last native king, Edmund, 
 was murdered by the Danes. The land 
 was then taken possession of by the invaders, 
 and by the Treaty of "Wedmore became the 
 seat of a Danish kingdom under Guthrum 
 (878). [Danelagh.] Later on, notwithstand- 
 ing the treaty, the Danes of East Anglia 
 aided Hastings in his attacks upon England. 
 Alfred's s6n and successor, however, succeeded 
 in forcing the Danes of East Anglia to 
 acknowledge him after a long struggle, which 
 lasted nearly all his reign (921). Prom this 
 time, though owing to the infusion of Danish 
 blood the inhabitants of East Anglia may 
 have been somewhat inclined to side with the 
 Danes in subsequent invasions, yet their 
 existence as a separate kingdom ceased. But 
 though part and parcel of the English king- 
 dom, they seem still to have retained their 
 own Witan, which in 1004 bought peace of 
 Sweyn. When the kingdom was divided 
 between Canute and Edmund Ironside in 
 1016, East Anglia somewhat strangely fell, to- 
 gether with South England, to Edmund's 
 share ; on Canute's death it was assigned, with 
 the rest of the country north of the Thames, 
 to Harold as superior lord. Under Canute, 
 East Anglia had been one of the four gi'eat 
 earldoms into which he divided his whole 
 kingdom, and it continued an earldom under 
 Edward the Confessor. Harold seems to have 
 been appointed to this office about the year 
 1045, and in the latter half of the same reign 
 seems to have been succeeded by Ms brother 
 Gyrth. With the Conquest the separate 
 existence of East Anglia comes to an end, 
 and from this time its history is to be read in 
 the history of England generally. [Angles ; 
 Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.] 
 
 Kings of East Akglia. 
 
 Uffa 571—578 
 
 Tytfflus ... . 578—699 
 
 Eedwald 599-617 
 
 Eorpwald . . ... 617—628 
 
 Sigebert 631-634 
 
 Egric. . .... 634-635 
 
 Anna 635—6.54 
 
 Etlielliere . . ... 654—655 
 
 Ethelwold. . ... 655—664 
 
 Ealdwulf 664—713 
 
 Alfwold ... . . 713—749 
 
 The Aiiglo-Sa3:on Cnvon. ; Laiipenberg, Anglo- 
 Sam ii Kings ; Palgrave, Eiislis/i Ciimmonwealtk ; 
 Eroeman, Old Eng. Hist. [T. A. A.] 
 
 East India Company, The, was in- 
 corporated by charter, in 1600, under the 
 title of "The Governor and Company of 
 Merchants of London trading to the East 
 Indies," with a capital of £70,000. In spite 
 of the opposition of the Portuguese and the 
 Dutch, the company succeeded in establish- 
 ing commercial relations with the Asiatics, 
 
 and founded agencies or factories, of which 
 the most important was that of Surat (1614). 
 Nevertheless its position was for many years 
 most precarious ; its only possession was the 
 island of Lantore, and after the Massacre of 
 Amboyna (1623) it almost ceased to exist. 
 Better times came with the establishment of 
 the Hooghly factory (1642), and the valuable 
 acquisition of Bombay as part of the dower of 
 Catherine of Braganza (1661), to which the 
 presidency of Western India was transferred 
 in 1685. Fort St. George became a pre- 
 sidency in 1683, and was afterwards known as 
 that of Madras ; it was separated from Bengal 
 in 1681. Charles II. gave the company the 
 important privilege of making peace or war 
 on their own account. Gradually the 
 monopoly of the East India Company became 
 unpopular in England ; rival associations were 
 formed, of which the most important was the 
 unchartered " New Company," which strove, 
 though unsuccessfully, for freedom of trade. 
 Supported by the Whig party, they made two 
 vigorous attempts, in 1693 and in 1698, to 
 prevent the renewal of the East India Com- 
 pany's charter, but the largesses of the 
 company in secret ser^dce money prevailed in 
 Parliament. Lord Montague, however, in 
 the same year established a rival company in 
 the Whig interest, known as the " General 
 East India Company," or English Company. 
 After being partially united in 1702, they 
 were completely consolidated by Lbrd Go- 
 dolphin in 1708, under the title of " The 
 United Company of Merchants of England 
 trading to the East Indies." The capital 
 consisted of £3,200,000 lent to government 
 at 6 per cent. From this time the history of 
 the company practically becomes the history 
 of India (q.v.), and it will be sufficient here to 
 indicate briefly the chief events from their 
 non-military side. The overthrow by Clive 
 of the great attempt of the French to found 
 an empire in India was followed by a period 
 of maladministration. During this period, 
 however, was inaugurated in Bengal the im- 
 portant system of dual government, by which 
 native princes surrendered their revenues to 
 the English in rettim for a pension, and the 
 maintenance by the company of an army of 
 defence. Chve also attempted to purify the 
 company by putting a stop to the system of 
 private trading and the receipt of presents 
 troni native princes; but the struggle with 
 Hyder All demoralised them still further, 
 and Chatham contemplated seriously the 
 enforcement of the dormant rights of the 
 crown. The Bengal famine of 1770 was 
 followed by Lord North's Megulating Act, by 
 which, m exchange for a loan of a miUion 
 which the company required, and the re- 
 mission of the annual payment to g-overn- 
 ment of £400,000 a year, a new council was 
 appointed by Parliament; a supreme court, 
 ot which the judges were appointed by the 
 crown, was established ; and the Governor of 
 
Has 
 
 ( 399 ) 
 
 Ecc 
 
 Bengal was made Governor- General of India. 
 Dundas's biU of 1783 was followed in No- 
 vemtier by Fox's India Bill, of which the 
 main features were the transferrence of the 
 authority of the company to seven com- 
 missioners nominated in the first instance hy 
 Parliament, and, when vacancies occurred, by 
 the crown ; while the management of the 
 property and commerce of the company was 
 to be entrusted to a subordinate council of 
 directors, entirely under the superior council 
 and nominated by the Court of Proprietors. 
 The measure was very unpopular, and the king 
 used his personal influence in the House of 
 Lords to procure its rejection. Pitt's India 
 Bill of the following year was framed upon 
 the same Hnes. A Board of Control was 
 established as a ministerial department, 
 having under its supervision the political 
 conduct of the company, and the appointment 
 of 'the highest officers was subjected to the 
 veto of the crown. On the other hand, the 
 company was allowed the entire management 
 of its business affairs and patronage. This 
 double government continued until the ad- 
 ministration was placed in the hands of the 
 crown. Passing over the settlement of the 
 land-tenure of Bengal, the Mysore and 
 Mahratta wars, and the administration of 
 Lord Amherst, we come to the Governor- 
 Generalship of Lord William Bentinck. 
 The privileges of the company during this 
 period were seriously affected, and in ex- 
 change for the renewal of its charter for 
 twenty years, it was forced to abandon its 
 monopoly of trade, and to give np all attempts 
 to restrict the settlement of Europeans in 
 India. At the same time the law was codi- 
 fied, and a legal member, not a servant of the 
 company, added to the council. The anom- 
 alous position of the company was increased 
 when, in 1853, the patronage of the civil 
 service was taken away from it and thrown 
 open to competition. The Indian Mutiny pre- 
 cipitated events ; and after Lord Pahnerston 
 and Lord Derby had failed to produce a 
 satisfactory solution of the difficulty. Lord 
 John Russell proposed that the House should 
 proceed by way of resolutions. Upon them 
 was based the Act for the Better Government of 
 India (1858), against which Mill protested so 
 vigorously. It provided that the entire ad- 
 ministration should be transferred to the 
 •crown, which was to govern through one of 
 the Secretaries of State assisted by a council 
 of fifteen. The Governor-General received the 
 new title of Viceroy, and the nava,l and military 
 forces of the company were united with the 
 services of the Queen. The Indian revenues 
 could not, without the consent of both Houses 
 of Parliament, be applied to carry on military 
 operations beyond the frontier. The com- 
 pany still existed as a medium for distributing 
 stock, and was finally extinguished in 1873. 
 
 Kaye, Aiminiitrntian of the East India Com- 
 j)any; Mill, Eiiiory of India; Malcolm, 
 
 India ; ReyoH on the Affairs of the Bast India 
 Company, 1858; M'Carthy, Hist, of Oar Own 
 Times, vol. iii. ; and see the article India. 
 
 East Ketford Question (1827). The 
 borough of East Eetford had been convicted 
 of corruption, and the question of the manner 
 in which its franchise should be disposed of 
 was brought before the House of Commons. 
 On the one hand, it was proposed that they 
 should be given to the town of Birmingham ; on 
 the other, that they should be transferred to 
 the hundred in which East Eetford is situated. 
 The Duke of Wellington and the majority 
 of the cabinet supported the latter alter- 
 native ; Mr. Huskissou voted for the former, 
 and this led to his withdrawal from the 
 cabinet. 
 
 Molesworth, Sist. of the Eefoi-m Bill. 
 
 Ebbsfleet, in the Isle of Thanet, is iden- 
 tified as the Wippedesfleot, where Hengest 
 and Horsa (q.v.) are said to have landed (in 
 450 ?), and near which Hengest and Aesc 
 some years later totally defeated the Britons. 
 Ebbsfleet was also the landing place of St. 
 Augustine in 597. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Comiuissiou Court, 
 
 The, was established by James II. in 1686. 
 It was composed of seven members : the Lord 
 Chancellor (Jeffreys), the Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (Saneroft), who excused himself from 
 attending, the Bishops of Durham and Ro- 
 chester, the Lord Treasurer (Rochester), and 
 the Chief Justice of the King's Bench 
 (Herbert). It enforced the king's orders 
 against controversial sermons, deprived the 
 Master of Magdalen College, Cambridge, for 
 refusing to give a degree to a. Benedictine 
 monk, and expelled the Fellows of Magdalen 
 College, Oxford, for refusing to elect a royal 
 nominee as president. After the acqmttal of 
 the Seven Bishops, and the publication of a 
 manifesto by William of Orange, James 
 thought it advisable to give way, and in 
 October, 1688, dissolved the Commission. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Commissioners. [See 
 
 Index.] 
 Ecclesiastical Courts. [See below.] 
 Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction. In 
 
 England the canon law has a separate 
 history from that which prevailed on the 
 Continent. There the influence of the 
 Theodosian Code secured it a uniform pro- 
 cedure and a ready acceptance. Here it 
 was modified by, and in constant antagonism 
 to, the common law. Before the Conquest, 
 the law of the Church in England consisted of 
 rules of penance, canons, religious laws, and 
 the course of episcopal jurisdiction. Rules of 
 penance, appropriating to every sin the 
 amount of satisfaction to be paid by the 
 sinner, are laid down in the penitentials of 
 Archbishop Theodore, Bede, and others. 
 These were binding only in so far as con- 
 sgience enforced them. Some canons from 
 
Ecc 
 
 ( 400 ) 
 
 Ecc 
 
 abroad were adopted, and others were made 
 by provincial councils. Eoyal laws on re- 
 ligious matters — e.g., the laws of Alfred 
 — are not properly part of ecclesiastical 
 law. They had their binding force as 
 part of the law of the land. Besides these 
 written laws, the bishop or his archdeacon, 
 sitting in the ehire or hundred court, 
 declared the law on ecclesiastical matters ; 
 for to the bishop pertained the duty of 
 watching over sacred persons and things, and 
 deciding matrimonial cases. As the ealdor- 
 man pronounced the secular law in matters 
 which were secular, so in ecclesiastical cases 
 the bishop pronounced the law which was 
 proper to them. The ordinance of the Con- 
 queror, separating the spiritual and temporal 
 courts, provided that the bishop should judge 
 ecclesiastical causes in his own court, and 
 according to the canons and episcopal laws, 
 which were to take the place of the unwritten 
 law which decided these matters. With this 
 ordinance must be connected the appoint- 
 ment of men like Lanfranc, who were skilled 
 in the law of the Continent, to the English 
 episcopate. Dioceses now were broken up 
 into different territorial archdeaconries for 
 the purposes of jurisdiction. During the 
 reign of Stephen, the bishops were upheld 
 by papal interference, and the middle of the 
 twelfth century saw a great epoch in the 
 history of canonical jurisprudence. In 1149 
 Archbishop Theobald brought over Vacarius 
 from Lombardy to teach the civO. law in 
 Oxford. Vacarius was sent out of the king- 
 dom by Stephen, but the study which had 
 lately been revived abroad drew many from 
 England to pursue it on the Continent. 
 About this time Gratian, a native of Tuscany, 
 put forth his Decretum, which was an embodi- 
 ment of canon law as it then stood. As the 
 mode of procedure and. many principles in 
 canonical jurisprudence were supplied by the 
 civil law, the two systems were held to be 
 closely joined. They were looked upon with 
 dislike by the common-lawyers and the 
 crown. Ecclesiastical courts were continually 
 trying to extend their jurisdiction. They 
 harassed the people, and encroached on the 
 province of the royal courts. Henry II. 
 curtailed their jurisdiction by taking away 
 from them cases of advowson, &c., and by 
 the Constitutions of Clarendon. [Becket; 
 Henby II.] Their encroachments were 
 checked by prohibitions issued by the royal 
 courts. As the Decretum received new addi- 
 tions from successive Popes, so the English 
 canon law was enlarged by the addition of 
 constitutions, legatine and provincial. Lega- 
 tine constitutions began from the legations of 
 Otho and Otterbuoric, in the reign of Henry 
 III., which may therefore be reckoned as the 
 period at which the received text of the 
 English canon law began to be formed. 
 Successive archbishops, from Langton to 
 Chichele, framed provincial constitutions. 
 
 Ecclesiastical jurisprudence was so closely 
 connected with papal and foreign iniluence 
 that it met with little favour from English- 
 men in the reign of Henry III. Complaint 
 was made by the clergy of the use of pro- 
 hibitions. In 1236 the barons at the Council 
 of Morton refused to admit canonical or 
 civilian principles into the laws of England ; 
 and the king closed the law schools in London 
 where the canon and civil laws were taught. 
 Archbishop Peckham, a notable canonist, 
 engaged in a vain struggle against Edward I. 
 He drew on his cause the defeat inflicted by 
 the writ Circumspecie agatis, founded on 13 
 Ed. I., which defines the province of eccle- 
 siastical jurisdiction. It was limited to cases 
 merely spiritual {e.g., heresy), to those of 
 deadly sin (e.g., fornication), of tithes and 
 offerings, and of assaults done on clerks and 
 defamation where no damages were claimed. 
 It extended to all matrimonial causes, and by 
 customary law to those of a testamentary 
 nature. In cases in which the condemned 
 party neglected to give heed to the eccle- 
 siastical censure, it was enforced by the civil 
 power. For the bishop sent his signifieavit 
 to the sheriff, who thereupon issued a writ 
 De excommunicato capiendo, by which the 
 offender was imprisoned until he made satis- 
 faction. The ecclesiastical authorities seem, 
 by the Articuli Cleri drawn up in the reign 
 of Edward II., to have been dissatisfied with 
 this process, and received answer that the 
 writ had never been refused. The canonists 
 held that this writ was a right, and Archbishop 
 Boniface in the reign of Henry III. declared 
 that its refusal might be answered by an in- 
 terdict. Chief Justice Coke, however, the vio- 
 lent opponent of canonical pretension, declared 
 in the reign of James I. that it was a matter of 
 favour. The statute, Se heeretico comhurendo, 
 was carried out by the ecclesiastical and civil 
 authorities acting together. The Statute 
 of Frovisors, 25 Ed. III., st. 4, by restrain- 
 ing the Pope's interference with patronage, 
 and of Frtemunire, J 6 Eie. II., c. 6, by 
 checking appeals to Eome, lessened the 
 power of the ecclesiastical law. In the 
 reign of Henry V., LjTidwood, the Dean of 
 Arches, compiled his Provinciale, which is a 
 code of English canon law. The study of 
 canonical and civil jurisprudence was largely 
 pursued at Oxford and Cambridge, and a 
 degree of Doctor of both laws was granted. 
 A body of skilled judges and practitioners 
 versed in the science of law existed side by 
 side with those of the common-law courts. 
 
 Early in the reign of Henry Till., it was 
 evident that that monarch disliked the 
 canonical jurisdiction. His breach with the 
 Pope, consequent on the avocation of his 
 divorce case, was made the occasion for his 
 attack on the study and practice of canon 
 law. Having caused the clergy to own him 
 as supreme head, "so far as is allowed by 
 the law of Christ," he procured the great 
 
Ecc 
 
 (401) 
 
 Ecc 
 
 petition of the Commons against the practice 
 of the canon law in 1532. On this, by 23 
 Hen. VIII., c. 9, the appellate jurisdiction of 
 the archbishop was weakened, and by 25 
 Hen. VIII., c. 19, the power of legislation 
 was taken away from Convocation, and the 
 canon law was declared to be in force, subject 
 to a total revision by a royal commission. 
 As this revision has never been made, the 
 canon law up to that date, in so far as any 
 part of it has not been abolished by national 
 legislation, seems to rest on that statute. 
 Such provisions only of foreign canon law, 
 however, have force as have been received in 
 England, nor can any law bind the laity, 
 which has not received the assent of Parlia- 
 ment. Henry next proceeded to destroy the 
 study of canonical jurisprudence. He issued 
 a mandate forbidding lectures and degrees 
 in canon law. IVom that time the legal 
 doctorate in Oxford has only been in civil law, 
 expressed by the letters D.C.L., while Cam- 
 bridge still keeps up the form of the doctorate 
 of the two laws by the LL.D. degree. A 
 new court of appeal in ecclesiastical cases, 
 composed of divines and civilians, was formed 
 in this reign, and called the Court of Delegates. 
 This court was superseded in 1831, and by 3 
 and i Will. IV. (1833), u. 41, it was enacted 
 that its jurisdiction should be transferred to 
 the Judicial Committee of the Frivy Council, an 
 arrangement which has been again altered by 
 the Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1873. 
 The legislation of Edward VI. was destructive 
 of all ecclesiastical jurisdiction. During his 
 reign an abortive attempt was made by Peter 
 Martyr, in his Reformatio Legum, to accomplish 
 the revision promised in 1534. Ehzabeth, 
 while making as little declaration of power 
 as possible, fully kept up the royal supremacy 
 in action. She exercised this supremacy 
 by the Court of High Commission, founded in 
 virtue of 1 Eliz., c. 1. This unconstitutional 
 court became an engine of tyranny, in which 
 it was aided in no small degree by the eccle- 
 siastical practice of the ex-officio oath. The 
 court was abolished by 16 Car. I., c. 11, 
 which sets forth that it had illegally inflicted 
 fines and imprisonments. The ex-officio oath 
 was abolished by 15 Car. II., c. 12. The 
 canons of 1604, though approved by James I., 
 were not accepted by Parliament, and are 
 therefore only binding on the clergy. This 
 was declared by Coke, who made on all 
 occasions decided resistance to ecclesiastical 
 • encroachment. Unfortunately this resistance 
 was combined with an undue exaltation of the 
 royal prerogative in ecclesiastical matters, 
 and tended rather to the subservience of the 
 clergy than to public liberty. That some 
 resistance to clerical pretensions was needed 
 is shown by the Articuli Cleri of Archbishop 
 Bancroft. In these articles remonstrance 
 was made against the issue of prohibitions by 
 the courts of common law, and against their 
 interpreting statutes concerning religion. 
 
 Coke declared these articles to be " mon- 
 strous." A lamentable co-operation between 
 the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions re- 
 sulted in the execution by burning of two 
 men for heresy in this reign, under the old 
 statute Be heeretico comburendo. This statute 
 was repealed by 29 Car. II., c. 29. The 
 gradual advance towards toleration weakened 
 the power of the Church to punish offenders 
 against her laws, though, until the end of the 
 eighteenth century, fine or imprisonment and 
 civil disabilities still sometimes followed her 
 censures. At length the power of coercive 
 correction was taken away by 53 Geo. III., 
 0. 127. 
 
 The ecclesiastical courts are — (1) The Court 
 of the Archdeacon, of which his Official is 
 judge, and which takes cognisance of matters 
 affecting the Church and clergy within a 
 distinct district. (2) The Consistory Cowt of 
 the bishop or archbishop, of which the Chan- 
 cellor is judge, for the trial of ecclesiastical 
 causes. The title of Chancellor seems to 
 cover the two offices of the Official, who is 
 concerned for the most part in what may be 
 considered temporal business, and of the 
 Vicar-General, whose province is in more 
 purely spiritual matters. (3) T)[ie Archbishop' s 
 Commissary Court, which is held for the 
 archiepiscopal diocese. (4) The Court of 
 Audience, in which formal business is trans- 
 acted, and in which it appears, from the case 
 of the Bishop of St. Davids, 1696, that 
 bishops may be visited and corrected. (5) The 
 Court of Faculties, which, by 25 Hen. VIII., 
 c. 21, has power to grant certain dispensa- 
 tions which before pertained to the papal 
 court. This court is now chiefly concerned 
 in the grant of marriage licences. (6) The 
 Prerogative Court lost its jurisdiction when 
 the Coitrt of Frobate and Divorce was in- 
 stituted, 20 and 21 Vict., c. 77, c. 85. (7) The 
 Vicar-General's Court for the confirmation of 
 bishops ; and (8) The Cowrt of ArcJies [for 
 which see Archbishops]. By the Supreme 
 Court of Judicature Act, 1873, provision was 
 made for the transfer of ecclesiastical appeals 
 from the Judicial Committee by Order in 
 Council. This portion of the Act, however, 
 was repealed by 39 and 40 Vict., c. 59, which 
 preserves the appellate jurisdiction of the 
 Judicial Committee in these cases, and pro- 
 vides for the appointment of additional lords 
 of appeal in ordinary, and for the attendance 
 of ecclesiastical assessors. These provisions 
 were carried out by the Rules of Nov. 28, 1876. 
 [See Chitty's Digest, 1880.] A Royal com- 
 mission to inquire into the whole subject of 
 Ecclesiastical Courts and their jurisdiction 
 drew up an exhaustive report in 1883. 
 
 Two Ptiblic Statutory Lectures on the History 
 of the Canon Law in England, read in Easter 
 Term, 18B2, hy W. Stubbs, D.D,, &o. The writer 
 begs to acknowledge tlie kindness of the Bishop 
 of Chester in allowing free use to be made of 
 tbese lectures in tlie above article. See also 
 Gibson, Codex; Phillimore, Eccles. Law; and 
 
Ecc 
 
 ( 402 ) 
 
 Ecc 
 
 especially the lutroduction to tlie Report of the 
 Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical Courts, 1883, 
 wluch is a most valuable digest of tlie wliole 
 history of the subject. [W. H.l 
 
 Ecclesiastical Taxation. (1) Koyal. 
 — Before the Conquest, the differentiation of 
 clergy from laity had not proceeded far 
 enough, to necessitate separate ecclesiastical 
 taxation. The clergy paid their share of the 
 dues customary from citizens, and if they 
 were in any way distinguished from the laity, 
 it was on account of their participating, on 
 the analogy of the Empire, in certain im- 
 munities which, so early as the Codes of Theo- 
 dosius and Justinian, were permitted to the 
 clergy. But the great Papal and sacerdotal 
 movement of the eleventh century resulted 
 in the formation of a clerical caste, whose 
 claim for absolute immunity 'from State 
 burdens was based on right divine. Yet, as 
 citizens, the clergy still paid taxes like other 
 men. Besides their necessary share in in- 
 direct taxation, the " temporalities of the 
 Church," their lands, were chargeable with 
 the ordinary feudal services. A great pro- 
 portion of lands held by clerg)Tnen were held 
 by ordinary lay tenures, with incidents pre- 
 cisely similar. Even the peculiar clerical 
 tenure of frankalmoign did not exempt the 
 tenants in free alms from heavy burdens. 
 The spiritualities of the Church, however, its 
 tithes and offerings, were now secure from 
 taxation. But the growth of the royal power 
 and royal needs made these spiritualities an 
 ever-tempting bait. Gradually attempts were 
 made to tax them, with results which, though 
 successful for the crown, led to the growth 
 of the constitutional action of the clergy, 
 the development of the ecclesiastical estate, - 
 and the establishment of Convocation. The 
 steps of the process are as follows. As 
 long as land only was taxed, the clergy 
 naturally paid with the rest. Yet Arch- 
 bishop Theobald demurred at the clergy 
 granting Henry II. a scutage, though hia 
 objections were overruled; and Henry II. 
 required clerks as well as laymen to give 
 account of, and pay for their knights' fees. 
 The Saladine tithe of 1187 began the new 
 epoch by at once taxing the movables of the 
 laity and the spirituals of the clergy. Its 
 religious purpose excused an innovation, 
 which at once became a precedent for more 
 directly secular taxation. The ransom of 
 Richard I. took even the chalices of the 
 churches. John's attacks on the wool of 
 the Cistercians led the way to his formal 
 demand in 1207 of a grant from the beneficed 
 clergy for the recovery of Normandy. It 
 was refused, and a similar request from 
 Innocent III. was forbidden by the king. 
 But with the alliance of Pope and king, a 
 joint pressure was put on the clergy which 
 they could not long withstand. By the reign 
 of Henry III. taxation of spirituals was a 
 regular thing, and the clergy could only 
 
 obtain that, like the laity, they should as- 
 semble by their representatives, and grant 
 the tax themselves, instead of its being arbi- 
 trarily imposed on them by the king. The 
 establishment of Convocation (q.v.) is one 
 result of this process. Under Edward I. the 
 clergy became a regular estate of the realm, 
 and their proctors in Parliament generally 
 were compelled to make much larger grants 
 than the laity. At last Edward I.'s demand 
 of half their revenues led to their taking 
 refuge in Boniface VIII. 's buU, Olerieis laicos, 
 which forbade clerical taxation by the crown. 
 Edward's answer was to outlaw the whole 
 clergy, an act which soon led to a conipromise. 
 It is unnecessary to trace further the growth 
 of clerical taxation, except to notice that the 
 clergy objected to return representatives of 
 their estate to Parliament, and preferred to 
 tax themselves separately in their clerical 
 synod to sharing in the burdens and delibera- 
 tions of the nation. The importance attached 
 to accurate assessment of spiritual incomes is 
 seen in the minuteness of the " Valor Eccle- 
 siasticus" of Henry VIII. This custom 
 of separate clerical taxation continued over 
 the Reformation, until, in 1664, when an 
 agreement between Archbishop Sheldon and 
 Clarendon resulted in the clergy's abandoning 
 this right and reverting to the custom of 
 Edward I. by being included in the money 
 bills prepared by the House of Commons. 
 In 13 Car. II., the clergj' gave their last 
 separate subsidy. They received in compen- 
 sation the right of voting at Parliamentary 
 elections, but it was too late for them to 
 return, as of old, special clerical proctors to the 
 House of Commons. [Convocation.] 
 
 (2) TPapal. — Besides these special royal ex- 
 actions, the clergy were also liahle to heavy 
 taxation at the hands of the Pope. This was 
 of comparatively late origin, for Peter-pence 
 was not an exclusively clerical tax. It 
 reached its highest point under Henry III., 
 when to ecclesiastical the Popes added tempo- 
 ral supremacy through John's submission, and 
 diminished after the nationalist movement of 
 the fourteenth century affected even the 
 Church, but was a subject of continual com- 
 plaint up to the Reformation. The crown 
 handed over the clergy to the Papacy in return 
 for Papal permission of royal exactions more 
 often than it protected them against the alien 
 oppressor. [Papacy, Relations with.] 
 
 Stubbs, Const, Bist., ii. 186 and ii. 683—4; 
 Bmgham, Ecdcsiosttcal Antiquities, sec. v. For 
 clerical immunities under the Empire, com- 
 pare Herzog, Encycloplidie, s.v. ImmunHtitm. 
 Lathbury, Hist, of Convoeaiian ; Collier, Eccle- 
 siastical Hist. r'p p T 1 
 
 Ecclesiastical Titles BiU, The 
 
 (18.51), was passed in response to a great 
 popular outcry in England against the Pope. 
 In 1850 a great commotion was caused by a 
 papal buU appointing a Roman Catholic arch- 
 bishop and bishops with territorial titles in 
 
Edb 
 
 ( 403) 
 
 Edg 
 
 England. The foRowing year Lord John 
 Russell passed the Ecclesiastical Titles Act, 
 declaring the Pope's buU null and void, and 
 imposing penalties on all who carried it into 
 effect. The excitement, however, soon died 
 away, and the Act was repealed in 1871. 
 
 Zid'bert (Eadberht), PKiEN, King of Kent 
 (794 — 796), seems to have been collaterally 
 connected with the .35scings, and to have 
 formerly been an ecclesiastic. On the death 
 of Alric, he was elected king, but was attacked 
 by Cenwulf of Mercia, who ravaged Kent, 
 and obtained the excommunication of Edbert 
 by the Pope. Oenwulf eventually took 
 Edbert prisoner, and is said to have caused 
 his eyes to be put out and his hands ampu- 
 tated, but subsequently liberated him. 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 Edbert (Eadberht), King of Northum- 
 bria (737 — 758), was first cousin of Ceolwulf, 
 whom he succeeded, and brother of Egbert, 
 Archbishop of York. He was a successful 
 ruler ; he defeated the Mercians, and reduced 
 the British kingdom of Strathclyde to sub- 
 jection. His friendship was sought by Pepin 
 of France, who sent him costly presents. 
 Like his predecessor, he abdicated and re- 
 tired to a monastery, where he lived for ten 
 years. 
 
 Edbnrga (Eadbttbh) {circa 800), wife of 
 Beortric, King of Wessex, poisoned her 
 husband by mistake, having iutended the 
 death of his favourite, Worr. It is said that, 
 "in detestation of the crime, the West Saxons 
 determined that henceforth no wife of a king 
 should occupy a royal throne by her husband's 
 side, or bear the title of queen." She fled to 
 the court of Charles the Great, who made her 
 an abbess. " But she ruled over the monas- 
 tery iU, and did wickedly in all things." 
 Expelled thence, after many wanderings, she 
 died a beggar in the city of Pavia. 
 ■William of Malmesbury ; Asser. 
 
 Edgar(EA])GAE), King(J. 943, s. 959,<?. 975), 
 was the son of King Edmund, and on the death 
 of Edred seema to have been made under-king 
 of Mercia "by his brother Edwy. But in 957 
 we read that the Mercians and Northumbrians 
 chose Edgar for their king, which, together 
 with the fact that just at this time he recalled 
 Dunstan from exile and made him Bishop of 
 Worcester, looks as if he had thrown up his 
 allegiance to his brother. However this may 
 be, on Edwy's death Edgar was at once 
 elected king. His reign owes a great deal of 
 its importance and success to Dunstan, who 
 was practically his prime minister. The re- 
 forms in the Church which belong to this 
 reign were the joint work of the king and the 
 archbishop. Several new sees were established, 
 and above forty Benedictine monasteries are 
 said to have been founded by Edgar. There 
 are but few striking events recorded in Edgar's 
 reign, and the absence of Danish invasions 
 
 is very marked. There are the usual wars 
 against the Welsh, but even of these we read 
 but little in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and 
 certainly Edgar more than any other Saxon 
 king deserved the title " Pacificus." To pro- 
 tect the country, the fleet was considerably 
 increased, and once a year it sailed roimd the 
 island, often carrying the king in person. It 
 is said that in one of these expeditions Edgar 
 reduced the Danes in Ireland to subjection, 
 and took Dublin. The story of Edgar's 
 being rowed on the Dee by eight tributary 
 kings need not be considered altogether 
 apocryphal. The Chronicle tells us that in 
 973 he was met at Chester by six kings, who 
 plighted their troth to him, while Florence of 
 Worcester enumerates eight kings as having 
 taken part in the ceremony — Kenneth of 
 Scotland, Malcolm of Cumbria, Maccus of 
 Man, Dunwallou of Strathclyde, Siferth, 
 lago, and Howell of Wales, and Inchill of 
 Westmoreland. In 973, after he had been 
 Mng fifteen years, Edgar was solemnly 
 crowned at Bath. The story that this coro- 
 nation was necessary on account of the 
 penance he had to undergo for the abduction 
 of a nun rests on no good authority, but no 
 other solution has been attempted of this 
 curious circumstance. In 975 Edgar died. 
 He had been twice married : first to Ethelfleda, 
 by whom he had Edward, who succeeded him, 
 and secondly to Elfrida (^Jlfthryth), who be- 
 came the mother of Ethelred. The numerous 
 stories of his amours, though no doubt greatly 
 exaggerated, show his private character to be 
 anything but exemplary ; as a king, however, 
 he was a worthy successor of Alfred. He was 
 the first West Saxon " Emperor " who made 
 his supremacy really felt over the Mercians 
 and Northumbrians. His legislation seems 
 to show the results of an enlightened attempt 
 to put Saxons, Angles, and Danes on a perfect 
 equality before the law. In recording his 
 death, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives an 
 interesting fragment of a poetical estimate of 
 the king : — 
 
 " This year died Edgax, 
 
 King of the English, 
 
 Dear Lord of West Saxona, 
 
 The Mercians' protector. 
 
 "Widely was it kno-wn 
 
 Through many nations 
 
 Across the gannet's bath [i.e., the sea]. 
 
 That Edmund's oifspring 
 
 Kings remote 
 
 Greatly honoured. 
 
 To the king submitted, 
 
 As to him was fitting. 
 
 "Was no fleet so insolent. 
 
 No host so strong. 
 
 That in the English race 
 
 Took from him aught 
 
 The while the noble king 
 
 Eeigned on his throne ! " 
 Anglo-Sasion Chron. ; Florence of Worcester ; 
 Henry of Hxmtingdon; Robertson, Historical 
 Essays ; Freeman, No)~man Conguest, i. 67. The 
 laws of Edgar are given in Thorpe, ilTUjieTitXaiiis 
 and Institutes, i. 272. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Edgar (Eadgar), King of Scotland 
 
Edg 
 
 404 ) 
 
 Edi 
 
 (1097 — 1107), son of Malcolm Canmore 
 and Margaret, obtained the crown chiefly by 
 the aid of his uncle, Edgar Atheling (q.v.)- 
 In the following year he confirmed Magnus 
 of Norway in the possession of the isles ; the 
 rest of his reign was exceedingly uneventful, 
 owing, perhaps, to his mUd character, which 
 has caused him to be likened to Edward the 
 Confessor. In 1100 his sister Matilda mar- 
 ried Henry I. of England. Edgar died in 
 January, 1107, and was buried at Dunferm- 
 line ; before his death he divided the kingdom 
 between his two brothers, Alexander and 
 David, making the latter Earl of Lothian and 
 Cumbria. 
 
 Edgar Atheling (*. 1058, d. circa 11-58), 
 was the son of Edward, the son of Edmund 
 Ironside. On the death of Edward the Con- 
 fessor, he was the nearest heir to the throne, 
 but his claims were disregarded, and even 
 after Harold's death there were very few who 
 seriously advocated his cause. William re- 
 ceived him kindly, and for two years he 
 remained at the Conqueror's court, but in 
 1068 his friends, fearing for his security, 
 withdrew him and his two sisters from 
 England, and carried them to Scotland, where 
 Kong Malcolm married Margaret, one of the 
 sisters, and supported Edgar's claims in many 
 attacks upon England. But these were in 
 the main unsuccessful, and Edgar at length 
 gave up his claims to the English crown on 
 consideration of receiving estates and a pen- 
 sion from William. After remaining some 
 time in Scotland, Edgar went over to Nor- 
 mandy (1074), and formed a great friendship 
 with the Conqueror's eldest son, Robert ; soon 
 after this he made a pilgrimage to Italy and 
 Constantinople, and on his return, supported 
 Robert against William. The ill-success of 
 the former obliged Edgar to flee to Scotland, 
 where he was instrumental in efilecting a 
 peace between Malcolm and William Eufus. 
 After the death of Malcohn (1093), Edgar 
 took his sister's children under his protection, 
 and eventually got leave from William to 
 raise an army for the purpose of placing his 
 nephew, Edgar, on the Scotch throne (1097). 
 Having effected this, he joined the Crusaders 
 just in time for the siege of Jerusalem. Sub- 
 sequently he was taken prisoner by Henry I. 
 while fighting for Robert of Normandy 
 in the battle of Tenchebrai (1106), but was 
 soon allowed to ransom himself, and retired 
 to his estates, where he lived peacefully till 
 he was nearly, if not quite, a hundred years 
 of age. 
 
 jlnglo-Soaiow C?irou. ; OrdPricus Vitalis, ifist. 
 Eccles. ; Freeman, JVorma?l Conquest, 
 
 EdgeCOte.THE Battle of (July 26, 1469), 
 was fought between the insurgents, led by 
 "Robin of Eedesdale," and the troops of Ed- 
 ward IV., under the Earl of Pembroke. The 
 former were completely victorious. Pembroke 
 was defeated with great slaughter, and he- and 
 
 his brother. Sir William Herbert, were taken 
 prisoners, and put to death by the rebels. 
 Edgecote is in Northamptonshire, a few miles 
 from Banbury. 
 
 Edgehill, The Battle of (October 23, 
 1642), was the first battle of the Civil War of 
 the seventeenth century. Two months be- 
 fore, the king had raised his standard 
 at Nottingham, and on September 9 the 
 Parliamentary army, under Essex, left 
 London. The king at first marched west- 
 wards to Shrewsbury, where his force was 
 considerably increased, and then determined 
 to push rapidly on London. Essex deter- 
 mined to prevent this, and marched on Wor- 
 cester, where the two armies remained for 
 some time within a few leagTies of one another. 
 At length the king marched forward, and on 
 the 23rd of October the armies met at Edge- 
 hiU, near Kineton, in Warwickshire. The 
 Royalists occupied the hiU while Essex drew 
 up his troops in front of Kineton. The 
 king's army was about 12,000 strong, while 
 Essex's troops numbered about 10,000, and by 
 Rupert's advice the king determined to march 
 down the hill and attack the enemy on the 
 plain. The battle began about two in the 
 afternoon, and lasted tOl the evening. Rupert 
 routed the Parliamentarian cavalry, but 
 rashly pursued them more than two miles 
 from the field, till stopped by the arrival of 
 Hampden's regiment with the artillery. 
 Meanwhile, the Royalist infantry had been 
 broken, and Rupert's horse were in too great 
 disorder to retrieve the fortunes of the day. 
 The armies remained facing each other during 
 the night, but on both sides large numbers 
 deserted, and in the morning the two armies 
 marched away — the king into Oxfordshire, 
 Essex to Warwick. The Parliamentarian loss 
 was heavier, but the Royalists lost many 
 ofiicers of rank, including the Earl of Lind- 
 sey, the Commander-in-chief. The real ad- 
 vantages lay with the king, who was able to 
 capture Banbury, and march to Oxford with- 
 out resistance. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, o/fjii! Eebcllton, ii. 45; Bush- 
 wortli, V. 33 J Whitelocke, Mmnormls. 
 
 Edinburgh [Badwines byrig, "the castle 
 of Edwin ; " in Gaelic, Dunedin^ which means 
 the same thing) was founded by Edwin of 
 Northumbria as a frontier defence against the 
 Picts, and became the chief town of Lothian, 
 which the cession of Canute put under the 
 Scottish kings. The introduction of English 
 and Norman usages into the Scottish royal 
 house made Edinburgh the chief roj'-al resi- 
 dence and capital. It was given up to the 
 English in 1174, but by the Treaty of Falaise 
 restored to the Scots in 1189. In 1296 
 Edward I. carried ofi the regalia from the 
 castle, which was a few years afterwards 
 re-taken by Robert Bruce. In 1322 it was be- 
 sieged by Edward II., and in 1333 given up to 
 Edward III. ,,from whom it was taken in 1341. 
 
Edi 
 
 405 ) 
 
 Edm 
 
 In 1544 Edinburgh -was burnt by Hertford, 
 and shortly afterwards was garrisoned by the 
 French, who were driven out by the Lords 
 of Congregation, 1559. After the murder 
 of Damley, the castle was taken by the Con- 
 federate Lords, but subsequently became the 
 head-quarters of Queen Mary's party, until 
 Kirkcaldy of Grange was compelled to sur- 
 render it, 1573. In March, 1639, the castle 
 fell into the hands of the Covenanters, and in 
 1650 was taken by Cromwell. Li 1689 it 
 held out for some time for James II., under 
 the Duke of Gordon. In 1708 a Jacobite plot 
 was formed for seizing the castle, another 
 attempt being made in 1715, and in the re- 
 bellion of 1745 it was captured by the High- 
 landers. In 1583 the University of Ediaburgh 
 was founded by the Town Council, partly 
 from the proceeds of a legacy left by Eobert 
 Eeid, Bishop of Orkney, and from endow- 
 ments bestowed by James VI. 
 
 Daniel Wilson, MeTrwrials of Edinburgh; 
 Jaoaes Grant, Old and New Hdiniurgh. 
 
 EdmburglljTHE Treaty OP (July 6, 1560), 
 enacted peace between England and Scotland 
 on condition that the French were to retire 
 from Scotland; the fortifications of Leith 
 and Dunbar to be razed ; and that a fine should 
 be paid for the blazoning of English arms 
 with those of Scotland and France by Mary. 
 
 Edith (Badgtth) (d. 1075), wife of Ed- 
 ward the Confessor, was the daughter of Earl 
 Godwin, and in 1045 she married the king. 
 Her relations towards her husband are doubt- 
 ful, but she probably exerted her influence 
 in favour of her father's pob'cy, as on the 
 disgrace of Godwin, in 1051, she was banished 
 from the king's presence, and sent to a 
 convent, but received back again on God- 
 win's return in the next year. She favoured 
 her brother Tostig against Harold, and after 
 the Conquest, seems to have been treated with 
 great respect by William. She died in 1075. 
 She was reverenced alike by English and 
 Normans, the latter apologising for her origin 
 in the famous line — 
 
 " Sicnt spina rosam genuit Godwinus Editham." 
 [Edward the Conpessor.] 
 
 Life of Edward the Confessor (Eolls Series) ; 
 Freeman, Normcm Conquest. 
 
 Edith, " SwANSNECK," was the mistress of 
 King Harold. She it was who is said to have 
 identified his body after the battle of Hastings. 
 Nothing more than this is known about her. 
 
 Edmund (Eadmund), King {i. 922, s. 940, 
 d. 946), afterwards called Edmund the Elder 
 by historians, was the son of Edward the Elder, 
 and brother of Athelstan. Before his accession 
 he had already gained renown in the battle 
 of Brunanburh (q.v.). His brief reign was 
 chiefly occuijied in resisting the Danes, whom 
 he frequently defeated, and with whom he 
 eventually divided his kingdom, as Alfred had 
 done, Watling Street being, roughly speaking. 
 
 the boundary. The most important events 
 of his reign are the recovery of Northumbria 
 and the Five Burghs from the Danes, and 
 the grant of Cumberland to Malcolm, King 
 of Scots, in 945. The next year he was mm-- 
 dered at Pucklechurch by a robber named 
 Liofa. His wife was Ethelfleda, a daughter 
 of the ealdorman Elgar, and by her he 
 had two sons, Edwy and Edgar (q.v.). Ed- 
 mund received the title of " Magnificus," i.e., 
 the doer of great deeds, apparently from his 
 successes against the Danes. His sons were 
 so young at the time of his death that they 
 were passed over in favour of his brother 
 Edred. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; Lappenberg, Anglo-Saxon 
 
 Edmnnd (Eadmund) Ironside (5. .989, 
 s. Apr., d. Nov., 1016), was the son of Ethelred 
 II. _ During his father's lifetime he had been 
 active in opposing the Danes. In 1015 he 
 married Aldgyth, widow of Sigeferth, and 
 took possession of the Five Burghs, thus 
 forming a kind of principality of his own in 
 the heart of the Danish district. On the 
 death of Ethelred, Edmund was chosen king 
 by the citizens of London and those of the 
 Witan who were there, while the rest of the 
 people elected Canute. The brief reign of 
 Edmund is taken up with struggles with his 
 rival, in which the valour of Edmund and 
 the bravery of his followers are in great 
 measure neutralised by the treachery of Edi-ic 
 Streona and others. Immediately after his 
 election Edmund left London, marched 
 into "Wessex, and defeated Canute at Pen 
 Selwood. Another battle was fought at 
 Sherstone, in Wiltshire, in which Edric's 
 treachery almost caused the defeat of the 
 English. Edmund next relieved London, and 
 won a victory at Brentford. A fourth battle 
 was fought at Oxford, where the Danes were 
 once more defeated, and " all men said that 
 Edmund would have destroyed them utterly 
 had not Edric beguiled him to stop the 
 pursuit at Aylesford." Shortly after this the 
 Danes gained a great victory at Assington 
 (Assandun), in Essex, in which the Chronicle 
 tells us "all the nobiUty of the English race 
 was destroyed," and which is to be attributed 
 to the defection of Edric and his men. Canute 
 pursued Edmund to Gloucester, and a sixth 
 battle was about to be fought when the Witan 
 proposed that a division of the country should 
 be made between the two kings. For this 
 purpose a meeting was held on Olney Island, 
 close to Gloucester, where it was agreed that 
 Edmund " was to be the head king, and have 
 Wessex, Essex, and East Anglia, with the city 
 of London ; and Canute was to have Mercia 
 and Northumbria." The story of Edmund 
 having proposed to decide the matter by 
 single combat with Canute rests on no good 
 authority. Very soon after this, on November 
 30,. 1016, Edmund died, having very probably 
 
Z:dm 
 
 t 406 ) 
 
 Edu 
 
 been murdered by Edric. He left two 
 young sons, Edward and Edmund, who were 
 exiled by Canute. His great physical strength, 
 as well as his valiant spirit, gained him the 
 surname of "Ironside." He reigned only 
 seven months, and during that time he had 
 fought five great battles, in three of which he 
 was completely victorious, and in the others 
 only defeated by treachery. 
 
 Anglo-Saxm, Chron. ; Florence of Worcester ; 
 Henry of Huntingdon j Freeman, JVormau 
 st, i. 411, &c. 
 
 Edmund (Eadmund), King of Scotland 
 (1094 — 1097), son of Malcolm Canmore 
 and Margaret, joined his uncle, Donald 
 Bane, in driving his half-brother Duncan 
 from the throne. He reigned in conjunction 
 with Donald three years, having Lothian as 
 his especial province. In 1097 the success of 
 Edgar, his brother, prompted him to retire to 
 a monastery. 
 
 Will, of Malmesbury ; Fordun, SeoKcTiron'icon. 
 
 Eduinnd (Eadmund), St., King of Bast 
 Anglia (855 — 870). Nothing is known of 
 his life. Of his death we are told that in 870, 
 having been defeated and taken prisoner by 
 the Danes, he was offered his life and kingdom 
 on condition of his giving up Christianity and 
 acknowledging the Danish supremacy. Ee- 
 f using these terms, he was bound to a tree and 
 shot at with arrows, and at last beheaded, 
 at the town called St. Edmondsbury in honour 
 of him. His constancy in faith earned him 
 canonisation, and the English Church still 
 keeps his name in remembrance on November 
 20th, the day of his martyrdom. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; Simeon of Durham, 
 
 Edred (Eadhed), King (946—955), was 
 the sou of Edward the Elder, and brother of 
 Athelstan and Edward, the latter of whom he 
 succeeded. He is said to have been weak and 
 sickly in health, but his reign was an active 
 one, and the administration was wisely man- 
 aged, for Dunstan was his chief minister. 
 In 947 the Northumbrians swore allegiance 
 to him, but the next year they revolted, and 
 set up Eric, sou of Harold Blaatand, as their 
 king. Therefore Edred overran Northumbria, 
 and defeated them at York. Archbishop 
 Wulfstan was deposed in 952, and imprisoned 
 at Jedburgh, but two years afterwards he was 
 released, and made Bishop of Dorchester. 
 Edred died on November 23rd, 955, at Frome, 
 in Somersetshire, and was succeeded by his 
 nephew, Edwy (q.v). Edred, the " Chosen," 
 or "Excellent," as he was called, seems to 
 have possessed considerable capacity. He was 
 brave and industrious, and in his reign were 
 begun the administrative and ecclesiastical 
 reforms afterwards worked but by Dunstan 
 and by Edgar. 
 
 Edric (Badbio) Streona {li. 1017), first 
 appears as the adviser of the massacre of St. 
 Brice. After this he seems to have become 
 
 the favourite adviser of Ethelred, and mar- 
 ried his daughter Edith, and to him all the 
 crimes and treasons of the court are attri- 
 buted. In 1005 he treacherously murdered 
 Elf helm. Earl of Northumbria. In 1007 he 
 was made Ealdorman of the Mercians; in 1009 
 he betrayed the English army; in 1015 he 
 murdered Sigeferth and Morkere ; and in the 
 same year, after making an attempt on the 
 life of Edmund Ironside, he openly Joined the 
 Danes. At the battle of Sherstone, by pre- 
 tending that Edmund had been slain, he tried 
 to throw the English ranks into disorder, but 
 the promptitude of the English king pre- 
 vented defeat, and almost immediately after- 
 wards we find Edmund reconciled with Edric. 
 Once more in this year Edric played the 
 traitor, and by detaining Edmund, prevented 
 his reaping the advantages of his victory at 
 Otford. At the battle of Assandun. he 
 deserted with his forces to Canute, who by 
 this means defeated the English. In 1017 
 the traitor was made Earl of Mercia, but 
 before the year was out he was put to death, 
 by whom is unknown. His crimes may have 
 been exaggerated by the English historian, 
 but, as Mr. Freeman remarks, without be- 
 lieving that Edric personally wrought all the 
 countless and inexplicable treasons which are 
 laid to his charge, it is impossible to doubt 
 that he knew how to exercise an extraordi- 
 nary influence over men's minds, and that 
 that influence was always exerted for evil. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron.; Will, of Mabnesbury; 
 Freeman, Norman Conquest. 
 
 Education in England. Systematic 
 education in England begins with the con- 
 version of the English to Christianity. The 
 English Church extended its influence widely 
 over the Continent. Bede is the representative 
 of its culture. Alcuin, who sprang from hia 
 school, directed the educational system of 
 Charles the Great. Most episcopal sees had 
 schools attached to them, and learning was 
 almost entirely in the hands of the clergy. 
 Alfred the Great conceived the idea of edu- 
 cating the people. He set an example in his 
 own court. He did much for the perfec- 
 tion and preservation of the Anglo-Saxon 
 language and literature. The Norman Con- 
 quest introduced a new language, and for a 
 time checked the progress of Anglo-Saxon. 
 But Lanfranc and Anselm transplanted 
 foreign culture to English soil', and the great 
 Universities of Cambridge and Oxford raised 
 their heads. It is said that Oxford in 1209 
 had 3,000 students. Roger Bacon and Duns 
 Scotus vied with the best teachers of the 
 Continent, and in the middle of the thirteenth 
 century the students are fabled to have 
 reached 15,000. Colleges where students and 
 scholars were boarded rose in both universi- 
 ties. Also in Norman times many schools 
 were established over the country to take the 
 place of the Saxon schools which had dis- 
 appeared. A principal occupation of the 
 
Edu 
 
 (407 
 
 Edn 
 
 monastery schools was to preserve the history 
 of the country. England is especially rich in 
 chronicles of this period. Ethelhard, a Bene- 
 dictine abbot, introduced his own translation 
 of EuoHd into his schools. Disputations were 
 held, and prizes in poetry and grammar were 
 established. We find dramatic entertain- 
 ments given in the monastery school at Dun- 
 stable, a practice which has been continued 
 till our own day. A later period brings us 
 to still more ambitious efforts. WiUiam of 
 "Wykeham founded New College, at Oxford, 
 and a great college at Winchester, intended 
 to supply between them the whole curriculum 
 of a liberal education. Winchester was 
 opened in 1393. In imitation of this, Henry 
 VI. founded King's College, at Cambridge, 
 and Eton College, near Windsor (1441). In 
 1447 four London clergymen presented a 
 petition to Parhament to found schools in the 
 different parishes. The only result of this 
 was the Mercers' School, at which was edu- 
 cated Colet, who in 1508 founded St. Paul's 
 School. The suppression of the monasteries 
 at the Eeforroation ought to have provided 
 funds for an efficient national education, 
 but they were squandered by Henry 
 Vni. Edward VI. founded a mimber of 
 grammar schools in different parts of Eng- 
 land, many of which have become distin- 
 guished, the principal being Chi-ist's Hospital, 
 founded in 1552. Elizabeth to some extent 
 continued this work. The principal of her 
 foundations is Westminster. In her reign 
 Judd founded Tunbridge School ; Lawrence 
 Sheriff, Eugby; John Lj'ons, Harrow; and 
 in the next reign Thomas Sutton founded 
 Charterhouse. These various efforts did much 
 for the education of the higher and middle 
 classes, but the education of the lower classes 
 was almost entirely neglected. The Society 
 for Promoting Christian Bjiowledge, founded 
 in 1698, had established 1,600 free schools by 
 the middle of the eighteenth century ; but 
 this number was very insufficient. Wesley's 
 efforts for popular education were principally 
 confined to his own communion. A pre- 
 cursor of the Methodist movement in Wales, 
 Griffith Jones, of Llanddowror, effected great 
 changes by his system of ' ' circulating schools, ' ' 
 but his efforts were purely local. Towards 
 the end of the eighteenth century, Robert 
 Eaikes, the editor of the Gloucester Journal, 
 awakened public interest in this cause. He 
 began to teach children in Gloucester Cathe- 
 dral during the service. In 1785 was founded 
 " The Society for the Support and Epcoirrage- 
 meut of Sunday Schools throughout the 
 British Dominions." Dissenters joined it as 
 well as Churchmen. These Sunday schools 
 gave a great impulse to the general education 
 of the poorer classes. From these small be- 
 ginnings the Sunday schools were almost 
 universally adopted. A further advance was 
 made by the introduction of the monitorial 
 system by Bell and Lancaster. Bell, who 
 
 returned to England in 1797, had organised 
 this method of mutual instruction whilst he 
 was president of the military orphan school 
 in Madras. Joseph Lancaster, a young 
 Quaker, employed the same method. He met 
 with great success, and was favoured by the 
 court. ITnder this impulse the British and 
 Foreign School Society was established in 
 1805. In these schools the Bible was taught 
 "without note or comment." In opposition 
 to this. Dr. Bell gave his countenance to 
 the " National Society for Promoting the 
 Education of the Poor in the Principles 
 of the Established Church," founded in 
 1811. BeU, at his death, in 1832, left 
 £120,000 for the purpose of promoting 
 national education. Lancaster died in 
 poverty in America in 1838. By the rival 
 efforts of these two societies education was 
 much developed, and in 1833 a proportion of 
 about one in eleven of the whole population 
 was attending school. Up to this time the 
 govermnent had taken no direct part in this 
 movement, but the year 1832 introduced 
 a change in this respect. In that year a, 
 committee was appointed to inquii'e into the 
 matter, and in the following year £20,000 
 was voted for the education of the peoj)le. 
 In order to avoid religious disputes, the sum 
 was divided between the two great school 
 societies, and the grant was continued in suc- 
 ceeding years. In 1839 the Comijiittee of 
 the Privy Council on Education was formed. 
 Its action was at first exclusively on the 
 Unes of the Church of England. To meet 
 the difficulty, the Independents founded the 
 Congregational Board of Education, and the 
 Baptists the Voluntary School Society. 
 The further development of the action of 
 government was hindered by the divergence 
 of party views on the question. One party 
 was in favour of an entirely voluntary system, 
 unconnected with the State. Among the 
 supporters of State education, some were in- 
 chned to a gratuitous system; some were 
 for denominational, others for secular educa- 
 tion. An important step was taken, February 
 25, 1856, by which an Education Department 
 was established in two divisions : one for the 
 education of the people, and the other for the 
 development of science and art. A code of 
 regulations was published in April, 1860, now 
 known as the " old code." A Eoj^al Commis- 
 sion, appointed in 1858, reported in 1861. It 
 gave an unfavourable picture of the state of 
 education in England. In July, 1861, a re- 
 vised code of regulations was issued, chiefly 
 imder the influence of Mr. Eobert Lowe. It 
 appeared in a revised form in May, 1862. 
 It reduced the subjects of teaching to " the 
 three E's," — reading, writing, and arithmetic, 
 established six standards of proficiency, and 
 asserted the principle of payment by results. 
 The management of schools was left to local 
 bodies, but the inspection placed in the hands 
 of government. The pay of the teachers was 
 
Edn 
 
 ( 408 ) 
 
 £du 
 
 diminislied. The revised code was severely 
 criticised in its details, but it laid a founda- 
 tion for future action, and indirectly fami- 
 liarised the nation with the duty of educa- 
 ting the people. It paved the way for the 
 great measure of Mr. Forster, the Elemen- 
 tary Education Act, which became law on 
 August 9, 1870, and authorised the formation 
 of School Boards for the purpose of providing 
 public elementary education under the super- 
 vision of elected representatives of the rate- 
 payers in every parish and municipality. 
 
 [0. B.] 
 
 Education in Ireland is by tradition 
 
 said to have reached a high pitch of excel- 
 lence in pre-Christian times. It had its 
 military as well as its civil side. The usual 
 custom was for the principal champions to pre- 
 side over the education, chiefly athletic, of the 
 more promising youths, and this system was 
 perpetuated by the laws of fosterage, which 
 continued in force as late as a.d. 1600. There 
 were also central military schools at Tara 
 and the capitals of the other kingdoms. We 
 are told that when the Fianna (Fenians), or 
 national militia, was established {circa 140 
 A.D.), no one was admitted to membership 
 until he had passed a strict military ex- 
 amination, which included verse-making as 
 well as feats of corporeal strength. Thft civil 
 education was in the hands of the Druids and 
 of the Fileadh, or poets, characters often united 
 in the same person, though the former were, as 
 a rule, stationary, while the latter, a highly 
 privileged and protected class, wandered about 
 the country with their pupils. Learning was 
 held in high esteem ; from 600 B.C. we have 
 lists of great lawyers, historians, and poets 
 who were maintained at the royal courts. 
 Cormac, King of Erinn, who lived in the 
 third century, endowed schools of war, history, 
 and jurisprudence at Tara, and we are told that 
 the Ollamhs, or doctors of poetry (or rather, 
 culture generally), had to submit to twelve 
 years' study of great severity. They were 
 declared inviolate by law, and their duties 
 consisted in teaching the people history by 
 public recitals, f-ud in settling questions of 
 genealogy. With the arrival of St. Patrick, 
 education was revolutionised by the introduc- 
 tion of Latin and of Christianity. A great im- 
 pulse was now given to learning ; ecclesiastical 
 schools were founded, where churchman and 
 layman alike gathered round their saintly 
 teachers, the most famous being the School 
 or University of Armagh, where, it is said, a 
 third of the city was given over to foreign 
 students, so great was its fame. Education was 
 conducted on a well-organised system ; poor 
 students waited oil the rich in return for gifts 
 of food and clothing ; and the efficiency and 
 functions of the teachers were minutely 
 provided for by law. During the sixth and 
 seventh centurj', Ireland sent forth missiona- 
 ries and scholars everywhere, and her culture 
 
 was the envy of Europe. Neither internal 
 dissensions nor Danish invasions seem to have 
 checked the advance of knowledge ; about 
 A.D. 1000 we find poetry cultivated with great 
 assiduity, and royal preceptors often became 
 ministers of state: e.g., O'CarroU, under Brian 
 Boru. A great number of schools and col- 
 leges were, however, plundered of their 
 wealth during the anarchy which preceded 
 the Norman invasion, and the struggles 
 that followed that event destroyed the old 
 Celtic civilisation, without, unfortunately, 
 substituting that of England. All through 
 the Angevin period the social condition of 
 Ireland degenerated. The English settlers at 
 first sent their sons to be educated in Eng- 
 land, and after they had become, in the four- 
 teenth century, "more Irish than the Irish 
 themselves," did not have them educated at 
 all. Nevertheless, two great attempts were 
 made to establish university teaching : the 
 first at Dublin, on the authority of a bull from 
 Pope Clement V. in 1311, an effiort which 
 struggled on until the reign of Edward 
 VI., and the second at Drogheda, in 1465. 
 Both ultimately failed from lack of funds. 
 What other teaching existed was purely ec- 
 clesiastical, and many learned priests were 
 brought up in the monasteries and convents 
 which had been built by the invaders. These 
 became rapidly corrupt, and the suppression 
 of the religious houses of the Pale by Henry 
 VIII. was not very detrimental to the cause 
 of education. Then came the Eeformation, 
 bringing with it educational disabilities for the 
 Catholics, but also in 1591 the foundation of 
 Dublin University. A commencement was 
 made by the establishment by charter of 
 Trinity College, which was to be the Mater 
 Unwersitatis ; but though it flourished greatly, 
 the efforts in the seventeenth century to 
 found colleges round it were only partially 
 successful, and the University remained unin- 
 corporated. During this period the children 
 of the Catholic gentry were for the most part 
 educated abroad in Catholic seminaries, or 
 secretly at home by Jesuit priests. Education 
 in Ireland continued to be virtually confined 
 to Protestants until 1793, when the disabilities 
 excluding Catholics from Dublin University 
 were removed by law. During the present cen- 
 tury many efiiorts have been made to solve the 
 vexed question of Irish University Education. 
 In 1850 the Queen's University, with colleges 
 at Belfast, Cork, and Galway, was established, 
 but its system of purely secular education was 
 disliked by the Catholics, and, with the excep- 
 tion of the college at Belfast, it proved a 
 complete failure. The Catholic University 
 was established in 1854, and supported by 
 private subscriptions. Mr. Gladstone's Irish 
 University Bill of 1873 was the most complete 
 of the many schemes which endeavoured to re- 
 concile these conflicting institutions ; its aim 
 was to make Dublin University the one cen- 
 tral university to which the other colleges 
 
Edu 
 
 ( 409 ) 
 
 Edu 
 
 might affiKate themselves, but it satisfied no 
 one, and was thrown out in the Commons. 
 Tests were, however, abolished in Dublin 
 University, and the Queen's University super- 
 seded by the Eoyal University, for which 
 a charter was granted in 1880. The Grammar 
 Schools of Ireland date from the time of 
 Queen Elizabeth, who provided that a school 
 should be maintained in every diocese ; but 
 though grants of forfeited laud were given for 
 the purpose by the Stuarts, the scheme was 
 never thoroughly carried out. For the educa- 
 tion of candidates for the Catholic priesthood, 
 Maynooth College was founded in 179.5, and 
 after a stormy career, was permanently en- 
 dowed for the maintenance of five hundred 
 students in the year 1845 ; but in 1869 
 this grant was repealed, and a compen- 
 sation given instead. It is as yet too early 
 to discuss the benefits of the Intermediate 
 Education Act of 1878, by which a million 
 of the Irish Church surplus was set aside for 
 the encoui-agement and endowment of in- 
 termediate education. Primary Schools were 
 established in the reign of Henry VIII., who 
 ordained that the inctunbent should maintain 
 a school in every parish. This duty was, 
 however, shamefully neglected, and the 
 Charter Schools, started in 1733 by the Pro- 
 testaats, vrith the avowed intention of the 
 conversion of the children of the poor, though 
 admirably planned on a system of industrial 
 education, failed utterly, through the hostility 
 of the Catholic priests, the falling off of pri- 
 vate benefactions, and the peculation of the 
 annual Parliamentary grants. [Chartek 
 Schools.] In 1811 the Kildare Place Society 
 for Promoting the Education of the Poor on the 
 Principle of Secularism was founded in Dublin, 
 and in 1819 it received a Parliamentary grant. 
 This was ultimately withdrawn, on account of 
 the outcrj' of the Catholies, but in 1833 it was 
 vestedin Commissioners of National Education, 
 by whom it has been excellently administered. 
 O' Carry, Manners and Customs of the Ancient 
 Irisd; Cusaok, Hist, of the Irish Nation; Proude, 
 Eng. in Ireland; Haverty, Hist, of Ireland; 
 McCarthy, Hist, of Our Oirn Times, vol. iv.; Glad- 
 stotie, Speech on Irish University Bill, Hansard, 
 vol. ooiiv., col. 378. TL, C S.] 
 
 Education in Scotland. It is im- 
 possible to fix with any accuracy the date 
 of the first establishment of schools in 
 Scotland, but there are indications in the 
 historical records that they existed from 
 a very early period. Learning has in Scot- 
 land always been in advance of the arts 
 and refinements of civilisation, which m 
 other countries usually precede letters. For 
 the first foundation of her schools, as for the 
 introduction of her earliest arts and indus- 
 tries, Scotland is indebted to the Church. As 
 early as the twelfth century there is mention 
 of schools existing in certain burghs in con- 
 nection with the religious houses in the 
 neighbourhood. With the building of every 
 
 cathedral church a school would spring up in 
 the city for the instruction of the choristers, 
 and though the teaching was mainly intended 
 to fit the scholars for taking part in the 
 rehgious services, it was not confined to 
 choral singing and chanting ; for as the 
 service of the Church was wholly in Latin, a 
 knowledge of Latin was absolutely necessary 
 for all who took part in the service, and the 
 Latin grammar was therefore taught in the 
 choral schools. Thus the choral school of 
 the Church easily developed into the grammar 
 school of the burgh. We have no exact 
 information as to the number of these burghal 
 schools or the course of instruction pursued 
 even at so late a date as the Eeformation ; 
 but while art was still in its infancy, and all 
 the appliances of domestic life were of the 
 rudest, the value of knowledge and the desire 
 for it was felt by the nation, and expressed 
 by a series of " Education Acts " passed by 
 the Scots Parliament. The first ofiicial 
 mention of national education is in 1496, 
 when an Act of Parliament was passed 
 requiring " through all the realm that all 
 barons and freeholders that are of substance 
 put their eldest sons and heirs to the schools, 
 fra they be aught or nine years of age ; and 
 to remain at the grammar schools until they 
 be competently founded, and have perfect 
 Latin ; and thereafter to remain three years 
 at the schools of art and jure, so that they 
 may have knowledge and understanding of the 
 laws," under pain of a penalty of £20. In 
 1579 another Act ordained that " song- schools 
 be provided in burghs for the instruction of 
 the youth in music." In 1621 an Act exempts 
 colleges and schools from payment of a taxa- 
 tion ; and in 1633 an Act declares that every 
 " plough- or husband-land according to the 
 worth " should be taxed for the maintenance 
 and establishmeut of parish schools. In 
 spite of these enactments, however, on the 
 re-estabUshment of the Presbyterian Church, 
 it was found that the existing means of 
 education was not sufiicient to meet the 
 wants of the people, and that many parishes 
 were without schools. An Act, therefore, "for 
 settling of schools " was passed in 1696, which 
 orders the heritors (landowners) of every 
 parish in the kingdom to " provide a com- 
 modious house for a school, and settle and 
 modify a salary for a schoolmaster, which 
 shall not be under one hundred nor above two 
 hundred marks." This Act was the basis of 
 the parochial school system of Scotland, and 
 this system continued in operation till the 
 whole machinery of edutation was revised, 
 and the la,Bt Education Act passed, in 1872, 
 when it was again found that the existing 
 means of education was inadequate to the 
 population. This was due in the towns to the 
 influx of strangers caused by the increase of 
 trade and manufactures. In the rural parishes, 
 too, the heritors bad in many instances so 
 neglected their duty that there was no house 
 
Edw 
 
 410 ) 
 
 Edw 
 
 for either the school or the teachers. The 
 returns showed that 1,000 new schools were 
 required, and that 54,671 children were 
 without accommodation. The Education Act 
 was therefore passed, the principles of which 
 are the same in substance as those of the Act 
 of 1494 : namely, that every child in the 
 kingdom shall have the means of education 
 placed within its reach, and that it shall be 
 compelled to make use of them. The new 
 Act places the management of the parish 
 school in the hands of a school board, to be 
 elected by the ratepayers. 
 
 Acts of ih& Scots Parliament; Cosmo Innes, 
 
 Sketches of Early Scottish Kistovy ; Burtou, Hist. 
 
 of Scotland: Tytler, Hist, of Scotland,. 
 
 [M. M.] 
 
 Edward (Eadward) the Elder, King (b. 
 870, s. 901, d. 925), was the son and successor 
 o E Alfred. He had already distinguished him- 
 self in the wars against the Danes, and seems 
 to have been unanimously chosen king on his 
 father's death; but Ethelwald, a son of 
 Ethelred, put forward his claim to the throne, 
 and having failed to excite a rebellion in 
 Wessex, fled to Northumbria, where the 
 Danes made him their king. In 904 he got 
 possession of Essex, and the next year ravaged 
 Mercia. Edward, in return, invaded the 
 Danelagh, and harried it. The Kentish men, 
 against his orders, remained behind, and a 
 battle ensued, in which the Danes were vic- 
 torious, but their king, Eric, and Ethelwald 
 were slain. In 906 Edward made peace with 
 G-uthrum, the son and successor of Eric. 
 Edward now began, with the aid of his sister, 
 Ethelfleda (^thelflaed), the "Lady of the Mer- 
 cians,' ' to construct fortresses against the Danes 
 at Chester, Tamworth, "Warwick, Hertford, and 
 other places. These fortresses were mostly 
 constructed of stone or brick, a great improve- 
 ment on the old system of earthworks. In 
 910 the Danes broke the peace, and were 
 defeated by Edward at TettenhaU, and in the 
 next year at Wednesfield. On the death of 
 .iEthelflaed in 918, Edward took possession of 
 Mercia; "and all the folk there, as well 
 Danish as English, submitted to him." In 
 921 the Danes failed in an attack on Tow- 
 cester, and in 922 " all the people in Essex, 
 East Anglia, and the rest of Mercia submitted 
 to him," and in the same year the "Welsh 
 kings " sought him to lord." Lastly, in 924, 
 " the King of the Scots, and the whole nation 
 of the Soots, and all those who dwell in 
 Northumbria, as well English as Danes, and 
 Northmen, and others, and also the King of 
 the Strathclyde Britons, and all the Strath- 
 clyde Britons, sought him to father and to 
 lord. " Edward had thus in some sort gained 
 a supremacy over all Britain. "Wessex, Kent, 
 and Sussex were his by inheritance, and 
 Mercia, Essex, and East Anglia by conquest 
 from the Danes. Besides this, Northumbria, 
 Scotland, "Wales, and Strathclyde did homage 
 to him as overlord. Edward died in 925, 
 
 and was succeeded by his son Athelstan. He 
 seems to have had three wives and a numerous 
 family; three of his sons reigned after him, 
 and of his daughters, one married Charles 
 the Simple, King of the "West Franks ; another 
 (Eadgifu) Louis, King of Aries; Eadhild 
 married Hugh the Great, Duke of the French 
 (the father by another wife of Hugh Capet) ; 
 while Edith became the wife of the Emperor 
 Otto I. Another daughter was given to a 
 prince near the Alps, and another to Sitric, 
 the Northumbrian king. Of King Edward 
 Mr. Freeman says : " It is only the unequalled 
 glory of his father which has condemned this 
 prince, one of the greatest rulers that England 
 ever beheld, to a smaller degree of popular 
 fame than he deserves. His whole reign 
 bears out the panegyric passed on him by an 
 ancient writer, Florence of "Worcester, that 
 he was fully his father's equal as a warrior 
 and a ruler, and was inferior to him only in 
 those literary labours which peculiarly dis- 
 tinguish Alfred among the princes of the 
 age." 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; Florence of "Worcester, 
 
 suh anno 901: Freeman, Norman Conquest, i. 
 
 58, &o. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Edward (Eadwakd) the Maktye, Kino 
 (s. 975, ci. 979), was the eldest son of Edgar, 
 whom he succeeded at the age of thirteen. His 
 election was opposed by his step-mother, 
 Elfrida (iElfthryth), on behalf of her own 
 son, Ethelred. Edward, however, gained the 
 support of Dunstan, and was accordingly 
 elected. His short reign is unimportant, 
 except for the banishment of Oslao, the 
 Earl of Deira, who had been appointed by 
 Edgar. His accession seems to have led to a 
 reaction against the monastic policy of Edgar, 
 but little can be certainly said on this point. 
 He was treacherously murdered in 979, vidth- 
 out doubt by the instigation of his step- 
 mother, though the story of the tragedy 
 having taken place at Corfe Castle, and the 
 details of the crime, are only found in the 
 later chroniclers. His cruel and untimely 
 fate gained him the surname of the Martyr, 
 though it cannot be affirmed that he was a 
 martyr either to religion or patriotism. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon C7iro«. ; William of Malmesljnry, 
 
 ii. 162, &o. ; Freeman, Jfforman Conquest, i. 288, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Edward (Eadwakd) the Confessor (s. 
 1042, d. 1066) was the younger son of Emma 
 and Ethelred the Unready, and was born pro- 
 bably about 1004. This Emma— or, to caliber 
 by her English name, Edith— was the daughter 
 of _ Richard Sanspeur, great-grandfather of 
 "William the Conqueror, who was therefore 
 second cousin to Edward. The early days of 
 Edward and his brother Alfred were spent in 
 Normandy, at the court of their uncle, Richard 
 the Good ; for they bad been carried there by 
 Emma at the time of Sweyn's success in 1013, 
 and did not return to their native land on their 
 mother's marriage with Canute (1017). Hence 
 
HdvT 
 
 ( 411 
 
 Edw 
 
 the two young Athelinga grew up to man- 
 hood abroad, and learnt to prefer the Norman- 
 Prench customs and life to those of England. 
 It is uncertain whether Edward had any 
 share in the invasion of England that led to 
 Alfred's death in 1036 ; hut Robert the Devil 
 seems to have made at least one efiort for the 
 restoration of his cousins a few years before 
 this date. When Hardicanute (Harthacnut) 
 succeeded his brother Harold, it was not long 
 before he invited his half-brother Edward to 
 return home, and thus be at hand to assume 
 the throne should any misfortune happen to 
 himself (1041). Accordingly, in the words of 
 the Chronicle, on Hardicanute's death, in June, 
 1042, " all folk chose Edward, and received him 
 forking," though the coronation did not take 
 place at Winchester till Easter next year. 
 There seems to have been some opposition to 
 Edward's succession — one party preferring 
 the claims of a Danish pretender, SwejTi Es- 
 trithson, Canute's nephew — but the eloquence 
 of Bishop Lyfing and Earl Godwin carried 
 the day in favour of Ethelred's son. A year 
 or two later, Magnus, King of Norway and 
 Denmark, was preparing to make good his 
 pretensions on England, but was prevented 
 from carrying out his project by the attack 
 of his rivals, Harold Hardrada and Sweyn 
 (1045). It was probably for her connection 
 with Sweyn's party that the Witau stripped 
 Emma of her treasures (1043) ; while the 
 dangers of this Danish element led, a year 
 or two later, to the banishment of the 
 great Danish lords in England, Sweyn's 
 brother Osbeom, and Osgod Clapa (1046). 
 From this time the new king's throne was 
 secure. 
 
 Meanwhile, Edward had married Godwin's 
 daughter Edith, and the power of the great 
 earl's house was growing every day. At the 
 time of Edward's accession there were four 
 great earldoms, of which only one, Wessex, 
 was in the hands of Godwin. Siward held 
 Northumbria, Leofric Mercia, while another 
 earl, whose name is lost, ruled East Anglia. 
 But in 1043 Godwin's eldest son, Sweyn, 
 received an earldom irregularly carved out of 
 the western parts of Mercia and Wessex, 
 including Hereford, Gloucester, Oxford, Berk- 
 shire, and Somerset ; about the same time his 
 nephew, Beorn, received the earldom of the 
 Middle Angles, and his second son, Harold, 
 that of the East Angles (1045). But Ed- 
 ward could never forget the land of his early 
 life, and was constantly bringing foreigners 
 over to hold rule in England. His nephew, 
 Ealph, was made Earl of Worcester and Here- 
 ford in succession. It was, however, by mani- 
 pulating the ecclesiastical appointments that 
 Edward found his readiest way of placing the 
 strangers in high office. In especial, a Norman 
 monk, Robert of Jumieges, was nominated 
 Bishop of London (1044), and some six years 
 later Archbishop of Canterbury (1051) ; while 
 another Norman, Ulf, was made Bishop of 
 
 Dorchester (1049). But aU the time these and 
 many other Norman strangers were swarming 
 into the land, the house of Godwin was 
 becoming more and more the centre of 
 the national party. In 1051 things came to a 
 climax. In this year the king, who had a few 
 months previously rejected the choice of the 
 Canterbury monks and Godwin for the see of 
 Canterbury, gave the great earl stiU further 
 offence by requiring him to punish the men of 
 Dover for vengeance they had inflicted- on the 
 insolent followers of Baldwin of Flanders. 
 This Godwin refused to do without giving 
 the offenders fair trial. About the same time 
 he had another charge against the king's 
 foreign friends; for the "Welshmen," or 
 French, had built a castle in Sweyn's earldom 
 of Hereford, and were working all the harm 
 they could on the people thereabouts. Godwin, 
 being summoned to attend a meeting of the 
 Witan at Gloucester, gathered his own men 
 and those of his sons at Beverstone, not far 
 from Malmesbury, while the rival hosts of 
 Siward, Leofric, and Ealph supported the 
 king at Gloucester. The meeting-place was 
 transferred to London, and Godwin's case 
 was brought forward apparently before he 
 could arrive himself. Sweyn was outlawed 
 once more, and Godwin and Harold summoned 
 to appear as criminals. In these circum- 
 stances flight seemed the wisest course: 
 Harold crossed over to Dublin, and Godwin 
 to Flanders, whence they returned next year 
 to drive out the Noi-man offenders with Arch- 
 bishop Robert and Bishop Ulf at their head 
 (1052). Next year, however, the great earl 
 died, and was succeeded in his West Saxon 
 province by his eldest living son, Harold; 
 for Sweyn had died on his way back from a 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem (Sept., 1052). Upon 
 this. East Anglia was given to Leofric's son 
 JEUgar ; while about the same time Siward 
 undertook his expedition against Macbeth, 
 and proclaimed Malcolm King of Scots (1054). 
 On Siward' s death, next year, his earldom 
 was given to Harold's brother 'Tostig. In the 
 same month -Sllfgar was banished from the 
 kingdom, but soon returned to aid the Welsh 
 in their foray upon Hereford. Harold was 
 now the most prominent man in the kingdom, 
 and to him was entrusted the task of beating 
 back the invaders, though in the reconcile- 
 ment of Grufiydd he seems to have had the 
 co-operation of .iElfgar's father, Leofric (1056) 
 — apparently a token of some approaches to 
 amity between the two great rival houses. 
 East Anglia was now given to Harold's 
 brother Gyrth, while another brother, Leof win, 
 had Kent and Essex, and the other shires of 
 south-east England. In 1062 Grufiydd of 
 Wales once moreinvaded England. But Harold 
 and Tostig united their forces for the purpose 
 of harrying his land; the English soldiers 
 were bidden to adopt the arms and tactics of 
 the Welsh, and before the year 1063 was out 
 Grufiydd was dead, and his kingdom divided 
 
Edw 
 
 (412 ) 
 
 Edw 
 
 between two native princes, who swore fealty 
 to Edward. In 1065 Northumberland rose 
 in rebellion against Tostig, and elected 
 Leofric's grandson, Morkere, as its earl. 
 Morkere, in combination with his brother 
 Eadwine, who had been Earl of Mercia since 
 about the year 1062, appeared in arms at 
 Northampton, perhaps meditating a division 
 of the kingdom, and certainly declaring that 
 the Northumbrians would no longer support 
 the tyranny of Tostig. Edward would ha,ve 
 pushed matters to extremes, but Harold 
 persuaded the Oxford gemot to confirm the 
 wishes of the Northerners. Accordingly the 
 Northumbrians were promised a renewal of 
 Canute's laws, and Tostig was banished. This 
 was the last important event in Edward the 
 Confessor's reign. At the end of the year 
 1065 his great church of "Westminster was 
 consecrated, and on Jan. 5, 1066, the king- 
 died. Edward had no children, and for 
 many years Harold's position in the kingdom 
 had been such that it was scarcely possible, 
 under all the circumstances, to elect any other 
 successor. Pious, meditative, and given up 
 to religious exercises, Edward, as it has been 
 often said, was more fitted for a Norman 
 cloister than the English throne. His \-irtue3 
 ■ earned him popular respect ; but he was 
 deficient' in practical vigour, and during a 
 large part of his reign the actual business 
 of administration was managed by members 
 of the house of Godwin. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon ChroriAcle ; Lives of EdAuard the 
 Confessm- (Bolls Series) ; Palgrave, Fist, of 
 Jformandv anA England; and esp. Freeman, 
 No]-r)ian Couyuest, vol. ii. ("g, J, L 1 
 
 Edward I., King (J. 1239, s. 1272, d. 
 1307), was the son of Henry III. At fifteen he 
 married Eleanor of Castile, and soon afterwards 
 his father gave him Gascony, Ireland, Bristol, 
 and the march between the Dee and the 
 Conway, where he had early experience of 
 Welsh warfare. He sided with his father at the 
 time of the Parliament of Oxford, 1258, and 
 was carefully watched by the barons. The 
 party calling itself the bachelorhood of 
 England (" Communitas bachelerise totius 
 Angliae"), which, in 1259, urged the baronial 
 government to fulfil its promises, found a 
 leader in Edward, who acted probably in 
 concert with Earl Simon against the council 
 formed at Oxford. This concert was soon 
 broken, and Edward joined his father's side. 
 In 1 263 he seized the property of the Londoners 
 deposited in the Temple, and seems to have 
 been much hated throughout the kingdom. 
 His rash pursuit of the Londoners at Lewes 
 caused the defeat of the royal army. He was 
 kept in a kind of captivity until he escaped 
 (May, 1265) from Hereford. The same year 
 he won the decisive victory of Evesham. The 
 pacification of the country was due to his 
 wisdom as much as to his energy. "While he 
 was active in reducing the strongholds of the 
 Montfort party and in crushing freebooters, 
 
 he successfully advocated a healing policy. 
 In 1270 he went on the Crusade, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his bravery. In 1272 
 he narrowly escaped assassination. That 
 same year his father died, and Edward 
 was at once acknowledged as king. He heard 
 the news on his way home. He landed in 
 England, and was crowned in 1274. Edward 
 profited by the troubles of his father's reign. 
 He knew the needs of his people, and set him- 
 self to meet them by good laws. He worked 
 not only for, but with, his people, and thus 
 was led to give to all alike their share in 
 the work. He was valiant and prudent, 
 and, above all, faithful to his word. From 
 his education he had imbibed French tastes 
 and thoughts. They encourag-ed his love of 
 power. The legal turn of his mind made 
 him take advantage of subtleties which 
 favoured his wishes ; but what he had promised 
 he fulfilled, at least to the letter, at any cost. 
 His kingly pride, his love of order, perhaps, 
 too, his love for his people, caused him to 
 strive for the supremacy of England in this 
 island. Edward at once began to amend the 
 evils of the civil wars. In 1 275 his first Parlia- 
 ment passed the First Statute of Westminster, 
 reciting former good laws and usages ; it also 
 granted the king a payment for the export of 
 wool and leather, the first legal origin of the 
 customs. [Customs.] As in many cases wrong- 
 ful claims were upheld by might, a commis- 
 sion was appointed to inquire into men's rights. 
 "When its report was made, the circuit judges 
 were empowered to issue a writ, declaring the 
 grounds upon which men held their lands, levied 
 tolls, &c. "Want of money caused the issue of 
 a writ compelling aU who had £20 in land to 
 be knighted, or pay a fine. This increased 
 the body of knights, and tended to merge the 
 smaller feudal tenants in the great body of 
 freeholders. Another blow was given to feudal 
 distinctions by the Statute of Winchester. 
 This statute re-organised the national force 
 which had been constituted by thg Assize of 
 Arms [Henky II.], and made it a means of 
 keeping order. The rights of the feudal 
 lords, and of the king as chief of them, 
 were preserved by the Statute of Mortmain 
 {Se Religiosis), which forbade grants of land 
 to ecclesiastical bodies, for by these grants the 
 lord was robbed of his rights. This, measure 
 was provoked by an attempt of Archbishop 
 Peckham to extend ecclesiastical privileges. 
 Edward, however, like Henry II., would have 
 no such encroachments. A statute called Quia ' 
 Emptores, made in 1290, which stopped a tenant " 
 from granting land, to be held of himself and 
 not of his lord, had the same eflfeot as the Statute 
 of Mortmain as regards the rights of the king 
 and other feudal lords. Llewelyn, Prince of 
 North Wales, who had been on the side of 
 Earl Simon, was brought to submission in 
 1276. His brother David was his enemy, and'" 
 was favoured and rewarded by Edward. The 
 brothers were reconciled, and in 1282 rose 
 
Edw 
 
 (413) 
 
 Edw 
 
 against the king. Llewelyn was defeated 
 and slain, David was taken, and put to 
 death as a traitor at Shrewsbury. By the 
 Statute of Wales, 1284, Edward endeavoured 
 to introduce English law and organisation 
 into that country. The "Welsh war added to 
 the king's needs. The hulk of the revenue 
 now came from taxes on personalty and cus- 
 toms. Parliamentary assemblies of different 
 kinds were often called to make grants, 
 until, in 1295, Edward called an assembly of 
 the three estates of the realm, which have 
 from that time been held necessary parts 
 of Parliament. [Pauliament ; Con vocation.] 
 As representatives of the freeholders, and not 
 the lesser tenants of the crown, sat as the 
 third estate. Parliament expresses the success 
 of the policy of Edward, which Dr. Stubbs 
 has defined as "the elimination of the doc- 
 trine of tenure from political life." To 
 please the people, and so to gain money, 
 Edward, in 1290, banished the Jews. [Jews.] 
 On the failure of the heirs of William the 
 Lion, Edward was called (1291), as overlord 
 of Scotland, to settle the succession to the 
 throne of that kingdom. He decided in 
 favour of John de Baliol. Edward took the 
 opportunity of defining and increasing the 
 subordination of the Scotch king to the 
 English crown. He allowed appeals to be 
 made to his court by the Scotch barons 
 against Baliol. This soon caused war, and 
 in 1296 Edward conquered Scotland, deposod 
 Baliol, and ruled the kingdom as his own. 
 Meanwhile, Philip IV. of France fraudu- 
 lently seized on Gascony. War followed, 
 aiid the Scots looked for help from France. 
 A constitutional crisis now occurred in Eng- 
 land. Edwaxd had made heavy demands on 
 the wealth of the Church. In obedience to a 
 bull of Boniface VIII., Archbishop Winchelsey 
 and the clergy refused (1297) to pay any more 
 taxes on their ecclesiastical revenue. The 
 king, in return, put them out of the protection 
 of the law. The merchants were angry 
 because the king heavily taxed and seized 
 their wool; the earls disliked the whole 
 policy of Edward, which lessened their power ; 
 all classes were united against the royal 
 authority. Edward commanded the Constable 
 and Marshal to lead a force to Gascony, 
 while he went to Flanders, and they flatly 
 refused. The archbishop and the king were 
 reconciled, and Edward set sail, but the 
 attitude of affairs was so threatening that he 
 was forced to grant the Confirmation of the 
 Charters by which he renounced taxation, 
 direct and indirect, without the consent of the 
 nation. This great concession is an epoch in 
 our constitution. Edward loyally kept his 
 word, and by the Articles upon the Charters 
 ,(1300) confirmed it afresh. Some irritation 
 lingered in men's minds, which was especially 
 visible at the Parliament at Lincoln (1301). 
 In consequence of his anger at the pro- 
 ceedings at Lincoln^ Edward, by agreement 
 
 with the foreign merchants, levied some new 
 customs, the origin of our import duties, with- 
 out consent of the Estates. This, though 
 quite against the spirit, was not contrary to 
 the letter, of his promise. He also obtained 
 from the Pope absolution from his word, but 
 did not take advantage of it. In these two 
 matters alone did Edward seem to deal with 
 his people with legal subtlety. 
 
 In 1297 a revolt took place in the Lowlands 
 under William Wallace, who defeated the 
 Enghsh near Stirling. The revolt was 
 crushed the next year by the defeat of Wal- 
 lace at Falkirk. The war, however, lingered 
 on until 1304. Meanwhile, peace was made 
 vpith France, and Edward married Margaret, 
 sister of Philip. In 1305 Wallace was taken, 
 and put to death. Edward now fully annexed 
 Scotland, and designed that it should send 
 representatives to the English Parliament. 
 But in 1306, Robert Bruce, grandson of one 
 of the claimants in 1291, who up to this time 
 had adhered to Edward, revolted, killed the 
 regent Comyn, and was crowned king at 
 Scone. Bruce was defeated by the Earl of 
 Pembroke, but still remained unconquered. 
 Edward marched northwards against him, 
 and on his march, died at Burgh-by-Sands, in 
 1307, in his sixty-ninth year. The perfection 
 of the Parliamentary system, the organisation 
 of the law courts, the great statutes which he 
 caused to be made, and the general progress of 
 the constitution, mark the reign as of the first 
 importance. They were the fruit of the 
 wisdom, the legal genius, the patriotism, and 
 the good faith of the " greatest of the Plan- 
 tagenets," as Edward I. has been not un- 
 deservedly styled. 
 
 Eishanger, Chronicle; Trivet, .Annals; Waver- 
 ley Annals ; Walter of Hemingford, Hist, de 
 Behus Gestis li!dwavd. I., II,, et III. (printed by 
 Hearu) ; Ro1:uU Scotia (Eecord Commission) ; 
 Stubbs, Select Charters, Constitutional Hist,, 
 and The Early Planta'genets ; Freeman, Essays; 
 The Greatest of the Flaniagenets ; Pauli, ;E»ig- 
 lische Geschichte. [W. TT.1 
 
 Edward II., Kins (5. 1284, s. 1307, d. 
 1327 ?), was the fourth son of Edward I. and 
 Eleanor of Castile, but the death of his three 
 elder brothers made him heir to the throne 
 when an infant. He received the title of 
 Prince of Wales in 1301. In 1297 he was 
 appointed regent in his father's absence, and 
 in this capacity signed the Confirmatin Car- 
 tarum. In 1306 he was solemnly knighted 
 by his father, whom he accompanied on his 
 expedition to Scotland. During this expedi- 
 tion Edward I. died, having on his death-bed 
 entreated his son not to recall Piers Gaveston, 
 his comrade and favourite, who had Just been 
 banished, and to continue the war against 
 the Scots. Both these requests, or injunctions, 
 were disregarded ; the Scotch expedition was 
 abandoned, and G-aveston was not only re- 
 called, but created Earl of Cornwall, and 
 during the king's absence in France made 
 "custos" of the kingdom. From this date 
 
Edw 
 
 (414) 
 
 Edw 
 
 till 1312 the barons -were struggling against 
 the favourite and the king's misgovemment. 
 In 1311 Edward consented to certain " Ordi- 
 nances," which practically put the royal power 
 into commission, and in 1312 Gaveston was 
 seized by the barons, and put to death. The 
 revolution threw all power into the hands of 
 Thomas of Lancaster and his confederates, who 
 appointed ministers and settled the royal 
 revenue without consulting the king. The 
 defeat at Bannockbum in 1314 destroyed 
 what little influence Edward possessed, and 
 till 1321 Lancaster was supreme. In this 
 year Edward got a new favourite in the 
 person of Hugh le Despencer, and the high- 
 handed conduct of Lancaster alienated many 
 of the barons from him, so that in 1322 the 
 king was able to get together a sufficient 
 force to defeat him. Lancaster was at once 
 beheaded, the Ordinances of 1311 were re- 
 pealed, and the baronial party for the time 
 crushed. The latter part of the reign is 
 obscure. It would seem that the queen was 
 jealous of the power of the Despencers; at 
 all events, she intrigued with Roger Mortimer, 
 now the leader of the barons, against her 
 husband. She had been sent over to France 
 to arrange a dispute between her husband and 
 her brother, and being followed by Mortimer 
 and others, she collected troops, and landed 
 in England, where she was joined by many 
 of the barons. The Despencers were executed 
 and the king himself taken prisoner, and 
 shortly afterwards compelled to abdicate. 
 The fate of Edward is somewhat doubtful, 
 though it is generally accepted that he was 
 secretly murdered in Berkeley Castle on Sept. 
 21, 1307. The character of Edward II. was 
 singularly despicable. He was devoid of self- 
 control, firmness, and dignity, and spent 
 his time in the society of favourites and 
 parasites. His reign is a miserable one ; 
 defeat and disgrace abroad, treachery and 
 misgovemment at home : nowhere can we 
 find conduct that is praiseworthy. The 
 people, contrasting the irresolute and weak- 
 minded king with his noble and brave father, 
 were led to believe that he was no true 
 son of Edward I., but a changeling, and 
 not a voice was raised against his deposition. 
 Edward II. was the weakest of the Plan- 
 tagenels, and showed little of the vigour and 
 capacity for government which distinguished 
 most of his family. " He had never," says 
 Dr. Stubbs, "shown himself sensible of the 
 dignity and importance, much less of the 
 responsibility, of kingship." By his marriage 
 with Isabella of France he had two sons, 
 Edward and John, and two daughters, Eleanor 
 and Joan. 
 
 Trotelowe, Annates {Rolls Series) ; Thomas 
 de la Moor (Camden Society) ; The Life of 
 JSd^uari II,, by the Mouk of Malmesbury 
 (printed by Hearne, 1731) ; Walter of Hemiiig- 
 ford, Hint, de Rehus Geetis Edward, f., II., et III. 
 (pi'inred by Heavne) ; Rymei-, Fadera ; Adam of 
 Mirimuth (Eng. Hist. Soo.) ; Paul], Enrjlisolie 
 
 GeschicUe; Lingard, Hist, of Eng.; Stubhs, 
 Canst, ifist. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Edward III., King {i. Nov. 13, 1312, 
 s. Feb. 1, 1327, d. June 21, 1377), son of 
 Edward II., was born at "Windsor. On the 
 deposition of his father the young prince was 
 appointed guardian of the kingdom (Oct. 
 1326), and crowned early the following year. 
 During his minority the government was 
 entrusted to a council of regency, of which 
 Henry of Lancaster was the chief. The 
 administration, however, was really usurped 
 by Queen Isabella, and her favourite, Roger 
 Mortimer. But the latter was unpopular 
 with the baronage, and had incurred general 
 dislike by the treaty negotiated with the 
 Scots in 1328, by which the independence of 
 Scotland was recognised. In 1330 the king, 
 who deeply resented Mortimer's arrogance, 
 found no difficulty in forming a powerful 
 combination against the favourite. Mortimer 
 was accordingly seized at Nottingham, taken 
 to the Tower (Oct. 1330), and executed a 
 month afterwards ; while the queen mother 
 was imprisoned at Castle Rising, where she 
 passed the remainder of her Sfe. Hence- 
 forward the government was in Edward's 
 own hands. He immediately renewed the 
 English attempts on Scotland, assisted Edward 
 Baliol in his endeavour to drive out the 
 Bruce dynasty in 1332, and invaded Scotland 
 in 1 333. In July of this year he inflicted a 
 great defeat on the Scots at Halidon Hill; 
 reduced the south of Scotland to submission, 
 and caused Baliol to be proclaimed king of 
 the portion beyond the Forth. The country, 
 however, was far from subdued, and Edward's 
 nominee, Baliol, was driven from his throne, 
 and obliged to quit the country till restored 
 by the English. In 1336 Edward again led a 
 great expedition into Scotland, and ravaged 
 all the south-east of the country. Mean- 
 while difficulties with France were arising 
 chiefly because of the disputes between Philip 
 of Valois and the Flemings, the interruption 
 to the Anglo-Flemish trade, and the aggres- 
 sion of Philip on Aquitaine. In 1338 (July) 
 Edward went to Flanders, engaged in an 
 alliance with the popular chiefs who were 
 opposed to their count, and concluded a 
 league with the Emperor Louis V., who 
 appointed him Vicar-General of the Empire. 
 In the following year Edward advanced into 
 France, but the French retreated before him. 
 In 1340 the English fleet, commanded by the 
 king, won a great naval battle over the 
 French at Sluys, after which the army landed 
 and laid siege to Tournay. A truce was con- 
 cluded for nine months and Edward suddenly 
 returned to England to effect an administra- 
 tive revolution by displacing the Chancellor 
 and Treasurer, and imprisoning several of the 
 judges, under the impression that the cor- 
 ruption of the chief officials of the govern- 
 ment had prevented his receiving the proper 
 return from the taxes. Mistrusting clerical 
 
Edw 
 
 ( 415) 
 
 Edw 
 
 influence, Edward appointed a layman, Sir 
 Kobert Bouroliier, Chancellor. TheArchbiBliop 
 of Canterbury, Stratford, came forward as the 
 champion of constitutional liberties, and after 
 a violent dispute, Edward summoned a Parlia- 
 ment, and in return for large grants agreed 
 to confirm the privileges of the barons and 
 clergy. In Oct., 1341, however, the king 
 revoked the statute, confessing that " he had 
 dissembled as he ought " owing to the pressure 
 put upon him. He did not renew his opera- 
 tions in France till 1342, when he again led 
 an expedition against France. Nothing 
 effectual, however, was done till 1346, when 
 Edward landed at La Hogue, in Normandy, 
 intending to join the Flemings. But the 
 French king, with a large army, was between 
 him and FWders on the right bank of the 
 Seine. By a feint upon Paris Edward crossed 
 the river, and advanced towards the Somme, 
 which he also crossed near Abbeville, and then 
 won the gTeat victory of Crecy (Aug. 6, 1346). 
 Advancing to Calais Edward blockaded the 
 town, and captured it after a twelvemonth's 
 siege. The exhaustion of his own kingdom 
 was so great that the king was unable to 
 follow up these successes, and returned to 
 England after concluding a truce, which was 
 renewed from time to time. The war began 
 afresh in 13oo. The king himself led an 
 army from Calais but efEected nothing, and 
 was obliged to return home to repel a Scottish 
 raid. He advanced into Scotland, laying 
 waste the border districts with great cruelty. 
 In France the campaign of the Black Prince 
 in the south-west was signalised by the 
 splendid victory of Poictiers, and the capture 
 of the French king, John (Sept. 19, 133U). 
 During the truce that followed, the Scottish 
 king, David, taken prisoner at Neville's Cross 
 (Oct. 17, 1346), was released, and peace was 
 made with Scotland. In 1389 Edward again 
 invaded France, and laid waste Champagne. 
 In 1360 (May 8) peace was made at Bretigny, 
 and the English obtained Gascony and 
 Guienne, with the counties of Saintonge, 
 Perigord, Limoges, Cahors, besides Calais, and 
 a sum of three million marks as ransom for 
 the French king. The treaty, however, was 
 not carried out, and the war continued at 
 first in Britanny, and afterwards in the south, 
 where Aquitaine and Guienne were gradually 
 recovered by the French, so that at the end 
 of Edward's reign little remained of all his 
 conquests but Calais and Bordeaux. 
 
 The later years of Edward's reign were 
 passed in a state of partial retirement from 
 public affairs. Old before his time, and worn 
 out by the fatigues of his toilsome career, 
 Edward resigned himself to the influence of 
 his mistress, Alice Perrers, and allowed the 
 government to be largely carried on by John 
 of Gaunt. Of the struggles between the 
 baronial and clerical parties, and between 
 the reforming party in the Good Parliament, 
 who looked to the Black Prince, and the 
 
 Lancastrians, the king was an almost passive 
 spectator. In 1376 Edward the Black Prince 
 died, and the king was called upon by the 
 Parliament to take action against papal and 
 clerical encroachments. This, however, he 
 refused to do. The following year saw the 
 influence of the Lancastrians restored, and a 
 Parliament elected under their influence, 
 which reversed all the measures of the Good 
 Parliament. In 1377 the old king, who 
 had now lost all consideration and influence, 
 died almost alone, having been deserted 
 by nearly all his relatives and attendants 
 before his death. The splendid military 
 exploits of Edward's reign in later times 
 threw a false glamour round his reign. But 
 though military glory was the ambition of 
 his fife, there is little reason to credit him 
 with much skill as a general. His successes 
 were due to the splendid fighting material 
 at his command rather than to his strategical 
 or tactical ability. Nor can he be said to 
 merit the name of statesman. He was 
 neither great as an administrator nor a legis- 
 lator. His financial management was so bad 
 that he was constantly overwhelmed by debt ; 
 his conquests were transient and ill-con- 
 ceived ; and he altogether failed to realise the 
 gravity of the constitutional and social crisis 
 which was coming to a head in his reign. And 
 though anxious to shine as the ideal champion 
 of chivalry, he was both cruel and treacherous. 
 Eotert of Avestary, CAroiiicIe (jirinted by 
 Heame) ; Knyghton (printed in Twysden, Scrip- 
 tores Decern; Walter of Hemiiigford, Be Reh. 
 Gest. Ed. J., 11., et III.; Froissiurt, Chronicle, 
 useful for the battles of Ibe French campaigus, 
 but not to be considered a thoroughly trust- 
 worthy historical ijarrative ; Jehan le Bel, 
 Chroniques; W. Longnaan, Edu-ard III. ; Pear- 
 son, England in l?ie iiourieeii'-Ji Cenfitry ; Paiali, 
 Englische GeschicMe; Preeman, Essays (1st 
 Series). [S. J. L.] 
 
 Edward IV. (*■ Sept., 1442, s. June 29, 
 1461, d. Ap. 9, 1483), the son of Richard, Duke 
 of York, and Cicely Neville, sister of Richard, 
 Earl of Salisbury, was born in the castle 
 of Rouen, when his father was Governor of 
 France. He was brought up by Sir Richard 
 Crofte, in the castle of Ludlow. When the 
 Duke of York advanced his claim to the 
 crown in 1460, the young Earl of March was 
 sent to gather troops on the Welsh borders. 
 There he heard the news of his father's 
 defeat and death at Wakefield on Deo. 21. 
 He hastened northwards, but was pursued by 
 Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, on whom he turned, 
 and inflicted a crushing defeat at Mortimer's 
 Cross, near Wigmore, on Feb. 2, 1461. The 
 advance of (Jueen Margaret's lawless northern 
 troops excited the fear of the Londoners. 
 Edward, therefore, on marching to London, 
 was hailed as king on March 4. Joined 
 by his cousin Richard, Earl of Warwick, he 
 hastened northwards, and met the Lancastrian 
 army at Towton, where he won a bloody 
 battle on March 29. He returned to London, 
 
Edw 
 
 416 
 
 Edw 
 
 and was crowned on June 29. The Parlia- 
 ment, wHcli met in November, recognised 
 Edward IV. as succeeding to the rights of 
 Eichard II., and attainted Henry VI. of high 
 treason. The youth, the handsome appear- 
 ance, the geniality, and the practical vigour 
 of Edward IV. made him at once popular, 
 and gave every expectation of a prosperous 
 reign. Queen Margaret, with foreign help, 
 still held out in Northumherland ; but the 
 victories of Hedgeley Moor and Hexham in 
 1464, and the capture of Henry VI. in 1465, 
 seemed to secure Edward IV. on the throne, 
 and the Commons recognised the fact by 
 granting him tunnage and poundage for life. 
 But the young king imperilled his position 
 by an imprudent marriage with the Lady 
 Elizabeth Grey of Groby, the widowed 
 daughter of a Lancastrian baron, Richard 
 WoodviUe, Lord Eivers, who had married 
 Jacquetta of Luxemburg, widow of his former 
 master, the Duke of Bedford. This marriage 
 displeased the Earl of "Warwick and the 
 Nevilles, who had planned a Burgundian or 
 French alliance, which would have secured 
 Edward IV.'s tin-one from foreign attacks in 
 aid of the Lancastrians. The marriage was 
 celebrated secretly in May, 1464, and was not 
 declared till Sept. 29. Soon Edward- IV. 
 showed an intention of raising his wife's 
 relations to power as a counterpoise to the 
 Nevilles, who tried to keep him dependent on 
 themselves. The breach between the king 
 and the Earl of Warwick rapidly widened, 
 and in 1467 there was an open rupture. 
 "Warwick wished for an alliance with France, 
 but Edward IV. turned to Burgundy, and 
 promised the hand of his sister Margaret to 
 the young Duke Charles the Bold. The 
 king's brother, the Duke of Clarence, followed 
 the usual policy of the heir presumptive, and 
 sided with Warwick. The hopes of the 
 Lancastrians revived. Edward IV.'s popu- 
 larity had gone, and in 1469 there was a 
 rising in the north of discontented peasantry, 
 led by " Robin of Redesdale." The Duke of 
 Clarence declared his aUianee with the Earl 
 of Warwick by marrjang his daughter 
 Isabella. Warwick and Clarence joined the 
 malcontent Commons in pressing for reforms. 
 Edward IV. was unprepared for resistance, 
 and was made prisoner by Archbishop Neville. 
 But Warwick saw that a division between 
 the Yorkists meant the success of the Lancas- 
 trians. Edward IV. was released, and a, 
 pacification was made. In March, 1470, there 
 was a rising in Lincolnshire, headed by Sir 
 Robert Wells, which Edward IV. put down 
 with promptitude and sternness. At the same 
 time he gained proofs that Warwick and 
 Clarence were plotting against him. They 
 fled to Prance, and entered into negotiations 
 with Queen Margaret. Edward I'V". showed 
 unexpected carelessness, and when, in Sept., 
 1470, Warwick landed in England, Edward 
 IV. was not prepared to meet him. Fiuding 
 
 himself deserted on every side, he fled to 
 Flanders, and a Lancastrian restoration was 
 easily accomplished. Gathering a few troops, 
 Edward IV. landed on March 14, 1471, at 
 Eavenspur, where Henry of Lancaster had 
 landed in 1399. Like him, he declared at 
 first that he had only come to claim his an- 
 cestral possessions, the duchy of York. Soon 
 he was proclaimed king, and pressed on to 
 Coventry, where Warwick was stationed. 
 Warwick, advised by Clarence to await his 
 arrival with reinforcements, refused to give 
 battle. Clarence betrayed his father-in-law 
 and joined his brother, who hastened to Lon- 
 don. Warwick pursued, and a. bloody battle 
 was fought at Barnet on Easter Day (April 14, 
 1471), in which Warwick was slain. The 
 victorious king then turned against Queen 
 Margaret, who had landed at Weymouth. He 
 overtook her forces at Tewkesbury, where he 
 again conquered on May 4th, and treated his 
 captives with ruthless severity. On May 21st 
 Edward TV. returned in triumph to London, 
 and on the same night Henry VI. died in the 
 Tower. Edward IV. was now rid of his 
 enemies. The Lancastrian claimants were 
 destroyed, the powerful nobles had faUen, 
 Edward IV. was secure upon the throne, the 
 people were weary of war, and there was no 
 one to oppose the will of the king. Edward 
 IV. used his victory as a means of extortion. 
 He gathered large sums of money, and his 
 obsequious Parliament granted him large 
 supplies. He obtained money by benevolences, 
 and was a skilful beggar. One day he called 
 on a rich widow, who gave him £20 for his 
 pretty face, and doubled the sum when he 
 gave her a kiss. The professed object for 
 which he gathered money was a war against 
 France. He allied himself with Charles of 
 Burgundy, and revived the old claim of 
 Edward III. on the French crown. In July, 
 1475, he led an army to Calais. The expe- 
 dition was a failure. The Duke of Burgundy 
 was engaged elsewhere, and did not join him. 
 He sent Mm a message to advance to St. 
 Quentin ; when Edward IV. arrived there, he 
 was greeted by a fire from the walls. In- 
 dignant at such treatment, he listened to the 
 overtures of Louis XL, who was wiUing to 
 pay a large sum for the friendship of England. 
 The English nobles were open to the bribes of 
 France, and a truce for seven years was con- 
 cluded, on condition that Louis XL paid 
 75,000 crowns, gave Edward IV. a pension of 
 50,000 crowns, and betrothed the Dauphin to 
 Edward IV.'s daughter Elizabeth. The two 
 kings met, Aug. 29th, on the bridge of 
 Pecquigny, which was divided by a lattice- 
 work into two halves. There the peace was 
 sworn, and Edward FV. returned inglorious 
 to England. Edward IV.'s policy of peace 
 was, however, wise for England. Gomnieroe 
 flourished, and the king himself was a success- 
 ful merchant. He was given to pleasure, and 
 loved magnificence. His court was disturbed 
 
Edw 
 
 (417) 
 
 Edw 
 
 by the quarrels of his brothers, the Dukes of 
 Clarence and Gloucester. Clarence was way- 
 ward, and at last Edward IV. resolved to rid 
 himself of his troublesome brother. Before a 
 Parliament, which was summoned in 1478, 
 Edward IV. accused Clarence of many offences, 
 chiefly of plotting with the Lancastrians in 
 1470. Clarence was attainted, and met hia 
 death in the Tower. For the next five years 
 there was no Parliament. Edward IV. pre- 
 ferred to raise money by stretching his pre- 
 rogative to the utmost. The disturbed state 
 of Scotland under James III. gave Edward 
 IV. some hope of extending his power in that 
 direction, and the Duke of Gloucester was 
 sent with an army to help the Duke of Albanj' 
 against the Scottish king. No permanent 
 result was gained. Nor was Edward IV. 
 more successful in his scheme for founding a 
 strong dynasty by means of family alliances. 
 He projected marriages for his daughters, but 
 they all failed. Louis XI. of France did not 
 abide by the Peace of Pecquigny, but in 
 1483 contracted the Dauphin to Margaret of 
 Austria, rejecting the marriage with Eliza- 
 beth of England. Edward IV. was stung by 
 the feeling that he was regarded as an up- 
 start by the courts of Europe. He showed 
 signs of again reviving his military schemes, 
 but was seized by an illness, the result of 
 evil living, and died on April 9, 1483, in his 
 forty-first year. He was a favourer of learned 
 men, cultivated, and magnificent. Hia per- 
 sonal qualities made him popular to the end. 
 But he was cruel, extortionate, and profligate. 
 The death of Clarence shows that he was 
 without natural feeling, and had all the cold- 
 heartedness of a selfish libertine. In the 
 wickedness of his piivate character he is 
 rivalled only by Jolrn amongst the kings of 
 England. 
 
 The best contemporaryauthorities are "William 
 ofWorcester ; Johu Walworth ; Kobert Fabyan, 
 Philippe deCommines ; The Paston Letters (with 
 Mr. Gairdner's valuable introductions). Later 
 writers : — Habiugton, Life of Edward IV.f in 
 Kennett ; Lingard, Hist. ofEna. ; Pauli, Snglische 
 Gesohichte. vol. v. : Stubbg, Const. Hist. 
 
 [M. C] 
 
 Edward V., King (J. Nov. 4, 1470, r. 
 April 9— June 22, 1483, d. 1483), the eldest 
 son of Edward IV., was created Prince of 
 Wales in 1471, and in 1479 Earl of Pem- 
 broke. In 1482 he was sent to Ludlow, in 
 the Welsh Marches, being under the guar- 
 dianship of his uncle. Earl Rivers, and at- 
 tended by other members of the Woodville 
 party. He was at Ludlow when his father 
 died, and almost immediately set out for 
 London. On April 29 he reached Stony 
 Stratford, where he was met the next day by 
 the Duke of Gloucester, who had arrested 
 Lord Rivers and Lord Richard Grey at 
 Northampton. The king renewed his 
 jpumey under Gloucester's charge, and 
 reached London on May 4. The Council 
 seems to have already recognised- Richard as 
 Hist.— 14 
 
 Protector, and the coronation was fixed for 
 June 22. The young king was lodged in the 
 Tower, his mother having taken sanctuary at 
 Westminster on hearing of the arrest of 
 Rivers and Grey. On June 13 Hastings was 
 arrested and executed, and about the same 
 time Rivers and Grey were beheaded at Pon- 
 tefract, whither they had been taken by 
 Richard's orders. Shortly after this the 
 queen was compelled to deliver up the young 
 Duke of York to Richard, who sent him to 
 join his brother in the Tower. The king's 
 deposition seems now to have been deter- 
 mined upon. On June 22, Dr. Shaw, brother 
 of the Lord Mayor, delivered a sermon at 
 Paul's Cross, in which he insisted that 
 Edward V. and his brother were illegitimate, 
 Edward IV. having been married, or at all 
 events betrothed, to Lady Eleanor Butler 
 previously to his marriage with Elizabeth 
 Woodville.' On the 2oth a deputation of 
 nobles and citizens of London waited on 
 Richard, ofEering him the crown, which he 
 accepted, and the next day began to reign as 
 Richard III. Meanwhile, the two young 
 princes remained in the Tower, where, at 
 some time between June and October, they 
 were certainly put to death by their uncle's 
 orders. The mystery in which this crime 
 was involved has led many writers to doubt 
 whether the murder actually took place, but 
 it must be remembered that even on the sup- 
 position that Richard, Duke of York, escaped, 
 Edward must have been murdered, and it 
 would have been the height of folly for 
 Richard III. to have put one of his nephews 
 to death and allowed the other to escape. 
 Nor are the murderers likely to have done 
 their work so badly as to have suffered the 
 escape of a boy, who, even if not taken by sur- 
 prise, would have been utterly unable to resist 
 them. Mr. Gairdner, who has thoroughly 
 investigated the whole circumstances of the 
 case, sums up the details of the murder thus : 
 " Some time after Richard had set out on 
 his progress (August, 1483), he sent a mes- 
 senger named John Green to Sir Robert 
 Brackenbury, the Constable of the Tower, 
 commanding him to put his two young 
 nephews to death. This order Brackenbury 
 would not obey, and Green returned to his 
 master at Warwick. Richard was greatly 
 mortified, but sent one Sir James Tyrell to 
 London, with a warrant to Brackenbury to 
 deliver up to him for one night all the keys 
 of the Tower. Tyrell thus took the place 
 into his keeping, and engaged the services of 
 Miles Forest, one of those who kept the 
 prince's chamber, and John Dighton, his own 
 groom, to carry out the wishes of the tyrant. 
 These men entered the chamber when the 
 two unfortunate lads were asleep, and 
 smothered them under pillows ; then having 
 called Sir James to see the bodies, buried 
 them at the foot of a staircase." The details 
 of the murder were obtained from a confession 
 
JEdw 
 
 418 ) 
 
 Edw 
 
 made by Sir James Tyrell in 1502, when 
 he was imprisoned in the Tower on a charg-e 
 of treason, and there is no reason for doubt- 
 ing its substantial accuracy ; in addition to 
 which, the story was corroborated by a dis- 
 covery made ' in the reign of Charles II., 
 when, under the staircase leading to the 
 chapel in the White Tower, the skeletons of 
 two young lads, whose apparent ages agreed 
 with those of the unfortunate princes, were 
 found buried. 
 
 Holinshed, ChvrniiGle-i ; Hal], ChronicUa : More, 
 ii/« 0/ Bdwftvd V. ; J. Gairdiier, Reign of Richurd 
 HI, ; Miss Hasted, Richard III. ; and the essay 
 on Richard III. in Pauli, A ufscitze zur Englischeu 
 Geschichte. TS J L 1 
 
 Edward VI. (i. Oct. 12, 1538, s. Jan. 28, 
 1547, d. June 21, 1553), was the son of Henry 
 VIII. and Jane Seymour, and was born at 
 Hampton Court. He was carefully educated 
 under the attention of reforming divines, and 
 became a zealous adherent of the new views of 
 religion. By the will of Henry VIII. he 
 succeeded to the throne under the regency 
 of a council of sixteen members, most of whom 
 were Reformers ; and, in defiance of the will, 
 the king's uncle, Edward Seymour, Earl of 
 Hertford, afterwards Duke of Somerset, ob- 
 tained for himself the title of Protector, with 
 the practical control of the government. In 
 religious matters the young Iring was willing 
 to second the reforming projects of Cranmer, 
 and willingly assented to the publication of 
 the new Liturgy in the Praj'er Book of 1549, 
 and the Act of llpformity. As early as 1542 
 " plan had been set on foot for the marriage 
 of Edward with the infant Princess Mary of 
 Scotland ; and it was partly in order to force 
 this marriage upon the Scots that Somerset 
 undertook the expedition in 1549, which cul- 
 minated in the fruitless victory of Pinkie. 
 The ill-success of Somerset's policy, both in 
 home and foreign affairs, brought about his 
 fall. The king, who had chafed at the 
 studious and retired life to which the Pro- 
 tector compelled him, easily yielded to the 
 influence of the Earl of Warwick, afterwards 
 Duke of Northumberland, and was probably 
 no unwilling actor in the series of events 
 which established the latter's ascendenc)'. 
 Edward, though, as his literary remains show, 
 he now took a lively interest in public affairs, 
 was still studious and much interested in reli- 
 gious matters. In 1552Cranmerissuedarerised 
 Liturgy, known as the Second Prayer Book of 
 King Edward VI., and the Forty-two Articles, 
 which were of a thoroughly Protestant 
 tendency. [Articles.] Meanwhile Edward's 
 health was failing. He was always delicate, 
 and his health, it is said, had been greatly 
 injured by Warwick's removal of him to 
 Windsor in 1550. Convinced of the necessity 
 of preserving the Protestant settlement, he 
 allowed himself to be persuaded by North- 
 umberland to alter the settlement of the 
 crown as arranged in Henry VIII.'s will, and 
 
 to make a will excluding Mary and Elizabeth 
 fi-om the succession in favour of Lady Jane 
 Grey, the daughter of Henry's niece, Frances, 
 Countess of Suffolk, and daughter-in-law of 
 Northumberland, which was subscribed by 
 the Privy Council, June 21, 1553. ' Then 
 Edward failed rapidly, and on July 6 died, 
 Northumberland being supposed by niany 
 people to have hastened the end by poison. 
 There is, however, no authentic evidence to 
 confirm the suspicion. Edward would seem 
 to have had much of the Tudor . talent and 
 some of the Tudor vices. He gave signs that 
 he might have become arbitrary and despotic. 
 His abilities were considerable. He was an ac- 
 complished scholar for his age, and his writings 
 show a sagacity altogether beyond his years, 
 and giving great promise for the future. 
 
 Mcholls, Literary Remai^is of Edward YI., 
 
 1857; Tytler, Hist, of Eng. under Edward VI. ; 
 
 Froude, Hist, of Eng.^ vols. iv. and v. 
 
 [S. J, L.] 
 
 Edward the Atheling (<?. 1057) was 
 the son of Edmund Ironside, and on the death 
 of his father, in 1017, he was sent first to 
 Sweden, and afterwards to Hungary. Here 
 he lived under the protection of King Stephen, 
 whose niece, Agatha, he married. In 1055. 
 Edward the Confessor sent for him as being 
 the nearest heir to the throne, and Edward 
 came to England in 1057, but died almost 
 immediately after he had landed. He left 
 three children — Edgar the Atheling, Mar- 
 garet, and Christina. 
 
 , Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; Freeman, "Norman Con- 
 quest. 
 
 Edward the Black Prince (J. 1330, d. 
 1376) was the eldest son of Edward III. and 
 of Philippa, and was bom at ' Woodstock, 
 June 15, 1330. He was created Duke of 
 Cornwall in 1337, and Prince of Wales in 
 1343. When only sixteen years of age he 
 was in nominal command of one of the 
 divisions of the English army at Crecy, and 
 throughout the French wars he played an 
 important part. In 1355 he commanded the 
 army which invaded south-eastern Fiance. 
 He marched from Bordeaux through Langue- 
 doc, burning and destroj-ing the towns and 
 villages, and converting the whole country 
 into a desert. The next year he marched 
 northwards, and was met by a great army 
 under King John near Poictiers, where 
 (Sept. 19, 1356) the Black Prince won a 
 splendid victory. In 1361 he married Joan, 
 the " Fair Maid of Kent," and in 1362 was 
 created Duke of Aquitaine, and received as his 
 patrimony the possessions of the English crown 
 in the south of France, the government of 
 which he assumed in 1 363. In 1367 he under- 
 took an expedition into Spain, to assist Don 
 Pedro of Castile in regaining the throne 'of 
 which he had been deprived by Henry of Tras- 
 tamare, aided by the French. Assisted by 
 a large body of the Free Companies, he crossed 
 the Pyrenees at the head of 30,000 men, and 
 
Edvr 
 
 (419) 
 
 Egb 
 
 atr Navarrete the Black Prince won the third 
 6i his great victories, and completely de- 
 feated Pedro's rival, Prince Henry, with 
 his French allies under Du Guesclin. But 
 the prince's army rapidly wasted away hy 
 sickness, and with his own health fatally 
 impaired, ,he was compelled to recross the 
 Pyrenees. On the hreaking out of war once 
 more between England and France in 1369, 
 Edward took Limoges hy storm, and merci- 
 lessly put to death aU the inhabitants, with- 
 out distinction of age or sex. In 1371 he re- 
 turned to England, and began to take a 
 prominent part in English politics as the 
 champion of the constitutional policy against 
 the corrupt court and Lancastrian party. He 
 took a large share in originating the measures 
 of the "Good Parliament" of 1376, though 
 by his death (June 8 of that year) the work 
 was to a great extent undone. The prince 
 was a gallant soldier, but his victories were 
 probably due to the great superiority of his 
 troops over the enemy more than to his own 
 generalship. Though full of the spurious 
 knight-errantrj' of the day, he was mercilessly 
 cruel in his campaigns. But in his later 
 years he showed some understanding of the 
 political difBculties in England, and was very 
 popular with the Commons. 
 
 Froissart, Chronicle ; Jehan 1e Bel, Chroniques ; 
 
 Pauli, Der Sehmarze Tvmz, 1869; Feaxson, Hist. 
 
 of Eng. in Fourteerdh Century ; Longman, Ed'iard 
 
 m. rs. J. L.] 
 
 Edward, son of Henry VI. (b. 1453, d. 
 1 471), was the only child of the king by Mar- 
 garet of Anjou. In 1454 he was created Prince 
 of "Wales ; the Yorkists asserting that he was 
 either a bastard or a changeling. After the 
 battle of Towton, he accompanied his mother 
 to Scotland. In 1470 he married Anne 
 NeviUe, daughter of the Earl of Warwick. 
 In 1471 he fell in the battle of Tewkesbury, 
 or was put to death immediately afterwards ; 
 but the story that he was stabbed by Jlichard 
 of Gloucester rests on no good authority. 
 
 Edward, son of Richard IIL (S. 1473, d. 
 1484), was the only child of this king and 
 i^nne Neville. In 1477 he was created Earl 
 of Salisbury, and in 1483 Prince of Wales 
 and Earl of Chester, and appoihted Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland. In February, 1484, 
 the members of the two houses of Parliament 
 took an oath to support his succession to the 
 throne, but two months afterwards he died. 
 
 . Edwin (Eadwine), King of Northumbria 
 (616—633), was the son of Ella, King of 
 Deira. Having been exiled by Ethelfred, he 
 took refuge with Eedwald of East Anglia. 
 After the death of Ethelfred, he obtained 
 •possession of the two kingdoms of Deira and 
 Bernicia, the sons of Ethelfred having fled to 
 Scotland. He conquered the little British 
 kingdom of Elmet, obtained suzerainty over 
 Man and Anglesey, extended his kingdom to 
 the Firth of Fortb, and founded Edinburgh, 
 
 which derives its'name from him. His most, 
 powerful rival was Cw^chehn of Wessex, who 
 attempted his assassination. This project 
 failed, and' Edwin defeated him in 626; but 
 Penda having made Mercia independent of 
 Northumbria, in alliance with the British 
 prince Cfedwalla, defeated and slew Edwin at 
 Heathfield in 633. Edwin's reign is chiefly 
 important for the conversion of Northumbria. 
 to Christianity. His second wife was Ethel-, 
 burh, daughter of Ethelbert of Kent, who 
 brought with her Paulinus the bishop, and 
 their influence, aided by Edwin's escape from 
 assassination and his victory over the West, 
 Saxons, was the means of his conversion. He 
 was baptised at York by Paulinus, who was, 
 made the first archbishop of that see. So, 
 great was the peace and tranquillity of 
 Northumbria under Edwin, that it was said 
 that a woman with her new-born babe might 
 have travelled from sea to sea without sus- 
 taining injury. 
 
 £ede, Ecclesiastical Sistm'y. 
 
 Edwy (Eadwig), Ktng (955—959), was 
 the son of Edmund, and succeeded to the 
 throne on the death of his uncle, Edred. 
 The account of his reign in the Anglo- 
 Saxon Chronicle is extremely meagre, and 
 subsequent writers who attempt to supply 
 details evidently write with strong prejudice. 
 What we can gather for certain is that 
 his brother Edgar was appointed sub-king 
 of Northumbria and Mercia ; that in 957 he 
 made himself practically independent of 
 Edwy ; that he was the enemy of Dunstan, and 
 the vigorous opponent of his policy, and that 
 of the ecclesiastical reformers. His marriage 
 with Elgiva was uncanonical, and seems to 
 have occasioned general discontent. In 958 
 Odo, the archbishop, divorced them, and the 
 next year Edwy died — whether murdered or 
 not it is impossible to decide. Ethelward tells 
 us that " he was called by the common people 
 the second Pankalus, meaning all-beautiful," 
 and that he was " much beloved." On the 
 other hand, John of WaUingford, a thirteenth 
 century chronicler, saj's of Edwy : " He loved 
 the peace of this world, which panders to all 
 vices, and is the mere ape of virtue, and to 
 it he limited his tastes. For he was given to 
 the pleasures of the flesh, was negligent, loved 
 only those who favoured his excesses, and 
 hated the good." This is a fair specimen of 
 the way he is spoken of by the monkish 
 historians, who, having taken Dunstan as 
 their hero, naturally regarded Edwy as the 
 type of all that is bad ; the king evidently ' 
 opposed " the policy which strove everywhere 
 to substitute monks for secular canons." 
 [Dunstan.] 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. 
 
 Egbert, King of the West Saxons (800 — 
 836), was bom about 775. On the death of 
 Cynewulf, he laid claim to the throne, but 
 Brihtic was elected, and he fled to 0£Ea, King 
 
Egf 
 
 ( 420 ) 
 
 Sid 
 
 of Mercia. Thither the vengeance of his 
 rival followed Mm, and he took refuge at the 
 court of Charles the Great. A close friend- 
 ship arose between the two, and Egbert 
 modelled his career on that of his benefactor. 
 In the year that Charles was crowned Em- 
 peror at Rome, Egbert, in his absence, was 
 elected, on the death of Brihtic, to the throne 
 of Wessex. He returned to England, and at 
 once set himself to win for himself a 
 superiority over the island, as Charles had 
 established a dominion on the Continent. 
 The greater part of his reign was spent in a 
 struggle with Mercia, a contest which began 
 before his return to assume the crown, and 
 culminated in a gxeat victory over Beomwulf 
 at EUandune (823), after which he annexed 
 the little kingdoms which had become Mercian 
 dependencies, and four years later the great 
 kingdom itself was reduced. The smaller 
 kingdoms of East Anglia, Kent, Essex, and 
 Sussex had previously submitted to him with- 
 out a blow, and shortly afterwards Northum- 
 bria, a prey to internal dissensions, owned his 
 overlordship, and was allowed, like East 
 Anglia and Mercia, to retain her line of 
 sovereigns as subordinate kings. Having 
 thus founded the kingdom of England, for 
 which, in acknowledgment of his high 
 position, he was deservedly honoured in the 
 Chronicles with the title of Bretwalda, 
 Egbert set himseli to reduce the Welsh, and 
 was as successful as he had previously been 
 over the Celtic inhabitants of Cornwall. Over 
 the Celts north of the Dee, however, his 
 power did not prevail. In this year ha 
 assumed the title of Sex Anglonim, but he 
 never, like Charles, ventured to aspire to 
 Imperial honours. Towards the end of 
 Egbert's reign an old enemy, the Danes, 
 began to re-appear. They harassed the 
 country terribly, and on one occasion defeated 
 the king in battle. In 835, however, he won 
 over them and the Cornish Welsh a great 
 battle at Hengestesdun, which for the time 
 checked their invasions. Though it is hardly 
 possible to gain a clear idea of Egbert's 
 personality, there can be no doubt that he 
 had in him the elements of a great ruler ; he 
 was almost uniformly successful in war, and 
 displayed a wise moderation in confining his 
 efforts to the acquisition of a great inde- 
 pendent monarchy. 
 
 Ai\glo-Saxmi Chron, ; Lappeu'be^g, Anglo- 
 Scu-'On Kings; Eoi>ertson, Hist. E.ssai/.s; Free- 
 man, morman Conquest, fL. C. S.l 
 
 Egfred(EoGFKiTH), King of Northumbria 
 (670 — 685), was the son and successor of 
 Oswy. The chief interest of his reign lies 
 in his relations with St. Wilfred (q.v.). He 
 was defeated by Ethelfred, and compelled to 
 restore Lindsny. He undertook an expedi- 
 tion against Ireland, where he is said to have 
 behaved with great cruelty, and after having 
 conquered Cumberland, he was slain by the 
 Picts at the battle of Nectansmere (68.5). 
 
 Zildou, John Soott, 1st Earl (5. 1751, 
 d. 1838), was born of humble parents at New- 
 castle-on-Tyne. At school he evinced such 
 remarkable ability as to awaken the interest 
 of a wealthy neighbour, who assisted in send- 
 ing him to Oxford. He obtained a fellowship 
 at University College, and was called to the 
 barin 1776. He rose rapidly, and was assisted 
 by the friendship of Lord Thurlow, who re- 
 cognised his ability, and in 1783 procured his 
 election for the borough of Weobly. In Par- 
 liament he warmly opposed Fox's East India 
 Bill, and on Pitt's accession to ofliice, gave 
 himreally important support, whensupportwas 
 badly needed by the young Premier. In 1788 
 his services were rewarded by his appointment 
 as Solicitor-General. In 1793 he became 
 Attorney-General, and in that ofSce he found 
 ample employment in the prosecutions which 
 were shortly afterwards instituted against 
 Home Tooke and other supposed revolutionary 
 characters. In 1799 he succeeded Eyre as 
 Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, and 
 was raised to the peerage as Baron Eldon. 
 When Pitt, two years afterwards, resigned on 
 the Catholic Question, Lord Eldon accepted 
 the Great Seal at the king's express desire, 
 and while holding that office he gained the 
 entire confidence of George III., and became 
 his most intimate friend and adviser. On the 
 accession to power of Fox and Lord Gren- 
 ville he resigned, and made room for Lord 
 Erskine, but again became Lord Chancellor 
 in April, 1807. For the next twenty years 
 he remained in uninterrupted possession of 
 the woolsack. He warmly took the part of 
 the Duke of York in 1809, and vigorously 
 opposed alike any relaxation in the severities 
 of the penal code and any concessions to the 
 Eoman Catholics. On the question of Ee- 
 gency, in 1811, Lord Eldon incurred very 
 warm censure from Lord Grey, for having on 
 several occasions forged the king's signature,' 
 when the king was himself incapable of 
 signing his name. On the Prince of Wales 
 becoming Regent, Lord Eldon soon ingratiated 
 himself with his new master by taking a very 
 decided part against the Princess Caroline, 
 and thus rendered himself very unpopular. 
 In 1814 he became an object for the ven- 
 geance of the mob in the Corn Law Eiots, 
 and narrowly escaped personal violence when 
 his house was attacked. As the outcry for 
 Catholic Emancipation became stronger. Lord 
 Eldon more strongly than ever opposed the 
 measure, and was greatly disappointed at the 
 admission of Canning to the cabinet on Lord 
 Castlereagh's death. When Canning became 
 Prime Minister (1827) he resigned the seal to 
 Lord Lyndhurst. He never held office again, 
 though to the very last he continued to oppose 
 the measures of the Whigs, especially the 
 Repeal of the Test Act. As a judge. Lord 
 Eldon holds high rank, and contributed much 
 towards making our system of equity into 
 a perfect whole. Sir H. Maine calls him 
 
Ele 
 
 421 
 
 Ele 
 
 " the first of our equity judges who, instead 
 of enlarging the jurisprudence of his court 
 by indirect legislation, devoted himself 
 through life to explaining and harmonising 
 it." His great fault was his hesitation in 
 deciding cases, the result being an enormous 
 increase in the cost of litigation, and a general 
 feeling among the public that Chancery pro- 
 ceedings were interminable. But the country 
 owes a debt of gratitude to him for having in- 
 stituted the office of Vice-Chancellor, and thus 
 relieving the stagnation on the Chancery side. 
 
 Ttviss, Life of Mdon; Campbell, Lives of the 
 Chancellors; S. Walpole, Hist. ofEng.from 1816. 
 
 [W. E. S.] 
 
 Eleaiuor of Aqnitaine (6- 1122, d. 
 1204) was the daughter of William, Count 
 of Poitou, and heiress not merely to that 
 province, but also to Saintonge, Auvergne, 
 Perigord, Angoumois, Guienne, and Gascony. 
 In 1137 she was married to Louis VII. of 
 France, thereby uniting the south with the 
 north of France. With him she went on the 
 Second Crusade, and her conduct on the 
 expedition and subsequently was so light, 
 that in 1132 she was divorced from Louis, 
 though the nominal ground for the separation 
 was consanguinity. In the same year she 
 married Henry of Anjou, who, two years 
 later, became King of England. From him 
 she became gradually estranged, and in 1173 
 encouraged her sons to rebel against their 
 father, for which she was seized and impri- 
 soned, and remained in captivity, with but 
 short intervals, for sixteen years. On her 
 husband's death, she was released by Richard, 
 and made regent of the kingdom in his ab- 
 sence ; and during his reign she did all in her 
 power to repress the ambition of John and 
 thwart the designs of Philip Augustus. She 
 collected the ransom for Richard, and herself 
 conveyed it to Germany. At Richard's death, 
 she came forward again as John's chief 
 adviser. She used her influence to exclude 
 Arthur, and took command of the army that 
 reduced Anjou to submission, and subsequently 
 went to Spain to fetch her grand-daughter, 
 Blanche of Castille. To the last moment of 
 her life she was engaged in political affairs, 
 and shortly before her end was striving hard 
 to keep to their allegiance the English barons, 
 while Philip Augustus was attacking Nor- 
 mandy. 
 
 Benedict of Petertorongli, Chronicle (EoUs 
 Series) ; Lyttelton, lAfe of Henry II. 
 
 Eleanor of Britanny {d. 1241) was the 
 daughter of Geoffrey Plantagenet and Con- 
 stance, Duchess of Britanny. After the death 
 of her brother Arthur, she inherited his claim 
 to the English crown, but was kept a prisoner 
 by John in Bristol Castle, where she remained 
 for many years, till she was permitted to retire 
 to the mmnery at Amesbury. 
 
 Eleanor of Castile {d. 1290), wife of 
 Edward I., was the sister of Alfonso IV. of 
 
 Castile. At her marriage with Edward in 
 1254, her brother renounced his pretensions 
 to Gascony. She accompanied her husband 
 on his crusade, and legend said saved his life 
 by sucking the poison from his wound, and 
 was crowned with him in August, 1274. Her 
 amiable character made her greatly beloved 
 by the people. If the least complaint of 
 oppression came anyhow to her ears, she en- 
 deavoured to redress the wrong, and her 
 large revenues were so administered that no 
 oppression by her officers was possible. On 
 her way to join her husband on his expedi- 
 tion to Scotland, she died at Grantham in 
 November, 1290. Her body was conveyed to 
 Westminster, and at each place where the 
 funeral procession halted a richly-carved 
 cross was erected. Thirteen in all of these 
 crosses were raised, but only three, those at 
 Northampton, Geddington, and Waltham, 
 remain. 
 
 Strickland, lAvea of the Queens of England, 
 
 Eleanor of Provence, Queen {d. 1291), 
 
 wife of Hencry III., was the daughter of 
 Raymond Berenger, Count of Provence. The 
 marriage of Henry and Eleanor took place in 
 1236, and the young queen almost imme- 
 diately obtained a complete ascendency over 
 her husband, which she used for the purpose 
 of advancing her friends and relatives. Her 
 uncle, Boniface of Savoy, was made Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, and other important 
 offices were conferred on the queen's numerous 
 relatives, who drained the land by their ra- 
 pacity and extortion. Still, the Provencal 
 marriage was not without its good results. 
 Provence was at this time the most cultured 
 state in Europe ; literature and the arts 
 flourished, and the court was the chosen resi- 
 dence of the troubadours and scholars of 
 Europe. Some of this culture found its way 
 into England, but it hardly compensated for 
 the great unpopularity which this influx of 
 foreigners brought on the king and queen. 
 A quarrel with the citizens of London on 
 account of a heavy duty which she insisted 
 they should pay her as queen on all ships 
 unladed at Queenhithe, and the rigorous 
 exaction of ' ' queen gold, " only increased the 
 general hatred of her. During the king's 
 absence from England in 1253 she was ap- 
 pointed Keeper of the Great Seal, and actually 
 sat as a judge in the Court of King's Bench. 
 In 1286 the hatred of the Londoners against 
 her culminated, and it needed a considerable 
 military escort to conduct her in safety from 
 the Tower to Windsor. In the Barons' War, 
 which she more than any one had helped to 
 bring about, she showed great determination 
 and courage, and after the battle of Lewes 
 had to take refuge in France. After the fall 
 of De Montfort, she returned, and had her 
 revenge on the citizens of London who were 
 fined 20,000 marks for their conduct towards 
 her. Soon after Edward I.'s accession she 
 
Ele 
 
 ( 422 ) 
 
 Ele 
 
 retired to the convent of Amesbury, where she 
 died in 1291. 
 
 Royal and Hist. Letters of Reign of Henry III. 
 
 (Bolls Series) j PauU, Englische Geschichte; 
 
 Blaauw, Barons' War. 
 
 Eleanor, daughter of King John {d. 
 1274), was married first to William Marshall 
 the Younger, and in 1238, secondly, to Simon 
 de Montfort. This latter marriage seems to 
 have heen a secret one, and quarrels soon 
 arose hetween Henry and De Montfort con- 
 cerning it. After the death of her husband 
 at Evesham (1265), Eleanor retired to France 
 and entered the nunnery of Montargis, 
 where she remained till her death. 
 
 Zilections, Parliamentary, are held in 
 virtue of writs issued either by the crown for 
 a new Parliament, or in cases of vacancy while 
 the House is in session out of Chancery by 
 the Speaker's warrant by order of the House. 
 These writs are addressed to the sherifia. 
 Until 7 Hen. IV. the sheriff had to make the 
 return in person in forty days. The election 
 was made in full county court, at the next 
 meeting of the court after the writ was re- 
 ceived. It appears that some persons were 
 specially summoned to the election, for at the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century the county 
 court was no longer generally attended by 
 great people. Much irregularity seems to 
 have prevailed in the election of knights of 
 the shire during the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries. Sometimes a crowd of the lower 
 class attended the court ; sometimes the elec- 
 tion was made by a few great people or their 
 stewards ; sometimes it was managed by 
 lawyers or interested persons, and often the 
 sheriff ordered matters as he liked. To secure 
 the return being in accordance with the elec- 
 tion, it was ordered by 7 Hen. IV., c. 15, that 
 it should be attested by the persons electing 
 in an indenture attached to the writ. The 
 indenture, however, was only signed by a few 
 of those who attended the court, and it seems 
 that sometimes the electors chose certain of 
 their number to exercise the common right 
 of voting. When this was the case, the dele- 
 gates signed on behalf of the whole body. 
 Elections for cities and boroughs were for- 
 m£lUy made in the county court under the 
 Plantagenet kings. The obligation of pay- 
 ment of members' wages caused the towns 
 to be anxious to escape from representation. 
 When the electors of a borough had made 
 their choice, it was reported to the sheriff in 
 the court. In case they failed to elect, he 
 caused members to be chosen from them along 
 with the knights of the shire. The ceremony 
 which came in later times to be called the 
 nomination, and to be incorrectly regarded as 
 something different to amere preliminary of the 
 election, was the ancient election itself in the 
 county court. If more than one candidate 
 was proposed, the election was decided by a 
 show of hands. As a seat in Parliament 
 
 became an object of ambition, the custom 
 arose of taking a poll of other electors who 
 might not at the time be present at the court. 
 A poll was taken only when demanded, and it 
 was at first incorrectly regarded as an act of 
 grace on the part of sheriffs to grant the de- 
 mand. There was no limit to the time during 
 which the sheriff might keep open the court 
 for the purpose of the poll, save the date on 
 which the writ was returnable. Polling in 
 the eighteenth century sometimes lasted for a 
 month, and in cases in which great efforts 
 were made to secure a seat, the whole period 
 was filled with drunkenness and riot. The 
 disgraceful scenes which marked the West, 
 minster election, 1784, resulted in an Act, 23 
 Geo. III., c. 84, limiting a poll to fifteen days, 
 and ordering that the scrutiny of votes should 
 be closed six days before the return was made. 
 In the ninth year of George IV. this period 
 was shortened to nine days in the case of 
 boroughs ; by 2 Will. IV., c. 45, to two dav s 
 both in borough and county elections, and by 
 16 and 17 Vict., 0. 15, to one day in both. 
 By 35 and 36 Vict., c. 33, the Ballot Act 
 [Ballot], a poll follows a disputed nomination 
 as a matter of course, without being specially 
 demanded. The use of voting papers in 
 university elections, provided for by 24 and 
 25 Vict., c. 53, stiU continues. 
 
 Disputed Elections were, up to the time of 
 Henry IV., decided by the crown. From 
 1410 inquiry as to the accuracy of the sheriff's 
 return was made by the judges, the ultimate 
 decision still remaining with the crown. The 
 House gained the right of deciding these 
 questions at the close of the sixteenth century. 
 In 1553 a committee of the House decided 
 against the validity of the election of Nowell, 
 a prebendary of Westminster. It successfully 
 upheld its right of judgment in these matters 
 against the will of Queen Elizabeth in 1586, in 
 the Norfolk election case, and in 1604, in the 
 case of Sir F. Goodwin, obtained from the 
 king the admission that it was the proper 
 judge of returns. This jurisdiction was exer- 
 cised at first by committees specially ap- 
 pointed, and then by the Committee of Privi- 
 leges and Elections. It became the custom to 
 admit members who were either privy coun- 
 cillors or barristers to this committee, though 
 not nominated to it. Prom this cause the 
 committee, by the end of the seventeenth 
 century, was held to be open ; and for the 
 sake of orderly management these cases were 
 soon tried at the bar of the House. Election 
 petitions were thus decided by a trial of the 
 strength of contending parties, without regard 
 to the facts of the case. To remedy this evil, 
 the GrenvUle Act, 1770, prorided for the elec- 
 tion of a committee (by a mixed system of 
 ballot and selection) for the adjudication of 
 election cases. Although this Act effected an 
 improvement in the practice of the House, it 
 still left election questions within the area of 
 party politics, an'd by allowing either party to 
 
Ele 
 
 (423 ) 
 
 Ele 
 
 strike out ia , certain number of the names 
 chosen by ballot, to commit the decision of these 
 cases to the weakest men of both sides. By 
 the Election Petitions and Corrupt I'raetices 
 Act, 1868, 31 and 32' Vict., c. 125, these ques- 
 tions were plaued under the jurisdiction of the 
 Court of Common Pleas, as far as concerns the 
 facts of an election which has been questioned 
 by petition. Such petition must now, by 
 this Act, be presented to the Common Pleas 
 Division of the High Court of Justice, and the 
 corresponding courts in Scotland and Ireland. 
 A judge of these courts tries the petition in 
 the county or borough to which it refers. 
 After he has heard the case, he makes a report 
 to the Speaker as to the validity of the elec- 
 tion, the prevalence of corrupt practices, the 
 knowledge of the candidate concerning such 
 practices, and the names of those who are 
 guilty of them. The House then acts on the 
 report in the same way as it would have acted 
 on the report of an election committee. The 
 House has not given up its constitutional right 
 of deciding questions concerning the right to 
 its seats by the Elections, &c.. Act ; . it has 
 simply made over such questions as are raised 
 by petition to a court of common law for in- 
 vestigation and decision. 
 
 Corrupt Fractices at Elections. — These, be- 
 sides direct briber}', include treating and undue 
 influence of various kinds. By the Corrupt 
 Practices Act, 1868, if the judge reports particu- 
 lar persons as guilty of such practices, the report 
 is laid before the Attorney-General, who in- 
 stitutes a prosecution against them at his dis- 
 cretion, without the intervention of the House. 
 If the report declares that such practices have 
 extensively prevailed in a constituency, the 
 House generally suspends the writ, and if the 
 report is confirmed by further inquiry, dis- 
 franchises the constituency by Act of Parlia- 
 ment. The various acts which imply undue 
 influence or corruption were carefully defined 
 by the Corrupt Practices Act of 1883, and 
 very stiiugent penalties enacted against prin- 
 cipals as well as their agents found guilty 
 of these practices. [Bkiheky.] The House 
 is very strict as regards influence, and in 
 1641 and 1802 made declarations to the 
 effect that any interference in election 
 matters by peers was a breach of privi- 
 lege. From the scope of the latter de- 
 cluration Irish peers elected for a seat in the 
 House are exempt. To secure the freedom 
 of election, an Act (10 and 11 Vict., c. 21) 
 orders that soldiers shall be restrained in 
 barracks during the day of a poll, except for 
 the purpose of voting or on necessary duty. 
 
 Electors. — By the destruction of the in- 
 fluence of feudalism on the constitution, the 
 lesser tenants-in-chief were merged in the 
 general body of freeholders. In the Parlia- 
 ment of Edward I. the Commons did not 
 consist of the lesser tenants of the crown 
 mentioned in the Great Charter, art. 14, but 
 pf representatives elected by the freeholders 
 
 in counties, by certain electors in boroughs, 
 and by the clergy. In counties, the original 
 electors were those who composed the county 
 court in which the election was held. By 
 the end of the fourteenth century it seems 
 that many came to, and took part in, an 
 election who were not suitors of the court. 
 While an Act of 1406 restrained the undue 
 power of the sheriif in making returns, it 
 did not give the freeholders the sole right 
 of election. This was not secured until 1430, 
 (8 Hen. VI., c. 7), and was then limited to a 
 part of them. This Act declares that elections 
 are. wont to be made ''by persons of small 
 substance and no value," and limits the -right 
 of voting to resident holders of free land of 
 the clear annual value of 40s., and two years 
 after it was enacted that the qualifying free- 
 hold should he within the county. By these 
 statutes the quality of tenure, and not the 
 quantity of interest, was regarded. For 
 instance, a life estate in a freehold above the 
 specified value conferred a qualification, while 
 no estate in copyhold could do so, even 
 though it were one of inheritance ; and copy- 
 holders were expressly excluded from the 
 franchise by 31 Geo. II., c. 14. The franchise 
 in cities and ioroughs before 1832 was not 
 determined by any general statute, but by 
 special acts, by charters, or by usage. Thus 
 in London, the parliamentary franchise 
 followed the municipal, and was exercised at 
 dififerent periods by representatives of the 
 wards, by the common councilmen, and by 
 the liverymen of the companies. The exclu- 
 sive policy of corporations tended to restrict 
 the franchise in most chartered boroughs, so 
 that ultimately a co-optative oligarchy alone 
 had any voice in the election. In some 
 others it had a popular character, and, 
 in default of any contrary usage or charter, 
 belonged to inhabitant householders, or else, 
 as "in Bristol, which was a county of itself, to 
 the 40s. freeholders. Borough franchise, in- 
 deed, was altogether a matter of local law. 
 The representation of the clergy was the 
 same in extent and mode as in the election 
 of proctors for Convocation (q.v.). University 
 representation was established by James I., 
 and in this ease the right to vote has be- 
 longed to all who by their degree constitute 
 the governing body of the Universities, 
 even though non-resident. By the Reform 
 Bill of 1832, 2 "Will. IV., c. 45 [Eefoum ; 
 EEmESENTATios], thc quaUficatiou was ex- 
 tended in counties so as to include (1) copy- 
 holds, of which persons were seised either in 
 law or equity, either of inheritance or for life, 
 of the clear annual value of £10^ (2) Lease- ■ 
 holds, for the unexpired portion of a term of 
 sixty years of the annual value of £10, or of 
 a term of twenty years of the annual value of 
 £5. It also created (3) an occupation qualifi- 
 cation for a tenant of lands, &c., at a clear 
 rent of £30, paid yearly. While, however, it 
 preserved the qualification conferred (4) by 
 
Ele 
 
 ( 424 ) 
 
 me 
 
 freeholds of inheritance, it provided that 
 freehold estates for life, of which the annual 
 value was less than ,£10, should not confer a 
 vote, unless there was bona fide occupation, 
 or where such freeholds had been acquired by- 
 marriage, devise, &c. As regards cities and 
 boroughs, the Act retained some rights per- 
 manently, e.g., those of the freemen and 
 liverymen of London, of freeholders and burg- 
 age tenants in cities which were also counties, 
 &c. Some rights were retained temporarily, 
 as those of freemen and burgage tenants in 
 boroughs, of inhabitant householders, &c., 
 and the franchise was extended in favour of 
 the sole occupiers of any premises of the 
 annual value of £10. In Scotland, the county 
 franchise was fixed (2 Will. IV., c. 65) at a 
 £10 ownership, and included some classes of 
 leasehold. The borough franchise included 
 £10 householders. In Ireland at the time of 
 the Catholic Emancipation Act, the qualifica- 
 tion in counties was raised from a 40s. to a 
 £10 freehold. In 1832 it was extended by 
 the admission of certain leaseholds and £10 
 copyholds. By the Reform Mil of 1867, 30 
 and 31 Vict., c. 102, the franchise stood 
 thus — in counties, (1) the old 40s. freeholders 
 in fee ; (2) the holders of a hf e estate from 
 40s. to £5, if of freehold tenure and with 
 occupation; (3) of any Uf e estate above £5; 
 (4) of the remainder of a lease of sixty years 
 of the valueof £5 ; (5) occupiersof land, &c., for 
 twelve months, rated at not less than £12; (6) 
 occupiers whose rent is assessed at £50. In 
 cities and boroughs it was extended to (1) aU 
 resident householders or rated occupants 
 of dwelling-houses, after payment of one 
 year's rates; (2) all rated occupants of 
 premises other than houses, of the value of 
 £10 ; (3) all who have for twelve months 
 been in the separate occupation of the same 
 lodgings, which are, if unfurnished, of the 
 yearly value of £10. The lodger franchise 
 has, by 41 and 42 Vict., c. 26, been declared 
 to include an office, studio, shop, &c. A 
 change of apartments in the same house is 
 not held to be a change of lodgings. In 
 Scotland, by 31 and 32 Vict., c. 48, the fran- 
 chise is granted, in counties, to a £5 ownership 
 and a £14 occupation. A household and a 
 lodger franchise were also fixed in boroughs. 
 In Ireland, by 13 and 14 Vict., c. 69, an 
 estate in fee or for life of the annual value of 
 £5, or an occupation of the value of £12, con- 
 ferred a vote for a county, and a rated occu- 
 pation of £8 for a borough election. By the 
 JHsh Reform Act, 1868, a household occupa- 
 tion rated at £4 and a lodger franchise of £10 
 were created in boroughs. The county fran- 
 chise remained unchanged. In 1884, Mr. 
 Gladstone introduced another Reform Bill, 
 intended to apply to the whole of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, and to assimilate the 
 franchise in counties with that in boroughs. 
 By this Act the franchise was to be granted 
 to (1) aU resident male householders or rated 
 
 occupants of dwelling-houses ; (2) lodgers ; 
 (3) certain persons not occupying separate 
 tenements or apartments, but Uving in houses 
 occupied by others, who were to vote under 
 what was called the " service franchise." 
 Disqualification under aU the reform bills 
 attaches to females, aliens, infants, &c., to 
 all peers except such Irish peers who have 
 been elected to a seat, to certain revenue 
 officers, to pohce constables, to those in 
 receipt of parochial relief, and to some few 
 others. Irish CathoUcs were admitted to the 
 franchise in 1793, on taking the oaths of 
 allegiance and abjuration. In 1829, Mr. 
 Peel, among other measures of CathoHc 
 Emancipation, carried a new form of oath, by 
 which Catholics were enabled to vote without 
 doing violence to theix convictions. And 
 finally, by 5 and 6 Vi^ill. IV., c. 36, all oaths 
 in connection with the right of electors are 
 done away. Every one claiming to exercise a 
 right to vote for a member of ParKament 
 must see that his name is registered in a hst 
 drawn up by the overseers of the parish in 
 which his quahfication Hes. These lists are 
 afterwards revised in open court by revising 
 barristers, who decide on objections and claims. 
 An appeal hes to the Common Pleas from the 
 decision of these officers. 
 
 Persons Elected. — During the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, the terms of the writs which specified 
 the condition of men who were to be elected 
 were constantly varied. Efforts were made 
 to procure the election of " belted knights," 
 or at least of squires of good position, as 
 county members, and of men of the higher 
 class of burgesses for borough members ; and 
 to exclude sheriffs, lawyers, and " maintainors 
 of quarrels." It was important that the re- 
 presentatives of the Commons should be of a 
 rank which would make them independent of 
 crown influence or of private advantage. 
 Notwithstanding these efforts, it was often 
 found impossible to secure men of the position 
 required by the writs. The exclusion of the 
 clergy in 1371 was the result of special cir- 
 cumstances. Lawyers were several times ex- 
 cluded {e.g., 1402) because it was thought they 
 took advantage of their position as members 
 to forward the interests of their clients. 
 By 1 Hen. V., c. 1, residence was declared a 
 necessary qualification. This statute was, 
 however, constantly disregarded, and is ex- 
 pressly repealed by 14 Geo. III., c. 58. A 
 qualification in real estate was adopted 9 
 Anne, u. 5, and was fixed at £600 a year for 
 county, and £300 for borough members. By 
 1 and 2 Vict., c. 48, personalty might be 
 reckoned in making up the required sum, and 
 now by 21 and 22 Vict., c. 26, all property 
 qualification is abolished. Disqualification 
 attaches to females, aliens, infants, &c., to all 
 peers, except Irish non-representative peers, to 
 clergy of the Church of England (by 41 Geo. 
 III., c. 63), to Roman Catholic clergy (by 10 
 Geo. IV., c. 7), to sheriffs and other returning 
 
£If 
 
 (425 ) 
 
 Eli 
 
 ofiScers aa regards their own sphere of ofiSce, to 
 govemment contractors, bankrupts, and those 
 convicted of felony or of corrupt practices at 
 elections under the Acts- on that subject. 
 Persons holding certain places of profit under 
 the crown wMch do not include those of 
 the various ministers and officials at the head 
 of the great departments of the State, were 
 disqualffied by 6 Anne, o. 7. In most cases, 
 pensions held during pleasure entail disquali- 
 fication. The CathoKo EeHef BiU, 1829, ad- 
 mitted Roman Catholics to both Houses of 
 Parliament on taking a special oath provided 
 for such cases. Jews, , though elected by a 
 constituency, were shut out from the House 
 by the terms of the Parliamentaxy oath untO 
 1858, when the oath was so altered that they 
 were able to take it. [Oaths.] By the 29 
 and 30 Vict., c. 19, all distinctions or dis- 
 abilities grounded on religion have been 
 removed, the sole condition of admission 
 to the House of a member elected by a 
 constituency, and not otherwise disqualified, 
 being that he take the oath prescribed by 
 that statute. From this obligation Quakers, 
 Moravians, and Separatists are at present 
 (1884) alone exempted. 
 
 Cartei^s Rogers on. the Law of Elections, ed. 
 1880 ; Stubbs, Const. Hist., cb. xv., xx. ; May, 
 Const, llisb.f cb. vi., vHi j May, Parliamentary 
 Practice. ["W". H.] 
 
 Elf gar (Mi,tbab), eon of Leofric, was 
 made Earl of East AngUa on the outlawry of 
 Harold in 1051, but in the next year, Harold 
 being restored, he lost his earldom. In 1053 
 he once more received the earldom. In 1055 
 he was accused of treason, and banished, when 
 he allied himself with the Welsh, and ravaged 
 Herefordshire, but was compelled to submit 
 by Harold ; was received again into the royal 
 favour, and was restored to his earldom. On 
 the death of Leofric, he was made Earl of 
 Mercia. In 1058 he was again outlawed, and 
 again pardoned. He died probably in the 
 year 1062, and was succeeded in his earldom 
 by his son Edwin. His daughter Aldgyth 
 married (1) Griffith, Prince of North Wales, 
 and (2) Harold. 
 
 Anglo-Sa,xon CTw-on. ; Freeman, Norman Cmi- 
 qilest, ii. 161. 
 
 Elgiva. (JElfgifu) was the wife of King 
 Edwy (q.v.). As she was within the pro- 
 hibited degrees, Dunstan and Odo endeavoured 
 to get Edwy to divorce her, and at length, in 
 958, this was done. Of her subsequent 
 history we know nothing, the stories of the 
 cruelty of Odo and Dunstan towards her 
 resting on no good authority. 
 
 Eliot, Sir John (b. 1570, d. 1632), a 
 member of an old Cornwall family, was 
 educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and 
 studied law in London. In 1614 he entered 
 Parliament as member for St. Germans, and 
 at once rose into prominence as one of the 
 foremost orators of the time. Early in life 
 Hist.— 14* 
 
 he had formed a close friendship with Buck- 
 ingham, and received from him the appoint- 
 ment of Vice-Admiral of Devon. In this 
 capacity he distinguished himself by his 
 energy in the suppression of piracy ; but this 
 raised up powerful enemies against him, and 
 during Buckingham's absence in Spain he was 
 imprisoned on a false charge laid against him 
 in connection with his capture of a pirate 
 named Nutt. On the retuim of Buckingham, 
 in 1623, Eliot was released, and took his seat 
 in the Parliament which met that year, and 
 immediately came forward as one of the pro- 
 minent champions of constitutional rights. 
 In the Parhament of 1625 he was strongly in 
 favour of putting into execution the kws 
 against the Roman Catholic recusants, and 
 opposed Wentworth on the question of the 
 latter's election for Yorkshire. In the second 
 Parliament of Charles I. (1626), Eliot was 
 the recognised leader of the constitutional 
 party. He moved an inquiry into the mis- 
 management of the govemment, and was 
 foremost in demanding that the conduct of 
 Buckingham should be investigated. In con- 
 sequence (May 11, 1626), he was imprisoned 
 in the Tower, but set at liberty after a few 
 days. In 1627 EHot was one of those who, 
 with Hampden and Wentworth, refused tO" 
 contribute towards the forced loan levied by 
 the crown, and was imprisoned in the Gate- 
 house. In the Parliament of 1628 he was 
 again foremost in the attack on royal mis- 
 government, and bore the chief share in 
 drawing up the Remonstrance and Petition of 
 Right. On the dissolution of the Parliament 
 he was imprisoned in the Tower (March, 
 1629). In spite of his application for a 
 habeas corpus, he was not released. An infor- 
 mation was laid against him by the Attorney- 
 General in the Court of King's Bench for 
 entering into a conspiracy to resist the king's 
 orders, and the judge sentenced him to be 
 fined £2,000 and not to be released till he 
 acknowledged his fault. He was kept in 
 confinement, and his health was broken by 
 the harsh treatment he received, and, on 
 Nov. 27,^ 1632, he died. During his imprison- 
 ment he wrote a treatise called the Monarchy 
 of Man, which embodied his views on the 
 theory of constitutional monarchy. Eliot was 
 one of the ablest as well as the most estimable 
 of the popular leaders of Charles I.'s reign. 
 " Great as his intellectual powers were," says 
 Mr. Gardiner, " it was not by mere force ot 
 intellect that he won his way to distinction. It 
 was the moral nature of the man, his utter self- 
 forgetfulness, which made him what he was." 
 J Forster, Sir J. Eliot ; S. E. Gardiner, Hist. 
 ofEng., 1603—1642, v. 186, &o. [g_ J. L] 
 
 Elizal)etll, Queen (*. Sept. 7, 1533, 
 s. Nov. 17, 1558, d. Mar. 24, 1603), -the 
 daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, 
 was bom at Greenwich on Sept. 7, 1533. 
 On the death of her mother, she was 
 
Eli 
 
 ( 42& 
 
 Eli 
 
 sent to the castle of Hunsdon, wiiere she 
 and her half-sister Mary were brought up 
 hy Lady Margaret Bryan. Afterwards she 
 shared the studies of her half-brother Edward, 
 who became greatly attached to her. On 
 the accession of Edward VI., she was 
 committed to the care of Catherine, the 
 Queen Dowager, who soon married Thomas 
 Seymour, the brother of the Protector, 
 Somerset. Thomas Seymour showed that he 
 nourished ambitious schemes, and he was 
 suspected of using the opportunities which 
 his marriage gave him of trying to win the 
 afEections of Elizabeth. Catherine died in 
 1648, and Thomas Seymour's conduct towards 
 EHzabeth was one of the charges brought 
 against him, and was the subject of a rigorous 
 inquiry, in which the young girl conducted her- 
 self with great dexterity. Seymour was be- 
 headed, and Elizabeth was closely watched at 
 Hatfield. Here she pursued her studies under 
 the direction of William Grindal and Eoger 
 Ascham, and acquired a reputation for learn- 
 ing. In the plot of Northumberland to 
 secure the throne for the Lady Jane Grey, 
 Elizabeth took no part, and on Mary's acces- 
 sion, was treated by her with consideration. 
 The Imperial ambassadors doubted about 
 Elizabeth, and Mary worked hard for her 
 conversion to Romanism. Elizabeth judged 
 it wise to give way, and on Sept. 9, 1553, 
 attended the mass. As Mary's marriage 
 project with Philip of Spain advanced, her 
 suspicions of Elizabeth increased, and in De- 
 cember Elizabeth left the court, and retired to 
 Ashridge, in Buckinghamshire. Mary wished 
 to marry Elizabeth to Edward Courtenay, 
 but Courtenay refused. Wyatt's rebellion 
 brought Elizabeth and Courtenay into sus- 
 picion. Elizabeth was arrested in Feb., 1554, 
 and was thrown into the. Tower. Every 
 effort was made to obtain evidence against 
 her, but without success. In May she was 
 released, but was committed to the care of 
 Sir Henry Bedingfield, and was sent to "Wood- 
 stock. Philip of Spain, on his aixival in 
 England, showed more consideration towards 
 Elizabeth. He wished to marry her in such 
 a way as to promote his own political plans. 
 First, a marriage with the Duke of Savoy was 
 proposed, and in April, 1553, Elizabeth was 
 summoned to Hampton Court, whence, at the 
 end of the year, she went to Hatfield. It 
 needed all her cleverness to escape the mar- 
 riage with the Duke of Savoy, which would 
 have sent her away from England. When 
 this was abandoned, there came a proposal for 
 Eric of Sweden, son of Gustavus Wasa, which 
 was also refused. Elizabeth in her early 
 days found herself surrounded by snares. 
 She learned- to trust no one, to act circum- 
 spectly, to assume an ambiguous attitude 
 which did not commit her to anything defi- 
 nite, and to be prepared for any emergency. 
 Mary on her death-bed, Nov. 6, 1558, nomi- 
 nated Elizabeth as her successor, in the hope 
 
 that she would maintain the Eoman Catholic 
 religion. PhiKp of Spain trusted that he 
 would find in -Elizabeth a complaisant ally. 
 When Elizabeth succeeded to the crown, on 
 Nov. 17, 1568, she had already gained a 
 large experience of the world and the diffi- 
 culties which beset her. She never forgot 
 that her position must be maintained by 
 herself alone, and that her interests were not 
 those of any particular party or system. She 
 never laid aside her skill in balancing her- 
 self between opposing parties and husband- 
 ing her resources so as to profit by their 
 mistakes. 
 
 At the accession of Elizabeth England was 
 ■without money and without resources, and 
 was engaged on the side of Spain in war with 
 France. Philip II. wished to maintain the 
 English alliance, and offered his hand to 
 Elizabeth. But the marriage -with Philip 
 needed a dispensation from the Pope ; and 
 Paul IV. was under the influence of France. 
 He was ready to impugn the legitimacy 
 of Elizabeth. Whatever doubts she might 
 have had about her policy on her acces- 
 sion, she soon saw that the defence of Pro- 
 testantism at home and peace with France 
 abroad were necessary for her own security. 
 Her first measures were directed to a religious 
 settlement. In this matter she reverted to her 
 father's plan : freedom of the English Church 
 from the supremacy of the Pope, and from 
 beliefs and practices which were unknown to 
 the primitive Church, but a retention of its 
 Catholic foundation. 'This plan suited neither 
 the Calvinists nor the adherents of the old 
 faith. But Elizabeth appointed a committee 
 of divines to revise the Prayer Book of 
 Edward VI., and Parliament in 1559 re- 
 established the royal supremacy, approved 
 the revised Prayer Book, and enforced its use 
 by the Act of Uniformity. Many of the 
 bishops refused obedience, and were deprived 
 of their sees. The new Archbishop' of Canter- 
 bury, Matthew Parker, was the chief helper 
 of the queen in carrying out her ecclesiastical 
 policy, and a body of commissioners, who 
 afterwards grew into the Court of High 
 Commission, were appointed to exercise the 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the crown. 
 
 But the greatest danger that Elizabeth had 
 to face was the fact that the next in order of 
 succession to the English crown was Mary 
 Queen of Scots. The party in England that 
 was favourable to the old religion would have 
 welcomed her against Elizabeth. Mary was 
 supported by the influence of the Guises in 
 France, and it was possible that Philip of Spain 
 might unite with them to put down heresy in 
 England. Elizabeth was urged by Parliament 
 to marry, and she looked round for some foreign 
 alliance. But she clearly saw the difficulties 
 that beset her. If she married a Protestant, 
 she would destroy the hopes of the Catholics 
 in a_ peaceful accession of Mary ; if she 
 married a Catholic, her husband would either 
 
EU 
 
 (427) 
 
 Eli 
 
 he some insignificant person, or her marriage 
 would draw lier into political combinations 
 which would sacrifice the independence of 
 her position. Many husbands were proposed, 
 but she refused them all. It was thought 
 that her personal preference was for Robert 
 Dudley, Earl of Leicester ; but she abstained 
 from a marriage which would be unpopular 
 and politically useless. She used marriage 
 projects as means of political temporising, to 
 a degree which was often ludicrous. She 
 encouraged in her court a fantastic devotion 
 td her person, and gloried in the title of the 
 " Virgin Queen." The progress of the Refor- 
 mation in Scotland gave Elizabeth a means of 
 streng-thening herself against Mary. In Jan. , 
 1560, she entered into the Treaty of Berwick, by 
 which she undertook to aid the rebel lords in 
 expelling the French, who, under the queen 
 regent, Slary of Guise, garrisoned Edinburgh. 
 She was rewarded by the withdrawal of the 
 Erench, and the agreement that Mary and 
 Francis II. should ky aside their pretensions 
 to the English crown. In Dec, 1560, Francis 
 II. died, Mary refused to sign the Treaty of 
 Edinburgh, and in Aug., 1561, landed in 
 Scotland, the avowed agent of the policy of 
 the Guises. For the next few years the 
 history of England centres round the secret 
 war which was waged with feminine astuteness 
 between the -two queens. Elizabeth wished 
 Mary to resign her claim to the English 
 succession, offered her an alliance, and agreed 
 to- recognise her as successor. Mary refused 
 to give up her claim for a doubtful boon. 
 She hoped to win back Scotland to Catholicism, 
 and looked about for a husband who would 
 help her. When, in 1565, she married 
 Damley, it was a great blow to Elizabeth, 
 who aided Murray and the rebel lords, but 
 afterwards disavowed them. The birth of a 
 son to Mary BtUl further strengthened her 
 position ; but the murder of Darnley and the 
 marriage with BothweU destroyed Mary's 
 hold on Scotland, and relieved Elizabeth from 
 Some anxiety. Mary's flight to England in 
 1568 placed Elizabeth in a difiicult position. 
 She could not make common cause with 
 rebels against their queen, and thereby give 
 a dangerous example ; she could not restore 
 Mary to the Scottish throne against the wish 
 of her subjects ; she could not leave Mary at 
 large in England to be a centre for Catholic 
 plots ; and she did not wish to send her to 
 France, where she would be an instrument 
 in the hands of the Catholic party. The 
 'f Casket Letters " (q.v.) were used to blacken 
 Mary's character ; she was refused an inter- 
 view, and was kept in confinement in England. 
 It was not a magnanimous policy, but it was 
 characteristic of Elizabeth's caution. _ Still, 
 Mary as a nrisoiierwas powerful for mischief. 
 There was a plan to marry her to the Duke of 
 Norfolk, and there was a dangerous rising m 
 the north in favour of the old religion. The 
 Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland 
 
 advanced to Durham, and ordered the mass to 
 be celebrated in the cathedral. But the Catho- 
 lies as a body did not rise ; the rebellion was 
 put down with severity by the Earl of Sussex, 
 and England at the end of 1569 was again 
 peaceful. 
 
 In 1570 Pope Pius V. proceeded to the 
 excommunication of Elizabeth, and religious 
 strife was consequently aroused in England. 
 Parliament in 1571 retaliated by repressive 
 measures against the Catholics. It was 
 declared high treason to call the queen a 
 heretic or to name her successor. The 
 Established Church was more vigorously set 
 up as a standard of orthodoxy, and Catholics 
 and Puritans were alike required to conform. 
 The scheme for the liberation of Mary and 
 her marriage with the Duke of Norfolk 
 was revived by foreign aid. A Florentine, 
 Ridolfl, negotiated between the English 'con- 
 spirators and the Pope and Philip II. Sup- 
 plies were to be furnished from abroad, and 
 the Duke of Alva, from the Netherlands, was 
 to help with 10,000 men. The plot, however, 
 was discovered by the vigilance of Burleigh, 
 who had succeeded in organising the intel- 
 ligence department of the government into 
 great efficiency. The Spanish ambassador 
 was dismissed from England ; the Duke of 
 Norfolk was imprisoned, and afterwards be- 
 headed on June 2, 1572. Philip II. was pre- 
 vented by the affairs of the Netherlands and 
 the doubtful condition of France froni taking 
 any steps against England for the time, and 
 from 1572 to 1576 England was left in peace. 
 In 1576, Philip II.'s half-brother, Don 
 John of Austria, was sent as governor to the 
 Netherlands. He was ambitious of invading 
 England and marrying Mary of Scotland. 
 He failed, however, to pacify the Nether- 
 landers, and his failure led to his untimely 
 death through disappointment. To obtain 
 foreign help, the Netherlands welcomed as 
 their prince the brother of the French king, 
 the Duke of Anjou. Negotiations were long 
 continued for the marriage of the Duke 
 of Anjou to Elizabeth, which would 
 have marked an alliance of England and 
 France against Spain. If Elizabeth could 
 have been certain of securing this end, she 
 would have consented to the marriage. As it 
 was, she affected great coyness as a means of 
 gaining time. Her doubts were justified. 
 The Duke of Anjou failed in the Netherlands, 
 because he tried to override the constitution. 
 Elizabeth saw that there was no hope of a 
 firm alliance with France. In England she 
 was exposed to the incessant plots of the 
 Catholic party, who tried to raise Ireland 
 against her. In 1579 James Fitzmaurice, 
 brother of the Earl of Desmond, landed with 
 Spanish troops, and took possession of the 
 Fort of Smerwick, near Kerry. It was in- 
 stantly besieged by the deputy, Lord Grey de 
 Wilton, and was driven to surrender, whereon 
 the Spaniards were massacred by a body of 
 
EU 
 
 (428 ) 
 
 EU 
 
 troops under the command of Sir Walter 
 Baleigli. Hatred of Spain had become a 
 principle in the minds of Englishmen, and 
 their attempt on Ireland was mercilessly put 
 down. More active than soldiers were the 
 Jesuit missionaries, who, in 1580, were sent to 
 England to revive the spirits of the Catholics. 
 "With unflinching boldness and great dexterity 
 they travelled about England, and organised 
 the Catholic party. Chief of these Jesuits 
 was Campian, who was taken prisoner and 
 put to death for conspiring against the queen. 
 The Catholics were severely persecuted, and 
 the Protestant spirit of England was quickened 
 by perpetual suspicion. A plot to assassinate 
 Elizabeth, of which Francis Throgmorton 
 was the chief agent, was discovered in 1584, 
 and again the Spanish ambassador was or- 
 dered to quit England. The sentiment of 
 loyalty to the person of Elizabeth grew 
 strong among the people, and a voluntary 
 , association was formed for her defence. Its 
 menibers undertook to prosecute to death all 
 who should attempt the queen's life, or in 
 whose behalf such attempts should be made. 
 This was a threat against Mary, whose death 
 was thus sure to follow immedjiately on the 
 assassination of Elizabeth. 
 
 Meanwhile, the hostility between England 
 and Spain was becoming more and more ap- 
 parent. France, under the pressure of the 
 religious wars, had admitted Spanish influence, 
 and had withdrawn all appearance of help 
 from the Netherlands. Elizabeth found it 
 wise to send help to the Netherlands, but she 
 sent as little as she could. She never believed 
 that they would make good their stand against 
 the Spanish power, but with a niggardly hand 
 she helped them to prolong their struggle. In 
 the end of 1585 the Earl of Leicester was sent 
 to Holland with English troops. Leicester 
 did little more than besiege Zutphen, and 
 Elizabeth negotiated with Spain, and was 
 ready to betray the Netherlands if thereby 
 she could have secured peace. Philip II., 
 however, was irritated against England, both 
 on account of the help sent to the Nether- 
 lands, and still more on account of the damage 
 done to Spanish trade in the West Indies by 
 the piratical raids of Sir Francis Drake. A 
 Spanish invasion of England was imminent, 
 and plots against Ehzabeth's life were reso- 
 lutely carried on. At the end of 1586, a 
 plot, contrived by Antony Babington, was 
 discovered by the Secretary, Sir Francis Wal- 
 singham. He allowed it to proceed till he 
 had obtained evidence which implicated Mary 
 of Scotland. Then Babington was executed, 
 and a commission was appointed to try Mary, 
 who was found guilty. For a long time 
 Elizabeth hesitated to put Mary to death. At 
 last she signed the warrant, but gave no 
 orders that it should be carried into effect. 
 Mary was beheaded in February, 1687, and 
 Elizabeth professed that it was done without 
 her knowledge. She tried with characteristic 
 
 duplicity to rid herself of personal responsi- 
 bility, but England rejoiced that it was rid 
 of one who was such a fertile source of danger 
 and disturbance. 
 
 Mary's death brought the Spanish invasion 
 nearer. So long as Mary lived, Philip II. 
 was bound to fight in- her name ; on her death 
 he put forward his own claim to the English 
 crown. A raid of Drake on Cadiz, in April, 
 1587, stirred Philip II. to greater indignation. 
 In May, 1588, a large fleet, known as "the 
 Invincible Armada," set sail for England. Its 
 huge ships were ill-suited to the task. The 
 preparations for a junction with ships from the 
 Netherlands failed. .The Armada was thrown 
 into disorder by the smaller and swifter craft 
 of the English. A storm completed its dis- 
 comfiture, and England was saved from a 
 landing on its shores. During the days of 
 perU. Elizabeth showed great courage, and 
 addressed in stirring words the volunteers who 
 gathered at Tilbury. She was personally 
 brave, and knew how to deal with her people. 
 The defeat of the Armada gave an impulse 
 to English seamanship, which had been grow- 
 ing rapidly during Elizabeth's reign. Then 
 for the first time the English showed those 
 quaUties which have secured for them the 
 mastery of the sea. An aggressive war against 
 Spain was rapidly planned, and the Portu- 
 guese were urged to revolt from Philip II. 
 In 1589 an expedition was undertaken against 
 Lisbon, which failed in its main object, but 
 convinced the English that Spain was not 
 such a formidable foe as they had thought. 
 From this time English privateers cruised the 
 Spanish main and crippled the Spanish trade. 
 Sir Walter Raleigh was energetic in urging 
 schemes of colonisation in opposition to Spain. 
 In 1584 he colonised Virginia, which he 
 called after the Virgin Queen. In 1592 he 
 penetrated to the Isthmus of Darien, and in 
 1595 to Guiana. Though little was done at 
 the time, the way was prepared for future 
 efforts. 
 
 Spain was beaten back both in France and 
 in the Netherlands, and Elizabeth, in her old 
 age, was inclined to peace; But the martial 
 ardour of England was aroused, and the Earl 
 of Essex was eager to distinguish himself. 
 In 1596 an expedition was made against Cadiz, 
 which was sacked by Essex. Next year he and 
 Ealeigh set out on what was known as " The 
 Island Voyage," which was a failure, owing 
 to quarrels between the two commanders. 
 Elizabeth and Burleigh were more and more 
 desirous for peace. But troubles broke out in 
 Ireland, where Hugh O'Neil, Earl of Tyrone, 
 gathered together the tribes of Ulster, and 
 surprised the Fort of Blackwater. In 
 Ireland, EKzabeth found occupation for the 
 energy of Essex, whose ambition was bound- 
 less and whose popularity was great. But 
 Essex, contrary to his orders, eptered into 
 negotiations with Tyrone,' and concluded 
 peace. When he returned to England iu 
 
T3i 
 
 (429 ) 
 
 Elm 
 
 1599, he was called to account for his conduct. 
 He had many enemies, and was disgraced, 
 teing confined as a prisoner in his own house. 
 At last, trusting to his popularity, he made a 
 desperate rising, in the hopes ol getting the 
 queen iuto his hands. The people refused to 
 follow him. He was taken prisoner, found 
 guilty of high treason, and heheaded in 
 February, 1601, Elizabeth sorely felt the 
 necessity of putting Essex to death, and never 
 quite recovered from her grief. As she grew 
 old she missed the homage of her people. The 
 expenses of the Irish war forced her to apply 
 to Parliament for money, and Parliament 
 attacked the royal grants of monopolies. 
 Elizabeth gave way with good grace, and her 
 last years saw the defeat of '^nrone's forces 
 by Lord Mountjoy, in 1602. Elizabeth had a 
 growing feeling of want of sympathy between 
 herself and the new generation which she had 
 fostered. Her last days were unhappy,, and 
 she died in March 23, 1603, after indicating 
 the King of Scotland as her successor. 
 
 Elizabeth lived in perilous times, and the 
 fortunes of England were curiously inter- 
 woven with her personal security. She found 
 England discouraged, disunited, and poor; 
 she left it with a strong national spirit, pros- 
 perous, and resolute. Her policy was shifty, 
 hut her means were scanty. She knew how 
 to choose wise advisers, but she never en- 
 tirely trusted them. She knew how to 
 play upon human weakness, and she was 
 better served at smaller cost than any other 
 sovereign. England, in her reign, made 
 great advances in every way, and then first 
 assumed the chief characteristics which still 
 distiaguish it. Though many of Elizabeth's 
 doings were unworthy, she never forgot the 
 interests of her people, and she never lost 
 their affection. It is her greatest praise that 
 her objects were those of her people, and that 
 England prospered under her rule. 
 
 Camden, Hist, of Elizaheth; Naunton, Frag- 
 menta Regalia; Sir John Harrington, NugiB 
 AntiqiuB; Calendar of State Papers; Strype, 
 Life of Parher; rronde, Hisf. of Eng. ; Hallam, 
 Const. Hist. ,v Sreen, Hist, of tJie English People; 
 Wiesener, La Jeiinesse d'Blizoieth d'Angleterre, 
 trans, by Mias Tonge ; AiMn, Court of ^een 
 Mizabdh. [M. C] 
 
 Elizabeth Woodville, Queen, wife of 
 Edward IV. [b. circa 1431, d. 1492), was the 
 daughter of Sir Richard WoodvUle {afterwards 
 Earl Eivers) by Jacquetta of Luxemburg, 
 widow of John, Duke of Bedford. She married 
 first, about 1452, Sir John Grey, son and heir 
 of Lord Ferrers of Groby. He died in 1461, 
 leaving her with two sons, Thomas, after- 
 wards Marquis of Dorset, and Eichard. The 
 Woodvilles and the Greys were alike strong 
 partisans of the Lancastrian cause, and on 
 the accession of Edward IV. the widow of 
 Sir John Grey was deprived of her inheritance, 
 and obliged to remain at her father's house at 
 Grafton in Northamptonshire. Here she 
 made the acquaintance of Edward IV., who 
 
 privately married her in 1464. During this 
 period of Lancastrian supremacy, on the flight 
 of Edward IV. and the restoration of Henry 
 VI., Elizabeth took refuge in sanctuary, 
 and here her son Edward was bom. On the 
 death of her husband she had once more to 
 take sanctuary, being alarmed by the measures 
 taken by Richard against her family. She 
 remained in sanctuary with her daughters tiU 
 •after the failure of Buckingham's insurrection 
 (in which she was implicated), when, in 1484, 
 she was induced to leave her retreat, and 
 went, with her remaining children, to Richard. 
 There can be little doubt that she connived at 
 Richard's scheme for marrying her eldest 
 daughter Elizabeth, and that she had lost all 
 hopes ia Richmond; but this plan Richard 
 was obliged to give up, and after the battle 
 of Bosworth Elizabeth gladly wedded her 
 daughter to the victor Henry. For the re- 
 maining years of her Kf e she lived in peace, 
 though apparently on no very good terms 
 with her son-in-law. 
 
 Elizaljetli of York, Queen, wife of 
 Henry VII. [b. 1465, <i. 1503),was the daughter 
 of Edward IV. and Elizabeth WoodviUe. After 
 being almost betrothed to Richard III. she was 
 married to Henry VII., somewhat against 
 her wUl, it would appear. She took httle 
 part in public affairs, and appears to have been 
 treated with some, coldness by her husband. 
 
 Ella ^^lle) {d. 517 f) was the founder 
 of the kingdom of Sussex. He is said to 
 have come (in 477) with his three sons, 
 Cymen, Wheucing, and Cissa to Cymenesora, 
 which is identified by Lappenberg with 
 Keynor in Selsea. He fought a great battle 
 with the Britons, the issue of which was 
 doubtful. Having obtained reinforcements, 
 EUa captured the great fortress of Anderida 
 (q.v.), and entirely destroyed the British 
 power in Sussex. He is reckoned by Bede as 
 the first Bretwalda, but this is extremely 
 doubtful if we consider the narrow compass 
 of the Germanic possessions in Britain at that 
 time, and the fact that there is no mention 
 of a second Bretwalda for nearly a century. 
 It is curious that we have no genealogy of 
 Ella as we have of aU the other founders 
 of the English kingdoms in Britain. EUa 
 is said to have reigned forty years, and to 
 have been succeeded by his son Cissa. [Bret- 
 
 WALUA.] 
 
 Bedp, Hist. Ecelesiast. Anglor.'; Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle, 
 
 EUaudnne, The Battle oe (823), was 
 fought between the Mercians, under Beorn- 
 wulf, and the West Saxons, under Egbert, 
 and resulted in a total rout of the former. It 
 has been identified with Allington, near Ames- 
 bury, in "Wiltshire. 
 
 Elmet was the name of a little British 
 kingdom situated between Leeds and York, 
 which retained its independence till it was 
 
Elm 
 
 ( 430 ) 
 
 Emi 
 
 conquered by Edwin, and annexed to Nor- 
 thumbria about 625. 
 
 Elmhain, Thomas of [d. circa 1426), was 
 a monk of St Augustine's, Canterbury, and 
 afterwards Prior of Leyton, in Nottingham - 
 shire. He wrote a Life of Henry V., and a 
 Sistory of the Monastery of St. Augustine' s 
 from 596 to 1191. Both these works have 
 been printed in the EoUs Series. 
 
 Elphinstone, Mountstuaht [b. 1779, 
 d. 1859), was sent to India as a writer in 1795. 
 - In 1801 he was appointed assistant to the 
 Resident at Poonah. He was present at 
 Assye. After the war he became British 
 Eesident at Nagpore. In 1807 he was sent on 
 a mission to Cabul. In 1810, on his return, 
 he was appointed Resident at Poonah. He 
 fought the battle of Kirkee in 1817, when 
 Bajee Eao attacked the British Residency. 
 In 1818 he was appointed Commissioner of 
 the Poonah territory ; and he became Gover- 
 nor of Bombay in 1819. In 1827 he returned 
 to England. In 1834 he was offered the 
 Governor-Generalship, but refused. The rest 
 of his life was uneventful, and he died peace- 
 fully in his eightieth year. 
 
 Kaye, Indian QMcevs; Elphinstone's Memoirs 
 (1884). 
 
 Ely, The Isle or, was originally an oasis 
 in the midst of the marshes of Cambridgeshire 
 and the fen land. It owes its chief fame to 
 the great abbey which was founded there by 
 St. Etheldreda in 673. In 970 it was re- 
 founded by Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, 
 and settled with Benedictines, having been, 
 a hundred years previously, destroyed by 
 the Danes. It was here that Hereward 
 formed his Court of Refuge, which in 1071 
 was taken by "William the Conqueror. In 
 1108 Ely was made the seat of a bishopric by 
 Henry I. After the battle of Evesham and 
 the surrender of Kenilworth, some of the 
 barons escaped to Ely, but their stronghold 
 was taken by Prince Edward in 1267. 
 
 Emancipation, Catholic. [Catholic 
 Emancipation.] 
 
 Emancipation, Nebko. [Slave Trade.] 
 
 Emigration, in its restricted sense, is used 
 for the departureof persons from a country with 
 a highly organised society and thick popula- 
 tion to settle in one with abundance of un- 
 cultivated soil. The word is opposed, never- 
 theless, to colonisation, which implies rather 
 the first settlement in a new land, whereas 
 emigration signifies that the country of which 
 it is the object has already made some advance 
 in civilisation. Hence emigration in its 
 proper sense cannot be said to have system- 
 atically begun in England previous to 1815, 
 on the termination of the great war with 
 the French Empire. In that year the num- 
 ber of emigrants was only 2,081 ; in the 
 
 following year it had increased to 12,510, and 
 it was 34,987 in 1819. The average annual 
 number of those who emigrated in the ten 
 years from 1825 to 1834 was 50,304; from 
 1835 to 1844 it was 75,923, thus showing a 
 steady rise, though there was a drop during 
 the first half of the latter decade. During 
 the five years ending 1853 the average rosa 
 as high as 323,002, an exceptional rate, pro- 
 bably due to such extraordinary causes as the 
 Irish famine, the gold discoveries in Australia 
 and California, and the development of the 
 resources of America through the adoption of 
 free trade in England. The average sank to 
 nearly a half during the Crimean War, and in 
 1860, when the struggle between the Northern 
 and Southern States was raging, the total 
 was only 91,770. In 1870 it was 256,940 ; in 
 1879 it was 217,163, and 332,294 in 1880, the 
 increase being chiefly of Irish emigrants, and 
 their destination the United States. The 
 countries to which our emigration is chiefly 
 directed are British North America, the United 
 States, and Australia. The first of these was 
 in favour until 1835, after which the out- 
 break of the Canadian rebellion, the pre- 
 ference of the enormously increasing number 
 of Irish emigrants for American institutions, 
 together with other and more general causes, 
 turned the scale ; nor is it to be anticipated 
 that the recent development of agriculture iu 
 Manitoba will be able to equalise numbers 
 which in 1881 were respectively 176,104 and 
 23,912. It should be observed that the Scotch 
 emigrate less readily than the other inhabitants 
 of the British Isles ; the numbers in 1880 were 
 111,845 English, 93,641 Irish, and 22,056 
 Scotch, and there were also 100,369 foreigners, 
 chiefly Germans, who sailed from British ports. 
 The fact that emigration was pioneered by 
 the movements of whole communities driven 
 forth by religious persecution, and bound for 
 unknown and uncivilised lands, is the main 
 cause of the tendency of earlier emigration 
 to base itself on organised schemes. Thus 
 Wakefield's scheme of combined emigration 
 had its prototypes in the Pilgrim Fathers, 
 and afterwards in the ill-fated Darien expedi- 
 tion. Now, Iiowever, the settled condition of 
 the United States and of our colonies renders 
 such precautions unnecessary, except, as in tie 
 case of Mr. Tuke's recent plan, when dealing 
 with a pauperised and helpless class like the 
 Western Irish. All that need be done is to 
 provide for the safe and cheap transit and 
 reception of individuals. This first respon- 
 sibiHty was placed in 1831 in the hands of 
 the ^ Emigration Commission, part of whose 
 duties was to distribute useful information, 
 and has since been transferred to the Board 
 of Trade. It was regulated by law in various 
 Passengers Acts providing for the comfort 
 and protection of emigrants, the first of which 
 was passed in 1835, and those now in force in 
 1855 and 1863. The welfare of settlers is 
 watched over in the colonies by government 
 
Emp 
 
 (431 ) 
 
 Emp 
 
 immigration agents, who are bound to supply- 
 all information free of cost, and this system 
 is carried to great perfection in the States. 
 It is necessary to discuss here the economical 
 aspects of State eraigrafion. It has been 
 frequently adopted as a relief for pauperism, 
 notably by the Foor Law Amendment Act of 
 1834, and the Irish Land Act of 1880. On 
 the other side, the colonies have offered 
 unusual and artificial advantages in order to 
 secure manual labour : thus. New South Wales 
 about 1830 started a bounty system, by which 
 contractors who introduced immigrants re- 
 ceived so much per head; and part of the 
 proceeds of the crown lands in the colonies, 
 especially in Australia and New Zealand, is 
 applied by the Land and Emigration Board 
 (a department of the Colonial OflSce, estab- 
 lished in 1849) to the introduction of labourers. 
 The upset price of laud is also placed as low 
 as possible. There is another and darker side 
 of the emigration question, namely, the intro- 
 duction into our colonies of inferior races, 
 such as the Chinese and Hindoos, which will 
 have to be faced in the immediate future. 
 
 ■Wakefield, Art of Co'twiisatitm; Sir G-. C. 
 Lewis, Goverrvment of DependcTicies ; Goldwin 
 Smith, Tha Empire; Knight, Political Cyclo- 
 ptBdia. Sound statistical and general informa- 
 tion can he obtained from the Statesman's Tear 
 Book and the Colonial QS^ce List. [L. 0. g.l 
 
 Empire, Relations with the. Gut ofE 
 from the Roman Empire by the English Con- 
 quest, Britain began again to have dealings 
 with the " world state," when Christianity and 
 political consolidation had renewed civilisa- 
 tion and intercourse with the world. The 
 Mercian overlords of the eighth century cor- 
 responded on equal terms with the great 
 house that was soon to restore the glory of 
 the Caesars. Charles the Great's jealousy of 
 Oifa led to his support of the exiled Egbert 
 of Wessex, whose accession to the West 
 Saxon throne must have strengthened the 
 relations of the two powers, and who may 
 have found in the Carolingian Empire a 
 model for imitation. The presence of learned 
 men like Alcuin in Charles's court had a 
 similar tendency. The correspondence of 
 Ethelwulf with Louis the Pious, whose grand- 
 daughter he afterwards married, kept up the 
 coniiection. Athelstau's sister's marriage to 
 Charles the Simple, and his support of Louis 
 "Ultramarinus," continued the dealings with 
 the Carolingian house, even when empire 
 had almost stepped from it. English dealings 
 with the Saxon Emperors were still more 
 intimate. Henry the Fowler married his son 
 Otto to Athelstan's sister, anji Giesebracht 
 points out the similarity of Henry's power in 
 Germany and that of the West Saxon over- 
 lords in England, and even suggests conscious 
 imitation. With the acquisition of the Im- 
 perial dignity. Otto aspired to a far higher 
 power than his father. But if Henry copied 
 Athelstan, the second coronation of Edgar at 
 
 Bath as " Emperor of Britain" suggests that 
 that monarch aspired to rival Otto's crowning 
 by John XII. The assumption of Imperial 
 titles by the great early English kings shows 
 that they aimed at least at absolute equality 
 in dignity with the Emperors. It is remark- 
 able that under sudh circumstances good 
 relations were maintained. The innumerable 
 coincidences of law and usage between Eng- 
 land and the Empire, though in the main 
 instances of parallel development rather than 
 of influence, may in some cases illustrate the 
 effects of this constant intercourse. The 
 Norman Conquest allied England with the 
 Papacy, but the continuity of the national 
 tradition soon tended to re-unite English 
 king and Roman Emperor in a common hos- 
 tility to the Hildebrandine Papacy. William 
 I. and Henry I.'s contest with Anselm is the 
 English reflection of the Investiture Contest. 
 But the superior prudence of the English 
 monarchs avoided that direct breach with the 
 Church which was, perhaps, inevitable in 
 Germany. Even marriage alliances, such as 
 that between Matilda and Henry V., did not 
 result in joining England with the Empire in 
 its extreme measures, but rather led to the 
 Concordat of Worms, which the agreement 
 between Henry and Anselm had anticipated. 
 With Henry II. begins another period of 
 still closer relations. Henceforth the Imperial 
 alliance becomes one of the permanent tradi- 
 tions of our mediaeval foreign policy. Henry 
 married his daughter to Henry the Lion, and 
 instituted close friendship with the Guelfie 
 house without impairing his friendly relations 
 with the rival Hohenstaufen on the Imperial 
 throne. In fact, Frederick Barbarossa's con- 
 test with Alexander III. necessarily produced 
 close relations with Henry, engaged in his 
 struggle with Becket. Only the prudence of 
 his advisers prevented Henry being bound by 
 his ambassadors to support Barbarossa's schis- 
 matic Pope. The Third Crusade was entered 
 into by Frederick as by Richard I., although 
 the English monarch had given a home to his 
 nephew Otto after the fall of Henry the Lion 
 had driven him from Germany. Hence the 
 jealousy of the Emperor Henry VI., Richard's 
 captivity on his return, and humiliating sur- 
 render of the Imperial crown of Britain to the 
 German Emperor.' Henceforth, hostility to 
 the Hohenstaufen Emperors became the great 
 principle of Richard and John's foreign 
 policy. But the battle of Bouvines put an 
 end to the hopes of the Guelfie line, and 
 the house opposed to England became undis- 
 puted Emperors. Gradually the strong bonds 
 of ooimection were renewed, and the sister of 
 Henry III. became the bride of Frederick II. 
 All England watched with keen interest that 
 Emperor's struggle with the Papacy, though 
 Henry himself was too much bound by his 
 papal connection and personal religious 
 scruples to give him any help. But so long 
 as his nephew remained alive as Frederick's 
 
Emp 
 
 (432) 
 
 Eu^ 
 
 heir, Henry refused to join in tlie papal 
 crusade against the Hohenstaufen. His 
 acceptance of the Sicilian throne for Edmund 
 of Lancaster was only when his sister's son 
 was dead. But the great connection hetween 
 England and the Empire in this reign is the 
 election of Richard of Cornwall, Henry's 
 brother, as King of the Romans. Though 
 never master of Germany, Richard was yet 
 the most powerful of the claimants during 
 the Great Interregnum. His influence led 
 directly to the close commercial dealings 
 between England and the Hansa. He ob- 
 tained for his brother great privileges for the 
 Steelyard, and imported Harz miners to work 
 the tin mines of his Cornish earldom. But 
 with the fall of the Hohenstaufen the glory 
 of the Empire had departed; though in its 
 weakness, as in its strength, it adhered to its 
 English connection. Rudolf of Hapsburg 
 had a scheme for renewing the middle king- 
 dom in conjunction with Edward I. Adolf of 
 Nassau served as a hireling in the army of 
 that same monarch ; Louis of Bavaria was 
 closely allied with Edward ILI. They married 
 sisters, and had in the French king and the 
 Avignon Popes common objects of hostility. 
 At Coblenz, in 1338, Louis made Edward 
 Imperial Vicar. But the quarrel for the 
 Hainault succession broke up a friendship 
 which Louis' weakness made unprofitable to 
 England. Even then he found in the Eng- 
 lishman, William of Ockham, a warm defender 
 of his theoretical claims. The Luxemburg 
 house now acquired the Empire, and their 
 alliance with France brought a new coolness 
 between England and the Empire, that was 
 not fully ended till Richard II. married 
 Weuzel's sister, Anne of Bohemia. [Bohemia, 
 Relations with.] The friendship of Sigis- 
 mund and Henry V., their common religious 
 and European policy, was a fitting crown 
 to the mediaeval dealings of England and 
 the Empire ; for after Sigismund's last 
 assertion of the international power of the 
 Empire at Constance, that splendid theory 
 ceased to have any practical working. Eng- 
 land continued the friend of the nominal 
 Emperors, but it is with the rulers of here- 
 ditary dominions, not with the nominal Em- 
 perors, that these dealings really occurred. 
 [Borgundt, Relations with.] Charles V., 
 who for a time aspired to a renewal of the Im- 
 perial power, inherited not only the Imperial, 
 but the Burgundian and Spanish alliances of 
 England, and was. thus united to her by a 
 triple bond. Even this was sundered by the 
 Reformation, though the old Imperial alliance 
 may be regarded as renewed in the dealings of 
 England with the German Protestants. With 
 the rise of Louis XIV.'s ascendency, the 
 Anglo-Imperial alliance is renewed, and con- 
 tinued with few breaks till the end of the Em- 
 pire in 1806. [At'STBiA, Relations with.] 
 
 Pauli, Englische Gcfrliichte, brings out very 
 clearly the general dealings of £uglaud and the 
 
 Empire in medlEeval times ; Giesebracht's JHe 
 Deutsche Kaiserzeit and Von Baumer's Gesehichte 
 der Kohenstaufen may be reierred to for more 
 detailed information. r^ -p ^p-i 
 
 Empsoil, Sir Richakd (rf. 1510), was the 
 son 01^ a tradesman at Towcester. He 
 devoted himself to the law, and came under 
 the notice of Henry VII., who employed him 
 in public duties, and especially in financial 
 affairs. Together with Dudley, Empson was 
 the chief agent of the illegal or quasi-legal 
 extortion of Henry's reign. He incurred 
 great unpopularity in consequence, and was 
 executed with Dudley at the beginning of the 
 next reign. [Dudley.] 
 
 Enclosures. [Common Lands.] 
 
 Engagemeilt, The, 1647, was a name 
 given to a compact made at Newport, in 
 the Isle of Wight, with the Scotch Commis- 
 sioners, by which Charles I. engaged to sup- 
 port the Covenant and the Presbyterian 
 party; the Covenanters, on the other hand, 
 promising to assist him against the Parlia- 
 ment. [Chahleb I.] 
 
 ISuglefield, The Battle op (871), fought 
 between the English, under the ealdorman 
 Ethelwulf, and the Danes, resulted in the 
 victory of the former — Sidroo, one of the 
 Danish jarls, being slain. Englefield is a 
 village in Berkshire, about six miles west of 
 Reading. 
 
 English Conqnest of Britain, The. 
 
 A close connection is discernible between 
 the differing forms of Roman power in the 
 island and the history of this great movement. 
 From the cessation of that power in its tem- 
 poral form sprang the conditions that gave it 
 birth ; with the introduction of the spiritual 
 form it entered upon a new stage, whose be- 
 ginning may be taken as marking not merely 
 its complete success, but its virtual ending. 
 As an historical landscape, therefore, it may 
 be said to lie between the year 410, the date 
 of the departure of the Roman ofScials, and 
 596, that of the arrival of St Augustine. 
 But these dates enclose the darkest period 
 of British history ; next to nothing that is 
 trustworthy has been recorded of the details 
 of the Conquest; and notwithstanding the 
 hiige contributions that genius and scholar- 
 ship have made to the subject of late years, 
 the fraction of solid, or even probable, fact 
 remains as meagre as ever. And our beat 
 authorities difler as widely as men can differ 
 regarding the value and interpretation of the 
 fragmentary and confused accounts that 
 tradition preserved among the conquerors; 
 between qualified acceptance and almost un- 
 qualified rejection our most masterly historical 
 mtellects are divided. An account of any 
 exactitude is impossible. 
 
 When the authorities of the Empire parted 
 with the trust of defending Britain, they left 
 to the inhabitants their excellent military 
 
Eng 
 
 (433 ) 
 
 Eng 
 
 organisation, wliioh had hitherto held in 
 check or repelled the various assailants of the 
 province. At first the Romanised Britons 
 showed some capacity for working it from 
 their own resources ; armies of their own 
 raising, led hy chiefs of their own blood, seem 
 to have stepped into the vacant positions, and 
 maintained the system of defences that Rome 
 had created in comparative efficiency. Of 
 these, the most valuable was the line of for- 
 tresses that kept guard upon the Saxon 
 shore, along which the most persevering, re- 
 lentless, and formidable enemies of Britain, 
 the Saxons, had been prowling in their 
 "keels" for generations, plundering and 
 ravaging the neighbouring lands, and possibly 
 forming scattered settlements upon them. 
 The liberated Britons naturally continued 
 upon this harassed frontier the vigilance their 
 Koman masters had before observed ; and 
 the office of Count of the Saxon Shore, 
 hitherto perhaps the most responsible in the 
 country, is thought to have been retained, 
 and to have been first filled under the altered 
 circumstances by one Ambrosius, or Emrys, 
 whose faithful discharge of his" trust appears 
 to have won him the lavish admiration of his 
 countrymen. It would seem that under his 
 guidance the Britons gave some promise of 
 ability to maintain their position. 
 
 Soon, however, the prospect darkened. The 
 awful crisis in the history of the island 
 which Koman valour and skill had so long 
 kept back again approached, and the neces- 
 sary warlike vigour and civil virtue for 
 coping with it were no longer forthcoming. 
 After a brief quiescence, the old inveterate 
 foes of Romanised Britain swarmed again to 
 the attack; the Picts from the North, the 
 Scots from Ireland, descended on her 
 towns and fields, and spread slaughter and 
 ruin wherever they went. Above all, the 
 German "Nook" sent forth in new abundance 
 its untiring bands of hardy and merciless ad- 
 venturers — called Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, 
 but soon to bear the common name of English 
 — who sailed up and down the eastern coast, 
 and landing at unguarded places, pillaged and 
 plundered almost unchecked. Then the 
 loose-jointed political and military organisa- 
 tion of the Britons fell to pieces ; civil discord 
 paralysed the state; the struggles of rival 
 princes — tyrants, as they were called — the 
 rage of factions, wasted the strength of the 
 people ; famine and pestilence thinned their 
 ranks ; and the little hardihood that Roman 
 rule had left in the native character thus 
 missed its small measure of effect. The fit- 
 ful efforts of isolated chieftains to stem the 
 torrent of calamity having proved unavailing, 
 it would seem that the southern Britons were 
 tempted to try the course of making allies of 
 one class of their assailants against the other, 
 and applied to the Saxons for help. The Saxons 
 came to their help, nothing loth, and so got 
 within the defences of the Saxon Shore, 
 
 secured their footing in the land, and after 
 driving back the Picts and Scots, quickly 
 found a pretext for turning their arms against 
 their hosts, and wrested from them a con- 
 siderable share of the soil they had come to 
 defend. 
 
 Whether such was the actual form of the 
 event or not, we may accept as an historical fact 
 that in the middle of the fifth century (450, 
 449, or earlier), an alien race of German 
 origin seized upon a part of south-eastern 
 Britain with the fixed purpose of keeping it, 
 and thus set an example which, cheerfully 
 and promptly followed by their kinsfolk, led 
 to the complete transfer from a substantially 
 Celtic to a substantially Teutonic population 
 of the greater part of the country that is now 
 called England. Later records give us a few 
 names of men and scraps of incidents belong- 
 ing to this momentous process, which can 
 hardly he altogether fictitious. According to 
 these, Kent, the first-fruits of German cun- 
 ning and daring, was conquered and occupied 
 by Jutish warriors between 449 and 473 ; 
 Sussex by Saxon between 477 and 491; 
 Wessex by Saxon and Jutish between 49S and 
 519 ; and in part simultaneously with these, 
 in part after them, and till about 550, the 
 other communities and states of -the same 
 origin — Middlesex, Essex, East Anglia, the 
 miscellany of settlements that ultimately 
 coalesced into Mercia, and Deira, and Bemi- 
 cia — were founded, some by Saxons, some by 
 Angles, and some by both. But shadowy as 
 is our knowledge of the foundation of the 
 southern settlements, of the foundation of the 
 northern settlements we know nothing. The 
 first sight that we get of these is after they 
 have become fully established and powerful 
 organisations. Within a century after their 
 first landing in force the terrible strangers had 
 got into their exclusive possession the eastern 
 half of the island south of the Forth. 
 
 The whole of this land was won by the 
 edge of the sword. Throughout, the work of 
 conquest was in substance a mere killing and 
 taking possession; fields of slaughter, sackings 
 of cities, massacre and depopulation, spoiling 
 and burning of homesteads, leading into cap- 
 tivity, every conceivable shame and horror 
 that can befall a race make the history of 
 eastern Britain during this time; the indis- 
 tinct lamentations of the vanquished, the 
 more definite traditions of the victors, concur in 
 proving this. From the British side GUdas 
 exclaims, " Some were caught in the hills and 
 slaughtered, others were worn out with 
 hunger, and yielded to a life-long slavery. 
 Some passed across the sea .... others trusted 
 their lives to the clefts of the mountains, to 
 the forests, and rocks of the sea." From the 
 English side we learn such facts as that, in 
 473, " the Welsh fled the English as fire ; " 
 that in 491 the South Saxons " slew all that 
 dwelt within" Anderida, "nor was as much 
 as one Briton left alive;" that in 508 Gerdic 
 
Eng 
 
 ( 434 ) 
 
 Err 
 
 and Cynric " slew a Britisli king ■ and five 
 thousand men with him." And ths name 
 " Flame-bearer," given in Welsh literature 
 to a Bernician king (Ida orTheodrio), is fear- 
 fully expressive. 
 
 Not that the career of the conquerors was 
 one of unbroken success. Now and then the 
 frenzied resistance of the Britons checked, 
 perhaps even beat back, the advance of the 
 English ; one illustrious British hero, Arthur, 
 by a life of valiant deeds, laid the foundation 
 of a fame now almost entirely poetical, and one 
 splendid -victory postponed the fatal day for 
 the Britons of the west. In whatever part 
 of the island he fought, the fact of his 
 fighting nobly against the invaders is now 
 generally admitted [Arthur] ; and the battle 
 of Mons Badonicus (416 or i'M), whatever its 
 site, whether gained by Arthur or another, 
 was undoubtedly a defeat for the English, and 
 secured the Welsh a breathing-space of some 
 length. But neither devoted courage nor 
 flashes of success could save British civilisa- 
 tion from the ruin that was coming upon it 
 like a fate ; the onward march of the ruthless 
 German swordsmen was arrested, only to 
 begin anew after a time with undiminished 
 ferocity. 
 
 This fresh advance, which began about 560, 
 and carried the West Saxon arms to the 
 Severn, and almost to the Dee, has this special 
 interest : that the persons and events that 
 belong to it are unmistakably historical. 
 Whatever misgivings we may have about 
 Hengist, Cissa, and Cerdic, we cannot but 
 feel confident that Ceawlin and Cuthwine 
 really lived, and that the victory of the former 
 at Deorham (577), and of the latter at Bed- 
 ford (571), were really achievements. Un- 
 doubtedly, too, the area of permanent English 
 occupation was much extended by the aggres- 
 sions of these princes ; it had certainly now 
 reached the Bristol Channel. 
 
 The manner of the conquest is well expressed 
 by Bishop Stubbs : — "The conquest of 
 Britain was the result of a series of separate 
 expeditions, long continued, and perhaps, in 
 point of time, continuous, but unconnected, 
 and independent of one another. It was 
 conducted by single chieftains, who had 
 nothing in common with the nation they 
 attacked, and who were about neither to 
 amalgamate with them nor to tolerate their 
 continued existence." This last statement is 
 not undisputed. While one school of his- 
 torians has no doubt of the utter effacement 
 not merely of the British nation, but even of 
 the British population throughout the con- 
 quered districts, another maintains that a not 
 inconsiderable portion of the conquered must 
 have been spared and that their descendants 
 ultimately mixed with the descendants of the 
 conquerors ; that, in fact, modern England is 
 not an exclusively Teutonic, but largely a 
 Celtic, nationality. The truth, perhaps, is 
 that the practice of. the conquerors varied: 
 
 while extermination was the rule in their 
 earlier conquests, they allowed many excep- 
 tions to it as the tide of war went west. But 
 of the sulDstantial efliacement of British civili- 
 sation there can scarcely be a doubt ; in this 
 respect the conquest was simply a destroying 
 deluge of barbarism, that swept away almost 
 every trace of the greatness that once had 
 been. 
 
 Gildas, Be Excidio JJritonum ; Nennius, 
 Historia Britonum ; The Anglo-Scuon Chronicle ; 
 J. E. Greeu, The Making of England ; Elton, 
 Origins of English History. [J. 1^1 
 
 ZaUglishry, Presentment of, was a 
 system introduced by William the Conqueror, 
 whereby if a man were found murdered, it 
 was assumed that he was a Norman, and the 
 hundred fined accordingly, unless it was proved 
 otherwise. It fell into disuse about the time 
 of Eiohard I., the twD races having mixed to 
 such an extent that it was impossible to say 
 who was an Englishman and who was a 
 Norman. It was not, however, finally 
 abohshed tiU 1339. 
 
 Dialogus de Scaccario^ i., cap. 10 ; Stubbs, Select 
 Charters^ p. 193. 
 
 ■ Eocha Burdhe, or "The YeUow- 
 Haired," succeeded his father, Aidan, as King 
 of Dalriada, 606. In 629, the year of his 
 death, he fought in the battle of Fedhacoin, 
 in Ireland, on the side of the Cruithough, 
 against his own son, Conadh Cerr, in whose 
 favour he had resigned Dalriada on the ac- 
 quisition of the province of Galloway. [Dal- 
 riada.] 
 
 Equity. [Chancery.] 
 
 Erastians, The, were so called because 
 they held the views of the Swiss theologian 
 Erastus (1524—83) on the inability of the 
 Church to exercise discipline by censure, 
 excommunication, &c. ; its province being, 
 according to their theory, confined to teach- 
 ing. There never was an actual sect of 
 Erastians in England; but their ideas on 
 Church government were advocated by many 
 leading divines, and in the Westminster 
 Assembly (1643—49) were represented by the 
 powerful eloquence of Whitelocke, Light- 
 foot, and Selden. A proposition, however, 
 condemnatory of their doctrines was carried 
 almost unanimously, and, though the " Chap- 
 ter of Church Censures " in which it occurs 
 was never formally ratified by Parliament, 
 Erastianism failed from that time to take 
 deep root. In Scotland the word is often 
 vaguely used by extreme Presbyterians as a 
 term of reproach against the more moderate 
 party ; it frequently occurs in the history of 
 the disputes which resulted in the secession 
 of the Free Church. 
 
 Collier, Ecclesiastical Hist. ; Bogue and Bennet, 
 
 Hist, of Dissent ; Chalmers, Life and Writings. 
 
 Errol, Francis, Earl op {d. 1631), was 
 
 Constable of Scotland, and one of the signers 
 
 of the "Spanish Blanks." He was con- 
 
Ers 
 
 ( 435 ) 
 
 Ess 
 
 verted to tke Eomiah. Church by a Jesuit 
 named Father Edmoud Hay, but in 1597, 
 found it to hia interest to return to the Pro- 
 testant party, and to obtain the revocation of 
 his forfeiture. 
 
 Erskme, Thomas, Lord (i. 1750, d. 1823), 
 the third son of the tenth Earl of Buchan, 
 was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, 
 and St. Andrews University. At the age of 
 fourteen he entered the navy, but after four 
 years, disgusted at not being promoted, he 
 exchanged the navy for the army. After 
 seven years in his new profession, he left it 
 to enter at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1778 both 
 took his degree and was called to the bar. 
 Hia first brief was held in defence of Captain 
 BaiUie, a naval officer who had been 
 doomed by the ministry for daring to expose 
 the abuses permitted by the Admiralty. 
 Erskine'a fame was made at once, and 
 was confirmed in the following January 
 by hia brilliant defence of Admiral Keppel 
 in court-martial, which was followed soon 
 afterwards by his equally powerful speech 
 on behalf of Lord George Gordon. In 
 November, 1783, he was returned to Parlia- 
 ment for Portamouth, and did his utmost in 
 support of Fox's India BiU. His fame is 
 specially connected with his constant efforts 
 to establish the rights of juries in libel 
 cases. In 1794 he made a bold stand 
 againat the doctrine of constructive treason 
 which it waa attempted to lay down in the 
 trials of Hardy, Home Tooke, and ThelwaU. 
 For the next twelve years he was recognised 
 as leader in the courts at Westminster 
 and was in • all State trials to be found 
 retained for the defence. In Parliament he 
 was a firm supporter of Fox, and followed 
 him in his temporary retirement from the 
 House. Addington offered him a place as 
 Attorney-General in 1801, but Erskine 
 declined it. On the accession to power of 
 the Fox and GrenviUe ministry in 1806, 
 Erskine received the Chancellorship. During 
 his short tenure of that office he had the 
 satisfaction of announcing the passing of 
 the Bill for the Abolition of Slavery. For 
 the fifteen years after retiring from office 
 in 1807, he took little part in politics. 
 On the trial of Queen Caroline, he broke 
 away reluctantly from his long-standing 
 friendship with the Prince Regent, because 
 he felt bound to support the cause of a 
 woman whom he considered to be innocent and 
 injured. 
 
 Erskine, Speeches; Poss, Judges o/ England; 
 
 Holland, Uem. of the Liberal Party ; Brougham, 
 
 Sketches ; Grenmlle Papers ; Walpole, Hist, of 
 
 Mng. from 1815 ; State TriaJs. 
 
 Escheat (from the Norman-French esohet; 
 
 echion, to fall) means the reversion of land to 
 
 the lord. It could happen in two ways : 
 
 (1) per defectum aoMguinis, through want of 
 
 heirs; or (2) per delictum tenentis, through 
 
 the crime of the tenant, in cases of treason 
 
 or felony ; the distinction between it and for- 
 feiture (q.v.) being, that the first is regarded 
 as a natural event, the second as the direct 
 consequence of an illegal act. It affected 
 tenants in fee-simple only. The law of 
 escheats waa introduced into England by the 
 Normans, and, in the troubled state of the 
 times, it was not unusual for the estates of 
 some great noble to fall to the crown. They 
 either continued in the possession of the 
 king, under the title of an honom-, and were 
 administered like a shire, or were granted out 
 again as an hereditary tief. In the first case, 
 the immediate tenants were protected by 
 Magna Charta from being treated as tenants- 
 in-chief to the crown, and need only pay 
 such dues as they would have 'owed to their 
 mesne lord. The wanton bestowal of escheated 
 lands upon favouritea and relations was a 
 frequent charge against weak kings like 
 Henrj' III. and Richard II., while Edward II. 
 in 1309 waa accused of depriving men of 
 their lands who had a perfectly good title, a 
 practice which the royal officers of Henry VII. 
 carried to a state of great perfection. In 
 Escheat propter delictum the land passed to the 
 next heir, subject to the superior right of the 
 crown in the case of treason for life, in the 
 ease of felony for a year and a day. It waa 
 confined in 1833 to cases of treason or murder, 
 and the law on the subject was further defined 
 in 1838. By the Felont/ Act of 1880, ad- 
 ministrators were appointed to the convict'a 
 property, and it could be jesumed if his sen- 
 tence expired. Escheat propter defectum is 
 now most common in cases of bastardy. The 
 land passes to the sovereign, except in the 
 case of copyhold estates, which go to the 
 lord of the manor. 
 
 In Scotland there was escheat for debt as 
 well as for treason ; it waa abolished in 
 1737. Single escheat, however, by which 
 the prisoner's movables are forfeited to the 
 crown, still exiata as a punishment for 
 crime. 
 
 Stubbs, Select Charters (Bialogus de Scaccario) ; 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., vol. i. .Ob. xi. Statate34an(l 
 S Wm. IV., cap. 23, 1 and 2 Viot., cap. 69. 
 
 Essex, Kingdom of. In Celtic and 
 Roman times the district lying to the north 
 of the lower course of the Thames was in- 
 habited by the tribe of the Trinobantes. 
 In this region the Romans founded many of 
 their most important towns, such as Camulo- 
 dunum, London, and Verulam ; and towards 
 the end of the period of their rule it formed 
 part of the domain of the "Comes Littoris 
 Saxonici," or Count of the Saxon Shore. 
 When the Roman power was weakening, 
 Essex seems to have fallen an easy prey to 
 the Teutonic invaders ; but there is no record 
 left to tell us of the exact process or time of 
 this invasion. It seems probable, however, 
 that the attack was made by way of the 
 estuary of the Stour and Chelm, rather than 
 
Ess 
 
 (436) 
 
 Ess 
 
 up the Thames Valley; and we know that the 
 conquest was achieved hy Saxons, and not by 
 Anglian tribes, such as colonised the neigh- 
 bouring counties to the north. The East 
 Saxons do not seem to have spread far inland, 
 being, in all probability, checked in their 
 onward course by the great wood district 
 lying to the west, whose relics still survive 
 in Hainault and Epping Forest. In the 
 same manner the South Saxons' progress 
 was barred by the Andreadesweald, and for 
 this reason neither Sussex nor Essex ever 
 developed into one of the great kingdoms. 
 But the Bast Saxons, though they do not 
 appear to have ever had a Bretwalda, as the 
 South Saxons had, were in one respect happier 
 than the South Saxons ; for it was into their 
 hands that the great town of London fell. We 
 read in Bede that by the year 604 it was the 
 ' ' Metropolis " of Sebert, King of the East 
 Saxons, and about the same year it became 
 the seat of Mellitus, whom Ethelbert of Kent 
 sent to preach to that tribe. Bede tells us 
 how, on the death of Sebert (616), the country 
 relapsed into Paganism, from which it was 
 not converted till many years later. Mellitus 
 was driven to Gaul, and seems to have 
 returned only to occupy the metropolitan see 
 of Canterbury, leaving London without a 
 bishop tOl 654. On the accession of Sigebert, 
 who had been baptised by Eiuian, Bishop of 
 Lindisfame, Ceadda was invited from Mercia 
 to undertake the oflSce of Bishop of the East 
 Saxons, the see of London was renewed, and 
 before the century was out an East Anglian 
 king (Sebbi) had exchanged his crown for the 
 garb of a monk in London. By this time the 
 East Saxons seem to have been in greater or 
 less subjection to Mercia ; and though a late 
 legend speaks of their largely increasing 
 their bounds to the north and west, this 
 kingdom seems to have for the future fluc- 
 tuated between Mercian and West Saxon 
 rule. At last, after the battle of Ellandun, 
 the Chronicle tells us how the East Saxons 
 " turned to Egbert, because they had formerly 
 been forced from his kinsmen unjustly." 
 Probably the old line of East Saxon kings 
 had now died out, and the people were more 
 willing to have a Saxon than an Anglian 
 ruler. But Essex was not as yet thoroughly 
 merged in the West Saxon kingdom; on 
 Edgar's death it was detached from Wessex, 
 and given, with Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, to 
 Athelstan (836). We have now reached the 
 times of the Danish invasions. When East 
 Anglia was over-run, and St. Edmund 
 martyred by these marauders, Essex seems to 
 have shared the fate of its northern neigh- 
 bour, and some years later, by the Treaty of 
 Wedmore (878), was, together with London, 
 left in the hands of Guthrum. Later on we 
 find the Essex Danes taking a prominent part 
 in the invasion of 894, and next year the 
 whole Danish army that had already harried 
 North Wales retired by way of Northumber- 
 
 land and Bast Anglia to the Isle of Mersea, 
 on the Essex coast. With Edward the Elder, 
 however, the tide began to turn against the 
 strangers ; in 913 he built the burgh of Hert- 
 ford, and in midsummer of the same year 
 brought his army to Maldon, while the 
 fortress of Witham was building; "and a good 
 deal of the folk submitted to him who were 
 before under the power of the Danish men." 
 In 921 the inhabitants of Kent and Surrey, 
 aided by many East Saxons, wrested Col- 
 chester out of the hands of the Danes, though 
 not without destroying the town. However,- 
 before the year was out Edward had repaired 
 the fortress and permanently taken the 
 district into his power, for the army of East 
 Anglia swore fealty to him at the same time. 
 Towards the end of the century (991) Essex 
 was once more exposed to the ravages of the 
 Danes, and when Ethelred promised them 
 tribute in 1011, Essex is mentioned as one of 
 the districts they had over-run. When 
 England was divided between Canute and 
 Edmund Ironside (1016), Edmund received 
 East Anglia and Essex, together with the 
 district south of the Thames — a sure proof 
 that there was not a very large number of 
 Danes settled in the two first-mentioned 
 provinces. From this time the history of 
 Essex belongs to that of England generally. 
 In the days of Edward the Confessor it 
 formed a, part of Harold's East Anglian 
 earldom, and towards the end of the reign 
 part of Leofwine's anomalous earldom, which 
 included Kent, Surrey, and much besides. 
 
 Ei^GS OF Essex. 
 Escwine s. 527 
 
 Sleda .s. 687 
 
 Sebert d. 616 
 
 Seward and Si^ehert . . 616—617 
 
 Sigebert the Little . . . 617—653 
 
 Sigebert the Good . . . 653—660 
 
 Sigehere (?) 
 
 Stebbe .'=. 665 
 
 Sigeheard d. 694 
 
 Swoefred . . . . d. 704 
 
 Offa res. 709 
 
 Selred 709—746 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; Bede, Hist. Eccles. ; Lap- 
 Ttenherg, Anglo-Saxon Kings i Freeman, OldEng. 
 
 • ^^*- [T. A. A.] 
 
 Essex, Peerages of. A Saromj of Essex 
 was held under William I. by one Swene, who 
 possessed twenty- two lordships in that county ; 
 but the lands were confiscated on the defeat 
 of his grandson, Henry de Essex, in judicial 
 combat (1163). In the meanwhile, the 
 Empress Maud granted (1144) the Sarldom 
 of Essex, with the third penny of the county, 
 to Geoffrey de Mandeville, from whom it 
 passed successively to his two sons. They 
 dying childless,- it was allowed (1199) to 
 Geoflirey Pitz-Peter (Fitz-Piers), the Justiciar, 
 husband of a grand-niece of the first earl. 
 Geoffrey again had two eons who succeeded 
 him, but left no issue ; and the title was con- 
 ferred, some time before 1239, upon a. son of 
 a sister of the last earl, Humphrey de Bohun, 
 
Ess 
 
 (437) 
 
 Ess 
 
 Earl of Hereford, in whose family it continued 
 until Humphrey, de Bohun, Earl of North- 
 ampton, Hereford, and Essex, died (1372), 
 without male issue. The latter's elder 
 daughter and co-heiress, Eleanor, then gave 
 the title to her husband, Thomas of Wood- 
 stock, son of Edward III., and afterwards 
 Duke of Gloucester. On hi's murder (1397), 
 the earldom of Essex lay dormant until it 
 was revived in favour of Thomas's eventual 
 heir, Thomas, Lord Bourchier, Count of Eu, 
 in Normandy (1461). With the death of his 
 grandson (1539) it became extinct, and was 
 immediately re-granted to the famous Thomas 
 Cromwell. On Cromwell's attainder, in 1540, 
 his honours became forfeit, and in 1543 the 
 earldom was given to William Parr, brother 
 of Queen Katharine Parr, and husband of the 
 only daughter of the last Bourchier, Earl of 
 Essex. Parr was afterwards created Marquis 
 of Northampton (1546), but attainted in 1553. 
 In 1572 the earldom of Essex was once more 
 revived in favour of Walter Devereux, second 
 Viscoimt Hereford. His son Robert was 
 attainted in 1601, but the honours were 
 restored two years later to his son, Robert, 
 on whose death without issue (1646) the title 
 became extinct. Finally, in 1661, Arthur 
 Capel, second Baron Capel, was created Earl 
 of Essex and Viscount Maldon, by whose 
 descendant the title is at present held. 
 
 Essex, Henry Bourohiek, Earl op 
 [d. 1483), was the son of Lord Bourchier, 
 and brother of Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop 
 of Canterbury. In 1454 he was created Lord 
 High Treasurer, but forsook the Lancastrian 
 cause, and espoused that of York. On Edward 
 IV.'s accession to the throne, he was again 
 made Treasurer, and was created Earl of 
 Essex. 
 
 Essex, Walter Devereux, 1st Eakl of 
 (*. eirea 1540, d. 1576), son of Sir Richard 
 Devereux, succeeded his grandfather as Vis- 
 count Hereford (1558) ; married (1561) Lettiee, 
 daughter of Sir Francis KnoUys. He distin- 
 guished himself by his fidelity during the con- 
 spiracy of the Duke of Norfolk and the rising 
 of the North, and was therefore created Earl 
 of Essex (1572). The following year he rmder- 
 took, with other noble adventurers, the con- 
 quest of Ulster ; but, owing it is supposed, to 
 the machinations of Leicester, his expedition 
 was a total failure. In 1574 he whs appointed 
 Governor of Ulster, with an independent 
 commission, and in 1576 Earl Marshal of 
 Ireland. He succeeded in effecting no per- 
 manent conquest, but signalised himself by 
 the treacherous murder of his guest. Sir 
 Brian 0'Neil,'and by ordering the massacre 
 of the women and children of the Scots of 
 Antrim on the Island of Kathlin. He died 
 in September, 1576. 
 
 Essex, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of 
 (A. 1567, d. 1601), entered Trinity College, 
 
 Cambridge, in 1577. On his appearance at 
 court, in 1854, he became at once a favourite 
 with both queen and people. In 1585 he 
 accompanied Leicester to Holland, distin- 
 guished himself at Zutphen, and was, in 
 1688, appointed General of the Horse in the 
 army raised to meet the Spanish Armada. 
 In 1591 he commanded the auxiliaries sent 
 to assist Henry IV. in Normandy, but his 
 chief military exploit was the capture of 
 Cadiz in 1596. Not content with his great 
 position as favourite, and his reputation as a 
 soldier, he also aimed at eminence as a states- 
 man, and from 15£12 devoted himself to the 
 study of foreign affairs. He headed the 
 party that demanded the vigorous prosecution 
 of the war agaiost Spain, opposed the cautious 
 policy of Burleigh, and entered into com- 
 munication with King James, whom he urged 
 to demand recognition as the queen's heir. 
 On the death of Burleigh, however, his son 
 succeeded to his power, and Essex, a few 
 months later, eager for an opportunity of 
 gaining power and credit, obtained the post 
 of Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and was 
 charged with the task of suppressing Tyrone's 
 rebellion (March, 1599). His conduct in 
 Ireland exposed both his ability and his 
 honesty to injurious suspicions. Instead of 
 at once attacking the main strength of the 
 rebels in Ulster, or consolidating the English 
 power in Leinster, he wasted his time and 
 his army in marching and counter-marching, 
 in gaining little victories, and achieving no 
 substantial success. When he did attack 
 Tyrone, he speedily admitted him to peace, 
 on terms which seemed to be dictated by 
 private ambition rather than by public policy. 
 For this he was, on his return to England, dis- 
 graced, tried by a special commission, dismissed 
 from all Ms offices, and was for a time in 
 custody. Believing his punishment to be the 
 work of his enemies in the Council, he set on 
 foot a conspiracy to force his way into the 
 queen's presence, and to remove his opponents 
 from the government by arms. But his 
 attempted cmip d'etat failed, and he was 
 apprehended, tried by the Lord High 
 Steward's Court, sentenced to death for 
 high treason, and executed on Feb. 25, 
 1601. He affirmed that his design was 
 merely to go with his friends and petition 
 the queen, and to gain their petition to 
 remove from the queen's chamber Raleigh 
 and Cecil, his enemies ; that he had never in 
 any way intended to hurt the queen. By the 
 ruling of the court in this case, it was held 
 treason to compel the king by force to change 
 his policy. 
 
 Camden, Annates; Aikiu, Coiil-t of Queen 
 ElizahetJi; State Tiials, rC H F 1 ' 
 
 Essex, Robert Devereux, 3kd Earl of 
 {b. 1592, d. 1646), son of the' preceding, was 
 educated at Eton, and at Merton CoUege, 
 Oxford. In 1606 he married Frances 
 
£ss 
 
 (438) 
 
 Est 
 
 Howard, from whom he was divorced seven 
 years later, in order that she might marry 
 the Earl of Rochester. He distinguished 
 himself as a soldier, serving in the Palatinate 
 (1620), in Holland (1622—3), in Mansfeld's 
 army (l624), and in the expedition to Cadiz 
 (1625). On the outhreak of the Scotch 
 rehellion, he was appointed hy Charles I. 
 lieutenant - general of the English army. 
 He is described as being then '■ the most 
 popular man in the kingdom, and the 
 darhng of the swordmen." At the opening 
 of the Long Parliament he sided with the 
 popular party, urged the execution of 
 Strafford, and though holding the office of 
 Chamberlain, refused to follow the king to 
 York. He was appointed in July, 1642, 
 general of the army raised by the Parlia- 
 ment, and commanded at Edgehill (Oct. 23). 
 In the spring of 1643, after capturing Read- 
 ing, he marched on Oxford, but was pre- 
 vented by bad weather and sickness amongst 
 his troops from besieging it. In the autumn 
 of the same year he performed his greatest 
 exploit during the war, the relief of Glou- 
 cester (Sept. 5), followed'by the victory of 
 Newbury (Sept. 20). In June, next year, he 
 marched into the west of England to relieve 
 Lyme, leaving Waller the task of pursuing 
 the king. After relieving Lyme, and taking 
 some of the royal fortresses in Devon and 
 Dorset, he proceeded into Cornwall. There 
 he found himself, contrary to his expectations, 
 unsupported by the country, and distressed 
 for provisions, whilst the ' king, who had 
 defeated Waller, prevented his retreat, drove 
 him further west, and speedily reduced his 
 army to extremities. The cavalry broke 
 through the king's lines, and came safe away; 
 Essex himself escaped Ijy sea; but the in- 
 fantry were forced to surrender (Sept., 1644). 
 Nevertheless, the Parliament appointed him 
 to command the new army which was 
 being collected. Illness, however, prevented 
 him being present at the second battle of 
 Newbury, and on April 2, 1645, he laid down 
 his commission in obedience to the Self- 
 Denying Ordinance. As a, general, he 
 exhibited great irresolution, and too often 
 allowed his judgment as a soldier to be over- 
 ruled by political considerations. Clarendon 
 charges him with pride and ambition, but 
 admits his honesty and praises his fidelity. 
 
 Clarendon, Eist. of the Rebellion ;Whibelociie, 
 Memoriuls; May, Hist, of Long Pari. 
 
 [C. H. F.] 
 Essex, Arthur Oapel, Earl op {i. 1635, 
 d. 1683), son of Arthur, Lord Capel, created 
 Earl of Essex in 1660, was a leading mem- 
 ,ber of the Country Party in the reign of 
 Charles II. From 1672 to 1676 he was Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland, and in 1679 he was 
 appointed First Commissioner of the Trea- 
 sury, but resigned before long. In 1683 he 
 was concerned in the Revolutionary Plot, and 
 was arrested and committed to the Tower. 
 
 But before his trial could come on, he was 
 found to have committed suicide. Macaulay 
 characterises him as " a man of solid, thougJi 
 not briUiant parts, and of grave and melan- 
 choly character." 
 
 Estates of Scotland, The. In Scot- 
 land the Representative Assembly of the 
 nation had more in common with the French 
 than with the English Parliament. The 
 deputies of the " Three Estates," that is, the 
 clergy, the barons, and the burgesses, sat in 
 one chamber. The Chancellor was President. 
 The officers of State had seats in virtue of 
 their offices ; and the judges of the Court of 
 Session sat round a table in the centre of the 
 hall, between the barons and the commons. 
 The earliest laws of the kings of the Scots 
 were passed in " Assizes." The first faint 
 indications of a National Council appear in 
 the reign of Alexander I. This council is 
 called the Curia Regis from the reign of 
 William the Lion till the death of Alexander 
 III. The Assembly which met at Scone in 
 1286, to determine the succession of the 
 crown, is the first recorded meeting of the 
 Parliament. It consisted only of the great 
 tenants of the crown, met to choose their 
 liege lord. In the appeal to Edward to 
 adjudge the crown, and in the Treaty of Brig- 
 ham, 1290, the " community " is mentioned 
 for the first time as having a voice in the 
 affairs of the nation ; and to the treaty be- . 
 tween John Baliol and Philip of France the 
 seals of six burghs are appended. The Par- 
 liament of Robert Bruce at Cambuskenneth 
 was the first in which the representatives of 
 the " Third Estate," the deputies of the 
 burghs, had a place. From this time their 
 place in the National Council was secure. The 
 agreement for the payment of the ransom of 
 David II. bears the seal of seven burgesses, 
 as well as those of bishops and barons. At 
 first each royal burgh was required to send 
 two members to Parliament; but as the 
 burghs were privileged to hold their own 
 Court of the Four Burghs, which had 
 sovereign authority in all burghal disputes 
 and questions, they were disposed to shirk 
 Parliamentary attendance ; and in 1619 it was 
 enacted by the Convention of Burghs that 
 each burgh should send one member only to 
 the Estates, save Edinburgh, which was to 
 send two. Commissaries to represent the 
 lesser barons date from the reign of James I. 
 By an Act of 1428 these lesser barons were 
 relieved from their attendance, on condition 
 that they elected two commissaries for each 
 shire. Every one holding land from the 
 crown was to have a voice in the election. A 
 statute of James VI. limited the right of 
 voting to those who had their land in free 
 tenantry and lived within the shire. The 
 statute, of 1661 extended this right to all who 
 held lands of the king to the extent of £1,000 
 Scots real rent. There was no regular 
 
list 
 
 ( 439 ) 
 
 Est 
 
 attendance of the commissaries till late in 
 the reign of James VI. The commissaries 
 and the members of the hurghs were paid for 
 their attendance. An Act of 1661 fixes their pav 
 at £5 Scots per day during their attendance and 
 their journey to and fro. All the work of the 
 Scotch Parliament was done by permanent 
 committees — the practice of debating in full 
 Parliament being unkn o wn. When the Estates 
 met they elected a, committee composed of 
 members from each of the three divisions. To 
 this committee the work of discussing and 
 maturing the measures to be passed was 
 handed over. The Estates did not sit while 
 the committee was at work. When the Bills 
 were ready, they met and passed them. This 
 committee was culled the Lords of the Arti- 
 cles. This practice began in the reign of 
 David II., to let the members go home to get 
 in the harvest. In the reign of James I. it 
 had become established as a regular part of 
 parliamentary procedure. There was no fixed 
 rule for choosing the Lords of the Articles, 
 either as regarded their number or the mode 
 of their election. This uncertainty led to the 
 struggle between the Estates and Charles I., 
 in 1633. The Lords of the Articles then 
 numbered thirty-two, and an attempt was 
 made to rob the majority io the Estates 
 of its power against the crown by adroit 
 management in their election. Eight bishops 
 were first elected ; they in their turn chose 
 eight barons, and barons and bishops together 
 chose eight commissaries and eight burgesses. 
 Thus the whole committee were picked parti- 
 sans of the bishops. The Estates protested, 
 each division claiming the right to elect its 
 own delegates. This matter of the election 
 of the Lords of the Articles was again 
 fought over in 1689. The Parhament which 
 had put WiUiam on the throne demanded the 
 right of discussing measures in plain Parlia- 
 ment, after the English fashion. The king 
 at first refused to agree to this, and offered 
 to increase the number of the Lords of the 
 Articles to thirty-three, and to leave the 
 Estates perfect freedom of election ; bat the 
 Estates were firm in their demands. William 
 yielded, and an Act of 1690 finally abolished 
 the Lords of the Articles. The Estates were 
 formerly the highest court of justice, and 
 professed to give "remeid of law" in cases 
 of appeal against the justiciars and sheriffs. 
 To manage this judicial business, a committee, 
 called the Lords Auditors of Complaints, was 
 appointed, but its powers only lasted while 
 Parliament was sitting. In 1503 it was made 
 permanent ; the members, to be chosen by 
 the crown, were to sit continually in Edin- 
 burgh. By James V. the Lords Auditors and 
 the Lords of the Council were united to form 
 the Court of Session. Thus it was that the 
 " Estates " grew out of the council of the 
 king ; to the barons were joined the clergy, 
 and in the fourteenth century the representa- 
 tives of corporations. The lesser barons were 
 
 not regularly represented by commissaries till 
 the latter part of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Scottisft- Statutes, published by the Record Com- 
 mission j Ancient Laws and Customs of Burghs of 
 Scotland; limes, Lectarei on Scottish hegcd An- 
 tiquitien ; Stevenson, Documents connected wilh 
 the Hist, of Scotland ; E. W. Eobertson, 
 Scotland under the Barly Kings ; J. H. Burton, 
 Hist, of Scotland. [JI. ]y;."| 
 
 Estates of the Kealm, The, are 
 
 defined by Bishop Stubbs as " the several 
 orders, states, or conditions of men who are 
 recognised as possessing political power." As 
 originally constituted in England they were 
 the nobles, the clergy, and the commons. 
 The mistake of describing the three Estates as 
 consisting of the King, Lords, and Commons, 
 is quite as old as the fifteenth century, and is 
 due to the failure of the Parliamentary repre-' 
 sentation of the clergy as a separate Estate. 
 This failure has caused the Estates to assume 
 the Parliamentary form of Lords Spiritual, 
 Lords Temporal, and Commons. The prece- 
 dence given to the clergy would appear to be 
 a matter of courtesy ; the Commons {eommu- 
 nitas communitatum, the general body into 
 which organised bodies of freemen are com- 
 bined) is always the third Estate. It was 
 some time before the three Estates assumed 
 their final form. At one time there seemed 
 to be some probability that there would be a 
 sub-estate of the lawyers, who were much 
 favoured by Edward I., and of the merchants, 
 who were frequently consulted previous to 
 the imposition of taxation upon their order. 
 It was some time, too, before the lesser 
 nobility separated from the baronage, and 
 before the prelates were included in the latter 
 body, the lesser clergy preferring to assemble 
 in Convocation. In Scotland the three Estates 
 comprised the prelates, the tenants-in-chief, 
 great and small, and the townsmen. In 1428, 
 James I., in imitation of the English system, 
 instituted commissioners of shires, to super- 
 sede the personal appearance of the minor 
 tenants-in-chief; then the three Estates became 
 the lords lay and clerical, the commissioners 
 of shires, and the burgesses, who throughout 
 their history continued to sit in one house. 
 In 1640, Parliament re-arranged itself into 
 three Estates — the nobility, the barons, or 
 representatives of the smaller freeholders, and 
 the burgesses with their commissioners, to the 
 exclusion of the bishops, but this was repealed 
 on the restoration of the episcopacy by 
 Charles II. 
 
 See the admirable discussion of the whole 
 subject in StubbsV Const. Mist., ii., chap. xv. 
 Also Jjords' Report on the Di^»ity of a PeeVj and 
 Erslcine, Institutes of the Law of Scotland. 
 
 Estates, The Committee of the, was 
 appointed by the Scotch Parliament of 1640 
 to act in permanence during the recesses, both 
 in the camp and at the capital. It consisted 
 of so many from each of the three Estates, 
 which were now defined to be the nobility, 
 barons, and burgesses. It dissolved in 1648, 
 
Eth 
 
 ( 440 ) 
 
 mil 
 
 after the battle of Preston, but a new Com- 
 mittee waa formed by Argyle and bis friends, 
 who treated with the victorious' Cromwell. 
 After the battle of Worcester, those of the 
 Committee of Estates who had supported the 
 coronation of Charles II. at Scone were sent 
 as prisoners to London. The Committee was 
 resumed after the Restoration, pending the 
 arrival of the Commissioner, Middleton. It 
 signalised its short reign by committing to 
 prison some Remonstrant clergy. 
 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland, vols. vi. and vii. 
 
 £tliaiidun, The Battle op (878) , was the 
 great victory of Alfred over the Danes after his 
 retirement to Athelney ; this led immediately 
 to the treaty with Guthrum. [Alfred.] 
 Ethandun has been identified with Edington, 
 near Westhury, Wilts ; with Yatton, five miles 
 north-west of Chippenham ; and with Hed- 
 dington, which is on the Boman road between 
 Bath and Marlborough. 
 
 Ethel is defined in the Anglo-Saxon 
 dictionaries as equivalent to terra heredi- 
 taria ani fundus patermis, or sometimes, in a 
 wider sense, to patria. It is the word used 
 to translate country in the Anglo-Saxon 
 version of St. Luke. It is the same word 
 as the odal of the Scandinavian races. 
 Though perhaps not etymologicaUy con- 
 nected with " alod " — a relationship which, 
 however, some scholars allow — it has prac- 
 tically the same signification, and denotes the 
 land which in early Teutonic days belonged 
 indefeasibly to the head of each house- 
 hold, and which its owner held, not of the 
 king's gift or any other man's favour, free from 
 aU burdens save that of the public defence. 
 Perhaps from the very earliest days the ethel 
 may have been subject to assist in the repair 
 of bridges and the maintenance of fortifica- 
 tions, as well as to serve in the fyrd ; but the 
 " trinoda necessitas " is said not to appear in 
 genuine Anglo-Saxon documents before the 
 beginning of the eighth century. The alod, 
 or ethel, was the primitive homestead, the 
 possession of which marked out the fully- 
 qualified freeman from all other men. By 
 virtue of this ownership he was justified in 
 taking part in the council of his nation, and 
 in fighting in its wars. For the title-deeds of 
 his estate he looked primarily to no written 
 evidence, but to the undisputed possession by 
 which he and his ancestors had held the soil. 
 Later, as more and more of the folk-land was 
 changed into book-land, and the greater secu- 
 rity of chartered proof became evident, the 
 owner of an ethel gradually took to the 
 custom of receiving charters. Many of the 
 smaller allodial holders, indeed, seem to have 
 sold their land to the wealthier lords, or to 
 have commended themselves to a patron, and 
 so received back their old estates as a gift. 
 The word ethel, or athel, occurs in many com- 
 pounds, both in the names of persons and 
 
 places, e.g., Athelstan, Atheling, Ethelred, 
 
 Athelney, &c. [Alodial Land.] 
 
 Kemble, Saaioiis in En^jland; StulDbs, Const. 
 Hist. ; Hallam, Middle Ages ; Skeat, Etymological 
 JDictionai^. [T. A. A.] 
 
 Ethelbald (^theleald). King of the 
 West Saxons (85.5 — 860) , succeeded his 
 father, Ethelwulf. His marriage with his 
 step-mother, Judith, is the soUtary fact we 
 know about him with certainty, as there is a 
 gap in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, from. 855 to 
 860. 
 
 Ethelljald (-SIthelbald) (S. 716, d. 757), 
 King of Mercia, was descended from one 
 of the brothers of Penda. He was per- 
 secuted by Ceolred, and took refuge in the 
 marshes of Fenland. On the death of 
 Ceolred, he was unanimously chosen king. 
 His reign was distinguished by many success- 
 ful conflicts against the Britons, and though 
 he failed to subdue Northumbria and Wessex, 
 he assumed the title of "Rex Britaunise." 
 He was defeated by Cuthred of Wessex 
 at Burford, in 752, and again, in 757, at 
 which battle he is supposed to have been 
 slain. 
 
 Ethelliert (.iETHELBERHl) (s.860, A 866), 
 King of the West Saxons, succeeded his 
 father, Ethelwulf, in the kingdom of Kent, 
 and his brother Ethelbald in Wessex, though 
 according to his father's will the latter king- 
 dom should have gone to Ethelred. The 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronick tells us that " he held 
 the kingdom in good order and great tran- 
 quillity." Most of his reign was occupied 
 in repelling the incursions of the Danes, 
 who were at this time strong enough and 
 bold enough to attack Winchester, the royal 
 city of the West Saxon kings. 
 
 Ethelbert (^thelberht) (J. 560 ? d. 616), 
 King of Kent, ranks as the third Bretwalda. 
 We are told that "in the infancy of his 
 reign he was such an object of contempt to 
 the neighbouring kings, that, defeated in two 
 battles, he could scarcely protect his frontier; 
 but in riper years he quickly, by successive 
 victories, subjugated every kingdom of the 
 Angles, with the exception of Northumbria." 
 This statement of William of Malmesbury is 
 greatly exaggerated, and probably means 
 little more than that he conquered Sussex 
 and Essex, and obtained a nominal suzerainty 
 over the other kingdoms. His marriage with 
 Bertha, daughter of Charibert, King .of 
 Soissons, is the important event in his reign, 
 as it led indirectly to the coming of St. 
 Augustine and the conversion of Ethelbert 
 to Christianity (697). Ethelbert was the first 
 king among the Anglo-Saxons who drew up 
 a code of laws. 
 
 Anglo-Samn Chron. ; 'William of Malmesbury ; 
 Lappenberg, Anglo-Saxon Kings. 
 
 Ethelfleda (^thelfljed) (d. 919), was 
 a daughter of King Alfred. She was married 
 
Etli 
 
 (441 ) 
 
 Eth 
 
 to the Ealdorman Ethelred, and, together with 
 her husband, ruled over Mereia. She was 
 of great assistance to her brother Edward 
 in his wars against the Danes, and joined him 
 in rebuilding Chester and other ancient towns 
 that had fallen into decay. la 916 her troops 
 defeated the Welsh at Brecknock. Her 
 husband died in 912, and she left only a 
 daughter, EUwin, whom Edward deprived of 
 the government of Mereia, and forcibly 
 carried off to "Wessex. Ethelfleda seems to 
 have had -the title of "The Lady of the 
 Mercians," expressive of the power she 
 possessed, and the relations in which she 
 stood to Edward. 
 
 Plorence of "Worcester ; ATiglo-Saxon Chrtm, ; 
 Freeman, JVorman Cougwest, vol. i. 
 
 Ethelfrith (.SIthelfrith), King of 
 Northumbria (593 — 617), was the son and 
 successor of Ethehic. He mamed a daughter 
 of Ella of Deira, and incorporated that state 
 with his own kingdom of Bernicia, having 
 driven Edwin (q.v.), the son of Ella, into 
 exile. He was a far-sighted and successful 
 king. He defeated the Scots and the Britons, 
 and captured the city of Chester. He de- 
 stroyed the monastery of Bangoryscoed, and 
 put all the monks to death, asserting that as 
 they prayed for his defeat, they were, though 
 unarmed, fighting against him. Ethelfrith, 
 having learnt that his brother-in-law, Edwin, 
 had taken refuge with Eedwald of East 
 Anglia, demanded that he should be given 
 up ; and on his request being refused, war 
 ensued, in which Ethelfrith was defeated and 
 slain. 
 
 Ethelheard (-SItkexheaed) (s. 725, d. 
 740), King of Wessex, succeeded his brother- 
 in-law, Ina. He was descended from Cerdic, 
 but belonged probably to a distant branch 
 of the royal house. His election was opposed 
 by the Atheling Oswald, but unsuccessfully. 
 His reign was an unfortunate one ; the British 
 recovered something of what they had lost, 
 and the Mercians captured Somerton (733), 
 an important border fortress, now a mere 
 village, between Oxford and Banbury ; and 
 Wessex was obliged, in some degree, to own 
 the Mercian overlordship. 
 
 EtheUinu (JEthelhun), called "The 
 Proud Ealdorman," rebelled against Cuthred 
 of Wessex in 750, but was defeated, and 
 pardoned. In 752, it was chiefly owing to 
 his bravery that the West Saxons won the 
 battle of Burford. 
 
 Ethelnoth. (JEthelnoth), Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (1020—1038), had been one of 
 the chaplains of Canute, and was one of that 
 king's chief advisers. It is to him that we 
 must attribute much of Canute's civil and 
 ecclesiastical policj'. Ethelnoth was a man 
 of large views, and being himself a secular, 
 did much to improve tie position of the 
 secular clergy. During Canute's absence 
 
 from England, Ethelnoth was one of the 
 regents of the kingdom, and to him the king 
 addressed his famous letter describing his 
 visit to Eome. On Canute's death, in 1035, 
 Ethelnoth refused to crown Harold, and pro- 
 hibited any of the bishops doing so. 
 
 William of Malmesbury; Encomium Ewmiasi 
 Hook, Arcbhisho^s of Canterbury. 
 
 Ethelred (jEthelred) I., King of the 
 West Saxons (866 — 871), was the son of 
 EthelwuH, and succeeded on the death of 
 his brother Ethelbert. His reign is important 
 for his great struggle with the Danes. At 
 fii-st the invading host attacked the tributary 
 provinces. Northumberland, disputed between 
 rival kings, fell an easy prey, and one or 
 two other provinces received a tributary 
 crown at the hands of the heathen invaders. 
 They next entered Mereia. The West Saxon 
 monarch, hastening to the relief of his vassals, 
 was unable to dislodge the invaders from 
 Nottingham, which they had seized. East 
 Anglia was completely conquered, and its 
 king, Edmund, put to death. In 871 the 
 Danes attacked Wessex, and made Beading 
 their head-quarters. Thence they sallied 
 forth, and no less than nine pitched battles 
 (" folk-fights "), besides numerous smaller 
 engagements, were fought between the Danes, 
 led by Bagsecg and Half dene, and the English, 
 under Ethelred and his brother Alfred. The 
 most important of these fights took place at 
 Ashdown, in which the English were com- 
 pletely victorious ; but in many of the other 
 battles the Danes got the upper hand. In the 
 midst of this struggle Ethelred died, proba- 
 bly of his wounds; He was succeeded by his 
 brother Alfred. [Danes ; Alfred.] 
 
 Asser, Life of Alfred ; Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; 
 Pauli, Life of Alfred. 
 
 Ethelred (Ethelred) II., King {b. 968, 
 ». 979, d. 1016), sometimes called the " Un- 
 ready " — the Purposeless — the son of Edgar 
 by EUrida, was born in the year 968, and suc- 
 ceeded on the murder of his half-brother 
 Edward. During the early part of his reign 
 the government was in the hands of his 
 mother, and very probably Dunstan (q.v.) 
 remained chief adviser. We read of in- 
 cursions of the Danes from the very com- 
 mencement of this reign, but it was not 
 tiU after the death of Dunstan, in 988, that 
 we have the beginning of Danish attempts 
 at settlement. In 991 East Anglia was 
 attacked, and the great battle of Maiden 
 fought, in which the brave Ealdorman 
 Brihtnoth was slain. In this year too, by 
 the advice of Archbishop Sigeric, the fatal 
 plan of buying off the invaders was adopted. 
 In addition to foreign enemies, Etheh-ed 
 had to contend against treason at home, 
 his two favourites, Elfric, Ealdorman of 
 Mereia, and Edi-ic Streona, frequently be- 
 traying his plans to the Danes. After re- 
 peated raids on England, Olaf of Norway 
 
Eth 
 
 (442 ) 
 
 Eth 
 
 was bought off in 994. But the Danes still 
 continued their incursions. In 997 Devon 
 and Cornwall, in 998 Dorset and Hampshire, 
 and in 999 Kent, were carried hy them. 
 In 1000 Ethelred led an army into Cum- 
 berland against Malcolm, who had refused 
 to pay money for buying off the Danes, 
 and in the same year an English force in- 
 vaded Normandy unsuccessfully. The quarrel 
 with Normandy was, however, soon made 
 up, and in 1002 Ethebed married Emma, 
 the sister of the Noi-man duke. In that year 
 the sum of £24,000 was paid to the Danes. 
 This year also saw an attempt to exterminate 
 the Danes by the massacre of St. Briee 
 (1002), which, far from accomplishing its 
 purpose, only led to SwejTi gathering a large 
 force together to avenge the slaughter. He 
 captured Exeter and Salisbury, and met 
 with no resistance, save in East Anglia. In 
 1006 "the great fleet came to Sandwich, and 
 did all as they were wont ; they ravaged and 
 burned and destroyed wherever they went." 
 Once more they were bribed to leave England. 
 In 1008 Ethelred got together a fleet to oppose 
 the Danes, but quarrels among the commanders 
 and a great storm ruined this project, and the 
 last chance against the invaders was gone. 
 In 1009 London was ineffectually attacked, 
 but Oxford was burnt, and " at length there 
 was no head man who would assemble forces, 
 but each fled as he best might; nor at the 
 last would even one shire help another." 
 In 1013 Sweyn made another great attack 
 on England. The North at once submitted 
 to him, and by the end of the year he was 
 master of the whole country, and was 
 acknowledged king, and Ethelred fled, with 
 his wife and children, to his brother-in- 
 law's court in Normandy. But SwejTi's 
 death, in February, 1014, enabled Ethel- 
 red to return. With the aid of his son 
 Edmund he drove out Canute, who had been 
 chosen king by the Danish portion of the 
 inlmbitants. But Canute returned in 1015, 
 and ravaged Wessex ; next year he passed 
 into Mercia and Northumbria, which sub- 
 mitted to him. While he was preparing for 
 the final conquest of Wessex, Ethelred died 
 (April 23, lOlS). Ethelred was twice married, 
 his first wife being iElflaed, and his second, 
 Emma of Nm-mandy. Of Etheh-ed the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicte says, "he held his 
 kingdom with great toil and great diffi- 
 culties the while that his life lasted." Among 
 the West Saxon kings, Mr. Freeman remarks, 
 " Ethelred stands alone in presenting the 
 wretched spectacle of a long reign of utter 
 misgovernment, unredeemed, as far as we can 
 see, by any of those personal excellences 
 which have sometimes caused public errors 
 and crimes to be forgotten." 
 
 Anqlo-Saxon Chron. ; lappenberir, Anglo-Saxm 
 Kmgs ; Freeman, Norm. Cong., vol. i. 
 
 Ethelred (Ethelred), King of Mercia 
 
 (675 — 704), was the son of Penda and brother 
 of Wulfere, whom he succeeded. He married 
 Osthryth, sister of Alfred of Northumbria. 
 He defeated Lothaire of Kent in 675, and 
 ravaged the whole of that kingdom. The 
 remainder of his reign was peaceful, save for 
 an attack on his brother-in-law, whom he 
 compelled to restore the province of Lindsey 
 to Mercia. He resigned the crown in 704 in 
 favour of Ms nephew, Cenred, and became 
 a monk in the abbey of Bardesey, where he 
 died, in 716. 
 
 Ethelred (iEiHELKED), King of North-, 
 umbria (774—779 and 789—793), was the 
 son of Ethelwald. In the fifth year of his 
 reign he was compelled to abdicate and fly 
 the country, but the death of Alf wold and the 
 bad government of Oswold afforded an oppor- 
 tunity for his return. He attempted to 
 strengthen himself by the murder of his 
 uncle, but in the sequel was himself assassi- 
 nated by some of his thegns. 
 
 Ethelwald (^Ethelwald) Moll, King 
 of Northumbria (759 — 765), succeeded after 
 the murder of Oswulf. His parentage is 
 unknown, but very probably he was one of 
 the thegns who assassinated Oswulf. Civil 
 war distracted his reign, and he was even- 
 tually defeated, and obliged to resign his 
 throne. 
 
 Ethelwald (.(Ethelwald) was the son 
 of Ethelred I. In 901 he rebelled against 
 Edward the Elder, and seized Wareham, saj'- 
 ing that he would either live there or die 
 there; but on the approach of Edward, he fled 
 to the Danes in Northumbria. In 904 he 
 subdued Essex, and persuaded the East 
 Anglian Danes to invade Mercia, but in 905 
 was slain in a skirmish. 
 
 Ethelweard (^^dlTrtELWEAiiD), or as he 
 styles himself " Fabius Quaestor Ethel- 
 werdus," was the author of a Latin Chronicle 
 of the Saxon Kings of England. Of the 
 author nothing is known with certainty, 
 beyond the fact that he was (according to his 
 own account) the great-grandson of King 
 Etheh-ed, brother of Alfred the Great. He 
 probably died in the closing years of the 
 tenth century. Ethelweard's Chronicle ex- 
 tends from the Creation to the reign of 
 Edgar. It is for the most part a mere Latin 
 abridgment of Bede's Ecclesiastical Bistm-y 
 and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; but, says Sir 
 T.Hardy, "he has the merit of being the 
 only Latin historian in an interval of two 
 centuries." 
 
 Ettelweard's Chronicle was first printed by 
 bir H. bavile m 1598, iu Scripto™ Post Bedam, 
 arid Has been reprinted ia the Monumenia 
 -atstoi-xffi jBritaTimtB. 
 
 Ethelwulf (^thelwulf), King of the 
 West Saxons («. 837, d. 858), was the son of 
 Egbert, whom he succeeded. His reign was 
 occupied in great measure in repelling the 
 
Ens 
 
 ( 443 
 
 EzC 
 
 incursiona of the Danes, by wliom he was 
 defeated, in 840, at Charmouth, and 
 ■who, in 851, captured Canterbury and 
 London, and drove out the Mercian king. 
 Ethelwulf marched against them, and routed 
 them at Ockley ; and in 853 he assisted 
 Burhred, King of Mercia, against the North 
 Welsh, " and made them aU obedient to 
 him." In 855 the Danes, for the first time, 
 wintered in England, and in this year Ethel- 
 wulf made a pilgrimage to Rome, whither he 
 had sent his youngest son, Alfred, two years 
 previously. On his way home he married 
 Judith, daughter of Charles the Bold, 
 King of the West Franks, and grandson of 
 Charlemagne. During his absence, Asser 
 tells us, his son, Ethelbald, conspired against 
 him, and Ethelwulf, on his return, to avoid a 
 civil war, gave up Wessex to him, retaining 
 only Kent for himself. Ethelwulf is best 
 known for his famous " Donation," which is 
 often said to have originated the system of 
 Tithes (q.v.). In reality, it was merely "the 
 devotion of a tenth part of his private estate 
 to ecclesiastical purposes, the relief of a tenth 
 part of the folk-land from all payments 
 except the Trinoda neeessitaSf and the direction 
 that every ten hides of his land should provide 
 for one poor man or stranger." ' 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; Lappenberg, Anglo- 
 (Sa.V(ni Kings ; Stubbs, Const. Hist., chap, viil. 
 
 Eustace [d. 1153), the second son of 
 King Stephen, was heir-apparent to his 
 father by the death of his elder brother, Bald- 
 win. Stephen was extremely anxious that 
 Eustace should be crowned king in his life- 
 time, thus ensuring the succession to him, but 
 this the Pope refused to allow, it being evi- 
 dent that such a course would only perpetuate 
 the period of civil war. Eustace died in 1133, 
 and thus the way was open for the compro- 
 mise between Stephen and Henry II., which 
 was effected by the Treaty of Wallingford. 
 Eustace married Constance, sister of Louis 
 VII. of France, but left no children. 
 
 ZiutaTir Springs, The Battle of (Sept. 8, 
 1781), was the last serious engagement in the 
 American War of Independence. On the de- 
 parture of Lord Rawdon for England, Colonel 
 Stewart had succeeded to the command at 
 Charleston. Greene was too strong and too un- 
 embarrassed to remain any longer quiet, and he 
 descended from the Santee HUls, with the in- 
 tention of driving the British into Charleston, 
 and there blockading them. Stewart met him 
 at the Eutaw Springs. At first the English 
 were repulsed along the whole line, but they 
 gained time to rally, and returning to the 
 attack, drove the Americans from their posi- 
 tions, and remained masters of the field. 
 Their loss, however, was seven hundred men, 
 who could be iU spared, especially in their 
 then critical condition of affairs. Stewart 
 was too much weakened to reap any resuKs 
 from his victory, and was compelled to fall 
 
 back to Charleston Neck, and to look on 
 while Greene overran South Carolina and 
 Georgia. 
 
 Baucroft, Hist, of American Bevoluiion, iv., 
 chap. 24 i Stanhope, Hist, of Bng., chap. 54. 
 
 Evelyn, John (i. 1620, d. 1706), served 
 in several official positions during the reign of 
 Charles 11. He was one of the Council for 
 the Management of the Plantations, and a 
 member of the Board of Trade, and in, 1695 
 he became Treasurer of Greenwich Hospital. 
 Evelyn wrote several works on horticulture, 
 architecture, and general Kterature. He was 
 also the author of a JDiary, which, together 
 with his letters, was first printed in 1818, 
 and has been frequently republished. Evelyn's 
 Memoirs are of great value for their sketches 
 of persons and society during the latter half 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Evesham, The Battle op (1265), was 
 fought during the Barons' War between Prince 
 Edward and Simon de Montfort. The quarrel 
 with the De Clares and the escape of Prince 
 Edward had arrayed a formidable band of 
 enemies against De Montfort. The royalists 
 were in the Welsh Marches, whither Simon 
 set out against them ; but by the capture of 
 Gloucester they cut off his retreat, and having 
 routed the younger Simon, Edward marched to 
 Evesham, where De Montfort was waiting for 
 his son. On August 4 the armies met, and De 
 Montfort at once perceived that he was alto- 
 gether outnumbered. " God have mercy on 
 our souls," he cried, " for our bodies are the 
 prince's ! " In vain he attempted to force his 
 way to Kenilworth, and at length all he could 
 do was to draw his troops round him in a com- 
 pact ring, and await the attack of the royalists. 
 His son Henry fell at his feet, and at last the 
 earl himself rushed into the thickest of the 
 fight, and was hewn down. The royalists 
 refused quarter, and terrible havoc was made 
 of the baronial forces. " The victory of the 
 king's party at Evesham," says Mr. Blaauw, 
 " was so complete, that the disproportionate 
 loss on the other side, betokening more a 
 surprise than a battle, caused it to be thus 
 described by Robert of Gloucester : ' Such 
 was the murder of Evesham, for battle none 
 it was ! ' " The royalists had distinguished 
 themselves by red crosses on their arms, and 
 the few who fell in the action owed their 
 death to neglect of this precaution, being killed 
 by their own comrades in mistake. 
 
 Matt, Paris, Hist. Ma). ; Blaauw, Barons' 
 War ; Paiili, Simon de MonifoH. 
 
 Evesham, The Chronicle of, is a 
 monastic record, containing a history from the 
 foundation of the abbey at the end of the 
 sei'enth century to the year 1415. Though 
 of slight historical value, it is important for the 
 accurate and detailed picture it gives of the 
 inner and daily life of a great abbey. 
 
 Excheciner was the name of th? court 
 in which, after the Conquest, the financial . 
 
Exc 
 
 ( 444 ) 
 
 Exc 
 
 business of the country was transacted. The 
 name arose from the chequered cloth, like a 
 chess-board, which covered the table of the 
 court. The chequers were probably useful in 
 counting money, for which purpose counters 
 were used as late as the reign of Edward II. 
 The organisation of the court dates from 
 Henry I., and it seems to have been originally 
 merely a specialised financial committee of the 
 Great Council. Its principal officers were the 
 great officers of the state and household, with 
 certain others, councillors or judges, appointed 
 by the king, who were called Barons of the 
 Exchequer [JBarones Scacearii) . The court was 
 generally held at Westminster, but was not 
 fixed there in the twelfth century. Henry II. 
 restored the court, and a full account of it as 
 it existed in his reign is contained in the 
 work called Sialogus de Scaccario. Two full 
 sessions were held each year, at Easter and 
 Michaelmas. At these the sheriffs gave in 
 their accounts. These accounts were rendered 
 in three divisions : in the profer, at which 
 the sheriff paid the larger part of the 
 money in hand ; the visus compoti, or state- 
 ment; and the summa, or final balance, with 
 vouchers. All the revenue from the ferm or 
 rent of the counties, the danegeld, pleas of 
 the crown, aids, and other feudal dues, were 
 thus brought into the Exchequer. The ac- 
 counts with the sheriffs were kept by tallies, 
 or pieces of wood inscribed and notched. 
 These were divided down the middle, and one- 
 half was kept by the sheriff and the other by 
 the court. Payment of the ferm of the 
 counties was made in money instead of in 
 kind in the reign of Henry II. Besides the 
 receipt of revenue, the business of the Ex- 
 chequer included jurisdiction in cases which 
 affected the revenue by the payment of fines ; 
 it recorded agreements, charters, and feoff- 
 ments ; and it sometimes seems to have acted 
 as a political council of state, especially in 
 inatters of foreign treaties. "When the office 
 of Justiciar became extinct, the place of 
 president at the Exchequer Board, which 
 formerly belonged to the Justiciar, was taken 
 by the Treasurer. By 4 & 6 Will. IV., o. 15, 
 the whole position of the Exchequer as regards 
 the receipt of revenue was changed. For 
 this purpose its organisation consists of a 
 Board, at the head of which is an officer called 
 the Comptroller-General. All revenue is paid 
 into the Bank of England to his account, and 
 all payments made by the Exchequer are made 
 in virtue of warrants from the Treasury. 
 
 The Exchequer must also be considered 
 with reference to jurisdiction. No small part 
 of its judicial business was lost by the separa- 
 tion of the Court of Common Pleas from the 
 King's Bench [Magna Gharta, art. 17). It 
 still retained jurisdiction in revenue cases, 
 and in the pleas of all who were in any way 
 connected with the court. Special leave was 
 also given to implead in the Exchequer as 
 an indulgence. Like the other courts, the 
 
 Exchequer drew business to itself wherever it 
 was possible. This usurpation of jurisdiction 
 was made a subject of complaint, and by the 
 A.rticuli super cartas (28 Ed. I., c. 4) it was 
 provided that no common pleas except those 
 of privileged persons should be heard in that 
 court. From the reign of Edward II. a 
 regular series of Chief Barons begins. With 
 this separate organisation, however, the usur- 
 pation by the Exchequer of jurisdiction 
 properly belonging to other courts continued. 
 It drew jurisdiction to itself by means of a 
 writ of qtm minus, in which it was suggested 
 that the plaintiff was indebted to the crown, 
 and needed payment from the defendant to 
 enable him to pay the king. Courts of Ex- 
 chequer were set up in Scotland and in Ireland, 
 when those countries were united to England 
 as regards legislation. The fiction of the writ 
 of quo minus was abolished by 2 Will. IV., c. 
 39 — the Uniformity of Process Act — and a 
 proper jurisdiction was given to the Ex- 
 chequer. An equitable jurisdiction also per- 
 tained to this court, which was extended by 
 the sam^e means as those used in its common 
 law side. While, however, the barons were 
 the judges on the common law side, the Trea- 
 surer and Chancellor of the Exchequer pre- 
 sided in equity cases. The appointment of 
 the Chancellor dates from the reign of Edward 
 II. In his oath of office he bound himself to 
 use the seal of the Exchequer for no writs of 
 other courts while the Chancery was within 
 twenty miles. The last case in which the 
 Chancellor exercised judicial functions was in 
 1735. The equity business of the Exchequer 
 was transferred to the Court of Chancery by 
 5 Vict., c. 5. The Court of Exchequer has 
 now become, by the Act of 1873, the Ex- 
 chequer Division of the High Court of 
 Justice. The Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 has now no judicial functions, and is the 
 member of the cabinet who is at the head of 
 the financial administration and acts as 
 Minister of Finance. 
 
 The Com-t of Exchequer Cliamler was erected 
 as a statutory court by 31 Ed. III., c. 12, to 
 decide cases on writs of error from the 
 common law side of the Exchequer. Its j udges 
 were the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Treasurer, 
 and the justices of the King's Bench and 
 Common Pleas. This court was re-organised 
 by 27 Eliz., c. 8, which may indeed be more 
 properly said to have created a new court, 
 having jurisdiction in appeal from the King's 
 Bench. By 1 Will. IV., c. 70, a new court was 
 erected, for the judgments of each common- 
 law court were made subject to revision by 
 the judges of the other two courts sitting in 
 the Exchequer Chamber. The appellate juris- 
 diction of this court was transferred to the 
 new Court of Appeal, founded by the Su- 
 preme Court of Judicature Act (36 & 37 
 Vict.,c. 66, s. 18). 
 
 Madox, Hist. 0/ the iJxoTieguer; Stubbs, Cmet. 
 Hm., cliaps. xi., xv. r"^ jj i 
 
Exc 
 
 ( 445 ) 
 
 Eze 
 
 Excise, The, is generally defined as a 
 duty charged before their sale on goods which 
 are manufactured and consumed at home ; but 
 it is sometimes used of any tax laid upon the 
 retail trade. It is generally supposed that 
 this tax was first levied in England by the 
 Parliamentary party in the time of the Civil 
 War ; but it is obvious that some of the im- 
 posts of the later Angevin kings may have 
 been exacted in this way. However, it was 
 not until 1643, when an excise on liquors was 
 imposed, in imitation of the Dutch, by an 
 ordinance of both Houses, and afterwards by 
 the king's rival convention at Oxford, that it 
 became a recognised source of revenue. After 
 the Restoration half its produce was assigned 
 to the crown in compensation for the surrender 
 of the revenues derived fi-om feudal tenure, 
 ■ whereby the burdens of the rich were trans- 
 ferred to the whole nation. James II. ob- 
 tained from his first Parliament extra excise 
 and custom duties, valued at £900,000 a year, 
 but only £300,000 of this, taken from the 
 excise, w£is granted to William and Mary, 
 although the revenue granted to Charles II. 
 was continued. At the same time. Parliament 
 declared the excise to be " the most easy and 
 indifferent levy that could be laid upon the 
 people." This view was not shared by the 
 nation at large, and the excise long continued 
 to be 'a most obnoxious tax, the popular preju- 
 dices, caused partly by the practice of letting 
 out the duties in farm, and partly by the 
 obscurity of the statutes bearing on the sub- 
 ject, being even entertained by men like Black- 
 stone and Dr. Johnson. Sir Robert Walpole, 
 in 1733, found them fatal to his celebrated 
 Excise Scheme. He wished to conciUate the 
 country gentlemen by diminishing the land- 
 tax to one shilling, and for that purpose im- 
 posed a duty on salt. When the new tax was 
 found to fall short by two-thirds of the re- 
 quired amount, he proposed — not indeed, as 
 had been reported — a general system of excise, 
 but the substitution of excise duties for cus- 
 toms duties on wine and tobacco. By this 
 means smuggling would be lessened, while by 
 a system of warehousing without tax for re- 
 exportation, London would become a free port. 
 The Opposition, however, raised a most violent 
 outcry against the measure, and the general 
 dislike to it was so great that it was thought an 
 attempt to enforce it would have been inet by 
 armed resistance in some localities, the ministe- 
 rial party dwindled rapidly away, and Walpole 
 was compelled to withdraw the bill based upon 
 his resolution. Subsequent ministries, how- 
 ever, increased the amount of the excise duties, 
 partly to decrease drunkenness (for instance, 
 in 1746 a tax of 20s. a gallon was laid on 
 spirits, and in consequence smuggling in- 
 creased a hundredfold), and levied them on a 
 large number of commodities. This was espe- 
 cially the case during the great struggle with 
 Napoleon, when the excise included taxes on 
 nearly every conceivable article of home manu- 
 
 facture and consumption — licences to permit 
 persons to carry on certain trades, to shoot 
 game, post-horse duties, duties on sales by 
 auction, and other impositions. A great many 
 of these duties have, however, since been 
 abolished, and others have been transferred to 
 the customs. The excise is now almost con- 
 fined to British spirits and malt liquors. The 
 management of the excise has also been 
 simplified, notably in 1823, when the separate 
 boards for the three kingdoms were abolished, 
 and in 1848, when the Board left Gresham 
 House, and was merged with those of stamps 
 and taxes into the Inland Revenue Board at 
 Somerset House. [Customs.] 
 
 Husband, Collection of Ordinances, p. 267 ; 
 Commons Journals, Sept., 1660; Hallam, ConsK 
 Hist., ii,» chaxis. x., xi. ; Lingard, x. 267; Stau- 
 liope, Hist, of England, ii. 16 ; Reports of the 
 Commissioners of JUxcise Inquiry, 1883 ; 7 & 8 Geo. 
 IV., 0. 53; 3 & 4 Vict., 0. 5, 7. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Exclusion Bill, The, was first brought 
 into the House of Commons in 1679. It dis- 
 abled the Duke of York, as a Papist, from 
 succeeding to the crown, should he outlive 
 his brother. It met with considerable oppo- 
 sition in the Commons, but eventually passed 
 by 207 votes to 128, upon which Charles 
 dissolved Parliament. He was, however, soon 
 obliged to summon it again (October, 1680), 
 and the Exclusion Bill was again passed by the 
 Commons ; hut the Lords, chiefly through the 
 influence of Halifax, rejected it by 63 to 30. 
 In January, 1681, the Commons voted that 
 no supplies should be granted till the Exclusion 
 Bill was passed, and refused to entertain 
 Halifax's proposal, by which James was to 
 rule only in name, a regent being appointed 
 on his accession to the crown. Again the 
 Parliament was dissolved (January 16, 1681), 
 but not before the Commons had voted that 
 the opponents of the Exclusion Bill were traitors 
 bought with Erench money. Again, in the 
 Parliament which met at Oxford in March, 
 1681, the Commons insisted on the passing of 
 the Exclusion Bill. But this Parliament was 
 in like manner dissolved, and Charles sum- 
 moned no more Parliaments during his reign, 
 and consequently, the Exclusion BOl fell 
 through. The Exclusion Bill had proposed 
 that the crown should descend to the heirs of 
 the Duke of York on Charles's demise, in the 
 same manner as if the duke was himself 
 dead ; but in spite of the temper of the times 
 a great deal of opposition to the measure arose 
 from the fear that Shaftesbm-y and others 
 were desirous of making Monmouth king. 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Own Time; Eanke, Hist. 
 ofUmj. ; Macaulny, Hiit. of Eng.; Christie, Life 
 of Shafteshury^ 
 
 Exeter was probably a hill-fort of the 
 Celtic inhabitants of Damnonia. Its ancient 
 name Oaei- Wise became Isca, or Isca Damno- 
 niorum in Latin, and Exanccaster in Anglo- 
 Saxon. Conquered by the English at an 
 imcertain date, the city was strongly fortified 
 
Eze 
 
 ( 446 ) 
 
 Ext 
 
 ■by Athelstan. It was several times besieged 
 by the Danes in the reigns of Alfred and 
 Ethelred II., and captured by Sweyn, owing 
 to the treason of its governor, Hugh the 
 French, in 1003. It was erected an episcopal 
 see by Edward the Confessor in 1046. In 
 1067 Exeter was besieged and captured by 
 William the Conqueror. In Sejjt., 1497, 
 it was unsuccessfully besieged by Perkin 
 Warbeck, and in 1549 it successfully stood a 
 great siege against the Western insurgents. 
 Throughout the Civil War, Exeter was for 
 the most part Royalist. It was captured by 
 IMnce Maurice in 1642, and remained in the 
 hands of the king's adherents till nearly the 
 close of the war, when it was retaken by 
 Fairfax (1646). It was the first important 
 place in England reached by William of 
 Orange, who entered Exeter Nov. 9, 1688. 
 Tile cathedral, which was commenced by 
 Bishop William of Warlewast in 1112, or 
 perhaps earlier, was not completed till late in 
 the fifteenth century. 
 
 Xxeter, Peerage oe. In early times the 
 Earls of Devon were frequently styled Earls 
 of Exeter. The first distinct peerage deriving 
 its name from the citj' was the duk:dmn of 
 Exeter, conferred, 1397, upon John Holland, 
 Earl of Huntingdon, third sou of Thomas 
 Holland, Earl of Kent (sou-in-Iaw of Edmund 
 Plantagenet, Earl of Kent), in 1399 ; how- 
 ever, the duke was degraded, and his honours 
 became forfeit. In 1416 Thomas , Beaufort, 
 youngest son of John of Gaunt, was created 
 Duke of Exeter for his life. Afterwards, 
 1443, John Holland, son of the first duke, 
 was created duke, having been restored in 
 blood and honours twenty-six years earlier. 
 The dukedom, however, again became forfeit 
 on the attainder of his son Henry, 1461. In 
 1525, Henry Courtenay, Earl of Devon, 
 was made Marquis of Exeter, as was also his 
 son Edward, 1553, the father having been 
 attainted in 1539 ; on Edward's death, without 
 issue, 1556, the title became extinct. In 1605 
 Thomas Cecil, second Lord Burghley, Was 
 created Harl of Exeter, and the honour still 
 remains in his family, Henry Cecil, tenth earl, 
 having been advanced to a Marquisate of the 
 same style, 1801. 
 
 Exeter, Henry Holland, Duke of 
 (d. 1473), was the son of John, Duke of 
 Exeter. He was one of the principal leaders 
 of the Lancastrian party, though he married 
 Anne, daughter of Richard, Duke of York. 
 He fought in the battles of Wakefield and 
 Towton, and after the latter, escaped to Scot- 
 land, and was attainted by Edward IV. He 
 afterwards returned, and fought in the battle 
 of Barnet, where he was left for dead on the 
 field, but recovering, fled to Prance, where he 
 was in such abject poverty that he was 
 obliged to beg his bread in the streets. In 
 1473 his corpse was djscovered on the sea- 
 
 shore near Dover, without any clue as to how 
 it got there. 
 
 Exeter, Thomas Beaufort, Duke of 
 {d. 1427), was the son of John of Gaunt and 
 Catherine Swynf ord. He was appointed Cap- 
 tain of Calais in 1407, and in 1410 succeeded 
 Arundel as Chancellor. He held the Great 
 Seal for two years, and on his resignation, was 
 created Earl of Dorset. He was one of the 
 commanders in the French wars of Henry V. 
 and Henry VI. 's reigns, and in 1415 was made 
 Duke of Exeter. He was taken prisoner in the 
 battle of Beauge in 1421, but was released 
 soon after, and was one of the Council during' 
 the minority of Henry VI. He married 
 Margaret, daughter of Sir T. Neville, but 
 left no issue. 
 
 Exeter, Thomas Cecil, Earl of [h. 1542, 
 d. 1622), the eldest son of Lord Burleigh, 
 was one of the leaders of the queen's troops 
 against the northern rebels in 1569 ; he 
 took part in the Scotch expedition in favour 
 of the Regent Murraj', and subsequently did 
 good service in the Low Countries, in reward 
 for which he was made Governor of Hull, 
 1585. He was created Earl of Exeter by 
 James I., 1605. 
 
 Exhibition, The Great (1861). The 
 idea of holding a great international exposi- 
 tion of the industrial products of the world, 
 if it did not originate with Prince Albert, the 
 - husband of Queen Victoria, was taken up bj'- 
 him with so much energy, that the credit- 
 belongs to him. Under his auspices a Royal 
 Commission for this purpose was issued in 
 Jan., 1850, and on May 1, 1851, the exhibition 
 was opened by the Queen in Hyde Park. 
 It remained open till Oct. 15, 1851, having 
 attained a success beyond all expectation. 
 The buildings of glass and iron were sub- 
 sequently removed to form the Crystal Palace 
 at Sydenham. A second international ex- 
 hibition was held from May to November, 
 1862 ; and since then many others have been 
 held in London and almost every civilised 
 capital. 
 
 Exton, Sir Piers, is supposed to have 
 been a relative of Sir Nicholas Exton, who 
 was Lord Mayor of London in 1386 and 1387. 
 Exton is said to have murdered Richard II. 
 in Pontefract Castle, but the whole circum- 
 stances of Richard's death are too obscm-e to 
 allow us to charge him with the crime with 
 any degree of confidence. 
 
 Extradition is the surrender of fugitives 
 from justice by one state to another. No 
 systematic usage in this matter prevailed 
 until the present century. Perhaps the only 
 early treaty containing a provision as to 
 extradition was that of 1174, between WUham 
 of Scotland and Henry II., wherein it was 
 agi-eed that persons guilty of felony in Eng- 
 land taking refuge in Scotland should be 
 given up, and vice versA^ But the others 
 
Fab 
 
 ( 447 ) 
 
 Fac 
 
 mediaeval treaties usually quoted — e.g., the 
 Intercursiis Magrnis with Flanders in 1497 — 
 appear to have contained nothing more than 
 general promises not to harbour rebels. The 
 question of extradition seems to have been 
 first investigated by Grotius and the jurists of 
 the seventeenth century, who laid down the 
 principle that states were bound, either by 
 the law of nations or by reasons of " comity," 
 to give up fugitive criminals ; but the earliest 
 distinct statement of English common law 
 was the declaration of the Court of Exchequer 
 in 1749, that "the government may send a 
 prisoner to answer for a crime wherever com- 
 mitted." Yet such dicta, though recognising 
 the duty of extradition, were of sUght au- 
 thority, and action upon them could have been 
 prevented by an appeal for a writ of Habeas 
 Corpus. England for the first time bound 
 itself by treaty at the Peace of Amiens in 
 1802, in which it was agreed with France 
 that fugitives charged with forgery, fraudu- 
 lent bankruptcy, or murder should be sur- 
 rendered. During the early part of the 
 present century the law of extradition was 
 rapidly developed in the United States, owing 
 to the need of some arrangement between the 
 States forming the Union and between the 
 United States and Canada. In England, 
 however, the history of extradition really 
 begins with the treaties of 1842 with the 
 United States, and of 1843 with France. In 
 1852 a new convention was made with Prance, 
 and in this, f orthe first time, exception was made 
 in the case of persons charged with political 
 offences. Each of these treaties had been 
 confirmed by Act of Parliament, the con- 
 stitutional doctrine being that, though the 
 crown could make exti'adition treaties, the 
 executive could not carry them out without 
 statutory authority. On the other hand, " it 
 may be regarded as certain that England will 
 not surrender fugitives except under a treaty " 
 (Wheaton, International Law, ed. Boj'd, § 116, 
 *). The Extradition Act of 1870 empowered 
 the executive to carry out extradition treaties 
 made in accordance with its provisions, -liz., 
 that no fugitive should be surrendered for a 
 political offence, nor tried for any but the 
 crime for Which he was demanded. Under 
 this statute extradition treaties have been 
 made with all the European states except 
 Russia, and with some others. 
 
 E. Clarke, Lmn «f Extradition, Znd ei, 1874 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Pabyan, or Fabian, Eobeut [d. 1512), 
 
 was an English chronicler of the fifteenth cen- 
 turj'. 'He was a prosperous London citizen, and 
 beca;me sheriff in 1493. His book, A Concor- 
 dance of Histories, begins, as usual, with Brutus, 
 and is a commonplace compilation up to his 
 
 own time, when it becomes moderately useful 
 as contemporary, if uncritical, evidence, and 
 is especially full on London history. The first 
 edition was pi-inted in 1516. 
 
 Factory Legislation. The great 
 
 development of English industry towards the 
 end of the eighteenth century, unaccompanied 
 by any State regulation or supervision, led to 
 gross and wide-spread neglect of the com- 
 monest precautions for the preservation of 
 the health of the workers. In the present 
 centiu'y a long series of Acts have been 
 passed designed to protect the health of 
 labourers in factories and workshops, and 
 especially of women and children. The 
 Health and Morals Act of 1802 (42 Geo. III., 
 c. 73), was passed at the instance of Sir 
 Kobert Peel the elder. It provided for 
 the cleansing and ventilation of factories; 
 but the scandals of the apprentice system had 
 produced the Act, and it was mainly directed 
 to limiting the hours of apprentices' work to 
 twelve a day, the prohibition for them of 
 night work, with some arrangements for their 
 clothing, education, and moral well-being. 
 The Second Factory Act of 1819 (59 Geo. 
 III., 0. 56) was passed on the recommenda- 
 tion of a committee of the House of Commons, 
 appointed in 1816. Its operation was limited 
 to cotton-mills. By it, children under nine 
 were not to be employed at all. Between 
 nine and sixteen, they were not to work 
 over twelve hours a day, and night work 
 was prohibited. In 1833, Lord AUhorpe's 
 Act (3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 103) became law. 
 It introduced the " half-time " principle 
 for " children " {i.e., those between nine 
 and thirteen), and made their education 
 out of work hours compulsory. The provi- 
 sions confined by earlier Acts to cotton-mills 
 were made more general, and a new departure 
 was made by some provision for the welfare 
 of " young persons " {i.e., those between 
 thirteen and eighteen). Inspectors were 
 appointed to see the Acts carried out, as the 
 justices had proved but ineflBcient executors 
 of previous legislation. But a more general 
 law was still wanted, and Sir Robert PeeVs 
 Factory Act, 1844 (7 & 8 Vict., c. 15), was 
 passed. Lord Ashley's long and philanthropic 
 agitation had won two victories over the 
 government in the House of Commons in 
 favour of a ten hours' limit to the laboiir of 
 women and children. At last. Peel agreed to 
 accept a twelve hours' limit, and the amended 
 bill of Lord Ashley thus became law. Its pro- 
 visions were that the workinghoursof children 
 under thirteen should be diminished to six and 
 a half hours per day; that the time during, 
 which they were to be under daily instruction 
 in schools should be extended from two to- 
 two and a, half hours in winter, and three 
 hours in summer ; that the labour of persons 
 between thirteen and eighteen, and of adult 
 women ,(now first brought under the Factory. 
 
Pai 
 
 ( 448 ) 
 
 Fai 
 
 Acts), shoiild be limited to twelve hours a day ; 
 that a certificate of baptism should he pro- 
 duced, if demanded, to prove that the child 
 was really of the age required by the law; 
 that the amount of the fines imposed for the 
 violation of the law should be diminished, 
 but that they should be inflicted for each 
 person improperly worked, instead of for 
 each offence, which might include several 
 persons; and that machinery should be 
 guarded, to prevent accident. Inspectors 
 were appointed to carry out the Act. In 
 1847, Mr. Fielden, member for Oldham, 
 introduced and carried a bill which limited 
 the labour of young people between the ages 
 of thirteen and eighteen to twelve hours a 
 day, allowing two hours out of the twelve 
 for meals ; and he ■ further proposed that 
 the same restriction should apply to females 
 above eighteen years of age. The principle 
 of State regulation of the labour of women 
 and children was thus fully recognised. 
 The piecemeal method of English legislation 
 rendered it now necessary for the friends of 
 the Factory Acta to get supplemental 
 statutes passed to include the unprotected 
 industries. A few of these Acts, though of 
 less general and more technical interest, may 
 be briefly particularised. They included the 
 Mining Act of 1842, which entirely prohibited 
 female and child labour in mines. In 1845, 
 Lord Ashley's Print-works' Act was passed. 
 In 18.50 a thorough measure for super\'ising 
 mines was passed (Coal and Iron Mines Act). 
 Not till 1860 were bleaching and dye-works 
 included in the Acts ; not till 1867 were all 
 factories included in the scope of the Factory 
 Acts Extension and Workshop JRegulaiion Acts 
 (30 & 31 Vict., 0. 103 & 146) ; and even here 
 small exceptions required subsequent legisla- 
 tion, and the mistake of the Act of 1867 in 
 entrusting the working to local authority 
 had to be corrected in 1871 by its trans- 
 ferrence to the former system of government 
 inspectors. Finally, in 1878 was passed 
 Sir E. A. Cross's great measure, the factory 
 and Workshop Act (41 Vict., c. 16), which 
 formed a complete code of factory legislation, 
 by repealing, consolidating, and amending 
 the whole of the previous enactments. Various 
 direct attempts made to control adidt labour 
 have been rejected. 
 
 Von Plener, BiigltsTi Factory Legislation, trans- 
 lated by "Weinman, is the standard histoiy. 
 For the working of the Acts, see Report of tJie 
 Factory Acts Commission. Notcntt's Laxv ItelaUng 
 to Factories will explain the present law. A 
 briefer acconnt can be found in Stanley Jevons, 
 The Stale in Belation, to labour. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Fairfax, Feedinando (b. 1584, d. 1648), 
 2nd Baron (of Cameron, in the peerage 
 of Scotland), son of Sir Thomas Fairfax, 
 of Denton, Yorkshire, married Mary, daughter 
 of Lord Sheifield. Lord Fairfax repre- 
 sented Yorkshire in the Long Parliament, 
 and was appointed, in Nov., 1642, com- 
 
 mander-in-chief of the Parliamentary forces 
 in the northern counties. After some successes 
 he was obliged to retreat into the "West Hiding- 
 before the superior forces of the Marquis of 
 Newcastle, and suffered a severe defeat at 
 Adwalton Moor, near Bradford (June 30, 
 1643). With the remainder of his troops he 
 made his way to Hull, which he successfully 
 held against Newcastle's army, until he forced 
 them to raise the siege (Sept. 2 — Oct. 11, 
 1643). He took part in the battle of Marston 
 Moor, and on the capture of Y'ork by the 
 combined army (July, 1644) was appointed 
 its governor. He resigned in consequence of 
 the Self-Denying Ordinance, and died March 
 14, 1648. 
 
 Fairfax, Thomas, Sun Lord (S. Jan. 12, 
 1612, d. 1671), son of the preceding, was 
 educated at St. John's CoUege, Cambridge, 
 and married Anne, daughter of Lord Vere 
 (1637). He served in the royal army against 
 the Scots, and was knighted by the king for 
 his services. "When the Civil "War began he 
 acted as his father's lieutenant in Yorkshire. 
 On Jan. 23, 1643, he recaptured Leeds, and 
 on May 21st "Wakefield, making on the latter 
 occasion 1,400 prisoners. After the defeat at 
 Adwalton Moor, at which he was present, he 
 made his wa3- to Hull, but during the siege 
 joined Cromwell in Lincolnshire with his 
 "Yorkshire horse, and helped to gain the battle 
 of "Wiuceby (Oct. 12, 1643). On Jan. 28, 
 1644, he defeated the king's Irish troops at 
 Nantwich, and reconquered the county of 
 Cheshire for the Parliament. On April 12th 
 he defeated Lord Bellasis, the Governor of 
 York, at Selby, taking 1,600 prisoners. He 
 took part in the siege of York, and commanded 
 the right vring of the Parliamentary horse at 
 Marston Moor, and after the rout of that wing 
 joined Lord Manchester's division. After the 
 victory he was occupied in reducing the 
 Y''orkshire fortresses. These successes led the 
 House of Commons to appoint him commander 
 of the New Model Army (Jan. 21, 1645). He 
 took the field at the end of April, 1645, with 
 the intention of relieving Taunton, but was 
 recalled from the "West to besiege Oxford. 
 On the news of the king's capture of Leicester, 
 he raised the siege of Oxford (June 5), and 
 overtook and defeated Charles at Naseby 
 (June 14). Then he turned westward again, 
 relieved Taunton, defeated Goring at Lang- 
 port (July 10), and captured Bridgwater, 
 Bristol, Tiverton, and other Eoj'-alist strong- 
 holds. "With the defeat of Sir Ralph Hopton 
 at Torrington, early in 1646 (Feb. 16), the 
 subjugation of the "West was completed, and 
 the surrenders of Oxford (June 24) and 
 Raglan (Aug. 19) brought the first Civil 
 War to an end. In the quarrels which took 
 place next year between the army and the 
 Parliament, Fairfax, after labouring hard to 
 effect a reconciliation, cast in his lot with the 
 army, and shared the responsibility for the 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 449 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 expulsion of the eleven memters. On tlie 
 outbreak of the second Civil War, Fairfax 
 defeated the Kentish Royalists at Maidstone 
 (June 1, 1648), and after ten weeks' siege 
 obliged those who had taken refuge in Col- 
 . Chester to surrender. He seems to have been 
 willing to approve of the trial and deposition 
 of the king, but he refused to sit in the High 
 Court of Justice, and on June 2.5, 1650, re- 
 signed his command rather than invade Scot- 
 land. During the Protectorate he took no 
 part in public affairs. In Richard Cromwell's 
 Parliament he represented Yorkshire, and 
 after the dissolution of that assembly was 
 appointed by the Rump a member of the 
 Council of State, but did not act. When 
 Monk marched into England Fairfax raised 
 volunteers, was joined by a large part of 
 Lambert's forces, and occupied York. He 
 openly declared for a free Parliament, and for 
 the restoration of the king (Jan., 1660), thus 
 exercising an important influence in bringing 
 about the Restoration. His death took place 
 in 1671. He was an able general and an 
 honest man, but had none of the qualities of 
 a statesman, so that, to use the phrase of 
 Clarendon, he was throughout "overwitted" 
 by Cromwell. 
 
 Fairfax, Short Memorid's in tbe Antiquarian 
 Beperf ory, vol. iii., 1808; C. Markham, Life of 
 the Great Lord Fairfax ; "Whitelocke, Memorials ; 
 Clarendon, ifisf. o/ihe BebeUion. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Palconberg, Elizabeth, Covntess of 
 (i._1637, d. 1712), was the third daughter of 
 Oliver Cromwell; she was married in 1657 to 
 Viscount (afterwards Earl of) Falconberg. 
 Always attached to the Church of England, she 
 exerted herself in favour of the Restoration. 
 During Charles II.'s reign she frequently 
 appeared at court. 
 
 Falconberg, "William Neville, Lord 
 [d. 1462), was the son of Ralph, Earl of 
 Westmoreland, and brother of the Earl of 
 Salisbury. He distinguished himself in the 
 siege of Orleans and other operations in 
 Prance in Henry VI. 's reign. He espoused 
 the Yorkist cause, and fought at Towton. 
 In 1461 he was made Earl of Kent. 
 
 Palconbridge, or Fauconberg, The 
 
 Bastakd of, was an illegitimate son of Wil- 
 liam Neville, Lord Falconberg. In 1471 he 
 landed in Kent to make a last attempt in 
 favour of Henry VI. He got together some 
 men, and forced an entrance into London, 
 with the design of liberating Henry from the 
 Tower. But when he burned Aldgate and 
 London Bridge, the citizens rose against 
 him, and he was compelled to retire. This 
 attempt made it necessary for Edward to put 
 Henry to death. 
 
 Palkirk was the scene of a battle be- 
 tween the Scotch and the English, July 
 22, 1298. This was fought in the valley 
 between the town of Falkirk and the 
 River Carron, resulting in a victory for 
 Hist.— 15 
 
 the English, who were commanded by 
 Edward I., the Earl Marshal, and Anthony 
 Beck, Bishop of Durham, over a far inferior 
 Scotch force, led by Wallace and Sir .John 
 Grahame, the latter of whom was killed. 
 Wallace had arranged the Scottish pikemen, 
 on whom he mainly relied, in four circular 
 bodies, connected by archers. The front was 
 defended by palisades, and by a morass 
 beyond them. Behind the main body was 
 marshalled the cavalry, to prevent retreat. 
 Well might Wallace say, " I have brocht you 
 to the king, hop gif ye can." The first 
 attacks of the English, led by the Earl 
 Marshal, failed through the English becoming- 
 entangled in the morass. The Bishop of 
 Durham then attempted a flank charge, to 
 avoid the bog, but was equally unsuccessful. 
 A third attack by the king in person changed 
 the fortunes of the day. The circles were 
 broken by the English archers, and the 
 mounted knights completed the destruction of 
 the enemy. The Scottish army was com- 
 pletely shattered, and Wallace, though he 
 escaped from the field, remained a hunted 
 fugitive for the short remainder of his life. 
 
 Falkirk, The Battle of (1746), was 
 fought between the royal troops and the 
 Young Pretender, the former being defeated. 
 
 Falkland, Henry Carey, Lord (d. 1633), 
 was Deputy of Ireland between 1622 and 
 1629. His inquiry into defective titles, and- 
 transplantation of many native septs in favour 
 of English settlers, were among the causes of 
 the Rebellion of 1641. But his comparatively 
 mild government was ill adapted to carry out 
 Charles I.'s policy, and he was removed to 
 make room for Strafiord. 
 
 Falkland, Lucius Carey, Lord, son of 
 the preceding (A. 1610, d. 1643), was educated 
 at Dublin, and served in the Low Countries. 
 Returning to his seat of Great Tew, in Oxford- 
 shire, he gathered round him there, and at 
 the neighbouring university, a small band of 
 liberal theologians. In 1640 he entered the 
 Long Parliament. A devoted lover of Con- 
 stitutionalism, and an opponent of arbitrary 
 power in any shape, Falkland had no 
 sympathy with the government of Strafford 
 and Charles ; but he believed that the royal 
 government might be amended or reformed. 
 He accordingly became the leader of that 
 Parliamentary Royalist party that almost 
 succeeded in preventing the passage of the 
 Grand Remonstrance. He very unwillingly 
 joined the war on the Royalist side, and 
 almost courted the death he met at Newbury, 
 his last words being " Peace, peace." His 
 personal gifts, liberal spirit, and relations 
 to the parties of his time, invest his career 
 with unusual interest. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of ike Rebellion; Gardiner, 
 Hist, of Eng., 1608—1842. 
 
 Falkland Castle, in Fifeshire, was the 
 scene of the Duke of Rothesay's murder 
 
Fal 
 
 C 450 ) 
 
 Fain. 
 
 m 1482. In 1592, Lord Bothwell made one 
 of his numerous attempts to seize James VI. 
 while he was in the castle. 
 
 Falkland Islands, The, are a group of 
 islands lying in the South Atlantic, and con- 
 sisting of East and West Falkland, together 
 with ahout two hundred smaller islands ; they 
 ■were discovered by John Daids in 1592. In 
 1690 an English navigator, named Strong, gave 
 them their present name. In 1764 Commo- 
 dore Byron took possession of them for the 
 crown of England. In the same j^ear, how- 
 ever, a French settlement was form.ed there, 
 under M. de Bougainville, and the islands 
 were successfully claimed by the Spaniards 
 in 1767, who drove out the French colonists 
 and also some English settlers. In the year 
 1771 the Falkland Islands were restored to 
 the British government, but were left 
 uncolonised for many years. In 1820 the 
 action of Buenos AjTes in establishing a 
 settlement on the islands roused the jealousy 
 of the English government, whose protest, in 
 1829, resulted in the restoration of the islands 
 to the British in 18-33. Now they are chiefly 
 used as a whaling station, though a small 
 colony of sheep farmers has settled there. They 
 are ruled by a governor, an executive council, 
 and a legislative council, both of which are 
 appointed by the crown. The population is 
 about 1,200. 
 
 E. M. Martin, British Colonies; Creasy, 
 Britannic Empire. 
 
 Family Compact, The, is the name 
 applied to various treaties between the Bour- 
 bon Kings of Spain and France during the 
 eighteenth century. The first compact began 
 in 1733, and being specially directed against 
 English trade led, in 1739, to a war between 
 Spain and England. The more famous com- 
 pact was in 1761, and its object was to asso- 
 ciate Spain to France in the Seven Years' War. 
 Pitt had timely warning of the agreement, 
 and the refusal of George III. to sanction an 
 attack on Spain led to his resignation. But 
 when the compact became known, war was 
 inevitable. 
 
 Famine, The Cotton, is the name 
 generally given to the distress among the 
 cotton operatives in Lancashire, in the year 
 1863. It resulted mainly from the failure of 
 the supply of raw cotton from America, in 
 consequence of the war between the North and 
 the South. Energetic efforts were made to 
 relieve the sufferers, and a series of good 
 years after the war ended efiaced all traces of 
 distress. 
 
 Famine, The Potato (Ireland). In 
 1847 a failure of the potato crop caused the 
 superabundant cottier population of Ireland 
 to experience severe distress, which, coming 
 after several years of scarcity, soon became as 
 serious as an absolute famine. Despite the 
 repeal of the Corn Laws and the exertions 
 
 of State and private benevolence, many 
 perished, and more escaped by emigrating 
 to America. Among the political conse- 
 quences of the famine was the revolutionary 
 movement of Smith O'Brien in 1848, but 
 more important was the social and economical 
 revolution which the famine effected. The 
 diminution of the population from eight 
 millions to not much more than five ; the dis- 
 appearance of cottier tenancy in many parts 
 of Ireland; great changes in the ownership 
 and cultivation of land ; the introduction 
 of the " English system " of competition and 
 free contract; the raising in some degree of 
 the standard of living ; and the creation of 
 a new set of grievances, while old ones were 
 removed — all flowed from the potato fanjine. 
 
 Famines, Indian. The irregularity of 
 the rainfall of a tropical climate, hostile in- 
 vasion, plagues of locusts, storms, imperfec- 
 tions in the system of transport, and excessive 
 export of grain, have been the many causes 
 of Indian famine. A dense and poor popu- 
 lation, whose increase is checked by no pru- 
 dential restraints, and which has few manu- 
 factures as a refuge when agriculture fails, 
 must always be liable to experience the worst 
 forms of such scarcities. The removal of 
 the old positive checks on population by 
 the strong government of the English has, 
 if anything, increased the tendency to famine, 
 though better organisation of relief has made 
 their effects often less disastrous. But in the 
 early years of English rule in India (notably 
 in 1770, 1781—83, and again in 1790—92) 
 there were severe famines. The experience of 
 these years led to the beginning of those 
 remedial measures which have in recent 
 times made Indian famines, which still recur 
 with disastrous frequency, much less terrible. 
 In 1860 and 1861 no rain fell between the 
 Jumna and the Sutlej, and the sufferings 
 of the people were frightful. No less than 
 500,000 human beings are believed to have 
 perished, and the whole of the population, 
 notwithstanding the benevolent exertions of 
 government and individuals, and the receipt of 
 large subscriptions from England, endured 
 misery which it was hopeless to alleviate in pro- 
 portion to the existing necessity. In 1865 rain 
 failed in Orissa, and scarcity began to prevail, 
 which passed into absolute famine almost 
 without notice, and certainly without pre- 
 caution. Till it reached an alarming height, 
 the government of Bengal was inactive, and 
 the time passed by in which supplies of grain 
 could be sent by sea. "When the people were 
 perishing in thousands, no vessel could ap- 
 proach the coast, and the supplies forwai-ded 
 by land were utterly insuiBcient to meet 
 the general wants. The immediate de- 
 struction of human life Avas estimated at 
 two millions, and the amount of human 
 sufl:ering had been incalculably great. 
 At the end of 1873, over a large tract of 
 
Fam 
 
 (451 ) 
 
 Fas 
 
 countiy estimated to contain no less than 
 28 miUions of people, comprising several 
 important provinces of Bengal and Behar, 
 the great harvest of the year was hope- 
 lessly withering for want of rain. The 
 April crop of 1874 also proved a failure. 
 The government made great efforts. The 
 stock of rice it purchased amounted to 
 600,000 tons. The difficulty, however, was 
 how to distribute it; but the government 
 overcame this so effectually, that it is said 
 that fewer persons died of starvation in Bengal 
 and Behar than in an ordinary year. The cost 
 of the relief operations was ten millions. In 
 1876 and 1877 the rainfall was lamentably de- 
 ficient, and in the latter year failed altogether 
 over parts of Madras, Bombay, Hyderabad, and 
 Mysore. In 1876 the area of failure was so 
 vast that famine prices were inevitable, and by 
 December food grains were three times their 
 ordinary price. From September corn was im- 
 ported largely from aU parts. All that could be 
 were employed on public works at low wages. 
 Gratuitous relief began on a large scale. In 
 some tracts, however, relief came too late. The 
 activity of the government, and the liberality 
 of individuals, staved off a vast amount of 
 distress. The autumn rains came to the rescue, 
 and in December the Madras famine was over. 
 
 Famosns Iiibelliis was the title of a 
 document sent by Edward III. in 1341 to aU 
 the bishops and chapters in the kingdom, 
 containing the recapitulation of aU the 
 charges which the king had brought against 
 Archbishop Stratford. 
 
 Farm, especially in the forms ^n»a comi- 
 tatus (farm of the shire), and firma burgi 
 (farm of the borough), was the technical 
 name for the composition paid — in the former 
 case by the sheriff, and the latter by the 
 rudimentarj' corporation [Towns] — to the 
 crown or lord in return for the privilege of 
 collecting and appropriating the taxes of 
 the district. 
 
 Farnham Castle, the residence of the 
 Bishops of Winchester, overlooking the town 
 of that name in the S.W. angle of Surrey, 
 was built by Henry de Blois, destroyed by 
 Henry III. as adulterine, but rebuilt subse- 
 quently. It was governed by Denham for 
 Charles I., and captured by Waller in 1642, 
 when its fortifications were finally demolished. 
 
 Fast Castle, a famous stronghold on the 
 coast of Iforth Berwickshire near St. Abb's 
 Head, was the place to which the conspirators 
 in the Gowrie plot (q.v.) proposed to carry off 
 James VI. 
 
 Fastolf, Sir John {d. 1469), was an English 
 general of some reputation in the struggles for 
 the retention of France under Henrj^ VI. In 
 1429 he was thoroughly beaten at Patay by 
 the Maid of Orleans. In the Paston Letters 
 we have copious accounts of his private life ; 
 these show him to have been hard, grasping, 
 
 and litigious. It has been suggested that he 
 was the prototype of Shakespeare's Falstafi, 
 with whom he has nothing in common, except 
 it be in the resemblance between their names. 
 J. Gairdner, Introd. to Paston Letters. 
 
 Favourite, a word of ill-omen in English 
 history, is generally used to designate a person 
 who, having ingratiated himself with the 
 sovereign, uses his power unworthily and for 
 his own ends, who unduly influences his master, 
 and who, without sharing ministerial respon- 
 sibility, becomes practically the chief minister 
 of the realm. We can hardly consider such 
 men as Edric Streona in the light of favourites, 
 though it is difficult to account otherwise for 
 the immense influence they gained over the 
 royal mind ; moreover the Anglo-Saxon con- 
 stitution did not afford much opportunity for 
 the favourite. The Norman kings were too 
 wise to endanger their position by favouritism, 
 and the same may be said of the early 
 Plantagenets. Flambard and Falkes de Breaute 
 are unworthy instruments in the hands of 
 unscrupulous kings, and the power of such 
 creatures is not derived from the mere favour 
 of royalty. The real beginning of favouritism 
 in England may be seen in the PoiteWns and 
 Savoyards, who thronged to the court of 
 Henry III., and of whom the unknown 
 satirist of the day says : — 
 " A paltry set of curs is troubling all the land — 
 
 Drive out or let tliem die, that base ixngodly band." 
 
 Edward II.'s infatuation for Gaveston shows 
 what favouritism may lead to. Gaveston is 
 the typical favourite — handsome, brave, and 
 high-spirited, armed with all the accomplish- 
 ments of the age, but ari'ogant, self-seeking, 
 and utterly reckless of consequences, whether 
 to himself or to his master. The opposition 
 is heightened by the fact that he is a foreigner, 
 but the same objection cannot be urged 
 against the Despencers, who succeeded Gaves- 
 ton in Edward's affections. Here the oppo- 
 sition is personal, and is directed also against 
 those influences which tend to separate the 
 king from his barons. But the displacement 
 of the Despencers and their weak-minded 
 master only bi-ings on the scene a far more 
 criminal favourite than any that had ap- 
 peared before. For nearly four years England 
 is under the rule of Eoger Mortimer, whose 
 criminal intrigue with the queen is the chief 
 source of his power. At the end of Edward 
 III.'s reign the king falls for a time under the 
 influence of a worthless woman, Alice Perrers, 
 who abuses her power, not only by obtaining 
 lands and possessions for herself, but by 
 interfering with the course of justice. The 
 next reign is that of a young prince who 
 makes a bold attempt to govern by ministers 
 of his own choice ; but favouritism creeps in, 
 and De Vere must fall into the same category 
 with the Despencers, even if De la Pole does 
 not desei-ve the title of favourite. Henry VI. 
 and his queen, by the power they gave to 
 
Paw 
 
 ( 452 ) 
 
 Pel 
 
 Suffolk and Somerset, alienated the nobles, 
 and laid themselves open to the charge of 
 favouritism, an accusation which their antago- 
 nists were only too glad to take up. The 
 influence of such a woman as Jane Shore in 
 the time of Edward IV. was probably not very 
 great, though Richard III. thought it worth 
 while to make a severe example of her. 
 The Tudors were far too able and far too 
 determined to desire or need the aid of 
 favourites, and the relations of Leicester 
 and Essex to Queen Elizabeth were rather 
 of a personal than of a political character. 
 James I.'s nature needed some friend to 
 lean upon, and he found his favourite, first, 
 in Somerset, and, subsequently, in Bucking- 
 ham. Charles II. was too astute to injure 
 his position by favouritism, and the secret 
 advisers of James II., such as Father Petre, 
 based their influence on religious rather than 
 on personal grounds. The Dutch followers 
 of William III. were unjustly stigmatised as 
 favourites, a name more deservedly applied to 
 Lady Marlborough and Mrs. Masham in the 
 next reign, or to the venal mistresses of the 
 first two Georges. Constitutional govern- 
 ment made favouritism impossible. Bute was 
 stigmatised as a favourite, but George's effort 
 to make him supreme in the councils of the 
 nation was mainly part of that king's per- 
 sistent policy to nominate his own ministers. 
 Favouritism may now be considered extinct, 
 and the methods of government have become 
 of such a character that its revival is hardly 
 likely. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Pawkes, Guy (i. 1570, d. 1606), was the 
 agent and most famous conspirator in the 
 Gunpowder Plot. A Yorkshireman by birth, 
 he became a Catholic, and having wasted his 
 patrimony, served with the Spanish army in 
 the Netherlands, whence he retm-ned to at- 
 tempt to carry out the well-known conspiracy 
 with which his name isinseparably coimected. 
 He was executed in 1606. [Gunpowdek Plot.] 
 
 Fealty is, as its etymology shows, a promise 
 of fidelity made by one man to another. 
 As used in a technical sense in feudal law it 
 differs from homage, in that it had no con- 
 nection with the holding of land, and from 
 allegiance, which was due to the sovereign 
 only, and was a national, not a feudal obliga- 
 tion. The oath of fealty was taken at the 
 time of doing homage, and when not 
 taken to the king, in words something like 
 these — "Hear you this, my lord A, that 
 I, B, from this day forward will bear you 
 faith of life and limb, saving my faith to the 
 king and his heirs (i.e., saving the oath of 
 allegiance which was taken by every subject), 
 and the services which belong to you for the 
 fees and tenements I hold of you, lawfully 
 will perfonn to you, as they become due, to 
 the best of my power, so help me God and 
 the saints." On the Continent generally, and 
 in palatinate jurisdictions in England, the 
 
 oath of fealty would be taken absolutely 
 without any saving clause reserving duty to 
 the monarch as above. [Feudalism.] 
 
 Fearchar Pada (i.e., the Tall), chief of 
 the Dalriadic tribe of Cinel Loam, endea- 
 voured unsucoessfully„to throw off the yoke 
 of the Britons and Angles, in 678, in which 
 year three battles were fought. In 685 he 
 joined forces with Brude, son of Bile, and 
 advanced with great success against his 
 enemies. He died 697. 
 
 Feckenhani, John (d. 1585), last Abbot 
 of Westminster, was under Hem-y VIII. an 
 Anglican and Bonner's chaplain. He was im- 
 prisoned throughout the reign of Edward VI., 
 and rewarded by Mary with the abbacy of the 
 revived monastery of Westminster. He is 
 described as " a man full of tender and gentle 
 humanity," and all parties speak well of 
 him. He attended the first Parliament of 
 Elizabeth, but was deprived and imprisoned, 
 and though regaining partial liberty in 1S78 
 by partial conformity, was again imprisoned 
 till his death. 
 
 Felony. The original meaning of this 
 word is still obscure. According to llr. Skeat 
 [Etymol. Diet.), "felon "is of Celtic origin, 
 from a verb meaning to betray, deceive, 
 fail. This may explain the fact that the 
 early feudal lawyers constantly used the 
 term "felony" to describe an act of treason 
 or disobedience to a lord " by which a fief is 
 lost " — e.ff., refusal to follow the lord to war, 
 or neglect for a year and a day to ask investi- 
 ture. Thus the term became associated with 
 the idea of forfeiture, and was extended to 
 crimes of such a nature as to induce forfeiture 
 of lands or goods. Hence arose the division 
 of crimes into felonies and misdemeanours, 
 though no clear definition of either word is 
 possible. Not all crimes involving forfeiture 
 are felonies; for this would include mis- 
 prision of treason, which is only a misde- 
 meanour. " If felony is defined as a crime 
 punishable with death, it excludes petty lar- 
 ceny, which was never capital, and includes 
 piracy, which was never felony. Felony was 
 substantially a name for the more heinous 
 crimes, and all felonies were punishable by 
 death, except petty larceny and mayhem 
 (i.e., maimingj, which came by degrees to be 
 treated as a misdemeanour. If a crime was 
 made felony by statute, the use of the name 
 implied the punishment of death, subject, 
 however, to the rules as to benefit of clergy. 
 Thus, broadly speaking, felony may be de- 
 fined as the name appropriated to crimes 
 punishable by death, misdemeanours being a 
 name for all minor offences " (Stephen, Hist, 
 of Crim. Law, ch. xx.). There are two main 
 differences as to procedure in cases of felony 
 and misdemeanour. In the first place, a 
 warrant is not necessary for arrests for felony, 
 while, as a rule, it is necessary for misde- 
 
Pel 
 
 ( 453 ) 
 
 Fen 
 
 meanour; and secondly, a person committed 
 for trial for felony is not entitled to be 
 tailed, while a person accused of misde- 
 meanour is usually so entitled. Since, how- 
 ever, milder punishments have been substi- 
 tuted, for death, and the Felony Act of 1870 
 has abolished forfeiture, the distinction be- 
 tween felonies and misdemeanours has become 
 of little practical importance. 
 
 Stephen, Hist, of the Cnminal Law. 
 
 Pelton, John {d. 1628). A dismissed of&cer 
 of the army who, partly from private wrongs, 
 partly from fanaticism, assassinated the Duke 
 of Buckingham in 1628, at Portsmouth. He 
 was hanged at Tybum. 
 
 Fenian Conspiracy, The. The name 
 
 is said to be derived from Fion or Finn 
 MacCoul, the Fingul of Macpherson's Ossian. 
 The Fenians formed at one time a sort of 
 standing militia in Ireland. The Fenian 
 "brotherhood" was formed in Ireland and 
 the United States, to liberate Ireland from 
 the connection with England and establish a 
 repubKc. Secret drillings in connection with 
 this society began to take place frequently in 
 1864, but the society is supposed to have been 
 formed as early as 1868. On Sept. 15, 1864, 
 the Irish government of Lord Wodehouse 
 at last became possessed of information con- 
 vincing them of the treasonable character of 
 these proceedings. In consequence, between 
 the 16th and 30th of that month, sixty-five 
 persons were arrested in Dublin and about 
 twenty in Cork,'while O'Donovan Rossa, who 
 was one of the conspirators, also had his 
 paper, the Irixh People, confiscated. Stephens, 
 the " Head Centre," was among the prisoners. 
 A commission had since November been sit- 
 ting in Ireland to try the prisoners, and many of 
 them, including O'Donovan Eossa, were con- 
 victed of treason felony, and sentenced to 
 periods of penal servitude varying from five 
 to ten years. Important discoveries had also 
 been made in Ireland of documents belonging 
 to the Fenians. In May, 1866, the American 
 Fenians made a raid into Canada, but were 
 promptly repulsed. Late in_ the autumn 
 large stores of arms were seized, and the 
 gaiTison of Ireland largely increased; but 
 no blood was shed. In 1867 the rebelhon so 
 long threatened seemed at last to be break- 
 ing out. On Feb. 11th came an attempt to 
 surprise Chester, and on the 12th an out- 
 break in Kerry. The defence of Kilmal- 
 lock police barracks, however, showed the 
 feebleness of the movement. In March 
 followed an attack on the barracks at 
 Tallaght, which was repulsed, and 208 
 prisoners brought into Dublin. The spmt of 
 the Fenians in Ireland was now quite broken; 
 thus, 1,000 men who held the market-place at 
 Drogheda fled at the approach of a few 
 policemen. In May a special commission 
 began to sit to try the rebels, and many of 
 them were convicted. None were, however. 
 
 executed. On Sept. 18 an attack was made 
 on a police van at Manchester, and on Dec. 13 
 the attempt to blow up Clerkenwell Gaol. 
 In Ireland, in 1868, attacks on isolated 
 martello towers became frequent, and the 
 Habeas Corpus Act was again suspended 
 till March 1, 1869. In 1870 a Fenian 
 raid into Manitoba was driven back by the 
 militia, and, in 1871 a similar attempt was 
 roughly put down by United States troops, 
 General Grant having issued a proclamation 
 against them. In Jan., 1871, most of the 
 Fenian convicts had been released, and were 
 uproariously welcomed in the United States. 
 But the organisation of Irish sedition passed 
 into different hands, and the Fenian leaders 
 lost their influence. The French Communist 
 General, CluSeret, who had been in the Fenian 
 service, says, most probably with truth : — 
 " Their insurrection was foolishly planned, 
 and still more foolishly executed." 
 
 Annual Register; Frasm-'s Magazine, 1872; 
 McCarthy, Hist, of Our Own Times. 
 
 [B. S.] 
 
 Fenuin^on Bridge, The Battle of 
 (1549), was fought in Devonshire between the 
 royal troops, under Lord Eussell and Sir 
 Peter Carew and the Cornish rebels, who 
 were completely defeated. 
 
 Fenwick, Sir John {d. 1697). A zealous 
 Tory member of the Parliament of 1685, and 
 became, after the Restoration, one of the 
 most ardent Jacobite conspirators. In 1695 he 
 joined Charnock, Porter, and others in designs 
 against the king, which ripened next year 
 into the Assassination Plot. His fellow-con- 
 spirator. Porter, informed the government of 
 the whole intrigue, and Sir John attempted 
 to escape to France, but was arrested near 
 Romney Marsh. He was committed to the 
 Tower. In order to gain time, he offered to 
 disclose aU he knew touching the Jacobite 
 plots. His artful confession, while silent 
 about the real Jacobite plotters, contained 
 a great deal of evidence — mostly true, no 
 doubt — against Marlborough, Godolphin, 
 Russell, and Shrewsbury, who had from time 
 to time intrigued with the court of St. Ger- 
 mains. Furious at the charges brought against 
 their party, theWhigs determined to pursuethe 
 subject. Fenwick was examined by William, 
 but refused to make any disclosures. He had 
 heard that his wife. Lady Mary Fenwick, 
 had succeeded in getting Goodman— the 
 only other witness against him— out of the 
 country, and Porter's evidence remained un- 
 supported. But the Whigs, not to be baulked 
 of their prey, brought in a biU of attainder 
 against him, which the Commons passed, by 
 186 to 156. The bill passed through its first 
 stage in the Lords without a division. After 
 a violent struggle, the second reading was 
 carried, by 73 to 53, and the third, by only 68 
 votes to 61. On Jan. 28 he was executed, 
 Hallam's opinion on tbe act of attainder is 
 
Feo 
 
 ( 454 ) 
 
 Fet 
 
 that, " it did not, like some acts of attainder, 
 inflict a punishment beyond the offence, hut 
 supplied the deflciency of legal evidence." 
 Yet, allowing the substantial justice of the 
 sentence, it is questionable ■whether it was not 
 ill-advised to break from the rigid rules of 
 law, especially for so second-rate a person as 
 Fenwick. 
 
 State Trials; Commons' JoiiA-nals; Hallam, 
 
 Const. Hist. ; Banke, Hist, of Eng. ; Macaulay, 
 
 Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Feonnfultum, corresponding to the 
 Naturalia of the Franks, was in Anglo-Saxon 
 times partly a tax, partly a gift in kind, levied 
 on the produce of the land for the support of 
 the king and his household. 
 
 Fergus, Lord of Galloway [d. 1161), 
 was contemporary with David I. of Scot- 
 land, whom he assisted with soldiers at the 
 Battle of the Standard. In 1160 he joined 
 the sons of Malcolm MacBeth against King 
 Malcolm, but was forced to submit to the 
 royal power. He retired to a m.onastery, and 
 died 1161. He married Elizabeth, natural 
 daughter of Henry I. 
 
 Fergns UXor {d. 501), son of Ere, King 
 of Irish Dalriada, crossed over at the end of 
 the fifth century with his brothers, Loarn 
 Mor and Angus, and founded in Argyleshire 
 a Scottish colony, which afterwards developed 
 into the kingdom of Dalriada. 
 
 Ferguson, Eobert {d. 1714). A Scotch 
 clergyman who got a living in England, but, 
 being a Presbyterian, was expelled in 1762, 
 and became a schoolmaster and Dissenting 
 preacher. He was a man of bad character, 
 and constantly involved in plots. Being a 
 furious "Whig he was expelled from England 
 after the failure of the Eye House Plot. He 
 then went to Holland, instigated and took 
 part in Monmoiith's rebellion, escaped after 
 Sedgmoor, and joined William Ill.'s expedi- 
 tion. Disgusted, however, at his inadequate 
 reward, he turned Jacobite, and shared in the 
 Assassination Plot and Montgomery's Plot. 
 Notwithstanding his connection with so many 
 conspiracies, he escaped every danger, and 
 died a natural death. 
 
 Ferozeshar, The Battle of (Deo. 21, 
 1845), was fought between the Sikhs under 
 Lall Sing, 35,000 in number, with 100 guns, 
 and the English under Sir Hugh Gough. The 
 English began operations by attacking at night 
 the entrenched camp of the enemy round the 
 village of Ferozeshar ; but the storm of shot 
 was terrific, and entirely frustrated the rash 
 attempt to carry the camp by a charge. 
 When day dawrxed the assault was renewed, 
 and as quarrels had broken out among the 
 Sikh leaders, the resistance was comparatively 
 feeble, and the Sikhs were' finally put to 
 flight. That this battle was the most severe 
 ever fought in India was due almost as much 
 
 to the rash blundering of the English as to 
 the valour of the Sikhs. [Sikh Wars.] 
 
 Ferrars, Eobekt, Bishop of St. David's 
 (d. 1555), was deprived of his see by 
 Mary, having previously been imprisoned 
 by Northumberland, at the instance of 
 some of his clergy who accused him of 
 neglect of duty. He was condemned for 
 heresy, and burnt at Carmarthen, March 30, 
 1555. Mr. Froude says of him : — " He was a 
 man of large humanity, justice, and upright- 
 ness, neither conspicuous as a theologian nor 
 prominent as a preacher, but remarkable 
 chiefly for good sense and a kindly imagi- 
 native tenderness." This seems a rather 
 exaggerated view of a very ordinary man, 
 who, with excellent intentions, was quite 
 unable to cope with the difficulties of his 
 position. 
 
 Ferrers, George (J>. 1512, d. 1579). A 
 lawyer, dramatist, and poet of some celebrity, 
 mainly remembered from his connection with 
 a famous case of privilege of Parliament. In 
 1543, while member for Plymouth, he was 
 imprisoned for debt. Parliament took up his 
 case, and compelled the Sheriff of liondon, 
 with his officers and the creditor as well to 
 appear at the bar and sent them all to prison. 
 A remarkable trial followed, leading to 
 Ferrers's release by virtue of his privilege. 
 Henry VIII., in whose service Ferrers was, 
 warmly took up his cause. 
 
 Hatsell's Precedents ; Hallam, Const. Hist. 
 
 Ferrybridge, TheBattle of (1461), was 
 fought just before the battle of Towton. The 
 Yorkists who were at Pontefract attempted 
 to secure the passage of the Aire at Ferry- 
 bridge ; but a body of light cavalry under 
 Lord Clifford was detached by the Lancas- 
 trians, attacked and defeated the Yorkists, 
 and slew Lord Fitzwalter thoir leader. The 
 Yorkists, however, succeeded in crossing the 
 Aire at Castleford, three miles higher up the 
 liver, and in attempting to regain the main 
 body of the Lancastrians at Towton, Clifford 
 was defeated and slain. 
 
 Fethanleag, The Battle op (584), was 
 fought between Ceawlin and Cutha, Kings of 
 the West Saxons and the Britons. Cutha 
 was slain, and Ceawlin, though he took many 
 towns and countless booty, says the Chronicle, 
 returned in anger to his own country. Henry 
 of Huntingdon Says that the English were 
 defeated, but afterwards rallied by Ceawlin, 
 and so won the day. Dr. Guest identifies 
 his Fethanleag with Faddiley, near Nantwich, 
 in Cheshire, and ^-egards the battle as a critical 
 one in the conquest of the Severn Valley by 
 the English. As compared with the great 
 victory of Deorham in 577, which gave the 
 AVelsh the Lower Severn, it was a check on 
 the English. If, as Dr. Guest holds, Ceawlin'a 
 destruction of Uricouium, lamented in the 
 
Feu 
 
 ( 455 
 
 Pen 
 
 Welsh elegy on the death of Cynddylan, 
 marked the heginning of the campaign, the 
 defeat of Faddiley left the Middle Severn 
 Welsh until the days of Offa, and even Chester 
 until the reign of Ethelfrith. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ; Guest, The Conquest of 
 the Severn Valley {Origines Cclticte, vol. ii.). 
 
 Feudalism (for etymology see Fief) ia 
 in its most general sense defined as an organi- 
 sation of society hased on land tenure. It is 
 applied specially to the system -which arose in 
 Western Europe after the dissolution of the 
 Carolingian Empire, and also less fully to 
 special and analogous systems which sprang 
 up among the Germanic peoples not directly 
 included in that empire — as England or 
 Sweden — hut where similar tendencies after- 
 wards manifested themselves. We must dis- 
 tinguish feudalism in its legal, political, and 
 even in its vaguer social aspects. Legal 
 feudahsm indicates a certain method of land 
 tenure. Political feudalism followed when 
 every regalian right hecame attached to 
 ownership of land by a feudal tenure. The 
 social ideal of a feudal society necessarily fol- 
 lowed at a later stage. 
 
 The main source of feudalism, hoth in Eng- 
 land and on the Continent, is to he found in the 
 primitive German Constitution. The settle- 
 ment of the wandering nations had made that 
 primitive personal polity a territorial one, and 
 its essentially unprogressive character on the 
 old lines necessitated a new system to meet 
 the varying needs of a progressive society. 
 Contact with dying Imperialism precipitated 
 hut did not create this process out of which 
 feudalism sprang. 
 
 In the Frankish Empire, Charles the Great 
 bound together the national German state of 
 the Franks, the traditions of Roman law and 
 empire, and his own gift of a powerful ad- 
 ministrative system. Under his feeble des- 
 cendants this system broke down. After the 
 anarchy which this process occasioned, the 
 organised anarchy of feudalism arose, from 
 the beneficiary system, the practice of com- 
 mendation and the grants of immunity which 
 were superadded to them. The king was in 
 the habit of granting lands out of his own 
 vast estates to followers on the special promise 
 of fidelity,, and lesser proprietors in full 
 sovereignty surrendered their nominal alod to 
 a great church or noble, to receive it hack as 
 a tenant protected by a powerful patron. 
 These lands were the bmeficia, the territorial 
 source of feudalism, and the condition on 
 which they were very commonly held was mili- 
 tary service. Commendation was personal, and 
 consisted in a man submitting himself to a 
 lord whose vassal and man [Homage ; Vassal] 
 he became. " The union of the beneficiary 
 tie with that of commendation," says Dr. 
 Stubbs, " completed the idea of feudal obliga- 
 tion." The third element arose as follows. 
 The national courts had become stereotyoed 
 
 or inefiective, and it became customary to 
 unite to the grant of a beneficium a grant 
 to its lord of power to exercise full jurisdic- 
 tion within it. Thus the fief or benefice was 
 withdrawn from the national system, and 
 when these grants of immunity from the courts 
 of the gau hecame general, and when political 
 functions followed judicial ones, we have the 
 complete feudalism of eleventh century France 
 — when, though ties of feudal deijendence 
 united the meanest vassal to the crown as 
 supreme overlord, the national system had 
 become obliterated, central power nominal, 
 and all real power in the hands of a 
 multitude of landowners, who had every re- 
 galian right in their own estate. This was the 
 system which the barons of Normandy lived 
 under, and which they would fain have 
 brought to England with them. 
 
 In England, however, a similar but inde- 
 pendent process had set in. The Comitalus 
 of the old Germans which had died out 
 in Gaul, became in England the source of a 
 new organisation of society. The king's 
 thegns, the comites in a later stage, re- 
 ceived with grants of folkland, grants of im- 
 munities from the jurisdiction of the popular 
 courts, which resulted in the establishment of 
 practical feudalism on these solcen or fran- 
 chises. The free man bowed his neck for 
 bread or protection. Everything became terri- 
 torialised. What was originally the exception 
 rapidly tended to become the rule. The great 
 earls, as on the Continent, gradually threw 
 ofE their neutral character. Harold suggests 
 the parallel of Hugh Capet, and Continental 
 feudalism found a soil ready to receive it. 
 
 WiUiam I. and his sons brought with them 
 feudal theory and feudal practice. To him, 
 as to his barons, no legal theory of tenure 
 was possible but the feudal one; and the 
 generation after the Conquest saw feudalism 
 in its legal aspect established univel'sally in 
 England. But WiUiam had seen how 
 feudalism as a system of government meant 
 mere anarchy in Normandy, and did his 
 best to prevent its introduction into England. 
 The barons naturally desired aS much 
 power here as at home ; hut save in the 
 Border Palatinates [Palatine Counties; 
 BoKDEKS], and afterwards in Wales and 
 Ireland, which they won as independent ad- 
 venturers, the Norman kings refused them 
 this. Eebellion after rebellion broke out and 
 was crushed. At last Henry I.'s defeat of 
 Robert of Belesme settled the question for 
 his reign. Under Stephen the barons won 
 the day, and then alone did feudal government 
 prevail in England. Henry II , in 1174, put 
 down the final revolt of the feudal part}\ 
 His administrative system rendered his tri- 
 umph permanent. Only under Henry III.'s 
 minority were there some slight tendencies to 
 a feudal survival. Edward I. destroyed the 
 political importance of land tenure. Hence- 
 forth the barons fought, not to abolish the 
 
Pev 
 
 ( 456 )" 
 
 Pif 
 
 central state in favour of feudal localism, but 
 to get the machinery of the central state into 
 their own hands. They fought, not to get rid of 
 the crown, but to put the monarchy in com- 
 mission. The chivalry of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, though the result of a feudal ideal, was 
 powerless to bring back real feudalism. The 
 baronial power perished with the Wars of the 
 Eoses. The legal theory remained, with its 
 obligation of fealty and homage, its incidents 
 of aids, wardships, marriage, its military ser- 
 vice, and other effects. 
 
 James I. unsuccessfully attempted to abolish 
 feudal tenures. An Act of 1660 actually effected 
 this. The very indefinite sense in which 
 feudalism is sometimes used as indicating the 
 power of the landed aristocracy need not be 
 dealt with. Yet the English land law remains 
 full of vestiges of feudalism. Every copy- 
 holder still owes to the lord of the manor the 
 feudal incidents. Lands of the intestate and 
 kinless deceased still escheat to the next lord. 
 For English feudalism, Stubbs's Constitutional 
 History is tlie supreme authority. Waltz's 
 Beutscfte Verfassungsgeschiclite stands in similar 
 relation to the feudalism of the Frank Empire. 
 The eighteenth century treatises and the law 
 books are all tainted by the false theory of the 
 origin of feudalism, wMch Waitz finally demo- 
 lished. Many of the French writers whose 
 works would otherwise be of great value, suffer 
 from the same defect. Eoth's Geschichte des 
 BenejicialwtsenR und Feudalitdt^ is a supplement 
 and check on "Waitz, with whom he is at vari- 
 ance on some important points. References to 
 the special articles on each of the feudal inci- 
 dents will supply the details of the feudal 
 system in England. ["X. F. T.l 
 
 Peversham, Louis Dueas, Earl or. 
 A French noble, nephew of Turenne, who 
 entered the English service under Charles II. 
 and James II., commanded- the army which 
 defeated Monmouth at Sedgemoor, and, 
 though his incapacity in that campaign was 
 only equalled by his brutality, was made 
 general-in-ehief of the army that James II. 
 collected to overawe his people. In 1688 he 
 disbanded that army, and was for a time im- 
 prisoned by "William III. 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Etlg. 
 
 Pief, or Fee (Lat. feudum, feodum), is 
 derived from the old German word for cattle 
 (modern High German, Vieh ; old High 
 German, film; Gothic, faihu; Old English, 
 feoh), which got to be used in the sense of 
 money or property in general (cf. peamia). 
 It is very doubtful whether the second 
 syllable has any connection with od, also 
 meaning property. The word first appears in 
 the ninth century, and gradually acquires 
 the technical meaning of land held of a lord 
 by feudal tenure [Feudalism] or military 
 service. 
 
 Stuhhs, Const, Hist.; Ducange, Glossary (s.v.). 
 
 Fielden, John, originally a labourer, 
 became master of a factory, and from 1832 — 
 1847 was M.P. for Oldham. He is chiefly 
 
 remembered by his exertions in favour of the 
 Factory Acts, especially the Ten Hours Bill. 
 Piennes. [Say and Selb, Lord.] 
 Fiennes, Nathaniel, second son of Lord 
 Say and Sele, was educated at "Winchester 
 and at New College, Oxford. He was elected 
 member of the Long Parliament for Banbury, 
 and became a leader amongst the " Root and 
 Branch " party. He was appointed in 1641 
 one of the committee to attend the king to 
 Scotland. In 1642 he accepted a colonel's 
 commission in Essex's army, and took part 
 in the battle of Edgebill. In the following 
 year he surrendered Bristol to Prince Eupert 
 (July, 1643), under circumstances which 
 made him suspected of either treachery or 
 cowardice. For this he was accused by 
 Walker and Prynne, tried by court martial, 
 and sentenced to death. His former services, 
 and his family interest, secured him a pardon, 
 but he was obliged to abandon public affairs, 
 and leave the kingdom for several years. 
 He returned, regained the confidence of his 
 party, and became, in January, 1648, a 
 member of the Committee of the Two King- 
 doms, but was expelled from Parliament by 
 Pride's Purge. In Cromwell's first Parlia- 
 ment he represented the county, in the second 
 the University, of Oxford. He became 
 a member of the Council of State (1654), 
 Commissioner of the Great Seal (1655), one 
 of Cromwell's lords (1657), and was one of 
 the principal speakers in the discussions con- 
 cerning the offer of the crown to the 
 Protector (1657). He assisted in proclaiming 
 Eichard Cromwell, and adhered to his party 
 till the re-establishment of the Long Parlia- 
 ment deprived him of his office. After the 
 Eestoration he retired into private life, and 
 died in 1669. Fiennes was an eloquent 
 speaker, and a man of decided opinions, but 
 irresolute in action, and constitutionally 
 timid. " His great and special merit is the 
 firm stand which he made in favour of 
 religious liberty against the narrow bigotry 
 of the Presbyterian party." 
 
 Sanfnrd, Studies of the Great Rebellion; Foss, 
 Judges of England. 
 
 Fifteenths was the name given to a 
 grant voted by Parliament to the sovereign, 
 which was originally, as the name implies, a 
 tax of one fifteenth on movables. But in the 
 reign of Edward III. a valuation was taken, 
 and henceforth when Parliament voted a 
 fifteenth each parish voted a fixed sum, ac- 
 cording to that valuation. What for the 
 counties was a fifteenth was in towns a 
 tenth, which followed the same rule. The 
 whole amount of a tenth and fifteenth, in 
 Coke's time, was only £29,000. 
 
 Fiftb. Monarchy HXen. An extreme 
 sect of the period of the Puritan Eevolution, 
 largely found in the army, which supported 
 Cromwell, in the belief that his government 
 was the beginning of the " Fifth Monarchy," 
 
rij 
 
 ( 457 ) 
 
 Fir 
 
 during which the millennial reign of Christ 
 on earth would take place. The previous 
 lour monarchies were the Assyrian, Persian, 
 Grecian, and Roman. But such fanatics 
 could not but be in opposition to any estab- 
 lished government, and Cromwell had some 
 difficulties with them. In 1661, the revolt of 
 Venner was largely supported by this sect. 
 
 Fiji Islands, The, are a group of about 
 250 islands, of which about a third are in- 
 habited. They lie between 177° E. and 178° 
 W. long., and between 15° and 20° S. lat. 
 The largest of the islands is Viti Levu, and 
 the only other of any size is Vanua Levu. 
 The Fiji group was first discovered by Captain 
 Cook, in 1773. They were ceded to England 
 by the native chiefs, in 1874, and are at 
 present governed by a High Commissioner. 
 f^ji is an important station between Panama 
 and Australia, and the High Commissioner is 
 in a position to regulate the Polynesian labour 
 traffic. 
 
 Smythe, Ten Months m Fiji; Williams, Fiji 
 and the Fijians. 
 
 Filmer, Sir Robert {d. circa 1653), was 
 a gentleman of Kent, who matriculated at 
 Cambridge (1604), fought for the king during 
 the CivU War, and wrote in defence of 
 monarchy. His chief works were The Free- 
 holders' Grand Inquest (published 1679), A 
 Treatise on the Ftmctions of the Commons in 
 Parliament, written in answer to Prynne, and 
 Patriarcha (published 1680). Filmer started 
 by denying the doctrine that mankind is 
 naturally endowed and bom with freedom 
 from all subjection, and at liberty to choose 
 what form of government it pleased; and 
 that the power which any one man hath over 
 others was at first bestowed according to the 
 discretion of the multitude. He went on to 
 derive regal authority from the authority of 
 a father over his family, as it was exercised 
 by the patriarchs. From the patriarchs, by 
 hereditary descent, this authority was trans- 
 mitted to different royal houses. The royal 
 authority, therefore, resembled the natural 
 authority of a father over his children. The 
 kingdom and its head, Hke the family and its 
 head, existed by divine ordinance. The king 
 received from God " his royal charter of a 
 universal father," and ruled, therefore, by 
 divine right. The subject was, in con- 
 sequence, bound to absolute obedience, and had 
 no right to depose a king or alter the line of 
 succession. Filmer's book was published in the 
 midst of the discussions on the Exclusion 
 Bill, and his theory supplied a powerful 
 argument to those who denied the competence 
 of Parliament to exclude James from the 
 throne. 
 
 J. Gairdner, Studies in Engligft History. 
 
 Fmch, John, Lord (J. 1584, d. 1660), 
 
 was the son of Sir Henry Finch, an eminent 
 
 lawyer. He was a member of Charles I.'s 
 
 first two Parliaments, and was chosen 
 
 Hist!— 1 5* 
 
 Speaker of the third, which met in 1628. 
 He speedily showed himself a decided 
 partisan of the king, and, in 1629, he refused 
 to read a remonstrance against tunnage and 
 poundage after the king's message for the 
 adjournment of Parliament had been de- 
 livered. A tumult occurred, during which 
 the Speaker was held down in his chair, and 
 Holies read the protestation to the House. 
 In 1637 Pinch was made Chief Justice of the 
 Common Pleas, in which capacity he delivered 
 judgment against Hampden in the case of 
 ship-money. In 1640 he was made Lord 
 Keeper, but, fearing the vengeance of the 
 Long Parliament, he fled from England, at 
 the end of the same year, to Holland, where 
 he remained till 1660, when he returned to 
 England, and took part in the trials of the 
 Regicides. The character of " an unprincipled 
 lawyer and a time-serving minister," which 
 Mr. Foss gives him, seems to be only too 
 well deserved, and he died universally 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the ReheUion ; Whitelocke, 
 Memorials ; Foss, Jvdges of England,. 
 
 Finch. [Nottingham, Earl op.] 
 Fines, The Statute of, an Act of the 
 fom:th year of Henry VII., was based on a 
 similar one of Richard III. It enacts that 
 a fine, levied with proclamations in a public 
 court of justice, shall, after five years, be 
 under ordinary circumstances a bar to all 
 claims uj)on lands. Its main object was to 
 give security of tenure to existing tenants by 
 fixing a short term -of prescription ; a measure 
 very necessary just after the Wars of the 
 Roses. It did not, as some have thought, 
 give liberty of alienation with the view of 
 luring on a spendthrift nobility to ruin. 
 
 Hallam, Const.-H'ist.j Keeves, Si^, of English 
 'Law. 
 
 Finfflen, The Battle op. (719), nearXoch- 
 avich in Argyleshire, was fought between 
 Selvach, King of Dahiada, and his brother, 
 Aincellach, whom, he had driven out in 698. 
 Aincellach made a desperate effort to recover 
 his kingdom, but was slain. 
 
 Finlay Question, The. Mr. Finlay, 
 the Greek historian, had settled in Athens 
 when Greece became independent. Some of 
 his land had "been taken for the purpose of 
 rounding ofithe new palace 'gardens of King 
 Otho, and Mr. Finlay had declined to take 
 the terms offered him, which had been 
 accepted by all the other landowners in a 
 similar position. He appealed to the English 
 government, and his case was lumped with 
 the Pacifico and the Fant6me case into one 
 grand grievance, for which the British govern- 
 ment demanded instant compensation. 
 
 Fir1)0lgS. One of the legendary or 
 fabulous tribes of the earliest period of Irish 
 history. They may, it has been thought, 
 correspond to the pre-Aryan inhabitants of 
 Ireland. 
 
Fir 
 
 ( 458 )■ 
 
 Pit 
 
 Fire of London, The Gueat (Sept. 2 — 6, 
 1666), broke out accidentally in a house near 
 London Bridge, but a strong east wind causqd 
 it to spread with great rapidity, and for 
 some days London was given up to the 
 flames. Two-thirds of London was destroyed 
 ■ — eighty-nine churches, including St. Paul's 
 Cathedral, and more than 13,000 dwelling- 
 houses. But the fire, though destroying 
 so much, was most beneficial in thoroughly 
 eradicating the plague. The fever dens in 
 which it continually lurked were burnt, and 
 the new houses' which were erected were far 
 more healthi}'- and better arranged. The fire 
 was attributed to the hated Papists, and on 
 the Monument, which was erected to com- 
 memorate- it, the Romanists were directly 
 charged with being the authors of the terrible 
 conflagration.. 
 
 First of Tune, The Battle of the 
 (1794), wa» a naval engagement fought during 
 the wars of the French Revolution. The 
 French had collected) a fleet of twenty-six 
 ships at Brest, which pnt out on May 20 to 
 meet a convoy of com ships' expected from 
 America. On the 28th Lord Howe with the 
 Channel fleet brought them to a partialengage- 
 ment ; but it was not till June 1 that he 
 was able to bring about a decisive- encounter. 
 Having the wind of the enemy, he resolved 
 to break through the French fleet, and fight 
 it to leeward. The enemy lay in close line- 
 of battle, stretching from east to west, and 
 Howe's object was not to come down on it 
 perpendicularly, but to sail abreast of it until 
 each ship got an opportunity of breaking 
 through it. It was impossible, however, to 
 carry out the manoeuvre in detail, and five 
 only of , the ships, besides the flag-ship, suc- 
 teeded in passing through, while the rest 
 engaged the enemy on the windward side. 
 But in whatever position the British ships 
 closed with the enemy, their mode of fighting 
 was too fierce to be long resisted, and after a 
 few hours the French ships, which were able, 
 began to move off; nor was the pursuit 
 vigorously carried out. As it was, however, 
 eight ships had been lost to the enemy, and 
 8,000 men, while the English admiral returned 
 his losses at 1,150 in killed and wounded ; 
 but the corn ships escaped to Brest. The 
 moral effects of the ■\'ictory were greater 
 than the material. [Howe, Lord ; Bkidpoht, 
 Viscount.] 
 
 James, Naval Hist.; Allen, Battles of the 
 Navy; Alison, Hist, of Europe. 
 
 Fish, Simon {d. 1.531), an associate of 
 Tyndall, and one of the earliest English Pro- 
 testants, became famous as the author of the 
 popular attack on the clergy, called the 
 Sijpplication of Bcgc/ttrs, which led him into 
 a controversy with Slore. 
 
 Fisher, John, Bishop of Rochester {b. 
 1459, d. 1535), was born at Beverley. After a 
 distinguished Cambridge career, in which he 
 
 took a prominent part in bringing the studies 
 of that university abreast of the new learning, 
 both in Greek and theology, he was chosen in 
 1504 Bishop of Rochester, and was also from 
 1.505 — 8, Master of Queen's College, Cam- 
 bridge. A man of honesty, piety, and deter- 
 mination, but of strict conservative principles, 
 he became one of the leaders of the party 
 opposed to Henry VIII. 's divorce, listened to 
 the Nun of Kent, opposed the royal supre- 
 macy, and was imprisoned in 1534, and 
 attainted. His untimely appointment as 
 cardinal by ,Paul III. led to his execution, after 
 trial by a special commission, on June 22, 
 1535. 
 
 Fishguard is a small town in Pembroke- 
 shire, on a land-locked haven in the north of 
 that county. Near here, at Llanwnda, 1,400 
 French soldiers landed on February 22, 1797 ; 
 but they were the scum of every gaol in 
 France, and showed little power of resistance. 
 Frightened, as the story goes, by the red coats 
 and tall hats of the old Welsh women, they 
 surrendered on February 24, to the ill-armed 
 local militia under Lord Cawdor. 
 
 Fitton, Alexander, a barrister of no re- 
 putationor character, was made Lord Chancellor 
 of Ireland bj'^ James I. in 1688. He had 
 been- detected in forgery, and his only recom- 
 mendation was that he had recently become 
 a Roman Catholic. After Tyrconnel's death 
 he became one of the Lords Justices appointed 
 to govern Ireland. 
 
 Maca-ulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Fitz-Aldhelm, "William de, was sent 
 by Henry II;, in 1171, to treat with Roderick 
 O'Connoif. He was again in Ireland as 
 Henry's envoy, with the bulls of Adrian 
 IV. and Alejeander III. In 1176 he be- 
 came Strongbow's successor as Governor of 
 Ireland. He was strongly opposed to the 
 Geraldines, and defrauded Fitz-Maurice's sons 
 of part of their inheritance in 1177. He was 
 recalled, not having signalised himself in any 
 other way. 
 
 Fitz-Athnlf, Constantine {d. 1222), 
 was the leader of a riot in London in 1222, 
 which, though it owed its origin to trivial 
 circumstances, became most serious in its 
 results, and is supposed to have been secretly 
 fomented by Louis of Prance. It was, how.> 
 ever, summarily put do-«Ti by Hubert de 
 Burgh; Fitz-Athulf was hanged and his 
 followers fined or mutilated. 
 
 Fitzgerald, Lord Edward (J. Oct. 15, 
 1763, d. June 4, 1798), was a younger 
 son of the Duke of Leinster, and married 
 the reputed daughter of Philippe Egalit^^ 
 In 1784 he was a member of the Irish Parlia- 
 ment, and opposed the Address. In 1793 he 
 was compelled to apologise for words reflect- 
 ing on the Lord-Lieutenant. Just before, he 
 had gone to Paris as envoy of the United 
 Irishmen. In 1796 he took their oath, 
 
Pit 
 
 ( 459 ) 
 
 Pit 
 
 and again went over to the Continent, met 
 Hoche in Switzerland, and settled on a French. 
 invasion. On his return to Ireland he kept 
 up a constant correspondence with France 
 through his wife at Hamburg. In 'Oct., 
 1797, a "person," as he is called, gave infor- 
 mation of this to Pitt, and allowed himself to 
 be employed as a spy, but he refused to come 
 forward as a witness, and the government 
 could not, therefore, arrest Lord Edward. 
 On March 12, 1798, he escaped while his 
 fellow-conspirators were seized. A reward 
 of £1,000 was ofiered for his apjirehensiou, 
 hut he continued undiscovered in his hiding- 
 place in Dublin. Finally, however, he was 
 betrayed by a man whose name never tran- 
 spired, and on May 19th between five and six 
 o'clock he was seized on his bed. He stabbed 
 Ryan and Swan, two of the officers, but 
 was disabled by a pistol-shot and was cap- 
 tured. The seal of the United Irishmen and 
 a plan for the surprise of Dublin was found 
 on him. Before he could be tried, he died of 
 his wounds (June 4, 1798). 
 
 Moore, JU/e of Iiord E. Fitzgerald; Froude, 
 i English in Ireland. 
 
 ' Pitzgerald, Maurice, one of the Norman 
 conquerors of Ireland, was the second son of 
 Nesta (former mistress of Henry I.) and 
 Crerald, Lord of Carew, in Pembrokeshire. 
 He landed at Wexford in 1169 in company 
 with Fitz-Stephen. He is mentioned as a 
 leader in the sally from Dublin which led to 
 O'Connor's flight in 1170. He was with John 
 de Lacy when O'Ruark was killed, and got 
 "Wicklow Castle as a fief. He died in 1176. 
 Giraldus says of him that he died leaving no 
 man behind him stronger in constancy and 
 faith. His sons were deprived of Wicklow, 
 but got other estates instead. He is the 
 ancestor of the houses of Kildare and Desmond, 
 and of the Fitzgerald family generally. 
 *',;-• Giraldas Cambrensis, Expugnaiio HihernitB; 
 '--■■Iiyttelton's Henry II. 
 
 . Pitzgerald, Lobd Thomas (d. 1536), 
 son of Gerald, ninth Earl of Kildare, and 
 vice-deputy for him. On his father's arrest 
 hy Henrj' VIII., Lord Thomas excited in 
 1535 a somewhat formidable revolt in Ireland, 
 which for a time was verj' successful. But 
 the storming of Maynooth, the great strong- 
 hold of the Fitzgeralds, by Skeffington, led to 
 the ruin of their cause. After a long period 
 of wandering, Thomas surrendered to the 
 English, and was hung with his five imcles at 
 Tyburn on Feb. 3, 1536. 
 
 ' Fronde, Hist. ofEng. 
 
 Pitzgerald, Sik Thomas Tudkin {d. 
 1810), was High Sheriff of Tipperary during 
 the rebellion of 1798. He committed and 
 encouraged the most frightful barbarities. 
 One man named Wright was flogged nearly 
 to death for hemng a note in French in his 
 pocket. After the rebellion he was fined 
 £500 by a jury on this account ; but govern- 
 
 ment paid his fine, and in 1801 made him a 
 baronet. Froude says that his severities 
 prevented an outbreak in Tipperary. 
 
 Pitzgerald and Vesci, Loud {d. 1843), 
 
 an Irish Tory politician of some mark, repre- 
 sented Clare in the House of Commons till 
 turned out by O'Connell, on seeking re- 
 election after appointment to ofiice. From 
 1828 — 1830 he was Paj-master and President 
 of the Board of Trade; and from 1841 — 
 1843, President of the Board of Control. 
 Annual Rejister. 
 
 Pitzgerald, Family of. Their reputed 
 ancestor was William, Castellan of Windsor 
 in the Conqueror's reign ; from him was de- 
 scended Gerald, father of Maurice Fitzgerald 
 and William Fitzmaurice ; the latter is the 
 ancestor of the Knight of Kerry and of 
 the Marquis of Lansdowne. Maurice Fitz- 
 gerald, the founder of the house, secured 
 large grants, among them the barony of 
 Oftaley. In 1205 his son became Baron of 
 Offaley. The baron's brother was Lord 
 Justice, and fought against the Marshalls on 
 King John's behalf. The younger brother of 
 the seventh Lord Offaley, Maurice, was, in 
 1329, created Earl of Desmond, and the Lord 
 Offaley himself became Earl of Kildare. 
 From this time the Fitzgeralds became practi- 
 cally the rulers of Ireland, or at least of the 
 English part of it. The destruction of the 
 houses of De Burgh and De Lacy left the 
 Butlers alone as their rivals. From the defeat 
 of Edward Bruce to the reign of James I., the 
 history of Ireland is made up of their con- 
 stant wars with the Butlers. For the destruc- 
 tion of their immense power, see the articles 
 on the Earls of Kildare and Desmond. The 
 first branch is still represented in our own 
 day by the ducal house of Leinster. 
 
 Burfce's Peerage and Extinct Peerage ; "SicoloB, 
 Hist&ric Peerage. 
 
 Fitzgiblion, John (i. 1748, d. 1802), was 
 created Baron Fitzgibbon in 1789, Viscount 
 in 1793, Earl of Clare in 1795. He distin- 
 guished himself greatly at Trinity College, and 
 was even then the rival of Gratfan. He soon 
 made a name at the bar. In the year 1787 he 
 first signalised himself as Toiry member for 
 Dublin, by speaking against the vote of thanks 
 to the Volunteers, then at the height of their 
 popularity. His second great speech was 
 directed against Flood's Reform Bill, which 
 was lost. In 1784 he became Attorney- 
 General, and as such had the courage to attack 
 the Sheriff of Dublin, as he was assembling 
 the freeholders to elect representatives to a 
 new illegal congress. In 1785 he fought a 
 duel with Curran. On Jan. 31, 1787, he 
 brought in a Conspiracy Bill, and he was one 
 of the few Irishmen who opposed the Regency 
 Bill in 1788. In 1789 he became a peer and 
 Lord Chancellor. During Lord Camden's 
 administration, he was virtually Governor of 
 Ireland, and was the mainstay of the govern- 
 
Pit 
 
 ( 460 ) 
 
 Fit 
 
 ment during the Eetellion of 1798. The in- 
 surgents hated him more than any other 
 man. Lord Comwallis, though he came out 
 to Ireland prejudiced against him, declared 
 later that he was "hy far the most moderate 
 and right-headed man in the country." He 
 defended the Union in a great speech on 
 Feb. 10, 1800, in the Irish Parliament. In 
 the following year he made a bitter attack on 
 the absentee Whig lords in the English Par- 
 liament. In 1802 he died, and his burial 
 was nearly interrupted by a furioUs mob. A 
 typical upholder of the Protestant ascendency, 
 Fitzgibbon. is Mr. Froude's special hero. 
 
 Fronde, English V)i Ireland ; Plowden, Life of 
 GraXtan. 
 
 Fitz-Gilbert, Richard, or Eichard de 
 Clare, was a Norman baron, -nearly related 
 to "William the Conqueror. He accompanied 
 William to England, and received lavish 
 gxants of land, among which was the manor 
 of Clare, from which he took the name which 
 his descendants likewise adopted. He was 
 appointed joint regent of England during Wil- 
 liam's absence in 1073, and in 1076 was in- 
 strumental in quelling the rebellion of the 
 Earls of Hereford and Norfolk. He lived on 
 till the reign of Henry I. 
 
 Fitzharris, Edward {d. 1681). An Irish 
 adventurer, whoiii 1681 concocted a libel upon 
 the king and the Duke of York, in which he 
 advocated the deposition of the one, and the 
 exclusion of the other. This manuscript he 
 probably intended to place in the study of one 
 of the prominent Whig statesmen, and then, 
 by discovering it himself, earn the wages of 
 an informer. He was, however, betrayed by 
 an accomplice, and sent to the Tower, where 
 he invented a Popish Plot for the murder of 
 the king, and the boiling down of the leading 
 Whigs into a jelly, to be used for anointing 
 future Popish kings. Fitzharris was im- 
 peached by the Commons, but the Lords de- 
 clared that they had no power of trying a 
 commoner, as that would be a violation of 
 Magna Charta, while the Commons asserted 
 their right of impeachment. The dissolution 
 of Parliament settled the fate of Fitzharris, 
 who was tried for high treason before the 
 King's Bench, and executed. 
 
 Hallam, Const, Kist.; FarliamRniaYy History; 
 State Trials. 
 
 Fitz-Herbert, Mrs., a Eoman Catholic 
 lady, with whom George, Prince of Wales, in 
 1787, went through the ceremony of mar- 
 riage. If the Eoyal Marriage Act had not 
 invalidated this marriage as contracted with- 
 out the royal consent, the Act of Settlement 
 would have deprived George of his rights of 
 succession. To get his debts paid, George 
 persuaded Fox to publicly deny his marriage 
 with Mrs. Fitz-Herbert, and afterwards denied 
 he had instructed Fox to do so. 
 
 Fitz-Jocelin, Reginald, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (d. 1J911, was the son of Jocelin, 
 
 Bishop of Salisbury, and was elected Bishop 
 of Bath and WeUs in 1174. On the death of 
 Archbishop Baldwin, the monks of Canter- 
 bury, in opposition to King Eichard and 
 Earl John, each of whom had his own 
 nominee, chose Reginald to fill the vacant see. 
 Almost immediately after his election he was 
 seized with illness, and expired in less than a 
 month. 
 
 Hoolr, Archhishops of Canterhv/i^. 
 
 Fitz-Manrice, James {d. 1579), was the 
 brother of the sixteenth Earl of Desmond, 
 and far superior to him in address and 
 military skill. When the head of the family 
 was made a prisoner by Sidney, he roused the 
 Geraldines, and, uniting with other chiefs, he 
 took Kilmallock. He went over to Spain to 
 get help in 1570, but on his return, had to 
 submit to Sir John Perrot in 1571. He 
 then again went abroad, and in vain tried to 
 induce France and Spain to come to the aid 
 of the Irish Catholics. Pope Gregory XIII., 
 however, 'entrusted him with a force of a few 
 hundred men, and he set sail with them in 
 1579, and landed at Smerwick. Not finding 
 there the support he expected, he went off 
 into Tipperary, where he was soon after- 
 wards slain in battle. 
 
 Froude, History of England. 
 
 Fitz-Nigel, Richard, or Fitz-Neal (d. 
 1198), was t e son of Nigel, Bishop of Ely, 
 and great-nephew of Bishop Roger, of 
 Salisbury. He was appointed Treasurer of 
 England in 1165, which office he seems to 
 have held till his death, having also been made 
 Bishop of London in 1189. He was the 
 author of a history of Henry II. 's reign, en- 
 titled Tricolumnus, which is probably the 
 basis of what used to be attributed to Bene- 
 dict of Peterborough ; but his more famous 
 work is the Sialogtis de Scaccario, which 
 his position and connection with Nigel and 
 Roger made extremely important and trust- 
 worthy. 
 
 Stubbs, Prefaces to Benedict of Peterliorough 
 (Eolls Series). The Ctalojus is xmuted in 
 Stubbs's Select Charters. 
 
 Fitz-Osberu, Rooek, Earl of Hereford, 
 was the son of William Fitz-Osbern. In 
 1075 ho entered into a plot with Ralph 
 Guader against William I., the immediate 
 cause being the king's refusal to allow the 
 marriage between Ralph and Fitz-Osbem's 
 sister. Being defeated and taken prisoner, 
 he was sentenced to deprivation of his lands 
 and titles and perpetual captivity. [Norwich, 
 Bridal op.] 
 
 Fitz-Osbem, William {d. 1072), was a 
 Norman baron, somewhat distantly connected 
 with the Conqueror. He was very instru- 
 mental in obtaining the sanction of the 
 Norman nobles to the invasion of England, 
 and commanded one of the wings at the 
 battle of Hastings. He received the Palatine 
 
Tit 
 
 461 ) 
 
 Pit 
 
 earldom of Hereford as his reward. During 
 the king's absence in Normandy he acted as 
 regent, and, in 1069, assisted in suppressing 
 the insurrections in the north and west of 
 England. In 1072 he went over to Flanders, 
 where he was slain, while fighting in a civil 
 war. 
 
 Freeman, Norman Conguest, 
 
 Fitz-Osbert, William {d. 1196), known 
 also as William Longheard, the first dema- 
 gogue. in English history, served in the Third 
 Orusade, and is described as a man of great 
 eloquence. In 1196 a poll-tax was levied on 
 London, and Fitz-Osbert organised a resistance 
 to it, and enrolled, it is said, more than 50,000 
 men. He held meetings, denounced the 
 oppression of the governing bourgeoisie, and 
 proclaimed himself the saviour of the poor. 
 The Justiciar, Hubert Walter, collected 
 troops, and speedily awed the city into sub- 
 mission. Fitz-Osbert took sanctuary in St. 
 Mary-le-Bow, where he was attacked by fire, 
 and eventually captured. He was at once 
 tried, and put to death as a traitor. Of his 
 character and aims it is difiScult to judge, as 
 contemporary writers express such very op- 
 posite views. William of Newburgh says: — 
 " The contriver and fomenter of so much 
 evil perished at the command of justice, and 
 the madness of this wicked conspiracy ex- 
 pired with its author; and those- persons, 
 indeed, who were of more healthful and 
 cautious dispositions rejoiced when they 
 beheld or heard of his punishment, washing 
 their hands in the blood of the sinner." On 
 the other hand, Matthew Paris says : — " So 
 perished William Longbeard, for endeavour- 
 ing to uphold the cause of right and the poor. 
 If it be the cause which makes the martyr, 
 no man may be more justly described as a 
 martyr than he." 
 
 Pauli, Englische Geschichte; Hook, Lives of the 
 Archbishops ; William of Newbiu-gll. 
 
 Fitz-Feter, Geoffrey {d. 1213), was 
 probably the son of Simon Fitz-Peter, one of 
 Henry II. 's justices. He himself acted as 
 an itinerant judge, and Eichard T. placed 
 him on the council which was to act, with 
 the Justiciar, during the king's absence on 
 the Crusade. In 1198 he was appointed 
 Justiciar, which ofiice he contrived to hold 
 till his death. His administration was charac- 
 terised by great sternness and rigid impar- 
 tiality, and he did what he could to restrain 
 the excesses of John, who, on hearing of his 
 death, exclaimed, with an oath, "Now, for 
 the first time, am I King of England." 
 Fitz-Peter was created Earl of Essex in 1199. 
 
 Fitz-Roy, Sir Charles, was Governor 
 of New South Wales (1847—8). His tenure 
 of office was chiefly remarkable for disputes 
 between the Home and the Colonial govern- 
 ments as to the proposed change of constitu- 
 tion in New South Wales. 
 
 Fitz- Stephen, Eobert, a Norman con- 
 queror in South Wales and Ireland, was the 
 son of Nesta, the former mistress of Henry 
 I., and of Stephen de Marisoo. When 
 Dermot came to Wales to collect succours, 
 he was the captive of a Welsh prince ; 
 but on his release, in 1169, he led 
 thirty knights, sixty men-at-arms, and three 
 hundred archers to Ireland. With this force 
 he took Wexford ; but, in 1170, he was 
 induced by treachery to surrender at Carrig. 
 When Henry II. landed, in 1171, he was 
 taken before him at Waterford as a traitor. 
 He was, however, restored to favour, and 
 entrusted with the custody of Wexford. He 
 followed Henry abroad, in 1174 ; was sent 
 over to Ireland, again recalled, but finally, 
 in 1177, invested with the command in 
 southern Munster. In 1182 he was besieged 
 in Cork, but rescued by Raymond le Gros. 
 
 Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio Hibernias ; 
 Moore, Hist, of Ireland. 
 
 Fitz-Stephen, William {d. 1191). A 
 monk of Canterbury, the eye-witness of the 
 murder of his master, Becket, whose biography 
 he wrote, to which was prefixed a remarkable 
 description of London. 
 
 Fitz-TTrse, Reginald. A knight in the 
 service of Henry II., and one of the murderers 
 of St. Thomas. [Becket.] 
 
 Fitz-'Walter, Milo {d. 1146), was one of 
 the itinerant justices in the reign of Henry 
 I. On that king's death he assisted Stephen 
 in his attempt to gain the crown, but before 
 long he deserted the king, and strenuously 
 supported the Empress Matilda, who gave 
 him the- title of Earl of Hereford, together 
 with considerable lands and privileges. He 
 was accidentally killed in 1146. 
 
 Fitz-Walter, Robert. Anorthern baron, 
 who, as an old enemj' of John, was selected 
 by the baronial confederacy as the leader in 
 the struggle that finally resulted in the grant 
 of Magna Charta. 
 
 Fitz-William, Sir William- {d. 1542), 
 was a famous naval commander of Henry 
 VIII.'s time. In 1513, and again in 1522—24, 
 he won victories over the French, and in 1537 
 was made- Earl of Southampton and Privy 
 Seal; 
 
 Pitz-William, William, 4th Earl 
 (S. 1T48, d. 1833), was of the distinguished 
 Yorkshire Whig family, and nephew of 
 Rockingham, and opposed the American 
 War and Pitt's earlier ministry. , Taking 
 panic at the French revolutionary excesses 
 he deserted Fox. He was made Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland, but recalled, because 
 too liberal, just before 1798. This alienated 
 him from the government, and he became 
 President of the Council under Gren-^alle, in. 
 1807, and lived to share in and see the success 
 of the Reform Bill agitation. He was one of 
 
Fiv 
 
 ( *62 ) 
 
 Fla 
 
 the test specimens of the Whig grandee of 
 the eighteenth^entury. 
 Stanhope, Life of Pitt, 
 
 Five Boroughs of Mercia. A rude 
 
 confederacy of Danish boroughs, correspond- 
 ing, as some have thought, to the older divi- 
 sions ,of north-eastern MerCia. They were 
 Derby, Lincoln, Leicester, Stamford, and 
 Nottingham. They were each ruled by their 
 "jarl," with twelve lawmen administering 
 Danish law in each, while a common court 
 existed for the whole confederacy. They 
 were conquered by Edward the Elder ; and 
 reconquered in 940 by Edmund, who seems to 
 have allowed them full enjoyment of their 
 local privileges. [Danelagh.] 
 
 Five IKEemljers, The. In January, 
 1642, Charles I., believing that the Parlia- 
 mentary leaders intended to impeach the 
 queen, resolved to prevent it by impeaching her 
 assailants. He selected, as the chief offenders, 
 five members of the House of Commons, John 
 Pym (Tavistock), John Hampden (Bucking- 
 hamshire), Denzil Holies (Dorchester), Sir 
 Arthur HaseMg (Leicestershire), and Wil- 
 liam Strode (Dorchester). Lord Kimbolton 
 was included in the same impeachment on 
 Januarys. Sir Edward Herbert,4he Attorney- 
 General, laid the charges before the House 
 of Lords, who at once appointed a committee 
 to inquire whether his procedure had been 
 according to law. On the same day the king 
 sent the Sergeant-at-arms to the House of 
 Commons with orders to arrest the iive 
 members. iCharles was urged on by Lord 
 Digby and the queen to arrest the members 
 himself, and about three o'clock on tire after- 
 noon of January 4, started from Whitehall 
 with about four hundred armed men to ap- 
 prehend them. The accused members had 
 been warned by a message from Lady Car- 
 lisle, and escaped by the river into the city. 
 The king entered the House, -leaving about 
 eighty armed men in the lobby, and made a 
 speech in which he said that since they had 
 disobeyed his orders, he had come to arrest 
 the members himself. He commanded the 
 Speaker to tell him whether the accused 
 members were present ; and when Lemthal 
 refused to do so, and ithe king saw with his 
 own eyes that " the birds were flown," he, re- 
 tired, saying, " I assure you, on the word of 
 a king, I never did intend any force, but 
 shall proceed against them in a legal and fair 
 way, for I never meant any otjier." The 
 House adjourned till the 11th, appointing a 
 committee to sit in the interval at Guildhall. 
 This committee voted, on the 6th, that ithe 
 impeachment, the personal issue of the war- 
 rants by the king, and the attempt .to arrest 
 the impeached members were alike illegal. 
 Addresses and petitions on behalf of the ac- 
 cused members poured in from the city and 
 the country. On the 11th the Commons re- 
 turned in triumph to Westminster, and two 
 
 days later the king announced that, as the 
 legality of the impeachment of the members 
 had been doubted, he would now abandon it, 
 and proceed against them " in an unquestion- 
 able way." The justifiable distrust caused 
 by this attempt induced the leaders of the 
 Parliament to demand substantial securities 
 from the king, and so led to war. 
 
 S. E. Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 1603—1842, vol. 
 X. J Hallam, ConstitvXional History. 
 
 Five-mile Act, The (1665), enacted 
 that no Nonconforming clergyman should 
 come within five miles of any corporate town 
 or any place where he had once ministered 
 (except when travelling), nor act as a tutor 
 or schoolmaster unless he first took the 
 oath of non-resistance, and swore to attempt 
 no alteration of the constitution in Church or 
 State. It was one of the series of repressive 
 measures, popularly known as the " Claren- 
 don Code," and was aimed at depriving the 
 ejected clergy of their means of livelihood, 
 both by preaching and teaching. 
 
 Flag, HoNOUK OF THE. Erom very early 
 times the English required foreign ships to 
 salute English vessels within the narrow seas 
 by lowering their flag. This question was 
 vehemently contested by their commercial 
 rivals, the Dutch, and was one of the smaller 
 points of the chronic dispute between the two 
 nations in the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. The Dutch admitted the claim in 1673. 
 
 Flagellants, The. A sect of fanatical 
 enthusiasts of the thirteenth century, who 
 if ormed special fraternities for the observation 
 'Of flagellation as a solemn and public religious 
 .ceremony. Started in 1210 by St. Anthony 
 of Padua, this order became widespread 
 through the teaching of Eainer of Perugia. 
 In the reign of Edward III., 120 of them 
 crossed into England, but their long proces- 
 sions and self-immolation did not produce a 
 single convert. 
 
 Fdrstemann, Die Christlioh-en, Grissiergesc!!- 
 sohafien. 
 
 Flambard, Ealph {d. 1126), was a Nor- 
 man of Jew origin, who. after Lanfranc's death 
 became the chief minister of William Rufus. 
 To hismalign influence may be attributed much 
 of the tyranny and oppression of this reign. 
 He devised new impositions, and enriched him- 
 self as well as the king, by keeping the sees 
 and abbeys -vacant. Under him.the position of 
 Justiciar gradually became n, definite office. 
 In M99 he (was made Bishop of Durham. 
 'On the accession of Henry I. he was at once 
 arrested and imprisoned in the Tower, from 
 which, .however, he very soon managed to 
 escape, and itook refuge in Normandy with 
 Robert, whom he encouraged in his invasion 
 of England. Henry subsequently allowed 
 him to return to his bishopric, where he re- 
 mained peaceably till his death, occupying 
 himself chiefly in architectural and ecclesias- 
 tical works. His character is painted in the 
 
Fla 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 Pie 
 
 darkest characters by the clu-onielers. "William 
 of Malmesbury says, " If at any time a royal 
 edict was issued that England, should pay a 
 certain tribute, it was doubled by this plun- 
 derer of the rich, this exterminator of the 
 poor, this confiscator of other men's inheri- 
 tance. He was an invincible pleader, as 
 unrestrained in his words as in his actions, 
 and equally furious against the meek or the 
 turbulent. "Wherefore the king used to laugh 
 and say, ' that he was the only man who 
 knew how to employ his talents in this way, 
 and cared for no one's hatred so long as he 
 could please his master.' " 
 Freeman, Willia'ni Rufas, 
 
 Flammock, Thomas, was a Cornish attor- 
 ney, whose harangues incited the Cornishmen 
 to revolt, in 1491, against Henry VII.'s ex- 
 cessive taxation. He led them on their march 
 to Blackheath, and on the suppression of the 
 revolt was hanged as a traitor. 
 Baeon, Hist, of Henry VII. 
 
 Flanders, Relations with. Nominally 
 a fief of France, Flanders was very early of 
 sufficient importance to have close dealings 
 with England. The name " Baldwinsland," 
 given by the early English to the country, 
 suggests the frequency of the dynastic rela- 
 tions between the ceurta. The first Count 
 Baldwin married Judith, the 'Frankish widow 
 of Ethelwulf of Wesseac, and their«on married 
 iEiethryth (Elfrida), a daughter of Alfred 
 the Great. Dunstan :found 'in his exile a 
 refuge in a Flemish monastei^. Godwin, in 
 1051, was warmly welcomed by the great 
 Baldwin, whose dealings with England were 
 singularly intimate. He died soon after his 
 son-in-law, William I., had conquered the 
 kin{i;dom. Later in William's reign, Gerbod 
 of Chester, and "WiUiam Fitz-Osbem found 
 (saptivity and death respectively through 
 warlike intervention in Flemish quarrels. 
 Another Baldwin supported "William Fitz- 
 Eobert against his uncle Henry I. Flemish 
 mercenaries and "William of Ypres fought 
 for Stephen. Count Philip joined in 1173 
 the great confederation which the younger 
 Hemy had excited against his father 
 Henry II. But gradually the old changing 
 relations settled down into a general friend- 
 ship, when, not only dynastic accidents, but 
 a common policy of alliance against the 
 encroachments of the French kings, and the 
 growing pressure of economical necessities, 
 firmly bound together the two countries. 
 Count Ferdinand joined John and his nephew, 
 Otto IV., in the confederacy that was dis- 
 solved by the battle of Bouvines (1213). 
 Edward I. ended, by the Treaty of Montreuil 
 (-1274) with Count Guy, the hostilities be- 
 tween his father and Margaret of Flanders. 
 Guy, on the whole, gave Edward efficient 
 support against Philip the Fair. But the 
 growth of the. cloth trade in Flanders had 
 bound its great towns to England, whence 
 
 came the raw wool which Ghent or Ypres 
 made up into cloth, and the Hanse factories 
 of London and Bruges may have added a 
 further link. On the other hand, the rising 
 power of the towns compelled the Flemish 
 counts to rely on French help ; and thus, while 
 the alliance of England and the towns was 
 strengthened, her relations with the counts 
 grew cool. At last, in 1335, Jacob van 
 Artevelde, the Ghent leader, concluded a 
 firm alliance with Edward III. against Count 
 Louis and Philip VI., which continued till 
 Artevelde's death, in 1345. The renewed 
 disturbances at Ghent, under Philip van 
 Artevelde in 1381, were in close analogy and 
 direct connection with the contemporary 
 revolutionary movement under "Wat Tyler, 
 and even Bishop Sjjencer's crusade against 
 the Clementists practically turned to the 
 help of the Flemish townsmen. But the 
 accession of the Burgundian house to Flanders 
 restored the old friendship of the princes, 
 though partly at the expense of the popular 
 party. In 1496 the treaty styled Magnus 
 Intercursus expelled Perkyn "VVarbeek from 
 Flanders, and allowed full freedom of trade 
 between the two countries. But henceforth 
 Flanders is only a fragment of a larger state. 
 Paiili, Unglische Geschiclite ; Schauz, Englische 
 
 Handelspolitilc ; Macplierson, Hist, of Commerce ; 
 
 Ashley, James mid P/iiiip van Artevelde. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Flavia Csesariensis was one of the 
 
 districts of Roman Britain. Its situation is 
 unknown. 
 
 Fleet Frison, a famous London gaol, a 
 king's prison since the twelfth century, was 
 situated on the east side of Farringdon Street, 
 on the bank of the Fleet rivulet. The Fleet 
 was burnt down by "Wat Tyler, and became of 
 great historical interest, as the prison of reli- 
 gious offenders on both sides, under Mary and 
 Elizabeth, and of the victims of the Star 
 Chamber. On the abolition of the Star Cham- 
 ber, it became a prison for debtors and those 
 committed for contempt. It was again burnt 
 in the Gordon riots, and abolished in 1841. 
 In the eighteenth century the Fleet became 
 famous for the irregular marriages contracted 
 there by clergymen of abandoned character, 
 and in prison or within the precincts for debt. 
 Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act (1753) put 
 an end to this abuse. 
 
 Bum, Hist, of Fleet JUamogcs; Loftie, Hist, of 
 London. 
 
 Fleetwood, Chakles {d. cirea 1692), 
 the son of Sir William Fleetwood, was 
 one of those gentlemen of the Inns of Court 
 who enlisted in the body-guard of the Earl 
 of Essex. He also served in the army of the 
 Eastern Association under Oliver Cromwell. 
 In the New Model he commanded a regiment 
 of horse, and, after the capture of Bristol, 
 was appointed governor of that place. In 
 Oct., 1645, he became member for Bucking- 
 
Fie 
 
 ( 464 ) 
 
 Fie 
 
 hamshire. He took no part in the king's 
 death, though his brother George sat amongst 
 the judges. Inl650 Fleetwood was lieutenant- 
 general of the army under Cromwell which 
 invaded Scotland. A«s such, he shared in the 
 victory of Dunhar, and played a very im- 
 portant part in the hattle of "Worcester. On 
 the death of Iretoii, Fleetwood married his 
 widow, Cromwell's daughter Bridget ; and, 
 after the commandership-in-chief in Ireland 
 had- been refused by Lambert, Fleetwood was 
 appointed to that post (June, 1652). In 
 March, 1654, he became Lord Deputy, but 
 was recalled to England in the summer of 
 1655, probably because he was not suiKciently 
 active in pushing on the transplantation of 
 the Catholics and suppressing the exercise of 
 the Catholic religion. On his return, he 
 took his place as a member of Cromwell's 
 Council, and as one of his major-generals. 
 Notwithstanding his relationship to the Pro- 
 tector, he opposed his taking the crown, but 
 accepted a place in his House of Lords. 
 Fleetw-ood had some expectation of being 
 nominated Cromwell's successor, but, never- 
 theless, accepted the appointment of Richard 
 Cromwell. However, he headed the party 
 among the officers which wished to make the 
 army independent of the civil power. Their 
 plan was to make Fleetwood commander-in- 
 chief, independent of the Protector, and 
 practically a co-ordinate power with him. 
 Not succeeding in this, he and the Council of 
 Officers forced Richard to dissolve Parliament. 
 The Rump, directly it was restored, appointed 
 him commander-in-chief of the land forces in 
 England and Scotland, and one of the Com- 
 mission of Seven, who were to appoint officers 
 (May,' 1659) ; but as they attempted to subject 
 the army to the Parliament, he broke up the 
 House (Oct., 1659), and ■ established the 
 " Committee of Safety." Monk's advance, 
 and the spread of disaffection in army and 
 people, obliged him to recall the Parliament, 
 though Whitelocke very nearly persuaded 
 him to bring back the king instead. He was 
 deprived of his office by Parliament, and, 
 after the king's return, perpetually incapaci- 
 tated from public employment. He is said 
 to have lived till 1692., 
 
 Clarendon, Kist. of ths Reli. ; "Whitelocke, 
 Memorials ; Ludlow, Memoirs ; Carlyle, Cromwell. 
 
 Fleming, Sm Thomas (d. 1613), a pro- 
 minent member of the Parliaments of 1601 
 and 1604, was Recorder of London (1594), 
 and Solicitor-General the following year. 
 He took part in the trial of the Earl of Essex, 
 and became Chief Baron of the Exchequer 
 in 1604. Coke calls him "a man ot great 
 judgment, integrity,, and discretion."' 
 Foss, Judges of England. 
 
 Flemings in England. At' various 
 times, large colonies of Flemish settlers have 
 been brought over to England. The- close 
 commercial and political relations of the two 
 
 countries largely occasioned this emigration. 
 Henry I. is reputed to have settled Lower 
 and Southern Dyfed with Flemings. He 
 certainly thoroughly expelled the "Welsh, and 
 planted the country with Teutonic settlers, 
 who speedily became English, and have re- 
 mained so to the present time, without 
 any tendency to amalgamate with the sur- 
 rounding Celts. Not to mention the Flemish 
 mercenaries of Stephen's reign, we find large 
 numbers of Flemish weavers settling in 
 England, especially in- the eastern counties, 
 where Norwich, became the great seat of the 
 clothing industry. These Flemings taught 
 the English to make up their own wool into 
 cloth, instead, of exporting it to the looms of 
 Flanders. Later still, the Reformation led 
 to a large emigration of Flemish Protestants 
 into England. 
 
 Fleta. The name usually given to a very 
 valuable work on English law, written some 
 time in the reign of Edward I. Its date is 
 approximately fixed by the fact that the 
 Statute of "Westminster the Second (13 Ed. I.) 
 is the last statute quoted. It derives its 
 name from' the fact that it is said to have 
 been written by an unknown prisoner in the 
 Fleet. 
 
 Fletcher, Andkew, of Saltoun (J. 1653, 
 d. 1716), was educated by Bishop Burnet, 
 then minister of Saltoun. He first appears 
 as Commissioner for East Lothian in the 
 Scotch Parliament ; but his opposition to the 
 court occasioned his outlawry and the con- 
 fiscation of his estates. In 1685 he engaged 
 in Monmouth's rebellion [Monmouth], but 
 quarrelled with a, fellow-officer named Dare, 
 and shot him. Monmouth was obliged to 
 dismiss Fletcher, who- withdrew tb the Conti- 
 nent, and entered the Austrian service against 
 the Turks. In 1688 he joined William of 
 Orange at the Hague, and after the Revolu- 
 tion his estates were restored to him; He 
 soon joined the " Club," a body of politicians 
 who were dissatisfied with the Revolution 
 Settlement in Scotland. Proud ef his good 
 family and theoretical Liberalism, Fletcher 
 hated monarchy and democracy : and desired to 
 make Scotland an oligarchical republic, of the 
 Venetian or Bernese tjipe. At this time he 
 published two JDisomtrses coneeming the 
 affairs of Scotland, in one of which he 
 recommended predial slavery as a remedy 
 for pauperism. He formed a friendship with 
 Paterson, the originator of the Bank of 
 England, and supported his Darien scheme. 
 In Anne's reign he led the " Patriots " in 
 their opposition to the Union. In 1703 he 
 introduced his- "Limitations" for Queen 
 Anne's successor, some of which strangely 
 anticipate modern Liberalism, and was a prime 
 mover of the "Bill of Security," which 
 passed m 1704, while the "Limitations" 
 were accepted in 1705. But, finding he 
 could not withstand the Union, he exerted 
 
Fie 
 
 (466 ) 
 
 PlO 
 
 his influence more practically to secure free- 
 dom of trade. This attitude, rather than any- 
 real connection with the Jacobite conspiracies, 
 led to his arrest in 1708. 
 
 Lord Buclian, Li/e of JletcTier ; Button, Hist, 
 0/ Scotland ; Macaulay, Hist. 0/ EngiaTWi., 
 
 Fletcber, Kichaed (d. 1596), Bishop of 
 London, " a comely and courtly prelate," was 
 made Dean of Peterborough (1683), in which 
 capacity he attended Mary Queen of Scots at 
 her execution. He was a great farourite of 
 Elizabeth's, by whom.he was advanced saicces- 
 sively to the sees of Oxford, Worcester, and 
 London, but lost her regard on his marriage, 
 for which he weis suspended. He was the 
 father of Fletcher the dramatist, and the 
 uncle of Phineas Eletcher, the poet. 
 
 Fleuras is a- small town, fifteen miles 
 west of Namur, famous for several battles, 
 and especially those in 1690 and 1794. In- the 
 former engagement (July 1, 1690), the Duke 
 of Luxemburg gained a well-contested victory 
 over the Dutch and- Imperialists under the 
 Prince of Waldecfc. The latter (June 26, 
 1794) resulted in victory for Marshal Jourdan 
 over the Prince of Gobm-g. 
 
 Flodden Field, The Battle op (Sept. 
 9, 1513), was fought between James IV. 
 of Scotland and the English under the 
 Earl of Surrey. The most noteworthy 
 circumstances of this engagement are : (1) 
 The skilful movement by which the Earl 
 of Surrey succeeded in crossing the ' river 
 Till, and cutting off all communication, be- 
 tween King James and Scotland. (2) The 
 omission of the Scots to take advantage of 
 the favourable moment for attack presented 
 by the passage of" the English army over the 
 river. (3) The utter defeat of the English 
 right wing under Sir Edward Howard, and 
 the loss of this success to the Scots through 
 the misconduct of the troops of Earls Huntly 
 and Home,. who, instead of following up their 
 victory, abandoned themselves to pillaging 
 the baggage of both armies. (4) The prowess 
 of the English archers, whose murdeious 
 volleys threw the Scottish right, led by 
 Lenno.x and Axgyle,.into complete confusion, 
 and rendered their subsequent defeat and 
 ruinous flight a comparatively easy matter. 
 (5) The desperate resistance against over- 
 whelming numbers made by the Scottish 
 centre, and the death of James TV. during 
 the heat of the contest. (6) The indecisive- 
 ness of the conflict. Notwithstanding re- 
 verses elsewhere, and the death of their king, 
 the Scots succeeded in holding Flodden Hill 
 during the night, and only abandoned their 
 position at the dawn of the next day on 
 learning the real state of affairs. Meanwhile, 
 on the English side, the contest had so nearly 
 resulted in a defeat that, Surrey was quite 
 unable to prosecute the war with any vigour. 
 The loss of the Scots in this battle was from 
 8,000 to 10,000 men; that of the English 
 
 from 6,000 to 7,000. At the commencement 
 of the battle, the contending armies mustered 
 respectively 30,000 and 32,000 men. 
 Burton, Hist. 0/ Scotland. 
 Flood, Henry (J. 1732, d. 1791), was the 
 son of Warden Flood, Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench in Ireland. He studied at 
 Dublin and at Oxford, and in 1759 entered the 
 Irish Parliament as member for Kilkenny ; and 
 about 1761 he became the idol of the Irish 
 patriots. In 1767 he successfuliy opposed an 
 attempt made by government to increase the 
 Irish army. In, 1773 he was the most vigor- 
 ous supporter of the Absentee Tax, and the 
 real leader of the Opposition to the Castle. In 
 1774, however, he came to. terms with Lord 
 Harcourt, the Lord-Lieutenant, and finally 
 contented himself with a vice-treasurership, a 
 sinecure of £3,500 a year. In 1779, however, 
 he again, deserted the government, and, advo- 
 cated free trade. In 1781 he attacked, the 
 Castle expenditure. His name was now 
 struck off the list of Privy Councillors, and 
 he lost his place. He now tried to supplant 
 Grrattan, and recover his- old position, but 
 was twice defeated. In 1782 he stood forth 
 as a defender of' Protestant aiscendency. 
 When Grattan was rewarded for his services, 
 his friends tried to get a reward for him, too, 
 but failedj and a bitter personal- attack on 
 Grattan being- unsuccessful, he left Ireland 
 fop England. In 1783 he returned. Another 
 quarrel with- Grattan would have ended in a 
 duel if they had not both been ordered into 
 custody. Flood now took the part of the 
 Volunteers, and agitated for a Reform Bill : 
 he was, however, averse to the Catholic 
 claims. In 1784 his great motion for Reform 
 was defeated, and his influence continuing 
 to decUne, he again went to England in 1787. 
 Since- 1.785 he had had. a, seat in the Enghsh 
 Parliament, but he was little appreciated, and 
 a motion for Reform brought forward by him 
 in 1790 was a failure. 
 
 Broude, English- in Irclandi; Plowden, JAjz of 
 Grattan. 
 
 Florence of Worcester (<?. 1118). A 
 
 monk of Worcester, and compiler of a Chroni- 
 cle from the Creation to the year of his death. 
 The earlier part is taken from Marianus 
 Scotus ; and the English part previous to his 
 own age is a free translation of the Anglo- 
 Saxon Chronicle with occasional additions. 
 For his own period, Florence is very valuable, 
 and though not possessing the literary merit 
 of William of Malmesbury, is lucid, honest, 
 and fair. Florence of Worcester's Chronicle 
 has been published by the English Historical 
 Society. 
 
 Florida, The, was a ship built in 
 Birkenhead, nominally for the use of the 
 Italian government. It got out of the 
 Mersey without the slightest difficulty, al- 
 though the American government had warned 
 ours of her real purpose as a Confederate 
 
Plo 
 
 ( 466 ) 
 
 Pol 
 
 privateer. "Within three months she had 
 captured fifteen vessels. Thirteen of these 
 she burnt, and the other two were converted 
 into cruisers by the Confederate government. 
 The damage done by the Florida was included 
 in the Geneva award with the Alabama and 
 other claims. [G-eneta CoNVENTiojf . ] 
 
 Floyd's Case (1621). Floyd was a 
 Catholic barrister, who, in prison, iad uttered 
 disrespectful language against the Elector 
 Palatine and his wife. Parliament, then sit- 
 ting and disgusted at James's obstinate aver- 
 sion to their zeal for the cause of the Palatine, 
 inflicted on Floyd a heavy fine, together with 
 whipping, the pillory, branding, and impri- 
 sonment. The Commons took the initiative, 
 but the Lords inflicted the sentence. This 
 case illustrates the indefinite right of Parlia- 
 ment to exercise jurisdiction even over those 
 not its members, and ior offences not directly 
 against the House. 
 
 HaUam, Oonst, Bist. 
 
 Flsriug Sauadrou (Squadrone ■volante) 
 is the name of^a party of Scotch politicians, 
 foi-med about 1705. It was borrowed from 
 the famous " Flying Squadron " of indepen- 
 dent cardinals during the previous generation 
 at the Papal Court. Lord Tweeddale was the 
 leader of this ' ' New 'Party," which, by keep- 
 ing close together, and joining first one side 
 and then the .other in the Union debsttes, had 
 for some time a good deal of power. It had 
 the fate of the Union question in its own 
 hands, and its adhesion to the cause of the 
 government in 1706 secured the triumph of 
 that measure. 
 
 Burton, Hist. 0/ Stotlani and JSeign 0/ Queen 
 Anne. 
 
 Foley, Paul, ,«. Tory politician in the 
 reign of William III., began his political 
 career as a Whig;, but about 1690 became a 
 Tory. He was so wealthy — his father was a 
 successful ironmaster — that it was unnecessary 
 for him to follow law as a profession ; bui 
 he had studied it carefully as a science. He 
 paraded his independence and disinterested- 
 ness rather ostentatiously, and " was so much 
 afraid," says Macaulay, " of being thought to 
 fawn that he was almost always growling." 
 In 1695 he was chosen Speaker of the House 
 of Commons, and was again. re-elected at the 
 close of the year. In 1696 he proposed the 
 establishment of the Land Bank. 
 Macaulay, ifist. of Eng, 
 
 Foliot, GiLBEBT {d. 1187), was a monk of 
 Clugny, and became Bishop of' Hereford and, 
 subsequently, of London. He is mainly re- 
 markable by his zeal for the cause of Henry II., 
 and in the disputes with Becket was sent to 
 fiome by the king in 1164 to represent his case 
 to the Pope. He was excommunicated by 
 Becket, but the Pope withdrew the sentence ; 
 a second excommunication shortly afterwards 
 followed, but on that occasion the Pope con- 
 
 firmed the archbishop's sentence, and Foliot 
 was suspended from his functions, and not 
 restored till after Becket' s death. Foliot was 
 a man of learning, and his letters are of con- 
 siderable value, but he has been traduced 
 without mercy by the partisans of Becket. 
 John of Salisbury ; Bobertson, Becket. 
 
 Folkland. The public lands of the nation 
 in old English history. When the English 
 came to Britain, though individual property 
 in land was the rule, the idea of corporate 
 property in it so far existed that after 
 giving to each individual, family, or township 
 their apprppriate share, it w.as natural that 
 what remained over should continue the pro- 
 j)erty of the tribe or nation. With the con- 
 solidatioin of the original states into a single 
 ■kingdom, the aggregate amount of folkland 
 became very large. It was under the control 
 of the king with the counsel and consent of 
 his Witan. As time went «n, large grants of 
 folkland were imade, both ,to individuals who 
 had done services to king and people, and to 
 communities. Thus the new nobility of 
 services and the monasteries received their 
 endowment from this source. Land tius 
 cut olf from folkland .was called bocland 
 (q.v.), i.e., land granted by -boc or charter. 
 The alienation could be made only with 
 the consent and witness of the Witan. 
 Temporary rights over folkland w«re also 
 frequently granted in the form of leases for 
 services or money payments. These became 
 in time fixed and oonstant, so that the 
 land became practically in possession of the 
 lessees. Thus folkland was being constantly 
 diminished in quantity ; and as, meanwhile, 
 the develoj>ment of the theory of royalty 
 subordinated the Witan to the crown, the 
 king, as representative of the nation, acquired 
 practicaUy the disposal sf it. Ultimately, 
 about the time of the Norman "Conquest, the 
 remnant .of folkland became terra regis, the 
 king's domain; and the private property of 
 the cro^w^, hitherto distinct, became merged 
 with it. It is onlyi.in recent times that the 
 distinction of crown or national lands and 
 the private estate of the sovej-eign has been 
 restored. But a long series of land grants 
 by every weak or foolish king, despite occa- 
 sional resumptions, has reduced the crown 
 lands to a comparatively trifling amount. 
 They are now under the control of the Com- 
 missioners of Woods and Forests. Folkland, 
 as distinct from the royal domain, was peculiar 
 to England. The " commons " in possession 
 of the township, or some smaller community, 
 were not considered a part of it, though also, 
 in a sense, the property of the people. 
 
 Until recently, the nature o£ folkland was 
 very imperfectly understood. See for the 
 various old theories Sohmid'a Gesetze del- AngeU 
 Sachsen; for the view now universally accepted, 
 see Stubbs s Const. Hist., and the authorities 
 there quoted ; and especially Kemble's Saxons ' ■ 
 m Enghini; and K. Manrer'a Kritisohe ITeber- 
 scftaii. rrn "P Ti 1 
 
Pol 
 
 (467) 
 
 Por 
 
 Polkmoot, the meeting of the people, is 
 the old English name for the great assembly 
 of the nation for poUtical, judicial, and 
 general deliberative functions. Tacitus tells 
 us how the Germans of his time consulted the 
 whole nation on all important matters, and 
 the Campus Martins or Sladius of the Franks 
 was in later times the folkmoot of that 
 nation. Among the Scandinavian peoples 
 such moots continued to a much later age, 
 as the Icelandic Althing., and the greaJ; 
 Swedish Ting, which met at TJpsala. In 
 England, there never was a 4rue folkmoot of 
 the whole nation which assembled together 
 at any single place until the -establishment of 
 the House of Commons. The Witenagemot 
 (q.v.) was, though indirectly a national 
 senate, directly nothing more .than a gather- 
 ing of magnates. The Shiremoot or County 
 Court (q.v.), however, composed of the re- 
 presentatives of every township within Jits 
 jurisdiction, was a complete folkmoot for the 
 district comprised in the shire. The House 
 of Commons, formed by eoneeotrating in a 
 single assembly the representatives of the 
 shires, was its lineal -successor ■ ami natural 
 development. 
 
 Stiibbe, Const. Hist. ; 'Seiable, Saxons in Eng- 
 liMcL. [T. JF. T.] 
 
 PontenoyjTHEiiBATTLE of (May ] 1, 1745), 
 was fought during the Austrian Succession 
 War, and resulted in-a wictory for the Frenoh. 
 The Duke of Cumberland advanced with 50,000 
 English, Dutch, and Austrian treops'to relieve 
 Toumay, besieged by Marshal Saxe. The 
 Frendi, whdle oantinuing the siege, took up a 
 very strong,position south of the town to caver 
 their operations. On their Tight was the 
 Scheldt, along their front a steep and narrow 
 valley, at their left a wood with forte. This 
 strong positiem the allies attempted to "take. 
 The Dutch under the Prince of Waldeck, 
 after a spiritless attempt had failed, with- 
 drew from the field. .But the mass of the 
 English and Hanoverian rtroops won the 
 heights opposite them; and i£ supported 
 by the Dutch, must have retained their 
 position. As it was, fresh troops from the 
 French side gradually forced them to retire, 
 with a steadmess as great as that displayed 
 during their advance. The capture of Tour- 
 nay followed this French victory.; but it was 
 rather the withdrawal «f troops to ScotUnd 
 to oppose the Pretender than the effects of 
 Fontenoy that made the subsequent campaign 
 in Flanders so disastrous toithe allies. 
 
 Stanhope, Eist. of Eng. > Ameth, Mwlia 
 Theresia. 
 
 Pordnn, John (/. cirea 1 877). A Scottish 
 chronicler, whose Seotichronieon has been the 
 basis of the legendary history of Scotland. 
 His artificially-constructed scheme of history 
 must, says Mr. Skene, be entirely rejected. 
 
 rordnn's Cfironicle of the Scottish Nation has 
 been edited with English translation, intro- 
 daction and notes by Mr. V/. F. Skene. 
 
 Poreign Legion, The. Prince Albert's 
 special idea during the Crimean War was to 
 raise a foreign legion, and instructions were 
 given to the English ministers at foreign 
 courts to aid this project. The result was a 
 series of collisions with foreign powers, and 
 especially a serious quarrel with the American 
 government, on account of the dismissal of 
 Sir. Crampton, the English minister, for 
 his proceedings in this direction. In the end 
 «ome few Swiss and other foreigners were en- 
 listed, who never did anything of importance. 
 Annual Register ; Hansard, Debates. 
 
 Poreisn Enlistment Act, The 
 
 (1819), forbade British subjects to take service 
 with a foreign state without royal licence, 
 and also the 'lequipment of ships to be used 
 against a power with which England was at 
 peace. It was specially suspended to allow 
 Sir de Lacy Evans to raise a British Legion 
 against the -CarlistB in Spain in 1835. The 
 Alabama and other affairs led to some trials 
 in tl862 and 1863, the proceedings of which 
 showed that the Acts required amendment. 
 This was done by a mew Foreign Enlistment 
 Act, passed in 1870. 
 
 Forest, Miles, was one of the murderers 
 •of Edward V. and his, brother Eichard in 1483. 
 As a rew-ard he was made keeper of the ward- 
 robe at JJamard Castile ; but after the death of 
 Eiohafd III., he "took sanctuary, where, ac- 
 cording to Sir Thomas More, he " piecemeal 
 rotted away."" 
 
 .Porests. 'Forest, if rom the Norman Con- 
 quest to the Commonwealth, bore the tech- 
 .nicalisignifieation of crown lamd reserved for 
 the purposes of the chase, and, as such, culti- 
 vated and inhabited "Om sufllerance if at all. 
 A. forest was defined as containing eight 
 things- -soil, covert, laws, courts, judges, 
 officers, game, bounds. It comprised both 
 " vert " — i.e., trees, underwood, and turf — and 
 " vanison" — i.e., the hart, the hind, the hare, 
 ■the boar, the wolf, which are beasts of forest ; 
 the buck, doe, fox, marten, which are beasts of 
 chase ; the rabbit, ipheasant, partridge, quail, 
 mallard, heron, &c., which are beasts and 
 fowls of warren. The land subject to forest 
 ]a,w need not be all wooded, e.g., Cornwall 
 was "forest" under John. But the forest 
 districts -did, of course, mainly coincide with 
 the great woods which, in old days, had made 
 even the Roman roads deflect from a straight 
 course, and which had then, under Roman 
 rule, been cleared away by the legionary, the 
 metal-worker, the citizen, the psasant, to 
 grow up again in time to check the advances 
 of Angles and Saxons, to force this advance 
 to take certain lines, and to limit its first 
 results to the establishment, at least in Mid- 
 England, of petty and isolated " folks." Thus 
 the West Saxons found their natural bounda- 
 ries determined by Andred's Weald on the 
 east, by Selwood on the west, as decisively as 
 by the Thames and the sea on the north and 
 
Por 
 
 (468) 
 
 Por 
 
 on the south. Kentish folk, East Saxons, 
 and Bast Angles were cut off from each other 
 hy marsh and wood ; so were Mid- Angles 
 from West Angles, Deirans from Beruioians ; 
 while along the Severn, in. the Peak district, 
 and in the hills of the kingdom of Elmet, the 
 nature of the ground long barred the way- 
 westward, and from the Clyde to the Parret, 
 the Welsh confronted the invaders in a long 
 continuous line until the seventh centurj'. 
 The mighty Andred's Weald, even, in Bede's 
 day, lay stretched for 120 miles from Hamp-- 
 shire to the Medway. The Wice Wood covered 
 what are now Worcestershire, Shropshire, 
 and Staffordshire, as Arden,once covered War- 
 wickshire. Epping Forest was part of a greater 
 whole, which extended from London nearly 
 to the Wash, as another such region from the 
 Peak to the Trent; from the Peak to the 
 Tees was little but desert ; from Tees to Tyne 
 was one great forest in St. Cuthbert's days. 
 These great woods were being rapiiUy cleared 
 or opened out, when, the Norman, kings came 
 and largely increased them ;, as . by the de- 
 populating and "afforesting." a district con- 
 taining twenty-two churches, to form the 
 New Forest. But they also introduced the 
 new Forest Laws, by which the Conqueror, 
 who " loved the tall stags as if he had been 
 their father," inflicted a cruel penalty (the 
 loss of eyes) for hunting the royal deer. The 
 so-called Forest Laws of Canute, a palpable 
 forgery of the twelfth century, probably 
 represent the state of things under Henry I. ; 
 they make it capital " to kill a. stag as to kiU a 
 man ; " merely to hunt a deer was punished 
 by the lash, if the offender were a villein ; if 
 a freeman, by a heavy fine. Within the 
 forest bounds, no bows were to be carried 
 without a licence, no dogs were to be kept but 
 mastiffs, and those to be " lawed." by cutting 
 off the claws of each forefoot. In Henry 
 II.'s Forest Assize the third offence is capital ; 
 and even Edward L allows a trespasser who 
 should Tesist the hue and cry to be lawfully 
 slain, and requires a solemn inquest and ver- 
 dict to be taken upon the body of a-, dead stag. 
 The same jealous watch was exercised over 
 " vert " as oyer " venison." The forest courts 
 and officers, under the hand ®f Henry IL, be- 
 came an exact analogy of the shire system, to 
 which they stood as it were as rivals. The 
 Court of lleguard was indeed held only every 
 three years, for the "lawing" of dogs, agist- 
 ment of cattle, &c. But the wood-mote, or 
 Court of Attachment, met every forty days^ 
 and therein the foresters made their present- 
 ments to the verderers, a jury of inhabitants. 
 Presentments reaffirmed went before the swain- 
 moot, which met thrice a year ; while final 
 judgment was given at the Justice Seat, or 
 occasional visits of itinerant forest justices. 
 This last office was abolished in 57 George 
 III., the criminal law of the forest having 
 already been almost wholly repealed in 7 
 George III. Nothing stood more in the way 
 
 of that alliance between the king and the 
 English people against the Norman baronage 
 — ^that aUiance on which hung, for. more than 
 a century and a half, the very existence of 
 the throne — than this tyrannous forest system. 
 Even in his great need, in the very charter 
 by which he purchased his accession, Henry I. 
 insists on retaining his father's forests; and 
 Stephen, too, who gave up everything, could 
 not bring himself to keep his promise of giving 
 up the forests which Henry I. had added. 
 Henry II. developed them into an organisation 
 under a master forester and sixteen forest jus- 
 ticiaries. John was forced into an engagement 
 to give up those added by himself, and " to 
 consider the extensions made by his father and 
 brother; " but we find one of the grievances 
 at the Parliament of Oxford, in 1258, is that 
 neither this,, nor the engagement made in 
 1217 by Henry III.'s ministers, in his name, 
 had been, carried out. It was not until the 
 last year of the century that the often-pro- 
 mised " perambulation " was made, and the 
 forest bounds reduced, by a strict inquiry be- 
 tween the royal officers and the local repre- 
 sentatives- It was characteristic of the short- 
 sightedness of the Stuart kings, that they 
 uevived this old. source of discontent. Traces 
 are to be found under James I. of attempts to 
 restore the old claims in. their fulness, and at 
 last Noy's buUying, chicanery won a suicidal 
 victory in, the decisions of 1 633 — 37, which 
 inquired into all' alterations made since John 
 and Henry II.,. and undid much of the • 
 "Perambulation" of 1300.. 
 
 The forest policy of the earlier kings is not 
 to be explained by a royal infatuation for the 
 pleasures of the chase. The forests, in fact, 
 offered to the king, (1) a revenue, (2), an armed 
 force, (3) a jurisdiction altogether outside the 
 ever-narrowing circle of his constitutional 
 position. Thus (1) the crown derived con- 
 siderable profits from such rights as the 
 "pannage "'of swine and the agistment of 
 cattle within these vast domains ; the chimi- 
 nagium, or tax on carts which came to take 
 fuel, charcoal,, or bark; the "pleas" of the 
 forest courts, and the fines on offenders. 
 But too. often the forests were treated as 
 an inexhaustible treasury, wherefrom to 
 make grants to courtiers. Again (2), the 
 host of stewards, foresters, reguardors, agis- 
 tors, woodreeves, and bailiffs were a rude 
 substitute for a standing army and a royal 
 police. (3) The code of forest law too, 
 stood out in relief from the common law ; 
 what was "not justice in itself, was justice 
 according to the forest law," and these courts 
 could enforce an attendance even from the 
 great lord who claimed a franchise superior 
 to hundred and shire moot, even from the 
 clergy, who could in other cases appeal to 
 their ordinary. They were, indeed, as Henry 
 II.'s Treasurer calls them, "the shrine and 
 bower of kingship," a royal counterpoise at 
 once to the baronial " liberty " and the popular 
 
Por 
 
 ( 469 ) 
 
 For 
 
 "shire-moot,"'an imperium in imperio. The 
 king claimed a supervision over the very- 
 parks and woodlands o£ his earls and barons, 
 bishops and abbots, whether within a forest's 
 bounds or not. "A subject," says Coke, "can- 
 not have more than a chase, unless by ex- 
 press grant, first, of the privilege of a royal 
 forest, and then of the jurisdiction belonging 
 thereto." 
 
 To a people feeling the ordinary courts 
 an irksome burden, the added duty of attend- 
 ance at the forest courts must have seemed 
 intolerable. And yet, till Magna Charta, this 
 was enforced, probably in more than half the 
 sh:i'es, on all alike, whether dwellers in forest 
 bounds or not. In the Forest Charter of 
 1217, concessions are made, which show how 
 well grounded the complaints were ; the 
 swain-moot is to b,e convened not more than 
 three times a year, and the Court of Attach- 
 ment every forty days ; the necessary ofiELcers 
 and parties alone are bound to attend. The 
 keepeis of royal castles are forbidden to hold 
 forest pleas ; the same rules henceforth are to 
 be binding on the barons' and prelates' con- 
 duct to their mesne vassals. 
 
 The forests reached their widest extent in 
 the reign of John. Not merely were there 
 such woods aa Delamere, Windsor, Whittle- 
 bury, Dean, the New Forest, Andred, Sher- 
 wood, Selwood, Arden, and such hill districts 
 as the Chiltems, the Peak, Exmoor, Dart- 
 moor, the Yorkshire Wolds ; but whole coun- 
 ties were reckoned as forests, and subject to 
 forest law, e.g., Devonshire, Cornwall, Essex, 
 Kutland, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, 
 Lancashire. Edward I.'s concessions then 
 " disforested" an immense proportion of lands 
 hitherto included, perhaps two-thirds of the 
 whole. But Henry VIII. added Hampton 
 Court, the royal rights stiU weighed on twenty 
 counties in the Tudor reigns, and the number 
 of royal forests was stUl reckoned at sixty- 
 eight in the eighteenth century. The Com- 
 monwealth Commission, which sat to carry out 
 the remedial Act of 1641, did not act on the 
 suggestion made for a complete sale of them ; 
 but the reductions it effected were not wholly 
 lost at the Eestoration. Most of the forest 
 laws, and many of the forest dues, became 
 obsolete. And it now became the turn of the 
 people to encroach upon the crown. When 
 investigation was made at the end of last 
 century, and early in this, it was found that 
 endless unlicensed enclosures had been effected; 
 iniquitous transfers made under colour of 
 sale ; timber was stolen, mines neglected, 
 plantations mismanaged ; ofBcials had trans- 
 formed themselves into owners; and there 
 were only twenty forests which could supply 
 timber for the navy. But under the pro- 
 vision of several Acts of George III., and the 
 Consolidating Act of 10 George IV., c. 50, a 
 better system of management was inaugurated 
 about 1809. Twelve of the twenty royalforests 
 then remaining were re-inclosed and re-planted, 
 
 and a commission appointed in 1838 gradu- 
 ally simplified their organisation, and im- 
 proved their yield, tiU, in 1880, the eight 
 royal forests which still remained yielded an 
 average profit of £8,000 a year, as against an 
 actual loss in 1846 — 7 — 8, due to former mis- 
 management. Some have been sold, as Sher- 
 wood to the Duke of Grafton, and some opened 
 out to agriculture, as large parts of Windsor. 
 The office of Woods and Forests was separated 
 from the department of Public Works in 1851. 
 This by no means represents the whole result 
 of their work, for much of the " old forest 
 domains are now classed as crown lands, and 
 on them the revenue has risen from £250,000, 
 in 1853, to £390,000, in 1881, a sum which 
 more than covers the whole Civil List." It is 
 singular that in this way those royal demesne 
 lands, of which the forests once formed the 
 main part, after straining the relations between 
 crown and people for centuries, and assisting 
 unduly to magnify the prerogative, while 
 they soon failed to add to its real strength, or 
 materially to aid the Exchequer, have at last 
 been made to cover the whole cost of the 
 monarchical establishment. 
 
 Ths Hundred Rolls (passim) ; Domesday Boole ; 
 Coke, Institutes^ iv. 320 — 1 ; Manwood, ForestLaws 
 (1695) ; Fifth Report ■of Deputy Keej er of Public 
 Records; Records of Commissioners of Woods and 
 Forests, 1787—1883, especially those for 1850 and 
 1881 ; Calendars of State Papers (Domestic) under 
 James I. and Charles J., especially Introduction 
 to Calendar for 1634 — 5 ; Green, Making of Eng- 
 land; Pearson, Historical Maps of England; 
 Stubbs, Select Charters; Stanford, Historical 
 Map of England and Wales. [A. L. S.l 
 
 Forfeiture of Lands. (I)ForTseason. 
 The earliest law of treason, that of Alfred, 
 enacted that if a man plotted against the 
 king's Ufe, he should be "liable in his life 
 and in all that he has ; " and in the first 
 detailed discussion of the subject, that of 
 Bracton (temp. Henry III.), forfeiture is set 
 down as one of the penalties. From this 
 period the law was unchanging until 1870. 
 The traitor forfeited to the crown for ever all 
 his freehold lands, whether entailed or not, all 
 rights to freehold lands which he then had or 
 might afterwards acquire, and all interests in 
 land for life or other term of years. Sentence of 
 forfeiture was retro-active as far as the date 
 of the act of treason ; it therefore annulled all 
 deeds of conveyance, &c., which might have 
 been made since, but did not affect a wife's 
 jointure which had been settled on her pre- 
 viously. Dower, on the other hand, was for- 
 feited by 5 and 6 Edward VI. As forfeiture 
 was a consequence of attainder, if the rebel 
 was killed on the field, executed by martial 
 law, or died before judgment was pronounced, 
 his lands were not forfeited. In Scotland 
 conviction for treason did not bring with it 
 forfeiture of entailed lands. At the Union it 
 was thought necessary to make the law 
 uniform in England and Scotland, but as this 
 met with much opposition from the Scots it 
 was enacted (7 Aine) that though for the 
 
For 
 
 (•470) 
 
 For 
 
 present forfeiture should follow treason in 
 Scotland as in England, it should cease in 
 both countries upon the death of the then 
 Pretender. After a second Act immediately 
 before the rebellion of '45 had secured the 
 continuance of the penalty, the whole clause 
 relating to the ultimate cessation of forfeiture 
 was abolished by 39 George III. (2) Fok 
 Murder. The criminal forfeited to the crown 
 only the profits of his entailed estates, and the 
 possession for a year and a day with right of 
 "waste" of lands in fee simple. After this 
 the lands were escheated to the lord. Pos- 
 session by the crown for a year and a day 
 originally followed all eonvictions for felony, 
 though it became customary to pay a compo- 
 sition to prevent the use of the right of entry. 
 By 54 George III. fcrfeiture for a year and 
 a day was abolisbed for all felonies except 
 treason and murder, and finally the Felony 
 Act of 1870 abolished attainder and its con- 
 sequent forfeiture altogether. Forfeiture of" 
 goods and chattels followed conviction for 
 any felony, and did not need, as im the case of 
 lands, to be preceded by attainder. This' 
 also was abolished in 1870. [W. J. A.} 
 
 Formau, Andrew {d. 1522). A Scottish 
 ecclesiastic and sta/tesman of the early part of 
 the sixteenth century. He became Bishop of 
 Moray, was ambassador to ratify the- alliance 
 of Scotland and England at the accession of 
 Henry VIII., but soon after attached himself 
 to France, was made Archbishop of Bourges,. 
 and persuaded James IV. ta begin the war of 
 1513 against England. In 1515 he was 
 made Archbishop of St. Andrews at the re- 
 quest of Albany. In 1517 he became one of 
 the Council of Kegency in Albany's absence. 
 Forman was able, versatile, and magniiicent. 
 He has been compared to Wolsey, but Lis 
 want of fixed principle or policy make the 
 comparison very unjust to the latter. 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Fomham St. Genevieve, The Battle 
 
 OF (1173), was* ©ne of the victories won by 
 Henry II. over the rebellious barons who 
 allied themselves with the French king. Here 
 Robert de Beaumont and his Flemish mer- 
 cenaries were totally defeated by the Justiciar, 
 Richard de Lucy. ForiAann is two miles 
 from Bury St. Edmunds. 
 
 Forrest, Dr., was an Oliservant Friar and 
 confessor to> Catherine of Aragonj a strong op- 
 ponent of her divorce and of the royal supre- 
 macy, and executed in 1538, being hung in 
 chains over a slow fire so that his "treason" 
 and heresy were both to receive their legal 
 punishment. 
 
 Forster, The Right Hon.W. E. {b. 1818), 
 was educated at the Friends' School, Totten- 
 ham. In 1861 he was returned to Parliament 
 in the Liberal interest for Bradford, and in 
 Lord Russell's administration he was Under- 
 Secretary for the Colonies. As Vice- President 
 
 of the Committee of Council on Education he 
 passed the Education Bill (1870) through the 
 House of Commons. In 1880 he was ap- 
 pointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, but re- 
 signed in 1882. 
 
 Fort Duauesne was the most celebrated 
 of the ring otforts built by the French about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century to con- 
 nect Louisiana with Canada. It was situated 
 in the upper valley of the Ohio. Against it, 
 in 1756, General Braddock led his ill-fated 
 expedition; but shortly after, the English 
 conquered the fort and renamed it Pittsburg, 
 in honour of the great War Minister. It is 
 now, under its new name, the great seat of 
 the American iron and coal trades. 
 Bancroft, Hist, o/ America. 
 
 Fort Erie, ©n Lake , Ontario, was be- 
 sieged and taken by the British troops, under 
 Sir George Drummond, after the battle of 
 Lundy's Lane, in 1814. 
 
 Fort George, on Lake Ontario, near 
 Niagara, was the scene of frecjuent skirmishes 
 during the American War of 1812 — 15. In 
 1813 it was taken by the Americans from 
 General Vincent, and was again invested by 
 General Brown in the following year. 
 
 Fort St. George was the old name for 
 Madras(q.v.). 
 
 Fort Teviot, five miles south of Perth, 
 was the capital of the old Pictish kingdom. 
 
 Fort William, close to Inverlochy in 
 South Inverness-shire, commands the sea entry 
 to the Highlands, and was built in 1691 by 
 General Mackay. It was successfully at- 
 tacked by the Jlacobite? in 1715 and 1745. 
 
 Fort William, was- the original English 
 settlement of Calcutta (q.v.) founded in 1698. 
 
 Fortescne, Spr John [d. after 1476), 
 was descended from an old Devonshire family, 
 and in 1442 was made Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench. He was a strong partisan of 
 the Lancastrian cause, and in the first Par- 
 liament of Edward IV. was attainted of high 
 treason. He fled to Scotland, and aft-erwards 
 to France,, where he became the tutor of the 
 young Prince Edward, for whose instruction 
 he wrote his famous work, De Laud.ibus 
 Legmn .AmgluB. He was present at the battle 
 of Tewkesbury, and in 1473 obtained a re- 
 versal of his- attainder by retracting what he 
 had written against Edward IV. 's title to the 
 crown. The date of his death is uncertain. 
 His book is of much interest, from its picture 
 of a constitutional ideal that had almost been 
 realised in the preceding generation. 
 Stubbs,. Const. Hist. ; Foss, Judges. 
 
 Fortescne, Sir John, succeeded Sir 
 Walter Mildmay as Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer in 1589, having won the regard of 
 Elizabeth whilst assisting her in the study of 
 Latin and Greek. He was distinguished for 
 moderation and integrity. 
 
Por 
 
 (471 ) 
 
 Pou 
 
 Forties, The,' was a name given to the 
 Irish forty-shilling freeholders in the early 
 part of the present century. The Irish election 
 law had never been altered, and in old days, 
 when the landowners could depend on their 
 tenantry, it had heen a favourite practice 
 with them to increase them, in order to have 
 more voters under their control. In 1826, 
 however, in two cases they followed the 
 priests and O'Connell, and threw eut 
 two landlords' candidates. In 1828 they re- 
 turned O'Connell for Clare. In 1829 the 
 Emancipation BUI was accompanied fey a 
 measure raising the franchise to £10, and 
 thus sweeping them away. O'Connell was 
 much blamed for not raising his voice on 
 their behalf, but he was probably afraid to 
 endanger Emancipation. 
 
 Fortrenn was a province of Celtic 
 Scotland, comprising the districts of Menteith 
 and Stratherne, and extending from the Forth 
 to the Tay. After the re-establishment of the 
 Pictish power by the victory of H^ectansmere, 
 the name Fortrenn began to he used as 
 synonymous with the kingdom of the Picts. 
 
 Foss Way was a Eoman road, probably 
 running from Ilchester to Lincola, crossed 
 by the Ermine Street. Another road in 
 Dorsetshire had the same name.. [Roman 
 
 EOADS.] 
 
 Guest, The Four Roman Ways {.Origines 
 Celtica, vol. u.)^ 
 Foster, Sir John, was sent in 1565, in 
 conjunction with the Earl of Bedford, 
 on a mission to Mary Queen of Scots, on 
 behalf of the Earl of Murray. In the 
 rebellion of the northern earls, 1569, he did 
 good service on the royal side, and in the 
 following year harried Teviotdale. In 1572 
 he was charged, as Warden of the Middle 
 Marches, with the duty of superintending 
 the execution of Thomas, Earl of Northum- 
 berland. In 1585 he was taken, prisoner by 
 Ker of FemiehuTst, the Warden of the Scotch 
 Marches, near Kiccarton. 
 
 Fosterage, The Custom of. The Irish 
 in mediaeval times were remarkable for 
 their affection for their foster-children, aaid 
 Giraldus Cambrensis goes so far as to say 
 " That the Irish loved their foster-children, 
 and were cruel tO' their own relations." 
 Fosterage was one of the chief means by 
 which they influenced their eonquerors, 
 and the Statute of Kilkenny in 1367, 
 and several other statutes, were passed to 
 prevent this form of degeneracy. Sir J. 
 Davis says of it, "Yet in Ireland, where 
 they put away all their children to fosterage, 
 the potent and rich men selling, the meaner 
 sort buying, the nursing of children, and the 
 reason is because, in the opinion of this 
 people, fosterage hath always been a stronger 
 alliance than blood, and the foster-children 
 do love and are beloved of their foster-fathers 
 ana sept more than of their own natural 
 
 parents and kindred, and do participate their 
 means more frankly, and do adhere to them 
 with more affection and constancy." The 
 Statute of Kilkenny, already alluded to, 
 had made fosterage with the Irish high 
 treason, but the custom continued till Crom- 
 well's time. 
 
 Oirald-is Cambrensis, Expug. Sih. ; Davis, 
 Discovery; Moore, Hist, of Ireland; O'Curry, 
 Ma/nnera and Custom* of the Ancient Jrish. 
 
 Fotheriugay Castle, in Northampton- 
 shire, was founded after the Norman Conquest 
 by Simon de Liz, and subsequently rebuilt by 
 Edmund Langley, Duke of York. In 1462 it 
 was the scene oi the birth] «f Richard III. ; 
 after the discovery of Babington's plot, 
 Mary Queen of Scots was confined, tried, 
 and executed, in Fotheringay Castle. It was 
 entirely demolished by order of James I. 
 when he ascended the liirone. 
 
 Fougeres, The Capture or (1449), was 
 made by a body of English troops with the con- 
 nivance of the Dnkes of Somerset and Suffolk 
 in flagrant violation of the truce which had 
 been made between England and France. 
 Fougeres, which is situated in Britanny, close 
 to the frontiers of Normandy and Maine, was 
 at this time a place of great wealth, and by 
 its capture the English, obtained enormous 
 booty, but the glaring breach el faith threw 
 the Duke of Britanny into the arms of France, 
 and hastened the expulsion of the EngKsh 
 from Normandy, which was completed in the 
 next year. 
 
 J. €rairdner, Introductioir to Paston Letters. 
 
 Foundling' Hospital, The (Dublin), 
 had large private funds amounting to £16,000 
 a year; about 120 noblemen and gentlemen 
 were on its committee. Yet when De Blac- 
 quiere, in 1789, moved for a committee of 
 inquiry, a motion which Grattan. (q.v.) re- 
 sisted unsuccessfully^ ^^ most terrible mis- 
 management was exposed. It was discovered 
 that out of 2,180 children sent to the institu- 
 tion in. one year, 2,087 had disappeared, and 
 that each child cost the public £120. The 
 committee also had never had a quorum, 
 twenty-one membera>,except whena place was 
 to be given away. 
 
 Four Masters, The Chronicle of the, 
 was the name given to a chronicle written by 
 Michael and Cucoirighe O'Clerighe, Maurice 
 and Fearfeafa Conry, who compiled in Irish, 
 from original documents,, the annals of Ireland 
 from 2242 B.C. to a.d. 1616. The writers are 
 supposed to have lived in the first half of the 
 seventeenth century. This chronicle contains 
 in its fullest form the fabulous and legendary 
 history of Ireland. 
 
 The ChronicU of the Four Masters, printed 
 
 in O'Conor, Rerum Sihemicarum Scriptor^s, vol. 
 
 iii., has been translated by J. O'Donovan, 
 
 1848. 
 
 Fonrmigni, The Battle of (1450), was 
 one of thfl last battles, of the Hundred Years' 
 
Fox 
 
 (472) 
 
 Tax 
 
 War, aad was fought between a body of 
 English troops who had been sent into France 
 under Sir T. Kyriel to reinforce the Duke of 
 Somerset, and the Erenoh under Eichemont. 
 The English were defeated with great slaugh- 
 ter; between three and four thousand were 
 left dead on the field, and Kyriel was taken 
 prisoner. This defeat decided the fate of 
 Normandy, which wa« reconquered by the 
 French in the course of the same year. 
 
 Fox, Charles James (5. 1749, d. 1806), 
 was the second son of Henry Fox, afterwards 
 Lord Holland. Educated at Eton and Oxford, 
 he afterwards travelled on the Continent, and 
 while still in Italy, he was returned M.P. for 
 Midhurst, as a supporter of Lord North. 
 His success was immediate, and was the more 
 readily assured since he took the side of the 
 majority. His brilliant and reckless support 
 was rewarded by his appointment in Feb., 
 1770, as a junior Lord of th« Admiralty. 
 This position he retained for two years, and 
 then, after attacking Lord North with much 
 warmth on .the Church Nullum Tempus Bill, 
 in Feb., 1772, he resigned, and thus felt him- 
 self at liberty to oppose the Royal Marriage 
 Act. He was again taken into the ministry 
 as a Lord of the Treasury ; T)ut his fiery 
 spirit was too independent to allow him to 
 remain long in any subordinate ^ost. He in- 
 stituted a mutiny in the government ranks, 
 which resulted in Lord North's defeat. 
 Henceforth, his great social influence and 
 greater debating jiowers were enlisted on the 
 Whig side. He openly opposed Lord North's 
 ministry, especially in regard to their Ameri- 
 can policy, and at once became a recognised 
 leader of the Whigs, and a close friend of 
 Burke, whose views he now began to share. 
 In 1779 he made a most violent attack upon 
 Lord Sandwich, the First Lord of the Ad- 
 miralty, and moved that he might be excluded 
 from the king's councils. He 'had now come 
 to be the acknowledged leader of the Opposi- 
 tion in the House of Commons; and was 
 selected by the Radical electors of West- 
 minster as their champion along with Admiral 
 Rodney. He still continued to attack the 
 ministry with the fiercest invectives, and 
 even threatened Lord North with impeach- 
 ment. In 1782 Lord Rockingham formed a 
 cabinet, in which Fox was one of the Secre- 
 taries of State. With Lord Rockingham's 
 death in July, Fox's share in the government 
 came to an end. He distrusted Shelbume, and 
 would not serve under him. Before a year 
 was passed, Shelbume, unable to withstand 
 the strictures with which Fox greeted his 
 peace proposals, resigned ; and Fox became the 
 colleague of Lord North, as Secretary of State, 
 under the nominal lead of the Duke of Port- 
 land. An alliance so unnatural could not last 
 long,andthe governmentwasdefeated onFox's 
 India Bill, chiefly through the king's influence. 
 After the dismissal of the Coalition ministry, 
 
 Pitt came in with a minority to back him ; but 
 Fox did much to ruin the cause of his party by 
 the factious and violent opposition which he 
 ofiered to all Pitt's measures. Pitt soon be- 
 came firmly established in his position ; but 
 Fox continued to harass him with attacks at 
 every ,point. He opposed his India Bill, and 
 tried to.make capital out of Pitt's measures for 
 the rehef of Ireland. In 1786 he obtained a 
 splendid opportunity of displaying his elo- 
 quence and abilities in the prosecution of 
 Warren Hastings ; but in this great trial he 
 seems to have been eclipsed by his illustrious 
 companions. Two years later he warmly 
 espoused the unconstitutional position desired 
 by the Prince of Wales on the question of 
 the Regency BOl, but he was baffled by the 
 patient resolution of Pitt. In 1789 came the 
 news of the destruction of the BastUle. Fox 
 at once hailed with delight what he deemed 
 the uprising of an oppressed people. In 1791 
 he passed the celebrated Libel Bill. With 
 greatly diminished following. Fox stiU con- 
 tinued to watch with sympathy and en- 
 thusiasm the course of the Revolution in 
 France, and furiously opposed the notion of 
 war with that country. In 1795 he employed 
 his most vehement eloquence in opposing in 
 vain the Sedition and Treason Bills. Seeing 
 thai he could effect nothing. Pox retired in 
 1797 into domestic privacy at St. Anne's Hill. 
 In 1804, on the resignation of Addington, Pitt, 
 well aware of his difficulties, was very anxious 
 to form a cabinet on a broad basis, where 
 faction might be sunk in patriotism. With 
 this object in view he desired the co-operation 
 of Fox ; but the king would not hear of it. 
 On Jan. 26, 1806, Pitt died, and the king 
 at length overcame his prejudices and had 
 recourse to the Opposition, out of which 
 a ministry was formed with Lord Gren- 
 iviUe as Prime Minister, and Fox as Foreign 
 Secretary. Fox now abandoned his pas- 
 sionate longing for peace with France before 
 the necessity of saving Europe ; and in his 
 efforts to achieve this object, he was as 
 resolute as Pitt. But Napoleon took ad- 
 vantage of his still strong desire for peace to 
 carry out his own schemes for the conquest of 
 Europe; and the fatal indecision of the 
 ministry left Prussia unaided to oppose Napo- 
 leon's combinations, and to be 'defeated at 
 Jena. Death, however, came to Fox just iii 
 time to save him from witnessing the over- 
 throw of his most cherished hopes. While 
 negotiations were still pending between 
 England, France, and Russia, Fox died Sept. 
 13, 1806. To a real passion for liberty, very 
 unusual with eighteenth century Whigs, Fox 
 added honesty, manliness, and consummate 
 eloquence. His sweet disposition effaced the 
 memory of_ his private irregularities; his 
 general straightforwardness atoned for occa- 
 sional factiousness. 
 
 Lord Euasell, Life of Poaj ; Trevelyan, Eai-lii 
 lAfe of Fox; Stanhope, Pitt; W alpole, Mem. of 
 
Fox 
 
 ( 473 ) 
 
 Pra 
 
 George III/s 
 George III. ; 
 Bist. ofJEng. 
 
 H&m. of Reign of 
 Hiat. ofEng.; Adolpllus, 
 [W. R. S.] 
 
 Pox, EioHAKD {d. 1528), Bishop of "Win- 
 chester, was horn at Grantham, and, by the 
 favour of Cardinal Morton, made Bishop of 
 Exeter, Durham, and Winchester, in succes- 
 sion. He was a prominent minister and diplo- 
 matist under hoth Henry VII. and his son, 
 until thrown into the shade by Wolsey. He 
 was also zealous for the "New Learning," 
 and founder of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 
 and several schools. 
 
 Pox, Sir Stephen (i. 1627, d. 1716), was 
 of humble stock, and began life as a choir 
 boy at Salisbury. Thence hp became a 
 member of Lord Percy's household, and took 
 some share on the Cavalier side in the Great 
 Rebellion. Clarendon persuaded Charles II. 
 when in exile to make Fox his business 
 manager — an office he filled with great dis- 
 creetness. He made the scanty finances of the 
 exile adequate to support him. After the 
 Restoration his promotion was rapid. He was 
 made Paymaster, Master of the Horse, and 
 Lord of the Treasury, sitting in the House as 
 member for Salisbury. He became very rich. 
 Despite his gratitude to the Stuarts, his name 
 appeared on every commission of William 
 III.'s Treasury. He took a large part in the 
 foundation of Chelsea Hospital. Of his two 
 sons, Stephen became Lord Hchester, and 
 Henry became Lord Holland and father of 
 C. J. Fox. 
 
 Trevelyan, Early Life of C. J. Fox. 
 
 Foxe, John {b. 1617, d. 1687), the mar- 
 tyrologist, was compelled to quit England 
 during the Marian persecution, but on the 
 accession of Elizabeth returned, and was 
 made a canon of SaHsbury. A friend of 
 many of the most noted men of the age, Foxe 
 would have obtained the highest dignities of 
 the Church had he renounced his Calvinistic 
 views. His Acts and Monuments, commonly 
 known as the Book of Martyrs (first published 
 in 1663) is a vast but prejudiced and un- 
 critical compilation of the annals of martyr- 
 dom, which, though containing much useful 
 matter, is too unsafe a guide for the. historian 
 to foUow, unless substantiated from other 
 sources. 
 
 France, Relations with. Long before 
 France, in the modem sense, was constituted, 
 England had frequent dealings with the 
 territory now known by that name. The old 
 English monarchs were often in close relations 
 with the CaroKngian Emperors. [Empike, 
 Relations with.] French history strictly 
 begins in 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of 
 the French, assumed the crown of the Caro- 
 lings, and, like Harold, founded a monarchy, 
 national in idea but feudal in reality. The 
 •abandonment of the Carolingian kings by the 
 
 ^forman dukes was among the chief causes 
 of Hugh Capet's success; but there was a 
 natural enmity between the weak suzerain 
 and the mighty vassal that transferred itself 
 to England when William of Normandy be- 
 came English king. French ideas, manners, 
 miUtary system, architecture even, had 
 already come into England with Edward the 
 Confessor. After the Conquest the governing- 
 classes were practically Frenchmen. But the 
 political relations with the French monarchy, 
 which it is our main business to trace here, 
 were necessarilj' determined by William's 
 hostility to the Parisian king. The subse- 
 quent national hostility between France and 
 England sprang much more largely from the 
 uneasy relations of the early Capetians to 
 their over-powerful vassals than from English 
 dislike to what was French. William I. 
 fought against Philip I. for the possession of 
 the Vexin, and met his death during the 
 campaign. In 1094, Philip helped in vain 
 Duke Robert against WiUiam II., and again, 
 in 1097, fought with the English king about 
 the Vexin. Louis VI. was a more redoubt- 
 able antagonist than the weak Philip. But 
 the reunion of England and Normandy after 
 1106 made Louis' efforts to weaken Henry 
 fruitless, and the Tireaty of Gisors (1113) 
 ended the war for a time. But in two or 
 three years the war was renewed, until the 
 English victory at BrenneviUe (1119), and the 
 mediation of Calixtus II., produced another 
 peace. The subsequent efiorts of Louis were 
 of little importance. The reign of Stephen 
 suspended foreign relations ; but Henry II., 
 from the verj' fact that he ruled more of 
 France than the French king himself, was 
 the more likely to be his unwilling vassal. 
 In 1159 Henry was involved in the War of 
 Toulouse, but in refusing to wage open war 
 with his lord, Louis VII., showed a scruple 
 that was not experienced by Louis, who never 
 lost an opportunity of attacking Henry — 
 e.g., in 1167 — 8, during the Becket quarrel; 
 in 1173 — 4, when Louis helped the younger 
 Henry to revolt against his father, and set 
 on foot a powerful but unsuccessful coalition 
 against the Angevin. Later in the reign, when 
 Louis stirred up Richard and John against 
 their father, the relations of England and 
 France for the first time assumed that 
 aspect of lasting hostility that influenced all 
 subsequent history. The temporary suspen- 
 sion of enmity for crusading purposes — the 
 joint Crusade of Richard I. and Philip 
 Augustus [Crusades] — led only to a quarrel 
 in Palestine, and Philip's premature return 
 to arrange attacks on Normandy. John, 
 Philip's old ally, became his enemy on his 
 accession to the throne. Philip's conquest 
 of Normandy in 1204:, his alliance with 
 Innocent III. against the excommunicated 
 English king, the crowning victory of Bou- 
 vines (July 27, 1214) over every branch 
 of the German race, sufficiently indicate the 
 
Fra 
 
 { 474 ) 
 
 Fra 
 
 relations of England and France under John. 
 But so little national opposition "was there as 
 yet that the revolted harons, enraged at 
 John's repudiation of the Great Charter, 
 invited Philip's son Louis to avenge their 
 wrongs, and occupy their throne. Nothing 
 but John's opportune death and the wisdom 
 of Pembroke could have saved England from 
 at least a temporary union with France. 
 
 Though the results were not at first ap- 
 parent, the separation of England and Nor- 
 mandy had revolutionised the relations of 
 England and France. The countries hence- 
 forth pursued a separate course. The feudal 
 hostility became national. England became 
 conscious of national identity. Though 
 French still in manners and speech, the barons 
 of England were no longer French in 
 feeling. Strengthened by the annexations of 
 Philip Augustus, the French monarchy was 
 now a suificient basis for the development 
 of French national sentiment. One thing 
 alone retarded this change of relation — the 
 retention of Guienne by Henry III. and his 
 successor. In consequence of this there was 
 still a feudal element in the relations of Eng- 
 land and France. Besides being English 
 monarchs, Henry III. and even Edward I. 
 were also feudal potentates in the separatist 
 south. In both aspects they were equally 
 hostile to the Parisian monarchs. 
 
 Under Henry III. — in whose reign a new 
 importation of French manners, and the great 
 absorption of French words in the English 
 tongue occurred — the struggle for Poitou, lost 
 in about 1229 by the English and in vain 
 attacked in 1242, was counterbalanced by the 
 conscientious moderation of Louis IX., which 
 led to his selection as mediator between Henry 
 and the barons in 1264. But the Mise of 
 Amiens disgusted the national party, and led 
 the way to the struggle of Edward I. and 
 Philip the Fair ; while the rival claims of 
 English and Angevin claimants to the Sicilian 
 throne had added previously a new element 
 of diiference. Tet, in 1286, Edward mediated 
 between France and Aragon, though his 
 award was repudiated. In 1294 a great war 
 began, during which Edward for a time lost 
 Gascony, and in which Scotland, then 
 struggling against Edward for national in- 
 dependence, first became the hereditary ally 
 of France. In 1297 the war ended, and in 
 1299 Boniface VIII.'s mad action led to 
 the definite Treaty of Chartres. Edward II., 
 though married to the sister of Charles IV. , 
 fell into difliculties with that monarch in 
 1324; the revolution of 1327, however, put 
 these into the background. 
 
 In 1328 the old line of French Mnga died 
 out, and the accession of Philip of Valois 
 was contested by Edward III. as the son of 
 Isabella. In 1337 French help to Scotland 
 led Edward to prosecute his claim by arms. 
 So began the Hundred Tears' War between 
 France and England. After a period of 
 
 brilliant victories, Edward III. forced on the 
 French the Treaty of Bretigny (1360), but 
 Charles V. profiting by Edward's dotage, and 
 the minority of Richardll., reconquered all he 
 had won save Calais. The marriage of Richard 
 II. with Isabella of France, in 1397, coincid- 
 ing with that monarch's arbitrary stroke for 
 absolutism, marks a curious approximation 
 between the two countries, during the pause 
 between the acts of the great struggle. It led 
 to that friendship of the Armag-nacs for the 
 deposed Eichard which was, perhaps, the 
 beginning of that Angio-Burgundian alliance, 
 that alone made possible the brilliant suc- 
 cesses of Henry V. Under him the second 
 heroic period of the Hundred Years' War was 
 fought, and the Treaty of Troyes (1420) made 
 Henry son-in-law and successor of the French 
 monarch. Edward III. had the assistance of 
 the feudal south, but Henry V. was the ally of 
 the monarchical north of France, a different 
 native faction contributing to each king's 
 success. Thereafter the minority of Henry VI. 
 and the national enthusiasm engendered by 
 the Maid of Orleans, led to the loss not of 
 Paris only or of Normandy, but of the ancient 
 possession of Guienne. The death of Talbot, 
 in 1453, ended the Hundred Years' War and 
 the hopes of English domination in France. 
 Calais, Edward III.'s great prize, alone re- 
 mained of all the conquests. 
 
 The question of peace or war with France 
 was now one of the chief points of dispute 
 between the court and constitutional parties. 
 The unpopularity of Suffolk, and the popu- 
 larity of York, were largely the result of their 
 adopting a statesmanlike and popular view 
 respectively. But the alliance, first of the 
 Lancastrians, then of Warwick, with France, 
 forced Edward IV., however unwillingly, to 
 the Burgundian alliance ; and though Charles 
 the Bold's abandonment of his cause led to 
 the Treaty of Pecquigny (1476) and friendship 
 with Louis XL, yet before Edward's death 
 that monarch had repudiated the English 
 alliance. In vain Eichard III. sought the 
 friendship of France. Charles VIIL, no less 
 than Francis of Britanny, helped Henry of 
 Richmond to the throne ; though Henry 
 VII.'s constant Spanish policy, the war of 
 the Breton succession, and the French support 
 of Warbeck, despite the Treaty of Etaples 
 (1492), show that the normal hostility of 
 England and France still continued. ' 
 
 With Henry VIIL a new era in foreign 
 relations began. Instead of the long-standing 
 traditional policy of the Middle Ages, the 
 policy of interests begins with the establish- 
 ment of the political system of Europe, the 
 doctrine of the balance of power, and the 
 growth of modern diplomacy. In the early 
 part of his reign, Henry was eager to win 
 new Crecys and Agincourta at the expense of 
 the traditional enemy. But besides this, a 
 new motive — the desire of adjusting the 
 balance in Italy — led Henry to join the War 
 
Fra 
 
 ( 475 ) 
 
 Fra 
 
 of tlie Holy League against France (ISU — 
 1514). For a few years old and new motives 
 coincided to keep Henry true to his traditional 
 hostility, and the first war of Francis I. and 
 Charles V. (1521 — 1529) saw Henry again the 
 enemy of France. But the negotiations of 
 1520 clearly show that Henry's mnin motive 
 had reference to the political exigencies of the 
 moment, rather than to any traditional theory 
 of policy. The withdrawal of England from 
 the war, after the hattle of Pavia (1525), the 
 moment that Charles had an overwhelming 
 advantage, illustrates Henry's regard for the 
 balance of power. The alliance with France in 
 1526, the long and wearisome negotiations to 
 enlist France on the side of Henry's divorce, 
 equally indicate the new state of things. 
 Francis played Henry false, and deserved the 
 English attack in 1543, which, successful 
 during Henry's life, led to disastrous failure 
 during the weak rule of Somerset. Northum- 
 berland was the friend of France ; hut the 
 accession of Mary, with the consequent 
 Spanish alliance, was the cause of a, fresh 
 war between the two countries, during which 
 France gained Calais. The Treaty of Gateau 
 Cambresis (1559) ended the war, but the 
 accession of Francis II., the husband of Mary 
 of Scotland, and tool of the Guises, and' the 
 ambiguous compromise as to the restoration of 
 Calais, kept alive the enmity. 
 
 The Treaty of Cateau marked the beginning 
 of a new era. Political considerations were 
 subordinated to religious ones; and during 
 Elizabeth's reign, despite her personal feel- 
 ings, the Huguenots were the natural allies, 
 the Catholic League the natural foes, of 
 the English. The accession of Henry TV. 
 ended the active period of Catholic reaction, 
 and led, for the first time, to a hearty 
 national alliance of France and England 
 against Spain. For the next half century 
 religious hatred of Catholicism, and political 
 fear of the overweening Spanish monarchy, 
 continued to produce this approximation 
 between the old rivals. JSmes I.'s Spanish 
 policy was unpopular and unsuccessful. 
 In 1624 a French alliance was adopted, and 
 Oharles I.'s marriage with Louis Xtll.'s 
 sister, though it did not prevent the war of 
 1627, kept the two nations on fair terms 
 during the whole reign of that monarch. 
 Kichelieu's underhanded support of the Scots 
 rather strengthened than weakened this posi- 
 tion. The vacillating foreign policy of the first 
 Stuarts made it impossible for fixed relations, 
 eitherfriendly or hostile, to be established ; and 
 it was reserved for Cromwell to revive the 
 foreign policy of , Elizabeth, and, in league 
 with Mazarin, to humble effectually the pride 
 of Spain. But Elizabethan policy was now 
 obsolete. Cromwell's friendship with France 
 is largely responsible for the aggressions of 
 Louis XIV. Under Clarendon, who closely 
 followed Cromwell in foreign policy, the same 
 policy of French alliance became a source of that 
 
 minister's unpopularity. The Triple Alliance 
 (1667) of the Cabal was the beginning of the 
 policy of combined resistance to Louis XIV., of 
 which ultimately England was to be the centre. 
 But Catholic and despotic leanings, love of 
 bribes, and fear of decided action, kept Eng- 
 land's general influence on the side of France, 
 so long as Charles II. and James II. were on the 
 throne. Only under Danby, when the Orange 
 marriage and the decided action of 1677 were 
 efiected, did England in any vigorous way set 
 itself against French aggressions. The great 
 development of French influence on literature, 
 culture, manners, and fashions helped to 
 maintain this French friendship. But with the 
 Revolution of 1688, the prince who was at 
 the centre of the European opposition to the 
 universal monarchy of Louis XIV. became 
 King of England, and the addition of the whole 
 weight of England to the coalition, led to the 
 ultimate defeat of France. The war of 1688 
 — 1697 [Ryswick, Treaty of] prepared the 
 way for the War of the Spanish Succession 
 (1702—1713). The well-contested defeats 
 of William, and the crowning victories of 
 Marlborough, broke up the power of France, 
 even when the connection of the dethroned 
 Stuarts with France, and the doctrine of 
 laissez-faire in European politics, kept up a 
 French party in the country, which secured 
 the conclusion of the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). 
 This Tory alliance with France strangely 
 enough endured for twenty-five years of Whig 
 ministry. The Regent, Philip of Orleans, 
 and the ministers of George I., were, from 
 widely difierent reasons, equally anxious for 
 its maintenance. Philip drove away the Pre- 
 tender from-France, and, in 1717, the Triple 
 Alliance of England, Holland, and France 
 was efiected to maintain the Treaty of Utrecht 
 against the efEorts of the reviving monarchy 
 of Spain. The peace policy of Walpole and 
 Fleviry kept this state of things alive. It 
 was during this period of unity that the close 
 literary and philosophic intercourse between 
 France and England, which was to make the 
 doctrines of Locke and Newton the common 
 property of Europe, was effected. But the 
 revival of Spain was not very real. When 
 prosperity visited France anew, her ministers 
 were anxious to revive the schemes of Louis 
 XIV., and, besides regard for the political 
 balance of Europe, the rivalry of England 
 and France in America and India, the efforts 
 of both nations at colonial expansion, proved a 
 new and deep-seated source of hostility. Thus, 
 in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 
 — 1748), and still more in the Seven Years' 
 War (1756 — 1763), England and France were 
 again involved in war. The glories of Pitt's 
 great ministry led to the vast extension of 
 the Indian and colonial empire of England, 
 even though the di.'sire of George III. to 
 leave foreign politics alone, and devote him- 
 self to the restoration of the royal power, led 
 to the premature Peace of Paris (1763). For 
 
Fra 
 
 476 ) 
 
 Fra 
 
 the next few years there was peace, hut 
 little cordiality, hetween France and England. 
 At last peace was broken by the French, 
 who openly helped the revolted colonists 
 of America (1778). A fierce war was 
 now waged hetween that year and 1782, 
 terminated by the Peace of Versailles. 
 Daring the next few years Pitt kept on good 
 terms with a nation already on the verge of a 
 revolution ; although acts like his intervention 
 in Holland would, in more flery times, have 
 led France into war. But Pitt's famous com- 
 mercial treaty with France (1786), which 
 revived a trade between two countries fast 
 drifting into commercial as well as political 
 alienation, is the chief mark of his French 
 policy, and the " Anglomania " in France of 
 the period antecedent to the Revolution was 
 one effect of the increase of pacific relations. 
 
 At the 'outbreak of the Revolution France 
 and England were on better terms than since 
 the days of Walpole. That event, hailed by 
 all but a few as the beginning of 'a brighter 
 state of things in France, brought the nations 
 still nearer together in sympathy. But it 
 was soon seen that the course of the French 
 Revolution was very different to what had been 
 hoped for. Very early Burke sounded the alarm, 
 and the growing ascendency of the Jacobins 
 soon confirmed his prophecy. Henceforth, 
 sympathy with the Revolution was attended 
 with social ostracism, and remained only with 
 the few staunch Whigs who still followed 
 Fox as their leader, or with professed 
 Radicals and agitators. In 1793 the great 
 war of England against the Revolution 
 began, and continued with but two shght 
 breaks (the few months after the Treaty of 
 Amiens, and the few months of Napoleon's 
 captivity in Elba) until 1815. It became 
 in turns a war of reaotionairy propaganda 
 which would make no peace with a 
 " regicide " Directory, a hopeless struggle for 
 the balance of power in Europe against the 
 aggressions of Napoleon, and finally an heroic 
 defence of the English nation, and in a, sense 
 of the principle of nationahty generally, 
 against the lord of all Europe. In 1815 the 
 restoration of the Bourbons ended, so far as 
 was possible, the work of the Revolution, and 
 a common attachment to some at least of the 
 principles of the Holy Alliance united Tory 
 England with the men of the Restoration. 
 Since 1815 there has been no war between 
 France and England, and a slow but growing 
 cordiality has replaced the old tradition of 
 international hatred handed down from our 
 grandfathers. On several occasions relations 
 have become extremely strained. The Spanish 
 JMarriage project of Louis Philippe, the ques- 
 tion of the Lebanon, the ill-regulated ambi- 
 tion of Napoleon III., and more recently, 
 the Egyptian difficulties, have produced un- 
 pleasantnesses that at an earlier period would 
 doubtless have ended in war. But Napoleon 
 III. finally determined on the English alliauce. 
 
 and the common Crimean and Chinese Wars, 
 and still more, Cobden's famous commercial 
 treaty, developed more friendly feelings, 
 which it may be hoped are to become per- 
 manent. 
 
 In English, Dean Kitchen's History of France 
 gives tile best general account of French 
 history. The compendium of M. Th. Lavall6e, 
 and M. Henri Martin's fuller 3istoire de France, 
 are standard Prenck authorities. Pauli's Bng- 
 lische GescMahie brings well out the mediffival 
 relations of the two countries. Von Banke's 
 works are the fullest for the international 
 dealings of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
 turies, especially his Ristory of Fngland and 
 Franzosische Geschichte, [T. F. T.] 
 
 Franchise. [Election.] 
 
 Francis, John, shot at Queen Victoria 
 (May 30, 1852), for which he was condemned 
 to execution, but the sentence was commuted 
 to penal servitude for life. The absurdity of 
 indicting such a man as a traitor led to an 
 Act authorising the courts to deal with such 
 cases by imprisonment and whipping. 
 
 Francis, Sm Philip (J. 1740, d. 1818), 
 entered the Indian Civil Service, and was 
 sent, in 1774, to Bengal, as a member of the 
 new council appointed under the Act of 
 1773. He distinguished himseH by the 
 violence of his opposition to Warren Hast- 
 ings. Returning to England in 1781, he 
 entered Parliament in 1784, where he joined 
 the Opposition, and stimulated Hastings's 
 impeachment. Many, including Lord Mac- 
 aulay, have regarded him as the author of 
 the Letters of Junius. [Junius.] 
 
 Frank Almoign {Ulera eleemosyna, i.e. , 
 free alms), was the name of a peculiar species 
 of clerical tenure. The general condition of 
 grants of land in frank almoign was, that the 
 grantees should pray or say mass for the 
 grantor and his kin ; but no particular service 
 was specified. It was a "nobler" tenure 
 than the analogous tenure by divine service, 
 in which the service was fixed. Frank al- 
 moign was always an exceptional tenure, as 
 the great bulk of Church lands were held by 
 ordinary lay tenure, such as knight-service 
 and_socage. The Act of 12 Car. II. exempted 
 this tenure, from abolition. 
 
 Frank-pledge, Frithborh, or (in the 
 
 North) Tenmannetale, was an association 
 of ten men, under the borhs-ealdor,frith-borge- 
 head, or capital pledge, who were to be standing 
 securities for each other, bound to produce 
 any one of their number ii called upon by the 
 law to do so, and, if he is unable, liable to 
 pay for what he has done amiss unless they can 
 purge themselves from all complicity in the 
 matter. The associations were called tithings, 
 and every man was obliged to be a member of 
 one such body. The frank-pledge may be 
 regarded as a sort of artificial prolongation of 
 the family tie, or, as based on the principle of 
 the law of Athelstau, that every man should 
 have a security for him. This law of Athelstan's, 
 
Pre 
 
 ( *77 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 re-enacted with additions by Edgar and 
 Canute, resulted in the frank-pledge, which 
 we first find described in the so-called laws of 
 Edward the Confessor — and, therefore, to have 
 been not earlier than the Conquest. The View 
 of Frank-pledge was an important item of 
 business in the local courts, and ultimately 
 reverted to the court leet. In later views 
 the capital pledge and other representatives of 
 the tithing often had the duty of representing 
 their township in the shire moot. This 
 brought together the conceptions of township 
 and tithing, and in this, says Dr. Stubbs, was 
 the chief historical importance of the frank- 
 pledge. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., especially i,, § 41, with 
 tbe references there given ; Palgrave, English/ 
 Commonwealth; K. Maurer, Kritische Ueherschau. 
 
 Prederick, Prince op Wales (i. 1707, 
 d. 1751), was the son of George II. and 
 Caroline of Anspach. Before coming to 
 England, he quarrelled with his father be- 
 cause his intended marriage with Princess 
 Wilhelmina of Prussia was broken off. On 
 his arrival in England he joined the party 
 that was in opposition to Walpole, taking 
 Bolingbroke as his political adviser. The 
 Idea of a Patriot King was written by that 
 statesman as a guide for the prince when 
 he should ascend the throne. In 1736 Frede- 
 rick married Augusta of Saxe-Coburg ; but 
 this did not tend to the union of the royal 
 family. He demanded (1736) that his income 
 should be fixed by Parliament. The king's 
 overtures were rejected ; and after an animated 
 debate, the ministers were victorious. The 
 prince thereupon hurried his wife from 
 Hampton Court to the empty palace of St. 
 James's, when she was on the point of giving 
 birth to a child. For this the prince was 
 peremptorily ordered by G-eorge to leave the 
 court; Queen Caroline remained implacable, 
 refusing to see him on her death-bed. 
 Frederick withdrew to Norfolk House in St. 
 James's Square, and became the leader of the 
 Opposition. On the fall of Walpole Frederick 
 headed the Opposition as they went to pay 
 their respects at court ; but his reception by 
 the king was merely formal. No reconcilia- 
 tion was effected, and the prince continued to 
 oppose the ministry and court until his aeath. 
 
 Pree Church of Scotland, The, was 
 
 formed in 1843 by the " Disruption " from 
 the Established Church of a large body of 
 ministers and laymen. The Tory government, 
 at the end of Queen Anne's time, passed 
 (1712) an Act restoring patronage in Scot- 
 land. It was extremely unpopular at the 
 time, and since has been the chronic cause 
 of the various schisms of the Church of 
 Scotland. Yet the patronage conferred by 
 the Act gave only a recognised right to the 
 benefice and its emoluments. The spiritual 
 office of pastor could only be added to this 
 by the " call " of the parishioners ; but this 
 " call " was frequently nominal, and, if but a 
 
 few parishioners would make it, "a forced 
 settlement " of the presentee could be effected. 
 The beginning of the nineteenth century saw 
 the acquisition by the Evangelical party 
 of a majority in the General Assembly over 
 the Moderates or Latitudinarians. In 1834 
 the Assembly passed the Veto Law which de- 
 clared it to be a fundamental article of the 
 Church's doctrine that no minister should be 
 intruded into a parish against the will of the 
 people, and declared that a majority of male 
 heads of families, full members of the Church, 
 should be able to bar an obnoxious presentee. 
 This was an attempt to make the call a 
 reality in all cases. Before long this Act 
 created litigation in the Court of Session, 
 as well as great controversy on the relation 
 of the ecclesiastical and civil powers. At 
 Auohterarder, the call of the presentee was 
 signed by two heads of families only, while 
 the great majority of the parish expressed 
 vehement dissent. Yet the Court of Session 
 declared the presentment legal under the 
 Patronage Act, and the House of Lords, on 
 appeal, confirmed their decision ; while at the 
 same time the Scotch judges were accused of 
 extending their jurisdiction on other points 
 into spiritual matters cognisable by the 
 Church alone. In 1842, after tedious litiga- 
 tion, the Auohterarder case was finally de- 
 cided. In May, 1843, at the time of the meet- 
 ing of the General Assembly, four hundred 
 and twenty ministers, led by Dr. Chalmers, 
 the most famous clergyman of his day, left 
 the Established Church; and, leaving the 
 hall of the Assembly, met in another room, as 
 the first General Assembly of the Free Church, 
 with Chalmers as Moderator. The bulk of 
 their congregations followed them. The or- 
 ganising power of Chalmers, shown from the 
 first by the Sustentation Fund for ministers' 
 salaries, and the scheme for the education of 
 the clergy of the new Church, triumphed 
 over the financial and social difficulties of the 
 new undertaking. In four years seven 
 hundred Free churches were built. The Free 
 Church simply reproduced in doctrine, dis- 
 cipline, and organisation the Established 
 Church; save that, of course, the right of 
 appointment to benefices was strictly con- 
 fined to the congregation, and the "Eras- 
 tian " dependence on the State avoided ; 
 though, as a theory, the " voluntary princi- 
 ple" was repudiated by these Hildebrands of 
 the Reformed Church. 
 
 Subordinate ^^tantla/fSjs of the Free (UnrcTi; 
 Hauna, Jji/e of Chalmers ; Annale of the Disrup- 
 tion ; Pauli, Englische Gebchichte zeit 1815. 
 
 [T. F. T.]. 
 
 Free Companies is the name given to 
 
 the troops of private adventurers who, in the 
 Middle Ages, organised themselves into bands 
 of mercenary soldiers, and let out their ser- 
 vices to the highest bidder. England was, 
 as a rule, under too firm a government to 
 have much fear of these companies; but 
 
Pre 
 
 (478) 
 
 Pre 
 
 under Stephen they infested the country, 
 and again during the anarchy of John's 
 quarrel with his barons, and the minority of 
 Henry III. But they never attained the defi- 
 nite organisation of the Free Companies of 
 the south of France, and still less of the Con- 
 dottieri of Italy ; though many of the latter, 
 as for example the famous Sir John Hawk- 
 wood, were Englishmen. 
 
 Freehold. The term "liherum tene- 
 mentum," " free tenement," appears soon after 
 Domesday in the sense of laud held by a free- 
 man by a free t&ure, i.e., by knight-service 
 or socage. It was thus opposed to base or 
 villein tenure. Freeholds were granted or 
 conveyed by the process of feofilment, i.e., an 
 act of formal delivery of possession (livery of 
 seisip), accompanied by words describing the 
 nature of the interest conferred and the ser- 
 vices to be rendered in return. But in 
 Bracton [temp. Henry III.) the term "free- 
 hold " had come to have also a special sense, 
 and to be applied to what had previously been 
 only one characteristic of freehold tenure, 
 namely, a right over land for a period without 
 fixed or specified termination. Hence arose 
 the term " freehold estate." " Estate " in 
 English law means the interest which a, 
 holder has in the land, and especially the 
 " quantity of interest " as measured by its 
 duration. Estates are divided into such as are 
 freehold, and such as are less than freehold, 
 the former including estates of inheritance or 
 for life, the latter estates for years (or leases), 
 or at will. 
 
 Digby, Hist, of the Law of Real Property; 
 Stephen, Commentaries. 
 
 Preeman, Mrs., was a, name assumed 
 by the Duchess of Marlborough, because, as 
 she boasted, it was peculiarly suited to the 
 frankness and boldness of her character, in. 
 her correspondence with Princess (afterwards 
 Queen) Anne, who also took that of Morley. 
 Their husbands were also sometimes styled 
 Mr. Freeman and Mr. Morley. 
 
 Pree Trade Agitation. [Corn Laws ; 
 CoBDEN ; Peel.] 
 
 Prench devolution, War or the, is 
 the name generally, though not very accu- 
 rately, given to the series of great wars which 
 arose out of the French Eevolution, and 
 lasted with two short intervals of peace from 
 1793 to ISl'i. England made at first no at- 
 tempt to interfere in the internal troubles of 
 France, and refused to take part in the first 
 coalition against her. In the spring of 1792 
 Pitt reduced the navy, remitted taxation, and 
 confidently looked forward to fifteen years of 
 peace. In the autumn of the same year the 
 position of affairs w.is entirely difiierent. The 
 French hud expelled their invaders, and 
 proceeded to . annex Savoy, and to conquer 
 Belgium, which they threatened to incorpo- 
 rate with France. The Convention oft'ered 
 
 the aid of the French arms to all people 
 desirous of liberty, and French ministers 
 intrigued with the disafEected party in Eng- 
 land and Ireland. Pitt vigorously protested 
 against the annexation of Belgium and the 
 opening of the Scheldt, called out the militia, 
 and introduced bills to subject aliens in Eng- 
 land to strict supervision, and to prevent the 
 export of corn and war materials to France. 
 The French government refused any conces- 
 sion on the two questions of Belgium and the 
 Scheldt, and protested against Pitt's precau- 
 tionary measures. In the midst of negotia- 
 tions on the subject, the execution of Louis 
 XVI. took place (Jan. 21, 1793), and the 
 government at once ordered the French 
 minister to leave England. Pitt attempted 
 to continue negotiations in spite of this, but 
 on the first of February the French govern- 
 ment declared war. England sent 30,000 
 men to the Netherlands under the command 
 of the Duke of York. The Austrian victory 
 of Neerwinden (March 18) had forced the 
 French to retreat, and the allied troops spent 
 the summer in besieging the frontier for- 
 tresses. In November the Duke of York laid 
 siege to Dunkirk, but was forced to raise 
 it again with the loss of his artillery. An 
 expedition sent to the Norman coast to 
 assist the Vendeans, arrived too late, and 
 another which occupied Toulon in August, 
 was forced to abandon it in December. Next 
 year the allies were still more unfortunate. 
 The French reconquered Belgium, and during 
 the winter the Duke of York was driven out 
 of Holland, and the Prince of Orange obliged 
 to fly to England. Lord Howe's great victory 
 of June 1, the conquest of numerous West 
 Indian islands, and the' revolt of Corsica, 
 were a partial compensation for these defeats. 
 In 1795 the coalition broke up altogether. 
 Prussia made the Peace of Basel (April 5), and 
 began thereby a neutrality which lasted for 
 eleven years. Spain made peace on July 22, 
 to be followed a year later by an oflrensive 
 and defensive alliance with France, and a 
 declaration of war against England (Oct., 
 1796). The smaller powers mostly followed the 
 example of these two nations, and the burden 
 of the war henceforth rested on England, 
 Austria, and Sardinia. The year 1795 was 
 marked by the failure of two English expe- 
 ditions, one to Quiberon, the other to the 
 coast of La Vendee. On the other hand, the 
 alliance of Holland with France resulted in. 
 the English conquest of the Cape of Good 
 Hope (Sept. 16). The Continental war, the 
 next year, was decisive, Bonaparte's Italian 
 campaign more than counterbalanced the re- 
 verses of Moreau and Jourdan, in Germany. 
 In May the King of Sardinia withdrew from 
 the coalition. In March England made an 
 unsuccessful peace overture, which was fol- 
 lowed in October by the despatch of Lord 
 Malmesbury to Paris, to negotiate a general 
 peace. England offered to restore all its 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 4V9) 
 
 Tve 
 
 colonial conquests, and demanded a similar 
 restoration of the French conquests. Above 
 all it refused to admit the annexation of 
 Belgium to France, and the rupture of the 
 negotiations followed. 
 
 The year 1796 ended -with an abortive 
 attempt to land a French army iu Ireland. 
 The year 1797 brought the danger of invasion 
 nearer still. In April Austria signed the 
 preliminaries of Leoben, -which were, in 
 October, converted into the Treaty of Campo 
 Formic. • England was left to carry on the 
 war alone, and that in a very unfavourable 
 position. The Funds had sunk to little more 
 than fifty, and in February cash payments 
 had to be suspended, whilst in May and June 
 the mutinies of the fleet made Great Britain 
 for some weeks defenceless. The French 
 government had formed the design of uniting 
 the Spanish and Dutch fleets to their own 
 fleet at Brest, and so sweeping the English 
 fleet from the Channel, and rendering a laud- 
 ing possible. But the two victories of St. 
 Vincent (Feb. 14) and Camperdown (Oct. 16) 
 frustrated this plan; and though Bonaparte 
 made some preparations for an invasion of 
 England, he preferred the less perilous expedi- 
 tion to Egypt (May, 1 798). A month after his 
 landing, Nelson, by the victory of the Nile, 
 destroyed his fleet and cut him off from France 
 (Aug. 1). Renewed acts of aggression by 
 the Directory in Switzerland and Italy, Bona- 
 parte's absence, and Nelson's victory, made 
 the formation of a new coalition possible. In 
 
 1799 the combined armies of Austria and 
 Russia drove the French out of Italy; but 
 General Massena successfully defeated the 
 Austro-Russian invasion of Switzerland, and 
 General Brune repulsed an Anglo-Russian 
 expedition to Holland. Bonaparte's return 
 to Prance was followed by the overthrow 
 of the Directory (Nov. 8, 1799), and an 
 immediate resumption of the offensive. In 
 
 1800 Austria was attacked both in Italy and 
 Germany, and the victories of Marengo 
 (June 14), and Hohenlinden (Dec. 3), were 
 followed by the Peace of LuneviUe (Feb. 9, 
 1801). England was again left to carry on the 
 war alone, for Russia had quitted the coalition, 
 and made a dispute about the right of search the 
 foundation of a maritime league (Dec, 1800), 
 which renewed the Armed Neutrality (q.v.) of 
 1780. This league consisted of Denmark, 
 Sweden, and Russia, but it was almost im- 
 mediately broken up by the battle of Copen- 
 hagen (April 2, 1801) and the death of the 
 Emperor of Russia (March 23). Two days 
 before, an English expedition had defeated 
 the French at Alexandria, and the conquest 
 of Egypt, with surrender of 24,000 French 
 soldiers, soon followed. Though Bonaparte 
 still threatened an invasion of England, and 
 collected troops and gunboats at Boulogne, 
 the English supremacy at sea rendered it 
 merely a threat. Both countries were ready 
 to come to terms. The negotiations at Paris, 
 
 in 1796, had been followed by similar nego- 
 tiations at Lille in 1797, and the English 
 government had declined to treat in answer 
 to Napoleon's overture in Dec, 1800. But 
 this, the fourth attempt to bring about an 
 understanding, was more fortunate, and the 
 preliminaries of peace were signed in Oct., 
 1801, while the treaty was finally ratified on 
 March 27, 1802. By the Treaty of Amiens, 
 England surrendered aU its conquests except 
 Trinidad and Ceylon. It was agreed that 
 Malta should be restored to the knights of 
 St. John, but as the renewed aggressions of 
 Napoleon gTadually made it evident that it 
 would speedily be seized by France, the 
 English government refused to surrender the 
 island. They believed that Napoleon meant 
 to make Malta the stepping-stone for a new 
 attack on Egypt, and Egypt the starting-point 
 for an attack on India. War was declared 
 on May 18, 1803. A French army imder 
 Marshal Mortier easily overran Hanover. 
 A great flotiUa and army were assembled by 
 Napoleon at Boulog-ne for the invasion of 
 England, and in December, 1804, the rupture 
 between England and Spain placed an addi- 
 tional navy at his disposal. His plan for 
 effecting a landing was based on the union of 
 the three fleets of Toulon, Rochefort, and 
 Brest, with the Spanish fleet, in order to 
 secure the command of the Channel. Jileaij- 
 time, a third coalition was being formed. In 
 April, 1805, an offensive and defensive aUiance 
 between England and Russia took place, and 
 the league was completed by the accession 
 of Austria (August), Sweden (August), and 
 Naples. The naval combination fell through, 
 and the Toulon fleet, which had succeeded in 
 uniting with the Spaniards, was destroyed 
 with them at Trafalgar (Oct. 21, 1805) ; but 
 the coalition was shattered to pieces by the 
 capitulation of Ulra (Oct. 19), and the de- 
 feat of Austerlitz (Dec. 3), followed by the 
 Treaty of Presburg (Dec. 26). In England 
 the Addingtonministry, whichhad commenced 
 the war, had heeio, superseded in May, 1804, 
 by the return of Pitt to power. 
 
 Pitt's death (Jan. 23, 1806) led to the forma- 
 tion of a ministry under Fox, which opened 
 negotiations with Napoleon. IBut Napoleon's 
 Continental policy rendered peace impossible. 
 Just as the Directory had surrounded France 
 with subject republics, so he wished to sur- 
 round himself with vassal princes. One 
 brother was established in Holland, and 
 another became King of Naples, and the . 
 organisation of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine founded his rule in Germany. Russia's 
 declaration of war (Oct. 1, 1804) was an- 
 swered by the victory of Jena (Oct. 14), and 
 the army of Russia, after the doubtful battle 
 of Ejdau (Feb. 8), met with a severe defeat 
 at Friedland (June 14). 
 
 The English ministry sent expeditions to 
 Sicily (July, 1806), South America (Feb.— 
 July, 1807), Egypt (March, 1807), and the 
 
Fre 
 
 ( 480 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 l)ardafi.Blle3 (Feb., 1807), but these useless 
 diversions gave no real aid to the common 
 cause. The Peace of Tilsit (July, 1807) put 
 an end to the fourth coalition, and enabled 
 Napoleon to turn the forces of the Continent 
 against England. By the Decrees of Berlin 
 (Not. 21, 1806) and Milan (Dec. 17, 1807) he' 
 prohibited all direct or indirect trade with 
 the British Isles. The secondary states, 
 which still remained neutral or allied with 
 England, were to be forced to adopt the same 
 system, and to place their naval forces at his 
 disposal. With the aid of Russia, Sweden 
 was forced to adhere to the Continental 
 system, and a combined Spanish and 
 French army occupied Portugal (Nov., 1807). 
 Denmark, after an English expedition had 
 obliged it to surrender its fleet (Sept., 1807), 
 allied itself with France. But for the success 
 of Napoleon's schemes, the mere alhauce with 
 Spain was not sufiScient. In order to make 
 use of the vast resources and great colonies 
 which misgovernment made of little value, 
 he needed the complete control of Spain, and 
 this he sought to secure by placing his brother 
 Joseph on the Spanish throne (June, 1808). 
 With the insurrection which in consequence 
 broke out in Spain, begins a new period in 
 the history of the wars which sprang out of 
 the Revolution. Hitherto they had been the 
 wars of states; henceforth they were to be 
 the wars of nations. The idea of nationality 
 inspired the peoples of Europe, and became 
 the strongest support of its rulers in their 
 resistance to France. Austria, fired by the 
 example of Spain, took up arms again (April, 
 1809), but it could not rouse Germany to re- 
 volt, and after the battles of Aspern (May, 
 22) and Wagram (July 6) was obliged to sign 
 a ruiaous peace at Vienna (Oct. 14, 1809). 
 England seized the opportunity of the Spanish 
 revolt. In the summer of 1808 an English 
 corps expelled the French from Portugal, 
 whilst another advanced to take part in the 
 defence of Spain, but was forced to retreat 
 and re-embark, after winning a battle at 
 Coruima (Jan. 16, 1809). The English govern- 
 ment, however, instead of concentrating its 
 strength on the war in Spain, wasted 40,000 
 men in a useless expedition to Walcheren. 
 But, in spite of inefficient support. Sir Arthur 
 Weilesley was able to recover Portugal (1809), 
 and to maintain himself there, in 1810 and 
 1811, against repeated attacks. [Peninsular 
 War.] In April, 1812, war began between 
 Napoleon and Russia, and in the same month 
 Lord Wellington captured the border fortress 
 of Badajoz, and assumed the defensive in 
 Spain. The news of his victory at Salamanca 
 (July 22) reached the French head-quarters 
 the day before the battle of Borodino (Sept. 7), 
 and about a month before the French entered 
 Moscow, the English army occupied Madrid 
 (A.ug. 12— Sept. 14, 1812). Lord Wellington 
 raised the siege of Burgos on Oct. 18, and 
 on the 19th, Napoleon quitted Moscow. The 
 
 enthusiasm of the German people forced their 
 sovereigns to take up arms. Riissia was joined 
 by Prussia (March 1, 1813), Sweden (March 
 3), and Austria, and the battle of Leipzig (Oct. 
 16 — 18) freed Germany, as that of Vittoria 
 did Spain (June 20). 
 
 Whilst Wellington crossed the Bidassoa in 
 September, and estabhshed his winter quarters 
 in the south of France, the allied armies began 
 the passage of the Rhine on the last day of 1813. 
 After a campaign which lasted three months, 
 Paris was taken, and Napoleon abdicated 
 (April, 1814). The brother of Louis XVI. 
 was called to the French throne, and France 
 reduced, with some small exceptions, to the 
 limits of 1792. The allied sovereigns, at 
 the Congress of Vienna, were still disputing 
 aboutthe settlement of Em-ope, when Nanoleon 
 seized the opportunity which the discontent 
 of the nation aiford^id, and re-entered France 
 (March 1, 1815). The four great powers im- 
 mediately re-formed the coalition against him 
 (March 25), and the battle of Waterloo (June 
 18) was followed by his second abdication, 
 and his exile to St. Helena. By the second 
 Treaty of Paris (Nov. 20), France was sen- 
 tenced to pay indemnities and expenses 
 amounting to more than 60 millions, to a 
 further loss of territory, and to a five years' 
 occupation of her border fortresses. 
 
 Europe was reorganised by the Treaties of 
 Vienna. The great states issued from the 
 wars of the Revolution more powerful and 
 more compact. The republics of Poland, 
 Venice, and Genoa, the ecclesiastical states 
 and most of the smaller principalities of Ger- 
 many had been absorbed by stronger neigh- 
 bours. But the sovereigns and statesmen 
 who arranged the rewards and compensations 
 due to states, disregarded the claims of 
 peoples. The Revolution had drawn its force 
 and its proselytising power from the general 
 desire for political freedom ; the opposition to 
 the Empire had' been inspu-ed by the desire 
 for an independent national existence. Neither 
 of these feelings were satisfied by the Vienna 
 settlement, and so it was not permanent. 
 
 During the same period, England had 
 grown greater outside Europe. In the West 
 it had acquired a few more sugar islands; in 
 the East it had excluded French influence 
 fi'om India, and greatly extended its own 
 power in that country. It had also acquired 
 the outposts and approaches of India, Ceylon, 
 the Mauritius, the Cape, and Malta. But 
 these accessions of territory had been gained 
 at the cost of crushing taxation, and by the 
 addition of more than 600 millions to the 
 national debt. 
 
 Alison, Hist, of Unrope ; Stanhope, Life of 
 Pitt ; Massey, Hist, of England, ; James, Nitml 
 Bistonj; Napier, Peninsular Wor ; Castlerea'gh 
 Corvrapondeiice; Stapleton, Life of Carming; 
 Wdhngton Despatches ; Von Sybe], Sist. of tU 
 French Revolution ; Lanfrey, Life of Navoleon ; 
 Seeley, Life of Stein. 
 
 [C. H. F.] 
 
Pre 
 
 (481) 
 
 Pri 
 
 Prendranght, The Burning op (1638), 
 was the name given to a tragedy by which 
 the chiefs of the Gordon family lost their 
 lives. A reconciliation had taken place at 
 Strathbogie between the Gordons and their 
 enemies, the Crichtons, who were escorted 
 home by Lord Aboyne, Robert Gordon, and 
 others. Pressed to remain at Prendraught 
 for the night, the Gordons were burnt to 
 death in the tower, accidentally, according to 
 the Oriohtons, but more probably the tragedy 
 was the result of a deliberate plot. 
 
 Prere, Sir Henry Edward Baktle (i. 
 1815, d. 1884), entered the Indian Civil 
 Service in 1834. In 1847 he became British 
 Resident at Sattara, and in 1850 Chief Com- 
 missioner of Scinde. In 1862 he wasappointed 
 Governor of Bombay, and in 1867 he returned 
 to England and was made a member of the 
 Indian Council. In 1872 he was sent to the 
 East Coast of Afri(ia to inquire into the Slave 
 Trade, and the following year signed a treaty 
 with the Sultan of Zanzibar abolishing the 
 traffic. In 1877 he was appointed Governor 
 of the Cape and High Commissioner for 
 South Africa. 
 
 Prere, John Hookham (*. 1769, d. 1841), 
 a hterary man of some note, was, as the friend 
 of Canning (being his partner in the Anti- 
 Jacobin) sent on various embassies and political 
 affairs of importance. Besides a mission to 
 Lisbon, he was twice Spanish minister during 
 the critical period of the dealings of Fer- 
 dinand VII. and Napoleon. The failure of 
 Sir John Moore was, in public opinion, 
 largely attributable to Frere's advice ; and his 
 recall from Spain ended his public life. He 
 spent the remainder of his days at Malta. 
 
 See Memoir prefixed to the edition of Prere's 
 works by his nephews. 
 
 Prescolialdi, The, were Florentine 
 merchants, who advanced money to Edward 
 I. and Edward II. on the security of the 
 Customs, which they were allowed to collect. 
 They became almost as unpopular as the Jews 
 had been, and one of the Ordinances of 1311 
 ordered their banishment from the country. 
 
 Pnars, The, were members of orders 
 founded in the thirteenth century in the 
 Church, for the purpose of preaching among 
 the people. Their example in early times 
 was powerful, but as they gained wealth 
 they tended to sink into indolence. In 
 the end of the twelfth century, the preachers 
 of the Waldensians, and other heretical 
 sects, set forth a new idea of the religious 
 life, as concerned with activity for the 
 good of others. These sects were repressed ; 
 but their conceptions were fruitful, and 
 the struggle against them convinced some 
 ardent minds of the need of active preaching 
 amongst the people. Francis of Assisi, 
 in Italy, began, in 1207, to gather round 
 him a society animated by the principle of 
 fervent love, which was to be carried out 
 Hist.— 16 
 
 by entire self-sacrifice. His order rapidly 
 spread, was provisionally sanctioned by Pope 
 Innocent III., in 1209, and was established 
 by Honorius III., in 1223. It was caUed 
 the " Ordo Fratrum Minorum ; " with it was 
 incorporated, imder the same rule, a female 
 order of St. Clara, the sister of Francis ; and 
 a third order, the Tertiaries, comprised those 
 who, without abandomng their secular life, 
 adopted a rule of penitence. 
 
 Contemporary with Francis, a Spaniard, 
 Dominic, a canon of Osma, formed a society 
 for the special purpose of preaching against 
 heretics. In 1216 this order of the Friar 
 Preachers was established by Honorius III., 
 and adopted also the rule of evangelical 
 poverty. Later came the order of Carmelites, 
 so called because they were originally founded 
 in the Holy Land, and dwelt in the seclusion 
 of Mount Carmel. They had their rule of 
 rigorous fasting, silence, and solitude, and 
 were transplanted into Europe in 1238. 
 Finally, the Eremites of St. Augustine, 
 established in 1256, took their rise from the 
 union of many cenobite establishments' in 
 Italy. All these orders followed the example 
 of the Franciscans, in having Tertiaries, and 
 in renouncing worldly possessions. They 
 were often distinguished by the colours 
 of their cloaks. The Carmelites were known 
 as the White Friars, the Dominicans as 
 the Black Friars, and the Franciscans as 
 the Grey Friars. The survival of these names 
 in London and many other English towns 
 testifies to the extent of their settlements. 
 The Dominicans and the Franciscans were 
 by far the most important of these orders, 
 and exercised great influence on the social 
 and political development of England. The 
 Dominicans came to England in 1221, the 
 Franciscans in 1224. 
 
 The friars, in their early days, did a great 
 work of social reform; and as this work 
 grew under their hands, they felt the need 
 for learning. Consequently the mendicants 
 began to throng to the universities, and it was 
 through the activity of the Franciscans that 
 Oxford became famous throughout Europe. 
 The first Franciscan provincial in England 
 built a school in the Fratry at Oxford, and 
 prevailed on Robert Grosseteste, afterwards 
 Bishop of Lincoln, to lecture there. Grosse- 
 teste founded a school, which was carried on 
 by Adam Marsh, or De Marisco, who may 
 be reckoned as the founder of that great 
 school of theology which ruled the thought 
 of Europe till the Revival of Learning. 
 Alexander of Hales, John Duns Scotus, and 
 William of Ockham, made English theology 
 famous; and the Franciscan, Roger Bacon, 
 is the foremost name in physical science 
 throughout the Middle Ages. 
 
 The immediate influence of the revival of 
 theology under the friars in England was 
 greatly felt in the constitutional struggles of 
 the reign of Henry III. Bishop Grosseteste 
 
Fri 
 
 (482) 
 
 Pri 
 
 and Adam de Marisco were the chief coun- 
 sellors of Simon de Montfort. The tep,ching 
 of the friars gave a religious hasis to the theory 
 of the relations between king and people, on 
 which the struggle was founded. They set 
 forth the responsibility of the king to God, 
 his duty to rule for the good of his people, 
 his obligation to listen to the advice of the 
 community, and to govern according to its 
 will. The Latin poem on the battle of 
 Lewes (Wright, Political Songs, 72, &c.) 
 sets forth in striking language the political 
 views of the friars. Moreover, these opinions 
 were not confined to the closet. They were 
 spread by the preaching of the friars amongst 
 all classes, especially in the towns. The 
 friars wandered from place to place, gathered 
 a crowd around them in the open air, and in 
 homely language, with rude illustrations, 
 poured forth a discourse in which tho con- 
 dition of current affairs was used as a motive 
 for amendment of life and as a call to repent- 
 ance. The friars greatly influenced popular 
 opinion, and secured popular support to the 
 cause of the barons against the king. The 
 summons of representatives of towns to Parlia- 
 ment by Simon de Montfort, in 1254, was a 
 recognition of the quickened political life 
 which was largely due to the activity of the 
 friars. 
 
 As the importance of the friars increased, 
 their zeal diminished. Their rule of strict 
 poverty was gradually modified, till there 
 arose a schism in the Franciscan order 
 between the more rigid party of the Spiritual 
 Franciscans and the laxer party, which was 
 supported by Pope John XXII. (1317). In 
 the course of the conflict William of Ockham 
 attacked the Pope, and proceeded with keen 
 logic to examine the limitations of the papal 
 headship over the Church. The democratic 
 spirit of the Franciscans was -turned even 
 against the Papacy, which it had at first 
 laboured to exalt. Moreover, the friars raised 
 against themselves the hostility of the other 
 monastic orders, who struggled to check their 
 growing importance, and were aided by the 
 secular clergy. This conflict raged chiefly 
 in the universities, where the friars possessed 
 themselves of the professorial chairs. When 
 this battle had been won by the friars, the 
 struggle continued between the Dominicans 
 and Franciscans, till gradually the Domi- 
 nicans took a sphere of their own apart from 
 the Franciscans. They were left in possession 
 of the Inquisition, and gradually lost the 
 character of a mendicant order. The Fran- 
 ciscans were then left to work amongst the 
 masses, and strove to increase their in- 
 fluence by pious frauds, and by superstitions 
 inducements, that they might lead their 
 penitents to bequeath monej^ for charitable 
 purposes. 
 
 The opposition to the mendicants in Eng- 
 land was begun by Richard Fitz-Ralph, 
 Bishop of Armagh (1350), who attacked their 
 
 principle that mendicancy was practised by 
 Christ and the Apostles, and also pointed 
 out the mischief that they did {Defenaorium 
 Curatorwn, in Brown, Fasciculus Eerum, ii. , 
 466, &c.). They over-rode the parish priest, 
 invaded his parish, heard conJEessiftns, and 
 granted absolution on easy terms. Ecclesias- 
 tical discipline was subverted that the men- 
 dicants might be enriched. Children were 
 enticed from their homes and induced to join 
 the order. So great was the influence of the 
 mendicants at Oxford, that parents were 
 afraid to send their sons there lest they 
 should be entrapped by them. From this 
 time we find many complaints against the 
 mendicants. They worked for their own 
 interests, and were despised by the more 
 reflecting people. The Prologue of the 
 Vision of Piers the Plowman (about 1377) 
 says : — 
 
 " I fonde there Freris, alle the foure ordres, 
 Preclied the peple, for profit of hem-selven, 
 Glosed the gospel, as hem good lyked, 
 Porcoveitise of eopis, construed it as theiwolde." 
 The picture of the Friar in the Prologue 
 to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, shows with 
 humour the ordinary character of the friar. 
 The friars were attacked by Wyclif in 1381, 
 when he entered upon his breach with the 
 doctrinal system of the Church. At first he 
 had more sympathy with them than with the 
 "possessionati," the monks who held property. 
 He attacked them chiefly because they were 
 the staunchest adherents of the Papacy. 
 The friars in return were the bitterest oppo- 
 nents of the Lollards. During the fifteenth 
 century, the friars ceased to have any special 
 influence or importance. 
 
 Brewer, Monuraenta Frwnciscana ; Grosseteste, 
 MfiistolcB (ed. Luard) ; Green, History of (he 
 iJnglish People; Milman, Latin Chnstianiiy. A 
 full account of the friars is given by Wadding, 
 Annales FraU'um Minorum; and Maimachius, 
 Ammles Ordinis Prcedicatorum. [M. C.] 
 
 Friend, Sir John {d. 1696), was a Jacobite 
 conspirator in the reign of William III., Ho 
 was given a colonel's commission by James, 
 and enlisted men against the day when the 
 French should appear in Kent (1696), but 
 refused to take any share in the infamous 
 Assassination Plot (q.v.), although he kept 
 the secret. On the discovery of the con- 
 spiracy, he was tried, harshly denied the 
 assistance of counsel, and, refusing to betray 
 his confederates to a committee of the House 
 of Commons, was executed on April 3. 
 
 Friends of Ireland, The, were a society 
 founded by O'Connell in 1830, to promote the 
 repeal of the Union. It was declared illegal 
 by the Irish government; but, though dis- 
 solved, at once took a new shape as the 
 Society of Irish Volunteers. This too was, 
 however, dissolved, in accordance with tho 
 Coercion Act of 1833. 
 
 Frilings. The name of the middle di^dsion 
 of the old German tribes, corresponding in 
 
Pri 
 
 ( 483) 
 
 Fue 
 
 England with the ceorla (q.v.), i.e., the fully 
 free but non noble. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Sist. 
 
 Frisians, The, were a Low German tribe 
 who made settlements on the Firth of Forth, 
 and probably in other parts of northern 
 Britain. Nennius calls liie Firth of Forth 
 the Frisian Sea. 
 
 Skene, CeUic Scotland, vol. i. 
 
 Frith, in Anglo-Saxon law, answers to the 
 later phrase, " the king's peace." It was en- 
 forced by national officers, and any breach of 
 it was considered a contempt of the king, and 
 punished by a fine. The frith was a personal 
 not a territorial peace. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Kemble, Saxons in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Fritb.-gild was the name given to certain 
 gilds or clubs established during or before the 
 reign of King Athelstan, for the maintenance 
 of peace, the repression of theft, the tracing 
 of stolen cattle, and the indemnification of 
 the parties robbed, by means of a common 
 fund raised by subscription of the members. 
 These gUds took the place of the old organisa- 
 tion of the family, as is shown by the wer- 
 gild being in certain cases paid to the gild- 
 brethren instead of, as in earlier times, to the 
 family of the murdered man. The statutes of 
 these gilds are contained in the Judicia 
 CMiitatis LondoniiB set forth in the reign of 
 Athelstan, under royal authority, by the 
 bishop and reeves of the city. [Gilds; 
 Towns.] 
 
 Thorpe, Ancient haws; Stub'bs, Const. Hist, 
 aud Select Charters. 
 
 Frohisher, Sra Martin {d. 1694), one 
 of the great navigators of the Elizabethan 
 period, set sail in 1576 with the object of dis- 
 covering the North-West Passage, whilst in 
 1578 he endeavoured, though inefEectually, to 
 found a settlement north of Hudson's Bay. 
 Seven years later he accompanied Sir Francis 
 Drake on his voyage to the West Indies, and 
 in 1588 did good service against the Spanish 
 Armada. He was killed in action whilst trying 
 to capture the fort of Crozon near Brest on 
 behalf of Henry IV. of France from the com- 
 bined Spanish and League armies. 
 
 Hakluyt, Voyages. Frobisber's own account 
 of his Three Toyagps to find the New Passage has 
 been edited by the Haklnyt Society. 
 
 Froissart, Jean (*. 1331, d. 1410),wa8bom 
 at Valenciennes, and was most likely the son 
 of a merchant. From his childhood he was 
 destined for the church, but soon distinguished 
 himself by poetry which secured him the 
 . patronage of John of Hainault, father-in-law 
 of Edward III. In 1301 he went to England, 
 and was recommended to the favour of Queen 
 Philippa. The queen appointed him clerk 
 of her chapel, and he remained at the English 
 court and in the service of English princes 
 
 several years. The queen died in 1369, and 
 Froisaart returned to Flanders, where he found 
 new protectors in Wenceslas, Duke of Brabant, 
 and Kobert of Namur. The Duke of Brabant 
 appointed him cure of Lestines near Mons. 
 Under the inspiration of Robert of Namur he 
 composed the first book of his Chronicles. 
 After the death of Wenceslas, Froissart be- 
 came the chaplain of Guy de Chdtillon, Count 
 of Blois, who also appointed him canon of 
 Chimay. Guy de Ch§,tillon was the grandson 
 of John of Hainault, his father had fallen at 
 Crecy, and he himself commanded the rear- 
 guard of the French army at the battle of 
 Kosebecke. Thus Froissart passed from the 
 service of English princes and English par- 
 tisans to that of an adherent of France. He ac- 
 companied his master in many journeys and ex- 
 peditions, during which he collected material 
 for his Chronicles. He made his last visit to 
 England in 1395. The last part of his life is 
 very obscure, and though his death is generally 
 dated 1410, there is some reason for belie^dng 
 that he Hved till 1419. The Chronicles of Frois- 
 sart embrace the years 1325 to 1400. They 
 are divided into four books, of which the first 
 and most important stops at 1378 ; the second 
 finishes at 1386 ; the third at 1388, and the 
 fourth extends from 1389 to 1400. Of the 
 first book there are three distinct versions, the 
 first written between 1360 and 1380, the second 
 between 1380 and 1383, and the third at some 
 period after the year 1400. The earliest 
 version, written when Froissart was under 
 English influence, is naturally coloured by 
 partiality for the English cause. In the last 
 version, written after the death of Eichardll., 
 his tone towards England is severe and hostile. 
 Moreover, Froissart bases his narrative in 
 the early version on the earlier Chronicle of 
 Jean le Bel. But in the later versions he relies 
 on original sources of information, and ex- 
 pands his j-ecord of events. The Chronicle oj 
 Jeem le Bel ends in 1361, so that after this date, 
 which is also the time when Froissart's per- 
 sonal knowledge of events and men begins, he 
 is entirely an original chronicler. As an 
 historian he must be accepted with caution ; 
 for his narrative is coloured by prejudice, 
 and his statements are often inaccurate. 
 
 Froissart, Clii'tmiques, ed. Kervyn de Letten- 
 hove, 20 vols. ; the valuable ed. Simeon Luce, 
 5 vols., published 1869, contains only the period 
 before 1360. Aubertin, 'Risttiive de la Langue 
 et lAttiratv/ee Franijaise an Moyen-Age. The 
 CTironicles have been translated into English by 
 Lord Bemers, 1525, and by Mr. Johnes in 1805. 
 
 [C. H. F.] 
 
 Froutinns, Sextus Julius, was sent by 
 Vespasian into Britain in a.d. 75, where he 
 conquered the Siluree ; he was succeeded by 
 Agricola. He was a writer on military and 
 agricultural subjects. 
 
 Fuentes D'Onoro, The Battle or (May 
 5, 1811), wasfought during the Peninsular War 
 between the English, under Wellington, and 
 
Pul 
 
 ( 484 ) 
 
 Gae 
 
 the French, under Massena, Massena ad- 
 vanced, with 45,000 men, to relieve Almeida, 
 which Wellington was blockading. Though 
 in command of hardly more than 30,000 men, 
 the latter resolved to fight rather than give 
 up the blockade. Operations extended over 
 two days. On the first, the approach of night 
 prevented anything decisive ; but next day, 
 Massena, newly reinforced, made his great 
 attack. After a hard-fought day, the French 
 slowly withdrew at evening out of gunshot ; 
 but there was no retreat. The capture of Al- 
 meida was secured by this check on Massena. 
 Napier, Peninsular TTar. 
 
 Fulford, The Battle or (1066), between 
 the Earls Edwin and Morcar and Harold Har- 
 drada and Tostig, resulted in the defeat of the 
 English, and the acceptance by the men of 
 York of Harold Hardrada as their king, 
 Fulford is on the Ouse, about a mile south of 
 York. 
 
 Fllller, Thomas (J. 1608, d. 1661), was 
 educated at Cambridge. He was appointed a 
 prebendary of Salisbury, and in 1641 lec- 
 turer at the Savoy. In the Civil War he was 
 chaplain to Sir Ralph Hopton, and assisted 
 largely in the defence of Basing House 
 against the Parliamentarians, and was after- 
 wards in Exeter during the siege of that city. 
 At the Restoration he was appointed chaplain 
 to the king. Puller was the author of The 
 Church History of Britain, 1655, a History of 
 the Worthies of England, 1662, and other works. 
 His historical writings, though of no great 
 authority, have always Tieen popular from the 
 humour and qaaint beauty of their style. 
 
 Fuller, William, was an informer, who 
 attempted, in 1691, to revive the trade of Titus 
 Gates by concocting a Jacobite conspiracy ; 
 but no one listened to him, and he was put 
 in the pillory. He tried the same method in 
 1701, with even worse success. When the 
 Tories came into power, he was sentenced to 
 be flogged, pilloried, and fined; and being 
 imprisoned in default of paying the latter, 
 never obtained his release. 
 
 Furruchabad, The Battle op (Nov. 14, 
 1804), resulted in a victory for the English, 
 under Lord Lake, over Holkar with a great 
 army of 60,000 men. The English casualties 
 amounted to two killed and twenty wounded. 
 
 Fyrd was the national militia of the Early 
 English. On every free man, by virtue of 
 his allegiance, military service was imperative. 
 Fyrd-bot was one of the three inseparable 
 burdens on the possession of ethel or boc-land. 
 In Tacitas' time, the host of the Germans was 
 simply the gathering of the whole nation in 
 arms. It continued the same to a late period. 
 But as the State grew in extent, the difficulty 
 of collecting the whole fyrd together became 
 very great , and, practically, this was hardly 
 ever done. The array of the fyrd of each 
 shire was left to the ealdorman, and the fyrd 
 
 of the shire was the shire-moot in arms. 
 It was more often the fyrd of one or two 
 shires, which had local cohesion, that gained 
 glory by stout fighting, than the larger aggre- 
 gations of the popular army; for example, 
 Brihtnoth's famous fight with the Danes at 
 Maldon. But the cumbrous nature of the 
 fyrd system led to its gradual supersession, 
 even before the Conquest. The feudal thegn- 
 hood, with their retainers, the mercenary 
 hiiscarls of Canute — illustrate the earliest de- 
 velopments of those baronial and stipendiary 
 forces which ultimately were to make the 
 national force obsolete. Yet William I. 
 called out the fjTd more than once, and 
 Rufus branded as nithings those who refused 
 to come, and cheated the fyrd out of their 
 moneys for maintenance. At Northallerton, 
 the fyrd of the northern counties repelled the 
 Scottish invasion; and it was the national 
 militia that saved Henry II. from the feudal 
 coalition of 1173. Hemy's Assize of Arms 
 entirely recognised the principle. Under 
 Henry III. and Edward I., the fjT-d was 
 revived, and made useful by the Statutes of 
 Winchester, and the system of Watch and 
 Ward. The growth of the art of war made 
 such expedients obsolete in their tui'n; but 
 the militia of modern times, with its quasi- 
 compulsory service, and until recently the ^oss« 
 comitatus, which, in theory, could be con- 
 voked by the sheriff, continue the principle 
 at the root of the fyrd down to our own day. 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Kemble, StUEons m 
 England ; Hallam, Canst. Hist. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Fyrdwite was the penalty for neglecting 
 to serve in the fyrd (q.v.). 
 
 G- 
 
 Ga, the old English form of. 'the High 
 Dutch gau, occurs, though rarely, in early 
 constitutional history. Like gau, it must 
 correspond to the pagus. Some have con- 
 trasted the natural ga with the artificial 
 shire or division. The southern counties of 
 England are of the ga tjfpe — of very ancient 
 origin, and built on national or tribal dis- 
 tinctions. The Mercian shires appear mere 
 administrative " departments" of later date. 
 
 .Gaderi, The, were an ancient British 
 tribe inhabiting the western part of Northum- 
 berland, the part of Cumberland north of 
 the Irthing, the western part of Roxburgh- ' 
 shire, the county of Selkirk with Tweeddale, 
 a great part of Mid-Lothian, and nearly all 
 West-Lothian. 
 
 Gael, the English form of Gaidhel, is 
 used in two senses. (1) As the name of the 
 great branch of the Celtic stock, including 
 Highlanders, Irish, Manx, and, probably, the 
 old race that wrote the Oghams. (2) More 
 
Gaf 
 
 (483) 
 
 Gal 
 
 specially it is confined to the Scotch High- 
 landers. Mr. Rh^a suggests that the term 
 Gael shall be used only in the restricted 
 sense, while the archaic form Goidel, hy 
 which every tribe of this stock has known 
 itself as far back as we can trace, be used for 
 the wider term. [Celts ; Piers ; Scots ; 
 Britons.] 
 
 Rhjs, CelUc Britain. 
 
 Gafol-laud (Gafol= tribute) was folk- 
 land, let out to rent. 
 
 Gage, Sir John, was appointed one of the 
 Counou to assist the executors of Henry VIII., 
 1547, during the minority of Edward VI., and 
 became in the next reign a valued supporter 
 of Queen Mary, for whom he did good ser- 
 vice during Wyatt's rebellion. During the 
 imprisonment of the Princess Elizabeth in 
 the Tower, 1554, Gage acted as her gaoler. 
 
 Gage, General Thomas {b. 1721, d. 1788), 
 was the second son of Viscount Gage. In 
 1744 he was appointed Governor of Massa- 
 chusetts in the room of Hutchinson. He did 
 his best in this difficult position to prevent an 
 actual outbreak of hostilities, and instituted a 
 conciliatory policy. His hand was forced, 
 despite his efforts to maintain peace. The 
 delegates at Philadelphia set his authority at 
 defiance, and, when Gage recalled the writs 
 for the assembling of the representatives, met 
 in spite of him, and enrolled the "minute 
 men." Still Gage refused to resort to coer- 
 cion, though he fortified Boston Neck 
 and thus commanded the town. In April, 
 1775, he sent a body of troops to destroy some 
 stores coEected at Concord. The colonists 
 opposed the troops, and the first blood was 
 shed at Lexington. The people at once flocked 
 to arms in numbers, which terrified Gage into 
 inactivity ; but in May reinforcements arrived 
 under Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton, and 
 Gage at once issued a proclamation offering a 
 general pardon, and declaring martial law to 
 prevail. This, however, failed to attain its 
 object; and on the 7th June Gage took 
 decisive action in the battle of Bunker 
 HOI. The victory was not followed up, and 
 on Washington's arrival the British were 
 blockaded in Boston. In October Gage re- 
 signed his command to Sir William Howe, 
 and returned to England. He was very much 
 blamed by the government for not taking 
 active measures earlier. 
 
 Bancroft, Hist, of America ; Stanhope, Hist- 
 of England; Cnnningliam, Eminent Englishmen. 
 
 _ Gagging Acts, A name popularly aa- 
 signedto the measures of reactionary periods 
 interfering with freedom of speech, or writing, 
 or public meetings. Such were the Acts of 1795 
 against seditious meetings, and one of the Six 
 Acts of 1819 against public assemblies and 
 cheap political pamphlets. The name has also 
 been applied to a long string of Irish measures 
 of coercion. 
 
 Gaika {d. 1829), a Kaffir chief, was re- 
 garded by the British government as the 
 ruler of Kaffirland; and it was through inter- 
 ference on his behalf by the Governor of Cape 
 Colony, that the Kaffir War of 1818 was 
 brought on. In 1822, a treacherous attempt 
 made by the colonists to seize this chief 
 almost led to another war. 
 
 Gaimar, Geoffrey {Jl. circa 1150), wrote 
 in French a poetical Chronicle of England 
 from the arrival of Cerdic to the death of 
 Rufus. There is an edition of Gaimar pub- 
 lished by the Caxton Society, and the early 
 portion wiU be found in the Monumenta Sif- 
 toriea Britannica. 
 
 Gainas, The, were an Anglian tribe 
 occupying the northern part of Lincolnshire. 
 From them the name of Gainsborough is 
 derived. 
 
 GalgaCUS, a Caledonian chief, offered a 
 desperate resistance to Agricola on his famous 
 expedition into the north of modern Scot- 
 land (81). 
 
 Tacitus, Agricobi. 
 
 Galloway, the same word as Galway, 
 i.e., land of the Gael, is (1) in its widest sense 
 equivalent to the south-western district of 
 Scotland, but (2) is more generally used in a 
 narrower sense to include the small Goidelic 
 settlement, isolated among the Brythons of 
 Stratbclyde, or Cumbria, that included the 
 modem shires of Wigton and Kirkcudbright 
 and part of Dumfries. A range of hills and 
 moors cut Galloway off on the north and 
 partly on the east, while the sea formed its 
 boundary on the south and west. Some have 
 regarded the presence of this intrusive 
 Goidelic colony as the result of an invasion 
 from Ireland, similar to that which conquered 
 Dalriada (Argyleshire), but the general theory 
 is that it was a survival of the earlier branch 
 of the Celts, forced westward by the in- 
 vading Brythons. In Roman times the No- 
 vantae held this region. Thej' are, probably, 
 the same as the later " Plots of Galloway," 
 though what was their precise connection 
 with the Picts proper it is hard to define. 
 With all Cumbria, Galloway became, in the 
 seventh century, dependent on the Angles of 
 Northumbria ; but long after Stratbclyde had 
 regained its freedom, it remained, at least 
 nominally, subject to the decaying state. In 
 Bede's time, Ninian's old bishopric of Whit- 
 hem (Candida Casa), was still an English 
 see, tm a long break in the line of bishops, 
 after 796, marks the revival of the native 
 race. Thus Galloway preserved its separate 
 identity against English, Cumbrian, and 
 Scot, and in the twelfth century was still 
 " terra Pictorum," and its inhabitants formed 
 a separate division in the Scottish army at 
 the Battle of the Standard, distinct even 
 from the " Cumbrenses." Their restless 
 vigour was equally shown in their constant 
 resistance to the encroachments of the 
 
Gal 
 
 ( 486 ) 
 
 Gam 
 
 Norman barons, whicli English and Scottish 
 kings equally favoured. On the whole Gallo- 
 way leant on England to avoid the nearer 
 danger from Scotland. The revived see of 
 Whithern depended on York till the four- 
 teenth century, and Fergus, Prince of Gallo- 
 way, sought in vain by a marriage connection 
 with Henry I., to avoid his country's sub- 
 jection to Malcolm Canmore. In 1174 the 
 captivity of William the Lion led to the 
 revolt of Uchtred MacFergus. Again,in 1185, 
 the rising of another son of Fergus, Gilbert, 
 was suppressed, and Henry IV., tired of the 
 double dealing of the Gallwegians, handed 
 them over to Scotland. Yet Alan of Gallo- 
 way acts as an English baron ; his name 
 appears in Magna Charta, and his daughters 
 married Norman nobles. This last step com- 
 pleted the subjection of the state. On Alan's 
 death his sons-in-law divided the land, and 
 with the help of Alexander II. put down the 
 last native rising. The acquisition of the 
 throne by Baliol, grandson of Alan, through 
 his mother Devorguilla, perhaps, facilitated 
 its absorption. Yet, even in Buchanan's time, 
 a part of Galloway used its Celtic speech, 
 though it must very soon after have become 
 extinct. 
 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland, vol. i. ; Stiibbs, Const. 
 Hist., ch. i., 5 163. [T. ]?. T.] 
 
 Gallowglass. A name given to Irish 
 mercenary soldiers. They served on foot, had 
 defensive armour, and carried huge axes. 
 
 Galiray, Henrx de Massue, Eael op 
 (i. 1648, d. 1721), originaUy bore the title of 
 the Marquis de Ruvigny . A French Protestant 
 general, he was sent over by Louis XIV. to 
 intrigue with the Opposition leaders, Buck- 
 ingham, Russell, and Holies (1678). On the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he followed 
 his father into England. Soon after the ac- 
 cession of William III., he was placed in 
 command of a regiment of Huguenot cavalry, 
 raised by the energy of his father, who died 
 in 1690. He served in Ireland, and, after the 
 departure of William, became major-general. 
 During the siege of Limerick, he was chosen 
 to hold a conference with Sarsfield. For his 
 services he was created Baron PortarHngton, 
 and a property given him from the forfeited 
 Irish lands. In 1693 he took part in the 
 abortive expedition from St. Helen's, com- 
 manded by Meinhart Schomberg. He was 
 taken prisoner at the battle of Landen (1693), 
 but his captors allowed him to escape. He 
 was sent to Piedmont as English envoy, but 
 could not prevent the Duke of Savoy from 
 deserting the coalition (1696). He was created 
 Earl of Galway in 1697. After the outbreak 
 of the Succession War, he was sent to Por- 
 tugal as second in command, on the recall of 
 Schomberg (1704). He met with many re- 
 verses, and on his return, the Tories, urged 
 on by the angry Peterborough, instituted a 
 severe examination into the conduct of the 
 
 war. His reply was complete, and his conduct 
 was defended by the Duke of Marlborough. 
 But the Commons passed a resolution that he 
 had acted contrary to the honour of the Im- 
 perial crown by allowing the Portuguese 
 regiments to take precedence of the English. 
 The rest of his life was spent in retirement. 
 " It would seem," says Mr. Wyon, " that 
 Galway, although destitute of any great 
 natural abilities for war, was as consummate 
 a general as study and experience, joined with 
 a conscientious sense of responsibility for the 
 safety of his men, can make." Yet he was 
 always on the losing side. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Bng. ; Mallon, War of 
 
 Succession in Spaiu; Wyon, Beign of Queen 
 
 Anne, 
 
 Galway Election, The, 1872, was 
 
 carried by the influence of the priests, and 
 more especially the Archbishop of Tuam, and 
 Captain Nolan was elected. On a, petition 
 being lodged against him, and the seat being 
 claimed for Captain Trench, Mr. Justice 
 Keogh went down to try the case, and 
 declared Captain Nolan to have forfeited tte 
 seat by reason of intimidation of the voters by 
 the priests, on whose conduct the judge 
 reflected in very strong language. Mr. Butt 
 brought the matter before the House of 
 Commons, but Keogh was absolved by an 
 overwhelming majority. 
 
 Gam, Sir David {d. 1415), a Welsh chief- 
 tain, was one of the opponents of Owen 
 Glyndwr, whom in 1402 he attempted to 
 assassinate, but the plot being discovered he 
 was imprisoned, and not released till 1412. 
 In 1415 he raised a body of troops to assist 
 Henry V. in his French exjiedition, and 
 fought most valiantly in the battle of Agin- 
 com-t, whore he was mortally wounded, and 
 received the honour of knighthood as he was 
 expiring on the field. 
 
 Gambia, on the west coast of Africa, was 
 visited very early by the Portuguese for the 
 purpose of obtaining slaves, and formed a 
 settlement until 1588. In 1620 an English 
 factory was established there. For many 
 years there was an intermittent contest 
 between England and France for possession 
 of the Gambia, which was confirmed to 
 England by the Treaty of Paris, 1815. Since 
 that date much of the surrounding territory 
 has been acquired by purchase by the British 
 government, and settlements have been formed 
 with thfe object of stamping out the slave- 
 trade, and of establishing commercial rela- 
 tions of a legitimate nature. In 1842 the 
 government of Gambia was separated from 
 that of Sierra Leone, and vested in a governor, 
 who was aided by executive and legislative 
 councils ; in 1866 it was, however, again made 
 subordinate to the Governor of the West 
 African Settlements, who resided at Sierra 
 Leone. The climate is very unhealthy. 
 E. W. Martin, British Colonies. 
 
Gam 
 
 f 487 ) 
 
 Gar 
 
 Gambler, James, Baron (4. l'66,d. 1833), 
 was a distinguished admiral. In 1807 lie com- 
 manded the fleet sent against Copenhagen, 
 and was in reward created a baron. From 
 1808 to 1811 he commanded the Channel 
 Fleet, during which a court-martial acquitted 
 him of any culpable share in the disaster of 
 Aix roads. 
 
 Game Laws. The earliest game laws 
 were passed in the same period as the laws 
 concerning vagrancy, and were due to the 
 same causes. The first of these, that of 1389, 
 after reciting that artificers and labourers 
 keep dogs and go hunting on holy days in the 
 parks and warrens of lords and others, enacted 
 that no person not possessing land worth 40s. 
 a year should keep a dog for hunting or use 
 feirets or nets to take game, under pain of 
 a year's imprisonment.- In 1494 any person 
 taking pheasants or partridges without leave 
 upon another's land was made liable to a 
 penalty of £10, equivalent to £1.50 of present 
 money. But this statute can never have been 
 enforced, for an Act of 1581 imposed a fine of 
 20s. for every pheasant and 10s. for every 
 partridge taken in the night. In 1604 all 
 shooting at game with gun or cross-bow' was 
 absolutely forbidden (apparently as unsports- 
 manlike) under a penalty of 20s. for each bird 
 or hare, or imprisonment for three months in 
 default; but persons quaUfled by birth or 
 estate were allowed to course, and also to net 
 pheasants and. partridges. Five years later 
 the property qualification was raised ; hawking 
 was forbidden during July and August, and 
 pheasants and partridges were to be taken 
 only between Michaelmas and Christmas — 
 " take" being probably soon construed to in- 
 clude shooting. In 1670 owners were allowed 
 to appoint gamekeepers; no persons save 
 freeholders of £100 a year, 99 years lease- 
 holders of £150, or heirs-apparent of a squire 
 and others of higher degree, were to possess 
 guns, bows, or sporting dogs, and game- 
 keepers were given the right of search. All 
 these Acts were repealed in 1832, and the only 
 earlier statute still in force is that of 1828. 
 This Act for the first time made poaching by 
 nigrht a crime, instead of an offence followed 
 merely by fine. Taking, or trespassing by 
 night with intent to take, game or rabbits 
 was to be punished with imprisonment and 
 hard labour not exceeding three montiis for the 
 first offence ; not exceeding six months for the 
 second ; and transportation for seven years or 
 hard laboiu: not exceeding two years for the 
 third. Resistance with any weapon could be 
 punished with transportation up to seven 
 years ; and if a party of three or more, of 
 whom one is armed, are found trespassing by 
 night for the purpose of taking game, each of 
 them may be sentenced to transportation not 
 exceeding fourteen years. The Act of 1832 
 abolished all qualifioations for sporting, and 
 also \^ the earlier prohibition of the sale of 
 
 game, and imposed new penalties for poach- 
 ing by day, viz., a tine of £2 for trespassing 
 in pursuit of game, and of £5 for resistance 
 or refusal to give names. Thus, then, before 
 1832 the right to kill game was the privilege 
 of a class, and after 1832 became an incident 
 of ownership or possession as might be 
 arranged between landlord and tenant. By 
 the Ground Game Act of 1880 the occupier 
 was given the right to kill hares and rabbits 
 concurrently with the landlord, and was for- 
 bidden to contract himself out of this right. 
 [Forests.] 
 
 G^meliu, Bishop of St. Andrews, was 
 Chancellor of Scotland at the beginning of 
 the reign of Alexander III. (1249) ; of this 
 ofSce he was deprived by the intrig^ues of 
 Henry III. The Enghsh party subjected 
 him to so much persecution that he sought 
 redress at Home, where the Pope espoused his 
 cause, and ordered the excommunication of 
 Alan Durward and the other regents. 
 
 Gardiner, Stephen (S. 1483, d. 1555), 
 Bishop of Winchester, was a celebrated prelate 
 and statesman. Of his parentage nothing is 
 known certainly, but he- was born at Bury 
 St. Edmunds about 1483, and was educated 
 at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he became 
 Doctor of Laws in 1521, entering into holy 
 orders about the same time. In 1625 he was 
 elected to the mastership of his college, and he 
 became Chancellor of the University in 1540. 
 To a man like Gardiner academical distinctions 
 were far from being all-sufficing. He took 
 a secretaryship in the family of the Duke of 
 Norfolk, and shortly afterwards in the house- 
 hold of Cardinal Wolsey. In this latter 
 employment he speedily obtained the confi- 
 dence of the king, as weU as of his more 
 immediate master, a success which was soon 
 followed by his admission into the Royal 
 Council. In 1528 he was sent with Bishop 
 Fox on an embassy to the Pope, to negotiate 
 the question as to the king's divorce from 
 Catherine of Aragon, and his first . prefer- 
 ment in the Church, that of the archdea- 
 conry of Norfolk, was the reward for his 
 tact and energy. On "VVolsey's disgrace 
 Gardiner was attached entirely to the king's 
 service as Secretary of State, and having 
 succeeded, with the assiHance of Bishop Fox, 
 in persuading the University of Cambridge 
 to pronounce formally against marriage with 
 a brother's widow, in 1531, he was appointed 
 to the archdeaconry of Leicester, and shortly 
 after to the bishopric of Winchester. His 
 book, De Vet a Obedientia, upheld the royal 
 supremacy. For the rest of Henry's reign 
 Gardiner was among the foremost of the 
 conservative party in the Council. Powerful 
 during the reactionary years 1539 — 47, he 
 lost ground just before Henry's death, and 
 the king withdrew his name from his will, of 
 which he had previously been appointed one 
 of the executors. With the exception of a 
 
G-ar 
 
 ( 488 ) 
 
 Gas 
 
 few moaths in the early part of the year 
 1548, Gardiner was a state prisoner through- 
 out the whole of the reign of Edward VI. 
 Several attempts were made to induce him 
 to suhscribe to terms of reconciliation with 
 the party then in power, hut all to no pur- 
 pose, and on February 14, 1551, he was 
 formally deprived of his see for disobe- 
 dience and contempt of the king's authority. 
 With the accession of Queen Mary, in 
 1553, Gardiner's fortunes improved. He 
 once again exercised his episcopal functions 
 in performing the obsequies of the late king, 
 and on August 23, 1553, he was made Lord 
 Chancellor. Throughout the whole of Mary' s 
 reign Gardiner acted as her chief adviser in 
 all civil matters, and his influence in the 
 affairs of the Church was second only to that 
 of Cardinal Pole. 
 
 Gardiner's watchfulness enabled llary to 
 be beforehand with the risings that took 
 place early in 1554, and Wyatt's revolt 
 being thus pushed into action prematurely 
 was suppressed with comparative ease, in 
 spite of its formidable character. In his 
 subsequent dealings with the presumed sym- 
 pathisers of Wyatt, however, Gardiner's 
 merciless rigour aHenated from him the 
 support of the more moderate members of 
 Mary's Council, and the feeling of coldness 
 towards him, thus originated, changed at 
 once to one of indignation and active hos- 
 tility when he proposed that the Princess 
 Elizabeth should be also sacrificed for her 
 sister's more perfect security. Much has 
 been written for and against Gardiner in the 
 matter of his treatment of the Eeformers. 
 It is, however, beyond question that the 
 cruel measures of Mary's reign against the 
 Protestant party were very largely of his 
 devising. Gardiner died after a short illness, 
 which seized him soon after opening Par- 
 liament, on October 21, 1555, and which 
 terminated in his death, on Kovember 12 
 following, at Whitehall. An Anglican under 
 Henry, Gardiner became a, IPapist under 
 Mary, after Edward's reign had demon- 
 strated the futility of Henry's position. In 
 Be Vera Obedientia he had attacked the Papal 
 supremacy, in his Palinodia Dicti Libri he 
 set forth his change of opinion upon the 
 matter. 
 
 Proude, Hist, of Eng. ; Biograyhia Britannica ; 
 Strype, Annals; Burnet, Hist, of the Befor- 
 mation. 
 
 Gargrave, Sm Thomas, Speaker, of the 
 iirst Parliament of Elizabeth, " with the 
 Privy Council and thirty members of the 
 House of Commons," was deputed to recom- 
 mend the queen to seek a husband. In 1570 
 he acted as crown prosecutor to the Council 
 of York during the trial of those who had 
 taken part in the Northern liebellion. 
 Sir Thomas, who was a member of the 
 Council of the North, had been knighted by 
 Warwick during the Scotch War of 1547. 
 
 Garnet, Henky (S. 1555, d. 1606), became, 
 in 1575, a Jesuit, and, in 1586, provincial of 
 the order in England. He was executed, in 
 1606, for complicity in the Gunpowder Plot. 
 
 Garter, The Order op the, was founded 
 by Edward III., in or, about the year 1349. 
 It is the highest order of English knighthood, 
 and consists of not more than twenty-five 
 knights, excepting members of the royal 
 family and illustrious foreigners, who are not 
 counted. The installations of the order are 
 held in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, where 
 the banners of the several knights are sus- 
 pended. The badge of the order is a gold 
 medallion, representing St. George and the 
 Dragon, which' is worn suspended by a blue 
 ribbon. The garter is of dark-blue velvet, 
 and is worn on the left leg below the knee. 
 
 Gascoigne, Sir William {d. 1419 ?), was 
 appointed one of the king's Serjeants, in 1397, 
 and, in 1400, was made Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench. In 1405 he refused to pro- 
 nounce sentence of death on Archbishop 
 Scrope ; and his independence was still 
 further shown, according to popular tradition, 
 by his committal of the Prince of Wales to 
 prison for striking him upon the bench. 
 Whether this story be true or not, it is certain 
 that one of Henry V.'s first acts was to remove 
 Gascoigne from the chief justiceship. This 
 dismissal might be otherwise accounted for, as 
 Gascoigne was an old man, long in office, and 
 a country gentleman of large property. 
 Foss, Judges, 
 
 Gascony, The Duchy of, corresponded, 
 roughly speaking, with the Roman province of 
 Novem Populania. On the fall of the 
 Empire it became part of the great West 
 Gothic kingdom stretching from the Loire to 
 the Straits of Gibraltar, but seems to have 
 become more or less independent on the 
 death of Clovis (oil), though he and his sons 
 overthrew the rival 'Teutonic powers in Gaul. 
 Towards the end of this century the Basque 
 tribes swarmed down from the Pyrenean 
 slopes (587). These invaders, the Wascons or 
 Vascons, have given the district its present 
 name, and appear to have settled northwards of 
 the Garonne. In 602 they recognised them- 
 selves as being tributary to the Prankish kings, 
 and received a duke of their own, GeniaSs. 
 About the year 636 Dagobert conquered them 
 once more, though his successors found them 
 always setting up their own dukes, whose 
 sway reached from the Garonne to the 
 Pyrenees. Charles the Great gave them a 
 new ruler in the person of Lupus or Loup, 
 but despite this they seem to have been his 
 assailants in the famous battle of RoncesvaUes. 
 A few years later Gascony was restored to the 
 son of Lupus. It was not till 872 that, 
 according to M. Guizot, the duchy of Gascony 
 became hereditary. Some hundred and fifty 
 
uas 
 
 ( 489 ) 
 
 Gav 
 
 years later (circa 1036), the title of Duke of 
 G-asoony passed over to the Dukes of Aqui- 
 taine, and from this time its history must he 
 read in connection with the last-mentioned 
 country. Soon after the marriage of Eleanor, 
 daughter of "William X., Duke of Aquitaine, 
 to Prince Henry (1152), it hecame part of the 
 English possessions in France. After the 
 loss of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Tou- 
 raine, it still remained an English depen- 
 dency, but daily became less firmly attached 
 to the English crown. Moreover, it was 
 divided against itself, its great nobles as a 
 rule adhering to French, and its great cities 
 to English, interests. By the Peace of 
 Bretigny (1360), it was handed over to 
 Edward together with Aquitaine, without any 
 reservation of homage to the French king ; 
 and Edward in return for this renounced his 
 claims on the crown of France. A century 
 later (1453) it was finally reunited to the 
 French kingdom. 
 
 GasC03riie, G-eneral, The Motion of 
 (1831). On April 12, after Lord J. Eussell had 
 stated the modifications which ministers pro- 
 posed to introduce into the Eef orm Bni, General 
 Gascoyne moved that, " the total number of 
 members returned to Parliament for Euglamd 
 and Wales ought not to be diminished." 
 This motion was carried by 299 to 291, though 
 it was quite evident that it was merely in- 
 tended to embarrass the ministry. 
 
 Gaspee Schooner, The, commanded 
 by Lieutenant Duddington, made itself con- 
 spicuous by its activity against smuggling. 
 It had more than once attacked the Newport, 
 ■a Providence packet. So on one occasion 
 when it was driven accidentally ashore, the 
 citizens of Providence captured, plundered, 
 and burnt it (1773). 
 
 Gates, SiK John [d. Aug. 22, 1553), one 
 of the strongest partisans of Northumberland, 
 was condemned and executed for his share in 
 the conspiracy to place Lady Jane Gi'ey on the 
 throne. His fellow conspirator. Sir Thomas 
 Palmer, suffered execution at the same time. 
 
 Ganden, John (J. 1605, d. 1662), was in 
 early life of Puritan tendencies, and sat in 
 the "Westminster Assembly, but was expelled 
 from that body. His zeal for Charles I. led 
 to his publishing JSikon Basilike, a work of 
 which he is generally reputed to be, at any 
 rate very largely, the author. At the Res- 
 toration he was made Bishop of Exeter; and, 
 in 1662, he was translated to Worcester. 
 He was much disgusted at the richer see of 
 Winchester being refused him. Clarendon 
 describes him as covetous, shifty, and self- 
 
 Gaunt, Elizabeth [d. 1685), was burned 
 to death in London for assisting Burton, one 
 of the Rye House conspirators, to escape after 
 the defeat of Monmouth at Sedgemoor. 
 Hist.— 16* 
 
 Gaunt, John op. [Lancaster, John, 
 Duke of.] 
 
 Gavelkind (A.-S. Gafol) has been defined 
 by Mr. Elton as " the tenure of socage accor- 
 ding to the customs of Kent, and not merely 
 a peculiar mode of descent known upon free- 
 hold and copyhold alike in several counties." 
 Before the Conquest, the tenants on another 
 man's land held their estates for payment of 
 rent which was generally discharged by 
 labour and in kind rather than by money. 
 Lawyers are pretty generally agTeed that 
 the Kentish estates held by this tenure 
 represent the socage tenure which before the 
 Conquest was common to the country at 
 large, but has only in this single county 
 succeeded in holding its own against the 
 changes introduced by the growth of the feudal 
 system. The chief customs incidental to 
 gavelkind are : that, on the death of a land- 
 owner, Ms landed property is to be divided 
 amongst all his sons, and does not pass in 
 entirety to the eldest-bom ; that a tenant 
 can alienate his land at the age of fifteen ; 
 and that lands do not escheat on attainder for 
 felony, &c. All lands lying in Kent are 
 reckoned to be held by this tenure unless it 
 can be proved otherwise, and it is said that 
 during the reign of Henry YI. there were 
 not more than thirty or forty estates that did 
 not come under this heading. 
 
 Elton, Tenures m Kent. [T. A. A.] 
 
 Gaveston, Piers {d. 1312), was the son 
 of a Gascon knight who had been a servant 
 of Edward I. Piers was selected by the king 
 as the comrade of Prince Edward, and speedily 
 acquired a great influence over the weak mind 
 of the young prince. The king, seeing the 
 danger of this, had banished G-avestou, in 
 February, 1307, and on his deatl-bed com- 
 manded his son never to recall him. .But 
 Edward II. was no sooner king than Gaveston 
 returned, and was made Earl of 'Cornwall. 
 He at once became the chief man in 
 the kingdom, was appointed Custos of the 
 RealiH during the king's absence, and inany 
 valuable possessions and wardships were 
 heaped upon him. He was an accomplished 
 knight, of great bravery and ambition, but 
 insolent and avaricious, and his head was 
 completely turned by the favours lavished 
 upon him. He indulged in coarse satire 
 against the nobles, and surrounded himself 
 with a train of retainers, many of whom were 
 notorious robbers and homicides. In May, 
 1308, Edward was compelled to banish him ; 
 but his exile was converted into a new dignity 
 by his being made viceroy 'Of Ireland. In 
 this capacity he showed some courage and 
 skill, but 'the king could not live without 
 him, and he returned to England, in 1309. 
 Banished again in 1311, he was recalled in 
 January, 1312, when the barons detei-mined 
 to destroy him. He was besieged in Scar- 
 borough Castle, and surrendered on promise 
 
Gaz 
 
 ( 490 ) 
 
 u-en 
 
 of his life. But he was seized by the Earl of 
 Warwick, and, on June 19, 1312, beheaded 
 jn Blaeldow Hill. 
 
 PauU, Englische Geschiohte; Stubbs, Const. 
 Hist ; Pearson, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Gazette, The London, is said to be the 
 oldest English newspaper, and the oflScial 
 channel of all public annouocements. A 
 Gazette was first published in 1642, but the 
 first of the existing series was issued at Ox- 
 ford, Nov. 7, 166.5, whither the court had 
 gone to escape the Great Plague. On Feb. 5, 
 1666, the London series began. Until after 
 the Revolution, its meagxe two pages, pub- 
 lished twice a week, formed the only news- 
 paper. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of England,. 
 
 Geddes, Jenny, was a woman who is said 
 to have thro wn a stool at the head of the Bishop 
 of Edinburgh, on the occasion of the riot in 
 St. Giles's Church, when Laud's Liturgy was 
 first read in Scotland, Easter, 1637. 
 
 Geddington, The Council or (1188), 
 was the assembly which enacted the Saladin 
 Tithe, the first tax on movables. 
 
 Geese, The Wild, was the name given to 
 young Irishmen who were recruited for the 
 Lrish Brigade in the French service, largely 
 from Kerry. In 1721, as many as 20,000 are 
 said to have left the country. In 1730 
 and 1741, French officers were allowed 
 to recruit in Ireland by the government. 
 The time when the Wild Geese were most 
 numerous, however, was the Spanish War 
 (17S9— 1748). 
 
 Gelt, The Battle op the (or Chelft), was 
 fought in North Cumberland, Feb-.,. 1570, be- 
 tween the royal troops under Lord Hunsdon, 
 and the rebels and borderers under Leonard 
 Dicre. In spite of the desperate bravery 
 of the insurgents, they were completely de- 
 feated. 
 
 General Warrants, for the apprehen- 
 sion of all persons suspected without naming 
 any one in particular, were frequently issued 
 for offences against the government by the 
 Star Chamber and under the Stuarts, as well 
 as during the first half of the eighteenth 
 century. In the case of Wilkes and No. 45 
 of the North Briton, a general warrant 
 was issued by Lord Halifax, under which 
 forty-nine persons were arrested. Wilkesj 
 on the ground that the warrant was illegal, 
 brought an action against the Under Secre- 
 tary of State and obtained £1,000 damages. 
 In 1765 general warrants were pronounced 
 illegal by Lord Mansfield and the judges of 
 the King's Bench, on the ground that no de- 
 gree of antiquity can give sanction to a usage 
 bad in itself, and that "general warrants are 
 no warrants at all because they name no one." 
 This opinion was confirmed by the House of 
 Commons in 1766. 
 
 Geneva Convention, The, settled a 
 
 serious disagreement between Great Britain 
 and the United States of America. During 
 the civil war between the Northern and 
 Southern States of America, a , ship called 
 No. 290 was built at Liverpool to act as 
 a privateer in the service of the Southern 
 States. Before she was completed her des- 
 tination and purpose were made known 
 to the English government, but owing to 
 difficulties in the law and the illness of a law- 
 officer of the crown, the orders given to 
 arrest her did not arrive at Liverpool until 
 after she had left that port on the pretence 
 of a trial trip. She left the Mersey on July 
 29, 1862 ; proceeded to the island of Ter- 
 ceira ; took in equipment and armament ; 
 and began to act against the Northern ship- 
 ping, assuming the name of Alabama. On 
 June 19, 1864, the Alabama was sunk off 
 Cherbourg, in an engagement with the 
 Federal war steamer Kearsage. After the 
 conclusion of the war, claims for compensa- 
 tion for the damage done by the Alabama and 
 other cruisers were made against the British 
 government. After many attempts at settle- 
 ment had failed, it was arranged, in February, 
 1871, that a joint commission should meet at 
 Washington to settle the Alabama claims 
 and other outstanding differences between 
 the United States and Great Britain. On 
 May 8 the high joint commissioners signed 
 the Treaty of Washington, which estabhshed 
 a board of arbitration for considering the 
 Alabama and similar claims, "which are to 
 be recognised as national, and are to be 
 settled on the principle of responsibility for 
 depredations where the government had not 
 exercised the utmost possible diligence and 
 caution to prevent the fitting-out of priva- 
 teers." After the signature of the treaty a 
 question arose between the two governments 
 as to what classes of claims should be sub- 
 mitted for arbitration. The British govern- 
 ment was willing to compensate all private 
 individuals for any loss they might have 
 suffered by the action of the cruisers. The 
 American government demanded, in addition 
 ta this, the costs of pursuing the privateers, 
 the losses incurred by higher premiums for 
 insurance, and by the prolongation of the 
 war. After a correspondence, the Americans 
 declared that they could not withdraw from 
 the case which they had submitted, and they 
 teft the responsibility of abrogating the 
 treaty to England. The tribunal of arbi- 
 tration met at Geneva in December, 1871. 
 It consisted of Sir Alexander Cockburn, 
 who was nominated by England, Mr. C. F. 
 Adams, by America, Count F. Sclopis, by 
 Italy, M. Jacob Staempfli, by Switzer- 
 land, and the Viscount d'ltajuba, by Brazil. 
 Lord Tenterden and Mr. Bancroft Davis 
 were appointed the agents respectively of 
 Jingland and America. The case and counter- 
 case were presented on AprU 15, 1872, and 
 
Geo 
 
 (491 ) 
 
 Geo 
 
 the final deoision was given on September 14 
 of the same year. In the meantime the 
 trihunal had determined that the indirect 
 claims did not constitute a vaKd ground for 
 compensation, and should not come within 
 the purview of the trihunal. This decision 
 was accepted by the American government, 
 The tribunal of arbitration found unani- 
 mously that Great Britain was liable for the 
 acta committed by the Alabama, " having 
 failed by omission to fulfil the duties pre- 
 scribed by the first and third of the rules 
 established by the sixth article of the Treaty 
 of Washington." With regard to the Oreto, 
 afterwards called the Florida, all but Sir 
 Alexander Cockburn found that Great Britain 
 was liable for the acts committed by that 
 vessel. Three of the arbitrators found against 
 Great Britain in the case of the Shenandoah, 
 on account of the negligence shown by the 
 authorities at Melbourne in permitting the 
 clandestine enlistment of men within that 
 port. With regard to the tenders, the tri- 
 bunal unanimously found " that such tenders 
 or auxiUary vessels being properly regarded 
 as accessories, must necessarily follow the lot 
 of their principals, and be submitted to the 
 same decision which applies to them respec- 
 tively." With regard to the other vessels 
 mentioned in the claims, the tribunal decided 
 that partly Great Britain was not responsible, 
 and partly that they were excluded from con- 
 sideration for want of evidence. They re- 
 jected the cUims for expenditure incurred in 
 the pursuit and capture of the cruisers, and 
 they fixed the sum to be paid by Great Britain 
 at 15,500,000 dollars in gold, amounting to 
 about £3,229,166 13s. 4d. sterling, rg. b.] 
 
 Geoffrey, Archbishop of York (*. 1168 ? 
 d. 1213), was a natural son of Henry II. by the 
 Fair Rosamond. In 1173 the king procured 
 his election to the bishopric of Lincoln, and 
 in 1191 he was made Archbishop of York. In 
 1174 he aided his father against his rebellious 
 brothers, and seems to have been appointed 
 Chancellor about this time, an ofiice he con- 
 tinued to hold till his father's death. He dis- 
 tinguished himself greatly in the war against 
 France (1187 — 89), and was the only one of 
 Heni-y II. 's children who was present at his 
 death-bed. During Eichard l.'s absence from 
 England, he quarrelled with Longchamp 
 (q.v.), and the violent conduct of the latter on 
 this occasion was one of the causes of his 
 dismissal from office. His opposition to John's 
 oppressive taxation caused his banishment in 
 ,1207, and he remained in exile till his death. 
 " The affectionate duty which he showed to 
 his father," says Mr. Foss, " must incline us 
 to a favourable interpretation of his conduct in 
 the two succeeding reigns, and induce us to 
 attribute his misfortunes to the irritability of 
 Eichard and the overbearing tyranny of John, 
 each of whom his independence of character 
 and his strict sense of justice would, though 
 
 in a different manner, excite. . . He must 
 ever hold in history the character of a valiant 
 soldier, an able commander, a wise counsellor, 
 and an excellent son." 
 
 Geoffrey of Anjou (J. 1114, d. 1151), 
 the father of Henry II., was the son of Fulk 
 V. of Anjou. On the death of the Emperor 
 Henry V., Henry I. determined to marry his 
 daughter Maud to Geoffrey, the heir of 
 Anjou. The match was, from one point of 
 view, a wise one, as it put an end to the 
 series of wars between Normandy and Anjou 
 which had raged for so long, but the Angevin 
 match was unpopular with the Norman nobles 
 and prevented Maud's being recognised as 
 queen. During the civil wars between 
 Stephen and the Empress Maud, Geoffrey was 
 principally occupied with endeavouring to 
 enforce her claims to Normandy. 
 
 Geoffrey of Britanny (*. 1158, d. 
 1186), a son of Henry II. and Eleanor, was 
 married when a child to Constance, daughter 
 and heiress of Conan, Duke of Britanny. 
 In 1173 he joined his elder brother Henry 
 in rebellion against his father, and put him- 
 self forward as the champion of Breton 
 independence. The conspiracy was defeated, 
 and Henry forgave his sons. In 1180 
 Geoffrey placed himself at the head of the 
 Poitevins who were in rebellion against 
 Eichard ; defeated in this attempt he retired 
 to the court of Philip Augustus, where he 
 spent the remainder of his life. He met 
 with his death in a tournament at Paris, 
 where he was accidentally thrown from his 
 horse and trampled to death. By his mar- 
 riage with Constance he had two children, 
 Arthur and Eleanor. 
 
 Lyttelton, Henry 11. 
 
 Geoffrey of Monmowth (^i- oirca U54) 
 
 was a writer of the twelfth century, of whose 
 personal history scarcely anything is known. 
 Like Giraldus "Cambrensia, he sprang from 
 the Norman settlers in Wales. He was 
 Archdeacon of Monmouth, and was taken 
 under the protection of Eobert, Earl of 
 Gloucester and Lord of Glamorgan, to whom 
 he dedicated his Eistoria Britomim. He was 
 consecrated Bishop of St. Asaph in 1152, and 
 died about 1154. Of the origin of his famous 
 History (first published in 1128) Geoffrey as- 
 serts " that his friend Walter, Archdeacon of 
 Oxford, brought with him into England from 
 Britanny an ancient book in the _ Breton 
 tongue, containing the history of this coun- 
 try from the arrival of ' Brutus the Trojan 
 to the year 689." Geoffrey's work was soon 
 translated into French, English, and Welsh, 
 and gradually became the great fountain- 
 head of romance, out of which the poets of 
 successive generations have drawn a flood 
 of fiction, that has left an indelible impress 
 upon our mediaeval literature. This work 
 has been edited by Dr. Giles, and a trans- 
 
Creo 
 
 ( 492 ) 
 
 Geo 
 
 lation is to be found ia Bohn's Antiquarian 
 Library. 
 
 Geoffrey of Nautes, Eakl op Martel 
 {d. 1158), was the son of Geoffrey of Anjou 
 and the Empress Maud. On the accession of 
 his brother, Henry II., to the English throne, 
 he claimed the county of Anjou, but he was 
 compelled to submit to Henry in 1156, and to 
 relinquish his claims on the promise of re- 
 cei^'ing an annual pension. 
 
 George of Benmaj^k, Prince (S. 1653, 
 d. 1708), was the second sonof Frederick III. of 
 Denmark and Sophia of Luneburg. On July 
 28, 1683, he married Princess Anne, daughter 
 of James II. It was hinted to him that the 
 claim of his wife and himself to the throne 
 might be preferred by James to that of Wil- 
 liam and Mary if they became converts to 
 Catholicism ; and George seems to have been 
 attracted by the idea. The marriage was per- 
 haps intended as a blind to the English Pro- 
 testants. "When William of Orange landed 
 in England, George deserted James at An- 
 dover. As man after man joined the invader. 
 Prince George uttered his usual exclamation, 
 "Est-il possible?" "What," said the king, 
 when he heard that his son-in-law, influenced 
 by Lord Churchill, had followed their e.x- 
 ample, " is ' Est-il possible ' -gone too ? After 
 all, a good trooper would have been a greater 
 Joss." Soon after the accession of William 
 III., he was created Duke of Cumberland. 
 He offered to accompany William to Ireland, 
 but the offer was declined. AVhen Queen 
 Anne ascended the throne, he at once accepted 
 the jjosition of "his wife's subject." He was 
 created Lord High Admiral, but a commission 
 was appointed to perform his duties. His 
 request to be placed in command of the Dutch 
 army was disregarded in favour of Marl- 
 borough. In 1702 he was compelled to vote 
 ior the Bill against Occasional Conformity, 
 although himself a notorious example of it. 
 In 1707 an attack was directed against the 
 naval administration. The object of censure, 
 was, however, not so much the Prince as Ad- 
 miral Churchill, the brother of Marlborough. 
 Towards the end of his life the Tories used 
 him as an instrument to push their interests 
 with the queen. As he lay on his death-bed, 
 the Whigs, in order to procure the admission 
 of Somers to office, threatened again to 
 assault the management of the navy. George 
 was an exceedingly incompetent man. " I 
 have tried him drunk," said Charles II. , " and 
 I have tried him sober, and there is nothing 
 in him." He was a good husband, and Anne 
 was much attached to him. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; Barnet, Hist, of 
 
 His Own Time; Stanhope, Beign of Queen Anne; 
 
 Wyon, Rei^n of Queen Anne, 
 
 George I. (J. May 28, 1660, c. 
 August 1, 1714, d. June 10, 1727) was 
 the first sovereign of the present Hanoverian 
 
 dynasty. Prince George Louis was the sou 
 of Ernest Augustus of Hanover, and Sophia, 
 daughter of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, 
 and granddaughter of James I. of England. 
 During his father's lifetime he served in the 
 Imperial army against the Turks, at the siege 
 of Vienna, and on the Danube, in Italy, and on 
 the Ehine. In 1681 he visited England, and 
 in the following year his marriage with 
 his cousin, Sophia Dorothea of Zell, imited 
 the two branches of the house of LUneburg. 
 The unfortunate princess was divorced and 
 imprisoned, in 1694, in the castle of Ahlden, 
 for the remainder of her life, for an intrigue 
 with Count Konigsmark. George succeeded 
 his father as Elector of Hanover in 1698. He 
 led some auxiliaries to the aid of Frederick 
 III. of Denmark (1700). In 1702 he joined 
 the grand alliance against France. In 1707, 
 at Marlborough's request, he was appointed 
 commander of the Imperial forces. He was, 
 however, much offended at the suggestion 
 that he should divide his forces with Prince 
 Eugene! When at length he took the field, 
 he failed to reduce the towns of Franche 
 Comte. Shortly afterwards he became recon- 
 ciled to Marlborough. In 1710 he resigned 
 his command. He drew up a memorial to 
 the queen, protesting against the terms of 
 the Peace of Utrecht. After the Tories gained 
 the upper hand, he was in constant communi- 
 cation with the Whig Opposition, but does 
 not seem to have taken any serious steps 
 towards securing the succession. He opposed 
 sending a writ to his son, the Electoral prince, 
 as Duke of Cambridge: and answered the 
 queen's angry letter in submissive terms. In 
 May, 1714, he joined in the Treaty of Eas- 
 tadt. On the death of the queen, he was 
 proclaimed King of England, hut did not 
 arrive in this country until late in September,, 
 and was not crowned until Oct. 31. He at once 
 nominated an entirely Whig ministry. His 
 accession was on the whole popular, although 
 riots broke out in several of the large towns. 
 The following year witnessed the outbreak of 
 the Jacobite rebellion. The government at 
 once took vigorous measures for its suppres- 
 sion by suspending the Habeas Corpus Act, 
 summoning troops from Hanover, and arrest- 
 ing the more active Jacobites. Ormond's 
 attempts to land on the English coast were a 
 failure. The insurrection in Scotland for a 
 brief period assumed a formidable aspect. 
 The Enghsh revolters were utterly defeated 
 at Preston, and shortly before. Mar had suf- 
 fered a reverse at Sheriffimuir. The arrival 
 of the Pretender failed to restore confidence, 
 to the Jacobite troops, and, with his flight, 
 the insurrection may be said to have termi- 
 nated. The chief events of the next year 
 were the punishment of the rebels, and 
 the passing of the Septennial Act. Imme- 
 diately afterwards George, much against 
 the wish of his ministers, insisted on going to 
 Hanover, accompanied by Stanhope. He. was 
 
Geo 
 
 (493 ) 
 
 Geo 
 
 with difficulty inducpd to allow his eldest son 
 to act as " Guardian of the Eealm and Lieu- 
 tenant "• in his absence. Negotiations for the 
 Triple Alliance were at once set on foot. 
 George insisted on an English fleet heing sent 
 to the Baltic in order to oppose the designs of 
 Charles XII. of Sweden against Bremen and 
 Verden, and was anxious to declare war against 
 Russia. Shortly afterwards Townshend, who 
 had discountenanced George'sEuropean policy, 
 was dismissed from office, and was followed by 
 Walpole. In June, 1717, the Triple Alliance 
 between England, France, and Holland was 
 concluded. For a brief period England was 
 seriously menaced by the schemes of Charles 
 XII. and Alberoni, in conjunction with the 
 malcontents in France, in favour of a Stuart 
 restoration. These were thwarted by the death 
 of Charles in the next year. Alberoni aimed 
 at the destruction of the Treaty of Utrecht, 
 and directed his efforts against the Austrians 
 in Italy. Admiral Byng was therefore sent 
 to the Mediterranean, and Austria joining 
 the Triple Alliance, which thereupon became 
 a Quadruple Alliance, the Spanish fleet was 
 destroyed off Cape Passaro, and Alberoni fell. 
 An abortive expedition, fitted out in favour of 
 the Pretender, to the Highlands, was one of 
 his last efforts. Sweden and Denmark were 
 compelled to desist from hostilities, and, in 
 1720, Stanhope had secured the peace of 
 Europe. Meanwhile, at home, the impeach- 
 ment of Oxford was a complete failure. The 
 Schism Act was repealed : but the Peerage 
 Bill, a Whig measure, was rejected through 
 the influence of Walpole, now leader of the 
 Opposition (Dec, 1719). The year 1720 
 witnessed the terrible downfall of the South 
 Sea Scheme. The directors were punished ; 
 Sunderland was forced to resign, and the 
 death of Stanhope left Walpole without a 
 rival. For a brief period the hopes of the 
 Jacobites revived ; but information of Bishop 
 Atterbury's plot was given to the English 
 government by the French minister, Dubois. 
 The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended for a 
 year, sums were granted for an increase of the 
 army, a tax of £100,000 was collected from 
 the Non-jurors, and Atterbury was forced to 
 leave the kingdom. Soon afterwards Wal- 
 pole's jealousy caused a quarrel to break out 
 between himself and Carteret ; the latter 
 withdrew to the Lord-Lieutenancy of Ire- 
 land (1724). Then the country was wildly 
 excited by the government patent granted 
 to Wood, giving him power to coin far- 
 things and halfpence to the amount of 
 £108,000. Walpole was obliged to with- 
 draw the obnoxious patent. Great excitement 
 was also caused in Scotland by the malt-tax 
 being changed into a charge of threepence 
 upon every barrel of ale. The remainder^ of 
 the reign offers little interest in home affairs. 
 Abroad, Walpole was thwarted by the in- 
 triguesof the Spanishminister, Baron Eipperda. 
 The latter wished to upset the_ arrangements 
 
 of the Congress of Cambrai, for the mainte- 
 nance of the Quadruple AlUanee, and to revive 
 the old connection between Spain and Austria. 
 Accordingly, in August, 1625, the Treaty of 
 Vienna was concluded between Austria and 
 Spain, with a secret treaty arranging marriages 
 between the two houses, the restoration of 
 the Stuarts, and the surrender of Gibraltar 
 and Minorca. The Jacobites were very active 
 in these intrigues with the Spanish court. In 
 opposition to these designs the Treaty of 
 Hanover was signed by England, France, 
 and Prussia. Eipperda fell, but his policy 
 was still continued. There was great ex- 
 citement in England, and a squadron was 
 despatched to blockade Porto Bello. Austria, 
 influenced by the policy of Prussia, deter- 
 mined to withdraw from her unpleasant 
 position, and preliminaries of peace were 
 signed at Paris (May, 1727). At home, the 
 Opposition was vehement in its attacks on 
 Walpole, and urged the full restoration of 
 Bolingbroke. Their intrigues were cut short 
 bj' the death of George at Osnabriick, on 
 June 9, on his way back from Hanover. 
 Mr. Thackeray's lively sketch of George I.'s 
 character is perhaps a better estimate than 
 that of some more pretentious writers. 
 " George was not a lofty monarch certainly ; 
 he was not a patron of the fine arts, but he 
 was not a hypocrite, he was not revenge- 
 ful, he was not extravagant. Though a 
 despot in Hanover, he was a moderate ruler 
 in England. His aim was to leave it to itself 
 as much as possible, and to live out of it as 
 much as he could. His heart was in Han- 
 over. . . He was more than fifty years of 
 age when he came amongst us ; we took him 
 because he served our turn ; '^e laughed at 
 Ms uncouth German ways, and sneered at 
 him. He took our loyalty for what it was 
 worth ; laid hands on what money he could ; 
 kept us assuredly from Popery and wooden 
 shoes. Cynical and selfish as he was, he was 
 better than a king out of St. Germains, with 
 the French king's orders in his pocket, and a 
 swarm of Jesuits in his train." 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of England ; Lecty, Hist, o^ 
 England ; Hallam, Const. Hist. ; The Stuart 
 Payers; Coxe, Walpole; Boyer, Folitical State 
 of Great Britain. rp_ §_ pi 
 
 George II, (*■ Oct. 30, 1683, s. June 11, 
 1727, d. Oct. 25, 1760), was the son of George 
 Louis, Elector of Hanover, afterwards George 
 I. of England, and the unfortunate Sophia of 
 Zell. In 1706 he became a peer of England, 
 with the title of Duke of Cambridge. He had 
 married Caroline of Anspaoh. In spite of his 
 laxity of morals, he was much attached to his 
 wife, andstronglyinfluencedby her. He greatly 
 distinguished himself at the battle of Ouden- 
 arde (1708). Towards the end of 1713, the 
 Whig leaders proposed that his writ as Duke 
 of Cambridge should be asked for in order that 
 he might be present to thwart the designs of 
 the ministry in favour of the Pretender. 
 
Geo 
 
 ( 494 ) 
 
 Geo 
 
 Anne waa greatly ofiended, and although the 
 ■writ was issued, the measure was given up. 
 In 1714 he accompanied his father to Eng- 
 land, and hecame Prince ol Wales. In 1716 
 the smouldering quarrel hetween the king 
 and his son broke out into flame. The prince 
 insulted the Duke of Newcastle, who was 
 present as proxy for the king at the christen- 
 ing of the prince's eldest son. George was 
 expelled from St. James's, and his children 
 taken under charge of the king. He became 
 popular with the nation, and openly raised 
 the standard of opposition to the court and 
 ministry. It was impossible, however, to 
 ignore his claims to the regency during his 
 father's absence from England. In 1719 
 Stanhope and Sunderland introduced the 
 Peerage BiU as a blow at his power when 
 he should ascend the throne. But the 
 measure was thrown out by a large majority 
 in the Commons. A formal reconciliation 
 was effected by Walpole between the prince 
 and the king in 1720. In June, 1727, on the 
 death of his father, George ascended the 
 English throne. His reign may be roughly 
 divided into two parts : (1) the peace period to 
 the fall of Walpole in 1742, and (2) the war 
 period to the death of the king in 1760. For 
 a little while it seemed as if Walpole had 
 fallen. Sir Spencer Compton was directed to 
 form a, ministry ; but Walpole explained his 
 views on foreign policy to the king : he was 
 supported by the influence of the queen, and 
 wisely offered to increase the Civil List. 
 Accordingly, Walpole continued Prime Minis- 
 ter, opposed by the Whig malcontents whom 
 his love of power had caused to desert 
 him, and supported by a bought majority. 
 The difficulties with Spain were settled in 
 Nov., 1729, by the Treaty of Seville, a 
 defensive alliance between England, Spain, 
 France, and eventually Holland. English 
 trade with South America was thus restored, 
 and the Asiento confirmed to the South Sea 
 Company. The Emperor, finding himself 
 deserted, joined with England, Holland, and 
 Spain, in the second Treaty of Vienna 
 (March, 1731), which practically confirmed 
 the Treaty of Seville. In this year, Wal- 
 pole, by compelling Townshend, as leader of 
 the Upper House, to reject the Pension BiU, 
 caused him to retire from the ministry. 
 For two years Walpole devoted himsebt to 
 reforms at home. In 1733 his excise on 
 salt was followed up by a proposal for 
 a tax on wine and tobacco, and a system 
 of warehousing to prevent frauds on the 
 the Customs. Such was the unpopularity of 
 the measure that the minister was compelled 
 to withdraw it. Walpole kept aloof from the 
 war which broke out in the following year 
 between the Empire, and France and Spain. 
 Through the mediation of France and Eng- 
 land, the Definitive Peace of Vienna was 
 eventually signed in the year 1738. The elec- 
 tions of 1735 were stubbornly contested, but 
 
 Walpole retained his majority. Bolingbroke 
 retired to France, and the Prince of Wales 
 assumed the leadership of the Opposition. In 
 1736 Edinburgh was agitated by the Porteous 
 riots. In 1737 a publio quarrel broke out 
 between George and his son on the sub- 
 ject of the prince's jointure. The ministry 
 was victorious, but the Opposition rallied 
 round the prince at Norfolk House. Shortly 
 afterwards the death of the queen deprived 
 George of a faithful wife, and Walpole of a 
 true friend. He retained, however, his in- 
 fluence over George. The Opposition attacked 
 the minister's peace policy, the story of 
 " Jenkins's ear " was brought up against 
 him, and the king was eager for war with 
 Spain. Failing to carry their motion against 
 Walpole's convention with that country, the 
 Opposition seceded from the House. Wal- 
 pole was, however, forced to declare war 
 (October, 1739), rather than resign, and at 
 once the Jacobite hopes revived. The expe- 
 ditions to Spain were not successful. In 1 742 
 the elections gave the government • but a, 
 small majority, and, being defeated on the 
 Chippenham Election Petition, Walpole re- 
 signed. A new ministry, in which several 
 of Walpole's supporters had places, was 
 formed under Wilmington, formerly Sir Spen- 
 cer Compton. On the death of Wilmington, 
 in the following year, Henry Pelham de- 
 feated Lord Bath, the rival candidate for the 
 Premiership. Europe was now menaced by 
 the question of the Austrian Succession (q.v.). 
 Subsidies were promptly voted to Maria 
 Theresa, and ao army of 30,000 English and 
 Hanoverians sent to the Low Countries. The 
 English fleet forced the Neapolitan king to 
 assume neutrality. The battle of Dettingen 
 (July, 1643), the last battle in which an Eng- 
 lish king took part, and in which George dis- 
 tinguished himself, resulted in a defeat of the 
 French, after ineffectual negotiations for 
 peace. England joined Holland, Austria, 
 Saxony, and Sardinia in the Treaty of 
 Worms, Sept., 1743, for the maintenance of 
 the Pragmatic Sanction. A counter-league, 
 known as that of Frankfoit, with France at 
 its head, was soon formed. The French now 
 prepared an expedition under Marshal Saxe 
 to invade England, and restore the Stuarts, 
 but a violent storm prevented the transports 
 from sailing. There was now a change of 
 ministry; Carteret being driven from office, 
 and the Pelham administration established 
 on a " broad bottom." The system of Ger- 
 man subsidies was largely carried on. The 
 campaign in the Netherlands of 1745 termi- 
 nated in the defeat of Fontenoy. The same 
 year was rendered memorable in English 
 annals by the invasion of Prince Charles 
 Edward. [Jacobites.] He defeated Cope at 
 Prestonpans in September, and marched 
 as far as Derby, to the great alarm of the 
 government. He then retreated into Scot- 
 land, and won the battle of Falkirk near by 
 
(reo 
 
 ( 495 ) 
 
 Geo 
 
 Stirling, but his army was cut to pieces at 
 Culloden, in April, 1746, and he escaped with 
 difficulty to the Continent. In the midst of 
 this crisis the Pelhams, failing to procure 
 the admission of Pitt to office, had resigned ; 
 but, on Grenville's failing to form a ministry, 
 they returned to power, having gained their 
 point. Abroad, the Duke of Cumberland's 
 campaign in the Netherlands was not success- 
 ful. At length the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 (q.v.) brought the struggle to a close, the 
 terms being a mutual restoration of con- 
 quests (1748). Pelham thereupon introduced 
 an important financial measure, proposing to 
 reduce the interest on the national debt to 
 three per cent. This was followed up by the 
 Reform of the Calendar in 1751, and two 
 years later by Hardwicke's Marriage Act. A 
 BUI for the Naturalisation of Jews was car- 
 ried, but popular sentiment necessitated its 
 repeal. The Wesleyans became numerous, 
 arid exercised a reviving influence on religion. 
 In 1754, on the death of Pelham, the incom- 
 petent Newcastle assumed the government. 
 " Now I shall have no more peace," said 
 George II. A new war was breaking out with 
 France in India and America, and the Seven 
 Years' War was on the verge of beginning. In 
 1756 war began. Minorca was captured by the 
 French owing to the weak conduct of Admiral 
 Byng, and Newcastle, deserted by Fox, was 
 obliged to resign. Pitt failed to form a 
 double ministry, until, by a, coalition with 
 Newcastle, the ministry was constituted 
 which so gloriously carried on the war. Vigo- 
 rous measures were at once set on foot on the 
 Continent. Austria, France, and Eussia 
 fought against England and Prussia. The 
 traditional policy of England was truly 
 upset. [Seven Years' War.] A long series 
 of expeditions kept up the fame of the 
 British arms. The attack on Eochefort was 
 unsuccessful, nor was the enterprise against 
 Louisbourg, in America, attended with better 
 results. Finally, the Duke of Cumberland, 
 beaten at Hastenbeck, and surrounded by the 
 French at Kloster-Seven, was compelled to 
 capitulate. In India, however, Olive had 
 gained the great victory of Plassey. In 1758, 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick was appointed 
 commander in the place of Cumberland. 
 After his victory at Crefeld, a large body of 
 troops was sent to assist him. The expeditions 
 against Cherbourg and St. Male were pro- 
 ductive of little result. In America the 
 English took Louisbourg, Fort Duquesne, and 
 Ticonderoga. The year 1759 was one of the 
 most glorious in our history. In January, 
 Goree, in Airica, was captured; in June, 
 Guadaloupe. In August Ferdinand of Bruns- 
 wick gained a great victory at Minden, and 
 saved HanoVer ; in September Admiral Bos- 
 cawen defeated the French off Lagos ; in 
 October, Wolfe died before Quebec ; in 
 November, Hawke defeated Conflans ofi 
 Uuiberon. In India the siege of Madras was 
 
 raised, and Coote took Wandewash. The 
 great victories of Frederick, in the following 
 year, may be said to have concluded the war. 
 At the moment of prosperity, George died 
 suddenly on October 25, 1760. Lord Stan- 
 hope's estimate of his character is that 
 " he had scarcely one kingly quality, except 
 personal courage and justice. Avarice, the 
 most unprincely of all passions, sat unshrined 
 in the inmost recesses of his bosom .... 
 Business he understood, and transacted with 
 pleasure. Like his father, he was far too Hano- 
 verian in his politics, nor wholly free from 
 the influence of his mistresses. But his reign 
 of thirty-one years deserves this praise, that 
 it never once invaded the rights of the nation, 
 nor harshly enforced the prerogatives of the 
 crown ; that its last period was illumined by 
 the glories of Wolfe and of Chatham; and 
 that it left the dynasty secure, the constitu- 
 tion unimpaired, and the people prosperous." 
 Stanhope, Hist, o/ England,! Leoky, Hist, of 
 Sngkmd; Maoaulay, Essays; Hervey, Meinoirs 
 of the Sei'jn of George II.; Dodington, Diaru; 
 Horace Walpole, Memoirs; Waldegrave, Me- 
 moirs; Southey, Life of Wesley. rg_ j_ L l 
 
 George III. (*• June^4, 1738, s. Oct. 
 25, 1760, d. Jan. 20, 1820) was the son of 
 Frederick, Prince of Wales, and the grand- 
 son of George II. His father died in 1751, 
 leaving him to the care of his clever mother, 
 a princess of Saxe-Gotha, and of Lord Bute, 
 by whom he was brought up in the Anti- 
 Whig principles, set forth in Bolingbroke's 
 Idea of Patriot King. After a love affair with 
 Lady Sarah Lennox, which was nipped in 
 the bud, George married, in 1761, the Prin- 
 cess Charlotte of Meoklenburg-Strelitz. Im- 
 mediately upon his accession, the king set 
 himself to break the power of the Whig 
 houses. By the aid of the " king's friends," 
 Pitt was driven from power (1761), and his 
 policy reversed by the Peace of Paris (1763). 
 The incompetence of Lord Bute, however, 
 postponed the triumph of Toryism, and 
 George was forced to submit to the obnoxious 
 administrations of George Grenville (1763), 
 and of Rockingham (1766). At length Pitt, 
 now Earl of Chatham, who had broken with the 
 Whigs, consented to come to the king's rescue, 
 but a nervous disorder soon forced him 
 to retire, and the administration was con- 
 tinued by the Duke of Grafton, the king all 
 the while steadily pursuing his policy of 
 breaking up party ties, and so making su- 
 preme the influence of the crown. The per- 
 secution of Wilkes was made a personal 
 question; but the king was as yet popular, 
 and the unconstitutional conduct of the 
 government excited little indignation outside 
 London and Middlesex. At last, in 1770, ten 
 years after his accession, George found him- 
 self in a position to appoint Lord North 
 Prime Minister, and for twelve years personal 
 government obtained in England, the Premier 
 being nothing more than a passive instrument 
 
Geo 
 
 ( 40G ) 
 
 Geo 
 
 in the hands of Ma sovereign. They wore 
 years of disaster and disgrace. At home the 
 royal influence was used unscrupulously to 
 further particular measures and to browbeat 
 the Opposition, appointments in the army 
 were tampered with, and the business in Par- 
 liament controlled. Abroad, the policy of 
 coercing the American colonies continued in 
 accordance with the express wish of the king, 
 was at first extremely popular in England, 
 nor did opinions begin to change until the 
 declaration of war had been followed by Bur- 
 goyne's surrender at Saratoga, and by the 
 intervention of France in the struggle (1J78). 
 Then North wished to resign in favour of 
 Lord Chatham, but George declined to " pos- 
 sess the crown under shackles ;" and by the 
 death, of the great statesman in the following 
 year, he was left free to carry on the " king's 
 war," in spite of the misgivings of the Prime 
 Minister, and the numerous resignations of 
 his colleagues. The storm was, however, 
 gathering to a head ; disaster followed dis- 
 aster in America ; at home the sullen discon- 
 tent of the masses found expression in the 
 dangerous Gordon Eiots ; there was a strong 
 demand for- economical reform ; Mr. Dunning 
 moved his famous resolutions against the 
 increasing influence of the crown. George 
 attempted to stave off the inevitable by nego- 
 tiating through Lord Thurlow with the Oppo- 
 sition, but he was checkmated by the sur- 
 render of Cornwallis at Yorktown, and North 
 resigned in March, 1782. Once more the 
 king was placed under the hateful thraldom 
 of the "Whigs. During Rockingham's brief 
 second ministry, he was forced to consent to 
 the acknowledgment of American indepen- 
 dence, and though he found Lord Shelburne 
 more pliable, the powerful coalition of Pox 
 and North, formed in 1783, came into office 
 with the express determination to break the 
 loyal authority. George resolved to appeal 
 to the country against the government. By 
 a most unconstitutional use of his personal 
 ioiuence in the House of Lords, he procured 
 the rejection of Fox's East India Bill, minis- 
 ters were dismissed, and after Pitt, the new 
 Prime Minister,, had roused the emthusiasm of 
 the nation by his gallant struggle against the 
 inajority in the Commons, Parliament was 
 dissolved in 1784, and the elections resulted 
 in the complete victory of the crown over the 
 Whig oligarchy. For the second time in the 
 reign the king had been able to override 
 the House of Commons, and he again found 
 himself in possession of a long lease of power 
 checked only by the fact that his minister 
 was not a mere servant like Lord North. A 
 period of considerable material progress fol- 
 lowed, during which Pitt's excellent adminis- 
 tration gained for the crown much popularity 
 unchecked by the king's well-known dislike 
 to parliamentary reform. It was, however, 
 a time of much misery to the king, who was 
 distressed by the irregularities of his sons, 
 
 and who in 1789 became afllicted with that 
 mental aberration of which symptoms had 
 appeared soon after his accession. At first 
 he was made considerably worse by the in- 
 capacity of the court doctors, but under the 
 skilful treatment of Dr. Willis he rapidly 
 recovered, and on April 23 personally at- 
 tended the Thanksgiving Service at St. Paul's. 
 His popularity, which was partly due no 
 doubt to the distrust with which the heir 
 apparent was regarded, was at its height 
 when the outburst of the French Eevolution 
 frightened even the greater part of the Whig 
 malcontents, as well as the mercantile and 
 propertied classes, into lending their support 
 to the throne. It was with the approval of the 
 upper classes that the king and his minister 
 entered upon that course of repression of 
 opinion which tended, more than anything 
 else, to make the lower orders espouse the 
 new gospel of democracy. It is unnecessary 
 to describe in detail Pitt's splendid efforts to 
 keep together the European coalition, which 
 apposed such a wavering front to the deter- 
 mined progress of the French arms. The 
 burdens imposed upon the nation, added to 
 the sufferings produced by bad harvests and 
 depression of trade, rapidly made the war 
 very unpopular, and with it the king, who 
 was assaulted by the mob when ho went to 
 open Parliament for the autumn session of 
 1795. Nevertheless, the struggle continued, 
 though Napoleon had appeared, and though 
 the victories won by English seamen could 
 not atone for the defeats experienced by Con- 
 tinental generals. In 1800 a lunatic named 
 Hatfield made an unsuccessful attempt to 
 shoot the king. Once more England's weak- 
 ness was Ireland's opportunity, and Pitt 
 wished to stave off rebellion hj emancipating 
 the Catholics. The king refused to agree to 
 such a measure,, alleging that it would be a 
 violation of the coronation oath, and finding 
 the minister determined, he was forced to 
 accept his resignation (March, 1801). The 
 shock to George was so great that it brought 
 on a fresh attack of insanity, from which 
 however, he soon recovered. Pitt's suc- 
 cessor was Addington, who was a second 
 North in point of subservience ; he was en- 
 abled to conclude the short-lived Peace of 
 Amiens in March, 1802,. but few believed it 
 to be real, least of all the king. War was 
 again declared in May, 1803, and it was 
 while he was urging forward with the utmost 
 zeal the preparations that were being made 
 to resist the French invader, that the king 
 became once more a prey to madness. He 
 rallied to discover that both the people and 
 Parliament were weary of the incapacity of 
 Addington, and clamouring for the return of 
 Pitt to power. Negotiations were opened; Pitt 
 wished to form a ministry on a broad basis, but 
 the king declined to admit Fox, whom he 
 personally disliked, and a government was 
 at length created of a completely Tory colour. 
 
Geo 
 
 (497) 
 
 Geo 
 
 It carried on the struggle against Napoleon 
 ■witli ^indifferent success until. 1806, when. 
 Pitt died, the news of the victory of Trafalgar 
 heing insufficient to rescue him from the. 
 dejection caused by the defeat of Austerlitz. 
 Again the king was forced to have recom-se 
 to the Opposition, and, sorely against his will, 
 was compelled to accept Box and GrenviUe 
 as leaders of a wide "Ministry of All the 
 Talents." 
 
 GrenviUe, weakened hy the death of Fox, 
 attempted to bring forward the Catholic 
 claims again, in. the form of a small measure 
 for the relief of officers in the army and navy. 
 It was about to become law, when the king, 
 alarmed by the resignation of Lord Sidmouth 
 (Addington), and encouraged by the promise 
 of the Duke of Portland to form a govern- 
 ment suitable to his wishes, called upon the 
 ministers to drop- the- bill. They obeyed, but 
 at the same time drew up a minute reserving 
 their right to. revive the question. This 
 George desired them, to withdraw, and.to.give 
 him a written, engagement that they would 
 never offer him any advice upon the subject 
 of Catholic concession. With great propriety 
 they declined to give any such pledge ; they 
 were promptly dismissed and replaced by a 
 ministry nominally le.d by the Duke of Port- 
 land, and really by Mr. Spencer Perceval. 
 A dissolution resulted once, more in the 
 national ratMcation of the sovereign!s uncon- 
 stitutional action (1807). This. was the king's 
 final triumph. The ministry ,,of which.Spencer 
 Perceval became the head in 1.809, was sup- 
 ported by too large a majority to be over- 
 thrown by any amount of blundering in its 
 dealings with. America, and gained some 
 credit from the accidental discovery of the 
 talents of "Wellington in Spain. In 1811 
 the reign came, ta all intents and purposes, 
 to an end. The-health of Georgelll., which 
 had been gravely affected by the failure of 
 the Duke of York in the W&lcheren expedi- 
 tion, broke down after the death of the 
 Princess Amelia, and he became hopelessly 
 insane. For nine more years he lingered on 
 mad, blind, and melancholy, but the glories of 
 the Peninsular "War and of "Waterloo, as well as 
 the social misery that followed the downfall 
 of Napoleon, have little to do with a king 
 who, if in full mental vigour would certainly 
 have identified himself with the praise, and 
 would not have shrunk from his share of 'the 
 blame. 
 
 It is impossible to give an exhaustive list of 
 the authorities for this long and important reign. 
 The general histories are those of Lord Stanhope 
 (to 1783), of Mr. Leoky, of Massey (1745—1802), 
 and of Harriet Martineau (from 1800). For con- 
 stitutional history, see Sir E. May's Const. Hist. 
 There are many good biographies of great states- 
 men, e.g., Pitt, by Lord Stanhope and Tomline ; 
 Chatham, by Thaclieray ; Shelhnr'n', by Lord E. 
 Pitzmaurioe ; Fox, by Earl Eussell ; The Early 
 Hist, of Foa!, by Mr. G. O. Trevelyan ; Perceval, 
 by Mr. Spencer Walpole ; Burlce, by Mr. John 
 Morley; Canning, by Bell and Stapleton. Of 
 memoirs, correspondence, &c,, the most im- 
 
 portant are those of Horace Walpole and Rock- 
 mghow; the Qrenville Papers ; theAucHand Cor- 
 respondmoe ; Buckingham's Memoirs of the Cowrt 
 andCaUnets of George III. ; .Tesse, JTemoirs of the 
 Life and Beign of George III. ; Malmesbury's 
 Coureapondmoe ; the Comwallis Oorres'pondence ; 
 Correspondence betwmn the King and North (pub. 
 1867). See also the Letters of Jimins ; Burke, 
 Works : Brougham, Historical Sketch; The An- 
 nual Begiiter;. Cobbett'a Parliamentary Hist. 
 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 George- IV. (-5. Aug. 12, 1762 ; .. Jan. 
 29, 1820; * Jam 26, 1830) was bom 
 upon the forty-seventh anniversary of the 
 accession of the house of Brunswick. The 
 education which his parents gave him was of 
 so strict and duU a kind that it would have 
 caused' amy boy of spirit to revolt. The 
 coldness and tedium of his father's court 
 developed- quickly the worst side of the 
 prince's character. At twenty he fell des- 
 perately in love with a Mrs. Fitz-Herbert, 
 whom he privately married, a marriage void by 
 peaaon of the Royal Marriage Act ; if it had 
 net been, it would have cost George the throne, 
 as Mrs. Fitz-Herbert was a Roman Catholic. 
 ©n his attaining twenty-one his father had 
 settled OH him £50,000 a year ; the revenues 
 of the Buchy of Cornwall amounted to 
 £12,000; and Parliament voted him £30,000 
 to start with, and the same amount to pay off 
 his debts. "Within a year hia debts amounted 
 to £160,000. The king added £10,000 to hia 
 allowance, which only served to encourage 
 his reckless extravagance. In the hope that 
 it might come- into power and so help him, 
 he allied himself closely with the Whig 
 party, which his father hated-. The action 
 of Fox in 1788 with regard to the Regency 
 Bill raised his hopes of improving his 
 position ; but they were disappointed by the 
 king's recovery. The "Whigs were evidently 
 a bJoken reed to lean upon; and Pitt with 
 inexorable coldneas refused to help him in 
 any way. The prince was thus thrown back 
 on his father ; and the king insisted on his 
 marriage. He was engaged in countless 
 intrigues; and to settle down into wedlock 
 was utterly distasteful, to him. Yet it was 
 his only chance of clearing himself from his 
 embarrassments; and in 1795 Parliament 
 undertook to discharge his debts, which 
 amounted to £650,000, on his marriage with 
 Princess Caroline of Brunswick, whom George 
 III. had selected as an eligible wife for his 
 son. The prince was drunk when he married 
 her, and before nine months passed by, had 
 openly separated from her, to return to his 
 old habits of vice and profligacy. The prince 
 continued to affect an attachment to the 
 Whigs and their political principles, and in 
 the meantime lived the life of a reckless 
 debauchee, day by day disgusting his friends 
 by his faithlessness, and alienating the people's 
 affections by the unconcealed profligacy of his 
 life. In 1803 Addington's government had 
 the boldness to procure an addition of £60,000 
 
Creo 
 
 ( 498 ) 
 
 Ger 
 
 to his income. In 1811 he found himself 
 compelled to accept the regency on terms 
 which he did his test to have modified. But 
 his conduct had disgusted his best friends, the 
 Whigs, who now hegan to see him in his 
 true colours. Finding that nothing was t® be 
 got from them, he deserted them in a moment, 
 accepted the regency on the terms proposed, 
 and retained .Perceval as Prime Minister. 
 His heartless conduct to his daughter, the 
 Princess Charlotte, increased his unpopularity. 
 He kept her in absolute bondage till long 
 after the period when most girls are thought 
 fit to enjoy the gaieties of life ; and, when she 
 refused to accept the Prince of Orange, whom 
 the Regent had, for his own selfish reasons, 
 chosen as a husband for her, she was again 
 relegated to -the same course of treatment. 
 But the people devoted all the loyalty, 
 which they were prepared to give to any 
 decent monarch, to the piinoess, and were 
 overwhelmed with grief when she died, 
 shortly after her marriage with Prince 
 Leopold of Cobiu-g. In 1817 the feeling of 
 the people made itself felt by publicly insult- 
 ing the Regent on his way back from opening 
 Parliament. The result of the outrage at 
 the time was merely the adoption by the 
 ministry of repressive measures, and an even 
 bitterer hatred of the Regent among the 
 people, which was destined to be brought to a 
 head soon after his father's death, when he 
 acceded to the throne, by his prosecution of 
 the queen (1820). George was anxious to 
 obtain a divorce from his wife. He had set 
 spies to watch her, and they had got up a 
 case against her. Whether the queen was 
 guilty or not the nation cared little ; their 
 feeling was that they would never tolerate 
 the king's divorce from a woman who, if she 
 had slipped, had been driven into error by his 
 own brutality. The ministry was compelled 
 to abandon the case, and the queen's death 
 ended the matter. Without his father's virtues 
 George IV. had as narrow-minded a, horror 
 of change as the old Mag himself. Fortu- 
 nately for the country he had not the moral 
 strength, or even the obstinate courage, which 
 had enabled George III. always to gain his 
 point. In deference to the king's conscientious 
 scruples Pitt had consented to waive the 
 Catholic question. The notion of conscientious 
 scruples inWencing George IV. was nothing 
 short of ludicrous. He too, however, refused 
 to submit, whereupon Peel and the Duke of 
 Wellington offered their resignations. They 
 were accepted, but before the next day the 
 king had reflected that it was impossible for 
 him to form another ministry, and that his 
 father's old threat of retiring to Hanover 
 would be only too gladly received by the 
 nation : he surrendered and wrote to them 
 a note begging them to remain in office, and 
 allowing them to have their own way. Little 
 mors than a year after this event he died, 
 "the victim to a complication of diseases, 
 
 which had made his later years miserable." 
 Mr. Walpole has shortly summed up the 
 character of George IV. : " He was a bad son, 
 a bad husband, a bad father, a bad subject, 
 a, bad monarch, and a bad friend." The only 
 merit which the historian can attribute to 
 him is faint praise of the most damning kind ; 
 it is that his vices, his unpopularity, and his 
 weakness did more to advance the cause of 
 reform than all the piety, religion, and con- 
 scientiousness of his fallier. 
 
 Lord Malme&bury, Memovrs ; G-. Eose, Diary ; 
 The Londonderry Corresyondewe ; Fitzgerald's 
 Life sf George IV.; Lord Colchester, JJiary; 
 Duke ©f Buckingham, Mem. of the C'oui'f of the 
 Begency ; Stapletcm, George Co/nning and his 
 Times; Jesse, Mem. oj' George III. ; Bldon's Life; 
 Peel's Memoirs; Tonga, Life of Lord Liverpool; 
 Walpole's England from 1815; Alison, Mi^t. of 
 Emope. |--\^. E. S.] 
 
 Georgia. [Colonies, American.] 
 
 Gerberoi, The Battle of (1080), was 
 fought between William the Conqueror and his 
 eldest son Robert, who, aided by the French 
 king, sought to establish himself as Duke of 
 Normandy. The action was a shght one, and 
 Robert having unhorsed and wounded his 
 father, expressed penitence for his rebellion, 
 and a reconciliation was effected. 
 
 GermanstO'WU, The Battle of (Oct. 4, 
 1777), fought between Washington and Lord 
 Howe at Germanstown, on the Schuylkill 
 River, north of Philadelphia. The English 
 held Germanstown to protect Philadelphia, 
 which they had recently occupied. Washing- 
 ton attacked them with great success at the 
 first outset, but a panic seized his raw and 
 disorganified army, and they fled, leaving the- 
 English in possession of the town. 
 Bancroft; Gordon. 
 
 Geriuanns, St. (a!. 448), was Bishop 
 of Auxerre, and is said to have been invited 
 over to Britain to combat Pelagianism. This 
 he successfully did, and converted to Chris- 
 tianity those British tribes which still re- 
 mained heathen. Encouraged by him the 
 Britons won a bloodless victory over the com- 
 bined Picts and Saxons known as the Alleluia 
 Victory (q.v.). The best date for his visit to 
 Britain is a.d. 429. The dedication of 
 several churches in Wales and Cornwall to him 
 attests the memory of his visit. 
 
 Bede, Hist. Eecles., i., ch. xx. ; Constantius, 
 S. Germani Vita. 
 
 Gertruydenberg, The Conference 
 AT (1710), was an unsuccessful attempt to 
 bring the War of the Spanish Succession to a 
 close. The seat of the negotiations, which 
 were begun on the side of France, was 
 moved from the Hague to Gertruydenberg, 
 a village at the mouth of the Waal. The 
 Dutch demanded that the terms of the pre- 
 vious year, viz., the resignation of the whole 
 of the Spanish succession and the restoration 
 of Newfoundland to England, shoiild be 
 enforced, with the terrible condition that 
 
Ger 
 
 ( 499 ) 
 
 Gib 
 
 Louis should assist in ejecting his grandson 
 from Spain. This the French king declined, 
 although he ottered a monthly subsidy 
 towards defraying the expenses of the allies. 
 Although this point was waived, the oppo- 
 sition of Austria and Savoy to these terms of 
 peace necessitated the continuation of the 
 war. [Spanish Succession, Wau op the.] 
 
 Staubope, Eeign of i^ueen Anne ; Wyou," Raign 
 of Queen Anne, 
 
 Gervase of Canterbury was a monk 
 of Christ Church, who wrote a Chronicle of 
 the Kings of England, 1122—1200, and a 
 history of the Archbishops of Canterbury 
 down -to Hubert Walter (1205).. Gervase is 
 a laborious and trustworthy writer. 
 
 Gervase of Tilbury, an historian of 
 the thirteenth century, whose career as a 
 wandering scholar is very interesting, was 
 for some time in the service .of Otto IV., and 
 was made Marshal of the Kingdom of Aries 
 by him. Bale gives a long catalogue of his 
 writings, but the only one published and of 
 importance is De Otiis Imperialibus. 
 
 Gesith (companion) was the old English 
 word for the Latin comes. Tacitus gives us 
 a description of the primitive cmtdtatus of the 
 old German king. The cowites were his per- 
 sonal dependants, fighting his battles, living 
 in his house, and wholly occupied in his 
 service. The position was coveted by the 
 most noble youth of Germany. As the 
 comitatns reappears in England, the iaicreased 
 dignity of the king has immeasurably in- 
 creased the distance betweeia him and his 
 companions in arms. He now gives dignity 
 and importance to his followers. The gesith 
 beqomes the thegn ; the companion the ser- 
 vant. The royal gesiths are strongly marked 
 out from the gesiths of the ealdorman or 
 bishop, who are merely his retainers or wards. 
 Ultimately large grants of folkland reward 
 the services of the faithful thegn. [Thegn.] 
 A new nobility of service ultimately develops 
 from the comitatus. Extinct on the Continent, 
 the comitatus becomes in England a chief 
 source of feudalism. The huscnrls of Canute 
 reproduce the earlier gesiths of the heptarchic 
 kings. iThe gesithcnndman was a man in 
 the rank of a gesith, and ennobled by his 
 service. 
 
 Glossary to Schmid's Geseties Tacitus, Gei-- 
 
 mania; Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Kemble, Swons «i 
 
 England. 
 
 Gesta Stepbani is the work of an un- 
 known author, and embraces the period from 
 113.5 to 1180. It is evidently the work of a 
 contemporary, and is very interesting for the 
 picture it affords of the anarchy of Stephen's 
 reign. 
 
 GhUzais, The, are inhabitants of the 
 province Ipng to the north-east of Candahar. 
 They are a fine muscular race, expert in the 
 use of the musket, sword, and knife, and 
 
 characterised by an intense ferocity of dis- 
 position, the result of centuries of rapine and 
 petty warfare. They have been the most 
 resolute opponents of every invader, and 
 have never submitted to the rulers of Cabul 
 or Candahar, but have continued with pei- 
 fect impunity their hereditary profession of 
 levying black-mail on aU who traversed their 
 mountains. 
 
 Malleson, Afghanista/n, 
 
 Gbuzui, The Siege op (Jan. 21, 1839). 
 This great fortress was strong by nature and 
 bj' art, surrounded by a wall sixty or seventy 
 feet high and a wet ditch. During the English 
 invasion of Afghanistan it was garrisoned 
 by 3,000 men commanded by Hyder Khan, 
 the sou of Dost Mahomed. The English 
 battering train had been left behind, and it 
 was impossible to break the walls with the 
 few six- and nine-pounders which had accom- 
 panied them. A nephew of Dost Mahomed, 
 however, for a large bribe, turned traitor and 
 gave an accurate description of the condition 
 and character «f the defences. It was deter- 
 mined to blow up the gate, and then rush 
 into the fortress. Nine hundred pounds of 
 powder, packed in bags, were conveyed under 
 cover of darkness to the gate and successfully 
 exploded. The massive gate was shivered, 
 and masses of masonry flew in all directions. 
 Colonel Deimie of the 13th Light Infantry 
 rushed in with the storming party over the 
 debris, and drove back the enemy who were 
 hastily assembling behind the breach, and a 
 mortal struggle ensued which lasted some 
 hours. At dawn of day, however, the British 
 ensign floated over the citadel of Ghuzni, 
 which was thus won with a loss of 180 killed 
 and wounded, of whom eighteen were officers. 
 [Afghan Waeb.] 
 
 Ann. Reg. ; Kaye, Affglum War. 
 
 Gibbet BiUtts was a camp of the Irish 
 rebels in 1798, on the Curragh or racecourse 
 near that place. Sir James Duff advanced 
 on it from Limerick, and the garrison 
 offered to surrender, but by some accident a 
 gun was discharged, and the troops, fearing 
 treachery, charged with the bayonet, and 
 kiUed 350 of the rebels (May 26, 1798). 
 
 Gibraltar, a promontory at the entrance 
 to the Mediterranean, is situated in the 
 Spanish province of Andalusia. The natural 
 strength of the position — it is, in fact, the 
 key of the Mediterranean — attracted attention 
 at a very early date. From 712 to the 
 beginning of the fourteenth century it was 
 in the hands of the Saracens, by whom it 
 was again retaken from the Spaniards, in 1333. 
 In 1410 the rock was taken by the Moorish 
 King of Granada, and in 1462 fell into the 
 hands of the Spaniards, by whom it was 
 formally annexed, 1502. In 1704 a com- 
 bined English and Dutch fleet, under Sir 
 George Kooke, compelled the governor, the 
 
Gif 
 
 ( 500 ) 
 
 GU 
 
 Marquis de SaKnes, to surrender, and Gibraltar 
 has ever since remained in the possession of 
 the English, sustaining a well-conducted 
 siege in 1705. In 1713 it was formally ceded 
 to Great Britain by the Treaty of TJtrecht. 
 Many attempts have been made by the 
 Spaniards to recover so important a position. 
 In 1718 Stanhope was almost induced to 
 surrender what he regarded as of little %'alue 
 and an insuperable obstacle to peace with 
 Spain. In 1720 a projected attack, under 
 the Marquis- of Leda, came to nothing,, and 
 in 1727 the Count de la Torres and 20,000. 
 men also failed to, take the rock. In 1757 
 Pitt was willing to surrender thej rook if the 
 Spaniards would help in the recapture of 
 Minorca from the French ; but they per- 
 severed in neutrality, and in 1761 joined the> 
 Family Compact largely in consequence of 
 the desire to win it back. The most famous, 
 siege of Gibraltar was one lasting from 1779 
 to 1783, by a combined force of Spaniards, 
 and French, which was successfully with- 
 stood by the English under General Elliot, 
 afterwards .Lord Heathfield ; a- siege almost un- 
 paralleled in. the annals of, ancient or modern 
 warfare. The English were more than once 
 reinforced or revictualled by sea ; but the 
 investment continued, and a very severe^ 
 bombardment and powerful floating batteries 
 were tried in vain against it. The possession. 
 of Gibraltar gives England a commanding 
 attitude at the Atlantic entrance of the 
 Mediterranean, which enables it to dispense 
 with the continued presence of a large mari- 
 time force on that sea. The administrationi 
 is in the hands of a military governor. As 
 a ' ' free port " Gibraltar is. the seat of ex- 
 tensive smuggling. 
 
 Martin, British. Colonies ; Drinkwater, Stege of 
 
 ^Gibraltar; Prescott, Ferdinand and- Isabella ; 
 
 Stanhope, Reign of Queen Anne. 
 
 Giffard, William {d. 1129), was Chan- 
 cellor under William I., William II., and 
 Henry I., and held the office no. less than, 
 five times. During Henry's quarrel with 
 Anselm he was nominated to the see of Win- 
 chester, but refusing to be consecrated except 
 by the archbishop, he was deprived of hia- 
 office and banished (1103). The dispute 
 between Anselm and the king having at 
 length been settled, Giffiard-was consecraied 
 in 1107. He introduced the Cistercians into 
 England, and was in many ways a great 
 benefactor to the Church. 
 
 Gifford, Gilbert {d. 1590), ajesuit, during 
 the reign of Elizabeth, " dexterous, subtlej 
 and many-tongued," was induced to turn 
 traitor to his friends by Walsingham's bribes. 
 The treasonable correspondence of the Queen 
 of Scots passed through his hands for de- 
 livery, and copies were taken by him, and sent 
 at once to Walsingham. By this means the 
 Babingtou conspiracy was discovered, and the 
 details of every Catholic plot made known to 
 
 the ministers almost as soon as conceived. He 
 went to Paris after the arrest of the Babingtou 
 conspirators, and died there. 
 
 Gilbert, Sm Hl'mpheey {b. 1539, d. 1583), 
 a haif-brother of Sir Walter Ealeigh and 
 nephew of Catherine Ashley, by whom he was 
 introduced to the notice of Queen Elizabeth, 
 first distinguished himself as a soldier in the 
 expedition to Havre, 1563, and, subsequently, 
 was made Governor of Munster. In the Parlia- 
 ment ef 1571 Sir Humphrey, as member for 
 Plymouth, supported the royal prerogative 
 against the attacks of the Wentworths; .four 
 years later he published his discourse to prove 
 a passage by th« North-West to Cathaia and 
 the East Indies. In 1578, having obtained 
 from- Elizabeth a patent empowering him to 
 take possession. of any unappropriated lands he 
 might discover, he sailed to North America, 
 but returned without accomplishing anything. 
 In 1553 he again set out on a voyage of 
 discovery, and took possession of Newfound- 
 land, but whilst on his return was lost with 
 all' his crew. He has been described as "the 
 worthiest man of that age." 
 
 HaMuyt ;: Lives of Rcdeigh ; 'Wood, AtheiuB 
 OxonienseSf ed. Bliss.. 
 
 Gilbert, Lord of Galloway {d. 1185), was 
 the son of Fergus. On the capture of 
 WiUiam the Lion at Alnwick (ri74), he at 
 once raised the standard of revolt in Galloway, 
 in conjunction with XJchtred, his brother, 
 whom he subsequentlj' murdered; On 
 William's release, a sort of reconciliation 
 was effected, though, in 1184, we find 
 Gilbert harrying the Lothians. 
 
 Gildas {i. 516 ? d. 570.?) is said to have 
 been born in the yeau of the battle of Mount 
 Badon, and to have become an, ecclesiastic. 
 In 550 he retired to Armorica,,but is said to 
 have returned to Britain, and to have spent 
 the latter year« of his life at Glastonbury. 
 He wrote a work, entitled De Excidio Britan- 
 nicB, which is our sole contemporary authority 
 for the Saxon conquest of Britain. The period 
 that it embraces extends from the Roman 
 (tonquest to the year 560, but it is only for 
 the latter part that the work is of any 
 original value. It is rather a piece of wild 
 and exaggerated declamation, enforced by 
 historical examples than a real history. It 
 contains few. facts, and those obscurely or 
 rhetonically put. Gildas has been published 
 by the English Historical Society, and in 
 the Monumerda HUtorica Sritanniea. A trans- 
 lation of his work will be found in Bohn's 
 Antiquarian Library. 
 
 GUlespie, George (i. 1613, d. 1648), a 
 prominent minister in Scotland, one of the 
 leaders of the opposition to Charles I. and 
 Episcopalianism, was appointed one of the 
 four representatives of the Scotch Church at 
 the Westminster Assembly, in which he took 
 a very prominent part. He was Moderator 
 
Gil 
 
 ( 501 ) 
 
 Gir 
 
 of the General Assembly in tlie year of his 
 death. His vigorous writings all upheld strong 
 Presbyterianism. 
 
 Gilpin, Bernard (b. 1517, d. 1583), rector 
 of Houghton-le-Spring, was descended from 
 a good Westmoreland family, and educated 
 at Oxford. In early life of conservative 
 religious views, he yet accepted the changes 
 of Edward VI., and preached before that 
 monarch. But he left England for some 
 time for theological study on the Continent, 
 and returning, was made by his uncle Tun- 
 stall — restored to his bishopric of Durham by 
 Mary — rector of Houghton-le-Spring. Ar- 
 rested on a charge of heresy, the opportune 
 death of Mary left him in safety. He refused 
 Elizabeth's offer of the bishopric of Carlisle, 
 and laboured at Houghton till his death. 
 His piety, zeal, hospitality, and liberality 
 made him a model parish priest, and a bright 
 example of practical a?eligion amidst the arid 
 controversies of a period of revolution. 
 
 Carleton, Life of Gilpin, in Wcidswortli's 
 Ecclesiastical Biogra'phy. 
 
 Gilroy, son of Gillemartin, aided Thomas, 
 natural son of Alan of Galloway, to make an 
 attempt to seize GaUoway (1233). Defeated 
 with great loss by Maciutagart, Earl of Boss, 
 Gilroy and Thomas made a second attempt in 
 the following year. Overwhelmed by num- 
 bers, however, they laid down their arms, and 
 after a brief imprisonment recovered their 
 liberty. 
 
 Gin Act, The (1736), was proposed by 
 Sir Joseph Jekyll, in order to check the 
 drunkenness of the lower orders. He ad- 
 vocated a prohibitive duty of 20s. on every 
 gallon sold by retail, and £50 yearly for a 
 licence to every retailer. The measure was 
 disliked by Walpole, who inserted a clause 
 that £70,000 should be granted to the king 
 to compensate him for the consequent diminu- 
 tion of the Civil List. The Act was repealed 
 in 1743, it being found that, though no 
 licence was obtained and no duty paid, gin 
 was publicly sold in the streets ; and a new 
 biU was framed, by which " a small duty per 
 gallon was laid on spirits at the still head, 
 and the price of licences reduced to 20s." 
 Although the bill was vigorously attacked 
 by Hervey and Chesterfield in the Lords, it 
 passed by a large majority. 
 
 Gipsies in England. The gipsies 
 
 first appeared in England in 1514, and in 
 Scotland rather earlier. In 1531 an Act 
 banished them from England, and in 1541 
 from Scotland, under pain of death. Henry 
 VIII., as a milder measure, shipped some 
 gipsies to Norway. A statute of 1562 made 
 intercourse even with gipsies felony ; and, in 
 1592, five men were hung at Durham "for 
 being Egyptians." Not till 1783 was the 
 Act of 1592 repealed. In Scotland, there are 
 cases of executions of gipsies for no other 
 
 crime than their origin in 1611 and 1636. 
 But the treatment of those unlucky wanderers 
 was mild in England as compared with the 
 Continent. 
 
 Encyclopxdia SHtannica, art. " Gipsies." 
 
 Giraldus Cambreusis (*. 1147, d. 1220) 
 was the literary name of Gerald de Barry, the 
 most famous writer and literary adventurer of 
 his age. Closely coimected with the Norman 
 families who had conquered South Wales, the 
 ■nephew of the conquerors of Ireland, and the 
 ..granddaughter of Nesta, the " Helen of 
 Wales," Giraldus was bom at his father's 
 castle of Manorbier near Tenby. A younger 
 son, he was destined for the Church, and was 
 educated .at St. David's .under the eye of his 
 uncle the bishop. After a brilliant career at 
 the rising university of Paris, Giraldus be- 
 came Archdeacon of Brecon in 1172. He 
 plunged with characteristic ardour into a 
 long series of quarrels with his flock; he 
 reformed the irregular payment of tithes ; 
 informed against the married clergy, and in 
 1176 persuaded the chapter of St. David's 
 to make him his uncle's successor to that see. 
 The disfavour of Henry II. annulled the 
 election, and Gerald in disgust went back to his 
 studies at Paris ; but for the rest of his life to 
 become Bishop of St. David's was the steady 
 object of his -ambition, though his efforts to 
 obtain that end were uniforaily fruitless. 
 Appointed administrator of the see by the 
 archbishop in 1184, he was sent to Ireland as 
 chaplain to John, son of Henry II., and, after 
 rejecting Irish bishoprics, writing his Topo- 
 graphy of Ireland^ returned in 1188 to 
 accompany and chronicle Archbishop Bald- 
 win's crusading itinerary of Wales. He 
 kept about the court till 1192, was again 
 elected to St. David's and defeated after 
 five years of litigation in 1203, and spent the 
 last seventeen years of his life in the retire- 
 ment of mortified ambition. As illustrating 
 the life of a Norman settler in Wales, a 
 scholar, an ecclesiastic, and a courtier, Gerald's 
 career is of extreme interest, and his own 
 copious accounts of his doings give us ample 
 if untrustworthy materials for its study. As 
 the historian of the Conquest of Ireland, 
 and the compiler of the Itinerary of Wales, 
 he has given us a more vivid idea of these 
 countries than any other mediseval writer. 
 But Gerald, though clever and quick-sighted, 
 was quite unscrupulous, both in his literary 
 and clerical careers. 
 
 The works of Giraldus Cambrensis are printed 
 in the BoUb Series (7 vols.), with introductions 
 by J. S. Brewer. There are lives of Gerald in 
 Jones and Freeman's ifistory of Si. David*8 ; in 
 vol. i. of Brewer's edition of his works ; and by 
 Sir E. C. Hoare, who has translated the Iti^c- 
 rarium Camhriai. rrp -p, m ^ 
 
 Girig [d. 896), the eon of Dungal, was 
 associated with Eocha, son of Bun, in the 
 government of the Pictish kingdom (878 — 
 889), and afterwards with .Donald, till 896. 
 
Gis 
 
 ( 502 ) 
 
 Gla 
 
 He is the hero of many stories, which rest, 
 however, for the most part on slight authority. 
 He is said to ha-?e freed his country from the 
 Danish yoke, to have over-run Lothian, and 
 to have subjugated Ireland; while, in con- 
 sideration of certain privileges conferred on 
 the monks of St. Andrews, he has been called 
 " the Liberator of the Scottish Church." 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland. 
 
 Gisors, The Treaty or (1113), between 
 Henry I. and Louis VI. of France, by which 
 Louis resigned his claims of overlordship 
 over Britanny, Belesme, and Maine, and 
 practically gave up WilUam Clito. 
 
 Giustiniani. A noble Venetian familj', 
 one of whom was Venetian ambassador in 
 the early part of Henry VIII.'s reign, and 
 from whose despatches, as usual with his 
 class, much is to be learnt of the history of 
 that time. 
 
 Gladstone, William Ewart (4. 1809), 
 the son of Sir J. Gladstone, a Liverpool 
 merchant, was born in that city, and edu- 
 cated at Eton, and Christ Church, Oxford, 
 where he took a double first and a senior 
 studentship. He entered Parliament in 1832 
 as member for Newark, in the Tory and 
 High Church interest, and as nominee of 
 the Duke of Newcastle. He soon distin- 
 guished himself as an orator. In 1835 Peel 
 made him a Junior Lord of the Treasury 
 in his short-lived administration. In 1841 
 he was made by Peel Vice-President of the 
 Board of Trade and Master of the Mint, 
 an office which he exchanged for the Colonial 
 Secretaryship, on the eve of the Repeal 
 of the Corn Laws.. Eejected by Newark for 
 his adhesion to Free Trade, he was returned 
 for Oxford University. Peel's ministry soon 
 fell, and Mr. Gladstone, like all the other 
 Peelites, atoned for his fidelity to his leader 
 by exclusion from office for several years. 
 They (the Peelites) could hold office neither 
 under Whigs nor Tories. He utilised his 
 leisure in literary activity and in the study 
 of the Italian question. In 1852 the hybrid 
 ministry of Lord Aberdeen came into power, 
 and Mr. Gladstone was made Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer. Driven into resignation by 
 Mr. Roebuck's motion, and the disasters of 
 the Crimean War, he accepted from Lord 
 Derby, in 1858, the post of Lord Com- 
 missioner to the Ionian Islands, and recom- 
 mended their union with Greece, which was 
 effected. In 1859 he was again Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer under Lord Palmerston. 
 A series of famous budgets established his 
 reputation as a financier. His now avowed 
 Liberalism led to his rejection at Oxford in 
 1865, and he was returned for South-west 
 Lancashire. The death of Lord Palmerston 
 was the beginning of more stirring times. 
 Mr. Gladstone now became leader of the 
 House of Commons, and introduced the 
 
 Reform Bill of 1866, which led to the defeat 
 of the government ; but the Irish Church 
 agitation soon brought them back into office. 
 Mr. Gladstone lost his Lancashire seat, 
 finding another, however, at Greenwich. In 
 December, 1868, he became Premier of the 
 ministry which disestablished the Irish 
 Church, passed the first Land Act, reformed 
 the army, and abolished religious teats in 
 the Universities. Resigning in 1874, Mr. 
 Gladstone was out of office until 1880. 
 Withdrawing for a time from the leadership 
 of his party, he displayed great literary 
 activity in many directions. In 1880 he 
 resumed office as head of a new Liberal 
 administration. 
 
 Barnett Smith, Life of Gladstone. 
 
 Glamis, Lady, a, sister of the Earl of 
 Angus, widow of John Lyon, Lord of 
 Glamis, and wife of Campbell of Kepneith, 
 was burnt at Edinburgh, 1537, on a charge 
 of conspiring to poison James V. and to 
 restore the Douglases to their former power 
 in Scotland. 
 
 Glamorgan Treaty, The. Charles I., 
 
 in 1644, unable to turn the Cessation to the 
 advantage he had expected, and Ormonde 
 being unwilling to grant more to the 
 Catholics, sent Lord Herbert, son of the 
 Marquis of Worcester, to Ireland, creating 
 him at the same time Earl of Glamorgan, and 
 promising him the dukedom of Somerset. 
 He was entrusted with a commission sealed 
 with the king's private signet, dated March 
 12th, 1644, at Oxford, authorising him to 
 grant all the Catholics might demand, if they 
 would send o\'er 10,000 men to his aid. 
 Glamorgan arrived at Kilkenny in 1645, and 
 concluded a public and a secret treaty with 
 the Catholics. By the first the demands that 
 a Catholic deputation had made at Oxford in 
 1644 were granted. These were : the aboli- 
 tion of the Catholic disabilities of Po)'nings' 
 Law, a general amnesty, and a period of 
 limitation for all inquiries into the titles of 
 land. The secret treaty granted to the 
 Catholics the pubho exercise of their religion 
 in all churches not actually in possession of 
 the State Church; in return, 10,000 men 
 under Glamorgan were to join the king in 
 England, and two - thirds of the church 
 revenues were to be set aside to provide for 
 their pay. This secret treaty was discovered 
 among the papers of the Catholic Archbishop 
 of Tuam, on his repulse from before Sligo. 
 After this discovery, January 29, 1646, the 
 king sent a message to the two Houses, 
 denying that Glamorgan had any such 
 powers ; he wrote to Ormonde in the same 
 strain. There can be no doubt, however, 
 that Glamorgan only fulfilled the king's 
 instructions. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the Rehenion ; Eanke, 
 Hist. ofEng.; Hallam, Con»t. Hist. 
 
 Glanvill, Rakl-lf de, a famous judge, 
 
tria 
 
 ( 503 ) 
 
 Gle 
 
 statesman, and administrator of Henry II. 's 
 reign. In 1174 he did more than anyone 
 else to save the north from the revolt of 
 feudal harons and the Scottish invasion. He 
 succeeded Eiohard de Lucy as Justiciar in 
 1180, and continued in office till Henry's 
 death. Eichard I. displaced him from oflSce 
 and kept him in prison until he had paid the 
 enormous fine of £15,000. This was the end 
 of his career. As an author, Glanvill's 
 treatise D& Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliat^ 
 seems to have been composed about 1181. It 
 is of great importance as the earliest treatise 
 on English law, and throws much light on 
 many reforms of Henry II., of which other- 
 wise we should Imow very little. It has 
 been printed more than once, and critical 
 extracts arc to be found in Stubbs's Select 
 Charters. 
 
 Glasgow owes its origin to the establish- 
 ment of a church by Kentigem, the apostle 
 of Strathdyde in the sixth century, which 
 became the seat of a bishopric. The town 
 which grew up round the see was in the 
 domain of the bishoj). In 1450 Bishop 
 Turnbull founded the university. In 1491 
 the see was made an archbishopric. Alone 
 of the Scotch cathedrals the church survived 
 the Reformation. In 1638 a famous General 
 Assembly at Glasgow accepted the Covenant. 
 The Treaty of Union first gave Glasgow im- 
 portance as a port, by opening to Scotland 
 the colonial trade. Since then the town has 
 rapidly increased. It rivalled Bristol in the 
 tobacco trade, and, when that was diverted by 
 the American War of Independence, Glasgow 
 industry took new channels. At last Glas- 
 gow became the great manufacturing centre 
 of Scotland, whUe the improvement of the 
 Clyde made it the first port. 
 
 Glassites, The, were members of a 
 Scotch sectarian body, that originated 
 about 1730, when its leader, John Glass, was 
 driven from his parish by the General As- 
 sembly for a heresy on the kingdom of Christ. 
 Glass taught the " voluntary principle " for 
 the first time in Scotland, and his system of 
 church government was practically congre- 
 gational. Robert Sandeman, one of Glass's 
 followers, gave another name to the sect and 
 distinguished it by his doctrine of faith as 
 " hare belief of the bare truth. " The public 
 worship of this small sect is of a peculiar 
 character. 
 
 Glastonlrary Abtoey ia perhaps the 
 
 only religious foundation in England which 
 has kept up its existence from Roman times. 
 Dismissing the fable of its foundation _ by 
 Joseph of Arimathsea, we have sufficient 
 evidence that it existed long before Ina's 
 conquest of that region brought it under 
 English sway ; it was famed as the burj'ing- 
 place of Arthur, and was much frequented 
 by Irish pilgrims as the tomb of St. Patrick. 
 
 After Ina's second foundation, Dunstan's 
 famous reformation and introduction of the 
 Benedictine rule, is the next great event in 
 the history of the abbey. The church was 
 rebuilt by Dunstan, Herlewin and Henry II. 
 At the end of the twelfth century there was 
 a long struggle between the Bishop of Bath 
 and the monks, who eventually succeeded in 
 securing the independence of their abbey. It 
 became very rich. Its last abbot. Whiting, 
 was hung by Henry VIII. on the top of 
 Glastonbury Tor. 
 
 WiUiam of Malmesbury, Df Antiquitatilms Glas- 
 tonen^is EcclmnXy gives the legend of its origin.- 
 Proceedings of Somerset Archxulogical Society ,* 
 'Warner, History of Glastonhary. 
 
 Glencaim, Alexander Cunningham, 
 Baul or, taken prisoner at Solway Moss, 
 was one of the " Assured Lords," but, 
 with the others, he threw over Henry 
 VIII. in 1544. He joined the Protestant 
 aUiance against Queen Mary for a time, but 
 was shortly afterwards received back into 
 the royal favour. In 1567 he was named 
 one of the Council of Regency. 
 
 Gleucairu, William Cunningham, Earl 
 OE, received, in 1653, a commission from 
 Charles II. to raise troops in his cause in 
 Scotland. After having collected a force of 
 Highlanders, Glencaim was replaced by 
 General Middleton, who, however, shortly 
 afterwards quitted Scotland, giving place to 
 the original leader. 
 
 Glencoe, The Massacre op (Feb. 13, 
 1692), has left a dark stain on the memory of 
 William III. The civil war continued to 
 smoulder in the Highlands for severj.1 years 
 after the death of Dundee. The management 
 of affairs in Scotland was at this time in the 
 hands of the Dalrymples, and Viscount Stair, 
 their head, was President of the Court of Ses- 
 sion, while the younger, the Master of Stair, 
 was Secretary for Scotland. A proclamation 
 was issued promising pardon to all who 
 before Dec. 31, 1691, should swear to live 
 peaceably under the existing government. 
 Maclan of Glencoe, who dwelt at the mouth 
 of a ravine, near the south shore of Loch- 
 leven, deemed it a point of honour to take 
 the oath as late as possible. On the appointed 
 day he went to Fort William, but, finding no 
 magistrate there, he had to go to Inverary, 
 which he did not reach until Jan. 6th. This 
 delay gave his enemies, the Campbells, a 
 pretext for destroying him. Argyle and 
 Breadalbane plotted with the Master of Stair. 
 William was not informed that Maclan had 
 taken the oath at all. An order was laid 
 before him for the commander-in-chief, in 
 which were the words, " It will be proper for 
 the vindication of public justice to extirpate 
 that set of thieves." The excuse usually ad- 
 vanced for William, that he signed the order 
 without reading it, is probably true, but it is 
 at best a lame one. The order was remorse- 
 
Gle 
 
 ( 504 ) 
 
 (TiO 
 
 lessly executed. A band of soldiers was 
 sent to the glen, where they were hospitably 
 received by the Macdonalds. At last, on a 
 given day, the passes ha\dng been stopped by 
 previous arrangement, the soldiers fell upon 
 their entertainers. A failure id the plan led 
 to the escape of many. But the houses were 
 destroyed, the cattle stolen, thirty-eight men 
 killed 'On the spot, and others perished of want 
 or cold on the mountains. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of England. 
 Glendower, Owen (or G-lyndwr; more 
 accura/tely, Glyndyphdwy ; caUed iu his own 
 time OwAiN AP GrRrFFYDD) (b. 1364, d. 1415 ?), 
 was reputed a descendant of Llewelyn, the 
 last native prince of Wales. He inherited 
 considerable estates in Merioneth, and, 'Coming 
 to London, entered one of the Inns of Court, 
 and subsequently became squire to Eichard II., 
 by whom he was knighted in 1387. In 1399 
 he was captured with the kiug at Flint 
 Castle, but permitted to retire to his own 
 estates. Lord Grey of Euthin, one of the 
 lords marchers, secured some of his lands, 
 and Owen's appeal to the Parliament was 
 disregarded, and Lord Grey received grants 
 of other possessions belonging to him. In 
 1400 Owen took up arms, and, assuming the 
 title of Prince of Wales, burnt the town of 
 Euthin, and, bursting into the marches, 
 destroyed Oswestry and captured several 
 forts. The Welsh repaired toiim in thousands, 
 and the strong Edwardian castles of Conway, 
 Euthin, and Hawarden soon fell into his 
 hands. He repulsed three formidable armies 
 led against him by Henry IV. in person, and 
 in 1402 was crowned at Machynlleth. Among 
 the prisoners taken by him was Sir Edmund 
 Mortimer, uncle of the young Earl of March, 
 which led him to enter into a treaty with the 
 Mortimers and Percies having for its object 
 the overthrow of Henry. This alliance was 
 dissolved by the battle of Shrewabury, but 
 Glendower continued the contest ; and official 
 record remains of many acts that prove the 
 reality of his power in Wales. He displaced 
 the Bishop of Bangor, and appointed a 
 partisan of his own ; and the Bishop of St. 
 Asaph was his ambassador to the French 
 king, with whom he made a treaty in 1404. 
 Eeoeiving aid from France and Scotland, he 
 captured many English towns and castles, and 
 at one time penetrated with his forces as far as 
 Worcester. In perpetual inroads he harried 
 all the marches in a most merciless way. 
 Twice Henry had some success against him, 
 but was unable to efiect his subjugation ; and 
 several years after, when about to embark on 
 his expedition against France, he endeavoured 
 to enter into an arrangement with him, 
 offering him free pardon twice. But Owen 
 never submitted, and probably died about 
 this time, though there is nothing certain 
 known as to the date or place of his death. 
 
 Brougham, House of Lancaster: Williams, 
 Hist, of Wales. 
 
 G-leuelg, Chables Gkant, Lord (S. 
 1780, d. 1866), was the eldest son of Mr. 
 Charles Grant, for many years M.P. for 
 Inverness-shire. He was educated at Mag- 
 dalen College, Oxford, and entered Parlia- 
 ment as member for Montrose, 1807. He 
 represented Montrose from 1807 to 1818, and 
 I-nvemess-shire from that date till 1835. 
 From 1819 to 1822 he was Chief Secretary 
 for Ireland ; from 1823 to 1827 Vice-Presi- 
 dent, and from 1827 to 1828 President, of the 
 Board of Trade. Prom 1830 to 1834 he was 
 President of theBoard of Control, andfrom 1834 
 to 1839 Secretary to the Colonies. But the 
 Canadian Eebellion of 1838 was fatal to his 
 reputation, and resulted in his resignation. 
 Lord Glenelg approved of Lord Durham's 
 famous ordinance, the gist of which was 
 that those of the rebels who had acknow- 
 ledged their guilt and submitted to the 
 <lueen's pleasure were to be sent off to 
 Bermuda, but imder constraint, and punished 
 with death if they returned. The ordinance 
 was disallowed; Lord Durham was recalled, 
 and Lord Glenelg, as having approved of his 
 conduct, resigned. From this time he retired 
 from public life. He was the last of the 
 Canaingites. 
 Ann. Reg. 
 
 G-leufruin, The Battle op (1604), was 
 fought in Dumbartonshire, and resulted in a 
 defeat of the Earl of Argyle and the king's 
 forces at the ihauds of the Macgregors and 
 other clans. 
 
 Gleulivet, The Battle of (October 4, 
 1694), was fought near Aberdeen, between 
 the forces ef James VI., commanded by the 
 Earl of Argyle, and the rebellious Earls of 
 Huntly and Errol. The rebels were inferior 
 in numbers, but were well armed and well 
 led, and comj)letely defeated Argyle's troops, 
 losing only one man of note, Gordon of 
 Auchendoun, lone of the subscribers of the 
 Spanish Blanks. 
 
 Glen X/Ealnre, The Battle of (1580), 
 was fought in the Wicklow Mountains. Lord 
 Grey de Wilton here suffered a severe re- 
 pulse from the Irish septs. Sir Peter Carew, 
 a distinguished officer, was among the slain. 
 
 G-lenmarreston, The Battle or (Mu- 
 reston Water flowing from the Pentland HiUs), 
 was fought in 638. Donald Brec, King of 
 Dalriada, was defeated by the Angles. 
 
 Gloucester was an old Eoman station, 
 deriving its name from the British camp, 
 Caer Gloui. It quickly became a town 
 of the English, for Bede speaks of it as a 
 noble city. In 679 a monastery was founded 
 here, reduced in 1022 by Bishop Wulfstan to 
 the Benedictine rule. It was a frequent seat 
 of Courts and Gemots. In 1541 it was 
 erected into a bishopric by Henry VIII. ; and 
 as such was united in the present century 
 with the see of Bristol (1836). 
 
Glo 
 
 ( 505 ) 
 
 Glo 
 
 Gloucester, Peerase or. Robert, a 
 natural son of Henry I., was created Earl of 
 Gloucester, 1109, on lus marriage with. Mabel, 
 daughter and heiress of Robert Fitz-Hamon, 
 lord of Gloucester. His sou WiUiam, who 
 died 1183, transmitted the title to Ms three 
 daughters : first, through the youngest, Ha- 
 wise (or Isabel), to her successive husbands, 
 John, afterwards King of England, and 
 Geoffrey MandeviUe, Earl of Essex ; then to 
 the issue of her eldest sister, Mabel, who 
 married the Count of Evreux ; and finally to 
 the second sister, Amicia, who married Gil- 
 bert de Clare, Earl of Hereford. Three gene- 
 rations of the De Clares were Earls of Glou- 
 cester, until the widow of the last, Johanna, 
 daughter of Edward I., communicated the 
 honour during her lifetime, to her second 
 husband, Ralph de Monthermer. On his 
 death, in 1307, the earldom descended to her 
 son, Gilbert de Clare, killed at Bannockburn, 
 whose second sister, Margaret, married Hugh 
 of Audley, created Earl of Gloucester in 1337. 
 At the latter's death, ten years later, the title 
 was presumed to be extinct : it was, however, 
 revived in 1397, in favour of Thomas, Lord 
 Despeucer, son of the eldest sister of the 
 before-named Margaret. Thomas was, how- 
 ever degraded in 1399, when his honours 
 became forfeit. In the meanwhile, 1385, a 
 dukedom of Gloucester had been created for 
 Thomas of Woodstock, sixth sou of Edward 
 III., who was succeeded by his son Hum- 
 phrey. The latter died childless in 1399. 
 Afterwards three several princes of the blood 
 were created dukes by this title, none of whom 
 left issue ; namely (1) Humphrey, son of 
 Henry IV., murdered in 1446 ; (2) Richard, 
 brother of Edward IV., and afterwards 
 king, and (3) Henry, youngest son of 
 Charles I. There was a plan in 1717 — 18 of 
 reviving the dukedom in favour of George I.'s 
 grandson, Frederick, afterwards Prince of 
 Wales; but this never took effect. Frederick's 
 younger son, William Henry, however, was 
 created Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh, 
 in 1764, and the peerage lasted until the death, 
 without issue, of this prince's son, William 
 Frederick, in 1834. 
 
 Nicolas, Sistoric Penrage; Clark, The Land 
 
 0fM(yi-gan in Archcsological Journal. 
 
 Gloucester, Robekt, Earl of (d. 1147), 
 natural sou of Henry I., was the great sup- 
 porter of the claims of his half-sister Matilda 
 against Stephen. He married the heiress of 
 Fitz-Hamon, and so added the lordship of 
 Glamorgan to the earldom of Gloucester. 
 
 Gloucester, Gilbert de Clare, Earl 
 OP (i. 1243), son of Earl Richard, threw 
 himself into the party of Leicester, after 
 his father's death in 1262, but soon held 
 aloof ; and though fighting with Montfort at 
 Lewes, quarrelled with the king in the course of 
 1265, joined Prince Edward, and won the 
 battle of Evesham. He kept on good terms 
 
 with Edward, whose daughter Johanna he 
 married in 1290. His ordinary capacity, 
 however, rendered him unfit for the great 
 position he aspired to occupy. 
 
 Gloucester, Richard de Clare, Earl 
 OP {d. 1262), the leader of the baronial party 
 under Henry III., acted at first in conjunction 
 with, but afterwards in opposition to, Simon 
 de Montfort. Like the more aristocratic 
 party of the baronage, he neither understood 
 nor sympathised with Montfort' 8 far-reaching 
 aims, and never quite forgave his foreign 
 origin. 
 
 Gloucester, Gilbert de Clare, Earl 
 OP (d. 1314), son of Earl Gilbert and Johaima, 
 the daughter of Edward I. He took the side 
 of Gaveston, his brother-in-law, was one of 
 the Lords Ordainers, being elected by co- 
 optation from the royalist side, and endea- 
 voured more than once to prevent civil war. 
 He was slain at Bannockburn. He was the 
 last of his line, and his estates fell to his 
 three sisters, whose husbands' rivalries take 
 up a great place in the history of Edward 
 II.'s reign. 
 
 Gloucester, Thomas op Woodstock, 
 Duke of {b. 1355, d. 1397), was the youngest 
 son of Edward III. He served in the French 
 wars, and on his return to England in 1381 
 took a leading part in the affairs of state. 
 The unpopularity of John of Gaunt, caused 
 by his abandoning the traditional policy of 
 the house of Lancaster in favour of a court 
 policy, and his subsequent absence from 
 England during his fruitless expeditious to 
 Spain, made Gloucester the natural leader of 
 the constitutional opposition. His chief aim 
 seems to have been his own aggrandisement, 
 though the misgovernment and extravagance 
 of the king gave him sufficient excuse for in- 
 terfering. The heavy taxation demanded for 
 the expenses of the French war gave Glouces- 
 ter the opportunity he desired, and in 1386 he 
 threatened the king with deposition unless he 
 consented to the impeachment of his chief 
 minister, De la Pole, and the appointment 
 of a commission of regency. Richard con- 
 sented for the time, but attempted, directly 
 Parliament was dissolved, to raise a force and 
 assert his independence. But Gloucester was 
 superior in strength, and the king's friends 
 were either executed or obliged to seek safety 
 in flight. Gloucester was the leading spirit 
 in the Merciless Parliament, and practi- 
 cally ruled the kingdom tiU 1389, when 
 Rioha,rd declared himself of age to manage 
 his own affairs, and assumed the government ■ 
 himself. By John of Gaunt's influence a re- 
 conciliation was effected between Gloucester 
 and the king, and matters went on smoothly 
 enough — though Gloucester held somewhat 
 aloof from the court — till 1397, when Richard 
 suspected, it is impossible to say whether 
 justly or not, that Gloucester was plotting 
 
Glo 
 
 { 506 ) 
 
 Gly 
 
 against him. The duke was arrested and im- 
 prisoned at Calais, where he died, heing pro- 
 bably murdered by the king's orders. It is 
 said that before his death he confessed that 
 he had been conspiring against the king. 
 
 Stubbs, CoH st. Sist ; "Wallon, Richard 11. ; 
 Pauli, Englische Geschichte. 
 
 Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke op (S. 
 1391, d. 1447), was the fourth son of Henry 
 IV. He was created Duke of Gloucester in 
 1414, and took part in the French wars of 
 Henry V.'s reign, being wounded in the 
 battle of Agincourt. On his death-bed Henry 
 appointed him regent of England during his 
 son's minority, but Parliament refused to 
 allow this, and a council of regency was ap- 
 pointed with Bedford as Protector, and in Ms 
 absence from England, Gloucester. Byhisreck- 
 less f oUy in marrying Jacquehne of Hainault, 
 and prosecuting her claims in Hainault and 
 Zealand, Gloucester did much to alienate the 
 Duke of Burgundy from the English, while 
 his attempts to gain a foreign principality for 
 himself were fruitless. In 1425, Gloucester's 
 quarrel with Beaufort commenced, which con- 
 tinued with temporary reconciliation during 
 the whole of his lifetime. The bright spot in 
 Gloucester's character was his affection for 
 his brother Bedford, who was frequently able 
 to restrain his folly and recklessness. After 
 Bedford's death, bis opposition to Beaufort 
 became more and more violent, Gloucester 
 representing the war party, popular in Par- 
 liament and the nation, while Beaufort was 
 the leader of the peace party, which was 
 strongly represented in the Council. It was 
 the old struggle of the court and constitutional 
 parties in another form. The trial and 
 conviction of Eleanor Cobham, his second 
 wife, was a great blow to Gloucester's in- 
 fluence, and this was still further injured, 
 when in 1442, Henry VI. came of age, and 
 the protectorate was at an end. SufEolk sup- 
 planted Gloucester as the chief adviser of the 
 crown, and in 1447 Gloucester was accused of 
 treason. The merits of the ease it is impos- 
 sible to decide upon ; it is not improbable that 
 Gloucester may have entertained the idea of 
 making himseU king, but on this point there 
 is no evidence. At aU events, Gloucester was 
 suddenly arrested on Feb. 18, 1457, at Bury 
 St. Edmund's, and placed under arrest, and 
 five days after was found dead in his bed. It 
 is impossible to decide on the cause of his 
 death ; it may have arisen from chagrin, or 
 have been the work of some person who hoped 
 thereby to ingratiate himself with the court 
 party, or it may (as popular legend asserted), 
 have been caused by the orders of the Duke 
 of Suffolk. It is certain that there is nothing 
 to connect it with Cardinal Beaufort, and 
 there is a strong reason for believing that it 
 arose from natural causes. As a patron of 
 learning, and a benefactor to the University 
 of Oidord, Gloucester deserves high praise. 
 
 but his public and private career alike are 
 stained with grievous errors, and his in- 
 fluence on EngUsh politics was only mischie- 
 vous. StOl, he was popular with the literaiy 
 men for his patronage of learning, and with tho 
 people for his advocacy of a spirited foreign 
 policy. From these causes he was known as 
 the " good Duke Humphrey." 
 
 Stubbs, Const. History; Brougham, House of 
 Jjancaster, 
 
 Gloucester, Henby, Duke or (5. 1639, 
 d. 1660), was the youngestsonof Charles I. and 
 Queen Henrietta Maria. From the place of his 
 birth he is often known as Henry of Oatlands. 
 Charles, just before his execution, had an 
 interview with his young son, in which he 
 made him promise not to accept the crown 
 from Parliament to the detriment of his elder 
 brothers. After his father's death he re- 
 mained in the charge of Parliament till 1652, 
 when he was permitted to join his mother in 
 France, Cromwell being anxious to get rid of 
 one whom many were anxious to proclaim 
 king. The queen exhausted aU entreaties 
 and threats to induce him to become a 
 Eomanist, but he remained staunch to his 
 religion ; and in 1654 left her and joined 
 Charles at Cologne. In 1658 he fought in 
 the Spanish army, and distinguished him- 
 self in the battle of Dunkirk. On the Eesto- 
 ration he returned to England, but died of 
 small-pox very shortly afterwards. 
 
 Gloucester, William, Duke op (b. July 
 24, 1689, d. July 30, 1700), was the son of 
 Prince George of Deiunark and Princess 
 (afterwards Queen) Anne. He was informally 
 created duke soon after his birth. The un- 
 timely death of the young prince — a boy of 
 great promise — was received with sorrow by 
 the nation. It necessitated the passing of 
 the Act of Settlement. 
 
 Gloucester, Eleanor Bohun, Duchess 
 OP {d. 1399), was the daughter and co-heiress 
 of Humphrey, Earl of Northampton, Here- 
 ford, and Essex. She was married to Thomas 
 of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, after 
 whose death, in 1397, she retired to the 
 abbey of Barking. 
 
 Gloucester, Egbert op, is known as the 
 writer of a Chronicle in English verse more 
 interesting from a hterary than an historical 
 point of view. It extends from the earliest 
 times to the year 1270, and is mostly a com- 
 pilation from well-known sources, though it 
 contains original notices here and there. It 
 was printed by Hearne. 
 
 Glynne, John (A. 1602, d. 1666), eldest 
 son of Sir William Glynne, of Carnarvon- 
 shire, was educated at Westminster School 
 and at Oxford, attained great reputation 
 as a lawyer, and represented Westminster in 
 the Long Parliament. He was a strong 
 Presbyterian, took a prominent part in the 
 attack on the bishops, helued to d<raw up the 
 
God 
 
 (507) 
 
 God 
 
 charge against Laud, and to conduct the 
 trial of Strafford. lu June, 1647, he was one 
 of the eleven memhers whose punishment was 
 demanded by the army, and expelled from 
 Parliament till the summer of 1648, when he 
 was restored, only to he expelled again by 
 Pride's Purge. He sat in both of Cromwell's 
 Parliaments, presided at Penruddocke's trial 
 (1655), and supported the offer of the crown 
 to the Protector. In July, 1655, he became 
 Chief Justice, and held the post tiU the fall 
 of Eichard Cromwell, when he resigned. He 
 assisted in promoting the Restoration, and on 
 the return of Charles II. was made king's 
 Serjeant and knighted. He was employed in 
 the prosecution of the regicides, and took part 
 in Vane's trial. Public opinion condemned 
 him as a renegade, and rejoiced in an accident 
 which befeU him on the day of the coronation. 
 " Serjeant G-lynne's horse," says Pepys, " fell 
 upon biTn yesterday, and is like to kill him, 
 which people do please themselves to see how 
 just God is to punish the rogue at such a 
 time as this." He died on Nov. 15, 1666, 
 continuing to practice his profession till his 
 death. 
 
 Fos9, Judges, 
 
 Gcd&ey, Sra Edmundburt (d. 1681), 
 was a London magistrate, before whom Titus 
 Gates made a deposition concerning the 
 Popish Plot. Some three weeks after this 
 deposition was made, Godfrey was found dead 
 in a ditch near Primrose Hill, with his own 
 sword run tbrough his body, a livid crease 
 round his neck, and his pockets unrifled. It 
 was at once assumed that he had been mur- 
 dered by Roman Catholics, and Lord Mac- 
 aulay considers it most probable that he was 
 really murdered by some hot-headed Romanist. 
 Three of the queen's servants were tried for 
 the murder, and executed. The Popish Plot 
 agitation really began in the excitement 
 which Godfrey's murder caused. 
 
 Godfrey (Guthbed) DXacWilliam 
 
 {d. 1212), was the son of Donald Bane 
 MacWilliam, and, like his father, attempted, 
 in 1211, to wrest the Scottish crown from 
 William the Lion. The royal troops under 
 the Earls of Athole and Fife, achieved various 
 successes, but the rebellion was not crushed 
 until Godfrey was betrayed into the hands of 
 the Earl of Buchan and beheaded at Kincar- 
 dine (1212). 
 
 Godolphin, Sydney, Lord, afterwards 
 Earl (4. 1640, d. 1712), was educated as a 
 page at Whitehall. At the Restoration he 
 had been made Groom of the Bedchamber by 
 Charles II. In 1664 he became First Com- 
 missioner of the Treasury. In 1678 he was 
 sent as envoy to Holland, and on his return 
 was sworn of the Privy Council. In 1679 he 
 was placed on the Treasury Commission. In 
 1680 he supported the Exclusion Bill, and 
 persuaded Charles to dismiss the Duke of 
 York to Scotland before Parliament met. 
 
 He became Secretary of State in 1684, and 
 in the same year, on the resignation of 
 Rochester, he took his place on the Commission 
 of the Treasury. On the accession of James, 
 he was removed from the Treasury, and made 
 Chamberlain to the queen. In his official 
 capacity he did not scruple to conform to 
 Roman Catholic observances. In 1687, on the 
 fall of the Hydes, he was again placed on 
 the Treasury Commission. He was sent as a 
 commissioner to treat with William. On the 
 accession of William and Mary, the Treasury 
 business was placed in his hands. In 1690 he 
 resigned, but was recalled as First Commis- 
 sioner against the will of Carmarthen. He had 
 a large share of William's confidence, but, 
 influenced by Marlborough, he intrigued with 
 the Jacobites, especially with Middleton, 
 James's Secretary of State. He was impli- 
 cated in the confession of Sir John Fenwick ; 
 but William, with great magnanimity, ignored 
 the charges brought against him. But the 
 Whigs resolved to drive him from office, and 
 were successful. In 1700 he was recalled to 
 the king's councils ; but in the fall of his 
 party, in the last year of William's reign, he 
 was again dismissed. On the accession of 
 Anne he was made Lord Treasurer, through 
 the influence of Marlborough, whose daughter 
 had married Godolphin's eldest son. In 
 1708, Godolphin, seeing that his attempt at a 
 composite ministry was a failure, determined 
 to join the Whigs. He was compelled to dis- 
 miss Harley and the moderate Tories. For 
 the rest of his administration Godolphin was 
 under the rule of the Whig Junto. In 1710, 
 Godolphin agreed to Sunderland's advice, and 
 impeached Sacheverell. The popular outcry 
 proved that the queen and the 'Tories might 
 venture to upset the ministry. Without 
 consulting him, Shrewsbury was made Lord 
 Chamberlain. Godolphin swallowed the in- 
 sult ; but the dismissal of Sunderland was 
 shortly followed by his own. During the tu- 
 mult that followed Saoheverell's trial, both he 
 and Marlborough intrigued with the Jacobite 
 court at St. Germains. His character is thus 
 described by Macaulay : — "He was laborious, 
 clear-headed, and profoundly versed in the 
 details of finance. Every government, there- 
 fore, found him a useful servant ; and there 
 was nothing in his opinions or in his character 
 which could prevent him from ser\'ing any 
 government." • 
 
 Banke, Hist, of England; Macaulay, Bist. of 
 Eng. ; Stanhope, Reign of ^ecn Anne, and Hist. 
 of Bn^lojnA; Coxe, Marlborowgfo. 
 
 GodTvin (Godwine), Earl (h. circa 99C, 
 d. 1052), was, according to the most pro- 
 bable account, the son of Wulfnoth, the South 
 Saxon who was outlawed in 1009. Of his 
 early life nothing certain is known, hut in 
 1018 we find him created an earl by Canute, 
 and shortly after marrying the king's niece 
 Gytha. In 1020 he was made Earl of the 
 West Saxons, probably as a reward for his 
 
Gof 
 
 ( 508 ) 
 
 G-oo 
 
 services in the northern wars of Canute. On 
 the death of that king he espoused the cause 
 of Hardicanute, and on the latter obtaining 
 Wessex Godwin became one of the chief 
 advisers of Emma, who acted as regent. It 
 was at this time that Alfred the son of Ethel- 
 red came to England, and was murdered by 
 Harold. It seems impossible in the face of 
 the evidence of contemporary writers to 
 doubt that Godwin betrayed the young Ethel- 
 ing to Harold, though the accusation of com- 
 plicity in Alfred's death, which was brought 
 against Godwin in 1040, resulted in the 
 acquittal of the earl, and Godwin continued 
 in power. On the death of Hardicanute in 
 1042 Godwin was foremost in procuring 
 the election of Edward the Confessor to the 
 throne, and during the early part of the reign 
 of that prince he exercised the chief power in 
 the kingdom. His daughter was married to 
 the king, and his sons promoted to earldoms. 
 During this period (1043 — 10-51) we find 
 Godwin leading the national English party, 
 and strenuously opposing that introduction 
 of foreigners which was the great weakness 
 of Edward's reign. But the Normans were 
 too strong for him; "the appointment of 
 Robert of Jumieges to the archbishopric of 
 Canterbury marks the decline of Godwin's 
 power ; the foreign influence was now at its 
 height, and the English earl was to feel the 
 strength of it." The refusal of Godwin to 
 punish the burgesses of Dover for the riot 
 occasioned by the insolence of the followers of 
 Eustace of Boulogne led to the outlawry of 
 Godwin and his family (10.51). The next 
 year the tide turned; the feeling of the 
 nation showed itself in favour of Godwin. 
 He came back from his shelter in Elanders at 
 the head of a fleet. In most parts of England 
 he was welcomed ; he sailed up the Thames 
 to London ; the army gathered by the king 
 refused to fight against him ; and he and his 
 family were restored to all their ofiices and 
 possessions. The next year Godwin was 
 smitten with a fit at the king's table, and 
 died April 15, 1053. Mr. Ereeman regards 
 Godwin as the representative of all English 
 feeling, as the leader of every national move- 
 ment, and as enjoying in consequence an 
 extreme popularity. But he was also a wise 
 and wary statesman, able to practise the baser 
 as well as the nobler arts of statesmanship. 
 His vast wealth suggests a covetous dis- 
 position. He promoted his sons without 
 much care for their deserts. But as a strong 
 man and a vigorous ruler he was of the type 
 that England had at that time the greatest 
 need. 
 
 Freeman, Novmwn Conguest. 
 
 GoflEe (or Gough), "William, was son- 
 in-law to Colonel Wha,lley, and consequently 
 connected with Cromwell, to whom he was 
 strongly attached. He fought in the Par- 
 liamentary army, was one of the members 
 
 of the High Court of Justice, and signed 
 the warrant for Charles I.'s execution. He 
 accompanied Cromwell to Scotland in 1G51, 
 assisted in Pride's Purge, and in clearing 
 out Barebones' Parliament. He was one of 
 the major-generals appointed in 1656, and 
 one of the members of Cromwell's House of 
 Lords. He was one of the few officers in 
 favour of CromweU'a assuming the title of 
 king, and attached himself subsequently to 
 Richard Cromwell. On the Restoration he 
 fled with Whalley to America, where he 
 remained during the rest of his Ufa. 
 
 Golab Singh, originally a running foot- 
 man, attracted the attention of Runjeet 
 Singh and rose to favour. He was given 
 the territory of Jurainoo, lying between 
 Lahore and Cashmere. As a Rajjioot, he 
 was detested by the Sikhs. On the death of 
 Runjeet Singh, 1839, he aimed at becoming 
 supreme in Cashmere, and even engaged 
 in a war with Thibet. At the end of the 
 first Sikh war the principality of Cash- 
 mere was sold to him by the English 
 (1840). A formidable opposition was or- 
 ganised against him by one imain-ud-deen, 
 which was with difficulty suppressed by 
 Major Henry Lawrence, Resident at Lahore. 
 "The arrangement," says Mr. Cunningham, 
 " was a dexterous one, if reference be had 
 only to the policy of reducing the power of 
 the Sikhs ; but the transaction seems hardly 
 worthy of the British name and greatness. 
 Cunningham, Hist, of Silchs. 
 
 Gold Coast Colony. [West Apeica.] 
 Goodman, Caudell, was a Jacobite ad- 
 venturer in the reign of William III. He had 
 been an actor, a paramour of the Duchess' of 
 Cleveland, two of whose children he had at- 
 tempted to poison, and a forger of bank notes. 
 In 1695 he was confined to gaol for raising a 
 Jacobite riot in London, in conjunction with 
 Porter. He was one of the conspirators in 
 the Assassination Plot, and as his evidence 
 could procure the conviction of Sir John 
 Fenwick, efforts were made to get him out of 
 the country. An adventurer named O'Brien 
 met him in a tavern in Drury Lane, and 
 persuaded him to go abroad by ofieiing him 
 an annuity of £500. This he accepted, and 
 arrived safely at St. Germains. 
 
 Good Parliament, The (1376), gained 
 its title from the beneficent measures it 
 passed and its bold attitude in reforming 
 abuses. Edward III., old before his time, 
 was entirely under the influence of a worth- 
 less woman, Alice Perrers, through whose 
 means John of Gaunt contrived to appro- 
 priate to himseU the whole of the royal 
 authority, and to appoint his own crea- 
 tures to all the great offices of state. The 
 Parliament which met in 1376, after an in- 
 terval of three years, determined to do away 
 with this state of things, and in this resolu- 
 tion they were strongly supported by the 
 
Goo 
 
 ( 509 ) 
 
 G-oo 
 
 Black Prince. Peter de la Mare was chosen 
 Speaker, and lie at once demanded that the 
 national accounts should he audited, and that 
 trustworthy counsellors and ministers should 
 he appointed. The Commons next proceeded 
 to accuse certain persons — of whom the chief 
 were Lord Latimer and Richard Lyons — of 
 malversation and fraud, and they were con- 
 demned to imprisonment and forfeiture. 
 This is the first instance of impeachment. 
 Alice Ferrers was next attacked, and it 
 was ordered that henceforward no woman 
 should interfere in the administration of 
 justice, on pain of forfeiture- The Black 
 Prince having died in the meantime, the 
 Parliament demanded that his son Richard 
 should he hrought hefore them, that they 
 might see the heir to the throne. This, 
 which was intended to checkmate John of 
 Gaunt, who was supposed to be aspiring to 
 the throne, was forthwith done. The Commons 
 also proposed that an administrative council 
 should be appointed, some of whom were 
 always to be in attendance on the king ; this, 
 with certain modifications, was agreed to. 
 But besides these acts, they presented to the 
 king no less than a hundred and forty peti- 
 tions on various subjects, of which the most 
 important were that Parliaments might be held 
 annually ; that the knights of the shire should 
 be freely elected, not merely nominated by the 
 sheriff ; the sheriffs should be elected, and 
 not appointed at the Exchequer; the law 
 courts should be reformed ; the abuse of 
 Papal provisions, &c., should be removed. 
 The work of the Good Parliament could 
 be carried out only under the leadership 
 of some powerful personage, such as the 
 Black Prince. Now_that he was dead, the 
 power passed once more into the hands 
 of John of Gaunt, who immediately undid 
 the work of the Parliament. Not one 
 of the petitions became a statute. Alice 
 Perrers regained her place and influence at 
 court, Lyons and other offenders were par- 
 doned, Peter de la Mare was sent to prison, 
 and the new members of the Council were 
 dismissed. But though the work of the 
 Good Parliament was for the time rendered 
 , nugatory, the year 1376 forms, nevertheless, 
 an important epoch in the history of Parlia- 
 ment. The responsibility of ministers, the 
 rights of impeachment and of inquiry into 
 grievances and abuses, were established, and 
 were destined to receive extension and con- 
 firmation in the next reign. 
 
 Stubba, Const. Hist. ; Longman, Edward III. 
 Goodrich., Thomas, Lord Chancellor of 
 England {d. 1554), made Bishop of Ely by 
 Henry VIII., was a staunch supporter of the 
 .Reformation. In December, 1551, he suc- 
 ceeded Sir Richard Rich as Lord Chan- 
 cellor, and in that capacity was induced, after 
 much solicitation, to set the Great Seal to the 
 patent altering the succession in favour of 
 Lady Jane Grey. He continued to support 
 
 Northumberland until he saw that the 
 cause was lost, when he at once resigned his 
 office and retired to his diocese, where, says 
 Lord Campbell, " partly from his sacred 
 character and partly from his real insignifi- 
 cance, he was not molested." 
 
 Campbell, iiues of the Chancellors; Foss, 
 Judges of England. 
 
 Goorkha War (1814 — 1816). The 
 Goorkhas had encroached continually on the 
 British frontier, and at last laid claim to 
 two districts, Bootwul and Sheoraj, which 
 they had seized, though they had been 
 ceded to Lord Wellesley in the year 1801 
 by the Nabob. Lord Minto remonstrated 
 with them, and on their refusal to retire. 
 Lord Hastings, his successor, ordered their 
 expulsion. Money was obtained from the 
 Vizier, and four armies were prepared, 
 comprising 30,000 men, with 60 guns. 
 The Goorkhas were divided into three ; one- 
 third, under Umur Singh, guarded the for- 
 tresses on the Sutlej ; two thousand were 
 distributed between the Jumna and Kalee ; 
 the rest protected the capital. The English 
 at first met with nothing but disaster. 
 Kalunga was taken with great loss, and 
 the Dhoon valley occupied, but the fortress 
 of Jyetuk stopped the advance of the division 
 altogether. The divisions of Generals Wood 
 and Marley failed entirely, the one to capture 
 Jeetgurh, the other to reach the capital. 
 These disasters were somewhat retrieved by 
 the brilliant success of General Ochterlonj', 
 who was entrusted with the difficult task of 
 dislodging TTmur Singh from the forts on the 
 Upper Sutlej. After an extremely arduous 
 campaign he succeeded in confining Umur 
 Singh to the fortress of Malown, and in 
 finally compelling him to make terms, which 
 included the surrender of the fortress of 
 Malown and all conquests west of the 
 Kalee. This was facilitated by the opera- 
 tions of Colonels Gardner and NicoUs, 
 who, with a body of irregular horse and 
 2i000 regulars, had cleared the province of 
 Kumaon, and captured its capital, Almorah, 
 thus isolating Umur Singh' from Nepaul 
 and Khatmandu. The discomfiture of their 
 ablest general and loss of their most 
 valuable conquests, induced the Nepaulese 
 government to sue for peace. The condi- 
 tions proposed by Lord Hastings were that 
 they should resign all claims on the hill rajahs 
 west of the Kalee, cede the Terrai, restore 
 the territory of Sikkim, and receive a British 
 Resident. The treaty was agreed to on 
 December 2, 1816, but the influence of Umur 
 Singh and the other chiefs induced the 
 Goorkha government to break it, aud it re- 
 quired another campaign under Sir David 
 Ochterlony, and a complete rout at Muk- 
 wanpore, before peace was finally concluded, 
 March 2, 1816. 
 
 araloolm, PoMt. Hint, of India,; Wilson, Hist. 
 of India; Thornton, British Empire in India. 
 
Gor 
 
 (510) 
 
 Gor 
 
 Gordon, The Family op. The origin ol 
 this great Scottish house is extremely ohsoure. 
 The first prominent bearer of the name was 
 Sir Adam Gordon, Justiciar of Lothian under 
 Edward I. (1305). His adhesion to Bruce 
 gave him estates in the north that transferred 
 the chief seat of the house from the Merse 
 to Deeside and the Spey valley. The direct 
 male line died out in 1402 ; but from his 
 female and illegitimate descendants a large 
 circle of Gordons sprang up. His grandson 
 was made Earl of Huntly (1445), a peerage 
 which, elevated to a marquisate in 1599, and a 
 dukedom (of Gordon) in 1684, became extinct 
 in 1836. But the title of Marquis of Huntly 
 passed to another branch of the family, who 
 had acquired the title of Viscount Melg^und 
 and Aboyne in the year 1627, and Earl of 
 Aboyne in 16B0. Other peerages in the 
 family were — the earldom of Sutherland 
 (1512), the barony of Lochinvar and vis- 
 county of Kenmure (1633) — in abeyance 
 since 1847 — and the earldom of Aberdeen 
 (1682), belonging to a collateral branch trace- 
 able from the fifteenth century. 
 
 Gordon, Genealogwal Hist, of the House of 
 Gordon. 
 
 Gordon, Lady Catherine, was a daughter 
 of the Earl of Huntly, and, on her mother's 
 side, a cousin of James IV. , by whom she was 
 married to Perkin Warbeck. Taken prisoner 
 by Henry VII., with her husband, she became 
 an attendant to his queen, and afterwards 
 married Sir M. Cradock. 
 
 Gordon, George, 4th Duke op {d. 1716), 
 Marquis of Huntly, was made Duke of Gor- 
 don in 1684. He was a Eomau Catholic. In 
 1689 he valiantly defended Edinburgh Castle 
 on behalf of King James, but was forced to 
 capitulate on July 14. 
 
 Gordon, Sib John {d. 1562), was the 
 fourth son of the fourth Earl of Huntly. 
 He was one of the numerous suitors of Mary 
 Queen of Scots, whose favour, however, he 
 lost on the occasion of a brawl in the 
 streets of Edinburgh. He was subsequently 
 convicted of treason for resisting the royal 
 troops at Corrichie, and beheaded at Aber- 
 deen, 1562. 
 
 Gordon Biots, The (June, 1780), were 
 the most formidable popular rising of the 
 eighteenth century. In 1778 a bill, brought 
 in by Sir George Savile and Dunning, for the 
 relaxation of some .of the harsher penal laws 
 against Catholics, passed almost unanimously 
 through both Houses. Protestant associations 
 were formed in Scotland ; a leader was found 
 in Lord George Gordon, a son of the Duke of 
 Gordon, a silly young man of twenty-eight 
 years of age ; the agitation spread to England, 
 and the local committees continued through- 
 out the year 1779 to gather strength and 
 numbers. On June 2 a body of 50,000 persons 
 
 met in St. George's Fields, adorned with blue 
 cockades, to present a petition for the repeal 
 of the Cathohc Belief Act. The mob forced 
 their way into the lobby of the House, 
 and, continually encouraged by Lord George 
 Gordon, prevented the conduct of business. 
 Lord North showed great firmness, and 
 Colonels Holroyd and Murray succeeded in 
 intimidating Lord George, and inducing him 
 to quiet the mob. The House adjourned till 
 Tuesday the 6th. The mob dispersed; but 
 only to begin their work of destruction by 
 demolishing the chapels of the Sardinian and 
 Bavarian ministers. But in the evening of 
 the next day the mob renewed their ravages 
 in Moorfields. On Sunday, the 4th, they 
 were encouraged by the impunity with which 
 their former lawlessness had been indulged, to 
 proceed to worse extremities. The Boman 
 Catholic chapels in the City, and the houses 
 of the Boman Catholics, were stripped of 
 their furniture and ornaments, which served 
 as fuel for the bonfire. On the next 
 day the mob attacked the house of Sir 
 George Savile, which was carried and pil- 
 laged. The alarm spread. Burke had to 
 leave his own house, and take refuge with 
 General Burgoyne ; and Lord George Gor- 
 don himself saw that the riots were pro- 
 ceeding too violently, and disavowed his old 
 friends. On the 6th the Houses met 
 after their adjournment. A motion was 
 passed that the petitions should be considered 
 " as soon as the tumults subside which 
 are now subsisting." On the very same even- 
 ing, one detachment of the rioters broke 
 open Newgate, and released the prisoners; 
 others were meanwhile releasing, in the 
 same violent way, the malefactors at Clerk- 
 enwell. Towards midnight the rioters burnt 
 Lord Mansfield's house in Bloomsbury Square, 
 with its priceless library, the occupants barely 
 escaping. The magistrates did not venture to 
 read the Riot Act ; and the Guards would not 
 act until this formality had been gone through. 
 On the 7th the king called a Council, and 
 showed, as usual, that where courage was 
 required he would not be wanting. The 
 cabinet wavered on the right of the troops 
 to interfere until the Riot Act had been read ; 
 but the Attorney-General, Wedderburn, dis- 
 posed of this difficulty, and the king insisted 
 on prompt action. A proclamation was issued, 
 warning all householders to close their houses 
 and keep within doors ; and orders were 
 given to the military to act without waiting 
 for directions from the civil magistrates. 
 Soldiers everywhere drove the rioters before 
 them ; but in some cases it was necessary to 
 resort to the use of musketry. The returns 
 sent in show that 200 persons were shot dead, 
 while 250 more were lying wounded in the 
 hospitals, and still more were no doubt carried 
 away and concealed by their friends. On 
 Thursday morning the plunder and confla- 
 grations were completely at an end. One 
 
Gor 
 
 {511 ) 
 
 Gow 
 
 hundred and thirty-five of the rioters were 
 arrested ; twenty-one were executed. Lord 
 George Gordon sutsequently became a con- 
 vert to Judaism, and died in Newgate in 
 1793, having heen convicted for libel in 
 1787. 
 
 Stiuiliope, Hist., vil., o. 61 ; Ann. Reg., 1780, pp. 
 190, et seg. ; Burke, Epistolary Correspondencej 
 ii. 350, et seq. ; Plain and Succmct Narrative of 
 Willia-m Vincent, 1780. r-m- T? a "1 
 
 Gorges, Sib Ferddjando, was one of 
 the supporters of Essex in his rebellion of 
 1601. He saved his life by releasing the 
 ministers whom the earl had taken prisoner, 
 and by appearing as " witness at the trial. 
 He was subsequently, in 1606, associated 
 with Sir John Popham in a scheme for 
 establishing a colony in North America, for 
 which a patent had been obtained from 
 James I. 
 
 Goring, George, Lord, afterwards Earl 
 of Norwich, a Eoyahst partisan who be- 
 trayed the Army Hot to Pym, but who 
 got command of Portsmouth, which he held 
 valiantly for Charles I. Afterwards he com- 
 manded the Royalist army in the south-west, 
 and attempted to capture Taunton. He 
 joined the second Civil War, and on the 
 capture of Colchester was tried and found 
 guilty by resolution of the House of Com- 
 mons, but saved from execution by the 
 casting vote of the Speaker. He was a man 
 of rough jovial life, brave, but not of high 
 character. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, oftheEeh. 
 
 Gorsipred, or compatemity, is a wide- 
 spread custom amongst the Irish. The ex- 
 tremely strong feelings of attachment arising 
 from it were among the most powerful 
 agents in completely denationalising the Nor- 
 man invaders. Sir J. Davis says of it, " yet 
 there was no nation under the sun ever 
 made so great an account of it [gorsipred] 
 as the Irish." The Statute of Kilkenny, 
 1367, made it high treason to enter into this 
 relation with natives, but exemptions were 
 very often granted. 
 
 Davis, Discovery ; Proude, -English in Ireland. 
 
 Gough, Hugh, Visoodnt (i. 1779, <i. 
 1869), entered the army, and distinguished 
 himself on many occasions during the Pen- 
 insular "War. In 1837 he commanded the 
 English army in the Chinese War, and 
 achieved the capture of Canton. For his ser- 
 vices he was created a baronet. In 1843 he 
 was appointed commander-in-chief in India. 
 He commanded during the first Sikh War, 
 and for his services was created Baron Gough. 
 He also commanded during the second Sikh 
 War, and his crowning victory of Guzerat 
 was rewarded with a viscounty. In 1862 he 
 became field-marshal. 
 
 Goulbnm, Henry (J. 1784, d. 1856), 
 was. educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 
 In 1807 he was elected member for Horsham; 
 in 1810 he was made Under-Secretary of 
 State for the Home Department under the 
 Duke of Portland's ministry, and held that 
 office during the administration of Perceval. 
 At the general election of 1812 he was 
 elected for St. Germans. In Aug., 1812, he 
 was appointed Under-Secretary of State for 
 the Colonies, an office which he held up tiU 
 1821. He accepted the post of Chief Secre- 
 tary for Ireland in Dec, 1821, and held that 
 ofiice until March, 1828, when the Duke of 
 Wellington made him Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer and a member of the cabinet. He 
 went out of office in 1830, was elected member 
 for Oxford University in 1831, and in Decem- 
 ber, 1834, was appointed Home Secretary by 
 Peel. In 1 839 he was proposed as Speaker of 
 the House of Commons, but the Whigs carried, 
 Mr. Shaw Lefevre. In 1841 he was again 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. In this office 
 he most ably seconded his great chief in the 
 social and commercial reforms which have 
 rendered famous the later years of that 
 statesman's life. 'He was one of the most 
 successful Chancellors of the Exchequer ever 
 known. He retired with Sir E. Peel in 1846, 
 and from that time took no very active part 
 in politics. 
 
 Gonrdou, Bertrakd de {d. H99), is gene- 
 rally supposed to have been the name of 
 the archer whose arrow mortally wounded 
 Richard I. before the castle of Chaluz. 
 Richard ordered him to be released, but after 
 his death his followers flayed the unhappy 
 man aUve. 
 
 Gowrie, William, Earl or (Lord Ruth- 
 ven), d. 1584, was the leader in the Raid 
 of Ruthven, for which act of violence he 
 obtained an indemnity, 1582. On the defeat 
 of his party, 1583, he was induced by false 
 promises of pardon to write a letter to the 
 king confessing his guilt. On this evidence 
 he was condemned and executed at Stirling, 
 May, 1584. 
 
 Gowrie, The Earl or, the son of the 
 preceding, joined with his brother in the 
 Gowrie Conspiracy, 1600, to kidnap King 
 James VI.; in the struggle which ensued 
 he was killed by Sir Thomas Brskine, a 
 retainer of the king. He was Provost of 
 Perth, and very popular with the citizens, 
 who threatened to make the " king's green 
 coat pay for their provost." 
 
 Gowrie Conspiracy, The (1600), is a 
 
 name given to a somewhat mysterious affair 
 which happened during the reign of James 
 VI. of Scotland. On August 5, 1600, while 
 the king was hunting in Falkland Park in 
 Fifeshire he was met by Alexander Ruthven 
 (brother of the Earl of Gowrie) who invited 
 him to Gowrie House near Perth, saying that 
 he had caught a Jesuit with a large sum of 
 money in hie possession. James being in 
 
Gra 
 
 ( 512 ) 
 
 Gra 
 
 need of money accepted the invitation, and 
 after dinner went with. Alexander Euthven 
 alone, to interrogate the captive. Instead of 
 a prisoner, however, he found an armed re- 
 tainer of the earl, named Henderson ; Euthven 
 at once told the king he was a prisoner, re- 
 minding him of his father's (Lord Gowrie) 
 execution in 1584. James, however, managed 
 to raise an alarm in spite of Ruthven's efforts 
 to stah him, and his attendants hastened to his 
 assistance. Sir John Eamsay, his page, forced 
 his way up a stair to the turret where the 
 struggle was going on, and stabbed Euthven 
 twice ; the conspirator, and his brother. Lord 
 Gowrie, being subsequently despatched by Sir 
 Thomas Erskine and Sir Hugh Herries. The 
 kiag had considerable difficulty in escaping 
 from Gowrie House, as the citizens of Perth, 
 with whom Gowrie was very popular, wished 
 to put him to death. It was said at the time 
 by the king's enemies that the whole affair 
 had been arranged by James, who wished to 
 get rid of the Euthvens, but subsequent 
 evidence proved that there had been a con- 
 spiracy between Lord Gowrie, his brother and 
 Eobert Logan, to seize or MD. the king. It is 
 said that Elizabeth was privy to the scheme. 
 Burton, Sistory of Scotland,, 
 
 Grace, The Act of (May 20, 1690), 
 was issued by William III., and as such was 
 received with peculiar marks of respect, and 
 read only once in the Lords and once in the 
 Conunons. It excepted from its operations 
 the survivors of the High Court of Justice 
 which had sat on Charles I., and his two 
 nameless executioners. "With these excep- 
 tions, all political offences committed before 
 the day on which the royal signature was 
 affixed to the Act, were covered in general 
 oblivion." This Act was opposed by the more 
 violent Whigs because, they said, it had com- 
 pletely refuted his declaration ; but it is, aa 
 Macaulay remarks, " one of his noblest and 
 purest titles to renown." 
 
 Statutes of the Realm ; Burnet, Hist, of His Ovm 
 Time ; Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Graces, The. In 1628, the government 
 of Ireland being greatly embarrassed by James 
 I.'s prodigality, an arrangement was con- 
 cluded, by which, in return for the Volun- 
 tary Aids, Lord Falkland, as Lord Deputy, 
 granted, in the king's name, some fifty-one 
 " graces " or concessions. The most impor- 
 tant were: (1) Eecusants to be allowed to 
 practice in courts of law, and to sue for 
 livery of their lands in the Court of Wards, 
 on taking the oath of allegiance only ; (2) 
 the claims of the crown to land to be Hmited 
 by a prescription of sixty years ; (3) inhabi- 
 tants of Connaught to be permitted to make 
 a new enrolment of their title-deeds; (4) a, 
 Parliament to be held at once to confirm 
 these "graces." A Parliament was indeed 
 held, but being called by Lord Falkland in 
 defiance of Poynings' Law, its acts were con- 
 
 sidered null and void by the English Council. 
 In 1634 Strafford, Falkland's successor, 
 promised, if Parliament voted a subsidy in its 
 first session, to hold a second one for consider- 
 ing the " graces." He broke his promise and 
 declared that the most important could not be 
 conceded. When the system of " Thorough " 
 broke down in England, a deputation went 
 over to England and got all its requests 
 granted by Charles I., 1641, but of course the 
 Parliament was not bound by the king's 
 action. 
 
 Strafford Pttipers ; Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 1603 
 —1642. 
 
 Grafton, Augustus Henry, Srd Duke 
 OF (6. 1735, d. 1811), son of the second duke, 
 after being educated at Westminster and 
 Peterhouse, Cambridge, succeeded his father 
 at the age of 22. He attached himself to the 
 Whigs, and was one of the three peers who, 
 for their independence in censuring Bute's 
 peace with Prance in 1763, were dismissed 
 from their lord-lieutenancies. When the 
 Marquis of Eockingham came into office 
 in 1765, the duke was appointed one of the 
 Secretaries of State, but resigned in the 
 following May, having become a disciple of 
 Pitt. When the ministry resigned a few 
 months later, the duke was appointed First 
 Lord of the Treasury, while Pitt nominally 
 received for himself the Privy Seal only, but 
 was in fact Prime Minister. The duke did, 
 however, become really Premier, when 
 Chatham fell ill and retired from active busi- 
 ness; and so he continued until January, 
 1770, when he retired and made way for 
 Lord North, after being outvoted in his own 
 cabinet. On the retirement of Lord Wey- 
 mouth, and the death of Lord Halifax, the 
 duke " was induced to accept the Privy Seal, 
 but, with a kind of proud humility, refused a 
 seat in the cabinet of Lord North," but in 
 October, 1775, as he could not convince his 
 colleagues of the need of conciliating America, 
 he resigned. He thenjoined his old leader, Lord 
 Chatham, in his protests against the policy of 
 the government in America. The duke re- 
 mained in opposition during the remainder of 
 Lord North's tenure of office. He was ap- 
 pointed Privy Seal when Lord Eockingham 
 took office in 1782. On the succession of 
 Shelburne to the premiership, he did not re- 
 sign, but distrusted the new Premier, and 
 remained as a continual thorn in his side. Soon 
 after this he retired from polities to the quiet 
 enjoyment of field sports, which had always 
 occupied most of his thoughts. The Duke of 
 Grafton is best known to posterity from the 
 striking though exaggerated picture drawn of 
 him by the powerful pen of "Junius," whose 
 chief victim he was. A man of promise and 
 ability, endowed with fortune and high 
 position, upright and disinterested in his 
 public conduct, the Duke of Grafton was yet 
 a failure. He was wanting in application, 
 and both vacillating and obstinate. The 
 
Gra 
 
 (513) 
 
 Gra 
 
 eonepiouous manner, too, in which he paraded 
 his personal immorality gave offence even to 
 his lax age. 
 
 Grafton, Memovrs ; Chatham Correspondence; 
 
 Stanhope, Mist, of Er{g. ; Jesse, item, of Seo. 
 
 III. ; Junius, Letters. 
 
 Graham, Sin James George Robert (i. 
 1792, d. 1861), was the sou of Sir James 
 Graham, of Netherby ; entered Parliament 
 in 1818. In 1824 he succeeded to the 
 haronetoy, and being returned in 1826 for 
 Carlisle, soon became prominent on the 
 "Whig side. On the formation of Earl Grey's 
 ministry, he was made First Lord of the 
 Admiralty. In 1834 he retired from Lord 
 Grey's cabinet owing to the dissensions in it 
 about the Irish Church question, and with a 
 small party of friends formed an intermediate 
 party known bj' the sportive title of the 
 " Derby Dilly" (q.v.). In 1841 he accepted 
 office under Sir Robert Peel, as Home 
 Secretary. He was exposed to an attack of 
 extraordinary bitterness in consequence of 
 his ordering the correspondence of Mazzini to 
 he opened at the Post Office. The manner 
 in which he dealt with the question of the 
 Scotch Church, and at the crisis of the Dis- 
 ruption, produced a most exasperated feeling 
 against him in Scotland. He supported Peel 
 during the crisis produced by the repeal of 
 the Com Laws; and in 1852 he was once 
 more appointed, by Lord Aberdeen, First 
 Lord of the Admiralty. Sir James in- 
 curred in this more unpopularity than in 
 any former tenure of office. Sir James under- 
 rated both the charges and responsibilities of 
 the war. He was one of those who advocated 
 those half measures which both precipitated 
 the contest, and afterwards increased its 
 magnitude. The dismissal of Sir Charles 
 Napier greatly damaged the reputation of the 
 First Lord. Sir James, in consequence, 
 resigned his office. He now led a smaU party, 
 the remnant of the PeeUtes. 
 Annual Register. 
 
 Graham, John op Glaverhouse, Vis- 
 count Dundee {d. 1689), was the captain in 
 a troop of horse employed in coercing the 
 Covenanters and Cameronians in the latter 
 part of Charles II.' s reign, and that of his 
 successor. His cruelty made hini specially 
 hateful to the rebels. He was defeated by the 
 Cameronians at Drumclog (June, 1679), hut 
 subsequently had a large share in Monmouth's 
 victory over them at Bothwell Bridge, a few 
 days later. In 1688 he was made a peer. 
 Claverhouse was at the head of the opposi- 
 tion to "William III.'s accession in Scot- 
 land, and after vainly trying to interrupt the 
 work of the Convention of Estates, he retired 
 to the Highlands and raised a body of troops 
 there for King James. On J>me 17, 1689, he 
 defeated Mackay, who advanced against him, 
 at the pass of Killieoraukie, but was himseK 
 , killed in the battle. 
 Hist.— 17 
 
 Graham, Sir Robert, was the uncle of 
 Malise Graham, Earl of Strathern, and the 
 chief conspirator against James I. On Feb. 
 20, 1436, he led a band of 300 men to the 
 abbey of Black Friars, at Perth, where the 
 king was residing, and slew him with his 
 own hand, only sparing the queen from the 
 necessity of escaping without loss of time. 
 The indignation aroused by this crime was so 
 great, that all the conspirators were speedily 
 brought to justice, Sir Robert Graham being 
 tortured to death at Stirling, justifying his 
 conduct to the end, and declaring himself the 
 liberator of his country. 
 
 Burton, Eist. of Scotland. 
 
 Gram.mont, Philibert, Comtede (S. 1621, 
 d. 1707), a French noble, was for a long time 
 one of the most brilliant and characteristic 
 members of the court of Charles II., and his 
 memoirs, which have been written by his 
 brother-in-law, Antony Hamilton, give a 
 lively picture of the licence allowed by that 
 monarch amongst his courtiers. [Hamilton.] 
 
 Granby, John Manners, Marquis of 
 (i. 1721, d. 1773), was the eldest son of the 
 third Duke of Rutland. He served in the '45, 
 and in 1759 wen to Germany as second in 
 command to Lord George Sackville. After 
 the battle of Minden, for his conduct in which 
 he was thanked, to the disparagement of 
 Sackville, he was made commander-in-chief, 
 and greatlj' distinguished himself. In 1763 
 he was made Master of the Ordnance. His 
 great popularity may be judged from the 
 large number of public-houses still named 
 after him ; but he was quite a commonplace, 
 though respectable, general 
 
 Grand Alliance. [See Appendix.] 
 Grantham, The Fight op (March, 1643), 
 was the result of an invasion of Lincolnshire 
 by a Royalist force under Charles Cavendish. 
 They took Grantham, a garrison of the 
 Association, with 300 prisoners, arms and 
 ammunition. 
 
 Clarendon, H-ist. of the Rebellion. 
 
 GranviUe, George Leveson Gower, 
 Earl {b. 1815), was first returned to 
 Parliament in 1836. In 1840 he became 
 Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He 
 acted on Liberal principles, and was a consis- 
 tent supporter of Free Trade. In 1846 he 
 succeeded to the peerage. In 1848 he was 
 appointed "Vice-President of the Board of 
 Trade; in 1851 obtained a seat in the 
 cabinet, and in December of that year suc- 
 ceeded Lord Palmerston as Foreign Secretary, 
 retiring with the Russell ministry in 1852. 
 He was appointed President of the Council in 
 1853, and in 1855 undertook the leadership of 
 the House of Lords. He was re-appointed 
 President of the Council in 1859 in Lord 
 Palmerston's second ministry. In Decem- 
 ber, 1868, he accepted office under Mr. 
 Gladstone as Colonial Secretary, and re- 
 
Crra 
 
 (514) 
 
 Gra 
 
 tained that positioa till July, 1870, when he 
 succeeded the Earl of Clarendon as Secretary 
 for Foreign Affairs, which position he occu- 
 pied tUl the fall of the government in 1874. 
 He became Foreign Secretary again on the ac- 
 cession of the Liberal party to power in 1880. 
 
 Granville, John Carteret {b. 1690, d. 
 1763), the eldest son of George, Lord Carteret, 
 early distinguished himself in the House of 
 Lords by his defence of Whig doctrines and 
 the Revolution settlement. In 1719 he was 
 sent as ambassador to Sweden. In 1721 he 
 was made Secretary of State, and in 1724 Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland, which office he filled 
 with great success. In 1730 he returned and 
 became one of the most formidable opponents 
 of Walpole. On the fall of that minister he 
 became Secretary of State (Feb., 1742). He, 
 however, resigned office in 1744 (Nov. 23). 
 He unsuccessfully attempted to form a 
 ministry in company with Lord Bath in 
 1746. He succeeded to the earldom of Gran- 
 ville in 1744, and was appointed President of 
 the Council in 1751. Granville was a man of 
 brilliant genius, and an accomplished scholar ; 
 but he was somewhat deficient in steadiness 
 of purpose and judgment. 
 
 Grattau, Henry [b. 1750, d. 1820), was 
 born in Dubhn, and educated at Trinity 
 College. In 1772 he was called to the Irish 
 bar ; but practice did not flow in, and, in 
 1775, he was raised to a more congenial 
 sphere by his return to Parliament for 
 Charlemont. He at once joined the Opposi- 
 tion, and acquired almost unprecedented 
 popularity by drawing up the Irish Declara- 
 tion of Eights. He was the leading orator 
 of the party whose success secured the repeal 
 of Poynings' Act and the legislative inde- 
 pendence of Ireland. In 1785 it was proposed 
 that " the Irish legislature should from time to 
 time adopt all such Acts of the British Par- 
 liament as related to commerce." The popu- 
 larity of Flood for a time had almost ecHpsed 
 Grattan's, but his successful opposition to 
 this measure quite restored him to extreme 
 popularity. In 1790 he was elected to repre- 
 sent the city of Dublin. During the unhappy 
 period between 1790 and 1800, Grattan 
 urged the government to adopt a conciliatory 
 policy, and he was strongly in favour of 
 granting the claims of the Catholics. On 
 the question of the Union, he held consistently 
 to his old wish to see Ireland- independent, 
 and consequently did his utmost to prevent 
 the passing of that measure. It- was of no 
 avail; and, in 1805', he was returned to the 
 British Parliament as M.P. for Ms,lton, and 
 he afterwards represented his old constituents 
 of Dublin. His oratory was as brilliant as 
 ever, but his views had become more mode- 
 rate ; and he did not escape the suspicion of 
 having abandoned his old patriotism under 
 the influence of flattery from high quarters. 
 The suspicion was groundless. His old ideal 
 
 of an independent Ireland had been swept 
 away by the Union, in spite of his strenuous 
 resistance; but the policy which held the 
 next place in his heart — Catholic Emancipa- 
 tion — seems to have become a more and more 
 engrossing passion, and he never ceased 
 during the time when he sat in the English 
 Parliament to advocate that measure. In May, 
 1820, he died in London. " Mr. Grattan's," said 
 Sir James Mackintosh, in proposing a public 
 funeral, "was a case without alloy; the purity 
 of his life was the brightness of his glory. 
 He was as eminent in his observance of all 
 the duties of private life as he was heroic in 
 the discharge of his public ones." 
 
 GrattaiL*s Xi/e, by his son ; Plowden, History of 
 Irelatid; Froude, English in Ireland; Cuuning- 
 ham, Eminent Englishman; May, Const. Rist 
 
 Gravelines, The Battle of (1558), re- 
 sulted in a victory for Count Egmont and the 
 Imperial forces over the French. The Eng- 
 lish navy, under Lord Clinton, had some share 
 in it, and thus wiped out in some degree the 
 disgrace of the loss of Calais. 
 
 Graves, Admiral Lord (J. 1725, d. 1802), 
 served successively as Governor of New- 
 foundland and rear-admiral in command of 
 the American station (1780). He brought 
 De Grasse to a partial engagement in Septem- 
 ber, 1781. In the naval engagement oflE 
 Ushant (June 1, 1794) he was second in com- 
 mand to Lord Howe, and was rewarded with 
 an Irish peerage and a pension. 
 
 Allen, Naval Battles ; James, Naval Hist. 
 
 Gray, Patrick (the Master of Gray), was 
 educated in France, whence he returned to 
 Scotland (1585), and speedily became a 
 favourite of James VI. He was sent on a 
 mission to Elizabeth, to whom he is said to 
 have revealed many of the secrets of Mary 
 Queen of Scots; and while at the English 
 court concerted measures for the ruin of 
 Arran, which he accomplished on his re- 
 turn to Scotland (1585). In the following 
 year he was sent, in company with Sir Eobert 
 Melville, to intercede for Queen Mary, whose 
 cause, however, he is not likely to have aided 
 by the- jffivate intimation which he is said to 
 have given to Elizabeth that James was, in 
 reality, in- no way averse to his mother's 
 execution. 
 
 Gray, or Grey, John de {d. 1214), was 
 one of King John's ministers. In 1200 the 
 king gave him the bishopric of Norwich, and 
 in 1205 John caused him to be elected Arch- 
 bishop, of Canterbury. But the Pope refused 
 to confirm the election, and appointed Stephen 
 Langton in his stead. In 1210 he was 
 appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland, an office 
 which he held tiU 1213. In 1214 he was 
 sent to Eome on an embassy to the Pope, and 
 while returning to England died at Poiotiers. 
 
 Gray, or Grey, "Walter de {d. 1255), 
 was the nephew of John de Grey. He 
 
Gre 
 
 ( 515 ) 
 
 Gre 
 
 was Chancellor from 1205 to 1213, in whicli 
 latter year, while on a mission to Flanders, 
 he was superseded by Peter des Eoches, but 
 reinstated in 1214. During John's struggle 
 with the barons, he ' supported the king, who 
 rewarded him with the archbishopric of 
 York. He devoted himself to the adminis- 
 tration of his see, and we only meet with him 
 once more, in 1242, when he was appointed 
 regent during Henry III.'s absence in 
 France. 
 
 Great Britain, a name originally applied 
 to the whole island of Britain, to distinguish 
 it from Britannia Minor, or Britanny, and 
 often used in poetry or exalted prose, but 
 never for official purposes until after the 
 accession of James I. The Lords of the 
 Congregation, in 1559, had suggested the 
 union of the two kingdoms under this name, 
 and now James was to realise their aspiration. 
 James's assumption of the title of King of 
 Great Britain meant that he claimed, like the 
 Old-English monarchs, to be lord of the 
 whole island, and not merely king of both 
 halves separately. Much opposition was 
 made to this title in Parliament, and the 
 judges declared it illegal. But in 1604 James 
 definitely styled himself King of Great 
 Britain on his coins. [United Kingdom.] 
 Speddiug, Ijife of Bacon. 
 
 Great Charter. [Magna Caeta.] 
 
 Great Bebellioa. [Rebellion.] 
 
 Greece, Eblations with. The Greek 
 insurrection began in 1821, and, after a long 
 struggle, it seemed impossible for the insur- 
 gent to win their independence. A wave of 
 Hellenic enthusiasm ran through England. 
 Volunteers from all parts of England joined 
 the Greek cause. In 1824 Byron perished at 
 Missolonghi. In 1826 Lord Cochrane was 
 made admiral, and Sir Richard Church 
 general of the Greek forces ; but in 1827 
 the Turks reconquered Athens despite their 
 efforts. Canning had reclaimed England 
 from the policy of the Holy Alliance, and 
 the battle of Navarino, though brought 
 about by accident, was not necessarily op- 
 posed to his pohcy. But the Wellington 
 ministry repudiated the action, and left it to 
 the Russian invasion of 1829 to practically 
 win Greek independence. As one of the pro- 
 tecting powers England found Greece a king 
 and continued to watch over its interests, but 
 forced on it, in 1832, the narrowboundaries into 
 which, until recently, it was confined'. The 
 Paoifico and Finlay affairs for a time led to 
 strained relations ; yet, in 1862 Prince Alfred 
 was elected king on the expulsion of Otto, 
 but the self-denying bond oi the protecting 
 powers made it impossible for him to assume 
 the throne, and England recommended Prince 
 Wmiam of Holstein, who became George I. 
 In 1863 England handed over the Ionian 
 Islands to the Hellenic kingdom ; and recently 
 
 has secured the extension of its boundary at 
 the expense of Turkey. [For earlier dealings 
 see Turkey, Relations with.] 
 
 Finlay, Hist, of Greece ; G-ervmus, Geschicbie 
 des Newnzehnten Jahrhv/nderts ; L. Sargeant, Hew 
 Greece. FT F T 1 
 
 Green, Sir Henry {d. 1399), was the son 
 of a Chief Justice of the King's Bench, and 
 was one of Richard II. 's ministers in the lat- 
 ter years of his reign. He seems to have been 
 extremely unpopular on account of his extor- 
 tion of money by illegal means, and on the 
 landing of Bolingbroke was seized and sum- 
 marily put to death. 
 
 Green Cloth, The Board of. A Board 
 attached to the royal household, presided over 
 by the Lord Steward. It had power to punish 
 offenders within the precincts of the palace, 
 and issued the warrants which were necessary 
 before a servant of the household could be 
 arrested for debt, 
 
 Greenwich, was the seat of a royal 
 palace much occupied by the Tudor princes, 
 and pulled down after the Restoration. The 
 site was eissigned by WiUiam III. for the 
 great hospital for retired seamen he there 
 founded. Since 1869 the building has been 
 devoted to the Royal Naval College. 
 
 Greenwood, John [d. 1592), a pro- 
 minent Barrowist, was examined before the 
 Court of High Commission in 1587 on a 
 charge of promulgating seditious and schism- 
 atical opinions, and was imprisoned. In the 
 following year he was again committed to the 
 Fleet, and in 1592 was executed, at the same 
 tinie as Henrj' Barrow. 
 
 Gregg, William {d. 1708), was clerk in 
 the office of Harley, Queen Anne's Secretary 
 of State. He was first emploj'ed by that 
 minister as a spy in Scotland and elsewhere. 
 In the course of the years 1707 and 1708 he 
 was engaged in a treasonable correspondence 
 with M. de ChamUlart, the French Secretary 
 of State. He slipped his letters into those of 
 Marshal Tallard, whose correspondence, since 
 he was prisoner of war, passed through Harr 
 ley's office. One of these packets was opened 
 on suspicion in Holland. Gregg was tried at 
 the Old Bailey, pleaded guilty, and was sen- 
 tenced to death. The House of Lords, bitterly 
 opposed to Harley, entered on a searching 
 investigation of the case, with the object of 
 establishing the minister's complicity. Gregg 
 was told that if he would make a full con- 
 fession, he might hope for the intercession of 
 the House. He refused to retract his first 
 statement, and was hanged at Tyburn on 
 April 28. 
 
 Grenada, one of the Windward Islands, 
 was discovered by Columbus in 1478, but 
 colonised in 1660 by the French Governor of 
 Martinique ; and, in 1674, on the collapse of 
 the French West India Company, lapsed to 
 
Gre 
 
 ( 516) 
 
 Gre 
 
 the French crown. The French retained it 
 until the Treaty of Paris (1763), when it was 
 made over to England. In 1779 Grenada 
 was retaken by the French, hut was restored 
 hy the Treaty of Versailles (1783). In 1795 
 there was a negro insurrection, caused mainly 
 hy the intrig-ues of the French planters, the 
 effects of which retarded for many years the 
 progress of the island. The government, 
 which is representative, and extends also to 
 most of the Grenadines lying between Grenada 
 and St. Vincent, is vested in a lieutenant- 
 governor, a legislative cpuncil, and a house of 
 assembly elected by the people. The chief 
 exports are sugar and cotton. 
 
 E. M. Mattin, British Colonies ; B. Edwards, 
 West Indies. 
 
 Greuville, Sik Bevil (S. 1596, d. 1643), 
 a grandson of bir Eichard GrenviUe, a gallant 
 oiScer who joined the Eoyalist army in 1642, 
 defeated the Parliamentary forces at Stratton, 
 and was slain at the battle of Lansdown (July 
 5, 1643). Clarendon says that the Eoyalist 
 successes in Cornwall were almost entirely 
 due to his energy ; and speaks warmly of his 
 bright courage and gentle disposition. 
 Clarendon, Hist of the Reiellion. 
 
 Greuville, George (J. 1712, d. 1770), 
 was the son of Eiohard Greuville, of Wotton, 
 by Hester, Countess Temple. In 1741 he was 
 elected M.P. for Buckingham, which town 
 he continued to represent until his death. 
 In 1744 he was appointed a Junior Lord of 
 the Admiralty, in Henry Pelham's govern- 
 ment. In 1747 he was promoted to the same 
 office in the Treasury; and on Newcastle 
 becoming Prime Minister in 1754 he became 
 Treasurer of the Navy. In 1762, when Lord 
 Bate became 'First Lord of the Treasury, 
 GrenviUe was made Secretary of State in his 
 place, and leader of the House of Commons. 
 On Bute's resigTiation in the following April, 
 Grenville became at once Prime Minister and 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, on the nomina- 
 tion of Bute, who expected to find him a very 
 willingtool; buthe soondiscoveredhis mistake. 
 Grenville, who feared the king as little as he 
 did the people, complained bitterly of Bute's 
 secret influence, and at once became odious 
 to the king in consequence. The death 
 of Lord Egremont, Secretary of State, in 
 August, gave George an excuse for changing 
 his ministry ; and he accordingly, through 
 Bute's means, opened negotiations with Pitt. 
 These, however, failed; and he was again 
 obliged to fall back upon Grenville, who 
 strengthened his position by enlisting the Bed- 
 ford faction on his side. But the new acces- 
 sion of strength did not save the ministry. 
 The issue of general warrants, and the 
 struggle with Wilkes, cost the ministry 
 £100,000, and lost them any share of popu- 
 larity they ever possessed. This measure was 
 soon followed by the Stamp Act. In July, 
 1765, the king, seeing his way to form a 
 
 new ministry, summarily dismissed Grenville 
 and the Duke of Bedford. In 1769 Grenville 
 became reconciled to his brother-in-law, Lord 
 Chatham, and took an eager part in the debates 
 on the expulsion of Wilkes. In 1770 he 
 carried his Bill on Controverted Elections, by 
 which he transferred the trial of election peti- 
 tions from the House at large to a Select 
 Committee of the House. [Elections.] Foi' 
 some time past his health had been declining, 
 and in the autumn of 1770— only a few 
 months after passing his Election BUI — he 
 died. " He took public business," Burke 
 said of him in the House of Commons, " not 
 as a duty he was to fulfil, but as a pleasure he 
 was to enjoy ; he seemed to have no delight 
 out of the House, except in such things as 
 some way related to the things that were to 
 be done in it. If he was ambitious, I wOl say 
 this for him, his ambition was of a noble and 
 generous strain." 
 
 Jesse, Metn. of the Reign of George III. ; Wal- 
 pole, Mem. of the Enign of George III. ; Albe- 
 marle, Sockvngham and A,is Contemporai-ies ; 
 Macaulay, second Essay on Chatham ; Grenville, 
 Correspondence; M&ssej, Hist. ; Stanhope, Hist. 
 
 [W. E. S.] 
 
 Grenville, Sm Eiohard (J. 1540, d. 1591), 
 one of the renowned sailors of Queen Eliza- 
 beth's reign, was sent out to the West Indies, 
 1585, to inflict what damage he could on 
 Spanish commerce. In 1587 he was a member 
 of the Council of War, which was charged 
 with the duty of making preparations to 
 withstand the attack of the Armada ; and did 
 good service for his country against the 
 Spaniards. In 1597 he took part in an 
 expedition under Lord Thomas Howard, which 
 sailed for the Azores to intercept the Spanish 
 treasure ships on their return from South 
 America ; the design of the English was dis- 
 covered by Spain, and fifty-three ships of 
 war were sent out as a convoy ; a furious 
 engagement took place, in which Sir Eiohard, 
 after performing prodigies of valour, was 
 killed; his memory being subsequently de- 
 fended from any blame for the failure of the 
 expedition by his friend Sir Walter Ealeigh : 
 "Prom the greatness of his spirit," says 
 Ealeigh, " he utterly refused to turn from the 
 enemy, protesting he would rather die than 
 be guilty of such dishonour to himself, his 
 country, and her Majesty's ship." 
 Tytler, lAfe of Balngh. 
 
 Greuville, William Wyndham, Lord 
 [b. 1759, d. 1834), third son of George Gren- 
 viUe, was educated at Eton and Christ Church. 
 In 1782 he was elected M.P. for Buckingham, 
 and in the following year accompanied his 
 brother, Earl Temple, to Ireland, as private 
 secretary. In Dec, 1784, he succeeded Burke 
 as PajTuaster-General, and began to give his 
 cousm Pitt most valuable assistance at a time 
 when he most needed it. In 1789 he was 
 elected Speaker of the House of Commons on 
 the death of Cornwall, but he only held the 
 
Gre 
 
 ( 517 
 
 Gre 
 
 chair for four months, heing then made Home 
 Secretary, an ofEice that afforded him more 
 active employment. In 1790 he was raised 
 to the Upper House, and in the following 
 year went to preside over the Foreign Office, 
 where he remained for ten years till Pitt's 
 resignation. As Foreign Minister he thoroughly 
 carried out Pitt's policy, and rejected all peace 
 with the revolutionary government. He was 
 the mover in the House of Lords of the 
 Treason Bill in 1795. He was even a stronger 
 supporter of the Catholic claims than Pitt, 
 and during Pitt's last ministry Lord Grenville 
 remained in opposition on this ground. On 
 his death he combined with Fox to form the 
 administration of " AH the Talents." That 
 ministry, however, was hut short-lived ; and, 
 on heing dismissed Lord Grenville remained 
 in opposition during the continuance of the 
 war. The close of his life was spent in 
 literary retirement, when he did much valu- 
 able work, the result of which has been to 
 throw much new light on the inner workings 
 and party intrigues of the early years of the 
 reign of George III. He lived on at Drop- 
 more in Buckinghamshire tiU 1834, where he 
 died on Jan. 12. Twice had overtures been 
 made to him to take ofEce again — ^in 1809 
 and in 1812. But Catholic Emancipation 
 must be an essential element in any fine of 
 policy which Grenville would support. With 
 that high sense of honour and integrity 
 which always distinguished him and Lord 
 Grey, they both excluded themselves from 
 office for twenty years. As a Foreign Minister 
 Grenville must rank above Pitt. His oratori- 
 cal powers were at times the wonder of the 
 House of Lords; but, like Fox, he was too 
 liberal-minded not to have the misfortune to 
 be generally in opposition. 
 
 Pellew, SidTtiQuth; Courts and Cahvaets of the 
 Regency ; Grey's lAfe and Opinions ; Lord Col- 
 chester's Diary :■ Grenville Papers. 
 
 [W. R. S.] 
 Gresham, Sir Thomas (J. 1519, «?. 1579), 
 a famous merchant, the son of Sir Richard 
 Gresham, Lord Mayor of London, who died 
 1548, first attained fame as a financier by nego- 
 ciatiiig certain loans for Edward VI. in 1551. 
 He was subsequently employed on several 
 occasions by Elizabeth, who found him ex- 
 ceedingly useful in obtaining money from 
 foreign merchants ; and also in raising loans 
 from merchants in England. In 1566 he 
 founded the Royal Exchange, which was 
 opened by the queen in person, 1570. 
 
 Waxcl's Lives; Cujmukgham, Emment English- 
 men. 
 Greville, Charles C. F. (b. 1794, d. 
 1865), was Clerk to the Council from 1821 to 
 1860. He compiled a Journal, which is of 
 considerable value as material for the history 
 of the courts and cabinets of George IV., 
 "William IV., and Queen Victoria. 
 
 Grey, Lady Catherine (d. 1567), was 
 daughter of the Marquis of Dorset, and 
 
 younger sister of Lady Jane Grey (q.v.), after 
 whose death she represented the house of 
 Suffolk, which by Henry VIII.'s will was to 
 succeed Elizabeth to the throne. After the 
 accession of Elizabeth, Philip of Spain endea- 
 voured to set her claims in opposition to the 
 queen, but was unable to get her into his 
 hands. In 1561 she was sent to the Tower 
 ostensibly for having contracted a secret 
 marriage with Lord Hertford, but in reality 
 for fear she should prove a dangerous rival 
 to Elizabeth. In 1663 Lady Catherine's 
 claims were seriously discussed in Parlia- 
 ment, and in the next year John Hales, the 
 Clerk of the Hanaper, published an elaborate 
 argument in her favour. She died in Jan., 
 1567, her death being accelerated by the 
 harsh treatment of Elizabeth, and "having 
 been," as Mr. Froude says, "the object of 
 the political schemes of aU parties in turn 
 who hoped to make use of her." Lady Hert- 
 ford's marriage, which was declared null by 
 Elizabeth's commissioners, was in the reign of 
 James I. pronounced valid by a jury. 
 
 Lingard, Rist. ofEng.; Proude, Hist. ofEng.; 
 Hallam, Const. Hist. 
 
 Grey, Charles, Earl (5. 1764, d. 1845), 
 son of the first Earl Grey, was educated at 
 Eton, and King's College, Cambridge. He 
 was returned to Parliament for the county of 
 Northumberland in 1786, and joined the 
 "Whig Opposition under Charles James Fox. 
 He displayed such ability in his first speech 
 that he was from that time a prominent leader 
 of the party, and as such was chosen one 
 of the managers of the impeachment of 
 Warren Hastings. In 1792 he became a 
 member of the great society, " the "Friends 
 of the People," the avowed object of which 
 was to obtain a reform in the system of 
 Parliamentary representation. In 1795 he 
 opposed the liquidation of the Prince of 
 Wales's debts. In the same year he unsuc- 
 cessfully moved the impeachment of Pitt. In 
 1797 he brought forward a plan of reform, 
 which was rejected by 149 votes. He re- 
 mained one of Mr. Pitt's bitterest opponents 
 tiU his death. On the accession of Mr. Fox to 
 power, 1806, Mr. Grey, now Lord Howick, was 
 appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. On 
 the death of Fox he became leader of the House 
 of Commons and Foreign Secretary. The 
 Catholic Relief question, however, overthrew 
 the ministry. In 1 807 he succeeded his father 
 as Earl Grey. In 1810, when the Duke of 
 Portland resigned, negotiations were opened 
 with Lords Grey and Grenville, who, 
 however, refused to unite with the proposed 
 ministry. In 1812 a similar attempt failed. 
 In 1827 Earl Grey declined to support Mr. 
 Canning. The sudden termination of the 
 Wellington ministry in 1830 brought him 
 from his retirement as the only man capable 
 of dealing with the difficult question of 
 Parliamentary Reform. In accepting office 
 
Gre 
 
 (518) 
 
 Gre 
 
 he stipulated that the reform of Parliament 
 should be made a cabinet question. The 
 support of the great majority of the nation 
 greatly facilitated the task which Earl Grey 
 had undertaken, and enabled him to con- 
 struct his ministry without much difficulty, 
 the most serious impediment being created 
 by the position of Mr. Brougham, which was 
 got over by making him Lord Chancellor. 
 A Reform Bill was introduced by Lord John 
 EusseH on April 12, after a long discussion. 
 General Gascoyne successfully carried his 
 motion against the government, and a disso- 
 lution became necessary, to which the king 
 at last consented. The danger, however, 
 became pressing, as Lord "Wharncliffe had 
 threatened to move an address in the Lords, 
 praying the king not to dissolve. The House 
 was dissolved the very day Lord Wharnclilf e's 
 threatened address was to have come on. 
 The election of 1831 sent back a large re- 
 forming majority to Parliament, and on June 
 24, Lord John Russell again introduced the 
 bill. The struggle from this time lay in the 
 Lords. On April 9, 1832, Earl Grey moved 
 that the third Reform Bill be now read a 
 second time. The second reading was carried 
 by the aid of Lord Wharncliffe and the 
 Trimmers. Lord Lyndhurst now moved 
 in committee that the consideration of the 
 disfranchising clauses should be postponed 
 until the enfranchising clauses had been 
 considered. This motion was carried against 
 the government in spite of Earl Grey's 
 warning to the House that he should con- 
 sider its success fatal to his measure, and 
 resigned, May 9. The state of the country 
 became terrible ; Sir Robert Peel declined 
 office. The Duke of Welhngton found it 
 impossible to construct a government. It be- 
 came necessary to recall Earl Grey, and Earl 
 Grey obeyed the summons. But before he 
 left the presence of the king he had obtained 
 from him 'a written promise that he would 
 " create such a number of peers as will be 
 sufficient to pass the Reform Bill." The 
 bill was eventually carried by the personal 
 influence of the king, though violent alterca- 
 tions and recriminations occurred on the 
 subject in the Plouse of Lords. The Re- 
 formed Parliament gave the Whigs an over- 
 whelming majority. The first business was 
 to consider the state of Ireland, and it was 
 found necessary to pass a Coercion Bill. In 
 1834 the Duke of Richmond, the Earl of 
 Ripon, Mr. Stanley, and Sir James Graham 
 resigned. This somewhat shook the minis- 
 try, and in order to. avoid any further seces- 
 sions, an Irish Church Commission was hastily 
 appointed to procure evidence. Mr. Littleton's 
 Tithe Bin (Irish) gave another shock to the 
 ministry, and the motion of O'Connell 
 and Mr. Littleton on the Coercion Bill, 
 which produced the resignation of the 
 Premier and Lord Althorp, ended Lord Grey's 
 political career. He resigned to save the 
 
 rest of his ministry. From this time he took 
 little part in public affairs. 
 
 "Walpole, Hist, of J/n-iJ. ; Martineau, Thirty 
 Years' Peace ; Annual Register. fB. S.l 
 
 Grey, Sir Geoege (5. 1792, d. 1883), was 
 the son of Sir George Grey, and nephew of 
 Earl Grey. Educated at Oriel College, Ox- 
 ford, he was called to the bar in 1826 ; and 
 was returned to Parliament for Devonport in 
 1832. In 1834 he acted for a few months as 
 Under-Secretary for the Colonies. He re- 
 turned to the same post on the accession of 
 Lord Melbourne in 1835, and continued to 
 hold it till 1839, when he became Judge- 
 Advocate, an office which he exchanged in 
 1841 for that of Chancellor of the Duchy of 
 Lancaster. On the formation of Lord 
 John Russell's first administration in 1846, 
 he was appointed Home Secretary. In this 
 capacity he showed himself a splendid ad- 
 jninistrator during the commotions of 1848, 
 and earned the confidence of all parties by his 
 prudence and vigour. In 1854 he accepted 
 the Colonial Office under Lord Aberdeen's 
 Coalition ministry. In 1855 he returned to 
 the Home Office under Lord Palmerston's 
 first administration ; was appointed Chancellor 
 of the Dnchy -of Lancaster on Lord Pal- 
 merston's return to office in 1859 ; became 
 Home Secretary again in 1861, and retired 
 with his colleagues in 1866. On the dissolu- 
 tion of Parliament in 187i, he retired from 
 public life. 
 
 Grey, Lady Jane (i. 1537, d. 1554), was 
 the daughter of Henry Grey, Marquis of 
 Dorset, and Frances Brandon, daughter of 
 .the Duke of Suffolk. On the approach- 
 ing death of Edward VI. becoming apparent 
 in 1553, the Duke of Northumberland 
 conceived the idea of aggrandising his own 
 family by obtaining the crown for Lady Jane, 
 and marrying her to his son Lord Guilford 
 Dudley. Accordingly, he induced Edward VI. 
 to alter the succession in her favour, hoping 
 that as Lady Jane was a Protestant, she would 
 -receive the support of the reforming parties. 
 On the young king's death Lady Jane was in- 
 formed by the duke that she was queen, and 
 was proclaimed by him in various parts of the 
 country, but the people refused to recognise 
 the usurpation. After a brief reign of eleven 
 days, the crown was transferred to Mary, and 
 Lady Jane and her husband were sent to the 
 Tower, and subsequently condemned to death. 
 They were kept in captivity for some time, 
 and were not executed until after Wyatt's 
 rebellion in 1554. Lady Jane Grey, whose 
 education had been entrusted to Aylmer and 
 Roger Ascham, was as accomplished as she 
 was beautiful, and was a fluent scholar in 
 Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. "She has left 
 us," says Mr. Froude, " a portrait of herself 
 drawn by her own hand, a portrait of piety, 
 purity, and free noble innocence uncoloured, 
 
foe 
 
 ( 519 ) 
 
 Gri 
 
 even to a fault, ■with, the emotional weaknesses 
 of humanity." 
 
 Nicolas, Lady Jane Grey ; Liiigard,His£. ofEng.; 
 SliELTOu Turner, Hist, of Eng. ; Froude, Hist. 0/ 
 Bng. ; Tytler, JTisi. of Eng. under Ed. TI, and 
 Mary. 
 
 Grey, Loed, of Grohy, was the chief 
 of the Anahaptists during the period of the 
 Great Eehellion. He took an active part in 
 Pride's Purge (q.v.). 
 
 Grey, Sir John, of Grohy {d. 1455), a 
 Lancastrian leader who feU in the first battle 
 of St. Alhans, was the first husband of 
 Elizabeth Woodville, afterwards wife of 
 Edward IV. 
 
 Grey, Lord Leonard {d. 1541), was the 
 second son of Thomas, first Marquis of Dorset. 
 He was sent over to Ireland, in 1535, 
 to assist Skeffington. On Skefiuigton's death 
 he became Lord Deputy, 1536. Together 
 with Lord James Butler, he destroyed 'Brien's 
 Bridge over the Shannon, long an object of 
 alarm to the English, and he induced the 
 O'Connor to come to terms. His sister. Lady 
 Elizabeth Grey, was the second wife of 
 Gerald, ninth Earl of Kildare, and it now 
 became his duty to try and capture his 
 own nephew, that nobleman's heir, an object 
 which he did not succeed in effecting. In 
 1538, he attacked the Island Scots. He was, 
 however, compelled to retreat, in spite of 
 Ormonde's help, before the combined forces of 
 Desmond and the O'Briens. Lord Leonard 
 was a staunch Catholic, and this, together with 
 the favour he showed the Geraldines and the 
 natives, made him hated by Ormonde. Soon 
 after his recall, at his own request in 1540, 
 he was accused of a treasonable understand- 
 ing with his kinsmen, the Fitzgeralds, and 
 executed in 1541. Most probably he was 
 innocent. 
 
 Froude, Sist. of Eng. ; Brewer, Tnfrroducfrion* U) 
 the Letters and Papers of Senry Ylll.'e Reign. 
 
 Grey, Sir Patrick, was Captain of the 
 Guard to James II. Having a bitter feud 
 with the Earl of Douglas, on account of the 
 murder of his nephew in Douglas Castle, he 
 gave the earl his death-wound, after he had 
 been stabbed by the king, in Stirling Castle 
 (1452). 
 
 Grey, Lord Richard [d. 1483), was the 
 second son of Sir John Grey, by Elizabeth 
 Woodville, and consequently half-brother of 
 King Edward V. In 1483 he was seized, 
 together with his uncle, Earl Rivers, at 
 Northampton by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, 
 and eventually put to death at Pontefract. 
 
 Grey, Sm Thomas {d. 1415), was a knight 
 of Northumberland who, in 1415, joined the 
 conspiracy of the Earl of Cambridge to place 
 the Earl of March on the throne. He was 
 seized, and having confessed his guilt, was 
 immediately executed. 
 
 Grey, Lord Thomas (d. 1554), brother 
 
 of the Duke of Suffolk, joined in the rebel- 
 lion in the midland counties (1554) organised 
 by the duke in conjunction with that of 
 Sir Thomas Wyatt in Kent. After the 
 defeat of Suffolk's forces by Lord Hunting- 
 don at Coventry, Thomas Grey escaped to 
 Wales, but was taken prisoner, and executed 
 (February, 1554). He was a man of ambition 
 and daring, and his unbounded influence over 
 his brother, the duke, was believed to have 
 drawn the latter into this enterprise. 
 Stowe ; Lingard ; Froude. 
 
 Grey de Wilton, Arthur, Earl 
 {d. 1593), was the son of a celebrated 
 commander of Henry VIII.'s time. He was 
 Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1580. In that 
 year he suffered a severe repulse in Glen 
 Malure from the Wicklow septs. It was to 
 him, however, that the suppression of Des- 
 mond's rebellion was largely due, and he 
 was in command of the troops at Smerwick 
 (q.v.). As a stern Puritan, he made himself 
 unpopular by his severity, and was re-called 
 in 1584. He was one of the commissioners 
 who passed judgment on Mary Queen of 
 Scots, and was created a Knight of the Garter. 
 Froude; State Papers; Burke, ^a-finct Peerages. 
 
 Grey de Wilton, William, Earl [d. 
 1563), was Governor of Berwick in the reign 
 of Edward VI., and in that capacity distin- 
 guished himself by several raids across the 
 border, in one of which (1548) he took and 
 fortified Haddington. During the rebellion 
 in the west of England (1549) he did much to 
 repress the insurrection. In 1551 he was 
 sent to the Tower by order of Warwick, who 
 mistrusted him as a friend of Somerset, 
 though a year or two afterwards he is found 
 slightly implicated in the conspiracy to place 
 Lady Jane Grey on the throne. Made 
 Governor of Guisnes by Mary, he kept a 
 close watch upon the French, and had his 
 advice been listened to, Calais would have 
 been saved. The fall of Calais was quickly 
 followed by that of Guisnes, which Grey 
 found himself compelled to surrender. On 
 his return to England he was sent to the 
 north, where he, after a lengthy siege, made 
 an assault upon Leith, which, however, en- 
 tirely failed. 
 
 Grimstone, Sir Harbottlb {b. 1594, 
 d. 1685), a strong Presbyterian, represented 
 Colchester in the Long Parliament. He was 
 one of the members excluded by Pride's 
 Purge. On the king's execution he left 
 England, and remained abroad for several 
 years. In 1656 he was elected M.P. for 
 Essex, but was excluded from the House. 
 In April, 1660, he was elected Speaker of the 
 Convention Parliament. He was also one of 
 the commissioners sent to Charles at Breda. 
 For his services at the Restoration, he was, 
 in November, 1660, created Master of the 
 Rolls. During the reign of Charles II. he 
 
Gri 
 
 ( 520 ) 
 
 Gna 
 
 distinguished himself by asserting the right of 
 the Commons to choose their own Speaker 
 (1679) and his hostility to the Catholics. 
 Foss, Judges of England. 
 
 Grindal, Edmund (b. 1519, d. 1583), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, was bom near St. 
 Bees and educated at Cambridge. He was 
 made Canon of "Westminster in 1552, and 
 Chaplain to Edward VI., at whose death he 
 was obliged to take refuge on the Continent. 
 On the accession of Elizabeth he returned to 
 England a strong Puritan, and greatly in- 
 fluenced by Geneva ; he waived his ob- 
 jections to vestments so far as to accept the 
 see of London on the deprivation of Bonner 
 in 1562. Grindal, who had taken an active 
 part in the Theological Controversy at West- 
 minster, 1559, was a sound theologian and 
 noted preacher ; but he constantly incurred 
 the queen's displeasure for his mildness in 
 enforcing the Act of Uniformity; yet in 1570 
 he was made Archbishop of York, and on the 
 death of Archbishop Parker, 1675, was trans- 
 lated to Canterbury. His administration was 
 not very successful in some ways ; his Puri- 
 tan sympathy made him refuse to put down 
 the " prophesyings " of that party, and he 
 was, in consequence, sequestered from the 
 exercise of his jurisdiction for five years, 
 being only restored in 1582, a year before his 
 death, though he never regained the favour 
 of the queen, who treated him with great and 
 unmerited harshness. As Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, Grindal made no mark. Hia 
 difference of opinion with the queen made it 
 impossible for them to work in harmony, yet 
 he was a man of profound learning, deep 
 piety, and some moderation ; mild, affable, 
 and generous, and much admired by his own 
 party. 
 
 Hook, Lives of the Arehhi shops; Mosheim, 
 
 JSccles. Sist. ; Strype, Life of Grindal. 
 
 Crrig,ualaild West is separated from 
 Cape Colony by the Orange River. After 
 the discovery of diamonds there in 1867 
 the district was made a British colony, 
 and in 1877 was made a province of Cape 
 Colony ; its local affairs being managed by 
 an administrator. The characteristic feature 
 of the country is undulating grassy plains, 
 well adapted to sheep farming. 
 
 Grith, in Anglo-Saxon law, is a word 
 of narrower meaning than "frith," with 
 which it is often coupled. It signifies a 
 special or localised peace or protection, par- 
 ticularly that granted by the king or a high 
 official. While ' ' frith " was primarily per- 
 sonal, the peace of an individual, the " grith," 
 was territorial, the peace of a district. 
 
 Grosseteste, Eobert (S. 1175, d. 1253), 
 Bishop of Lincoln, one of the most eminent 
 of mediaeval ecclesiastics and schoolmen, was 
 born at Stradbrooke in Suffolk of poor parents. 
 He studied at Oxford and Paris, where he 
 gained a very great reputation as a student 
 
 and teacher. He became " rector scholarum " 
 at Paris, and first rector of the Franciscans 
 at Oxford. He received various preferments, 
 but in 1232 resigned all but one in order to con- 
 tinue at Oxford. In 1235 his election as Bishop 
 of Lincoln gave him both a wider sphere of 
 work and a special relation to his university. 
 As administrator of his huge diocese he was 
 both active and successful. A long struggle 
 with his chapter was only ended by the per- 
 sonal intervention of the Pope, Innocent IV., 
 who, at the Council of Lyons practically 
 decided in the bishop's favour. His drastic 
 visitation of the monasteries of his see, though 
 hampered by the disfavour shown to him at 
 Rome, where the gold of the monks was all- 
 powerful, was resolutely carried through. A 
 sturdy champion of liberty, he prevailed in 
 1244 in preventing the grant of a royal 
 subsidy, and kept together the opposition, 
 when likely to be broken up by the king's 
 intrigues ; and he ensured the reading of the 
 sentence of excommunication against violators 
 of the Great Charter in every parish of his 
 diocese. A similar spirit actuated the refusal 
 in 1251 to admit foreigners ignorant of 
 English into rich preferment in his diocese, 
 and led to a papal suspension, which, how- 
 ever, was of short duration. In 1252 he 
 prevented the collection of a tenth imposed 
 upon the clergy by the Pope for Henry III.'s 
 necessities. In 1253 he refused to induct the 
 Pope's own nephew into a prebend at Lincoln. 
 His celebrated letter of refusal, while accept- 
 ing the ultramontane position, was thoroughly 
 decided in its tone. After his death miracles 
 were reported at his tomb, but the effort to 
 obtain canonisation for so bad a papalist 
 failed. Grosseteste had a wide acquaintance, 
 over which he exercised great influence. 
 The spiritual adviser of Adam de Marisco, 
 the intimate friend of Simon de Montfort, 
 and the tutor to his sons, he was yet the 
 friend of the queen and even of the king. 
 The sturdy practical temper illustrated by 
 all his life's acts was combined with vast 
 knowledge, great dialectical and metaphysical 
 subtlety, activity m preaching and teaching, 
 and' real spiritual feeling ; his leisure, too, 
 was devoted to the cultivation of French love 
 poetry. 
 
 Perry, Life of Grosseteste ; Grosseteste' s Letters 
 m Bolls Series, edited, witli valusible intr iduo- 
 tion, by Mr. Luard; Matthew Poris, Sistorm 
 Major. FT F T 1 
 
 Guadalonpe, The Island op, is a French 
 possession in the . Antilles. Settled in 1635 
 by the French, it resisted English attacks in 
 1691 and 1703, but was captured in 1759, and 
 restored in 1763, and again in 1794 it became 
 English. Restored in 1803 by the Peace of 
 Amiens, it was re-conquered in 1810, sur- 
 rendered to Sweden in 1813, restored to 
 France in 1814. In 1816 the British finally 
 withdrew. 
 
 SaJfaral, Les Colonies Frangaises, 
 
Gna 
 
 (521 ) 
 
 Gun 
 
 Gaader, Ralph, was of Norman or Breton 
 origin, but -was bom in England. He was 
 made Earl of Norfolk by William I. , but in 
 1075, cbiefly being irritated at tbe king's 
 refusing to allow Ms marriage with the 
 sister of the Earl of Hereford, he organised a 
 conspiracy, which had for its object the 
 deposition of William, and the restoration of 
 the earls to the power they had enjoyed 
 ■under Edward the Confessor. The plot was 
 betrayed, and Ealph fled to Britanny. Even- 
 tually, he joined the first Crusade, and died in 
 Palestine. 
 
 Gualo was appointed Papal legate in 
 England in the year 1216. He strongly sup- 
 ported King John against Louis of France, 
 and on John's death was instrumental in 
 obtaining the recognition of the young King 
 Henry. Mr. Luard says that " the preserva- 
 tion of the Plantageuet line, and the defeat of 
 Louis, were entirely due to the influence of 
 Home." He was replaced in 1218 by Pandulf. 
 
 Guiana is an extensive country in the 
 north-east of South America. In 1595 Raleigh 
 ascended its great river, the Orinoco. In 
 1580 the Dutch planted a colony, and in 1652 
 the English settled at Paramaribo. The 
 English settlement did not succeed, and the 
 land remained with the Dutch. In 1781 
 Rodney took possession of it, but in 1784 it 
 was restored. Again in 1796 the English cap- 
 tured Guiana, and in 1803 a cession, conflrmed 
 in 1814, was made to England of the portion 
 now called British Guiana. 
 
 Dalton, Hist, of British Guiana; E.M. Martin, 
 British Colonies. 
 
 Gnicowar, or Gaekwar, is the title of 
 the sovereign of the Mahratta State of Baroda. 
 [Mahhattas.] 
 
 Guildford Court-house, The Battle 
 
 OF (March 16, 1781), during the closing 
 period of the American War of Independence, 
 was almost the only gleam of success that 
 shone on ComwaUis's fatal advance into the 
 North. At the beginning of the year he 
 entered North Carolina. Greene, with much 
 prudence, refused to attack him, and retreated 
 before him. On February 20, Comwallis, 
 halting at Hillsborough, invited all loyalists to 
 join him ; but a small detachment of them on 
 their way to take advantage of the proclama- 
 tion were cut to pieces by the Americans, and 
 the rest took fright. Again Comwallis 
 advanced, and Greene at length determined 
 to give him battle. On some strong ground 
 near Guildford Court-house, Cornwallis_ at- 
 tacked, and the regulars were as usual irre- 
 sistible. They carried Greene's position de- 
 spite inferiority in numbers and position. In 
 results, however, the victory was signally 
 deficient, for Comwallis, too weak to advance, 
 and, receiving no reinforcements, had to fall 
 
 HIST.-17* 
 
 back on Wilmington. [Ameeioan Indepen- 
 dence, Wah of.] 
 
 Bancroft, Hist, of Amer. Rev., iv., u. 23 ; Stan- 
 hope, Hist of Bug., c. 64. 
 
 Guiscard, Anioinb, Makquis de {b. 
 1658, d. 1711), was a French adventurer of 
 good family. For spme unknown offence he 
 was expelled from France, and came to 
 England after a variety of adventures. 
 Godolphin made him colonel of a regiment 
 of French refugees ; and he became a com- 
 panion of St. John in his wild orgies. In the 
 year 1706 he proposed a descent on the coast 
 of Languedoc, and twelve regiments were 
 placed in readiness, but the expedition never 
 sailed, probably because Godolphin thought 
 his schemes too visionary. Guiscard was 
 discharged with a pension of £500 a j'ear. 
 He almost immediately began a treacherous 
 correspondence with the French court. On 
 its detection he was brought before the Privy 
 Council. Finding that everything was 
 known, and wishing for a better death than 
 hanging, he stabbed Harley twice with a 
 penknife he had secreted. The wounds were 
 slight. Guiscard was soon overpowered, and 
 died in Newgate from injuiies received in 
 ■ the struggle. To the last he denied that the 
 attack was premeditated. 
 
 Gunpowder Plot, The, is the name 
 usually given to the great Roman Catholic 
 conspiracy of James I.'s reign. The Catho- 
 lics were deeply disappointed at finding that 
 the king had no intention of remitting the 
 severe laws against recusancy. In their re- 
 sentment a plot was formed by several Roman 
 Catholic gentlemen. It was probably origi- 
 nated by Robert Catesby, who was joined by 
 Thomas Winter and John Wright in the 
 spring of 1604 ; and later by Thomas Percy, 
 Robert Winter, Sir Everard Digby, Rook- 
 wood, Tresham, the Jesuit Gamet, and Guy 
 Fawkes, an Englishman, who had long served 
 as a soldier of fortune in Flanders, and was 
 closely connected with the English Jesuits. 
 The plot was matured in the summer of 1605. 
 It was arranged that Fawkes was to secrete 
 some barrels of gunpowder in cellars adjacent 
 to the Houses of Parliament. After the ex- 
 plosion, which was to take place when the 
 King and Prince of Wales were present, the 
 young prince Charles and the princess Eliza- 
 beth were to he seized and a rising attempted 
 in the midland counties. After the proroga- 
 tion Parhament was to meet on November 5, 
 1605, and this was the day on which the 
 enterprise was to be carried out. Several of 
 the conspirators were, however, anxious to 
 s^ye the Catholic members of the House of 
 Lords. A letter was received by Lord Mont- 
 eagle from one of the conspirators (probably 
 Tresham) warning him not to be present at 
 the opening of Parliament. The letter was 
 shown to Cecil. Orders were given to search 
 the vaults on November 4, and Fawkes was 
 arrested. Most of the other conspirators had 
 
Gur 
 
 { 522 ) 
 
 Gyt 
 
 taken the alarm and already fled to Dun- 
 churcli, where Sir Bverard Digby had col- 
 lected a large number of Catholic gentlemen. 
 They dispersed in various directions. The 
 leading conspirators attempted to make a 
 stand at Holbeach. Several of them were 
 wounded by an accidental explosion. Catesby, 
 Percy, and the "Wrights were killed in the 
 course of the flight ; most of the other 
 leaders were captured. They were tried, 
 and executed in January and February, 1606. 
 The trial of the Jesuit Garnet lasted 
 longest. He was executed May 3, 1606, 
 denying on the scaffold that he had any 
 positive information of the plot. 
 
 S. K. Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., chap. vii. 
 
 GuthruHi, or Guthorm (Mod. Dan., 
 Gorm), was a Danish chief who became King 
 of East England. We first hear of this 
 king as starting from Kepton in 875 with 
 half the "great host," when Halfdane 
 went another way with the other half to 
 colonise Northumberland. With two of 
 his fellow kings, he attacked Wessex 
 by land and sea, forcing Alfred to take 
 refuge in Athelney in 878. He then raised a 
 great fort at Chippenham, but was besieged 
 there by the English king, and forced by block- 
 ade to accept terms of peace. This treaty is 
 still in existence. Guthrum was baptised, with 
 thirty of his chief men, and in 880 he settled 
 with his host in East England, vacant by the 
 death of Hubba, who, with his host, was slain 
 in Devonshire, 878. Guthrum seems to have 
 done his best to keep the peace, though his fol- 
 lowers were not always obedient, and it is not 
 tin after his death in 890 that the East English 
 Danes became a danger to Alfred. Guthrum's 
 baptismal name was Athelstan, which alone 
 appears on his coins. The theory, however, 
 that he, not the English king, was the foster- 
 father of Hacon the Good, reposes on a false 
 chronology and is quite unnecessary. Guth- 
 rum was succeeded by Eohric, or Yorick, who 
 was probably his son. [Alfred.] 
 
 Guthrnm II., King of Bast England, was 
 the son of Yorick, whom he succeeded 906. He 
 made peace with King Edward, the terms of 
 which were still preserved in 907. It was 
 against him that Edward's policy of building 
 a line of forts across the Midlands was 
 chiefly directed, a policy which led to the 
 submission successively of the Danes of Hert- 
 ford (916), of Bedford, under Earl Turketil 
 (918), and finally to the campaign of 921, in 
 which Edward defeated and slew Guthrum 
 (for we take him to be " the king " of the 
 chronicle) with his son and brother, at Temps- 
 ford. Their death, and the submission of 
 Earl Thurfrith of Northampton, the Danes of 
 Huntingdon, the " host of Cambridge," and 
 the East Anglian Danes, in the same year, 
 brought to an end the Danish rule in East 
 England. 
 
 Guzerat, The Battle op (Feb. 22, 1849), 
 
 was fought between the English and Sikhs 
 during the second Sikh War. The army of 
 Shere Sing, estimated at 50,000 men with 
 sixty pieces of cannon, was drawn up in front 
 of the walled town of Guzorat, supported on 
 the left by a streamlet flowing into the Chenab, 
 on the right by two villages filled with troops. 
 The commander,in-chief. Lord Gough, by 
 the advice of Major George Lawrence, deter- 
 mined to begin the battle with artillery. The 
 fire of eighty-four cannon rained on them 
 steadily for two hours and a half. The whole 
 Sikh line broke and fled ; the English cavalry 
 were let loose on them, and piirsued them for 
 fifteen miles, till the army of Shere Sing was 
 a mere wreck. 
 
 Gwaliof is a protected state of Central 
 India, which includes most of Malwa. The 
 capital of the same name is situated on a 
 rocky hiU, rising sheer from the level plain. 
 It is ruled by the line of Mahratta princes 
 called Scindiah. The fortress of Gwalior 
 was taken by Major Popham in 1780, and 
 restored to its former ruler, the Rajah of 
 Gohad, but in 1 784 was recovered by Scindiah. 
 In Feb., 1804, it was again taken by the 
 English, under Sir H. White, but was restored 
 to Scindiah the next year. In 1843, on the 
 death of the reigning Scindiah, without heirs, 
 the dissensions at Gwalior led to an expedition 
 to restore order there. The English defeated 
 the Gwalior army at Maharajpore. A treaty 
 was concluded, by which the fortress of 
 Gwalior was ceded to England and the native 
 army reduced to 9,000 men (1844). In 1857, 
 it was a seat of the Mutiny, but Scindiah re- 
 mained unswervingly faithful. 
 
 Grant Duff, Hist, of t7ie Mahrattas. 
 GvTynedcl, the old name for North Wales, 
 was a district roughly corresponding to the 
 domains of the " Princes of Wales " who 
 reigned at Aberffraw. [Wales.] 
 
 Gwynn, Eleanor {b. circa 1640, d. 1687), 
 was of humble origin, and was early in life an 
 orange girl at a theatre. She subsequently 
 became an actress and mistress to Lord Buck- 
 hurst, and eventually one of Charles IT.'s 
 mistresses, besides being appointed one of the 
 Ladies of the Bedchamber to the Queen. By 
 Charles II. she had two sons, one of whom 
 died very young, the other was Charles Beau- 
 clerk, who was created Duke of St. Albans. 
 Her personal beauty was very great, while 
 her generosity and kindliness made her more 
 popular than most of the king's favourites. 
 
 Gyrth {d. 1066) was the fourth son of Earl 
 Godwin. He shared in his father's banish- 
 ment and return, and in 1057 he received an 
 earldom which seems to have included Nor- 
 folk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and Oxford- 
 shire. He took part in the battle of Hastings, 
 where he was killed, it is said, by William's 
 own hand. 
 
 Gytha was the sister of UU and niece of 
 
Hab 
 
 ( 623 ) 
 
 Hac 
 
 Canute. She married Earl Godwin, and was 
 banished with him in 1051. After the battle 
 of Hastings, she begged the body of Harold 
 to inter it at Waltham, but this was refused 
 by "William, though she is said to have offered 
 him Harold's weight in gold. In 1067 she 
 took refuge in the Flatholm, and went thence 
 to St. Ouen, where she remained till her 
 death. 
 
 Habeas Corpus, The Writ of, is 
 
 a writ issuing from one of the superior 
 courts, commanding the body of a pri- 
 soner to be brought before it. It rests 
 upon the . famous 29th section of Magna 
 Charta : " No freeman shall be taken and 
 imprisoned unless by the lawful judgment of 
 his peers or by the law of the land." Arbi- 
 trary imprisonment, though thus provided 
 against, was, however, not unfrequently prac- 
 tised by the king's Privy Council, and, in 
 1352, a statute was passed to prevent this abuse 
 of the liberty of the subject, which was twice 
 re-enacted in the reign of Edward III. 
 Under the Tudors, prisoners, when committed 
 by the council generally, or even by the 
 special command of the king, were admitted 
 to bail on their habeas corpus, but there were 
 frequent delays in obtaining the writ. The 
 question whether a prisoner could be detained 
 by special command of the king, signified by 
 a warrant of the Privy Council, without 
 showing cause of imprisonment, was argued 
 out in Darnell's case, when the judges, relying 
 upon an obscure declaration of their prede- 
 cessors in the 34th of Elizabeth, decided for the 
 crown. The House of Commons retorted by 
 protesting in the Petition of Eight against 
 the illegal imprisonment of the subject with- 
 out cause. 
 
 The arbitrary arrest of Sir John Eliot and 
 the other members on the dissolution of 1629 
 was an attempt to evade the Petition of Right, 
 and was met by the provision in the Act 
 which abolished the Star Chamber, that any 
 person committed by the council or the king's 
 special command was to have a writ of habeas 
 corpus granted him, on application to the 
 judges of the King's Bench or Common Pleas, 
 without any delay or pretence whatever. 
 Nevertheless, Lord Clarendon's arbitrary cus- 
 tom of imprisoning offenders in distant places 
 revived the grievance, and the Commons, 
 under Charles II., carried several bills to 
 prevent the refusal of the writ of habeas 
 corpus,/ but they were thrown out in the 
 Lords, i In 167€ Jenkes's ease called fresh 
 attention to the injustice of protracted im- 
 prisom4ent. 
 
 At last, in 1679, the famous Habeas Corpus 
 Act wasi passed. It enacted that any judge 
 must gii^nt the writ of habeas corpus when 
 
 applied for, under penalty of a fine of £500 ; 
 that the delay in executing it must not exceed 
 twenty days ; that any officer or keeper 
 neglecting to dehver a copy of the warrant 
 of commitment, or shifting the prisoner with- 
 out cause to another custody, shall be fined 
 £100 on the first offence, and £200, with 
 dismissal, for the second ; that no person once 
 delivered by habeas corpus shall be re-com- 
 mitted for the same ofilence ; that every person 
 committed for treason or felony is to be tried 
 at the next assizes, unless the crown witnesses 
 cannot be produced at that time ; and that, if 
 not indicted at the second assizes or sessions, he 
 may be discharged ; and that no one may be 
 imprisoned out of England. The defects in 
 this great Act have since been remedied by 
 the BiU of Rights, which declares that excessive 
 bail may not be required ; and by the Act of 
 1767 "for securing more efiectually the liberty 
 of the subject," which extended the remedies 
 of the Habeas Corpus Act to non-ciiminal 
 charges, and empowered the judges to examine 
 the truth of the facts set forth in the return. 
 By an Act of 1862, based on the fugitive 
 slave Anderson's case, it was provided that no 
 writ of habeas corpus could issue from an 
 English court into any colony where local 
 courts exist having authority to grant and 
 issue the said writ. The Habeas Corpus Act 
 was extended to Ireland in 1782 ; in Scotland 
 the liberty of the subject is guarded by the 
 Wrongous Imprisonment Act of 1701. 
 
 In times of political and social disturbance 
 the Habeas Corpus Act has now and again 
 been suspended. It was suspended nine times 
 between the Revolution and 1745; again 
 during the troubles which followed the French 
 Revolution (1794—1800), after which an Act 
 of Indemnity was passed ; as again after the 
 Suspension Act of 1817. In Ireland it has 
 been suspended no less than six times since 
 the Union ; but, since 1848, the government, 
 in times of disaffection, have had recourse to 
 special Coercion Acts. 
 
 For Damell's case and tte Act, Bee Hallam, 
 Oonst. Hist, chs. 7 and 13; Sfate Trials, and 
 Stat. 31 Car. II., c. 2. For SuBpension Acts, May, 
 Const. Hist., chap. xi. See also 66 Geo. III., 
 c. 100, and 25 and 26 Vict., c. 20. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act, The, in Ireland, 
 
 was not passed till 1782, when an Act re- 
 sembling that in England was carried through 
 the Irish Parliament. It was suspended in 
 1796, in 1800, 1802 to 1805, 1807 to 1810, 
 1814, 1822 to 1824, 1866 to 1869, and par- 
 tially by the Westmeath Act, 1871, and the 
 Coercion Act, 1882. 
 
 Hackett, William (rf. 1591), was a 
 fanatic who, with two companions named Cop- 
 penger and Arthingtou, endeavoured to pro- 
 cure a following in London by predicting the 
 immediate end of the world. Their divine 
 mission failed, however, to save them from 
 being convicted as traitors. Arthington was 
 
Hac 
 
 (524) 
 
 Hal 
 
 pardoned. This fanaticism caused the per- 
 secution of the Puritans to be redoubled ; "it 
 was pretended," says Dr. Lingard, " that if 
 a rising had been effected, men of greater 
 weight would have placed themselves at the 
 head of the insurgents, and have required 
 from the queen the abolition of the prelacy." 
 
 Hackston, of Eathillet {d. 1680), 
 was one of the murderers of Aichbishop 
 Sharp. After the crime Hackston escaped 
 into Stirlingshire by giving out that he and 
 his companions were troopers in pursuit of 
 the murderers. He afterwards fought at 
 Drumolog and Bothwell Bridge, on the side 
 of the Covenanters. He was captured at 
 Airds Moss (1680), and soon afterwards 
 executed at Edinburgh. 
 
 Haddington, seventeen miles east of 
 Edinburgh, was burnt by John in 1216, and 
 again by Edward III. in 1355. In 1647 
 it was taken by the English shortly after the 
 battle of Pinkie ; but was recaptured by 
 the Scotch in the following year. It was 
 here that the Estates of the Realm met to dis- 
 cuss the marriage of their young Queen Mary 
 with the Dauphin (1548). Some years later 
 the abbey was conferred on Bothwell. In 
 1715 it was occupied by the Jacobites. Had- 
 dington was one of the earliest of the Royal 
 Burghs of Scotland. 
 
 Haddon, Walter (S. 1516, d. 1572), has 
 been called one of the brightest lay ornaments 
 of the Reformation. He became Master of 
 Trinity College, Oxford, and in 1552 Presi- 
 dent of Magdalen College. During the reign 
 of Mary he withdrew into private life, and so 
 managed to escape persecution. On the ac- 
 cession of Elizabeth he was made Master 
 of Requests. In 1565 he was sent to 
 Bruges for the purpose of concluding a com- 
 mercial treaty between England and the 
 Netherlands. His knowledge of law was 
 great, and he had a principal share in draw- 
 ing up the Reformatio Leguin JUcclesiasticarum. 
 
 Hadrian, Emperor of Rome (117 — 138), 
 visited Britain in the year 120. We have no 
 account of his proceedings, but it appears 
 that he restored the southern part of the island 
 to order, and drove back the Caledonians. 
 The wall from the Solway to the Tyne was 
 built by his orders. [Romans in Bbitain.] 
 
 Hadwisa, or Hawisa, wife of King 
 John, was the granddaughter of Robert, 
 Earl of Gloucester, natural son of Henry I. 
 Her marriage with King John in 1189 gave 
 him a share of the great Gloucester earldom of 
 which she was co-heir, but in 1200 she was 
 divorced on the pretext of affinity. She sub- 
 sequently married Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, and on 
 his death Hubert de Burgh. 
 
 Hailes, Lord (S. 1726, d. 1792), was the 
 judicial title of Sir David Dalrymple, one of 
 the Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. He 
 was the author of Annals of Scotland. 
 
 Hale, Sir Matthew {b. 1609, d. 1676), 
 was called to the bar in 1636. He took 
 the side of the king in his struggle with 
 the Parliament, and defended the Duke of 
 Hamilton and other Royalists in 1649. Later 
 on he subscribed the engagement to be 
 faithful to the Commonwealth, and in 1654 
 was made a judge of the Common Pleas, 
 in which capacity he showed great fear- 
 lessness and impartiality, refusing to assist 
 in the trial of Penruddock in 1655, and on 
 one occasion dismissing a jury wldch had 
 been illegally returned at Cromwell's bidding. 
 On the death of Oliver Cromwell he resigned 
 his office, but in 1660 was made by Charles 
 II. Chief Baron of the Exchequer, and in, 
 1671 was promoted to the Chief Justiceship 
 of the King's Bench. In private and public 
 life alike, he was distinguished by his candour, 
 kindly disposition, and piety ; his habits and 
 tastes were most simple, and to the end of his 
 life he was an earnest student of theology and 
 law. Heneage Finch, Earl of Nottingham, 
 speaks of him as " a Chief Justice of so inde- 
 fatigable an industry, so invincible a patience, 
 so exemplary an integrity, and so magnani- 
 mous a contempt of unholy things, without 
 which no man can be truly great ; and to all 
 this, a man that was so absolutely a master of 
 the science of the law, and even of the most 
 abstruse and hidden parts of it, that one may 
 truly say of his knowledge of the law, what 
 St. Austin said of St. Jerome's knowledge 
 of divinity, ' Quod Hieronymus nescivit, nul- 
 lus mortaliuni unquam scivit.' " 
 
 Hale's Case (June, 1686). Sir Edward 
 Hale, a convert to Roman Catholicism, was, in 
 1686, appointed by James II. colonel of a regi- 
 ment, and Governor of Dover Castle, though he 
 had not qualified himself for these posts accord- 
 ing to the terms of the Test Act. A collusive 
 action was brought against him by a servant, 
 whereupon Hale pleaded a dispensation from 
 the king. Eleven out of the twelve judges 
 decided in his favour, and agreed that the 
 king had power by his prerogative to dispense 
 with penal laws, and for reasons of which he 
 was sole judge. Subsequently Hale was 
 made Lieutenant of the Tower, and followed 
 James II. in his flight, but was captured and 
 imprisoned. 
 
 Halfdane {d. 910), a Danish leader, is 
 mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as 
 one of the two Idngs leading the Danish army 
 at the battle of Ashdown (781). Four years 
 later he went with part of the host, into 
 Northumbria, subdued the land, and harried 
 the Picts and the Strathclyde Welsh. Next 
 year (876) he divided the south part of North- 
 umbria among his followers, who settlec) down 
 in their new abodes as peaceful inhatiitants. 
 Many years later Halfdane's namej again 
 occurs in the Chronicle as being engiiged in 
 an expedition that ravaged England fas far 
 south as TettenhaU. On its return lit was 
 
Hal 
 
 ( S25 ), 
 
 Hal 
 
 overtaken by Edward the Elder, and put to 
 rout. Several oif the Danish leaders were 
 slain in this engagement, and amongst them 
 King Halfdane. [Danes.] 
 
 HaHdou Hill, The Battle of (July 
 19, 1333), was fought between the English 
 troops, led by Edward III. in person, and the 
 Scotch under Douglas. The English were 
 posted on a hill, and their position was ren- 
 dered more secure by the marshy ground 
 before them. "When the Scots advanced to 
 the attack, their troops floundered in this 
 morass, and, being open to the English 
 archers, were reduced to a mere fragment ere 
 they reached the enemy's ranks. Disorganised 
 and hopeless, they were then slaughtered by 
 the English men-at-arms. 
 
 Halifax, Charles Wood, 1st Viscount 
 {i. 1800), was educated at Oriel College, 
 Oxford, and succeeded his father as third 
 baronet in the year 1 826. In the same year he 
 had been returned to the House of Commons 
 as member for Great Grimsby, and afterwards 
 sat for Wareham, Halifax, and Ripon. In 
 1832 he was appointed Secretary to the 
 Treasury; in 1835 Secretary to the Admi- 
 ralty. In 1846 he took office under Lord 
 EusseU as Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
 which office he held tiU 1852. He entered 
 the Aberdeen cabiaet in 1852 as President of 
 the Board of Control ; became First Lord of 
 the Admiralty in Lord Palmerston's first ad- 
 ministration, from 1855 to 1858. In Lord 
 Palmerston's second administration he became 
 Secretary of State for India, and President of 
 the Indian Council from 1859 to 1866. In 
 1866 he was created Viscount Halifax, and 
 took office under Mr. Gladstone in 1870 as 
 Lord Privy Seal. 
 
 Halifax, Charles Montagtie, Eakl op 
 (i. 1661, d. 1715), was educated at "Westmin- 
 ster and Cambridge. In 1687 he gained 
 himself a wider reputation by the happy 
 parody of the Town and Country JHouse, written 
 in conjunction with his friend Prior. In 
 1688 he entered Parliament for Maldon, and 
 was a member of the Convention which offered 
 the crown of England to William and Mary. The 
 new ting soon granted him a pension of £500 
 a year; and in 1691 he was appointed chair- 
 man of a committee of the House of Com- 
 mons, and one of the commissioners of the 
 Treasury. He bore a prominent part in the 
 debates for regulating the trials for treason. 
 He took up Paterson's scheme for establishing 
 a national bank, and hence may be regarded 
 as one of the founders of the Bank of Eng- 
 land (1694). In the same year he was ap- 
 pointed Chancellor of the Exchequer, and in 
 the next was actively concerned in the 
 measures taken to restore the currency. It 
 was at his suggestion that a window-tax was 
 levied for the purposes of meeting the ex- 
 penses incidental to the new coinage. In 1697 
 
 he was appointed First Lord of the Treasury, 
 and in the next two years was one of the 
 members of the regency during the king's 
 absence. About the same time he was attacked 
 in Parliament, but was acquitted on all points, 
 and even received the thanks of the House for 
 his services. He now proposed to reorganise 
 the East India Company, by combining the 
 new and the old companies (1698). " The 
 success of this scheme," says Lord Macaulay, 
 " marks the time when the fortunes of Mon- 
 tague reached the meridian ! " After this 
 time he began to lose his popularity ; public 
 feeUng was against him, and even the 
 men of letters, despite his patronage of the 
 greatest literary characters of his day, were 
 unsparing in abuse. Stung by this treatment 
 he resigned the Chancellorship of the Exche- 
 quer, and fell back upon a very lucrative 
 sinecure (the auditorship of the Exchequer) 
 that his brother had been nursing for him 
 since the previous year. In 1701 he was 
 called to the Upper House by the title of 
 Lord Halifax; and the same year was im- 
 peached, though without success. In 1714 he 
 was made Earl of Halifax, and died the next 
 year. Halifax's character was most merci- 
 lessly assailed by the writers of his time ; and 
 even Pope, who was but a boy when Mon- 
 tague retired from the House of Commons, 
 has attacked him in some of his bitterest and 
 most pungent verses. Halifax is said to have 
 been the Bufo of the Epistle to Arbtithnot, 
 where even his patronage of men of letters is 
 turned into scorn, and the whole charge 
 summed up with the couplet accusing him of 
 neglecting Dryden when ahve — 
 
 " But still tlie great have kiiidness in reserve : — 
 He helped to bury whom he helped to starve." 
 
 Halifax, George Saville, MARaxiis op 
 {b. circa 1630, d. 1695), was a member of an 
 old Yorkshire famOy which had been con- 
 spicuous for its loyalty during the Rebellion 
 period. After the Restoration, he was raised 
 to the peerage for the assistance he had 
 rendered in bringing about that event. He 
 was created a marquis in 1682 and made 
 Lord Privy SeaL He opposed the Exclusion 
 Bill in 1680, though he was suspected of 
 intriguing in favour of the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth. At the accession of James II. he 
 became President of the Council; but he 
 showed himself altogether averse to the 
 Romanising measures of the king, and most 
 strenuously opposed the repeal of the Test Act. 
 For this he wag dismissed from his offices, Octo- 
 ber, 1685. He gave his adhesion to the Prince 
 of Orange in December, 1688, and became 
 Speaker of the House of Lords in the Con- 
 vention Parliament, 1689, and Lord Privy 
 Seal in February of this year. He, however, 
 subsequently joined the Opposition and re- 
 signed in October, 1689. He offered a violent 
 opposition to the censorship of the press in 
 1692. The marquis refused to joinhimself 
 
Hal 
 
 ( 526 ) 
 
 Hal 
 
 absolutely to either party, and, in a tract 
 called the Character of a Trimmer, defended 
 his position as one who " trims " from one 
 side to the other aa the national interest 
 requires. 
 
 Maoaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; Burnet, Hist. 0/ His 
 
 Own Time. 
 Halifax, Gboikje Montague Dunk, 5th 
 Eael op ((?. 1771), succeeded to the title 
 while still a hoy. In 1761 he was appointed 
 Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and a little later 
 hecame one of Bute's Secretaries of State. 
 When the last-mentioned nobleman went out 
 in March, 1763, Lord Halifax combined with 
 Lord Egremont and George Grrenville to form 
 the administration popularly known as the 
 Triumvirate. It was in the joint names of 
 Lords Halifax and Egremont that the general 
 warrant was made out for the arrest of Wilkes. 
 Lord Halifax has also been charged with the 
 authorship of the most fatal measure of this 
 unfortunate administration, viz., the Stamp 
 Act ; but though he was a warm advocate of 
 the bill, as his office compelled him to be, 
 there seems no evidence that he was the 
 actual author of it. In 1765 he was a party 
 with Lord Sandwich to the fraud which was 
 practised pn the king in order to make him 
 agree to the omission of his mother's name 
 from the council of regency ; and the king 
 seems to have felt more deeply injured by 
 him than by Lord Sandwich. Nor did his 
 conduct in this matter give satisfaction to his 
 colleagues ; and during the last few months 
 of the Grenville administration, complaints 
 against Halifax seem to have been rife. The 
 Grenville administration fell in 1765. When 
 Lord North came into power (1770) he was 
 appointed Secretary of State, but died the 
 following year. 
 
 Gvenville Papers ; Lord Stantope, Hist, of 
 
 Eng. ; Jesse, Memoirs of George III. 
 
 Hall, Arthue, member for Grantham, 
 who had been previously arraigned at the bar 
 of the House of Commons " for sundry lewd 
 speeches," was (in 1581) expelled from the 
 House, fined, and imprisoned in the Tower, 
 for having published a book "not only re- 
 proaching some particular good meinbers of 
 the House, but also very much slanderous 
 and derogatory to its general authority, 
 power, and state, and prejudicial to the 
 validity of its proceedings in making and es- 
 tablishing of laws." Hall had previously in- 
 curred the anger of the House, which sus- 
 pected him of having connived at the fraud of 
 his servant, Smalley (q. v. ) , whom they had sent 
 their sergeant-at-arms to deliver from gaol in 
 1575. When Hall's book was condemned, its 
 author made his submission, but was not 
 liberated till the dissolution of Parliament. 
 Notwithstanding his misfortunes on this 
 occasion, he seems to have sat in later Parlia- 
 ments. Hall's Case is the chief precedent for 
 the power of expulsion which the House of 
 Commons has always retained. 
 
 Hall, Edward {d. 1547), the son of a 
 Shropshire gentleman, was educated at Eton, 
 Cambridge, and Oxford. He entered Gray's 
 Inn, was called to the bar, and in process of 
 time became under-sheriff for the City of 
 London and one of the judges of the Sheriffs' 
 Court. He died in 1547, leaving behiad him 
 a Sistory of the XJnion of the two Nolle and 
 Illustrious Families of Lancaster and Jork, 
 which was printed in 1548. This work, which 
 the author dedicated to Edward VI., begins 
 with the duel between the Duke of Norfolk 
 and Henry of Derby (afterwards Henry IV.), 
 and goes down to the death of Henry VII. 
 Hall may be regarded as a contemporary 
 authority for events that took place during 
 the reign of the last-mentioned king. For 
 earlier reigns his narrative " is carefuUy com- 
 piled from the best available authorities, 
 whether they wrote in Latin, French, or 
 English." A list of these authorities is pre- 
 fixed to the work, which was first printed by 
 Richard Grafton in 1548. 
 
 Hall, Joseph [b. 1574, d. 1656), Bishop of 
 Norwich, was one of the deputies sent to re- 
 present the established religion of England at 
 the Synod of Dort (1619). In 1627 he was 
 made Bishop of Exeter, and Bishop of Norwich 
 in 1641, in which year he joined eleven of his 
 fellow-bishops in protesting against all laws 
 passed in their absence from the House of 
 Lords. For this offence he was cast into 
 prison. He died at Higham, near Norwich, 
 in 1656. HaU's chief poetical works are two 
 books entitled respectively Toothless Satires 
 and Biting Satires, both of which are of some 
 value as presenting a picture of the manners 
 of his time. He was also the author of a 
 work entitled Sard Measure, which gives an 
 account of the treatment he met with at the 
 hands of the Puritan party. 
 
 Hallam, Heney (*. 1777, d. 1859), was 
 educated at Eton and Oxford, whence he pro- 
 ceeded to the Inner Temple. He was one of 
 the early contributors to the Edinburgh Re- 
 vietc, and a consistent Whig in politics. In 
 1818 his first literary venture on a large scale 
 made its appearance — the View of the State of 
 Europe during the Middle Ages. This work, 
 which at once established the reputation of 
 its author, is of value to the student of 
 English history chiefly for the sketch of our 
 political and constitutional history down to 
 the accession of the Tudor dynasty. Despite 
 the fact that the same ground was sub- 
 sequentty covered by the brilliant ingenuity 
 of Sir Francis Palgrave and the great work 
 of Dr. Stubbs, no student of our early history 
 can afford to neglect the pages of these 
 volumes. Mr. Hallam's second achievement 
 was the publication of The Constitutional Sis- 
 tory ofJEnglandfrmn the Accession ofSenry VII. 
 to the death of George II. This work is still 
 the leading authority on the period over 
 which it extends; and like all the other 
 
Hal 
 
 (527 ) 
 
 Ham 
 
 writings of ita author, is remarkable for its 
 aucuracy and impaxtiality. In 1837 — 38 Mr. 
 Hallam's tliird work of importance made its 
 appearance, The Introduction to the Literature 
 of'' Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and 
 Seventeenth Centuries. 
 
 HallaiU, Egbert [d. 1417), held the 
 archdeaconr)' of Canterhury, and was nomi- 
 nated by the Pope to the archbishopric of 
 York. Henry IV., however, refused his 
 sanction to the appointment, and Hallam had 
 to content himself with the bishopric of 
 Salisbury. In 1411 he was nominated a 
 cardinal. Six years later he took a very 
 prominent part in the Council of Constance. 
 He died at Constance in 1417. 
 
 Hamilton, originally called Cadaow or 
 Cadyow, derives its name from Sir Walter de 
 Hamilton, or Hambelton, of Leicester. It 
 was made a royal burgh by Queen Mary in 
 the sixteenth century. Hamilton Castle is 
 noted in history as the place in which Mary 
 Queen of Scots took refuge on her escape from 
 Lochleven (1568), and where her supporters 
 mustered round her. It was the chief seat of 
 the Hamiltons, and was taken by the Eegent 
 Murray later in the same year. 
 
 Hamilton, Family op, is descended from 
 Sir Gilbert de Hamilton, who lived in the 
 reign of Alexander II. of Scotland. His son, 
 Sir Walter Hamilton, received the lordship of 
 Oadzow from Eobert Bruce. Sir James Hamil- 
 ton, sixth Lord of Cadzow, was created a peer 
 of Scotland, with the title of Lord Hamilton, 
 in 1445. His son James was created Earl of 
 Arran in Aug., 1503. James, second earl, was 
 declared heir presumptive to the crown in 
 1543, and in 1548 was created by Henry II. 
 Duke of Chatelherault in France. John, his 
 second son, was, in 1591, created Marquis of 
 Hamilton. James, grandson of this peer, was 
 created Duke of Hamilton, 1643. On the 
 attainder of William, the second duke, in the 
 Civil War, his honours were forfeited ; but in 
 1660 his widow obtained, by petition, for her 
 husband. Lord WiUiam Douglas, the title of 
 Duke of Hamilton. The title has since 
 remained vrith his descendants. The holders 
 of the dukedom of Abercom are descended 
 from Claud, fourth son of the Duke of 
 Chatelherault. 
 
 Hamilton, Anthony, Count (5. 1641, 
 d. 1720), was the son of Sir George Hamilton 
 and nephew of the second Earl of Abercorn 
 on his father's side, while on his mother's 
 he was nephew of the Duke of Ormonde. 
 He was bom in Ireland, and was educated 
 in France. On the Restoration he re- 
 turned to England, and was a conspicuous 
 member of the court of Charles II. TJnder 
 James II. Hamilton was given the command 
 of an infantry regiment in Ireland, and the 
 'government of Limerick. At the battle of 
 Newtown Butler (1689J he was wounded and 
 
 defeated, and was also present next year at 
 the battle of the Boyne; but shortly after- 
 wards followed the dethroned king into exUe, 
 entering the French service later on. It was 
 at Sceaux, the seat of the Duchess of Maine, 
 that he wrote his Memoirs of Grammont, which 
 were first printed anonymously in French in 
 Holland, in the year 1713. An English 
 translation was issued in the following year. 
 This work contains much information on 
 court politics of the reign of Charles II. 
 Count Hamilton was also the author of 
 certain Contes, or Stories, which are highly 
 praised by Voltaire. 
 
 Hamilton, Lady Emma (J. 1761, d. 
 1815), was the daughter of a Welsh servant- 
 girl. She seems to have lost her character 
 in early years. After various adventures she 
 was married to Sir WilHam Hamilton, the 
 English ambassador at Naples (1791). At 
 this court she soon became very intimate 
 with the queen, Marie Caroline, and did not 
 hesitate to use this intimacy for the purpose 
 of unravelling state secrets, which were of 
 the utmost importance to Great Britain. 
 She now made the acquaintance of Lord 
 Nelson, whose mistress she soon became. She 
 is accused of having induced Nelson to order 
 the execution of .Admiral Carracioli. In 1800 
 she returned to England with Nelson. Lady 
 Hamilton survived Nelson seven years, and 
 died in mean circumstances in Calais (1815). 
 Before her death she published two volumes 
 containing her correspondence with Nelson. 
 Her memoirs were published at London in 
 the same year. 
 
 Hamilton, Sm James {d. 1540), was a 
 natural son of James, first Earl of Arran. 
 He was a favourite of James V. of Scotland, 
 superintended the erection or the improve- 
 ment of many royal palaces and castles, e.g., 
 Falkland, Linhthgow, Edinburgh, and Stir- 
 ling. In later years he was made a judge in 
 heresy, and in this capacity showed himself 
 very severe towards the Keformers. At last, 
 being accused of treason and embezzlement, 
 he was fotmd guilty and executed. 
 
 Hamilton, John {d. 1571), Archbishop of 
 St. Andrews, was the natural brother of the 
 Earl of Arran, the Eegent of Scotland in 
 1543, and is said by the Scotch historians to 
 have " ruled all at court," and to have been 
 French at heart. He was also very friendly 
 with Cardinal Beaton. He was appointed 
 Privy Seal and Treasurer (1543), and was 
 strongly opposed to the Duke of Somerset's 
 plan of marrying Edward and Mary (1547). 
 By this time Hamilton was Archbishop of 
 St. Andrews, to which office he had succeeded 
 on the assassination of Cardinal Beaton. He 
 was a strenuous opponent of the Eeformed 
 doctrines, and in 1558 condemned Walter 
 Mill to be burnt for heresy. He baptised 
 James VI. in 1566^ and about the same tima 
 
Ham 
 
 ( 528 ) 
 
 Ham. 
 
 signed a tond in favour of BothweU. He 
 was a member of Mary's Privy Council, and 
 continued faithful to her cause, though in 
 1563 he was impannelled for saying mass, 
 and committed to ward hy her orders. 
 Hamilton, though an archbishop, lived in 
 open adultery, and had to obtain several Acts 
 of Parliament for the legitimisation of his 
 bastard children. He was a party to Dam- 
 ley's murder; and it was he who in 1567 
 divorced Bothwell from his wife, and so 
 enabled him to marry the queen. He was 
 hanged at Stirling in April, 1571, shortly 
 after the fall of Dumbarton Castle, in which 
 he had taken refuge. 
 
 Hamilton, James, op Bothwellhaugh, 
 had fought for Queen Mary at Lang- 
 side, and forfeited his estate in consequence 
 of espousing the royal side. On Feb. 
 23, 1570, he shot the Regent Murray from 
 the balcony of a house in Linlithgow, 
 belonging to Archbishop Hamilton. Within 
 a few days he escaped to France, where he 
 lived for some time in receipt of a pension 
 from Queen Mary. In 1572 his name was 
 excepted from the benefit of the truce between 
 the members of the king's party and the 
 queen's party. 
 
 Hamilton, James, 3rd Maeouis op 
 (5. 1606, d. 1649), succeeded his father in 
 1625, and was sent in 1638 by Charles I. as 
 his Commissioner to the Covenanters, to de- 
 mand the rescinding of the whole Covenant. 
 Having failed to effect a compromise, he was 
 empowered to make an entire surrender of 
 the Service Book, the Book of Canons, and 
 the High Commission. In 1639 he was 
 again sent to Scotland in command of a fleet 
 of nineteen vessels, conveying five regiments 
 of royal troops. In 1643 he was raised to 
 the rank of duke, but was subsequently 
 imprisoned on a, charge of disloyalty. In 
 August, 1648, he was defeated by CromweU 
 at Preston, and taken prisoner, being be- 
 headed in London in the following March, 
 after a summary mock trial before Bradshaw. 
 
 Hamilton, "William Douglas, Duke 
 OP (b. 1650, d. 1696), appears as member 
 of the Scotch Privy Council in the year 1686, 
 when he was summoned by James II. to 
 London for demurring at the king's policy 
 of favour to the Roman Catholics and per- 
 secution of the Covenanters. On James re- 
 fusing to allow religious liberty to the 
 Covenanters, the interview came to an un- 
 satisfactory conclusion, and when the Assembly 
 of the Scotch Estates also proved refractory, 
 Hamilton led the opposition. But, though he 
 threw out hints against the dispensing power, 
 his opposition to James's arbitrary acts was 
 but languid. At the Revolution he joined 
 the victorious side, while his eldest son de- 
 clared for James. He was elected President 
 of the Convention by a, large majority over 
 the Dake of Athole, and, when the Convention 
 
 became a Parliament, he was made Lord High 
 Commissioner. But he attempted to bring 
 the old influence of the crown, by means of 
 the Lords of the Articles, to bear on the 
 Estates, and hence a strong opposition was 
 formed which thwarted his government for 
 the remainder of the session. On the dis- 
 covery of Montgomery's plot (1689 — 90) to 
 place James on the throne, it was discovered 
 that he had been offered the post of President 
 of the Council. Upon this William dismissed 
 him from his office of Commissioner, and put 
 Lord Melville in his place (1690). From this 
 moment Hamilton began to oppose the plans 
 of government with such persistency that 
 William III. was once heard to exclaim, ' ' I 
 wish to heaven that Scotland were a thousand 
 miles ofE, and the Duke of Hamilton were 
 king of it." He spoke with considerable 
 wisdom on the Settlement of the Scotch- 
 Church, by which synodical government was 
 re-established, and upheld the cause of the 
 ministers who had been ejected from their 
 livings. On the fall of Melville he once more 
 occupied Holyrood House as Lord High 
 Commissioner (1692), and is said to have 
 subscribed £3,000 to the African Company. 
 "He was," says Mr. Burton, " neither bigoted 
 nor unscrupulous, but infirm of purpose. A 
 peculiar capriciousness of political action, a 
 wavering uncertainty, which sickened aU 
 firm rehance, seems to have become constitu- 
 tional to the house of Hamilton." 
 
 Hamilton, James, Duke op (d. 1712), 
 made his first appearance in history in opposi- 
 tion to the Lord High Commissioner, the Mar- 
 quis of Queensbeny (1702). He led a secession 
 of more than seventy members fromParliament. 
 The extremely unsettled nature of his poli- 
 tical views caused him to be excluded from 
 the Scotch Union Commission, and he became 
 a zealous opponent of that measure, and, in 
 consequence, the darling of the Edinburgh 
 mob. His influence in this year (1706) 
 checked a projected rising of Cameronians 
 and Jacobites. In 1707 the opponents of the 
 Union were reduced to despair, and, as a last 
 attempt, it was resolved to lay a solemn pro- 
 test on the table of the House, and then 
 secede from Parliament. It was to have 
 been presented by Hamilton. At the last 
 moment he refused to appear, pleading tooth- 
 ache, and when peremptorily summoned 
 declared he had never had any intention of 
 presenting the protest. By some it was 
 supposed that the cause of his conduct was 
 the claim of the house of Hamilton to the 
 Scotch throne, and by others that Anne had 
 commanded him to lay aside his opposition to 
 the Union, as it was a preliminary step to a 
 Sluart restoration. In 1708 he was looked 
 on as the leader of a Jacobite insurrection, 
 but the emissary from St. Germains, Colonel 
 Hooke, was unable to obtain an interview 
 with him. When the French invasion of 
 
Ha,m 
 
 ( 529 ) 
 
 Ham 
 
 1707 — 8 was imminent, the Duke of Hamilton 
 set out for England, where he was arrested ; 
 but was set free by the exertions of the 
 Whig peers, Newcastle and Wharton, who 
 ■wished to gain popularity for their party 
 in Scotland. In 1711 he was allowed to 
 take his seat in the House of Lords as an 
 English peer, with the title of Duke of 
 Hamilton and Brandon. In 1712 he was 
 appointed ambassador to France, and it is 
 asserted by the Jacobite Lockhart, that he 
 was to be sent over with the view of under- 
 taking the restoration of the Pretender. 
 Before his departure he was killed in a duel 
 with Lord Mohun, in which there was every 
 appearance of foul play. His death was 
 regarded by the Tories as a political murder. 
 
 Hamilton, Patrick {b. 1503, d. 1528), 
 the " proto-martjT of Scotland," had held 
 one of the lay benefices of the Church, being 
 Abbot of Fern, in Eoss-shire. He is said to 
 have studied theology in Germany, under 
 Luther and Melanchthon. In 1528 he was 
 accused of heresy, for which offence he suffered 
 death before the old college of St. Andrews. 
 
 Hamilton, Eichabd, was descended from 
 a noble Scotch family long settled in Ireland. 
 Though a Catholic by rehgion he had a seat 
 in the Irish Privy Council, and commanded 
 the Irish troops sent over to England in 1688. 
 After James II. 's flight he submitted to 
 William, ana was sent over to Ireland by the 
 new king as his envoy, having first pledged 
 himself to return in three weeks. Finding, 
 however, that Tyrconnel was determined on 
 resistance, he broke his parole, marched into 
 Ulster at the head of an Irish force, and 
 routed the Protestants at Strabane, April 16, 
 1689. For some time he was in command of 
 the besiegers of Londonderrj^, and at the 
 battle of the Boyne led the cavalry in their 
 gallant efforts to retrieve the day. In their 
 last stand he was severely woimded and 
 captured. William did not revenge himself 
 on him for his treachery, and he was ex- 
 changed for Mountjoy in 1692, and died in 
 the service of Louis XIV. 
 
 Hamilton, Eowan, was a gentleman of 
 fortune who became a IJnited Irishman. In 
 the year 1794 he was apprehended, sentenced 
 to pay a fine of £500, and imprisoned. Jack- 
 sou, a French spy, corresponded with him. 
 Eowan Hamilton, however, made his escape 
 from Newgate as soon as he heard of Jack- 
 son's apprehension, and fled to America. He 
 was in his absence sentenced to death, but his 
 estates were saved; and in 1805 Castlereagh 
 got him a pardon, and he then lived quietly in 
 Ireland till his death. 
 
 Hamilton, William Gekaud (i. 1729, 
 d. 1796), was elected member for Petersfield 
 in 1764. It was in the next year that he 
 delivered the famous speech which won for 
 him the title of "Single-speech Hamilton" 
 
 (Nov. 13). After this occasion he never 
 addressed the House of Commons again, 
 fearing, so it was currently reported, to lose 
 the reputation he had acquired by his great 
 effort. In 1761 he was appointed secretary 
 to Lord Halifax, and was for twenty years 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer in Ireland. 
 Gerard Hamilton was one of the numerous 
 reputed authors of Junius, and Fox is credited 
 with having once said, in reference to this 
 question, that he would back him against any 
 single horse, though not against the whole 
 field. Hamilton retired into private life in 1784. 
 
 Hammond, Robert, Colonel, took part 
 in the siege of Bristol in 1645, and was 
 Governor of the Isle of Wight in 1 647. When 
 Charles I. , in this year, escaped from Hampton 
 Court, negotiations were opened on his behalf 
 with Hammond, who, it was hoped, would 
 espouse his cause, as he had often expressed 
 dissatisfaction with the violence of the sol- 
 diers. But Hammond was a trusted friend of 
 Cromwell, and, having married a daughter 
 of John Hampden, was attached to the 
 Parliamentary cause. Accordingly, he could 
 only be induced to promise that he would treat 
 the king as might be expected from a man of 
 honour, an(i confined him in Carisbrooke 
 Castle, though with much show of respect. 
 While negotiations were being carried on 
 during the next few months, Hammond fre- 
 quently requested to be discharged from the 
 charge of the king's person, and in con- 
 sequence was looked upon with more or less 
 suspicion by the officers of the army, till the 
 king was removed to Hurst Castle, where- 
 upon Colonel Hammond was discharged from 
 his government, Nov., 1648. 
 
 Hampden, John (S. 1594, d. 1643), was 
 the son 0* John Hampden, of Great Hampden, 
 Bucks, and Elizabeth Cromwell, aunt of Oliver 
 Cromwell. He was bom in London, educated 
 at Thame School, and at Magdalen College, 
 Oxford, and entered the Inner Temple in 
 1613. In the Parliament of 1620 he repre- 
 sented Grampoimd ; in 1626, Wendover ; in 
 1640, Buckinghamshire. In 1627 he was im- 
 prisoned for refusing to pay the forced loan. 
 When the second writ of ship-money was 
 issued, by which that tax was extended to the 
 inland counties, he refused to pay it. The 
 case was tried in respect of twenty shilKngs 
 due from lands in the parish of Stoke Mande- 
 viUe, and out of the twelve judges seven 
 decided for the crown, two for Hampden on 
 technical grounds, and three for him on all 
 counts, 1638. This trial made Hampden " the 
 argument of all tongues, every man enquiring 
 who and what he was that he durst of his own 
 charge support the Hberty and property of the 
 kingdom, and rescue his country from being 
 made a prey to the court." When a Parlia- 
 ment was again summoned " the eyes of all 
 men were fixed upon him as the pilot which 
 must steer the vessel through the tempest and 
 
Ham 
 
 ( 530 ) 
 
 Ham 
 
 rocks which threatened it." In the Long 
 Parliament he played an important part, 
 generally moderating by his influence the 
 pressure of the popular party. Thus he 
 urged the Commons to proceed against 
 Strafford by impeachment rather than by bill 
 of attainder, and attempted to arrange a com- 
 promise on the Church question. The king's 
 attempt to arrest the Five Members obliged 
 him to alter his policy and urge stronger 
 measures. He was appointed a member of 
 the Committee of Safety, and raised a regi- 
 ment whose flag bore the significant motto, 
 " Vestigia nulla retrorsum." He distinguished 
 himself by his activity in the first weeks of 
 the war, seizing the king's Commissioners of 
 Array, occupying Oxford, and defeating the 
 Cavaliers in many small skirmishes. He ar- 
 rived too late to fight at Edgehill, but both 
 after that battle, and after the battle of Brent- 
 ford, urged vigorous measures on Essex, and 
 in the Committee of Safety argued for a 
 march direct on Oxford. After the capture 
 of Beading in 1643, he again counselled in 
 vain a direct attack on the king's head- 
 quarters. On June 18, 1643, at Chalgrove 
 Field, in endeavouring to prevent the retreat 
 of a body of cavalry which had made a 
 sally from Oxford, he was mortally wounded 
 and died six days later. Clarendon de- 
 scribes him as " a very wise man and of 
 great parts, possessed with the most absolute 
 faculties to govern the people of any man I 
 ever knew." His influence depended not on 
 his ability as a speaker, or skill as a soldier, 
 but on his energy and character. " He was 
 very temperate in diet, ■ and a supremo 
 governor over all his passions and afEections, 
 and had thereby a great power over all other 
 men's. He was of an industry and vigilance 
 not to be tired out or wearied by the most 
 laborious, and of parts not to be imposed upon 
 by the most subtle or sharp, and of a personal 
 courage equal to his parts." 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the JRehellion ; Nugent, 
 Memorials of Ham'pden ; Foster, British States- 
 men; Gardiner, ffist. of Sng., 1603— 1642. 
 
 [G. H. F.] 
 
 Ham.pclen, John {d. 1695), grandson of 
 the famous John Hampden, distinguished 
 himself by his opposition to the succession 
 of the Diike of York, on the ground of his 
 religion. Later, he was implicated in the 
 Eye House Plot, and was arrested, together 
 with Essex, Russell, and others (1683). On 
 this occasion, though his Kfe was spared, he 
 was condemned to pay an enormous fine 
 (£40,000). After the Eevolution, he was 
 chairman of a committee appointed to pre- 
 pare an address to WilKam III. inveighing 
 against the conduct of Louis XIV. The 
 same year (1689) he is found attacking Lord 
 Halifax, not only in the House of Commons, 
 but before the Lords. In 1690 he failed to 
 obtain a seat in the Tory Parliament elected 
 that year. Disappointed in his ambition, 
 
 and perhaps ashamed of the reproaches his 
 own conduct brought upon him, he committed 
 suicide a few years later. 
 
 Hampden, r>K., The Case OF (1847). Not- 
 withstanding the fact that his doctrines were 
 in many quarters considered to be highly un- 
 orthodox, especially by the Traotarian party, 
 Dr. E. Hampden, Fellow of Oriel and Principal 
 of St. Mary's Hall, had been appointed in 1836 
 Regius Professor of Divinity in the University 
 of Oxford by Lord Melbourne. This ap- 
 pointment was censured by the convocation 
 of the university, and, in consequence, the 
 university authorities deprived him of the 
 privilege of granting certificates to the 
 candidates for holy orders who attended 
 his lectures. In spite of this, in 1847 
 Lord John Russell advised the crown to 
 appoint him to the vacant see of Hereford. 
 This produced a great outcry, and a strong- 
 protest from many of the High Church clergy. 
 The forms of election were, however, gone 
 through, in spite of the opposition of the 
 Dean of Hereford. The election was formally 
 confirmed in the Court of Arches, and an ap- 
 peal was made in vain to the Court of Queen's 
 Bench. Bishop Hampden died in 1868. 
 
 Hampton Court was a. palace built 
 by Cardinal Wolsey. From Wolsey's pos- 
 session it passed into the hands of the king, 
 and has continued to be the property of the 
 crown ever since. Henry VIII. gxeatly 
 enlarged it, and formed around it a royal 
 park. Having been, for some time at least, 
 a favourite residence of the Kings of England, 
 Hampton Court has naturally been the scene 
 of several interesting events in the history of 
 our royal family. The birth of Edward VI., 
 the death of his mother, Jane Seymour, and 
 the famous conference of James I.'s reign 
 between the High Church party and the 
 Puritans, all took place there. Charles I. 
 was imprisoned there for a time during the 
 Commonwealth, and the palace was the 
 occasional residence of Protector Cromwell, 
 and, in later years, of Charles II. and James 
 II. By William III. the palace was to a 
 great extent rebuilt, and its park and gardens 
 laid out in the formal Dutch style. 
 
 Hampton Court Conference (1604). 
 
 On the accession of James I. there was a 
 general feeling that some concessions might 
 be made both to the extreme High Church 
 and the extreme Presbyterian sections of the 
 nation. The leading Puritans were ready to 
 soften down their demands, and a great part 
 of the laity — Bacon amongst the number — 
 were, at all events, not opposed to a com- 
 promise. On his progress to London, James 
 had received the " Millenary Petition " from 
 the clergy, and in the January of 1604 gave 
 orders for a conference to be held between re- 
 presentatives of the Established Church and 
 the Puritans. The Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 eight bishops, and other Church dignitaries, 
 
Han 
 
 ( 331 ) 
 
 Han 
 
 were the champions on the one side ; four 
 moderate Puritans on the other. But the 
 nomination of the last party was a mere 
 farce. They were not admitted to the discus- 
 sions between the king and the bishops, which 
 were carried on in the presence of the 
 Lords of the Council. In this manner, the 
 extent of the concessions that would be granted 
 was arranged before the complainants' case 
 was heard ; and when, on the second day, the 
 Puritan spokesman, Reynolds, proposed some 
 alterations in the articles, and proposed to 
 introduce the Lambeth Articles, and to 
 inquire into the authority for confirmation, 
 Bishop Bancroft interrupted him, and kneel- 
 ing down before the king, begged him not to 
 listen to a " schismatic speaking against his 
 bishops." Then the conference proceeded to 
 discuss questions of doctrine, and James 
 accepted Reynolds's proposal for a new trans- 
 lation of the Bible. The debate then passed 
 on to the comparative value of a learned and 
 unlearned ministry, of prayers, and of preach- 
 ing; but each party wished in the first place 
 to make its own views and customs binding 
 on the other ; the true spirit of compromise 
 was absent. At last the subject of " pro- 
 phesyings" (q.v.) came forward, a religious ex- 
 ercise of which many moderate men like Bacon 
 did not disapprove ; but, unluckily, Reynolds 
 proposed that disputes during the prophesy- 
 ings should be settled by the bishop and his 
 presbytery. James took ofieuce at the word, 
 which reminded him of all that he had en- 
 dured in Scotland. From this moment the 
 question was settled, and on the third day's 
 conference the king and the bishops agreed 
 to a few trifling alterations in the Prayer- 
 book and to the appointment of commissions 
 with a view to inquire into the best means 
 for obtaining a preaching clergy. It was 
 then announced to the Puritans that they 
 would have to subscribe to the whole Prayer- 
 book, the Articles, and the King's Supremacy. 
 And so the Hampton Court Conference ended, 
 without any reasonable concessions having 
 been made to the Puritan party. 
 
 Cardwell, Conferences; S. K. Gardiner, Hist. 
 ofUng., 1603—1642. 
 
 Hanover, The House of, which since 
 1714: has occupied the English throne, is 
 Kneally descended from the famous Guelfs, 
 or Welfs, of Bavaria, who, in the twelfth 
 century, struggled for the Empire against the 
 Hohenstaufen, and gave their name to the 
 Papal faction of mediaeval Italy. Henry the 
 Proud became Duke of Saxony as well as 
 Duke of Bavaria, and in 1180, on the fall of 
 his son Henry the Lion, the allodial lands of 
 the Guelfic house in the former duchy were 
 saved from the forfeiture which befeU their 
 greater possessions. After the last struggle 
 of Otto IV. , aided by his uncles Richard and 
 John of England, the Guelfs acquiesced 
 in their new position, and in 1235 the 
 
 districts of Brunswick and Liineburg were 
 erected into a duchy in their favour by 
 Frederick II. After various partitions and 
 reunions the whole of the duchy of Bruns- 
 wick fell, ia 1527, into the hands of Duke 
 Ernest, a zealous adherent of Luther. His 
 two sons efiected a partition of the duchy, 
 which has continued until the present day. 
 The elder son of Ernest became the Duke of 
 Bruuswick-Wolfeubiittel. The present Duke 
 of Brunswick is his descendant. William, 
 the younger son of Ernest, became Duke of 
 Brunswick-Liineburg, and is the ancestor of 
 the house of Hanover. A farther division of 
 Liineburg was made in favour of George, the 
 onty one of WiUiam's seven sons who was 
 allowed to marry. He was made Duke of 
 Calenberg, with the town of Hanover for his 
 capital, Celle being the chief town of Liine- 
 burg. After various shiftings, his second son, 
 George William, became Duke of Liineburg 
 or CeUe ; and his fourth son, Ernest Au- 
 gustus, Duke of Calenberg or Hanover (1679). 
 The latter was an able and ambitious prince. 
 He introduced primogeniture, and married 
 Sophia, the daughter of Frederick, the Elec- 
 tor Palatine, and EUzabeth, daughter of 
 James I. of England. In 1692 his constant 
 adherence to the cause of the Emper'or was 
 rewarded by the creation of a ninth electo- 
 rate in his favour, on conditions which en- 
 sured his hearty support to the league against 
 Louis XIV. This electorate was properly 
 called the electorate of Brunswick {Kur- 
 braunschweig), but as the Dukes of Wolfen- 
 biittel had especially appropriated the title of 
 Dukes of Brunswick with their claims over 
 that once free town, the new Electors were 
 often called Electors of Hanover, which name, 
 hitherto strictly confined to the town, was 
 henceforth used as the name of the district as 
 well. The Act of Settlement (1701) made 
 the Electress Sophia heiress to the English 
 throne. Ernest had already died in 1698, 
 and their son George Louis, by marrying 
 Sophia Dorothea of Celle, the daughter and 
 heiress of George William of Liineburg, suc- 
 ceeded on the latter's death, in 1706, to his 
 dominions. Calenberg and Liineburg were 
 thus reunited, and the new Elector put in 
 possession of dominions more adequate to sus- 
 tain his dignity. In 1714 he became King of 
 England. From that date to 1837 the elec- 
 torate of Hanover and the English monarchy 
 were united. In 1815 it was erected into a 
 kingdom with large accessions of territor}^ 
 But in 1837 the accession of Queen Vic- 
 toria made the Duke of Cumberland King of 
 Hanover, as males only were allowed to 
 occupy that throne. Thirty years of arbitrary 
 government and of violated constitutions, led 
 to the absorption of Hanover into the Prussian 
 state after the war of 1866. 
 
 The house of Hanover has continued to 
 reign in England since George Louis became 
 George I. in 1714. 
 
Kau 
 
 ( 532 ) 
 
 Han 
 
 Speaking very roughly, we may divide the 
 Planoverian period of English history into 
 three divisions. From 1714 to 1761 the Whig 
 oligarchy governed the country. Aiter a few 
 years of transition, a long period of' Tory 
 rule, 1770— 1830, culminates in the reaction 
 against the French Eevolution. With 1830 
 bagins the period of Reform, in which we 
 are still engaged. George I. (1714 — 1727) 
 ascended the throne as the pledged supporter 
 of the Wliig party, to whose triumph he 
 owed the throne, and by whose principles 
 alone he could claim it. Ignorant of the 
 English language, government, and consti- 
 tution, he suffered without much difficulty 
 the authority of the crown to pass into the 
 hands of the ministry which had the confi- 
 dence of Parliament, and was content if his 
 demands for money were satisfied, and if the 
 foreign poUcy of England was framed with 
 special regard to the interest of his electorate. 
 tJnder Mm, as under his son, George II. 
 (1727 — 1760), England, in the immeasured 
 language of Opposition orators, "became a 
 province of a despicable electorate." But it 
 may be doubted whether the policy of Eng- 
 land and the policy of Hanover did not gene- 
 rally coincide, except perhaps so far as the 
 jealousy of a petty German prince at the 
 rise of Prussia, did not for a time bring 
 English influence rather to bear against the 
 development of the great state which was 
 ultimately to bring unity to Germany. But 
 despite the personal hostility of George II. 
 and Frederick the Great, the crisis of the 
 Seven Years' War forced them into an al- 
 liance which saved Prussia and covered Eng- 
 land with glory. George II. had been con- 
 tent to govern on the lines of his father ; but 
 his son Frederick, Prince of Wales, became 
 the centre of a new Toryism that had its 
 highest expression in Bolingbroke's Idea of a 
 Patriot King. George III., the son of Frederick 
 (1760 — 1820), began a new epoch in the his- 
 tory of the house of Hanover, by carrying 
 into practice Bolingbroke's theories, and by 
 endeavouring to secure for the king person- 
 ally the exercise of those prerogatives which 
 the practice of George I. and George II. had 
 handed over to his ministers. His first 
 triumph under Lord North was for a time 
 ended by the CoaUtion, but under Pitt his 
 ideas finally gained the victory, and the new 
 Toryism of the reaction from the French 
 Revolution found in him a centre for their 
 loyalty. Proud of his " British " nationality, 
 and more intent on home than foreign poli- 
 tics, the dependence of English policy on 
 Hanoverian interests nearly ceased, and the long 
 occupation of that country by Napoleon (1803 — 
 1814), almost cut the connection between the 
 kingdom and the electorate. George IV., 
 who, first as Regent (1810—1820), and then 
 asking (1820 — 1830), was his successor, was 
 too feeble and self-indulgent, too destitute 
 of fixed principle and courage to maintain 
 
 his father's position. He managed to stave 
 ofi reform in England and Hanover ; but 
 his brother, William IV. (1830—1837), while 
 accepting the Reform Bill of 1832 in Eng- 
 land, gave a Constitution to Hanover in 1833. 
 In 1837 Queen Victoria ascended the throne, 
 and her constitutional rule, and the prac- 
 tical wisdom of her husband, enabled the 
 transition back from the practice of George 
 III. to the practice of George I., to be 
 made without friction or difficulty. It is 
 hard to formulate any general character- 
 istics of the rule of the house of Hanover in 
 England. Under them the constitution has been 
 preserved, and the material aspects of the 
 country revolutionised. Without any of the 
 more heroic virtues, and without any lofty 
 ability, their good sense and power to see 
 things as they are, have made them well 
 adapted to occupy the difficult position into 
 which they have been elevated. 
 
 The best general histories of England during 
 the Hanoverian period are Lord Stanhope's 
 History of Englmi, 1113—1183; Massey's Histori/ 
 of the Reign of (ieorge III. ; Miss Martineau's His- 
 toi-i/ of the Thirty Years' Peace ; Charles Knight's 
 Popular Bistm-y of England; Spencer Walpole's 
 Sistory of England iince 1815; Molesworth'sHis- 
 tory of England for the same period ; and Dr. 
 Pauli's Gcschichte EngloMds sed 1814. The consti- 
 tutional history of the reign of George I. and II. 
 is given in Hallam, and that of the subsequent 
 period in Sir Erskine May's Constitutional His- 
 tory, 1160—1810 ; while Bagehot's English Cousti- 
 tvXion gives us the modem theory of the Con- 
 stitutiun. The Htsfory of Our Own- Times is 
 pleasantly but superficially told by Mr. Justin 
 McCarthy. Mi:. Lecky's History of England during 
 the Eighteenth Centary is practically a series 
 of luminous essays on important points of 
 eighteenth century history, and is particularly 
 valuable for Irish affairs. The history of the 
 bouse of Hanover in Germany may be found in 
 Hune's Gaschichte des Konigr&lchs Hannover und 
 • Herxogthmns Brawnschweig, or in Schaumann, 
 Handbuch der Geschichte der Lande Hannover vmd 
 Braunschweig. rrp t^ m -i 
 
 Hanover, The Teeatt of (Sept. 3, 1725), 
 between England, France, and Prussia, was 
 rendered necessary by the Treaty of Vienna 
 (April 20, 1725) between Spain and Austria. 
 By the secret article of the treaty, mar- 
 riages between the two houses were arranged ; 
 Austria and Spain pledged themselves to 
 assist the restoration of the Stuarts, and to 
 compel, if necessary by force, the restoration 
 of Gibraltar and Minorca. The Jacobite 
 leaders were in direct communication with 
 Ripperda. In opposition to this alliance, 
 Walpole and Townshend obtained the ac- 
 cession of France and Prussia, to a con- 
 federacy of which England was the centre. 
 In case of any attack on one of the con- 
 tracting parties, the others were to furnish 
 a certain quota in troops, or the value in 
 ships and money ; and, in case of need, 
 should agree concerning further succours. 
 The real objects of the treaty were to 
 counterbalance the Treaty of Vienna, com- 
 pel the Emperor to relinquish the Ostend 
 Company (which Austria had established for 
 
Han 
 
 533 ) 
 
 Hau 
 
 trade with tlie Indies in violation of the 
 Barrier Treaty), and to resist any attempts- 
 that might be made in behalf of the Pre- 
 tender. Its objects were successful. The 
 Emperor withdrew from his unfortunate 
 position, and peace was sig'ned at Paris in 
 May, 1727. The Treaty of Hanover was 
 violently 'attacked by the Opposition during 
 Walpole's administration. Its true justification 
 lies in the terms of the Secret Treaty of Vienna. 
 
 Lord Stanhope, Hist, of England; Lecky, Hist. 
 ofJlingland dwring tha Eighteenth Century. 
 
 Hansard, Luke (J. 1752, d. 1828), was 
 at first a compositor in the office of Mr. 
 Hughes, printer to the House of Commons. 
 After two years he became a partner in the. 
 firm, and in 1800 the business came entirely 
 into his hands. He managed the issue of the 
 report of Parliamentary proceedings which, 
 down to the year 1803, is Imown as 
 Cobbett's Farliamentary Sistory ; and after 
 that date was continued under the title of 
 Parliamentary Debates by Hansard. " Han- 
 sard," as now issued, is an annual publication 
 containing the substance of all important 
 debates in both Hoiises of Parliament. [Stock- 
 dale.] 
 
 Hanseatic Iieagne (Haksa), The, 
 
 was a powerful commercial league very 
 closely bound up with English foreign trade. 
 The Teutonic hansa (it first appears in 
 the Gothic translation of the New Testa- 
 ment), signifies a company of men both in a 
 military and non-military sense. So it is 
 used (Luke vi. 7) for a great company of 
 ppople, and St. Mark (xv. 16) for a band of 
 soldiers ; hence comes its more general 
 meaning of any kind of union or assemblage. 
 In the earliest days of the Middle Ages, all 
 foreign merchants stood outside the law of 
 the country in 'which they were settled for 
 trading purposes ; being neither sharers in 
 the rights, nor subject to the duties of the 
 nation in whose midst they had planted 
 themselves. The Hanseatic League of his- 
 torical times was only a development of the 
 principle of association which bound foreign 
 traders in a strange country into a community 
 for the common protection. In the first 
 stage of its growth (as a league of merchants 
 abroad), the Sansa may be said to have grown 
 up chiefly in London ; for none of the three 
 other great centres of Teutonic foreign 
 trade — Wisby, Novgorod, and Bruges — 
 were of so early a date, or at the same time 
 composed so purely of foreign merchants in 
 an alien country. Even in the days of Edgar 
 (959 — 975) there appears to have been a large 
 settlement of German traders in London ; 
 and this settlement was early possessed of its 
 own Guildhall or Sans-hus, and a body of 
 officers controlling the members and posses- 
 sions of the society. But it seems that 
 the foreign merchants in London were 
 mostly townsmen of Cologne ; and it soon 
 
 became the rule for aU other Germans 
 desirous of sharing in the English trade 
 to join the hansa of the men of this city. 
 By the end of the thirteenth century special 
 privileges had been conferred upon the Guild- 
 hall of the Germans in London; for this 
 society was gradually coming to embrace all 
 the German merchants settled there («. 1282), 
 and this "Hansa Alemanniae" included the 
 smaller Hansas of separate German towns as 
 branch houses of itself. Under the name of 
 the Steelyard, it soon came to play a most 
 important part in the foreign trade of this 
 country. The London Hansa acquired the 
 power of judging its own members, and even 
 of settling some disputes between them and 
 Englishmen. In 1282, in consideration of its 
 munificent contribution towards building the 
 new Bishops-gate, the Hansa was allowed to 
 choose its own alderman — ^to represent it in 
 the city councils, and to be the special pro- 
 tector of its members ; but it was, at the same 
 time, bound to make choice of a London 
 merchant. London, however, was not the 
 sole seat of this foreign colony, which had 
 subordinate estabhshments at other places, 
 such as Lynn and Boston. The special privi- 
 leges accorded to these stranger tradesmen 
 did not fail to awaken English jealousy in the 
 course of the fourteenth century — the century 
 on which the real Hanseatic League of his- 
 tory may be said to have assumed its true 
 importance by becoming a league of German 
 cities at home ; and from this time its politi- 
 cal history ceases to be in any peculiar way 
 connected with England. But its commercial 
 im^jortance continued for a long period. 
 Down to the middle of the sixteenth century 
 it was mainly through the hands of the Han- 
 seatic League that the produce of North 
 Europe and Eussia reached our shores; and 
 it was this league that brought the furs and 
 sables of Muscovy lor the wealthy English, 
 and exported the herrings which abounded on 
 our eastern shores. But the monopoly of 
 trade enjoyed by this league in time awakened 
 the jealousy of the English merchants, and in 
 the reign of Richard II., an Act was passed 
 prohibiting aliens selling to other aliens, or 
 even seUing by retail at all (1392) ; and when 
 the charter of the London Hansa had been 
 renewed some fourteen years earlier, its 
 members were enjoined to " aid, council, and 
 comfort " Englishmen abroad. The exclusive 
 privileges of the league in England were 
 practically extinguished in 1579. 
 
 E. Worms, Sietoire Commercidle de la Ligue 
 Eanseatique ; D. Macpherson, Annals of English 
 Commerce ; J. T. Eogers, Histori/ of Agriculture, 
 vols. i. and iii. ; W. Cunningham, History of 
 English Industry and Commerce. [X A A 1 
 
 KauS-llllS, Tnii, was the name given to 
 the Guildhall where the merchants and 
 burghers, of early English towns, met to 
 treat of their by-laws and trade regulations. 
 So in Archbishop Thurstan's (1114) charter 
 
Ear 
 
 ( 534 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 to Beverley he writes : " I will that my biir- 
 gesses of Beverley shall have their Hans-lms; 
 •which I will, and grant to them in order that 
 their common business may he done . . for 
 the amendment of the whole town with the 
 same freedom that the men of York have in 
 their Hans-hus." Another use to which the 
 Hans-hus was put, was as a recognised centre 
 where purchases and sales might be conducted 
 in the presence of lawful witnesses. The 
 Hansa at London dates at least from the time 
 of Ethelred the Unready. 
 
 Harcourt, Simon, Lord [b. 1660, d. 1727), 
 was called to the bar in 1683. He was elected 
 member for Abingdon, in the first Parliament 
 of "William III. He was a strong opponent of 
 the Revolution Settlement ; and of the 
 attainder of Sir John Fenwick ; and in 1701 
 conducted the impeachment of Lord Somers 
 for his share in the Partition Treaty. Next 
 year he became Solicitor-General and Attor- 
 ney-General, and in this capacity conducted 
 the prosecution of Daniel Defoe (1703) ; but 
 his legal abilities were better employed in 
 framing the bill for the Scotch Union. He 
 followed Harley out of office in 1708; and 
 his able defence of Sacheverell, two years 
 later, resulted in the acquittal of that divine. 
 When the Tories came into power in 1710, he 
 •was appointed Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. 
 In the quarrel between Oxford and Boling- 
 broke, he sided with the latter statesman. On 
 the accession of George I., Lord Harcourt was 
 deprived of office, and was succeeded by Lord 
 Cowper. In 1715 he contrived to defeat the 
 impeachment of Oxford, by fomenting a 
 quarrel between the two Houses. [Haeley.] 
 In 1721 he beca,m6 a convert to Whig 
 principles, and was sworn of the Privy 
 Council, and supported the government. 
 
 Campbell, Jjives of the Chancellors; Wyou, 
 Reign of Queen Anne. 
 
 Harcourt, Sm William Vebnon (i. 
 1827), graduated in high honours at Cam- 
 bridge in 1851, and was called to the bar in 
 185i, being appointed a, Queen's Counsel in 
 1866. In 1868 he was returned to Parliament 
 as member for the city of Oxford in the 
 Liberal interest. He became Solicitor-Gene- 
 ral and was knighted in 1873. On the return 
 of the Liberals to power in 1880, he was 
 made Home Secretary, and as such he per- 
 formed the task of introducing in 1884 a 
 biU for the reform of the government of 
 London. 
 
 Hardicannte, or Harthacnut, King 
 [s. March, 1040, d. June, 1042), was the son of 
 Canute by Emma. On the death of his father 
 m 1035 he got possession of Denmark and laid 
 claim to England. He was supported by God- 
 wm and the West Saxons, and eventually 
 made a treaty with his brother Harold, 
 whereby he should reign in the south and 
 Harold in the north, but in 1037 Harold 
 was chosen king over all, and Hardioanute 
 
 forsaken because he stayed too long in Den- 
 mark. At the same -time Emma was driven 
 out and fled to Bruges. Here Hardicannte 
 joined her and was preparing to assert his 
 claims, when in 1040 Harold died. Upon 
 this Hardicannte was unanimously chosen 
 king, but soon proved himself as worthless as 
 his brother. " All his public acts set him 
 before us as a rapacious, brutal, and blood- 
 thirsty tyrant." His first acts were to levy 
 a heavy Danegeld, and order Harold's body to 
 be dug up, beheaded, and thrown into a 
 ditch. The Danegeld led to a revolt at Wor- 
 cester against the Housecarls, who were killed 
 in their attempt to collect the tax. This 
 rising was speedily crushed, Worcester was 
 burned, and the whole of the shire ravaged. 
 The only other event of importance in this 
 reign is Hardicanute's accusation of Godwin 
 as the murderer of the Atheling Alfred. The 
 trial which ensued resulted in the trium- 
 phant acquittal of Godwin, who, to make his 
 peace with the king, presented him with a 
 ship fully manned and equipped. Probably 
 with the idea of regaining popularity Har- 
 dicannte sent over to Normandy for his half- 
 brother Edward, who came and lived at his 
 court. In 1042, while at the marriage-feast 
 of his standard-bearer, Tovi the Proud, 
 Hardicanute suddenly fell down dead as he 
 stood at drink. 
 
 Anglo-Savon Chronicle; Florence of Worcester ; 
 Henry of Huntingdon ; Freeman, Norman Con- 
 quest^ vol. i. 
 
 Hardiuge, Henky, 1st Lord (}.. 1785, 
 d. 1856), entered the army at a very early 
 age, and was present at most of the great 
 battles of the Peninsular War. He distin- 
 guished himself greatly at the battle of 
 Albuera, and later, during the Hundred Days, 
 he was entrusted with the important office of 
 Commissioner at the Prussian head-quarters. 
 In this capacity he was with Blucher at the 
 battle of Ligny, but the loss of his left hand, 
 which was taken off by a shot, prevented his 
 presence at Waterloo. During the years of 
 peace that followed, he entered Parliament 
 and held office under the Duke of Wellington 
 and Sir Robert Peel, till the latter minister 
 appointed him Governor-General of India in 
 1 844. His first year of office was marked by 
 the Scinde mutiny. In 1845 the disturbances 
 across the Sutlej, which had followed the 
 death of Eunjeet Singh, grew more and 
 more dangerous to the British dominions. 
 The intrigues of Lai Singh and Fej 
 Smgh to obtain the supreme power at last 
 ended in their crossing the Sutlei and 
 invading the British territory. The first 
 Sikh War, marked by the brilliant battles 
 of Moodkee and Aliwal, and the crowning 
 victory of Sobraon, lasted till 1846; and 
 in that year Lord Hardin ge was able to 
 conclude the pacification of Lahore, by which 
 he hoped to establish the security of the 
 British north-west frontier. The infant 
 
Har 
 
 ( 535 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 Dhuleep Singli was left as nominal Maha- 
 rajah at Lahore under the regency of his 
 mother and Lai Singh ; and it was finaUy 
 decided that the British troops should remain 
 for eight years, and so ensure the tranquiUit)' 
 of the Sikhs till the young prince came of 
 age. Part of this plan included the transfer 
 of Cashmere to the rule of G-olah Singh. The 
 rest of the year was occupied in suppressing 
 insurrections in Cashmere and Scinde. In 
 1847 Hardinge, who, in 1846, had been 
 created Viscount Hardinge of Lahore, re- 
 turned to England. In 1852, on the death of 
 the Duke of Wellington, Lord Hardinge was 
 appointed Commander-in-chief, and in 1852 
 was advanced to the rank of field-marshal. 
 
 Hardwicke, Philip Torke, 1st Eakl 
 OF (J. 1690, d. 1764), the son of an attorney 
 at Dover, was called to the har in 1715. His 
 political rise was due to Newcastle and 
 Stanhope. He first sat for Lewes in 1718, 
 and was made Solicitor-General in 1720. 
 From that date he became, in succession, 
 Attorney-General (1723), Lord Chief Justice, 
 and Lord Hardwicke (1733), and Lord Chan- 
 cellor (1737). He supported Walpole through 
 his long administration; hut towards the 
 close of it he was constrained to disagree 
 with his chief's peace policy, and became an 
 advocate for war. On the fall of "Walpole 
 he continued to hold office under Wilmington, 
 and, subsequently, under the Pelhams. In 
 
 1753 Lord Hardwicke introduced a new 
 Marriage Act, and, in the course of the de- 
 bates on this measure, had a violent quarrel 
 with Henry Fox, who disapproved of it. In 
 
 1 754 he was raised to an earldom. He went 
 out of office with the Duke of Newcastle, of 
 whose administration he had been the chief 
 supporter. In 1758 he persuaded the Lords 
 to throw out a bill for the extension of 
 Habeas Corpus, and introduced a measure for 
 aboHshing hereditary jurisdictions in Scot- 
 land. His last great speech was directed 
 against the Treaty of Paris, by which the 
 Seven Years' War was closed. Next year 
 (1764) Lord Hardwicke died, leaving behind 
 him the reputation of being one of the 
 greatest Chancellors that have sat on the 
 Woolsack since the Eevolution. 
 
 Campbell, Lives of fhe Lord, Chanrellors ; 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. ; Leoky, Hist, of Eng. 
 dflirmg the Eighteenth Centwy. 
 
 Hardy, Sm Thomas Mastekman (b. 1769, 
 d. 1839), Nelson's favourite captain, was bom 
 at Dorchester. He entered the navy at the 
 age of twelve, and was present at the battles 
 of St. Vincent (1797) and the Nile (1798). 
 For his bravery in this last action. Nelson 
 gave him the Vanguard. In 1803 he became 
 Nelson's flag-captain, and it was on board 
 his ship, the Victory, that Lord Nelson received 
 his fatal wound at the battle of Trafalgar. 
 In later years Hardy commanded the South 
 
 American squadron, and later still was ap- 
 pointed a Lord of the Admiralty and Governor 
 of Greenwich Hospital (1834). 
 
 Hardy, Sir Thomas Dufeus (J. 1804, d. 
 1878), succeeded Sir Francis Palgrave as 
 Deputy-Keeper of the Public Records in 
 1861. He was one of the most indefatigable 
 students of early English history. His most 
 important work is a Descriptive Catalogue of 
 Materials relating to the History of Britain 
 and Ireland to the reign of Henry VII. (4 vols., 
 Rolls Series). This work has been left in- 
 complete, and does not extend beyond the 
 year 1325. It contains an account of all the 
 original authorities on English history ar- 
 ranged in chronological order, and not only 
 estimates the amount of authority to be 
 assigned to each writer, but also gives a list 
 of MSS. and printed editions supplemented 
 by an account of the author's life and sources 
 of information. Sir Thomas Hardy likewise 
 published a Syllabus to Eytner's Fcedera (2 
 vols.), which is rendered specially valuable 
 by its chronological tables giving the legal, 
 civil, and ecclesiastical years in parallel 
 columns with the regnal years of each Eng- 
 lish sovereign, with the day of the month on 
 which each begins. 
 
 Hardyng, John (i. 1378, d. 1465), was 
 brought up as a dependent of the Percies 
 from the age of twelve. He was present at 
 the battle of Shrewsbury, and was afterwards 
 a faithful servant of Edward, Duke of York, 
 afterwards Edward IV. He composed a 
 Chronicle extending from the earliest times to 
 Henry VI.'s flight into Scotland. He was at 
 great pains to get original documents from 
 Scotland, which he gave to the last three kings 
 in whose reigns he lived. His Chronicle, 
 which was edited by Sir H. Ellis in 1812, is 
 not of much value, being chiefly composed of 
 facts collected from earlier writers, and loosely 
 thrown into rhyme. For the years of his 
 own life he may be regarded as an original 
 authority. Hardjmg's Chronicle was continued 
 in prose in the next century by Richard 
 Grafton. 
 
 Harflenr, a town of France, lying some 
 six miles from Havre, was taken by Henry V. 
 Sept. 22, 1415. It was besieged by the Count 
 d'Armagnac and relieved by the Duke of 
 Bedford the following year. The English 
 were expelled in 1433, but once more obtained 
 possession of the city in 1440, and held it till 
 1449, when they were driven out by Dunois. 
 
 Harlaw, The Battle of (July 24, 1411), 
 was fought between the invading Islesmen, 
 under Donald of the Isles, and the Lowland 
 troops, under the Earl of Mar. Donald was 
 completely defeated. 
 
 Karley, Robert, Earl of Oxford [b. 
 1661, d. 1724), was the eldest son of Sir 
 Edward Harley, a Puritan who had sat in 
 the Long Parliament, and who declared for 
 
Har 
 
 ( 536 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 "William III. at the EeTolution. Eotert 
 Harley began his political career as the Whig 
 member for a Cornish borough ; but he 
 gradually changed his politics, and adopted 
 Toryism. In 1690 he was appointed one of 
 the arbitrators for uniting the two Bast India 
 Companies ; and in 1696 he, as leader of the 
 Tories, proposed the Land Bank scheme 
 as a rival to the Bank of England. Next 
 year he moved that the army should be 
 reduced to what it had been in the year 1680, 
 and, when the measure was carried, WiUiam 
 was forced to dismiss his Dutch guards. In 
 1701 he was chosen Speaker of the Commons. 
 In 1704 Marlborough, who had broken with 
 the extreme High Tories, selected him to suc- 
 ceed Nottingham. as Secretary of State, and 
 in 1706 he was appointed one of the com- 
 missioners for the Treaty of Union with 
 Scotland. Finding that the Tories were 
 being gradually ousted from the ministry, he 
 used the influence of his cousin, Mrs. Masham, 
 for the purpose of intriguing against Marl- 
 borough. He represented to Arme that Church 
 interests were in danger, and the queen was 
 encouraged to create Dr. Blackall and Sir 
 "William Dawes Bishops of Exeter and Chester 
 respectively, without consulting her ministers 
 (1707). Marlborough and Godolphin at once 
 determined to break with Harley. It was dis- 
 covered that one Gregg, a clerk in his office, 
 was in correspondence with France, and this 
 was made a ground for his dismissal. Though 
 the queen was difficult to move, she yielded at 
 last, and Harley resigned his office in 1708. 
 On the sudden fall of the "Whigs, Harley be- 
 came Chancellor of the Exchequer, and virtu- 
 ally Prime Minister (1710), with BoHngbroke 
 for his colleague and rival. Harley at once 
 began to negotiate a peace with France, while 
 at the same time he intrigued with the Jacobite 
 court at St. Germains. Guiscard (q.v.), a 
 French refugee, who had frequently been con- 
 sulted by Marlborough, now ofEered to betray 
 the English plans to the French, and on the 
 detection of his correspondence, he stabbed 
 Harley with a penknife while under examina- 
 tion "before the Council. This wound, and 
 the South Sea Company started by Harley 
 at this time, made him very popular, and the 
 queen created him Earl of Oxford and Lord 
 Treasurer. Meanwhile the negotiations for 
 peace were being carried on. Marlborough 
 ■was dismissed from office, and the hostile 
 majority in the Lords was neutralised by the 
 creation of twelve peers. In March, 1713, 
 the Peace of Utrecht was signed. But dissen- 
 sions broke out in the ministry. BoUngbroke 
 wished for a Stuart restoration ; Oxford was 
 averse to such an extreme measure. Boling- 
 broke, in order to get rid of the Lord Treasurer, 
 introduced the Schism Act, a measure con- 
 ceived entirely in the High Church spirit. 
 Afraid to offend the Dissenters, Oxford acted 
 with great indecision, and was in consequence 
 dismissed (July, 1714). After the aooesuion 
 
 of George I., Oxford was impeached by the 
 Commons ; but the proceedings against him 
 were dropped, as it would have been impos- 
 sible to substantiate the charges of treason. 
 Enraged at the treatment he had met with, 
 Harley wrote from the Tower, offering his 
 services to the Pretender ; but on his release he 
 retired into the country. In 1721 the leader- 
 ship in Bi'ahop Atterbury's plot was offered 
 him, but he declined it. " Oxford seems," says 
 Lord Stanhope, " to have possessed in perfec- 
 tion a low sort of management, and all the 
 base arts of party, which enabled him to 
 cajole and keep together his followers, and to 
 sow divisions amongst his enemies." He was 
 also a great lover of literature, and a friend of 
 the leading men of letters of his day — of 
 Swift and Pope among the number. His 
 splendid collection of MSS. still forms one of 
 the chief treasures of the British Museum. 
 
 Stanhope, Reign of Queen Anne; Swift, Last 
 Four T^ars of Queen Anne's Reign ; Boliugbroke, 
 Letters; Pope, Correspondence; Beyer, Annals; 
 Torcy, Memmres, [S. J. L.] 
 
 Harold I., Kma {s. Nov., 1035, d. 
 March 17, 1040), was reported to be the son 
 of Canute, by Elgiva (.^Ifgifu) of North- 
 ampton ; but the supporters of the claims 
 of Hardicanute (Harthacnut) contended that 
 his parentage was, in the highest degree, 
 doubtful. Alter Canute's death the rival 
 claims of Harold and Hardicanute were eagerly 
 debated, the former being supported by 
 Leofric, the Danish party, and the city of 
 London ; the latter by Godwin and the 
 "West Saxons, as well as by his mother Emma. 
 The result was that Harold obtained the 
 country to the north of the Thames, and 
 Hardicanute got "Wessex, which, during his 
 absence in Denmark, was administered by 
 Godwin and Emma. In 1036 the two sons 
 of Ethelred made an attempt to recover their 
 father's kingdom, but failed ; whereupon the 
 younger, Alfred, was taken and put to death 
 by Harold. In 1037 the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
 tells us " they chose Harold over all the kings, 
 and forsook Harthacnut, because he was loo 
 long in Denmark." Thus, in Mr. Freeman's 
 words, " England again became one kingdom 
 under one king, an union which, since that 
 day, has never been broken." Harold at 
 once banished Emma, who retired to Flanders, 
 but reconciled himself with Godwin and the 
 English party. His reign is not remarkable 
 for anything, and of his administration abso- 
 lutely nothing is known." Great corrup- 
 tion, however, appears to have prevailed 
 in the Church under his government. "We 
 read of bishoprics being held in plurality, 
 and being sold for money, as well as of 
 many other abuses. In 1039 Hardicanute, 
 who had joined his mother at Bruges, pre- 
 pared an expedition against his brother, but 
 before it set sail Harold had died at Oxford, 
 March 17, 1040. We do not bear of his 
 having had wife or children. He was buried 
 
Har 
 
 ■f 537 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 at Westminster, tut, ty Hardicanute's orders, 
 his body was dug up and thrown into a ditch. 
 Of Harold's character nothing is known. 
 His chief accomplishment would appear to 
 have been swiftness in running, for which he 
 received the sobriquet of " Harefoot." 
 Freeman, Norman Conquest, i. 
 
 Harold II., Kino (J. circa 1021, s. Jan. 
 6, 1066; d. Oct. 13, 1066), was the second 
 son of Earl Godwin and Gtytha. "When 
 stUl young, he shared in the splendid for- 
 tunes of his father, and about 1045 was 
 made Earl of the East Angles. Of the 
 early part of his 'official career no record 
 remains; his public prominence began with 
 the misfortunes of his house. In the struggle 
 of 1051 he led the men of his earldom to 
 Beverstone to his father's support, fell from 
 power, and was outlawed with him ; but he 
 and Leofwine, taking a different road from 
 their feUow outlaws, went to Dublin, where 
 they passed the winter. Appearing next year 
 in the Bristol Channel with nine ships, Harold 
 landed at Porlook, slew thirty opposing thanes 
 and many people, ravaged and robbed without 
 stint, and then sailed away to join his father 
 at Portland. In the restoration of the Godwin 
 family that ensued, Harold was reinstated in 
 his former earldom (1052). His successful 
 activity on this occasion, and the death of his 
 elder brother, Sweyn, marked him. for special 
 distinction ; and in 1053, when his father died, 
 he at once succeeded him as Earl of the West 
 Saxons. 
 
 Henceforward Harold was the foremost 
 figure and weightiest influence in English 
 politics. Till he became Mng, almost every 
 important event and action of his own added 
 strength to his position, or increased his repu- 
 tation. On the death of Siward, in 1055, his 
 brother Tostig became Earl of the Northum- 
 brians. In the same year he rescued Hereford 
 and the country round it from the marauding 
 Welsh, under King Griffith and the refugee 
 Earl Alfgar, chased the invaders back to 
 Wales, and fortified Hereford. Two years 
 later, Herefordshire was placed under his im- 
 mediate rule ; and in a short time his brother 
 Gurth was raised to the East Anglian earl- 
 dom, while the shires of the south-east were 
 grouped into another for Leofwine. In 1058 
 Harold was the head of a house whose mem- 
 bers divided among them the rule of three- 
 fourths of England. The pious King Edward 
 had practically placed the power of the crown 
 at Harold's disposal. This power and his own 
 he used to check the spread of Norman in- 
 fluence, and the encroachments of the king's 
 Korman favourites. Nature and fortune now 
 clearly pointed to him as the heir of the 
 almost heirless king. Tall and stalwart, 
 comely and gentle, he drew men's eyes and 
 hearts towards him. He had, moreover, en- 
 larged his mind, and added to his capacity by 
 foreign travel, especially by a journey to 
 
 Home. Yet his position was seriously oom^ 
 promised by an unlucky adventure. Having 
 once been shipwrecked on the coast of Pon- 
 thieu, he was, after a short captivity, given 
 up by Count Guy to William of Normandy, 
 from whose compulsory hospitality he had to 
 purchase his release by taking an oath to 
 support his host's claim to the English throne. 
 No trace, however, of a belief that this oath 
 was binding can be seen in his subsequent 
 conduct. In 1060 he founded the religious 
 house known later as Waltham Abbey. In 
 1063 he was provoked by the raids of King 
 Griffith into a systematic invasion of Wales, 
 in which he overran the country " from dyke 
 to sea," routing the Welsh in every encounter, 
 and slaughtering them without mercy. Grif- 
 fith's head was brought to him, whereupon he 
 married his widow, Aldgyth, daughter of Earl 
 AUgar, and sister to the young Mercian earl, 
 Edwin. In 1 065, when the Northumbrians rose 
 against Tostig, a sense of justice or policy made 
 Harold take their part, and gain the king's 
 sanction to the transfer of their earldom to 
 another brother-in-law,. Morcar. 
 
 The day after the king's death (Jan. 6, 
 1066), he "took," as the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle words it, " to the kingdom," being 
 crowned king by virtue of some form of 
 election and the bequest of King Edward. 
 During "the forty weeks and one day" of 
 his reign, his vigilance was never once 
 allowed to sleep. His outlawed brother, 
 and the rival candidate he had forestalled, 
 were plaiming and preparing his destruc- 
 tion ; and the former,, repulsed in one or two 
 attempts on the coast, had alUed himself 
 with Harold Hardrada,, King of Norway. 
 In September he and his ally made their in- 
 vasion ; and Harold had just time to march to 
 York, meet and destroy them at Stamford 
 Bridge, before his more terrible foe, William 
 the Norman, came with a mighty power to 
 challenge his crown. On October 13 the 
 rivals measured their strength at Senlac in 
 Sussex [Hastings, Battle of] ; and the 
 Englishman, after an unsurpassed display of 
 stubborn valour, was overthrown and slain at 
 six in the evening. His body, mangled by 
 Norman ferocity, was singled out from the 
 enclosing heap of corpses by a former mis- 
 tress, Edith Swanneck, and buried either on 
 the sea-shore or the minster at Waltham. 
 
 Anglo-Saavn Clironicle ; Freeman, Norman Con- 
 guest, vols. ii. and iii. rj_ ]j I 
 
 Harold Hardrada {d. 1066), King of 
 Norway, was the son of Sigurd and the brother 
 of St. Oiaf. In his early j'ears he had served 
 in the Emperor's guard at Constantinople, and 
 made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He came 
 home and reigned with his nephew, Magnus 
 the Good, becoming sole king after Magnus's 
 death. He had long planned the conquest of 
 England, and was in the Orkneys with a 
 great fleet when Tostig was beaten from the 
 
Har 
 
 ( 538 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 east coast. On his way to the Humber 
 Tostig joined his expedition, and they sailed 
 up the Humher together, and marched on 
 York. Victorious at first at Fulford, they 
 gained possession of York.; but Harold, proved 
 too strong for them, and the Norwegian force 
 was defeated, and the two leaders slain, at 
 Stamford Bridge (Sept. 25, L066). 
 
 Anglo-Siu:on Chronicle.; rreeman, Jfoi-mon 
 Conquest, ii., iii. 
 
 Harrington, James (S. 1611, d. 1677), 
 after studying at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 travelled abroad and entered the service of 
 Elizabeth, <iueen of Bohemia. He subse- 
 quently returned to England and entered the 
 household of Charles I. He was, however, a 
 republican, and in 1656 wrote and dedicated 
 to Cromwell a political romance caUed Oceana, 
 intended to promote republican principles. 
 "With the same view, Harrington formed an 
 association called the "Eota Club." In 1661 
 he was imprisoned in the Tower, but released 
 on the plea .of insanity. 
 
 Harrington's Worke (ed. Btrcbi), 1537. 
 
 Harrington, William Stanhope, 1st 
 Eakl 01? [d. 1756), was sent as ambassador 
 to Spain (1717), and two years later went 
 on a mission to the French army. He was 
 plenipotentiary at the Congress of Soissons 
 (1728). In 1730 he was again despatched to 
 Spain, where he concluded the Treaty of 
 Seville. He was immediately created Lord 
 Harrington, and shortly afterwards became 
 Secretary of State. He consistently sup- 
 ported "Walpole for many years, but in 
 1738 we find him in opposition to that 
 minister, warmly advocating war with Spain. 
 In 1742 he was created an earl, and Lord 
 President of the Council, but on the resigna- 
 tion of Lord Granville he again became 
 Secretary' of 'State. In 1746 he resigned, 
 because the Pelhams wished for the admission 
 of Pitt to oflioe, and was transfeiTed to the 
 lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, which appoint- 
 ment he resigned in 1751. 
 
 Tindal, Hist. ; Cose, Hist, of Eng., ; Stanhope, 
 JETist. of Eng. 
 
 Harrison, Thomas (5. 1606, d. 1660), was 
 a, native of Newcastle-under-Lyme. At the 
 opening of the Civil "War he entered Essex's 
 body-guard. He was in command of the 
 guard that conveyed the king from Hurst 
 Castle to London ; he was also one of the 
 king's judges, and signed his death-warrant. 
 Harrison was commanding on the northern 
 border when the Scots entered England 
 under Charles II. He obstructed their march 
 with great ability, and took part in the 
 battle of "Worcester. Already he had been 
 elected a member of the Council of State 
 (1650), but becoming " fully persuaded that 
 the Parliament had not a heart to do any 
 more good for the Lord and His people," he 
 assisted Cromwell in expelling both Council 
 and Parliament. In the " Barebones " Parlia- 
 
 ment Harrison was one of the leaders of the 
 advanced party, and an opponent of the dis- 
 solution. Roger "Williams describes him as 
 the head of " the fifty-six party," who " were 
 of the vote against priests and tithes," " the 
 second in the nation of late," " a very gal- 
 lant, most deserving, heavenly man, but 
 most high-flown for the kingdom of the saints 
 and the Fifth Monarchy." Cromwell, after 
 vainly trying to conciliate him, deprived him 
 of his commission and relegated him to Staf- 
 fordshire. Harrison took part in Overton's 
 plot (1654), and was suspected of taking part 
 in "Venner's (1657), and other plots, for 
 which li£ was several times imprisoned. At 
 the Restoration he refused ta fly, and was 
 condemned to death after a very gallant 
 defence, in which he justified the king's 
 execution. He was executed on October 13, 
 1660, saying, " If I had ten thousand lives, I 
 could freely and cheerfully lay them all down 
 to witness to this matter." 
 
 Harrowby, Dudley Rydbh, JstEael of 
 (5. 1762, d. 1847), entered public life as member 
 for Tiverton. He was a strong supporter of 
 Mr. Pitt, under -whom he held many ofSces in 
 succession, till he succeeded to the peerage in 
 1803. The following year he was appointed 
 Foreign Secretary, and in 1805 was des- 
 patched to Berlin 'with -a view to forming an 
 offensive alliance with Prussia. The battle 
 of Austerlitz, however, put an end to all 
 hopes of uniting Europe against Napoleon, 
 and Lord Harrowby returned home. Three 
 years later he became President of the Board 
 of Control, and was created an eaxl. In 1812 
 he became President of the Council, an office 
 which he continued to hold for sixteen years. 
 In the days of ^the first Reform Bill he was 
 requested to form a cabinet, -but declined to 
 undertake so responsible a duty, and it con- 
 sequently devolved on the Duke of "Welling- 
 ton. On the question of Reform he became 
 leader of that section of the peers known by 
 the title of " the 'Waverers,''' who, though 
 disapproving of the new measures, felt that 
 obstina:te resistance to so popular a movement 
 would entail disaster. From this time he 
 took little 'part in politics. 
 
 Stanhope, Life of Fitt ; Liverpool, Memoirs ; 
 Caetlereagh, Memoirs. 
 
 Harting^on, Spencek Compton Caven- 
 dish, Mauquis of (5. 1833), the eldest 
 sou of the Duke of Devonshire, was re- 
 turned to the House of Commons as one of 
 the members for North Lancashire in the 
 Liberal interest in 1857. In the year 1863 he 
 was appointed a Lord of the Admiralty, and 
 in April of the same year Under Secretary 
 for War. On the reconstruction of Lord 
 Russell's second administration in 1866 the 
 Marquis of Hartiugton took office as Secre- 
 tary for War. In 1868 he was returned for 
 the Radnor Boroughs, and accepted the ofBee 
 of Postmaster-General in Mr. Gladstone's 
 
Har 
 
 ( 589 ) 
 
 Has 
 
 cabinet. In the year 1871 he succeeded Mr. 
 Chichester Tortescue as Chief Secretary for 
 Ireland. When Mr. Gladstone in 1875 an- 
 nounced his intention of abandoning the 
 leadership of the Liberal piirty, a meeting 
 was held to decide who should succeed him in 
 the House of Commons. On the motion of 
 Mr. A''iUiera it was unanimously decided that 
 the Marquis of Hartiugton should be asked to 
 assume the post. On the return of the 
 Liberals to office in 1880 Lord Hartington 
 accepted ofSce under Mr. Gladstone. He be- 
 came Secretary for India, and subsequently 
 (1882) Secretary of State for War. 
 
 Harvey, Bagenal {d. 1798), of fiurgay 
 Castle, a gentleman of property in county 
 Wexford, was arrested as a rebel in May, 
 1798, aad confined, together with Colclough 
 and Fitzgerald, in the city gaol. Being -sent 
 out to treat with the rebels, after the city 
 had been evacuated by the troops, he was in- 
 duced to become their leader; but showed 
 such disgust at the massacre of Scullabrogue 
 that he was -deposed irom his command. 
 When thetroops retook the town he concealed 
 himself, together with Colclough, in one of 
 the Saltee Islands, but they were both taken, 
 sentenced to death, and hanged (June 27,1798). 
 
 J. A. YTQudje, English in Ireland; Barriagton, 
 Menwirs. 
 
 Hasteubeck, The Battle op (July 26, 
 1757), was one of the engagements oi the 
 Seven Y-ears' War. The Duke of Camber- 
 land, with a motley army of about 50,000 
 men, of whom none were English .excepting a 
 few oflSoers, attempted lo defend Hanover 
 against 80,000 French under Marshal 
 d'Estrees. He allowed the enemy to pass 
 the Weser unopposed and lay waste the 
 Electorate. The engagement took place at a 
 village near Hameln, and the duke was de- 
 feated with the loss -of several hundred men. 
 He retired on Slade, near the mouth of the 
 Elbe, and soon afterwards was compelled to 
 to sign the Convention of Closter-Seven. 
 [Clobter- Seven ; Cumberland.] 
 
 Hastings, The Battle rop (Got. 14, 
 1066), is the name usually given to the 
 great combat which took place at Senlac, 
 near Hastings, 'between the invading Nor- 
 mans, under William the Conqueror, and the 
 English, imder Harold. Gu the news sf 
 William's landing in Sussex, Harold held a 
 hurried council at Stamford Bridge, and, 
 after ordering a general muster in London, 
 pressed southwards himself at the head of his 
 Housecarls. At London, men flocked in 
 from all southern England ; but Mercia and 
 Northumbria, the provinces of Edwin and 
 Morcar, held aloof. Rejecting the advice 
 which his brother Gurth is said to have 
 given him, to stay behind and gather troops 
 for a second battle if the first should issue in 
 defeat, Harold set forth from the city, and 
 pitched his camp on the lull of Senlac (Get. 
 
 13). This hill he proceeded to fortify with a 
 palisade and a ditch. After a night of con- 
 fession and prayer, the Norman army ad- 
 vanced over the higher ground of Telham to 
 the vaUey which ran along the foot of 
 Harold's fortified hiU. The Norman army 
 was divided into three parts, of which the 
 left wing, consistiug of Bretons, Poitevins, 
 &c., were under the direction of Alan of 
 Britanny ; the right wing, consisting of the 
 mercenary troops, under .Roger Montgomery 
 and William JFitz-'Osbem ; while in the 
 centre, grouped round the Holy Banner of 
 the Pope, came the JSTorman .men-at-ai-ms and 
 archers, led by the duke himself, mounted on 
 his Spanish horse. Each "of these divisions 
 was again subdivided into three groups of 
 archers, infantry, and horsemen respectively, 
 in which order they were to advance to the 
 fight. On the EngliEdi, side,every .man fought 
 behind the baaricades of ash, on foot. On the 
 right and left were posted the light-armed 
 recruits from the southern shires, armed with 
 club and javelin, or even with forks and 
 stakes; in the centre stood the English 
 Housecarls, in their helmets and coats of 
 mail, with shield and jav«lin and Danish 
 axe. The ba'ttle commenced, at nine o'clock 
 in the morning, with a shower of arrows from 
 the advanced archersof each Norman division ; 
 then the ieavy-araned foot came «u to attack 
 the palisade at the bottom of the hOl ; but they 
 could make no impression uipon the closely- 
 wedged ranks of the English defenders. The 
 Bretons, on the left wing, seeing all efi'orts 
 useless, took to flight, and part of the English 
 troops, against Harold's express orders, broke 
 from their ranks in pursuit. A rumour was 
 passed along that William had been slain, and 
 he had to tear his helmet from his head to 
 show them that ie was yet living, while, spear 
 in hand, he drove the fugitives back to the 
 •fight. The Bretons then took heart again, 
 and overpowered their disorganised pursuers. 
 Despite a partial success here and on the 
 right wing, the English lines still remained 
 unbroken, and the enemy had to retire once 
 more. William, however, had noticed that, 
 firmly as -the English fought in close rank 
 behind their fortiScation, they had fallen an 
 easy prey to the Breton auxiliaries when 
 separated in the ardour of pursuit. He 
 accordingly ordered part of his army to 
 counterfeit a fligjit; and once more the 
 English sw«pt down from the hill, only to 
 meet with a similar fate, though a few of 
 them managed to make good their position on 
 an out-lying elevation. The Norman centre 
 made its way, unopposed, up the slope to its 
 left, which was now unprotected by its proper 
 defenders, and when once on the hill summit 
 had no barricade to bar its progress. But 
 stiU the English held out, though with some- 
 what diminished vigour, till William had 
 recourse to a fresh stratagem. His archers 
 were bidden to shoot up into the air, to that 
 
Has 
 
 ( 540 ) 
 
 Has 
 
 their arrows might come down from above. 
 This had the desired effect. The shields 
 which were required for the protection of the 
 head could no longer shelter the body too ; 
 and, to crown all, Harold himself was pierced 
 in the eye by an aiTOW. Night was now 
 coming on, and though the Housecarls fought 
 on till the last man was slain, the light-armed 
 troops, having lost their king, fled away in 
 the darkness, pursued by the Norman horse ; 
 and the battle was lost. 
 
 Freeman, No^-rman Conquest, vol. iii. The 
 leading original authorities for the battle of 
 Hastings are, the Gesta Guilielmi of William of 
 Poitiers ; tlie Carmen De Bella iTastinqensi, by 
 Guy, Bishop of Amiens ; and Wace, RoTtum de 
 Bou. These sources of information are very 
 largely supplemented by tlie invaluable pictorial 
 account known as tlie Bayeux Tapestry (q. v.). 
 [T. A. A.] 
 
 Hastings, Warren {b. 1732, d. 1818), 
 the son of a "Worcestershire gentleman, in 
 1750 went to Bengal as a writer in the 
 service of the East India Company. Here he 
 attracted the attention of Clive, and after 
 Plassey, was appointed agent to the Nabob of 
 Moorshedabad for the East India Company. 
 In 1769 he became member of the council at 
 Madras, and in 1772 was appointed Governor 
 of Bengal. In this capacity he devoted him- 
 self to retrenchment and reform. Half the 
 nabob's allowance was cut off ; Corah and 
 Allahabad, the old cessions to the Mogul, 
 were resumed on pretence of a quarrel, and 
 sold to the Vizier of Oude for fifty lacs of 
 rupees ; the land tax was settled on a new 
 basis which produced more revenue with less 
 oppression ; and lastly, in his need for money, 
 British troops were let to the Vizier of Oude 
 for forty lacs of rupees, in order that that 
 prince might be able to destroy his enemies, 
 the neighbouring tribe of RohiUas, and annex 
 the province of Eohilcund, In 1773 Lord 
 North's Eegulating Act took effect, and Has- 
 tings became the first Govemor-Gteneral of 
 India with powers greatly limited by those of 
 his council, three members of which, headed 
 by Philip Francis, came out full of prejudice 
 against Hastings, who therefore found him- 
 self powerless, and in a perpetual minority. 
 Nuncomar, a Brahmin, brought a charge of 
 peculation against him. The rancorous 
 eagerness with which the council took the 
 matter up drove Hastings to desperate 
 measures. Invoking the separate powers 
 confided in the Supreme Court by the 
 Regulating Act, he obtained the arrest of 
 Nuncomar on a charge of forgery. Sir Elijah 
 Impey, the Lord Chief Justice, proceeded 
 thereupon to try, condemn, and hang Nun- 
 comar. This bold stroke resulted in the 
 complete triumph of Hastings over his 
 e7iemies — rendered still more secure by the 
 d-eath of one of the triumvirate in the council, 
 which enabled him to obtain a perpetual 
 majority by means of his casting vote. Once 
 secure in his power he turned his attention to 
 
 the aggrandisement of the English power in 
 India. Discovering that, owing to the 
 quarrels between the other presidencies and 
 the Mahrattas, war was inevitable, and 
 that the latter were intriguing with the 
 French, he determined to take the initiative, 
 and crush the half-formed confederacy. The 
 Bombay government embraced the cause of 
 Eagooaut Rao Eagoba, a deposed Peishwa, 
 and plunged into a war with the Mahratta 
 regency, in which they were extremely un- 
 successful owing to bad generalship. Has- 
 tings sent Colonel Goddard with the Bengal 
 army to accomplish a dangerous march across 
 India, and in 1779 Goddard overran Guzerat, 
 captured Ahmedabad, and finding Scindiah 
 disposed to delay and evasion, attacked and 
 routed him April 14, 1780. Hastings, more- 
 over, despatched another Bengal army to 
 Malwa under Major Popham, who com- 
 pleted the defeat of Scindiah by capturing 
 his almost impregnable fortress of Gwalior. 
 Scindiah concluded a treaty with the Eng- 
 lish ; and by his mediation peace was made 
 between England and the Poonah govern- 
 ment. In July, 1780, Hyder Ali overran the 
 Carnatic and threatened Madras. Hastings 
 immediately suspended WhiteweU, the Go- 
 vernor of Madras ; despatched aU available 
 troops to the Carnatic, gave the command 
 to Sir Eyre Coote, and sent large sums 
 of money. The victories of Coote in 1781 
 restored tho English position. On the 
 news of Hyder's advance in 1780, Hastings 
 demanded troops, and £50,000 from Cheyte 
 Sing, Rajah of Benares, n, tributary of 
 the English. On his delaying, it was raised 
 to £500,000. This being unpaid Hastings 
 arrested Cheyte Sing, deposed him, and seized 
 all his property. But the Governor-General, 
 being still in want of money, persuaded Asaf 
 ud Dowlah, Vizier of Oude, to assist in 
 robbing his mother and grandmother, the 
 Begums of Oude. Hastings's internal ad- 
 ministration was most successful. He dis- 
 solved the double government, and transferred 
 the direction of affairs to the EngKsh. He 
 created the public offices and service of 
 Bengal. He organised the revenue for the 
 first time on a definite basis. This, more- 
 over, he effected from mere chaos, without 
 any assistance, being on the contrary con- 
 stantly trammelled by orders from home, 
 and frequently borne down by a majority in 
 council. 
 
 Hastings remained at the head of affairs 
 till 1785. By the time of his return peace 
 was now restored to India ; there was 
 no opposition in the council ; there was no 
 European enemy in the Eastern seas. But 
 in the meanwhile the feeling against him on 
 account of some of his acts, and notably 
 those connected with Oude and the Rohilla 
 "War, had been growing very strong at home. 
 At the instance of some of the Whigs, at the 
 head of whom was Burke, he was impeached 
 
Has 
 
 (541) 
 
 Hat 
 
 ■fay the Houseof Commons. The trial began Feb. 
 13, 1788, witb Bm-ke, Fox, and Sheridan as the 
 principal managers for the Commons. The 
 trial dragged for eight years, and in the end 
 Hastings was acquitted (April 23, 1795). The 
 rest of his life was passed peacefullyinEngland. 
 There is no doubt that Hastings was guilty 
 of some of the worst acts imputed to him ; 
 hut the surpassing greatness of the work he 
 accomplished, in placing the English Empire 
 in India upon » secure basis, may well have 
 been suffered to outweigh his ofEences. 
 
 State IVials; "Wilts, Mijsore : Grant Duff, 
 Mahrattasi Mill, Mist, of India; Mkcaulay, 
 Essoys. [B. S.] 
 
 Hastings, Fkancis EAwnorr, 1st Mar- 
 auis OF (J. 1754, d. 1826), was the son of Sir 
 John Eawdon, who was afterwards raised to 
 the Irish peerage by the title of Earl of 
 Moira. On leaving Oxford, he entered the 
 army as an ensign, and was before very long 
 engaged in the American Wax. For his 
 services on this occasion he was made an 
 EngUsh peer, in 1783. In 1793 he suc- 
 ceeded to his father's title, and in 1803 
 was appointed commander-in-chief in Scot- 
 land. About the same time, he seems to have 
 paid considerable attention to the condi- 
 tion of poor debtors, and the state of Ireland. 
 In 1813 he was appointed to succeed Lord 
 Minto as Governor-General of India, and com- 
 mander-in-chief there. His first measure of 
 importance was to declare war (1814) against 
 the Ghoorkas of Nepaul, who had been en- 
 croaching on the British territory towards 
 the north of Hindostan. After some ini- 
 tiatory reverses, the English arms were 
 victorious, the Ghoorka limits were de- 
 fined, and the war brought to an end (1816). 
 For this success, Lord Moira was made 
 Marquis of Hastings. The attention of the 
 Governor-General was next turned to the 
 Mahratta powers, who were supporting the 
 •raids of the robber Pindarees. "Within a 
 very short period, the Peishwa's dominions 
 were practically annexed, the Pindarees 
 destroyed, the Eajpoot States protected, 
 Scindiah forced to enter upon a new treaty, 
 and the Holkar State compelled to yield up 
 part of its territory, and become a subsidiary 
 state under the protection of the British 
 government (1817—18). Lord Hastings had 
 succeeded in establishing the English power 
 more firmly than ever, and in securing for 
 India a peace which bade fair to be lasting. 
 But it was not only as a great conductor of 
 military operations that Tiis name is worthy 
 of remembrance. He was the first Governor- 
 General who strongly advocated the education 
 of the natives, in direct contravention of the 
 popular notion that their ignorance contri- 
 buted to the security of the English rule. 
 Native schools and native journals were 
 established under his rule, and with his 
 approval, though the innovation was strongly 
 opposed by most men of his own generation. 
 
 In 1820, Lord Hastings turned his attention 
 to the Nizam's dominions, where, though the 
 extinction of the Peishwa had relieved the 
 country from its enormous arrears of tribute, 
 every office was put up to bribe, and ruin was 
 imminent. Mr. Charles Metcalfe now was 
 appointed. British Resident at the court of 
 Hyderabad; and he, discovering that the 
 Palmer Bank was a main source of corruption, 
 and was compromising the British govern- 
 ment, owing to Lord Hastings's connection 
 with one of the partners, took such drastic 
 measures as led to the speedy winding-up of 
 the concern. Shortly after this. Lord Hast- 
 ings resolved to resign his office. He accord- 
 ingly left India in 1823, and accepted the 
 government of Malta, where he introduced 
 many reforms. His death occurred in 1826. 
 Though Lord Hastings was constantly at 
 war with the Court of Directors, it must 
 be conceded that it was under his rule that 
 the British power became paramount in India. 
 His labours in India and elsewhere shattered 
 his health, and it is said that his fortune was 
 materially impaired by the expenses of his 
 office. 
 
 Mill, Hist, of British India; Talboys "Wheeler, 
 Hist, of India. 
 
 Hastings, William, LoKD (d. 1483), was 
 the son of Leonard Hastings, esquire of 
 Richard, Duke of York. He was a favourite 
 of Edward IV., from whom he received con- 
 siderable grants of land, besides holding the 
 offices of Master of the Mint, Captain of 
 Cakiis, and Lord Chamberlain. Though he 
 had supported Richard against the Woodvilles, 
 he was suddenly seized by the Protector's 
 orders while at the council-table, and hurried 
 ofE to execution on a charge of conspiracy 
 (June, 1483). The reason of this sudden 
 execution seems to have been due to the fact 
 that he was unwilling to second Richard's 
 nefarious schemes for obtaining the throne. 
 Hastings married Margaret Neville, sister of 
 the Earl of Warwick. 
 
 Hatfield, The Council or (Sept. 17, 
 680), was convened by Archbishop Theodore, 
 under the auspices of the leading Anglian 
 and Saxon kings in Britain. This council 
 devoted itself to declaring the orthodoxy of 
 the English Church as regards the Monothelite 
 heresy and its acceptance of the decrees of 
 the five first general councils and the canons 
 of the Lateran Council of 649. John the 
 Precentor, who had been sent over by Pope 
 Agatho to inquire into the faith of the 
 English Church, was present at this synod, 
 and brought with him Benedict Biscop 
 to instruct the English in the art of church- 
 building ; while John himself was commis- 
 sioned to give instructions in church-singing. 
 Haddan and Stubbs, Councils and EccUsiastical 
 DoGUments, vol. iii. 
 
 Hatlierley, William Page Wood, 1st 
 
Hat 
 
 ( 542 ) 
 
 Haw 
 
 Lord {b. 1801, d. 1881), the son of Sir 
 llattliew "Wood, was called to the bar at 
 Lincoln's Inn, 1827. He was elected for the 
 city of Oxford in 1847, in the Liberal interest, 
 and continued to represent that constituency 
 till 1852. In 1849 he was appointed Vice- 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, in 
 
 1851 he became Solicitor-General, and in 
 
 1852 Vice-Ohancellor; In 1868- he was ap- 
 pointed a judge of the Court of Appeal in 
 Chancery and sworn of the' Privy Council, 
 and in 1888 as Lord Chancellor: He re- 
 signed in 1872. 
 
 Hatton, Sir Christopher (}. 1539, d. 
 1591), is said to have first attracted the 
 notice of Queen Elizabeth by his graceful 
 dancing at a ball given by the Inns of Court. 
 He was appointed one of the queen's gentle- 
 men pensioners in 1564, and soon became one 
 of hei chief favourites. In 1577 he was 
 appointed Vice-Chamberlain and a member 
 of the Privy Council — the queen's partiality 
 for him causing " much envy and some 
 scandal " — whilst he also took a leading 
 position in the House of Commons. In 1575', 
 Hatton vehemently opposed the marriage of 
 the queen with the Duke of Anjou, and after- 
 wards took an active part in the proceedings 
 against the Q,ueen of Scots. He was a com- 
 missioner at the trials of Babington and the 
 other conspirators, and was engaged in the 
 examination of Curie and Nau, Mary Stuart's 
 secretaries. He subsequently incurred the 
 queen's anger for having urged on the 
 ■despatch of the execution warrant, but was 
 quickly restored to favour, and in April, 1587, 
 succeeded Sir Thomas Bromley as Lord 
 Chancellor, much to the surprise and anger 
 of the bar, many of whose members resolved 
 not to practise before him. Hatton, however, 
 filled his trying post with credit; delivered 
 his judgments with caution and never decided 
 difficult cases unadvised. In 1591, however, 
 he lost the queen's regard, and died, it is 
 said, of a broken heart caused by Elizabeth's 
 conduct in instituting a suit against him to 
 recover a sum of money lent to him in the 
 early days of her favour. Sir Christopher 
 Hatton, though essentially a courtier, was a 
 man of ready wit and great capacity, and is 
 said to have shown great industry when he 
 was Lord Chancellor, and to have made him- 
 self tolerably well acquainted with the prac- 
 tice of the Court of Chancery. 
 
 Campbell, Lives of the CTianceUors / Foes, 
 Lives of the Judges ; Proude, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Havelock, Sir Henry (5. 1794, d. 1857), 
 entered the army in 1815, and in 1823 em- 
 barked for Bengal. Next year he went 
 through the first Burmese War, earning 
 considerable distinction for courage and 
 energy. In 1838 he was promoted to a cap- 
 taincy, and was shortly afterwards sent with 
 his regiment to form part of the force in.- 
 tended to replace Shah Soojah on the thi-on B 
 
 of Cabul. After the occupation of Cabul, 
 Havelock, with a portion of the army, retired 
 to India, but was shortly recalled at the 
 news of the Cabul massacre. He aided in 
 the defence of Jellalabad against Akbar 
 Khan (1842), and marched with the army to 
 occupy Cabul for the second time, and revenge 
 the English disasters. He took part in the 
 Gwalior campaign (1843), and was present at 
 the battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshar, Ali- 
 wal, and Sobraon. He took no part in 
 the second Sikh "War, being employed at 
 Bombay. After a short interval spent in 
 England he received the command of a 
 division under Outram, for the Persian 
 War, 1857. When the Indian Mutiny broke 
 out Havelock advanced upon Cawnpore, 
 and defeated Nana Sahib outside the town. 
 He then made his way for Lucknow, but 
 finding his forces too weak to relieve this 
 place, was forced to return to Cawnpore. 
 Here he was joined in September at the 
 Alumbagh, Lucknow, by Sir James Outram, 
 and the two together succeeded in relieving 
 Lucknow. Two mouths had hardly passed 
 before Sir Henry Havelock died of dysentery 
 (Nov. 24, 1857). 
 
 Hawke, Edward, Lord (i. 1706, d. 1781), 
 became a captain in the Eoyal Navy in 1734. 
 He distinguished himself in an engagement 
 with the French fleet ofi Toulon in 1744, and 
 became rear-admiral in 1747. He defeated 
 the French fleet off BeUeisle, and at the end 
 of the year was returned for Portsmouth. 
 In 1748 he became vice-admiral. He served 
 in Nova Scotia (1749), and became com- 
 mander of Portsmouth (1750). In 1755, 
 though war had not yet been declared, 
 he was directed to attack French ships of 
 war. In 1757, on the loss of Minorca, he 
 took command of the Mediterranean fleet, 
 was at the head of the blockading squadron 
 in the Bay of Biscay (1758), and in the 
 following year defeated the French under 
 Marshal Conflans, in Quiberon Bay. In 1765 
 he became Vice-Admiral of Great Britain 
 and First Lord of the Admiralty, and eleven 
 years later was raised to the peerage. 
 M. Burrows, Life of Lord Eawhe. 
 
 Hawkins, Sin Jomr (5. 1520, d. 1595), 
 one of the most enterprising seamen of 
 Queen Elizabeth's reign, passed most of his 
 youth in making voyages in the interests of 
 commerce. He has incurred the odium of 
 having been the first to establish a trade in 
 slaves (1562), whom he bought in Guinea and 
 sold in Hispaniola (1562—64); on several 
 occasions coming into collision with the 
 Spaniards. In 1573 he was made Treasurer 
 of the Navy, and, after having been nearly 
 murdered by Peter Burchell in mistake for 
 Sir Christopher Hatton, was appointed ad- 
 miral of the rictonj at the time of the Spanish 
 Armada ; commanding that part of the fleet 
 which was stationed between the Land's End 
 
Ea/s 
 
 (543 ) 
 
 Hea 
 
 and the Scilly Islands. Tor his able and 
 energetic conduct at this crisis, he was 
 knighted and received the thanks of the 
 queen. In 1590 Sir John Hawkins made 
 another expedition to the Spanish Main in 
 conjunction with Sir Martin Frobisher, and 
 five years later sailed for the West Indies 
 with Sir Francis D-rake, but died before 
 anything had been accomplished. 
 
 Camden, Annals of EHzaheth ; Froude, Hist, of 
 
 Eng.; Burrow, NavcA Worthies; Fo« Bourne, 
 
 Emg. Seamen under the Tudors. 
 
 Kaxey, Thomas, a prebendary of South- 
 well, presented a bill of complaint in the 
 Parliament of 1397, on the condition of 
 the king's household. "When it was brought 
 under the notice of Richard II., the king 
 was extremely indignant,, and demanded 
 the name of its author from the Parlia- 
 ment. Thomas Haxey was pointed out as 
 the offender, and adjudged to die as a traitor. 
 He was, however, saved by the prompt action 
 of Archbishop Arundel, who claimed him as a 
 clergyman. Shortly afterwards he was par- 
 doned. This case illustrates the fact that, 
 in the fourteenth century, freedom of debate 
 in Parliament was very far from being estab- 
 lished. 
 
 Hayward, Sir. John (J. 15ff0, d. 1627), 
 was a native of Felixstowe, in Suffolk, and 
 was a voluminous author. This writer owes 
 what reputation he possesses to the fact 
 of his being one- of the earliest of our 
 English historians, as distinguished from 
 mere annalists. On the publication of his 
 life and Reign of Henry IF., as the work 
 was dedicated to the Earl of Essex, he was 
 thrown into prison, where he remained till 
 the death of Elizabeth.. On the accession of 
 James I., he published two> treatises; On the 
 Eight of Succession, and The Union of Eng- 
 land and Scotland, for which services he was 
 received into the new king's favour, and was 
 in 1610 appointed Camden's colleague in 
 the office of historiographer to James's pro^ 
 posed college at Chelsea. A few years later 
 he wrote his Lives of the Three Normom 
 Kings of England, at Prince Henry's request, 
 and was knighted six years later (1619). 
 After his death two works were found among 
 his MSS. ; The Life and Eayne of Edward VL 
 (published 1630), and Certain Yeres of 
 Elisabeth's Eayne. The former of these 
 two productions is mainly based on Edward 
 VI.'s diary, and the latter extends over the 
 first four years of the queen's reign. Both 
 are trustworthy and well written. They have 
 been published for the Camden Society with 
 an introduction and life of the author by Mr. 
 John Bruce (1840). 
 
 Head, Sir Francis (4. 1793), was in the 
 year 1836 appointed Governor of Upper 
 Canada. He was a man of great ability, 
 and eminently successful in dealing with 
 the national party, who were at that time 
 
 clamouring for reform. Though possessed of 
 much caution, and careful to follow out his 
 instructions from home, he was powerless to 
 avert the insurrection which broke out in 
 Upper Canada at the end of 1837. By his 
 prompt measures, however, he prevented its 
 gaining any considerable ground. In 1839 
 he resigned his office, owing to a disagree- 
 ment with Lord Glenelg, the Colonial 
 Minister. 
 
 Head-borongh (Head-pledge), The, sig- 
 nified the chief man of the Frank-pledge 
 (q.v.). This officer was- also known by the 
 name of borough-head,, tithing-man, &c., ac- 
 cording to the: local custom. This head- 
 borough was the chief of the pledges ; the 
 other nine who were with him and made up 
 the group were called hand-boroughs. The 
 duties of the head-borough are defined in one 
 ef the so-called Lawsof Edward the Confessor. 
 If amy member of the frank-pledge or tenman- 
 netale had done an injustice to anyone else, 
 and had fled away to escape punishment, the 
 head-bsrough at the end of twenty-one days 
 had to appear before the justice with two 
 other members of his frank-pledge and six 
 neighbours, and exculpate the body of which 
 he was the head from all complicity in the 
 original wrong and the flight of the evil-doer. 
 
 Cowel], Interpreter; Sfcubbs, Select Char- 
 ters, 74. 
 
 Hearue, Thomas (A. 1678, d. 1735), a 
 learned English antiquary,, was the son of the 
 parish clerk at Littlefield Green, in. Berk- 
 shire. His abilities attracted the attention of 
 a gentleman, who first sent him to school and 
 then to Oxford. In the year 1701 he was 
 appointed assistant keeper of the Bodleian 
 Library. In 1718 he was deprived of his 
 office for political reasons ; but he still con- 
 tinued to live at Oxford and pursue his anti- 
 quarian studies. His principal works were 
 editions of Leland's Collectanea, of Camden's 
 Annals, Roper's Life of Sir T. More, For- 
 dun's Scotichronicon, William of Newbury,' 
 Robert of Gloucester, Benedict of Peter- 
 borough, and Alfred of Beverley. But 
 besides these he issued many other of our old 
 chroniclers. 
 
 Hearth. Money was a tax of two 
 
 shillings on every hearth " in all houses 
 paying to Church and poor." It was first 
 imposed by Parliament, 1663, and abolished 
 in 1689. It was always a very unpopidar 
 tax. Under the name of " Chimney Money " 
 it dates, as a tax paid by custom, from the 
 Norman Conquest. 
 
 Hearts of Steel, The, was an or- 
 ganisation formed in 1772 among, the Pro- 
 testant tenants of Tyrone and Antrim. The 
 landlords had been largely increasing the 
 rents of their tenants, and had taken up with 
 cattle-farming on their own account, with 
 the result that Protestants were replaced by 
 
Hea 
 
 ( 544 ) 
 
 Heb 
 
 Catholics. The tenants not only sent a peti- 
 tion to Parliament and to the Lord- Lieutenant, 
 hut they also showed their hostility to the 
 intruders by destroying their cattle and 
 burning their houses. An Act was passed 
 against them, and troops sent to the north. 
 On the appearance of the latter the move- 
 ment collapsed, but was followed by increased 
 emigration. 
 
 Heath, Nicholas (d. 1566), Archbishop 
 of York and Lord Chancellor, was originally 
 chaplain to Cardinal Wolsey, and obtained 
 the favour of Henry VIII., who appointed him 
 successively to the sees of Rochester and 
 Worcester. In 1551, owing to his opposition 
 to the Reformation, he was deposed from his 
 see, but was reinstated on the accession of 
 Mary, andshortly afterwards made Archbishop 
 of York. At the end of 1555 he succeeded 
 Bishop Gardiner as Lord Chancellor, and 
 speedily proved his utter incompetence as a 
 judge. On the accession of Elizabeth, Heath 
 was deprived of the Great Seal, and on per- 
 ceiving that the queen intended to re-establish 
 the Protestant religion, declined to assist at 
 her coronation. He shortly afterwards refused 
 to take the oath of supremacy and was 
 deprived of his archbishopric, spending the 
 rest of his days in " study and devotion." 
 Foss, Judges of England. 
 
 Heathfield, The Battle of (633), 
 fought between Penda of Meroia and Edwin 
 of STorthumbria, resulted in the defeat and 
 death of the latter. The place is probably to 
 be identified with Hatfield, in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire. 
 
 Heathfield, George Augustus Elliot, 
 Baron (i. 1717, d. 1790), commenced his 
 military career by serving as a volunteer in 
 the Prussian army. On returning home he 
 first entered the ranks of the Engineers at 
 Woolwich, from which he exchanged a few 
 years later into the Horse Grenadiers. With 
 these troops he served in Germany, and was 
 wounded at Dettingen. After taking part in 
 the expedition to Cherbourg and Havannah, 
 he was appointed to the command of the 
 forces in Ireland (1775), but, owing to some 
 difference with the authorities at Dublin, he 
 very soon resigned his post, and returned to 
 England, whence he was despatched, as 
 governor, to Gibraltar. In 1779 began the 
 siege of that important port, and for four years 
 were the governor's ability and endurance 
 taxed to their utmost. In every respect did 
 Elliot show himself equal to the occasion, 
 and he has been handed down to posterity as 
 having conducted the most stubborn defence 
 of modern warfare. The value of his services 
 were recognised at home, though somewhat 
 tardily. He remained at the post he had 
 held so gloriously till 1787, when he returned 
 to England, and was raised to the peerage as 
 Baron Heathfield. In 1790 he died of para- 
 
 lysis, just as he was going to set out again 
 for Gibraltar. " Ever resolute and ever 
 wary," says Lord Stanhope, " and prevailing 
 by example as much as by command, he 
 combined throughout the siege the spirit to 
 strike a blow at any weak point of the 
 assailants with a vigilant forethought, ex- 
 tending even to the minutest measures of 
 defence." 
 
 Lord Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. ; Cunuingllam, 
 Lives of Eminent Englishmen, 
 
 Heaveufield, The Battle of (634), was 
 fought between Oswald of Northumbria and 
 the Britons under Cadwalla. Oswald is said 
 to have reared a cross with his own hands 
 before the battle commenced. The Britons 
 were utterly routed. 
 
 Hebrides, The, were known to Ptolemy 
 under the name of the Ebridse. The Scan- 
 dinavians called them Sudrey-jar or Southern 
 Islands, in contradistinction to the Northern 
 Islands of Scotland — the Orkneys and the 
 Shetlands. Towards the very end of the 
 eighth century these islands became subject 
 to the incursions of the Vikings. Previous 
 to this period they may have been inhabited 
 by Celtic tribes, differing, more or less, from 
 those upon the mainland of Scotland ; though 
 Mr. Rhys has adduced reasons which tend to 
 show that these tribes, as well as the Picts, 
 may have been largely tinctured with the 
 blood of an earlier, and not improbably a 
 non- Aryan race. In the ninth century the 
 Hebrides were colonised by bands of Nor- 
 wegian settlers, fleeing from their native 
 country before the growing power of Harold 
 Harfagr. Wben, however, these exiles began 
 to send expeditions against their old home, 
 Harold fitted out a great fleet and reduced 
 these islands ; from which time the Hebrides, 
 as well as the Orkney and Shetland Isles, were 
 for a considerable period subject to Norwegian 
 rule, though they must be considered, accord- 
 ing to Mr. Skene, to have been " rather the 
 haunt of stray Vikiags," than subject to any 
 distinct ruler. About the year 989 Sigurd, 
 Jarl of Orkney, seems to have made good his 
 claim on these islands against that of the 
 Danish king of the isles, who seems to have 
 been connected with the Danes of Limerick 
 and Dublin. But even Sigurd must have held 
 his rule subject to the King of Norway. By 
 the middle of the eleventh century the Danes 
 of Dublin and Limerick had seized upon 
 Man, and began to contest the Hebrides with 
 the Norwegian Earls of Orkney. When 
 Duncan was murdered or slain in battle 
 (1040), the Hebrides formed part of Thor- 
 finn, the Earl of Orkney's dominions. Soon 
 after his death (1057 ?), however, these 
 islands fell into the power of an Irish 
 King of Leinster. Whon Godred, whom the 
 Irish historians call King of the Dublin 
 Danes, conquered the Isle of Man (1075?), 
 he does not seem to have been long before 
 
Hed 
 
 (545) 
 
 Hen 
 
 extending his authority over the Hebrides 
 also. Before his death, however, his newly- 
 acquired territories were wrested from his 
 hands by Magnus Barefoot, King of Norway 
 (1093 — 1103), who so soon perished in his 
 attempt on Ireland, but not before the Scotch 
 King Edgar had relinquished the Western 
 Isles entirely. Upon this, Magnus's son 
 Sigurd, whom he had left as his ruler in the 
 isles, quitted his new principality for his 
 native land, and the Norse colony then 
 broke up into separate states. Ultimately, 
 however, Godred Crovan'a son Olaf suc- 
 ceeded in establishing himself in the 
 Hebrides, which he ruled for forty years 
 (1113 — 1153). But it now appears that the 
 native Celtic or pre-Celtic race, which had, 
 perhaps, been driven to the more inaccessible 
 parts of the islands, were preparing to assert 
 themselves against the Norse strangers. They 
 were led by one Somerlaed, who, notwithstand- 
 ing his Teutonic name, was of Celtic des- 
 cent. Somerlaed pretended to be fighting on 
 behalf of his son and Olaf's nephew against 
 his brother-in-law; but in 1156 the isles 
 were divided into two halves, of which the 
 southern half seems to have been practically 
 in the hands of Somerlaed, who held it 
 subject to the King of Norway. From this 
 time there were two sovereigns bearing the 
 title of " King of the Isles." In the -first 
 half of the thirteenth century Alexander II. 
 demanded the restoration of the Hebrides 
 from Hakon, King of Norway, on the ground 
 that Magnus Barefoot had robbed them of 
 the Scotch crown. On being refused he was 
 preparing to avail himself of a disputed 
 succession, when he died suddenly in 1249. 
 When Alexander III. grew to manhood he 
 began to contemplate the subjection of these 
 islands, and when Hakon, hearing the com- 
 plaints of his subject kings, and coming to 
 their relief was utterly defeated at the battle 
 of Largs (1263), it was not long before he 
 ceded the disputed territories to the Scotch 
 king, in return for a payment of 4,000 marks 
 down, and a pension of 100 marks a year 
 (1266). By this treaty the Archbishop of 
 Trondhjem was still preserved in his metropo- 
 Htical rights over the Sudreysand Man, rights 
 which he seems to have preserved till at 
 least the year 1400. The rule of the islands 
 seems to have remained in the hands of the 
 descendants of Somerlaed, and towards the 
 end of the fourteenth century John Mac- 
 donald of Islay adopted the style of Lord of 
 the Isles, a title which James V. forced 
 another John of Islay to relinquish some 
 hundred and fifty years later. 
 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland ; J. H. Burton, Hist, of 
 Scotland : Munch, CUvonicon Regum Mannioi. 
 [T. A. A.] 
 
 Hedgeley Moor, The Battle or 
 (April 25th, 1464), was fought dunng the 
 Wars of the Eoses, between Margaret of 
 Anjou and the Yorkists under Lord Mon- 
 
 HIST.— 18 
 
 tague. Margaret, who had retired to Scotland 
 after the battle of Towton, collected forces 
 and invaded England in the early part of 
 1464. She took several northern castles, and 
 was joined by Somerset and the Percies ; but 
 Montague, who was sent against the Lan- 
 castrians, totally defeated and slew Percy at 
 Hedgeley Moor, some miles south of Wooler 
 in Northumberland. 
 
 Kelena, St., The Island of, owes its 
 name to its having been discovered by the 
 Portuguese on St. Helena's day. May 21, 
 1501. In the latter half of the seventeenth 
 century the East India Company got posses- 
 sion of the island, and from this date it has 
 remained in the hands of the English. St. 
 Helena was a station of great importance so 
 long as the ordinary route for India passed 
 round the Cape of Good Hope. Since the 
 opening of the Suez Canal it is a place of 
 historic interest only, owiiig to its having 
 been chosen as the place of exile for Napoleon, 
 who died herein 1821. 
 
 Heligoland (Holy Land), an island in the 
 North Sea, was taken from Denmark in 1807, 
 and in 1814 was formally ceded to Great 
 Britain, under whose rule it has ever since 
 remained. The climate is mild and very 
 healthy. The government of the island has 
 since 1868 been vested in a governor, ap- 
 pointed by the crown, and an executive council. 
 During the Napoleonic wars this island was 
 of very considerable importance to English 
 commerce, as a station whence English goods 
 could be smuggled into the Continent when 
 the European ports were closed to our vessels 
 by the Berlin and Milan decrees. 
 
 Hemingburgh^ Walter de {d. 1347), 
 was sub-prior of Gisborough, in Yorkshire, 
 and wrote a Chronicle extending to the year 
 1297, which was continued, apparently, by a 
 later writer to 1307, and by a still later to 
 1346. Whatever the history of its compila- 
 tion, Hemingburgh's Chronicle is undoubtedly 
 of very considerable value for the reigns of 
 the first three Edwards. It extends from the 
 Conquest down to the year of the battle of 
 Crecy, but it is only for the last three reigns 
 that it seems to be an original authority. 
 The work is remarkable for the number of 
 documents and original letters preserved 
 in it, notably, the Latia draft of Edward I.'s 
 Confirmatio Cartarum, to which the name 
 Statute I)e Tallagio non Conoedendo has been 
 erroneously applied. The style of this writer, 
 also, is much above that of the ordinary 
 monkish annalists. 
 
 Tbe Chronicle of Walter de Hemingbnrgli has 
 
 been edited by Mr. Hamilton for the Early 
 
 English Text Society (1848). 
 
 Henderson, Alexander [d. 1646), was 
 one of the leaders of the Presbyterian party 
 in Scotland in the seventeenth century. In 
 conjunction with Johnston of Warriston, he 
 drew up the demands of the Covenanters in 
 
Ken 
 
 ( 546 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 1638, in which year he was Moderator of the 
 Glasgow Assembly. He was one of the 
 Scotch commissioners at the Pacification of 
 Berwick (q.v.), and at the Treaty of Ripon 
 (1640). He died, it is said, of remorse at 
 having opposed the king, " regretting the 
 excess to which affairs were carried." 
 
 Eengest {d. 489 ?) was one of the two 
 leaders of the first hand of Teutonic settlers 
 which came to Britain. By some writers, 
 the fact of the name Hengest meaning a 
 horse is regarded as proving that his existence 
 is a myth; but there seems no reason for 
 adopting that theory of necessity, as we 
 know that among the Teutonic peoples 
 names derived from animals are of frequent 
 occurrence. It is true that our earliest 
 authority, Gildas, does not mention the 
 names of any of the Saxon invaders, and 
 Bede only says, " the two first commanders 
 are said to have been Hengest and Horsa." 
 But, on the other hand, Nennius and the 
 ^nglo - Saxon Chronicle distinctly mention 
 these two brothers as the chiefs of the Teu- 
 tonic invaders who came to the aid of Vor- 
 tigern, and they are represented as being the 
 sons of one Wihtgils, who was a great-grand- 
 son of Woden. Dismissing all the later 
 legends which accumulated around Hengest's 
 name, the following is a very brief sketch of 
 what we know of him. Together with his 
 brother, Horaa, he came to Britain, probably 
 (though the chronology is very uncertain) 
 about the year 450. It is possible they may 
 have been exiled, as Nennius tells us, from 
 Germany, or may have been actually invited 
 over by Vortigern. At all events, they 
 landed at Ebbsfleet, and agreed to assist 
 the British king against the Picts. In these 
 wars they were invariably successful, and 
 as a reward obtained the Isle of Thanet. 
 But shortly afterwards we find them turning 
 their arms against Vortigern. They were 
 defeated at Aylesford, in which battle 
 Horsa was slain. Bat the tide soon 
 turned. After numerous victories, Hengest 
 and his son, Msc, conquered the whole 
 of Kent; fresh swarms of Teutons arrived; 
 and the Britons were entirely driven out of 
 the south-east corner of the island. Such is 
 the story of the conquest of Kent as it has 
 been handed down to us ; but it is impossible 
 to say how much or how little authority is to 
 be attached to details which cannot well have 
 been preserved in writing at the time of their 
 occurrence. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon CTronicZe; Nennius; Bede; Q-reen, 
 Making of England , 
 
 Hengest Down, or Hiugstou Down 
 
 (Hengestesuun), is situated on the west or 
 Cornish side of the Tamar, between that 
 river and Callington. Here, in 836 or 837, 
 Egbert totally defeated the combined forces 
 of the Danes and the West Welsh. 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. ■ 
 
 Hengham, Ralph ns {d. 1309), after 
 filling several minor judicial offices, was made 
 Chief Justice of the King's Bench, in 1274. 
 In 1289 he was removed, together with most 
 of the other judges, on a charge of malversa- 
 tion of justice ; but he subsequently regained 
 the royal favour, and became Chief Justice of 
 the Common Pleas, in 1301, an office he con- 
 tinued to hold till his death. Ralph was the 
 author of two legal books, De jEssoniis pro 
 Defaltia et FortnuUs Flacitandi, commonly 
 known as Hengham Magna, and Sengham 
 Parva. These were edited by Selden in 1616. 
 
 Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, 
 daughter of Charles I. (b. 1644, d. 1670), was 
 born in Exeter, whither her mother had re- 
 tired during the Civil War. In 1646 she was 
 taken in disguise to France, where she lived 
 with her mother till, at the Restoration, she 
 was enabled to return to England. In 1661 
 she was married to the Duke of Orleans, only 
 brother to Louis XIV., by whom she had 
 three children. She was employed, in 1670, 
 by the French court to negotiate the Treaty 
 of Dover with JEngland, but very soon after 
 her return to Prance she died suddenly. 
 Rumour ascribed her death to the effects of 
 poison administered by her jealous husband. 
 
 Henrietta Maria, Queen {b. 1609, 
 d. 1669), wife of Charles I., was the 
 youngest daughter of Henry IV. of France. 
 After the failure of the Spanish match, 
 both James I. and Buckingham were very 
 anxious that Charles should ally himself 
 with Henrietta, and for this purpose ne- 
 gotiations were opened in 1624. The 
 marriage took place in 1625, and by the 
 marriage treaty Charles agreed to suspend 
 the penal laws against the Catholics, and 
 allow the queen the free exercise of her 
 religion. But it soon became evident that 
 Henrietta was a tool in the hands of the 
 Catholics, who thronged around her, and not 
 only compelled her to refuse to be crowned 
 with her husband in Westminster Abbey, but 
 on one occasion at least forced her to take 
 part in a pilgrimage to Tyburn, where the 
 Roman Catholic "martyrs" had been exe- 
 cuted. At last Charles, exasperated by this 
 conduct, drove heir Roman Catholic attendants 
 from England. As long as Buckingham lived 
 the queen took very little part in public 
 affairs, but after his death she exercised a 
 great influence over Charles, who could hardly 
 have had a worse adviser than a frivolous,' 
 passionate woman, fond of power, but careless 
 of the use she made of it. Though Strafford's 
 refusal to grant places in Ireland to her 
 nominees made him little acceptable to her, 
 she used her influence to prevent his con- 
 demnation, but subsequently, being frightened 
 by the outcries of the people, and fearing for 
 her own and her husband's safety, she 
 entreated Charles to assent to the attainder. 
 It was chiefly owing to her advice that the 
 
Hen 
 
 (547) 
 
 Hen 
 
 king made the foolish attempt to arrest the 
 Five Members in 1612, and soon after this, 
 when civil war was inevitable, the queen 
 escaped from England taking with her the 
 crown jewels for the purpose of purchasing 
 arms for her husband. She returned to 
 England in 1643, and narrowly escaped being 
 taken prisoner by the Parliament. Eventually 
 she joined her husband, and subsequently 
 proceeded to the West of England, whence in 
 1644 she escaped to France. In 1643 she 
 was impeached by Pym for the help she had 
 given her husband, but after the impeach- 
 ment had been unanimously voted by the 
 Commons, and sent up to the Lords, no more 
 was heard of it. Queen Henrietta remained 
 in France till the Restoration, being fre- 
 quently in great poverty. She made strenuous 
 efiorts to convert her children to Roman 
 Catholicism, and succeeded in the case of her 
 youngest daughter Henrietta ; but the young 
 Duke of Gloucester resolutely withstood all 
 her endeavours. On the Restoration she 
 returned to England, and Somerset House 
 was granted as her residence. Fearing the 
 plague of 1665, she returned to France, where 
 she remained till her death. While in 
 France she was supposed to have married 
 Henry Jermyn, afterwai'ds Earl of St. Albans, 
 hut there is no direct evidence for this, 
 and at all events the marriage was never 
 acknowledged. 
 
 Clareudon, Hisi. of the Rebellion ; Gardiner, 
 Hist. ofEng., 1603—1842; Eauke, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Henry I., Kino (i. 1068, «. Aug. 3, 1100, 
 d. Dec. 1, 1135), was the youngest son of 
 William the Conqueror. His education must 
 have been carefully attended to, and he 
 seems to have been, to some extent at least, 
 familiar with Latin. He was dubbed knight 
 by his father and Lanfrano at Whit- 
 suntide, 1086. Next year, on his deathbed, 
 the Conqueror left his youngest son five 
 thousand pounds of silver, prophesj'ing at 
 the same time, according to the chronicles of 
 the next century, that he would succeed 
 his brothers in their dominions. With his 
 father's bequest Henry bought the Cotentin 
 and Avranchin from his brother Robert, and 
 is found later assisting Robert against Wil- 
 liam and the revolted city of Rouen (1090). 
 In 1091, when peace was restored between 
 Robert and William by the Treaty of Caen, 
 the two brothers, not content with having 
 taken away Henry's right of succession, 
 made war against him for the purpose 
 of stripping him of his lands. Driven from 
 St. Michael's Mount, Henry accepted the 
 lordship of Domfront in 1093. Almost im- 
 mediately after this, he was reconciled to 
 William and won back part of his old posses- 
 sions from Robert. . On the day of William's 
 death, Henry also was hunting in the New 
 Forest ; and on hearing the news, he at once 
 hastened to Winchester to seize the treasure 
 
 and to put forward his claims to the crown. 
 After some discussion, in which several mem- 
 bers of the Council maintained the rights of 
 the absent Robert, Henry was elected king, 
 chiefly, we are told, by the influence of the 
 Earl of Warwick. Two days later he was 
 crowned at Westminster, and swore to 
 abolish the wrongs from which the country 
 had suffered under his brother's rule, to 
 maintain peace, repress disorders, and deal 
 justice with mercy. Henry immediately 
 issued a Charter, promising to maintain the 
 privileges of the Church, the vassals, and 
 the nation. As an earnest of his inten- 
 tion to observe these pledges, he impri- 
 soned Flambard, the chief instrument of his 
 brother's tyranny, and invited Anselm, the 
 object of his brother's hate, to return to 
 England. Before the year was out Anselm 
 had come back and married the new king to 
 Edith, the daughter of Malcolm Qanmore 
 and niece of Edgar Atheling. Meanwhile, 
 Robert had returned from the Holy Land 
 and began to claim the crown according to 
 the terms of the Treaty of Caen. The great 
 Norman nobles were not unwilling to assist 
 him in his pretensions. Robert of Belesme, 
 Ivo of Grantmesnil, and many other Norman 
 barons would have preferred the lax in- 
 dolence of the elder to the stem justice of the 
 younger brother ; while Henrj- laid his chief 
 trust in the influence of Anselm and the 
 fidelity of the English. When the two 
 armies met near Winchester, the great barons 
 on both sides seeing that whoever should 
 conquer, their position in the land would be 
 rendered insecure, prevailed on the two 
 brothers to make peace. Henry was released 
 from his oath of fealty to Robert and was 
 acknowledged King of England ; but on his 
 part promised to pay Robert a pension of 
 £3,000 and to restore the Cotentin (1101). 
 Three years later the quarrel broke out again 
 and was once more appeased without blood- 
 shed; but in 1106 Henry crossed over to 
 Normandy, defeated his brother at the battle 
 of Tenchebrai and entered upon the possession 
 of his duchy. Robert was imprisoned till his 
 death in 1134. 
 
 Meanwhile, Henry had been occupied in 
 restoring order and good government to 
 England. The great Norman lords who had 
 sided with Robert — the Malets, the Lacys, 
 the Grantmesnils, and Belesmes — lost their 
 castles and were imprisoned or forced to re- 
 linquish their English estates; but as a 
 rule were left in possession of their Nor- 
 man ones, though even across the water 
 their castles were garrisoned by the king. 
 In all these instances, after each rebel- 
 lion, whether of 1101, 1104, 1118, or 1123 
 Henry's great object was to restrain the in- 
 dependence and extortion of the barons. 
 Not content with forfeiting the English 
 estates of the great families of the Conquest, 
 Henry put into full working order a strong 
 
Ken 
 
 (548 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 administrative tody — consisting for the most 
 part of new men advanced by him because of 
 their capacities for doing his work — to form 
 a counterpoise to the older barons. These 
 men, who owed their whole position to the 
 crown, were employed by the king to make 
 circuits round the couutrj^, not only for the 
 purpose of assessing and collecting taxes, but 
 also for that of redressing abuses. In this 
 way he set the example, which his grandson 
 was to improve upon and enlarge, of en- 
 forcing the royal authority everywhere, and 
 bringing the royal justice within the reach of 
 all people who suffered from the extortion, 
 the cruelty, or false justice of the local and 
 baronial courts. Though the main interest 
 of Henry I.'s reign • lies in the orderly in- 
 crease of the Norman sj'stem of centralisa- 
 tion, yet it was by no means devoid of politi- 
 cal or dramatic incident. In 1102 Robert de 
 Belesme, the cruel and tyra,nnical Earl of 
 Shrewsbury, and the son of William the 
 Conqueror's great friend, Montgomery, was 
 besieged in his castle of Bridgnorth. The 
 English were only too glad to aid in Robert 
 of Belesme's downfall, and called on the king 
 to rejoice that he became a free man from 
 the day when he banished Robert of Belesme 
 (1102). The captive Duke Robert hadayouug 
 son, William : Louis VI. of France and Fulk, 
 Count of Anjou, were induced to espouse the 
 boy's cause. The former promised to invest 
 him with Normandy ; the latter to give him 
 , his daughter, Sibylla, in marriage. Mean- 
 while, Eulk, supported by his suzerain, 
 Louis, laid claim to Maine, in opposition to 
 the pretensions of Henry : and peace was 
 only re-established between the claimants 
 (1113) at the expense of Wilham, who 
 now found a refuge with Baldwin of Flan- 
 ders. Once more, after five years' quiet, 
 a ooahtion was formed on behalf of the 
 young prince, and once more Louis antt Fulk 
 espoused his cause. But this effort was fruit- 
 less too. At the battle of Brenneville (1119) 
 the victory lay with Henry, and before long 
 Calixtus II. reconciled the two kings. In 
 1120 the English king lost his only son, Wil- 
 liam, in the White Ship. Three years later 
 he was threatened with another coalition, for 
 Full:; of Anjou had once more espoused the 
 cause of William. Fitz-Robert and several 
 of the greatest barons in Normandy had 
 promised assistance. But Henry was too 
 quick for his enemies, and landing in Nor- 
 mandy he soon reduced the castles of the in- 
 surgent barons (1123 — 24). A few years later 
 Louis gave his sister-in-law, Adeliza, in 
 marriage to the young prince, granting him 
 at the same time the Vexin and other dis- 
 tricts on the borders of Normandy, and also in- 
 vesting him with the county of Flanders (1127). 
 The newly-made count, however, was slain 
 next year while endeavouring to make good 
 his claims. With the rebellion of 1124 
 Henry's home troubles seem to have ceased. 
 
 and the rest of his reign was occupied with 
 the extension of his authority and the 
 attempts to secure the . fidelity of his barons 
 to his daughter, Matilda, and her infant 
 son, Henry. This lady had in 1114 married 
 the Emperor Henry V., but having lost 
 her husband before many years were past, 
 was then contracted to Geoffrey of Anjou, 
 the father of Henry II. In 1126, 1131, 
 and 1133 the whole council of the king- 
 dom were sworn to maintain her rights or 
 those of herself and her little son (Henry 11., 
 born 1133). 
 
 It remains to say a few words on the 
 ecclesiastical history of this reign. It was 
 largely with the assistance of Anselm that 
 Henry I. had been enabled to secui'e the 
 crown, and by mutual consent the ques- 
 tion of investitures was for the moment 
 waived. But when the immediate danger 
 was over, Anselm was summoned to do 
 homage and consecrate the bishops whom the 
 king had invested. After the Synod of 
 Westminster, Anselm left England once more 
 (1103), and only returned in 1106, after 
 having come to a compromise with Henry on 
 the disputed points. Before the close of the 
 reign two new bishoprics were created — those 
 of Ely (1109) and Carlisle (1133), and, in 
 1128, the new order of the Cistercians, 
 founded by an Englishman, Harding, planted 
 their first colony at Waverley in Surrey. 
 Henry's reign was also signalised by the 
 practical completion of the conquest of South 
 Wales by a series of Norman adventurers, 
 who established for themselves feudal lord- 
 ships within its limits, driving the Welsh to 
 the hills, or subjecting them to their sway. 
 In some places, as in southern Pembrokeshire, 
 colonies of Fleming or English settlers were 
 planted, and the Welsh absolutely driven out. 
 Henry also managed to secure the nomination 
 of the South Welsh bishops. Their consecra- 
 tion by the Archbishop of Canterbury com- 
 pleted the ecclesiastical subordination of 
 South Wales to the Enghsh metropolitan. 
 
 The chief contemporary authorities for the 
 reign oE Henry I. are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; 
 Eadmer, Histona Novm-um; Ordericus Vitalis, 
 William of Malmesbury, and Henry of Hun- 
 tingdon. The hest modern works on this period 
 are Freeman, Norman Cotiqueat, vol. v. ; Stubbs, 
 Const. Hist, and Select Clmrteis ; Church, Life of 
 
 [T. A. A.] 
 
 Henry II., Kixo (4. March, 1133, 
 s. Oct. 2.5, 11.54; d. July 6, 1189), was 
 born at Le Mans, and was the son of 
 Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, and Matilda, 
 daughter of Henry I. and widow of the 
 Emperor Henry V. He was still an infant 
 when brought over to England in 1141, and 
 placed in charge of his uncle, Robert of 
 Gloucester. He afterwards went to Scotland, 
 and was knighted by King David, in 1149. In 
 11S1_ Louis VIL conferred Normandy on him, 
 and in the same year he succeeded to Anjou, 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 549 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 while, in 1152, his marriage with Eleanor 
 of Aqiiitaine gave Mm a large and rich 
 territory in the Bouth of France. Master of 
 such resources, his expedition to England in 
 1153 could not but be successful. The Treaty 
 of Winchester gave him the succession after 
 Stephen's death. "Within a year his rival died, 
 and Henry's succession was secured without 
 disturbance. He was crowned Deo. 19, 1154. 
 The long and important reign of Henry has 
 boen divided by Bishop Stubbs into four 
 epochs — from his accession to the Becket 
 quarrel (1154—64) ; the period of his strife 
 with the archbishop(1164 — 70) ; from Becket's 
 death to the death of the younger Henry in 
 1183 ; and from thence to Henry's own death 
 in 1189. 
 
 The first period of Henry's reign was 
 mainly devoted to his work of restoration. 
 He found the great administrative system of 
 his gi'andfather thoroughly annihilated during 
 the anarchy of Stephen's reign. "Adul- 
 terine " castles were thickly spread over the 
 whole land. Peace and order there were 
 none. The revenue had declined from £60,000 
 to £20,000 a year. With the help of the 
 surviving members of the family of Roger of 
 Salisbury, and of Archbishop Theobald, 
 Becket the Chancellor, and the Earl of 
 Leicester, Henry succeeded through tact, 
 energy, and perseverance, in a thorough re- 
 storation of the " avitae consuetudines " — 
 the system of government in the State which 
 Henry I. had left behind him. The feudalists 
 were disarmed, good government restored, 
 the coinage reformed, the War of Toulouse 
 successfully carried out. The whole ten 
 years ai-e years of prosperity and orderly 
 progress. 
 
 In 1162 Becket succeeded Archbishop 
 Theobald at Canterbury, and Henry soon 
 found that his old minister was thoroughly 
 resolved to oppose his design to subject 
 Church as well as State to the supremac}' of 
 the law. An attempt to compel an acknow- 
 ledgment, merely, of the royal jurisdiction 
 on the part of criminous clerks precipitated 
 a conflict already imminent. In 1164 the 
 Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.) were pre- 
 sented to the archbishop for acceptance. 
 Becket's reluctant acquiescence was soon 
 withdrawn. Henry called his archbishop to 
 account for his chancellorship, and after a 
 stormy council at Northampton, the arch- 
 bishop withdrew beyond the se-as, and the king 
 took possession of his temporalities. For 
 some years an active warfare was carried on 
 between king and archbishop, which nothing 
 but the tact of Henry's ministers prevented 
 from being confused with the great struggle 
 of Frederick Barbai'ossa and Alexander III., 
 of which it was ■ the English counterpart. 
 When in 1170 a hoUow reconciliation was 
 effected, Becket returned only to meet his 
 death at the hands of indiscreet partisans of 
 the king. It is most remarkable evidence of 
 
 Henrj-'s versatility and energy that the period 
 of the Becket struggle was the period of his 
 greatest constructive reforms, of the estab- 
 lishment of the new judicial system by the 
 Assize of Clarendon (1166), and of the suc- 
 cessful conquest of Britanny. 
 
 The death of Becket brought Henry's 
 ecclesiastical troubles to a crisis. The eoro- 
 natiori of his eldest son, Henry, had neither 
 conciliated his family nor the baronage. Henry 
 hurried away to Ireland to escape from his 
 difficulties, and to receive the homage of the 
 Norman nobles, who had within the last few 
 years appropriated a large part of the island. 
 On his return, the Pope's need of English aid 
 made his reconciliation with the Church at 
 Avranches an 6asy matter (1172). But the 
 great feudal revolt of 1173 — 74, which simul- 
 taneously broke out in England and the 
 Continent, and was actively favoured by the 
 Kings of iVance and Scotland, the Count of 
 Flanders, md Henry's own sons, may have 
 been an indirect consequence of the Becket 
 quarrel. After a hard struggle Henry gained 
 the day. The last of the feudal risings was 
 suppressed, and the monarch, strong in na- 
 tional support and in his system of government, 
 was henceforthableto devote hisbest energies to 
 administrative and judicialreconstruction. The 
 Assize of Northampton (1176), the Assize of 
 Arms (1181), the Assize of the Forest (1184), 
 were the great legislative acts of this period. 
 No less important were Henry's fertile 
 schemes for the perfection of the judicial 
 system, his strong and firm government, his 
 good peace and prosperity. 
 
 But Henry's own sons were now his worst 
 enemies. He had done his best for them. 
 He had crowned Henry, secured Britanny to 
 Geoffrey, Aquitaine for Eichard, and pro- 
 P9sed to give John Ireland. But the malign 
 influence of their mother and Louis VII. 
 drove their turbulent and thankless spirits 
 into a series of risings that embittered Henry's 
 last years. In 1183 the younger Henry died. 
 
 The death of the young king did not 
 check the rebellious attempts of Henry's re- 
 maining sons. Their persistent hostility 
 seriously checked the course of home reforms, 
 and even the preparations for the Crusade. 
 Philip Augustus was as rancorous an enemy 
 to Henry as Louis VII. had been, and his 
 alliance with the king's sons seriously dimin- 
 ished the power and prestige of Henry in 
 Europe. In the midst of failure and deser- 
 tion the old king died. 
 
 Henry II. 's reign was a "period of amal- 
 gamation." The Norman central and mon- 
 archical system, and the old English local and 
 popular system hitherto existing side by side, 
 were connected by Henry and combined into 
 a single whole, out of which, a generation 
 later, the English Constitution began to de- 
 velop. His bureaucratic system dealt a death 
 blow to feudalism, and even set definite limits 
 to the power of the Church. A thorough 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 550 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 despot and cosmopolitan, lie estabHahed that 
 alliance of king and people which produced 
 the national English monarchy. The con- 
 queror of Ireland and Scotland, Henry revived 
 that empire over all Britain which the great 
 Anglo-Saxon kings had aspired to. The ruler 
 of a third of the modern France, he began that 
 policy of constant warfare with his nominal 
 overlord which coloured the whole mediaeval 
 history of England. His great Continental 
 position rendered Henry the first of European 
 sovereigns. His friendly relations with the 
 Empire, Spain, and Flanders, began the 
 close connection with England's three tra- 
 ditional medieeval aUies. A man that could 
 do all this was of no ordinary character. 
 Strong, persistent, far-seeing and hard work- 
 ing, he was at once a great statesman, legis- 
 lator, administrator, warrior, and diplomatist. 
 But he was unscrupulous, passionate and 
 revengeful — ha,rd and cruel upon occasion — 
 and his domestic difficulties perceptibly 
 changed his character for the worse towards 
 the end of his reign. Yet with all his defects 
 he did a good work for England. The excel- 
 lence of the results must excuse the selfish- 
 ness of his aims. 
 
 Tlie l)est oii^inal authorities are Gervase of 
 Canterbury ; Benedict of Peterborough., and 
 Roger of Hoveden (Eolls Series) ; William of 
 ITewborougli (English Hist. Soo.), and Ralph 
 Niger. The copious works of Giraldus Cam- 
 brensis, edited in the Rolls Series by Brewer 
 and Dimock, are useful though not always trust- 
 woi'thy, especially so are the Expuqnatio Kibernim 
 and Itinerarixan Cambria. Dr. Stubbs's works 
 are authoritative for the reign of Henry II., both 
 his Constitutional History and his exhaustive 
 Preface to the editions of Benedict of Peter- 
 borough and Roger of Hoveden in the Rolls 
 Series. Lyttelton's Life of Henry 11., though old- 
 fashioned, is still useful. For the Becket struggle 
 see Robertson, Life of Becket ; Giles, Letters of 
 Becket ; Materials for the Histo^'y of Archhistioii 
 
 Becket. rrp -n, rp -t 
 
 Henry III., King (*. Oct. 1, 1207, .s. 
 Oct. 19, 1216, d. Nov. 16, 1272), was the son 
 of John, and Isabella of Augouleme. His long 
 reign falls into three epochs — the period of the 
 regency, the twenty years (1232 — 1262) of 
 misrule, either under some foreign and un- 
 popular minister or the king in person, and 
 the last twenty years of the baronial struggle. 
 
 The tj-ranny of King John had alienated 
 every class of his subjects, and the barons 
 who had won Magna Charta had called in 
 Louis of France. But the wisdom of the 
 Eegent Pembroke, the strong support which 
 the Eoman Church gave to its infant vassal, and 
 the acceptance by church and crown alike of 
 the Great Charter, ultimately resulted in the 
 expulsion of the foreigners, and in the suppres- 
 sion of a feudal survival that had threatened 
 to prove serious. Pembroke died in 1219. 
 Archbishop Langton got rid of the tyranny 
 of the papal legates in 1221. In the same 
 year William of Aumale, the feudal champion, 
 in 1224, Falkes de Breaute, the representative 
 of John's foreign mercenaries, were subdued. 
 
 In the year 1227 Hubert de Burgh got rid of 
 the Poitevin Bishop of Winchester. Even 
 the baronial opposition were national in their, 
 aims. There were thus not wanting signs of 
 the development of English constitutionalism. 
 
 In 1232 Henry dismissed De Burgh, and 
 became his own minister. But his weak and 
 shiftless character, his incapacity for con- 
 stant application, his delight in mere external 
 splendour, his want of a settled policy, his 
 attachment to his family, all led him to lean 
 on some stronger support than himself. Peter 
 des Roches, recalled in 1232, was indeed dis- 
 missed in 1234 ; but in 1236, Henry's marriage 
 with Eleanor of Provence brought a swarm 
 of her worthless kinsmen and dependents into 
 England. Foreign fashions spread widely; 
 foreigners administered Church and State. 
 The English language, which had kept itself 
 comparatively free of JTrench words up to this 
 period, was now inundated with them. No 
 doubt an increased connection with the Con- 
 tinent had its good points ; but its effects on 
 government were altogether bad. A strong 
 aristocratic opposition to Henry was now 
 established. In 1242 the barons refused to 
 grant an aid for the war in Poitou. In 1244 
 barons and clergy protested against the royal 
 misgovemment. But in 1246 the Count of 
 La Marche and his sons, Henry's half-brothers, 
 came into England. The Pope exacted tax 
 after tax from the clergy. Among churchmen 
 the resistance of Grosseteste was almost single- 
 handed. The nobles were equally disorganised. 
 Without leaders, the people were powerless to 
 withstand the wretched government of the 
 foreign favourites. • 
 
 At last, in 1252, a leader arose. Simon 
 of Montfort, a Frenchman, who had acquired 
 the earldom of Leicester, and whose marriage 
 with the king's sister had almost provoked a 
 revolt, was in that year dismissed from the 
 government of Gascon y. Eager for revenge, 
 the hated foreigner became an efficient leader 
 of the national party. The folly of Henry 
 in accepting the Sicilian crown for his son 
 Edmund, his lavish expenditure on a futile 
 adventure that led to nothing but the ag- 
 grandisement of the papacy, completed the 
 measure of baronial indignation. In 1258 the 
 opposition culminated in the Mad Parlia- 
 ment, which compelled the acceptance of- the 
 constitution known as the Provisions of 
 Oxford, that practically substituted a baronial 
 oligarchy for the royal power. Hitherto 
 the opposition had been unanimous. But 
 while the bulk of the baronage were now dis- 
 posed to rest content with their triumph, 
 Montfort had larger schemes of popular 
 government. He quarrelled with Gloucester, 
 the leader of the aristocratic party. In 1261 
 Henry availed himself of this feud to regain 
 power; but in 1263 war began again. Both 
 parties had competed with each other for 
 popular favour by summoning representatives 
 of the shire communities to a national council. 
 
Hen 
 
 (551) 
 
 Hen 
 
 The triumph of Montfort at the tattle of 
 Lewes led to his famous Parliament of 1265, 
 in which burgesses as well as knights of the 
 shire were summoned, and a, new paper con- 
 stitution, which put the government into the 
 hands of the community, was drawn up. But 
 the democratic Caesarism of Montfort led to 
 a quarrel with the son of his old enemy 
 Gloucester. Edward, the king's son, escaped 
 and collected an army. Montfort was slain at 
 Evesham. The capture of Kenilworth ended 
 the war. For the rest of the reign peace was 
 secured. But real power had now escaped 
 from Henry's hands into those of his sou, 
 who knew how to appropriate the results of 
 Montfort's policy, and reconcile the monarchy 
 with nationality. Henry died on Nov. 16, 
 1272. His extreme incompetence as a ruler 
 Winds us to his private respectahility. His 
 reign, though its details are beyond expres- 
 sion dreary, is of the last importance in Eng- 
 lish history. It was the period of the growth 
 of the constitution, of the concentration of 
 the local machinery into a national represen- 
 tative assembly, of the development of English 
 nationality in opposition to royal and papal 
 tyranny. It was a period of great men, of 
 great, if ill-regulated desig-ns, and of great 
 originative and creative power. It saw the 
 religious revival of the thirteenth century, 
 the estabHshment of the mendicant orders in 
 England, and the development of culture 
 through the universities. But to all this de- 
 velopment Henry was little more than an 
 insignificant figure-head. 
 
 Boger of Wendoyer ; Matthew Paris, Hi«f orio 
 Major (Bolls Series) ; Eishanger, Chmnicon (Eolls 
 Series) ; Dr. Shirley's Boyal Letters (Eolls 
 Series ) ; Brewer, Jtf oiiumeuta Franciftcana (Eolls 
 Series) ; Xi\iaxd,Gri-osseteste's Letters (Eolls Series); 
 Stuhbs, Const. Hist. ; Prothero, Simon, of Mont- 
 fort ; Pauli, Etiglische G escMchie and Simon von 
 Montfort; Blaauw, Barons' War; Pear-on, Hist. 
 o/Eiig. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Henry IV., King («. 1366, s. Oct. 13, 1399, 
 d. Mar. 20, 1413), was born at Bolingbroke, 
 in Lincolnshire, being the eldest son of 
 John of Gaunt and of his first wife, the 
 heiress of the house of Lancaster. At the age 
 of fifteen he married Mary Bohun, daughter 
 and co-heiress of the last Earl of Here- 
 ford. In 1385 he was called to a seat in the 
 House of Peers, by the title of Earl of Derby. 
 He at first took pai-t with the uncles of 
 Richard II., in their endeavours to retain the 
 government under their own control; but 
 later on supported the king in trying to draw 
 into his hands an absolute power. It may be 
 suspected that this was done with the sinister 
 design of making Richard unpopular with his 
 subjects. It would seem tha,t Henry was, to 
 some extent, privy to the death of the Duke 
 of Gloucester, the king's uncle, in 1397 ; but 
 the following year he again changed round, 
 accused the Duke of Norfolk of the murder 
 of Gloucester as well as of treasonable prac- 
 tices, and challenged him to wager of battle. 
 
 On the combatants presenting themselves at 
 Coventry on Sept. 16, 1398, to try the issue, 
 they were both banished by Richard, Norfolk 
 for life and Bolingbroke for ten years. The 
 following year John of Gaunt died, and 
 Richard seized his lands. On receiving in- 
 telligence of this act, Henry, who knew him- 
 self to be as popular in the country as the 
 king was unpopular, determined to return to 
 the country on the plea of claiming his lawful 
 inheritance. The king had set out Upon an 
 expedition to Ireland, when Henry landed at 
 Ravenspur, July 4, 1399. Bolingbroke was 
 everywhere received with enthusiasm, and soon 
 decided to put forward a claim upon the 
 crown. Richard returned early in August, 
 but upon landing, his army immediately 
 began to desert him. He was forced to dis- 
 guise himself, but was seized near Conway on 
 August 19. Henry called a Parliament, 
 which, on October 13, pronounced the depo- 
 sition of Richard, and transferred the crown 
 to his cousin. It need not be pointed out 
 what an important act this was from a consti- 
 tutional point of view. Richard died in prison 
 in the beginning of the following year in 
 circumstances that gave rise to suspicions of 
 violence. 
 
 Henry's energies were, henceforth, entirely 
 devoted to strengthening his position on the 
 throne. He supported the orthodox Church 
 party against the attacks of the Lollards, to 
 whom his father, John of Gaunt, had been 
 markedly favourable, and one of the most im- 
 portant enactments of his reign was the Act 
 De Seretico Comburendo {liOl). Itmustnotbe 
 supposed that these persecutions were popular 
 with the clergy only. The contrary is proved 
 by the traditional character which attached to 
 the name of the most conspicuous Lollard of 
 the succeeding reign. Sir John Oldcastle — a 
 traditional character which, if it was not 
 identical with, certainly bore considerable re- 
 semblance to that of the fictitious FalstafE. 
 For the rest, Henry's reign was chiefly oc- 
 cupied in crushing domestic rebellion, and in 
 meeting the attacks of the Scots and Welsh. In 
 the first year of his reign he was at war with 
 the Duke of Albany, the regent of Scotland, 
 and with Owen Glendower, who had raised a 
 national revolt among the Welsh. The Scots 
 under Douglas were decisively defeated, and 
 their leader captured at Homildon Hillby Harry 
 Hotspur, son of the Earl of Northumberland 
 (Sept. 14, 1402). The expedition into Wales, 
 in which Henry, the Prince of Wales, took part, 
 was less successful. In 1403 broke out the 
 formidable rebelUon of the Pereies, who were 
 now leagued with Douglas and Glendower. On 
 the march of the first two to join their forces 
 with the latter, they were intercepted by the 
 king's army, and forced into an engagement 
 at Shrewsbury (July 21, 1403), where they were 
 completely defeated and Harry Percy slain. 
 Northumberland was, on this occasion, par- 
 doned. Two other rebellions of less conse- 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 352 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 quence troke out in the north, in the last of 
 ■which (1408), Northumberland was again 
 deeply implicated. It was crushed at the battle 
 of Bramham Moor, in which Northumberland 
 fell. In the interval between these two events, 
 Henry was fortunate enough to capture the 
 heir apparent of Scotland (James I.), who 
 was being sent to France (1406). 
 
 After 1408, Henry, no longer in fear of re- 
 bellion, began to turn his attention to the 
 affairs of France, where the quarrels between 
 the parties of the Duke of Burgundy and the 
 Duke of Orleans had brought the country to 
 the verge of civil war (the assassination of 
 the Duke of Orleans, which made this war in- 
 evitable, took place on November 23, 1407). 
 Henry took the part of siding first with one 
 party and then with the other, so as to weaken 
 both as much as possible. During the last three 
 years of his life the king was subject to fits of 
 epilepsy, and the Prince of Wales, who had 
 already highly distinguished himself in the 
 field, generally presided at the Council. The 
 growing popularity of this prince is said to 
 have excited the jealousy of uis father, and 
 caused some estrangement between the two. 
 Henry died March 20, 1413. By his first 
 wife, Mary Bohun, he left four sons — Henry ; 
 Thomas, Duke of Clarence ; John, Duke of 
 Bedford ; and Humphrey, Duke of Glouces- 
 ter ; and two daughters. After his accession, 
 Henry married Joanna, daughter of Charles 
 II. of Navarre, but had by her no issue. The 
 interest of Henry IV.'s reign depends upon 
 the success of his pohcy in founding the 
 house which, in the person of his successor, 
 made itself so famous, and in that of the 
 third descendant again fell. It is still more 
 remarkable as- the period of the restoration 
 of Anglican orthodoxy against Lollardy, and 
 as the period of mediseval constitutionalism. 
 Tita Red. Eicavdi (ed. Heanie) ; Traism et 
 Mart de Richard II., Ray Dmgleterre (Eng. Hist. 
 Soc.) i The Monk of Evesham ; "Walsingham, 
 rpodigma and Hist. An^l. ; Annales Htnrici IV. ; 
 Capgrave, ClironicU; id., l.iber de lllmtrihus 
 Henncis; Wauriu, Recueil des Ciromgwes; Le 
 Eeligieux de St. Denys ; Brougham, ^ngtoii* 
 imder the House of Lancaster ; Lingard, Hist, of 
 Eng.; Va.\i^,Mnglische GesclivMe ; Stubhs, Const. 
 ■"*'*• [C. F. K.] 
 
 Henry v.. King {b. Aug. 9, 1388, s. Mar. 
 21, 1413, d. Aug. 31, 1422), the eldest son of 
 Henry IV., was born at Monmouth. He was, 
 at a, very early age, practised in arms, and 
 was sent, when fifteen, to take command 
 in an expedition against Owen Glendower, 
 and one year later, took a part in the 
 important battle of Shrewsbury. The 
 character of this monarch must always 
 be one of gieat interest to the histori- 
 cal student, for he was probably the most 
 popular king who ever ruled in this country. 
 Later tradition, apparently to give a zest to 
 his subsequent merits, has represented him as 
 passmg his youth in dissipation, and in in- 
 difterence to his reputation; and his bio- 
 
 grapher, Elmham, admits something to support 
 this charge. This period of temporary ob- 
 scurity could not have occurred, as Shake- 
 speare represents it to have done, before the 
 battle of Shrewsbury. It has been suggested 
 that Prince Henry was disgusted with the 
 jealousy which his father felt for his rising 
 talents, and for a while absented himself 
 from state affairs, and, in fact, while about 
 1410, we find him at the head of the Council, 
 he appears afterwards to have yielded his 
 place to his next brother, the Duke of 
 Clarence. He was crowned on April 9, 1413. 
 By his first acts he gave evidence of the 
 security which he felt upon the throne. He 
 released the young Earl of March from his 
 captivity, and reinstated the son of Harry 
 Percy in the family honours and possessions. 
 In his internal administration he seems to 
 have been disposed to follow the general lines 
 of his father's policy.- But he had less sym- 
 pathy with the Lollards, who were now perse- 
 cuted with relentless rigour. Among the 
 victims is to be counted Sir John Oldcastle, 
 commonly called Lord Cobham, in 1417. Henry 
 was, however, supposed to have been not 
 altogether unfavourable to a scheme for con- 
 fiscating a portion of the revenues of the 
 Church which was warmly advocated by the 
 majority of the lay peers at this time. The 
 abolition of the alien priories is suiEcient 
 evidence of this. It was to turn the attention 
 of the king in another direction that Arch- 
 bishop Chicheley persuaded Henry, that in 
 right of his descent from Edward III., he had 
 a vaUd claim to the crown of France, which 
 the present distracted state of that kingdom 
 gave him a favourable opportunity of assert- 
 ing. The proposal was received with favour 
 by all classes, and in pursuit of this object 
 Henry set sail for Harfleur, Aug. 10, 1415. 
 
 The details of Henry's invasion form an 
 important and exceedingly interesting chapter 
 in military history, but can only be given 
 here in brief summary. The first under- 
 taking was the attack on Harfleur. The 
 place was strongly defended, and nearly sur- 
 rounded by water, so that the siege, of which 
 the contemporary authorities give us a toler- 
 ably detailed account, dragged on for six 
 weeks. During this time the English army, 
 which at first consisted of about 20,000 foot 
 and 9,000 horse, diminished to not more 
 than a third of that number. It appeared 
 impossible to continue the war without ob- 
 taining fresh reinforcements from England. 
 In order, however, not to seem to retreat 
 before the face of the enemy, Henry deter- 
 mined to embark from Calais, and before 
 leaving Harfleur he sent a challenge to the 
 Dauphin, offering to meet him in eight days, 
 which was not accepted. This is a curious 
 instance of the strategy, or, to speak more 
 truly, the want of strategy, which charac- 
 terised the warfare of those days. The safety 
 of Henry's army niight seem to" have depended 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 553 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 upon his keeping his movements as secret as 
 possible ; on the contrary he waited eight 
 days for the reply of the Dauphin, and then 
 set out (Oct. 8) upon his perilous naarch. 
 The English, proceeding hy Fecamp and Eu, 
 arrived at Abbeville on the 13th, hut finding 
 that the Somme was strongly guarded at this 
 point, were induced to make a, detour by 
 Amiens and Nesle. At the latter place they 
 crossed the Somme on the 19th, the French 
 showing themselves and disappearing again. 
 On the 24th they crossed the little stream of 
 Ternoise, and there saw the whole French 
 host waiting for them upon the opposite side 
 near the village of Agincourt, and so com- 
 pletely barring the way to Calais that the 
 English could not avoid an engagement. The 
 battle took place on St. Crispin's Day (Oct. 
 25, 1415). The French army is believed to 
 have been five times as large as the English, 
 and yet the engagement resulted in a vic- 
 tory for the English almost the most complete 
 that has ever been recorded in history. 
 The most important of the prisoners taken 
 were D'Albret, the Constable of France, and 
 Charles, Duke of Orleans, the poet, son of 
 the murdered Duke of Orleans. In August of 
 the following year the French, who had 
 threatened Harfleur, were decisively defeated 
 at sea by the Duke of Bedford, the king's 
 brother. Despite these victories Henry 
 clearly perceived that he could only hope to 
 bring his schemes to a successful conclusion 
 by an alliance with one of the two great 
 parties into which France was divided. The 
 traditional policy of England, her commercial 
 relations with the Low Countries, pointed out 
 the Duke of Burgundy as the object of nego- 
 ciations. It is hardly probable that a per- 
 manent alliance would have been made with 
 this party had it not been for the murder of 
 John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, on 
 Sept. 10, 1419. John's son and successor, 
 Philip the Good, immediately threw in his lot 
 with the English. He brought with him all 
 the party of the Burgundians, which included 
 the people of Paris. The result of this acces- 
 sion of strength was the Treaty of Troyes 
 between Henry, Philip, and Isabella, the 
 Queen of France (Charles VI. was at this 
 time insane), in which the Dauphin was ex- 
 cluded from the inheritance, and Henry, on 
 condition of his marrying Catherine, the 
 daughter of Charles VI., was to receive the 
 regency of France during the life of the king, 
 and the succession after his death. The treaty 
 was signed on May 21, 1420, and the marriage 
 of Henry and Catherine took place the follow- 
 ing 2nd of June. The kings of France and 
 England entered Paris together in November, 
 and the Treaty of Troyes was solemnly con- 
 firmed by the Parliament of Paris on Dec. 10. 
 Henry then returned to England, and entered 
 London amidst immense rejoicings. The 
 Dauphin of course repudiated the Treaty of 
 Troyes, and he still had the sui^port of the 
 Hist.- 18* 
 
 powerful party of the Axmagnacs. In March, 
 1421, he gained the victory of Beauge over the 
 English under the Duke of Clarence. This 
 obHged Henry at once to return to France. 
 He drove back the army of the Dauphin and 
 entered Paris in triumph. He left it again to 
 advance against the army of the Dauphin, 
 which lay before Cosne. On his way he was 
 attacked by a fever which terminated fatally 
 at Vinoennes on Aug. 31, 1422, in the 
 thirty-fourth year of Henry's age, and the 
 tenth of- his reign. 
 
 B&iirici Qotiiiti Gesta, known as The CTioj)- 
 lain's Account (Eug. Hist. See.) ; Elniham, Viia 
 et Gesia Hen. V., and Liher meiricus de Hen. V. 
 (ed. Hearne) ; "William of 'Worcester, Annalee ; 
 ■Wolsiugham, Hist. Anglic. (Bolls Series) ; Titus 
 liivius of Friuli (he was an Italian in the ser- 
 vice of the Duke of Gloucester), Viia Hen, V. 
 (ed. Hearne) ; Monstrelet, Chronique ; Cardinal 
 des Ursins, Chronique de Nonnandie ; Le Bour- 
 geois de Paris ; Sir H. Nicolas, The Battle of 
 Aqincourt ; Brougham, England wider the Hovse 
 oj hancastei-: Llngard, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 [C. F. K.] 
 
 Henry VI., King (*. Dec. 6, 1421, s. 
 Sept. 1, 1422, («. May, 1471). The reign of this 
 prince was the third act in the historic drama 
 of the house of Lancaster, and that which was 
 destined to witness the undoing of all that 
 bad been accomplished in the two previous 
 reigns. Henry VI. was born at Wind- 
 sor, and was less than nine months old at 
 the time of his accession to the throne. 
 Charles VI., his grandfather, died a few 
 months later. The regency of the two 
 kingdoms, to which the young king was 
 considered the heir, had been settled by 
 Henry V. The Duke of Bedford was ap- 
 pointed to the more arduous duty of govern- 
 ing the English possessions in France, and of 
 prosecuting the war in that country, while 
 the English regency was assigned to the 
 Duke of Gloucester with the title of Lord 
 Protector. Among Hem-y V.'s dying injunc- 
 tions to his successor was to do all in his 
 power to maintain the alliance with the Duke 
 of Burgundy, and this advice Bedford did his 
 best to carry out. At first he was eminently 
 successful m all his undertakings. The 
 Dauphin (Charles VII.), who hoped to rally 
 his party now that his greatest rival was dead, 
 led his army into Burgundy. He was de- 
 cisively defeated at Crevant,' and the next 
 year still more decisively at Verneuil (Aug. 
 16, 1424). The Duke of Bedford commanded in 
 person at this great battle, which has been well 
 described as a second Agincoui-t. Meanwhile, 
 however, the Duke of Gloucester had con- 
 trived, by espousing Jacqueline of Hainault, 
 to alienate Burgundy from the English 
 interests, and though Bedford did his best, by 
 enormous concessions, to retain his friendship, 
 it was not long before Philip passed over alto- 
 gether to the side of Charles VII., and drew 
 with him the Duke of Britanny. The Pope, 
 too, at this time wrote an appeal to Bedford 
 to desist from his attempts to force upon the 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 554 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 French people a sovereigTi ia defiance of the 
 rights of succession, and the public opinion of 
 Europe was steadily turning against the Eng- 
 lish. It was at this junctui'e that Joan of Arc 
 came forward alleging her divine commission 
 to rescue the country from its invader. At 
 the moment when Joan obtained her first 
 audience with Charles VII. the English were 
 in the midst of the protracted siege of 
 Orleans. Bedford had been induced, in op- 
 position to his own judgment, to undertake 
 this operation with the view of carrying the 
 war into the country beyond the Loire, which 
 adhered altogether to the party of Charles. 
 All France had begun to look upon the siege 
 of Orleans as decisive of the issue of the 
 whole war. Joan made her waj'' into the city on 
 April 29, 1420, and nine days later compelled 
 the English to raise the siege. The next act of 
 Joan was to conduct the king to be crowned 
 at Rheims, which she effected on July 17, 
 after having defeated the English at Patay 
 in the preceding month. These events ended 
 the achievements which Joan had pi'oclaimed 
 it her mission to perform. She accomplished, 
 however, still more for the cause of France's 
 deliverance by her death. Taken prisoner by 
 the English at Compiegne on May 23, 1430, 
 she was carried to Kouen, unjustly con- 
 demned for sorcery, and burnt in the May of 
 the following year. But the effect of her 
 achievements upon France did not pass away 
 with her death. The national spirit had been 
 roused, and the result v/as that the struggle 
 became now a national effort to expel the alien 
 invaders. From that time the cause of Eng- 
 jand was virtually lost. It is not necessary 
 to follow in detail the stages of its decline. 
 By the Treaty of Arras (Sept. 21, 1435), 
 Burgundy finally threw in his lot with 
 Charles, and the event is said to have been 
 the cause of the death of Bedford, which 
 shortly followed. The war dragged on with 
 diminishing hopes on the English side, and 
 increasing discontent at home, for ten years 
 more. In 1444 a truce was made between 
 the two countries ; and in the following year 
 a marriage was arranged between Henry and 
 Margaret, daughter of the Duke of Anjou and 
 Maine, and the niece of the King of France. 
 
 Henceforward, the interest of events abroad 
 depends mainly upon the effect which they 
 had upon pvblic feeling at home — the degree 
 in which they embittered the different parties 
 of English statesmen and tended to bring 
 about the Wars of the Roses, which soon 
 ensued. Two years after the king's marriage, 
 the two rival statesmen, the Duke of Glou- 
 cester and Cardinal Beaufort, died. The 
 Duke of Suffolk now came to be the trusted 
 minister of the crown. He had been chiefly 
 instrumental in bringing about the king's 
 marriage, and he was on that account the 
 favourite of Queen Margaret, by whom the 
 king was entirely governed. But as the 
 royal marriage and the queen herself became 
 
 every day more unpopular in the countr}', the 
 general distrust of the duke kept pace with 
 his favour at court. The Duke of York now 
 occupied, and with much more desert, the 
 place in popular estimation that Gloucester had 
 held a few years before his death, while the 
 continued losses of the English were attributed 
 to the treachery of Suffolk and the queen. At 
 length Suffolk was, at the instance of York 
 and his party, impeached of high treason, 
 was banished by the king, and seized and 
 beheaded, probably by a pirate, in the course 
 of his passage to the coast of France. He 
 was succeeded by the Duke of Somerset in the 
 queen's favour. York was removed from the 
 country by appointment as Regent of Ireland, 
 and the defence of the possessions in France 
 was entrusted to Somerset. In 1450, a fore- 
 taste of the civil war was experienced in the 
 rebellion of the men of Kent, under Jack 
 Cade, who called himself John Mortimer, and 
 professed to be a cousin of the Duke of York. 
 After this rebellion had been suppressed, 
 York returned to England, with a following 
 of several thousand men, and insisted upon a 
 reform of the Council. This was granted, 
 and the appeal to arms was, for a while, 
 deferred. 
 
 Meanwhile, the affairs of the country across 
 the Channel had gone from bad to worse. 
 There was no longer any question of retaining 
 the more recent acquisitions. The most 
 ancient possessions of the English in France 
 were about to be lost — Normandy in 1450, 
 Guienne in 1453. During the defence of the 
 latter place, the brave Lord Shrewsbury, his 
 sons, and about thirty knights, fell in one 
 engagement. In August, 1453, the king 
 began to exhibit signs of mental alienation. 
 It now became clear to aU that, sooner or 
 later, the queen and Somerset on the one 
 hand, and the Duke of York and his partisans 
 upon the other, would appeal to the sword to 
 settle their disputes ; and the noblemen 
 throughout the country began to arm their 
 retainers. York was appointed Protector in 
 April, 1454. But in January of the succeed- 
 ing year the king recovered his faculties, and 
 the appointment was, of course, anniilled. 
 The queen and Somerset now began to think 
 of taking vengeance upon York, who was 
 obliged to retire to the north. There he was 
 joined by the most powerful among his 
 adherents, and definitely took up arms, and 
 marched upon London. On May 22, 1455, 
 the army of York encountered the forces of 
 the king at St. Albans, and there was fought 
 the first battle of the Wars of the Roses. 
 Somerset was slain, and the victory remained 
 with the Yorkists ; so that, on the king again 
 becoming deranged, York was once more 
 made Lord Protector. The war now slumbered 
 for four years. It broke out again in the 
 autumn of 1459; when Lord Audley, with 
 the king's forces, was defeated by the Earl of 
 SaUsbury at Blore Heath (Sept. 23) . But on the 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 555 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 approach of the king the Yorkists were ohliged 
 to disperse, and their leaders were attainted by 
 the Parliament of Coventry in the following 
 Novemher. Soon, however, they recovered 
 their position, and entered London in triumph, 
 in July, 1460. Immediately after was fought 
 the battle of Northampton, in which the king 
 was taken prisoner (July 10, 1460). On Oct. 16 
 the Duke of York, for the first time, laid claim 
 to the crown. Meanwhile, the queen had fled 
 to the north, where she succeeded in raising an 
 army. York hastened to meet her, and on 
 Dec. 30 was fought the battle of Wakefield, 
 in which the army of York was completely 
 defeated. The duke himself was slain, and 
 his second son, the Earl of Rutland, was 
 murdered after the battle. Edward, Earl of 
 March, now succeeded to the claims of his 
 father, and, after some indecisive engage- 
 ments, the queen was decisively defeated at 
 Towton (March 29, 1461), and again at Hex- 
 ham (May 15, 1464). This brought the war to 
 an end; but Henry was again restored for a few 
 months in 1471, through the influence of the 
 Earl of Warwick. Warwick was, however, 
 defeated and slain at Bamet (April 14), and 
 the Lancastrians were, for the last time, 
 repulsed at Tewkesbury (May 4). On the 
 22nd of the same month the body of Henry 
 was exposed at St. Paul's. It was very com- 
 monly believed that he had been murdered 
 by the Duke of Gloucester, the brother of 
 Edward IV. 
 
 Chronicle of St. AVba'tis; ContinuatioM of the 
 Chronicle of Crowland (in Gale's Scriptores) ; 
 William of Worcester (Rolls Series); Stevenson, 
 Wars of the English in France (Rolls Series); 
 Ellis, Original Letters ; Rolls of Parliament ; Pro- 
 ceedings of Privy Council ; The Paston Letters, 
 with Mr. Gairdner's valuable Introductions ; 
 Eeligieux de St. Denys; Bourgeois de Paris; 
 Brougham, JEng. under the House of Lancaster. 
 
 [0. F. K.] 
 
 Henry VII., King {b. Jan. 21, 1456, 
 ». Aug. 22, 1485, d. April 22, 1609), was 
 the son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Rich- 
 mond, son of Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman 
 who had married the widow of Henry V. 
 His mother, Blargaret, was a great-grand- 
 daughter of John of Gaunt by Catherine 
 Swynford, whose offspring had been legiti- 
 matised in 1397, but expressly excluded from 
 succession to the throne. Henry VI. recog- 
 nised his half-brothers of the Tudor house, 
 and when Edmund Tudor died, soon after his 
 son's birth, Henry Yl. took the young Henry 
 of Richmond under his protection. After the 
 battle of Tewkesbury, Jasper Tudor, Earl of 
 Pembroke, carried oft his nephew to Britanny 
 for safety. Edward IV. left no means untried 
 to get Henry into his power. He tried to 
 bribe the Duke of Britanny to give him up, 
 but the duke preferred to receive an annual 
 subsidy for keeping watch over his important 
 guest. Richard III. sent a special envoy to 
 Britanny to spy Henry's doings. The Eng- 
 lish exiles more and more gathered round 
 
 Henry, and saw in him theii' only possible 
 head. His mother and Bishop Morton did 
 their utmost to furnish him with money. 
 On Christmas Day, 1483, a body of exiles 
 took oath in the cathedral of Rheims to place 
 Henry on the English throne, and he on his 
 side, swore to reconcile the contending parties 
 by wedding Elizabeth of York, Edward IV.'s 
 eldest daughter. It needed much patience 
 on Henry's part to keep his party together, 
 and to overcome the obstacles which the 
 French court put in the way of his prepara- 
 tions. At length, on August 1, 1485, he landed 
 at Milford Haven in Pembroke, and was 
 welcomed by the Welsh as a compatriot. He 
 advanced to Shropshire, where he was joined 
 by the Talbots. Richard III. advanced to 
 meet him, and the two armies came in sight 
 near the little town of Bosworth, not far 
 from Ashby-de-la-Zouche. The battle was 
 decided by Lord Stanley, who joined Henry's 
 side. Richard III. was slain and Henry of 
 Richmond was the conqueror (Aug. 22). 
 Still there were many difficulties in his way : 
 but he showed a resolute and far-sighted 
 spirit. He was determined to reign as Eng- 
 land's lawful king, and not to assume a sub- 
 ordinate position by accepting any title 
 through marriage with Elizabeth of York. 
 The claims of the Lancastrian house were not 
 popular, and Henry could scarcely pretend to 
 be a genuine Lancastrian. He took, however, 
 a victor's right, and on the day of the battle 
 of Bosworth assumed the royal title. He 
 advanced to London and had himself crowned 
 before he summoned Parliament in Novem- 
 ber. The Act which recognised his accession 
 made no mention of his claim, but simply 
 declared that " the inheritance of the crown 
 be, rest, remain, and abide in the most royal 
 person of our now sovereign lord King Henry 
 VII. and in his heirs." It may be said that 
 Parliament simply registered an accomplished 
 fact. In January, 1486, Henry VII. married 
 Elizabeth of York, and soon afterwards made 
 a journey northwards to pacify his dominions. 
 There was a futile rising of the Yorkists 
 under Lord Level which was easily put 
 down, and was sternly punished. But Eng- 
 land had been too long disturbed by party 
 warfare for peace to come at once. In 1487, 
 a young man, Lambert Simnel, was trained to 
 personate the Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke 
 of Clarence, whom Henry VII. kept confined 
 in the Tower. The impostor was welcomed 
 in Ireland, and received aid from Flanders, 
 where the Duchess Margaret of Burgundy, 
 sister of Edward IV., resided. He landed in 
 England in June, 1487, but was defeated 
 and taken prisoner at Stoke, and was after 
 employed as a, servant in the royal kitchen. 
 This rising taught Henry VII. that he must 
 mollify the bitterness of the Yorkist feeling, 
 and he accordingly had Elizabeth crowned as 
 his queen in November. He also took 
 measures to reduce still further the power 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 556 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 of tlie great barons, though the baronage had 
 been almost annihilated in the bloody battles 
 of the Wars of the Roses. In 1487 Parlia- 
 ment constituted a new commission of judges, 
 chosen from the members of the Privy Coun- 
 cil, with power to put down divers misde- 
 meanours. Chief of these was the practice 
 of maintenance, by which a lord could bind 
 to himself a band of retainers, who wore his 
 livery, espoused his quarrels, and were too 
 strong for the ordinary law courts to touch. 
 This new court of the Star Chamber outlived 
 its original purpose, and became an abuse. 
 Henry VII.'s policy was peaceful, and he 
 did not aim at gaining glory for his new 
 dynasty by foreign warfare. The daughter 
 of his former protector, the Duke of Britanny, 
 asked his help against France ; and the Eng- 
 lish people were ready for war. Henry VII. 
 used his people's zeal as a means for raising 
 large suppUes, but only made a show of 
 fighting, and, in 1492 made with Charles 
 VIII. of France the Peace of Staples, 
 by which he consented to be bought off 
 by a large money payment of £149,000. 
 A new pretender, a Fleming, Peter Osbeck, 
 generally known as Perkin Warbeck, claimed 
 to he a son of Edward IV., who had escaped 
 from the hands of Bichard III. By the 
 Treaty of jfitaples, "Warbeck was expelled from 
 France. He was, however, warnily supported 
 by Margaret of Burgundy, and had many 
 adherents in England. Henry VII. steadily 
 pursued them, and punished them with re- 
 morseless severity. After an unsuccessful 
 attempt at landing on the coast of Kent in 
 1495, 160 prisoners were hanged. In 1496 
 Henry VII. made a commercial treaty, 
 known as " The- Great Intercourse," with 
 Flanders, by which liberty of trading was 
 secured, and each party undertook to expel 
 the other's rebels from their territory. The 
 obvious advantages of commercial intercourse 
 overcame dynastic politics, and Flanders was 
 no more a seedbed of plots against the Eng- 
 lish monarchy. Warbeck took refuge in 
 Scotland, where Henry VII.'s policy of 
 conciliation was not yet able to overcome 
 national animosity. Still it made so much 
 progress that Warbeck was driven to seek 
 his fortunes in the field, and in September, 
 1497, landed in Cornwall. As the royal 
 troops advanced, Warbeok's forces melted 
 away, and he was taken prisoner in the abbey 
 of Beaulieu. Warbeck made an attempt to 
 escape from prison, and led the Earl of War- 
 wick to share in his attempt. In 1499 they 
 were both executed, and Henry VII. was at 
 last free from any pretender to his throne. 
 Henry VII. devoted himself to the great 
 object of establishing the royal power at 
 home, and of raising the English monarchy 
 to a strong position in European affairs. He 
 lived economically, and seldom summoned 
 Parliament. He used benevolences to raise 
 money, and rigidly exercised aU the old 
 
 rights of the crown. He reduced the barons 
 into complete obedience, and raised up a new 
 class of officials. He succeeded in bringing 
 Ireland into greater order and closer connec- 
 tion with England. The Deputy, Sir Edward 
 Poynings, passed a law which made the Irish 
 Parliament largely dependent on the English 
 king. Henry VII. steadily pursued the 
 endeavour of bringing Scotland into closer 
 union with England, and in this he was helped 
 by his alliance with France, which weakened 
 its connection with Scotland. In 1502, peace 
 was established with Scotland, and Henry 
 VII/s daughter, Margaret, was given in 
 marriage to the Scottish king James IV. 
 
 In foreign affairs Henry VII. recog- 
 nised a congenial spirit in Ferdinand of 
 Aragon, and vrished to restore on a firmer 
 basis the traditional alliance between Eng- 
 land and the Spanish house. A marriage 
 was arranged between the Infanta, Cathe- 
 rine, and Arthur, Henry VII.'s eldest son. 
 It took place in November, 1501, but five 
 months afterwards Arthur died at the age 
 of fifteen. Henry VII. and Ferdinand were 
 both unwUHng to lose the advantages of this 
 connection. It was agreed that Arthur's 
 brother Henry should marry Catherine. The 
 necessary dispensations were obtained, and 
 Catherine stayed in England, but the mar- 
 riage was not celebrated till after Henry VII.'s 
 death. The death of Queen Elizabeth in 1503 
 left Henry VII. free to carry farther his 
 policy of Continental alliances. He proposed 
 to marry Margaret, daughter of the Emperor 
 Maximilian, whose son Philip was Duke of 
 Burgundy. By this marriage he proposed, 
 amongst other advantages, to secure posses- 
 sion of Edmund de la Pole, son of the Duke of 
 Suffolk and Edward IV. 's sister Elizabeth. 
 A storm drove Philip of Burgundy on the 
 English coast, and Henry VII., in retirm for 
 his hospitality, demanded the surrender of 
 Edmund de la Pole, who was imprisoned in 
 the Tow-er. The marriage with Margaret 
 did not take place, and Henry VII. spent his 
 last years in devising other marriages for him- 
 self and his daughter. None of them were 
 accomplished ; but their object was to secure 
 for his house a sure friendship both with Aus- 
 trian and Spanish lines. Henry VII.'s finan- 
 cial policy became more and more rapacious, 
 and he was skilful in finding ready instru- 
 ments, chief of whom were Edmund Dudley 
 and Eichard Empson. When Henry VII. 
 died on AprU 21, 1509, he left England paci- 
 fied and the royal coffers weU filled. He had 
 done a difficult task with thoroughness and 
 persistency. He gave England order, peace, 
 and prosperity. He established firmly his 
 own house on the English throne. He secured 
 ris position by a system of alliances abroad. 
 By the same means he protected English in- 
 terests, and gained for England an important 
 place in European politics without fighting a 
 single battle. His prudent use of the means 
 
Hen 
 
 (557) 
 
 Hen 
 
 at his disposal won for him in alter times the 
 name of the " Solomon of England." 
 
 Polydore Vergil, Anglica H£stoi*tca; Hall, 
 Chronicle of the Union of the Souses of York and 
 Lancaster; Memonals of Henry ¥11.^ ed. Gaird- 
 Ber (Rolls Series) ; Francesco Capello, Relazione 
 (Camden Society) j London Chronicle (Uam- 
 den Miscellany, vol. iv.) ; Bacon, Bisi. of 
 the Eeign of Henry VII. ; Pauli, Englischa 
 Geschichte; Hallam, ConstitvXiornal Hist, of Eng- 
 lond. pi. Q_] 
 
 Henry VIII., King (i. June 28, 1491, 
 s. April 22, 1509, d. Jan. 28, 1547), was 
 the son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of 
 York. He came to the throne a handsome 
 and accomplished young man, whose acces- 
 sion was hailed with joy as a relief from the 
 severe and sombre rule of Henry VII. Hem-y 
 VIII. increased his popularity by prosecuting 
 the hated instruments of his father's extor- 
 tion, Empson and Dudley, who were put to 
 death on a charge of plotting to seize the 
 royal person. He intimated his intention of 
 carrying on his father's foreign policy by 
 completing the marriage, which had long 
 been deferred, with Catherine of Aragon, his 
 brother Arthur's widow. He longed to 
 plunge into an adventurous career of foreign 
 policy, for which the troubled state of Euro- 
 pean afiairs afEorded every opportunity. Italy 
 was the battle-field of the rival claims of 
 the Empire, France, and Spain. The League 
 of Cambrai — for the dismemberment of Venice 
 —had awakened the Pope's jealousy against 
 France. The Holy League was formed in 
 1511 against Louis XII., and Henry VIII. 
 gladly joined it. An English army was sent 
 under the Duke of Suffolk to co-operate with 
 Spanish troops in the south of France. But 
 Ferdinand used it only for his own purposes ; 
 he delayed any great operations, and the 
 English suffered from the climate. Nothing 
 was done in this campaign of 1512 ; but next 
 year Henry VTII. arranged to co-operate with 
 the German king, Maximilian, in Flanders. 
 The bloodless Battle of the Spurs (Aug. 16, 
 1513) secured the fall of Terouenne, and 
 Toimiai also was taken. France retaliated 
 on England by stin-ing up the Scots to break 
 the peace which they had recently made with 
 England. James IV. crossed the border, with 
 a large army, but was defeated and slain by 
 the Earl of Surrey in the battle of Flodden 
 Field. The year 1513 was successful for 
 Henry VIII.'s ambitious schemes. But his 
 allies were ready for a truce. Henry VIII. 
 could not continue the war by himself. He 
 made peace with Louis XII. in return for 
 large sums of money, and ratified the peace by 
 giving his sister Mary in marriage to the old 
 king. The death of James IV. of Scotland 
 left another of Henry's sisters, Margaret, the 
 queen dowager, regent of Scotland. But her 
 second marriage, with the Earl of Angus, 
 made her unpopular, and afforded an opening 
 for French intrigues. The death of Louis 
 XII. and the accession of Francis I. in 1516, 
 
 again led to European war, which was ended 
 in 1518, by a confederacy between England, 
 France, and Spain. 
 
 Henry's chief adviser was Thomas Wol- 
 sey, who rose by his abilities, and showed 
 his capacity especially by managing the de- 
 tails of the campaign of 1513. Next year he 
 was made Archbishop of York, and Chan- 
 cellor. He soon was created cardinal, and 
 made papal legate in England. His civil and 
 ecclesiastical authority combined gave him 
 a commanding position. He was devoted 
 to the king's serv-ice, and bent upon exalting 
 the royal authority. He likewise upheld 
 stoutly the authority of the Church, though 
 he wished to reform some of its abuses. 
 Above all he laboured to make England in- 
 fluential and respected in European affairs. 
 At home he exercised arbitrary power. From 
 1515 to 1523 no Parliament was simimoned, 
 but money was collected by forced loans and 
 benevolences. 
 
 The death of Maximilian in 1519 raised 
 the question of succession to the Empire. 
 Henry VIII. offered himself as a candidate ; 
 but the contest really lay between Francis I. 
 and Charles, grandson alike of Ferdinand and 
 Maximilian. The election of Charles V. was 
 the beginning of a long rivalry between 
 France and the house of Hapsburg.- Both 
 wished to secure the support of England, 
 and Wolsey enhanced the importance of the 
 English alliance by temporising between the 
 two powers. Charles V. condescended to 
 visit Canterbury for a conference with Henry 
 VIII. Francis I. arranged an interview on 
 the plain of Ardres, with such magnificence 
 that it was known as the " Field of the Cloth 
 of Gold." But inWolsey's eyes the interests 
 of England could be better served by siding 
 with Charles V., and in the war which fol- 
 lowed, England saw its ally everywhere suc- 
 cessful. France retaliated on England, as 
 usual, by raising disturbances in Scotland, 
 where the Duke of Albany attacked the Eng- 
 lish borders. He was, however, outgeneralled 
 by the Earl of Surrey, and in 1523 a peace 
 for eighteen years was made with Scotland. 
 
 In 1523 Henry VIII. had hopes of reviving 
 the English claims on the French throne. 
 But Charles V. had no wish to see his ally 
 become too powerful. His object was to use 
 the help of England to enable him to make 
 a satisfactory peace with France in his own 
 interests. Wolsey soon saw this, and the 
 alliance of England with Charles V. began 
 rapidly to cool. The complete success of 
 Charles V. at the battle of Pavia, in 1525, 
 where Francis I. was taken prisoner, showed 
 still more clearly that England had nothing 
 to gain from her ally. Henry VIII. and 
 Wolsey came round to the French side, and in 
 1528 England declared war against Charles V. 
 
 During this period Henry VIII. was re- 
 garded as a gay, pleasure-loving king, am- 
 bitious, and full of great schemes, which he 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 558 ) 
 
 H^a 
 
 was content to leave in the hands of Wolsey 
 to be worked out. Wolaey's hand was heavy 
 on the people, and his taxation was arbitrary 
 that he might raise adequate supplies. Henry 
 VIII. stood aloof from these questions. He 
 retained his own popularity, and allowed all 
 the responsibility and all the odium to fall 
 upon Wolsey's shoulders. The country was 
 prosperous and contented under a strong 
 government, and looked with fervent loyalty 
 upon the king who secured their peace. But 
 Henry VIII. had no male heirs. All his 
 children by Catherine died in infancy, save a 
 daughter, Mary. Uncertainty about the suc- 
 cession to the throne would again plunge 
 England into a bloody conflict. Henry VIII. 
 repressed all speculation about the future with 
 sternness. In 1521 the Duke of Buckingham 
 was condemned and executed as a traitor on 
 slight charges" of attempting to forecast the 
 duration of the king's life. But Henry VIII. 
 was uiieasy at the want of a male heir. His 
 wife, Catherine, was older than himself, and 
 was sickly. So long as he remained in alli- 
 ance with Charles V., Catherine had a political 
 significance. On the breach, with Charles V., 
 she became an obstacle in the way of the ■ 
 new policy. The marriage with a brother's 
 widow had sufficient irregularity to give 
 grounds for a divorce, and a desire for a 
 divorce gradually took possession of the king's 
 mind. It became a determined object when 
 the king fell in love with Anne Boleyn, a 
 lady of Catherine's court. Wolsey had 
 favoured the divorce scheme in the interests 
 of the alliance with France. When he found 
 that it was urged to make room for Anne 
 BolejTi, he was dismayed, but none the less 
 obeyed the king. The question was, however, 
 an awkward one, and it was diificult to find 
 good reasons for urging it on the Pope. 
 Clement VII. was cowed by the sack of 
 Rome in 1527, and was afraid of drawing on 
 himself the wrath of Charles V. He con- 
 sented to constitute Cardinals Wolsey and 
 Campeggio commissioners to examine into the 
 king's plea, and the legates sat in London in 
 1529. But the case was revoked to Home, 
 and Henry was left disappointed. Every 
 effort was made to override or outwit the un- 
 fortunate Catherine ; but her resolution 
 left the Pope no chance of evading the main 
 issue, which was the validity of the dispensa- 
 tion issued lay a previous Pope. It is no 
 wonder that Clement VII. hesitated. 
 
 The immediate result of Henry's disap- 
 pointment was the disgrace of Wolsey, who 
 had so faithfully served his master that he 
 had no other friend. Wolsey was brought 
 under the penalties of the Statute of Praemu- 
 nire for having exercised the ofiice of legate. 
 He died in November, 1530, foreseeing the 
 great questions that would ariss. "The 
 king," he said, " is of royal spirit, and hath 
 a princely heart ; rather than he will miss or 
 want part of ids appetite, he will hazard the 
 
 loss of half a kingdom." Henry was reso- 
 lute for his divorce, and was still anxious to 
 obtain the papal sanction. In dragging 
 before the world aU the secrets of his domestic 
 life, and showing openly his attachment to 
 Anne Boleyn, he entered upon a career which 
 led to momentous results. The Lutheran 
 revolt ■ in Germany had done much to shake 
 the foundation of the papal authority, and 
 Henry VIII. had shown his orthodoxy by 
 writing against Luther, and receiving from 
 the Pope the title of " Defender of the 
 Faith." But the demand for reform was loud 
 inside the Church, and Henry VIII. encou- 
 raged the Parliament of 1529 to pass mea- 
 sures for remedying clerical abuses. He tried 
 to bring further pressure to bear upon the 
 Pope by gathering opinions of the universities 
 of Europe upon the question of the papal 
 power to grant a dispensation for marriage 
 with a brother's widow. In 1531 he went 
 further, and threatened all the clergy of Eng- 
 land with the penalties of Praemunire because 
 they had recognised Wolsey's legatine autho- 
 rity. They bought off the royal displeasure, 
 but were driven in their bill to give the king 
 the title of supreme head of the Church. 
 Still the Pope did not give way, and next 
 year Parliament was encouraged to continue 
 the war against the clergy, and the payment 
 of annates or first-fruits to the Pope, was 
 attacked. At last the king's patience was 
 exhausted, and in January, 1533, he was 
 secretly married to Anne Bolejii. The Pope 
 threatened excommunication, whereon an Act 
 was passed forbidding appeals to Pome. The 
 divorce question was then tried before the 
 court of Archbishop Cranmer ; and Catherine, 
 who refused to plead, was pronounced contu- 
 macious, and sentence was given against her. 
 The Pope declared the divorce illegal. The 
 breach with Rome was complete. Henry VIII. 
 had done what he could to avoid the breach ; 
 but step by step he was drawn on until it was 
 inevitable. The Parliament of 1534 finished 
 the work of separating the Church of Eng- 
 land from the papal headship, and instituting 
 it as a national church under the headship of 
 the king. 
 
 Henry VIII.'s chief adviser in these mea- 
 sures was Thomas Cromwell, who had risen ■ 
 to_ notice in Wolsey's service. Cromwell 
 wished to re-establish the royal power as su- 
 preme over Church and State alike. The dis- 
 content created by these sweeping measures 
 was sternly repressed. The Succession Act, 
 which settled the crown upon the children of 
 Anne Boleyn, was made a test of loyalty. 
 The royal supremacy was enacted by Parlia- 
 ment, and it was high treason to question that 
 title. Cromwell's spies and informers crowded 
 the laud. The monks of the Charterhouse 
 perished on the scaffold for refusing to admit 
 the royal supremacy. Sir Thomas More and 
 Bishop Fisher were executed because they 
 could not conscientiously take oath that they 
 
Hea 
 
 ( 559 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 heartily approved of these changes. By these 
 examples the discontented were cowed into 
 acquiescence. The royal supremacy, exer- 
 cised by Cromwell as Vicar- General, was used 
 for clearing away seedplots of disaffection. 
 In 1536 the smaller monasteries were visited 
 and suppressed, and in 1539 the larger monas- 
 teries were involved in the same fate. Their 
 lands passed into the hands of a class of new 
 nobility, who thus had a direct interest in main- 
 taining the new state of things. The abbots 
 disappeared from the House of Lords, and the 
 Parliamentary influence of the Church was at 
 an end. 
 
 There was no limit to the royal power, or 
 to the subserviency of Parliament. Henry 
 VIII. seems to have regarded himself as 
 beyond all recognised principles of human 
 conduct. In 1536 Anne Boleyn was accused 
 of uuchastity, and was beheaded. The day 
 after her execution the king married Jane 
 Seymour. Again the succession to the throne 
 was altered by Act of Parliament. Henry 
 VTII. was even allowed to nominate his suc- 
 cessor by win. But the king's position was 
 dangerous. In Ireland there was a serious 
 rising of the Fitzgeralds. In Lincolnshire, 
 an army of discontented folks presented their 
 grievances. In Yorkshire, a more serious 
 rising, "the Pilgrimage of Grace," was put 
 down by the Duke of Norfolk. To guard 
 against a rising of the old Yorkist faction in 
 the west, the grandson of Edward IV., 
 Edward Courtenay, Marquis of Exeter, was 
 executed as a traitor. By the end of 1537, 
 the disaffection created by the violent changes 
 had been stamped out. 
 
 Henry VIII. desired nothing more than 
 the absorption into the crown of the powers 
 previously exercised by the Pope. But it 
 was difScult to repress the zeal of those who 
 were inspired by the teaching of Luther, and 
 discussed the doctrines of the Church with 
 freedom. Religious change and doctrinal re- 
 form spread more widely than Henry VIII. 
 liked. He was willing to use it so far as it 
 enabled him to make good his position, but 
 no further. In 1539 Parliament passed the 
 Bill of Six Articles, which asserted the chief 
 points of the old system against the attacks 
 of the Reformers. Cromwell was disposed to 
 go further, and seek political advantages by a 
 close alliance with the Protestant princes of 
 Germany. In 1540 he negotiated Henry 
 VIII.'s fourth marriage, with Anne, daughter 
 of John, Duke of Cleves. His new wife dis- 
 pleased the king; the German princes were 
 too irresolute to be of any political service. 
 Henry VIII. repudiated his wife, and aban- 
 doned Cromwell, who was condemned by bill 
 of attainder, and was executed. The king 
 married Catherine Howard, niece of the Duke 
 of Norfolk, and a reaction against Cromwell's 
 policy set in. Catherine Howard was, in the 
 year 1542, convicted of misconduct, and was 
 executed. Next year Henry married, as his 
 
 sixth wife, Catherine Parr, widow of Lord 
 Latimer ; with her he contrived to live in 
 peace. 
 
 The remainder of Henry VIII.'s reign was 
 spent in war with Scotland and Prance, which, 
 to his great annoyance, had renewed their old 
 alliance. The young king, James V., mai-ried 
 a French wife, and, in 1542, ravaged the 
 borders ; but died in consequence of the igno- 
 minious rout of his army at Solway Moss. 
 Still the French party prevailed in Scotland, 
 and the English generals on the borders kept 
 up a merciless system of plundering raids. 
 Indignant against France, Henry again allied 
 himself with Charles V., and, in 1644, cap- 
 tured Boulogne. But Charles V. made peace 
 for himself, and abandoned his ally. Still 
 Henry VIII. carried on the war single-handed 
 till, in 1546, peace was made at Boulogne, 
 and France agreed to pay a large pension to 
 the English king. Meanwhile, Henry VIII.'s 
 health was giving way, and his popularity 
 had greatly waned. There was a secret strife 
 between religious parties, which only the 
 strong hand of the king could repress. The 
 Duke of Norfolk led the reactionary party ; 
 the Earl of Hertford, uncle of the young 
 Edward, heir to the throne, favoured the Re- 
 formers. Norfolk and his son, the Earl of 
 Surrey, behaved so as to awaken the king's 
 suspicions. Henry VIII. was above all things 
 careful that there should be no disturbance 
 during the minority of his son. In December, 
 1546, Norfolk and Surrey were suddenly im- 
 prisoned. Surrey was beheaded, and Norfolk 
 was about to share the same fate when Henry 
 VIII. died on Jan. 28, 1547. 
 
 Henry VIII. was by nature a highly-gifted 
 man, of a strongly-marked character, which 
 won the hearts of all. He attached his minis- 
 ters to him as few rulers have ever succeeded 
 in doing. He used their loyal devotion to the 
 full, and then remorselessly abandoned them. 
 He was above all things a king. No king 
 had a higher sense of the privileges of 
 royalty ; no king exercised them more fully, 
 or succeeded in obtaining for them a fuller 
 recognition from his people. Henry is 
 equally remarkable for what he did, and for 
 what he abstained from doing. He clothed 
 his own caprice in the forms of justice ; he 
 elevated his own personal desires to principles 
 of national policy ; he strained the Constitu- 
 tion to its furthest point, but he did not break 
 it ; he was a tyrant, but he clothed his tyranny 
 under the forms of parliamentary sanction ; 
 he so far identified himself with the general 
 interest of his people, that they were ready to 
 trust him with larger powers than any pre- 
 vious king enjoyed. In his private life his 
 coarseness was strangely mixed with questions 
 of the national welfare ; and the morality 
 required from the ordinary man was set aside 
 in the case of the sovereign. Everything 
 was pardoned in a ruler who had a hand 
 strong enough to maintain order, and who 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 560 ) 
 
 Her 
 
 could hold a firm balance between contending- 
 factions. Under Hemy Ylll. England passed 
 through a great crisis without material change 
 of the constitution either of Church or State. 
 A great revolution was accomplished with 
 comparative peace. 
 
 Calendar of Staie Facers; Stow, Chvonwle; 
 Holinsbed, dlwonicle ; Wriothesley, CUvanicla 
 (Camden Society) ; Cavendish, Life of Wolsetj; 
 Zii,rich Letters (Parker Society) : Strype, JEccle- 
 siastical Memorials ; Lord Herbert of Cherbury, 
 Life of Henry VI7I. : Pocock, Records of the 
 Reformatimi ; Dixon, Ifist. of the Church ofEng. ; 
 Lingard, Hist, of Eng. ; J, S. Brewer, The 'Reign 
 of Menry VllI, ; Proude, Hist, of Englaiid from 
 the Fall of Wohey. [M. C.] 
 
 Henry, Pkin-oe of Wales (5. 1.594, <?. 
 1612), the eldest son of James I., wasa prince 
 of great promise. It was for his benefit that 
 his father wrote the manual of conduct en- 
 titled, Basililcon Doron, or The Boyal Gift. He 
 seems to have been vei-y popular with the 
 Scots as well as with the English, and owing 
 to his violent dislike of Popery the young 
 prince was the hope of the Protestant party 
 of England ; and his character and attain- 
 ments ofEered high promise. He died in 
 November, 1612, from a fever probably 
 brought on by over-violent exertions. The 
 suspicion that he was poisoned seems to have 
 been altogether unfounded. 
 
 Bacon, In Hem-icum Frindyiem Wallix Eulo- 
 gium ; Court and Times of James I. ; Cornwallis, 
 Life of Prince Henry (Somers's Tract II,); S. K. 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 1603—1842. 
 
 Henry, son of Henry II. (b. 11.5.5, d. 
 1183), was married at an early age to Mar- 
 garet, daughter of Louis VII. of France. 
 His father had destined him to succeed him 
 in England, Normandy, andAnjou, while the 
 rest of his dominions was to be divided 
 between his other sons. In 1170, in pur- 
 suance of this scheme, the young Henry was 
 crowned king, and in 1173 was re-crowned 
 with his wife. Next year Henry II., anxious 
 to make some provision for John, requested 
 his elder sons to give up to their brother some 
 few castles out of their promised shares of his 
 dominions. The ymmg King Henry refused, 
 and joined the French king in the great con- > 
 federation he had formed against Henry II. ; 
 but the allies were defeated everywhere, and 
 Henry was only too glad to seek reconcili- 
 ation with his father. But his intrigues 
 continued, both against his father and his 
 brother Richai-d, his whole aim being to es- 
 tablish an independent dominion for himself. 
 In U83 these intrigues ended in an open 
 revolt in which Henry and Geoffrey were 
 ranged against Prince Richard and their 
 father. A miserable civil war ensued, in 
 the course of which Henry died at Martel. 
 i Of his character Giraldus Cambrensis speaks 
 in terms of high commendation, which the 
 facts of his life fail to justify. 
 
 Lyttelton, History of Henry II. 
 
 Henry, Piuxce of Scotlakd (<?. 1152), 
 
 was the son of David I. Stephen, soon 
 after his coronation, conferred on him 
 the fiefs of Northampton and Huntingdon, 
 which his father repudiated, and at the Treaty 
 of Durham, 1139, added Northumbria as well. 
 Henry led a division of the Scottish army at 
 the Battle of the Standard, 1138. He died 
 June, 1152, to the sorrow of all, for we are 
 told by the chroniclers, that he was a 
 brave and able soldier, and walked like his 
 father in the paths of justice and of truth. 
 He married Ada, daughter of William de 
 Warenne, Earl of Surrey. 
 
 Henry of Almayne (4. 1235, d. 1271) 
 was the son of Eichaid of Cornwall, King of 
 the Romans. In 1263 he joined the barons 
 against his uncle Henry III., and was taken 
 prisoner by the king, but in the civil war 
 which ensued he fought on the royalist side, 
 and took part in the battle of Lewes. He was 
 afterwards given as one of the hostages to 
 the barons for the performance of the Mise- 
 of Lewes, and was by them sent over to 
 France to negotiate a new arbitration by 
 St. Louis. After the defeat of the barons at 
 Evesham, Henry received valuable grants of 
 land, and in 1268 accompanied his cousin 
 Prince Edward on his (Srusade. On his 
 return he was murdered at Viterbo in Italy 
 by Simon and Guy de Montfort. 
 
 Heptarchy, The, is a term often applied 
 to the English kingdoms which existed pre- 
 vious to the time of Egbert. It has been 
 used generally by most of the historians of 
 the last century, and is still a common term 
 in historical text-books. It is, however, in- 
 appropriate, as the word Heptarchy (eirTapx'a) 
 strictly means a government of seven persons. 
 Besides this, it conveys the erroneous idea 
 that there were in England from the fifth to 
 the ninth centuries, always seven independent 
 kingdoms. This was very far from the case : 
 there were often more than seven kingdoms 
 and more frequently fewer ; but if every state 
 which at any time had a king of it's own 
 were to be reckoned, the number of kingdoms 
 would very far exceed the number. Those 
 writers who use the term Heptarchy, under- 
 stand by it the kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex, 
 Kent, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia, and North- 
 umbria. [For the whole subject see Anglo- 
 Saxon Kingdoms.] 
 
 _ Herat is a city of immemorial antiquity, 
 situated in Afghanistan on the high road from 
 India to Persia, and Central Asia. Since the 
 foundation of the Afghan monarchy in the 
 middle of the last century, Herat has been 
 more or less subject to the claims of Cabul; 
 and when in 1838 the Persians attempted to 
 seize this city, the English helped the people 
 of Herat to resist their enemy, and in 1857, 
 compelled the Shah to recognise its indepen- 
 dence. The Afghans, under Sir Edward Pot- 
 tinger, endured a famous siege which lasted till 
 the English government sent a message to the 
 
Her 
 
 ( 561 ) 
 
 Her 
 
 Shah, informing him that his occupation of 
 Herat would be followed by war, whereupon 
 the Persians raised the siege Sept. 9, 1838. 
 Herat now forms part of the Afghan king- 
 dom. 
 
 Sir W, Napier, Administraiion ofScinde. 
 
 Herbert of Cherbvky, Lord Edward 
 {b. 1582, d. 1648), was educated at Oxford, 
 and, after travelling abroad, where he made 
 the acquaintance of Casaubon and other great 
 scholars, serving in the Netherlands under the 
 Prince of Orange (1615 — 16), and \'isiting Italy, 
 was appointed English ambassador at Paris 
 (1618). Seven years later he retired into private 
 Bfe, and devoted himself to literary pursuits. 
 In the Civil War he ultimately sided with the 
 Parliament, though at first somewhat inclined 
 to the Royalist cause. Lord Herbert's chief 
 historical writings are a History of Henry 
 VIII., an account of the Expedition to the Isle 
 of Rhe (in which he defends Buckingham's 
 conduct), and a celebrated Autobiography. 
 Lord Herbert also wrote several philosophical 
 works, in which he laid down the principles 
 of Deism. 
 
 Herbert of Lea, Sidney Herbert, 
 1st Lord {b. 1810, d. 1861), entered Parlia- 
 ment as member for Wiltshire in 1832, and 
 attached himself to the party of Sir Eobert 
 Peel and the Conservatives. In 1841 the last- 
 mentioned statesman appointed him Secretary 
 of the Admiralty, from which office he was, 
 in 1845, promoted to be Secretary for War. 
 In common with almost every other member 
 of Sir Robert Peel's government, he changed 
 his views with regard to the question of Pro- 
 tection, and became an ardent advocate of 
 free trade. On Sir Robert's death, Sidney 
 Herbert, in company with Sir James Graham, 
 Mr. Gladstone, and a few others, formed a 
 party by themselves called " Peelites." 
 When the Earl of Aberdeen became Premier, 
 nearly the whole of the Peelites took office, 
 and Sidney Herbert once more became 
 Secretary for War, but was not altogether 
 successful as the head of this department 
 at the breaking out of the Crimean War. 
 AVhen Lord Palmerston succeeded to Lord 
 Aberdeen, Mr. Sidney Herbert was made 
 Colonial Secretary. In 1858 he again became 
 Secretary of State for War under Lord 
 Palmerston, and introduced some important 
 reforms. In the midst of these labours Mr. 
 Herbert's health began to fail. He was 
 called to the Upper House by the title of 
 Lord Herbert of Lea in 1860. 
 
 Herbert, Sir Thomas (/;. 1606, d. 1682), 
 was a member of the family of IPembroke, 
 and had distinguished himself as a traveller 
 when, on the outbreak of the Civil War, he 
 joined the Parliamentary party. He was 
 employed as commissary of Fairfax's army, 
 and when Charles I. was betrayed by the 
 Scotch, he was made one of the king's at- 
 tendants. The Threnodia Carolina, which he 
 
 published in 1678, gives a minute account of 
 Charles I.'s life during his imprisonment. He 
 was made a baronet in 1660, but took no 
 farther part in public affairs, devoting him- 
 self almost exclusively to antiquarian re- 
 searches. Sir Thomas Herbert published an 
 account of his travels in 1634, and this work 
 has been subsequently reprinted. His account 
 of Charles I.'s last days was re-published in 
 1701 and 1813. 
 
 Hereford first appears in history as the 
 place where Bishop Putta settled (676), on the 
 exercise of his episcopal functions after he was 
 obliged to leave Rochester. Here, according 
 to Dr. Bright, he may have acted as a kind of 
 suffragan for Saxulf, Bishop of Mercia, though 
 we are not to consider him the first of a con- 
 tinuous line of bishops belonging to this see. 
 HerefordwasdestroyedbyGruffydd, of Wales, 
 in 1065, but was re-fortified by Harold the 
 same year. Its first charter dates from the 
 reign of Richard I. (1189). 
 
 Hereford, The Peerages of. The earl- 
 dom of Hereford was held by WiDiam Fitz- 
 Osbem, the Conqueror's Justiciary, and by his 
 son Roger. In 1140 the title was granted by 
 the Empress Matilda to Milo of Gloucester, 
 from whom it passed to his son, and then to 
 the son of his daughter, Margery, wife of 
 Humphrey de Bohun. Seven earls were 
 descended from the Bohun family, until its 
 extinction in this branch, in 1372. In 1397, 
 Hemy of Bolingbroke, afterwards king, was 
 created Duke of Hereford, a title which be- 
 came merged in tie crown. In 1550 a 
 viscounty of the same style was created for 
 Walter Devereux, who was descended from 
 Eleanor, daughter of the last earl of the 
 Bohun family. Walter's son was made Earl 
 of Essex (1572), but in the next generation, 
 Robert, the famous Earl of Essex, was at- 
 tainted and beheaded (1601). His son, 
 Eobert, was restored in blood and honours in 
 1603, but died childless in 1646, when the 
 viscounty of Hereford devolved upon his 
 cousin, Sir Walter Devereux, in whose issue 
 it still remains. 
 
 Hereford, Humphrey de Bohvn, 10th 
 Darl of [d. 1297), Lord High Constable of 
 England, succeeded to his grandfather's title 
 and estates in the year 1275. His father had 
 been a supporter of Simon de Montfort, and 
 the son inherited the traditions of the baro- 
 nial party. This Earl of Hereford is chiefly 
 remarkable for having headed the opposition 
 to Edward I.'s demands in 1297, and refused 
 to serve the king abroad. It wiis in vain 
 that Edward threatened or prayed, the earl 
 and his fellow-baron, Bigod, stood their 
 ground, and when the Council broke up 
 raised a force of fifteen hundred cavalry to 
 prevent the king from seizing the wool or 
 collecting money. This contest led to the 
 enactment of the statute De Tallagio non 
 concedendo. Dr. Stubbs considers that Here- 
 
Her 
 
 ( 562 ) 
 
 Her 
 
 ford's conduct on this occasion was not dic- 
 tated .by any strongly disinterested motive, 
 but actuated by revenge for his imprison- 
 ment in 1292. 
 
 Hereford, Humphkey de Bohun, 11th 
 
 Eakl of {d. 1321), was the son of the 
 tenth earl, and married EUzabeth, the seventh 
 daughter of Edward I. He inherited some- 
 thing of the spirit of his father, and was 
 one of the Ordainers in 1310. Eight years 
 later he was appointed one of the four earls 
 in the permanent Council of 1318. In 1321 
 he was forbidden to attend a meeting of the 
 aggrieved lords, at which he meditated ex- 
 posing his wrongs. His great cause of com- 
 plaint was the power of the Despencers, who 
 were threatening his influence on the Welsh 
 Marches. In the same year he was the chief 
 prosecutor of the Despencers in Parliament, 
 and was formally pardoned for the part he 
 took in these proceedings. Next year he 
 was slain at the battle of Boroughbridge 
 (1322). 
 
 Heresy, Legislation concerning. Ac- 
 cording to the canon law, heresy was a 
 subject of ecclesiastical discipline. The sus- 
 pected heretic was summoned before the 
 bishop's court, was examined concerning his 
 opinions, and was required to submit to the 
 parental jurisdiction of his ecclesiastical 
 father. If convicted, he submitted, did 
 penance, confessed his errors, and amended 
 his ways. The common law, in early times, 
 took cognisance of heresy, but probably only 
 in the case of those who were contumacious 
 to their bishop, or relapsed after submission. 
 Heresy was a subject of inquest at the 
 sherifis' tourn, and the punishment of avowed 
 unbelief was burning. But in early times 
 there were very few cases of heresy, and it 
 did not cause any serious trouble till the rise 
 of LoUardy. In the Assize of Clarendon 
 heresy is noted, but heretics are treated with 
 a leniency contrasting strongly with the 
 legislation of later times. The Lollard 
 preachers refused to obey the citations of the 
 bishops summoning them to answer for their 
 opinions. In 1382 a statute was passed enact- 
 ing that commissions should be directed to the 
 sheriffs to arrest persons certified by the bishops 
 to be heretics, and to keep them in prison 
 until they satisfied the Church. Archbishop 
 Courtenay drew up a series of fourteen pro- 
 positions which were condemned as heretical. 
 The king, byroyal letter, empowered the bishops 
 to imprison all who maintained the condemned 
 propositions. The chief Lollard teachers in 
 Oxford were tried, and made submission. 
 But in the Parliament of 1383 the Commons 
 petitioned against the statute as not having 
 received their consent. Though the statute 
 was not repealed, no further proceedings were 
 taken under it, though in 1391 Archbishop 
 Arundel proceeded under the royal letters of 
 1382. 
 
 The spread of Lollardy was, however, a 
 source of political as well as ecclesiastical 
 discontent, and in 1401 a severely repressive 
 statute was passed, Me Saretico Comhurendo (2 
 Henry IV., c. 15). By this Act the bishop 
 was empowered to arrest and imprison a 
 heretic; he was bound to try him within three 
 months ; he had power to imprison or fine him, 
 if he were convicted ; if he refused to abjure, 
 he was to be given over to the sherifE and. 
 publicly burned. During the session in which 
 this Act was passed, a Lollard teacher, Wil- 
 liam Sawtre, was burned by the king's writ. 
 Even the powers given by this statute were not 
 found sufficient, and in 1406 the Commons 
 petitioned the king to enact that all officers 
 of the crown should make inquest for heretics 
 and present them for trial before Parliament. 
 Though the king gave his consent, nothing 
 was done; possibly the archbishop objected 
 to the confusion of spiritual and secular 
 jurisdictions. But the pi'iacijile contained in 
 this petition was turned into a statute by 
 Henry V. in 1414. This statute expanded 
 the law of 1401, and provided further that all 
 justices should inquire after heretics, and 
 deliver them to the ordinaries to be tried by 
 the spiritual court. Heresy was now made 
 an offence against the common law ; and the 
 secular arm was not merely used to support 
 the spiritual power, but had the duty of 
 initiating proceedings against offenders. This 
 statute seems to have been sufficient to sup- 
 press LoUardy. The number of trials, how- 
 ever, under all these statutes was not 
 numerous, and the executions were few. 
 
 With the outbreak of the Reformation 
 movement, heresy again became a crime, and 
 the use of the old statutes was revived. The 
 executions for opinion during the sixteenth 
 century were carried out by virtue of them; 
 and the legislation of that period was con- 
 cerned rather with determining what was 
 heresy than how heretics were to be tried and 
 punished. By a statute of 1533 ofiEences 
 against the see of Rome were declared not 
 to be heresy. In 1539 the Bill of the Six 
 Articles declared what opinions were here- 
 tical. We need not follow the variations in 
 this definition during the two succeeding 
 reigns. On the accession of Elizabeth in 
 1559, former statutes were repealed. Heresy 
 as a simple ofEence was visited by spiritual 
 punishment in a spiritual court ; contuma- 
 cious or relapsed heretics, after conviction by 
 a provincial synod, were handed over to the 
 secular arm to be burned. At the same time 
 heresy was defined to be such opinions as 
 were contrary to (1) canonical scripture, (2) 
 the four general councils, (3) future declara- 
 tions of Parliament with the assent of Con- 
 vocation. StiU Anabaptists were burnt 
 under Elizabeth, and Arians under James I. 
 The punishment of death for heresy was 
 abolished under Charles II. in 1677, and the 
 heretic was subject only to ecclesiastical 
 
Her 
 
 ( 563 ) 
 
 Her 
 
 correction "pro salute animae." An Act of 
 1698 made apostacy or denial of Christianity 
 an offence liable to imprisonment. 
 
 Stiibbs, Const. Hist., vol. iii.; Eepovt of Eccle- 
 siastical Courts Commission, Appeudix ; Black- 
 stoue, Commentaries, [U;^ Ql 
 
 Heretoga (lit., the army leader) was 
 the Anglo-baxon title given originally to 
 the commander of the army ; but in later 
 times it seems (like its Latin equivalent 
 " dux ") to have become hereditary, and was 
 sometimes used synonymously with the titles 
 of " ealdorman " and " earl." Heretoga is 
 the word used in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
 to describe Hengest and Horsa ; whereas 
 Cerdic and Cynric are called " ealdormen." 
 
 See Anglo-Saxon ChrontcZe, in the Bolls Series, 
 vol. i., pp. 21 and 24. 
 
 Hereward [d. circa 1073), called the 
 Wake, was the son of Leofric, Lord of 
 Bourne, in Lincolnshire. He seems to have 
 fled from the country for some time after the 
 Conquest, but had returned and was in pos- 
 session of the Isle of Ely in 1070. Eound him 
 were soon gathered the bravest and most reso- 
 lute of the English outlaws, Bishop Ethelwine, 
 of Durham, Siward, and even Earl Morcar. 
 Hcreward's first recorded exploit was the 
 plunder of the monastery at Ely, which had 
 just received a new Norman abbot, Turold, 
 from Malmesbury. The fame of his courage 
 was now spread abroad, and we read of an 
 unsuccessful effort made by the men of Berk- 
 shire to join his camp. "William there- 
 fore determined to crush, in person, a 
 rebellion which was assuming such large pro- 
 portions. Fixing his head-quarters at Cam- 
 bridge, he commenced a regular siege, and 
 forced the greater part of the defenders to 
 )-ield (1071), but Hereward with a few fol- 
 lowers broke through the enemies' ranks and 
 escaped. Legend asserted that he long con- 
 tinued his predatory incursions against the 
 monastery of Ely, and that he was in later 
 times reconciled to William by the ofSces of 
 his wife ^Ifthryth. According to Geoffrey 
 Gaimar, William took him over to help in 
 the reduction of Maine when that province 
 revolted in 1073. 
 
 Freeman, Norman Conquest, vol. iv, 
 
 Heriot (a word derived from the 
 Anglo-Saxon Here-geat, war-gear) was the 
 right of the lord on the death of his tenant to 
 seize either the best beast or the best chattel 
 of which the tenant is possessed at the time 
 of his death. It originated from the fact 
 that the lord used to lend his vassal horse 
 and armour for life, which on the tenant's 
 death reverted to the lord. The custom is by 
 some held to have been introduced into Eng- 
 land by the Danes, and continues down to the 
 present day on copyhold land, though either 
 the lord or the tenant can compel the extin- 
 guishment of the right. Heriot differs from 
 
 Eelief , as it is paid out of the estate of the last 
 tenant, not by the heir. 
 
 Hermitage Castle, in Eoxburghshire, 
 is the place where Sir Alexander Eamsay 
 was starved to death by the Knight of 
 Liddesdale (1342). In Jan., 1347, it was 
 taken by the English. In later years it 
 passed from the hands of the Douglases to 
 the Earl of Bothwell, who was visited there 
 by Queen Mary, after he had been woimded 
 in a border fray, 1561. 
 
 Herries, John Maxwell, Lord {d. 
 1583), though at first an adherent of the 
 Lords of Congregation, became a supporter 
 of Mary Queen of Scots, whom he warned 
 in solemn tei-ms against maiTying Bothwell. 
 On the queen's escape from Lochleven, 
 Herries joined her at Hamilton, and, in com- 
 pany with Lord Fleming, was sent as her am- 
 bassador to Elizabeth, and subsequently acted 
 as one of her commissioners at the inquiry of 
 York. He was accused of aiding the Hamil- 
 tons against the Regent Murray, but obtained 
 an indemnity. Lord Herries was a subtle 
 diplomatist, and no mean rival to such men as 
 Lethington and Cecil. 
 
 Herrings, The Battle op (Feb. 12, 
 1429), was fought near Eouvrai between 
 the English and the French. The English 
 had been besieging the town of Orleans 
 since the summer of the year 1428, and Sir 
 John Fastolf was commissioned to conduct a 
 convoy of provisions for the use of the 
 English army. The French made an effort 
 to prevent its arrival at the besiegers' camp, 
 and attacked Sir John, who had only 1,700 
 men under him, with very superior numbers. 
 Sir John, however, entrenched his men 
 behind the waggons, and succeeded in rout- 
 ing the enemy, finishing their confusion by 
 ordering a charge when he perceived that 
 his opponents were disorganised. This 
 success seemed to have rendered the fall of 
 Orleans almost unavoidable ; and, indeed, 
 the town must soon have surrendered had it 
 not been for the appearance of Joan of Arc. 
 The Battle of Herrings was so named from 
 the fact that a large part of the provisions 
 convoyed by the English troops consisted of 
 salted fish for the use of the besiegers. 
 
 Hertford was a place of considerable im- 
 portance under the Anglo-Saxon kings. An 
 ecclesiastical synod was held there as early as 
 the year 673. It was the site of one of the 
 numerous castles founded by Edward the 
 Elder in the first decade of the tenth century. 
 The castle was reconstructed and fortified 
 after the Norman Conquest. It held out for 
 Henry III. in the rebellion of the barons, and 
 was captured by Louis the Dauphin, Dec, 
 1216. The castle and earldom of Hertford 
 were conferred on John of Gaunt in 1345. 
 
 Hertford, Edward Seymour, 2nd Eakl 
 OP (d. 1621), was the son of the Duke of 
 
Her 
 
 ( 564 ) 
 
 Hid 
 
 Somerset, Protector of England. On the ac- 
 cession of Elizabeth, the earldom was revived 
 in his favour (1559). Shortly afterwards 
 (1561) Hertford was imprisoned^in the Tower 
 and lined £15,000 for ha,ving secretly maraed 
 Lady Catherine Grey, who was regarded 
 by Elizabeth as a possible dangerous rival. 
 Archbishop Parker declared their union 
 illegal, and the issue illegitimate. Hertford 
 underwent a, long imprisonment, and con- 
 tinued in obscurity during Elizabeth's reign. 
 He was afterwards married again, and lived 
 to extreme old age. 
 
 Hervey, John, Lord (5. 1696, d. 1743), 
 succeeded to the peerage on the death of his 
 brother in 1723. During the greater part of 
 his career he was a supporter of Sir Robert 
 Walpole. In 1731 he fought a duel with 
 Pulteney, on account of a libel against himself 
 which Pulteney refused todisavow. Both com- 
 batants were slightly wounded. In 1740 he 
 was nppointed Lord Privy Seal against the 
 wish of the Duke of Newcastle, and we find 
 him subsequently intriguing with Pulteney 
 and Chesterfield against Sir Robert "Walpole. 
 In 1743 he distinguished himself by a speech 
 against the Gin Act. Lord Hervey left be- 
 hind him certain memoirs of his own time, 
 which form a most valuable addition to the 
 history of the period of which they treat. 
 He had the misfortune to offend Pope, who 
 has handed his name down to posterity under 
 the pseudonym of Sporus in the Frologue to 
 the Satires. 
 
 Lord Hervey's Meinoirs of the Reign of George II. 
 were first published by Mr. J. W. Crokeriiil848. 
 
 Hexham, in Northumberland, was the 
 site of a great abbey founded by Wilfrid in 
 674. Four or five years later he instituted it 
 a bishopric. In 875, however, the town and 
 abbey were sacked and burned by the North- 
 men, and in 883 the diocese was annexed to 
 Lindisfarne. 
 
 Hexham, The B.ittle of (May 15, 
 1464), was fought during the "Wars of 
 the Roses soon after the battle of Hedgeley 
 Moor, by Montague against Somerset and the 
 remnant of the Lancastrians. The latter were 
 totally defeated and Somerset slain. Henry 
 IV. found a refuge in Lancashire, while Mar- 
 garet and her son fled to Flanders. 
 
 Hexham, John op (/. twelfth century), 
 was the author of the Continuation to the History 
 of Simeon of Durham. This continuation extends 
 from 1130 to 1154, and is, for the most part, a 
 mere compilation. From the year 1139 to the 
 end it is, however, much fuller, and is specially 
 valuable for Northern transactions, though it 
 is not fi-ee fi-om chronological errors. It 
 seems to have been compUed towards the 
 close of the twelfth century. John was Prior 
 of Hexham, but beyond this fact nothing 
 seems to be known of his life. 
 
 John of Hexham's Continuation is published 
 in Twjsden's Decern Scriptortjs. 
 
 Heylin, Peter (J. 1600, d. 1662), was 
 educated at Oxford, and recommended by 
 Laud for the ofSce of chaplain to the king. 
 During the Civil War he was stripped of his 
 property and forced to hide himself. In 
 his retirement he devoted himself to litera- 
 ture ; and on the Restoration he was restored 
 to his benefices. Dr. Heylin's chief his- 
 torical work is entitled Cypriatms Angli- 
 canus : a History of the Life and Death . . . of 
 Archbishop Laud. This is very valuable for 
 the account it gives us of Laud and of 
 the ecclesiastical events of the time. Dr. 
 Heylin was also the author of A Short View of 
 the Life of Charles I., A Sistory of Tithes, A 
 History of the Presbyterians, A History of the 
 Beformation in England, A History of the Sab- 
 bath, and A Help to English History, re- 
 published in 1773. 
 
 Hicks-Beach, Sir Michael Edward 
 (1837), was Parliamentary Secretary to the 
 Poor Law Board from February till Decem- 
 ber, 1868. In February, 1874, Sir M. Hicks- 
 Beach took office nnder Mr. DisraeH as Chief 
 Secretary for Ireland. 
 
 Hidage was a tax anciently paid to the 
 king for every hide of land. Bracton reckons 
 it with carucage as an extraordinary 
 imposition, and not as a regular service or 
 custom. Under Ethelred the Unready (994) 
 the land was taxed by hides at the time of 
 the Danish invasion, eight hides furnishing a 
 man in fuU armour, and every three hundred 
 hides a ship. [Hide.] 
 
 Hide, The, was originally the extent 
 of land allotted for the support of one 
 family. The size of the hide is a ques- 
 tion which has given rise to the most 
 "various conjectures. Kemble has assigned it 
 thirty-three acres, whereas Grimm gives the 
 corresponding German huda, from thirty to 
 forty acres. But in later times the hide was 
 reckoned at 120 acres. Dr. Stubba has sug- 
 gested that the different sizes assigned to the 
 hide may be due to a confusion between a 
 man's share in each one of four common 
 fields and in the total, which would, of course, 
 varj' from one to four, or from 30 acres to 
 120; but he adds the warning that this is 
 not by any means a full explanation, and 
 that regard must be had to local custom. 
 Under Norman and Plantagenet rule, when 
 division into knights' fees seem to have 
 become more and more paramount, it is 
 difficult to discover that they bore any fixed 
 proportion to the hide. In the Liber Niger 
 de Seaccario, the size of the knight's fee varies 
 from two and a half hides to six hides. Other 
 authorities have reckoned it as equivalent to 
 eight, but probably it bore no direct relation 
 to the extent of land, but rather to its value. 
 In Anglo-Saxon times the hide was used as a 
 unit for rating and for estimation of a man's 
 social and political standing. The freeman 
 with five hides and a burh-geat seat ranked 
 
Hig 
 
 ( 565 ) 
 
 Hig 
 
 as a thegn ; the freeman with forty hides as 
 an eorl. 
 
 Didlogusde Scaccario in Select Charters; Stubbs, 
 Const. Hist. ; Kemble, Saxtms in England, 
 
 Higden, Ralph {d. 1364), a monk of St. 
 Werburgh's, Chester, was the author of a 
 work entitled Tolychronicon, a universal 
 history and geography, divided into seven 
 hooks. It is of no great value as an original 
 authority, hut as Mr. Gairdner says, " its real 
 interest lies in the view it affords of the 
 historical, geographical, and scientific know- 
 ledge of the age in which it appeared." It 
 was translated into English by John Trevisa, 
 vicar of Berkeley, in Edward IV.'s reign, 
 and was one of the earKest works issued by 
 Caxton (1480). Two years later the same 
 printer brought out an edition of Trevisa's 
 translation. 
 
 The Polycb/fonicon has been published in the 
 Eolls Series with Trevisa's translation. 
 
 High Cliurcb.. This term first appears 
 about 1703 to designate that party in Eng- 
 land which demanded the strict enforcement 
 of the laws against Dissenters, and the passing 
 of such additional measures as the Occasional 
 Conformity BUI ; it was, in fact, practically 
 synonymous with Tory. In more modem 
 times, however, it is only used to denote those 
 members of the Church of England who hold 
 certain doctrines, and the name has by analogy 
 been given to the party associated with similar 
 doctrines in the seventeenth century. Under 
 Elizabeth the majority of the bishops, and of 
 the more zealous clergy, were Calvinist in 
 theology. Episcopacy was defended as a 
 matter of expediency; conformity was only 
 enforced for the sake of order, and because it 
 was part of the established law. But towards 
 the end of the reign, a party arose among the 
 younger clergy, who " met Calvinism by the 
 assertion of its inconsistency with the ancient 
 doctrine and constitution of the primitive 
 Church, and the claim of a divine right for 
 the Presbj-terian polity by claiming a divine 
 right for Episcopacy. They asserted against 
 the individualism of the Puritan theology and 
 worship, the reality of sacramental grace, of 
 the power of absolution, of the authoritative 
 ritual of the Church." (Dr. Barry.) Of this 
 school the most important writer was Bishop 
 Andrewes (1555 — 1626), the most active prac- 
 tical leader, Laud (1573—1645). It did not 
 become prominent till the later years of 
 James I. That king, though a firm supporter 
 of Episcopacy, and of the established ecclesi- 
 astical system, was of distinctly Calvinist 
 sympathies. But his love of order tended to 
 make him favour the growing party ; and in 
 1616, Laud, its leader at Oxford, was ap- 
 pointed to the deanery of Gloucester, to put 
 an end to the irregularities in the cathedral 
 worship, which the Calvinist bishop of that 
 see had allowed. He at once caused the 
 communion table to be removed from the 
 
 middle of the choir to the east end of the 
 chancel, and placed "altarwise." But his 
 example was not largely followed ; and it was 
 not till 1622 that Laud gained much political 
 power. In that year he had taken part in a 
 discussion with the Jesuit Fisher, on the 
 relative claims of the English and Eoman 
 Churches, in order to prevent if possible the 
 conversion to Rome of Buckingham's^other. 
 His ability then secured for him considerable 
 influence over Buckingham, and access to 
 Prince Charles, to whom, upon his accession, 
 he became chief adviser in ecclesiastical mat- 
 ters. The new teaching rapidly spread ; in 
 its protest against the dogmatic definitions of 
 Calvinism on predestination, it resembled, and 
 was doubtless influenced by, the Arminianism 
 of Holland; so that, in spite of their pro- 
 tests, the term Arminian was generally ap- 
 plied to the members of the party. In 1624 
 a reply by one of them (Montague) to a 
 Roman Catholic pamphlet, wherein he had 
 denied that the popular Calvinist doctrines 
 were the creed of the Church of England, 
 called forth a remonstrance from the Com- 
 mons. MontaguOi however, gained the king's 
 sympathy, and wrote a second book, Appello 
 Ceesarem, to explain the same principles. The 
 movement represented by Montague was, 
 however, almost entirely a learned movement; 
 it had Httle hold upon the country gentry or 
 town traders, and irritated them by exalting 
 the royal prerogative. In 1625 the Commons 
 attacked the second book, and Montague was 
 committed for a short time to the custody of 
 the Sergeant. But Charles was now king, 
 and Laud was supreme in Church matters. 
 Laud was requested to draw up a Ust of or- 
 thodox and Puritan clergy, that preferment 
 might be reserved for the former; and in 
 1628 Montague became Bishop of Chichester, 
 and Laud himself Bishop of London. In the 
 previous year, Dr. Cozins had prepared for 
 the use of the queen's attendants a book of 
 devotions, which gave to the new teaching an 
 expression startling to the ordinary EngEsh- 
 man of the time : and the declaration prefixed 
 to the Articles in 1629, which was intended 
 to put an end to controversy, still further 
 annoyed the Puritan clergy. In the Parlia- 
 ment of 1628 — 29 the storm broke, and one of 
 the celebrated three resolutions of 1629 was 
 to the effect that "whosoever shall bring in 
 innovation in rehgion, or seek to extend 
 Popery or Arminianism, shall be reputed a 
 capital enemy to this kingdom and the com- 
 monwealth." Undeterred by this expression 
 of national feeling, Laud, now archbishop, 
 revived in 1634 the disused right of metro- 
 political visitation, and everywhere caused 
 the communion table to be removed to the 
 east end, fortified by a decision of the king 
 in Privy Council, which was of more than 
 doubtful legality. Laud's action aroused 
 bitter opposition among the clergy, and was 
 one of the main causes of the Civil "War. 
 
Hig 
 
 ( 560 ) 
 
 Hig 
 
 The Act of Uniformity of 1662 almost 
 completely removed from the English Church 
 the Puritan element ; at the same time the 
 country gentry rallied round the Church, and 
 Anglo-Catholic teaching no longer met with 
 the opposition it had encountered in the first 
 half of the century. But as the Church had 
 identified itself with the doctrine of passive 
 obedience, it was with great reluctance that 
 the main body of the clergy took the oath to 
 William III. ; eight bishops and 400 clergy 
 preferred to suffer deprivation, and created 
 the nonjuring schism. But though the 
 Church was thus weakened, legitimist feeling, 
 associated with the doctrine of non-resistance, 
 revived under Anne, who was known to 
 favour the Tories and the claims of her 
 brother, the Old Pretender. A bitter warfare 
 of words began between High and Low 
 Church, the latter term meaning the Whig 
 clergy, most of them Latitudinarian, with a 
 few Calvinists. Swift declares, " our State 
 parties, the more to infiame their passions, 
 have mixed religious and civil animosities 
 together, borrowing both their appellations 
 from the Church, with the addition of ' High ' 
 and ' Low,' how little soever the disputes 
 relate to these terms." The tide quickly rose; 
 in 1705 Hoadley, preaching against the doc- 
 trine of passive obedience, was condemned by 
 the Lower House of Convocation; and in 
 1710, the impeachment of Sacheverell, for his 
 sermon on non-resistance, brought about the 
 victory of the Tory — i.e., the High Church 
 party. Their period of power (1710 — 14) 
 was marked by the passing of the Occasional 
 Conformity and Schism Acts, by the building 
 of fifty new churches in London, and by the 
 temporary withdrawal of the Eegium Donum 
 from the Irish Presbj'teriaus. But the poli- 
 tical iE-success of Tories and Jacobites re- 
 acted on the Church, and when Convocation 
 was prorogued in 1717, and not again allowed 
 to meet, the clergy were unable to create any 
 popular movement in their favour. During 
 the earlier part of the eighteenth century, 
 the majority of the bishops were Whig and 
 Low — i.e., Latitudinarian, while the mass of 
 the clergy were Tory and High. But the old 
 doctrinal questions ceased to be discussed; 
 popular preaching concerned itself with mo- 
 rality, and theological controversy touched 
 rather the foundation of Christianity than 
 its superstructure. Soon after the beginning 
 of George III.'s reign, however, the Puritan 
 remnant in the Church were roused to fresh 
 life by the Wesleyau movement, and by the 
 beginning of the next century, the Evange- 
 lical party had gained a preponderating in- 
 fluence in the English Church. 
 
 It was under these circumstances that the 
 Tractarian movement began at Oxford in 
 1833. It was thought by several that the 
 only way to meet the ecclesiastical changes 
 threatened by the Whigs fit was the year of 
 the suppression of ten Irish bishoprics) was 
 
 to fall back on the teaching of the seventeenth 
 century English divines. The " real founder " 
 of this party, according to Dr. Blunt (see 
 article on High Church in Diet, of Sects and 
 Schools of Thought) was Hugh James Rose, 
 who was soon joined by John Henry Newman, 
 John Keble, Edward Bouverie Pusey, Hurrell 
 Eroude, William Palmer, and Isaac Williams. 
 These commenced the series of Tracts for the 
 Times, which brought about a rapid increase 
 of their numbers, and excited the fiercest 
 opposition. In 1841, the Eemonstrame of 
 Four Tutors (including A. C. Tait, afterwards 
 archbishop) led to the condemnation by the 
 Hebdomadal Council of Newman's Tract No. 
 90. Four years later Mr. Ward was censured 
 for a treatise by Convocation, though the 
 proctors prevented Newman's name being in- 
 cluded. In 1845 Newman joined the Eoman 
 Church. In spite of this and other secessions, 
 the party continued to spread. In the Denison 
 case (1856) a sentence of deprivation pro- 
 nounced by Archbishop Sumner upon a cler- 
 g)'man for certain teaching as to the Eucharist, 
 was reversed by the Judicial Committee of the 
 Privy Council, though on technical grounds ; 
 and in the Bennett case (1872), high sacra- 
 mental teaching was distinctly declared per- 
 missible. The revival of Anglo-Cathohc 
 doctrine had been accompanied by a renewed 
 interest in archasology, and by improved 
 ecclesiastical architecture, under the influence 
 of Pugin and Scott. In recent years also, a 
 group of " Ritualists " has arisen among the 
 younger clergy, who desire the restoration of 
 many_ pre-Elizabethan usages ; the disputes 
 to which this has given rise have led to pro- 
 longed litigation, which the Public Worship 
 Regulation Act of 1874 was in vain passed 
 to prevent. [Ckuhch op England.] 
 
 Far the best account of tlie seventeenth cen- 
 tury movement will he found in Gardiner, Hist. 
 Bug., 1603—1642. See also Blunt, Reformation 
 of Church of England, ii. ; Church on Andrewes 
 inJIfosfers in Eng. Theology; Mozley on laud, 
 in his Essays. The most characteristic writings 
 of the time are Montague, Appello Cxsavem, 
 (1625) ; Prynne, Survey of Mr. C.«ins Ms coiem- 
 %ng ievotions (1628) ; Heylin, Coal from. theAUar, 
 replied to in Williams, Uoly Table, Name, ani 
 Tfting (1637) ; Laud, Diary ; Prynne, CanUrbury'i 
 Boom (1646). For the eighteenth century, see 
 Macaulay, Lecky and Abbey and Overton, 
 J411!;. Chwrch of Eighteenth Century. For the 
 nineteenth, J. A. Froude, The Otcfori Cornier. 
 Reformation, in Short Studies, 4 ser. ; Tracts far 
 tte Times (1833-1841); Palmer, Jfarratite of 
 Sf.'f* (1843) 1 Ward, Ideal of a Chnstian Church 
 (1844); Newman, Apologia (1864); Coleridge, 
 Meinmr of Keile (1869) ; Ashwell and Wilber- 
 tOToe, Life of Bishop Wilherforce ; Mozley, 
 Eemmiscences of Oriel ; Stanley, Essays oil Church 
 and State. r-^y J _i ] 
 
 High Court of Justice. [Charles I. ; 
 Rebellion, The Great.] 
 
 High Court of Justice, The (Ireland), 
 was estabhshed in 1652 at Kilkenny, from 
 which place it went on circuit. It was in- 
 tended that it should try all Catholics who 
 had shed Protestant blood, otherwise than in 
 
Hig 
 
 ( 567 ) 
 
 Hig 
 
 open battle, since. 1641. Donellan, a native, 
 ■was president, Reynolds and Cook were his 
 assessors. Altogether some 200 persons were 
 convicted, among them Sir Phelim O'Neil. 
 
 Higb. Treason. [Treason.] 
 
 Highlands, The, or Scotland, in a 
 strictly geographical sense, seem to commence 
 in the south near Loch Lomond, and thence to 
 he separated from the Lowlands hy the great 
 valley of Strathmore. But, from an historical 
 point of view the word must be considered to 
 embrace the Celtic-speaking part of Scotland. 
 In the eighth century there appear to have 
 been seven provinces, each of which was ruled 
 over by its own ri, or king, who had a sub- 
 king dependent on him. The names of these 
 provinces (with the sub-provinces also), so far 
 as can now be ascertained, were (1) Angus 
 and Meams, (2) Athole and Gowrie, (3) Strath- 
 earn and Menteith, (4) Fife, (5) Mar and 
 Buchan, (6) Moray and Eoss, (7) Caithness. 
 The four first of these seven provinces, 
 according to Mr. Skene, formed the kingdom 
 of the Southern Scots, and the town of 
 Scone was the chief seat of the Pictish 
 kingdom, and of the ardri, or head-king, of 
 all these four provinces, with possibly some 
 authority over the northern three also. 
 Under the kings of Alhan and of Scotia (889 — 
 1092), we have still seveti provinces bearing 
 more or less relation to the earlier seven, but 
 apparently more regulated by the great 
 natural features of the country than was the 
 case in earlier times. At this period these 
 great provinces are no longer ruled by kings 
 and sub-kings, but each has its own mor- 
 maer, or great steward, though the Mormaer 
 of Moray is still sometimes styled by his 
 old title ri. Meanwhile, in the extreme 
 north, Harold Harfagr had, about the year 
 889, given the Orkneys to Jarl Sigurd to be 
 held subject to the King of Norway ; and the 
 new jarl seems to have overrun Caithness 
 and Moray and Ross. Moray and Eoss seem 
 still to have preserved their native mormaer 
 or ri ; but Caithness apparently passed over 
 to Norse rule entirely. By about the year 
 969, the Earls of Orkney had conquered all 
 the country north of the Spey, and would 
 probably have acknowledged the King of 
 Norway as their overlord, if anyone. But 
 when Sigurd of Orkney was slain at the 
 battle of Clontarf (1014)— the great battle 
 between the Celtic and the Norse races — while 
 the Orkney Isles passed to his elder sons, 
 to be held of the King of Norway, we read 
 that his younger son, Thorfinn, was sent to 
 Malcolm's court, and there invested with the 
 jarldoms of Caithness and Sutherland. But 
 Moray and Eoss now fell ofE from both Norse 
 and Scotch dependency, and were ruled by 
 their own ri, Finleikr. In 1031 we read 
 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that Malcolm, 
 King of Scotland, became . the man of 
 Canute; and likewise two other kings, 
 
 Maelbaethe and lehmarc. This Maelbaethe, 
 or Macbeth, has been identified with Macbeth 
 the son of Finleilcr, Ei of Moray ; while 
 lehmaro is considered to have been the Ei of 
 Argyle. By the time of Duncan's accession 
 (1034) Thorfinn had united the Orkneys to 
 his original jarldom of Caithness, and the 
 Scotch king attempted to confer the latter 
 province on his nephew Moddon, and even 
 went so far as to support his right by arms. 
 It was on this occasion that Macbeth, the 
 Mormaer or Ei of Caithness, deserted, and 
 perhaps murdered the Scotch king (1040). 
 Scotland was now divided between Thorfinn 
 and Macbeth. It was probably on the 
 death of Thorfinn {circa 1057) that Dun- 
 can's son, Malcolm Canmore, was able to 
 drive back Macbeth. About the same time 
 the other earldoms of Thorfinn, with the 
 exception of Caithness, seem to have been 
 recovered by their native mormaers or kings, 
 subject probably to vague claims on the part 
 of Malcolm as ardri. It is during the years 
 1 107 and 1 124, when Malcolm's son Alexander 
 was reigning over the Celtic part of Scotland 
 north of the Forth, that we come across the 
 first mention of the seven earls — four of 
 whom certainly, and probably all seven, 
 represented the old mormaers who, having 
 lost their original title of ri, were now 
 changing their later one for the Latin comes. 
 The Counts of Athole, Stratheam, Mar, and 
 Buchan, by their territorial designations point 
 back clearly to the earlier Celtic ri, and 
 indeed can be fitfully traced backwards across 
 the intervening centuries under the middle 
 designation of mormaer ; as, for example, in 
 the Mormaer of Mar, who was present at the 
 battle of Clontarf. During the reign of David 
 I. (1124 — 1153) Moray, which rose in rebellion 
 under its mormaer, Angus, was far more 
 firmly than ever united to the Scotch crown, 
 and its people seem to have formed a division 
 by themselves at the Battle of the Standard. 
 But, though the native rulers of Moray may 
 have come to an end with Angus, the district 
 rose in rebellion once more during the reign 
 of David's grandson Malcolm (1153—1165). 
 In 1160, after the revolt of the six earls, 
 Malcolm is said to have removed the men of 
 Moray from their own seats, and "installed 
 therein his own peaceful people." Eoss was 
 thoroughly subdued by William the Lion in 
 1179, though an attempt was made a few 
 years later to separate the districts north of 
 the Tay from the rest of Scotland by setting 
 up a new king, who combined in his own 
 person Norse blood with that of Malcolm 
 Canmore. After the suppression of this 
 insurrection (1187) William forced Harold, 
 Earl of Orkney and Caithness, to acknow- 
 ledge his dependence on the Scottish king 
 as regards the half of the latter province 
 by the payment of 2,000 merks (1202) ; while 
 Sutherland, the other half, ultimately became 
 an earldom in the family of De Moravia, circa 
 
Hil 
 
 ( 568 ) 
 
 HU 
 
 1230. On the death of the last Norwegian 
 Earl of Caithness, in 1231, his lands were 
 divided between the last-mentioned family 
 and that of the Earl of Angus. Lastly, about 
 the year 1222, the sole remaining Celtic 
 province of Argyle seems to have submitted 
 to Alexander II. But, though the whole 
 county was now nominally subject to one 
 king, yet there was a broad line of demarca- 
 tion between that part of Scotland which had 
 become thoroughly feudalised, and had been 
 so long subject to the head king at Scone or 
 Edinburgh, and the Celtic-speaking districts 
 of the north and west. In 1411, Donald, 
 Lord of the Isles, who claimed the earldom 
 of Moray, was defeated by the Earl of Mar 
 at the great battle of Harlaw, which seems 
 to have finally checked the dangers threatened 
 by the growth of this Celtic and Highland 
 power. From this time onwards the in- 
 cursions of the Highlanders on the Lowlands 
 were limited to occasional plundering raids. 
 Till the eighteenth century the Highland 
 districts remained a province inhabited by an 
 alien and semi-barbarous people ; and though 
 nominally part of the kingdom of Scotland, 
 it was in fact ruled by the various tribal chiefs 
 under their own laws and customs. In the 
 wars of the seventeenth century, the High- 
 landers were easily enlisted on the side of the 
 Stuarts against the Covenanters ; and they 
 made the last stand both under Montrose and 
 Dundee. After the suppression of the re- 
 bellion of 1715, a determined attempt was 
 made to break up the tribal organisation. An 
 Act was passed (1724) ordering the High- 
 landers to be disarmed, and the disarmament 
 was effected by General Wade (1726). The 
 same officer also completed between 1726 and 
 1737, the great military roads thi-ough the 
 Highlands, by means of which, together with 
 a chain of fortified military posts, a vigorous 
 police wa« established and plundering stopped. 
 A happy idea was conceived of utilising the 
 military instincts of the Highlanders for the 
 service of the country, and regiments of 
 Highland troops were embodied in the 
 regular army [Black Watch]. In 1746, the 
 national dress was prohibited in the High- 
 lands by Act of Parliament (19 Geo. II., c. 39, 
 repealed 22 Geo. III., c. 63). Under the 
 influence of these measures, the Highlands 
 gradually became as peaceable and orderly as 
 the rest of Scotland, and by the beginning of 
 the present century little was left to mark 
 their distinctive character except the sur- 
 vival in many districts of the native language. 
 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland; 3. H. Bnrton, Hist. 
 of Scotland; E. "W. Eobertson, Scotland under 
 her Early Kings ; Macawlay, Hist, of England ; 
 Lecky, Hist, of England m the Eigliteenth 
 Century. [X. A. A.] 
 
 Hill, EowLAND, 1st Lord (S. 1772, d. 
 1842), a son of Sir John Hill, a Shropshire 
 baronet, was educated at Rugby, and at six- 
 teen entered the army. He was sent as 
 
 secretary of a diplomatic mission to Genoa, 
 whence he proceeded to Toulon, and acted 
 during the siege as aide-de-camp to Lord 
 Mulgrave, and afterwards to Sir David Dundas. 
 He was wounded, and, returning to England, 
 was soon promoted to be lieutenant-colonel 
 of the 90th, with which he went to Egypt. 
 In the battle of Alexandria he was severely 
 wounded. In 1805 he became a major- 
 general, and was despatched to the Peninsula 
 on the first outbreak of war. He served at 
 Rolica and Vimiero, and at Corunna com- 
 manded Sir John Moore's reserve. In 1811 
 he succeeded to the command of General 
 Paget's corps, and continued to be one of 
 Wellington's most trustworthj- officers. He 
 was present in high command at nearly all 
 the battles of the war, and always acquitted 
 himself well on the many occasions on which 
 Wellington entrusted him with a separate 
 command. After his success at Almarez, 
 where he destroyed the enemy's works after a 
 most desperate resistance, he was raised to the 
 peerage (May, 1814). He afterwards served 
 at Waterloo, and was personally thanked 
 by Wellington for his services there and 
 elsewhere, and was second in command of the 
 army of occupation in France in 1815. He 
 was appointed commander-in-chief in 1828. 
 He was a brave and able soldier, beloved, 
 and entirely trusted by his men, to whom 
 his relations are best understood by the 
 nickname which they gave him of " Daddy 
 Hill." 
 
 Alison, History of Europe; Sir "W. Napier, 
 Peninsular War. 
 
 Hill, Sir Rowland (J. 1795, d. 1879), was 
 bom at Kidderminster. In early life he 
 was a schoolnSaster. His attention had been 
 directed to the question of Australian coloni- 
 sation, and, as secretary to Gilbert Wakefield's 
 scheme for settling that country, he wrote a 
 pamphlet on Some Colonies. It was in 1837 
 that he issued his paper on The Postage Sys- 
 tem. By a careful series of investigations 
 and calculations, he had arrived at the con- 
 clusion that, as the chief expenses of letter- 
 carrying were not in the carriage itself, but in 
 the distribution of the letters, the distance 
 might be disregarded, and a uniform charge 
 made for the conveyance of all home letters 
 to any distance. He also showed, how the 
 almost nominal charge of one penny for every 
 half ounce would, in view of the great increase 
 in correspondence likely to ensue on such a 
 reduction of cost, yield an ample profit on the 
 transaction ; and, at the same time, he sug- 
 gested the_ use of postage-stamps. Despite 
 the opposition offered to so entirely novel a 
 scheme, a committee was appointed by the 
 House of Commons to investigate the ques- 
 tion (1838) ; and when Rowland Hill's pro- 
 posals received its approbation, a bill was at 
 once brought in for carrying out the new 
 project (1839). On Jan. 10, 1840, the penny 
 rate was inaugurated. Rowland HiU was 
 
Hoa 
 
 ( 569 ) 
 
 Hol 
 
 appointed to an office in the Treasury, for the 
 purpose of superintending the execution of 
 his reforms, but had to retire in 1841, when 
 the Literals went out of office. In 184G he 
 was presented with £13,000, as a mark of 
 public gratitude, and when the Liberals 
 returned to ofUce, the same year, ho was 
 made secretary to the Postmaster-General. 
 In 1860 he was knighted, and when forced, 
 four years later, to resign, he was allowed 
 to retain his fuU salary of £2,000 a year. 
 
 Koadley, Benjamin, successively Bishop 
 of Bangor, Hereford, Sahsbury, and Win- 
 chester (b. 1676, d. 1761), was educated at the 
 University of Cambridge. "When he removed 
 to London he appeared as the antagonist 
 of Calamy on the question of conformity, and 
 of Bishop Atterbury on that of non-resistance. 
 He was a staunch Low Churchman. In 
 170.5, Hoadley was attacked in the House of 
 Lords by the Bishop of London for having 
 advocated the duty of resistance and counte- 
 nanced rebellion, in a sermon preached before 
 the Lord Mayor. Burnet, in reply to this 
 speaker, told him that he was the last person 
 who ought to complain of the sermon in ques- 
 tion. A few years later Hoadley was one of 
 the most prominent opponents of Dr. Sacheve- 
 rell. In 1715 he was appointed Bishop of 
 Bangor, and next year published his famous 
 tract against the Nonjurors. This was 
 quickly followed (1717) by the issue of his 
 sermon on the Kingdom of Christ, printed by 
 royal command. Both these works were de- 
 voted to questioning the divine authority of 
 the king and the clergy, and were the occa- 
 sion of the famous Bangorian Controversy. 
 The matter was at once taken up by Convo- 
 cation, and led to such wrangling and discord 
 that this body was suddenly prorogued by the 
 government. From this time (1717) tiU the 
 year 1852 Convocation was allowed to meet 
 only as a matter of form. Dr. Hoadley was 
 translated to the sees of Hereford, Salisbury, 
 and Winchester in the years 1721, 1723, and 
 1734 respectively, and died at Chelsea. 
 
 Hobbes, Thomas (b. 1588, d. 1679), was 
 educated at Oxford, where he took his degree 
 as Bachelor of Arts in 1608. The same year 
 he was appointed tutor to the eldest son of 
 the future Duke of Devonshire, and accompa- 
 nied his pupU in his Continental tour. Before 
 the year 1620 he seems to have become ac- 
 quainted with Lord Bacon, and was by him 
 employed on the Latin version of the issays. 
 In 1631 he undertook the education of the 
 new Earl of Devonshire, his former pupil's 
 son. While abroad with this boy he made 
 the acquaintance of Galileo, and spent several 
 months at Paris, returning home in 1037. 
 It was about this time that he began his 
 philosophic career. In 1642 the De Cive waa_ 
 printed ; in 1650 his De Cm-pore Foliticojl 
 (Enghsh in everything but its title), and in j 
 1651 the leviathan, which made him famousJ 
 
 Charles II., who had once been Hobbes's 
 pupil in 'mathematics, gave his old teacher a 
 pension of £100 a year after the Restoration, 
 and hung his portrait up in his private room. 
 After the Great Fire of London a bill levelled 
 against the Leviathan was introduced into the 
 House of Commons, and passed early in the 
 next year (1667). The Bekemolh, or history 
 of the Civil War, was published 1679, just 
 before its author's death, but without his 
 consent. The last years of his Ufc were spent 
 in Derbyshire ; and his literary labours were 
 continued till the very end, in the quiet of the 
 country. Hobbes's influence on phjlosophieal 
 thought has been equalled by few English 
 writers. Even greater has been his influence 
 upon political and ethical speculation. He , 
 aimed at finding a scientific explanation for ' 
 the phenomena of man in society, and this ' 
 gave an impulse to a movement of thought , 
 which has been followed by English thinkers . 
 ever since. His main pohtical conception 
 was that of the right of all men to seek their 
 own happiness, and their tendency to seek it,' 
 even at the expense of their fellows. In a- 
 stato of nature the selfishness of every man 
 would have free play, and would only be 
 limited by the selfishness of others. The 
 state of nature, therefore, would he a state of 
 warfare and of suffering. Government has 
 been instituted to limit this ; and govern-^ 
 ment in its perfect form should have absolute 
 control over civil, moral, and ecclesiastical 
 affairs alike. The demonstration of the su- 
 premacy and irresponsibility of the sovereign- 
 power in a state, which is one of the most 
 remarkable features in his philosophy, caused' 
 Hobbes to be often classed with the defenders 
 of despotism, and roused against him the 
 champions of constitutionalism and of eccle- 
 siastical freedom in his own day ; but at a 
 later time the conception formed the founda- 
 tion of the theory of utilitarian legislation, 
 which was worked into a, regular system by 
 the school of Bentham. 
 
 The works of Hobbes taye 1)6611 edited by Sir 
 W. Molesworth, 16 vols., Lond., 1839— 4S. 
 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Holinshed, Raphael [d. circa 1580), is 
 the author, or perhaps, rather, the editor, of 
 the large foUo History of England which 
 furnished Shakespeare with much of his 
 knowledge of English history. According to 
 the dedicatory preface, inscribed to Lord 
 Burleigh, the history as published was a 
 fraction of the original scheme, which em- 
 braced the idea of a universal history, ap- 
 parently on the largest scale. The work m 
 its later form consists of (1) a description of 
 England, followed by the history of this 
 country down to the Conquest; (2) a de- 
 scription of Ireland, followed by the chronicles 
 of that island ; (3) a description of Scotland, 
 followed by The Historic of Scotland down 
 to the year 1575 ; (4) the history of the 
 
 4 
 
Hoi 
 
 570 ) 
 
 Hoi 
 
 English kings down to the year 1577. 
 Holinshed was largely assisted in his great 
 •work hy the most learned men of the time, 
 such as Stow and Harrison. 
 
 Holkar is tho family name of one of the 
 chief dynasties of Mahratta princes. Mulhar 
 Eao Holkar took part in the Mahratta in- 
 vasion of Guzerat in 1721, and in 1735 led a 
 large ai-my to Delhi. He succeeded in ex- 
 torting from the emperor a considerable 
 territory in Malwa (1736), which was erected 
 into the principality of Indore, and became 
 the hereditary dominion of the Holkar family. 
 After suffering a severe defeat from the 
 Afghans in 1761, Mulhar Eao died in 1763. 
 In 1774 his successor, Tuckagee Holkar, took 
 a prominent part in the war against the 
 English. He was defeated by Colonel 
 Goddard in 1782, and subsequently joined the 
 British alliance against Tippoo Sahib. 
 
 Holkar, Jeswunt Eao {d. 1811). In 
 1797, on the death of Tuckagee Holkar, a dis- 
 pute arose between his sons, and Jeswunt 
 Kao, an illegitimate son, fled to Nagpore to 
 escape the enmity of Seindiah, who had 
 espoused the cause of his half-brother Khassee 
 Eao. Holkar now became a freebooter, col- 
 lected an army of Patans, Meihrattas, and 
 Pindarries, and joined himself to Ameer 
 Khan. The warfare between Seindiah 
 and Holkar, which laid all Malwa and 
 Khandeish in ruins, ended in the battle 
 of Poonah, Oct. 25, 1802, in which Holkar, 
 assisted by English troops, defeated the 
 united forces of the Peishwa and Seindiah. 
 The result was the Treaty of Bassein (Dec, 
 1802). Holkar was now alarmed at the 
 introduction of English influence, and con- 
 certed with Seindiah and the Eajah of Berar 
 the conspiracy which produced the Mahratta 
 War. The reduction of Seindiah and Berar, 
 1803, produced no eft'ect on Holkar, who was 
 compelled to plunder to pay his army ; and 
 the foolish contempt of the English, which 
 induced them to underrate him and pro- 
 duced the disastrous retreat of Monson, 
 gave him a new lease of life. He returned 
 to Hindostan (1804) with a larger force than 
 ever, and besieged Delhi. Lake's advance, 
 however, drove him away, and he fled, 
 followed by the English, who surprised 
 his cavalry at Ferruckabad, and chased him 
 in the direction of Deeg. At this fortress 
 his disciplined army was destroyed, and after 
 hanging about Bhurtpore for some time, he 
 fled with Ameer Khan to Scindiah's camp, 
 and thence to Ajmere, and across the Sut- 
 lej. Lake pursued him, beating him re- 
 peatedly, and at last forced him to conclude 
 the Treaty of Eaipoor Ghaut (1806), which 
 would have greatly limited his power. The 
 declaratory articles of Sir John Shore, how- 
 ever, removed all these limitations and 
 gave him unlimited licence to plunder in 
 
 Eajpootana and elsewhere, a licence of 
 which he freely availed himself. He was 
 troubled first by mutinies in his army, and 
 then by an insurrection in favour of his 
 nephew. This disturbance led Holkar to put 
 his unfortunate kinsman to death, a crime 
 which was soon followed by the murder of 
 his own brother, Khassee Eao. Eemorse for 
 this double offence drove him mad, and after 
 three years oJ restraint he died in Oct., 1811. 
 
 Grant Duff, Mahrattas ; WellesUy Despatches ; 
 Mill, Hist, of India ; Malleson, Native titates of 
 India in Suhsidiary Alliance v:ith the British Go- 
 vernment, 
 
 Holland, Thomas {d. 1400), was the eldest 
 son of the Earl of Kent. In 1397 he was 
 made Duke of Surrey, but was degraded in 
 1399. In 1400, being implicated in a plot 
 against Henry IV., he was beheaded. 
 
 Holland, Henuy Eich, Eahl of {d. 
 1649), was a younger son of Lord Eich. He 
 served in the Dutch wars, and on his return 
 to England, attracted the favourable notice of 
 James I., who heaped honours upon him. In 
 1639 he was made Lord General of the Horse 
 in the Scotch War, but seceded two years 
 later to the Parliament. He rejoined the 
 king in 1643, and fought with considerable 
 bravery in the first battle of Newbury ; but, 
 finding himself coldly received by Charles, 
 he quickly deserted to the enemy. In 1648 
 he took part in the abortive Eoyalist rising, 
 was captured by the Parliamentary troops, 
 tried before the High Court of Justice in 1649, 
 and executed. 
 
 Holland, Hekuy Pox, IstLokd (b. 1705, 
 d. 1774), second son of Sir Stephen Fox, was 
 a political disciple of Walpole. In 1743 he 
 became one of the Commissioners of the 
 Treasury, under the PeUiam administration, 
 and on Lord Granville's failure to form a 
 ministry he was appointed Secretary for 
 War. But dissensions sprang up among the 
 ministry, and he violently opposed Lord Hard- 
 wicke's Marriage Act. On the death of 
 Pelham, his brother, the Duke of Newcastle, 
 attempted to form a government. It was diffi- 
 cult to find a leader of the Commons. New- 
 castle applied to Fox, as Pitt was disagreeable 
 to the king. But they quarrelled about the 
 disposal of patronage ; and Eobinson, a man of 
 little influence, was made manager of the Com- 
 mons. The next month, however, Newcastle 
 secured Fox's services by making him Secre- 
 tary of State, and remo^'ing Eobinson. . He 
 soon quarrelled with his chief ; and seeing that 
 the blame for the loss of Minorca was to be 
 cast on his shoulders, be resigned, in 1756, 
 and was shortly followed by Newcastle. It 
 was hoped that he and Pitt would \mite, and 
 form an administration; but his quarrel 
 with Pitt, caused by his acceptance of office 
 in 1754, was too serious. However, after the 
 failure of Pitt's first administration, 'Fox 
 
Hoi 
 
 (571) 
 
 Hoi 
 
 accepted the subordinate position of Pay- 
 master of the Forces, whereby he lost even 
 a seat in the cabinet, but secured a large 
 income. On the accession of George III., he 
 joined Lord Bute in his attack on the 
 Whigs, and deliberately set to work to buy a 
 majority in the House. The Paymaster's 
 office became a shop for the purchase of votes. 
 It is said that £2.5,000 was thus expended in 
 one morning. But the whole feeling of the 
 Commons was against him, and his colleagues 
 refused to support him. Hints of bribery 
 were freely thrown out, and he became 
 thoroughly unpopular. "He had always 
 been regarded as a Whig of the Whigs." 
 On the sudden resignation of Bute, he retired 
 to the House of Lords as Lord Holland. He 
 continued to hold office for two more years, 
 but he had ceased to play any part in politics. 
 In 1767 he was not ashamed to solicit his 
 old enemy, Chatham, for an earldom. Fox, 
 though a very able man, was, in the opinion 
 of some, a distinct failure as to his public 
 career. 
 
 Stanhope, Bist. of Eng. ; Macaulaj, Essays; 
 Trevelyau, Early Life of C. J. I'ox. 
 
 Holland, Henry Richard Vassall, 3rd 
 Lord {b. 1773, d. 1840), succeeded to the 
 peerage while still an infant, but it was not 
 till the year 1798 that he entered on his par- 
 liamentary career, during the whole of which 
 he maintained the views and principles of his 
 uncle, Charles James Fox. In 1805 the Whigs 
 came into office, and Lord Holland was sworn 
 a Privy Councillor, and appointed in conjunc- 
 tion with Lord Auckland to negotiate with 
 the American plenipotentiaries for the settle- 
 ment of some difEerences between the two 
 governments. In this, however, they were 
 not successful, as Mr. Jefferson, the President, 
 refused to ratify the treaty. On the death 
 of Mr. Fox, Lord Holland entered the cabinet 
 as Privy Seal, but early in 1807 the ministers 
 were dismissed. He was present in various 
 parts of the Peninsula during the Spanish 
 War. On his return to England (1809), he 
 became a follower of Mr. Canning, to whom 
 he lent aid on his accession to power though 
 he did not become a member of his cabinet. 
 In 1830 he entered Lord Grey's ministry as 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, which 
 office he continued to fill with a slight in- 
 terval when his party was not in power, 
 until the time of his death. Lord Holland was 
 the author of, among other works. Memoirs of 
 the Whig Party (1832). 
 
 Holland, Relations with. The name 
 Holland, properly belonging to the Imperial 
 county of that name, which subsequently 
 became the leading State of the Republic of 
 Seven United Provinces, is commonly used 
 loosely for the United Provinces as a whole ; 
 and, thotigh the official title of the modern 
 kingdom is the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
 the same inexact designation is still appUei 
 
 to it. With the mediaaval county of Holland 
 the relations of England were frequent and 
 friendly. Count William I. fought for Otto 
 IV. at Bouvines, and, subsequently changing 
 sides, followed Louis, the son of PhiKp II., to 
 Engla-nd, in 1215. Floris V. established 
 intimate relations with Edward I., got the 
 wool-staple placed at Dort, and secured fish- 
 ing rights on the English coast. But in 1296 
 he reverted to the French connection. His 
 son, John I., restored the alliance by his 
 marriage with a daughter of Edward I. The 
 new Hainault line was again closely bound to 
 England by the marriage of Philippa, daugh- 
 ter of William III., to Edward IIL (1328). 
 On his son's death in 1345, Edward and 
 Philippa made an inefEectual attempt to seize 
 the country. In the next century the attempt 
 of Humphrey of Gloucester to win Holland, 
 and the counties attached to it, for his wife 
 Jacqueline, was the means of breaking up the 
 Anglo-Burgundian alliance which had giren 
 the English mastery of France. On his 
 failure, Holland became included in the Bur- 
 gundian dominions, which the accession of 
 Charles V. transferred to Spain. Burgundy 
 and Spain were both English allies, and so the 
 old friendship was kept up. Intimate com- 
 mercial relations still further tightened the 
 bonds of union between the two countries. 
 
 The Reformation, which broke up the al- 
 Kanoe of England and Spain, led to the revolt 
 of the Protestants of Holland from the abso- 
 lutism and Catholicism of the Spanish 
 monarchy. England, under Elizabeth, was 
 also engaged in a life and death struggle with 
 Spain. This ultimately compelled the queen, 
 despite her reluctance, both to help rebels 
 against their sovereign, and to take a decided 
 Protestant line, to afford the revolted Hol- 
 landers very material assistance. At first, 
 English help took the form of secret sub- 
 vention or popular subscriptions, or of the 
 willing bands of volunteers, who flocked to 
 join a Protestant cause. Subsequently the 
 queen assisted the Dutch in a more formal 
 way. Elizabeth's first decided intervention 
 began with the lavish grants to her lover, the 
 Duke of Anjou, who aspired to lead the 
 southern provinces of the Netherlands, but on 
 his disastrous failure, and the murder of Wil- 
 liam the Silent, in 1584, Elizabeth, though de- 
 clining the proffered sovereignty of the Seven 
 Provinces, sent her fa"V0urite Leicester as 
 governor-general with a small army, receiving 
 in return, some " cautionary towns." In 
 1386, Sidney fell at Zutphen. In 1587 
 Leicester's incompetence necessitated his re- 
 call. In 1588 the Dutch did good service by 
 blocking up the army of Parma in their ports 
 which the great Armada hoped to land in 
 England. IJp to the date of Elizabeth's death 
 our relations with the Hollanders continued 
 cordial, and materially assisted their efforts 
 for liberty. 
 
 With James I. » new epoch begins. That 
 
Hoi 
 
 572 ) 
 
 Hoi 
 
 monarch's peace with Spain was followed by 
 the restitution of the cautionary towns, and 
 the growing theological differences between 
 the two countries, and the increasing rivalry 
 between English and Dutch merchants 
 produced a deeply-rooted and enduring hos- 
 tility. When the Twelve Years' Truce with 
 Spain (1G09 — 21) came to an end, James's 
 sympathies were altogether Spanish. Holland 
 found in France the protector she had lost in 
 England. The Amboyna massacre was but 
 the prelude of a long struggle of the two 
 naval powers in the East Indies. The eventful 
 marriage of the Stadtholder, Frederick Henry, 
 with Mary, daughter of Charles I. (1641) 
 rather increased than diminished the hostility 
 of England and Holland. Flushed with the 
 glorious recognition of their liberty by the 
 Treaties of Westphalia (1648), the Dutch 
 plunged into their famous naval war with 
 England. The passing by the Long Parlia- 
 ment of the Navigation Act, dealt a deadly 
 blow at the Dutch carrying trade. But the 
 war which ensued, and lasted from 1651 to 
 1654, was on the whole unfavourable to Hol- 
 land. The restoration of the Stuarts, closely 
 followed by the re-enactment of the Naviga- 
 tion Act, rather intensified the opposition of 
 the Amsterdam oligarchs to their commercial 
 rival. The war (1665—1667) was on the 
 whole favourable to the Dutch, though the 
 Treaty of Breda lost them New Amsterdam. 
 In 1667 the two powers united to check Louis 
 XIV. by the Triple Alliance; but, in 1670, 
 Charles II. signed a treaty with France to 
 partition Holland, as Charles I. had nearly 
 forty years earlier concluded a similar treaty 
 with Spain. In 1672, Charles joined Louis 
 in his great attack on Holland. But common 
 political hostility to the tyrant of Europe now 
 proved so strong a bond of union between 
 England and Holland that even commercial 
 rivalry was powerless to separate them. 
 The restoration of the house of Orange 
 personally united the two courts ; and the 
 marriage of William III. with Mary of 
 York (1677) completed the alliance. The 
 Revolution which brought William to Eng- 
 land made it indissoluble. Henceforward, 
 the "Maritime Powers," as England and 
 Holland were now called, had a common policy 
 and common interests. Marlborough simply 
 continued the work of William of Orange. 
 But the narrow basis of Dutch prosperity now 
 began to show itself. It was perhaps only 
 because England had won the commercial 
 race, that her alliance with Holland had be- 
 come possible. Though the Treaty of Utrecht 
 gave the Dutch all they could wish, they 
 gradually sank into a decided condition of 
 dependence on their great ally. It was 
 English influence, now extended to internal 
 affairs, that made William IV., the son-in- 
 law of George II., Stadtholder in 1747. But 
 George's grandson, William V., was a weak 
 ruler ; and despite his sympathy with George 
 
 III., the rising Dutch democracy, which 
 warmly supported the American colonists, in- 
 sisted on Holland adopting the " Armed Neu- 
 trality " (1780), and rushed into a naval war 
 with England. But the glory of Holland 
 had now departed, and the States willingly 
 accepted an inglorious peace in 1783. In 1787 
 the English and Prussians combined to restore 
 the Stadtholder, an act which directly led to 
 the conquest of Holland by the French Ee- 
 public, with the approbation of the Dutch 
 democracy. Holland was forced to lend 
 its naval strength to France, and re- 
 mained in antagonism to England until 1815. 
 It was largely through English influence that 
 the Congress of Vienna erected Holland and 
 Belgium into a kingdom for the house of 
 Orange. In 1830, after the revolt of Belgium, 
 England and France blockaded the Dutch 
 ports, and insisted on *he signature of the 
 Convention of London in 1833, which gave 
 Belgium its independence. In 1867 the 
 Treaty of London guaranteed Luxemburg to 
 Holland. 
 
 Grattaii, ITist. of the Netherlands, and for tlie 
 earlier x>eriocl, the works of Mr. Motley ; 
 Wageneer, Be Vaderlandsche Historie ; Leo, Zwoif 
 Bucher Niederlandischer Genchichte ; Rauke, Hist^ 
 of Eng. ; Stauliope, Hist. ofEng.; Cuumugham, 
 Hist, of Eng, Comiaerce. ^rT^ -r^ m n 
 
 Li. a, i.j 
 
 Holies, Denzil, Lort> (*. 1597, d, 1681) 
 was the younger son of the Earl of Clare. On 
 entering Parliament (1624) he joined the 
 popular party, and was one of the most 
 ardent opponents of Buckingham. On March 
 2, 1629, when the Speaker was abont to ad- 
 journ the House in obedience to the king's 
 order. Holies forced him back into his chair, 
 for which act he was fined a thousand marks 
 and imprisoned. At the opening of the Long 
 Parliament he was much valued and esteemed 
 by the whole popular party. In the year 1644 
 he was one of the commissioners sent to 
 Oxford to negotiate with the king, showed 
 himself very anxious to effect a reconciliation, 
 and was consequently accused of treachery 
 by Lord Sa\'ile. Holies was the leader of 
 the Presbyterian party in their contest with 
 the Independents and with the army. In 
 August, 1647, he was excluded from the 
 House of Commons, returned to share the 
 short triumph of the Presbyterians, and was 
 forced again to take refuge in Normandy, 
 and to console himself bj' exposing Cromwell 
 in his Memoirs, Holies reappeared in Par- 
 liament in 1659, and was spokesman of the 
 deputation of the Commons sent to Breda. 
 Six months later he sat in the court which 
 judged the regicides, and was raised to 
 the peerage by the title of Baron Holies, 
 in 1661. In 1663 he was sent as ambas- 
 sador to Paris, recalled in 1665, and nego- 
 tiated the Treaty of Breda in 1667, but utterly 
 disapproved the foreign policy of Charles. 
 "Save what the government of the Parlia- 
 ment did," he wrote, " we have not taken one 
 
Eol 
 
 573 ) 
 
 Hon 
 
 true stei:) or struck one true stroke, since 
 Queen Elizabeth's time." His last public 
 act -was to vote for the acquittal of Lord 
 Stafford (1680). He died February 17, 1681. 
 Burnet describes him as "a man of great 
 courage, and of as great pride. He had the 
 soul of a stubborn old Eoman in him." 
 
 Memoirs published in Masere's rroots; Guizot 
 Monk et ses Contemporains, ' 
 
 Holy Alliance, The, -was a treaty con- 
 cluded at Paris on Sept. 26, 1815, between 
 Alexander, Emperor of Russia, Francis, Em- 
 peror of Austria, and Frederick William I., 
 King of Prussia, without the intervention of 
 their ministers. The Emperor of Russia was 
 the instigator of the step, and he is supposed 
 to have taken it under the influence of 
 Ma_dame_ Krudener, a visionary Pietist. The 
 main points of the agreement were as follows : 
 (l) European Christendom was regarded as 
 forming a single family, " the only principle 
 either between governments or subjects is to 
 regard themselves as members of the same 
 Chiistian nation, the three allied princes 
 considering themselves as delegated by Pro- 
 vidence to govern three branches of the same 
 family." (2) Three States, representing three 
 forms of Christianity, the Greek Church, the 
 Eoman Church, and Protestantism, were 
 asked to rise above their .differences, and to 
 form a union depending on their common 
 agreement. (3) Christianity was proclaimed 
 as the foundation of all government and all 
 civilisation, "the sublime truths which are 
 taught us by the eternal religion of a God 
 Saviour." "The present act has no other 
 object than to show in the face of the 
 universe the determination to adopt no other 
 rule of condupt, either in the administration 
 of government, or in the political relations 
 with other governments, than the precepts of 
 this holy religion, precepts of justice, charitj', 
 and peace," which are as well fitted to guide the 
 public acts of princes as they are to guide the 
 lives of private persons, and the only means 
 to consolidate human institutions and remedy 
 their imperfections. (4) The three sovereigns 
 declared themselves bound together by the ties 
 of a true and indissoluble fraternity. (5) They 
 were to consider themselves in the light of 
 fathers to their subjects. The treaty was 
 offered for signature to all European powers, 
 except the Pope and the Sultan. Great 
 Britain alone declined to accede to it, but the 
 Prince Regent declared his personal adhe- 
 rence to its principles. 
 
 The Treaty is printed in Eoch and Sohoell, 
 Histoire des Traites de Paix, iii. 547. 
 
 [0. B.] 
 
 Holsrrood Abbey was founded by 
 David I. in 1128. It was plundered by the 
 English in 1332 and 138.3, and destroyed by 
 Hertford in 1544. The foundation was sup- 
 pressed in 1547. Holyrood Palace was made 
 a royal residence by James V. in 1528, and 
 
 w-as henceforth the ordinary official dwelling- 
 place of the Kings of Scotland. It was the 
 scene of the murder of Rizzio in 1566. Charles 
 I. was crowned there in 1633. In 1650 it was 
 partly destroyed by Cromwell's troops. In 
 174o it was for a short time occupied by the 
 Young Pretender. After being allowed to 
 fall almost into ruins it was repaired in 1850. 
 
 Homage (homagmm, sometimes hominium 
 from homo, through the earlier Latin form 
 hominaticum), was that profession of feudal 
 subjection which the vassal {homo) made to 
 his lord on receiving a fief from his hands. 
 It could only be received by the lord himself. 
 With solemn ceremonies the vassal vmcovered 
 his head,_laid aside sword and spear, and knelt 
 before his suzerain, and formally declared, 
 " I become your man for the lands which I 
 hold of you, and will be faithful to you 
 against all men, saving the fealty which I 
 owe to my lord the king." The oath 
 of fealty and the gi-ant of the fief followed 
 the fomiula of homage. Every feudal tenant 
 on acquiring his property was compelled to 
 do homage to his lord. Besides liege homage, 
 as mentioned above, there was a simple lio- 
 mage, in which the oath of fealty did not 
 follow, and a homage that involved no feudal 
 duties, such as the Palatine earls proffered to 
 the English kings or the great peers of 
 France (hmnagium per paragium),OT such as the 
 Duke of Normandy performed to the King of 
 France. 
 
 Ducange, s.v. Tiomagiitm; Practon, lib. 2, cap. 
 
 35, § 8; Glanvill, lib. 9, cap. 1. 
 
 Home Kiile Movement. [Iuelaxu, 
 
 ctdfin.'] 
 
 Homildon Hill, The Battle op (Sept. 
 1402), was fought near Wooler in Northum- 
 berland, between a, marauding party of the 
 Scotch under Douglas, and an English force 
 under Hotspur and the Earl of March. The 
 victor}' was won for the English by the 
 archers, there being little or no fighting at 
 close quarters. 
 
 Homilies, The Book of. In the j-ear 
 1542 Convocation decided to issue "certain 
 homilies for the stay of such errors as were 
 then by ignorant preachers spread among 
 the people," and this determination resulted 
 in the publication of a volume of sermons, 
 fitted to be delivered by preachers whose 
 ability and knowledge wei-e not equal to the 
 task of writing their own discom'ses (1347). 
 A reprint of this volume appeared in 1560. 
 The leading writers of this first book of 
 Eomilies appear to have beenCranmer, Hooper, 
 and Latimer, but one or two of the sermons, 
 at least, were borrowed from earlier publica- 
 tions. The second book of Homilies was 
 published in 1563. 
 
 Honduras, British, situated on the 
 east coast of Central America, was visited by 
 Columbus in 1502, and was for many years 
 in the possession of Spain, although the 
 
Hon 
 
 (574) 
 
 Hoo 
 
 coast was frequently swept ty English buc- 
 caneers, and a few English colonists were 
 also settled there. In 1670 the Spaniards 
 confirmed Great Britain's right to the 
 Laguna de Terminos and the parts adjacent in 
 the province of Yucatan, those places having 
 been actually in possession of British subjects 
 through right of sufferance or indulgence. 
 But despite this concession, the Spaniards 
 some fifty years later (1717) attempted to 
 deprive the English of all share in the 
 country, and a desultory war, which lasted 
 forty years, was the result. It was not till 
 1786 that Honduras finally became British 
 territory ; and even later than this it was, in 
 1796 and subsequent years, again attacked by 
 the Spaniards. Honduras was at first a de- 
 pendency of Jamaica, and was governed by a 
 superintendent and an executive council of 
 nine, acting under the Governor of Jamaica, 
 by whom they were appointed. Besides this 
 executive council there was an assembly 
 elected by voters possessed of £60 each. In 
 1861 it was made a colony, though still sub- 
 ordinate to Jamaica, from which, however, it 
 was separated in 1870. 
 
 Hong-Kong, an island off the south- 
 east coast of China, was occupied by the 
 English during tho Chinese War of 1840, and 
 in 1842 was formally ceded to Great Britain 
 by the Treaty of Nankin. Since that time 
 the colony of Hong-Kong has become a 
 centre of trade and a naval and military 
 station. The government is vested in a 
 governor, aided by an executive council of 
 four members, and a legislative council con- 
 sisting of four official and four non-official 
 members appointed by the crown. 
 
 Honorius, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (627 — 6.53), was one of the companions of 
 Augustine, and was famous for his skill in 
 music. On the death of Justus he succeeded 
 to the archbishopric. During his long tenure 
 of office he saw the completion of the conver- 
 sion of Northumbria and the evangelisation 
 of Wessex by Birinus. 
 
 Hook, Archbishops of Canterhury. 
 
 Honour, The term honour was used es- 
 pecially " of the more noble sort of seigniories 
 on which other inferior lordships or manors 
 depend by performance of some customs or 
 services to those who are lords of them." 
 The honour, or liberty, was one of the great 
 baronial jurisdictions, and often consisted of 
 many manors. Though each of the various 
 manors composing the honour had its own 
 separate jurisdiction, yet only one court was 
 held for the whole ; hence the rights of the 
 honour are, in the main, those of the manor 
 or liberty. From the later Anglo-Saxon 
 times there existed large "liberties," whose 
 jurisdiction lay outside that of the hun- 
 dred courts, and was in private hands. 
 The tenants in these liberties attended tho 
 court of their lord, instead of the hundred 
 
 court, and were judged by the lord's steward. 
 The greater part of the Anglo - Saxon 
 honours seem to have belonged to churches, 
 hut the thegn possessing five hides had also a 
 right of judging on his own property. In 
 other cases, the hundred seems to have fallen 
 into private hands, and, under these circum- 
 stances, would be practically a manor. But 
 exemption from attending the hundred court 
 did not excuse attendance at the shire-moot. 
 Under the Norman kings, the number of 
 these greater franchises or honours increased 
 largely, and it was a most important part of 
 the work of Henry I. and Henry II. to force 
 the barons to admit the royal officers into the 
 privileged courts. The above remarks apply 
 equally to the manor, which differed from an 
 honour mainly in that the latter was composed 
 of several distinct manors. These great 
 honours, when they escheated into the hands 
 of the crown, were not generally joined on to 
 the ordinary county administration, but were 
 either allowed to continue in the possession 
 of the king, and were farmed like a shire, or 
 were granted out again as an hereditary fief. 
 But even if retained in the king's hands, the 
 tenants of the honour did not, according to 
 Dr. Stubbs, rank as tenants-in-chief of tho 
 crown ; nor was the king justified in claim- 
 ing dues from them or their immediate lord. 
 In later years, hoiiours were often created by 
 Act of Parliament, e.i?., Ampthill, Grafton, 
 and Hampton Court, by 33 Henry VIII. 
 Again, four years later, Henry VIII. was 
 empowered to make Westminster and King- 
 ston-on-Hull honours if he would. 
 
 T. Cumiing-liam, Law DictioiicM'i; ; Stubbs, 
 Const. Rut, 
 
 Hood, Samuel, Viscou>fT [i, 1724, 
 d. 1816), entered the Royal Navy in 1740. 
 In 1754, he was in the command of 
 a sloop stationed at the Bahama Islands. 
 Several years later he served under Rodney in 
 the bombardment of Havre, and passed the 
 four years which preceded the Peace of Paris 
 in duty off the coast of Ireland, and in the 
 Mediterranean. In the course of the next 
 twenty years he was created a baronet, 1778, 
 and later was appointed rear-admiral, with the 
 command of a squadron of eight ships which 
 was being sent to reinforce Rodney in the 
 West Indies, 1780. On Rodney sailing away to 
 England with a large convoy, Hood was left 
 in command of the fleet off the Leeward 
 Islands. On learning that De Grasse had 
 sailed to America, Hood hastened after him, 
 and a partial engagement occurred between 
 the French and English fleets. Again De 
 Grasse sailed for the West Indies, and was 
 followed by Hood,who baffled for some time the 
 combined efforts of the French fleet and army 
 to take possession of the island of St. Chris- 
 topher's. The island at length capitulated, 
 and Hood sailed away unmolested to join 
 Rodney at Barbadoes. On April 9, 1782, Sir 
 Samuel Hood, in command of the advanced 
 
Hoo 
 
 (675) 
 
 Hor 
 
 squadron, consisting of eight ships, came up 
 ■with the French, and was at once vigorously- 
 attacked by fifteen French ships ; hut so ably 
 did he fight his small detachment, that on 
 Rodney's arrival with the centre squadron, 
 De Grasse sailed away. The next two days 
 were occupied in a chase; but on the l'2th 
 Eodney managed to bring the French fleet to 
 an engagement off the north-west corner of 
 Dominica. Hood's division was engaged with 
 the French van, and the contest was main- 
 tained with much obstinacy and spirit, until 
 the Ville de JParis, De Grasse's ship, struck to 
 the Barjleur, the flagship of Hood. Hood was 
 rewarded for this victory by the title of Baron 
 Hood in the peerage of Ireland. On the con- 
 clusion of peace he returned home, and in 
 May, 1784, was returned as M.P. for West- 
 minster. In 1786 he was appointed port 
 admiral at Portsmouth, and two years later 
 was constituted one of the commissioners for 
 executing the office of Lord High Admiral. 
 In 1793 he was appointed vice-admiral of 
 the red, and was at once ordered to the Medi- 
 terranean as commander-in-chief, with the 
 object of taking possession of Toulon. After 
 a siege of two months this town was reduced. 
 At the end of 1794 he was appointed Governor 
 of Greenwich Hospital, being soon afterwards 
 raised to the English peerage with the title of 
 Viscount Hood (1796). He survived his ele- 
 vation nearly twenty years. 
 
 Alien, 2fniia! Battles; lodge, Portraits. 
 
 Hooper, John (i. 1475, d. 1554), at first 
 a Cistercian monk, became, during the reign 
 of Edward VI., one of the leaders of the 
 Eeformation, and acquired great fame as a 
 preacher. In 1550 he was made Bishop of 
 Gloucester, though for some time he refused 
 to enter upon his office, owing to his objection 
 to obey any spiritual authority but the Scrip- 
 tures, or to wear the episcopal dress. In 1552 
 he received the bishopric of Worcester in 
 eomtnendam, and " by his activity, his 
 fervid declamation, and his bold though in- 
 temperate zeal, deserved the applause and 
 gratitude of the well-wishers to the new doc- 
 trines." On the accession of Mary, Hooper 
 was at once marked out as a victim, was 
 ejected from his see, and imprisoned in 
 the Fleet, September, 1553. In the beginning 
 of 1555 he was condemned for heresy, and 
 sent to Gloucester, where he was burnt on 
 Feb. 9. " His charities," says Professor 
 Tytler, " were extensive and unwearied ; his 
 hospitality generous and noble, his manners 
 simple, his piety unaffected and profound." 
 
 Pom, Martyrs ; Lingard, Hist. ofEng. ; Proude, 
 Hilt, of Eng.; Tytler, Hist, of Eng, unier 
 Edward VLt Mary^ and Elizabeth. 
 
 Hooker, Richard {b. 1553, d. 1600), the 
 author of the famous Ecclesiastical JPolity, was 
 educated at Oxford, where he remained until 
 1584. In the following year he became 
 Master of the Temple, and was involved in a 
 
 controversy with Travers, a Nonconformist, 
 in which ho was vigorously supported by his 
 friends Archbishop Whitgift and Bishop 
 Sandys. Travers was suspended, and " to 
 justify his suspension we are in possession 
 of Hooker's ' immortal work," which has 
 gained for him the epithet of "judicious." 
 The Ecclesiastical Folity has other claims to 
 remembrance besides its literary excellence. 
 It is in reality a defence of the Church of 
 England as then established ; and in the 
 course of his argument Hooker has to deal 
 with those principles which, underlying 
 the Puritan doctrines, were at that time 
 forcing their way into such prominence. He 
 first of all inquires into the nature of law, 
 and finds that it is divided into two distinct 
 sections — laws immutable and laws variable ; 
 and then applies the touchstone of criticism 
 to decide to which category the various texts 
 of Scripture belong. The extreme Puritans, 
 who would have borrowed even their criminal 
 jurisprudence from the pages of the Old 
 Testament, are met at the threshold by 
 Hooker's challenge. Passing on from general 
 to particular points, he comes to the burning 
 question of episcopacy ; and here, though ad- 
 hering to the belief that this form of Church 
 government is to be found in the Scriptures, 
 he bases his chief argument on the fact that 
 no special form of ecclesiastical rule is laid 
 down in its pages as being absolutely binding 
 on all nations. The varying circumstances 
 of different peoples will, he argues, lead them 
 to form a mode of discipline fitted to their 
 necessities. It is hardly necessary in this place 
 to draw attention to his theories of secular 
 government, and of the king's limited power, 
 widely as they differed from the notions gene- 
 rally upheld by the Church party in the en- 
 suing reigns. 
 
 Keble's edition of the Ecclesiastical Polity. 
 
 Hoptou, Sir Ralph, afterwards Lord 
 {d. 1652), first distinguished himself in the 
 wars of the Low Countries. On the outbreak 
 of the Civil War he was sent into the western 
 parts of England to assist in forming an 
 army for the king. His success in Cornwall 
 was complete. In 1643 he defeated Sir W. 
 Waller at the battle of Lansdowne, but was 
 himself severely wounded. In the same year 
 Charles I. appointed him Governor of Bristol 
 and created him Baron Hopton. Next year, 
 after taking Winchester, he was defeated at 
 Alresford by Sir W. Waller with Haselrig's 
 " Lobsters," and was appointed a member of 
 the Prince of Wales's council at Bristol. In 
 1646 he was routed by Sir T. Fairfax at the 
 battle of Torrington, after which disaster he 
 dissolved his army and withdrew to the Scilly 
 Islands, and subsequently to the Continent. 
 He died at Bruges. 
 
 Horestii, The, were an ancient British 
 tribe occupying the modem counties of Clack- 
 mannan, Kinross, and Fife, with the eastern 
 
Hor 
 
 (676) 
 
 Hon 
 
 part of Stratheme, and the ooimtry to the 
 west of the Tay. 
 
 Zlorsa [d. circa 455) is said to have heen 
 the hrother of Hengest, whom he accom- 
 panied in his expedition to Britain, where, 
 according to tradition, he was slain in the 
 hattle of Aylesford (455). The town of 
 Horstead, in Kent, is said to derive its name 
 from him, and a barrow in the neighboiu-hood 
 is pointed out as the tomh of Horsa. The 
 very existence of Horsa has been questioned 
 of late years, and his name has been made to 
 be no more than a representation of the steed 
 which has so long figured on the standard of 
 Kent. But his name occurs more than once 
 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and there is no 
 reason why he should not have been a real 
 historical character, even though his name hears 
 the signification attributed to it. [Hengest.] 
 
 Hospitallers, The Knights, or Bke- 
 THBEN or St. John at Jerusalem, were 
 one of the two military orders of Crusaders. 
 They derived their name " from their 
 ■ hospital built at Jerusalem for the use 
 of pilgrims coming to the Holy Land, and 
 dedicated to St. John Baptist." The order 
 was instituted about the year 1092, but they 
 do not seem to have had a house in London 
 till the year 1100. They were much favoured 
 by the first two Kings of Jerusalem, Godfrey 
 of Boiilogne and Baldwin, and in England 
 soon acquired large possessions. The superior 
 in England became in process of time a lay 
 baron, a;nd had a seat among the lords in 
 Parliament. They had numerous manors 
 scattered over different counties in England. 
 Each settlement of Hospitallers was under 
 the rule of a commander, who answered to 
 the preceptors of the Templars. They were 
 followers Of St. Augustine's rule, and wore a 
 black habit, with a white cross upon it. Their 
 chief establishment in England was the Hos- 
 pital of St. John, at Clerkenwell, founded by 
 Jordan Briset, about 1 100. Its revenue at the 
 time of the Keformation seems to have beenbe- 
 ween £2,000 and £3,000. Other commanderies 
 of this order were at Beverley (Yorkshire) and 
 Warwick. In Dugdale's Monasticon (edit. 
 1839) more than fifty others are enumerated. 
 
 DugdalB, Monasticon; Tanner, Sotitia Monas- 
 twa.; Porter, Hist, of the Knights of Malta,; 
 Knights Hospitallers in England tCamden Sec). 
 
 HothaiU, John he {d. 1336), was Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer in Ireland in the 
 second year of Edward II., and in 1311 is 
 found as guardian of Gavestou's houses in 
 London. Next year he was made Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer in England, and in 1313 
 was sent on a mission to France. Two 
 years later he was despatched to Ireland for 
 the purpose of inducing the barons there to 
 make a stand against Edward Bruce. In 
 1318 he was appointed Chancellor, and con- 
 tmued to hold the Great Seal till January, 
 
 1320. Some four years before this last date 
 (1316), he had been elected Bishop of Ely. 
 Un the accession of Edward III. he was once 
 more made Chancellor, but was struck with 
 paralysis some two years before his death, 
 which happened in 1336. 
 
 Hotham, Sir John (<?. 1645), ionk a 
 prominent part in the attack on the Earl of 
 Strafilord, having some personal grudge 
 against that statesman. In the debate upon 
 the Eemonstrance he sided with Hyde [Cla- 
 rendon]. Next year (1642) Hotham was 
 despatched by the Parliament to take com- 
 mand of Hull and secure the large magazines 
 of that important town for the popular party. 
 When Charles demanded admittance to this 
 fortress Hotham refused him, and the Par- 
 liament approved the conduct of their officer. 
 But he was not entirely in the confidence of 
 his employers, who sent his son to play the 
 spy upon his father's movements. Unfortu- 
 nately, when Lord Digby fell into their 
 hands. Sir John allowed his honour to be 
 tampered with, and promised to deliver up 
 the town on the first shot fired against it by 
 the king's army. Accordingly Hotham per- 
 mitted Digby to depart for the purpose of 
 carrying the news to York, but soon found 
 out that he had no power to achieve his pur- 
 pose. A little later both Sir John Hotham 
 and his son were executed for treasonable 
 correspondence with the Marquis of New- 
 castle (January, 1645), and died leaving on 
 men's minds the impression that had it not 
 been for their weakness, the Parliament 
 would have become the absolute masters of 
 the whole of Yorkshire. 
 
 Hotspur, [Percy, Henry.] 
 
 Honghers, The, made their first ap- 
 pearance in Connemara in the winter of 1711. 
 They consisted of armed parties, disguised by 
 white sheets, and spread over Mayo, Sligo, 
 Eoscommon, Gal way, and Clare, slaughtering 
 and '_' houghing " the cattle, from which last 
 practice they derived their name. Notices 
 were posted up, signed by " Captain Evan," 
 bidding the shepherds remain indoors. None 
 of the Houghers, who were evidently directed 
 by men of birth and education, had been 
 apprehended, when a government proclama- 
 tion was issued, promising a free pardon to 
 all who would confess. Upon this, sixteen 
 young _ gentlemen belonging to the best 
 Catholic families, came forward in Galway, 
 and by the end of 1713 the movement had 
 ceased. It is difiicult to decide whether it 
 was merely intended to check cattle-farming 
 and Protestantism, or whether it had a 
 Jacobite origin : but, in any case, the priests 
 do not appear to have been implicated in the 
 disturbance. Afterwards, the Houghers were 
 identified with the Whiteboys (q.v.). In 
 1783 the Houghers directed their efforts 
 against soldiers, and a. biU was passed against 
 them in 1784. 
 
Hon 
 
 ( 577 ) 
 
 How 
 
 Konsecarls, The, or Thingamen (Sua 
 earls), were a tody-guard formed by Canute 
 from the remains oi t£e f om-wildngs, who, after 
 the tattle in which 'these pirates' power was 
 broken, came to England, under Thurkill the 
 Tall, and took Canterbury. Canute organised 
 them into two bodies, of about 2,000 men 
 each, picked soldiers, from all lands under his 
 rule. "This force," says Mr. Freeman, 
 " was, in fact, a revival of the earliest form 
 of the primitive Comitatus, only more 
 thoroughly and permanently organised; re- 
 ceiving regular pay, and reinforced by volun- 
 teers of all kinds and of all nations, they 
 doubtless gradually departed from the higher 
 type of Comitatus, and approached more 
 nearly to the level of ordinary mercenaries. 
 They were, in fact, the germ of a standing 
 army, an institution which later kings and 
 great earls, English as well as Danish, found 
 it to their interest to continue." The English 
 king's Housecarls were almost exterminated 
 at the battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac. 
 
 Hoveden, Roger op {d. circa 1201), one 
 of the most valuable of our early chroni- 
 clers, was probably a native of Howden, in 
 the East Riding of Yorkshire. He may have 
 been introduced to pubUo life by Bishop Hugh 
 de Puiset, of Durham ; but, in any case, he 
 was employed in the king's service by 1174, 
 for in this year we find him in attendance on 
 Henry II. in France. Next year Henry sent 
 him into Galloway, to induce the princes of 
 GaUoway to acknowledge the King of England 
 as their lord. A few years later Roger was 
 employed in the monastic elections of 1185, 
 and in 1189 was justice itinerant for the 
 forests in the north of England, from which 
 time he is lost sight of. Dr. Stubbs has 
 divided the Chronicle of Roger Hoveden into 
 four parts : — part 1 comes down to 1148, part 
 2 extends from 1149 to 1169, 3 from 1170 to 
 1192, 4 from 1192 to 1201. Of these four 
 divisions, the same authority remarks that part 
 
 1 is a copy of an earlier Durham compilation, 
 to which he has made a few additions ; part 
 
 2 is Hoveden's own narrative, but is largely 
 indebted to the Melrose Chronicle, and is by 
 no means free from chronological errors ; 
 part 3 is a revision, or, rather, a new 
 edition, of the Chronicle, that goes by the 
 name of Benedict of Feterhorough, to which, 
 however, Roger has added some important 
 documents ; part 4 appears to have been 
 Hoveden's own work, and is of special value 
 for the time of which it treats. Hoveden has 
 been edited, with invaluable prefaces, by Dr. 
 Stubbs for the Rolls Series. 
 
 Stults, Introd. in the Eolls Edition; Sir J. 
 D. Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue, 
 
 Howard, The Family op. According to 
 Sir Bernard Burke, the family of Howard 
 was established in Norfolk in the tenth 
 century. In the fifteenth century Sir Robert 
 Howard married Elizabeth, daughter of 
 Hist.— 19 
 
 Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk (who 
 was descended from Thomas of Brotherton, 
 son of King Edward I.), and of Elizabeth, 
 daughter and heiress of Richard Fitzalan, 
 Earl of Arundel. Thus the estates of the 
 Mowbrays and Fitzalans came into possession 
 of the Howards. In 1470 Sir John Howard, 
 son of this Sir Robert, was created Lord 
 Howard, and in 1483 Earl Marshal and Duke 
 of Norfolk. Among other peerages in this 
 family are those of Howard-de-Walden 
 (created 1697), Howard of Glossop (1869), 
 Carlisle (1661), Effingham (1554), Suffolk 
 (1603). 
 
 Howard, Sm Edwaud {d. 1.513), was the 
 son of Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey and 
 second Duke of Norfolk, the victor of Flodden. 
 Occupying the position of Lord High Admiral 
 of England, he distinguished himself on 
 several occasions. In 1510, supported by his 
 brother, Sir Thomas Howard, as a subordinate 
 officer in his fleet, he killed the Scotch 
 privateer, Andrew Barton, and captured two 
 of his ships. In 1512, on his return from 
 Spain, where he had conducted the English 
 forces, under the Marquis of Dorset, Sir 
 Edward Howard captured many French 
 merchantmen, and made several destructive 
 descents on the French coast. Having refitted 
 at Southampton, and being reinforced by a 
 further squadron of twenty-five sail, he en- 
 gaged with a French fleet of thirty-nine sail 
 near Brest, on Aug. 10. Victory once again 
 inclined to the side of the English, but a 
 complete triumph was prevented by the dismay 
 occasioned to both the contending parties 
 upon the conflagration of the two largest 
 ships on each side, the Regent and the Corde- 
 lier, whose entire crews, to the number of 
 1,700 men, perished in the flames. In 1513 
 Sir Edward Howard was killed in an attempt 
 to destroy the French fleet near Brest (April 
 25). He was succeeded in his office of Lord 
 High Admiral by his brother. Sir Thomas 
 Howard, who became in later years the fourth 
 Duke of Norfolk. 
 
 Howard of Efpingham, William, Lord 
 {d. 1573), was the son of Thomas, second' 
 Duke of Norfolk, Marshal of England. 
 On the charge of concealing the incontinence 
 of his niece, Catherine Howard, Lord William 
 was declared guilty of misprision of treason, 
 and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. 
 He soon, however, recovered his liberty, 
 and was, under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., 
 employed on various diplomatic missions, 
 the most important of which was one to the 
 Czar of Muscovy, in 1553. Soon after Mary's 
 accession he was raised to the peerage, and 
 made Lord High Admiral of England. In 
 1554 he greatly distinguished himself in 
 crushing the Kentish rebellion, and suc- 
 cessfully prevented Sir Thomas Wyatt from 
 entering London. It was owing to his in- 
 fluence as head of the naval power of Eng- 
 
How 
 
 { 578) 
 
 How 
 
 land, that Gardiner found it expedient not to 
 press the charge against Elizabeth of being 
 implicated in Wyatt's rebellion ; and through- 
 out the whole reign of Mary he exercised a 
 constant watch over the princess, by whom, 
 after her accession, he was created Lord Cham- 
 berlain and Lord Privy Seal, as a reward for 
 his devotion. In 1559 he was sent as com- 
 missioner to Cambrai, in conjunction with 
 Dr. Wotton and the Bishop of Ely, and 
 subsequently did his best to bring about the 
 marriage of the queen with the Archduke 
 Charles of Austria. 
 
 Proude, Hist, of Eng. ; Tytler, England under 
 Edward VI., Mary, and ElizahetK; Aikin, 
 Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizaheth. 
 
 Howard op Eppingham, Chaules, Lord 
 (S. 1536, d. 1624), was the son of William, 
 Lord Howard of Effingham, and grandson 
 of the second Duke of Norfolk. In the 
 year 1569 he held a command in the royal 
 army during the Northern rebellion, and, 
 in 1587, very strongly advised the execution 
 of the Queen of Scots. In 1585, although 
 a Catholic, he was appointed Lord High 
 Admiral of England, and had command 
 of the fleet during the alarm of the Spanish 
 Armada, his resolution and bravery being 
 conspicuous throughout the crisis. In 1596 
 he was associated with the Eaii of Essex 
 in the expedition against Cadiz, and was 
 created Earl of Nottingham as a reward 
 for his services. In 1601 he was instrumental 
 in suppressing the insurrection of Essex, 
 with whom he had quarrelled after the 
 Spanish expedition. "Under James, Lord 
 Howard continued to hold his office as ad- 
 miral, and filled the post of Lord High 
 Steward at the coronation. Though without 
 very great experience or commanding ability. 
 Lord Howard was fairly successful. He had 
 some naval skill, and was both bold and pru- 
 dent. He knew whose advice to follow, and 
 was very popular in the navy. [Armada.] 
 Lingard, Hist, of Eng, ; Froude, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Howard, Lord "William {d. 1640), was 
 the second son of Thomas, fourth Duke of 
 Norfolk, and ancestor of the Earls of Carlisle. 
 He was suspected of being implicated in 
 Francis Throgmorton's plot, 1583, but, 
 though he was arrested, no proof of his com- 
 plicity could be obtained. Having become 
 lord of Naworth Castle in right of his wife, 
 he was made "Warden of the "Western Marches. 
 
 Howard op Esoriok, Edward, Lord {d. 
 1 675), was the seventh sou of Thomas Howard, 
 Earl of Suffolk, and was created Baron 
 Howard of Escrick, in Yorkshire, 1628. He 
 sided with the Parliament throughout the 
 Civil "War, and, after the abolition of the 
 House of Lords, consented to become a mem- 
 ber of the Commons, where he represented 
 Carlisle ; he also became a member of the 
 Counci; of State. In July, 1650, he was 
 accused by Major-General Harrison of taking 
 
 bribes from wealthy delinquents. A year later 
 he was convicted, expelled from the House, 
 sentenced to be imprisoned in the Tower and 
 to pay a, fine of £10,000. He was soon re- 
 leased, and the fine was not exacted, but he 
 took no further part in pubUc affairs. 
 
 Howard, John (*. 1726, d. 1790), a 
 distinguished philanthropist, was bom in 
 London, and after being for som^ time 
 apprenticed to a grocer, travelled over 
 Europe. In 1756 he imdertook a voyage to 
 Lisbon, but on the way was captured by a 
 French privateer, and was for a short time 
 held in captivity. In 1773 his attention was 
 directed to the state of the English prisons, 
 and he visited most of the countries of the 
 Continent to examine their prisons. In 1777, 
 he published The State of the Prisons in 
 England and Wales, which had the effect of 
 drawing public attention to the abuses which 
 prevailed, and ultimately leading .to great 
 reforms. He died at Kherson while prose- 
 cuting researches into the plague. 
 
 Howard v. Gossett, Case op. Mr. 
 Howard, who had been Stockdale's solicitor 
 in his action against Messrs. Hansard in 
 1839 and 1840, brought an action against the 
 officers of the House of Commons, who had 
 taken him into custody, and obtained a ver- 
 dict for £100. He then obtained a second 
 verdict against Sir "W. Gossett, the Sergeant- 
 at-Arms, on the ground that the Speaker's 
 warrant was informal. The question was 
 once more brought before the Court of Ex- 
 chequer, and here the verdict of the lower 
 court was reversed. The case forms a con- 
 stitutional precedent of some importance. As 
 Sir Erskine May points out, " The act of the 
 officer and not the authority of the House itself 
 was questioned." 
 
 May, Const. Hist. 
 
 Howe, John {d. 1721), was returned as, 
 member for Cirencester to the Convention of 
 1689, having previously been known as the 
 author of some savage lampoons. He was 
 appointed Vice-Chamberlain to Queen Mary. 
 He proved himself a zealous Whig, and pro- 
 posed sending Dutch troops to suppress a 
 Scotch regiment, which had mutinied when 
 ordered to the Continent. He attacked Car- 
 marthen and Halifax, demanding that they 
 should be removed from the king's councils, 
 but without effect. He was dismissed from 
 his office in 1693, apparently for imagining 
 that Queen Mary was in love with him. 
 From this time he displayed the most ranco- 
 rous hatred against the queen and her hus- 
 band, and moved the impeachment of Burnet 
 for writing an obnoxious pastoral letter. 
 Shortly afterwards he became a Tory, and a 
 zealous advocate for peace. He clamoured 
 eagerly for the dismissal of the Dutch 
 guards, although he had formerly urged their 
 employment. He was a vigorous supporter 
 
How 
 
 ( 579) 
 
 How 
 
 of the Irish, fiesamption Bill. In 1701 we 
 find him in communication with the French 
 ambassador, and making a violent attack 
 on the Partition Treaties, in the course 
 of which Howe uttered the most hitter 
 invectives against the king. At the end of 
 1701 he was rejected by the Gloucestershire 
 electors. In 1702 he received the office of 
 Joint Paymaster of the Forces. He again found 
 himself at the bottom of the poll, but on a 
 scrutiny of the votes was declared duly 
 elected, and was replaced on petition. He 
 moved without success that the Prince of 
 Denmark should have the enormous in- 
 come of £100,000 a year on the death of 
 Queen Anne. Howe was sworn of the 
 Privy Council in 1708, but on the accession 
 of George I. he was dismissed from his 
 offices, and passed the remainder of his life 
 in retirement. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist. ofUng.; Banke, Hist. ofSng.; 
 Stanhope, Reign of t^ueen Amte. 
 
 Howe, Richard, 1st Earl (S. 1722, d. 
 1799), a third eon of the second Viscount 
 Howe, entered the navy at the age of four- 
 teen, and was employed under Lord Anson. 
 After Ber^•ing for some time in the West 
 Indies he was appointed commander of a 
 sloop in 1745. In 1748 he returned to Eng- 
 land, and spent three years in studying 
 navigation and tactics. He was then ap- 
 pointed to perform a semi-diplomatic mission 
 in the MediterTanean, and executed it with 
 great skill and judgment. In 1754, while 
 attached to Boscawen's fleet, he captured a 
 French ship. Three years later he was 
 returned to Parliament for Dartmouth, and 
 in the following year made himself con- 
 spicuous in Hawke's attacks on the French 
 coast, and in the same year succeeded to the 
 family title and estates on the death of his 
 brother. Viscount Howe. Once more he 
 distinguished himself at the action in Qui- 
 beron Bay in 1759. During the American 
 War he was employed on that station ; but 
 his force was so small and ill provided that 
 he could effect little or nothing. On his 
 return to England in 1782, he was at once 
 despatched to the relief of Gibraltar, a ser- 
 vice which he accomplished in spite of the 
 superior number of the enemy. On his 
 return in 1783 he was appointed First Com- 
 missioner of the Admiralty, and, except 
 during the short Coalition administra- 
 tion, held that post until 1788, when he 
 resigned and was created an earl. In 1793, 
 when the war with France broke out, Lord 
 Howe was appointed to the command of the 
 Channel Fleet. On May 2, 1794, he sailed 
 from St. Helens, and on June 1 gained a 
 decisive victory over the French. Honours 
 were heaped upon him ; and on the outbreak 
 of the mutiny in the fleet in 1791, Lord Howe 
 was armed with full powers to restore order 
 inthe navy. To effect this purpose he exercised 
 80 much moderation, firmness, and tact, that 
 
 he soon brought back the sailors to their 
 allegiance. As a commander. Lord Howe 
 has been accused of being too cautious ; as a 
 man, however, he seems to have had many 
 estimable qualities. 
 
 James, Naval Hist. ; Allen, Battles of the 
 British Navy. 
 
 Howe, Sir William (d. 1814), brother 
 of Earl Howe, was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of the English army in America in 
 1775. Acting in this capacity he won the battle 
 of Bunker Hill (1775), and took New York 
 (1776). Next year he defeated the enemy at 
 Brandywine Eiver and occupied Philadelphia, 
 but was re-called in 1778 at his own request. 
 
 Howel Sha (Howel the Good) was the 
 most famous of the early Welsh kings (reigned 
 915 — 948). He was the son of Cadell and the 
 grandson of Rhodri Mawr. Howel seems to 
 have had a vague sort of overlordship over 
 North Wales, whose chief king was his cousin, 
 ' Idwal Foel. Later writers have spoken of him 
 as king of all Wales; but he at most possessed 
 over his contemporarj' princes the authority 
 of superior ability and power. He never dis- 
 puted the West Saxon overlordship, and in 
 922 accepted Edward the Elder as "father 
 and lord." He seems to have attended the 
 English witenagemots, attested charters, and 
 there is ground for the belief that he 
 joined the expedition of Edmund against 
 Cumbria in 946. Howel is most famous 
 for his collection of Welsh laws and cus- 
 toms, which he made at a great gathering 
 of Welsh prelates and princes at his hunt- 
 ing lodge, near Whitland, in Carmarthen- 
 shire, known as Ty Gwyn ar Daf. He is 
 said to have been aided by Blegywryd, 
 the first scholar of his time, and to have 
 taken the laws in person to Rome to obtain 
 papal sanction (926). But the " Book of the 
 White House "is no longer extant, and the 
 bulky codes which now go by the name of 
 the Laws of Howel Dha can only in their 
 present form be referred back to the eleventh 
 or twelfth century, though doubtless based on 
 earlier collections. They comprise three 
 varying laws belonging to the districts of 
 Gwynedd, Powys, and Dyfed respectively. 
 They bear large traces of EhgHsh influence, 
 and, though largely occupied with minute 
 details of fines and court duties, are very 
 valuable sources of information. Howel died 
 in 948, and the peace which seems to have 
 attended his power died with him. "He 
 was," says the native chronicler, " the wisest 
 and justest of all Welsh princes, greatly 
 loved by every Welshman and by the wise 
 among the Saxons." 
 
 The Xau-s of Hoirel Vha were first printed 
 by Wotton, and afterwards more completely 
 and accurately edited by Mr. Aneurin Owen in 
 the Record Commission's Ancient Laws ajid 
 InstitiitBs of Wales ; Bnd y Tywi/sojiim ; Gweutian 
 Briit ; AnnaUs Camhrix ; lAher Landavensis ; 
 Williams, Hisfoi-y of Wales. [T. F. T.] 
 
How 
 
 ( 580 ) 
 
 Hum 
 
 ^owick, Lord. [Grey, Earl.] . 
 Hudibras. [Butler, Samuel.] 
 Hudson, Sir Jeffrey (i. 1619, d. 1682), 
 was Charles I.'s favourite dwarf. He was faith- 
 fully attached to Queen Henrietta, whom' he 
 accompanied in her first flight from England ; 
 not long after this he was taken prisoner by 
 Turkish pirates and sold as a slave, but before 
 long he was released and served as a captain 
 of horse in the royal army. When the royal 
 cause became hopeless he again retired to 
 France with the queen, but returned to 
 England at the Restoration, and in 1681 was 
 accused of complicity in the Popish Plot. On 
 this account he was' imprisoned, and died very 
 soon afterwards in captivity. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Territories, The (or 
 
 Prince Rupert's Land), which extended over 
 a vast area in the north-west of British 
 America, received their name from the ex- 
 plorer Hudson, who in 1610 penetrated 
 into the bay which still bears his name. 
 It had been previously visited by Sebastian 
 Cabot in 1517, and by Davis in 1585. 
 The example of Hudson was followed a few- 
 years later by various exploring parties, 
 and the regions about the bay were found to 
 be abundantly stocked with animals furnishing 
 valuable fur. In 1670 the Hudson's Bay 
 Company was formed, and settlements were 
 established in various places. Frequent 
 collisions took place between, the English 
 settlers and the French, who in 1685 took 
 most of the English factories. The Peace of 
 Utrecht in 1713 restored the English posses- 
 sions, and although there were subsequent 
 attempts on the part of the French to drive 
 out the British again,' they were unsuc- 
 cessful. The Hudson's Bay Company was 
 carried on in accordance with the charter of 
 1670, which " authorises the governor and 
 company to make laws and ordinances for 
 the good government of their territory, and 
 the advancement of trade, and to impose 
 penalties and punishments not repugnant to 
 the laws of England." In 1858 part of the 
 territory was formed into the colony of 
 British Columbia, and in 1870 the remaining 
 portion, then known as the North "West 
 Territories, was incorporated with the Do- 
 minion of Canada (q.v.). It is governed by 
 a lieutenant-governor and council of five. 
 
 E. M. Martin, English Coiomes ; Sir E. Creasy, 
 Brita/tmic Empire, 
 
 Hue and Cry is derived from the French 
 words /mer and crier, both of which signify to 
 cry aloud. In early English law it was one 
 of the recognised processes of common law for 
 securing the arrest of a felon. The plaintifi 
 who had been robbed had by this process the 
 right of acquainting the constable of the 
 township with the wrong he had suffered, 
 and the description of the culprit. The 
 constable might then call upon all the inhabi- 
 
 tants to join in the pursuit of the suspected 
 criminal with horn and voice ; and so follow 
 up the offender's tracks to the limits of the 
 township, at which limit this constable would 
 generally hand on the duty of pursuit to the 
 constable of the neighbouring parish. It was 
 enjoined by the Statute of Westminster, 1275, 
 and regulated by Acts made in the years 
 1285, 1585, 1735, and 1749. 
 
 Huguenots. [Protestant Refugees in 
 England.] 
 
 Hull, or Kingston-upon-Hull, derives its 
 second name from Edward I., who, seeing its 
 advantageous position, took much trouble in 
 fortifying the place. But it seems to have 
 been of considerable importance even before 
 this time. The great house of De la Pole 
 were Hull merchants. About the year 
 1300, Edward, in an ordinance having 
 reference to the establishment of mints, 
 appointed it one of the places for the 
 erection of furnaces. Its prosperity, though 
 occasionally interrupted by plague and 
 famine, seems to have been continuous 
 during the succeeding centuries. In 1642 
 the town came into great prominence as 
 one of the most important magazines of 
 arms in the country. Owing to this it was 
 entrusted by Parliament to the keeping of 
 Sir John Hotham, whose refusal to admit the 
 king within the gates was almost tantamount 
 to a declaration of war. Before long, how- 
 ever. Sir John was found in correspondence 
 with the Royalists, treating for the surrender 
 of his charge. For this offence he suffered 
 death ; while the town of Hull held out 
 against the siege of the Marquis of Newcastle. 
 
 Humble Petition and Advice, The 
 
 (1667), was the second paper Constitution of 
 the Protectorate. When Cromwell's second 
 Parliament met in 1657, great anxiety was 
 felt for the course events would take if the 
 Protector were to be suddenly carried off by 
 death or murder. On February 23 Alderman 
 Pack, member for the city of London, brought 
 in a motion to this effect, and enunciated his 
 proposals, which bore the title of "An 
 Humble_ Address and Remonstrance." These 
 propositions were, after a long debate, 
 accepted by the House, in spite of the op- 
 position of the military members. On April 
 i,_ when a committee had been appointed to 
 discuss the whole question with him, Crom- 
 well definitely refused to exchange the title 
 of Protector for that of king ; but with this 
 and a few other minor exceptions, the 
 whole of the Humble Petition and Advice 
 received the Protector's assent (May 25, 
 1057). The chief provisions of this docu- 
 ment were, that Cromwell should name his ovn 
 successor in his lifetime ; that a Parliament 
 of two Houses should be called every three 
 years at the furthest ; that Papists be dis- 
 abled from sitting in Parliament and voting 
 in the election of members ; that an Upper 
 
Hum 
 
 ( 681 ) 
 
 Hun 
 
 House be constituted, consisting of from 
 fortj' to seventy members, whereof twenty- 
 one should form a quorum ; that the members 
 of this Upper House should be nominated 
 by Cromwell in the first place — the right 
 of filling up vacancies being, however, 
 inherent in the chamber itself; that a 
 constant revemue of £1,300,000 a year be 
 granted for the maintenance of the army and 
 navy, other supplies being granted by Parlia- 
 ment, specially as need should arise; that 
 the Protector's council should consist only of 
 " such as are of known piety and of undoubted 
 affection to the rights of these nations," 
 even in matters of religious faith ; that this 
 council be not removed but by consent of 
 Parliament; that it shall appoint to the 
 mihtary and naval commands on Cromwell's 
 death; that the Chancellor, Treasurer, chief 
 justices, &c., be approved by Parliament ; 
 that Parliament should issue a public con- 
 fession of faith, to which, however, none 
 should be emnpelted to assent, nor be 
 molested for holding other views so long 
 as they did not abuse this liberty; but 
 that neither Papacy nor Prelacy be suffered. 
 When, however. Parliament once more met in 
 Jan., 1658, Cromwell found the Lower House, 
 from which his chief supporters had been 
 withdrawn to form the new House of Lords, 
 caUiog in question all that had been done in 
 the previous year. The Lower House now 
 refused to recognise the Upper. Cromwell, 
 \ in despair, dissolved Parliament early in 
 I 1658, and the Humble Petition and Advice 
 fell to the ground. 
 
 Eanke, Hist, of Eng, ; Whiteloclre, Memovials, 
 655—661. 
 
 Hume, Datid {b. 1711, (?. 1776), was born 
 at Edinburgh and educated for the law, 
 though his own tastes ran strongly in the 
 direction of letters. A few years after coming 
 of age he went to France, returning to London 
 in 1737, for the publication of his Treatise oh 
 Suman Nature. It was not till fifteen years 
 later that he published his Political Discourses 
 (1752), and about the same time being ap- 
 pointed librarian of the Faculty of Advocates, 
 conceived the idea of writing a history of 
 England. The first volume of this work con- 
 taining the reigns of James I. and Charles I. 
 was published in 1754, and fell almost still- 
 born from the press. Two years later appeared 
 the continuation of the History to the Revo- 
 lution of 1688. In 1759 Hume publisljed 
 his history of the House of Tudor, and in 
 1761 the earlier portion of his history. By 
 this time the sale of the new history was very 
 considerable, and its author realised such 
 sums of money from the booksellers, that 
 he became, in his own words, "not only inde- 
 pendent but opulent." In 1763 he was 
 appointed secretary to the Earl of Hertford 
 in his embassy to Paris, and in 1765 remained 
 ehargi d'affaires in that city, till the arrival 
 
 of Lord Hertford's successor, the Duke of 
 Richmond. He then returned to Edinburgh, 
 where he died. Hume's History was 
 long the most widely popular of aU the 
 general histories of England. This popu- 
 larity it owes in great part to the lucid 
 elegance of its style, and the literary skill 
 with which it is composed:, qualities which 
 still entitle it to rank as an English classic. 
 To the historical student its value at the 
 present day is comparatively slight. Hume's 
 acquaintance with the subject was not very 
 close, and of the earlier periods and the origin 
 and growth of the constitution, he had 
 little accurate knowledge; nor was the time 
 taken in the composition of the Sistonj 
 sufficient to allow of very deep research ; 
 while his narrative of events in the seven- 
 teenth century is vitiated by his strong 
 prejudice against all who asserted popular 
 rights. Still the literary merits of the 
 book, and the acuteness of some of the 
 observations of one of the greatest thinkers 
 of the last century, must always give it a 
 certain value of its own. 
 
 Hume, Joseph (i. 1777, d. 1855), was 
 born of humble parents at Montrose. After 
 studying medicine at Edinburgh he was 
 appointed surgeon to one of the Indian 
 regiments (1797), and did not return home 
 tUl 1808. From this time he devoted his 
 attention to the practical side of English 
 politics, and in 1812 entered Parliament as 
 member for "Weymouth — a borough which he 
 did not long continue to represent. A few 
 years later he was returned for Aberdeen, 
 and after one or two changes finally became 
 member for Montrose. The chief object which 
 Hume set to himself as a politician was the 
 reduction of taxation, and to secure thi^ 
 reduction he investigated and, when necessary, 
 challenged every item of public expenditure. 
 But it was not to this line of work only that 
 Mr. Hume confined his attention. Almost 
 every branch of domestic policy in turn 
 called for his inquiries : he proposed reforms 
 in the army, the navy, and the ecclesiastical 
 courts. He secured the repeal of the laws 
 forbidding machinery to be exported, and 
 workmen from going abroad. He was 
 also a determined enemy of imprisonment 
 for debt, of flogging in the army, and the 
 system of impressment for the navy. In 
 such useful work he passed the last years of 
 his life. 
 
 Hundred, The. Tacitus, describing the 
 Germans, says that their chiefs are assisted in 
 matters of justice by a hundred companions, 
 and that in war each pagus, or district, fur- 
 nishes a hundred warriors and the host. 
 These bands, he tells us, are called "hun- 
 dreds," but " what was once a number is now 
 a name only." Thus the tribe is divided into 
 " himdreds," which are already beginning to 
 lose their connection with a definite number 
 
Hun 
 
 ( 582 ) 
 
 Hun 
 
 of warriors, or fully free men. There is no 
 trace of any such division in England till 
 Edgar's " Ordinance how the Hundred shall be 
 held." But in the Frank kingdom the court of 
 the hundred had been the most important 
 part of the judicial machinery as early as the 
 fifth century ; and an arrangement of the 
 land in hundreds seems to have been common 
 to most German peoples. It is, therefore, 
 probable that Edgar's measure was not 
 the creation of the division into hundreds, 
 but the employment for judicial and police 
 pm-poses of a primitive method of grouping. 
 It does not, however, follow that the hundi-eds 
 were all originally of the same size ; the dis- 
 trict given to a hundred warriors would natu- 
 rally vary in size according to "the natural 
 characteristics- of the country, and to the 
 amount of land at the disposal of each tribe at 
 the time of the allotment. According to Wil- 
 liam of Malmesbury, the division into hun- 
 dreds and tithings was due to Alfred ; possibly 
 Alfred revived the hundred as a basis of 
 rating. Connecting this tradition with the 
 fact of the first appearance of the name under 
 Edgar, we may regard the revival or develop- 
 ment of the hundredal system as a part of the 
 work of reorganisation after the Danish at- 
 tack. The laws of Edgar mention a ' ' hundreds- 
 ealdor" who is to be consulted on questions of 
 witness, and a " hundred-man " whose duty it 
 is to pui'sue thieves. These may or may not be 
 the same. In the thirteenth century the 
 hundred was represented in the shire-moot by 
 an elected ealdormau; it is therefore likely 
 that the hundreds-ealdor, or hundred-man, 
 was from the first an elected officer. He can 
 scarcely be regarded as more than the convener 
 of the court. In the twelith century the hun- 
 dreds were fast becoming dependent upon 
 great lords who managed and took the profits 
 6i the court. The hundred-moot, wherein the 
 whole body of suitors or freeholders present 
 were judges, and which was probably pre- 
 sided over by a deputy of the sheriff, was 
 held monthly. It had jurisdiction in all 
 cases ; was the court of first instance in 
 criminal matters ; and Canute decreed that 
 no case should be brought before the king 
 until it had been heard in the hundred court. 
 The laws of Ethelred direct that " the twelve 
 senior thegns go out and swear in the relic 
 that they will accuse no innocent man nor 
 conceal any guilty one ; " the presentment of 
 criminals was therefore probably part of the 
 immemorial work of the hundred court, and 
 a representative body of twelve seems to have 
 acted on behalf of the suitors as a sort of 
 judicial committee. Upon the creation of the 
 system of frank-pledges, a distinction ai-ose 
 between the great court of the hundred held 
 twice yearly for the sheriff's tourn or view of 
 frank-pledge, and with specially full at- 
 tendance, and the lesser court of the hundred 
 under the bailiff for petty questions of debt. 
 Its criminal jurisdiction was gradually taken 
 
 from it on the one hand by the gi'owth of 
 the manorial courts-leet and of franchises, and 
 on the other by the creation of the system of 
 itinerant justices. From the twelfth century 
 the hundred ceased to be of much political 
 importance. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. Tbe laws are printed iu 
 Sclimid, Gesetzte der Angel-SacTisen {see also his 
 Glossary, s.v, Himdred) ; tliose of Edgar and 
 tbe Leges Kenrici Pnmi are in Stubbs's Select 
 Charters. See also Gneist, Self-Government ; and 
 as to Tacitus, "Waitz, Deutsche Verfassunas. 
 Gesch., i. 218-222. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Hundred Rolls, The, are the result of 
 inquisitions taken by a commission appointed 
 by Edward I. at the beginning of his reign, 
 to inquire into various grievances relating to 
 illegal tolls, encroachments on royal and 
 common lands, unlawful tradings, oppressions 
 by the nobility and clergy, &c. These re- 
 turns are of the greatest importance to the 
 local historian and the genealogist. They 
 derive their names from the fact that the in- 
 quiry was conducted from hundred to hundred. 
 A jm-y in each hundred gave witness to the 
 extent of the demesne lands of the crown ; of 
 manors alienated from the crown ; the names 
 of tenants-in-capite with their services, and 
 the losses incurred by the crown owing to 
 subinfeudation; the extent of lands held in 
 frank-almoign ; the wardships, marriages, 
 escheats, &c., wrongfully withheld from the 
 cro^n, and many other items of importance. 
 These Eolls were pulHished by command of 
 the king in 1812. 
 
 Hundred Tears' War, The (1338— 
 1453), is the name generally applied to the 
 long period of scarcely interrupted hostility 
 between England and Fiuuce, which began 
 with Edward III.'s assertion by arms of his 
 claims to the iFrench throne, and did not 
 finally end until the expulsion of the English 
 from France during the reign of Henry VI. 
 As roughly and vaguely indicating, at least, 
 the culminating century of the long mediaeval 
 struggle between the two nations, the term is 
 a useful one enough. But it must not he 
 taken to indicate any definite war in the way 
 that the Thirty Years' War, or the Seven 
 Years' War do. The long warfare was in- 
 terrupted by more than one interval of peace, 
 and more' than once changed its charact(3r and 
 objects. 
 
 Despite the claims raised by Edward III. 
 in 1328 [Edwakd III.], the accession of 
 Philip of Valois was peaceful, and it was not 
 until 1338 that hostilities began. A variety 
 of secondary causes of quarrel had long em- 
 bittered the relations of England and France, 
 when the strong support which Philip gave 
 to the_ Scots made war inevitable, and Edward 
 did his best to make the breach irreparable 
 by his obtrusive reassertion of hd« old claim 
 to the French throne. Strong in his national 
 leadership of the English hatred of France, 
 Edward, as Duke of Guienne, relied also ou 
 
Hun 
 
 ( 583 ) 
 
 Hun 
 
 rallying the feudalists of the south to his 
 side, while he concluded a close alliance with 
 Louis of Bavaria, the imperial vassals of the 
 Ifetherlands, and the anti-French party in 
 the -Flemish cities. From 1338 to 1340, an 
 indecisive war was waged on the northern 
 frontier of France, only memorable for Ed- 
 ward's naval victory of Sluys (June 24, 
 1340). The lukewarnmess and desertion of 
 Edward's allies necessitated a truce, that 
 continued until the dispute between John of 
 Montfort and Charles of Blois for the duchy 
 of Britanny gave English and French, as 
 partisans of 5lontfort and Charles respec- 
 tively, an opportunity of renewing their 
 quarrel. In 1345 the general war was re- 
 sumed. Edward again established intimate 
 relations with Ghent, and Derby, in Guienne, 
 won the victory of Auberoche, though com- 
 pelled the next year to stand a sigge in 
 Aiguillon. In 1346, Edward, in person, 
 landed with a great army in Normandy, and 
 after a destructive inroad, won the famous 
 victory of Crecy (Aug. 6, 1346), gave the 
 EngKsh enduring prestige, and the possession 
 of Calais, which surrendered after a famous 
 siege in 1347. The Black Death now 
 compelled a truce, and the war was not 
 renewed until 1355, when a bloody foray 
 of the Black Prince, at the head of the 
 chivalry of Guienne, bore more fruit than 
 Edward's abortive expedition from Calais. 
 Durin,-? a similar inroad in 1356, the Black 
 Prince won the. victory of Poitiers, where 
 King John of France was taken pri- 
 soner. A period of extreme anarchy now 
 set in, in France, which King Edward availed 
 himself of to conclude the very favourable 
 Peace of Bretigny (1360). The treaty was 
 never really carried out, and the war in 
 Britanny continued until the battle of Auray 
 save Montfort the duchy ; and after the 
 Black Prince had lost health and reputation 
 in Spain, the appeal of the barons of Aqui- 
 taine led Charles V. to renew the war openly 
 in 1369. The skilful strategy of the Con- 
 stable Dugueschn avoided pitched battles, 
 and wore down the enemy by a partisan 
 warfare of sieges, skirmishes, and ambus- 
 cades. The capture of Limoges was the last 
 of the Black Prince's exploits. Lancaster 
 traversed France from end to end in 1373, 
 but he found no enemy and could win no 
 durable results. By 1374 aU Guienne was 
 lost except two or three towns on the coast, 
 and in the north Calais alone remained Eng- 
 lish. The feeble government of the minority 
 of Richard II. led the French, even under 
 Charles VI., to retaliation on England; but 
 the war continued very slaekly, and with 
 constant truces until in 1397, Eichard II., 
 intent on despotism, established a close al- 
 liance with France, cemented by his marriage 
 with Isabella of Valois. But the revolution 
 of 1399 again embroiled England and France 
 in hostilities, and nothing but the weakness 
 
 of Henry IV. and the outbreak of the Bur- 
 gundian and Armagnao factions prevented a 
 serious renewal of the war ; as it was, the 
 judicious trimming of Henry led in 1411 to 
 his securing full possession of Guienne. 
 Henry V., with greater resources, renewed 
 vigorous hostilities. On Oct. 25, 1415, the 
 battle of Agincourt (q.v.) gave him a victory 
 over Burgundian and Armagnac, combined 
 for once to defend their countrj'. In 1417 a 
 second expedition profited by the renewal of 
 ci%'il strife in France ; and the capture of 
 Rouen completed the conquest of Normandy. 
 In 1419, the murder of John the Fearless 
 drove the whole Burgundian party on to the 
 English side. A marvellous change of feel- 
 ing brought the monarchical north of France 
 to welcome the national enemy and head of the 
 feudal separatists. Paris opened its gates to 
 Henry, and the Treaty of Troyes (q.v.) (1420) 
 secured him the succession to the French 
 throne. But Henry's premature death in 1422 
 led the Dauphin, now Charles VII., to renew 
 the war against the regent Bedford. Despite 
 the victories of Crevant and Vemeuil, the 
 Anglo-Burgundian party failed to hold their 
 own south of the Loire. The mad folly of 
 Bedford's brother alienated Burgundy. A 
 national reaction set in, in France, which 
 found its highest expression in the heroic 
 career of the Maid of Orleans. In 1429 
 Joan relieved Orleans and defeated the 
 English at Patay; marched to Rheims 
 to crown Charles king, and, though un- 
 successful in her attacks on Paris, suc- 
 ceeded in rekindling the spirit of nationality 
 through all North France. The coronation 
 of Henry VI. at Paris, Joan's capture and 
 death in 1431, failed to stem the tide. In 
 1435 Burgundy abandoned the English at 
 the Congress of Arras, and the death of Bed- 
 ford completed their discomfiture. In 1437 
 Paris was lost. A peace party that recognistd 
 the futility of continuing the war, now grew 
 up in England, but their temporary triumph, 
 though it led to the truce of 1446, and the 
 marriage of Henry VI. and Margaret of 
 Anjou, failed to secure a permanent peace. 
 In 1448 the war was renewed, and by 1449 all 
 Normandy fell into the hands of the French. 
 Guienne next fell, and in 1453 Calais alone 
 remained in the English possession in France. 
 The outbreak of the Wars of the Roses 
 finally prevented any prolongation of the 
 long struggle — which had caused so much 
 misery and had been so barren of results — 
 and which, if resulting in bracing up the 
 national life of France, brought little to 
 England but barren glory, chequered with 
 disgrace, and a factious and unruly spirit 
 that found its outcome in the civil wars that 
 now fell upon the land. 
 
 Pauli, Englische Geschichte ; Lingard, SUt. of 
 Eng. ; Longmau, Kiat. of Edward III. ; Brougham, 
 House of Lancaster; H. Martin, Ifistoire des 
 Fran^ais; J. Miclielet, Hisioire de$ Franfaas 
 (especially for Joan o£ Arc). [T. F. T.j 
 
Hun 
 
 ( 584 ) 
 
 Hun 
 
 Hungarian Refugee Qnestion, The 
 
 (1851). In 1851 Kossuth, the Hungarian 
 revolutionary leader, came to England, and 
 was received with great enthusiasm. The 
 Austrian government (already offended by an 
 attack at Barclay's brewery on the Austrian 
 general, Haynau, Sept., 1850, and by an un- 
 conciliatory note of Lord Palmerston's on the 
 subject) looked on these proceedings with 
 great distrust and suspicion, over-rating, 
 much as Kossuth himseK did, the value of 
 these demonstrations. Lord Palmerston had 
 already used English influence to protect the 
 Hungarian refugees in Turkey, and it 
 became almost understood that if Lord 
 Palmerston received Kossuth at a private 
 interview, as he proposed doing, the Austrian 
 ambassador would leave the country. Lord 
 John Eussell grew alarmed, and the result 
 of his remonstrances with Lord Palmerston 
 was that the latter promised to avoid an in- 
 terview with Kossuth. He consented, how- 
 ever, to receive some deputations from various 
 metropolitan parishes at the Foreign Office. 
 The addresses brought by these bodies con- 
 tained strong language with regard to the 
 Austrian government. The whole transac- 
 tion was eventually made one of the charges 
 of independent action brought against Lord 
 Palmerston, which caused his dismissal in 1 852. 
 
 Asliley, Life of Palmerston, ; Annual Register; 
 SaTisard. 
 
 Htinsdon, Lord, Henry Gaeey {d. 
 1596), cousin of Queen Elizabeth, one of 
 her truest friends and most trusted advisers, 
 was _ frequently employed on confidential 
 missions, and filled many posts of trust. In 
 1564 he was sent to France, to invest Charles 
 IX. with the Order of the Garter, but was 
 usually in attendance on the queen at court. 
 Vehemently opposed to the scheme of a 
 marriage between Mary Stuart and the Duke 
 of Norfolk, Hunsdon, in 1569, was sent to 
 Scotland with proposals for the delivery of 
 the Queen of Scots into the hands of Murray, 
 in order to get her out of the way of any 
 movement in her favour on the part of 
 the rebel lords. Later in the same year, 
 he was associated with Lord Sussex in the 
 command against the insurgents of the north. 
 In the beginning of 1570 he attacked the 
 forces of Leonard Dacres on the banks of 
 the river Chelt, in Cumberland, and com- 
 pletely routed them, doing such good service 
 to the queen that Elizabeth wrote to him. 
 In 1584 he was sent on a special mission to 
 Scotland. During the alarm which held 
 England in the days when the Spanish Ar- 
 mada was threatening. Lord Hunsdon had 
 command of a body-guard of 36,000 men, 
 enrolled especially for the queen's defence. A 
 soldier rather than a statesman, Lord Hunsdon 
 gave the queen frequent momentary offence 
 by his plain speaking, but he remained till the 
 end one of her most trusted supporters. 
 
 Nares, Life of Burleigh; Burleigh Pai>ers. 
 
 Hunt, Henky (b. 1773, d. 1835), better 
 known as " Orator Hunt," was born at Wid- 
 dington, Wiltshire, and was a farmer in 
 very well-to-do circumstances. In conse- 
 quence, however, of some misunderstand- 
 ing, he was expelled from the Marlborough 
 yeomanry by Lord Bruce. He demanded 
 satisfaction, and for this he was indicted 
 in the King's Bench, found guilty, fined, 
 and imprisoned. In prison he met with 
 Waddington and some other Radicals, who 
 converted him to their party. In 1812 he 
 stood for Bristol, where for some time he 
 had been following the trade of a brewer. 
 The poll was kept open for fourteen days, 
 serious riots took place, and Hunt was beaten 
 in this, as in many subsequent attempts to 
 enter ]?arliament. He now took to stump 
 oratory, held Reform meetings at West- 
 minster, and was especially conspicuous at 
 Spa Fields and Manchester. A warrant was 
 issued against him, and he was arrested at 
 Manchester, tried and imprisoned (1820). 
 During the excitement of the Reform Bill, he 
 defeated Lord Stanley at Preston, and 
 entered the House of Commons (1830). He 
 was re-elected in 1831, but bis oratory pro- 
 duced little effect in the House. 
 Annual Register, 1835, 
 
 Hunt, Leigh (b. 1784, d. 1859), held, a 
 clerkship in the War Office from the time of 
 his leaving school till the year 1808, when, 
 in company with his brother John, he started 
 the Examiner, a journal of advanced political 
 views. In 1812 the two brothers were fined 
 £500 apiece and sentenced to undergo an 
 imprisonment of two years for publishing a 
 satire upon the Prince Regent in the pages 
 of their paper. On his release from prison, 
 he edited the Indicator, and about 1822 was 
 associated with Byron and Shelley in their 
 new venture. The Liberal, of which only four 
 numbers were issued. Leigh Hunt received 
 a government pension of £200 a year in 1847. 
 He was the author of many poetical and 
 other works, and of an Autobiography, pub- 
 lished in 1850. 
 
 Huntingdon was the seat of one of 
 Edward the Elder's castles, built about 916. 
 It was made an earldom for Waltheof , son of 
 Siward, in 1070. In the Middle Ages the 
 history of the town is unimportant. It was 
 one of the great centres of the Parliamen- 
 tarians in the Civil War, and was plundered 
 by the Royalists in 1645. 
 
 Huntingdon, Peerages of. Waltheof, 
 Earl of Huntingdon, was beheaded in 1075. 
 His daughter Maud married first Simon de 
 St. Liz, and secondly David, afterwards 
 King of Scotland, who successively bore the 
 title of earl. The title then passed to David's 
 son, Henry, and at his death to his half- 
 brother, Simon de St. Liz. Afterwards it 
 reverted to the Scottish house, and was held 
 by David's grandson, Malcolm, and by the 
 
Hau 
 
 ( 585 ) 
 
 Hun 
 
 latter's sou William, Kings of Scotland. 
 "William, however, was divested atout 1174, 
 and Simon de St. Liz, son of the Simon last 
 named, became earl. Then followed David, 
 brother of William, King of Scotland, with 
 whose son the title became extinct. A new 
 earldom was subsequently created in favour 
 of William of Clinton (1337), and again of 
 Guisoard, Lord of Angle in Poitou (1277); 
 but neither of these persons left heirs. In 
 1387, JohnHoland, afterwards Duke of Exeter, 
 was made Earl of Huntingdon ; this title was 
 forfeited when his grandson Henry was 
 attainted (1461). Ten years later, Thomas 
 Grey, afterwards Marquis of Dorset, was 
 granted the earldom, which, however, he is 
 stated to have resigned on receiving the 
 marquisate ; the former being now granted to 
 William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, who 
 died without male issue. In 1529, George, 
 Baron Hastings, was created Earl of Hunt- 
 ingdon, and by his family the honour is still 
 held. 
 
 Hnntillgdoil, Francis, 2nd Earl op 
 {d. 156]), was employed, in 1550, in an ex- 
 pedition for the relief of Calais and Boulogne, 
 in conjvmction with Sir James Crofts. In 
 1554, he did good service to Mary in the 
 Duke of Suffolk's rebellion, and succeeded in 
 taking that nobleman prisoner. He married 
 Catherine, daughter of Lord Montague, and 
 granddaughter of Margaret, Countess of 
 Salisbury, and so handed on to his son a 
 remote possibility of inheriting the English 
 crown. 
 
 Htmting'don, Henry Hastings, 3rd 
 Earl op {d. 1595), was, soon after the acces- 
 sion of Elizabeth, regarded as her possible 
 heir, especially by Cecil and the Protestant 
 party; but the plan of recognising him proved 
 impracticable. He subsequently strongly op- 
 posed the contemplated marriage between 
 Mary Queen of Scots and the Duke of Norfolk, 
 as one which would be fraught with much 
 mischief to the Protestant cause. In the year 
 1569 he became Mary's gaoler at Tutbiu-y, 
 and proved himself the bitter enemy of the 
 Scotch queen and the Catholic party. In 
 1581 he was sent to levy troops against 
 Lennox, though he was prevented from 
 taking any further steps against the regent 
 by Secretary Eandolph. Huntingdon married 
 Lady Catherine Dudley, daughter of the 
 Duke of Northumberland, and was, therefore, 
 the brother-in-law of the Earl of Leicester. 
 
 Huntingdon, Henry of {d. circa 1154), 
 was brought up by Bloet, Bishop of Lincoln, 
 and subsequently became Archdeacon of 
 Huntingdon. IJig chief work is his Historia 
 Anglorum, which goes down to the reign of 
 Stephen. Theimpprtance of this work is chiefly 
 owing to the fact that it incorporates a num- 
 ber of popular songs and stories, the originals 
 of which have been lost. His style is gran- 
 
 HIST.-19* 
 
 diloquent and often turgid, and he abounds 
 
 in classical allusions. His Mpistle to fFalter, his 
 
 friend, is a cynical sketch of many of his most 
 
 famous contemporaries in Church and State. 
 
 Heury of Hmitiugdou's works have been 
 
 edited for the Rolls Series. A translation of his 
 
 history is given in Bohn's Antiquarian Library. 
 
 Huntly, Alexander de Seton, 1st 
 Earl of (d. 1470), was created earl by James 
 II. of Scotland (1449—50). He was the 
 head of the Setons and the Gordons, and re- 
 ceived his title in reward for his services 
 against the Douglas faction. He defeated 
 the Earl of Craufurd, one of the Douglas 
 leaders, in the battle of Brechin (1452). 
 
 Huntly, George Gordon, 2nd MARauis 
 OP {d. 1649), was appointed Charles I.'s lieu- 
 tenant in Scotland, and after having refused all 
 the overtures made to him by the Covenanters, 
 took the field in opposition to the Marquis of 
 Argyle (1644). Next year he refused to lay 
 down his arms even at the command of the 
 king, who was then under the control of the 
 Parliament. In 1647 he was taken prisoner 
 and beheaded at Edinburgh on March 22, 1649. 
 
 J. H. Burton, History of Scotland; Sir E. 
 Douglas, Peerage of Scotland^ 
 
 Huntly, George Gordon, 4th Earl 
 OP {d. 1562), was one of the last peers 
 in Scotland to oppose the Reformation. He 
 was a man of vast power and wealth, his pos- 
 sessions lying chiefly in the north and west 
 of the Highlands. In his earlier years he 
 had defeated the English troops at Haddenrig 
 (1542), and at the head of the Scotch army 
 had narrowly watched the Duke of Norfolk's 
 invasion of the same year, on which occasion, 
 though avoiding an engagement, he succeeded 
 in materially checking the progress of the 
 English. He was one of the commanders at 
 the battle of Pinkie, where he was taken pri- 
 soner (1547). After escaping from prison, he 
 became a great supporter of Mary of Guise, 
 the queen-regent, and in later years a strong 
 opponent of the Lords of the Congregation. 
 When Mary Queen of Scots returned to her 
 own country (1561), the Earl of Huntly 
 found part of the estates which had been in 
 his possession transferred to James Stuart, 
 the queen's half-brother (Earl of Murray), 
 and plotted the murder of that nobleman. 
 In 1562 he took up arms, and openly denied 
 Mary admittance to her castle of Inverness, 
 which he then held. The castle, however, 
 was soon taken by the royal troops, and 
 shortly afterwards Huntly was defeated and 
 slain at Corrichie, near Aberdeen. 
 
 Huntly, George Gordon, 5th Earl 
 OF {d. 1576), the son of that Earl of 
 Huntly who fell at Corrichie, 1562, and for 
 whose rebellion the family estates had been 
 forfeited to the crown, was restored to his 
 title and possessions, August, 1565. Soon 
 afterwards his sister, Lady Jane Gordon, was 
 married to Bothwell, while Huntly himself 
 
Hun 
 
 ( 586 ) 
 
 Hnt 
 
 married a daughter of the Dake of Chatelhe- 
 rault. After the murder of Darnley (1367), 
 Huntly accompanied Mary to Seton, and was 
 one of the councillors who presided at Both- 
 well's trial. Having afterwards taken up 
 arms against the Regent Murray, he was 
 forced to make submission (1569), and to join 
 the party of the government. On Murray's 
 death (1570), the Earl of Huntly once more 
 raised forces on behalf of Queen Mary, but 
 was soon forced to enter into a pacification 
 with the new regent (1573). His death oc- 
 curred a few years later, in 1576. 
 
 Huntly, George Gokdon, 6th Eaiil 
 and 1st Makquis of {d. 1636), was one of 
 the sujiporters of James VI. after the Raid of 
 Ruthven (q.v.). A staunch adherent of the 
 Catholic faith, he was accused in the year 
 ^^89 of being in league with Philip of Spain, 
 .ind a year or two later signed the " Spanish 
 blanks." In 1592 he put the Earl of Murray 
 to death, nominally as an accomplice in 
 Bothwell's rebeUion (1591), but most probably 
 in revenge for the treatment which the Gor- 
 dons had experienced from the Regent 
 Murray. In 1594 he defeated the Earl of 
 Argyle, who attacked him at the instance 
 of the government ; but became reconciled 
 to him in 1597, when ho also changed his 
 faith and obtained the reversal of his for- 
 feiture. He was not, however, a particularly 
 zealous convert, as in 1616 he was excommu- 
 nicated on suspicion of receiving and protect- 
 ing Jesuits in his castle. In 1630 his feud 
 with the Crichtons culminated in the loss of his 
 eldest son at the "burning of Frendraught." 
 Shortly afterwards the Marquis of Huntly 
 himself died of a broken heart (1636). 
 
 J. H. Burtou, llisi. of Scotland; Sir R. Dou. 
 glas, Peerage of Scotland. 
 
 Huskisson, William (J. 1770, d. 1830), 
 the son of William Huskisson of Oxley, near 
 Wolverhampton, was educated for the profes- 
 sion of medicine. Shortly before the French 
 Revolution he accompanied his uncle to Paris, 
 and warmly entered into the feelings of the 
 revolutionary party. - He became a member 
 of the Club de Quatre-vingt-neuf, and of the 
 London Corresponding Society, and turned 
 his attention to international policy and com- 
 merce. He attracted the attention of Lord 
 Gower, the British ambassador, who offered 
 him the situation of private secretary (1790). 
 In 1793 he was appointed to assist m the 
 projected arrangement of an ofiice for the 
 affairs of the emigrants who had taken refuge 
 in England. In 1795 he became Under- 
 Secretary of State, and received the same 
 appointment in Mr. Perceval's ministry of 
 1807. He was Chief Commissioner of Woods 
 and Forests in 18H, and elected member for 
 Liverpool in 1823. The same year Mr. 
 Huskisson was made President of the Board 
 of Trade, and with him a complete altera- 
 
 tion came over our commercial policy, and 
 the reign of protection began to give place 
 and yield to free trade. In his first year 
 he was not able to do much. He offered to 
 remit the import duty on raw cotton if the 
 manufacturers would consent to give up the 
 export duty. This they declined. An attempt 
 was made to free the Spitalfields silk manu- 
 facture from restrictions such as the settle- 
 ment of their wages by a magistrate, but 
 11,000 journeymen petitioned against this, 
 and it was dropped. He was, however, 
 successful in practically abolishing the old 
 Nawgation Act, and thus freeing English 
 and foreign shipping. In 1824 he reduced 
 the duty on raw and spun silk, and lowered 
 the import and export duty on wool. Under 
 Canning's ministry Huskisson still retained 
 his old post at the Board of Trade. On the 
 death of Canning, Huskisson succeeded Lord 
 Goderich as Secretary for the Colonies (1827). 
 A quarrel, however, shortly broke out about 
 the appointment of a chairman to a Finance 
 Committee, which was to be formed at the 
 opening of the session, and Huskisson at once 
 sent in his resignation. This produced the 
 downfall of Lord Goderich's government. In 
 1828 he joined the Wellington ministry, but 
 in a very few months a felight difference of 
 opinion enabled the duke to insist upon his 
 resignation. On Sept. 15, 1830, Huskisson 
 was accidentally killed on the occasion of the 
 opening of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway. 
 
 Aiiiuial Register; Spencer Walpole, Hist, of 
 England from. 1815. 
 
 Hutchinson, Johx (S. 1616, d. 1664) 
 was the son of Sir Thomas Hutchinson of 
 Owthorpe, Notts. During the Civil War he 
 was Governor of Nottingham for the Parlia- 
 ment, a position of great importance as com- 
 manding the passage of the Trent. In 164.5 
 he was elected member for Nottingham, and 
 three years later sat in the High Court of 
 Justice, and signed the king's death warrant. 
 On the expulsion of the Long Parliament 
 (1643) he retired into the country until it was 
 reinstated by the army (Oct., 1659). He was 
 returned to the Convention (May, 1660), but, 
 though his life was spared, he was, as a 
 regicide, incapacitated from public employ- 
 ment. In Oct., 1663, he was imprisoned, 
 and died Sept. 11, 1664. A certificate pre- 
 sented to the House of Lords in his favour in 
 Jan., 1661, aiBrmed that " above seven years 
 ago, and from time to time ever since. Colonel 
 Hutchinson hath declared his desire of the 
 king's majesty's return to his kingdoms, and 
 his own resolutions to assist in bringing his 
 majesty back." It goes on to state that he 
 had been in correspondence with conspirators 
 for that purpose, collected arms for it, and 
 on all occasions assisted the king's friends. 
 These statements, made with Hutchinson's 
 knowledge and approval, throw considerable 
 
Hilt 
 
 (587) 
 
 Hyd 
 
 doubt on the account of his conduct given 
 in his biography by his wife. 
 
 Life of Col. Hutchinson, by Mrs. Hutchinson j 
 
 Pojiers of the House of Xords (Seventh Keport of 
 
 Hist. MSS. Commissiou). 
 
 Hutchinson, Lucy [b. 1620, d. 1659), 
 was the daughter of Sir John Apsley, 
 Lieutenant of the Tower, where she was 
 bom. In 1638 she married Colonel John 
 Hutchinson, and was his faithful atten- 
 dant in all the dangers of his subsequent hfe. 
 On the death of her husband, in 1664, she 
 compiled the memoirs of his life. This work, 
 which is of the greatest importance for the 
 period over which it extends, has been pub- 
 lished many times. 
 
 A convenient edition of the Life of Colonel 
 
 Hutchinson for general use is published in 
 
 Bohn's Standard Library. 
 
 Hutchinson, Thomas (J. 1711, d. 1780), 
 was born at Boston. In 1760 he was ap- 
 pointed Chief Justice of Massachusetts. Nine 
 years later he was made governor of the 
 colony. In this capacity he refused to con- 
 sent to the wishes of the people, when they 
 desired that the tea-ships should be sent back 
 without discharging their cargo (1773), and 
 his conduct thus led to the famous destruction 
 of the tea by the citizens ol Boston. By 
 this time Hutchinson had lost all the con- 
 fidence of those whom he go%'erned. Dr. 
 Franklin had exposed the letters he had 
 written to England, advocating a restriction 
 of colonial Uherty, and the despatch of troops 
 to Boston. Recognising his unpopularity, 
 Hutchinson retired to England in 1774. 
 
 Bancroft, Hisf. of the United States; Stanhope, 
 Hist, of Bng. 
 
 Hwiccas, The, were an Anglian tribe, 
 occupying the present counties of Gloucester 
 and Worcester. Of the date of their settle- 
 ment we have no certain indication ; but they 
 were in later days merged in the great king- 
 dom of Mercia, and seem to have preserved 
 some traces of their old independence even so 
 late as the close of the eighth centurj', when 
 Archbishop Theodore gave them a bishop of 
 their own. 
 
 Hyde, The Book op, gives a brief history 
 of England from the landing of Hengest till 
 the year 959, together with a chartulary of 
 that monastery. It was written at the New 
 Minster or Hyde Ahhey, Winchester. Sir T. 
 Hardy says, " it is apparently a reconstruction 
 of earlier materials, which have been blended 
 along with information of a comparatively 
 recent period, certainty some time after the 
 year 1354." Besides King Alfred's Will, and 
 some important charters, it contains some 
 traditions and anecdotes, which, though not 
 perhaps very trustworthy, are certainly inte- 
 resting. 
 
 The Boofc of Kyde has been translated in the 
 
 Church Historians of England ; it is edited in the 
 
 Rolls Series. 
 
 Hyde, Anne (J. 1637, d. 1671), was the 
 
 daughter of Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. 
 In 1659 she became maid of honour to the 
 Princess of Orange, and on Nov. 24 a secret 
 contract of marriage took place between her 
 and the Duke of York. On Sept. 3, 16B0, 
 she was privately married to the duke. Great 
 efforts were made by the queen-mother to get 
 the marriage annulled, and a plot was got up 
 amongst the courtiers of the queen's party, 
 by Sir Charles Berkeley and others, to induce 
 the duke to repudiate her. These intrigues 
 failed, and she was publicly acknowledged as 
 Duchess of York in December, 1660. Pepys 
 describes her as " a plain woman, and like her 
 mother." Burnet says that she was " a very 
 extraordinary woman, of great knowledge 
 and great spirit." Her daughter Mary was 
 born April 2, 1662; Anne, Feb. 6, 1664. In 
 August, 1670, the duchess became a Catholic. 
 She died on March 31 of the following year. 
 
 Hyde, Edward. [Clakendon.] 
 
 Hyde, Lawrence. [Rochester.] 
 
 Hyde, SirRodert (i. 1595, d. 1605), was 
 a first cousin of the Earl of Clarendon. In 
 1640 he was returned to the Long Parliament 
 as member for Salisbury, and joined the 
 court party; and in 1644 he was a member of 
 the Oxford Parliament. During the Protec- 
 torate he continued to practice at the bar, and 
 on the Restoration was made a judge of the 
 Common Pleas. In 1663 he was promoted to 
 the chief-justiceship of the King's Bench. 
 
 Hydera'bad, The Battle of (March, 
 1843), was fought during the war against 
 the Ameers of Scinde (1842—44). After the 
 battle of Meanee, Shere Mohammed collected 
 an army for another attempt at indepen- 
 dence. He appeared near Hyderabad, and 
 Sir Charles Napier, with 6,000 men, found 
 him encamped with about 20,000 men, in 
 a strong position behind the dry bed of 
 the Fulkllee. The British artillery opened 
 fire on the enemy's centre, till they began 
 to give way ; the cavalry charged the left 
 wing, while the 22nd Foot, who had ad- 
 vanced to within forty paces of their oppo- 
 nents without firing a single shot, stormed the 
 entrenchments, and, after a severe struggle, 
 the victoiry was complete. 
 
 Hyder Ali (*• circa 1702, d. 1782) was a 
 Mohammedan soldier of humble extraction, 
 the son of a petty revenue officer. ■ He entered 
 the service of the Rajah of Mysore, and about 
 the year 1759 he succeeded in making himself 
 master of the whole country. Out of the 
 wrecks of the old principalities of South India, 
 he soon founded for himself a compact Moham- 
 medan kingdom, and became a most formi- 
 dable enemy to the English. He was the terror 
 of all his neighbours, the Mahrattasof Poonah, 
 the Nabob of the Carnatic, and the Nizam of 
 Hyderabad; while at the same time he was 
 intriguing with the French at Pondicherry. 
 This roused the suspicions of the English, 
 
Ice 
 
 ( 58,8 ) 
 
 Iko 
 
 and more especially so when Mzam Ali de- 
 serted their side for that of Hyder. The two 
 new allies invaded the Carnatio, hut were 
 driven back, whereupon Nizam AK renewed 
 his alliance with the English (1778). For the 
 next ten years Hyder AU was engaged in 
 quietly strengthening his army and his state. 
 At last, on the breaking out of war between 
 the English and the French, in 1778, he was 
 enraged at the English expedition sent by way 
 of Mysore from Madras, against the iS^ench 
 settlement of Mahe. This action decided Hyder 
 All's mind. Bursting into the Carnatic at the 
 head of 100,000 men, he laid the whole country 
 waste with fire and sword (1780). He had 
 allied himself with the French ; Nizam Ali 
 and the Mahrattas had engaged to support 
 his arms, and the case of the English seemed 
 very desperate for a time. But Warren Has- 
 tings, the Governor-General, was more than 
 equal to the occasion. Negotiations secured 
 the friendship, or at least the neutrality, of 
 the Nizam; while Sir Byre Coote was de- 
 spatched against Hyder himself. The great 
 leader of the war was defeated at Porto Novo 
 (1781), and all immediate danger was over 
 from that side. A year and a half later Hyder 
 Ali died suddenly at Chittore (1782). Hyder 
 Ali was remarkable not only for his energy, 
 but for his cruelty. It is said that to his 
 latest days he was unable either to read or to 
 write ; but this deficiency did not prevent him 
 from being the most vigorous opponent that 
 the English power in Hindostan has ever 
 known. 
 
 Mill, Hist, of India ; Talboys "Wheeler, Hist. 
 of India ; Grant DuBF, Hist, of the Mahrattas. 
 
 [B. S.] 
 
 Iceni, The, were an ancient British tribe 
 occupying the modern counties of Suffolk, Nor- 
 folk, Cambridge, and Huntingdon. According 
 to Professor Ehys, they were a very hardy and 
 warlike race, but were induced to make an 
 alliance with the Romans through jealousy 
 of the Trinobantes and Cassivelaunus. It has 
 been supposed that they had no kings, as many 
 of their coins bear the inscription "Ecene," 
 without that of any prince ; that there were 
 two factions dividing the tribe ; and that 
 the head of one faction, Bericus, invited the 
 aid of Claudius, and so was instrumental in 
 bringing about the beginning of the long 
 oonuectiou of this island with Home (43 a.d.). 
 In later years, thoxigh apparently stiU pos- 
 sessed of their own kings or queens, they 
 revolted against the Roman rule in the time 
 of Ostorius Scapula, who was appointed in 
 50 A.p., and again broke out into a general 
 rebellion while Suetonius was occupied in 
 Mona. 
 
 Eh^s, Celtic Britain. 
 
 Ida, KrifG op Bernicia (Jl. circa 550), is 
 said to have been the founder of that kingdom ; 
 but this phrase is perhaps to be interpreted 
 as meaning that he united the various petty 
 Anglian or Saxon settlements existing in that 
 district into one kingdom. His descent is 
 traced from Woden, and he is spoken of as 
 having been a wise and temperate ruler. He 
 is also said to have fallen in a battle against 
 the Britons, after he had been king fourteen 
 years. 
 
 Anglo-Scwon Chronicle ; William of Malmesbury. 
 
 Ikuield (or Icknield) Way,. The, was 
 one of the great Roman roads through Britain. 
 It started from near Yarmouth, and passing 
 by Newmarket, Royston, and Baldock, it 
 reached Dunstable, where it crossed Watling 
 Street. Thence, by Tring and Wendover, 
 to Goring, where it crossed the Thames and 
 threw off a branch known as the Ridge- 
 way. Thence, it proceeded by Aldworth, 
 Newbury, and Tidworth to Old Sarum. Then 
 across Venditch Chase, Bedbury, Harden 
 Castle, Bridport, Axmiuster, Honiton, Exeter, 
 Totnes, to the Land's End. 
 
 Ikon Basilike : "or, the True Portraiture 
 of his Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Suf- 
 ferings," was a work published some ten days 
 after Charles I.'s death, and purported to have 
 been written by that king in the last years of his 
 life. It is divided into twenty-eight chapters, 
 almost every one of which is appropriate to 
 some remarkable incident in the closing years 
 of its author's life. A short sketch of some 
 event or reflection upon it is given, and to 
 this is appended a prayer applicable to the 
 occasion. So chapter iii., entitled, " Upon 
 his Majestie's going to the House of Com-, 
 mens," commences with an explanation of tlje 
 king's reasons for this step— "To call in 
 question half a dozen men in a fair and legall 
 way, which God knowes was all my design ; " 
 an explanation of the fact that he was at- 
 tended by some gentlemen of his ordinary 
 guard, and a declaration that he had no 
 design of overawing the freedom of the House. 
 After two pages of such meditation follows a 
 short prayer of some half a page in length, 
 calling God to witness his innocence, and pray- 
 ing for forgiveness on his enemies. This work 
 had an immense sale, though to modern eyes 
 it must seem, as Professor Masson has said, a 
 somewhat dull performance^ Fifty editions 
 are said to have been sold within a year, and it 
 was in vain that Parliament gave orders to 
 seize the book. So great was its popularity 
 that in October, 1649, Milton had to publish 
 his JEikonoUastes, or Image-breaker, in answer. 
 The authorship of the Bikon Basilike has 
 generally been attributed to Dr. Gauden, 
 afterwards Bishop of Exeter. 
 
 MUmn BasnXila ; Milton, KIcoTOoMastcs : Maason, 
 ii/« o/MiW(m,vol. iv. 
 
 Impeachment is the name given to 
 
Imp 
 
 ( 689 ) 
 
 Imp 
 
 the judicial process by "whicli any man, 
 from the rank of a peer downwards, may he 
 tried before the House of Lords at the in- 
 stance of the House of Commons. In this 
 case the Commons are the prosecutors, while 
 the Lords combine in their own persons the 
 functions of judge and jury. The process of 
 conducting an impeachment is explained by 
 Sir Erskine May as follows : — Some member 
 of the Lower House charges the accused with 
 high treason, or any other offence of which 
 he may be considered guilty. If he succeeds 
 in winning the House over to his opinion, he 
 is empowered to go to the bar of the House 
 of Lords and there impeach the offender. A 
 committee is next appointed to draw up the 
 articles of impeachment, which are then for- 
 warded to the Lords in writing, with a reser- 
 vation of power on the part of the Commons 
 to add to the original counts if necessary. A 
 day is then appointed for the trial, which 
 generally takes place in Westminster HaU. 
 Certain managers conduct the case on behalf 
 of the Lower House, and the accused may 
 defend himself by counsel. Witnesses are 
 called on both sides, and the whole series of 
 charges is gone through article by article ; the 
 accusers are bound to confine themselves to 
 the charges contained in the articles of im- 
 peachment, and when they have finished, the 
 offender enters on his defence, after which the 
 prosecutors have a right of reply. All the 
 evidence being then completed, each peer in 
 succession delivers his verdict on the first article 
 in the words, " G-uilty [or Not (xuilty], 
 upon my honour." And so on for every 
 count. In conclusion, the Lord Chancellor or 
 Lord High Steward reckons up the number 
 of votes, and a simple majority acquits or 
 condemns upon each charge. Though the 
 House of Lords may have delivered its ver- 
 dict, judgment is not to be pronounced unless 
 the House of Commons demand it by their 
 Speaker. On the other hand, in 1679, the 
 House of Commons protested against the 
 Earl of Danby's right to plead the king's 
 pardon when impeached in 1679, and by the 
 Act of Settlement (1701) it was made part of 
 the law of the realm " that no pardon under 
 the Great Seal of England shall be pleadable 
 to an impeachment by the Commons in Par- 
 liament." 
 
 The first case of an impeachment in which 
 both Houses took part, would appear to be 
 at the time of the attack on Eichard Lyons 
 and Lord Latimer, in the Good ParUament 
 of 1376. Of coxirse in this ease we cannot 
 expect to have the full course of pro- 
 ceedings which have characterised the im- 
 peachments of much later centuries ; and in 
 fact it seems to have been the whole Par- 
 liament, and not the barons alone, who im- 
 prisoned these offenders. The impeachment 
 of the Earl of Suffolk some ten years later 
 (1386). seems to have been more in ac- 
 cordance with those of later times, for the 
 
 Commons were clearly the prosecutors in this 
 case, while it was the Lords who decided the 
 question of his guilt. In a similar way, the 
 judges who had in 1387 given their decision 
 against the legality of the commissioners ap- 
 pointed in the preceding year, were next j'ear 
 impeached by the Commons and found guilty 
 by the Lords (1388). From this time it is 
 hardly necessary to carry on the instances of 
 impeachment down to later times to any detail. 
 The practice was not discontinued for any 
 very long period tiU the accession of the 
 house of York; but from the reign of Ed- 
 ward v., the institution seems to have fallen 
 into disuse, till it was re^-ived in the reign of 
 James I. Under the house of Tudor the 
 Commons were too subservient to the royal 
 authority to make use of their old privilege 
 on their own account, and when the sovereign 
 wished to be rid of an obnoxious subject he 
 found a bill of attainder a readier instru- 
 ment for effecting his ends. With the re- 
 vival of the spirit of liberty in the first half 
 of the seventeenth century, impeachments 
 once more became frequent: the two first 
 important instances being those of Lord 
 Bacon in 1621 and the Earl of Middlesex in 
 1624. Buckingham, who had been very ur- 
 gent in inducing the Commons to proceed 
 against the latter nobleman, would in his 
 turn have been impeached a few years later 
 had not the king dissolved Parliament for the 
 purpose of saving him (1626). The cases of 
 Strafford, Laud, Danby, Warren Hastings, 
 Melville, &c., will be found alluded to under 
 the articles devoted to these statesmen; but 
 that of Fitz-Harris in the year 1681, deserves 
 a passing notice as being the occasion on 
 which the Commons affirmed their "right to 
 impeach any peer or commoner for treason, 
 or any other crime or misdemeanour." This 
 claim of the Commons seems to have 
 been practically conceded to them, but 
 Blackstone and Lord Campbell are both 
 agreed on the point " that a commoner 
 cannot be impeached before the Lords for 
 any capital offence but only for high mis- 
 demeanours." 
 
 Sir T. Erskine May, Law of 'Parliament ; Hal- 
 lam, Const. Rist. ; Stubbs, Const, Hist. 
 
 [T. A. A] 
 
 Impressment. The practice ' of im- 
 pressment, or compelling men to serve in the 
 navy, seems to date back to a very early 
 period of our history. It is said to have been 
 in fuU force in the reign of John, that is, 
 from the time of almost the first English 
 king who was possessed of a regular royal 
 fleet. Towards the end of the same centurj' 
 we find Edward I. empowering William Ley- 
 bourne to impress men, vessels and arms for the 
 manning of his fieet. So, too, we read in the 
 Black Book of the Admiralty that if a mariner 
 who had been pressed for the king's naval 
 service ran away he should undergo a year's 
 
Imp' 
 
 ( 590 
 
 Ind 
 
 imprisonment. The same penalty for the 
 same offence may be traced in the legisla- 
 tion of later sovereigns, Richard II. (1378), 
 Henry VI. (1439), and EHzabeth (1562—63),- 
 showing that this method of manning ttie 
 royal vessels was in full force during these 
 centuries. Towards the middle of the six- 
 teenth century we comiC across what seems to 
 be a serious attempt to make it criminal 
 for a man to take steps for eluding impress- 
 ment. In 1555 (2 & 3 Philip and Mary, xvi. 
 6), a very harsh law was passed against the 
 Thames bargemen, according to which, if any 
 watermen " shall willingly, voluntarily, and 
 obstinately hyde themselves in the tyme of 
 prestying into secret places and out corners," 
 they should suffer a fortnight's imprisonment 
 and be debarred from following their calling 
 for another yeai". A more generous enactment 
 some seven or eight years later (1562^—63) 
 attempted to restrain the arbitrary character 
 of impressments by enjoining that " no 
 Fisherman haunting the sea should be taken 
 by the queen's commission to serve her High- 
 ness as a mariner on the sea," without the 
 commissioners having first consulted two 
 neighbouring justices of the peace. Still more 
 indulgent was the spirit displayed in the 7 & 8 
 William III., according to which the Lord 
 High Admiral is empowered to grant letters 
 " to any landsmen desirous to apply themselves 
 to the sea services and to serve in Merchant 
 shipps which shall be to them a protection 
 against being impressed for the space of two 
 years or more." The provisions of the Act of 
 1555, with somewhat altered details and in- 
 creased penalties, however, were re-enacted 
 after a lapse of one hundred and fifty years 
 under Queen Anne (1705). Under George 
 II., the impressment question was once more 
 taken up and its stringency modified (1739 — 
 40). By a statute passed in this reign it 
 was decreed that all persons above fifty-five 
 and under eighteen years of age, should be 
 exempt from impressment ; and an attempt to 
 encourage men to adopt a sailor's life was 
 made at the same time by a clause which 
 granted freedom from the above liability to 
 aU sailors who chose to demand for two years 
 from the time of their first going to sea. An 
 Act of William IV.' s reign improved the posi- 
 tion of the impressed sailor still further by 
 limiting his term of service to five years 
 — unless in a case of urgent necessity, when 
 the admiral might enlarge it by six months 
 (1835). By this time, however, the prac- 
 tice of impressment, which had been very 
 largely used during the great wars in 
 the opening years of the century, had been 
 rapidly losing ground, and its place is 
 now altogether supplied by voluntary en- 
 listment. 
 
 Black Book of the Admiralty (Rolls Series) ; 
 Nicolap, History of fhe British Navy ; A Treatise 
 on the Sea Laws^ 1724 j James, Naval Hist. 
 
 [T. A. A.] 
 
 Incident, The (1641), is a name given 
 to a supposed plot to assassinate the Earls of 
 Hamilton, Argyle, and Lanark, during the 
 visit of Charles I. to Scotland in the sutnmer of 
 1641. Althoughaparliamentary inquiry was in- 
 stituted, the circumstances stillremain shrouded 
 in mystery ; and it is scarcely possible to do 
 more than guess at the real nature of the 
 affair. It is said that the scheme was Mont- 
 rose's, and that Charles I. himself was privy 
 to it ; but there seems to be no foundation 
 for the statement. 
 
 J. H. Burton, Hist, of Sootlani ; S. E. Gaidiner, 
 Hist. ofEng., 1803—1642. 
 
 Income Tax. The history of the in- 
 come tax as a recognised means of supple- 
 menting the other financial resources of the 
 State, dates from the time of William Pitt's 
 premiership, when (in 1799) a bill was passed 
 imposing a graduated tax on all incomes 
 above £60 a year. This tax continued to be 
 levied tiR the end of the Continental war, 
 with the exception of a slight break for part 
 of the years 1802 and 1803 ; and by the year 
 1806 had reached the rate of 10 per cent. 
 It was not renewed after 1815 till the 
 time of Sir Eobert Peel's second administra- 
 tion (1841), when it was levied for three years 
 at a rate of sevenpenee in the poimd. Time 
 after time it was then renewed — ^but always 
 for a limited period only, till in 1853 arrange- 
 ments were made for its gradual extinction in 
 seven years. Then, however, the Russian 
 War intervened, and instead of being reduced 
 it was doubled. From this time it has 
 become a regular item of the revenue ; and 
 it has now almost entirely lost its original 
 character of a special war-tax, though an 
 increase in its rate still remains the readiest 
 means of meeting the expenses of a war. 
 
 Independents. [See Appendix.] 
 
 India. Administration. The govern- 
 ment of India in this country since the 
 Act of 1858 has been vested in the Secretary 
 of State, aided by a council of fifteen, 
 who are usually selected from men who have 
 served with distinction in various depart- 
 ments of government in that country. This 
 is the agency through which India becomes 
 answerable to Parliament, the country, and 
 the Queen. In India itself the supreme 
 authority is vested in the Governor-General 
 or Viceroy in Council (subject to the control 
 of the Secretary of State in CouncU in Eng- 
 land), and he in his turn is aided by a 
 Governor-General's council, corresponding to 
 the cabinet of a constitutional country, and 
 by a legislative council, consisting of the 
 Governor-General's council, reinforced by 
 certain provincial delegates and nominated 
 members of the non-oflEicial native and Euro- 
 pean communities. Theoretically, the Go- 
 vernor-General is supreme over every part of 
 India, but practically his authority is not 
 
lud 
 
 (591 ) 
 
 Ind 
 
 everywhere exercised alike. For most of the 
 purposes of administration British India is 
 divided into provinces, each with a subordi- 
 nate government of its own. There is a 
 further grouping of these various provinces 
 under the larger divisions of the three Presi- 
 dencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay — a 
 term which in former days conveyed a less 
 shadowy line of definition than now. At 
 present, however, the Presidencies of Madras 
 and Bombay retain many of their distinctive 
 marks, having each an army and civil service 
 of their own; they are administered by a 
 governor appointed direct from England, and 
 each has an executive and legislative counciL 
 The Presidency of Bengal has faded away 
 more completely, though a reHc may be seen 
 in the legislative council attached to the ad- 
 ministration of the lower provinces of Bengal, 
 which is now vested in the hands of a lieu- 
 tenant-governor, but which was governed by 
 the Governor-General himself in the days 
 before the North-West Provinces, the Pun- 
 jaub, and Oude became British territory. The 
 two former provinces are governed by lieu- 
 tenant-governors, and Oude is under the former 
 of these two lieutenant-governors, British Bur- 
 mah, Assam, and the Central Provinces are 
 ruled by Chief Commissioners. All over India 
 are scattered native states of varying extent 
 and independence. Many of these native 
 principalities are attached to the various pre- 
 sidencies and provinces ; others are grouped 
 together under the superintendence of a poli- 
 tical agent. Of this class are the Eajpootana 
 and Central Indian agencies, and others, such 
 as Jlyderabad, or the Nizam's territories, 
 Mysore, and Travancore, are quasi-indepen- 
 dent. To define, however, the relations of 
 the Indian native states to the British crown 
 would be a lengthy and complicated task, and 
 would practically involve a review of the 
 various treaty relations between those native 
 principalities, numbering over 460, and the 
 paramount power. 
 
 History. The history of the British con- 
 nection with India dates from the days when 
 Vasco da Gama made his memorable voyage 
 round the Cape and sighted the shores 
 of Hindostan, on May 17, 1498. Indian 
 products commenced to find their way to 
 Europe first through the hands of the Por- 
 tuguese, and then through the Venetians, who 
 carried on their Eastern trade by way of 
 Egypt and the Eed Sea, thus anticipating the 
 important route of modem times. But it was 
 nearly a century after Da Gama's voyage that 
 our first trading voyages were made, and it 
 was in the last year of the sixteenth century 
 that these commercial enterprises were or- 
 ganised on a recognised basis. On Sept. 
 22, 1599, the merchants of London held 
 a meeting, at which it was resolved to 
 form an association for the purpose of trad- 
 ing with India, and on Dec. 31 of the fol- 
 lowing year, a charter was granted to "the 
 
 Governors and Company of the Merchants 
 trading unto the East Indies," entitling 
 them to exclusive trade with the countries 
 between the Cape of Good Hope and the 
 Straits of Magellan. The first vessels de- 
 spatched returned home with cargoes of cin- 
 namon, cloves, and pepper, and realised 95 
 per cent, profit on the capital invested. It 
 was soon evident that the English would have 
 to defend themselves against the jealousy of 
 the Portuguese and Dutch, and a new charter 
 was granted, with stringent provisions against 
 "interlopers." In 1612 Captain Best, in 
 command of a small squadron, was attacked 
 in the roadstead of Surat by a vastly superior 
 Portuguese fleet, but defended himself with 
 such gallantry and effect that he was not only 
 able to land all his goods at the Surat factory, 
 but obtained a, confirmation of a commercial 
 treaty between the Mogul Emperor and the 
 British. During the following years subor- 
 dinate agencies were started at Gogra, Ah- 
 medabad, Cambay, and Ajmere, and at various 
 places in the Indian archipelago. This led 
 to numerous broils with the Portuguese and 
 Dutch, and our relations with the latter were 
 greatly embittered by the cruel torture and 
 execution of Captain Towerson and about 
 twenty sailors, at Amboyna, in 1623. For 
 this outrage the Dutch had to pay £3,615 as 
 compensation; but from that date until the 
 great naval wars, which commenced in 1793, 
 they became supreme in those parts, and 
 practically monopolised the trade of the Indian 
 archipelago. In 1634 the Company obtained 
 airman from the Great Mogul for permission 
 to trade in Bengal, and the same year saw 
 the expulsion of the Portuguese from the 
 province. Five years later Fort St. George, 
 or Madras, was founded by Francis Day ; and 
 in 1661 Bombay was ceded to the British 
 crown as part of the dowry of Catherine of 
 Braganza, and was subsequently transferred 
 by Charles II. to the East India Company. 
 The separation of Bengal from Madras, and 
 the appointment of Mr. Hodges as " agent 
 and governor " of the Company's affairs, with 
 a corporal's guard, was the first beginning 
 out of which arose the appointment of Sir 
 John Child as the first titular Governor- 
 General of India, with full power to make 
 war or peace. A few years later the famous 
 resolution was passed by the Company which 
 was destined to turn their clerks and factors 
 throughout India into conquerors and pro- 
 consuls, and which ran thus : — " The increase 
 of our revenue is the subject of our care, as 
 much as our trade; 'tis that must maintain 
 our force when twenty accidents may inter- 
 rupt our trade ; 'tis that must make us a 
 nation in India. Without that, we are but a 
 great number of interlopers, united by his 
 Majesty's royal charter, fit only to trade 
 where nobody of power thinks it their interest 
 to prevent us. And upon this account it is 
 that the wise Dutch, in all their general 
 
lud 
 
 ( 592 ) 
 
 lud 
 
 advices that we have seen, write ten para- 
 graphs concerning their government, their 
 civil and military policy, warfare, and the 
 increase of their revenue, for one paragraph 
 they write concerning trade." 
 
 Our earliest territorial possession in India 
 properly so-called was Madras, which, as 
 mentioned above, was founded by Day and 
 purchased fi'om the Eajah of Chandragiri, an 
 annual rent of about £500 being duly paid 
 to the representatives of the Mogul Empire. 
 On the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, Southern 
 India broke up into a number of minor states. 
 In 1744, war broke out between the French 
 and English, Dupleix being at that time 
 Governor of Pondicherry, and Olive a young 
 writer at Madras ; and two years later Madras 
 surrendered to a French squadron, under La 
 Bourdonnais. Indecisive hostilities followed, 
 but the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, 
 restored Madras to the English. Their first 
 successes had, however, inspired Duplei.x; 
 with the ambition of founding a French 
 empire in India, under the shadow of the 
 Mohammedan powers. At Hyderabad and 
 Arcot the successions were in dispute, and 
 the English and French favoured the 
 claims of rival candidates to the throne of 
 Ai'cot. A war ensued, the chief incident of 
 which was the capture and subsequent defence 
 of Arcot in 1751 by Clive. For some years 
 it continued, and culminated in 1760 in a 
 final struggle, which was crowned by the 
 decisive victory obtained by Colonel (after- 
 wards Sir Eyre) Coote at Wandewash over 
 the French. Pondicherry and Ginjee sub- 
 sequently capitulated, and the French were 
 expelled from Hindostan. 
 
 To turn to the course of events in Bengal, 
 in 1740 Ali Vardi Khan, a usurper, but the 
 last of the great Nawabs of Bengal, ruled 
 over Bengal, and in his days the Mahratta 
 horsemen began to ravage up to the walls of 
 Calcutta. The " Mahratta ditch," constructed 
 to keep them off, still bears the old name. 
 Ali Vardi Khan's grandson, Surajah Dowlah, 
 a youth of ferocious temper, marched on Cal- 
 cutta with a large army in pursuit of an 
 escaped kinsman who had aggrieved him, and 
 thrust the remnant of the English who failed 
 to fly at his approach into the " Black Hole," 
 or military prison of Fort "William. Out of 
 146 who were imprisoned therein during that 
 fatal night in June, onty twenty-three sur- 
 vived. Clive and Admiral Watson promptly 
 sailed from Madras to the Ganges, and the 
 speedy recovery of Calcutta with but little 
 fighting induced the Nawab to conclude a 
 peace advantageous to the Company. But 
 the outbreak of hostilities between the Eng- 
 lish and French found Surajah Dowlah 
 ranged on the side of the latter. With a 
 force far inferior to that of his adversary, 
 Clive marched out to the grove of Plassey, 
 and there by dint of a daring attack on an 
 angle of the camp, routed the Nawab's host 
 
 (17S7). Meer Jaffier, Olive's nominee, was 
 placed on the viceregal throne at Moorsheda- 
 bad, and enormous sums, aggregating many 
 millions, were exacted as the price of this 
 honour. The same year the Nawab made 
 a grant to the Company of the landholders' 
 rights over the district of the Twenty-four 
 Pergunnahs, an extensive tract around Cal- 
 cutta amounting to 882 square miles. 
 
 In 1758 Clive was appointed the first 
 governor of all the Company's settlements in 
 Bengal, and defeated the Shahzada, ■ or im- 
 perial prince, who with the aid of the Nawab 
 Vizier of Oude, was marching on the lower 
 provinces of Bengal. He next despatched a 
 force under Colonel Forde to Madras, and 
 finally crushed French influence throughout 
 the Nizam's territories. The return of Clive 
 to England was followed by the dethrone- 
 ment of Meer Jaffier, and the substitution of 
 Meer Cossim, his son-in-law, in his place. 
 The new ruler, however, began to show signs 
 of wishing to become independent, and having 
 retired to Monghyr, proceeded to organise 
 his army after the European fashion, and 
 to ally himself with the Vizier of Oude. 
 The trade privileges arrogated to themselves 
 by the Company's servants formed a, su'b- 
 stantial grievance, and when the majority 
 of the council at Calcutta (in spite of the 
 wish of Mr. Vansittart, the governor, and 
 Warren Hastings, a junior member of the 
 council, to make some concession) refused to 
 listen to the Nawab, the officers of the latter 
 fired upon an English boat, and war arose. 
 A massacre of Englishmen and Sepoys took 
 place at Patna ; and though checked by two 
 defeats by Major Adams, the Vizier of 
 Oude and Shah Allnm, who had succeeded 
 as emperor, threatened Patna. It was at 
 this juncture that the first Sepoy mutiny, 
 quelled eventually by Major Munro, broke 
 out in the English camp. The battle of 
 Buxar, won by the same officer in 1764, 
 brought the ruler of Oude and the Mogul 
 emperor to the feet of the British. 
 
 The following year Clive (now Baron Clive 
 of Plassey, and for the second time Governor 
 of Bengal) proceeded to Allahabad, and ro- 
 stoi-ed Oude to the Nawab Vizier on payment 
 of half a million sterling. The dewannee, or 
 fiscal administration of Bengal, Behar, and 
 Orissa, and the territorial jurisdiction of the 
 Northern Circars were granted to the Com- 
 panj', a puppet Nawab was maintained by 
 us on an allowance at Moorshedabad, and a 
 tribute paid to the emperor. Thus the 
 English received the revenue and maintained 
 the arniy, and the criminal jurisdiction was 
 vested in the Nawab. A great reform was 
 carried out by Clive in the reorganisation of 
 the Company's service, their paltry salaries 
 haying led to much bribery and " venality . 
 Private trade and the acceptance of presents 
 were prohibited for the future, while salaries 
 were increased out of the salt monopoly. 
 
Ind 
 
 ( 593 ) 
 
 Ind 
 
 Lord Olive left India for the last time in 
 1767. Five years later Warren Hastings 
 assumed the governorship, the interval having 
 been marked hy a disastrous famine (1770), 
 which is believed to have carried off one-third 
 of the inhabitants. Warren Hastings abolished 
 the dual system of government, removed the 
 exchequer from Moorshedabad to Calcutta, 
 and appointed English collectors to see to the 
 collection of the revenues and the adminis- 
 tration of justice. He also created the 
 nucleus of a poKce. He was, however, much 
 thwarted in his reforms by the wars forced on 
 him by native princes, by the incessant pressure 
 from home for money, and the constant oppo- 
 sition of his colleague in council, I^hiUp 
 Francis. Hastings reduced the large allow- 
 ance paid to the Nawab ; he resold to the 
 Vizier of Oude the provinces of Allahabad 
 and Kora, formerly assigned by Clive to the 
 Emperor Shah Allum, but forfeited , as Hastings 
 contended, by the seizure of the emperor by 
 the Mahrattas, and withheld the tribute of 
 £300,000 from the puppet emperor. British 
 troops were also lent to the Vizier of Oude to 
 enable him to put down the Rohilla Afghans, 
 who had settled down in his dominions since 
 Ahmed Shah's invasion (1761), and borne 
 themselves with much arrogance and oppres- 
 sion. Warren Hastings also improved the 
 financial position of the Company by the so- 
 called plunder of Cheyte Singh and the Begum 
 of Oude, transactions which, coupled with 
 other alleged acts of oppression, formed the 
 ground of the celebrated impeachment against 
 him in the House of Lords, proceedings 
 which dragged on their length for seven 
 years, and eventually terminated in a verdict 
 of not guilty. Warren Hastings was prac- 
 tically ruined by the cost of the defence, and 
 left dependent on the charity of the Court of 
 Directors. 
 
 The Bombay government, being desirous of 
 seeing a nominee of its own on the throne of 
 Poonah, concluded in 1775 the Treaty of Surat, 
 by which Eagunath Rao agreed to cede 
 Salsette and Basaein in consideration of being 
 recognised as the sovereign. Hastings dis- 
 approved of the treaty, but on the outbreak 
 of the war (known as the first Mahratta War) 
 despatched energetic officers across the penin- 
 sula, who conquered Guzerat, and captured 
 the rock fortress of Gwalior. The reverse 
 sustained by the Bombay force, however, 
 equalised matters, and the Treaty of Salbai 
 practically restored the status quo. Meantime 
 Hyder Ali of Mysore, whose hostility had 
 been roused, fell upon the British possessions 
 in the Carnatic, and his cavalry ravaged the 
 country up to Madras. The aged Sir Eyre 
 Coote, the victor of Wandewash, with the aid 
 of Colonel Pearse, hastened to the scene, but 
 the contest was a tough one, and the peace 
 concluded with Tippoo, Hyder's son and 
 successor, was based on a mutual restitution 
 of all conquests. 
 
 In 1786 Hastings was succeeded by Lord 
 CornwaUis as Governor-General. His ad- 
 ministration was signalised b^ two events — 
 the introduction of the Permanent Settlement 
 into Bengal, and the second Mysore War. The 
 permanent settlement of the land revenue of 
 Bengal appears to have recommended itself to 
 the Court of Directors at home mainly from a 
 desire to place their finances on a more assured 
 basis. This assessment began in 1789 and 
 terminated in 1791, and though at first 
 intended to be decennial, was made permanent 
 in 1793, a step which practically inflicted 
 enormous loss on the Indian government by 
 fixing in perpetuum at a low standard that tax 
 which, according to all economic principles, 
 should, be proportioned to the increasing value 
 of the land. 
 
 The second Mysore War of 1790 — 92 was 
 undertaken by Lord Cornwalhs in person at 
 the head of the British army, the Nizam of 
 the Deccan and the Mahratta confederacy 
 being allied to the British. It resulted in 
 the partition of half of Tippoo's dominions 
 among the allies, and the payment of three 
 millions sterling as indemnity. 
 
 Lord Mornington, better known as the 
 Marquis of Wellesley, laid down during his 
 rule the guiding principle that the English 
 must be the one paramount power in India, 
 and the gradual development of this policy 
 has since culminated in the proclamation of 
 Queen Victoria as Empress of India on the 
 1st January, 1877. The presence of French 
 battalions in the native states, and French 
 intriguers in the islands of Mauritius and 
 Bourbon, as well as in Hindostan itself, 
 suggested to Lord Wellesley the idea of 
 frustrating all possibility of a French invasion 
 of India by crushing their hopes there. The 
 Mogul empire was quite broken up, so the 
 task of establishing our supremacy in northern 
 India was at first easy. By the Treaty of 
 Lucknow a large tract of territory was ceded 
 to us by the Nawab Vizier of Oude, in lieu of 
 a subsidy for British troops, and we thus 
 became territorial rulers as far as the heart of 
 the North- West Provinces. Beyond was the 
 confederacy of the Mahrattas, with the puppet 
 emperor in their hands, and farther to the 
 south the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the 
 defeated, but not subdued, Tippoo Sultan of 
 Mysore. The Nizam was easily dealt with ; 
 his French battalion at Hyderabad was dis- 
 banded, and the Nizam bound by treaty not 
 to take any European into his service without 
 the consent of the English government, a 
 clause of universal application nowadays in 
 the treaties with native states. Tippoo's turn 
 came next, and on his refusal to abandon 
 his intrigues, and throw in his lot loyally with 
 the British, war was declared. The decisive 
 event was the capture of Tippoo's stronghold, 
 Seringapatam, where Tippoo died bravely 
 fighting in the breach (May 4, 1799). The 
 victory created a profound impression on the 
 
Ind 
 
 ( 594 ) 
 
 Ind 
 
 natives, and earned General Harris a peerage, 
 and Wellesley a marquisate. Tippoo's do- 
 miniona were partially partitioned among the 
 Nizams, the Mahrattas, and the English, and 
 theoentral portion (Mysore) erectedinto a sepa- 
 rate state, under a descendant of the Hindoo 
 Rajahs, whom Hyder Ah had dethroned. The 
 sons of Tippoo were treated with high con- 
 sideration. 
 
 The Mahrattas, however, still held aloof, 
 and Wellesley addi-essed himself to the task 
 of bringing them into the net of his subsidiary 
 system. ThePeishwaof Poonah, therecognised 
 head of the confederacy, after being defeated 
 by Holkar, was induced to sign a treaty with 
 the British, greatly extending our influence in 
 the Bombay Presidency. This led to the 
 second Mahratta War (1802—4), one of the 
 most noteworthy of our campaigns in the 
 East. Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke 
 of Wellington) and General (afterwards Lord) 
 Lake led the armies, and the former in the 
 Deccan soon won the battles of Assaye and 
 Argaum, and captured Ahmednugger. Lord 
 Lake in Hindostan fought with equal courage 
 and success, winning the battles of AUgurh 
 and Laswaree, and capturing Delhi and Agra. 
 Scindiah's French troops were dispersed, and 
 he himself ceded all territory north of the 
 Jumna to the British, while the old emperor, 
 Shah Allum, came once more under our pro- 
 tection. Orissa fell under our rule, and 
 Berar was handed over to the Nizam. The 
 latter years of Lord Wellesley's rule were 
 marked by reverses, including the repulse of 
 Lake before Bhurtpore.; but, nevertheless, the 
 result of the administration was to add the 
 North- West Provinces to our dominions, to 
 reduce the Peishwa, and constitute the Madras 
 Presidency pretty much as it is at present. 
 
 Lord Wellesley's successor was Lord Corn- 
 wallis, now an old man, whose policy during 
 his second and short tenure of office was to 
 practice economy and relieve the financial 
 pressure caused by prolonged military opera- 
 tions. The same policy was followed by Sir 
 G. Barlow (1805), but on Lord Minto's arrival 
 (1807) more resolute counsels prevailed, and 
 though enjoined to abstain from drawing the 
 sword, he managed to consolidate Wellesley's 
 conquests. The islands of Mauritius and 
 Java were occupied by us, and friendly 
 missions were despatched to the Punjaub, 
 Afghanistan, and Persia. Lord Moira, after- 
 wards Marquis Hastings, was in power for 
 nine years (1814 — 23), during which period 
 two important wars were waged against the 
 Goorkha mountaineers, or inhabitants of 
 Nepaul, and against the Pindarries and 
 Mahrattas. The first campaign against the 
 former, waged in an unhealthy and difficult 
 country, was unsuccessful; but in the cold 
 weather of 1814 General Ochterlony com- 
 pelled the Nepaulese to sue for peace, and in 
 the following year, after a brilliant march 
 from Patna, forcibly imposed his terms on 
 
 them, within a few miles of Khatmandoo, the 
 capital. 
 
 In the meantime Central India was being 
 overrun by the Pindarries, a mixed nationality 
 of plundering bauds, which appeared to have 
 sprung out of the debris of the Mogul 
 empire, and which were supported by the 
 sympathy of the Mahratta chiefs. Lord 
 Hastings, collected an enormous army, num- 
 bering 120,000 men, and efifectually crushed 
 them(l 8 1 7 ) , but this success was coincident with 
 the rising of the three great Mahratta powers 
 at Poonah, Nagpore, and Indore. Elphinstone, 
 our Resident at the court of the Peishwa, 
 having withdrawn to Kirkee, was attacked by 
 that ruler, but managed to repulse the 
 onslaught. Holkar's army was defeated the 
 following month at the battle of Mehidpore, 
 and the fugitives having been followed up 
 and dispersed, a pacification was established, 
 in which Sir John Malcolm was one of the 
 chief actors. The territory of the Peishwa 
 was annexed to the Bombay Presidency, and 
 he himself pensioned. 
 
 Lord Amherst's administration from 1 823 to 
 1828 was signalised by the first Burmese War; 
 operations rendered necessary by the aggres- 
 sions of the King of Ava. The Burmese were 
 in no way formidable in themselves, but the 
 unhealthy character of the country lost us 
 about20,000 lives and £14,000,000 during the 
 two years of hostilities. The Treaty of 
 Yandaboo ceded the provinces of Aracan and 
 Tenasserim to the British, the king retaining 
 the valley of the Irrawaddy. Another impor- 
 tant event was the capture of Bhurtpore, 
 which had baffled the army of Lord Lake in 
 1805, and which, protected by its impene- 
 trable massive mud walls, was regarded as 
 impregnable. 
 
 The history of the British as benevolent 
 administrators ruling with a single eye to the 
 good of the natives may be said to have begun 
 with Lord WUliam Bentinck. He restored 
 equiUbrium to the budget, crippled by the 
 Burmese War, by various important financial 
 measures, and abolished suttee, or widow- 
 burning, and the thugs, or hereditary assassins, 
 two institutions which had shockingly cor- 
 rupted the social system of the Hindoos. It is 
 scarcely surprising to any student of Indian 
 history to find that even such detestable 
 practices as these found supporters among 
 Europeans as well as natives. In 1833 the 
 East India Company's charter was renewed 
 for twenty years, but on condition the Com- 
 pany should abandon its trade and permit 
 Europeans to settle in the country. [East 
 India Company.] Other events of Lord 
 William Bentinck's administration were the 
 appointment of a commission to codify the 
 law, the placing of the native state of Mysore 
 under British rule (1830), and the annexation of 
 Coorg, with the full consent of the inhabitants. 
 
 After a brief interregnum, during which 
 Sir Charles (afterwards Lord) Metcalfe, the 
 
Ind 
 
 ( 595 ) 
 
 Ind 
 
 senior member of council, held the vice- 
 royalty, Lord Axickland (1836 — 42) hegan his 
 rule, which is conspicuous for the memorable 
 Afghan "War, the outcome of an ill-advised 
 resolution on the part of the British to place 
 on the Afghan throne Shah Soojah as one 
 who would prove a subservient tool in the 
 repression of French and Russian influence in 
 Asia. For fuller details of all these events, 
 which led to the disastrous retreat from Cabul 
 see Afghan Waks (1). The news reached 
 Calcutta just before Lord Ellenborough's ac- 
 cession, and the retributive expedition of 
 Pollock took place the same year. The follow- 
 ing year saw the conquest of the Ameers of 
 Scinde by Sir Charles Napier, whose defeat of 
 20,000 Beloochees with only 3,000 British at 
 Meanee, is one of the most brilliant feats in 
 Anglo-Indian history. In 1844 Lord Ellen- 
 borough was recalled and succeeded by Sir 
 Henry (afterwards Lord) Hardinge, whose ar- 
 rival was followed, at no long interval, by the 
 SikhWar, a contingency which had been fore- 
 seen by most ever since the death of Runjeet 
 Singh, the capable and energetic founder of 
 the Sikh kingdom. It was in 1845 that Sir 
 Hugh Gough advanced to confront the Sikh 
 army, numbering 60,000 men, with 150 guns. 
 The battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshar, Aliwal, 
 and Sobraon followed in quick succession, and 
 the country was at the feet of the British. 
 Dhuleep Singh, the infant son of Runjeet, 
 was recognised as Rajah ; a British Resident, 
 supported by a British force, was sent to the 
 Punjaub. 
 
 Probably, however, the most important 
 results ensued from the administration of 
 Lord Dalhousie (1848 — 56). Though sincerely 
 desirous of peace, and of advancing the moral 
 and material condition of the country, Dal- 
 housie found himself compelled to fight two 
 wars and to annex extensive territory in the 
 Punjaub, Burmah, as well as Nagpore, Oude, 
 and other minor states. At the same time he 
 founded the Public "Works Department with 
 a view to creating the network of roads and 
 canals ilow covering India. He opened the 
 Ganges Canal, the iaxgeat irrigation work in 
 India, and turned the sod of the first railway. 
 He promoted steam communication with 
 England via the Red Sea, and introduced cheap 
 postage and the electric telegraph. The second 
 Sikh "War (1848—49) was marked by the disas- 
 ter of Chilianwallah, but before reinforcements 
 from England arrived, Mooltan fell ; and Lord 
 Gough well nigh destroyed the Sikh army at 
 the battle of Gujerat. The Punjaub became 
 a British province, and thanks mainly to the 
 successful labours of the two Lawrences 
 and Colonel (afterwards Lord) Kapier, became 
 so contented and prosperous that the Indian 
 Mutiny failed to turn its populace into rebels. 
 The second Burmese "War in 1852 arose out 
 of the ill treatment of some merchants at 
 Rangoon, and resulted in the annexation of 
 the valley of the Irrawaddy, under the nama 
 
 of the province of Pegu, since which time 
 British Burmah has made the most astonish- 
 ing strides in material development. For 
 full statistics we must refer our readers to 
 the Provincial Administration Reports, which 
 bear witness to a more rapid national pro- 
 gress than any other part of India can boast 
 of. Lord Dalhousie annexed several native 
 states, including Nagpore and Sattara, on the 
 principle that the governors exist only for 
 the good of the governed, and that persistent 
 misrule cannot justify the paramount power in 
 assenting to the continuance of the same. Oude 
 was annexed after repeated warnings issued to 
 the Nawabs, whose degraded rule had caused 
 great suffering to the inhabitants. It was his 
 last action of importance, for in March, 1856, 
 the marquis returned home and was succeeded 
 by Lord Canning, 
 
 The leading events of the Indian Mutiny 
 which followed, will be found under the 
 article so headed. The details have been 
 excellently told by Sir John Kaye, while the 
 shajre borne by Lord Lawrence is narrated 
 in Mr. Bos worth Smith's Zife of him. 
 The causes of this great convulsion are still 
 obscure, but may be probably traced to the 
 excitable feelings of a fanatical though sub- 
 ject race alarmed by the sight of important 
 annexations, such as those which have in- 
 evitably accompanied the development of the 
 British power. The outbreak at Meerut oc- 
 curred on May lO, 1857, and the mutinous 
 Sepoys hastened to Delhi, which thus became 
 the centre and rallying point of the rebellion. 
 Under Lawrence's strong hand the Punjaub 
 was enabled not only to hold its own, but 
 also to send relays of troops to Delhi, which 
 though held by 30,000 mutineers, was closely 
 invested, and eventually captured by our 
 troops, numbering only one-fourth of their 
 opponents. At Cawnpore the Europeans shut 
 themselves up in a wretched entrenchment, 
 whence they emerged, after nineteen days' 
 siege, only to fall victims to the abominable 
 treachery and cruelty of the infamous Nana 
 Sahib. In Lucknow, the third town round 
 which the events of the Mutiny group them- 
 selves. Sir H. Lawrence fortified and pro- 
 visioned the Residency, and with a, weak 
 British regiment kept ofi the besieging rebels 
 till relieved first by Havelock, and finally by 
 Sir Colin Campbell, afterwards Lord Clyde. 
 The people of Qude and Rohilkhund, who had 
 risen en masse, were next attacked and van- 
 quished by Colin Campbell, while in Central 
 India Sir Hugh Rose (afterwards Lord Strath- 
 naim) conducted an equally successful cam- 
 paign against the Ranee, or Princess, of Jhansi, 
 and Tantia Topee. 
 
 This mutiny led to the extinction of the 
 East India Company, for it was felt that the 
 administration of India was now a national 
 matter [East India Company] ; and an 
 Act was passed, to give effect to the assump- 
 tion of the government by the crown (1858). 
 
lud 
 
 ( 596 ) 
 
 Ind 
 
 The royal proclamation announcing this 
 event took place at a grand durhar held by 
 Lord Canning on Nov. 1, 1858, and on July 8 
 following peace was proclaimed. The cost of 
 suppressing the Mutiny had, however, been 
 so serious that Mr. James Wilson, a distin- 
 guished financier, was sent out to Calcutta 
 to equalise the budget. He re-organised the 
 customs, imposed an income-tax and licence 
 duty, and created a- state paper currency; 
 and, though he died before completing his 
 labours, what he accomplished bore excellent 
 fruit. 
 
 Lord Elgin's short rule (1862—63) was 
 succeeded by that of Sir John Lawrence, who 
 saw the Bhotan War and the ensuing annexa- 
 tion of the Duars, and the lamentable Orissa 
 Famine of 1866. The same year was marked 
 by a serious commercial crisis, which injured 
 the rising tea industry iij Bengal, and caused 
 ■widespread ruin in Bombay. Sir John Law- 
 rence returned in 1869, having passed through 
 every grade of Indian service, from an assis- 
 tant magistrate to the viceroyalty, and, 
 on retirement, was fitly rewarded with a 
 peerage. 
 
 Lord Mayo's too brief tenure of office was 
 occupied with several useful measures, among 
 ■which the creation of an agricultural depart- 
 ment, and of a system of provincial finance, 
 stand out conspicuously. He led the way to 
 the r^orm of the salt duties, and developed 
 the material resources of the country by 
 roads, railways, and canals. His death at the 
 hand of an assassin in the Andaman Islands 
 (1872) was a cruel interruption to a career of 
 usefulness. Lord Northbrook, his successor 
 (1872 — 76), had to contend with a famine in 
 Lower Bengal, which was successfully grappled 
 with by an organisation of state relief. In 
 the coid season of 1875 — 76 the Prince of 
 Wales made a tour through the country, and 
 was greeted, by the feudatory chiefs especially, 
 with an outburst of loyalty. It was during 
 the ■viceroyalty of Lord Lytton (1876 — 80) 
 that the proclamation of the CJueen as 
 Empress of India (Jan. 1, 1877) gave oppor- 
 tunity for a durbar of unusual pomp, held on 
 the ridge above Delhi. This scene of rejoic- 
 ing was followed by a disastrous famine, 
 which prevailed throughout the Deccan and 
 other parts of the Madras and Bombay 
 Presidencies, and which, despite the best 
 efilorts of the government, resulted in a loss 
 of over five milhon lives. The Afghan War 
 of 1878 led to the temporary occupation 
 of Cabul and Candahar by the English 
 [Afghan Wahs (2)]. The appointment of the 
 Marquis of Ripon in the place of Lord Lytton 
 in 1880, was followed by the evacuation 
 of Candahar and other Afghan positions, 
 though it has been clearly proved that the 
 former measure had been fully determined on 
 by Lord Lytton previous to his resignation. 
 Lord Ripon's measures have included an 
 extension of Lord Mayo's system of provin- 
 
 cialising the finances, which has been attended 
 with the happiest results ; a scheme for the 
 enlargement of native self-government, varied 
 according to the requirements of the different 
 provinces; and a law known as the Hbert 
 Act, which has removed one of the disabilities 
 under which native civilians laboured in regard 
 to their powers of trying Europeans. Regard- 
 ing this Act, controversy has been too fierce to 
 enable as to venture a general estimate of its 
 merits and deinerits ; these may safely be left 
 to the judgment of posterity. The most 
 recent event which caUs for notice in regard 
 to India is the appointment of a commission 
 (1884) to define the northern frontier of 
 Afghanistan — a step which it may not be too 
 sanguine, perhaps, to hope will lead to a dis- 
 tinct recognition of the respective limits of 
 British and Russian influence in the East, 
 and to a settlemient of the Central. Asian 
 question. 
 
 The chief works to which readers may be 
 referred for a detailed knowledge of Indian 
 history are the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 
 (Hunter), to which we are mainly indebted for 
 the facts above narrated ; Sir G. Birdwood, 
 EepoH on Old Records in the India Office ; Mill, 
 Siitory of British India, continued by "Wilson; 
 Low, Kistorii of the Indian Navy ; Orme, 
 Indosian; Malleson, History of the Pi-ench in 
 India; Aitchison, Treaties and Engagements; 
 Arnold, Administration ofLordDalhousie; Kaye, 
 Sepoy War, continued by Colonel Mallesou; 
 and Bosworth Smith, Life of Lord Lawrence. 
 
 Goveenoes-Gehekal of India. 
 
 ■Warren Hastings 1774 
 
 Sir John Macpherson 1785 
 
 Marquis Comwallis . ... 1786 
 
 Sir John Shore . 1793 
 
 Sir Alured Clarke 1798 
 
 Marquis "Wellesley 1798 
 
 Marquis Cornwallis 1805 
 
 Sir George Barlow 1805 
 
 Earl of Miuto 1807 
 
 Marquis of Hastings . .... 1813 
 Mr. Adam .... Jan. 1— Aug. 1, 1823 
 
 Lord Amherst 1823 
 
 Lord "William Bentinck 1828 
 
 Sir Charles Metcalfe 1835 
 
 Earl of Auckland 1836 
 
 Earl of Ellenborongh 1842 
 
 "Viscount Hardinge 1845 
 
 Marquis of Dalhonsie ... . 1848 
 
 Earl of Canning ^856 
 
 Earl of Elgin 1862 
 
 Sir John Lawrence 1864 
 
 Earl of Mayo ... . ! ! 1869 
 
 Lord Northbrook ...!."! 1872 
 
 Earl Lytton ...!!.'! 1876 
 
 Marquis of Kipon ..,!!! 1880 
 
 '[O^E.B.] 
 
 Indian Mutiny, The (1857—58). The 
 exact causes of the Indian Mutinv are some- 
 what difficult to estimate, but it may be safely 
 asserted that it was in a large extent due to the 
 very rapid progress which European civilisa- 
 tion had of late years been making in Hindos- 
 tan, a civilisation which threatened to swallow 
 or assimilate all the native institutions of the 
 country. Under Lord Dalhousie (1848—56) 
 the Punjaub and Oude had been annexed, and 
 it might well seem to an Indian mind that 
 the English were bent on entirely subduing 
 
Ind 
 
 (597) 
 
 Ind 
 
 the whole of Hindostan, regardless of the 
 dictates of faith or justice. About the same 
 time a rumour was in circulation which limited 
 the term of English rule to one hundred years 
 from the date of the battle of Plassey (1757). 
 The Sepoy troops had learnt to know their 
 own worth, and having fought battles and 
 won victories under English generalship, con- 
 ceived that their success was solely due to 
 their own valour, and fancied that they held 
 the destiny of India in their own hands. 
 Added to this, in the deposed King of Delhi, 
 Bahadur Shah, there was an ever-festering 
 canker of rebellion and centre of disaffection 
 which was just now rendered more dangerous 
 than ever by Lord Dalhousie's threat of 
 removing the Mogul's family from its old 
 seat at Delhi. Finally, to set in flame all 
 the smouldering ashes of discontent, there 
 came the story that the cartridges of the 
 new Enfield rifles which were just then 
 being introduced among the native troops 
 were greased with the fat of beef or pork, 
 and were thus rendered unclean for Mo- 
 hammedan and Hindoo alike. The rebel- 
 lion broke out with the incendiary fires at 
 Barrackpore in January, 1857. The Sepoys 
 here conceived that the new cartridges were 
 being distributed with the sole object of 
 destroying their caste, and on Feb. 25 they 
 broke into open mutiny. Though they were 
 restrained from violence and disbanded, these 
 men carried the evil report through Oude 
 and Bundelkhund, inflaming the minds of 
 the people. On May 16 a proclamation 
 was issued by Lord Canning, denying these 
 reports and warning the people against them. 
 On May 10 the mutiny broke out at Meerut, 
 being preceded by incendiarj' fires. The 11th 
 and 20th Regiments of Native Infantry and 
 the 3rd Cavalry rose, massacred their officers, 
 and marched off to Delhi. The people of that 
 city rose at once and butchered the Europeans. 
 The 38th, 54th, and 74th caught the infection, 
 shot their officers, and marching into the city, 
 saluted the king. Meanwhile Nana Sahib was 
 proceeding through Oude and the North-West 
 Provinces fanning the flame. In Oude the 
 mistakes of Mr. Jackson had made the govern- 
 ment unpopular, and Sir Henry Lavrrence, 
 the new commissioner, was unable to remove 
 the impression. In May, risings took place at 
 Perozepore, at Lahore, and Peshawar, but 
 were put down with severity by Sir John 
 Lawrence and his subordinates, who armed 
 the Sikhs, and with their help reduced the 
 Sepoys. The Punjaub thus remained faithful, 
 and Lawrence was able to send a strong body 
 of Sikhs to aid in the siege of Delhi. On the 
 17th the commander-in-chief prepared to 
 advance on Delhi, and on June 10, Sir Henry 
 Barnard, his successor, advanced to within 
 four miles of Delhi, where he was joined by 
 Brigadier Archdale "Wilson from Meerut. 
 Meanwhile, all through Oude, the Doab, and 
 Bundelkhund, the rebellion broke out accom- 
 
 panied by massacres. In Eajpootana and 
 Malwa the native princes for the most part 
 remained faithful, but Scindiah's and Hol- 
 kar's body-guards mutinied, and the widowed 
 Eanee of Jhansi headed an outbreak in her 
 annexed principality. AtCawnpore the mutiny 
 broke out, under Nana Sahib, June 5, and 
 ended in a ghastly massacre. At Luclmow the 
 foresight of Sir Henry Lawrence enabled the 
 English garrison to hold out against the 
 rebels till relieved by Outram. But the great 
 point of anxiety was Delhi, where all the 
 mutinied Sepoy regiments were assembling 
 in a final effort to restore the ancient dynasty 
 of the Moguls. On June 8 Sir Henry Barnard 
 invested Delhi, and on June 13 an unsuccess- 
 ful attempt was made to capture the city by 
 blowing the gates open. The besiegers were 
 exposed to rear attacks from mutinied regi- 
 ments who kept arriving. The energy of 
 Lawrence, however, now made itself felt; 
 new Sikh levies came pouring in, bringing 
 supplies, stores, money, and aU necessaries. 
 On July 17, owing to the death of Sir H. 
 Barnard, Archdale Wilson took the command ; 
 on Sept. 6 a heavy siege-train arrived, and 
 on the 20th, after a severe struggle, Delhi 
 was won [Delhi, Siege op, 1857]. Mean- 
 while Havelock had marched into Cawn- 
 pore (July 17), after defeating the Nana, 
 but only to find the prisoners massacred 
 as at Jhansi. Leaving NeiU to punish 
 the rebels, he endeavoured to advance to the 
 relief of Lucknow, but was compelled to 
 retire, Aug. 13. On Sept. 16, however, a 
 grand army marched on Lucknow, and on the 
 24th Havelock and Outram entered the be- 
 sieged Residency with their reinforcements. 
 On Sept. 10 Brigadier Greathed, by a forced 
 march, surprised the mutinous troops from 
 Eajpootana and Agra and routed them, 
 scattering them in a disorderly ffight. Similar 
 successes were obtained in Malwa, Berar, and 
 elsewhere, and these were crowned in No- 
 vember by the final relief of Lucknow, 
 achieved by Sir Colin Campbell (Nov., 1857)', 
 who had arrived in India as commander-in- 
 chief in August. Meanwhile the GwaHor Con- 
 tingent, under Tantia Topee, had advanced on 
 Cawnpore, and driven General Windham into 
 his entrenchments, and it was only by a hurried 
 march that Campbell could come to his assis- 
 tance before the bridge over the Ganges was 
 broken down. By the end of the year 1857 the 
 rebellion in Bengal had been to a great exten t 
 stamped out, and the future war was restricted 
 to Oude, Eohilkhund, parts of Bundelkhund, 
 and Central India. In Dacca, Mhow, In- 
 dore, Ferruokabad, and elsewhere, order had 
 been restored ; Outram was holding his own 
 against the garrison of Lucknow, and Saugor, 
 faithful to the last, would serve as a centre 
 for operations in Central India. At the 
 beginning of the year (1858) Mahomed Baha- 
 dur Shah, the last of the Moguls, being con- 
 victed of treason and murder, was transported 
 
Ind 
 
 ( 598 ) 
 
 Ine 
 
 to Burmah. During January and February- 
 Sir Colin Campbell occupied hiraeell with 
 clearing Oude and Eohilkhund. In March 
 he made for Lucknow, and after a severe 
 struggle wrested the city from the enemy's 
 hands. On May 6, Sir Colin Campbell suc- 
 ceeded in crushing the revolt in Eohilkhund, 
 but the rebel leaders and many of their 
 followers escaped. Meanwhile, the Bombay 
 division, under Sir Hugh Rose, had advanced 
 steadily into Central India to the relief of 
 Saugor, and soon defeated the rebels at the 
 pass of Muddunpore. General Roberts and 
 'Wiitlock were marchingtriumphantly through 
 Malwa and Bundelkhuud ; on April 1 Sir H. 
 Hose defeated Tautia Topee, who was marching 
 on Jhansi, and two days later he stormed and 
 took the fort of Jhansi. On May 7 he at- 
 tacked and routed the united armies of Tan- 
 tia Topee and the Eanee of Jhansi, and on 
 May 23, after a severe struggle, he assaulted 
 and captured the strong fort of Kalpy. 
 Tantia Topee now proceeded to Gwalior and 
 organised an insurrection against the authority 
 of Soindiah ; but on June 17 Sir Hugh en- 
 countered and defeated the rebel force out- 
 side Gwalior, and on the 18th stormed and 
 captured the city. Brigadier Napier pursued 
 the enemy, and routed them again at Alipore, 
 thus ending the campaign. General Roberts 
 had meanwhile stormed and taken Kotah, 
 and the rebellion was now practically at an' 
 end, and the time come for vengeance 
 and reconciliation. It was undoubtedly the 
 splendid organisation of the Punjaub under 
 Sir John Lawrence that contributed mainly 
 to the ultimate success of the English arms ; 
 and had this district shared in the revolt 
 instead of, thanks to the firmness of its ruler, 
 sending assistance to the English forces 
 before Delhi, it is diflficult to see where the 
 disasters would have stopped. But Sir John 
 Lawrence, from the very commencement 
 bridled the mutinous Sepoys in the Punjaub 
 with a stem hand, and the Sikhs were only 
 too grateful for the blessings of English rule 
 to rise against their benefactors. The most 
 important political result of the Indian 
 Mutiny was the transferrence of the entire 
 administration of Hindostan from the East 
 India Company to the crown. [India ; East 
 India Company.] 
 
 Sir J. Kaye, Sepoy War, 1871—76; G. B. Malle- 
 
 son, Hist, of the IncUan Mutiny ; T. E.E. Holmes, 
 
 Hist, of the Iniian Mutiny; Annual Begiste'i; 
 
 ^^''-^^- [S. J. L.] 
 
 Indulgence, The Declaration op 
 
 (1687), is the name given to the proclamation 
 
 of James II., by which he declared that " as 
 
 he would not force the conscience of any 
 
 man himself, so neither would he allow any 
 
 man to force the conscience of another." By 
 
 this he hoped to show favour to the Roman 
 
 CathoHcs without offending his Protestant 
 
 subjects, whom he promised to keep in full 
 
 possession of aU the Church estates they had 
 
 acquired at the Reformation. In order to 
 disguise, at all events in some degree, that 
 the real objects of this indulgence were the 
 Papists, he promised full freedom of worship 
 at" the same time to moderate Presbyterians 
 and Quakers. All the penal laws against the 
 Roman Catholics were suspended, and the 
 king declared himself resolved for the future 
 to employ the best men in his service irre- 
 spective of their creed (Feb. and June, 1687). 
 In April next year, James ordered this de- 
 claration to be republished, and sent an order 
 to the bishops that they should bid the clergy 
 of their several dioceses read it from their 
 pulpits after divine service, on the Sundays, 
 May 20th and 27th. It was their refusal 
 to do this that led to the trial of the Seven 
 Bishops. 
 
 Zndulpll, King of Alban (i. 954, d. 962), 
 was the son of Constantine. It was in his 
 reign, according to the Pictisji Chronicle, that 
 Dunedin or Edinburgh was surrendered to 
 the Scots by the English — a surrender which, 
 Mr. Skene thinks, implied the district be- 
 tween the Esk and the Avon. Indulph's reign 
 is further noteworthy for the descent of the 
 Norwegian pirates. He is said, according to 
 one account, to have been slain in battle 
 with the invaders, but, according to another, 
 he died at St. Andrews. Probably he retired 
 to a monastery, and entrusted his kingdom to 
 Dubh the son of Malcolm, who was his lawful 
 successor on the tanistic principle. 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland. 
 
 Ine, or In a. King of Wessex (688—72.5), 
 was descended from Cerdic through Cuth- 
 wine, and succeeded to the throne on the 
 abdication of CeadwaUa. He was one of the 
 greatest of the West Saxon kings, and suc- 
 ceeded in reducing Kent, Sussex, and East 
 AngUa to obedience. He also fought many 
 battles against the Britons or Welsh, and 
 extended the West Saxon kingdom beyond 
 the Parret, building the fortress of Taunton 
 to protect his new frontier. We find him 
 fighting against the Welsh of Glamorgan, 
 and against Ceolred the Mercian king, with 
 whom he fought a drawn battle at Wan- 
 borough. The latter part of his reign, 
 however, does not seem to have been so 
 prosperous. His wars with the Britons 
 were less successful than before, and he was 
 troubled by rebellions of members of the 
 royal house, the leader of whom was 
 Aldbert,' who was eventually defeated and 
 slain by Ine. Ine himself resigned the crown 
 in 726, and went to Rome, where he died in 
 728. He was great, not only as a warrior, 
 but ■ as a legislator, and made a collection of 
 laws, seventy-six in number, which, with the 
 exception of those of the Kentish kings, are 
 the earliest known to us among the Anglo- 
 Saxons. He likewise divided Wessex into 
 two dioceses, placing the new bishop at Sher- 
 borne in Dorsetshire; he moreover founded 
 
Inf 
 
 ( 599 ) 
 
 Inq 
 
 and endowed several monasteries, and rebuilt 
 and enlarged the abbey of Glastonbury. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon 0/n'o)uole; Bede, Ecclesiastical 
 History. The Laws of Ine are translated by Mr. 
 Thorp in .Aucieut Lau's and Institutes of the Anglo- 
 Saxons. 
 
 Infangtheof was, in Anglo-Saxon 
 times, the right of trying and punishing a 
 thief caught within the limit of the juris- 
 diction to which the right belonged. It was 
 one of the rights appertaining to a hundred 
 or soken. 
 
 Ingoldsby, Sir Richakd {d. 1685), was 
 closely related to Oliver Cromwell, and served 
 with considerable distinction in the Parlia- 
 mentary army. He was one of the High 
 Court of Justice appointed to try Charles 1. , 
 but did not attend any of the sittings, and 
 though his signature appears on the warrant 
 for execution, he declared that he was forced 
 to affix it by violence, his hand being guided 
 by Cromwell. He afterwards took part in the 
 campaign in Ireland; in 1652 he was made a 
 member of the Council of State ; in 16.54 and 
 1656 he sat in Cromwell's Parliament, and 
 was made one of the members of the Upper 
 House. He was a great favourite of Richard 
 Cromwell, after whose resignation he was 
 appointed one of the Committee of Safety. 
 He was active in promoting the Restoration, 
 and was in command of the force sent against 
 Lambert after he had escaped from the 
 Tower. He received a pardon from Charles II., 
 and was created a Knight of the Bath in 
 1660. He sat in the Parliaments of 1661, 
 1679, and 1680, but took no very prominent 
 part in public affairs. 
 
 Ingnlphns {d. 1109) was one of the secre- 
 taries of William the Conqueror, and subse- 
 quently became Abbot of Croyland. To him 
 was attributed a Description of Croyland 
 Abbey, which is now universally considered to 
 he a spurious production of the fourteenth 
 century. It consists of charters, all of which 
 are forgeries, interspersed with historical 
 notices derived from older chroniclers. This 
 work was first pijblished by Sir Henry Savile 
 in his Rerum Anglicarum Scriptores, and from 
 one MS. of it, which was then existing at 
 Croyland, Sir Henry Spelman extracted the 
 copy of dubious Laws of "William the Con- 
 queror given in his Concilia. 
 
 H. T. Kiley, Archceological Journal, i. 32 — 
 49 ; ii. 114—133 ; Sir T. D. Hardy, Descriptive 
 Catalogue of Manitscripts. 
 
 Inkermann, The Battle op (Nov. 5, 
 1854), was fought during the Crimean AVar. 
 Early on the morning of Nov. 5, 1854, the 
 Russian army, which had lately received 
 large reinforcements, made a sortie from 
 Sebastopol. The chief point of attack was 
 the plateau of Inkermann, where the English 
 forces lay, and so dense were the mists that 
 our troops were hardly aware of the enemy's 
 advance till he was close upon them. There 
 was little time for any regular plan of 
 
 operations on the English side, and they were 
 here at a strong disadvantage compared with 
 the Russians, who had received definite in- 
 structions before starting. The result was 
 the engagement became more of a hand-to- 
 hand encounter than a regular battle. At 
 last the French general. Bosquet, who had 
 divined from the first that the attack was 
 destined for the British troops and not against 
 his own, came to their aid, and feU upon 
 the Russians with such fury as to drive 
 them down the slope, and thus decide the 
 battle. 
 
 Kiuglake, Invasion of the Crimea. 
 IncLuest. Recognition by sworn inquest, 
 i.e., the discovery of matters of fact by in- 
 quiry from sworn witnesses, is a custom of 
 very ancient standing in England, and the 
 origin of the civil jury. A process of inquiry 
 by government officers from witnesses from 
 the district concerned, first appears clearly in 
 the capitularies of the Frank kings. To them 
 it possibly came from the regulations of the 
 Theodosian code, which prescribed a special 
 method of investigation by imperial officers 
 in matters touching the fisc. From cases in 
 which the king was concerned, the method 
 was occasionally extended in the Frank em- 
 pire, but only by special permission, to the 
 suits of churches and private persons. This 
 system was found working by the Norman 
 conquerors of northern Gaul, and became a 
 part of the Norman jurisprudence. But it was 
 still exceptional in private suits, and per- 
 sons who wished their own cases to be tried 
 by inquest, had to gain the duke's consent. 
 From Normand}' it was introduced by the 
 Conqueror into England; the Domesday survey 
 is a gigantic example of its employment 
 to draw up a rate-book of the kingdom for 
 the use of the central administration; and 
 several writs of Rufus, Henry L, and Stephen 
 are extant, ordering inquests through men 
 of the county or hundred, to determine the 
 rights of churches. It is the merit of Henry 
 II. to have made what had been " an excep- 
 tional favour" an ordinary part of English 
 legal procedure. By the Grand Assize he 
 substituted the more equitable method of 
 inquest in cases concerning land, for trial by 
 battle, which was a Norman innovation, and 
 justly hated in England. The three pro- 
 cesses of Dan-ein Presentment, Mort d' An- 
 cestor, and Novel Disseisin pro\'ided satis- 
 factory means of settling disputes as to ad- 
 vowsons, and the claims of heirs and dispos- 
 sessed persons. In the Assize of Arms, 
 recognition by jury was emploj'ed to deter- 
 mine the liability of< each individual ; and, 
 finally, in the Ordinance of the Saladin. 
 Tithe inquest by sworn jurors was used for 
 the assessment of taxation. [For later history 
 see JuKY.] In ordinary modern use the word 
 is almost confined to the inquest held by a 
 coroner with regard to a suspicious death. 
 This seems to have been his chief duty as 
 
Ins 
 
 ( 600 ) 
 
 Ins 
 
 early as Edward I., whose statute De Officio 
 Coronatorio (1276) is the foundation of the 
 law dn the subject. 
 
 For the Mstory of iaqi\est,_as connected with 
 the jury system, see StubDS, Const. Sist., i. 
 ch. 13, and for a more detailed account, Bruu- 
 ner, Entstehung dev Schwurgerichte, 1871. For 
 coroner's inc^uest, Stephen, Hist. Orim, £aw, 
 i. 216, and Digest of Crim. Froceed., ch. 7. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Inscriptions, Celtic, are chiefly con- 
 fined to a number of rough stone monuments, 
 upon whose edges the inscriptions are cut in 
 characters of a peculiar type, consisting en- 
 tirely of long and short lines. This character 
 is styled Ogam or Ogham. The largest 
 number of these Ogam inscriptions have been 
 found in Ireland — almost exclusively in 
 Munster — but about twenty have also been 
 found in South Wales, one in North Wales, and 
 three in Devonshire and Cornwall. Others 
 occur in Scotland, and especially in Fife, 
 Aberdeenshire, and Sutherland, and some 
 even in the Shetland Islands. Of these the 
 Irish are very imperfectly deciphered, and 
 the Scotch still more so, but most of the 
 Welsh have been satisfactorily investigated. 
 These are nearly all bi-lingual, and a Latin 
 traiislation or paraphrase makes the work 
 of interpretation the easier. For though 
 Irish. MSS. of the fourteenth century give a 
 systematic account of the character, yet the 
 ravages of time, and the imperfections of the 
 system, make it no easy task to decipher 
 them. It is even doubtful whether some of 
 the Scottish. Ogams are of Celtic origin. The 
 date of these inscriptions can only be vaguely 
 ascertained. Probably, most of the Welsh 
 are of about the fifth and sixth centuries ; but 
 it seems most likely that the character was 
 invented at a much earlier date, for it is hard 
 to believe that so imperfect an alphabet would 
 have been adopted when the Roman letters 
 were known. It is, indeed, strange, that 
 Ogam should have survived until the ninth or 
 tenth centuries. 
 
 It has been conjectured that Ogam is in a 
 way derived from the Phoenician alphabet. A 
 late Irish legend attributes its invention to a 
 mythic Ogma. Professor Eh;^3 regards the 
 word as etymologically akin to ijyi:.os and 
 agmen, and as a derivative of a root which is 
 used in the senses of "a leading, a line, a 
 row, writing, letters, and ultimately literature, 
 or knowledge. " 
 
 The historical value of the Ogam inscriptions 
 is entirely indirect. They are nearly all mere 
 sepulchral inscriptions of the name, and perhaps 
 the father's name, of some forgotten chieftain. 
 But philologically their interest is very great. 
 Careful comparison shows that the language 
 of these inscriptions is of the Goidelic rather 
 than of the Brythonic type — Irish rather than 
 Welsh. They testify to the presence of 
 froidels in South Wales and Damnonia, spots 
 from which nearly all traces of them have 
 
 now vanished, either Irish immigrants, or the 
 survivals of an earlier population driven 
 westward by the Brythons, just as the 
 Brythons themselves were at a later date 
 driven westwards by the English. Thus 
 they have thrown new light on the early 
 ethnology of Britain as well as on the study 
 of Celtic philology. Besides the Ogams, there 
 are other Celtic inscriptions written in the 
 ordinary Latin character, or in that modifica- 
 tion of it to which the lame of the " Irish 
 alphabet " has been given. But the bulk of 
 the inscriptions of the Britons, centuries after 
 the withdrawal of the Koman legions, were 
 written in Latin. 
 
 Rhys, Weliih Philology; Hiibner, Inscriptiones 
 BritannitB Christianas; 'WeBtwooa, iaptdmum 
 WallioB. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Inscriptions, Eomajj. Koman rule in 
 Britain began late, ended early, and never was 
 much more than a military occupation. As a 
 natural result the Roman inscriptions in Britain 
 are comparatively few in number, limited in 
 the variety of their subjects, md of inferior 
 historical and less philological Interest. 
 
 Epigr.iphista divide inscriptions into two 
 main classes — inscriptions in the strictest 
 sense written on other objects to indicate 
 their purpose, and those which are themselves 
 the objects, and inscribed on stone or hard 
 metal to make them durable. The former 
 class {tiiuli in Latin), are divided into sepul- 
 chral inscriptions [titiili sepulchraUs) ; dedi- 
 catory inscriptions [tituH sacri) ; honorary 
 inscriptions (tittUi honorarii), or inscriptions 
 on statues erected to mortals, either after 
 death or during their life, but not on their 
 tombs, in which class are included tituU operum 
 puhlieorum, vice publictB^ the records of the 
 names of those erecting public buildings, 
 the inscriptions on milestones, boundary 
 stones ; and lastly, the comprehensive class of 
 inscriptions arranged in the Corpus under the 
 head histrumentum^ which includes, for exam- 
 ple, inscriptions on weights and measures, 
 household articles, the tesscrce, or little tokens 
 with names of individuals or dates upon them, 
 the inscriptions stamped on blocks of metal, 
 very numerous in a mining district like Eng- 
 land, or on military weapons, and the leaden 
 marks which, perhaps, were borne by soldiers 
 as countersigns, and have been found in 
 Britain only. Of the inscriptions made for 
 their own sakes, which are called instrumenta 
 or leges — treaties, laws, local decrees, agree- 
 ments of private persons, may be quoted as 
 examples. 
 
 Most of the above classes of inscriptions 
 have been found in Britain, though certain 
 classes, and particularly the instrumenta, are 
 rare. Very few inscriptions of the first cen- 
 tury remain. "They are as scarce," says 
 Dr. Hubner, "as those of the republican period 
 in the older portions of tho Empire." The 
 oldest is an inscription to Nero, found at 
 
Ins 
 
 ( 601 ) 
 
 Ins 
 
 Chichester, and a few leaden halls, marked 
 ■with the names of Claudius, Britannicus, Nero, 
 &c. The oldest milestones are of the time of 
 Hadrian and the Antonines. A few military 
 inscriptions complete the record. During the 
 next century fairly abundant inscriptions are 
 found in the south-eastern part of the island, 
 and especially in the great towns, such 
 as Camulodunum (Colchester) ; Loudinium 
 (London) ; Eegni (Chichester) ; Aquse-Sulis 
 (Bath). Though Eboracum had become a 
 great Roman station so early as the reign of 
 Trajan, few inscriptions of earlier date than 
 the latter part of the second century are found 
 in the land of the Brigantes. Still further 
 north, zones of inscriptions mark the site of 
 the two Roman waUs. But north of this 
 district, and among the hills of Wales, the 
 almost total absence of real Roman inscrip- 
 tions attests the incompleteness of the Roman 
 conquest. In the latter country it is only in 
 a few garrisons, such as Isca (Caerleon), or 
 Deva (Chester), or Segontium (Caernarvon), 
 that they are at all abundant, and here none 
 are earlier than the end of the second century. 
 Many third-century inscriptions, both in the 
 north and west, indicate the frequency of the 
 Roman expeditions to those regions. It is, 
 however, remarkable that very few inscrip- 
 tions of the "provincial emperors," such as 
 Carausius and Allectus, remain. Great names, 
 such as Diocletian and Constantino, are but 
 scantily represented. There are few impor- 
 tant Christian inscriptions of the fourth or 
 fifth centuries. The sepulchral inscriptions 
 of "Wales and Damnonia are not strictly 
 Roman. The Greek inscriptions are very 
 few. As to the historical value of the Roman 
 inscriptions in Britain, it is hard to generalise, 
 but, as a rule, it is not great. " They vary 
 little in their information ; a victorious legion, 
 the death of a commander, the performance of 
 a vow, a tribute to the memory of a departed 
 relative, are the subjects generally commemo- 
 rated." (Preface to Monumenta Historica 
 Britannica.) Yet Dr. Hiibner has been able to 
 illustrate from them some characteristics of the 
 provincial administration and military history 
 of Britain, and the frequency or infrequency 
 of their occurrence is at least some index to the 
 nature of the Roman occupation in any given 
 locality. In many ways the inscriptions illus- 
 trate or vivify the historical knowledge which 
 written authorities give us ; the prevalence of 
 military inscriptions in Britain testifies clearly 
 to the character of Roman rule in the land. 
 But the vast majority of inscriptions are 
 too short, too obscure, too private in their 
 reference, or too limited in their subject, to 
 furnish us with any real historical informa- 
 tion. 
 
 The Boman inscriptions in Britain have been 
 collected by Dr. Emil Hubner, in the seventh 
 volume of the Berlin Corpus Inscriptionum Latinr 
 arum. Dr. Hiibner's epigraphical map of 
 Britain at the end of the volume indicates the 
 localities in which they have been found in most 
 
 abundance. The samei scholar's article on 
 Bomau Inscriptions in the new edition of the 
 Encyclopcedia BHtannica may be referred to for 
 an account of these inscriptions generally, 'f'ne 
 inscriptions of historical interest have been 
 printed in the Monumenta Ristorica Britannica. 
 McCaul's Britanno-Roman Insarijptions, and 
 Scarth's Roman Britain may be also referred to. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Institution of a Christian XXan, 
 
 The, is the name of a work sometimes said to 
 have been -written by Henry VIII., but is more 
 probably the work of Cranmer and other 
 bishops, and only stamped with the king's 
 approval. It consists of an Exposition of the 
 Creed, the Seven Sacraments, the Ten Com- 
 mandments, the Lord's Prayer, the Angel's 
 Salutation to Mary, and of the doctrines of 
 I'ree Will, JustiSeation, and Good Works. It 
 concludes with an authorised prayer for de- 
 parted souls. 
 
 Instrument of Government, The, 
 is the name given to a paper constitution 
 of forty-two articles, called " the Government 
 of the Commonwealth," by which the Protec- 
 torate of CromweU was established (December, 
 16.53). The executive power was vested in 
 the Protector and a council of fifteen to 
 twenty-one persons appointed for life. Until 
 the meeting of Parliament, fixed for Sept. 3, 
 1654, the Protector, with assent of the Council, 
 could make ordinances to have the power of 
 laws. After this, the legislative power was 
 vested in the Parliament alone, and, though 
 bills were to be submitted to the Protector 
 for his assent, he had no power to veto them 
 if they were themselves in accordance with 
 the constitution. Parliaments were to be 
 called of necessity every thi'ee years, and 
 when called could not be dissolved for five 
 months, except by their own consent. The 
 representative system was reformed, in ac- 
 cordance with the plan proposed by Ireton, 
 and amended by the Rump. Scotland and Ire- 
 land were each represented by thirty members, 
 while the number of members for England 
 and Wales was reduced from five hundred to 
 four hundred. The number of county mem- 
 bers was largely increased, many rotten 
 boroughs were disfranchised, and important 
 places like Leeds, Manchester, and Halifax 
 received representatives. At the same time, 
 two classes of electors were disfranchised : — (1) 
 All Roman Catholics and those concerned in the 
 Irish rebellion were disabled for ever; (2) 
 all persons who had been engaged in war 
 against the Parliament since January, 1642, 
 except such as had given signal testimony 
 since then of their good affection, were dis- 
 abled from electing or being elected for the 
 next Parliament and the three following. By 
 article xii., it was expressly inserted in the 
 writs that the persons elected should not have 
 power to alter the government as vested by 
 the Instrument in a single person and a 
 Parliament. Accordingly, when Parliament, 
 
Ins 
 
 ( 602 ) 
 
 Int 
 
 a^^^^uj..:,-^ in September, 1654, wished to 
 debate the constitution, and settle the limits 
 of the Protector's power, Cromwell, whilst 
 drawing a distinction between " circumstan- 
 tials," which they might alter, and "funda- 
 mentals," which they must leave untouched, 
 forced them to sign an engagement not to 
 propose the alteration of the government in 
 that particular. Mr. Gardiner remarks on 
 the Instrument of Government that it was 
 " the first of hundreds of written constitutions 
 which have since spread over the world, of 
 which the American is the most conspicuous 
 example, in which a barrier is set up against 
 the entire predominance of any one set of 
 official persons, by attributing strictly limited 
 functions to each." 
 
 Masson, Life of MUton ; Gardiner, Puritan 
 
 Jtevolution ; Guizot, Oromwett; Eanke, Historj/ 
 
 of J^ngland. 
 
 Insurrection Acts (Ireland). The 
 first (1787) enacted the Eiot Act for Ireland, 
 made all attacks on clergy or churches, the 
 administering unlawful oaths, seizure of arms, 
 and other similar offences, felony, to be 
 punished with death. It also inflicted a 
 punishment of fine, imprisonment, or the 
 whip, on all who conspired to deprive the 
 clergy of their tithes. In 1796 a similar Act 
 was passed, but with terms, if possible, still 
 more stringent than the foregoing; and, 
 though it excited the wonder of the EngUsh 
 Ministry, it passed without difficulty. The 
 third (1807) gave the Lord-Lieutenant power, 
 if the magistrates in special session declared 
 a county disturbed, to proclaim it. By so 
 doing, trial by jury was suspended, and any 
 one out at night after dark became liable to 
 seven years' transportation, unless he were 
 able to give a good excuse. It remained in 
 force tin 1810. In 1814, 1815, 1816, 1817, 
 1822, and 1824, it was renewed, and a similar 
 Act was passed in 1833. 
 
 Interdicts, Fapal, may be defined as 
 local excommunications. They deprived a 
 certain district of all the privileges of 
 Christian worship and ceremonies. The 
 proclamation of an interdict put the country 
 out of the pale of the Church. During the 
 time that a country lay under an interdict, all 
 public religious services ceased; churches 
 were closed, and the sacraments suspended. 
 To this general rule there were a few excep- 
 tions. On Sunday a sermon might be preached 
 in the churchyard, and on Good Friday the 
 cross was exhibited to the people in the same 
 place ; the dead might be buried, but without 
 the fuU rites of interinent ; infants might be 
 baptised ; and the dying were allowed to 
 communicate. But, beyond this, all the 
 services of the Church ceased; the bell neither 
 rang nor tolled ; the solemn processions of 
 the Church were discontinued ; neither Virgin 
 nor saint could be worshipped at their own 
 shrines. Monasteries, however, preserved 
 
 the right of holding their own services ; but 
 these had to be performed with closed doors, 
 and no strangers might be present. The 
 most famous interdict in English history was 
 that proclaimed by Innocent III. in March, 
 1208, over all England. It was brought about 
 by John's obduracy in refusing to recognise 
 the papal nominee, Stephen Langton, as Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, and it was not remitted 
 till the king had made fuU submission, in 
 May, 1213. 
 
 Interest. Two principles seem in the 
 Middle Ages to have been at work in miti- 
 gating the extent to which the usurer might 
 take advantage of the distresses of his debtors : 
 first, that of the mediaeval Church, which, 
 inheriting the doctrine of the Jewish Scrip- 
 tures, has unhesitatingly condemned usury in 
 all its forms; and, secondly, that of the 
 Roman Empire, which, while recognising the 
 necessity of paying interest on bori-owed 
 moneys, attempted to limit abuse by fixing 
 a legal maximum percentage, beyond which 
 payment could not be enforced. Among the 
 Romans therate wasat one time twelve percent, 
 per annum, but it was reduced by Justinian 
 to four. It could not be expected that among 
 the Teutonic tribes this question should have 
 formed a part of their original common law, 
 and hence in the Middle Ages usury was not 
 so much regarded as an offence against the 
 law as a sin ; and it was one of the great 
 merits of the Mediaeval Church that it set its 
 face steadily against this abuse at a time 
 when no kmg had the self-denial, and no 
 other court sufficient strength, to protect the 
 poor from the oppression of the rich. Ac- 
 cordingly, usury became a recognised offence 
 in the spiritual courts ; and thus we fimd 
 Alexander III. writing to the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury that he should compel all lenders, 
 whether ecclesiastical or others, to restore 
 their pledges without usury. But despite the 
 censures of the Church and the laws of Ed- 
 ward III., according to which the goods of a 
 living usurer belonged to the Church, those of 
 a dead one to the king, the practice never died 
 out, though in many cases the actual interest 
 was disguised under the name of expenses. 
 Complaints were made by the Commons under 
 Richard II. of the prevalence of this offence, 
 but the king could oidy reply that it was the 
 fault of the ecclesiastical courts, who did not 
 use their own powers. As yet there was no 
 thought of the State's taking the question in 
 hand. It was a question of morality, and not 
 of law. Some hundred years later, when the 
 incapacity of the Church to deal with this 
 subject became clearer. Parliament at last 
 took the matter up. Even under Henry III. 
 the Statute of Merton had forbidden usury to 
 be charged on infants for debts incurred by 
 their parents, and we have just seen the en- 
 actment of Edward III. as regards the goods of 
 usurers. But it was not till Henry 
 
lut 
 
 ( 603 ) 
 
 Inv 
 
 VII. 's reign that the State, following the old 
 Koman principle and recognising the legality 
 of interest, fixed a rate, above which all 
 charges should be unlawful. In 1487 a law- 
 was passed directly aimed against the 
 " dampnable bargayns gi'oimdyt in usurye, 
 contrarie to the laws of natureU justis," and 
 empowering the Lord Chancellor and justices 
 of the peace to inflict a penalty of £100 on all 
 transactions that savoured of this kind (3 
 Hen. VII., 5 and 6). Eight years later, it was 
 enacted that if the lender received back more 
 than he had lent, he should forfeit half. 
 The tendency of these laws is, as may at once 
 be perceived, to restrict rather than to en- 
 courage usury. Under Henry VIII. all former 
 Acts on the subject were repealed in 1545, and 
 it was enacted that after Jan. 31 next no more 
 than ten per cent, should be charged, on pain 
 of the lender's losing threefold the debt and 
 suffering imprisonment (37 Hen. VIII., 9) . Of 
 course the eflEect of this Act, whatever was 
 intended, can only have been to stop all loans 
 at less than ten per cent., and that it had 
 this result is evident by the enactment of 
 1.551 — 52, which pronounced all usury to be 
 unlawful, declared that the former law had not 
 been intended for the maintenance of usury, 
 and lamented that, since its passing, usury 
 had been daily used and practised in the 
 realm. Under Elizabeth this Act was re- 
 pealed, "because it hath not done as much 
 good as it was hoped it should." Usury, 
 perhaps, in its simplest form, had decreased, 
 but the old evil had only taken new forms, 
 and had " by shifts increased and abounded 
 to the utter undoing of many gentlemen, 
 marchauntes, and others." The old law had 
 erred by making no distinction in the kind of 
 offences, and punishing all alike. Accordingly 
 Henry VIII. 's Act was revived for five years. 
 It seems, from the wording of this Act, that 
 men were still nominally liable to prosecution 
 in the spiritual courts for taking any interest 
 whatever (13 Eliz., c. 8). Under James I. 
 (1621) it was enacted that, because of the 
 general fall in the value of land and prices of 
 merchandise, only eight per cent, should be 
 allowed from June 24, 1625. This enactment 
 was to last seven years, and the penalty of its 
 infi-ingement was to be treble the amount 
 lent. Here again we see the double feeling 
 at work — the confiioting sentiments of the 
 injustice of all usury, and the expediency of 
 allowing it under restrictions ; for a clause is 
 added to this biU declaring that its terms are 
 not to be so expounded as to allow the practice 
 of usury in point of religion or conscience. 
 But there is no longer any mention of ecclesi- 
 astical courts ; though, on the other hand, the 
 expenses of scriveners who might negotiate a 
 loan are jealously defined. On the Restora- 
 tion, it -was enacted that as previous experience 
 had justified the lessening of the legal rate of 
 interest from ten to eight per cent., it would he 
 expedient to reduce it to a nearer level with 
 
 that of the nations with whom we chiefly 
 traded, and from henceforth it was to run at 
 six per cent. Under Queen Anne, on the con- 
 clusion of the war of the Spanish Succession, 
 it was still further reduced to five per cent., on 
 the plea of its being good for trade and to the 
 interest of the landowners, on whom the ex- 
 penses of the war had mainly fallen. Another 
 reason assigned for this reduction was that the 
 great interest which could be secured for money 
 invested at home had rendered people un- 
 willing to embark in foreign trade. This 
 remained the legal rate of interest till 'the 
 present reign, when all the previous laws for 
 its regulation were swept awaj' in the year 
 1854. 
 
 Statutes of the Realm ; A. Smith, Wealth of 
 Nations; D. Hume, ^ssat/s; Ducauge, sub voce 
 VsurariuB. [X, A. A.l 
 
 Inverbeithing, The Battle or (1317), 
 was fought, in Fifeshire, between the Scots, 
 under the Earl ,of Fife, and the English. 
 Fife was at first driven back, but his men, 
 being rallied by William Sinclair, Bishop of 
 Dunkeld, at last drove the English back to 
 their ships. 
 
 Inverlochy, The Battle op (1645), 
 resulted in the victory of Montrose and the 
 Koyalists over the Covenanters led by Ai-gyle. 
 Inverlochy is near Fort William, in the 
 south of Inverness. 
 
 Inverness was most probably at one time 
 the capital of the Pictish kingdom. In later 
 days it possessed a strong castle, erected by the 
 Earl of Huntly {circa 1460). In 1562 this castle 
 was taken by the Regent Murray from the 
 insurgent followers of the Earl of Huntly, 
 and nearly a centmry later was garrisoned by 
 Cromwell (1651). In 1689 it was pillaged by 
 Claverhouse, and in 1746 was taken by the 
 Jacobites, but recovered by the Duke of Cum- 
 berland after the battle of Culloden. 
 
 Inverness, John Hay {d. 1740), titular 
 Earl of Inverness, was a favourite of 
 James Edward, the old Pretender. In 
 1725 he became Secretary of State and Earl 
 of Inverness, and, together with his brother. 
 Lord Kinnoul, and his brother-in-law, James 
 Murray, ruled the prince's councils. He 
 was, according to Lockhart of Camwath, 
 "a cunning, false, avaricious creatm'e, of 
 very ordinary parts, cultivated by no sort of 
 literature, and altogether void of experience 
 in business ; with insolence prevailing often 
 over his little stock of prudence." Soon after 
 he and his brother had been admitted to 
 direct James's conduct, the Pretender's wife 
 left her husband when he refused to dismiss 
 his favourites. On her return, both the 
 brothers went into exile at Avignon. 
 
 Invernry, The Battle of (May 22, 
 1308), was fought on the Don, in Aberdeen- 
 shire, and resulted in a complete victory for 
 
Ion 
 
 ( 604 ) 
 
 Ire 
 
 Eobert Bruce over his enemy, the Earl of 
 Buchan, and the English commanded by 
 Mowbray. 
 
 lona (or Hii), an island situated to the 
 west of Mull, is famous as the place where 
 St. Columba landed (May 12, 663) on his 
 departure from Ireland, and as the spot he 
 selected for his monastery. For 150 years 
 lona, the cradle of the Scottish Church 
 and of Scottish letters, was the centre of the 
 national Church of the Dalriad Scots ; but in 
 716, owiag to the zeal of Adamnan, its abbot 
 and the other members of the monastery con- 
 formed to the Koman views both as regards the 
 date of Easter and the shape of the touSure. 
 There appears, however, to have been another 
 party which still adhered to the old way. 
 Erom 794 lona was repeatedly ravaged by 
 the Danes; in 818 the monastery which had 
 been restored by Adamnan, was rebuilt by 
 the abbot Diarmid, who deposited therein 
 the shrine of Columba. Towards the end 
 of the twelfth century the monastery was 
 again rebuilt by Reginald of the Isles, who 
 founded a Benedictine abbey there. 
 
 Ionian Islands, The, were seized by 
 the French from the Venetians in 1797, 
 the former being confirmed in their new 
 possession by the IVeaty of Campo Formio. 
 Two years later, the islands were declared an 
 independent republic under the joint protec- 
 tion of Turkey and Russia. By the Treaty 
 of Tilsit (1807), they once more became 
 French. In 1814 they were placed under 
 British protection, and administered by 
 British commissioners, and so remained till 
 1864, when they were finally handed over to 
 the kingdom of Greece. 
 
 Ireland. The early history of Ireland is 
 wrapped in an obscurity which the researches of 
 scholars into the evidence afforded by archaj- 
 ology, inscriptions, and etymology are only 
 beginning to dispel. The great cycle of Celtic 
 legend has hitherto proved of little historical 
 value. The ablest archseologists cannot dis- 
 tinguish the original traditions from the em- 
 bellishments of mediaeval annalists. Records 
 of real events are interwoven with fragments 
 of Greek and Roman fable, and the incon- 
 gruous narrative thus obtained has been 
 forcibly adapted to the Mosaic cosmogony. 
 [Celts.] 
 
 We hear of five immigrations from the 
 East, of incessant wars between the invaders, 
 and of the final triumph of the Milesians or 
 Scots. Two Sootic kingdoms gradually arose ; 
 the kingdom of Meath in the north, and the 
 kingdom of Munster in the south. Early in the 
 second century, Tuathal of Meath established 
 a nominal supremacy over the entire island, 
 but in the reign of Cond, Tuathal's grandson, 
 the Eberian princes restored the independence 
 of Munster. Excluded from the south, the 
 Scots of Meath devoted their energies to a 
 
 thorough conquest of Ulster. This was 
 effected during the fifth century, under NiaU 
 of the Nine Hostages and his sons. The 
 royal house spKt into two branches. The 
 northern Hui NeiU ruled in Ulster for five 
 hundred years, while the southern family 
 governed the great central plain. The ard 
 ri or titular over-king of Ireland was some- 
 times of the one, sometimes of the other stock. 
 The Munster dynasty underwent a similar 
 change. The Engenian and the Dal Caisian 
 lines divided the old Eberian kingdom 
 between them. 
 
 From the middle of the third century to 
 the close of the fifth, both the northern and 
 the southern Irish planted colonies in Britain. 
 The former settled in North "Wales, Man, and 
 Scotland ; the latter in South Wales, Devon, 
 and Cornwall. Towards the end of the 
 colonising period, the Irish were converted 
 to Christianity. St. Patrick is said to have 
 begun his labours in the year 432. The 
 whole island quickly adopted the new faith. 
 In one respect the result would seem to have 
 been unhappy. The remarkable system of 
 Brehou law might, under favourable condi- 
 tions, have done much to bind the tribes into 
 a nation, but the sanction of the law was 
 probably rehgious, and thus perished with 
 the old beliefs. About the middle of the 
 sixth century the migratory spirit revived in 
 a new form. The Irish monks carried their 
 missions to the remotest parts of Europe. 
 At home their schools were visited by students 
 from England and from Gaul. But outside 
 the convent walls all was war and bloodshed. 
 The Norwegians first pillaged the Irish coast 
 in the year 795. They were succeeded by 
 the Danes (852), who efiected permanent 
 settlements at the chief seaports. The monas- 
 teries were plundered and burnt, and the 
 internal anarchy grew worse. But the end 
 of the tenth century brought a change. The 
 invaders under Ivar occupied Limerick, and 
 attempted the conquest of Munster. In the 
 struggle that followed a native ruler appeared, 
 who, for a time, seemed destined to make 
 Ireland a nation. Brian Boruma, sprung 
 from the Dal Caisian line of the Eberians, 
 routed the Danes near Tipperary in 968. Six 
 years later he succeeded his brother Mahon 
 on the throne of Munster. In 989 he made 
 war on Malachy II'., the titular over-king of 
 the HuI NeiU dynasty. After thirteen years 
 of fighting and negotiation, Malachy sub- 
 mitted (1002). The victory of Glen Mama 
 (1000) had quelled a desperate revolt of 
 Leinster and the Dublin Danes. Brian was 
 at last supreme. For twelve years he ruled 
 Ireland strongly and well. Then the Dublin 
 Danes again rebelled. They sought and 
 found allies amongst all the Scandinavians 
 of the West. It was the last desperate 
 conflict of the Pagan Northmen with the 
 Christian Irish. The battle was fought on 
 the banks of the Tolka, by Dublin, on Good 
 
Ire 
 
 ( 605 ) 
 
 Ire 
 
 Friday of the year 1014. The Danes were 
 driven into the sea, but the old king was slain 
 by the "^apostate deacon " Brodir, as he prayed 
 for his people. His death left the condition 
 of fhe country hopeless. He had destroyed 
 the traditional supremacy of the Hui Neill ; 
 his own house were unable to make good their 
 claims. Long and ruinous wars between the 
 O'NeiUs, the O'Briens, and the 0' Conors of 
 Connaug:ht, continued to the Norman invasion. 
 The civilisation of the Irish Celts reached 
 its full development before the twelfth cen- 
 tury. They formed numerous tribes {tuath), 
 each consisting of several septs {^ne). 
 Both tribes and septs were landowning 
 corporations closely resembling the Teu- 
 tonic "marks." Both divided their terri- 
 tories into three parts; the tuath into the 
 demesne of the ri, or chief of the tribe, 
 the lands of the different _fines, and the 
 tribal waste ; the ^ne into the demesnes of 
 the flaiths, or hereditary landowners, the 
 common, and the waste of the sept. The 
 flaiths and the bo-aires, or cow-noblemen, 
 were the only freemen with fuU political 
 rights. The flaith aire fine was the chieftain 
 of the sept. If a freeman " commended " 
 himself to a " flaith " of his own sept, he 
 became a cHle. He " took stock " from 
 ihe flaith, with a right of grazing the flaith' s 
 demesnes, owing him in return rent, services, 
 and homage. If he accepted only a small 
 amount of cattle, he retained most of his 
 civil rights. He paid a " house tribute " to 
 his lord, and was called a saer-ceile. If 
 he accepted a large amount of cattle, he 
 forfeited much of his freedom, and was 
 bound, in addition to his other burdens, to 
 afEord " refections " to the lord and his train 
 at stated times. Such a tenant was called a 
 daer-cHle, or villein. But even the daer- 
 cHle had definite rights in the sept, inclu- 
 ding the important right of enjoying the 
 usufruct of common land, and of building 
 a house upon it. The ri could legally com- 
 pel a tribesman to accept saer stock and 
 pay house-tribute, and this power seems to 
 have been often illegally usurped by the 
 flaith aire flne over the members of the sept. 
 But a saer-ceile could not become a daer-cHle, 
 nor could a daer-ceile take more stock, without 
 the consent of the sept. The sept had a veto 
 on aU contracts by its members affecting the 
 rights or liabilities of the corporation. It 
 was particularly jealous of contracts outside 
 itself but within the tribe. Every member 
 of the sept owned the site of his house in 
 severalty. He held a portion of the common 
 land as his allotment, and had defined rights 
 of pasturage over the waste. As the lots 
 were annually exchangeable, he was bound 
 to follow the common course of tillage. He 
 had no general power of alienation or en- 
 cumbrance, but in special circumstances he 
 enjoyed a limited power of disposition, with 
 or without the consent of the sept. 
 
 The freeman who commended himself to a 
 flaith of another sept was called a "saerfuidir," 
 or free immigrant stranger. He was a mere 
 tenant at wUl at a rack-rent. Below him 
 came the " daer fuidirs," or servile immi- 
 grants. They were men who had broken the 
 tribal bond, prisoners of war, convicts, and 
 other " sons of death." They were the per- 
 sonal dependents of the flaith, and formed 
 his body-guard. His power depended greatly 
 on their number. He was bound of right to 
 settle them on his demesne, but it is believed 
 that they were often planted by the ri upon 
 the waste of the tribe, and by the flaiths upon 
 the waste of the sept. The rights and lands 
 of a ri, or of a flaith, passed at his death to 
 the " agnatic " kinsman, previously chosen to 
 succeed him. This kinsman was called the 
 " tanaistc." The tanaiste of a ri was elected 
 by the tribe. The tanaiste of a flaith was 
 elected by the sept. The descent of inferior 
 tenancies was regulated by some custom re- 
 sembling gavel-kind. But as civil rights 
 depended on a property qualification, the 
 immediate family of bo-aire often agreed to 
 keep together as a " joint and undivided 
 family," and elected a tanaiste. Poor kinsmen 
 might even club together as a " joint family " 
 and appoint a head, who then ranked as an 
 aire. Mensal lands were assigned to the 
 Brehons, medicine-men, harpers, smiths, and 
 metal workers. 
 
 Oats, wheat, barley, flax, wool, madder, 
 onions, and parsnips were grown. The 
 dense forests abounded in game, and the 
 rivers and lakes in fish. The boar, the red 
 deer, the wolf, the beaver, the wild peacock, 
 and the osprey were common. In winter 
 the scanty population dwelt in the plains ; 
 in summer they drove their cattle to the 
 mountains or the sea-coast. The domestic 
 animals were plentiful and good. Bees 
 were largely cultivated. Houses were built 
 of wattles or hewn timber. Those of free 
 men consisted of several detached struc- 
 tures, surrounded by one or more ditches and 
 mounds. A loose woollen shirt, covered by a 
 ti^t tunic, formed the dress of both sexes. 
 A shawl fastened by a brooch hung from the 
 left shoulder. Beautiful gold and silver 
 ornaments were common. Toilet -mirrors, 
 hair-oU, and paint for the eye-lashes and the 
 finger-nails were used by the women. Slings, 
 pikes, swords, and shields were the arms in 
 general use. The customs of polygamy, and 
 the intermarriage of near kinsfolk, gave the 
 early missionaries much trouble. The rank 
 of the wife depended upon her dower, and 
 upon her bearing sons. As the children of 
 the same father by different wives had equal 
 rights, they were all fostered outside the sept, 
 to prevent foul play. Slavery was universal. 
 Hides and frieze were the chief exports. 
 They were largely exchanged for English 
 slaves at Bristol, and for French wines at 
 Poitiers. The native artists excelled in copy- 
 
Ire 
 
 ( 606' ) 
 
 Ire 
 
 ing and illuminating; books, in working the 
 precious metals, and in music. 
 
 In the year 1169 Robert Fitz-Stephen and 
 Maurice Ktz-Gerald .landed in Wexford, as 
 nominal allies of Dermot MoMurrough, the 
 deposed King of Leinster. The more famous 
 " Strongbow," Richard de Clare, followed the 
 next year. The conquests they made were so 
 easy and so rapid, that Henry II. feared they 
 would establish an independent Norman state 
 across the Channel. . To prevent the danger, 
 he came himself to Ireland in 1172. Many 
 native chiefs acknowledged his supremacy ; 
 many did him feudal homage in ignorance 
 of the obligations they incurred. The con- 
 flict thus introduced between the Brehon law 
 of the tribes, and the feudal law of the Eng- 
 lish, is the true explanation of the subsequent 
 relations of the two races. The English per- 
 sistently ignored the rights of the tribesmen 
 in their lands, and in the choice of their chief. 
 The Irish clung to their ancestral customs. 
 The death of a chief might always bring a 
 disputed succession. 
 
 Henry acted under colour of a BuU of the 
 English Pope, Adrian IV. He was at first 
 well received by the churchmen. The brutality 
 of John (1185) estranged both clerks and 
 laymen. The Norman power spread without 
 consolidating. The crown discouraged the 
 growth of strong principalities, and without 
 strength order was impossible. The Irish 
 could isolate the scattered settlements at plea- 
 sure, by seizing the passes through the woods 
 and the hiUs. The foreigners fought amongst 
 themselves, and called in Irish aid. They were 
 compelled to serve their king in his wars with 
 France and Scotland. Estates passed by mar- 
 riage into the hands of English absentees. 
 They were ill guarded, and retaken by the 
 tribes. The barons themselves in the wild 
 districts bowed before the Celtic revival. 
 They abandoned their feudal pretensions, and 
 acted as native chiefs. 
 
 By the beginning of the fourteenth century, 
 the English power had sunk to a low ebb. It 
 was ruined by the Scottish invasion of Edward 
 Bruce. For two years he wasted Ireland. 
 At length, " after eighteen successive victo- 
 ries," he was defeated and slain by the Viceroy 
 near Paughard (1317). But he had exter- 
 minated the English yeomen, the sinews of 
 the settlement. In 1333, William and Edward 
 de Burgo, the heads of a great Norman house, 
 the sons of an English Viceroy, deliberately 
 renounced their allegiance, divided the lordship 
 of Connaught between them in defiance of 
 the Enghsh rule of succession, and adopted 
 the Irish "language, apparel, and laws." 
 Their example was followed by many. Large 
 territories in Ulster and Leinster were re- 
 occupied by the O'Neills and the McMur- 
 roughs. The flight of the English popula- 
 tion was vainly forbidden bylaw. In 1367 
 the Statute of Kilkenny (40 Edward III.) 
 records the conscious impotence of its authors. 
 
 They have ceased to dream of conquests. 
 Their ambition is to preserve the shrunken 
 remnant of their dominions from the insi- 
 dious encroachments of the Celt. The natives 
 are rapidly assimilating the colonists to them- 
 selves. The statute attempts by savage penal- 
 ties to isolate the Enghsh from the contagion, 
 and to put a stop to the adoption of' the 
 native dress, language, and customs. In 1374 
 the great constitutional question, which, four 
 centuries later, cost England an empire, arose 
 in the Irish Parliament. The viceroy tried to 
 force the colonists to send representatives to 
 England, with power to assent to taxation on 
 their behalf. He was firmly and successfully 
 opposed. A few years later the Kavanaghs 
 and the O'Briens levied black-mail on Dublin 
 Castle. 
 
 King Richard was at last provoked to vin- 
 dicate the power of the crown. He crossed 
 the sea with a great army, but the Irish 
 " mocked him with their light submission," 
 so that "he enlarged not the English borders 
 the breadth of one acre of land " (1395). 
 Four ■ years later he returned. A march 
 through the Kavanaghs' country reduced his 
 forces to a rabble. He fled from Dublin to 
 meet Henry of Lancaster. For a century the 
 colony continued to dwindle. Parts of four 
 shires formed the English dominion, and these 
 were full of native Irish. The Wars of the 
 Roses were disastrous to the settlers. They 
 were Yorkists to a man. They formally . 
 acknowledged Duke Richard as their viceroy, 
 in defiance of the English attainder. They 
 solemnly asserted the independence of their 
 Parliament. They followed the Pretender 
 Simne"! into England. They were decimated 
 at Sandel Castle and at Stoke. To Henry 
 VII. the Anglo-Irish were more dangerous than 
 the Celts. The only important Irish measure 
 of hia reign was that which made the colonial 
 Parliament completely subject to the Council, 
 and extended all existing English statutes to 
 the colony (Poynings' Act, lOHenry VII.,c.4). 
 For the first fifty years of the Tudor rule, the 
 Leinster Geraldines were the true lords of the 
 settlement. Their rebellion, in 1535, brought 
 a new force into Ireland. All over Europe 
 the old feudal monarchies had been succeeded 
 by despots, who embodied the national forces 
 and the national will. Henry VIII. was the 
 first King of England who could strike with 
 the whole force of the State. He resolved to 
 let the Anglo-Irish feel the blow. A disci- 
 plined force and a train of artillery reduced 
 the Geraldine castles. The king was master 
 of the island. He desired to rule his new 
 kingdom well. But the greed of his servants, 
 and his unhappy determination to thrust Eng- 
 lish manners upon the Celts, inevitably led to 
 resistance and repression. The secularisation 
 of the Church lands was not unpopular. 
 Many abbeys were granted to the chiefs " as 
 the means to make them rather glad to sup- 
 press them." The doctrinal changes on the 
 
Ire 
 
 ( 607 
 
 Ire 
 
 other hand provoked a hitter opposition. No 
 open outbreak occurred, hut on the accession 
 of Mary, the old order was triumphantly re- 
 stored. [Ikish Chukch.] 
 
 The garrison of English landholders, the 
 bulwark of Protestantism in Ireland, was by 
 a curious irony introduced in the name of 
 Philip II. of Spain. King's and Queen's 
 Counties were "planted" by 3 & 4 Philip and 
 Mary, caps. 1 & 2. The third chapter of the 
 same Act authorised the Chancellor to des- 
 patch commissioners throughout the island 
 "to set out shires and counties," that is, to 
 substitute English for Irish law without regard 
 for vested rights. The disputed succession to 
 the earldom of Tyrone brought matters to a 
 crisis under Elizabeth. Shane O'Neill was 
 the tanaiste of his tribe ; the bastard of Dun- 
 gannon claimed by an Enghsh patent. A 
 war followed, disgraceful even amongst Eng- 
 lish wars in Ireland. Shane visited the 
 queen. He was detained, in breach of his safe- 
 conduct, until he accepted terms he could not 
 keep. On his return home, " my Lord Trea- 
 surer's man" tried to poisonhim. In 1.566 the 
 war was. renewed. The new Lord Deputy 
 Sidney fought O'NeiU by the hands of his 
 native rivals. The O'Donnells defeated him 
 near Li£Eord ; the Scots of Antrim murdered 
 him. His death was followed by an Act of 
 Parliament (II Elizabeth, cap. 9), making all 
 Ireland shire-land, and thereby depriving 
 many chiefs of benefits expressly secured to 
 them by indenture with the crown. Ten 
 years later the Desmond rebellion (1579) was 
 quelled by a war of extermination. The 
 plantation system was definitely adopted. 
 The policy of the government was not to 
 subdue, but to destroy. Women and infants 
 were regularly murdered. A well-planned 
 famine removed the fugitives who escaped 
 the sword. Munster was a desert, fit at last 
 for the civilisation of the Ealeighs and the 
 Spensers. Half a million of acres were be- 
 stowed on English adventurers, on condition 
 that they should plant their vast estates with 
 Enghsh farmers. The condition was never 
 fulfilled. The starving Celts crept from the 
 woods and glens to outbid the strangers. But 
 one province did not satisfy the English. 
 Hugh O'Neill, the English Earl of Tyrone, 
 the son of the bastard of Dungannon, was 
 reluctantly driven into war. Bred at the 
 English court, and conscious of the English 
 power, he tried to combine the impossible 
 parts of an Irish chief and an English noble. 
 His tribe accepted him as their leader in 1593. 
 The next year he was summoned before the 
 Council, and, to the queen's great indignation, 
 suffered to return. His course could be no 
 longer doubtful. He contrived to unite all 
 the Ulster tribes beneath his banner, and he 
 sought for aid from Spain. In 1598 he routed 
 Bagnall at the TeUow Ford, and roused 
 Munster. For three years he harassed with- 
 out engaging the enemy. At length, in 
 
 Sept., 1601, a strong Spanish, force landed 
 at Kinsale. If Hugh could join them, his 
 triumph was secure. They were blockaded 
 by veteran troops. Hugh was betraj'ed 
 and beaten (Dec). In the following March 
 he made peace on almost the same terms 
 he had himself proposed in 1587. But al- 
 though O'Neill had held his own in the 
 field, he could not resist the " war of 
 chicane," which at once began against him. 
 He and his ally, O'Dounell of Tyrconuel, 
 the representatives of the old royal house of 
 the Hul Neill, were forced to fly. Their 
 lauds were confiscated and "planted," and the 
 tribesmen treated as tenants-at-will under the 
 crown. This flagrant injustice led directly to 
 the outbreak of 1641. The " subtle ravage " 
 of the lawyers, and the growing Protestantism 
 of the government, which now, for the first 
 time, had a large Protestant population at its 
 back, gradually forced even the old Anglo- 
 Irish Catholics into a close union with the 
 Celts. Strafllord claimed all the estates of 
 Connaught for the crown, on the plea that 
 the Chancery officers had neglected to .enrol 
 the patents of the owners. The Irish gentle- 
 men offered £120,000 for quieting their titles. 
 The offer was accepted, the money was paid, 
 and then the Viceroy announced that he would 
 not observe the conditions. 
 
 Meanwhile the religious tension was in- 
 creasing. A Catholic revival had spread 
 over Europe. In England the Puritans were 
 risLDg into power. On Oct. 22, 1641, arising 
 occurred in Ulster. In December the English 
 Commons resolved to extirpate Popery in 
 Ireland. Then the rebellion spread. The 
 Lords Justices were careful not to limit it ; the 
 wider, it was said at the time, the rebellion, 
 the wider would be the forfeitures at their 
 disposal.* The struggle was very horrible. 
 The colonists were everywhere expelled, and 
 often murdered. The Irish chiefs did what 
 they could to humanise the war ; the English 
 leaders encouraged the ferocity of their men. 
 The divisions of the Irish Koyalists gave 
 Cromwell an easy victory. The act of de- 
 vastation was perfected by the Saints. Nearly 
 half the population perished in eleven years. 
 When the war was over, many hundreds of 
 boys and of marriageable girls were sold into 
 slavery. Thirty or forty thousand men 
 enhsted in foreign service. Three provinces 
 were confiscated, and parcelled out amongst 
 the soldiers and the creditors of the Parlia- 
 ment. By the' peace of 1648, Charles I. 
 
 * Whether the terrible charge of Carte, Leland, 
 Lord Castlehaven, and Nalson, be well founded it is, 
 perhaps, impossible to determine. But it is certain 
 that the measures of the Lords Justices were emi- 
 nently adapted to spread the rebellion. It is certain, 
 too, that from the iirst they looked forward to 
 confiscations. When the seven Lords of the Pale 
 revolted, they hastened to point out bow "those 
 great counties of Leinster, Ulster, and the Pale,'* 
 lay now " more open to his Majesty's free disposal, 
 and to a general settlement of peace and religion 
 by introducing of English," 
 
Ire 
 
 ( 608 ) 
 
 Ire 
 
 promised to restore the Irisli Catholics to 
 their estates. In 1650 Charles II. confirmed 
 the engagements of his father. He changed 
 his mind when he was king. He "considered 
 the settlement of Ireland as an affair rather 
 of policy than justice," and " thought it most 
 for the good of the kingdom, advantage of 
 the crown, and security of his government, 
 that the loss should fall on the Irish." By 
 the Acts of Settlement and Explanation, he 
 confirmed to the Cromwellians the estates of 
 his father's last supporters. Before the re- 
 hellion, two-thirds of the fertile soil belonged 
 to the Catholics. Under the Act of Settlement, 
 two-thirds remained to the Protestants. The 
 War of the Eevolution gave the final hlow 
 to the old race. They saw in it a chance of 
 undoing the wrongs of the last thirty years. 
 Their ablest leaders, backed by D'Avaux and 
 Louvois, desired to establish Ireland as a 
 separate kingdom, under French protection. 
 The king landed in March, 1689. The Parlia- 
 ment met in May. Poynings' Act and the 
 Acts of Settlement and Explanation were 
 repealed. The Cromwellians and their heirs 
 were dispossessed, as wrongful possessors, but 
 bond fide purchasers for valuable consideration 
 were to be reprised. To provide for these 
 reprisals, the estates of the English colonists 
 who supported the Prince of Orange were 
 confiscated. A wholesale Act of Attainder 
 was passed to increase the forfeitures. * But 
 the war went against King James. He had 
 •neither money nor arms. His troops were 
 ill-disciplined, and his counsels divided. The 
 relief of Derry and the battle of Newton 
 Butler, in 1689, were followed up by the 
 passage of the Boyne, in 1690, and the de- 
 cisive defeat of Aghrira, in 1691. The capi- 
 tulation of Limerick was signed, after an 
 heroic defence, on Oct. 3. The flower of the 
 Irish soldiers followed their king into France, 
 to "find their graves in strange places and 
 unhereditary churches." Parliament refused 
 to ratify the Treaty of Limerick ; fresh con- 
 fiscations were made ; and the national faith 
 .was proscribed. 
 
 A great development of material prosperity 
 might, perhaps, have reconciled the Irish to 
 the conquest. The EngKsh and the Irish 
 Parliaments vied in legislation which made 
 prosperity impossible. Trade was crushed by 
 the commercial jealousy of the one ; society 
 was sapped by the bigotry of the other. 
 Ireland was already excluded from the Navi- 
 gation Acts. Acts of 1665 and 1680 had pro- 
 hibited the importation of Irish cattle and 
 provisions into England. The colonial trade 
 was ruined in 1696 ; the wool trade with 
 England in 1698 ; the wool trade with the 
 Continent in 1699. CathoHcs were forbidden 
 
 _ * A precisely similar till against the Irish was 
 introduoed in England five days before the Irish 
 Ml was brought in. It passed both Houses, and 
 was lost by a prorogation. It is not mentioned by 
 Lord Macaulay. 
 
 by Irish Acts to purchase lands, to lend on 
 real securities, to take long or beneficial 
 leases. The Gavelling Act (2 Anne, c. 6) 
 broke up existing estates. Catholic minors 
 were placed under Protestantguardians. The 
 Courts of Equity assigned a liberal provision 
 to apostate wives and children. The English 
 grantees of confiscated estates were necessarily 
 absentees. They leased vast tracts to Irish 
 Protestants on beneficial terms. The lessees 
 sub-let, sometimes four or five deep. The 
 miser)'- of the cottier was extreme. He paid 
 a rack-rent; he supported his priest ; he 
 was tithed by the parson. The steady growth 
 of pasture drove him to the mountain and the 
 bog. Famine and disease were chronic. A 
 vast emigration set in. Before the trade 
 laws and the Test Act, the Presbyterian 
 artisans and yeomen fied to Germany and 
 America. The Catholics served under every 
 European flag save one. At home they were 
 a rabble. " The tendons of society were cut." 
 When the masses came to power, they had 
 none to lead. The penal code was so repug. 
 nant to human nature, the commercial code 
 was so opposed to the common interest, that 
 their regular execution was impossible. 
 Priests, " whom the laws did not presume to 
 exist," publicly discharged the duties of their 
 office ; smuggling became a national industry. 
 The whole population was educated into con- 
 tempt for the law. They came soon to have 
 a law of their own, enforced by the Houghers 
 and the Whiteboys (1761) with merciless seve- 
 rity. The government was a corrupt oligarchy. 
 The hereditary revenue, which included two- 
 thirds of the taxation, made the crown inde- 
 pendent. The judicial interpretation of 
 Poynings' Act and the Declaratory Act of 6 
 Geo. I., c. 5, ensured the subservience of the 
 Parliament. AU bills were submitted, first 
 to the Irish, then to the English Privy 
 Council. They were suppressed or altered 
 at the pleasure of either. If approved by the 
 two councils, Parliament might pass or reject, 
 but could not amend them. The Upper House 
 was largely controlled by the English courtiers 
 who sat upon the Eight Eeverend bench. An 
 English Act of 1691 excluded Catholics ; an 
 English test clause of 1704 excluded Dissenters 
 from the legislature. The Catholics lost the 
 franchise. Protestants exercised it once in a 
 lifetime. The Parliament of George II. sat 
 for thirty-three years. Two-thirds of the 
 members were returned by boroughs, and 
 the boroughs were in the hands of under- 
 takers and patrons. The Houses met once 
 in two years. The judges were removable 
 at pleasure. The greatest offices were habi- 
 tually bestowed on English non-residents. 
 A spirit of resistance slowly grew amongst 
 the colonists. The House of Lords vainly 
 protested against the deprivation of its 
 appellate jurisdiction in the Annesley case 
 (1719). Three vears later the country rose 
 against "Wood's halfpence," and drove 
 
Ire 
 
 ( 609 
 
 Ire 
 
 Walpole to submission. The struggle " liad a 
 most unhappy influence on the state of the 
 nation, by bringing on iutimaeies between 
 Papists and Jacobites, and the Whigs, who 
 before had no correspondence with them." 
 In 1749 the crown worsted the Houses over 
 an Appropriation BiU. In the next two 
 sessions the contest was renewed, and the 
 government outvoted. The opposition grew, 
 the pension list swelled, the price of the 
 boroughs advanced. Between 1750 and 17.34 
 seats trebled in value. The influence of the 
 middle classes was first felt at the dissolution 
 on the demise of the crown. Their objects 
 were to control tlieir representatives by an 
 Octennial Act, and to correct the scandals of 
 the pension list. The Peace of Paris added 
 India and Canada to the Empire. An increase 
 of the standing army was essential to their 
 safety. Ministers did not dare to make the 
 proposal in England. By the concession of 
 an Octennial Act (Feb., 1768) they secured 
 an increase of 3,000 men to the Irish Estab- 
 lishment. The overthrow of the Undertakers 
 followed. Lord Townshend and Lord Har- 
 court attempted by lavish bribes to create a 
 party of " king's friends," dependent only on 
 the crown. Between 1757 and 1777 the 
 civil list had nearly doubled, the pension 
 list had nearly doubled, and a million had 
 been added to the debt. The American War 
 brought a crisis. In 1773 the impending 
 bankruptcy of Ireland forced Lord North 
 to relax the commercial code in defiance of 
 the English middle classes. The govern- 
 ment was too poor to replace the garrisons 
 withdrawn for the colonial war. The country 
 was defenceless, and invasion seemed imminent. 
 The whole Protestant population armed. In 
 December, 1778, the Volunteers numbered 
 8,000; in June, 1779, 42,000; in 1781, it is 
 said, as many as 80, 000 men. They were for 
 the most part Protestants ; they were officered 
 by the Protestant gentry, and they were 
 thoroughly loyal to the English connection. 
 Bat they resolved to free their country from 
 the commercial tyranny of England. They 
 began to discuss political questions and to 
 concert their action. In Dec, 1781, came 
 the news of Saratoga and of York Town. 
 In the following February the delegates of 
 143 Ulster corps met at Dungannon. They 
 asserted the independence of the kingdom, and 
 the right to free trade. They demanded that 
 the judges should be made independent, and 
 the Mutiny Act limited to a single session. 
 They condemned the penal laws, and appointed 
 a committee to communicate with other corps. 
 Their example was everywhere followed. 
 Grattan pressed the demand for independence 
 in the Commons. In April the House ad- 
 dressed the crown. It adopted in full the 
 constitutional theories of Dungannon. They 
 were accepted in May by the Parliament of 
 England. Fox, it has been said, " met Ire- 
 laud on her own terms, and gave her every- 
 HisT-20 
 
 thing she wanted in the way she herself seemed 
 to wish for it." 
 
 Butindependence was not the sole legislative 
 achievement of the Volunteers. Between 1778 
 and 1782 many wholesome measures were 
 passed. Almost all the commercial restraints 
 were removed. A Habeas Corpus Act and a 
 limited Mutiny Act became law. The judges 
 were made immovable. The Test Act was re- 
 pealed. Bills for the relief of the Catholics 
 were carried in 1778, 1782, and 1792. In 
 1793 they were enfranchised. 
 
 Two grievances remained — the corruption of 
 Parhament, and the exclusion of Catholics 
 from its walls. Upon both points the patriots 
 were divided. Charlemont and Flood feared 
 to extend the political power of the Catholics. 
 Grattan was their earnest advocate. All 
 agreed upon the necessity of Eeform, but 
 Flood alone was ready to overawe the Houses 
 into honesty. The Volunteer Convention 
 showed a growing appetite for politics. 
 Charlemont and Grattan were entirely op- 
 posed to legislation by menace. Flood's Re- 
 form BiU was rejected by a great majority, 
 and the Convention was immediately dis- 
 solved. For fifteen years Pitt debauched the 
 Irish Parliament. Reform or Emancipation 
 would alike have been fatal to the union 
 which he presently began to design. It 
 was to redress these evils that the club of 
 United Irishmen was formed by Rowan 
 Hamilton. The persistent opposition of the 
 government, however, drove its members to 
 disloyaltj'. Sympathy with the French Revo- 
 lution grew active in the north. In 1793 the 
 Convention Act became law. At last, in 1794, 
 Pitt seemed to waver. Lord Fitzwilliam, a 
 known friend of the Catholics, was named 
 Viceroy ; and the expectations of the Catholics 
 were raised to the highest pitch. Suddenly the 
 Viceroy was recalled. The miserable rebellion 
 of 1798 followed. A brief and horrible agra- 
 rian rising was suppressed, and punished 
 with the cruelty that comes of fear. The 
 English minister saw his opportunity, and 
 bought the Parliament he had degraded so 
 ably and so long. The union with England was 
 accomplished by the Act 39 & 40 Geo. III., 
 0. 67, July 2, 1800, and the Irish Parliament 
 ceased to exist a month later. For many years 
 the country was profoundly disturbed. Robert 
 Emmett was hanged in 1803, for plotting a 
 second rebellion. Orange outrages prevailed 
 in the north, and Daniel O'Connell was 
 beginning to marshal the Catholic democracy. 
 He determined from the first to win emanci- 
 pation without conditions. The Liberal Pro- 
 testants under Grattan, the Catholic gentry 
 under Lord Fingall, the English Catholics, 
 and a strong party at Home, under Gonsalvi, 
 were prepared to give the crown a veto on the 
 nomination of Irish prelates, in return for 
 the boon. The bishops themselves favoured 
 the compromise. O'Connell opposed and beat 
 them all. The ' Catholic Association (1824) 
 
Ire 
 
 ( 610 ) 
 
 Ire 
 
 organised the peasantry through the priests. 
 The Waterford election (1826) proved the 
 power of the movement. The return of 
 O'Connell for Clare in 1829 convinced the 
 Duke of Wellington that he must choose 
 between concession and civil war. The 
 Emancipation Act was passed, the forty-shil- 
 ling freeholders were disfranchised, and the 
 Catholic Association suppressed. The horrors 
 of the Tithe War led to a severe Coercion Act 
 in 1832, and to the abolition of tithes and the 
 substitution of a land-tax in 1838. A Poor 
 Law was passed in the same year, and a 
 Municipal Reform Act two years later. The 
 National Schools were founded in 1831 — 32, 
 and the Queen's Colleges in 1845. O'Con- 
 nell's formidable agitation for Repeal marked 
 the second administration of Sir Robert Peel. 
 The prohibition of the monster meeting at Clon- 
 tarf {Oct. 3, 1843) broke his power. He died 
 at Genoa in 1847. The "Young Ireland" 
 party, chiefly composed of Protestant jour- 
 nalists and men of letters, made a foolish at- 
 tempt at rebelHon in 1848. The Potato 
 Famine of 1846 — 48, and the Encumbered 
 Estates Court Act, caused a vast exodus to 
 America. A considerable amount of English 
 ■capital was invested in Ireland, and some 
 years of steady progress ensued. But the en- 
 during existence of social and political dis- 
 contents was revealed by the Phoenix Con- 
 spiracy of 18.58. They culminated in Fenian- 
 ism (a combination of well-organised secret 
 societies for the purpose of extorting indepen- 
 dence from England by force) at the close of 
 the American War. Abortive attempts at 
 insiurrection continued to disturb Ireland and 
 Canada for nearly four years, but they came to 
 nothing. [Fenian CoNspmACY.] The gather- 
 ing at Tallaght was dispersed by the police 
 (March, 1867). The conspirators took refuge 
 in crime, and in December, 1867, London was 
 startled by an attack on Clerkenwell Prison. 
 Mr. Gladstone became premier shortly after 
 this event, and immediately proceeded to 
 legislate for Ireland. ^ The Irish Church was 
 disestablished and disendowed in 1869, and 
 a Land Bill embodying some novel prin- 
 ciples became law in 1870. Two years 
 after the Ballot Act (1872), the Home 
 Rule party came into prominence under Mr. 
 Isaac Butt. He was soon ousted from his 
 position by an abler and more vigorous poli- 
 tician (1877—78). The new leader availed 
 himself of the distress caused by bad harvests 
 in 1878—80, and of the repeal of the Con- 
 vention Act in 1879, to organise the formid- 
 able Land League movement. By a second 
 Laud Act, passed in 1881, Mr. 'Gladstone 
 transformed the whole system of Irish tenures. 
 The Land League wag suppressed in the same 
 year, but immediately revived as the National 
 League. Systematic outrages, however, still 
 prevailed over three of the provinces. Of- 
 fenders against the "unwi-itten law" were 
 shot or "boycotted," and in May, 1882, Lord 
 
 Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke, the Chief 
 and Under Secretaries for Ireland, were 
 stabbed by the " Invincibles " in the Phcenix 
 Park. This murder was followed by a 
 stringent Crimes Act, which put a stop to the 
 worst of the atrocities. But the agitation of 
 the Nationalists continued to be very violent, 
 and led to some disastrous collisions between 
 them and the Orangemen both in England 
 and Ireland in 1884. 
 
 I. Celtic Ireland, a. Contemporary : — Most 
 of the extant manuscripts are still wholly or 
 partially unpubhahed. Ample accounts of them 
 are given "by O'Curry, Manuscriijt Materials of 
 Ancient Irish History ; and O'Eeilly, Irish 
 Writers, A few were printed by O'Conor, Rerum 
 JLih, Veteres Scri:ptores, in 1814. The following 
 have been published in the Record Series : — 
 Ancient Laws of Ireland, The War of the Gaedhill 
 with the Gaili (Norse invasions), Chvonicon 
 Scotm-um (a.m. 1599— a.d. 1150), Annals of Lough 
 CS (1014 — 159U), Historical and Municijjal Docu- 
 ments of Ireland (1172 — 1320), Giralaus Cam- 
 hrensis. There is a fine edition of the Annals of 
 the Four Masters, by O'Donovan. b. Modem : — 
 O'Curry, On the Manners, etc., of the Ancient Irish, 
 ed. by Dr. W. K, SnlHvan ; Sir Henry Sumner 
 Maine, Early History of Institutions, II. The 
 English Conquest, a. Contemporary : — Calen- 
 dars of State Papers in the Rolls Series ; Edmund 
 Campion, A HistoHe of Ireland wrilten in 1571 ; 
 Spenser, A View of the State of Ireland ; Sir John 
 Davies, A Discoverie of the State of Ireland; Sir 
 ■William Petty, The Political Anatomy of Ireland ; 
 Clarendon, Historical- View of the Affairs of Ire- 
 land; Carte, Ormond ; Clogv, Life of Bedell ; 
 Leland, History of Ireland; Nalson, Historical 
 Collections, b. Modern : — Prendergast. The 
 Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland; Richey, 
 Xectitres on the History of Ireland (the best 
 short history to 16021 ; Lecky, History of Eng- 
 land m the Eighteenth Centwy. III. The Eng- 
 lish Rule, a. Contemporary ;— Molyneux, The 
 Case of Ireland, 1698 ; Swift, Short View, 
 Drapier's Letters, and other tracts ; Dobbs, 
 Essay on the Trade of Ireland, 1734; Berkeley, 
 The ^erist, 1735 — 7 ; Mrs. Delany, Autohiography 
 and Correspondence (an amusing social picture) ; 
 O'Leary, Works ; Wesley, Diaries ; Hely 
 Hutchiupon, Commercial Restramts, 1779 ; Young, 
 Tour, 1780 ; Burke's Miscellaneous Tracts on Ire- 
 land; The Lives of Charfemont, Flood, and Grattam, 
 by Hardy, Warden Flood, and Henry Grattan 
 the younger, h. Modern ; — Sir George Cornewall 
 Lewis, On Local Di^v/rhan^es in Ireland ; Lecky, 
 History of England in the Eighteenth Century, and 
 The Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland. 
 
 [J. W. F.] 
 
 lokd-lleutenants and lord deputies op 
 Ireland, 
 
 Hugh de Lacy 1172 
 
 Richard, Earl of Pembroke .... 1173 
 
 Raymond le Gros li76 
 
 Prince John 1177 
 
 Lord Justices, no Lord Deputy . . . 1184 
 Hugh de Lacy (1189) . . . also 1203 and 1205 
 Meyler Eitz-Henry .... 1199 and 1204 
 Geoffrey de Marisco . . . 1215—1232—1233 
 
 Piers Gaveston 1308 
 
 Edmund le Botiller . . ... 1312 
 
 Roger de Mortimer 1316 
 
 Thomas Fitzgerald 1320 
 
 John de Bermingham . . . 1321 
 
 Earl of Kildare ... ... 1327 
 
 Prior Roger Outlow .... 1328 and 1340 
 
 Sir John d'Arcy . . ...... 1332 
 
 Sir John de Cherlton . . . . 1337 
 
 Sir Eaonl de Uflord 1344 
 
 Sir Roger d'Arcy, Sir John Moriz . . . 1346 
 
 Walter de Bermingham 134* 
 
 Maurice, Earl of Desmond .... 136.i 
 
Ire 
 
 (611 ) 
 
 Iri 
 
 Thomas de Kokeby 1366 
 
 Almeric de St. Amand .... 1357 
 
 James, Earl of Ormonde 1359 
 
 Lionel, Duke of Clarence 1361 
 
 Gerald, Earl of Desmond 1367 
 
 WlJliam de Windsor 1369—1374 
 
 Maurice, Earl of Desmond; James, Earl of 
 
 Ormonde 1376 
 
 Edmund Mortimer, Earl of Maroli . . . 1380 
 
 Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford . . . 1385 
 
 Sir John Stanley 1389 and 1398 
 
 James, Earl of Ormonde 1391 
 
 Thomas, Duke of Gloucester . . . 1393 
 
 Roger de Mortimer 1395 
 
 Reginald Grey, Thomas de Holland; Lords" 
 
 Justices 1398 
 
 Thomas of Lancaster .... 1401 and 1408 
 
 Sir John Stanley and Sir John Talbot . . 1413 
 
 James, Earl of Ormonde 1420 
 
 Edmund de Mortimer. 1423 
 
 Sir John Talbot 1425 
 
 Sir John Grey ... ... 1427 
 
 Sir John Sutton 1428 
 
 Sir Thomas Stanley . . . 1431 and 1435 
 
 Lord de Wells 1438 
 
 John, Earl of Shrewsbury 1446 
 
 Richard, Duke of York .... 1443 
 
 George, Duke of Clarence 1461 
 
 Earl of Worcester 1470 
 
 John de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk . . . 1478 
 
 Gerald, Earl of Kildare 1483 
 
 John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln . . . 1484 
 
 Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford . . . 1488 
 Henry, Duke of York (afterwards Henry 
 
 Vrn.) ; his deputy. Sir Edward Poynings 1494 
 Gerald, Earl of Kildare . . . 1496—1504 
 
 Earl of Surrey ... ... 1521 
 
 Henry, Duke of Richmond .... 1529 
 
 Thomas, Earl of Sussex . . . . 1560 
 
 Robert, Earl of Bssei . ... 1599 
 
 Lord Mountloy 1603 
 
 Lord Falkland 1623 
 
 Lord Strafford 1629 
 
 James, Marquis of Ormonde . . 1643 and 1648 
 
 OhTer Cromwell . . .... 1648 
 
 Henry Cromwell ... . . 1657 
 
 Duke of Ormonde . . . . 1662 
 
 Lord Roberts 
 Lord Berkeley 
 Earl of Essex 
 Duke of Ormonde 
 
 Earl of Clarendon 
 
 Earl of Tyrconnel 
 
 Lord Sydney 
 
 LordCapel . 
 
 Earl of Rochester 
 
 Duke of Ormonde 
 
 Earl of Pembroke 
 
 Earl of Wharton. 
 
 Duke of Ormonde 
 
 Duke of Shrewsbury 
 
 Duke of Bolton . 
 
 Duke of Grafton . 
 
 John, Lord Carteret . 
 
 Lionel, Duke of Dorset 
 
 Duke of Devonshire . 
 
 Earl of Chesterfield . 
 
 ]£arl of Harrington . 
 
 Duke of Dorset . 
 
 Duke of Devonshire . 
 
 Duke of Bedford . 
 
 Earl of Halifax . 
 
 Earl of Northumberland . 
 
 Earl of Hertford 
 
 George, Viscount Townshend 
 
 Simon, Earl of Harcourt . 
 
 John, Earl of Buckinghamshire 
 
 K!Bderick, Earl of Carlisle 
 
 Duke of Portland 
 
 Earl Temple 
 
 Robert, Earl of Northington 
 
 Duke of Rutland. 
 
 Marquis of Buckingham (Earl Temple) 
 
 John, Earl of Westmoreland 
 
 William, Earl Fitzwilliam 
 
 1670 
 1672 
 1677 
 1685 
 1687 
 1690 
 1695 
 1700 
 1703 
 1707 
 1709 
 1710 
 1713 
 1717 
 1721 
 1724 
 1731 
 1737 
 1745 
 1747 
 1751 
 1755 
 1757 
 1761 
 1763 
 1765 
 1767 
 1772 
 1777 
 1780 
 1782 
 1782 
 1783 
 1784 
 1787 
 1790 
 1795 
 
 John, Earl Camden 
 
 Marquis Comwallis 
 
 Earl of Hardwicke 
 
 Duke of Bedford. 
 
 Duke of Richmond 
 
 Earl Whitworth . 
 
 Earl Talbot . 
 
 Marquis of Wellesley 
 
 Marquis of Anglesey 
 
 Duke of Northumberland . 
 
 Marquis of Anglesey 
 
 Marquis of Wellesley 
 
 Earl of Haddington 
 
 Marquis Noimanby . 
 
 Earl Fortescue . 
 
 Earl de Grey 
 
 Lord Heytesbury 
 
 Earl of Bessborough . 
 
 Earl of Clarendon . . . . 
 
 Earl of Eglinton 
 
 Earl of St. Germans .... 
 
 Earl of Carlisle 
 
 John, Lord Wodehouse (afterwards Lord 
 
 Kimberley) 
 
 Marquis of Abercorn 
 
 John, Earl Spencer ... . . 
 
 Duke of Abercorn . . . . , 
 
 Duke of Marlborough 
 
 Earl Cowper 
 
 Earl Spencer 
 
 1795 
 171)8 
 ISOl 
 1806 
 1807 
 1813 
 1817 
 1821 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1839 
 1841 
 1844 
 1846 
 1847 
 1852 
 1853 
 1855 
 
 1864 
 1866 
 1868 
 1874 
 1874 
 1880 
 1882 
 
 Iretou, Henry (S. 1610, d. 1651), was 
 educated at Oxford, and on tlie outbreak of 
 the Civil War, joined the Parliamentary 
 party, and fought at Gainsborough, where he 
 came into contact with Cromwell, with whom 
 lie at once formed a great friendship. In 
 Jan., 1647, he married Cromwell's daughter 
 Bridget. He was active in putting down the 
 Eoyalist risings in 1648, and was one of the 
 most energetic members of the High Court of 
 Justice, which condemned Charles I. to death. 
 He was nominated in the Council of State in 
 1649, but his name was struck out by Parlia- 
 ment. When Cromwell went over to Ireland, 
 Ireton was appointed his major-general, and 
 on the recaU of the former, Ireton was made 
 Lord Deputy, which office, says Ludlow, who 
 was his colleague, " he conducted with great 
 ability, and with unbounded devotion to the 
 public service." Parliament settled £2,000 a, 
 year on him, but he refused it, saying that he 
 would rather they paid their just debts than 
 be so liberal with the public money. He died 
 of the plague, in his forty-second year, and 
 was buried in Westminster Abbey. On the 
 Restoration, his corpse was disinterred, and 
 hung on a gibbet at Tyburn. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the Rebellion ; Whitelocke, 
 
 Memorials ; Grainger, Biogra'phical Rist. ; Ranke, 
 
 Hist, of Eng. ; Ludlow, Memoirs. 
 
 Irish. Church, The. Ireland was eon- 
 verted to Christianity by St. Patrick, in the 
 latter half of the fifth century. The faith 
 of the new Church was that of the rest of 
 Western Christendom. Her organisation 
 was peculiar to herself. The tribe was re- 
 constituted upon a religious footing, and be- 
 came a monastic community. The chief 
 was the founder and first abbot. A number 
 of his tribesmen and tribeswomen practised 
 celibacy. All devoted themselves to fasting 
 and to prayer. They were a religious family 
 
Iri 
 
 (612) 
 
 Iri 
 
 living under their own rules, rather than an 
 order. The abbot was stiU a spiritual chief, 
 to whom all members of the tribe, even the 
 tribal bishops, were subject. His successors 
 were almost invariably chosen from his kin. 
 The management of the abbey lauds re- 
 mained with his married relations. The 
 abbots were his spiritual descendants {eceksi- 
 astioa progenies), the stewards {airchinneehs), 
 his descendants by blood [pleUlis progenies). 
 Of the first eleven successors of St. Columba 
 at tona, ten were of the same royal stock. 
 For two .centuries none but members of the 
 Clan Sinaich sat in the chair of Patrick at 
 Armagh. When " the family of Columba " 
 pushed their spiritual colony into England, 
 they regularly sent the bishops, without ca- 
 nonical election, from lona to their sees. 
 
 The tribal Constitution of the Celts made 
 them monks. Their old roving spirit made 
 them missionaries. As both they exercised a 
 lasting influence over European Christianity. 
 They converted England, and left it the most 
 monastic of Latin Churches. In the twelfth 
 century Germany was studded with their 
 monasteries. They were the apostles of Fran- 
 conia and Carinthia. From Naples to Iceland 
 they have left their names. But it was in 
 Gaul that the Irish set an enduring mark on 
 Western civilisation. Towards the close of 
 the sixth century St. Columba settled at 
 Luxeuil, in the Vosges, and from that centre 
 colonised the classic land of Latin monasticism. 
 His disciples conformed to the. wiser rule of 
 Benedict, and were absorbed in the Bene- 
 dictine order. But their labours led to the 
 Benedictine settlement of Burgundy. Their 
 monasteries, planted in the darkest days of 
 Western Christianity, prepared the way for 
 Clugny, for Citeaux, and for Clairvaux, for 
 Pope Gregory VII., and St. Bernard. When 
 the monk-popes of Burgundy saved Christen- 
 dom from an hereditary priesthood, the 
 danger was, perhaps, greatest in the tribal 
 church of Ireland. But the popes themselves 
 were reared by the phildren of Columban. 
 St. Malachy (1094—1148), who had been 
 brought early under the influence of Eome, 
 introduced the new discipline into Ireland. 
 The Norae invasions had destroyed the 
 monasteries. The lay administrators of the 
 Church lands had encroached upon the title 
 and the prerogatives of the abbots. Malachy 
 reformed Bangor. He was nominated Arch- 
 bishop of Armagh by Celsus, the hereditary 
 incumbent. After a long struggle with the 
 assertors of the tribal principle, he found him- 
 self acknowledged as Primate in 1133. He 
 visited Clairvaux. He left his companions 
 with Bernard for instruction. He journeyed 
 to Home, and was appointed legate by Inno- 
 cent II. On his return he founded the Cister- 
 cian house of Mellifont, in Louth, the -first 
 regular monastery in Ireland. Eight years 
 later he again passed into Gaul to re- 
 ceive the -pallium from Eugenius IV. But 
 
 his strength failed him at Clairvaux. He 
 died under the roof of his friend and master 
 in 1148. Four years after his death Cardinal 
 John Paperon and Christian, Bishop of Lis- 
 more, presided as papal legates over a council 
 at Mellifont. The four metropolitan sees 
 were established, an attempt was made to 
 introduce the canonical restraints on marriage, 
 and some minor abuses were corrected. Many 
 other synods were held in the twelfth century. 
 Those of Cashel (1172) and Dublin (1186) 
 are the most important. The first tried to 
 introduce the payment of tithes and other 
 English observances. The second confined 
 itself to regulating the ritual. In both there 
 is a marked tendency to conform to the 
 Eoman discipline. By the end of the century 
 the traditional monasticism was everywhere 
 superseded by the rule of the Augustinian 
 canons. The learning of the older monks 
 is proved by the testimony of Bede, by the 
 classical manuscripts in their peculiar charac- 
 ter stiU scattered over Europe, and by the bold 
 and often unorthodox doctrines they main- 
 tained. Virgilius taught the existence of the 
 antipodes in the eighth century, John Sootus 
 Erigena upheld the views of Origen in the 
 ninth, and Macarius seems, in some points, to 
 have anticipated the theories of Spinoza. 
 
 From their first conversion the Danes of 
 the eastern seaboard looked upon the tribal 
 church as irregular. Their endeavours to 
 place themselves under the jurisdiction, first 
 of the Norwegian, and afterwards of the 
 Enghsh primstte, led to a separation between 
 the two Irish Churches, which in one form or 
 other has lasted to the present time. Bishops 
 of Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick, were 
 consecrated by the English primates from the 
 days of Lanfranc. The establishment of the 
 metropolitan sees by Eugenius was resented 
 in England as an infringement of the rights 
 of Canterbury. From the coming of the Nor- 
 mans to the final enforcement of Protestantism 
 under Charles I., the mutual animosity of the 
 natives and the colonists deepened the estrange- 
 ment between Dublin and Armagh. Irish 
 clerks and Irish monks were excluded from 
 English benefices and English monasteries, 
 while the Saxon was shut out from founda- 
 tions beyond the Pale. At length the Eefor- 
 mation freed Dublin from its dependence by 
 an order in council (1551). 
 
 The mendicants reached Ireland soon after 
 their foundation, and have ever since rendered 
 great services to tlieir Church. Even before 
 the Eeformation " no person of the Church, 
 high or low, great or small, English or Irish, 
 used to preach the word of God, saving the 
 poor friars beggars." Ecclesiastical discipline 
 had perished in the general desolation. Great 
 foundations like Clonmacnoise and Ardagh 
 were without vestments and church plate. 
 Walled towns alone possessed means for the 
 decent conduct of public worship. 
 
 The earlier measures of Henry VIII. met 
 
Iri 
 
 (613) 
 
 Iri 
 
 with little opposition. The declaration of 
 the royal supremacy (28 Henry VIII., c. 13) 
 was accepted by the Catholics of the Pale, 
 and generally disregarded hy the Celts". The 
 only protest against the dissolution of the 
 monasteries came from the Deputy and Coun- 
 cil, who regarded it as a blow fatal to the 
 education " of the whole Englishry of this 
 land." The attempt made in 1551 to force 
 the ritual of 1549 upon the Irish was the first 
 step which provoked resistance. The new 
 doctrines were preached in a foreign tongue. 
 The new preachers were time-servers, and 
 men of scandalous lives. Zealous Protestants 
 refused the cure of souls whom they could 
 not hope to instruct. On the death of 
 Edward VI. the old rites were restored, and 
 the Protestant prelates withdrew. The re- 
 ligious policy of Elizabeth is well illustrated 
 by her reply to Hugh O'Neill's demand for 
 liberty of conscience. " Her Majesty hath 
 tolerated herein hitherto, and so in likelihood 
 she wiU continue the same." Catholicism 
 was a real danger to an excommunicated 
 sovereign, and there were too many 
 Irish Catholics in the queen's armies for a 
 systematic persecution of the Catholic faith. 
 The steps which gradually led to the fusion 
 of the Anglo-Normans of the Pale, and their 
 old enemies the Celts, into a " quasi-nation," 
 have been indicated in the general article on 
 Ireland. Careful provision for tne Anglican 
 Church was made in the plantation under 
 James I., and again at the Restoration. But 
 her position was essentially weak. The 
 highest offices were invariably filled with 
 English courtiers. The Archbishop of Dublin 
 was usually one of the chief Parliamentary 
 managers for the crown. Non-residence was 
 shamefully common amongst the dignitaries 
 of the Establishment, while extreme poverty 
 hampered the usefulness of the country 
 parsons. Their missionary efforts bore little 
 fruit, but as resident country gentlemen they 
 did much to improve the social condition 
 of the people. The provisions of the penal 
 code affecting Catholic laymen belong to the 
 political history of Ireland. But there were 
 many special laws aimed directly at the 
 priesthood. By an Act of 1703 all priests 
 were compelled to register their names and 
 addresses, and take the oath of allegiance. 
 Over a thousand obeyed. In 1709 they were 
 required to take the oath of abjuration, which 
 they believed to be unlawful. Less than 
 forty submitted. The rest incurred the 
 penalty of banishment for life, and of death 
 if they returned. All the dignitaries of the 
 Church, from archbishops to vicars-general, 
 all friars, and all unregistered priests, were 
 liable to the pains of treason. Catholic 
 education was absolutely forbidden, while the 
 proselytism of the Charter Schools (1733) was 
 encouraged by heavy subsidies, and special 
 legislative restrictions on the natural rights 
 of parents. The penal system inflicted 
 
 frightful evils on the country, but of 
 course failed of its object. From the first, 
 " Popish priests spared not to come out 
 of Spain, from Eome and from Eeimes, 
 only to draw the people into the Church of 
 Rome." Even in the worst days bishops, 
 arch-priests, and vicars-general lurked dis- 
 guised in obscure farmhouses. In 1732 there 
 were 892 mass-houses, served by 1,445 priests, 
 besides regulars, in the kingdom. 'Twenty 
 years later an organised hierarchy of twenty- 
 four archbishops and bishops administered 
 the Church, under the general supervision of 
 the Nuncio at Brussels. The prelates were 
 still nominated by the exiled Stuarts. After 
 the middle of the eighteenth century many 
 causes tended to promote a general toleration. 
 The spirit of Locke and Hoadley prevailed 
 amongst educated Protestants. Educated Ca- 
 tholics brought home the doctrines of theEncy- 
 clopedie from France. A Galilean tinge per- 
 vaded the priesthood. The bishops of Munster 
 were censured by the Propagandaforapproving 
 the oath embodied in 13 and 14 George III., 
 c. 35. The teaching of Abemethy and of 
 Francis Hutcheson had diffused a rationalistic 
 spirit amongst the Ulster Presbyterians. The 
 schisms of the " New Lights" in 1726, and of 
 the rigid Covenanters twenty^ j'ears later, 
 broke their power. The toleration of 1778 
 sprang,, as Charlemont said, "rather from 
 fashionable Deism than from Christianity, 
 which is now unfortunately much out of 
 fashion." But the latitudinarian phase soon 
 passed away. The Evangelical movement 
 and the Ultramontane revival embittered the 
 animosities caused by the rebellion and its 
 suppression, by 0' Connell's agitations, by the 
 Church Temporalities Act of 1833, the appro- 
 priation clause of 1835, the tithe war, and the 
 education question. The position of the 
 Establishment was indefensible. The enfran- 
 chisement of the Catholics (1793) sealed its 
 doom. The Protestants realised their danger, 
 and made an express guarantee of the rights of 
 the Church an indispensable condition of the 
 Union. This policy was for a time success- 
 ful, but no guarantee could permanently 
 maintain so glaring an abuse. In March, 
 1868, Mr. Gladstone carried resolutions con- 
 demning the existence of the Church as an 
 Establishment. A dissolution followed in the 
 autumn, and the Liberals acceded to power. 
 In the fii-st session of the new Parliament an 
 Act " to put an end to the Established Church 
 in Ireland, and to make prorision in respect 
 of the temporalities thereof," became law. 
 The Episcopalians availed themselves of the 
 change thus wrought in their position to revise 
 their constitution and liturgy in an anti- 
 sacerdotal sense. The Catholic Church has 
 made great material progress during the last 
 half century, while her discipline has been 
 thoroughly reformed under the vigorous rule 
 of a new school of prelates. " Secularism " 
 has of late begun to threaten her political 
 
Iri 
 
 (614 ) 
 
 Isa 
 
 power. The Presbyterians are still the 
 strongest and_ most numerous communion in 
 the North. 
 
 Keeves's ed, of Adamnan'sl-i/e 0/ Si. Coluniba, 
 aud tlie scattered papers of the same writer in 
 the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy; the 
 Lives of the Irish Saints iu the Bollaudist Acta 
 Sanctorum; Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of 
 Ireland to the Beginning of the Thirteenth Cen- 
 tury; Moutalembert, Monks of the West (for 
 the missionaries) ; Lulte Wadding, Annates 
 Minorum ; de Burgo, Hihernia Dominicana ; Dr. 
 Morau, Essays on tlie Origin, tCc, of the Early 
 Irish Church, Spicilegiunb Ossoriense, Kistorical 
 Sketch of the Persecutions, &c. ; the Ecclesiastical 
 Historiesof Brenan (R. C), Mant (Episcopalian), 
 Eeid and Killen (Presbyterian). The best 
 general sketch since the Reformation will be 
 found in Leoky's Hist. 0/ Eng. in tlie Eighteenth 
 Century. [J. W. F.] 
 
 Irish Laud Acts. [Land, Tenure of 
 (Ireland).] 
 
 Irish Society, The. Under James I. 
 a committee "was formed hy twelve of the 
 Loudon city companies, to colonise the con- 
 fiscated lands of O'Neil and O'Donnell in 
 Ulster, and the Ulster plantation, with Lon- 
 donderry and Coleraine as chief towns, 
 was the result (1613). The charter was 
 taken away in 1637, but restored, though 
 with some changes, in 1670. This corpora- 
 tion still owns much land in the north of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Isabella op Angouleme {d. 1246), second 
 wife of King John, was the daughter 
 of Almerio, Count of Angouleme. She 
 was betrothed to Hugh of Lusignan, but when 
 John became enamoured of her, in 1200, she 
 was married to him, on the divorce of his first 
 wife, Hadwisa, who was put away on the plea 
 of consanguinity, while Isabella's betrothal 
 was likewise annulled. After John's death she 
 returned to Angouleme, and in 1220 she mar- 
 ried her former lover, Hugh of Lusignan, 
 whom she induced to transfer his allegiance from 
 the French king to her son Henry III. This 
 step resulted in the war in Poitou, in which 
 Henry and his step-father were beaten, and 
 Isabella had, in 1244, to flee to the abbey of 
 Fontevraud, "where," says Matthew Paris, 
 " she was hid in a secret chamber, and lived 
 at her ease, though the Poitevins and the 
 French, considering her the cause of the dis- 
 astrous war, called her by no other name than 
 Jezebel, instead of her rightful appellation of 
 Isabel." At Fontevraud she took the veil, 
 and shortly afterwards died. 
 
 Matthew Paris, Sist. Anglor, 
 
 Isabella, wife of Edward II. (J. 1295, 
 d. 13.58), was the daughter of Philip IV. of 
 France. She was betrothed to Prince Edward , 
 in 1301, and the marriage took place in 1308. 
 Her husband's attachment to Gaveston alien- 
 ated her from him, and towards all his confi- 
 dential ministers she displayed a settled 
 aversion. She seems to have been very 
 popular with the baronial party, and more 
 
 particularly with the citizens of London. 
 The insult offered to her by Lord Badlesmere, 
 who refused to allow her to enter Leeds Castle, 
 Kent, was the cause indirectly of the temporary 
 downfall of the baronial party, and the de- 
 feat of Lancaster at Boroughbridge. It is 
 doubtful whether Isabella had formed any 
 intimacy with Mortimer previously to _ her 
 journey to France in 1325, but some writers 
 assert, that it was by her means that he 
 effected his escape from the Tower. A dis- 
 pute having arisen between Edward II. and 
 his brother-in-law, the French king, Isabella 
 was sent over to France to arrange the matter 
 in 1326. Having induced the king to send 
 over Prince Edward to join her, she openly 
 declared her intention of returning to Eng- 
 land to deliver her husband from the hands 
 of the Despencers. Many of the excited and 
 discontented barons had assembled at the 
 French court, and with their aid and the 
 troops she obtained from Hainault, she got 
 together a sufficient force to enable her to 
 venture on invading England. She landed in 
 Sept., 1326, near Harwich, where she was 
 joined by many of the nobles. Her party 
 gradually gathered strength as she marched 
 westward against the king. Edward surren- 
 dered, the Despencers were executed, and 
 shortly afterwards the king was deposed, and 
 Prince Edward placed on the throne. From 
 this time till the end of 1330 the queen and 
 her paramour, Mortimer, were supreme. Ed- 
 ward II. was, in all probability, put to a 
 cruel death, the greater part of the royal 
 revenues were placed in the queen's lands, 
 and all attempts to give the young king a real 
 share in the govennnent were defeated. The 
 terror which these two confederates had 
 managed to establish was seen by the way in 
 which the conspiracy of the Earl of Kent, 
 the uncle of the young king, the Archbishop 
 of York, and the Bishop of London, was sup- 
 pressed. Kent was seized and put to death. 
 But a more formidable movement was now 
 made. King Edward, acting in alliance with 
 some of the barons, suddenly seized Mortimer 
 at Nottingham (1330), and had him speedily 
 tried and executed. The queen was excluded 
 from all further share in the government, 
 and compelled to pass the remainder of her 
 life in retirement at Castle Eisings, on a 
 yearly allowance of £3,000. 
 
 Robert of Avesbuiy, Chronicle (printed by 
 Hearne) ; Knyghton (iu Twysden, Soripfores 
 Decern) ; Longman, Hist, of Edward III. 
 
 Isabella {d. 1409), was the daughter of 
 Charles VI. of France, and at the age of eight, 
 in 1396 became the second wife of Eichardll. 
 By this marriage an end was put for a time 
 to the war between the two countries. After 
 her husband's deposition she returned to 
 France, but for some time resolutely refused 
 to_ marry again, retaining her belief that 
 Richard was still alive, and attempting more 
 than once to join him. In 1406, being 
 
Isa 
 
 ( 615 ) 
 
 Isl 
 
 convinced of his death, she married Charles, 
 Duke of Orleans. [Richard II.] 
 
 Isabella (*. 1332, d. 1379), the eldest 
 daughter of Edward III., was betrothed to 
 Count Louis of Flanders, in 1347. This 
 marriage, however, was distasteful to the 
 young noble, and he escaped into France to 
 avoid fulfilling the contract. Eighteen years 
 later (July, 1365), she was married to Inge- 
 brand de Coucy, who had, in the previous year, 
 come to England as a hostage for King John 
 of France. Her husband was made Earl of 
 Bedford soon after the birth of his first child 
 (1366). De Coucy, in the course of the next 
 few years, went over to the French interests, 
 and was at last parted from his wife, who 
 returned to England after her husband had 
 renounced all his English estates {circa 1377). 
 Two years later she died. 
 
 Mrs. Green, Xives of the Princesses of England, 
 
 Isabella (*- 1214, d. 1250), the second 
 daughter of King John, was married to the 
 Emperor Frederick II., in the year 1235, 
 after negotiations had been set on foot for her 
 marriage with Alexander IT. of Scotland 
 (1220), and even with Henry, King of the Ger- 
 mans (1225), the son of her future husband. 
 In 1238 the new empress gave birth to a son, 
 who was named Henry, after his uncle Henry 
 III. Isabella does not seem to have enjoyed 
 the society of her husband much, as she lived 
 for the most part by herself at Noenta. In 
 1241, however, she met her brother Eichard 
 on his return from the Holy Land, though not 
 without considerable diificulty. Isabella died 
 at Foggio towards the close of the same year. 
 Henry III.'s grief for his sister's death was 
 so great that he gave the large sum of £208 
 6s. 8d. to his almoner to be distributed among 
 the poor in one day for his sister's soul. Her 
 son Henry, in later years, became titular 
 " King of Jerusalem," but died in 1254 at the 
 age of sixteen — " a victim, as is generally sup- 
 posed, to the traitorous artifices of his brother 
 Conrad." 
 
 Mrs, Green, Lives of the Princesses of En^laildf 
 vol. ii. 
 
 Island Scots, The, seem to have settled 
 in Ireland some time during the reign of 
 Henry VIII. These Eedshanks, as they 
 were often called, were most of them High- 
 landers, and they issued forth from their 
 Ulster fastnesses for the sake of plunder. 
 The efforts of the Earl of Sussex as Lord 
 Deputy, and of Ormonde, were insufficient 
 for repressing them. Their chief, Mac- 
 Gonnel, was as a rule the close ally of the 
 terrible O'Neils; but about 1564 Shane 
 O'Neil attacked them and defeated them in a 
 great battle, killing their chiefs. In revenge 
 for this defeat, Oge MacConnel, the brother 
 of the slain chief, caused Shane, when a 
 suppliant in his camp, to be brutally mur- 
 dered. During the whole of the troubles of 
 
 Elizabeth's reig-n, they held Antrim and 
 Down; during the reign of James I., too, till 
 the year 1619, when Sir Kandal MacConnel, 
 or MacDonald, was their chief. 
 
 Island Voyage, The, is the name 
 given to the disastrous expedition to the 
 Azores undertaken by Essex and Ealeigh 
 in 1597. 
 
 Isles, Lords of the. The Lords of the 
 Isles claimed their descent from Spmerlaed, 
 Regulus of Argyle, who towards the middle 
 of the twelfth century obtained possession of 
 half of the Sudereys. [Hebrides.] Douglas 
 has quoted a letter, dated 1292, bidding 
 Alexander de Insulis Scotije to keep the 
 peace within his bounds of the isles till the 
 next meeting of Parliament. The same 
 authority mentions an indenture, dated 1334, 
 by which Baliol yielded to John, Lord of the 
 Isles of Mull, Skye, Islay, and other islands, 
 while that nobleman in return became the 
 liegeman of the king. In later j'ears, how- 
 ever, John seems to have done homage to 
 David II. {circa 1344). In 1356 Edward IIL 
 treated with him as an independent prince, 
 and in the treaty for the liberation of King 
 David (1357) the truce between England and 
 Scotland included John of the Isles and all the 
 other English allies. Though some years 
 later John of the Isles {d. 1387) bound 
 himself to answer for all taxes the king might 
 impose on his domains, yet he was to all 
 intents and purposes an independent prince, 
 and was the first to assume the title of Lord 
 of the Isles. He was succeeded by his son 
 David, who claiming the earldom of Man in 
 right of his wife, invaded the Lowlands, and 
 was defeated at Harlaw, near Aberdeen 
 (1411). His son Alexander, who succeeded 
 to his father about 1426, was forced to beg 
 pardon for the rebellion he raised against 
 James I., "attired in his shirt and drawers 
 and kneeling before the high altar of Holyrood 
 Church." Alexander's son John, who was Lord 
 of the Isles from 1449 to 1498, joined in the 
 Douglas rebellion of 1451 ; and in 1481 was 
 in treasonable communication with Edward 
 IV., for which he was outlawed, and several 
 of the island chieftains transferred their 
 allegiance from him to the crown. From this 
 time the glory of the lordship disappeared; 
 the title was indeed resumed by a John of 
 Islay imder James V. ; but it was only an 
 empty vaunt. The real power on the western 
 coast passed from the Macdonalds to the 
 Campbells, though the former long kept up a 
 kind of royal state in Skye. 
 
 Douglas, Peerage of Scotland. 
 
 Islip, Simon {d. 1366), Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (1349—1366), was one of the 
 royal secretaries, and on the death of Brad- 
 wardine was appointed to the metropolitan, 
 see. He is famous as an ecclesiastical reformer, 
 and did much to remedy some of the crying 
 
Ita 
 
 ( 616 ■) 
 
 Jac 
 
 abuses in the Church. He boldly reproved 
 Edward III. for the extravagance and luxury 
 of his court and household, and assisted in 
 enacting the famous Statutes of Provisors 
 and Prsemunire which were levied against the 
 oppressions of the Popes. The conduct of 
 this archbishop on several occasions merits 
 great praise ; especially so in the case of the 
 Flagellants, who in the early days of his 
 office were swarming into England. These 
 he found on enquiry to be mere enthusiasts, 
 and not men of loose lives; hence he left 
 their frenzy to die of its own accord, and 
 would not encourage it by persecution. In 
 1359 we find him ordering prayers throughout 
 the kingdom for the success of Edward III.'s 
 French expedition. 
 
 Hook, Lives of t}w ArcKbishops of Cant erbitry. 
 
 Italy, Relations with. As Italy has 
 only recently become a single state, its rela- 
 tions with England are very hard to define. 
 In a sense, all the relations of England with 
 Imperial and Papal Rome come within this 
 question. The literary and civilising in- 
 fluences which the home of ancient culture 
 has constantly exercised on mediaeval Eng- 
 land, have a still more direct claim for treat- 
 ment. But the mere political relations of the 
 various governments of Italy and England 
 only necessitate a much more cursory con- 
 sideration. The States of mediaeval Italy 
 were too small, too self-centred, and too re- 
 mote to have many direct political dealings 
 with the distant and barbarous English. Some 
 of the more important transactions will be 
 found under Empire, Relations with, Papacy, 
 Relations with, etc. The close friendship of 
 the Normans of England with the Normans 
 of Naples, especially as instanced in the effect 
 upon each other of the systems of government 
 of Henry 11. and William the Good — the 
 long struggle of Henry III. to get Naples for 
 his son Edmund of Lancaster — the influence 
 of Italian lawyers and financiers on Edward I. 
 — the want of faith of Edward III. to his 
 Florentine creditors — our commercial deal- 
 ings with Venice, are, if we leave literary 
 connections out of sight, perhaps the most 
 important examples of direct relations be- 
 tween the two countries during the Middle 
 Ages. The struggles of Henry VIII. to 
 enter into the European system which was 
 formed almost in consequence of the break- 
 up of the political system of mediaeval Italy 
 — his political alliance with the Pope 
 and the Venetians — his efforts to exclude 
 both French and Imperial influences in turn, 
 are of small importance when compared with 
 the influence of the New Learning on the 
 spiritual and intellectual life of the country, or 
 even the indirect political influences of Italian 
 examples of tyranny in an age when Thomas 
 Cromwell learnt his methods of government 
 from the Prince of Machiavelli. Despite the 
 cessation of all religious dealings in conse- 
 
 quence of the Reformation, and of most 
 political dealings as the result of the subjec- 
 tion of Italy to the Austro-Spanish house, the 
 literary and civilising — too often the corrupt- 
 ing — influence of Italy on England was never 
 stronger than during the Elizabethan age. 
 All writers, from Harrison to Ascham and 
 Shakespeare, largely testify to its importance. 
 Yet, hardly excepting the constant intercourse 
 with Venice — whose diplomatists still em- 
 bodied the results of their objective study of 
 our affairs in their despatches and Selazioni — 
 our political deaUngs with Italy were unim- 
 portant. This is especially the case during 
 the seventeenth century, a period peculiarly 
 barren in its foreign relations. James I.'s 
 sympathy for Father Paul and the Venetians 
 — Cromwell's intervention on behalf of the 
 Vaudois of Piedmont — the Travels of Duke 
 Cosimo III. of Tuscany in England during 
 the reign of Charles II. — the marriage of 
 James II. with Maria of Modena — are fair 
 instances of the sort of relations that existed 
 between the two countries. After the Revolu- 
 tion of 1688 had again made England a great 
 European power, our political dealings with 
 Italy became more important. The assist- 
 ance England from time to time gave to the 
 rising power of Piedmont, excited great in- 
 dignation from the Austrians. For example, 
 the Treaties of Worms (1743) and Aachen 
 (1748), and the consequent rupture between 
 Austria and England. The vigour which com- 
 pelled Don Carlos of Naples to abandon his 
 allies during the same war may also be men- 
 tioned as illustrating the natural hostility of 
 England to the Bourbon Kings of Naples. 
 Yet English fleets protected the Neapolitan 
 partners of the Family Compact when, in e'S'il 
 days for monarchy, the French Directory and 
 the Empire successively drove them from the 
 mainland. Nelson's unfortunate dealings 
 with Naples, the gallant incursion which 
 led to the victory of Maida, are conspicuous 
 instances of English relations with that 
 monarchy. The gradual emancipation of 
 nineteenth century Italy, associated as it is 
 with the name of Garibaldi, has constantly 
 found warm sympathy from English pubho 
 opinion, though the colder support of English 
 diplomacy drove Cavour to seek in Napoleonic 
 France a strange aUy in a struggle for na- 
 tional liberty. FT F T 1 
 
 Jacobites, The (from Jacohus, the Latin 
 for James), were the adherents of the Stuart 
 cause after the Revolution of 1688. The ex- 
 pulsion of James II. had been effected with 
 surprisingly little difficulty ; but the unpopu- 
 laritj^ of the new governrnent, the crushing 
 taxation which the great war involved, the 
 
Jac 
 
 (617) 
 
 Jac 
 
 party triumph of the Whigs, the presence of 
 James in teland, and the reaction which 
 always succeeds revolution, had produced in 
 a very short time a formidable party of 
 friends of the exiled house. The Tories and 
 High Churchmen began to realise that the 
 Eevolution could be justified only on Whig 
 principles, when, despite the efforts of WiUiam 
 III., the Whigs assumed the control of the 
 administration. The very Churchmen who 
 had led the opposition to a Popish king be- 
 came the founders of the schism of the Non- 
 jurors. They and the Catholics could not be 
 other than avowed Jacobites. But among the 
 nominal adherents of William there was a 
 class of what a prominent Whig called " Non- 
 juring swearers," whose acquiescence in the 
 Eevolution was at best formal, whose more 
 active section might be relied upon to join a 
 Jacobite revolt, and whose passive section 
 would, at least, welcome the restoration of 
 the exiled djmasty. A large section of the 
 Tory party fell within the latter category. 
 " Several in England," writes a Jacobite 
 agent, " wish the king well who would not 
 risk their estates for him. If he came with 
 ten thousand men, not a sword would be 
 drawn . against him." Thus there were, be- 
 sides the avowed Jacobites, the Nonjurors, 
 and the Catholics, a very large class of 
 Jacobite sympathisers. There were, more- 
 over, a large number of prominent statesmen 
 who, in an age of loose political morality, did 
 not scruple to secure a safe retreat for them- 
 selves in the event of the restoration of King 
 James. Many of the great Whig and Tory 
 leaders — Russell, Leeds, Shrewsbury, Godol- 
 phin, Marlborough — carried on an active 
 intrigue with the banished king. Besides the 
 above classes, there was a nucleus for organi- 
 sation in the exiled Court of St. Germain, 
 whence many a subtle and experienced in- 
 triguer set forth to win back for the king his 
 lost throne. The active support of the French 
 could be relied upon ; and, besides the English 
 Jacobites, they could rely, in Scotland, on the 
 bulk of the Highland clans, more jealous of the 
 Whig clan of the Campbells than zealous for 
 divine right, but ever ready to revive the 
 glories of Montrose and Dundee. The per- 
 secuted Episcopalian sect in the Lowlands 
 were Jacobites to a man ; and, after the 
 Darien episode had re-kindled the national 
 animosity of Scotland against England, the 
 Jacobite emissaries were not without hope 
 even that Whigs and Presbyterians might 
 be impelled by patriotism to support the 
 old line of Scottish monarchs. In Ireland, 
 after the failure of James II.'s forces and 
 the triumph' of the English, there was little 
 .chance of any Jacobite movement. Eeligious 
 and national sentiment brought the Irish 
 to the side of James. The penal code and 
 the Protestant ascendancy made revolt im- 
 possible. Still, something could be hoped for 
 if England were to rise. 
 HIST .-20* 
 
 When the appeal to arms had proved 
 unavailing in Scotland and Ireland, and a 
 French landing had been made impracticable 
 by the victory of La Hogue, a series of plots 
 and conspiracies— aimed against the life and 
 throne of WiHiam — kept up the activity of 
 the Jacobite party. Of these, the Assassina- 
 tion Plot was the most famous. But such 
 atrocities only had the effect of weaken- 
 ing the Jacobite cause. Combined with the 
 sturdy bigotry of James and his traitorous 
 dependence on the foreign enemy of England, it 
 alienated the bulk of the Torj' party, on whom 
 the hopes of the exiled house really depended. 
 Eveil the Jacobite party split up into Com- 
 pounders, who were only anxious for a condi- 
 tional restoration, "with constitutional guaran- 
 tees, and the Son- Compounders, who, in blind 
 adherence .to the theories of divine right and 
 ipassive obedience, thought it downright 
 Whiggery to impose terms on the Lord's 
 anointed. The prevalence of Non-Compound- 
 ing views at St. Germains, the refusal of 
 James to abdicate in his son^s favour or bring 
 him up a Protestant, completed .the alienation 
 of the Jacobites from English popular senti- 
 ment. The Peace of Ityswick was, for a 
 time, fatal to their hope of French aid. 
 The passing of the Act of Settlement, in a 
 Tory ParHamant, marks the lowest point of 
 their fortunes. 
 
 Under Queen Anne, the Jacobite polioy 
 was changed. The death of James was a 
 great help to it. Hie son, James III., as he 
 styled himself—^the Chevalier de St. George, 
 or the Old Pretender, as others styled him — 
 was ait least personally innocent ; and his 
 recognition by Louis XIV., and the renewal 
 of hostilities with England, revived .the hopes 
 of the ,parl}'.. But most was expected from 
 the development of the High Church 
 Toryism, of which Dr. SachevereU -was the 
 popular exponent. The Scotch Jacobites 
 might, indeed, under cover of hostility to the 
 Union, assail the queen's throne.; but .the 
 English Jacobites directed their main efforts 
 ■to secure the succession on her death, . to 
 ■avail themselves of Anne's notorious affection 
 ior her family and dislike of the House of 
 Brunswick, and even to obtain, by peaceful 
 means, a repeal of the Act of Settlement. 
 The Ministry of Harley and Bolingbroke put 
 all the resources of the State in the hands of 
 the Jacobite intriguers. The army was newly 
 modelled under the Jacobite Ormonde. All 
 possible means were taken to secure the 
 proclamation of James on the queen's ap- 
 proaching death. But the quarrel of Harley 
 and Bolingbroke, the new attitude of the 
 Whigs in Church matters, the coup d'etat 
 which made Shrewsbury Treasurer, and the 
 premature death of the queen, frustrated the 
 well-laid plan. George I. peacefully ascended 
 the throne. The Tory ministers were im- 
 peached, imprisoned, exiled. The death of 
 Louis XIV., and the anxiety of the Hegent 
 
Jac 
 
 { 618) 
 
 Jac 
 
 Orleans to be on good terms with. England, 
 was the culminating disaster. BoHngbroke 
 was now the Pretender's Secretary of State. 
 His hopes died when the old king expired; 
 but either James was too obstinate or the 
 news came too late to stop the revolt in the 
 Highlands, which was the outcome of the 
 intrigues of the last few years. 
 
 Under such gloomy circumstances, the 
 first great Jacobite rising — the affair of 1715 
 — began ; the offspring of levity or despair, 
 after the death of Aane and Louis XIV. had 
 made any external assistance impossible. 
 Ormonde made a gallant but ineffectual at- 
 tempt to land in Devonshire ; but there, as 
 elsewhere, the planned revolt of the friends 
 of James was prevented by the vigour and 
 activity of the new government. The arrest 
 of six Tory members of Parliament deprived 
 the Jacobites of leaders. The University of 
 Oxford and the western counties were 
 dragooned into loyalty; only in Northumber- 
 land was a rising effected in England, and 
 the choice of Mr. Forster as its leader was 
 fatal to its small hopes of success. Mean- 
 while, more formidable risings had broken 
 out in Scotland. On Oct. 12 Lord Kenmure 
 proclaimed King James at Moffat. Foiled at 
 Dumfries, but joined by Lords Nithisdale, 
 Wintoun, and Carnwath, with two hundred 
 horse, he crossed the borders, and joined 
 Forster's " handful of Northumberland Fox- 
 hunters." But the Highland tevolt alone 
 possessed any real importance. This was led 
 by Lord Mar, who, after accepting George I., 
 had suddenly hurried north ; and on Sept. 6 
 had raised his standard in Braemar. A large 
 number of the clans joined him ; and, despite 
 his personal incompetence and failure to 
 surprise Edinburgh Castle, he entered Perth, 
 detached Brigadier Macintosh to join Ken- 
 mure and Forster, and ultimately advanced 
 against Argyle, appointed to command King 
 George's forces in Scotland. On Nov. 13 
 the Battle of Sheriflmuir, near Stirling, 
 was fought, and Mar was compelled to 
 retreat northwards. The landing of the 
 Pretender at Peterhead could not revive the 
 falling cause. James and Mar re-embarked 
 for the Continent, and the insurgent army 
 was dispersed. The southern rebels, after a 
 fruitless march southward to Preston, in 
 Lancashire, surrendered at that town to the 
 royal forces. The chief prisoners were tried, 
 and executed. The last hope of the Jacobites 
 was destroyed by the dismissal of Boling- 
 broke. The expulsion of the Pretender from 
 Yrance ratified the alliance of England and 
 her old enemy. So little formidable were 
 the Jacobites now, that Harley's impeach- 
 ment was dropped ; and, though the in- 
 trigues of Alberoni and the plot of Bishop 
 Atterbury for awhile revived interest in the 
 cause, the long ministry of Walpole, his 
 policy of conciliation and peace, and the 
 similar disposition of the French government, 
 
 postponed the hopes of the Jacobites for a 
 generation. 
 
 In 1742, the fall of Walpole revived poli- 
 tical intrigue, and the renewal of war with 
 France gave the Jacobites fresh hopes of 
 French aid. In Prince Charles, the young 
 Pretender, the party found a more gallant 
 and romantic leader than in James, his father. 
 Undeterred by the disastrous storm which 
 wrecked the French transports and ruined 
 the projected invasion in 174i, Charles landed 
 near Moidart, with seven followers, on July 
 25, 1745. Joined by Lochiel, and by other 
 important chieftains, Charles found little diffi- 
 culty in gathering a great army of the clans, 
 and was accepted as Prince by the greater 
 part of the Highlands. Sir John Cope, the 
 English commander, abandoned his strong 
 position at Corry Arrack, and left the road to 
 the Lowlands open. At Perth, the Duke of 
 Perth and Lord George Murray joined the 
 Pretender's cause. After the " Canter of 
 Coltbrigg," in which the regulars fled in dis- 
 graceful panie from the irregular Highland 
 hordes, Edinburgh was occupied by Charles. 
 On Sept. 20 the battle of Preston Pans in- , 
 flicted on Cope the defeat he had avoided at 
 Corry Arrack. After a brief period of inac- 
 tion and gaiety, Charles started in November 
 on an invasion of England. He besieged and 
 conquered Carlisle, and, helped by the inac- 
 tivity of Marshal Wade, marched far into the 
 heart of England. At Manchester some slight 
 feeling in the Pretender's favour was mani- 
 fested ; but, as a rule, the population, though 
 not very zealous for an unpopular and foreign 
 monarch, were perfectly indifferent to the 
 cause of the Jacobites. On Dec. 4 Charles 
 entered Derby, but the division of his fol- 
 lowers, and the vastly superior forces of 
 Wade and Cumberland, necessitated a retreat. 
 Meanwhile, the Lowlands of Scotland had 
 quietly renewed their allegiance to George 
 when the backs of the Highlanders were 
 turned. Followed closely by a superior army, 
 Charles retired hastily to Glasgow ; but, 
 strengthened by new Highland reinforce- 
 ments, he gave battle on Jan. 23, 1746, to 
 General Hawley at Falkirk. The wild charge 
 of the Highlanders again won the day ; but 
 they dispersed to their homes with the booty, 
 and Charles, deserted on every side, was 
 driven to bay on CuUoden Moor on April 
 16. Cumberland, with 12,000 regular troops, 
 made short work of the dispirited clans- 
 men. The revolt was over. The High- 
 lands were subdued thoroughly, and for the 
 first time. The abolition of the heritable 
 jurisdictions destroyed the power of the 
 chiefs, and for ever" put an end to Highland 
 revolts. Charles, after many adventures, 
 escaped to France. 
 
 The very success of thp "Forty Five " de- 
 monstrated the hopelessness of a Jacobite 
 reaction. The national, religious, and political 
 principles of the vast bulk of the nation made 
 
Jac 
 
 619 ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 it impossible. The age was not one favourable 
 for lost causes or chivalrous hallucinations. 
 The party which adhered steadfastly to obsolete 
 political doctrine, which found in France its 
 constant supporter, and in Catholicism its 
 congenial creed, could make no way in eight- 
 eenth century England. Charles himself 
 visited London in 1750, if not on later 
 occasions ; but he soon gave up politics for 
 drink and debauchery. The brilliant suc- 
 cesses of Pitt reconciled his party to the new 
 administration. The accession of George 
 III. was gladly availed of as an excuse for a 
 return to their allegiance. The new Tory party 
 was purged from all suspicion of Jacobitism. 
 Under George III. that p^ty became tri- 
 umphant. The downfall of the Whigs was the 
 downfall of the last hope of the Jacobites. 
 But years before that, none but a few theorists 
 of divine right, or the fanatics of Nonjuring, 
 hoped for a Jacobite restoration. 
 
 Jesse, Memoirs of the Pretenders ; The Stuart 
 Papers; Joliustoiie, Memoirs of the Rebellion of 
 174S ; Mocaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; StauUope, Hist. 
 of Eng. ; Burtou, Hist, of Scottand; Lecky, Hist, 
 of Eng.; Ewald, Life and Titnes of Prince Charles 
 Stuart; Macpherson, .5tafe Papers; Life of 
 James II. ; Campaua de Cavelli, Les Deviiiers 
 Stuarts d St. German. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Jacqnetta of Iiuxemburg' {d. 1472) 
 was the daughter of the Count de St. Pol, 
 and was married in 1433 to John, Duke of 
 Bedford. After his death she became the 
 wife of Sir Eichard Woodville, and by him 
 was the mother of Elizabeth Woodville, the 
 queen of Edward IV. 
 
 . Jaenbert, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (766 — 790), attempted to thwart Offa in his 
 designs on the kingdom of Kent. When Jaen- 
 bert's appeal to Charles the Great was disre- 
 garded, Offa, in revenge for his opposition, 
 erected Lichfield into an archbishopric, giving 
 to that see authority over Mercia and the 
 ■yvhole of the possessions which belonged to 
 Canterbury. Jaenbert lived to see his rival 
 receive the pallium from Rome, and was him- 
 self compelled to recognise the independence 
 of the Jlercian see. He was the first arch- 
 bishop to coin monej' in England. 
 
 Jamaica is the largest of the British 
 West Indian Islands. It was first discovered 
 by Columbus, May 2, 1494, was colonised by 
 the Spaniards in 1.509, and held by them 
 until the English captured it in 1655. The 
 Spanish rule proved most disastrous to the 
 island, and it is said that when our troops 
 took possession of the countrj' there was not 
 a single aboriginal inhabitant remaining. In 
 i60o the capital of the island, St. lago, which 
 had been founded by Diego Columbus in 
 1526, was taken by a British fleet under Sir 
 Anthony Shirley. " In 1655 the island was 
 captured by Genei:al Venables, and measures 
 for its settlement were taken by Cromwell, 
 who issued an ordinance to the effect that no 
 
 duty should be levied on any goods exported 
 to Jamaica. The island was at first governed 
 by a military council, and many of the troops 
 were disbanded, and induced to form settle- 
 ments. In 1662 the island was divided for 
 municipal purposes into seven parishes, under 
 regular magistrates, and, two years later, a 
 legislative assembly was created. By the 
 Ti-eaty of Madrid, 1670, Jamaica was formally 
 ceded to England, and speedily became one of 
 the most valuable possessions of the crown. 
 The history of Jamaica from this time is 
 Uttle more than a record of slave insurrec- 
 tions and Maroon wars. From 1664 till 1740 
 the Maroons continued in more or less open 
 hostility to the colonists, and it was found 
 necessary to maintain in the island a large 
 force of regular troops. In 1760 a formidable 
 insurrection took place, which was followed 
 by another in 1765, caused principally by the 
 ill-treatment to which the slaves were sub- 
 jected, and by the inhuman punishments 
 inflicted on them. Thirty years later (1795) 
 another rebellion broke out, in spite of an 
 Act which had*been passed three years before 
 for ameliorating the position of the slaves. 
 The attempts of the English government on 
 behalf of the negroes, and still more the 
 representations which were gradually being 
 made in England in favour of the abolition 
 of slavery, had the effect of stirring up much 
 ill feeling amongst the colonists of Jamaica, 
 who talked freely of separating from England 
 and joining the United States. The negroes, 
 believing that the planters were wrongfully 
 keeping their liberty from them, rose en masse 
 in 1831, in spite of the efforts of the clergy 
 to restrain their violence. The rebellion was 
 crushed with great severity and much needless 
 cruelty. In 1833 a bill for the Abolition of 
 Slavery was passed, and from Aug- 1, 1834, 
 all slaves were to be set free, and to become 
 apprenticed labourers. This act, however, 
 did but little towards alleviating the suffer- 
 ings of the negroes, and in 1836 a Parlia- 
 mentary Committee was appointed to enquire 
 into the question, with the result that, in 
 1838, in spite of the protests of the Jamaica 
 assembly, apprenticeship was abolished, thus 
 averting another impending insurrection. 
 The decline of Jamaica is sometimes erro- 
 neously ascribed to the abolition of slavery ; 
 it had commenced a century before, and was 
 due to insular jealousy and misrule. When 
 the mismanagement of affairs in Jamaica had 
 become only too apparent in 1839, a motion 
 to suspend the constitution of the govern- 
 ment for five years was lost by so narrow a 
 majority as to cause the fall of the English 
 ministry. From 1864 till 1866 the govern- 
 ment was carried on by a governor, council, 
 and representative assembly. In 186o_ a 
 rebellion broke out and was repressed with 
 great severity by Governor Eyre. On Dec. 
 21, 1865, the representative constitution was 
 abolished by the legislature, this' abolition 
 
Jam 
 
 ( 620 ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 being afterwards confirmed by the British. 
 Parliament. Aifairs have since been ad- 
 ministered by a governor, appointed by the 
 crown, assisted by a legislative council, com- 
 posed of eight official and eight non-official 
 members. There is also a privy council, 
 not exceeding eight in number, who are 
 either named by the queen, or appointed 
 by the governor, subject to the approval 
 of the crown. Jamaica is at the present 
 time making considerable progress. Of her 
 two great difficulties, that of the slaves has 
 disappeared, and that of the mismanagement 
 of the land is rapidly being smoothed away. 
 Long, Hint of Jamaica; Martiu, Hisi. of 
 Sritish Colonies; Creasy, Britannic Empire; 
 Southey, Hi$t, of the West Indies; B. Edwardes, 
 West Indies. [S. J. L.] 
 
 James I., King of Scotland (J. 1391, 
 s. 1424, d. 1437), the second son of Eobert 
 III., was captured, when only fourteen years 
 old, by an English ship whilst on his way to 
 the court of France to receive his education 
 there (1405). On his father's death (1406), 
 he was acknowledged King of Scotland, the 
 regency being undertaken by Albany, to 
 whose machinations his capture and subse- 
 quent long captivity have been ascribed. 
 Whilst a prisoner in England, James, natur- 
 ally a man of great ability, received an 
 education which eminently fitted him to play 
 the part of king, and made him one of 
 the most accomplished princes of his age. 
 After the death of Albany (1419), nego- 
 tiations for his release were commenced 
 which at last ended in his return home, 
 where he was crowned at Scone, May, 
 1424. Before he left England, James I. had 
 married Jano Beaufort, daughter of the Earl 
 of Somerset, and cousin of Henry V. The 
 effect of his English education was soon 
 apparent on his return to Scotland ; his first 
 act was to put to death the regent Murdoch 
 of Albany for abusing his power, a step 
 which was quickly followed by the re-consti- 
 tution of the Scottish Parliament, the refor- 
 mation of the statute law, and a general 
 valuation of all property for the purposes of 
 taxation. In 1426 James seized and im- 
 prisoned simdi-y turbulent Highland chief- 
 tains at Inverness, and declared his intention 
 of putting down the acts of lawlessness which 
 were so common. In 1434 he sent hia 
 daughter to France to be married to the 
 Dauphin, afterwards Louis XI., thus cement- 
 ing the connection which already existed 
 between Scotland and the French court. 
 Meanwhile, the king's reforms, his attempts 
 to diminish the power of the great nobles, 
 and the necessity of imposing taxes, gave rise 
 to a conspiracy against him. On the night 
 of Feb. 20, 1437, he was brutally murdered, 
 in the abbey of Black Friars at Perth, by a 
 band of 300 conspirators headed by Sir 
 Robert Graham. 'This murder was amply 
 avenged by his queen, whom the assassins 
 
 had spared in their hurry. James I. was per- 
 haps the ablest king Scotland had yet known ; 
 he was a man of letters, a lover of justice, a 
 prince actuated by the desire of doing good 
 to his country and people. He was the only 
 poet of real genius in either England or 
 Scotland during the fifteenth century. His 
 King^s Quair and Christe's Kirk on the Green 
 have been justly praised. His Poetical 
 Remains were published by Mr. Tytler in 
 1783. 
 
 Fordun, Scotichronicon ; Burton, Hist, of Scot- 
 land ; Wiutoun, CronijUil ; "Walpole, ^yal aiid 
 Jiioble Authors ; Chahners, Historic iZemains of 
 Scottish Worthies ; Pinkertou, Scottish History. 
 
 James II., King of Scotland (A. 1430, 
 s. 1437, d. 1460), was the son of James I. 
 After his coronation at Holyrood he was 
 immediately conveyed by his mother to 
 Edinburgh Castle for safety. The queen, 
 alarmed at the action of Sir William Crichton, 
 the governor .of the castle, soon contrived to 
 escape to Stirling. Here, however, Crichton 
 succeeded in seizing the young king, who him- 
 self did not begin to rule for some j'^ears. In 
 1449 James married Mary, daughter of the 
 Duke of Gueldi-es. Three years afterwards, 
 in a fit of passion, he stabbed with his own 
 hand William, Earl of Douglas, who had been 
 for some time past in more or less open rebel- 
 lion to the royal authority. The king was 
 now at war with the house of Douglas, whose 
 estates were declared forfeited to the crown 
 (1454). In 1460 James, who was of a fiery 
 and warlike nature, crossed the English 
 border at the head of a large army to lend 
 aid to Henry VI., but returned without 
 effecting his object. He then undertook the 
 reduction of the castle of Roxburgh, where 
 he was killed by the bursting of a cannon, 
 Aug. 3, 1460. He was on the whole a good 
 king. We are told that " in the time of his 
 later days, his realm was in quiet, prosperous 
 estate, in no fear of outward enemies, and 
 he kept his nobles in loving and noble 
 obedience, and the commons in good peace." 
 His ability, perhaps, comes out more clearly 
 than elsewhere in his method of dealing with 
 the Douglas rebelhon. When the Earl of 
 Douglas made alliance with the Earl of, 
 Craufurd, James succeeded in enrolling a 
 third noble, belonging to a rival house— the 
 Earl of Huntly— on his own side ; and even 
 contrived to split up the great family of the 
 Douglases by winning over one of its chief 
 members, the Earl of Angus, to the royal 
 party (1452—54). 
 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 James III., King of Scotland (b. 1463, 
 s. 1460, d. 1488), was the son of James II., 
 whom he succeeded when only eight years old. 
 For some time the government of the king- 
 dom was placed, in the hands of Kennedy, 
 Bishop of St. Andrews, till, in 1466, the 
 young kmg was carried ofi to Edinburgh by 
 the Boyds, after which event the head of 
 
Jam 
 
 ( 621 ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 this family became guardian of the kingdom. 
 In 1469 James married Margaret, daughter 
 of Christian, King of Denmark and Norway, 
 receiving as her dowry the Orkney and Shet- 
 land Isles. Ahout this time the Boyds were 
 deprived of the estates which the royal hounty 
 had conferred upon them, and the head of 
 the house, the Earl of Arran, who had 
 married the king's sister, was forced to flee into 
 England. Shortly afterwards James ex- 
 pressed a wish to lead an army to the assistance 
 of Louis XI. against the Duke of Burgundy, 
 and was only prevented hy the action of the 
 Estates. He is said to have had his brother, 
 the Earl of Mar, put to death, and in 1479 
 his other brother, Albany, was compelled to 
 seek refuge in France. Meanwhile James's 
 partiality for favourites of low tastes, notably 
 two, named Cochrane and Rogers, gave rise 
 to a conspiracy against him on the part of 
 the Scottish nobles, who seized and hanged 
 several of them at Lauder (1482), where the 
 king had halted on an expedition which had 
 set out to invade England. James, too, was 
 carried to Edinburgh, where, however, he was 
 soon set at liberty, at the request of his 
 brother Albany, who bad now returned from 
 France. Before long it was rumoured that 
 the king was in private treaty with England 
 for the purpose of getting assistance in his 
 contemplated vengeance on his enemies. The 
 Estates of the Realm now formed a con- 
 federacy against their sovereign, and raised 
 a cry that the young prince, afterwards 
 James IV., was in danger. But the king- 
 raised a large army in the North of Scot- 
 land, and attacked the rebellious lords at 
 Sauchieburn, near Stirling. He was, how- 
 ever, defeated, and fled, for refuge into 
 a house called Beaton's Mill, near Bannoek- 
 bum, where he was stabbed by an un- 
 known hand, June 18, 1488. James III. was 
 a bad ruler, and a man of avaricious and 
 cowardly disposition. He was charged with 
 drawing his chief friends from the lowest 
 ranks of society ; but how far this accusation 
 is strictly true is considered by Mr. Burton 
 to be a doubtful point. For, as this historian 
 points out, the "mason" Cochrane may have 
 been, in reality, the architect of the " noble 
 buildings which, about this time, began to 
 adorn Scotland; " while Rogers the "musician" 
 may have been no mere performer of other 
 men's music, but a great composer. In any 
 case the rude nobility of Scotland were little 
 capable of distinguishing between the various 
 grades of artistic work. 
 
 Burton, Hiat. of Scotland. 
 
 James IV., King of Scotland (i. 1472, «■ 
 1488, d. 1.513), succeeded his father James III., 
 after the battle of Sauchieburn, 1488, and 
 at once found himself compelled to guard 
 against a plot, formed for the purpose of 
 seizing his person by Henry VII., with the 
 aid of Lord BothweU. In 1495 James hos- 
 
 pitably received PerkynWarbeckat his court, 
 and the following year sent an expedition 
 across the borders on his behalf. This, how- 
 ever, came to nothing, and shortly afteiwards 
 James contrived to get rid of his visitor. In 
 1497 Henry began to make overtures of peace 
 to Scotland, and in 1502 James IV. married 
 the Princess Margaret of England, and joined 
 the English and Spanish alliance. In 1512 a 
 dispute arose with England out of the capture 
 of some Scotch vessels in the Downs; the 
 French alliance was vehemently pressed upon 
 the king by the Queen of France, who 
 appointed him her knight to maintain her 
 own and her country's cause against their 
 common English enemy. Urged by her en- 
 treaties and his own wrongs, James determined 
 to undertake the disastrous campaign, which 
 ended in his total defeat, and was followed 
 by his death at Flodden Field (Sept. 9, 1513). 
 The king left behind him the character of a 
 brave soldier and a just administrator, though 
 his private life is open to severe blame. " For 
 his political government and due administra- 
 tion of justice, which he exercised during 
 the time of his reign, he deserveth to be 
 numbered among the best princes that ever 
 reigned over that nation." To James IV. 
 must be ascribed the establishment of the 
 first efficient navy possessed by Scotland, and 
 the settlement of the Highlands, by distri- 
 buting garrisons throughout the turbulent 
 districts. With regard to the first of these 
 two achievements, letters of marque were 
 given to two Scotch sea-captains, Sir Alex- 
 ander "Wood and Sir Andrew Barton, who 
 cleared the Scotch coast of English pirate 
 vessels, and carried on their depredations 
 against English and other nations. "We are 
 told that towards the close of the reign the 
 Scotch navy consisted of no less than thirteen 
 vessels, one of which, the Michael, was the 
 marvel of its day for bulk. The settlement 
 of the Highlands was largely assisted by 
 using the influence of two great families — 
 the Huntlj'S and the Argyles— who, though 
 Lowland in their origin, had by maniage or 
 other means been gradually acquiring im- 
 mense possessions and influence in the High- 
 land districts ; and this influence James did 
 not scruple to manipulate, so far as he could, 
 for the purposes of strengthening the royal 
 authority in those remote parts. 
 Burton, Hisl. of Scotland. 
 
 James V., King of Scotland (5. 1512, 
 0. 1513, (!. 1542), the son of James IV. and Mar- 
 garet of England, succeeded his father after 
 the fatal battle of Flodden. As he was 
 not quite two years old, the regency was 
 entrusted to his cousin, the Duke of Albany, 
 who was invited over from France — of 
 which country ho was admiral — to undertake 
 this ofiice, at the request of tho Estates 
 of the Realm (1515). Tho queen- dowager, 
 who had married the Earl of Angus almost 
 
Jam 
 
 ( 622 ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 immediately after her first husband's death, 
 was soon obliged to yield up her sou, whom 
 she had carried off for safety to Stirling 
 Castle. "Within a year of his first landing, 
 the regent had crushed all attempts at rebel- 
 lion, and very soon left Scotland, after having 
 placed French garrisons in several of the 
 strongest fortresses. In Albany's absence, 
 Angus seemed likely to secure the chief power, 
 had he not offended his wife, who urged the 
 absent regent to return (1521). At last, after 
 various fluctuations, and the interference of 
 Wolsey, the young king was installed in 
 Edinburgh as king, and the regency taken 
 away from the Duke of Albany (1S24). But, 
 despite the apparent pacification, the great 
 nobles, Angus, Argyle, and Errol, were strug- 
 gling for power among themselves, and the 
 young king was kept in close duress, till, in 
 1528, he managed' to escape to Stirling. James 
 now took the government into his own hands, 
 and Angus was driven into England. The 
 details of domestic government, the reduction 
 of the lawless borderers and the Highland clans, 
 occupied the next few years of the reign. 
 
 In spite of the failure of the proposed 
 alKance with the Princess (afterwards queen) 
 Mary, and in spite of various border frays, a 
 peace was concluded with England in 1534, 
 though James rejected all proposals for a meet- 
 ing with his uncle, believing that his safety 
 would be endangered. In 1536, theking, whilst 
 at the court of France on a visit, undertaken 
 with the object of marrying Mary, daughter 
 of the Duke of Vendome, fell in love with 
 and married Magdalen, the French king's 
 daughter. Next year, however, the queen died, 
 and James married Mary, daughter of the Duke 
 of Guise (June, 1538). On his return home, 
 the king had begun to occupy himself with 
 domestic affairs, and succeeded in alienating 
 a great number of the nobility by confiscating 
 many estates which had passed into their 
 hands during his minority. Towards the 
 close of his reign he roused his uncle, Henry 
 VIII., to fury by promising to meet him at 
 York, and failing to keep his word through 
 fear. Henry at once declared war on the 
 ground that James was acting treacherously 
 towards England, and the Scotch king could 
 not prevail upon his nobles to cross the 
 border. The disorganisation in his army was 
 taken advantage of by the enemy, and the 
 defea,t of Solway Moss was the consequence. 
 A few days afterwards (Dec. 14, 1542), James 
 V. died at Caerlaverock Castle, having just 
 before his death received the tidings of the 
 birth of a daughter, afterwards the famous 
 Mary, Queen of Scots. From his restraint of 
 the nobles, his lavish expenditure, his accom- 
 plishments, and his carelessness, he was a 
 favourite with his people, by whom he was long 
 remembered as " the King of the Commons." 
 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland; Froude, Hitt. of 
 Eng. : State Pavers, Henry VIII., with ' Mr. 
 Brewer's Inlroiudion. 
 
 James I., King (James VI. of Scot- 
 land), {b. Jan. 19, 1566, s. in Scotland, 
 July 24, 1567, in England, Mar. 24, 1603, d. 
 Mar. 27, 1625), was the son of Mary of Scot- 
 land and of Henry Darnley. He was en- 
 trusted to the care of the Earl of Mar, and of 
 Alexander Erskine, and his principal tutor 
 was the celebrated George Buchanan. In 
 1578 the regency was taken from the Earl of 
 Morton, and James was henceforth, in name 
 at least, ruler of Scotland. His reign in 
 Scotland was, to a large extent, a quarrel 
 with the clerg}' and the nobles. In 1581 the 
 General Assemblj' resolved to abolish Epis- 
 copacy ; and James, who had been seized by 
 some of the nobles at the raid of Euthven (q.v.), 
 was unable to prevent it. In 1585 he came 
 to terms with Ehzabeth, and made a treaty 
 with her, consenting to receive a pension. 
 The same year he was besieged by the 
 banished lords in Stirling Castle, and was 
 compelled to pardon them, to dismiss his 
 favourite Arran, and to deprive him of his 
 title and estates. Notwithstanding the execu- 
 tion of his mother by Elizabeth, and the 
 disregard of his intercession, he co-operated 
 in the preparations against the Spanish 
 Armada in 1588, and in 1689 drew closer his 
 alliance with the Protestant powers by his 
 marriage with Aime of Denmark (1589). A 
 treasonable attempt was made upon him by 
 Bothwell in 1591, and another in 1593, and in 
 the latter year he was seized and impi-isoned 
 by that nobleman, but soon released. In 
 1594 he undertook a campaign against Huntly 
 and Errol, the great Catholic nobles of the 
 north, and after a victory at Glenlivat, 
 reduced them, and compelled them to quit the 
 country. They were, however, allowed to 
 return in 1597. The breach between James 
 and the Presbyterian clergy had been growing 
 wider for some time, and was increased by 
 the publication of his work, the Basilicon 
 Doron, and by the appointment of bishops in 
 1599. In 1600 occurred a somewhat mys- 
 terious plot against his life, known as the 
 Gowrie conspiracy (q.v.). On the death of 
 Elizabeth, James immediately set out for Eng- 
 land, and was proclaimed king in March, 1603, 
 being crowned at Westminster on July 25 
 following. He assumed the title of King of 
 Great Britain, France, and Ireland the follow- 
 ing year. In ecclesiastical matters he immedi- 
 ately manifested his preference for the High 
 Church view. The Puritans were thwarted 
 and punished at the Hampton Court confe- 
 rence, while at the same time the Jesuits and 
 seminary priests were ordered to quit the 
 kingdom (Feb., 1604). The anger caused 
 among the Papists by these stringent measures 
 led to the abortive Gunpowder Plot. James 
 almost from the first year of his reign was 
 involved in disputes with his Parliament, 
 chiefly turning on the questions of money 
 and redress of grievances. In 1604 a dispute 
 on the subject of privilege had terminated in 
 
Jam 
 
 623 ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 favour of the Commons. The government 
 was extravagantly administered, and the ex- 
 penses of the court were very great. In 
 order to supply the deficiency in the revenue, 
 CeoU raised loans under the privy seal, and in 
 1608 issued a. Book of Rates, by which the 
 customs on various articles were considerably 
 increased. Notwithstanding, ia 1610, the 
 king was obliged to ask the Commons for a 
 large grant, which was made the subject of 
 much bargaining, until finally the Parliament 
 was dissolved, without any result having 
 been attained (Feb., 1611). Cecil- died the 
 following year. The chief place in the king's 
 favour was now taken by Robert Carr, a 
 young Scotchman, who was created Earl of 
 Somerset. In Nov., 1612, the young Prince 
 of Wales, Henry, of whose character higbi 
 expectations had been formed, fell ill and 
 died. The following year James, still ad- 
 hering to Cecil's policy of opposition to 
 Spain, cemented the alliance with the German 
 princes by marrying his daughter Elizabeth 
 to the Elector Palatine, Frederick V. Somer- 
 set was ruined and degraded by the revelation 
 of his wife's murder of SirThomis Overbury, 
 and the management of affairs was henceforth 
 (1615) in the l^nds of James's second favourite, 
 George ViQiers, afterwards Duke of Bucking- 
 ham. The anti-Spanish policy of Cecil was 
 given up, and James entered into negotia- 
 tions for peace and alliance with Spain. In 
 Ml 4 Parliament was reassembled, and at- 
 tempts were made to secure its docility by a 
 body of managers called Undertakers. These, 
 however, were unsuccessful ; and the " Addled 
 Parliament," as it was called, was dissolved 
 before any business had been done. The 
 king now resorted to several illegal m.eans of 
 raising money. Benevolences were collected, 
 patents of peerage sold, and numerous mono- 
 poUes let out to private individuals. In 1617 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, who had been in prison 
 since 1603, on a charge of complicity in the 
 plots against the king, was released, and 
 allowed to lead an expedition against Guinea, 
 where he hoped to discover gold mines. The 
 expadition proved a failure, and Raleigh on 
 his return was put to death. This was done 
 in deference to Spanish susceptibilities, and 
 was greatly resented by the people. At the 
 beginning of the Thirty Years' War (1618) 
 the feeling in England was strongly in 
 favour of interference on the part of this 
 country in favour of the Protestant elector. 
 James, however, refused to interfere vigor- 
 ously, and trusted to his diplomatic skill to 
 mediate between the parties and restore 
 peace. In 1621 another Parliament was 
 called. But after impeaching Bacon, the 
 Lord Chancellor, and inquiring into griev- 
 ances, a dispute on foreign policy took place 
 between the king and the Commons. James 
 in anger dissolved Parliament (Jan., 1622). 
 Negotiations were set on foot for a marriage 
 between Prince Charles and the Spanish 
 
 Infanta, to effect which Charles and Bucking- 
 ham went to Spain in 1623. Buckingham, 
 however, quarrelled with the Spanish minis- 
 ters, and the match was broken off (Dec, 
 1623). This led to a sudden reversal of the 
 king's policy. War was declared on Spain in 
 March, 1624, and Count Mansfeldt was allowed 
 to enlist troops in England for the Protest- 
 ants in Germany. Negotiations were set on 
 foot for a, marriage between Charles and 
 Henrietta Maria, the French Princess, but 
 before it was completed James died. "He 
 had," says Mr. Gardiner, " many qualities 
 befitting a ruler in such difficult times. Good- 
 humoured and good-natured, he was honestly 
 desirous of increasing the prosperity of his 
 subjects. . . He was above all things eager 
 to be a reconciler, to make peace where there 
 had been war before, and to draw those to 
 live in harmony who had hitherto glared at 
 one another in mutual defiance. . . With a 
 thorough dislike of dogmatism in others, he 
 was himself the most dogmatic of men. . . 
 He had none of that generosity of temper 
 which leads the natural leaders of the human 
 race to rejoice when they have found a worthy 
 antagonist, nor had he, as Elizabeth had, 
 that intuitive perception of the popular feeling 
 which stood her in such stead during her 
 long career." James wrote a variety of 
 tracts on a, number of different subjects. 
 Most of them are absolutely worthless. They 
 were collected in 1616. 
 
 Eegister of Privy Council of Scotland, ; ieffers 
 and State Papers during the Reiqn of James VI. 
 (Abbotsford Club) ; Court and Times of James I. 
 (1846) J Camden, History of James I. ; Good- 
 man, Court of James I. ; Historic and Life of 
 James the Sext (Bannatyne Club) ; Dalrymple, 
 Memorials and Letters Illustrative of Reiffus of 
 James T. and Charles I. ; Sir Simonds D'Bwes, 
 Autohiography ; Sully, Jfemoirs; Rusbworfcb. 
 Historical CollectionSy &o. ; Disraeli, Literary and 
 Political Character of James I. ; Burton, History 
 of Scotland ; Calderwood, Hist, of the Ctiurch of 
 Scotland. Tbe bistory of James's reign in Eng- 
 land is told in much detail and 'witb unimpeacb- 
 able accuracy in Professor S. R. Gardiner's 
 great work, The History of England, 1803—1842. 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 James II., King (J. 1633,»-.Feb.6, 1685— 
 Dec, 1688, d. Sept. 16, 1701), was the second 
 son of Charles I., and Henrietta Maria. He was 
 created Duke of York immediately after his 
 birth. He accompanied his father during the 
 Civil War, and was captured by Fairfax on the 
 surrender of Oxford, but contrived to escape, 
 disguised as a girl, to Holland in April, 164S. 
 He served with reputation in both the French 
 and the Spanish armies, and was to take the 
 command of a force for the invasion of 
 England if the rising of Sir George Booth 
 in 1659 had been successful. In 1660 he 
 returned to England with his brother, and 
 was made Lord High Admiral, subsequently 
 receiving large grants of land in Ireland. 
 In 1665 he took the command of the fieet 
 against the Dutch, and showed great ability 
 in the conduct of naval affairs. In 1669 he 
 
Jam 
 
 (624) 
 
 Jam 
 
 avowed Ms conversion to Roman Catholicism, 
 and on the passing of the Test Act in 
 1673 he was obliged to resign his oifice of 
 Lord High Admiral. The Whig party, 
 headed by Shaftesbury, attempted to get an 
 Exclusion Bill passed depriving him of his 
 right of succession to the throne,, and so great 
 was the feeling against him that in 1679 he 
 was induced by the king to go abroad, but 
 before long was recalled and sent as Lord 
 High Commissioner to Scotland, where he 
 showed such harshness and severity that he 
 had to be recalled in 1680. He was in that 
 year presented by the Grand Jury of Middle- 
 sex, at Shaftesbury's instigation, as a Popish 
 recusant, hut the judge, by suddenly dis- 
 missing the jury, quashed the proceedings. 
 He returned to Scotland shortly afterwards, 
 w;here he remained tiU 1682. In 1684 he 
 -was restored to his office of Lord High 
 Admiral, and to his seat in the Council, and 
 on his brother's death in the next year suc- 
 ceeded to the crown. James commenced his 
 reign with disclaiming any intention of inter- 
 fering -with the Church, and promising a 
 legal form of government ; hut his acts were 
 not in accordance with his declarations, and 
 his opponents, who in the last years of his 
 brother's reign had found an asylum in 
 Holland, at once began to concert measures 
 for an invasion. Accordingly the Duke of 
 Monmouth landed in England, and the Earl 
 of Argyle in Scotland, but both failed, and the 
 attempt of the former especially was punished 
 with great severity. James was emboldened 
 by this success to proceed with hasty steps 
 in the design which he had formed of 
 restoring Romanism. He had, at the com- 
 mencement of his reign, made arrangements 
 with that view in Scotland and Ireland, and 
 he now ventured to extend them to England. 
 He claimed a power of dispensing with the 
 penal laws, dismissed his Parliament when it 
 showed a resolution to oppose him, exhausted 
 every effort to gain converts, called such, as 
 well as Roman ecclesiastics, to his councils, 
 laboured to procure the repeal of the Test 
 Act, and forbade the controversial sermons 
 which the clergy, justly alarmed at his pro- 
 ceedings, felt it their duty to deliver. 'This 
 injunction was disregarded, and to enforce it 
 a new court of ecclesiastical commission was 
 established, which suspended the Bishop of 
 London from his office, and afterwards per- 
 petrated the most flagrant injustice on both 
 universities. The king induced the judges 
 to, give a decision in favour of the dispensing 
 power, and he followed this up by forming a 
 camp on Hounslow Heath, the officers of which 
 were chiefly Romanists. He had already pub- 
 lished a, Declaration of Indulgence (April, 
 1687), and sedulously courted the Protestant, 
 Nonconformists ; but they in general mis- 
 trusted him, and declined to forward the 
 restoration of Romanism by joining in his 
 attack on the Church. Undeterred by this, 
 
 he ordered the Declaration to be read in all 
 churches, and on seven of the bishops 
 petitioning against this he sent them to the 
 Tower on the charge of libelling the king. 
 They were soon after put on their trial and 
 acquitted. Just at this juncture a son and 
 heir was horn to James, and was considered 
 by the people to be a supposititious child. 
 Meanwhile a number of the leading states- 
 men, of all parties requested James's son-in- 
 law, William of Orange, to come over to 
 England to secure his wife's right to the 
 throne, and protect the liberties and religion 
 of the English people. Accordingly WiUiam 
 issued a manifesto, and eventually landed in 
 England on Nov. 5, 1688. James now at- 
 tempted to retrace his steps. He reinstated 
 the Bishop of London, made such reparation 
 as he could to the universities, and dismissed 
 his most obnoxious counsellors ; but he could 
 not regain the confidence of his people. His 
 army melted away, and the prince advanced 
 towards London. James, deserted by most 
 of his friends, sent his queen and infant 
 son to Erance, and attempted to follow them, 
 quitting Whitehall in disguise on Dec. 11. 
 He was, however, seized near Faversham, and 
 brought back to London, whence in a few 
 days he was removed to Rochester, and was 
 then allowed to escape to Erance, landing at 
 Amhleteuse on Christmas Day. He was 
 kindly received by Louis, who warmly 
 espoused his cause, and assisted him with 
 troops in his expedition to Ireland in 1689. 
 Landing at Kinsale, he was received with 
 enthusiasm by the Catholics, and for some 
 time seemed likely to succeed in making him- 
 self at all events master of Ireland, but the 
 raising of the siege of Londonderry wag a great 
 blow to him, and in 1690 (July 1) he was 
 totally routed by William in the battle of the 
 Boyne, after which he fled to Erance. The 
 Irish expedition failed partly owing to, the 
 bigotry and cruelty of the king and his 
 followers, and partly from the divided aims 
 of the different sections of his party ; James 
 himself looking upon Ireland as a stepping- 
 stone to England, -while the Irish only sought 
 relief from the rule of the Saxon, and the 
 French aimed at making Ireland a fief of 
 their monarchy. James spent the remainder 
 of his life at St. Germains, engaged in 
 intrigues for recovering possession of his lost 
 crown, but constantly finding his hopes dashed 
 to the ground. James married first Anno Hyde 
 (Sept. 3, 1660), daughter of Lord Clarendon, 
 by whom he had two daughters, Mary and 
 Anne, and four sons and two daughters who 
 died in, infancy ; and, secondly, Mary of 
 Modena (Nov. 21, 1673), who bore him oneson 
 and four daughters who died young, and one 
 son, James Edward, known afterwards as the 
 Old Pretender. Of his natural children the 
 most f am ous was his son by Arabella Churchill, 
 James, Duke of Berwick. 
 
 James II.'s, Memoirs (ed. Clarke); Clarendon 
 
Jav 
 
 ( 625 ) 
 
 Jeff 
 
 state Papers; Sydney State Papers; Pox, Hist.. 
 of James II, ; Welwood, Memoirs ; Luttrell, 
 Relation of State Affairs ; Eohard, Hist, of the 
 Revolution; Burnet, Risi,, of SU Own Time; 
 Maoaulay, Hist. o/JBmg..; EaJlke, Hist, of Eng.. 
 
 [F. S. P.] 
 
 Java, Expedition to (1811). The subju- 
 gation of Holland, by Nasoleon rendered it 
 important to British interests to occupy the 
 Dutch settlements in the East. An expedition 
 was therefore sent against the Spice Islands in. 
 1809, and Amboyna, Banda, and. Temate. 
 were occupied after a feeble resistance. The 
 island of Java alone remained, and an e^edi- 
 tion was fitted out against it, consisting of 
 ninety sail, on which were embarked 2,000 
 Europeans and 2,000- Sepoys. Lord Mmto 
 accompanied it as a volunteer, and with him. 
 went Mr. (afterwards. Sir) Stamford Raffles,, 
 who was largely acquainted with the habits, 
 languages, and interests of the inhabitants of 
 the Eastern Archipelago. The fleet anchored 
 in the bay of Batavia (Aug. 4) . The capital 
 was occupied without resistance, and the cap- 
 ture of the fortified position of Comelio gave 
 the whole island to the English. The Sultan, 
 of Djocjocarta, however, a naiive prince, 
 called upon the Javanese to assert their inde- 
 pendence, and set up the' standard of revolt. 
 Colonel Gillespie conducted a force against 
 Djocjocarta, which was protected by a* high 
 rampart, and batteries mounted with 100 
 pieces of cannon, and manned by 17,000 men. 
 It was carried by assault, and the fortifica- 
 tions razed. Lord Jlinto committed the 
 command of the army to Colonel Gillespie, 
 and the government to Mr. Eafiles, under 
 whose wise and liberal administration it 
 continued to flourish for several years, tiH it 
 was restored to Holland at the general peace 
 of 1815.. 
 
 Jedbnrgb, in Roxburghshire-, wa» one of 
 the Scottish strongholds dehvered to England 
 in 1174, as security for the fulfllment of the 
 Treaty of Falaise.. About the year 1408, it 
 was wrested from the English, by whom it 
 was burnt, a century later (1523), during the 
 invasion under Lord Dacre. In 1544 it was 
 again burnt, by Sir Ralph Evers. Jedburgh 
 was one of the royal burghs, aad its abbey 
 was founded by Da-vid I. 
 
 Jeetgurh (Jeetpobe), The Siege oe 
 (Jan. 14, 1815). General Wood having been 
 appointed to take Bootwal and penetrate 
 Nepaul, took the field Dec, 1814, after a 
 great deal of delaj', and, without any re- 
 connaissance, allowed himself to be brought 
 before the stockade of Jeetgurh, by the 
 treachery of a Brahmin guide. A heavy fire 
 was immediately commencedfrom the redoubt, 
 which was garrisoned by 1,200 Goorkhas. 
 Though the British army amounted to 
 4,500 men, the general, after fighting his 
 way to a position which commanded the en- 
 trenchment, and placed it within his grasp. 
 
 sounded a retreat just as the enemy had be- 
 gun to abandon it. [Goorkka War.] 
 
 Jeffrey, Francis Lord {i. 1773, d. 1850), 
 was born and educated at Edinburgh. On being 
 called to the Bar, he found that he could obtain 
 very little legal business, owing to his being a 
 Whig at a time when Tory influence was so 
 predominant in Scotland. Turning his at- 
 tention to literature, he became one of a small 
 group of men who, towards the year 1802, 
 planned the ^ublicatioa of the EMnburgh 
 Mevieiv, of which he very soon became the 
 editor. This periodical, which, before long, 
 took rank as the leading exponent of Whig- 
 views,, continued under Jeffrey's management 
 till the year 1829.. Such importance did it as- 
 •sume as a political organ, that before very long 
 the Tories were constrained to issue a. similar 
 review on their own. lines — the Quarterly. In 
 1831 Jeffrey was appointed Lord Advocate, 
 and he subsequently entered the House of 
 Commons as member for Edinburgh. It was 
 he who had most to do with arranging the 
 measures of the Reform Bill so far as Scot- 
 land was concerned. In 1834 he was made a 
 judge in the Court of Session. 
 Cockbum, Lifeof Jeffrey. 
 
 Jeffreys, George Lord (S. 164,8, d. 
 1689), was born in Denbighshice of a respect- 
 able family. After receiving his education 
 at St. Paul's and Westminster Schools, he 
 seems to have entered the Inner Temple, 
 when very young, in 1664. When called to 
 the Bar (Nov., 1668), he confined himself for 
 a long time to the Old Bailey and criminal 
 courts,, where he speedily rose to. the top of 
 his profession in this peculiar line of business ; 
 for his ignorance of law prevented his having 
 any chance of employment in the higher 
 branches of his profession. In 1671 he became 
 Common Serjeani of the City of London, and 
 managed to keep on good terms with both the 
 great political parties. Six years later he was 
 made solicitor to the Duke of York, and 
 knighted; while towards the end. of the next 
 year he was appointed Recorder of London. 
 And now Jefireys saw that his chances of 
 preferment would be infinitely greater if he 
 attached himself to one of the great political 
 parties of the day. Having placed his 
 services at the disposal of the Court, he was 
 largely employed in prosecuting those who 
 were accused of being concerned in the Popish 
 Plot. It was in the capacity of Recorder of 
 the City of London that he was at this time of 
 such use to the government, which speedily 
 rewarded him by making him Chief Justice of 
 Chester and a baronet (1680). About the 
 same time he was sworn of the Privy Council. 
 It was, however, chiefiy to the influence 
 of the Duke of York that Jeffreys owed his 
 promotion ; Charles, though not disdaining to 
 avail himself of the Recorder's parts, viewed 
 him with disgust. "That man," he once 
 said, " has no learning, no sense, no maimers, 
 
Jek 
 
 ( 626 ) 
 
 Jen 
 
 and more impudence than ten carted street- 
 walkers." Before tlie close of the year 1680 
 Jeffreys was reprimanded in the House of 
 Commons for having obstructed the meeting 
 of Parliament. This censure was mainly 
 due to the instance of the City of London, 
 "on which he attempted to revenge himself hy 
 his efforts to destroy its municipal institution. 
 After the trial of Lord William Russell 
 and the offendars connected with the Ej'e 
 House Plot, Jeffreys was appointed Chief 
 Justice of the King's Bench (Nov., 1683), in 
 which capacity he pronounced sentence of 
 death on Algernon Sidney. When James II. 
 became king the Chief Justice presided at the 
 trial of Titus Dates and Richard Baxter, and 
 it is difficult to say whether he appeared in a 
 more odious light by reason of his cruel 
 sentence on the one or his blasphemous 
 impudence to the other. He was now raised 
 to the House of Lords as Baron Jeffreys of 
 Wells (May, 1685), and almost immediately 
 afterwards went down into the'sneighbourhood 
 whence he derived his new title to try the 
 insurgents who had assisted in Monmouth's 
 rebellion (July, 1685). Some idea of the 
 cruelty with which he exercised his commis- 
 sion may be gathered from his conduct on 
 particular occasions, such as the trial of 
 Lady Lisle, and Hamling; but his blood- 
 thirsty temperament can only be fully 
 realised when we recollect the number of his 
 victims, of whom three hundred and twenty 
 were hanged. It was for this piece of 
 butchery that Jeffreys received his crowning 
 reward by being made Chancellor, in Septem- 
 ber, 1685 ; and he immediately signalised his 
 appointment to the new office by procuring 
 the " murder " of Alderman Cornish by a 
 packed jury. Jeffreys was next instrumental 
 in obtaining the verdict of the judges in 
 favour of the Dispensing Power, and the 
 revival of the High Commission Court. Then 
 followed the Declaration of Indulgence. On 
 the landing of the Prince of Orange, when 
 James II. left London for Salisbury, Jeffreys 
 was one of the five lords appointed to repre- 
 sent him in his absence. As William's cause 
 prospered daily, the Chancellor attempted to 
 escape in a sailor's dress ; he was seized by 
 the mob in a Wapping ale-house, but, being 
 secured by the trained bands, was carried 
 before the Lord Mayor and committed to the 
 Tower, where he died a few months later 
 (April, 1689). 
 
 Macaulay, Fist, of Eng.; Tampbell, Lives of 
 the Chancellors ; Eoger North, Lines ' of the 
 Norths; Woolryoh, Memoirs of Jeffreys. 
 
 [T.A.A.] 
 Jetyll, Sir Joseph {i. 1664, d. 1738), was 
 called to the Bar in 1687. In 1697 he was ap- 
 pointed Chief Justice of Chester, and in the 
 following year was returned for Eve, and 
 received the honour of knighthood. In 1710 
 he was one of the managers of SacheverelPs 
 impeachment. In 1717 he became Master 
 
 of the Rolls, and in 1725 one of the Com- 
 missioners of the Great Seal. In 1733 he 
 astonished the ministry by his vigorous sup- 
 port of Walpole's Excise Scheme. In the 
 year 1 736 he introduced the Gin Act, and the 
 Mortmain Act. "He was," says Stanhope, 
 " a very indifferent speaker, and somewhat 
 open to ridicule in his dress and deportment, 
 but a, man of the very highest benevolence 
 and probity." Pope has summed up his 
 character as one " who never changed his 
 principle or wig." 
 
 Jellalabad, The Siege of (1842), took 
 place during the first Afghan War. On March 
 11, 1842, Akbar Khan made his appearance 
 before Jellalabad, and advanced to the attack 
 of the town with his whole army. The garri- 
 son, however, sallied out and drove him 
 ignominiously from the field, upon which he 
 turned the siege into a blockade. On April 1 
 the troops sallied, and swept into the town 
 500 sheep and goats they had seen from the 
 bastions grazing in the plain. Akbar now 
 pitched his camp within two miles of the 
 ramparts, to cut off foragers. On April 6 
 General Sale determined on an assault on the 
 enemy's encampment. The troops issued 
 from the gate at dawn, and were received with 
 a flanking fire from one of the ports. This 
 was gallantly stormed. The advance guard 
 under Captain Havelock moved on, repelled 
 two charges of Akbar's splendid cavalry, and 
 drove them into the camp. The enemy were 
 dislodged from every point, and pursued to 
 the river, with the loss of their guns, equipage, 
 and ammunition. 
 
 Kaye, Affghan War; Annual Register. 
 
 Jenkins, Sir Leoline (Llewellyn) (J. 
 1623, rf. 1685),wasedueatedatOxford. On the 
 death of Charles I. he retired to Wales, and 
 later to the Continent, whence he returned 
 shortly before the Restoration. In 1661 he 
 was elected principal of Jesus College, of 
 which society he was a munificent benefactor. 
 In 1664 he was engaged in reviewing the 
 maritime laws, and in 1668 was made judge of 
 the Prerogative Court at Canterbury. In 1678 
 he was employed in negotiating the Treaty of 
 Nimeguen, and next year succeeded Sir Wil- 
 liam Temple as the English ambassador at 
 the Hague. On his return home he was a 
 strong opponent of the Exclusion Bill, for 
 which service he was appointed a Privy 
 Councillor about the year 1680. Five years 
 later he died. His Letters and Papers were 
 published in 1724. 
 
 Jenkins's Ear, The Story or, was cir- 
 culated in 1738, greatly to the prejudice of Sir 
 Robert Walpole. At this time war with Spain 
 was eagerly desired by the nation, but opposed 
 by the minister. Jenkins, who was the master 
 of a trading sloop from Jamaica, asserted that 
 his ship had been boarded by a Spanish 
 guarda casta, and that, although no proof of 
 
Jen 
 
 ( 627 ) 
 
 Jew 
 
 Bmiiggliiig had been found on tlie vessel, one 
 of his ears had been barbarously torn off. 
 This ear he carried about in cotton to display 
 to his hearers. It was said at the time that 
 he had lost it on another occasion, probably 
 at the piUory. On being asked by a mem- 
 ber what were his feelings when he found 
 himself in the hands of such barbarians, 
 " I recommended," He said, " niy soul to (lod, 
 and my cause to my country." " The truth 
 of the story,'' says Mr. Leoky, " is extremely 
 doubtful, but the end that was aimed at was 
 attained. The indignation of the people, 
 fanned as it was by the press and by the 
 untiring efiorts of all sections of the opposi- 
 tion, became uncontrollable." 
 
 Sta,uhope, Hist, of Mng..; Leoky, Bisi, of Enj. 
 d/uring the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 Jenkinson, Anthony ,(<?. 1584), was one 
 of the most famous travellers and explorers of 
 BUzabeth'a reign. In 1568 he was sent out 
 to Eussia as the agent of the Russian Com- 
 pany, and made his way to Astrachan, Persia, 
 and Bokhara, revisiting the last-named place 
 no leas than six times in the interests of 
 commerce. In 1571 he was sent to the 
 Czar's court by Ehzabeth as her accredited 
 
 Haklujt, Voyages, 
 
 Jersey. [Chahnel Islands.] 
 
 Jewel, John, Bishop of London (S. 
 1522, d. 1571), was one of the most active 
 of the Eeformers during the reign of 
 Edward VI. Under Mary, he was com- 
 peBod to seek an asylum in Germany, but 
 returned to England om the accession of 
 Elizabeth, and was made Bishop of Salisbury 
 (1559). He was one of the champions of the 
 Protestants at the Theological Conference a!t 
 ■Westminster in the same year. He was_ a 
 strong upholder of the doctrine of the divine 
 right of kings, a great controversialist, and a 
 voluminous writer. His great work, the Apo- 
 logy, or Defence of the English Church (1562), 
 is mainly based on a denial of the theory that 
 truth necessarily resides in a numerical majo- 
 rity ; it is practically a claim made on behalf of 
 Protestant bodies to be admitted to the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, and while denying that Roman 
 Catholic doctrines have the support of the 
 great fathers, is content to rest all its argu- 
 ments on the direct teaching of Christ and 
 his apostles. This work was translated into 
 English very soon after its first publication, 
 and was so generally esteemed that Elizabeth 
 gave orders for one copy of it to be placed in 
 every parish church. 
 
 Jews in England. The first appear- 
 ance of the Jews in any number in Eng- 
 land must be reckoned among the results 
 of the Norman Conquest. Immediately after 
 1066, many coming from Rouen, Caen, and 
 ather Norman cities, arrived in London in the 
 
 train of the invaders. Like the forests, the 
 Jews were declared in early Norman law to 
 be the peculiar property of the king, and 
 his local representative, usually the constable 
 of the tower or castle erected to signalise the 
 submission of a town to Norman conquerors, 
 ruled over each settlement. The Jews were 
 subject to tallages at the arbitrary wiU of the 
 crown, and to all the feudal dues of tenants- 
 in-chief, and the Norman kings claimed a 
 large proportion of their wealth. But they 
 ■enjoyed, in early times, no small security in 
 return. Their religion excited little hostility. 
 In their special districts, known as the 
 Jewries, they were allowed to practise all 
 their religious rites, and synagogues with 
 schools attached to them sprang up in all 
 .parts of the country. Standing outside the 
 authority of the Church, the canon-law for- 
 bidding trade in 'money did not affect them, 
 and it was that ealHng that most of them 
 successfully pursued. Their general financial 
 skill was widely acknowledged. "William II. 
 employed them to farm the revenues of 
 vacant sees, and at this and later dates, great 
 barons and ecclesiastics sought their services 
 as stewards of their estates. Many at the 
 same time gained distinction as physicians, 
 and in several towns, notably at Oxford, the 
 lectures of their rabbis on medicine, and other 
 sciences, were attended by Christian as well 
 as by Jewish scholars. 
 
 Aiter the death of Henry L, the security 
 which the Jews had previously enjoyed 
 was rapidly weakened. At the close of the 
 twelfth, and throughout the thirteenth cen- 
 turies, their position was one of growing 
 danger. They became the helpless victims 
 of the kings, who made their wealth an 
 importamt source of revenue. Stephen and 
 Matilda, and their supporters, robbed them 
 recklessly. In 1187 Henry II. demanded a 
 fourth of their chattels, and Richard I. de- 
 pended largely on them to meet his extravagant 
 expenditure. Until the reign of Henry III., 
 however, a somewhat tolerant pohcy was stiU 
 pursued toward them by the government in 
 matters of religion. In 1176 permission was 
 given them to acquire burial-grounds outside 
 the towns where they were settled. Richard I. 
 practically legalised their own forma of ^ oath 
 in civil cases. John corresponded with a 
 chief rabbi on terms of intimacy. But 
 from the middle of the twelfth century the 
 people of the towns, stirred constantly by the 
 preachers of the Crusades to a fanatical hatred 
 of them, attributed to them, as heretics, as 
 foreigners, and as capitalists, their poverty 
 and misfortunes, and subjected them to every 
 variety of persecution. In 1144 the baseless 
 charge was preferred against the Jews of Nor- 
 wich of murdering a child to use his blood in 
 their religious ceremonies, and this and similar 
 accusations were repeated later in London, 
 Gloucester, Bury St. Edmunds, Lincoln, and 
 elsewhere. In 1189 riots took place in every 
 
Jew 
 
 ( 628 ■) 
 
 Jew 
 
 town where any Jews resided. The Jewries 
 were pillaged and fired, and their inhabitants 
 brutally murdered. Restrictions, too, were fre- 
 quently placed on their financial dealings. The 
 Assize of Arms forbade the Jew to take into the 
 towns any weapon of war. In 1194 Richard I. 
 issued a decree placing, their commercial trans- 
 actions more thoroughly under the control of 
 the local officers of the crown. At the same 
 time special itinerant justices were to enforce 
 the new law, and were to form, at Westminster 
 a special court, known as.the Jews'" Exchequer 
 {Judeeorum Scaccarium), for the trial of lawsuits 
 in which Jews were concerned, and for auditing 
 the accounts of their contributions to the 
 national treasury. The barons introduced 
 into Magna Caita. a clause- forbidding, the 
 Jews on the death of a baronial debtor to 
 distrain the property of his survivors, and in 
 1218 they were ordered for the first time to 
 wear a distinguishing, badge. 
 
 The thirteenth- century witnessed little 
 change in the position of the Jews. The 
 first years of John!a reigji, and of his 
 son's, gave them, brief respites from per- 
 secution, and speciously extended their pri- 
 vileges, but otherwise their history is a 
 mere repetition of extortionate exactions and 
 deeds of popular violence., John not only 
 constantly levied tallages upon them, and 
 imprisoned, and tortured those unable to pay, 
 but he confiscated the property of their inr 
 solvent debtors, and distributed it among his 
 supporters. When Henry III. came of age, 
 he followed his father's example,.and reversed 
 the moderate, policy that his justiciars, 
 William Marshall and Hubert de Burgh, had 
 pursued towards them. They were made 
 responsible for all the extravagances of him- 
 self and his wife's relatives, who bitterly 
 hated them, and hardly a year passed without 
 a heavy exaction, varying- from 60,000i to 
 10,000 marks, being, made upon their property. 
 In 1255 Henry made them over to his brother, 
 Richard of Cornwall, as security for a large 
 loan. And these exactions and indignities 
 were far from being their only difiiculties. 
 The Church now deliberately attacked their 
 religion. The friars — the new. preachers of 
 religion in the towns — were filled with zeal 
 against Judaism, and they sought and ob- 
 tained, as at Cambridge, many synagogues for 
 their own habitations. Simon ■ de Montfort 
 shared the friars' hostility to them, and the 
 battles of Lewes and Evesham were followed 
 by revolting attacks upon the Jews throughout 
 the country. In vain they begged permission 
 to leave England altogether. The king found 
 them too valuable to lose them lightly. His 
 refusal of their petition was followed by a 
 harsh edict forbidding them to hold in future 
 any property in land. 
 
 From Edward I.'s connexion with the Jews 
 a similar story has arisen, but with his reign 
 their mediasval history ends. He shared the 
 antipathy for which his mother, Eleanor of 
 
 Provence, was remarkable, and the statute de 
 la Jeuerie, issued in 1275, was calculated to 
 ruin them utterly. Lending money at interest 
 was a^bsolutely forbidden, and every Jew 
 was to pay a poll-tax of threepence or 
 fourpence annually. Persecution by people 
 and priests was meanwhile left unpunished, 
 and at length, in 1290, Edward L, exercising 
 some self-denial, consented to expel them. 
 About 17,000 are reported to have left the 
 country, and the majority of them appear to 
 have sought refuge on the coast of France 
 and Flanders. Many, however,' were wilfully 
 wrecked in their passagp, and perished at sea. 
 The gf ounds of their expulsion were stated to 
 be the blasphemous character of their religious 
 belief, and their oppression of the people as 
 usurious money-lenders. Their real property 
 was naturally confiscated by the cro-wn. 
 
 It is frequently stated that after the banish- 
 ment of 1290 no Jews came to England until 
 the later years of Cromwell's Protectorate, 
 but special investigation of the subject leaves 
 little doubt that small numbers of them were 
 present in the country from the fourteenth to 
 the seventeenth century. Throughout this 
 period the- House for Jewish Converts in 
 London was seldom without some inmates. 
 In 1594 Roderigo Lopez, a Jewish physician 
 of Queen Elizabeth, was hanged at 'TyburD 
 on a charge of treason. Charles I. borrowed 
 money, there- can be little doubt, of some- of 
 their race who came to England from Amster- 
 dam, and Cromwell employed several Jews as 
 foreign spies. It was not, however, fill. 1655 
 that Edward. I.'s decree was practically re- 
 pealed. In that year the Protector, on his 
 o-wn responsibility, in answer to the petition 
 of Manasseh-ben-lOTael, a Dutch raBbi, granted 
 permission to a few Jews to settle openly in 
 this country. Much opposition was, raised to 
 the order by the London merchants, who feared 
 commercial rfvalrj', and in 1660 a petition 
 was presented to Charles II. to reverse Crom- 
 well's action, but it met -with no succes3> The 
 king had received loans- from the Jews in 
 the days of his exile, and had already pledged 
 his word to maintain them in England. 
 The fil-st Je-svish- immigrants in the seven- 
 teenth century were descended from Spanish 
 and Portuguese families who had taken refuge 
 in Holland, and they were followed later by 
 Jews from Germany and Poland. The 
 English law at first allowed them few 
 ciyil rights. By a statute of James I.'s 
 reign the sacramental test was essential to 
 naturahsation, and the various penal laws, 
 excluding Catholics from civil and municipal 
 oflSce, and fi^om the legal profession, were 
 applicable to them. Their public worship 
 contravened a law of Elizabeth making 
 attendance at church compulsory, but their 
 various places of worship in London, erected 
 in this and the next century, were never seri- 
 ously menaced. Their marriages, however, 
 were only valid by courtesy, and aU Jews 
 
Jew 
 
 ( 629 ) 
 
 Jhi 
 
 ■were subject to the alien duties (a heavy tax 
 imposed on all goods exported hy foreigners), 
 from which, however, James II. relieved them 
 for a few years. 
 
 In commerce the English Jews rapidly 
 gained a high reputation. In the war of the 
 Spanish succession, a Jew contracted to supply 
 the army with bread, and it was currently re- 
 ported that they entered in the same reign into 
 negotiations with Godolphin for the purchase 
 of Brentford as an exclusively Jewish settle- 
 ment. In the succeeding reigns several 
 attempts were made to relieve them of their 
 various disabilities. In 1723 they were per- 
 mitted to omit from the oath of abjuration all 
 words obnoxious to their faith, and a little 
 'later naturalisation was alio wed to all who had 
 lived seven years in America, or had engaged 
 in the flax or hemp trades, or who had served 
 in the navy. Thus the principle of their right 
 to naturaUsation was admitted. In 1753 the 
 Pelham ministry introduced the Jews' Natu- 
 ralisation Bill, extending the privilege but not 
 making it universal ; in spite of much oppo- 
 sition in the Commons, it became law. Popular 
 fanaticism and commercial jealousy were, how- 
 ever, roused against it in the country, and 
 predictions of the evils that would flow from 
 the measure -excited a very bitter agitation 
 against the Jews. In 1754 the government, 
 in obedience to the panic, moved the repeal of 
 the Act. A clause, however, in Lord Hard- 
 wicke's Marriage Act of the previous year 
 gave practical legal validity to Jewish 
 marriages. 
 
 In the present century the disabilities of 
 the Jews were finally removed, and their 
 cause found strong support in the city of 
 London. In 1832 they were given the rights 
 t)f freemen of the city, and by Lord Camp- 
 bell's Act of 1835 they were enabled to take 
 the oath requisite for admission to the office 
 of Sheriff. In 1832 the Reform BiU granted 
 them the suffrage. A motion for the abolition 
 of all their civil disabilities was introduced 
 into the House of Commons in 1833, and 
 Hume, 0'Comiell,and]VIacaulay spoke strongly 
 iii its favour, but after passing the Lower 
 House it was thrown out by the Lords. The 
 same fate awaited the bill on many subse- 
 quent occasions. In 1846, however, by the 
 Religious Opinions Relief Bill, the public 
 exercise of their religion, and the education 
 of their children in it, were legalised. In the 
 next year Baron Lionel de Rothschild was 
 elected Member of Parliament by the City of 
 London, but the law necessitating an oath 
 which he could not conscientiously take pre- 
 vented his taking his seat. In 1851 Alderman 
 Salomons was elected for Greenwich, and he 
 took his seat after omitting from the oath the 
 words obnoxious to his faith, for which he 
 was subsequently fined £500 in the Court of 
 Queen's Bench. Finally, in 1858, the re- 
 maining Jewish disabilities were removed by 
 law, and the oath admitting members to the 
 
 House of Commons so altered that Jews 
 
 might conscientiously take it. 
 
 Tovey, Anglia Judaicu (1733), with Madox's 
 acGOuut of tile Jewish Exchequer in his History 
 of ths EEBch&quer (vol. i.), coverd the mecliffival 
 history, of which a good summary is given in 
 Margoliouth's Jews of Great Britain (1845). 
 Picoiotto's Anglo- JevjisTi Sketches (1878) gives the 
 most elaborate iuformatiou on the subject from 
 the time of Cromwell. [S. L. L.l 
 
 Jeypore. [Rajpootana.] 
 
 Jhansi is the name of a district in 
 Bundelkhund, lying 142 miles south of Agra. 
 In 1804, on the first connection of the go- 
 vernment with Bundelkhund, a treaty was 
 concluded with Gheo Rao Bhao, a tribu- 
 tary of the Peishwa, and governor of this 
 small territory. In 1817, when all rights of 
 the Peishwa in the province were ceded to 
 the company, in consideration of his fidelity 
 the territory was declared hereditary in the 
 family of the above-mentioned ruler. On the 
 death of his grandson, wio died without 
 leaving any issue (1835), the territory was 
 given to a collateral branch of the same 
 family ; and when in 1854 the last descendant 
 of (jheo Rao Bhao died childless, the 
 British government declined to recognise his 
 adopted son, and annexed the province. The 
 Ranee protested in vain at the time ; but on 
 the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, she took 
 a fearful revenge, and put to death every 
 European — man, woman, and child — she could 
 seize, proclaiming herself independent. She 
 was besieged and driven from Jhansi, 1858, 
 and was eventually slain before Gwalior fight- 
 ing in the front ranks like a man. Her bodj', 
 however, was not found, and it is presumed 
 that it must have been carried away and 
 burnt. 
 
 Malleson, Hist, of the Indian Mutiny j Annual 
 Benisier, 1858. 
 
 Jhansi, The Siege op (1858). When the 
 Indian Mutiny broke out, the fortress of 
 Jhansi, which had for some years been 
 in the hands of the English Government, 
 was garrisoned by the 12th Native Infantry. 
 Early in June (1857), the rebellion broke out 
 here, and the fort, together with the treasure 
 and the magazine, fell into the hands of the 
 insurgents. It was not till March, in the 
 next year, that Sir H. Rose was enabled to 
 advance to this town, and establish his bat- 
 teries round it. On the 30th the defences of 
 the city and fort were dismantled, and the 
 guns BO far disabled that they no longer kept 
 up a serious fire. The final assault was made 
 April 2, by two columns. The town was 
 quickly cleared, and the Ranee fled. The 
 rebels now abandoned their positions, and the 
 English took possession of this formidable 
 fortress without further opposition. 
 
 Jhindur Bhye was the wife of Runjeet 
 Singh, on whose death she assumed the re- 
 gency of the Punjab, or rather shared it with 
 her paramour, Lall Singh. Her intrigues 
 
Jin 
 
 ( 630 N) 
 
 Joh 
 
 brought about the reduction of the Punjab 
 by Lords Hardinge and Dalhousie. After a 
 series of strange and romantic vicissitudes, 
 prematurely old, well-nigh blind, broken and 
 subdued in spirit, she found a resting place at 
 last under the roof of her son, in a quiet comer 
 of an English castle, and died in a London 
 suburb. 
 
 Kaye, Sepoy War. 
 
 Jingoes was a name given during the 
 excitement of the Eastern Question in 1878 to 
 the party which was in favour of war with 
 Sussia. The word sprang from a popular 
 song of the period, the refrain of which was — 
 **We don't want to fight, "but by Jiugo if we do, 
 We've got the ships, we've got the men, we've got 
 the mouey too." 
 The word, however, was adopted in serious 
 political controversy, and used to designate 
 those supposed to favour an aggressive and 
 combatant foreign policy. 
 
 Joan, wife of Edward the Black Prince 
 {d. 138-5), commonly called the Fair Maid 
 of Kent, was the daughter of Edmund 
 of Woodstock, Earl of Kent, son of King 
 Edward I. On the death of her brother, 
 without issue, she became Countess of Kent. 
 She was married first to Sir Thomas Holland, 
 and secondly to the Earl of Salisbury, from 
 whom she was divorced. In 1361 she became 
 the wife of the Black Prince, and five years 
 later gave birth to Eichard II. In 1381 she 
 was exposed to the insults of the insurgents, 
 who took possession of the Tower, whither 
 she had fled for refuge, but her life was pre- 
 served. She was rather favourably disposed 
 to WycHfEe. 
 
 Joan, OP Navarre, Queen {d. 1437), was 
 the daughter of Charles II. of Navarre, and 
 was married first to John V., Duke of 
 Britanny, and secondly (U03) to Henry IV., 
 by whom she had no issue. 
 
 Joanna, Princess (A. 1321, d. 1362), was 
 promised in marriage to Prince David of 
 Scotland, by the Treaty of Northampton 
 (1328), and betrothed in July the same year. 
 On the successful invasion of Edward Baliol, 
 the young king and queep. went to France, 
 where they were kindly received by King 
 Philip (1333), and whence they did not return 
 to Scotland till 1341. After her husband's 
 capture at Neville's Cross (1346), she visited 
 him in his captivity (1348). On his release in 
 1357, she accompanied him to Scotland, but 
 soon after, being insulted by David's prefer- 
 ence for his mistress, Katherine Mortimer, she 
 returned to Edward III.'s court, and refused to 
 return to her husband even when her rival was 
 murdered in 1360. 
 
 Jocelin de Brakelonde {d. cirea 
 
 1211) was a Benedictine monk at Bury St. 
 Edmunds, where ho held the offices of prior's 
 chaplain, abbot's chaplain, guest-master, and 
 
 almoner in succession. He is the author of a 
 domestic chronicle of the abbey to which he 
 belonged. This work extends from the year 
 1173, " when the Flemings were captured out- 
 side the town " — in which year also Jocelin be- 
 came a monk— to the year 1202. When Jocelin 
 deals with public events in this chronicle, 
 they are chiefly such as had some connection 
 with the abbey of which he was a member. 
 Jocelin's chronicle has been edited by Mr. J. 
 G. Eokewode for the Camden Society (1840), 
 and forms the text of Carlyle's Fast and 
 Present, 
 
 John, King (*. Dec. 24, 1166, s. April 8, 
 1199, d. Oct. 19, 1216), was the youngest 
 son of Henry II. and Eleanor of Aqui- 
 taine. He was Henry's favourite son, and 
 destined to receive as his share of his 
 father's empire the lordship of Ireland. 
 But his petulant and arrogant behaviour 
 to the Irish chiefs when, in 1185, he 
 was sent on a, visit to Ireland, compelled 
 Henry to give up this scheme. Before long 
 John joined his brother Richard in hia last 
 revolt against his father, under circumstances 
 of peculiar treachery. Henry's schemes to 
 win for John a rich marriage had proved no 
 less unsuccessful than his Irish plan. But 
 soon after Richard I. 'a accession, John's mar- 
 riage with the heiress of the great Gloucester 
 earldom gave him i;evenue and position. 
 During Richard's absence on crusade, John 
 joined the popular movement for deposing 
 Longchamp, the foreign justiciar, and, in 
 close alliance with Philip of France, rose in 
 revolt on the news of Richard's captivity. 
 But the administrative system was too strong 
 to be shaken by John's turbulence. The 
 rising was suppressed, and its author very 
 leniently treated by his brother, who did his 
 best to secure his succession in preference to 
 the heir of his elder brother, Geoffrey. In 
 1 199 John became king. His reign marks the 
 collapse of the great power which Henry II. 
 had founded; but also shows the begin- 
 ning of the national English state which 
 emerged from its ruins. The loss of Nor- 
 mandy, the quarrel with Innocent III., and 
 the struggle with the baronage which pro- 
 duced Magna Carta, are the great events of 
 his reign. Philip Augustus promptly de- 
 serted his old friend when he became king, 
 and posed as the champion of Arthur of 
 Britanny, whom John was generally beUeved 
 to have murdered, and as protector of 
 the injured Count of La Marche, whose be- 
 trothed wife, Isabella of Angouleme, John had 
 recently married, having divorced his first 
 wife. After a solemn trial, John was ad- 
 judged to have forfeited his French fiefs. In 
 1204 Philip conquered Normandy, John 
 making little or no attempt to protect his 
 dominions. Anjou, Maine, and the greater 
 part of the southern fiefs which Eleanor had 
 brought to Henry II., were speedily annexed 
 
Joli 
 
 ( 631 ) 
 
 Jum 
 
 also. Not until it was too late did John 
 •make a vigorous effort to regain ttem. By 
 that time other difficulties prevented his 
 attempts being successful. The Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, Hubert Walter, had been a 
 great influence for good on John. His death, 
 in 1205, was thus a great loss in itself. But 
 the quarrel of the Mng and the Canterbury 
 monks, and the imposition of a papal nominee 
 whom neither would accept, led to John's 
 famous contest with Innocent III. ; the inter- 
 dict of 1208 ; the deposition of 1211, and the 
 abject submission of the king when Philip, 
 as executor of the papal decrees, was prepar- 
 ing to invade England. He surrendered his 
 kingdom to Pandulf, the papal representa- 
 tive, and consented to receive it back as a fief 
 of the papacy. Henceforth John was Inno- 
 cent's ally; but his innumerable tyrannies had 
 raised up enemies in the nation against which 
 papal support was of little value. The death 
 of the iaithful justiciar, Fitz-Peter, in 1213, 
 broke up the civil administration. The last 
 check on John's tyraimy was now removed ; 
 but with unwonted energy he planned a great 
 expedition for the recovery of Poitou, in con- 
 junction with an alliance with the princes of 
 Lower Germany, who supported his nephew. 
 Otto IV., against PhUip. The defeat of Otto at 
 Bouvines, and the want of co-operation of the 
 Poitevins, made both schemes abortive. The 
 refusal of the northern barons of England to 
 serve abroad began the series of events which 
 led to the Great Charter. The papal arch- 
 bishop, Langton, took up an unexpectedly 
 patriotic attitude. He held up the charter "Si 
 Henry I. to the barons as a good basis for 
 their demands. A great meeting of the nobles 
 at Bury St. Edmunds declared itself against 
 the king. The clergy, the Londoners, the 
 ministerial prelates, in turn deserted John. 
 Abandoned by all but hirelings and foreigners, 
 he was constrained, in 1215 (June 15), to 
 sign Magna Carta. But the support of 
 Innocent III. could still be relied upon. 
 Langton was summoned to Rome. The Pope 
 annulled the charter. John, with his merce- 
 naries, spread desolation throughout the 
 country. Nothing was left for the barons 
 but to appeal to Philip of France. In 1216, 
 the landing of Louis, the French King's son, 
 with a French army, reduced John to despair. 
 His death at Newark (Oct. 19, 1216) only 
 prevented his deposition. 
 
 John was one of the worst of English 
 kings, tyrannical, treacherous, petulant, pas- 
 sionate, infamous in aU his private relations, 
 careless of all his public duties. But he was of 
 no mean ability ; and had he possessed more 
 persistent energy and stability of purpose, he 
 might have reigned as successfully as his 
 father. As it was, he failed in everj'thing he 
 undertook. The system of government which 
 Henry II. had established had survived the 
 neglect of Richard, but broke up under the 
 active tyranny of John. Yet iis dissolution 
 
 left the nation free to work out its own de- 
 velopment. The loss of Normandy made the 
 baronage finally English. It was no small 
 benefit to the nation that John's tyranny 
 compelled barons and people, and, despite the 
 Pope, the better elements in the Church, to 
 make common cause against John. Magna 
 Carta was the result of the first corporate 
 action of the English nation, and the founda- 
 tion of the mediaeval constitution. Even the 
 submission to Rome helped on in the next 
 generation the national reaction which John's 
 reign had done so much to stimulate. 
 
 Matthew Paris, Hist. Atigl, ; Pauli, En^lische 
 GescMchte; Stubbs, Const. Hist.; Pearson, 
 Hist. ofEng.; lingard. [T. F. T.] 
 
 John, 9th Lord of the Isles, and 11th 
 Earl of Ross (d. 1498), aided James II. at the 
 siege of Roxburgh (1460), for which service 
 he was appointed a Warden of the Marches. 
 In 1462, however, he entered into a treaty 
 with Edward IV., which, becoming known 
 some years later, led to the forfeiture of his 
 earldom of Ross. But John was too powerful 
 to be offended, and, in 1476, was created a 
 peer as John de Isla, Lord of the Isles, by 
 way of conciliation. 
 
 Johnston, Archibald, op Warriston 
 {d. 1661), was a leader of the Covenanters, 
 whose demands he is said to have formulated. 
 He was one of the Commissioners at the 
 Peace of Berwick (1639), and at the Treaty 
 of Eipou (1640). The following year he 
 became a Lord of Session, and is credited 
 with having suggested the Acts of Classes in 
 1649. Having acted as chairman of Crom- 
 well's Committee of Public Safety, he was 
 condemned, in 1661, and executed at Edin- 
 burgh. 
 
 Judge. [Justice.] 
 
 Judith, daughter of Charles the Bold, 
 King of France, in 856 was married to 
 King Ethelwulf. She is said to have sat by 
 herinsband's side on the royal throne, l)ut 
 this apparently means nothing more than 
 that she was recognised as queen, a title 
 which had belonged to no wife of a West- 
 Saxon king since the days of Edburga. 
 After EthelwuU's death, she married her 
 stepson Ethelbald (858), and on his decease, 
 in 860, she went back to her father's court, 
 and subsequently took for her third husband 
 Baldwin (Iron- Arm), first Count of Flanders. 
 
 Jnmibges, Robert op. Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (1050 — 52), was a Norman 
 who came over to England in the train 
 of Edward the Confessor. He was made 
 Bishop of London in 1044, and at once 
 came forward as the leader of the French 
 party. His influence over the king was very 
 great. "So high did he stand in the king's 
 estimation, that if he had said a black crow 
 was a white one, the king would sooner have 
 believed the bishop's word than his own eyes." 
 
Jum 
 
 ( 632 ) 
 
 Jnn 
 
 And this influence was exerted to fiU every 
 office with Normans, and destroy the national 
 party a£ which Godwin was the head. The 
 success of Robert's scheme was seen in 1050, 
 when Edward appointed him archhishop, in 
 opposition to the Chapter of Canterbury, who 
 had elected one of their own number, Elfric, 
 to the post. The triumph of the Normans 
 seemed secured ia 1051 by the banishment of 
 Godwin and his sons ; but in the next year 
 they returned, were received with the greatest 
 enthusiasm, and for the time destroyed the 
 influence of their rival. Archbishop Robert 
 was one of the first to flee before the storm, 
 and, in company with the Bishop of Dor- 
 chester, he made his way in a crazy fishing- 
 boat to Normandy. The Witenagemot, 
 which met almost immediately, deprived 
 Robert of his archbishopric, and outlawed 
 him, and the interposition of the Pope in his 
 favour was disregarded. He had to retire to 
 the monastery of Jumi^ges, where he remained 
 tin Ms death. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron.; Freeman, Jfoi*man Con- 
 Quesf, Tol. ii 
 
 Jninibges, William op (5. circa 1020), 
 was a Norman monk, who compiled a 
 Latin history of the Dukes of Normandy 
 from Rolls to the year 1071. His work 
 has been greatly interpolated by later 
 writers ; but for the Conquest, and the «arly 
 years of WiDiam I.'s reign, Wilham of 
 juraifeges is a fairly good authority. The 
 earher part of this writer's work is an abridg- 
 ment of Diido of St. ftuentin. Only the first 
 seven books can be looked upon as belonging to 
 William ; the eighth, and many interpolations 
 on the previous books, being due to Robert de 
 Monte. The narrative of William of Jumifeges 
 forms the ground- work of Waee's Ze Soman 
 (fe Ron. 
 
 This author has been printed in Duchesne's 
 
 ScYvgtores Normanim, and in Migoe's PatrologifS 
 
 Cursus Computus, vol. cxlix. 
 
 Jung Bahadur,' Sir {d. 1877), the chief 
 minister, and virtual ruler, of Nepaul, brought 
 a large contingent to the help of the English 
 in the rebellion of 1857, and assisted at the 
 siege of Delhi (1858). Jung Bahadur had, in 
 earher years, assisted in the murder of Mala- 
 bar Singh (1845), the chief minister of 
 Nepaul, and after this became one of the 
 principal governors of the country. His 
 previous conduct seems to have been to some 
 extent dictated by a wish to serve the Queen 
 of Nepaul; hut when ordered by her to destroy 
 the heir-apparent and his brother, Jung 
 Bahadur refused to obey, and before long 
 succeeded in appointing him as ruler of 
 Nepaul in the room of the Maharajah (1847). 
 A few years later (1850) Jung Bahadur paid 
 a visit to England. 
 
 Juniiis, The Letters op. The first letter 
 bearing the signature of " Junius " made its 
 appearance in the Public Advertiser for Nov. 
 
 21, 1768. But we have the author's own 
 assurance that he had been writing under dif- 
 ferent names for at least two years previously. 
 It was not, however, till Jan. 21, 1769, 
 that the regular series of political attacks 
 under the title of Junius commenced with 
 an assault on the characters of the Duke of 
 Grafton and Lord North, in a letter addressed 
 to the former of these two nobles. With 
 reference, to the duke we are told that " the 
 finances of a nation sinking under its debts 
 have been committed to a young nobleman 
 already ruined by play ; " while Lord North 
 is characterised as " an object of derision to 
 his enemies, and of melancholy pity to his 
 friends." The vacillation and inconsistency 
 of the govajnment are pointed out, and hardly 
 any name mentioned escapes irony or abuse 
 excepting that of Mr. Grenville. The mili- 
 tary part of this attack drew out a reply from 
 Sir "William Draper, in which he called upon 
 Junius to ask pardon of " Lord Granby and the 
 whole kingdom for his abominable scandal." 
 Letter followed letter between the two com- 
 batants, till on March 18 Junius once more 
 turned his batteries directly against the 
 Duke of Grafton for having pardoned a cer- 
 tain Edward MacQuirk, who had been found 
 guilty of murder. This question is made the 
 prelude to a fierce condemnation of the Duke's 
 whole conduct as regards the Wilkes and 
 Luttrell question, his private morals and his 
 political capacity. The Prime Minister is 
 told, " There is something which distinguishes 
 you not only from all other ministers but 
 from all other men. It is not that you do 
 wrong by design, but that you should never 
 do right by mistake." By the end of May 
 the Duke of Bedford is incidentally brought 
 upon the scene to share in the Prime Minister's 
 abuse, and towards the end of July Black- 
 stone is directly attacked for his reflections 
 on Grenville. Towards the middle of Sep- 
 tember Junius addressed his first letter to the 
 Duke of Bedford, the inheritor of a nan!,o 
 " glorious till it was yours : " and once more 
 Sir W. Draper came forward for the defence. 
 On Dec. 19, 1769, appeared the famo'us letter 
 to the king, for which the printers and pub- 
 lishers were tried (1770), on which occasion 
 the jury brought in a verdict of " Guilty of 
 publishing only." The conduct of Lord 
 Mansfield on this occasion laid him open to 
 the attacks of the anonjinous writer. In- 
 deed, in the first letter to this great lawyer 
 (Nov., 1770), Junius attacks him with peculiar 
 bitterness : " no learned man, even among 
 your own tribe, thinks you qualified to pre- 
 side in a court of Common Law." In the 
 preceding August (1770) Junius had had 
 published his first letter to Lord North, 
 and there reproached this statesman for 
 appointing Colonel Luttrell Adjutant-General 
 of the army in Ireland. With the opening 
 of 1771 foreign poUtics attracted the pen of 
 Junius, but by the middle of. the year he had 
 
Jur 
 
 ( 633 ) 
 
 Jnr 
 
 once more directed his attention to the DiJce 
 of Grafton, who, says the author, " is the 
 pillow upon which I am determined to rest 
 all my resentments." Then followed the 
 discussion with Mr. Home (July to Aug., 
 1771). Later in the same year Lord Mans- 
 field is again attacked for having hailed 
 John Eyre, a Scotchman, and on Jan. 21, 
 1772, Junius's last letter appeared in proof of 
 his assertion that on this occasion Lord Mans- 
 field had done "that which by law he was 
 not warranted to do." The same paper con- 
 tained Junius's appeal to Lord Camden, " in 
 the name of the English nation to stand forth 
 in defence of the laws of his country," lest it 
 " should he said that for some months past he 
 had kept too much company with the Duke 
 of Grafton." This letter winds up with the 
 words "I do not scruple to afiirm that in 
 my judgment he (Lord Mansfield) is the 
 very worst and moat dangerous man in the 
 kingdom. Thus far I have done my duty in 
 endeavouring to hring him to punishment. 
 But mine is an inferior ministerial office in 
 the temple of justice. I have hound the vic- 
 tim and dragged him to the altar." 
 
 The question of the authorship of these 
 letters is one which has severely taxed the 
 critical ingenuity of the last hundred years. 
 Hardly a single prominent statesman of the 
 time who was not himself directly attacked bj' 
 Junius, has wanted champions to assert his 
 claim to their production. Lord George 
 SackvUle, Barre, Grattan, Burke, Lord 
 Loughborough, Gibbon, Lord Chatham, and 
 William Mason, Lord Temple, and many 
 others, have all had their supporters ; 
 but none of their pretensions can be con- 
 sidered as valid. The weight of ' inferential 
 evidence seems to point towards Sir PhUip 
 Francis, and it is certain that he was not un- 
 willing to be considered as Junius, though he 
 never admitted the claim in words. The 
 test of handwriting seems to tend in the same 
 direction. But, if he be the author, it must 
 be allowed that however much this distinction 
 may add to his intellectual, it takes away 
 from his moral character; for he seems to 
 have been receiving favours from and living 
 on intimate terms with many of those whom 
 he assailed most fiercely. The most, how- 
 ever, that can be said in favour of the view 
 that he was the writer is that he is the least 
 unlikely of the most prominent candidates. 
 
 Junius's Letters have been frequently repul)- 
 lished. For the controversy on their author- 
 ship see Macaulay, Essay on Warren Hastings; 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng., vol. v., appendix; 
 Britten, jwnius Elucidoted ; Dilke, Papers of a 
 Critic; Lecky, Hist, of Eng, dui'mg the Eighteenth 
 Centv/ry, iii. j W. Massey, Hist, of Geo, III., 
 vol. i. 
 
 Jury, The, in modem English juridical 
 usage, IS a body of laymen, generally twelve 
 in number, chosen by lot to ascertain, with the 
 assistance and guidance of the judge, questions 
 of fact only, proved before them by evidence. 
 
 They are bound by oath (hence their name) 
 to discharge their duties properly. Unanimity 
 is generally required of them. Juries are used 
 both in criminal and civil cases. In the 
 former the Grand Jury presents offenders 
 against whom there is a primd facie case, to 
 be tried before the judge and the Petty Jury. 
 In the latter a distinction is drawn between 
 the Special Ju/ry and the Common Jury, the 
 property qualification of the special juror 
 being higher. There is also a Coroner's Jury, 
 on whose finding persons may be brought to 
 trial at the assizes. 
 
 Of the origin of juries every conceivable 
 theory has been held. It was once almost an 
 article of constitutional faith that they were in- 
 vented by King Alfred, Welsh antiquaries add- 
 ing at the suggestion of Asser, who had expe- 
 rienced the benefits of the system in Wales. 
 Many have stoutly maintained the exclu- 
 sively English origin of this typical English 
 institution. Northern archseologists have 
 argued that it was brought ready-made by 
 the Danes to England; others that it came 
 over with William the Conqueror. The 
 Canon law, the Roman law, the customs of 
 the early Slavs copied by their Saxon neigh- 
 bours, have also had the jury fathered upon 
 them. Even wilder is the hypothesis of their 
 Eastern origin and introduction into Europe 
 by the Crusaders. The truth seems to be that 
 the jury is a specialised development under 
 favourable conditions of a tendency common to 
 all the Teutonic peoples, if not to many other 
 Aryan tribes as well. In its modem form it 
 is hardly older than the reign of Henry II., 
 and in many important features not so 
 old as that. But in its broader aspect the 
 jury simply carries on the popular judicial 
 courts of the old German pohty. It is the 
 latest survival of the time when the law 
 courts were the courts of the people, when 
 the mass of the suitors were judges, witnesses, 
 and jurors in • one. It is in this sense only 
 that the twelve assessors of the presiding 
 ofiicer in the shire and hundred-moot (the 
 rachimburgi, or scabini, of the Franks), or the 
 twelve compurgators whose testimony, added 
 to that of their principal, was regarded as 
 conclusive, or the sworn witnesses who repre- 
 sented, as it were, common fame, can be 
 regarded as progenitors of the jury system ; 
 in strictness they were not. They shared 
 with the jury a common representative cha- 
 racter. Like them they were bound by oath, 
 and were commonly of the sacred number of 
 twelve. But the specific function of judging 
 on matters of fact was not yet differentiated 
 from the other elements of judicial proceed- 
 ings. Only in one of the laws of Ethelred II.' 
 — which refers to a committee of twelve 
 thegns in the shire-moot, who take oath to 
 accuse no man falsely — do we find any real 
 analogy to the later jury ; and this remark- 
 able anticipation of the " jury of present- 
 ment" stands so much by itself that it is 
 
Jur 
 
 ( 634 ) 
 
 Jur 
 
 unsafe to generalise from such scanty data. 
 Thus we can find no real juries among the 
 English before the Conquest. Still less can 
 the analogous Ndmd of Sweden, or the other 
 Scandinarian tribunals of the same sort, be 
 regarded as parents of an institution which 
 has only collateral affinity to them. But 
 soon after the Norman Conquest, the system 
 of inquest by sworn recognitors, representa- 
 tive of the popular courts, was introduced 
 into England hj the invaders. This system 
 may have been borrowed from the Theo- 
 dosian Code by the Carolinglan emperors. 
 The Fraukish Capitularies contain numerous 
 instructions to the royal Missi to inquire 
 iato various fiscal and judicial rights of 
 the crown, by the oath of the trustworthy 
 men of the neighbourhood, whose evidence 
 was regarded as the embodiment of the 
 witness of the community, which in early 
 times was the ultimate evidence of rights. 
 This system survived the fall of the Carolings, 
 and was still frequently used, both in France 
 generally and Normandy in particular, at the 
 time of the Conquest. There was every 
 reason why William I. and his ministers 
 should introduce this practice into England. 
 Anxious to rule according to ancient prece- 
 dent, and ignorant of the old customs of the 
 country, these Inquisitiones were of unique 
 value in giving them trustworthy information. 
 The immense mass of antiquarian knowledge 
 collected in the Domesday Survey was obtained 
 by inquests of the royal officials before repre- 
 sentatives of the popular courts. It was a 
 slight step in advance to allow the means so 
 useful in ascertaining the rights of the crown 
 to be employed in ascertaining the rights of the 
 . subject. Both for royal and private purposes, 
 mostly for fiscal, but also for judicial objects, 
 Henry I. developed the system stiU further. 
 But it was Henry II. who gave to the system 
 a politioal and judicial importance it never had 
 before. He made it part of the ordinary 
 judicial machinery. He applied it to all sorts 
 of civil and criminal suits. So far as great 
 institutions can be the work of individuals, 
 he is the founder of the English system of 
 trial by jury. 
 
 The Conquest had made trial by battle the 
 ordinary means of settling disputes about 
 freeholds. Henry II., in the Great Assize, 
 gave suitors, as an alternative, the use of the 
 inquest. A jury of twelve knights of the 
 county, chosen by four knights electors, were 
 summoned by the sheriEE to appear before the 
 king or his judges to give evidence. Again, 
 the Constitutions of Clarendon enjoined cases 
 of dispute as to lay or clerical tenure to be 
 settled by the recognitionby twelve sworn men ; 
 and the three assizes of Mort d'Ancester, Novel 
 Disseisin, and Darrein Presentment, were 
 accomplished by the same means. In criminal 
 casesi, the precedents of the law of Ethelred, 
 of the juratores of the shire mentioned in 
 Henry I.'s Pipe Roll, and of the criminal jury 
 
 of the sixth article of the Constitutions of 
 Clarendon, were developed into the system of 
 trial prescribed by the assizes of Clarendon 
 and Northampton. By the former measure, 
 inquiry was ordered to be made through every 
 shire and hundred by twelve lawful men of 
 each hundred, and four of each township, 
 upon oath, for all suspected criminals. When 
 the royal justices came round on their jour- 
 neys, the above-mentioned jury was to present 
 the suspected offenders to them in the county 
 court, where they were to be tried by the 
 ordeal. But the development of juridical 
 science led, first, to the minimising of the 
 ordeal, so that the presentment became the 
 important thing, and, next, to its abolition 
 by the Lateran Council of 1215. Even 
 before this, an alternative to the ordeal was 
 sometimes found in a second jury, empanelled 
 to investigate further the truth of the pre- 
 sentment. After 1215 this became the 
 universal, method of procedure. The Grand, 
 Jury presented criminals. The trial, strictly 
 speaking, was before the Fetty Jury, as this 
 second jury was soon called. This is still 
 the case, though the establishment of 
 elaborate magisterial investigations has 
 tended to reverse the original importance of 
 the two bodies. 
 
 Juries thus established were almost peculiar 
 to England. The Prankish inquest was 
 never developed to further consequences in its 
 own home. The imperfect juries of the 
 mediseval Continent were almost entirely the 
 result of the reflex action of the English juries. 
 The modem Continental jury is avowedly 
 borrowed. Thus, Professor Freeman can 
 claim with reason that the jury is a native 
 English growth, despite its filial relation to 
 the Prankish inquest. 
 
 The juries of the thirteenth century differed 
 in many important respects from modem 
 juries. They were stiU largely witnesses. 
 The jury of the Grand Assize, for example, 
 were chosen from those practically cognisant 
 of the facts of the particular case. Even 
 when it was found impossible to summon 
 only witnesses as jurors, it was long before 
 the_ advancement of juridical science limited 
 their functions to deciding on evidence laid 
 before them. It was long before the jury 
 was free from judicial censure if their verdict 
 was disliked by the judge. Not before the 
 Revolution of 1688 could the jury in a 
 political case be said to have acquired full 
 freedom. Not before Fox's Libel Act did 
 they acquire real power of deciding on the 
 whole facts of one important branch of trials. 
 
 The political importance of trial by jury is 
 very considerable in English history. Though 
 a mere administrative expedient in its origin, 
 the fact that the county jury was a system- 
 atic representation of the shire community, se- 
 lected to treat with the king or his represent- 
 ative, was a step of the greatest importance 
 in the development of our representative 
 
Jus 
 
 { 635 ) 
 
 Jus 
 
 institutions. [Parliament.] The great prin- 
 ciple of trial by peers was embodied in 
 Magna Carta; and, before long, the jury- 
 system came to be regarded as the greatest 
 safeguard against arbitrary imprisonment, and 
 the greatest guarantee of a fair trial, and of 
 the personal liberty of the subject. A venal 
 or time-serving judge — ^dependent for his 
 position on royal favour — could only be 
 checked by some such means. In pohtical 
 trials, even of the last century, without trial 
 by jury it would have fared badly with an 
 enemy of the government. Even now that 
 the impartiality of the judges is thoroughly 
 established, the jury system, though shorn of 
 its original importance, and limited in its 
 operation by the tendencies of legal reform, stiU 
 keeps its own function in our judicial system. 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Freeman, No^'man Con- 
 gest, vol. V. ; Palgrave, English Cmnmonwealth. 
 Tlie subject is treated more fully in Forsyth, 
 Hist, of T'l'ial by Jury, and Biener, Bas Englische 
 Geschwomengericht. Dr. H. Brunner, in his 
 treatise Ueher die Entstehmig der Schwurgenchte, 
 gives a very full and complete view of Uie sub- 
 ject, and demonstrates very clearly the relation 
 of the jury to the Frankish Inquimtio. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Justice, or Judge. In the old English 
 popular courts, the whole body of suitors 
 acted as judges. The sheriff, or hundreds- 
 ealdor, was simply their chairman, or mode- 
 rator ; and the judicial committee of twelve 
 thegns were the assessors of the sheriff. The 
 feudal jurisdiction of the landrica, the supreme 
 jurisdiction of the king, invested lords of 
 soken and monarchs with some of the attri- 
 butes of the later judge. But the real differ- 
 entiation of the office of judge took place 
 subsequently to the Norman Conquest, and 
 was due to the development of the study of 
 jurisprudence, the increasing specialisation of 
 the whole system of government, the organi- 
 sation on an extended basis of the royal 
 jurisdiction, and its connection with the head- 
 leas popular judicature, through the jury, by 
 the Norman and Angevin kings. These cir- 
 cumstances necessitated the employment of a 
 large judicial staff, which, if not strictly con- 
 fined, after the precedents of later times, to 
 its juridical business, and if equally em- 
 ployed by the king on fiscal and administra- 
 tive duties, was sufficiently occupied with 
 legal work to obtain from it its most com- 
 mon appellation. During the eleventh cen- 
 tury, the word Justitia began to be used in 
 a sense which included the persons charged 
 with the administration of the law, as well as 
 to indicate the abstract principles on which 
 the law was based. The justice, or judge, 
 received his name from the justice which he 
 declared. The so-called Laws of Edward the 
 Confessor speak of the sheriffs as justices ; 
 John of Salisbury gives them the same title, and 
 the Assize of Clarendon couples them with the 
 justices in the stricter sense. But it is pos- 
 sible that this title belonged specially to the 
 
 sheriffs as transacting special business under 
 the king's writ. In Henry I.'s Charter and 
 Laws, and in some other instances, the term 
 seems to ioclude all landlords possessing 
 courts of their own, or all suitors qualified 
 to act as judices in the shire moot. But 
 the title became gradually further limited, 
 until it was ultimately used to indicate (1) the 
 president, or chief officer of the Curia Eegis, 
 (2) all the members of the same court. 
 
 The chief minister of the Norman and An- 
 gevin kings was styled the justitia, or some- 
 times iiih.Q justitiariiis, or capifalis, or summus 
 justitia. His office, obscure in origin, and 
 perhaps developed from the Norman sene- 
 schalship through the regents of William L, 
 during his absences on the Continent, ac- 
 quired great importance under Eanulf Flam- 
 bard, who assumed the name, if not the func- 
 tions, of the later justiciar. Under Roger, 
 Bishop of Salisbury, the great minister of 
 Henry I., and the practical founder of his 
 administrative system, both the name and 
 functions of the office became more strictly 
 defined. Until the middle of the reign of 
 Henry III., a long and scarcely interrupted 
 series of chief justiciars acted as permanent 
 prime ministers, as representatives of the 
 monarch in all relations of state, as regents 
 during the king's absence, as royal deputies 
 even in his presence, as presidents of the 
 judicial system which centred in the Curia 
 Eegis, and as presidents of the fiscal system 
 which centred in the exchequer. A similar 
 need produced analogous offices in half the 
 kingdoms of Europe. In Aragon and Naples 
 the correspondence extended even to the name 
 of Justitia. So long as the feudal spirit re- 
 mained strong, the holders of the office were 
 bishops, unable to found a legal family ; but the 
 triumph of Henry II. over the feudal sepa- 
 ratists rendered it safe to appoint baronial 
 justiciars. The development of the power of 
 the chancellor, the break-up of the bureau- 
 cratic sj-stem of the Angevins and the de- 
 velopment of a constitution in which a per- 
 manent prime minister found no place, led to 
 a gradual change in the functions of the 
 justiciar during the thirteenth century. His 
 political functions gradually disappeared, 
 while the increasing speciahsation of our legal 
 S3'stem gave to his functions as president of 
 the chief court of justice a new importance. 
 Hubert de Burgh was the last great political 
 justiciar. His successor, Stephen Segrave, 
 was simply a good lawyer. He began the 
 process of change which was completed before 
 the end of the century. The Capitalis Jus- 
 titia of Henry II. becomes the Lord Chief 
 Justice of Edward I. 
 
 The title of justice was, however, never 
 confined to the justiciar. Even during the 
 administration of Roger of Salisbury, the 
 title is frequently conferred on other members 
 of the Curia Eegis. In the Dialogus de Scac- 
 eario it is their official designation, although 
 
Jus 
 
 ( 636 ) 
 
 Jut 
 
 the same individuals sat in the Exchequer 
 with the title of barons. Henry II. made his 
 grandfather's system of judicial visitations a 
 permanent part of the legal system of the 
 country. As representatives of the sovereign, 
 the Justices of the Curia Regis systematically 
 perambulated the country and tried the of- 
 fenders presented to them by the grand 
 juries elected by the shire-moot, held in- 
 quiries into freehold suits under the Grand 
 Assize, transacted proceedings under the three 
 assizes of Mort D' Ancestor, Darrein Present- 
 ment, and Novel Disseisin, besides acting as 
 fiscal and executive officers of the crown. 
 But the judicial aspect of the justice gradu- 
 ally became more important. In 1178 the 
 Court of King's Bench was cut ofi from the 
 Curia Eegis in its larger aspect, and the 
 clause of Magna Carta that Common Pleas 
 should no longer follow the crown, hut be 
 held in some fixed place, led to the further 
 differentiation of the Court of Common Pleas, 
 which sat constantly at Westminster, from 
 the Court of King's Bench, now entirely de- 
 voted to judicial business. Meanwhile the 
 old financial system which had centred in the 
 .Exchequer became obsolete, and the Barons 
 of the Exchequer, deprived of mast of their 
 fiscal business, became almost as much 
 simple judges as the justices of the King's 
 Bench or Common Pleas. The process 
 of diffierentiation had already gone so far 
 that each of the three courts had a separ- 
 ate staff of officials. As has been shown, 
 the Justiciar became Chief Justice, and, as he 
 retained a special relation to the King's 
 Bench, a similar official of less dignity pre- 
 sided over the Common Pleas. Meanwhile 
 Edward I. defined and completed what 
 Henry II. had established. The Justices 
 Itinerant of Henry II. became the Justices 
 of Assize of Edward I. The various com- 
 missions under which they sat at West- 
 minster or went on circuits, were systematised 
 and enlarged. Instead of the separate Iters 
 for different purposes, the justices were sent 
 out at regular intervals on a fivefold mission 
 ^as Justices of the Peace, of Oyer and Ter- 
 miner, of Gaol Delivery, of Assize, and of Nisi 
 PriuB (q.v.). Their functions and positions 
 were hardly changed until recent legislation 
 consohdated the three courts, and super- 
 seded by justices the Barons of the Ex- 
 chequer. The title of Justice is given by 
 recent Judicature Acts to all judges of the 
 Supreme Court. In the High Court of Jus- 
 tice, into which the three old courts have 
 been merged, they are called Mr. Justice, and 
 their head is the Lord Chief Justice of Eng- 
 land, the titles of Chief Justice of the Common 
 Pleas and Lord Chief Baron having been abo- 
 lished. In the Court of Appeal the judges 
 are styled Lord Justice. The title of Lord 
 Justice had in previous times been often given 
 to persons invested with extraordinary ju- 
 dicial commissions, such as, for example, the 
 
 government of Ireland during the absence or 
 vacanc}' of the Lord Lieutenant, or the com- 
 missions of regency that sometimes governed 
 the coimtry during the absences of Wil- 
 liam III., and the Hanoverian monarchs on the 
 Continent. Besides the justices of the Eng- 
 lish courts, there were special justices for 
 Durham, Chester, the Isle of Ely, and similar 
 Palatine jurisdictions. 
 
 In a lower sphere the title of justice has 
 long been given to the inferior magistrates of 
 the first instance. The "custodes pacis," or 
 " conservatores pacis," which it became usual 
 for the king to nominate during the thirteenth 
 century {e.g., Henry III.'s writ in 1233, and 
 Edward I.'s statute of Winchester), received, 
 by an Act of Edward III., both power to try 
 felonies, and the more honourable designation 
 of Justice of the Peace. " The whole Chris- 
 tian world hath not the like office as justice 
 of the peace, if duly executed," was the 
 opinion of Lord Coke, and despite the ob- 
 vious objections to lay tribunals, drawn 
 from a limited class, the system still remains, 
 except in a few populous places where stipen- 
 diary magistrates with legal training have 
 been appointed. The Justices of the Peace 
 are appointed by a special commission under 
 the great seal to keep the peace within the 
 limits of the county in which they are ap- 
 pointed to act. The property qualification 
 for the office is £100 a year in land. They 
 exercise jurisdiction either individually, or 
 in petty sessions of the justices of a limited 
 district, or in quarter sessions of the justices 
 of the whole county. The latter body still 
 combines with its judicial work administrative 
 and fiscal business in a way that recalls the 
 justices of the reign of Henry I. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist.; Gneist, FeriuattunggrecTit ; 
 Camiibell, lAves of the Chief Justices ; jFosa, Judges 
 »/■ 3Sng. ; Reeve, Rist. of English Law ; Stephen, 
 Hist, of Criminal Law ; Haydn's Boole of Dignities 
 gives a list of the Cbief Justices ; Bum's Justice 
 of the Peace is an authoritative manual on the ■ 
 many functions of that office. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Justus, Archbishop of Canterbury (624 — 
 627), was one of the monks who were sent by 
 Gregory, in 601, to join the mission at Canter- 
 bury. In 604 he was made Bishop of Eo- 
 chester. On the death of Ethelbert, fearing 
 persecution, he fled to France, but soon re- 
 turned and resumed the charge of his see. 
 In 624, he became Archbishop of Canterbury 
 in succession to MeUitus. The great event of 
 his short occupancy of this see was the exten- 
 sion of the Kentish mission to Northumbria. 
 Bede, EccUsiastical Hist. 
 
 Jutes, The. There are three questions 
 of interest connected with this tribe, which 
 is generally considered to have been the 
 first people of Teutonic blood to settle in 
 Britain after the withdrawal of the Eoman 
 legions, viz., the date of their arrival, the 
 place of their origin, and the place of their 
 settlement. The year most usually assigited 
 
Jux 
 
 ( 637 ) 
 
 Eal 
 
 as that in wHoli they came to our shores is 
 the one given by the Anglo-Saxon chronicler 
 and Florence of Worcester (449 — 450) ; both 
 of these authorities probably basing their 
 computation upon the words of Bede, Hist. 
 EecUs., i. 15. According to G-ildas, this 
 event must have happened after ^tius had 
 been consul for the third time, that is, after 
 446 ; and Nenniua, too, in a very corrupt 
 passage, seems to imply that it took place in 
 449. But, while accepting this date, we 
 must not forget that there are grounds for 
 assigning the first landing of the Teutonic 
 tribes to a period much nearer the commence- 
 ment of the century. The next question that 
 arises is, as to the original seat and the race of 
 these Jutish invaders. And here it is note- 
 worthy that neither Gildas nor Nennius seems 
 to know them as Jutes ; with the former they 
 are "Saxons," with the latter "exiles from 
 Germany " and " Saxons." Bede appears to 
 speak of them vaguely as being of "the race 
 of the Angles or Saxons," then as " Saxons," 
 and lastly as " Jutes." He also tells us that 
 these Jutes originally came from the north of 
 that "country which is called Anjulus, and 
 which is said to have remained unoccupied 
 from that time to our day." This passage 
 has generally been interpreted as locating 
 the Jutes in Jutland, which may stUl preserve 
 the old root in its modem name. Lastly, we 
 have to consider the area of the Jutish settle- 
 ments in Britain. This we are enabled to do 
 by the aid of Bede, who speaks of their having 
 occupied Kent, the Me of "Wight, and a part 
 of the "West-Saxon mainland opposite. To 
 this statement we may add Nennius's declara- 
 tion that Hengest's son and nephew, Octha 
 and TJrisa, held much territory beyond the 
 Frisian Sea up to the borders of the Plots. 
 This legend may perhaps point to a Jutish 
 colonisation of some part of S. or S.W. Scot- 
 land. [The history of the conquest of Kent 
 win be found under the articles Hengest, 
 HoESA, English CoNauEST, and Kent.] 
 
 Gildas, Historia, 23 : Nennius, Sistoria Brito- 
 maa, 31, 36, 38, &o. ; Bede, Histm-ia, Ecdesiastica, 
 i. 15 : E. Guest, Origines Celticw, ii. 166, &c. 
 [T.A.A.] 
 
 Jnxou, "William (b. 1582, d. 1663), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, was born at 
 CJhichester, and educated at Merchant Tay- 
 lors' School and St. John's CoDege, Oxford. 
 He succeeded Laud, in 1621, as Master of 
 St. John's. In 1632 he became also, by 
 Laud's recommendation, Clerk of the King s 
 Closet, and, in the following year, Dean 
 of the Chapel Eoyal, Bishop of Hereford, 
 and by his translation before being con- 
 secrated to the former see. Bishop of London. 
 By the same influence he was appointed, in 
 1635, Lord High Treasurer, which office he 
 held till 1641. "When the king sought advice 
 from several of the bishops whether to con- 
 sent to the bill for Strafford's attainder or not, 
 Juxon honestly advised him that he ought 
 
 not to consent if he were not personally 
 satisfied of Strafford's guilt. Again, in 1648, 
 he advised the king on the questions of con- 
 science which arose with reference to the 
 Treaty of Newport, and in the following 
 January attended the king during his trial. 
 During the Commonwealth the bishop lived 
 in retirement in Gloucestershire, occupied in 
 study and hunting. At the Restoration, his 
 attendance on the king's last moments marked 
 him out for promotion to the Archbishopric 
 of Canterbury (Sept., 1660). But his age and 
 his health prevented him from taking an 
 important part either in the Savoy Con- 
 ference or in the memorable meeting of Con- 
 vocation which followed. 
 
 Hook, Lives of the jlrchttsliops of Canterbury, 
 2nd series, vol. vi. 
 
 EafGlr Wars, The, were frequent be- 
 tween the Dutch Boers and the Kaffirs during 
 the Dutch tenure of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 After this colony passed into the hands of the 
 EngKsh, these wars occasionally broke out 
 with renewed violence. In 1811, a re-settle- 
 ment of the frontier led to a severe struggle 
 between the colonial forces under Colonel 
 Graham, and the Kaffirs, who, although they 
 at first gained a victory at the White Eiver, 
 were afterwards completely defeated. In 
 1818 another war broke out, owing to the 
 arbitrary conduct of Lord Charles Somerset, 
 the governor of Cape Colony, who assisted 
 one of the chiefs with 3,000 men in a private 
 quarrel. The result was that the Kaffirs, 
 under a chief named Makanna, attacked 
 Graham's Town, and were only repulsed after 
 great slaughter had taken place on both sides. 
 After some further hostilities in 1829, 10,000 
 Kaffirs invaded the colony, in 1835, under a 
 chief named Xoco, and devastated the eastern 
 province. The British troops, under Sir 
 Benjamin Durban and Sir Harry Smith, sub- 
 sequently invaded Kaffirland, and exacted a 
 severe retribution from the aggressors. In 
 consequence of this collision, it was found 
 necessary to reverse the policy of repression 
 and extermination which had hitherto been 
 employed. In 1846, however, another war 
 broke out, owing to the violation of the 
 treaty on the part of the British ; an invasion 
 of Kaffirland followed, and much blood was 
 shed on both aides. In 1851-2 there was a 
 further renewal of hostilities, owing chiefly 
 to the conduct of the Dutch Boers, whose 
 treatment of the natives has always been such 
 as to cause them to look with suspicion and 
 hatred upon all white men. A year or two later 
 BritishKafirariawasraadea crowncolony, and 
 in 1865 was incorporated with Cape Colony. 
 
 Kalpy, The Siege of (1858), occurred 
 during the Indian Mutiny. On May 19, 
 
Eal 
 
 { 638 ) 
 
 Kem 
 
 1858, Sir Hugh. Eose laid siege to the 
 town of Kalpy from the north. On the 20th 
 the rebel army made a spirited sally, but 
 were driven back. On the 22nd, being be- 
 tween a double fire, they again attacked Sir 
 Hugh's force, and were only beaten back 
 after an obstinate combat, sufieriug very 
 heavily under the charges of cavalry and the 
 guns of the horse artillery. All that night 
 Kalpy was cannonaded, and in the morning 
 of the 23rd, Sir Hugh Eoee's troops advance,d 
 to assault the town in two columns. But 
 they encountered no resistance, for the enemy 
 had fled, and the whole rebel arsenal, includ- 
 ing fifty guns, fell into the hands of the 
 English. 
 
 Malleson, Indian Mutiny: Annual Register, 
 1858. 
 
 Kalunga, The Siege of (Oct., 1814). 
 On the breaking out of the Groorkha War, 
 in 1814, General Gillespie advanced into the 
 Dhoon valley, and coming upon the fortified 
 position of Kalunga, summoned the Goorkha 
 chief, Bulbuddur Sing, to surrender. The 
 Goorkha refused, and Gillespie determined to 
 carry the fort by assault. His men were 
 staggered by the murderous fire directed on 
 them as they advanced up to the wicket, 
 when the general, irritated by the repulse, 
 placed himself at the head of three com- 
 panies of Europeans, and rushed up to the 
 gate, but was shot through the heart as he was 
 waving his hat to his men to follow him. A 
 retreat was immediately sounded; but not 
 before twenty officers and 240 men were killed 
 and wounded. A month was lost in waiting 
 for heavy ordnance from Delhi. On Nov. 27 
 the breach was reported practicable, and a 
 second unsuccessful assault was made, with a 
 loss of 680 men in killed and wounded. The 
 mortars were now brought into play, and, 
 after three days' incessant shelling, the Goor- 
 khas sallied forth and escaped. PGoorkha 
 Wak.] 
 
 Kandy Wars, The. Whilst Ceylon 
 was under the rule of the Portuguese and 
 Dutch, the Kandyan territories in the interior 
 of the island had remained unconquered, al- 
 though a kind of desultory warfare between 
 the natives and the Europeans was kept up. 
 In 1799 and 1800 Mr. North, the governor of 
 Ceylon, endeavoured to induce the King of 
 Kandy to put himself under British protec- 
 tion. These negotiations, however, failed ; 
 and, in 1803, Mr. North having received an 
 accession of power by the separation of the 
 government of Ceylon from that of Madras, 
 at once invaded the Kandyan territories, at 
 the head of a force of 3,000 men. 
 
 Kars, The Siege op (18.5.5). On the 
 breaking out of the Crimean War, Colonel 
 Fen wick Williams was sent to Asiatic Turkey 
 to organise the Turkish army against the 
 Eussian invaders. On the approach of the 
 Russians under Mouravieffi, he hastened to 
 
 Kars, which he provisioned for four months, 
 and prepared to defend to the last. Earth- 
 works were erected wherever they seemed to 
 be required. Mouravieff arrived before Kars 
 in August, with an army of 60,000 men, a 
 portion of which was detached to watch 
 Erzeroum. In order to get rid of as many 
 useless mouths as possible, Williams directed 
 the Bashi-bazouks, or Turkish cavalry, to cut 
 their way through the Eussian army, a feat 
 which they performed, thotigh with some loss. 
 On Sept. 29, under the obscurity of the morn- 
 ing, the Russians made a grand attack, but 
 were met with such a stubborn resistance that 
 they were forced to retire, with a loss of 5,000 
 men. Williams did his best while provisions 
 lasted. There was no hope of relief or assist- 
 ance. Selim Pasha, who might have come to 
 his aid, refused ; and Omar Pasha was too far 
 off. On Nov. 24, therefore, Williams sent 
 Captain Teesdale with a flag of truce to Moura- 
 vieff. The Eussians displayed great generosity, 
 and granted terms which could be accepted 
 without loss of honour. 
 
 Eeane, John, 1st Lord (}. 1780, d. 
 1844), entered the army in 1793, and served 
 in Egypt, the Mediterranean, and Mar- 
 tinique, down to the year 1809. Having 
 reached the rank of lieut.-colonel, he com- 
 manded a brigade in the third division 
 aU through the Peninsular War. In 1814 he 
 was made major-general, and served through 
 the American. War. He passed eight years in 
 Jamaica as commander-in-chief, from 1823 to 
 1830, and for a year and a half of the time he 
 administered the civil government also. In 
 1833, he went to India as commander-in- 
 chief at Bombay. Five years later (1838), 
 he received orders from the government of 
 India to organise and lead a force intended to 
 co-operate with the Scinde army, on the 
 north-west frontier, at the breaking out of 
 the Afghan War ; and in December he as- 
 sumed the command of the combined forces. 
 Ghazni was stormed, and the English troops 
 entered Ghazni, and restored Shah Shujah 
 to the throne of Afghanistan, while Dost 
 Mahommed fled across the Oxus. For his 
 services in this expedition. Sir John Keane was 
 raised to the peerage (1839). 
 
 Kells, The Council of, was held in 1152 by 
 Eugenius III.'s legate. Cardinal Paparo, who 
 brought with him the pallia for the Arch- 
 bishops of Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam. 
 The influence of St. Malachy was prominent 
 at this synod, and anticipating the action of 
 the synod at Cashel, it condemned the mar- 
 riage of the clergy, and perhaps even imposed 
 tithes. 
 
 Keiuble, John Mitoheh (}. 1807, d. 
 1857), was the son of the celebrated actor 
 Charles Kemble. He was educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and afterwards studied in 
 Germany. He devoted himself chiefly to the 
 
Eem 
 
 ( 639 ) 
 
 Ken 
 
 Anglo-Saxon language and antiquities, and 
 became one of the first Anglo-Saxon scholars 
 in Europe. His first works of importance 
 were Oodex Diplomatic us ^iii Saxonici, 6 vols. 
 1839 — 48, a valuable collection of the 
 charters and other instruments of the period 
 of Anglo-Saxon rule in England; and The 
 Saxons in England, 2 vols., 1849, which latter 
 is a most authoritative, learned, and acute ac- 
 count of the laws, institutions, and social 
 condition of the English previous to the 
 Norman Conquest. Mr. Kemble also edited 
 State Papers, &c., illustrative of the State of 
 Europe from the Revolution to the Accession of 
 the House of Hanover, which is a useful com- 
 pilation for the student of this period of 
 history. 
 
 Kemp, John [b. circa 1380, d. 1454), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, was descended 
 from a good Kentish family, and after 
 holding various minor preferments, was 
 in 1418 appointed Bishop of Rochester, from 
 which see he was soon translated to London 
 (1421)'. He was one of the council of regency 
 during Henry VI.'s minority, and in 1426 
 was made Chancellor, and in the same year 
 raised to the archbishopric of York. He was 
 a supporter of Cardinal Beaufort against 
 Gloucester, and in 1432 had to resign the 
 great seal. After this he seems for some 
 years to have taken no very prominent part 
 in public affairs, but in 1450 he was again 
 appointed Chancellor, and continued to hold 
 the seal tiU his death. Two years later he 
 was raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury, 
 and iu the same year received a cardinal's hat 
 from the Pope. He displayed great firnmess 
 and prudence in dealing with Jack Cade and 
 his followers, and by his wisdom and modera- 
 tion kept the rivalry between the Dukes of 
 York and Somerset within bounds during Ms 
 lifetime. 
 
 Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterhury. 
 
 Ken, Thomas (b. 1637, d. 1711), 
 Bishop of Bath and WeUs, was bom at 
 Berkhampstead, and educated at Winchester 
 and Oxford. About the year 1679 he became 
 chaplain to the Princess Mary, wife of 
 William of Orange, and afterwards to Lord 
 Dartmouth, at Tangiers. Later he was ap- 
 pointed chaplain to Charles II., whom he 
 attended on his death bed, and who seems to 
 have admired the spirit of a man who dared 
 to refuse to allow Eleanor Gwynn to lodge 
 in his prebend's house at Winchester. He 
 was appointed Bishop of Bath and Wells in 
 1685. After the western rebellion he visited 
 Monmouth in prison, and was the pro- 
 tector of the unhappy victims of that com- 
 motion. Ken was one of the " Seven 
 Bishops" tried for petitioning against the 
 Declaration of Indulgence in 1688. Despite 
 his conduct on this occasion he refused to 
 take the oaths to William and Mary, and 
 
 consequently lost his bishopric after the 
 Kevolution. 
 
 Kendal, Eemengakd Melusina von 
 ScHULENBEKG, DucHESS OP {d. 1743), was One 
 of the mistresses of George I. In 1714 she 
 was created Duchess of Munster, in the Irish 
 peerage, and in 1719 Duchess of Kendal. She 
 affected gxeat devotion, and sometimes at- 
 tended several Lutheran chapels in the course 
 of the day. On the death of the Duke of 
 Somerset no Master of the Horse was ap- 
 pointed for several years, the profits of the 
 place being paid to the Duchess. She seems 
 now to have been looked upon as the dispenser 
 of the king's favours, and was bribed accord- 
 ingly. She received £10,000 from the South 
 Sea Company. In 1722 she was granted the 
 monopoly of coining haHpence for Ireland, 
 and sold it to Wood. In 1727 she was 
 gained over by Bolingbrote, and became 
 the leader of a powerful combination 
 against Walpole, although the king handed a 
 memorial, conveyed to him through her hands, 
 over to the minister. She is said to have been 
 overwhelmed with grief ouhearing of the death 
 of George, and to have imagined that a raven 
 which flew in at her window was the spirit 
 of the king. She seems to have possessed 
 neither beauty nor inteDect, and Lord 
 Chesterfield, who had married her niece, says 
 that she was little better than an idiot. 
 
 Kenilworth., four miles from Warwick, 
 was granted by Henry III. to Simon de Mont- 
 fort, and on his rebellion was retaken in 1266, 
 after a siege of six months, at which time the 
 famous ' ' Dictum de Kenilworth " was drawn up 
 under its walls. In 1327 it was the scene of 
 the imprisonment of Edward II., at the time 
 of his deposition, and subsequently came into 
 the hands of John of Gaunt. It was granted 
 by Ehzabeth to the Earl of Leicester, and is 
 famous for the entertainment which he gave 
 to the queen in 1575. 
 
 Kenilworth, Dictum de (1266), was 
 the name given to the treaty made between 
 King Henry III. and the remains of the 
 baronial party, who after the battle of Eve- 
 sham shut themselves up in Kenilworth Castle, 
 where, after a siege of several months, they 
 capitulated. This ordinance was then drawn 
 up, declaring the plenary power of the king, 
 annulling the acts of De Moutfort, providing 
 that the liberties of the Church and the 
 charters should be maintained ; that all per- 
 sons, with the exception of the De Montforts 
 and a few others, might compound for their 
 offences with a fine ; and that all who sub- 
 mitted within forty days should be pardoned. 
 At the same time all persons were forbidden 
 to circulate vain and foolish stories of miracles 
 regarding Simon de.Montfort, or to repute 
 him a saint and a martyr. The Dictum was 
 accepted by the barons, except a few who held 
 out in the Isle of Ely ; and even these, when 
 
Ken 
 
 ( 640 ) 
 
 Ken 
 
 they submitted in 1267, were allowed the same 
 terms as ttose who had yielded in the pre- 
 ceding year. 
 
 Kennedy, Jambs, Bishop of St. Andrews 
 (i. 1405, d. 1466), a relative of James II. 
 of Scotland, gave offence to the Earl of Craw- 
 furd hy discovering to the king the " band " 
 that had been formed between that nobleman 
 andtheEarlof Douglas. Crawf urd, in revenge, 
 laid waste the bishop's lauds. During the 
 first part of the minority of James III., Ken- 
 nedy acted as governor of the kingdom, of 
 which he proved himself an able and con- 
 scientious guardian. Mr. Burton observes 
 that he was the first ecclesiastic who held 
 high political power in Scotland, and so to 
 some extent marks the dawn of a new era. 
 
 Kenneth I., the Hardy {d. 860), was 
 the son of Alpin, King of the Scots, whom he 
 succeeded (probably in Galloway) in 832, 
 though he did not obtain Dalriada proper tiU 
 some years later. In 839 he invaded the 
 Pictish territory in conj unction with the Danes, 
 and in 844 finally established himself on the 
 Pictish throne, to which he had a claim by 
 maternal descent, thus being the first to in- 
 corporate the two kingdoms. In 851 Kenneth 
 built a church at Dunkeld, wbich he endowed 
 richly, and to which he removed part of the 
 relics of St. Columba. He was a man of 
 warlike character, and six times invaded 
 Lothian, burning Dunbar and Melrose. His 
 family consisted of two sons — Constantine 
 and Aid — and three daughters, married 
 respectively to Run, King of the Britons of 
 Strathclyde, to Olaf, King of Dublin, and to 
 Aedh Finnhath, King of Ireland. 
 
 CfcrOTi. Picts omA Scots ; Skene, Celtic Scotland ; 
 Eofcertson, Early Kmgs of Scotland. 
 
 Kenneth II., the son of Malcolm, ob- 
 tained the crown of Alban, in succession to 
 Colin, 971. His first act was to invade Strath- 
 clyde, and to fortify the fords of the Forth 
 against the Britons ; his next to invade North- 
 umbria, whose earl he carried off captive. 
 The events of this reign are exceedingly ob- 
 scure ; it is probable, however, that Kenneth 
 gained a great victory over the Danes at Lun- 
 carty, near Perth, and that he was slain at 
 Fettercairn, in Kincardineshire (993), by Fe- 
 nella. Countess of Angus, in revenge for the 
 murder of her son by the king. The story of 
 the English chroniclers that King Edgar ceded 
 Lothian to Kenneth, to be held as a fief of the 
 EngUsh crown, is without foundation. 
 
 Kenneth III., the Grim, son of Duff, 
 succeeded Constantine III. as king of Alban, 
 997. In 1000 he was engaged in warfare 
 with Ethelred of England. He was killed 
 in battle in Strathearn, 1003, by his cousin 
 Malcolm, who succeeded him as Malcolm II. 
 
 Kent, Peerage or. The earldom of Kent 
 was held, between the Norman Conquest and 
 the fourteenth century, by three individuals : 
 
 (1) Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, brother to 
 William I. (1067); (2) WUliam of Ypres 
 (1141) ; and (3) Hubert de Burgh (1227) ; none 
 of whom transmitted the honour. In 1321 
 King Edward I. granted the earldom to his 
 younger son, Edmund of "Woodstock, who, 
 however, was attainted in 1330. In the fol- 
 lowing year the title was restored to his son 
 Edmund, who died, as did his younger brother, 
 childless. The earldom was then inherited 
 by a sister's son, Sir Thomas Holland, 
 whose grandson, Thomas, was created Duke 
 of Surrey (1397). In spite of the latter's 
 having been beheaded in 1400, and declared a 
 traitor in Parliament, his son Edmund re- 
 ceived his lands, and sat in Parliament as 
 Earl of Kent (1405). On his death without 
 issue (1407), the title became extinct. It 
 seems to have been revived in favour of 
 William Nevill, Lord Pauconberg, about 
 1461 ; but he also died childless, and the 
 earldom was granted in 1465 to Edmund 
 Grey, fourth Lord Euthyn, in whose family it 
 remained untU 1740. Henry, the twelfth and 
 last earl of this creation, was raised to a 
 dukedom of the same style in 1706. The 
 title of DuJce of Kent was revived for Edward, 
 fourth son of King George III. and father of 
 Queen Victoria, who died without male issue 
 in 1820. 
 
 Kent, Kingdom of, took its name from 
 the Celtic tribe of the Cantii — whom Cajsar 
 found inhabiting this part of our island. 
 Tradition has recorded that in the year 449 
 " Hengest and Horsa, invited by Vortigem, 
 King of the Britons, sought Britain." After 
 the battle of Crayford, in 456, we read that 
 " the Britons then forsook Kent, and fled in 
 terror to London." The first Teutonic 
 kingdom seems to have been established in 
 England by the Jutes — a Low German tribe 
 who also gained possession of the Isle of 
 Wight. It is not altogether impossible that 
 there were two Jutish kingdoms founded in 
 Kent, the memory of which was in later times 
 preserved by the division of the realm into 
 two sees, with Canterbury and Eochestei: re- 
 spectively as seats for the " bishop's stool." 
 For some hundred and fifty years we hear 
 little or nothing of the kingdom of 
 Kent, tin towards the close of the sixth 
 century, when Augustine on landing in this 
 island found Ethelbert King of Kent. Ethel- 
 bert, who appears to have ascended the throne 
 when only a child of some eight years, had in 
 the course of a long reign largely extended 
 the bounds of his kingdom, and pushed his 
 way up the Thames valley, tiU in 568 he was 
 defeated at Wimbledon by the West Saxon 
 king— the first battle between the Teutonic 
 invaders. But despite this disaster Ethel- 
 bert's reigTi was one of great success for the 
 Kentish kingdom. Some ten years before the 
 end of the century his authority was more or 
 less paramount as far north as the Humber, 
 
Ken 
 
 ( 641 ) 
 
 Ken 
 
 and the Kings of Essex, East Anglia, and 
 Mercia were dependent upon him. His fame 
 had even extended as far as the Continent ; 
 and his wife was Bertha, the daughter of 
 the Frankish king, Charihert. The su- 
 premacy of Kent at the time of the first 
 conversion may be considered as the main 
 cause of the metropolitan see being fixed 
 at Canterbury. On Ethelbert's death in 
 816, his son Eadbald seems to have relapsed 
 into paganism; and on the rise of the 
 Northumbrian power we read that Edwin 
 was overlord of every English kingdom except 
 Kent, and Kent, too, was closely knit to 
 Northumberland by the marriage of Eadbald's 
 daughter Ethelburga to Edwin. It was this 
 marriage that led to the first conversion of 
 Northumberland and the mission of Paulinus 
 to the north of England. But by this time 
 the days of Kentish aupremacj' were over; 
 and the chief interest in the later his- 
 tory of this kingdom is the fact that its sove- 
 reigns were the first to issue a code of laws, 
 or to reduce their laws to writing. The 
 codes of Ethelbert, of Lothaire and Eadrio 
 (673— 690), and of "Wihtrsd (690), are still 
 extant. Despite the importance attaching 
 to Kent as being the seat of the arch- 
 bishopric, it seems to have henceforward 
 held its own among the rival kingdoms with 
 difficulty. We read how in 686 it was 
 ravaged by Ceadwalla of Wessex, and how 
 next year its folk burnt Ceadwalla's brother 
 Mull — an offence which led to a second 
 invasion by the West Saxon king. In 694 
 Ine, King of Wessex, received blood-money 
 for the slaughter of Mull; and in 692 we 
 read of there being two kings in the land. 
 " Kent," says Dr. Stubbs, " in the eighth cen- 
 tury broke up into the kingdoms of the East 
 and West Kentings, probably on the lines of 
 the earlier kingdoms, which are said to hive 
 been united by Ethelbert." As the power of 
 Mercia increaseditisprobable that the country 
 came more and more under the influence of the 
 kings of that province (more especially when 
 the royal Kentish house died out), and later 
 under that of Wessex. As an example of the 
 way in which Kent swayed backwards and 
 forwards between Wessex and Mercia we 
 may take the last few years of its separate 
 existence. In 784 Alric, the father of 
 Egbert, and a descendant of Cerdic, the West- 
 Saxon, was reigning over this kingdom. Ten 
 years later the Chronicle tells us that the 
 reigning king's name was Eadberht Praen. 
 Then came a time of Mercian supremacy; 
 for Kenulf of Mercia drove out Eadberht in 
 796, and made his brother Cuthred king. On 
 Cuthred'g death the throne was seized by 
 Baldred, who in 823 was driven out by 
 Egbert of Wessox. But even now Kent was 
 hardly an integral part of the West-Saxon 
 realm. Egbert made it into a separate 
 kingdom, subject to the overlordship of 
 Wessex, for his eldest son .ffithelwulf ; and 
 
 HIST.-21 
 
 when .SIthelwulf succeeded to his father's 
 throne Kent was given, with Sussex, Surrey, 
 and Essex, to Athelstan. Again, nearly 
 twenty years later, we read in the Chronicle 
 that Ethelberht succeeded to the kingdom of 
 the Kentish people in 955. There does not 
 seem to be any reason for supposing that 
 Kent continued separate from the rest of the 
 kingdom after the accession of Ethelberht to 
 the throne of Wessex (860), but we probably 
 have traces of its Witan, and even of the 
 Witan of one of the two sub-kingdoms into 
 which it had been divided a century and a half 
 earlier; when, after the king andall the "high 
 Witan" had gone home in despair, "the 
 East Kentish men made peace with the 
 Danish army, and gave them £3,000." Under 
 Edward the Confessor Kent formed part of 
 Godwin's earldom of Wessex, but its distinct 
 character as compared with the rest of 
 Southern England may be traced in its being 
 towards the latter part of the same reign sepa- 
 rated from that province, and given, together 
 with Essex, into the hands of Godwin's son 
 Leofwine. After the conquest Kent seems 
 for a time to have been created a County 
 Palatine for William I.'s half-brother, Odo, 
 who, however, must have forfeited this honour 
 at the beginning of the next reign. [Gavel- 
 kind.] 
 
 KlNSS OF Eeitt. 
 
 Hengest . 
 
 
 
 i. 488 
 
 .Slsc . 
 
 
 
 d. S12 
 
 Octa 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 Eonnenric 
 
 
 
 d. 568 
 
 Ethelbert. 
 
 
 
 d. 616 
 
 Eadbald . 
 
 
 
 d. 640 
 
 Ercombert 
 
 
 
 d. 664 
 
 Egbert . 
 
 
 
 d. 673 
 
 Lothaire . 
 
 
 
 d. 685 
 
 Eadric 
 
 
 
 d. 686 
 
 Wihtrsed . 
 
 
 
 d. 725 
 
 Eadberht. 
 
 
 
 d. 748 
 
 Ethelbert II. . 
 
 
 
 d. 760 
 
 Akic. 
 
 
 
 d. 794 
 
 Eadberht Prsen 
 
 
 
 i. 796 
 
 Anglo-Saxon CJir 
 
 micle ; L 
 
 appe 
 
 nberg, Anglo 
 
 Saxon Kings ; Stabbs, Const. Hist, 
 
 [T. A. A.] 
 
 Kent, Edmund Grey, Earl of {d. 1488), 
 known in the early part of his life as 
 Lord Grey of Euthin, was originally on 
 the Lancastrian side, but during the battle of 
 Northampton he deserted to the Yorkists, to 
 whose victory he contributed greatly by this 
 piece of treachery. On Edward IV. 's acces- 
 sion, he was received into the royal favour, 
 and created Earl of Kent and Lord High 
 Treasurer. He managed to preserve his 
 titles and estates tiU his death, notwithstand- 
 ing the different changes of government. 
 
 Kentigem, St., or St. Mungo {d. 603 .'), 
 was a contemporary of St. Columba, and the 
 apostle of Strathclyde. He is said to have 
 founded the see of Glasgow, where he seems 
 to have long lived in quiet, till the disorders 
 of the age drove him from that district into 
 Wales. There he founded a, monastery and 
 
Ken 
 
 ( 642 ) 
 
 Ker 
 
 bishopric in the vale of Clwyd, which received 
 its name from his disciple Asaph. When 
 Kydderch Hael established his rule in Strath- 
 clyde, and after the battle of Ardderyd (513), 
 Christianity could once more revive iii those 
 parts, Kentigern was recalled to his old 
 diocese, with Hoddam, in Dumfriesshire, for 
 his headquarters, tUl he once more removed 
 to Glasgow. Thence he seems to have pro- 
 ceeded on his missionary labours to Galloway 
 and the more northern parts of Scotland, 
 especially in the upper valley of the Dee. 
 An old legend tells how St. Kentigern and 
 St. Columba met before their death, and 
 passed several days together in spiritual con- 
 versation. 
 
 Skene, Celtic Sootland; Torbes, Calendar of 
 Scottish Saints. 
 
 Eentisli Petition, The (i70i), was an 
 
 expression of public opinion against the peace 
 policy shown by the Tories in their delay 
 in voting supplies, and in seconding the 
 measures taken by "William III. for the 
 security of Europe against the ambitious 
 schemes of Louia XIV. It was drawn up 
 by "William Colepepper, chairman of the 
 Quarter Sessions at Maidstone, and signed by 
 the deputy Keutenants, about twenty justices 
 of the peace, and a large number of free- 
 holders. It deprecated " the least distrust of 
 his most sacred majesty " on the part of the 
 Commons, and implored the House " that its 
 royal addresses might be turned into Bills of 
 Supply." It was sent up to London in the 
 hands of "William Colepepper, and with him 
 went four gentlemen of the county to pre- 
 sent it. The House of Commons was in- 
 dignant at the idea of one county setting it- 
 self in opposition to the united wisdom of 
 the country, and perhaps still more so at 
 the indirect way in which it was first 
 brought under its notice. The petitioners 
 could only get their document presented at 
 all on condition that they would avow 
 their deed. Seymour and Howe violently 
 denounced them. The petition was voted 
 " scandalous, insolent, seditious ; " and the 
 five gentlemen were removed in the custody 
 of the Serjeant-at-Arms. But public opinion 
 was unanimous in their favour, being chiefly 
 influenced by the " Legion Memorial," drawn 
 up by Daniel Defoe, and at the close of the 
 session the petitioners were set free. Hallam 
 remarks that, " though no attempt was made 
 to call the authority of the House in question 
 by habeas corpus or other legal remedy, it 
 was discussed in pamphlets and general con- 
 versation, with little advantage to a power so 
 arbitrary, and so evidently abused in the 
 immediate instance." 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of His Own Time ; Stanhope, 
 Reign of Q;aeen Aniie; Hallam, Const. Hist. ; 
 Boyer, Anjnals. 
 
 Kenyon, Lloyd, 1st Lord (i. 1733, 
 d. 1802), was called to the Bar in 1761. 
 
 In 1780 he made himself a great reputa- 
 tion by his skill in conducting the defence 
 of Lord George Gordon. Two years_ later he 
 was made Attorney-General, and in 1784 
 became Master of the RoUs. In 1788 he suc- 
 ceeded Lord Mansfield as Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench. 
 
 Keppel, Augustus, Viscount (J. 1725, 
 d. 1786), entered the navy under Lord Anson. 
 In 1749 he was sent to the Mediterranean, 
 and two years later displayed some judgment 
 in negotiations with the Court of Algiers. 
 On the French War breaking out, in 1757, 
 Keppel served with distinction under Hawke, 
 and next year captured Goree, under difficult 
 circumstances. In 1759 he took part in the 
 fight in Quiberon Bay, and, in 1761 and 1762 
 respectively, he conducted the naval part of 
 the operations in the capture of BeUeisle, and 
 commanded at Havaimah. In 1765 he was a 
 Lord of the Admiralty, under the Roclringham 
 ministry. For some years he remained in 
 England unemployed, and in 1778 was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the Channel Fleet. 
 On July 27, after being reinforced, Keppel 
 encountered the French fleet off Tjshant. _ He 
 utterly failed to bring them to a decisive 
 action, and tamely allowed them to escape in 
 the night. Thereupon ensued a series of 
 mutual recriminations between Keppel and 
 Palliser, his second in command. A court- 
 martial ensued, which, after sitting for a 
 month, declared the charges against Keppel 
 to be unfounded. Keppel's case became a 
 party question, and the "Whigs made it a 
 vital point to gain an acquittal. He had the 
 good fortune to have the popular voiceon 
 his side, as well as the advocacy of Erskine, 
 and he escaped amid the loud acclamations of 
 the nation generally, and of the "Whigs in 
 particular. In March, 1782, he was appointed 
 to be First Lord of the Admiralty, but re- 
 signed on the formation of the Coalition 
 Ministrj', only to resume the post, however, 
 in four months under the same government. 
 On Pitt's accession to office he again resigned, 
 and took no further part in politics tiU his 
 death, in 1786. As a naval commander, 
 Keppel showed no talent, nor even the most 
 commonplace enterprise, and owes his position 
 in history entirely to his own blunders and 
 the accident of his family connection with 
 the "Whigs. 
 
 Ker OF Ferkiehubst {d. 1585) was the 
 son-in-law of Kirkcaldy of Grange, who 
 made him Provost of Edinburgh, in Queen 
 Mary's interest, 1571. On the capture of 
 Edinburgh, he was compelled to take refuge 
 in England, from the resentment of Morton. 
 He was a bold soldier, and as warden of the 
 Scotch Marches became embroiled with the 
 English (1584), in a disturbance in which it 
 was said that Arran was implicated : a demand 
 from the English court for his surrender and 
 trial was rendered futile by his death. 
 
Eer 
 
 ( 643 ) 
 
 Eil 
 
 Kerns is the name given to the light- 
 armed Irish foot-soldiers. They are described 
 for the first time in the Saga of Egil, -which 
 gives the Norse account of the battle of 
 Brunanhiirh ; and the name was used for the 
 Irish irregular infantry all through the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 Eet, EoBEKT [d. 1549),atamierof "Wymond- 
 ham, in Norfolk, was a leader in the Norfolk 
 insurrection of 1549. Having collected a body 
 of 16,000 men, he encamped on Mousehold 
 Hill (q.v.), near Norwich, and assumed the 
 title of King of Norfolk and Sufiolk, holding 
 a daily court, before which were tried such of 
 the country gentlemen as fell into the hands 
 of the rebels. On Aug. 1 Ket took Norwich, 
 and subsequently drove out the Marquis of 
 Northampton, who had re-occupied the city. 
 At this time the Earl of Warwick appeared 
 upon the scene with a large body of men, and 
 having cut off Ket's provisions, forced him to 
 a battle, in which he was defeated and taken 
 prisoner, being soon afterwards hanged in 
 chains at Norwich Castle. 
 
 Proude, Hist, o/ Eng. ; Tytler, Hist, of Ei- 
 loard YI. and Mary. 
 
 Khelait, in the Ghilzai country of Af- 
 ghanistan, was taken possession of by Shere 
 Aliinl865. In 1878 it was captured, during 
 the second Afghan War, by SirDonaldStewart. 
 It was eva'cuated, and restored to Abdur 
 Bahman, the Ameer of Afghanistan, in 1880. 
 
 Ehirkee, The Battle of (Nov. 5, 1817), 
 was fought between the English and the 
 Mahratta troops of the Peishwa Bajee 
 Eao. It resulted in the defeat of the latter 
 by the English commander, Colonel Burr. 
 The Mahratta general took advantage of 
 a gap in the English line, to launch a select 
 body of cavalry against it, hoping to cut 
 the English in two. The energy of the com- 
 mander, Colonel Burr, prevented this, and the 
 Mahrattas, charged by the English troops, 
 broke and fled. 
 
 Ehonds, The, are inhabitants of the part 
 of Orissa lying south of the Mahanuddy. 
 They are a very primitive community, re- 
 taining their old patriarchal government, 
 habits, and superstitions. Among other cus- 
 toms they were long addicted to the sacrifice 
 of human beings to the earth goddess, for the 
 purpose of increasing the fertility of their 
 fields. The custom was to hack the living 
 victim in pieces, divide the flesh, and bury 
 it in the respective plots of ground. The 
 exertions of Major Macpherson, Sir John 
 Grant, and Colonel Campbell, were successful 
 in destroying the custom by disproving its 
 eeaoieucy (1837—49). 
 
 ■ Kidd, Captain William {d. 1701), was a 
 noted pirate living in retirement in New York, 
 when he was selected by the Earl of Bellamont, 
 governor of New York and Massachusetts, to 
 suppress piracy in the Indian Ocean. As the 
 
 English Admiralty threw difficulties in the 
 way of fitting out a man-of-war for this pur- 
 pose, a ship called the Adventure Galley was 
 equipped, chiefly by the subscriptions of the 
 Whig ministers. Kiddwasput in command, and 
 took with him a commission under the great 
 seal, empowering him to seize pirates. The 
 king's right to the goods found in possession 
 of these malefactors was granted by letters 
 patent to the supporters of the expedition, his 
 majesty reserving only one-tenth of the spoil 
 to himself. In Feb., 1697, Kidd sailed from 
 the Hudson, and finding that plundering 
 merchant vessels was more profitable than 
 attacking gangs of desperate men, he soon 
 "threw off the character of a privateer and 
 became a pirate." It was about Aug., 1698, 
 that this was made known in London, and Kidd 
 was arrested at New York, to which town he 
 had returned. He was taken to England, and 
 there hanged with three of his companions. 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Kildare, Eakls of. This family traced 
 its descent through Maurice Fitzgerald to 
 Walter Fitzother, the Castellan of Windsor. 
 His son Gerald became Lord Offaley in 1205. 
 John, the seventh lord, brother of the first 
 Earl of Desmond, was on his victory over De 
 Vescy— till then Lord of Kildare— in 1316 
 created Earl of Kildare, and died soon after. 
 The fourth earl, Maurice, was Lord Justice 
 of Ireland, and died in 1390. Thomas, the 
 seventh earl, was Lord Deputy till his death 
 in 1478, and from this time the Earls of 
 Kildare became the most powerful nobles in 
 all Ireland, opposed, but as a rule unsuccess- 
 fully, by the Butlers. [For the further 
 fortunes of this family see separate articles, 
 and the Fitzgeralds.] The ducal family of 
 Lejnster at present represents this ancient 
 house. 
 
 Kildare, Gerald, 8th Eabl of {d. 1613), 
 was thirty-three years chief governor of Ire- 
 land. In 1487, the earl, as Lord Deputy, 
 actively assisted at the coronation of Lambert 
 Simnel as Edward VI., at Christ Church, 
 Dublin. His brother, the Chancellor of Ire- 
 land, fell at Stoke. However, when the earl 
 made his submission to Edgecumbe, the 
 king's controller, and had an interview with 
 Henry VII. at Windsor, he again became 
 Lord Deputy. After Warbeok's landing in 
 Ireland, however, his office was taken from 
 him, and Sir Edward Poynings had him at- 
 tainted. Hewasthen sent over to England, and 
 confined in the Tower. Many stories are told 
 of his conduct there, and his frank avowal 
 that he burnt the cathedral at Cashel because 
 he thought the archbishop was in it, is said to 
 have convinced Henry that he was no con- 
 spirator. The Bishop of Meath, his chief 
 accuser, concluded his charges by saying, 
 " You see what a man he is— all Ireland can- 
 not rule him." " Then," said the king, " it 
 is meet that he should rule all Ireland." Ac- 
 
EU 
 
 ( 644 ) 
 
 EU 
 
 oordingly the Earl of Kildare was again made 
 Lord Deputy, and remained so till his death. 
 From this time, however, he was a loyal sub- 
 ject, and waged incessant war against the 
 natives, who were again encroaching on the 
 Pale, tin he fell in tattle against the O'Moores 
 (1513). 
 
 Moore, Hist, of Ireland ; Froude, Hist of Eng. 
 Eildare, Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th Earl 
 OF {d. 1534), became Lord Deputy after his 
 father's death in 1513, and remained so till 
 1519, when, in spite of his successful administra. 
 tion, he was superseded by the Earl of Surrey. 
 The hereditary feud with the Butlers (q.v.), 
 meanwhile, assumed such dimensions that, 
 though he had again been made Lord Deputy 
 in 1524, he was summoned to England and 
 kept a prisoner in the Tower from 1526 to 
 1530. In 1532, though the struggle with the 
 Butlers was still going on, he was again Lord 
 Deputy, but in 1534 he was once more sum- 
 moned to England, though he was allowed to 
 appoint a deputy during his absence. Gerald 
 appointed his son. Lord Thomas, and after 
 supplying his own castles with artillery and 
 ammunition from the royal magazines, he left 
 for England. He was at once thrown into 
 the Tower, where it is reported he was be- 
 headed. , 
 
 Eildare, Gerald, Uth Earl of (d. 1585), 
 was brother of Thomas, the tenth, and second 
 son of Gerald, the ninth earl. On his father's 
 death he was only ten years old ; but in spite 
 of all the efforts of the government to cap- 
 ture him, he was conveyed away from Ireland 
 to the Continent. Cardinal Pole, a relation 
 of his mother. Lady Gray, sent for him into 
 Italy, in which country he was educated. His 
 estates were restored under Edward VI., and 
 under Mary he was reinstated in aU his 
 honours. The attainder, however, was not 
 reaUy reversed till the reign of Elizabeth. 
 He was active in suppressing Irish insurrec- 
 tions, and died in 1585 in the Tower, where 
 he had been sent on suspicion of being con- 
 nected with the Geraldine rebellion in the 
 south. AU his sons died early, without issue, 
 and the family honours descended to the 
 present house of Leinster, through a brother 
 of his. 
 
 Froude, Hist, of Eng. ; Lodge, Peei'age. 
 
 Eilkenny, Synod at, consisting of all 
 the Irish bishops and delegates from the 
 clergy, met at Kilkenny in May, 1642, and 
 decided that no distinction was to be made 
 between the old Irish and the new, or Anglo- 
 Irish. A common oath of association was 
 agreed on ; the aid of foreign powers was to 
 be solicited, and any repetition of the Ulster 
 outrages, which the Synod condemned, was to 
 bring down excommunication on the authors. 
 A central council was established, and com- 
 manders were appointed for the different pro- 
 vinces — Owen Roe, for Ulster; Preston, for 
 Leinster; Barry, for Muuster; and Colonel 
 
 John Burke, for Connaught. In 1643 a papal 
 legate, Scarampi, joined them; and it was 
 up.der his guidance that the council opposed 
 the Cessation. First Lord Mountgarret, and 
 then Einucoini, occupied the place of presi- 
 dent of the council. In 1647, after the failure 
 of Glamorgan's treaty, they concluded peace 
 with Ormonde ; but it was only in 1649, after 
 Einuccini had fled, that they were really in 
 earnest. 
 
 Froude, English in Ireland. 
 Eilkenny, The Convention at (1342). 
 Alarmed at the attitude of the Anglo-Irish 
 lords, Edward III. sent instructions to his 
 justiciary, Sir John D'Arcy, bidding him 
 exclude those who were possessed of great 
 Irish estates from the high offices of State, 
 and replace them by Englishmen whose 
 estates lay at home. For the purpose of 
 carrying out this measure, D'Arcy called a 
 parliament at Dublin, which the Earl of 
 Desmond and the other members of the Irish 
 party refused to attend. The latter called a 
 general meeting of those who sympathised 
 with him; and this convention, meeting at 
 Kilkenny in Nov.,. 1342, addressed a petition 
 to Edward III. pointing out that English 
 misgovernment had led to the loss of nearly 
 all Leinster, appealing to Magna Carta, and 
 stating their fears as to a resumption of 
 grants and as to the contemplated supplant- 
 ing of the English by blood by Enghsh by 
 birth. Edward's reply to this remonstrance 
 is not extant, but he seems to have received 
 it graciously. 
 
 Close Roll, 16 Edward III. 
 
 Eilkenny, The Statute of (1367), was 
 passed in a Parliament held in the town of 
 this name, when Lionel, Duke of Clarence, 
 was Lord Lieutenant for the third time. This 
 statute was intended to check the degeneracy 
 of the Anglo-Irish. Its chief provisions 
 were — the prohibition of intermarriages be- 
 tween the English and the natives ; of gossi- 
 pred, and the adoption of the Brehon law by 
 the English, who were also forbidden to make 
 war on the natives. No man of English race 
 was henceforth to be allowed to assume an 
 Irish name, dress, language, or customs; 
 while no Irish were for the future to be 
 allowed to pasture their cattle on English 
 ground, or to be admitted to any religious 
 house or benefice. The breach of these pro- 
 visions entailed the penalties of high treason. 
 In addition to the above enactments, it was 
 also provided that no Irish were to be 
 called in as minstrels. Coyne and livery are 
 also strictly forbidden. The statute, it 
 may be pointed out, was directed exclusively 
 against the Anglo-Irish, and where it deals 
 with the natives, only does so to protect them 
 from the lawless baronage. 
 Hallam, Const. Hist. 
 
 Eillala, French Attempt at. On Aug. 
 22, 1798, General Humbert landed at KiUfllor 
 
Eil 
 
 ( 645 ) 
 
 Kim 
 
 in Majo, with about 1,100 men, and was 
 joined by some Irish insurgents. He kept 
 excellent discipline, and prevented the Pro.. 
 teetants (among them the Bishop of Killala) 
 from being molested by the rebels. General 
 Lake's troops fled before the invaders ; but on 
 the destruction of the reinforcements that 
 were coming by sea to his help, General 
 Humbert found himself forced to surrender 
 to Lord Comwallis. 
 
 AliBon, Hist. 0/ Europe. 
 
 Eilligrew, Sir Henry, who had taken 
 part in Sir Henry Dudley's plot against Mary 
 (1556), was, in 1559, selected to bring tho 
 Earl of Arran to Englajid. In 1566 he was 
 sent on an embassy to Mary, Queen of Scots ; 
 and in 1569 was employed in negotiating for 
 the opening of fresh ports on the Baltic to 
 English commerce. Three years later he was 
 sent by Elizabeth to try to bring about the 
 delivery of Mary Stuart to the Scots, and her 
 execution ; and was subsequently employed in 
 some of the queen's most confidential missions. 
 
 Killi^ew, Thomas (S. 1611, d. 1682), 
 after having been a page in the court of 
 Charles I., joined Charles II. in his exile, 
 and was sent on an embassy to Venice, where 
 his profligate conduct did much harm to his 
 master's cause. On the Restoration, he was 
 made master of the revels, a post for which 
 he seems to have been well fitted. He had 
 considerable influence over the king, and 
 seems to have used it not unfrequently for 
 good. Many anecdotes are told which show 
 him as the candid friend of the king, whom 
 he endeavoured to divert from his insatiable 
 piurauit of pleasure. Killigrew was the author 
 of many plays, none of which, however, are 
 of any striking merit. 
 
 " Killing no Illllirder : briefly dis- 
 coursed in three questions, by WUliam AUen," 
 was the title of a pamphlet published in May, 
 1657, to justify the assassination of Cromwell. 
 It justified the recent attempt of Sunder- 
 combe, whom it compared to Brutus. The 
 authorship of the pamphlet is generally 
 attributed to Edward Sexby, the Leveller, 
 then engaged in promoting an alliance be- 
 tween Levellers, Royalists, and Spaniards. 
 It was claimed, after the death of Sexby, by 
 Silas Titus. 
 
 Clarendon, History of the Rebellion ; Evelyn, 
 "Diary ; MasBon, Life of Milton. 
 
 Kilmansegge, Bahoness. [Darling- 
 ton, COVNTESS OF.] 
 
 Kilmarnock, William Boyd, 2nd Earl 
 OP, joined the rebellion of 1745. After the 
 battle of CuUoden he surrendered himself, 
 was carried to London, convicted of high 
 treason, and executed on Tower Hill (1646). 
 His title and estates were forfeited for treason. 
 
 Kils3rth, The Battle of (Aug. 15, 1645), 
 was fought during the Civil War of the 
 seventeenth centurj"^, and resulted in a victory 
 
 for Montrose and the Cavaliers over the 
 Covenanters, who were commanded by Baillie. 
 Kilsyth is about ten miles south of Stirling, 
 
 Kilwardliy, Robert, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury [d. 1279), was Provincial of the 
 Dominicans in England. On the death of 
 Boniface of Savoy, in 1270, a dispute as to 
 his successor took place between the king and 
 the monks of Canterbury, which resulted in 
 an appeal to the Pope, who nominated Kil- 
 wardby to the vacant see. He proved himself 
 worthy of the office, and adopted a concili- 
 atory policy, at the same time introducing 
 many valuable reforms. Archbishop Kilwardby 
 crowned Bdwardl. and his wife,Eleanorof Cas- 
 tile, in 1 274. He was also present at the great 
 council of Lyons, where the deputies of the 
 Greek emperor, Miichael Palaeologus, expressed 
 their longing for a union of the Eastern and 
 Western Churches. The same year he seems to 
 have attempted to instil something of his own 
 spirit into the course of study at Oxford. 
 He was a great patron of learning, and him- 
 self the author of a considerable number of 
 works. In 1278 he was made a cardinal, 
 whereupon he vacated his archbishopric, and 
 retired to Rome, where he died. 
 Hook, lAves of the ArcWbishops. 
 
 Kilwarden, Arthur Wolfe, Viscount 
 {d. July 23, 1803), was, in 1787, made Soli- 
 citor-General for Ireland, and Attorney- 
 General inl789. In 1798 he became Lord Chief 
 Justice of the King's Bench, and was elevated 
 to the peerage. In 1803 he was unfortu- 
 nately just driving into Dublin when Em- 
 met's shortlived insurrection was raging, and 
 together with his nephew, was piked by the 
 furious rebels. As a judge he was well known 
 for his inclinations to mercy; and, being 
 Curran's friend, was able to save that states- 
 man from many annoyances in 1798. 
 
 Kimberley, John Wodehouse, 1st Earl 
 or {i. 1826), was the eldest son of the 
 third Baron Wodehouse. In 1852 he first 
 took office as Under Secretary of Foreign 
 Affairs, which post he held successively under 
 Lord Aberdeen and Lord Pahnerst'on, tiU 
 1856, when he was appointed ambassador at 
 St. Petersburg. In 1858 he returned, and 
 resumed his post in Lord Palmerston's second 
 administration (1859). In 1863 he was sent 
 on a special mission to the north of Europe 
 to endeavour to settle the Schleswig-Holstein 
 difficulty, and next year succeeded the Earl 
 of Carlisle as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, re- 
 signing the post when Lord Russell's admin- 
 istration retired in 1866. He held the office 
 of Privy Seal in Mr. Gladstone's administrar 
 tion from 1869 to 1870, when he accepted the 
 Colonial Office. In 1874, when the Liberal 
 government quitted office, he retired with his 
 colleagues. In 1880 he became Secretary of 
 State for the Colonies in Mr. Gladstone's 
 second administration, and in 1882 Secretary 
 for India. 
 
Kin 
 
 f 646 ) 
 
 Kin 
 
 King, is derived from a common Aryan 
 root, meaning, originally, the father of a. 
 family, and is not connected so closely with kin 
 as Old English usage would suggest [eyning^ 
 son of the race) . The early G-ermans described 
 hy Tacitus, were more frequently ruled over 
 hy elective principes in peace, or temporary 
 duces in war, than by kings. One result of the 
 migration into Britain was the universal es- 
 tabKshment of monarchy among the old Eng- 
 lish. But the earliest kings can be regarded 
 only as chief magistrates, or permanent 
 duces. The constant war with the Britons 
 had developed the heretoga into the cyning. 
 But by degrees a halo of sanctity surrounded 
 the royal house. Descent from Woden marked 
 it out for special reverence ; and though the 
 royal dignity remained strictly elective, it was 
 very exceptional for the choice of the Witan 
 to fall on any but a member of the traditional 
 royal race. As the representative and personi- 
 fication of the unity of the state, as the chief 
 magistrate in peace, as the leader of the host 
 in war, the Early English king acquired a 
 position which ability and energy could 
 always make imposing, despite the consti- 
 tutional check of the Wise Men and the diffi- 
 culties inherent in the exercise of power in a 
 primitive and disorderly state of society. The 
 conaoHdatiou of the smaller states into greater 
 ones was invariably attended by a great in- 
 crease in the royal power. " As the Idngdom 
 increased in extension," says Dr. Stubbs, 
 " the royal power increased in intension." 
 The conception of the sphere and functions of 
 kingship was enlarged. The development of 
 the comitatus gave the monarch a faithful 
 band of followers, who became the nucleus of 
 a new nobility. The blessing of the Church 
 gave the Christian prince new attributes of 
 dignity and sanctity. The traditions of Im- 
 perial Rome transferred to the overlord of all 
 Britain the prestige of the emperor within 
 the island wMch was his empire. 
 
 Thus throughout the Anglo-Saxon period 
 the theory of kingship was constantly de- 
 veloping ; but its old basis remained the same. 
 Edgar was as much the king of the race, the 
 personal monarch of a free people as the 
 smallest " heptarchic " sovereign. But the 
 growth of a feudalism of native origin side by 
 side as yet with the old Teutonic polity 
 gradually modified both the theory and prac- 
 tice of kingship. In the earliest tables of 
 wergilds, the value of the king's Ufe differs 
 only in degree from the value of the life of a 
 subject. But in the days of Alfred a, rudi- 
 mentary conception of treason had come into 
 existence. The king became lord of the 
 people, and was gradually becoming lord of 
 the soil as well. Though still national mon- 
 arch of the race, his position had become in 
 part at least afiected by the territorialising 
 influences that attended the development of 
 the Anglo-Saxon Constitution. But what 
 the king gained on the one hand he lost on 
 
 the other. Whatever fresh prerogatives were 
 in theory assigned to him, he was compelled 
 to delegate them to feudal vassals, who, if 
 nominally holding theirpowers from the crown, 
 were, for all real purposes, more independent 
 of him than the national ministers of the 
 earlier stages of kingship. The absence of an 
 official organisation — the merely personal 
 character of old English kingship — makes the 
 transition from an Edgar to an Ethelred 
 explicable. Even a Harold could hardly have 
 held his own against the feudalising tend- 
 encies of the time. In fact, the election of the 
 greatest of the earls to the seat of the house of 
 Cerdic, was as great a triumph of the feudal 
 principle, as the election of the leader of the na- 
 tional party wasatriumph of thenationalpolicy. 
 
 The Norman Conquest had remarkable 
 effects upon the development of English king- 
 ship. Though necessarily introducing a large 
 feudal element into the constitution, WiUiam I. 
 did his best to counteract the disruptive tend- 
 encies of the feudal party by emphasising as 
 strongly as he could the continuity of the Old 
 English kingship, and by assigning to it 
 fresh prerogatives such as were claimed by 
 continental sovereigns. He stiU professed to 
 be the national king of the people as well as the 
 feudal lord of the land. He did his best to use 
 fully the powers which theoretically belonged 
 even to the feudal king, however little prac- 
 tically they were in most countries exercised. 
 As the custodian of law and order, as the 
 protector of the people against the anarchy 
 and disruption of the feudal party, the Nor- 
 man king was in a real sense the leader of his 
 people. Thus the general effect of the Con- 
 quest on kingship was a great development of 
 the royal power on the old lines. The con- 
 stitutional checks were removed. The elec- 
 tive element became nearly nominal. The 
 establishment of a strong bureaucratic system, 
 and an elaborate mechanism of organisation 
 and administration, carried the royal power to 
 the highest point ever known in England. 
 
 Henry II. completed what Henry I. had 
 begun. The feudal reaction suppressed, the 
 way was clear for the consolidation of a great 
 despotism. It is hard to realise that the 
 monarchy of the Angevins was a gradual 
 evolution from the monarchy of the old West 
 Saxon kings. But though the struggle with 
 the Church had led to the growth of the op- 
 position theory of the divine origin of king- 
 ship, and the results of the revived study of 
 Roman Law doubtless entered into the idea 
 of kingship as realised by Henry II., yet the 
 inferiority of his own power in Normandy 
 sufficiently indicates that the English mon- 
 archy had mainly developed from internal 
 causes. Feudal Gaul had not much to teach 
 the country of Edgar and Dunstan. The 
 analogy of the Carolings was too remote to 
 give more than the impulse to the growth of 
 Henry II.'s despotism. 
 
 But the very administrative system which 
 
Kin 
 
 ( 64T) 
 
 Kin 
 
 gave permanence to the power of the Angevin 
 monarchy, even when the carelessness oi a 
 Richard or the tyranny of a John had done its 
 test to degrade tbie lustre of the crown, con- 
 tained in itself the elements of the constitution 
 which was to set limits to the prerogatives 
 of future monarchs. The pure despotism of 
 the Conqueror and his sons became a despotism 
 tempered by precedent when the administra- 
 tive system had worked long enough to 
 establish a bureaucratic circle of administra- 
 tive families and a well-defined adminis- 
 trative tradition. A baronage, which, in 
 ceasing to be feudal, had become national, led 
 the people to a struggle which in less than 
 two generations from Magna Carta had estab- 
 lished the mediseval constitution of England. 
 
 The reignof Henry III. marks the transition, 
 that of Edward I. the completion of the new 
 theory of English kingship. The legislative 
 and laxative powers were now reposed in the 
 bands of the national representatives, whose 
 power of presenting grievances was an indica- 
 tion of that national feeling in accordance 
 with which a wise king would govern. Prac- 
 tical efficacy was given to the old Teutonic 
 maxim, Lex fit consensu populi et eonstitutione 
 regis. But the whole executive power re- 
 mained with the king. He still had in his 
 hands the destinies of the whole state. He 
 took the initiative in everything. He governed 
 the country, made war or peace, was the 
 fountain of justice and honour, appointed all 
 ministers, negotiated all treaties, and, through 
 his council, even exercised concurrent legis- 
 lative and taxative powers with those of Parlia- 
 ment. So long as the nation trusted him, he 
 could do almost anything ; but he was therex 
 politicus, who ruled by law, and the law, so 
 far as-not fixed by tradition, could only be 
 altered by Parliament. 
 
 During the fourteenth centurj', though the 
 basis of kingship was hardly altered from the 
 position of Edward I., there grew up, in pro- 
 portion as the popular claims of a Parlia- 
 mentary party, conscious of its strength, were 
 advanced, an antagonistic series of royal as- 
 sumptions. " For every assertion of national 
 right," says Dr. Stubbs, " there is a counter- 
 assertion of royal autocracy. Royalty becomes 
 in theory more absolute, as in practice it is 
 limited more and more by the national will." 
 Edward III. was certainly less able to get his 
 own way than Edward I., yet Edward III.'s 
 claims to override Parliament were far in ex- 
 cess of Edward I.'s. The reign of Richard II. 
 was a period of Parliamentary growth ; but 
 Richard was the most strenuous aaserter of 
 the divine right and indefeasible preroga- 
 tives of monarchy of any medifeval sovereign. 
 His great attempt at despotism speedily led, 
 however, to a new adjustment of the position 
 of the monarchy by the Revolution of 1399. 
 
 Both the practice of the Lancastrian 
 monarchs and the theorising of Sir John 
 Fortescae illustrate very strongly the highest 
 
 development of mediseval constitutionalism. 
 " The origin of pohtio kingship," says For- 
 tescue, "is the will of the people. The limita- 
 tions of the royal power are the glory rather 
 than the shame of regality," as the prosperity 
 of constitutional England and the misery of 
 despotic France sufficiently indicate. The 
 nomination of the council in Parliament almost 
 anticipates the modern ministry, and shows 
 that, even withinhisexecutivefunctions, Henry 
 IV. was under the control of Parliament. But 
 constitutionalism was too weak a form of go- 
 vernment for the fifteenth century. The 
 Wars of the Roses demonstrated its futility, 
 and the " new monarchy," which the Yorkist 
 Edward IV. began, and the Lancastrian 
 Henry VII. established, shows that a new de- 
 velopment of kingship could alone cope with 
 the turbulence of an age of revolution. 
 
 It is a mistake to regard the monarchy of 
 the Tudors as in any formal sense a break in 
 the continuity of the English constitution. But 
 practically it was little less. The functions of 
 Parliament were minimised, and the House of 
 Lords packed with servile bishops, and the 
 Commons with courtiers and placemen. But 
 the absence of a standing army shows that 
 Henry VIII. could rely on his people's 
 support, and that the monarchy was strong 
 because national and popular. The king 
 was careful not do illegal acts without 
 sufficient reason for them. Even the kx 
 regia of English history, which gave the 
 king's proclamations the force of law, and the 
 sanguinary attainder of fallen statesmen, show 
 that Parliament was on the king's side. The 
 assertion of the royal supremacy over the 
 Church was the chief new contribution of the 
 Tudor period to the theory of the monarchy. 
 The claim of imperial self-sufficiency for the 
 English king was hardly new; but there was 
 the less need to theorise when the practical 
 power was secure. Yet now that the mediaeval 
 feudal checks were removed, the proprietary 
 theory of sovereignty, which was a result of 
 feudalism, and regarded the nation as the 
 estate of the king — as much his private pro- 
 perty as the land of his nobles — directly pre- 
 pared the way for the divine right theories 
 of the Stuarts. 
 
 As a rule, the political writers of the six- 
 teenth century spoke of "the regiment of 
 England as no mere monarchy, but a rule 
 mixed by oligarchy and democracy " (Ayl- 
 mer) ; but Raleigh regards the English and 
 French monarchies as similar in power, and 
 the language of Sir T. Smith is much less 
 emphatic than that of Fortescue. The 
 troubles of an age of revolution had resulted 
 in ii theory that, in addition to the ordinary 
 constitutional and limited prerogatives of the 
 crown, the supreme necessity of saving the 
 state involved in the very conception of 
 kingship a dictatorial and paramount sove- 
 reignty, which was generally called the king's 
 "absolute power." This perhaps necessary 
 
Kin 
 
 (648) 
 
 Kin 
 
 conception was now combined with the high 
 monarchical theorisings of James I., and the 
 doctrine of the rising Arminian party that the 
 origin of government was to be found in that 
 patriarchal society, whose monarchical consti- 
 tution was the precedent for all time, that an 
 indefeasible divine right entitled the next 
 heir by hereditary succession to the monarchy, 
 that all constitutional checks on the crown are 
 of favour and not of right, and that passive 
 obedience was in all cases to be paid to the 
 established monarch. This was supplemented 
 by lawyers zealous for the dignity of the 
 fountain of justice, and by reformers who 
 could see in the royal prerogative the only 
 way to progress and improvement; but the 
 antagonistic claims of Parliament soon re- 
 duced these theories into unreality. The Civil 
 "War practically decided the struggle. How- 
 ever Hobbes might theorise on the abso- 
 lutism of the sovereign state, or Fihuer on the 
 patriarchal basis of divine rights; however 
 parliaments might record their approval of 
 the doctrines of passive obedience and non- 
 resistance, the government under Charles II. 
 was practically in the hands of two political 
 parties, of which one might indeed be more 
 personally favourable to the monarch, but the 
 Tories' adulation of the royal power was 
 turned into open rebellion when James II. 
 took them at their word, and lost his throne 
 in consequence. 
 
 The Revolution of 1681 was the triumph of 
 the Whig theory of monarchy, which Locke's 
 political treatises had developed against Filmer. 
 The sovereign owed his position to the 
 " original contract " between king and people. 
 The violation of this led to an ipso facto abdi- 
 cation; for the social contract was not, as 
 Hobbes maintained, absolute and indefeasible, 
 but terminable if broken. But not only was the 
 power of the sovereign thus Kmited in theory, 
 not only was the ultimately elective character 
 of the monarchy re-asserted, and all the old' 
 checks recapitulated and enlarged, but the 
 distinction between the crown and the king, 
 between the royal office and the ro^al person, 
 which the Long Parliament had used to 
 justify their rebellion, became now an essen- 
 tial part of that unwritten constitutional 
 usage which, in practice, soon superseded the 
 old legal and theoretical constitution of the 
 country. The influence and power of the crown 
 went on increasing, while the king's real power 
 became less and less. Nothing but the fiction of 
 jurists regards the nominal head of the modem 
 English State, who "reigns but does not 
 govern," as the real wielder of the ever-in- 
 creasing executive power which is carried on 
 in his name. The cabinet, an informal com- 
 mittee of Parliament, and ultimately of the 
 House of Commons, is the real king in the 
 mediajval sense. The old distinction of the 
 legislative and executive power upon which 
 the old constitution rested, has been broken 
 down. Many theoretical powers of the sove- 
 
 reign, such as the royal veto on bills, are 
 practically obsolete. 
 
 Indirect influence, rather than acts of 
 authority, now makes the monarch a 
 still important factor in English politics. 
 George III., for a time, restored the old royal 
 right of naming ministers, but his ultimate 
 success rested on a harmony of royal and 
 popular wishes which, possible under the 
 " Venetian oligarchy " of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, becomes increasingly difficult when three 
 Reform bills have brought into full power 
 the English democracy, and made the " Pa- 
 triot King" almost impossible. The con- 
 tinuity of English kingship, so long as it 
 remained a reality, is very remarkable, de- 
 spite the change of its forms and the fluctua- 
 tions of its power. 
 
 A general view of tlxe growth of kingsMp 
 can be obtained from the Cowstifuftonal His- 
 ioHes of Stubbs, Hallam, and May. The primi- 
 tive kingship of Germany is to be studied in 
 Tacitus' Germania. Some parts of the Dialogs* 
 de Scaccario illustrate the Angevin monarchy, 
 and the formal treatises of mediseval pohtical 
 philosophers, such as Thomas Aquinas, put 
 mediaeval monarchy on its broadest basis. 
 Mr. Freeman's writings, while fully illustrating 
 early English kingship, bring out clearly its 
 continuity. Allen On the Prerogative is sometimes 
 useful. Fortescue's book, De LauMbus Legmn 
 Anglim, is the only full original statement of the 
 constitutional position of the mediseval mon- 
 archy. The preambles to some of Henry VIII.'s 
 reforming statutes, illustrate clearly the position 
 claimed by that raonarch. Aylmer's answer to 
 Euox's Blast against the Kegimeiit of Women ; 
 Harrison, Bescri-ption of England, prefixed to 
 HoUnshed's Chroniole; Sir T. Smith, On *)ie 
 Comvwnwealth ; and some of Raleigh's political 
 writings, show the position of the monarchy 
 under Elizabeth. James I.'s True Lma of Pi'ee 
 Monarchies gives the theoretical, Bacon's politi- 
 cal treatises the practical basis : and Overall's 
 Convocation Book, and Cowell's Interpreter, the 
 ecclesiastical and legal justifications of the 
 Stuart claims. Pilmer's Pafi-iarclia is a more 
 elaborate statement of the divine right posi- 
 tion ; Hobbes's Leviathan, a strong declaration 
 of the autocracy of the State, which, in prac- 
 tice, led to a despotism of the Cromwell or 
 Richelieu type. Locke's Treatise of Govern- 
 ment is the text -book of eighteenth century 
 Whiggism, and in a sense, aimed against both 
 Filmer and Hobbes. Bolingbroke's Patriot King, 
 marks the revival of the Tory monarchical party, 
 which ultimately carried George III. into 
 power. Mr. Bagehot's English Constituii/>n gives 
 the best view of the present position of the 
 monarchy. pT. F. T.l 
 
 ,, ^EQKAi. Teaks op the Kinqs op Enolakd.— 
 The importance of extreme accuracy," says Sir 
 H. Nicolas (from whose valuable Chromology 
 0/ History the subjoined table is taken) "re- 
 spectmg the regnal years of the Kings of England, 
 IS at once shown by the fact that, inmost instances, 
 after the reign of Henry II. no other date of a year 
 occurs, either in public or private documents, than 
 the year of the reign of the existing monarch, 
 ™d that an error respecting the exact day from 
 which the regnal year is calculated may produce 
 a mistake of one entire year in reducing such a date 
 to the year of the Incarnation. Every year of a 
 king s reign is in two years of our Lord, except 
 (which has never yet happened in England) in the 
 case of an accession on the 1st of January. The 
 first year of the reign of our late sovereign com- 
 menced on the 26th of June, 1830, and terminated 
 on the 26th of June, 1831. If, therefore, th* be- 
 
Kin 
 
 { 649 ) 
 
 Eiu 
 
 ginniug of that reign be erroneously calculated — 
 for example, from the 28th instead of from the 
 26th of June, I830~every document dated on the 
 26th and 27th of June, 1 William IV., would be 
 assigned to the year l®il instead of the year 1830, 
 and a similar mistake would occur on each of those 
 days in' every year of that reign. The effect of an 
 error of even a few days, much more of one entire 
 year in the date of events, must be evident, and a 
 correct table of the regoal years of the Kings of 
 England is consequently a sine qiid non to the his- 
 torical student. 
 
 ." In using this table, it is necessary to observe that 
 it is calculated according to the common and his- 
 torical year— viz., from the 1st of January— but as 
 the civil, ecclesiastical, and lee^il year for a long 
 period began on the 25th of March, all dates be- 
 tween the 1st of January and the 25th of March 
 belong, according to the civil conxpu^ation, to 
 the year before ttie historical year. For example, 
 from the 1st of January bo the 25th of March, in 
 the first year of the reign of William the Conqueror, 
 was in the civil year 1066 instead of 1067. For the 
 same reason, Edward III.'s reign is sometimes said 
 to have begun on the 25th of January, 1326, iustead 
 of the 25t£ of January, 1327 ; Henry T.'s on the 
 21st of March, 1412, instead of the 21st of March, 
 1413; Edward rv.'s on the 4th of March, 1460, 
 instead of the 4th of March, 1461 ; and the same 
 remark, mviatis mutandis, applies to the commence- 
 ment of the reigns of Edward VI., James I., 
 Charles II., James II. j William and Mary, and 
 Queen Anne accordingly, whether the historical 
 or civil year be alluded to." 
 
 Henry the Fiest (continued). 
 
 William the CoNQiTBitOR. 
 
 o(25 
 
 25 Dec. 1066 
 1067 
 1067 
 
 \2i 
 •*I24 
 
 ,J25 
 
 7J2 
 
 (24: 
 
 1068 
 1068 
 1069 
 1069 
 1070 
 1070 
 1071 
 1071 
 1072 
 1072 
 1073 
 
 15| 
 
 16] : 
 17| 
 18{ 
 19| 
 20 1 
 21| 
 
 25 Deo. 1080 
 
 24 , 
 
 , ,1081 
 
 25 , 
 
 , 1081 
 
 24 , 
 
 , 1082 
 
 25 , 
 
 , 1082 
 
 24 , 
 
 , 1083 
 
 25 , 
 
 , 1083 
 
 24 , 
 
 , 1084 
 
 25 , 
 
 . 1084 
 
 24 „ 1085 
 
 25 , 
 
 , 1085 
 
 24 , 
 
 , 1086 
 
 25 , 
 
 , 1086 
 
 9 Sept. 1087 
 
 William the Second. 
 
 4 
 
 \2& 
 (26 
 25 
 (26 
 125 
 
 Sept. 1087 
 „ 1088 
 
 125 
 126 
 
 ' 25 
 
 1090 
 1090 
 1091 
 1091 
 1092 
 
 .(26 Sept. 1092 
 "125 „ 1093 
 
 «{l"5 
 
 1093 
 1094 
 1094 
 1095 
 ]095 
 1096 
 
 ,.f26 Sept. 1096 
 l"l25 „ 1097 
 ,,J26 „ 1097 
 "125 ,, 1098 
 • — „ 1098 
 
 26 „ 1099 
 2 Ang. 1100 
 
 si* 
 lois 
 
 iM! 
 HI 
 
 "{i 
 
 "M 
 
 Avg. 1100 
 
 „ 1101 
 
 „ 1101 
 
 „ 1102 
 
 „ 1102 
 
 „ 1103 
 
 „ -1103 _ 
 
 „ 1104 • 
 
 „ 1104 . 
 
 „ 1105 
 
 ,. 1105 . 
 
 „ 1106 
 
 „ 1106 . 
 
 „ 1107 
 
 „ 1107 
 
 „ 1108 ■ 
 
 „ 1108 
 
 „ 1109 : 
 
 „ 1109 , 
 
 „ 111020'i4 
 Hist.— 21* 
 
 Ml 
 
 ie\l 
 
 18-} 4 
 
 1914 
 5 
 
 THE FlEST. 
 Aug. 1110 
 
 „ nil 
 „ nil 
 
 , 111? 
 
 „ 1112 
 „ U13 
 „ 1113 
 „ 1114 
 „ 1114 
 „ 1115 
 .. 1115 
 1116 
 1116 
 1117 
 1117 
 1118 
 1118 
 1119 
 1119 
 U20 
 
 2l{4 
 HI 
 HI 
 
 HI 
 HI 
 
 HI 
 
 27 
 28 
 
 HI 
 
 5 Aug, 
 
 1120 
 1121 
 1121 
 1122 
 1122 
 1123 
 1123 
 1124 
 1124 
 1125 
 1125 
 1126 
 1126 
 1127 
 1127 
 1128 
 1123 
 1129 
 1129 
 1130 
 
 ( 5 Aug. 
 U „ 
 
 H „ 
 
 1130 
 1131 
 1131 
 1132 
 
 33 1 5 Aug. 
 
 HI :: 
 
 1132 
 1133 
 1183 
 1134 
 
 HI 
 Hi 
 
 5 Aug. 1134 
 
 „ 1135 
 
 „ 1135 
 
 Dec. 1135 
 
 26 Deo. 1135 
 
 l{25 
 
 MS 
 
 Mi 
 Mi 
 
 Mi 
 Mi 
 Mi 
 
 1136 
 1136 
 1137 
 1137 
 1138 
 1138 
 1139 
 1139 
 1140 
 1140 
 1141 
 1141 
 1142 
 
 ^{ 
 
 Stephen. 
 26 Dec. 1142 
 25 „ 1143 
 1143 
 1144 
 1144 
 1145 
 1145 
 1146 
 1146 
 1147 
 1147 
 1148 
 
 M25 
 
 loji 
 
 iMi 
 H^ 
 Hit 
 
 H'i 
 HU 
 Hit 
 iMi 
 
 19-'"° 
 
 Dec. 1148 
 
 „ 1149 
 
 .. 1149 
 
 1150 
 
 1160 
 
 1151 
 
 1151 
 
 1152 
 
 1152 
 
 1153 
 
 1153 
 
 25 Got. 1154 
 
 Henry the Second. 
 
 , f 19 Dec 
 ^(18 „ 
 
 1154 
 
 ,„fl9 Deo 
 1^118 „ 
 
 1166 
 
 ,,(19 Dec 
 (18 „ 
 
 1178 
 
 1165 
 
 1167 
 
 U79 
 
 „J 19 „ 
 (18 „ 
 
 1155 
 
 1*1 18 ;; 
 
 1167 
 
 9„ ( 19 „ 
 2** (18 „ 
 
 1179 
 
 1156 
 
 1168 
 
 1180 
 
 o(19 „ 
 ^118 „ 
 
 1156 
 
 i=fl9 „ 
 (18 „ 
 
 1168 
 
 2,(19 „ 
 '(18 „ 
 
 1180 
 
 1157 
 
 1169 
 
 1181 
 
 A.i 19 " 
 *tl8 „ 
 
 1157 
 
 i«j 19 .. 
 
 1169 
 
 00 ( 19 „ 
 ^118 „ 
 
 1181 
 
 1158 
 
 1170 
 
 1182 
 
 5? 19 
 °ll8 „ 
 
 1168 
 1169 
 
 17(19 „ 
 (18 „ 
 
 1170 
 1171 
 
 oq(19 „ 
 (18 „ 
 
 1182 
 1183 
 
 fit 19 „ 
 ®U8 „ 
 
 1169 
 1160 
 
 Hll •■ 
 
 1171 
 1172 
 
 onj 19 .. 
 ■(18 „ 
 
 1183 
 1184 
 
 _ 19 „ 
 
 1160 
 
 Hit ;; 
 
 1172 
 
 31 U8 „ 
 
 1184 
 
 'I18 „ 
 
 1161 
 
 1173 
 
 1186 
 
 oj 19 „ 
 (18 „ 
 
 1161 
 
 anJ 19 .. 
 ^"(18 „ 
 
 1173 
 
 o„J19 „ 
 (18 „ 
 
 1185 
 
 1162 
 
 1174 
 
 1186 
 
 Mis :; 
 
 1162 
 1163 
 
 ■^ (18 „ 
 
 1174 
 1175 
 
 Hit ;: 
 
 1186 
 1187 
 
 Hfs ;: 
 
 1163 
 1164 
 
 99 i 19 " 
 ^^(18 „ 
 
 1175 
 1176 
 
 Hit ;: 
 
 1187 
 1188 
 
 n i 19 .. 
 ^ (18 „ 
 
 1164 
 1165 
 
 23.) 18 " 
 ■^=118 „ 
 
 1176 
 1177 
 
 „.(19 „ 1188 
 ^\ 6 July 1189 
 
 12P* ■• 
 US' .. 
 
 1165 
 
 2*1 Is :: 
 
 1177 
 
 
 
 1166 
 
 1178 
 
 
 
 BiCHABD THE FlRST. 
 
 , ( 3 Sept. 1189 
 1 1 2 „ 1190 
 
 Mi """ 
 
 Mi 
 Ml 
 
 1190 
 1191 
 1191 
 1192 
 1192 
 1193 
 
 5(3 Sept. 
 
 M!? 
 
 ' 3 
 
 May 
 
 2 
 
 iJ23 
 *il4 
 (15 
 
 27 
 
 June 
 May 
 
 1199 
 1200 
 1200 
 1201 
 1201 
 1202 
 1202 
 1203 
 1203 
 1204 
 1204 
 1206 
 
 John. 
 »(19 May 
 '(10 „ 
 11 .. 
 
 30 „ 
 
 31 „ 
 34 „ 
 
 H'l : 
 1M26 ;: 
 iMii :: 
 
 1194 
 1194 
 1196 
 1195 
 1196 
 
 1206 
 120s 
 1206 
 1207 
 1207 
 1208 
 1208 
 1209 
 1209 
 1210 
 1210 
 1211 
 
 (,(•3 Sept. 1196 
 
 ^12 „ 1197 
 
 q(3 „ 1197 
 
 ^\ 2 ,, 1198 
 
 inJ3 „ 1198 
 
 ^"te April 1199 
 
 12 May 1211 
 1212 
 1212 
 1213 
 1213 
 1214 
 1214 
 1215 
 1215 
 1216 
 1216 
 1216 
 
 ^"t 2 
 
 Hi :: 
 
 1 1 ( 23 „ 
 
 1^( 7 „ 
 
 1M27 ;; 
 
 iM| :: 
 
 l^{l9 Oct. 
 
 HeNKV THE ThIKD. 
 
 (27 
 „(28 
 ^■(27 
 
 *i27 
 
 (28 
 
 5|27 
 
 Oct. 1216 
 .. 1217 
 1217 
 1218 
 1218 
 1219 
 1219 
 1220 
 1220 
 1221 
 
 6 
 
 Mi 
 
 Ht 
 
 Oct. 1221 
 „ 1222 
 .. 1222 
 1223 
 1223 
 1224 
 1224 
 1226 
 1225 
 
 ( 28 Oct. 1226 
 
 11127 „ 1227 
 
 1M27 
 
 H~~ 
 
 27 
 (28 
 ■(27 
 (28 
 I27 
 
 1227 
 1228 
 1228 
 1229 
 1229 
 1280 
 1230 
 1231 
 
Kin 
 
 ( 650 
 
 Km 
 
 
 274 
 
 "■(27 
 41? 
 
 Hehkt 
 Oct. 1231 
 1232 
 1232 
 1233 
 1233 
 1234, 
 1234, 
 1235 
 1235 
 1236 
 1236 
 1237 
 1237 
 1238 
 1238 
 1239 
 1239 
 1240 
 1240 
 1241 
 1241 
 124,2 
 1242 
 1243 
 1243 
 1244 
 1244 
 1245 
 
 „n(28 Oct. 
 30 1 27 
 
 32 
 
 128 
 
 
 27 
 
 35 
 36 
 
 40i^^ 
 
 «{i 
 
 45 
 
 (coiitmued). 
 
 1245 ,, ( 28 
 
 1246 
 
 1246 
 
 1247 
 
 1247 
 
 1248 
 
 1248 
 
 1249 
 
 1249 
 
 1250 
 
 1250 
 
 1251 
 
 1251 
 
 1252 
 
 1252 
 
 1253 
 
 1253 
 
 1254 
 
 1254 
 
 1255 
 
 1255 
 
 1256 
 
 1256 
 
 1257 
 
 1257 
 
 1258 
 
 1258 
 
 1259 
 
 (i:8 
 (27 
 
 Ml? 
 
 «o]i? 
 «M1? 
 
 =3|i 
 
 «Mi? 
 
 «;fiJ28 
 56 -[27 
 
 57]"° 
 
 Oct. 1259 
 1260 
 1260 
 1261 
 1261 
 1262 
 1262 
 1263 
 1263 
 1264 
 1264 
 1265 
 1265 
 1266 
 „ 1266 
 „ 1267 
 „ 1267 
 „ 1268 
 „ 1268 
 „ 1269 
 „ 1269 
 „ 1270 
 „ 1270 
 „ 1271 
 „ 1271 
 „ 1272 
 „ 1272 
 Nov. 1272 
 
 f 20 Nov. 1272 
 
 4(20 
 
 *1l9 
 
 °1l9 
 R 20 
 
 -(20 
 'tl9 
 „(20 
 ^1)9 
 
 9 
 
 (20 
 U9 
 
 
 1273 
 1273 
 1274 
 1274 
 1275 
 1275 
 1276 
 1276 
 1277 
 1277 
 1278 
 1278 
 1279 
 1279 
 1280 
 1280 
 1281 
 1281 
 1282 
 
 12 
 
 ;2o 
 
 19 
 
 1(? 
 2{B 
 
 3{| 
 M? 
 
 « 7 
 
 7] 8 
 17 
 
 Hit 
 
 3{fg 
 1284 1 '"tig 
 
 Edward 
 July 1307 
 
 I Nov. : 
 
 Edward the Pirst; 
 1284 
 1285 
 1285 
 1286 
 1286 
 1287 
 1287 
 1288 
 
 1289 
 1289 
 1290 
 1290 
 1291 
 1291 
 1292 
 1292 
 1293 
 1293 
 1294 
 1294 
 1295 
 1296 
 1296 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 (20 
 
 ' 19 
 
 2S{1 
 26 
 
 "U9 
 
 3*{?9 
 35(- 
 
 Nov. 1296 
 
 „ 1297 
 
 „ 1297 
 
 „ 1298 
 
 „ 1298 
 
 „ 1299 
 
 „ 1299 
 
 „ 1300 
 
 „ 1300 
 
 „ 1301 
 
 „ 1301 
 
 „ 1302 
 
 „ 1303 
 
 „ 1303 
 
 „ 1303 
 
 „ 1304 
 
 „ 1304 
 
 „ 1305 
 
 „ 1305 
 
 „ 1306 
 
 „ 1306 
 
 JuJy 1307 
 
 1308 
 1308 
 1309 
 1309 
 1310 
 1310 
 1311 
 1311 
 1312 
 1312 
 1313 
 1313 
 1314 
 
 '{? 
 
 12 j^ 
 13iJ 
 
 THE Second. 
 
 July 1314 
 „ 1315 
 „ 1315 
 „ 1316 
 „ 1316 
 „ 1317 
 „ 1317 
 „ 1318 
 „ 1318 
 „ 1319 
 „ 1319 
 
 1820 
 1321 
 
 j 8 July 1321 
 
 20: 
 
 Jan. 1327 
 
 „ 1328 
 
 „ 1328 
 
 „ 1329 
 
 „ 1329 
 
 „ 1330 
 
 „ 1330 
 
 „ 1331 
 
 „ 1331 
 
 „ 1332 
 
 Edward the Third. 
 
 24 
 25 
 24 
 25 
 24, 
 25 
 24 
 
 25 Jau. 1332 
 1333 
 1333 
 1334 
 1334 
 1335 
 1835 
 
 1337 
 
 11 
 
 1322 
 1322 
 1323 
 1323 
 1324 
 1324 
 1325 
 1325 
 1326 
 1326 
 20 Jan. 1327 
 
 I 25 Jan. 1337 
 
 24 
 25 
 24 
 25 
 24 
 25 
 24 
 ,(25 
 '\24 
 
 1338 
 1338 
 U39 
 1339 
 1340 
 1340 
 1341 
 1341 
 1342 
 
 17(1 
 
 Edward the Third (continued). 
 ,f25 Jan. 1354 
 'i.24 „ 1355 
 
 18 
 
 '25 
 
 (25 
 124 
 25 
 24 
 25 
 24 
 
 (25 
 " 24 
 
 21 
 
 HI 
 HI 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 Jau. 1342 
 
 „ 1343 
 
 „ 1343 
 
 „ 1344 
 
 „ 1344 
 
 „ 1345 
 
 „ 1345 
 
 „ 1346 
 
 „ 1346 
 
 „ 1347 
 
 „ 1347 
 
 „ 1348 
 
 „ 1348 
 
 „ 1349 
 
 „ 1349 
 
 „ 1350 
 
 „ 1350 
 
 „ 1351 
 
 „ 1351 
 
 „ 1352 
 
 „ 1352 
 
 „ 1353 
 
 „ 1353 
 
 „ 1354 
 
 "{24, 
 30{f4 
 3l|f4 
 
 Hll 
 
 4i 
 
 37-^ 
 
 411 
 41 
 
 1355 
 1356 
 1356 
 1357 
 1357 
 1358 
 1358 
 1359 
 1359 
 1360 
 1360 
 1361 
 1361 
 1362 
 1362 
 1363 
 1363 
 1364 
 1364 
 1365 
 1365 
 1366 
 
 «'{24 
 *3{i 
 
 Jan. 1366 
 
 „ 1367 
 
 „ 1367 
 
 „ 1368 
 
 1368 
 
 45 
 
 (24 
 
 46{| 
 
 47 
 
 (25 
 
 «(ll 
 
 «i{l? 
 
 „ 1370 
 
 „ 1370 
 
 „ 1371 
 
 „ 1371 
 
 „ 1372 
 
 „ 1372 
 
 „ 1373 
 
 „ 1373 
 
 „ 1374 
 
 „ 1374 
 
 „ 1375 
 
 „ 1375 
 
 „ 1376 
 
 „ 1376 
 
 „ 1377 
 
 „ 1377 
 
 June 1377 
 
 1383 
 1383 
 1384 
 1384 
 1385 
 
 41! 
 
 Richard 
 ! June 1377 
 
 „ 1378 
 ! „ 1378 
 
 „ 1379 
 1 „ 1379 
 . „ 1380 
 I „ 1380 
 
 „ 1381 
 1 „ 1381 
 
 „ 1382 
 
 THE Second. 
 June 1385 
 
 10 
 
 111 
 
 Hll 
 Hll 
 Hfi 
 Hfi 
 
 15 J 22 
 
 1rJ22 
 "{21 
 
 1386 
 1387 
 1387 
 1388 
 1388 
 1389 
 1389 
 1390 
 1390 
 1391 
 1391 
 1392 
 1392 
 
 Ml 
 
 S June 1 
 
 (21 
 22 
 21 
 
 19-^ 
 
 24 i! 
 
 Hfi 
 
 Hll 
 23(22 
 
 ) Sept. 1 
 
 1894 
 1394 
 1395 
 
 1397 
 1397 
 1398 
 1398 
 1399 
 1399 
 
 1401 
 1402 
 1402 
 1403 
 1403 
 1404 
 
 ( 30 Sept. 1404 „ fSO Sept. 1409 
 (29 „ 1405-^^129 „ 1410 
 
 Henry the Fourth, 
 ) Sept. 1399 
 > „ 14 
 
 1400 _( 
 
 14J1 ' t 
 
 4i^ 
 
 9 {30 
 
 10 '^ 
 10^2 
 
 1405 
 1406 
 1406 
 1407 
 1407 
 1408 
 1408 
 1409 
 
 14 
 
 (30 
 
 1410 
 1411 
 1411 
 1412 
 1412 
 ) Mar. 1413 
 
 f 21 Mar. 1413 
 
 Henrt the Fifth. 
 
 20 
 
 4i 
 
 3{1S 
 
 4i 
 
 1414 
 1414 
 1415 
 1415 
 1416 
 1416 
 1417 
 
 .(21 Mar. 1417 
 
 "1 20 „ 1418 
 
 fiJ21 „ 1418 
 
 "(20 „ 1419 
 
 -(■21 „ 1419 
 
 ' I20 „ 1420 
 
 R (-21 Mar. 1420 
 (.20 .. 1421 
 
 9/21 
 
 10 
 
 [21 
 
 1421 
 1422 
 1422 
 
 31 Aug. 1422 
 
 1 J 1 Sept. 
 (31 Aug. 
 o ( 1 Sept. 
 n 31 Aug. 
 o( ISept. 
 3 1 81 Aug. 
 ij ISept. 
 *1 31 Aufr. 
 5! ISept. 
 ^131 Aug. 
 fi( ISept. 
 ^131 Aug. 
 » f 1 Sept. 
 '131 Aug. 
 r( ISept. 
 ** 131 Aug. 
 
 Henry 
 
 1422 
 1428 
 142S 
 1424 
 1424 
 1425 
 1426 
 1426 
 1426 
 1427 
 1427 
 1428 
 1428 
 1429 
 1429 
 1430 
 
 43^ 
 
 1431 
 
 Hs\ 
 
 Hal 
 Hsl 
 
 Hsl 
 
 1^1 31' 
 
 THE Sixth, 
 Sept. 1480 
 Aug. 1431 
 Sept. 1431 
 Aug. 1432 
 Sept. 1432 
 Aug. 1433 
 Sept. ,1433 
 Aug. 1434 
 Sept. 1434 
 Auff. 1435 
 Sept. 1435 
 Aug. 1436 
 Sept. 1436 
 Aug. 1437 
 Sept. 1437 
 Aug. 1438 
 
 Hi 
 
 ^^131 
 
 Hsl 
 
 Hsl 
 21 
 
 4sl 
 
 {si 
 {s\ 
 
 Hi 
 
 Sept. 1438 
 Aug. 1439 
 Sept. 1439 
 Aug. 1410 
 Sept. 1440 
 Aug. 1441 
 Sept. 1441 
 Aug. 1442 
 Sept. 14i2 
 Aug. 1443 
 Sept. 1443 
 Aug, 1444 
 Sept. 1414 
 Aug. 1445 
 Sept. 1445 
 Aug; 1446 
 
Kin 
 
 ( 651 ) 
 
 Kin 
 
 „.f 1 Sept. 1446 
 
 ^{si 
 
 Aug. 1447 
 f l.Sept. 1447 
 131 Aug. 1448 
 „,( ISept. 144S 
 '''t 31 Aug. 1448 
 „j,J 1 Sept. 144® 
 '"1 31 Aug. 1450 
 
 Henbt the Sixth 
 „„( ISept. 
 ^"l 31 Aug. 
 
 31 J ISept. 
 *^l31A.ug. 
 „oJ 1 Sept. 
 32 1 31 Aug. 
 
 33i-l««P*- 
 
 1 31 Aug. 
 „ J 1 Sept. 1450 1 oj. J 1 Sept. 
 ^131 Aug. 1461 1 "^ 1 31 Aug. 
 
 (continued). 
 1461 o^ ( 1 
 1462: 1 31 
 1452!„„j 1 
 1453 1 "131 
 1453'„,( 1 
 1454 "'131 
 
 {s\ 
 
 1454 
 1455 
 1455 
 1466 
 
 ^{l 
 
 Sept. 1456 
 Aug. 1457 
 Sept. 1457 
 Aug. 1458 
 Sept. 1458 
 Aug. 1459 
 Sept. 1459 
 Aug. 1460 
 Sept. 1480 
 Mar. 1461 
 
 3{^ 
 
 .a{*3 
 'It 
 
 Bdwabd 
 4 March 1461 
 1462 
 1462 
 1463 
 1463 
 1464 
 1464 
 1465 
 1465 
 1466 
 1466 
 1467 
 1467 
 1468 
 1468 
 1469 
 
 {t 
 "13 
 
 "Is 
 
 Mi 
 
 THE PoTJRTH, 
 
 March 1469 
 1470 
 1470 
 1471 
 1471 
 1472 
 1472 
 1473 
 1473 
 1474 
 1474 
 14751 
 1475I „( 
 1476, '*'! 
 1476 
 1477 1 
 
 4 March 1477 
 1478 
 1478 
 1479 
 1479 
 1480 
 1480 
 1481 
 1481 
 14S2 
 1482 
 1483 
 1483 
 
 9 April 1483 
 
 Edwabd the Fifth, 
 
 ( 9 April 1483 
 
 Edward the Sixth. 
 
 1125 June 1483 
 
 BiCHAHD TEE ThIBD. 
 
 , ( 26 June 14831 „ ( 26 June 1484 1 „i 26 June 1485 
 M25 „ 1484Mt25 „ 1485 1 "122 Aug. 1485 
 
 Henbt the Seventh. 
 
 Mil 
 
 ''121 
 
 Ml 
 Mi? 
 *i2i 
 
 ,(22 
 
 Aug. 1485 , 
 1486 ■ 
 1486 
 
 1487r"(21 
 1487',, J 22 
 1488 /'^t 21 
 
 1488 
 
 1489 1 •"(21 
 1489 • — 
 1490, 
 1490. 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 1491,-'* 121 
 
 1491 ,> (22 
 
 1492 ^°t21 
 22 
 21 
 
 ! Aug. 1493 
 1494 
 1494 
 1495 
 1495 
 1496 
 1496 
 1497 
 1497 
 1498 
 1498 
 
 19 
 
 -I 
 
 1499 
 1500 
 1500 a, 
 
 1501 1 
 
 121 
 
 r22 
 121 
 
 f22 
 121 
 (22 
 121 
 (■22 
 121 
 (22 
 I2I 
 J 22 
 I2I 
 ■ 22 
 121 
 
 HeNBT the BKtHTH. 
 
 2 April 1509 , . ( 22 April 1522 „, f 
 ■ 1510 "i21 „ ,1523|2'1 
 
 M 
 
 loi 
 
 12i 
 I3J 
 
 1510 
 1611 
 1511 
 1512 
 1512 
 1613 
 1513 
 1514 
 1514 
 1515 
 1616 
 1516 
 1516 
 1617 
 1517 
 1518 
 1518 
 1519 
 1519 
 1520 
 1620 
 1521 
 1521 
 
 20 ^ 
 
 23 J 
 
 21 
 
 1524|''°1 
 1524 L„i 
 1525|^'*1 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 1526 
 ,1526 
 1527 
 1527 
 1528 
 15z8 
 1529 
 1629 
 1530 
 1530 
 1631 
 1531 
 1532 
 1I532 
 a.'!33 
 1533 
 1634 
 1534 
 1535 
 
 t 
 31{ 
 
 32 1 
 
 33 ■! 
 
 34| 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 1 
 
 Aug. 1501 
 
 „ 1502 
 
 » ISOi 
 
 „ 1503 
 
 „ 1503 
 
 „ 1501 
 
 „ 1504 
 
 „ 1605 
 
 „ 1505 
 
 „ 1606 
 
 „ 1506 
 
 „ 1507 
 
 „ 1507 
 
 „ 1508 
 
 „ 1508 
 
 April 1509 
 
 April 1535 
 
 „ 1536 
 
 „ 1636 
 
 „ 1537 
 
 „ 1537 
 
 „ 1638 
 
 „ 1538 
 
 „ 1539 
 
 „ 1539 
 
 „ 1640 
 
 „ 1540 
 
 » 1541 
 
 „ 1541 
 
 » 1542 
 
 „ 1542 
 
 „ 1543 
 
 ,, 1643 
 
 „ 1644 
 
 „ 1544 
 
 „ 1645 
 
 ,, 1545 
 
 „ 1?46 
 
 „ 1546 
 
 Jan. 1547 
 
 1651 
 
 1651 
 1552 
 
 (27 
 
 Jan. 
 
 ?J28 - 
 '^t 6 July 
 
 , C28 Jan. 1547 ^(28 Jan. 1560 
 
 ^127 „ 1648 *t27 
 
 5,(28 „ 1548 
 
 ^(27 „ 1549 
 
 oJ28 „ 1549 
 
 "127 „ 1550 
 
 Mabt. 
 , (6 July 15631 „( 6 July 1554 
 ^15 „ 15641 "'124 „ 1564 
 
 Philip and Mabt. 
 (The marriage took place 25 July, 1554.) 
 
 „(25 July 1556 . (25 July 
 ''124 „ 1557r ll7 Nov. 
 
 1552 
 1553 
 1553 
 1553 
 
 25 July 1554 
 
 24 „ 1555 
 
 25 „ 1655 
 24 „ 1556 
 
 I 17 Nov. 1558 
 i 16 „ 1659 
 ( 17 „ 1569 
 i 16 „ 1660 
 (17 „ 1660 
 1 16 „ 1561 
 f 17 „ 1661 
 U6 „ 1562 
 ( 17 „ 1662 
 1 16 „ 1663 
 ( 17 „ 1563 
 1664 
 1564 
 1666 
 1565 
 1666 
 1566 
 1567 
 1567 
 1668 
 1568 
 1569 
 1569 
 1570 
 1570 
 1571 
 1571 
 1672 
 1672 
 1673 
 
 *J25 
 
 1657 
 15581 
 
 155^ 
 1568 
 
 16 
 17 
 
 l24 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 ,,(17 Nov. 1573 
 ^"lie „ 1574 
 
 26p7 
 ''''I16 
 
 „-(17 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 1674 
 1675 
 1575 
 1576 
 1676 
 1577 
 1677 
 1578 
 1578 
 1679 
 1679 
 1680 
 15t0 
 1581 
 1581 
 1682 
 1582 
 1583 
 1583 
 1584 
 1584 
 1685 
 1585 
 1586 
 1586 
 1687 
 1687 
 1688 
 
 3Mf6 
 38] f6 
 
 Hie 
 Hie 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mur. 
 
 1588 
 1589 
 1589 
 1590 
 1690 
 1591 
 1591 
 1592 
 1592 
 1593 
 1593 
 1594 
 1594 
 1595 
 1595 
 1596 
 1596 
 1597 
 1597 
 1598 
 1598 
 1699 
 1599 
 1600 
 1600 
 1601 
 1601 
 1602 
 1602 
 
 Mi 
 
 ^123 
 *l23 
 
 Jahes the First. 
 24 Mar. 1603 1 „ ( 24 Mar. 1611 ,- ( 
 ^123 „ 1612 "1 
 
 Hit ' ■ 
 
 1M2I 
 13J2* 
 
 '123 
 24 
 23 
 
 1604 
 1604 
 1605 
 1606 
 1606 
 1606 
 1607 
 1607 
 1608 
 1603 
 
 M 
 
 Mr 
 
 lt09 
 1610 
 
 1610 
 1611 
 
 ij J 24 
 
 1542* 
 ■^5123 
 (24 
 
 'Charles the Fibst. 
 
 1612 
 1612 
 1613 
 1613 
 1614 
 1614 
 1616 
 1615 
 1616 
 1616 
 1617 
 1617 
 1618 
 16lg 
 1619 
 
 24 Mar. 
 23 „ 
 
 Hit 
 H^ 
 
 H'i 
 Hf^ 
 Hfs 
 
 23{2* 
 
 1619 
 1620 
 1620 
 1621 
 1621 
 1622 
 1622 
 1623 
 1623 
 1624 
 1624 
 1625 
 
 27 
 
 ( 27 Mar. 1625 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 l26 
 
 4i27 
 
 *l26 
 
 (27 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 (26 
 
 (27 
 
 1627 
 1627 
 1628 
 1628 
 1629 
 1629 
 1630 
 1630 
 1631 
 1631 
 1632 
 1632 
 1633 
 
 „ ( 27 Mar. 1633 
 
 l26 
 
 Hll 
 H^ 
 H^, 
 iMia 
 
 27 
 
 1634 
 1634 
 1835 
 1636 
 1636 
 1686 
 1637 
 1637 
 1638 
 1838 
 1639 
 1639 
 1840 
 1640 
 1641 
 
 ,„(27 Mar. 
 
 126 „ 
 
 18 .f 27 " 
 
 "^l26 „ 
 
 H^^ :: 
 
 ^{i ;; 
 
 »,J27 „ 
 
 (27 ., 
 (26 „ 
 127 „ 
 126 „ 
 (27 „ 
 130 Jan. 
 
 1641 
 1642 
 1642 
 1643 
 1643 
 1644 
 1644 
 1645 
 1645 
 1646 
 1646 
 1647. 
 1647 
 1848 
 1648 
 1649 
 
Kin 
 
 ( 652 ) 
 
 Kin 
 
 10 
 
 15{l 
 
 
 Chaki.113 
 Jan. 1649 
 
 „ 1650 
 
 „ 1660 
 
 „ 16S1 
 
 „ 1651 
 
 „ 1653 
 
 „ 1652 
 
 „ 1653 
 
 „ 1653 
 
 „ 1651 
 
 „ 1654 
 
 „ 1655 
 
 „ 1655 
 
 „ 1656 
 
 „ 1656 
 
 „ 1657 
 
 „ 1657 
 
 „ 1658 
 
 „ 1658 
 
 „ 1659 
 
 „ 1659 
 
 „ 1660 
 
 „ 1660 
 
 „ 1661J 
 
 THE Second. 
 30 Jan. 16 Jl „„ 
 1662 '"' 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18| 
 
 19| 
 
 20 1 
 
 21] 
 
 22 1 
 
 23{^ 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 1662 
 1663 
 1663 
 1664 
 1664 
 1665 
 1665 
 1666 
 1666 
 1667 
 1667 
 
 1670 
 1670 
 1671 
 1671 
 1672 
 1672 
 1673 
 1673 
 1674 
 
 29 
 
 (30 
 
 I 29 
 
 .30 
 
 (30 
 129 
 30 
 29 
 30 
 29 
 30 
 
 J Jan. 1674 
 3 „ 1675 
 1675 
 1676 
 1676 
 1677 
 1677 
 1678 
 1678 
 1679 
 1679 
 1680 
 1680 
 16sl 
 1681 
 1682 
 1682 
 
 1684 
 1684 
 1685 
 1685 
 6 Feb. 1685 
 
 (30 
 
 (29 
 
 30 
 
 James the Second. 
 
 (6 Feb. 
 
 15 „ 
 
 16 „ 
 5 „ 
 
 1686 
 1687 
 
 1687 
 1688 
 
 *{l5 
 
 Feb. 
 Dec. 
 
 ■William and Mart. 
 
 13 Feb. 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 1690 
 1691 
 1691 
 1692 
 1692 
 1693 
 1693 
 1694 
 
 c (13 Feb. 1694 
 "127 Deo. 1694 
 
 ■William III. 
 
 -(28 Deo. 1694 
 
 ' ( 27 „ 1695 
 
 oJ 28 „ 1695 
 
 "■(27 „ 1696 
 
 9 J 28 „ 1696 
 
 "(27 „ 1697 
 
 10|28Deo. 
 
 127 
 
 27 „ 
 
 '28 „ 
 
 27 „ 
 
 28 „ 
 
 27 „ 
 
 28 „ 
 
 8 Mar. 
 
 1699 
 1700 
 1700 
 1701 
 1701 
 1702 
 
 It ° 
 
 3« 
 
 HI 
 HI 
 
 Mar. 1702 
 1703 
 1703 
 1704 
 1704 
 1705 
 1705 
 1706 
 1708 
 1707 
 
 Anne. 
 8 Mar. 1707 
 1708 
 1708 
 1709 
 1709 
 1710 
 1710 
 1711 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 7 
 
 in (8 Mar. 1711 
 ^"(7 „ 1712 
 
 1712 
 1713 
 1713 
 17 „ 1714 
 (8 „ 1714 
 jl Aug. 1714 
 
 if 1 Aug. 
 ^t 31 July 
 oJ 1 Aug. 
 "^tSl July 
 „ ( 1 Aug. 
 "t 31 July 
 4 1 1 Aug. 
 *l31 July 
 si 1 Aug. 
 "131 July 
 
 1715 
 1716 
 1716 
 1717 
 1717 
 1718 
 1718 
 1719 
 
 George 
 
 f. ( 1 Aug, 
 °t31 July 
 
 Georqe the 
 17M 
 1715 
 
 J 1 Aug. 
 
 1 31 July 
 
 f 1 Aug. 
 
 31 July 
 
 3 ( 1 Aug. 
 
 July 
 
 First. 
 
 1719 
 
 1720 
 
 1720 
 
 1721 
 
 17ai 
 
 1722 
 
 1722 
 
 1723 
 
 1 Aug. 1723 
 31 July 1724 
 
 1 Aug. 1724 
 31 July 1725 
 
 1 Aug. 1725 
 31 July 1726 
 
 1 Aug. 1726 
 11 June 1727 
 
 ( 11 June 1727 
 
 10 
 
 111 
 '10 
 11 
 10 
 
 n 
 
 10 
 
 u 
 
 10 
 
 '11 
 
 10 
 
 '11 
 
 :io 
 
 1728 
 1728 
 1729 
 1729 
 1730 
 1730 
 1731 
 1731 
 1732 
 1732 
 1733 
 1733 
 1784 
 
 June 
 
 1741 
 
 1742 
 1742 
 1743 
 1743 
 1744 
 1744 
 1745 
 1745 
 1746 
 1746 
 1747 
 1747 
 1748 
 
 tlO 
 
 Georqe the Second (continued). 
 
 22 
 
 '"llO 
 
 ^■^10 
 25 
 
 ill 
 1 10 
 
 10 
 
 June 1748 
 
 „ 1749 
 
 „ 1749 
 
 „ 1750 
 
 „ 1750 
 
 „ 1751 
 
 „ 1751 
 
 „ 1752 
 
 „ 1762 
 
 „ . 1753 
 
 „,( 11 June 1753 
 
 '''llO „ 1764 
 
 „g|ll „ 1754 
 
 "'°no „ 1755 
 
 11 „ 1755 
 
 10 „ 1766 
 
 11 „ 1756 
 10 „ 1757 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 11 June 1757 
 
 Hll 
 
 1758 
 
 ;, 1758 
 
 „ 1759 
 
 „ 1759 
 
 „ 1760 
 
 „ 1760 
 
 Oct, 1760 
 
 Geobqe 
 
 , f 25 Oct. 
 
 M24 „ 
 
 17 J 
 
 1760 
 1761 
 1761 
 1762 
 1762 
 1763 
 1763 
 1751 
 1764 
 1765 
 1765 
 1766 
 1766 
 1767 
 1767 
 1768 
 1768 
 1769 
 1769 
 1770 
 1770 
 1771 
 1771 
 1772 
 1772 
 1773 
 1773 
 1774 
 1774 
 1776 
 1775 
 1776 
 1776 
 1777 
 
 1«{1 
 
 2011 
 
 21{S 
 (25 
 I24 
 (25 
 124 
 ■25 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 24 
 (25 
 124 
 
 33{|| 
 
 25 
 24 
 
 34i 
 
 THE Third. 
 
 Oct. 1777 
 1778 
 1778 
 1779 
 1779 
 1780 
 1780 
 1781 
 1781 
 1782 
 1782 
 1783 
 1783 
 1784 
 1784 
 1785 
 1785 
 1786 
 1786 
 1787 
 1787 
 1788 
 1788 
 1789 
 1789 
 1790 
 1790 
 1791 
 1791 
 1792 
 1792 
 1793 
 1793 
 1794 
 
 35-124 
 
 Hit 
 
 25 
 24 
 25 
 24 
 25 
 24 
 25 
 24 
 
 f25 
 (24 
 (■25 
 124 
 
 25 Oct. 
 
 1794 
 1795 
 1795 
 1796 
 1796 
 1797 
 1797 
 1798 
 1798 
 1799 
 1799 
 1800 
 1800 
 1801 
 1801 
 1802 
 1802 
 
 1804 
 1804 
 li05 
 1805 
 1806 
 1806 
 1807 
 1807 
 1808 
 1808 
 1809 
 1809 
 1810 
 
 51 1 25 Dot. 
 52 1 
 
 ('25 
 i.24 
 
 °'*t24 
 
 24 
 
 ,54|' 
 55{f 
 
 t. 18101 
 
 
 , 1811 
 
 
 , 1811 
 
 
 , 1812 
 
 R 
 
 , 1812 
 
 
 , 1813 
 
 
 
 , 1813 
 
 M 
 
 , 1814 
 
 , 1814 
 
 
 , 1815 J 
 
 
 56{|«Oct. 1815^ 
 
 57 
 
 f25 
 
 i,24 
 69(25 
 
 HI 
 
 1816 
 
 ;, 1816 
 
 „ 1817 
 
 „ 1817 
 
 „ 1818 
 
 „ 1818 
 
 „ 1819 
 
 „ 1619 
 
 Jan. 1820 J 
 
 HI 
 
 I Jan. 1820 
 
 George the Fourth. 
 
 c (■29 Jan. 1824 
 "(28 „ 1825 
 
 ("29 , 
 
 , 1821 
 
 Hll ' 
 
 , 1825 
 
 128 , 
 
 , 1822 
 
 , 1826 
 
 (29 , 
 
 , 1822 
 
 Hit : 
 
 , 1826 
 
 128 , 
 
 , 1823 
 
 , 1827 
 
 (29 , 
 
 , 1823 
 
 «(1 : 
 
 , 1827 
 
 (.28 , 
 
 , 1824 
 
 , 1828 
 
 29 Jon. 1828 
 1829 
 
 9(28 
 ,nf29 „ 1829 
 1"128 „ 1830 
 n f 29 „ 1830 
 11126 June 1830 
 
 1 (■26 June 
 (25 „ 
 
 William the Fourth. 
 
 H^ 
 
 1831 
 
 1831 
 
 25 ;; 1832 
 
 20 June 1837 
 
 19 „ 1838 
 
 20 „ 1838 
 
 19 „ 1839 
 
 20 „ 1839 
 19 „ 1840 
 
 4. (■26 June 1833 
 
 125 „ 1834 
 
 .;f26 „ 1834 
 
 *125 „ 1835 
 
 ■Victoria. 
 
 26 June 1835 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 1837 
 
 1 
 
 20 June 1840 
 
 
 19 „ 1841 
 
 5. 
 
 20 „ 1841 
 
 19 „ 1842 
 
 H 
 
 20 „ 1S42 
 
 19 „ 1843 
 
 -(20 June 1848 
 '■jlO „ 1844 
 sJ 20 „ 1844 
 '^Im „ 1845 
 oJ 20 „ 1845 
 "ll9 ., 1846 
 
Kin 
 
 ( 653 ) 
 
 Kin 
 
 Victoria (contmued). 
 ,„ f20 June 1846 „„( 20 June 1859 
 
 19 
 20 
 19 
 
 "20 
 19 
 
 (20 
 19 
 
 19 
 20 
 19 
 120 
 tl9 
 (20 
 1 19 
 
 19 < 2" 
 
 20 jf 
 21 
 
 15{ 
 16| 
 
 19 
 
 (20 
 1 19 
 (20 
 1 19 
 
 1847 
 1847 
 184S 
 1848 
 1849 
 1848, 
 1850 
 1850 
 1851 
 1851 
 1852 
 1852 
 1853 
 1853 
 1854 
 1854 
 1855 
 1855 
 1856 
 1856 
 1857 
 1857 
 1858 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 24' 
 
 19 
 '20 
 19 
 
 ^{11 
 
 Hit 
 
 ^Ml9 
 
 34{f0 
 35 
 
 1^ 
 
 1860 
 1860 
 1861 
 1861 
 1862 
 1862 
 1863 
 1863 
 1864 
 1864 
 1885 
 1865 
 1866 
 1866 
 1867 
 1867 
 1868 
 1868 
 
 1870 
 1870 
 1871 
 1871 
 1872 
 
 37 
 
 20 June 1872 
 
 4l9 
 H^ 
 
 *Hlt 
 
 Hit 
 
 Hit 
 
 *5il9 
 j^oJSO 
 *8il9 
 A7J20 
 
 48(20 
 
 1873 
 187S 
 1874 
 1874 
 1875 
 1875 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 1877 
 1878 
 1878 
 1879 
 1879 
 1880 
 1880 
 1881 
 1881 
 1882 
 1882 
 1883 
 1883 
 1884 
 1884 
 
 King, William (J. 1650, d. 1729), Arcli- 
 tishop of Dublin, was bom at Antrim, and 
 elected Dean of St. Patrick's in 1688. In 
 1691 he was appointed Bishop of Derry, and 
 in 1702 Archbishop of Dublin. King was a 
 writer of philosophical treatises which at- 
 tracted much attention, and his work On the 
 Origin of Evil (1702) gave him an European 
 reputation, and was replied to by Leibnitz. 
 He was also the author of The State of the 
 Protestants in Ireland under King James's 
 Government (1691), which gives much useful 
 information as to the condition of Ireland 
 at the period of the Eevolation. 
 
 King, Edwakd (d. 1696), was a Jacobite 
 conspirator in the reign of William III. He 
 was drawn by one Knightley into the Assassina- 
 tion Plot, and was one of the most desperate of 
 the would-be murderers. On the discovery of 
 the crime he was executed, having in his 
 last moments acknowledged his crime, and 
 professed repentance. 
 
 King-maker, The. [Warwick, Eakl of.] 
 
 "King never dies. The," a legal 
 maxim, according to which the accession of 
 each monarch is considered as having taken 
 place at the very moment of his predecessor's 
 decease. This theory was unknown in the 
 earlier periods of our history, and could not 
 have been held so long as the right of succes- 
 sion was recognised as being inalienably 
 bound Tip in a strict line of descent. Accord- 
 ingly, on the death of the early Norman and 
 Plantagenet kings, there always seems to have 
 been a period anterior to the coronation of 
 the new sovereign, in which the lawless 
 baron, or man of lower degree, felt himself 
 free to commit whatever outrages he would, 
 on the plea that there was as yet no higher 
 potentate to whom he was responsible. " From 
 William I. to Henry III. inclusive, the reign 
 of each Hng was considered only to com- 
 mence at his coronation. From Edward II. 
 
 to Henry VIII., the accession is ascribed 
 to the day following the death or deposition 
 of the preceding king ; but from Edward VI. 
 to the present day, the above-cited maxim has 
 prevailed." 
 
 King of Folly, The, was a title given 
 to Roger Mortimer, by his own son, on ac- 
 count of his reckless affectation of more than 
 royal state and splendour. 
 
 King of the Commons, The, was the 
 
 title assumed by John Litster, the leader of 
 the Norfolk insurgents at the time of the 
 Peasant Revolt in 1381. James V. of Scot- 
 land was also called King of the Commons. 
 
 King's Bencll, The Couht of, was an 
 ofishoot from the Curia Regis. Its origin 
 as a distinct tribunal is attributed by Dr. 
 Stubbs to the arrangements made by Henry 
 II., in 1178, by which five judges in the 
 Curia sat constantly to hear the complaints 
 of the people. By the beginning of the reign 
 of Henry III., the Curia had become divided 
 into the three branches of the Court of Com- 
 mon Pleas, the Exchequer, and the King's 
 Bench, the two first entertaining causes con- 
 cerned with the private suits of subjects, and 
 with the revenue ; and the last, all suits in 
 which the king was concerned, placita coram 
 rege, as they were called, which jjractically 
 embraced the rest of the business of the old 
 Curia Regis. The court stiU continued to 
 follow the king, who was theoretically sup- 
 posed to sit in banco, and this practice was 
 continued by the ArtiaiH swper Cartas of Ed- 
 ward I. Shortly before the end of the reign 
 of Henry III., the ofBce of Justiciar became 
 extinct, and the King's Bench received a staff 
 of judges of its own. There was a regular 
 succession of chief justices of the King's 
 Bench from the beginning of Edward I. The 
 denomination Curia Regis was now applied 
 exclusively to this court. We iind a constant 
 tendency in this court, as well as in the 
 others, to enlarge its jurisdiction. Thus the 
 King's Bench, having cognisance of all per- 
 sonal actions where the defendant was already 
 under custody of the court, used a legal 
 fiction by which persons not actually in cus- 
 tody of the marshal of the court were 
 assumed to be so, in order that the lawyers in 
 that court might have more practice. This 
 custom, which tended to confuse the system 
 of judicature, was frequently legislated 
 against, but without success, until the statutes 
 2 Will. IV., c. 39, and 2 Vict., c. 110, estab- 
 lished one form of process, the writ of sum- 
 mons, for all the courts. The justices of the 
 King's Bench sat with the Lord Chancellor, 
 the Lord Treasurer, and the justices of 
 Common Pleas, in the Court of Exchequer 
 Chamber, which was created by statute 31 
 Edw. III., c. 12, to determine errors from the 
 common law side of the Court of Exchequer. 
 A second Court of Exchequer, composed of 
 the justices of Common Pleas and the barons 
 
Kin 
 
 (654 ) 
 
 Kin 
 
 of the Court of Exchequer, was created by 
 27 Elizabeth, c. 8, to determine writs of error 
 from the King's Bench. Both these courts were 
 abolished, and a new " Court of Exchequer 
 Chamber" established by 11 Geo. IV., and 
 1 Will. IV., 0. 70. The jurisdiction of thiff 
 court was, however, merged in that of the new 
 Court of Appeal by the Judicature Act of 
 1873, by which great Act also the Court of 
 Queen's (or King's) TJench became once more 
 a part of one Supreme Court of Judicature, 
 caUed the High Court of Justice, of which 
 the judges of the Queen's Bench formed the 
 first diYision. [Cukia Regis.] 
 
 EeeTes, Hist, of the Bnglish Law ; Stephen, 
 
 Commentaries, iii. ; Stubbs, Const. Hist., ii. ch. 
 
 XV. ; Laugmead, Const. Hist., ch. v. ; 36 & 37 
 
 Viet., 0. 66. 
 
 King's Friends was the name given 
 to the secret counsellors and supporters 
 of George III. in his attempt to restore the 
 royal authority to its old power, and to 
 govern without exclusive reliance on either of 
 the two great parties of the State. This 
 movement, in its practical issue, was a revolt 
 against the oligarchy of the great Whig fami- 
 lies who had in the main guided the destinies 
 of the country since the Revolution ; and the 
 germs of the principles which it afterwards 
 developed are to be traced in the writings of 
 Bolingbroke, who, in Mr. Lecky's words, 
 " strongly urged the necessity of disregarding 
 the old party distinctions, and building up 
 the royal authority on their decay." But as 
 a matter of fact, the " King's Friends," though 
 drawn from both the great parties of the 
 State, were in the main recruited from the 
 ranks of the Tories. George III., however, did 
 not accept his new supporters as being mem- 
 bers of either party ; his one object was to 
 create a body of men faithful to himself, and 
 detached from either of the great sections of 
 political life. This body was to be his con- 
 stant adviser, and to carry out his wiU. Of 
 its leaders he took counsel in private, and 
 followed its advice rather than that of his 
 nominal ministers. It is this state of affairs 
 that is so bitterly sketched in Burke's 
 Thoughts on the Causes of the Fresent Discon- 
 tents. It has been sometimes thought that 
 the picture drawn by the great statesman 
 is a little highly coloured ; but of the general 
 truth of his assertions there can he no question. 
 It was due to a knowledge of this secret power 
 in the background thatLord Rockingham, in 
 1765, would only accept ofiice on condition 
 that " some of the particular friends of the Earl 
 of Bute should not either pubUcly or privately, 
 directly or indirectly, have any Concern or 
 interest in public affairs." For the Earl of 
 Bute was recognised as the centre of this 
 undue influence. But even after this protest 
 the same condition of things continued. It 
 was by means of this undue pressure that 
 George III. opposed the repeal of the Stamp' 
 Act while pretending to support his ministers, 
 
 and Lord Rockingham had to obtain his 
 written consent to the passing of his measure 
 of repeal. At last, in 1766, the king suc- 
 ceeded in getting rid of the Whigs, and in 
 forming a government, under the Duke of 
 Grafton and Lord Chatham, that should be 
 free from party connections. On Lord North's 
 accession to power (1770), the king consented 
 to identify his own policy with that of his 
 minister, and would admit none to power 
 except those who would carry out his wishes to 
 the utmost. When Pitt came into power ( 1 784) 
 this great minister was content to "make 
 common cause with the crown," and, accord- 
 ing to Sir Erskine May, the royal influence 
 through the new premier was greater than it 
 had been before. As a rule, their views were 
 identical; but when they differed, the king was 
 ready to make use of his old tactics. So, 
 on the Catholic question of 1801, George III. 
 is reported to have said that he should 
 reckon any man his personal enemy who 
 should propose any such measure. On Pitt's 
 return to office in 1804, Mr. Addington, the 
 late Prime Minister, took up the position of 
 leader of the " King's Friends," a party which 
 then reckoned some sixty or seventy members 
 in its ranks. The sentiments of the Port- 
 land and Liverpool ministries were so well in 
 accord with those of the crown that the party 
 of the "King's Friends," though still exist- 
 ing, had no cause to separate itself from the 
 ostensible government. 
 
 Burke, Thoughts on the Causes of the Present 
 Discontents ; Lecty, History of England in ths 
 Eighteenth Century, iii, iv. ; Ilassey, Hist, of 
 Jlmg. ; Sir E. May, Const. Hist. [X. A. A.] 
 
 King's Evil was the name formerly givem 
 to scrofula, which, down to the eighteenth 
 c«ntury, was supposed to be cured by the 
 king's touch. 'Edward the Confessor is said 
 to have been the first king who touched for 
 the king's evil, which was done in 1058. 
 The custom reached its height under the 
 Stuarts, and Charles I. is said to have touched 
 over 10,000 persons. It was continued under 
 Anne, but was dropped by George I., and not 
 subsequently revived. 
 
 Kingston, Sir Anthony {d. 1656), was 
 sent to Cornwall as Provost Marshal after 
 the rebellion of 1549, and is said to have 
 behaved with great cruelty on this occasion. 
 He presided at the execution of Bishop 
 Hooper, 1555, and in the following year was 
 implicated in the plot to marry the Princess 
 EHzabeth to the Earl of Devon, and to 
 proclaim her queen. On the discovery of the 
 conspiracy Kingston committed suicide. 
 
 Kingsweston, The Battle op (Aug., 
 1549), was fought between a party of the 
 western rebels under Mr. Coffin and the royal 
 troops. The latter were completely victorious. 
 
 Kinsale, The Siege or (1601). Five, 
 thousand Spaniards, commanded by Ppft 
 
Sir 
 
 ( 655) 
 
 Kui 
 
 Juan d'Aguila, landed in the harbour ct£ 
 Kinaale in Septemher, 1601, having heen 
 despatched to support Hugh O'NeU's re- 
 bellion. They took possession of the castle 
 of Kincorain, but soon lost it to Lord 
 , Mount] oy. That nobleman, being shortly 
 after joined by the Earl of Thomond and 
 some 1,000 men, defeated O'Neil's attempt 
 to raise the siege (Deo. 23) . Don Juan, who 
 was heartily tired of Irish warfare, thereupon 
 surrendered Kinsale, Castlehaven, and the 
 other towns in his possession in return for 
 permission to sail for Corunna with all his 
 forces. 
 
 Kirk, Scottish. [Scotland, Church of.] 
 
 Kirk of Field was an old and rof 
 
 church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, which 
 stood just without the walls of Edinburgh : 
 close by this was a building which had for- 
 merly belonged to the Dominican order. It 
 was here that Darnley was removed by Both- 
 weU's orders ; and here that he was murdered 
 on the night of Feb. 9, 1567. [DAEULEy.] 
 
 Kirkcaldy, Sir William, op Grange 
 [d. 1573), was one of the murderers of Car- 
 dinal Beaton (1546). He was a member of 
 the Keformed faith, and on his capture at 
 St. Andrews by the French in 1547, he was 
 carried to France, where for some years he 
 worked at the galleys in company with John 
 Knox. It is perhaps to this event that his 
 hatred of France is to be ascribed, a hatred 
 which caused him, in 1559, to advocate 
 strongly a Scottish alliance with England. 
 He was a leader of the confederacy against 
 Queen Mary in 1567, and to him it was that 
 she surrendered after the battle of Carberry 
 Hill. Appointed Governor of Edinburgh 
 Castle in the same year, he fought for Murray 
 at Langside in 1568 ; but shortly afterwards 
 joined the queen's party, and held the castle 
 and town of Edinburgh against the regent 
 Morton. In 1573, after suffering a severe 
 siege, he was compelled to surrender the 
 place. Morton caused him to be hanged as a 
 traitor in the market-place of Edinburgh, 
 Aug. 3, 1573. Sir James Melville says of 
 him in his memoirs, " he was humble, gentle, 
 and meek, like a lamb in the house, but like a 
 lion in the faith; . . secret and prudent in 
 all his enterprises, very merciful, naturally 
 liberal. . . Thus he was as mikel envied by 
 them that wer&of a vile and unworthy nature 
 as he was beloved by all honest men." 
 
 MeMlle, Meirwirs; Proude, Hist, of ling.; 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Kirke, Colonel Percy, was a soldier 
 who had served for some years at Tangier, 
 and was put in command of some troops 
 at the battle of Sedgemoor. After the 
 defeat of Monmouth, Kirke and his troops, 
 who were known as "Kirke's Lambs," com- 
 mitted fearful atrocities in the west of 
 England against the followers of Monmouth 
 
 and any who were suspected of complicity in 
 the rebellion. Kirke was one of the first to 
 join William in 1688, and subsequently was 
 put in command of some troops in Ireland, 
 with which he raised the siege of Londonderry 
 in 1689. 
 
 Kit-Kat Club, The, was a well-known 
 Whig club, instituted in 1703 to promote the 
 principles' of the Eevolution and the Pro- 
 testant succession. It consisted of thirty-nine 
 noblemen and gentlemen, and among its 
 members were Walpole, Addison, and Steele. 
 It took its name from a confectioner in West- 
 minster named Christopher Kat, at whose 
 house the members used to dine. 
 
 Knight, Dr., was one of Henry VIII.'s 
 secretaries, and employed by him in the 
 summer of 1527 at Eome to forward the ne- 
 gotiations for the king's divorce from Kathe- 
 rine of Aragon. Knight obtained more than 
 one opportunity of seeing Clement in Henrj^'s 
 interest ; and when the Pope escaped to 
 Orvieto he at once followed him thither, and 
 obtained from Clement his signature to, two 
 documents granting respectively a com- 
 mission to two cardinals, for hearing and 
 determining the cause in England, and a dis- 
 pensation for the king to marry another wife. 
 But, while affixing his signature to the docu- 
 ments, Clement had beeij. careful to date 
 them, not from Orvieto, where he then was, 
 but from his prison in Rome. 
 Brewer, Eetgn of Benry VIII. 
 
 Knight, Charles (S. 1791, d. 1873), com- 
 menced business as a pubhsher in London 
 about the year 1823. He was one of the 
 earliest members of the Society for the Dif- 
 fusion of Useful Knowledge, for which he 
 published The Library of Entertaining Know- 
 ledge (1832—45). About the year 1844 he 
 pubhshed the Pictorial Sistonj of England, 
 a very useful and interesting work, and some 
 years later (1856—62) his Popular History of 
 England. Both hold a high place among our 
 general histories. 
 
 Knighton, Henry, lived in the reign of 
 Henry 11., and was a monk of Leicester 
 Abbey. He was the author of a Compilatio de 
 Eventihus Anglice a tempore Regis Eadgari usque 
 ad mortem Regis Ricardi Secundi. The earlier 
 part is a mere compilation from previous 
 chroniclers ; but the portion which relates to 
 the later part of Edward III.'s reign and that 
 of Eichard II. is of considerable value. 
 
 Knighton's work is printed in Twysden, 
 ScriptorBS Decern. 
 
 Knighthood- The word knight is de- 
 rived from the Anglo-Saxon cniht, which, 
 although primarily equivalent to servus, was, 
 even before the Conquest, occasionally used as 
 equivalent to miles. It is necessary to dis- 
 tinguish between the personal distinction 
 of knighthood and the legal system of 
 knights' fees. In its wider sense, knight- 
 
Eni 
 
 ( 656 ) 
 
 Eno 
 
 hood may be taken as nearly equivalent to 
 chivalry or to feudalism, and wiU be found 
 treated under those heads. The actual cere- 
 mony of conferring knighthood does not 
 seem to have been known in England before 
 the Conquest, and the first instance of it we 
 have on satisfactory evidence is the investi- 
 ture of the Conqueror's sons by their father. 
 After the Conquest, the extent of land held 
 by a knight, or the knighVs fee, was the unit 
 of the system of feudal tenure. The system 
 of knight's fee was not invented before the 
 compilation of Domesday, though it was regu- 
 larly established by the reign of Henry II. 
 What the exact value and extent of a 
 knight's fee were is hardly ascertained. It is 
 probable that the five hides of land which 
 constituted a thegn before the Conquest 
 formed one of the knight's qualifications after 
 it ; and Dr. Stubbs thinks that the extent may 
 have varied, hut that the common quantity 
 was expressed in the twenty pounds' worth of 
 annual value, which was the qualification for 
 knighthood. It has been said (on the author- 
 ity of Ordericus Vitalis) that William III. 
 divided England into 60,000 knights' fees. 
 This, however, is extremely unlikely, and the 
 number has been supposed by modem author- 
 ities to have been between eight and nine 
 thousand. Knighthood was made compulsory 
 on all freeholders possessing an estate of £20, 
 and was frequently enforced ; as, for instance, 
 by proclamation to the sheriffs in the nine- 
 teenth of Henry III., and by Edward I. in 
 1278. Writs for distraint of knighthood 
 were issued to enforce this law, and continued 
 to be issued down to the time of Charles I., 
 the only difference being that the estate 
 for which knighthood was compulsory was 
 raised from £20 to £40 per annumi. Eliza- 
 beth and James I. issued these writs, ap- 
 parently, only on one occasion in each reign ; 
 but the practice was revived and rigidly en- 
 forced by Charles I. in 1629. It was finally 
 abolished, with all feudal tenures and customs, 
 in 1661. Knights in the Middle Ages, from 
 the time of Edward I. (and probably before), 
 were either knights banneret, who were 
 entitled to display the square banneret, and 
 supposed to command a larger force in the 
 field ; and knights bachelors, who carried the 
 triangular pennon, and were of inferior rank. 
 In England, as elsewhere, knighthood was 
 purely a personal distinction, and was never 
 hereditary. Knights bannerets bad dis- 
 appeared by the sixteenth century, and were 
 not subsequently created. In England there 
 are now seven orders of knighthood : the 
 Garter (founded in the fourteenth eenturv), 
 the Thistle (founded 1687), St. Patrick (1788), 
 the Bath (1725), St Michael and St. George 
 (1818), Star of India (1861), Indian Empire 
 (1876). 
 
 Knights of the Shire. [Paklia- 
 
 HENT : Elections.] 
 
 Euolles, Sir Eobekt (d. 1407), was 
 originally a leader of one of the Free Com- 
 panies which devastated France in the four- 
 teenth century. But having subsequently 
 obtained a regular command in the Enghsh 
 army; he greatly distinguished himself by 
 his bravery and military skill. When the 
 Peasants' Rebellion broke out, in 1381, he 
 was instrumental in protecting Hichard II. 
 from the insurgents. 
 
 Knollys, Sm Francis [d. 1696), "the 
 sternest Puritan of his day," was known during 
 the reign of Edward VI. as one of the most 
 zealous of the advocates of the Reformation. 
 The religious persecution of Marj''8 reign 
 forced him to seek an asylum in Germany ; 
 but on the accession of Elizabeth, to whom 
 he was cousin by marriage, he returned to 
 England, imbued with the spirit of Puritanism 
 more than ever. Made Vice -Chamberlain 
 of the royal household, he was subsequently 
 advanced to the office of Lord Treasurer, 
 whilst immediately after his arrival in 
 England he was appointed a Privy Coun- 
 cillor. In 1566 he was sent to Ireland, when 
 he recommended the Council in England to 
 approve of the campaign proposed by Sidney. 
 Two years later he was appointed the 
 custodian of Mary, ftueen of Scots, whose 
 charms his " keen, hard sense " was supposed 
 to despise. It was he who suggested the 
 plan of marrying Mary to George Carey, son 
 of Lord Hunsdon, for, " so matched, EKzabeth 
 need have no fear of her." Knollys, like the 
 rest of Queen Elizabeth's ministers, was 
 liable to have his course of action repudiated 
 by his mistress if she found it convenient ; 
 and in bis dealings with Mary Stuart he 
 found himself repeatedly forced to act upon 
 his own responsibility, with the danger of a 
 subsequent disavowal of his proceedings. 
 Notwithstanding the occasional bad treatment 
 he received at the queen's hands. Sir Francis 
 remained till his death one of her most faith- 
 ful ministers, though on one occasion he 
 exclaimed that he doubted whether she were 
 any longer fit to rule. 
 
 Knox, John (b. 1505, d. 1572), was a 
 native of Haddington, and educated at the 
 grammar school of that town and at Glasgow, 
 He seems to have taken orders as a secular 
 priest in 1530, and to have had some connec- 
 tion with one of the religious establishments 
 at Haddington for some years afterwards. 
 In 1546 he became converted to the Reformed 
 faith, and placed himself under the protec- 
 tion of some of the Protestant gentry of 
 St. Andrews. In June, 1547, the French cap- 
 tured St. Andrews, and Knox was carried 
 prisoner to France, and sent to the galleys. 
 He obtained his release in the beginning of 
 1549, and came to England, where he re- 
 mained till the death of Edward VI. For 
 two years he was minister of Berwick, where 
 he put in practice, two years before it was 
 
Kol 
 
 (657) 
 
 Enr 
 
 authorised by Edward VI.'s second Prayer- 
 book, the substitution of common bread for 
 wafers at the Communion, and allowed sitting 
 instead of kneeling. Knox was appointed one 
 of Edward's chaplains, and was consulted on 
 the^ composition of Cranmer's Forty- five 
 Articles. On the accession of Mary he re- 
 tired to France, and subsequently to Geneva, 
 where he remained till 1559, and wrote 
 several controversial and other works, in- 
 cluding his Blast of the Trumpet against the 
 Monstrous Segiment of Women, which gave 
 great offence to Queen Elizabeth. In 1559 
 he returned to Scotland, and immediately 
 joined the party of the Lords of the Congre- 
 gation. In July of this year he was chosen 
 minister of Edinburgh. He took a large 
 share in the proceedings of the Protestant 
 leaders henceforth, and was mainly instru- 
 mental in drawing up the Confession of Faith, 
 accepted by Parhament in 1560. On the 
 arrival of Mary in Scotland, she held several 
 conferences with Knox, and at length, in 
 December, 1562, ordered him to be tried for 
 treason before the Council. He was, how- 
 ever, acquitted. After the marriage of Mary 
 and Darnley in 15G5, he preached a sermon 
 which gave great offence to the royal couple. 
 He was called before the Council, and in- 
 hibited from preaching. He preached the 
 coronation sermon when the infant James VI. 
 was crowned, in July, 1567. After the death 
 of Murray (January, 1569), Knox, who had 
 incurred the enmity of Kirkcaldy of Grange, 
 left Edinburgh, and retired to St. Andrews. 
 He returned to Edinburgh in August, 1572, 
 preached twice more (once when the news of 
 the St. Bartholomew Massacre arrived), and 
 died Nov. 24, 1572. Knox was twice married, 
 first to Marjory Bowes in 1555, and secondly 
 to Margaret Stewart, daughter of Lord 
 Ochiltree. Besides numerous epistles, dis- 
 courses, and polemical tracts, Knox wrote 
 a Historie of the Seformatioun of Religion 
 within the Bealm of Scotland, wMch is of 
 considerable historical value. 
 
 Knox's Worhs, ed. by D. Laing, 6 vols., Edm- 
 buTgli (1846—64); McCrle, Life of John Knox; 
 Moncraff, Knox and the Scottish Reformatinn ; 
 Froude, The Reformation and thi Scottish Char 
 racier; Carlyle, Portraits of John Knox and 
 Heroes and Hero Worship; Burton, Hist, of 
 Scotland, 
 
 Eoles, The, are an aboriginal tribe of 
 Western Bengal. Having come under the 
 operation of laws which they did not under- 
 stand, they were excited by the systematic en- 
 croachment of Bengal settlers and zemindars. 
 In 1832 they rose in arms, and the insurrec- 
 tion was not put down without much blood- 
 shed. On the suppression of the rebellion 
 the new regulations were withdrawn, and 
 the Koles were placed under a special com- 
 missioner. Since then they have made 
 considerable advances in civilisation and 
 prosperity. 
 
 Korygaom, The Battle or (Jan. 1, 
 1818), was fought during Lord Hastings's war 
 against Holkar and the Peishwa. Captain 
 Staunton, who had been summoned to Poonah 
 with his division, encountered the Mahratta 
 army of the Peishwa Bajee Eao, 25,000 strong, 
 near the vUlage of Korygaom. The Mah- 
 rattas immediately crossed the river to attack 
 the English troops, and the combat that 
 ensued was most arduous and brilliant. 
 Captain Staunton's sepoys fought with de- 
 sperate valour tUl they were sinking with 
 exhaustion and frantic with thirst. The ap- 
 proach of General Smith, who was in hot pur- 
 suit, so alarmed the Peishwa, that he retreated 
 in the night, and thus abandoned a contest 
 which Captain Staunton's band of heroes 
 could hardly have maintained for another 
 day. 
 
 Kotah, The Siege or (Mar. 22, 1858). 
 Kotah was a strongly fortified town on 
 the Chumbul. Its Eajah was friendly to the 
 English, but had been coerced into rebellion 
 by his iollowers. General Roberts, therefore, 
 found there were two parties in Kotah, and 
 was immediately joined by the Eajah, who 
 was in possession of the citadel and palace. 
 The rebels, about 5,000 in number, held the 
 rest of the town. Batteries were erected by 
 General Eoberts against the northern end of 
 the town, a reinforcement was sent to the 
 citadel, and on the 30th the place was easily 
 carried by assault. 
 
 AnnuaX Register, 1858; Malleson, Indian 
 Muti/ny. 
 
 Kurdlah Campaign, The (1795). 
 When the temporising pohcy of Sir John Shore 
 left the Mahrattas free to attack the Nizam in 
 order to enforce their claims for choute or 
 tribute, the whole Mahratta Confederacy as- 
 sembled for the last time under the banner of 
 the Peishwa, commanded by Hurry Punt. 
 The Nizam, deserted by the English, had 
 thrown himself into the hands of a French 
 ofi&cer named Eaymond, who had organised 
 for him a disciplined army of 18,000 men, 
 commanded and trained by European officers. 
 The Nizam advanced to Beder, and the two 
 armies met at Kurdlah (March 11,1795). The 
 Nizam's cavalry drove the entire centre divi- 
 sion of the Mahrattas from the field, and 
 Raymond's infantry stood their ground 
 gallantly against Scindia's disciplined bat- 
 talions. The Nizam, however, was persuaded 
 by his favourite sultana to retire from the 
 field, and the whole army followed him in 
 headlong rout. Soon afterwards he was shut 
 up in Kurdlah and captured. To secure his 
 liberty he had to make territorial cessions to 
 the value of thirty-five lacs of rupees a 
 year, besides surrendering his chief minister 
 Musheer-ul-Mulk, who was by far the ablest 
 man at his court, and a warm partisan of the 
 English. 
 
 J. Giant Dn£F, Hist, of the Mahrattas, 
 
Lab 
 
 ( 658 ) 
 
 Leeu 
 
 Labourers, The Statutes of, were first 
 enacted in 1349, immediately after the Black 
 Death. The dearth of labomers which this 
 plague occasioned altered the relations between 
 employer and employed, and the latter de- 
 manded an immediate and considerable rise 
 in wages. To check this, two statutes were 
 enacted forbidding the men to receive or the 
 masters to offer higher wages than before the 
 Black Beath ; labourers were to be compelled to 
 work, and were forbidden to leave their employ- 
 ment without agreeing with their masters. 
 These statutes were re-enacted in 1357, 1361, 
 1368, and 1376, but, as might be expected, 
 they proved nugatory, and only increased 
 the ill-feeling between masters and men, and 
 the social difficulties which culminated in the 
 revolt of 1381. [Black Death.] 
 
 Eogera, History of AgricvXtuYs; Seebohm, 
 Papers on The Bladk Death in the Fortnightly 
 Eeview, 
 
 Labrador was first discovered by Sebas- 
 tian Cabot in 1496, and probably visited by 
 him again in 1513. It was explored by 
 Frobisher in 1576, but seems to have been 
 lost sight of till it was rediscovered by Hud- 
 son in 1610. No regular settlements were 
 made till some Moravian colonies were formed 
 about 1750. It was not, however, constituted 
 a colony, and formed merely an outlying and 
 neglected portion of the Hudson Bay terri- 
 tory, tiU the cession of the company's territory 
 to the crown and their incorporation with the 
 Dominion of Canada in 1868. 
 
 Lablian, an island in the Malay Archi- 
 pelago, was ceded to Great Britain by the 
 Sultan of Borneo (1847), owiug to the in- 
 fluence of Sir James Brooke, the Rajah of 
 Sarawak, who had formed a settlement there 
 in 1846. It is an important commercial sta- 
 tion, and transmits to the European and China 
 markets the produce of Borneo and the Ar- 
 chipelago. Labuan, which is a crown colony, 
 is ruled by a governor aided by a legislative 
 council of three members. 
 
 Lackland (or, Sansterre) was the name 
 by which King John was commonly known, 
 from his not receiving any great fief from his 
 father as his brothers had" done. 
 
 Lack-learning (or, Unlearned) Par- 
 liament, The, was the name given to 
 the Parhament which met at Coventry in 
 1404._ It acquired its name fi'omthe fact that 
 the king, acting upon an ordinance issued by 
 Edward III. ia 1372, directed that no lawyers 
 should be returned as members. This Parlia- 
 ment is chiefly remarkable for the proposal 
 that the lands of the clergy should for one year 
 he taken into the king's hands for the pur- 
 poses of the war with France. 
 
 Lsenland (i.e., hcmland), in Anglo-Saxon 
 
 times, was opposed to the ethel or alod by virtue 
 of its being land " whose title and possession 
 were not vested in the same person." That is, 
 in other words, Iseuland was land held and cul- 
 tivated, either directly or indirectly, by one 
 who was not its real owner in point of law, 
 and who, in most cases, paid rent in money, 
 kind, or service in return for the privileges 
 he enjoyed. Laens were of two descriptions 
 — viz., "unhooked" (which was of course the 
 earlier custom) and " booked." As a matter of 
 necessity our knowledge of unbooked laenland 
 is very scanty, and is for the most part due 
 to incidental allusions in charters drawn up at 
 the time when the property in question was 
 passing from the earlier to the later state ; as, 
 for example, in Kemble (cod. 617), where 
 Archbishop Oswald grants Tidington to 
 iElfsige for three lives, " that he may have it 
 as freely for bookland as he had it for 
 Isenland" (a.d. 977). Under the head of 
 unbooked Isenland, according to Mr. Lodge's 
 view, would be comprised those parts of a 
 lord's estate which he did not keep in his own 
 hands (his utlancl), when cultivated by free- 
 men, and all estates of folkland. It is, how- 
 ever, to be noted that, in common usage, 
 folkland is only known as Isenland when it has 
 been once more let out by the original grantee. 
 From the above instance it will he seen that 
 booked Isenland might run for several terms of 
 lives ; but it is probable that the original term 
 of unbooked Isenland would be but for one. 
 A single instance may suffice to show that 
 Isenland was not in any degree looked upon 
 as belonging to the tenant. A certain 
 Helmstan, who held lasnland of Duke Ordlaf, 
 being found giiilty of theft, forfeited his 
 chattels to the king, but not his land, which 
 being Ordlaf s "he could not forfeit." It 
 will perhaps be interesting to give in conclu- 
 sion one or two examples of the rents by 
 which Itenlaud was held. In the first half of 
 the ninth century the estate bequeathed by 
 Heregyth of Canterbury was bound to pay 
 thirty ambers of ale, 300 loaves of fine and 
 coarse bread, an ox, a hog, wethers, geese, 
 honey, butter, and salt. Forty hides at 
 Ah-esford were, perhaps a little earlier, rented 
 at four and a half shillings the hide. The 
 freemen of Hurstboum in Alfred's days had 
 to pay forty pence per hide, with a certain 
 quantity of ale and three horseloads of white 
 wheat ; three acres of their lord's lands were 
 to he ploughed and sown by the tenants ; hay 
 was to be mowed and gathered; wood cut 
 and stacked ; at Easter they had to make 
 a payment of lambs and ewes, and every 
 week in the year, except three, they were to 
 do any other work that might he required. 
 This is_ 3 very good specimen of a rent of a 
 very mixed character. 
 
 Lodge, Essixi/s m Aii^lo-^axan lam, 86—97 ; 
 Kemble, Saa:o™ in EtijIohiJ, 1. 310—326 j Stubbs, 
 Cirnst. Hist., i. 88; Kemble, Coixs Biplomaficus. 
 [T..A. A.] 
 
L»t 
 
 ( 659 ) 
 
 Lai 
 
 Leet. The laet of the earKeat English 
 laws is generally accepted as being the eqm- 
 valent of the oolonus in Tacitus' account 
 of the Germanic tribes, the Htm of the 
 capitularies of Charles the Great, and the Lex 
 Saxonmn, and perhaps the lazzi or lassi of the 
 Continental Saxons in the eighth century. 
 If this be so, the Iset is not to be considered 
 as a mere slave, but, in Dr. Stubbs's words, is 
 to be " distinctly recognised as a member of 
 the nation ; he is valued for the wergild, 
 summoned to the plaoitum, taxed for the 
 Church, allowed the right of compurgation,' 
 and choice in marriage." According to the 
 same authority, " he is free to every one but 
 his lord, and simply unfree in cultivating 
 laud of which he is not the owner." The laet, 
 then, in early English days would be em- 
 ployed on the estates of the great landowners 
 or on the folk-land, and may in very many 
 cases have been the degraded descendant of the 
 earlier British possessor of the soil, who, by 
 stress of circumstances, was now forced to till 
 for a stranger lord the land that had once 
 been his own or his father's, and served his 
 lord " for hire or for land, though not yet re- 
 duced so low in the scale as the theow or 
 wealh." 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Htst. ; Kemble, Soajons in Bng- 
 land. ; Waltz, Deutsche Verfcissungsgeschiclite. 
 
 IiagOS, an island on the coast of the Gulf 
 of Guinea, is now a dependency of the Gold 
 Coast Colony. It was ceded to England in 
 1861 by the native chief, and has since been 
 used as a station for the suppression of the 
 slave trade. Its affairs are managed by an 
 administrator, acting under the governor of 
 the Gold Coast, assisted by a legislative 
 council. 
 
 Lagos, The Battle op (Aug., 1759), was 
 one of the naval victories gained by the 
 English during the Seven Tears' War. The 
 French ships had been blockaded in their 
 ports during the year; but in August the 
 Toulon fleet attempted to join the Brest 
 squadron. It was pursued by Admiral Bos- 
 cawen from Gibraltar, and attacked off Lagos 
 in Algarve, when of its largest ships two were 
 captured, and two others run ashore. The 
 Portuguese reasonably complained that the 
 neutrality of their coast had been violated. 
 
 La Hogue, The Battle op (May 19,1692). 
 This naval victory checked a threatened in- 
 vasion of England. Louis XIV., in support of 
 James, had collected an army in Normandy. 
 Two French fleets, amounting together to 
 about eighty ships, were collected at Brest 
 and Toulon, under Tourville and D'Estrees. 
 James, misled by the intrigues of Admiral 
 fiussell, beUeved that there was great disaffec- 
 tion in the English fleet. Meanwhile, the 
 combined English and Dutch fleet of ninety 
 ships swept the Channel. Tourville had 
 with him only his own squadron, consisting 
 of fortj'-four ships of the line. Beheving 
 
 in the treachery of the English officers, he 
 thought that he had only the Dutch to deal 
 with. But the iU-iudged declaration, where- 
 by James exempted whole classes of English- 
 men from pardon, and a stirring despatch on 
 the other hand from Mary, had thoroughly 
 roused the temper of the English fleet. Rus- 
 sell visited all his ships and exhorted his 
 crews. The battle lasted till four in the 
 afternoon. At first the wind was in favour 
 of the French, and only half the alUed fleet 
 could be brought into action. But just as 
 the French had resolved to retire the wind 
 changed. Their retreat became a flight. 
 Twelve of the largest ships took refuge in the 
 bay of La Hogue, under the eyes of James. 
 There they were attacked and destroyed, as 
 they lay in the shallow water, during two 
 successive days, by a flotilla of boats under 
 Admiral Eorke. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Unglani. 
 
 Lahore, in the Pimjaub, was the capital 
 of the independent kingdom of Eunjeet Singh 
 from 1799. It was occupied by the British 
 under Sir Hugh Gough in Feb., 1846, and the 
 treaty of peace between the English and Dhu- 
 leep Singh was signed there (Mar., 1846). 
 
 Laine, David [b. 1793, d. 1878), was a 
 learned Scottish antiquary and bibliographer. 
 He edited very many works, among which are 
 Dunbar's Poetns, Sir David Lyndesay's Poems, 
 and Wynioun's Chronicle. He also published 
 the Zife and Works of John Knox (1847 — 48). 
 
 Laing, Malcolm {b. 1762, d. 1819), was the 
 author of a Biatory of Scotland, which is a 
 work showing considerable research. He also 
 wrote the concluding volume of Henry's 
 Mistory of England. 
 
 Lake, Geeard, Viscount (J. 1744, d. 1808), 
 entered the army at an early age, and served 
 during the Seven Years' War in Germany. 
 He went through the American War under 
 ComwaUis, and earned great distinction. In 
 1793 he was in the campaign in Flanders, and 
 here also greatly distinguished himself. In 
 1800 he was appointed to the command of 
 the army in India. In this capacity he bore a 
 chief share in the Mahratta War of 1803. He 
 totally defeated Scindia's French force under 
 Perron in 1803; defeated Scindia at Las- 
 waree (Nov., 1803), and captured Delhi. He 
 received a peerage in 1804. He returned to 
 England in 1807, and was appointed Gover- 
 nor of Portsmouth. 
 
 Lally, Count de, arrived in India, 1757, 
 as commander of the French. A dashing 
 soldier, but harsh, severe, and unconciliating, 
 he alienated the native allies as much as Du- 
 pleix had conciliated them. For some time 
 he maintained the war, and in 1759 besieged 
 Madras. The siege failed ; Lally was defeated 
 at Wandewash, driven out of Pondicherry, and 
 the French dominion was at an end in India. 
 On his return to France he was imprisoned 
 
Lam 
 
 ) 
 
 £au' 
 
 for eighteen months, tried, and condemned to 
 death. He was conveyed to the scaffold with 
 a large gag in his mouth, to prevent his 
 speaking, and executed. 
 
 La,mbetb. Articles, The (1595), were 
 drawn up hy Archbishop Wiitgift, assisted by 
 Fletcher, Bishop of London ; Vaughan, Bishop 
 of Bangor ; and Tindal, Dean of Ely. They 
 consisted of nine articles, embracing aU the 
 most pronounced doctrines of Calvinism, and 
 were sent to Cambridge, where Calvinistic 
 ideas were rife, with a permission from the 
 archbishop that they should be adopted. They 
 were, however, disapproved by the queen and 
 Lord Burleigh, and as they were not accepted 
 by the Parliament, they had no binding force. 
 They were again brought forward and re- 
 jected at the Hampton Conference (1604). 
 
 Lambeth, Treaty of (1217), was made 
 after the Fair of Lincoln by the regent. 
 Earl of Pembroke, acting for Henrj' III., and 
 the French prince, Louis. By this treaty it 
 was agreed that Louis should at once evacuate 
 England, that the prisoners on either side 
 should be released, and that a general amnesty 
 should be granted. It also seems that a sum 
 of money, amounting to 10,000 marks, was 
 paid to Louis as the price of his departure. 
 
 Lancaster was a Koman station founded 
 by Agricola, a.d. 79. It was bestowed by 
 William the Conqueror on Roger of Poitou, 
 who built the castle. It was burnt by the 
 Scots in 1322 and 1389. In the Civil War 
 it was taken by the ParHamentarians, Feb., 
 J643, and by the Royalists, March, 1643. 
 The town was occupied by the Scots in 1648 
 under Hamilton. It was occupied by the, 
 Jacobite insurgents for two days, Nov. 7 and 
 9, 1715, and by Charles Edward, Nov. 24, 1745. 
 
 Lancaster, The Duchy and County 
 Palatine of, grew out of the honour of Lan- 
 caster, mentioned in Magna Carta, which, 
 having reverted to the crown on the death of 
 William of Blois, brother of King Stephen, 
 had been granted to the Earls of Chester, and 
 on their extinction in 1232, to William do 
 Ferrers. After the second rebelKon of Robert 
 de Ferrers, Henry III. erected the honour 
 into an earldom in favour of his son Edmund, 
 afterwards called Crouchback. The Duchy 
 was created by Edward III. in 1351 in favour 
 of Henry,Edmund's grandson, andinhis patent 
 of creation the dignity of an earl palatine was 
 conferred upon him. The latter title was 
 also given in 1377 to John of Gaunt, Duke 
 of Lancaster, who had married Henry of 
 Lancaster's heiress. Henry IV., his heir, 
 being conscious of the weakness of his title 
 to the throne, prevented the union of the 
 Duchy with the crown, by procuring an Act 
 of Parliament, soon after his accession, pro- 
 viding that the title and revenues should 
 remain with him and his heirs for ever. 
 Henry V. added to it the estates inherited 
 
 from his mother, Maxy Bohun ; but a large 
 part of it had to be put into the hands of 
 trustees for the payment of his debts. On the 
 attainder of Henry VI., after the accession of 
 Edward IV., the Duchy was forfeited to the 
 crown, and was inseparably united to it by 
 Act of Parliament, the County Palatine, 
 which had hitherto been kept separate, being 
 incorporated in the Duchy. This settlement 
 was confirmed by an Act passed in the reign 
 of Henry VII. The revenues of the Duchy 
 are not reckoned among the hereditary re- 
 venues, in place of which the Civil List was 
 gTanted to William IV. in 1830, but are paid 
 over to the Privy Purse, an annual account 
 being presented to Parliament. Burke, in 
 1780, reckoned the average returns at £4,000 
 a year, but they have since increased. The 
 Chancery Court of the County Palatine sat at 
 Preston; the Duchy Court being held at 
 Westminster. Their functions appear to have 
 been defined by Henry IV. The Court of the 
 Duchy was given concurrent jurisdiction 
 with the Chancery as to matters in equity 
 relating to lands holden of the crown in 
 right of the Duchy, and was chiefly concerned 
 in questions of revenue. By recent Acts, the 
 administration of justice has been assimi- 
 lated to that of the rest of England, the 
 Court of the County having been abolished 
 by the Judicature Act of 1873. The ofSoe 
 of Chancellor of the Duchy is now a political 
 appointment, and is frequently held by a 
 cabinet minister. Its duties are nominal. 
 The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 
 if a commoner, takes precedence next after 
 the Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 
 Seidell, Titles of Honour ; Baines, History of 
 Lancashire ; Beatson, Book of Dignities ; Stephen, 
 CommeTitaries on the Laws of England, vol. ill., 
 oh. T. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Lancaster, The Family of. The position 
 of the royal house of Lancaster can scarcely 
 be understood without some regard to that 
 earlier family to whose title it succeeded. 
 Edmund, the younger son of Henry III., had 
 been given the earldoms of Lancaster and 
 Leicester ; to these his son Thomas had added 
 Derby, and, through his marriage, Lincoln, 
 AVhen, therefore, this Thomas took up the 
 position of leader of the baronial opposition 
 to Edward II., he was supported by a body 
 of vassals, many of whom — those of Lancaster 
 and Lincoln in particular — were accustomed 
 to war against the crown. With Thomas of 
 Lancaster we can have no sympathy. He was 
 unscrupulous, yet quite devoid of political 
 ability; selfish in his objects, and retrograde 
 and oligarchical in policy. But his action 
 associated the name of Lancaster with oppo- 
 sition to the king and aUiauce with the 
 clergy ; and his violent death secured for him 
 the reputation of a martyr to the popular 
 cause. His son Henry assisted in the deposi- 
 tion of Edward II., but also in the ruin of 
 
Lau 
 
 ( 661 
 
 Iian 
 
 Mortimer; and this Henry and his heir — 
 another Henry — showed themselves faithful 
 servants of Edward III., during the greater 
 part of whose reign there is scant trace of 
 any haronial opposition. But the last Henry's 
 daughter, Blanche, married John of Gaunt, 
 and carried with her the earldoms of her 
 father ; and in the circumstances of Edward's 
 latter years there seemed every opportunity 
 for the re-formation of an opposition. Gaunt, 
 however, pref erredto act the part of court leader 
 against the bishops and the constitutionalists 
 in the House of Commons, and departed still 
 further from the old Lancastrian tradition 
 by championing and accepting the aid of 
 WyclifEe. It was left for his son, Henry 
 of Derby (who had married one of the co- 
 heiresses of Bohun of Hereford, a name also 
 recalling resistance to the crown), to take up 
 the position assigned by tradition to the Lan- 
 castrian family. In conjunction with Thomas 
 of Gloucester he reorganised the baronial 
 opposition, and though for a time he made 
 peace with the court, and assisted in the ruin 
 of the Lords Appellant, his banishment and 
 the seizure of the Duchy of Lancaster made 
 him again a popular hero ; while the reaction 
 against Richard's autocratic measures gave to 
 Henry's accession the character of a triumph 
 of constitutionalism. 
 
 But Henry IV. knew that the great mass 
 of the people regarded him with indifference, 
 and that the revolution of 1399 had been, as 
 a contemporary says — 
 
 " For hatred more of Kyug Eichardes defection, 
 Thau for the love of Kyng Henry." 
 The subsequent conduct of the Percies, also, 
 showed with what motives many of the nobles 
 had supported him. The ideas of legitimacy 
 were stiU deeply rooted in the nation. Henry 
 must have shared in this feeUng, and must 
 have felt his own position to be doubtful. 
 It is not difficult to see that a man in his 
 situation might easily become the cold and 
 calculating monarch whom the chroniclers 
 of his reign describe. 
 
 Henry V. had no such doubts. He believed 
 himself called upon to realise the claims of 
 his predecessors to the French throne, to re- 
 store spiritual unity to Christendom by alliance 
 with Sigismund, and even to regain the 
 Holy Land from the infidel. Like his father, 
 he allied himself firmly with the clergy, and 
 supported them in their efforts to put down 
 Lollardy ; but this action was due, not to a 
 desire to gain clerical support, but to a sincere 
 orthodoxy. He was possessed by the idea of 
 the unity of the Holy Roman Church, and 
 persecution of heretics was, according to the 
 public opinion of the time, its natural expres- 
 sion. He possessed all the " chivalric " vir- 
 tues, but he was more than a Richard I. or 
 Edward III. ; he was a hardworking and 
 sMlful statesman, and it is scarcely possible 
 to decide as to the feasibility of the great 
 plans which his early death interrupted. 
 
 In the minority of Henry VI., Bedford, 
 Gloucester, and Beajifort became the chief 
 figures in the drama, Bedford carrying on 
 the work of Henry V. in France, Beaufort 
 pursuing at home the constitutional policy of 
 the last two kings, and both thwarted by the 
 selfish and thoughtless Gloucester. When he 
 arrived at manhood, Henry VI. showed him- 
 self incapable of ruling with a firm hand 
 either in England or France. Overworked 
 in his boyhood, of weak health, and with a 
 tendency to insanity inherited from his 
 grandfather, Charles VI., he became a mere 
 tool in the hands of opposing factions. The 
 ill-success of the French War, and the peace 
 policy which followed his marriage, gave an 
 opportunity to the house of York to assert 
 its claims ; and with the beginning of the 
 "Wars of the Roses, the great Lancastrian ex- 
 periment of governing England in concert 
 with a free Parliament broke down. 
 
 Stubbg, Const. Hist., ch. xvi. {for Thomas of 
 Lancaster), and xviii. {wherein is to he noted 
 the discussion of Henry IV.'s alleged claim 
 through Edmund of Lancaster) ; Pauli, Ge- 
 schwlite utm England, iii., especially pp. 174 — 180, 
 onHeniyV. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Lancaster, Edmund Crouohback, Earl 
 op (4. 1245, d. 1296), was the son of Henry 
 III. He was created Earl of Lancaster in 
 1266, and acquired large estates both in 
 England and on the Continent. He received 
 the cure of Sicily from the Pope in 1253, but 
 never obtained more than the title. He 
 accompanied Edward I. on the Crusades, and 
 died fighting bravely in Gascony. He mar- 
 ried twice, his second wife being Blanche, 
 widow of the King of Navarre. He was 
 called Crouchback or Crossback from having 
 taken the Cross, though in later times the 
 Lancastrians pretended that he was in reality 
 the eldest eon of Henry III., but was set 
 aside as a cripple, and on this extraordinary 
 fiction was partly founded Henry IV.'s claim 
 to the throne. 
 
 Lancaster, Thomas, Earl of {d. 1322), 
 was the son of Edmund, second son of Henry 
 III., and titular King of Sicily, by Blanche, 
 queen-dowager of Navarre. He was therefore 
 cousin to Edward II., and uncle to his queen 
 Isabella. He was Earl of Lancaster, Leicester, 
 and Derby, and his wife the heiress to the 
 earldom of Lincoln. He came forward as the 
 leader of the barons against Piers Gaveston at 
 the beginning of Edward II.'s reign. He was 
 one of the Ordainers appointed in 1310, and in 
 1312 was present at the execution of Gaveston. 
 In 1313 he received the royal pardon, and was 
 reconciled with the king, hut in the next year 
 he refused to take part in the expedition to 
 Scotland. In 1316 he became practically 
 supreme in England, but his rule was oppres- 
 sive and disastrous. His wife was carried off 
 from him by Earl Warenne, and private war 
 broke out between the two earls. His popu- 
 larity declined, and the king, aided by the 
 
Lan 
 
 ( 662 ) 
 
 Laa 
 
 two Despencers, attempted to govern without 
 him. Once more Lancaster came forward as 
 the leader of the barons, and insisted on the 
 banishment of the favourites, hut his power 
 was shortlived. His forces were defeated at 
 Boroughbridge (Mar., 1322), and he was taken 
 prisoner. On the 22nd he was tried at Ponte- 
 fract, and being found guilty of treason was 
 forthwith beheaded. [Lancaster, Family op.] 
 
 Lancaster, Henry, Earl and Duke of 
 {d. 1362), was the son of Henry, Earl of Lan- 
 caster, and grandson of Edmund, titular King 
 of Sicily. He served in the Scotch and French 
 wars of Edward III. 's reign, and in 134S was 
 made governor of Aquitaine. He was fre- 
 quently employed by the king on diplomatic 
 errands. In 1351 he was created Duke of 
 Lancaster, and in 1362 he died of the black 
 death. His daughter and heiress, Blanche, 
 married John of Gaunt, who thus obtained all 
 the honours and claims of the house of Lancaster. 
 
 Lancaster, John, Duke op, commonly 
 called John op Gaunt (i. ] 339, d. 1399), was 
 the third son of Edward III. He was born 
 at Ghent during his father's visit to Flanders. 
 In 1359 he married Blanche, the daughter 
 of Hem-y, Duke of Lancaster, and thus 
 became possessed of the estates of the Ijan- 
 castrian family. He was created Duke of 
 Lancaster in 1362. In 1367 he served under 
 his brother in Spain, and distinguished him- 
 self at Navarette. His wife being dead, he 
 married in 1370 Constance, the daughter of 
 Pedro the Cruel, and assumed the title of 
 King of Castile. In 1373 he marched through 
 France from Calais to Bordeaux. On his 
 return he took a prominent part in English 
 politics, and was at the head of the court 
 or ministerial party, which was opposed by 
 the Good Parliament under the auspices of 
 his brother the Black Prince. At the same 
 time John of Gaunt patronised "Wychfie, 
 and supported Wycliffe against the bishop 
 and the Londoners at the Council of London, 
 1377. In 1381 his palace in the Savoy was 
 burnt by Wat Tyler's mob. In the first 
 years of Richard II. 's reign his influence 
 over the government was very great, but in 
 1384 he was accused of treason by Latimer, 
 a Carmelite friar, and retired from court; 
 and though he was reconciled, and returned 
 the same year, his importance in English 
 politics diminished. He now devoted his 
 attention to asserting his claim to Castile. 
 He formed an alliance with John I. of 
 Portugal and led an army into Castile in 
 1386. He was compelled to retire to Gascony 
 the next year. In 1388, having married his 
 daughter Catherine to Henry of Castile, he 
 returned to England, where he succeeded in 
 effecting a formal reconciliation between the 
 Duke of Gloucester and the king. He took 
 no prominent part in politics henceforth. 
 After his death (Feb. 3, 1399) his estates 
 were seized by Richard, and this was one of 
 
 the causes which led to the return of his 
 son, Henry of Bolingbroke (Henry IV.), and 
 the deposition of Richard. On the death of 
 his second wife he married, in 1396, his 
 mistress, Catherine Swynford, and his children 
 by her, the Beauforts, were legitimised by 
 patent in 1397. From one of these, John 
 Beaufort, Henry III. was descended. [Beau- 
 port, Family of ; Lancaster, Family of.] 
 
 Laud Bank. [Banking.] 
 
 Land Legislation, Irish. The prin- 
 cipal penal, laws relating to land have been 
 mentioned in the article on Ireland. The 
 Irish and the English land laws were in other 
 respects practically identical until the famine 
 of 1846 — 48. That visitation would have tried 
 the soundest agricultural economy. But the 
 agricultui'al economy of Ireland was not 
 sound. The artificial prosperity caused by 
 the great war had led to improvident charges 
 upon family estates. The fall of prices 
 brought embarrassment, the famine ruin. 
 Creditors obtained no interest. The absence 
 of purchasers made it impossible to en- 
 force securities. The receivers of the Court 
 of Chancery held property with a nominal 
 rental of £750,000. The insolvent landlords 
 could neither work their estates nor employ 
 the starving labourers. The first condition of 
 progress was to replace them by a class of 
 wealthy proprietors. With this object a 
 special commission was created by statute 
 (11 and 12 Vic, c. 48) to facilitate sales of 
 incuinbered estates. Certain incumbrancers 
 on land, and all incumbered owners, including 
 owners of any limited interest which was 
 itself charged with the incumbrance, were 
 empowered to apply to the commissioners by 
 petition in a summary way, for a sale of the 
 entire incumbered interest. The petition was 
 referred to a master, who, after due inquiry 
 reported to the court, which thereupon 
 ordered or refused a sale. Purchasers ob- 
 tained an indefeasible Parliamentary title. 
 The purchase money was distributed amongst 
 the incumbrancers by the court. Twenty- 
 three millions-worth of land was sold under 
 this Act between 1850 and 1868. It did much 
 good, and some lasting evil. Many of the ■ 
 purchasers were Englishmen and Scotchmen. 
 They raised the standard of farming, and 
 applied badly needed capital to the soil. But 
 their ignorance of the people, and their 
 inclination to treat their occupying tenants 
 from a purely commercial point of view, 
 largely fostered agrarian discontent. In 1858 
 the commission was wound up, and a, per- 
 manent tribunal with extended powers created, 
 under the name of the Landed Estates Court. 
 The new body can sell on the petition of any 
 incumbrancer, or of any owner whether in- 
 cumbered ox not. It has a wide discretion in 
 ordering or refusing sales, and ample powers 
 for effecting them upon such terms and con- 
 ditions as it may deem most advantageous to 
 
Lan 
 
 ( 663 ) 
 
 Lon 
 
 the parties concerned (21 and 22 Vic, c. 72). 
 Several important changes were introduced 
 in 1860. The " Landlord and Tenant Law 
 Amendment Act " of that year (23 and 24 
 Vic, u. 154) is founded on the principle laid 
 down in the third section, that the relation 
 between landlord and tenant is one of con- 
 tract, expressed or implied, and not of tenure. 
 It aims at simplifying and defining the rights 
 of both parties where they have failed or 
 neglected to express fuUy the terms of their 
 agreement. It gives the landlord and his 
 representatives the same remedy against 
 the assignee of a tenant for breach of the 
 conditions of his tenancy, that he would have 
 had against the original tenant, and it gives 
 the tenant and his representatives a like 
 remedy in like circumstances against the 
 assignee of the landlord. It imports certain 
 covenants into leases, entitles tenants to remove 
 certain fixtures, abolishes the doctrine of im- 
 plied waiver, limits the remedy by distress to a 
 single year's rent, and facilitates the remedy 
 by ejectment. The Act of 1860 looked pri- 
 marily to the intention of the parties. Where 
 they had expressed their meaning fully and 
 aptly the law enforced it. Where the expres- 
 sion was technically defective it supplied the 
 defects. Where the agreement was silent, it 
 annexed to it terms usual in similar contracts, 
 and presumably intended by the parties. 
 
 The Land Act of 1870 reversed this policy. 
 It read into existing contracts provisions not 
 contemplated by the makers, and it disabled 
 the majority of tenants from making certain 
 contracts in the future. The chief innova- 
 tions were compensation for " disturbance," 
 and for improvements. Any tenant of 
 any holding under a tenancy created after 
 the Act, if " disturbed " in his holding by the 
 act of the landlord, and any tenant from year 
 to year of any holding under a tenancy 
 created before the Act, rated at not more than 
 £100 per annum, if " disturbed " by the act 
 of his immediate landlord, is declared to be 
 " entitled to such compensation for the loss 
 which the court shall find to be sustained by 
 him, by reason of quitting his holding, as the 
 court shall think fit." The maximum is 
 regulated by a scale in the Act amended in the 
 tenant's interest by the Act of 1881.* Eject- 
 ment for non-payment of rent, or for breach of 
 conditions against sub-letting, bankruptcy, or 
 insolvency, is not an act of disturbance by 
 the landlord (s. 9). But ejectment for non- 
 payment is a disturbance, vifhere the rent 
 does not exceed £15, and the court certifies 
 that the non-payment of rent causing the 
 eviction has arisen from the rent being an 
 exorbitant rent. No claim can be brought 
 for disturbance where the tenant has 
 sub-let, or sub-divided, or assigned his 
 interest without authority (3 and 13 : 
 
 • The " court " is the county court, or the Land 
 'Commissiou, since 1881. 
 
 Sec 13 was repealed by the Act of 1881.) 
 A tenant holding under a lease for thirty-one 
 years or upwards, made after the Act, could 
 claim for disturbance. But "any tenant" 
 might claim compensation for improvements 
 made by himself or his predecessors in title, 
 subject to certain limitations laid down in the 
 Act (amended in the tenant's interest by the 
 Act of 1881), and all improvements were pre- 
 sumed to be the tenant's where the holding 
 was rated at or under £100 a year. Improve- 
 ments (except permanent buildings and re- 
 clamation) made twenty years before claim, 
 did not entitle to compensation. In calculating 
 the amount of compensation the period of the 
 tenant's enjoyment of the improvement was 
 to be taken into account. " Town parks," 
 labourers' holdings, cottage allotments, and 
 some other small lettings were excepted alto- 
 gether from the Act. The Act contained 
 provisions for enlarging the leasing powers 
 of limited owners, facilitating sales to tenants, 
 and authorising advances for that purpose 
 by the Board of Works. Like the similar 
 clauses in the Act of 1881, these have proved 
 for the most part inoperative. 
 
 The Land Law Act of 1881 (44 and 45 
 Vic, c. 49) further limited the power of 
 regulating the incidents of Irish tenancies 
 by contract, and completely altered the terms 
 of most subsisting agreements. It divided 
 tenants into two classes — "present" tenants, 
 whose tenancies existed at the date of the 
 Ant; and. "future" tenants, whose tenan- 
 cies should be created after Jan. 1, 1883. 
 It constituted a " Land Commission " with 
 extensive powers, which that body was au- 
 thorised to delegate to sub-commissioners 
 nominated by the executive (sec. 43). Any 
 " present " tenant might apply to a " court " 
 of sub-commissioners to fix the "fair" or 
 " judicial " rent of his holding (sec 8). A 
 " statutory term " of fifteen years is created 
 by the decree fixing the "judicial" rent. 
 The rent cannot be raised, nor can the 
 tenant be evicted during a statutory term 
 except for non-payment of rent, persistent 
 waste, sub-division, or sub-letting, and certain 
 other acts specified in the statute. If eject- 
 ment was brought for breach of these 
 " statutory conditions," the tenant could still 
 sell his tenancy. If the eviction was actually 
 carried out, he could claim compensation for 
 improvements under the Act of 1870. The Act 
 practically conferred upon every " present " 
 tenant a lease for fifteen years, renewable for 
 ever, deprived the landlord of all direct right 
 to evict, and " invested the court with a 
 discretionary power of permitting eviction 
 in the cases described." A statutory term 
 might also be created by an agreement and 
 declaration between the parties, fixing the 
 " fair " Teni^, and filed in court (sec. 8, ss. 6), 
 or by the acceptance by any tenant, present 
 or future, of an increase of rent demanded 
 by the landlord. (s. 4). The covenant to sur- 
 
Lan 
 
 { 664 ) 
 
 Iiau 
 
 render is avoided ty the Act in all sub- 
 sisting leases, and the lessees will become 
 present tenants on their expiration. 
 
 Future tenants cannot apply to have a 
 fair rent fixed. If, however, the landlord 
 at any time raises the rent of a future 
 tenant, such tenant may either accept the 
 rise, thereby acquiring a statutory term, 
 or sen his tenancy subject to the increased 
 rent. Upon such a sale he may apply to the 
 court to decide whether the value of his 
 tenancy has been depreciated below what it 
 would have been at a fair rent, and claim 
 the amount of such depreciation with costs 
 from the landlord. The court has thus an 
 indirect power of fixing the rent of future 
 tenancies. If the future tenant should 
 neither accept nor sell, he can claim com- 
 pensation for disturbance and improve- 
 ments under the Act of 1870. A lease for 
 thirty-one years or upwards, agreed upon 
 between the parties, and sanctioned by the 
 court (called a " judicial lease "), excludes the 
 operation of the Act during its continuance. 
 If the lessee be a future tenant, his tenancy 
 absolutely determines with the lease. He 
 cannot even claim for disturbance under 
 the Act of 1870. So, too, if he be a 
 present tenant, and accept such a lease for 
 more than sixty years. But if the term 
 be for sixty years or under, the tenant 
 will still be a present tenant at its expira- 
 tion. 
 
 Nine classes of holdings were excepted from 
 the general operation of the Act. The most 
 important are demesne lands, "town parks," 
 labourers' holdings, cottage allotments, tem- 
 porary lettings, farms rated at or over £50, 
 and " let for the purpose of pasture," and 
 farms of any value so let, upon which the 
 tenant does not reside. 
 
 Eichey, The Irish Land Laws; Healy, The 
 Tenants' Key to the Land Law Act, 1881. 
 
 [J. W. P.] 
 
 £aud Tenure. The origin of the pecu- 
 liarities of land tenure in England is ex- 
 ceedingly obscure. It was supposed at one 
 time that while the so-called higher kinds of 
 tenure, as those of the noble, the knight, the 
 churchman, and the cultivating freeholder, 
 were the necessary sub-divisions of feudal 
 estates, so the very various kinds of base 
 tenure, those of villeinage and copyhold, were 
 the result of individual caprice on the part of 
 the superior lord ; or at best, relics, mutilated 
 or distorted, of more ancient tenancies. Such 
 was the view of the early writers on English 
 tenancies, as the author of the Dialogua de 
 Scacoario, Glanvill, Bracton and Eleta, Lit- 
 tleton, and his great commentator. Coke. 
 Latterly, however, minute but by no means 
 exhaustive inquiries have been made into 
 this subject by German and English jurists, 
 and a considerable amount of information as 
 to the relation of the people to the soil has 
 
 been collected and arranged with more or 
 less success by many writers. A difficulty in 
 exactly determining on the facts arises be- 
 cause nearly all the information which can be 
 obtained is derived from documents, the date 
 of which, however early it may be, is long 
 posterior to influences which, as we know, 
 might have modified, and almost certainly 
 did modify, the original teniu-es to which 
 the documents refer. Thus, after the 
 Eoman period, the earliest deeds are those 
 which belonged to monastic and other eccle- 
 siastical foundations. But such foundations 
 were essentially of foreign origin, and were 
 the product of a more or less lengthened pro- 
 cess, under which native custom was brought 
 into collision with external practice, and 
 was naturally altered by it. It is probable, 
 too, that many of the peculiarities of what we 
 call the feudal system have appeared at very 
 different times, and in very different countries, 
 not by virtue of any definite law, but solely 
 for the economical reason that the labour of 
 the husbandman always provides more than 
 is necessary for his individual wants, and that, 
 therefore, it becomes possible for a stronger 
 man to extract from such a person part of the 
 produce of his labours, as tax, or rent, or 
 customary due. In return for such a tribute, 
 the superior might covenant to leave the 
 husbandman in peace, or even to guarantee 
 him from the assaults of other oppressors; 
 and thus the levy of black-mail, practised 
 from the days of David and his companions 
 in exile to those of Kob Hoy and his tribes- 
 men, becomes the type of those dues and 
 duties which, in theory at least, were always 
 characteristic of the feudal system, and were 
 supposed to be reciprocal between lord and 
 tenant, and, it may be, is their origin. 
 
 It is clear that the subjection of classes 
 was characteristic of the times which pre- 
 ceded the Norman Conquest, as well as of 
 those which followed it. There were serfs 
 and slaves, inferior or dependent tenants, and 
 military vassals on the estate of Earl Godwin, 
 as well as on the estate of Earl Odo. . It is 
 probable that the country folk were no better 
 off, and no worse off, under the rule of the 
 descendants of William the Norman, than 
 they were under that of the descendants of 
 Alfred the Great. There was a change of 
 masters, of landlords, but no change of 
 system. It is probable that the gradual dis- 
 continuance of a system under which fines 
 were levied for offences, with the alternative 
 of slavery, and the gradual establishment of 
 a custom under which outrages were deemed 
 an offence against the king's peace, and 
 punishable by his judges, may have assisted 
 the process by which freemen were degraded 
 from their condition, and forced to accept a 
 lower status, and may even have assisted the 
 counter-process by which the serf gradually 
 achieved the rights of the freeman. 
 
 When we are in view of the actual state of 
 
Lan 
 
 ( 665 ) 
 
 Iiau 
 
 things whioli prevailed in England when 
 documentary evidence is clear and continuous, 
 the following facts are obvious and universal. 
 There was an over-lord in every manor, the 
 manor being generally, but not always, iden- 
 tical in its boundaries with the parish. This 
 over-lord might be the king, or a noble, or an 
 ecclesiastic, or a corporation, or a private 
 individual. The over-lord who was a subject, 
 was liable to certain dues to the Mug, either 
 fixed by custom, or granted on emergency by 
 Parliament, and his estate was liable to for- 
 feiture in the event of his committing certain 
 offences, or to escheat in case he' died having 
 no heirs to succeed him. It was important 
 that there should be a central authority, 
 and no means were more ready and more 
 certain to effect this result than to inflict the 
 penalties of forfeiture on certain acts of dis- 
 obedience or outrage. Beneath these lords 
 were free and serf tenants, aU of whom had a 
 sufficient amount of arable land joined to 
 their rights in the common pasture, and their 
 use of the wood for fattening their hogs for 
 the purpose of their own maintenance and 
 that of their families. The free tenants had 
 to pay a rent fixed in amount, either in money 
 or kind, sometimes in labour, but the amount 
 of either was unalterable ; they were masters 
 of their own actions as soon as this rent was 
 satisfied, or they could transfer their holdings 
 and quit the manor. The serf was sometimes 
 bound to a money rent. But his liabilities 
 were generally in labour, though even this 
 could be commuted for money from -a, very 
 early period, and constantly was commuted. 
 "When his labour was yielded, or its 
 equivalent was paid, he was free to employ 
 himself on his land, or for the matter of 
 that, on any other tenant's land, or on the 
 lord's land, at ordinary wages. But he could 
 not leave the manor without licence, for 
 which he paid an annual sum ; he could not 
 give his daughter in marriage without paying 
 a fine, or send his son to school in view of 
 his becoming a priest, or get him made a 
 monk, without similar payments, and when 
 his occupancy descended to his heirs, they 
 paid a fine on admittance, and were brought 
 under his liabilities, while sometimes hia best 
 chattel, horse or ox, or article of furniture, 
 was forfeited to the lord under the name of a 
 heriot. His liabilities were not in the aggre- 
 gate much more heavy than those of the free 
 tenant ; in some particulars they were less, for 
 he was not held to any military service, but 
 his condition was degraded, and he was under 
 social disabilities. 
 
 It appears that in early times, and till 1290, 
 the tenants, whether lord or vassal, could not 
 sell or alienate their estates. But they had, 
 it is well known, the right of admitting sub- 
 tenants to themselves, though probably this 
 right was not exercised, or if exercised was 
 difficult for the inferior tenant. At the date 
 above referred to, every tenant was permitted, 
 
 by the statute Quia Mmptores, to alienate 
 his estate to another, under the condition 
 that the new-comer should stand in exactly 
 his position. This law made a great change, 
 in that it put an end to the creation of 
 new manors. Still the lord was allowed to 
 admit new tenants to his own domain, serf or 
 free, provided that the new tenant held on 
 the same condition as the old. In effect, how- 
 ever, that which was so characteristic of 
 ancient tenures, ceased — the subordination of 
 ranks created at the pleasure of the lord. 
 Whatever distinction existed was traditional, 
 and therefore ceased to be vital. It was 
 certain to gradually decay. But before the 
 change referred to was made by law, the lord 
 was permitted to create a new kind of estate, 
 the form of which was exempted from the 
 later alteration. This was the "estate tail," an 
 institution the significance of which no ' one 
 foresaw, as it was not employed on a large 
 scale till nearly two centuries after its first 
 establishment. 
 
 Such were laj"- estates. They were all 
 liable to obligations — the higher, that of 
 knight service, to military duties ; the next, 
 that of a socager, to rent ; the third, that of 
 the serf, to labour. There were also cottagers 
 who subsisted by their labour, who had a 
 tenement with its garden or curtilage, and 
 who had to get their livelihood by hiring 
 themselves as farm servants. But vast estates 
 were held by the clergy, either secular, who 
 correspond to the parochial clergy and the 
 dignitaries of the Church, archbishops, bishops, 
 deans, and chapters, who generally held land 
 beyond the tithes with which they had im- 
 memoriaUy been endowed, or the monks. 
 It is said that before the Reformation the 
 monasteries held a third of all the land in the 
 kingdom. In theory the clergy were held to 
 satisfy aU obligations by their prayers, or by 
 divine service, as it was called, and were said 
 to hold their land by free alms. But in 
 course of time, though not without violent 
 struggles on their part, they were made to 
 contribute by grants to the necessities of the 
 crown, through Parhament. The lands of 
 the Church were thus a fourth kind of 
 tenure ; and these four kinds were practically 
 inclusive, for another which is enumerated, 
 that in ancient demesne, and which consisted 
 of land which had been once the estate of the 
 Confessor, or of the Conqueror, was possessed 
 of certain privileges and exemptions only. 
 
 But the expression " land tenure " may be 
 also taken to indicate the process by which 
 these lands were occupied and distributed 
 among the several tenants. The lord always 
 had a manor house, iu which a local 
 judicature was held, the judge being the 
 lord's steward, and a jury, who presented 
 offenders, the court leet being inhabitants of 
 the manor taken from all ranks, and the 
 homage, of freeholders only, who registered 
 the inhabitants on the couirt roll. The lord 
 
Iian 
 
 ( 666 ) 
 
 Lan 
 
 also possessed the test land in the parish, 
 the water meadow — always of great value in a 
 country where there were no winter roots and 
 no artificial grasses — and the most convenient 
 and fertile fields. Each homestead also had 
 its paddocks and curtilages near the house 
 and farmyard. But the principal part of the 
 tenant's holding was in the common arable 
 fields. Here the land was ploughed in strips, 
 generally each an acre in dimension, a "balk" 
 or space of unploughed land being left 
 between each one of these sets of strips. In 
 these strips the lord, the parson, the monk, 
 the farmer shared in varying quantities. On 
 sach land it was not easy to induce fertility, 
 except by carrying manure to it, for it would 
 not be possible to fold sheep on such plots, 
 and folding sheep was then, as now, the best 
 way in which to restore exhausted land. This 
 kind" of cultivation, which Mr. Seebohm has 
 attempted to trace back to very remote times, 
 remained, and was customary in many parts 
 of England down to very modern experience. 
 
 The iirst great change iu the English land 
 tenures were from the consequences of the 
 Black Death in the middle of the fourteenth 
 century. Such was the scarcity of hands 
 that wages rapidly doubled, and even trebled, 
 in amount. The serf's labour had been 
 commuted for money payments, and now the 
 lord found that he was often receiving for 
 labour which had been his due not more than 
 a third of its present market value. After 
 trying the effect of proclamations, laws, and 
 penalties, he attempted, and, as the facts 
 prove, simultaneously over England, to re- 
 verse the bargaia. The serfs resented the 
 action, and the tremendous insurrection of 
 "Wat Tj'ler, which involved two-thirds of the 
 country and all its most prosperous districts, 
 broke out. The insurrection collapsed, but 
 the serfs remained masters of the situation, 
 and the tenure in villeinage was rapidly de- 
 veloped into copyhold or customary tenancy. 
 "Within less than a century, land which in 
 previous times could not have been held 
 without social degradation was freely pur- 
 chased by nobles and gentlemen. 
 
 The next important change came after the 
 great Civil "War of Succession. Up to this 
 time, entails had been very rare, and only in 
 small estates. Now, however, the landowner, 
 who entered the fray and belonged to the 
 beaten party, had to incar the risks of for- 
 feiture. But an estate tail was not liable to 
 forfeiture on treason, perhaps not even to a 
 Parliamentary attainder. Hence the custom 
 arose of entailing the great estates as a 
 measure of precaution, since no one could 
 forfeit what was not his, and the estate of the 
 descendant would survive the misconduct of 
 his ancestors. Henry VIII., however, framed 
 a statute under which entails were made 
 liable to the penalties of treason. 
 
 The same reign saw the vast estates of the 
 monasteries, and not a few of those belonging 
 
 to the secular clergy, flung upon the market, 
 in amount perhaps not less than two-fifths of 
 the whole land in the kingdom. These estates 
 passed from the crown by grant or purchase 
 to a new, and generally needy, set of pro- 
 prietors, and great distress ensued. But there 
 was no modification in the nature of tenures. 
 The old divisions stUl prevailed — knight 
 service, socage, copyhold, and free alms. But 
 what had once been honourable had now 
 become oppressive. The nobles and gentry 
 would have gladly commuted their liabilities 
 to the crown on fair terms, and strove to 
 make a bargain with James. But the 
 scheme broke down, and the policy of the 
 king, in exacting his extreme rights, doubt- 
 less led to the formation of a Parliamentary 
 party within the House of Lords, which gave 
 some weight in the struggle between Charles 
 and the House of Commons. 
 
 The Civil "War between king and Parlia- 
 ment developed a new kind of land tenure, 
 which has continued to our own day, and has 
 been the principal instrument by which land 
 has been accumulated into few hands. The 
 Eoyalist party were, after their defeat, in 
 great danger of ruin. They knew that they 
 had to bear serious and heavy fines, and they 
 feared that a sentence of forfeiture might 
 fall upon them. Hence they employed two 
 lawyers, Palmer and Bridgman, who devised 
 the strict settlement^ under which the ancestor 
 (say the father) was made tenant for life, 
 with certain powers, and his descendants (say 
 his sons) were made succeeding tenants in 
 tail. The convej'auce, according to Black- 
 stone, was of suspicious validity, and was 
 certainly in contravention of public policy, 
 as- it practically created a perpetuity. But 
 after the Restoration the two lawyers became 
 crown officers, and in their administrative 
 capacity gave validity to the devices which 
 they had invented as conveyancers. During 
 the same period the abolition of the tenures 
 iu chivalry took place. The Court of "Wards 
 and all feudal incidents were abolished by 
 resolutions of both Houses in February, 1646. 
 These resolutions were repeated by an Act of 
 Parliament in 1656, and confirmed by the 
 act of the Convention Parliament in 1660. 
 The crown was compensated for the loss of 
 its hereditary revenue from the feudal inci- 
 dents by the grant of half the excise, a tax 
 established by the Long Parliament two 
 years before the abolition of tenures in 
 chivalry, and, like it, confirmed at the Resto- 
 ration. 
 
 A committee of the House of Commons has 
 been recently appointed for the purpose of 
 getting rid of the incidents which still 
 belong to copyhold tenures, and are found 
 to^ be inconvenient and capricious. If 
 this be done, there wUl be only one kind 
 of tenure in England. But the power of 
 settlement still exists, and also the custom 
 of primogeniture, the former being to some 
 
Lan 
 
 ( 037 ) 
 
 Iian 
 
 extent cliaDged from its strictness ty late 
 legislation, and the latter being threatened by 
 several causes, among -which the present diffi- 
 culties in which landlords and tenants stand, 
 are probably the most dominant. The dis- 
 persion of other estates will probably be 
 hastened by the contingency which is far 
 from remote, that that estate in matters of 
 succession duties will be soon put on the foot- 
 ing of personal property. 
 
 Haine, Early Hist, of Institutions ; SeelsohiD, 
 The English Village Commv/nity ; Ross, Teutonio 
 Holdings ; Blaclcstone, Commantaries ; Digby, 
 Hist, of Law of Ecal Property ; Brodriclr, 
 English Land artd Ijandlords. 
 
 [J. E. T. R.] 
 
 Laudeu, The Battle of (July 19, 1693), 
 or, as it is sometimes called, the battle of 
 Neerwinden, resulted in the defeat of 
 "William III. by Marshal Luxemburg. By 
 an adroit feint on Liege the French general 
 drew the king towards him. WiUiam 
 might still have retreated, but he resolved to 
 fight. The allies protected their line by a 
 breastwork and a series of entrenchments, and 
 a hundred pieces of cannon were placed along 
 it. On the left flank was the village of Eoms- 
 dorfi and the little stream of Landen, and on 
 the right the village of Neerwinden. The 
 fighting began about eight o'clock. Two de- 
 sperate assaults on the village were repulsed, 
 in the first of which Berwick, who led the 
 French, was taken prisoner. Luxemburg 
 ordered a last attack to be made by the house- 
 hold troops, which was also unsuccessful. But 
 the centre and left of the allies had been 
 thinned to support the conflict at Neerwinden, 
 and a little after four in the afternoon, the 
 whole line gave way. William with the ut- 
 most bravery arrested the progress of the 
 enemy, and made the retreat less disastrous. 
 The French were victorious, but they had lost 
 10,000 of their best men. Luxemburg did 
 not venture to molest the retreat, and WiUiam 
 soon reorganised his forces. 
 
 Maoaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; Saint Simon, Me- 
 moirs ; Burnet, Hist, of his Ovm Time ; London 
 Gazette, 1693. 
 
 Lane, Eichard {b. 1584, d. 1650), an emi- 
 nent lawyer of the reign of Charles I., chiefly 
 became known by the 3,ble way in which he 
 conducted the defence of Strafford. He joined 
 the king on the outbreak of the Civil War, 
 and on Lyttelton's death in 1645 was made 
 Lord Keeper. But the office was little more 
 than nominal, and Lane fled to Holland, 
 where, after the king's death, he became Lord 
 Keeper to Charles II. 
 
 Lauercost Chronicle, The, contains 
 
 a history of England from the earliest times 
 to the year 1346. It received its name from 
 a misapprehension as to the place where it 
 was compiled. It does not seem to have 
 been written at the abbey of Lanercost, in 
 Cumberland, but at Carlisle. It is a most 
 valuable record of Border history, and one 
 
 of the most interesting of the northern 
 chronicles. 
 
 Tlie La/nercost Chronicle has been edited by 
 
 Mr. Stevenson for the Bannatyne and Maitland 
 
 Clubs. 
 
 Iianfrauc (*. 1005, d. 1089), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, was the son of a 
 wealthy citizen of Pavia. After studying in 
 various schools, he in 1039 set up a school at 
 Avranches, Normandy. In 1042 he became 
 a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Bee, of 
 which he became prior in 1046. Soon after- 
 wards he was engaged in the controversy on 
 the Real Presence which Berengarius of 
 Tours had started. Brought at first into 
 hostile contact with WOliam of Normandy, 
 owing to the latter's marriage with his cousin, 
 he subsequently became closely attached to 
 the duke. In 1062 he became abbot of the 
 new monastery which William had enabled 
 him to found at Caen. In 1070 he was ap- 
 pointed Archbishop of Canterbury. During 
 the years of his primacy, he worked Closely in 
 accord with William. He was able, by the 
 king's help, to gradually fill most of the 
 English sees with Normans, and at the same 
 time to purify and reform the national 
 Church, stamping out simony and the mar- 
 riage of the clergy. One result of his policy 
 was to bring England into closer relations 
 with the Church of Western Christendom, 
 and therefore with Rome; but Lanfranc, 
 like William, aimed at keeping up, so far as 
 the altered conditions sJlowed, the old in- 
 dependence of the insular church, and when 
 William refused to do homage to the Pope, 
 and Lanfranc was summoned to Rome, he 
 refused to obey. 
 
 Ordericus Yltalis, Hist. Eccles. ; Hook, Arch- 
 hishops of Cantevhury ; Freeman, Norman CoTl- 
 quest ; Lanfranc's Wo^'ks bave been pubUsbed at 
 Oxford in 1814. 
 
 Langdale, Sib Mabmadtjke (i. 1590, d. 
 1661), was a gentleman of Yorkshire who 
 raised troops for the king, and supported his 
 cause with unwavering fidelity. In February, 
 1645, he successfully reheved Pontefract, 
 and in the summer of the same year he com- 
 manded the king's left wing at Naseby. 
 After the battle he collected fresh troops, and 
 attempted, on the king's directions, to relieve 
 Chester. In the attempt he was utterly routed 
 by Colonel Poiatz at Rowton Heath (Sept. 
 24, 1645). In the second Civil War he took 
 up arms, seized Berwick, and formed a corps 
 of English Cavaliers auxiliary to Hamilton's 
 army. At Preston, where his corps formed the 
 van, he was taken prisoner, but contrived to 
 escape to the Continent. Charles II. created 
 him a baron, and at the Restoration he was 
 appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Yorkshire. 
 
 Laugham, Simon {d. 1376), was made 
 treasurer of the kingdom in 1360, and held 
 this office till 1363, when he was promoted to 
 the Chancellorship. In 1366 he was appointed 
 to the archbishopric of Canterburj', and 
 
Xan. 
 
 ( 668 ) 
 
 Lau 
 
 resigned the Great Seal. During his primacy 
 he did much to correct ahuses which had 
 crept into the Church, hut in 1368, having 
 been made a cardinal, he was compelled by 
 the Mng to resign his archbishopric. He soon 
 regained the royal favour, and was made 
 Dean of Lincoln, though on the death of Arch- 
 bishop Whittlesey, Edward refused to allow 
 Langham to be re-elected to the primacy. 
 
 ILaugport, Battle of (July 10, 1645). 
 After the battle of Naseby Fairfax marched 
 into the west to attack Goring's army. On 
 July 11, Fairfax, advancing from Long 
 Sutton towards Bridgewater, found Goring's 
 forces strongly posted on some hills on the 
 east of Langport, with a brook in their front, 
 and a narrow lane the only approach. Rains- 
 borough, with the Parliamentary foot, cleared 
 the hedges on each side of the lane, after 
 which Desborough and the cavalry charged 
 down the lane, and attacked Goring's main 
 body posted behind it. The Jioyalists were 
 broken, driven through Langport, and chased 
 by Cromwell and the horse to within two miles 
 of Bridgewater. The Eoyalists lost 300 killed 
 and 1,400 prisoners, and the victory enabled 
 Fairfax to besiege and capture the Somerset- 
 shire fortresses. 
 
 Sprigge, Anglia Bediviva; Fairfax Covvespond- 
 
 ence; Carlyle, Cromwell; Markham, Life of 
 
 Fairfax. 
 
 Xangtofb, PiERBB DE, was probably a 
 canon of Bridlington, in Yorkshire, and lived 
 in the reigns of Edward I. and Edward II. 
 He wrote a Chronicle in the corrupt Norman- 
 French of Yorkshire, the principal object of 
 which was to show the justice of Edward's 
 Scotch wars. 
 
 Langtoft's Chronicle has been published in the 
 Kolls Series under the editorship of Mr. 
 Wright. 
 
 Langton, John de {d. 1337), was Chan- 
 cellor from 1292 to 1302, during which period 
 he carried on successfully the work of Robert 
 Bumel. In 1305 he was made Bishop of 
 Chichester, and shortly after the accession of 
 Edward II. (1307) was re-appointed to the 
 Chancellorship, which he held till 1310. He 
 had at first supported the king, but the in- 
 fatuation of Edward for Gaveston drove 
 Langton to side with the barons, and he 
 became one of the ordainers appointed in 
 1310 to regulate the royal household and 
 realm. The rest of his Kfe seems to have 
 been spent in attending to the affairs of his 
 bishopric. 
 
 Langton, Stephen, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury (rf. 1228), is supposed to have been born at 
 Langton, near Spilsby, but of his parentage 
 and early life nothing certain is known. He 
 studied at the University of Paris, where he 
 made the acquaintance of Lothaire, who, on his 
 election to the Papal throne as Innocent III., 
 sent for Langton, whose reputation as a 
 scholar and divine was very great. In 1206 
 
 be was created a cardinal. Shortly after- 
 wards Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, died, and a disputed election to the 
 primacy followed. The younger monks 
 chose Reginald, their sub-prior, while the 
 elder, and the suffragan bishops, elected John 
 de Gray, Bishop of Norwich, the king's 
 nominee. On the case being referred to the 
 Pope, Innocent rejected the claims of both 
 candidates, and caused Langton to be chosen. 
 The king refused to accept him, and regarded 
 the action of the Pope as an unjuBtifiable 
 interference vpith the rights of the king and 
 the Enghsh Church. For six years (1207 — 
 13), John remained obdurate, various pro- 
 posals and offers were made by Innocent, 
 England was placed under an interdict, and 
 the king himself excommunicated,, and it 
 required a threat of deposition to induce him 
 to yield. But, though the papal nominee, 
 Langton soon won the gratitude of the 
 EngUsh by his opposition to the tyranny of 
 John. It was he who produced the charter 
 of Henry I. before the baronial council at 
 St. Paul's as an indication of the claims they 
 ought to make ; and all through the struggle 
 for the charter he was the soul of the baronial 
 party. For a time he forfeited the Pope's 
 favour for this opposition to the Pope's new 
 vassal. , But his great personal influence with 
 Innocent ultimately prevailed, and the ac- 
 cession of Henry III. and the acceptance of the 
 charter by the papal party restored him to 
 fuU influence. He procured the recall of the 
 papal legate PanduH, and a promise that 
 during his lifetime no more legates should be 
 sent from Rome. He excommunicated the 
 mercenaries and feudalists. His death, in 
 1228, was soon followed by the quarrel of 
 Hubert de Burgh and the king. He was one 
 of the ablest of the mediaeval archbishops. 
 
 Roger of Wendover ; ]Matthew Paris ; Hook, 
 Lives oftheArchhishops; Stubbs, Const, Hist. 
 [F. S. P.] 
 
 Lansdown, Battle of (July 6, 1643). 
 After the battle of Stratton, Hopton and the 
 Cornish army were joined by the king's troops 
 under Lord Hertford and Prince Maurice. 
 The Parliamentary troops, defeated at Stratton, 
 were likewise reinforced by the army of Sir 
 William Waller, who took up his head-quarters 
 at Bath. Waller entrenched himself at Lans- 
 down, where he was attacked by Hopton's 
 army on the morning of July 6. Hopton's 
 Comishmen stormed Waller's works, and 
 remained masters of the field. But the 
 losses of the conquerors were very great ; they 
 included Sir Bevil GrenvUle, "whose loss 
 would have clouded any victory," and many 
 officers. Hopton himself, wounded in the 
 battle, was nearly killed by an explosion of 
 gunpowder the next day. Sir William Waller's 
 army was "rather surprised and discomforted 
 with the incredible boldness of the Cornish 
 foot, than much weakened by the number 
 
Lau 
 
 ( 669 ) 
 
 Lat 
 
 slain, -which was not greater than on the 
 king's part." 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the BebelUon; War- 
 burton, FriMce Rupert, 
 
 ^ausdowue, William, Marquis of 
 (J. 1737, d. 1805), was sprung on his father's 
 side from, the Fitzmaurioes, Earls of Kerry, 
 one of the oldest houses of Ireland ; while, hy 
 female descent, he inherited the name and 
 fortune of Sir WilUam Petty. Entering the 
 army at an early age, he distinguished him- 
 self at the battle of Mindeu, and on the 
 accession of George III. was appointed an 
 aide-de-camp to the king. The next year, 
 after representing the family borough of 
 Wycombe for a few weeks, he was called up 
 to the House of Peers by the death of his 
 father, the Earl of Shelbume. In his new 
 sphere,Lord Shelbume at once attached him- 
 self to Lord Bute, and supported the peace 
 negotiations of 1762. In the foUowiag year 
 he was appointed a Privy Councillor and 
 President of the Board of Trade. But in a 
 very few months he deserted the government, 
 and joined the Opposition under Pitt. No 
 place was found for him in the Rockingham 
 ministry, but on its fall and Lord Chatham's 
 succession to office he was made Secretary of 
 State. In 1768 the Duke of Grafton yielded 
 to " the king's daily instigations to remove 
 Lord Shelbume." During the long period of 
 Lord North's administration, Lord Shelbume 
 continued to act firmly with the Opposition, 
 alike on the subject of Wilkes and the 
 Middlesex Election, and on the policy adopted 
 towards the American colonies. On the 
 resignation of Lord North, Lord Shelbume 
 rejected the urgent request of the king that 
 he would form a cabinet, and refused to take 
 the place which was due to the Marquis of 
 Hockingham. When that nobleman did be- 
 come Prime Minister, Lord Shelbume was 
 appointed Home Secretary, Fox being Foreign 
 Secretary ; and between these two, on Rock- 
 ingham's death, ensued a disastrous quarrel, 
 which split up the Whigs, and resulted in the 
 Coalition. Lord Shelbume succeeded as 
 Prime Minister (July, 1782), but with only 
 haU of the Whigs behind him, he very soon 
 had to yield to the imposing strength of the 
 Coalition (Feb., 1783). In 1784 he was 
 created Marquis of Lansdowne, and for a 
 time retired from active life. On the out- 
 break of the French Revolution he joined the 
 Opposition. But he had sunk into compara- 
 tive obscurity, nor ever again regained his 
 former eminent position. Lord Albemarle 
 says of him that " his countenance was hand- 
 some and expressive ; his demeanour digni- 
 fied; his insight into character was shrewd 
 and generally accurate ; his eloquence was 
 graceful and persuasive ; his knowledge of 
 business, especiallj' that which related to 
 foreign affairs, was extensive; and at times 
 he was capable of steady application to his 
 
 official duties." It was the misfortune of 
 Lord Shelbume, rather than his fault, that 
 he could never attain a reputation for sin- 
 cerity. But there is no evidence to be drawn 
 from his political life in support of the popular 
 opinion of his contemporaiies. His ability 
 was unquestioned. Sir G. C. Lewis has said 
 that he was 'Hhe first British statesman to 
 comprehend and advocate the great principles 
 of Free Trade." 
 
 Chatham Correspondence; Lord E. Pitz- 
 
 maurice. Life of Shelhwrnef Walpole, Memoirs 
 
 of George IIL ; Jesse, Memoirs of George III. ; 
 
 BocMngham, Memoirs ; BuBsell, lAfe of Fox ; 
 
 Stajohope, Xi/e of Pitt ; Stanhope, Kist. of Eng. 
 [W. R. S.] 
 
 ]Large Declaration, Tue, was a nar- 
 rative of Charles I.'s conduct towards the 
 Scots, published to justify his policy during the 
 events which led to the war. It was the work of 
 Walter BalcanquaU, Dean of Durham. The 
 Scottish General Assembly which met at Edin- 
 burgh in August, 1639, demanded that the 
 king should suppress the book, and hand the 
 author over to them for punishment. 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Iiaswaree, The Battle or (Nov. 1, 1803), 
 was fought between the English, commanded 
 by General Lake, and fifteen of Dowlut 
 Rao Scindia's disciplined battalions. The 
 Mahrattas were formidably entrenched in the 
 village of Laswaree. Lake led his cavalry up 
 in person to the attack. A fearful discharge 
 of grape compelled them to withdraw, until 
 the infantry came up, when, after a short 
 interval, the whole army was launched on 
 the enemy. The engagement was very 
 severe and protracted. Scindia's sepoys 
 fought as natives had never fought before, 
 defending their position to the last, and only 
 retiring when all their guns were captured. 
 On the British side, the casualties were 824 
 men, one-fourth of which belonged to the 
 76th Regiment, which bore the brunt of the 
 battle. 
 
 WeUesl&y Despatches; Mill, Hist, of India; 
 Grant Duff, Hist, of the Mahrattas. 
 
 Latimer, Hugh, Bishop of Worcester 
 (J. 1470, d. 1555), was the son of a prosperous 
 Leicestershire yeoman. At fourteen years of 
 age Latimer proceeded to Clare Hall, Cam- 
 bridge, where he threw himself with con- 
 spicuous energy into the special studies 
 affected by the favourers of the New Learn- 
 ing. He attracted the favourable notice of 
 Thomas Cromwell, and, on finally quitting 
 Cambridge, he was preferred by him to the 
 living of West Kington, in Wiltshire. By 
 this time Latimer had earned for himseU 
 no small amount of fame as an eloquent and 
 telUng preacher; but the boldness with 
 which he proclaimed his religious views, and 
 his unsparing denunciations of th(^ existing 
 ecclesiastical abuses, frequently placed him in 
 positions of danger, from which it required all 
 his own native address, backed up by powerful 
 
Iiau 
 
 ( 670 ) 
 
 Iiati 
 
 friends at court, to suoceasfully extricate liim. 
 In 1535, Ms own favour with Henry VIII., 
 whose chaplain he was, together with the in- 
 fluence of Thomas Cromwell, procured his ele- 
 vation to the see of Worcester. But after the 
 enactment of the Six Articles, and the con- 
 sequent persecution of the fieformers, Latimer 
 was at once made an example of, and im- 
 prisoned for contumacy (1541). He remained 
 in prison during the few last years of Henry 
 VIII. (1541 — 1547) ; but on the accession of 
 Edward VI. he was, of course, immediately 
 restored to liberty. He declined, however, to 
 again undertake the responsibility of an epis- 
 copal charge, occupying himself instead with 
 the more congenial work of an itinerant 
 preacher. In this character, his popularpreach- 
 ing talents exerted a much wider and more per- 
 manent influence in the spread of his opinions 
 than the most vigorous exercise of his epis- 
 copal authority could have done ; and there is 
 no doubt that his enthusiastic missionary 
 labours contributed very largely to fix the 
 doctrines of the Reformation in the minds of 
 the people. On Edward VI.'s death, Latimer's 
 activity was promptly checked again. He 
 was cast into prison, whence he only emerged 
 to suffer martyrdom, in company with Kidley, 
 at Oxford (Oct. 16, 1555). 
 
 Bumet, Hist. 0/ the Ee/ormotiow ; Strype, 
 
 Crantner ; Foxe, Book of Martyrs ; Froude, Hist. 
 
 of Eng. ; Latimer, (Sermons. 
 
 La/Xld, William, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (S. 1573, d. 1645), was the son of a clothier 
 of Reading, educated at Reading School, and 
 St. John's College, Oxford. He was elected 
 a feUow of that college in 1593, ordained 
 in 1600, and became one of the principal 
 opponents of the Puritan party in Oxford. 
 In the year 1605 he caused great scandal 
 by performing the marriage of the Earl of 
 Devonshire to Lady Penelope Devereux, who 
 had been divorced from her husband on account 
 of her adultery with the earl. In spite of this 
 he was in 1611 elected President of St. John's, 
 made one of the kiug's chaplains, and ap- 
 pointed successively Archdeacon of Huntingdon 
 and Dean of Gloucester. In 1621 he was 
 further promoted to the bishopric of St. 
 David's. King James, it is said, hesitated 
 considerably to entrust a bishopric to so 
 zealous and energetic a Churchman. " He 
 hath a restless spirit, which cannot see when 
 things are well, but loves to toss and change, 
 and bring matters to a pitch of reformation 
 floating in his own brain." Laud became the 
 friend and spiritual adviser of Buckingham, 
 and it was in order to convince the wavering 
 mind of his patron's mother that he entered 
 into controversy with the Jesuit Fisher on 
 the questions at issue between the English 
 and Roman Churches. With the accession of 
 Charles his influence increased, and he em- 
 ployed it to promote and protect Armiuian 
 divines. The Commons remonstrated against 
 his influence in 1628, but the king replied by 
 
 promoting him to the bishopric of London 
 (July, 1628), and promising him the arch- 
 bishopric of Canterbury. But it was not 
 tni his return from accompanying the king in 
 his progress to Scotland that Laud actually 
 attained the archbishopric (August, 1633). 
 Therefore, his activity during the years 
 1628 — 33 was mainly confined to the diocese 
 of London, and to the University of Oxford, 
 of which he was elected chancellor in 1630. 
 But his influence stretched beyond the sphere 
 of his immediate action, and inspired the 
 sUencing of controversial preaching, the sup- 
 pression df the feoffees for impropriations, 
 and other important steps in the king's eccle- 
 siastical policy. After 1633 he was able to 
 work more effectually. " I laboured nothing 
 more," he says " than that the external public 
 worship of God — too much shghted in most 
 parts of this kingdom — might be preserved, 
 and that with as much decency and uniformity 
 as might be, being still of opinion that unity 
 cannot long continue in the Church where 
 uniformity is shut out at the Church door." 
 He began by reviving the custom of metro- 
 political "Ndsitation, and sending officials to 
 inquire into the condition of every diocese in 
 his province. All communion tables were fixed 
 at the east end of the church, every clergy- 
 man was obhged to conform to the Prayer- 
 book, a searching inquiry took place .into the 
 conduct of the clergy, and uniformity of ritual 
 was generally enforced. In the Council he 
 quarrelled with Cottington and Windebank, 
 raised Juxon to the Treasury, supported Went- 
 worth against his enemies, and struggled to 
 contend against the influence the queen exer- 
 cised in favour of the Catholics. The new 
 canons and Prayer-book, which the king en- 
 deavoured to force on the Scots, were submitted 
 to and amended by Laud. That the Enghsh 
 Prayer-book was imposed on Scotland, rather 
 than the liturgy prepared by the Scotch 
 bishops, was Laud's doing. Throughout the 
 two Scotch wars the archbishop, as a member 
 of the Junto for Scotch affairs, supported 
 Strafford in his vigorous policy. Therefore, 
 as soon as the Long Parliament met, he was 
 involved in the same fate, impeached (Dec. 
 18, 1640), committed to custody, and, after 
 the articles against him had been passed by 
 the unanimous vote of the Commons (Feb. 24, 
 1641), imprisoned in the Tower. For two 
 and a half years the archbishop was im- 
 prisoned without a trial, his revenues seques- 
 trated, his goods sold, and his papers seized. 
 The trial began at last in November, 1643, 
 the main charges being that he had endea- 
 voured to subvert the laws, and overthrow 
 the Protestant religion. The judges whom 
 the Lords consulted declared that none of the 
 charges made fell within the legal definition 
 of treason. But this did not save him from 
 the hatred of the Presbyterians, and he was 
 condemned to death by an ordinance of both 
 Houses. His execution took place on Jan. 10, 
 
Lan 
 
 <671 ) 
 
 Iiaw 
 
 1646. The purity and lofty purpose of his 
 life redeem the intolerance and severity with 
 which he pursued his aim. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of :Ejig. ; Hook, Archhisho^s of 
 Camterbury, second series, vol. tI. ; Heylin, Oy- 
 priaiius Aiiglicus; lie B&s, lAfe of Laud; Rush- 
 worth, Historical Collections. Laud's own Works 
 are collected in the Library of Anglo-Catholic 
 Theology. [0. H. F.] 
 
 Lander Bridge, The Appair ov (1482). 
 During an expedition against England, the 
 Scotch nobles, exasperated by the arrogance of 
 the low-born favourites and ministers of James 
 III., determined to put them to death, the 
 Earl of Angus offering to be the one to " beU 
 the cat." Accordingly Robert Cochrane, Eoger 
 Torphichen, a f encingmaster, Hammel, a tailor, 
 and Leonard, a shoemaker, were seized, and 
 hanged over the bridge of Lauder, in the pre- 
 sence of James III., who washimseH taken to 
 Edinburgh Castle, and placed under restraint. 
 Lauder is in Berwickshire, twenty-six miles 
 from Edinburgh. 
 
 Lauderdale, John Maitland, Duke op 
 fb. 1616, (?. 1682), bom at Lethington, took part 
 with the Covenanters against the king, became 
 one of the Scotch representatives in the West- 
 minster Assembly, and commanded a Scotch 
 infantry regiment at the battle of Marston 
 Moor. In December, 1647, he was one of the 
 Scotch commissioners who signed the secret 
 treaty with the king at Carisbrooke, and took 
 up arms with Hamilton and the Engagers. 
 Obliged to fly from Scotland when Argyle re- 
 gained power, he returned with Charles II. in 
 1050, was taken prisoner at the battle of 
 Worcester, and remained in confinement till 
 March, 1660. He was rewarded for his services 
 by being made Secretary of State for Scotland, 
 opposed the re-establishment of Episcopalian- 
 ism in that country, and by his skilful intrigues 
 finally succeeded in overthrowing his rival 
 Middleton (1663). Prom this moment he was 
 virtually governor of Scotland, which he ruled 
 through Lord Rothes and Archbishop Sharpe. 
 "His great experience in affairs," sayaBumet, 
 "his ready compliance with everything that 
 he thought woiild please the king, and his bold 
 offering at the most desperate counsels, gained 
 him such an interest with the king, that no 
 attempt against him, nor complaint of him, 
 could ever shake it, tiU a decay of strength 
 and understanding forced him to let go his 
 hold. He was in his principles much against 
 popery and arbitrary government, and yet, by 
 a iktal train of passions and interests, he made 
 way for the former, and had almost established 
 the latter. Whereas some by a smooth de- 
 portment made the first beginnings of tyranny 
 less discernible and unacceptable, he by the 
 fury of his behaviour heightened the severity 
 of his ministry, which was liker the cruelty 
 of an inquisition than the legality of justice." 
 His great object was to exalt the power of the 
 crown, and though he did not scruple to use 
 the greatest severity against the zealous 
 
 Presbyterians of Eife and the south-west, he 
 aimed at preventing the Episcopalians from 
 becoming too strong, and maintaming for the 
 king the preponderance over both parties. He 
 instigated the decree of 1669, by which a 
 large number of expelled Presbyterian minis- 
 ters were reinstated. He obtained for the 
 king from the Parliament of 1669 the fullest 
 possible recognition of the royal supremacy, 
 and the control of the militia. In England 
 he exercised a great influence as a member of 
 the Privy Council, and was one of the persons 
 to whom the king's treaty against Holland 
 was confided (1670). He was credited with 
 advising the king to use the forces of Scotland 
 against the English Parliament, which, with 
 other causes, led the Commons to demand his 
 removal from the king's service (1674). The 
 king created him Duke of Lauderdale in the 
 Scottish and Earl of Guildford in the English 
 peerage (1672). In spite of aU attacks he 
 retained his power until the Scotch insurrec- 
 tion of 1679. According to Burnet, "the king 
 found his memory failing him, and so he 
 resolved to let him fall gently, and bring all 
 the Scotch affairs into the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth's hands." He died on August 4, 1682. 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of His Ovin Time; Lauderdale 
 Papers (Camden Society) ; Burton, Hist, of 
 ScotUi/nd. rC H F 1 
 
 Lawfeldt, The Battle op (July 2, 1747), 
 was one of the most important contests 
 during the War of the Austrian Succes- 
 sion in which British troops were engaged. 
 The Duke of Cumberland took the field in 
 February, while in March the French army, 
 under Marshal Saxe, invaded the Dutch 
 Netherlands. A revolution in that country 
 promptly placed the Prince of Orange as 
 Stadtbolder at the head of the army. " Un- 
 fortunately, however," says Lord Stanhope, 
 " he was found ignorant of tactics, and jealous 
 of his more experienced but not less over- 
 bearing brother, the Duke of Cumberland." 
 The disorganised forces encountered the 
 French at Lawfeldt, in front of Maestricht. 
 The Dutch gave way and fled ; and the Aus- 
 trians, on the right, remained within their 
 fortified position. The brunt of the battle fell 
 upon the British on the left. The English 
 horse advanced too far, and were repulsed, 
 their commander. Sir John Ligonier, being 
 taken prisoner. The Duke of Cumberland 
 could not long maintain his ground ; his re- 
 treat, however, was effected in good order. 
 The English lost four standards, but notwith- 
 standing their repulse, they captured six, and 
 retired to a strong position behind the Meuse. 
 The number ' of killed and wounded on both 
 sides was great, and nearly equal. Both 
 commanders showed great personal bravery. 
 Stanhope, Hift. of JSng, ; Lecky, Hi^t. of jEng. ; 
 
 Ameth, Maria Theresia. 
 
 Lawman was the name of an oflicer of 
 Danish origin, who is met with in the Five 
 
ILaw 
 
 ( 672 ) 
 
 Lea 
 
 Boroughs of Mercia, and other Danish portions 
 of the country. In the towns of Danish origin 
 there were usually twelve lawmen, whose 
 function it was to expound and enforce the 
 law, and, in some cases, to act as a town 
 council or governing hody. In some cases 
 the dignity seems to have heen hereditary. 
 
 Lawrence (Laurentius), Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (604 — 619), was one of the com- 
 panions of St. Augustine, whom he succeeded. 
 Christianity flourished in Kent during the 
 reign of Ethelbert ; but on the death of that 
 Mng, his son and successor, Eadbald, threw 
 himself into the hands of the heathen party, 
 and threatened persecution. Justus and 
 MeUitus fled, and it is said that Lawrence 
 was about to follow their example, when he 
 was admonished by St. Peter to remain. 
 He did so. Eadbald was re-converted, and 
 Christianity became once more the religion of 
 the Kentish kingdom. 
 
 Bede, Ecclesiastical Eist. ; Florence of "Wor- 
 cester, Chronicle; Hook, Archhisii^s o/ Cauter- 
 bury. 
 
 Lawrence, Sie Henky (S. 1806, d. 1857), 
 obtained a cadetship in the Bengal army in 
 1821. He served in the Afghan cam- 
 paign of 1843, and obtained his majority. 
 In 1846, after the first Sikh War, Major 
 Henry Lawrence was appointed British re- 
 presentative at Lahore. In this capacity, he 
 extinguished the revolt in Cashmere, under 
 Isnam-ud-deen, against the authority of 
 Golab Singh. In 1847 he returned to 
 England, for his health. In 1849, on the 
 annexation of the Punjaub, he was appointed 
 one of the Commissioners of the Board of 
 Government, with his brother, John Law- 
 rence, and Mr. Mansel. Differing with his 
 brother, he was removed to Eajpootana 
 by Lord Dalhousie. He was on the point of 
 proceeding to Europe, for his health, in 1857, 
 but, at the earnest request of Lord Canning, 
 he assumed the Chief Commiasionership of 
 Dude (Mar. 20). He saw the discontent at 
 the new revenue settlement, and he did his 
 best to remove it and restore confidence. He 
 fortified, provisioned, and garrisoned Luck- 
 now, as well as he could, as soon as he per- 
 ceived the danger from the caste question. 
 On May 19 he asked for, and obtained, 
 plenary military and civil power. On the out- 
 break of the Mutiny, on the 30th, his energetic 
 action repressed it, and expelled the mutinous 
 sepoys. Hearing of the fall of Cawnpore, he 
 marched out, and attacked the army of Nana 
 Sahib, but was compelled to retreat. On 
 July 2 the enemy besieged Lucknow, and in 
 the evening Sir Henry was kUled by a shell. 
 Kaye, Sepoy War. 
 
 Lawrence, John Laird Mair, Lord 
 (b. 1811, d. 1879), younger brother of Sir 
 Henry Lawrence, was educated at Hailey- 
 bury, and in 1829 received his nomination as 
 a writer. In 1831 he was apjiointed Assistant 
 
 to the Chief Commissioner and Eesident at 
 Delhi In 1833 he became an officiating 
 magistrate and collector. In 1836 he received 
 the post of joint magistrate and deputy col- 
 lector of the southern division of Delhi. In 
 1848 he was made Commissioner of the Trans- 
 Sutlej Provinces. He also occasionally acted 
 as Eesident at Lahore. At the end of the 
 second Sikh "War he was appointed, with his 
 brother Henry and Mr. Mansel, Administrator 
 for the Punjaub. He abolished the barbarous 
 laws of the Sikhs, and introduced the Indian 
 Criminal Code. The disarmament of the 
 Punjaub was effected mainly through his 
 energy and courage. In 1856 he was made a 
 K.C.B. At the outbreak of the Mutiny, he 
 stamped out all signs of revolt in the Punjaub, 
 at once diverted every available soldier to 
 Delhi, and raised from the military popula- 
 tion of the Punjaub, troops to oppose the 
 sepoys. Eor his share in suppressing the 
 Mutiny, he was created a baronet and 
 G.C.B. He then retired to England, and 
 was elected a member of the Indian Council. 
 Five years later he undertook the onerous 
 duty of Governor-General. On Jan. 12, 
 1864, he arrived, and found India at peace. 
 He devoted himself to improving the life of 
 English soldiers in India. He provided for 
 their moral and physical condition, for their 
 religious study and improvement, and for 
 sanitary reform. In 1864, in consequence of 
 the iU- treatment of the English envoy, the Hon. 
 Ashley Eden, war was declared with Bhotan. 
 The war was badly conducted, but the result 
 was, on the whole, favourable to the English. 
 In 1865 peace was concluded. In 1866 occurred 
 the great famine in Orissa. The year 1867 
 was remarkable for the completion of many 
 railways. During the struggle between 
 Shore Ali and his brothers in Afghanistan, 
 Sir J. Lawrence preserved a perfect neutrality. 
 At the end of the year 1868, Sir J. La"wrence 
 returned to England. On March 27, 1869, 
 he was raised to the peerage, by the title of 
 Baron Lawrence of the Punjaub, and of 
 Grately, in the county of Southampton. When 
 the London School Board was formed, in 1870, 
 he became its first chairman. In 1879 he 
 died, having to the last taken part in the 
 Indian debates in the House of Lords. 
 
 Kaye, Sepoy War ; E. Bosworth Smitli, Life of 
 Lord Lawrence. 
 
 Leake, Sir John (b. 1650, d. 1720), was a 
 celebrated English admiral. He entered the 
 navy in 1677. At the siege of Londonderry 
 he commanded the little squadron which re- 
 lieved the town by breaking the boom at the 
 entrance of Lough Foyle. Leake also distin- 
 guished himself atthebattleofLaHogue (1692). 
 Soon after the accession of Anne he was made 
 vice-admiral (1705), his Whig poHties being 
 greatly in his favour. After the capture of 
 Gibraltar Leake was left with eighteen ships 
 of war for its defence. In 1705 he overtook 
 and defeated Marshal Tesse, who with the 
 
Leb 
 
 ( 673 ) 
 
 Lee 
 
 French, fleet, had heen hesiegiug the rook. 
 Next year he commanded the fleet off 
 Barcelona. He declined to engage the Count 
 of Toulouse, who was hlockading the town, 
 although his fleet was quite as strong as the 
 Frenchman's ; and was superseded hy Peter- 
 borough. Soon afterwards a fleet of merchant 
 vessels fell into his hands. Leake succeeded 
 in taking the island of Sardinia with little 
 or no resistance ; and in conjunction with 
 G-eneral Stanhope, drove the enemy out of 
 Minorca (1708). In the foUowiug year he was 
 placed at the head of the Admiralty Board. 
 When the Tory ministry came into office, 
 Leake, on the resignation of Orford, became 
 First Lord. After the accession of George I. 
 he ceased to take any part in politics. " The 
 admiral," says Mr. Wyon, " seems to have 
 been one of those men, who, however brave 
 in subordinate positions, seem to be para- 
 lysed by the responsibility involved in a 
 separate command." 
 
 Wyon, Belgn of Queen Anne, 
 
 Iiebanon Qnestion, The. In i860, 
 
 broke out the quarrel between the Druses and 
 the Maronites, two Syrian sects, which led to 
 great atrocities and cruelties on both sides. 
 The Turkish governor of Damascus did not 
 attempt to interfere. England and France 
 therefore took strong and decisive steps to 
 restore tranquillity in the Lebanon. A con- 
 vention was drawn up, to which all the great 
 powers of Europe agreed, and which Turkey 
 was forced to accept. Its provisions were 
 that England and France should restore 
 order ; that France should supply the troops 
 in the first instance, and that other reqxiire- 
 raents should be such as the powers thought fit. 
 Lord Dufferin was sent out as English com- 
 missioner, and order was soon restored. The 
 representatives of the great powers assembled 
 in Constantinople, then agreed that a Chris- 
 tian governor of the Lebanon should be ap- 
 pointed in subordination to the Sultan, and 
 the Sultan had to agree. In June, 1861, the 
 French troops evacuated Syria. 
 
 Ann'ual Kegtsf er, 1860 ; Hansard, 1860—61. 
 
 Leeds, Thomas Osborne, Duke of (i. 
 1631, d. 1712), Viscount Latimer and Baron 
 Danby (1673), Earl of Danby (1674), Marquis 
 of Carmarthen (1689), and Duke of Leeds 
 (1694), was the son of Sir Thomas Osborne, of 
 Yorkshire. He was elected member for York 
 in 1661, andtookan active part in the prosecu- 
 tion of Clarendon. His official career began 
 with his appointment as commissioner for 
 examining the public accounts (1667), and he 
 became successively Treasurer of the Navy 
 (1671), Privy Councillor (1672), and on the 
 fall of Clifford, Lord High Treasurer (1674). 
 " He founded his policy," says North, " upon 
 the Protestant Cavalier interest and opposition 
 to the French." At home he put in force 
 the laws against Catholics and Dissenters, 
 endeavoured to impose a non-resistance 
 HiaT.-22 
 
 test on all public functionaries, and intro- 
 duced a bill to give securities to the Church 
 in event of the succession of a Catholic king. 
 Abroad he opposed the aggrandisement of 
 France, so far as the king allowed him, and 
 contrived to bring about the marriage of the 
 Princess Mary to WOliam of Orange (1677). 
 But he corrupted the House of Commons, 
 and stooped to be the agent of Charles II. in 
 his bargains with Louis XIV. The latter 
 finding Danby the opponent of French policy, 
 worked his overthrow through Ealph Mon- 
 tagu, the ambassador at Paris, who revealed 
 the secret despatch by which Danby, at the 
 king's command, asked payment for Eng- 
 land's neutrality. He was impeached in 1678, 
 and though not tried, confined in the Tower 
 till 1684. It was decided that the king's 
 pardon could not be pleaded in bar of an 
 impeachment by the Commons, and that the 
 dissolution of Parliament did not put an end 
 to an impeachment. In the next reign, find- 
 ing that the measures of James II. threatened 
 the Church, he allied himself with the Whig 
 lords, signed the invitation of June 20, 1688, 
 to the Prince of Orange, and secured York 
 for the Revolution. Yet though he did not 
 shrink from taking up arms, he scrupled to 
 declare James deposed, and headed the party 
 which argued that the king had by his flight 
 abdicated, and that the crown had thus de- 
 volved on Mary. In the discussions between 
 the Lords and the Commons which followed, 
 it was mainly owing to Danby that the House 
 of Lords consented to agree with the Com- 
 mons, and invite William to ascend the 
 throne. Therefore he naturally obtained a 
 great position under the new government. 
 He was appointed President of the Council, 
 and berime in 1690 the real head of the 
 ministry; "as nearly Prime Minister," says 
 Macaulay, " as any English subject could be 
 under a prince of William's character." His 
 second administration, like his first, was 
 stained by systematic bribery, nor was he 
 free from corruption himself. In 1695 it 
 was proved that he had received a bribe of 
 5,500 guineas from the East India Company, 
 and he was for a second time impeached. He 
 escaped condemnation, and caused the sus- 
 pension of the proceedings by contriving the 
 flight of the principal witness; but though 
 he retained his place for three years longer, 
 he completely lost his power. " Though his 
 eloquence and knowledge always secured him 
 the attention of his hearers, he was never 
 again, even when the Tory party was in 
 power, admitted to the smallest share in the 
 direction of affairs. In 1710 he made his last 
 important appearance in debate in defence of 
 Sacheverell, and thus explained his conduct 
 in 1688." He had, he said, a great share in 
 the late revolution, but he never thought that 
 things " would have gone so far as to settle. the 
 crown on the Prince of Orange, whom he had' 
 often heard say that he had no such thoughts' 
 
Lee 
 
 (674) 
 
 Lee 
 
 himself. That they ought to distinguish be- 
 tween resistance and revolution, for vacancy 
 or ahdication was the thing they went upon, 
 and therefore resistance was to be forgot ; for 
 had it not succeeded it had certainly been 
 rebellion, since he knew of no other but here- 
 ditary right." But though he disavowed the 
 principles of the Revolution, and shrank from 
 the logic of his actions, his name is insepar- 
 ably associated with that event, and the part 
 he played then is his best title to remembrance. 
 His character has been very variously judged ; 
 he was bold, ambitious, and unscrupulous, 
 and he has been defined as "a bourgeois 
 Strafford." 
 
 Banke, History of England; Hallain, Con- 
 stitutional Historii ; Macaulay, History of Eng- 
 lavd; Memoirs Relative to the Impeachment of the 
 Earl ofOanby. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Leet. The court leet is one of the most 
 ancient legal institutions of the realm,, though 
 it has now been for a long period stripped of by 
 far the greater part of its powers. The right 
 of holdmg a court of this nature — ^which is in 
 many cases incidental to the tenure of a 
 manor — appears to be traceable to Anglo- 
 Saxon times ; for there is no distinction to be 
 made between the courts-leet of the Middle 
 Ages and the local jurisdiction of the Anglo- 
 Saxon thegn who had "Sac and Soc" in 
 his own estate apart from the general judicial 
 machinery of the hundred or the shire. The 
 court leet in theory consisted of all members 
 of the jurisdiction or manor between the ages 
 of twelve and sixty — even women and servants 
 being, according to some authorities, bound 
 to attend ; but in practice all the upper classes, 
 from earls, bishops, and barons, to monks and 
 nuns, were by the Statute of Marlborough 
 exempted from attendance. The steward was 
 bound to give from six to fifteen days' notice 
 of the projected meeting (which was to be 
 held once a year either within a month of 
 Easter or Michaelmas) to "all manner of 
 persons which are resident or deoiners or owe 
 royal suit to this leet." Proclamation having 
 been duly made by the bailiff, excuses or 
 " essoynes " were then made for those who were 
 prevented from attending, and the list called 
 over to ascertain the absentees who are liable 
 to be fined by the jury, which must consist of 
 at least twelve, but may consist of more per- 
 sons. If it consist of a larger number it is 
 sufficient if twelve concur in any present- 
 ment; and the jury of a court leet differs 
 from that of a court baron in that the latter 
 may be comprised of less than twelve members. 
 When the former has been sworn, his fellows 
 follow by threes and fours, asserting that they 
 will " present the truth and nothing but the 
 truth." The business of the court is then 
 entered upon, viz., that of presenting culprits. 
 Of culprits there were two classes : (1) Those 
 whose offences might be inquired into here but 
 punishable by the Justices of Assize at the 
 next gaol-delivery ; (2) Offences which might 
 
 be punished as well as presented at the court 
 leet. The first class comprised petty treasons 
 and felonies, e.g., counterfeiting the king's 
 seal, forging or clipping his coin, mutilation, 
 various forms of murder prepense, man- 
 slaughter, arson, dove or pigeon stealing, the 
 abetment of knaves, and theft under the value 
 of twelve pence. The second class included 
 the non-appearance of suitors and deoiners 
 (members of a frank-pledge) : neglect of any 
 one being above twelve years in age to take his 
 oath of lealty and fealty to the king, or to 
 pay his due manorial services ; annoyances 
 caused to the people of the manor by tamper- 
 ing with or polluting roads, ditches, and 
 hedges. The jury might also present and 
 punish notorious scolds, brawlers, and eaves- 
 droppers ; those who helped in a rescue or kept 
 houses of ill-fame; vagabonds and common 
 haunters of taverns ; those who should adul- 
 terate anything they sold, be it ale, bread, 
 lime, or flax, or who should give false measure, 
 or sell goods at above the fair market value. 
 The jury were likewise bound to present the 
 officers who had failed to do their duties — the 
 constable, ale-taster, &c. ; to inquire into any 
 abuse of purveyance, into questions of 
 treasure-trove, abuse of commons, and out- 
 lawry. The court leet had likewise to see 
 that there was no combination of labourers or 
 tradesmen to exact excessive wages or prices; 
 to insist on the practice of the long-bow, and 
 to prevent the playing of such unlawful games 
 as dicing, carding, tennis, or bowls. The jury 
 of court leet also in many manors chose and 
 swore in the bailiff, constables, ale-conners, and 
 hayward. The steward was to be considered as 
 judge in a court leet, and he had the power 
 to detain a stranger passing by if the full 
 complement of his jury was not made up. He 
 could likewise fine for contempt of court. 
 Such were the early powers and constitution 
 of the court leet, an institution which, after 
 having been for many centuries in a declining 
 condition, has now practically vanished, ex- 
 cept from an antiquarian point of view. It 
 takes its place by the side of the court baron, 
 both courts originally consisting of the same 
 members. The court leet, "however, has 
 always been considered by the lawyers as 
 emphatically one of the king's courts ; whereas 
 the court baron had more particular charge of 
 local matters, such as determining services 
 and tenures, admitting new tenants, making 
 new by-laws, &c. 
 
 J. Kitchin, Court Leet; Scrivin, Treatise on 
 Copyhold (4th ed.), vol. ii. ; T. Cuuningliaiii, Loan 
 THct. ; Blactstone, Conmientaries ; J. Stephen, 
 Commentaries, iv. ; Stnbbs, Comit. Hist 
 
 [T. A. A.] 
 
 Leeward Islands, The. In 1871, 
 Antigua, St. Kitts, Montserrat, Nevis, Do- 
 minica, and the Virgin Islands, were formed 
 into one colony for purposes of administration, 
 under the title of the Leeward Islands, The 
 federation was placed under a govemor-in- 
 
Leg 
 
 675 ) 
 
 Leg 
 
 chief, residing in Antigua, the affairs of the 
 various islands being administered by presi- 
 dents. There is a General Legislative Coun- 
 cil for the Leeward Islands, consisting of a 
 president appointed by the governor from one 
 of the local legislatures, three ex-officio mem- 
 bers, six nominated members, and representa- 
 tive members elected by the legislatures of 
 the several islands. 
 
 Legates, Papal, were the messengers or 
 ambassadors of the Pope, the recipients of 
 the formal delegation of the papal authority 
 within a given country. Before the Norman 
 Conquest the presence of a papal legate in 
 England was rare and exceptional. The 
 earhest founders of Christianity in England 
 were indeed in such close relation to the 
 Popes, that there was very little need for 
 other than direct intercourse with them. Ac- 
 cordingly there is no trace of papal legation 
 between the mission of John the Precentor to 
 Theodore's Council at Hatfield in 680 and the 
 mission of George and Theophylact, " to renew 
 the faith which St. Gregory had sent us " 
 (Anglo-Saxon Chron., s.a. 785) at the famous 
 council of 787. During the next three cen- 
 turies papal legations are equally rare. The 
 subordinate position of Nothhelm "prieco a 
 domino Eugenia Tapa," at the Clovesho Synod 
 of 824, shows the legation invested with few of 
 the dignities of later times. Tinder Edward the 
 Confessor the mission of an envoy of Alex- 
 ander n. to counteract the adhesion of Sti- 
 gand to the anti-Pope marks the beginning 
 of a new period which the Conquest further 
 developed. But while admitting the papal 
 delegates, and using them in 1070 to reform 
 the Church on Norman lines, William I. 
 established the rule that no legate should be 
 admitted into England unless sent at the 
 instance of the king and Church. Ansehn 
 claimed for the see of Canterbury a prescrip- 
 tive right to represent the Pope in England. 
 Archbishop WiUiam of CorbeuH obtained 
 from Honorius II. (1126) a formal legatiue 
 commission over the whole island of Britain. 
 Prom this precedent grew the ordinary lega- 
 tion of the archbishops, which, acceptable by 
 Church and nation as involving less prac- 
 tical interference with the ordinary rule of 
 the Church, was agreeable to the Pope as im- 
 plying that the independent metropolitical 
 jurisdiction of Canterbury was the result of 
 papal delegation. The steps in the process 
 are as follows : on WUliam of Corbeuil's 
 death, Henry of "Winchester was preferred to 
 Theobald, the new archbishop, who ob- 
 tained the legation, however, after the death 
 of Henry's patron. Pope Innocent II. 
 Henry II. for a time got Roger of York 
 appointed legate instead of Becket ; but 
 during the quarrel Becket received the dele- 
 gation. The next two archbishops were ap- 
 pointed legates, though Longchamp of Ely 
 succeeded Baldwin, when the latter went on 
 
 crusade, and Hubert Walter had to give up 
 the title on the death of Oelestine III. The 
 surrender of John gave opportunities for 
 extraordinary foreign legates, such as Gualo 
 and Pandulf, who almost ruled England in 
 the minority of Henry III. ; but Langton 
 obtained their recall, and the appointment of 
 himself as legatus natiis, and a promise that 
 in his lifetime no other legate should be sent. 
 Henceforth the Archbishops of Canterbury 
 were regularly recognised as ordinary legates. 
 In 1352 Thoresby of York acquired the 
 same privilege for the northern province. 
 The suspension of Chichele by Martin V. 
 because he could not get the Statute of Pro- 
 visors repealed, seems not to have been recog- 
 nised ; and Beaufort of Winchester's special 
 delegation did not supersede the ordinary 
 jurisdiction of Canterbury. But legati missi, 
 legati a latere were still sent upon occasion. 
 The missions of Otho and Othobon, and of 
 Guy, Cardinal Bishop of Sablna, are good 
 instances during Henry III.'s time. Wolsey 
 combined with his small ordinary jurisdiction 
 as Archbishop of York an extraordinary com- 
 mission as legate, which became the excuse 
 for his overthrow, and for the abolition of a 
 power which, from the days of the Statute of 
 Prtemunire, can hardly be said to have had any 
 legal basis in England, however conformable 
 to the general ecclesiastical law. Nothing 
 but the compromise of the legatus natus made 
 the position of the legate tolerable to the 
 national feelings of England. It involved a 
 subordination to an alien jurisdiction antagc 
 nistic to the imperial claims of the English 
 crown. One of the earliest steps of the Ke- 
 formation was to ignore the claims of the 
 papal legates. The mission of Campeggio in 
 1529 was, but for the revival of the ordinary 
 legation of Cardinal Pole and his superces- 
 sion by Peto, the last instance of papal lega- 
 tion in England. 
 
 Stubbs, Cmist. Bid. ; Collier, Church Hist. 
 [T. E. T.] 
 
 Legge, Henry Billson (i. 1708, d. 1764), 
 was the son of the Earl of Dartmouth. He 
 became Lord of the Admiralty in 1746, and 
 Lord of the Treasury in 1747. In the follow- 
 ing year he was appointed envoy extra- 
 ordinary to the court of Berlin, and in 1749 
 became Treasurer of the Navy. In 1754 he 
 became Chancellor of the Exchequer, but in 
 1755 he rebelled against Newcastle, refusing 
 to sign the Treasury warrants necessary for 
 carrying the treaty for the Hessian sub- 
 sidy to a conclusion. He was accordingly 
 dismissed. He again assumed office as Secre- 
 tary of State, in 1756, but was dismissed in 
 the following year, to be shortly afterwards 
 reinstated as Chancellor of the Exchequer; he 
 was, however, dismissed in 1761, owing to a 
 quarrel with Bute. He continued, until his 
 death, to adhere to Pitt in politics, although 
 bound by no ties of friendship. 
 
Leg 
 
 (676) 
 
 Leg 
 
 Legion memorial. The (17011, was a 
 Whig pamphlet, written to express the public 
 disgust at the treatment by the Commons of 
 the Kentish petitioners. It ia supposed that 
 its author was Daniel Defoe. The pamphlet 
 takes its name from its concluding words, 
 " our name is Legion, and we are many." Its 
 language is extremely violent, and it contains 
 not only questions of national politics, but also 
 a bitter attack on the Unitarians, and on John 
 Howe, a speaker against the Kentish Petition. 
 It accurately represented the temper of a large 
 section of the population. The Whigs were 
 delighted, and the Tories infuriated with it. 
 
 Legislation. There was little legis- 
 lation, or formal enacting of new laws, before 
 the Norman Conquest. The unwritten customs 
 and rules of law that the Angles and Saxons 
 had brought to Britain were, from time 
 to time, authoritatively declared, revised, 
 amended, added to, adapted to the advancing 
 experience of the race, or even reduced to 
 crudely constructed codes ; and the result 
 was called after the king by whom or at 
 whose instance the task had been undertaken. 
 This moderate measure of legislation would 
 seem to have regularly been the joint-work 
 of the king and witan ; the successive issues of 
 laws profess to have been made either by the 
 king and his witan, or by the king " with his 
 witan," or "with the counsel of his witan." 
 Indeed Alfred tells us that to his laws the 
 consent of his witan was given ; and the 
 language of more than one ordinance of 
 Ethelred II.'s reign states the authority of 
 the witan alone. Mr. Kemble would rather 
 "assert that they possessed the legislative 
 power without the king, than that he possessed 
 it without them." We may perhaps assume 
 that their practical importance to this function 
 varied with the character of the king. Very 
 few laws were made in the reigns of the 
 Norman kings. But in the making of these 
 few the sovereign's will is believed to have 
 been the sole effective force ; the voice of the 
 great and wise of the kingdom declined into 
 an influence merely — perhaps into less. Yet 
 it was seldom ignored ; the charters and 
 ordinances of William I. and Henry I. 
 generally express the counsel or concurrence 
 in some form of the higher clergy and barons, 
 though it is likely that their approval was 
 often taken for granted. The tendency, how- 
 ever, of the succeeding reigns was to make 
 the share of the Great Council in the work 
 more and more of a reality. Even the strong- 
 willed Henry II. was careful to gain its 
 assent to the assizes or constitutions he drew 
 up. And this tendency grew until this body 
 was recognised as a co-ordinate power with 
 the king in this province. In one or two 
 instances, indeed, notably in that of Magna 
 Carta, what now pass for laws were really 
 ^reaties concluded between conflicting parties 
 in the State. As yet the only part the people 
 
 had in legislation was to hear and obey the 
 laws that were declared to them by sherins or 
 itinerant justices. " Legislative action," saya 
 Bishop Stubbs, " belonged only to the wise, 
 that is, to the royal or national council." The 
 incorporation of the Commons with this 
 council was necessarily followed by the con- 
 cession to the representatives of the people 
 of a right to a share in this action. But not 
 at once to an important share. First their 
 participation was either deemed unnecessary 
 or assumed ; then it was admitted to be 
 essential to the repeal of a law; next, laws 
 were enacted on their petition ; and for some 
 time this last remained the usual practice. 
 During the fourteenth century the right 
 of the Commons to present petitions and 
 receive answers to them tended steadily to 
 become the exclusive basis of legislation.. 
 There were exceptions, certainly — more than 
 once a petition to the clergy led to the 
 framing of a statute ; but the regular course 
 was for the king to ordain the law at the 
 request of the Commona, and with the assent 
 of the Lords. And to several laws even, 
 the assent of the Commons is stated. But 
 the king was still largely in fact, as in 
 form he has always been, the author of all 
 legislation ; and the statutes that he caused 
 to be framed on the petitions of Parliament 
 were often inadequate, evasive, or useless. 
 To make sure of the fulfilment of their 
 desires, therefore. Parliament, towards the end 
 of Henry TI.'s reign, adopted the practice of 
 proceeding by bills which could not be altered 
 without their sanction, but might originate 
 in either House, or even with the king. The 
 method of petition was not altogether aban- 
 doned; but its use became rare, except in 
 private legislation. And already in the 
 fifteenth century the course of procedure was 
 substantially what it is now. The three 
 readings, the going into committee, the pro- 
 posal of amendments, were established forms 
 at least before the century ended. Then, too, 
 the enacting clause of statutes had taken its 
 final form — " be it enacted by the king, our 
 sovereign lord, by and with the advice of the 
 lords spiritual and temporal and commons in 
 this present parliament assembled, and.by the 
 authority of the same." The language of 
 our legislation has varied. It was generally 
 English, but sometimes Latin, before the Con- 
 quest ; was almost exclusively Latin from 
 the Conquest till the Mad Parliament, whpn 
 French made its appearance. French did not 
 at once drive out Latin; but became the 
 fashion in Edward I.'s reign, and almost 
 universal after it. But ever since 1489 our 
 laws have been written exclusively in English. 
 French, however, still lingers in a few phrases ; 
 la reyne le veult is the expression of the royal 
 assent, and la reyne s'avisera would be the form 
 of royal refusal if such could now be given. 
 Stubba, Const. Hist. ; May, htm and Practice 0/ 
 Parliament. rj^ J{, 1 
 
£ei 
 
 (677) 
 
 Lei 
 
 Leicester, The Easlsom of, which had 
 been held from early in the twelfth century 
 by the Norman family of Beaumont, passed 
 in 1207 to Simon of Montfort, the crusader, 
 who was son (or, as some accounts say, 
 husband) of Amicia, sister to the last Beau- 
 mont earl. Simon, however, seems never to 
 have enjoyed more than the title, and when 
 he died, his eldest son, Amahric, was well 
 content to surrender his rights to his next 
 brother, Simon, the famous national leader, on 
 whose death at Evesham, in 1265, all his 
 honours became forfeit. Nine years later the 
 earldom was granted to Edmund, Earl of 
 Lancaster, and followed the fortunes of that 
 title until the death of Henry, Duke of Lan- 
 caster, in 1361, when the honour of Leicester 
 descended to WiUiam, Coimt of Holland, 
 husband to this prince's elder daughter and 
 co-heiress, and then to John of Gaunt, who 
 married the second daughter. It does not 
 appear that William of Holland ever bore the 
 title of earl; but John of Gaunt is at least 
 once so styled, and in the person of his son, 
 Henry of Bolingbroke, the honour was merged 
 in the crown, la 1663 the earldom was 
 granted to Sir Robert Dudley, younger son 
 of John, Duke of Northumberland; he died 
 without legitimate issue in 1588, and the 
 title became extinct. In 1618 it was granted 
 to Sir Eobert Sydney, Viscount Lisle, in 
 whose family it continued until its extinction 
 in 1743. In the following year Thomas 
 Coke, Baron Lovel of Minster Level, was 
 created Earl of Leicester, but died in 1759 
 without surviving issue. In 1784 George 
 Townshend, son of George, Viscount Towns- 
 hend, was created earl of the county of 
 : Leicester, but on the death of his son in 1855, 
 this title also became extinct. Meanwhile, 
 in 1837, Thomas William Coke, a great- 
 nephew of the Thomas Coke above named, 
 was ennobled by the singular style of Earl of 
 Leicester of Holkham, co. Norfolk. This title 
 still exists. 
 
 Leicester, Simon de Montfort, Eabl 
 OF. [Montfort.] 
 
 Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of 
 (J. ,1532, d. 1588), was the fifth son of John 
 Dudley, .Duke of Northumberland. Impli- 
 cated to some extent in the schemes of his 
 father, he was for some years in disgrace, but 
 was ultimately restored in blood by Mary. 
 In 1549 he married Amy (ox Anne) Robsart, 
 daughter of a Devonshire gentlemen, and 
 is said tOi have procured her murder at 
 Cumnor (1560). The charge cannot be 
 absolutely proved ; but she certainly perished 
 at a , time most convenient for Dudley's 
 ambition. , The probable truth is, as Mr. 
 Eroude points out, that she was murdered 
 by some one who wished to see Dudley 
 mamed to .Elizabeth. He had not been 
 ■ long about the court before his hand- 
 some appearance won him the favour of the 
 
 queen, whose relations with her " sweet 
 Robin " were so peculiar as to lend colour to 
 the worst representations of her enemies, 
 though the rumours were probably ground- 
 less. The queen's fondness for Dudley, 
 whom, in 1 564, she created Earl of Leicester, 
 caused his marriage with her to be regarded 
 as a matter of certainty. But Elizabeth, fond 
 as she was, preferred that "at court there 
 should be no master, only mistress." The 
 bitter enemy of Cecil, whom he regarded as 
 his rival in influence over the queen, Leicester 
 was continually trying to deprive him of his 
 office, but without success. His arrogance 
 and his influence over the queen made 
 Leicester an object of almost universal de- 
 testation ; and the probability of his mar- 
 riage with Elizabeth called forth the most 
 violent opposition. When the queen, in 
 1562, believed herself to be dying, she named 
 the earl as Protector of the realm ; and the 
 following year, though she would not marry 
 him herself, proposed him as a suitor for the 
 hand of Mary Queen of Scots, that he might 
 thus, perhaps, after all, obtain the throne of 
 England. It was long, however, before 
 Leicester gave up aU hope of an alliance with 
 the queen'; and he was one of the most deter- 
 mined opponents of the projected marriages 
 ' with the Duke of Anjou and Charles of Austria. 
 About the year 1567, Leicester assiuned the 
 rdle of head of the Puritan party, partly 
 out of chagiin with the CathoUos, who re- 
 fused him support, and as a means of check- 
 mating his enemy Cecil. Twenty years later, 
 when in the Netherlands, he gained many 
 supporters amongst the Reformers by his pre- 
 tence of sincere Protestantism. In 1578 he 
 secretly married the Countess of Essex, and 
 incurred the severe displeasure of the queen, 
 who stOl retained her partiality for her 
 favourite. In 1582 Elizabeth again quarrelled 
 with him ; but a reconciliation was effected, 
 and, in 1585, he obtained the command of the 
 English troops in the Low Countries ; though 
 his appointment only served to bring out his 
 incapacity to fill a responsible position. On 
 his arrival at Flushing, Leicester was offered 
 and accepted the post of governor by the 
 States, a fact which again provoked the anger 
 of Elizabeth, who declared that the earl and 
 the States had treated her with contempt. 
 Before Leicester returned to England, towards 
 the end of 1586, he had managed, " with con- 
 spicuous incapacity," to throw everything 
 into confusion, and to bring the Low Countries 
 to the verge of ruin. Notwithstanding this, 
 the States again offered him the government, 
 and he wept back with supplies of men and 
 money in 1587, though he only retained his 
 post. a few months. The following year, in 
 spite of the incapacity he had displayed as a 
 general, the command of the English army was 
 entrusted to him during the alarm of the Spanish 
 invasion ; and he was about to be created 
 Lieutenant-General of England and Ireland, 
 
Lei 
 
 ( 678 ) 
 
 Lei 
 
 when lie died of a fever (Sept. 4, 1588). His 
 character is that of an anihitious and unscru- 
 pulous courtier. "He combined in himself," 
 says Mr. Froude, " the worst qualities of hoth 
 sexes. Without courage, without talent, 
 without virtue, he was the handsome, soft, 
 poHshed, and attentive minion of the Court." 
 Stowe ; Strype, Annals, &c. ; Froude, Hisi. of 
 Eng. ; Lingard, HisU of Eng. ; Eanke, Hist, of 
 Eng. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Leigh, Thomas {d. 1601), a supporter of 
 the Earl of Essex, formed a plot to obtain his 
 release by seizing the person of the queen. 
 It is said that the discovery of Leigh's inten- 
 tion caused Elizabeth to sign the death war- 
 rant of the earl without delay. 
 
 Leighton, Alexander (*. 1587 ? d. 1644), 
 a Scotch divine, filled the chair of Moral 
 Philosophy at Edinburgh from 1603 to 1615. 
 Tn 1629 he published two works, one entitled 
 Zion's Flea, the other The LooMng-glciss of the 
 Soly War, in which he violently attacked the 
 bishops, counselling the Parliament " to smite 
 them under the fifth rib," and spoke of the 
 queen as a Canaanite and an idolatress. For 
 this he was sentenced by the Star Chamber to 
 have his nose slit, his ears cut, be publicly 
 whipped, and imprisoned for life. In 1640 he 
 was released by the Long Parliament, and 
 made keeper of the state prison at Lambeth 
 Palace. 
 
 Leiuster, The Kingdom and Province 
 OP, as far as can be gathered from the Irish 
 legends, was first colonised by the Pirbolgs, a, 
 number of tribes of British or Belgian origin, 
 and after they had been defeated by the 
 Tuatha De Dananns, it was the starting point 
 from which the Milesians (trauls or Spaniards) 
 overran the country. When their leader Eri- 
 mon divided the country he is said to have 
 given Leinster to Crimhthann, a descendant 
 of the Firbolgs, which race formed the bulk 
 of the population. About the time of the 
 Christian era Leinster was occupied by a 
 number of kinglets, but Tuathal Techmar, 
 who was a member of the dominant tribe, 
 the Scoti, broke their power, imposed upon 
 them a fine known as the " boromeau," or cow- 
 tribute, and took a portion of their territory, 
 including the sacred hiU of Tara, to form, with 
 additions from the other kingdoms, the over- 
 king's kingdom ofMeath. His grandson. 
 Conn "of the hundred battles," however, had 
 little hold on the country, and the King of 
 Leinster joined Mug of Muuster in a victorious 
 struggle against the ovtr-king. At the time 
 of the mission of St. Patrick (432 a.d.) Lein- 
 ster, which comprised the present counties of 
 Wexford, Wicklow, Carlow, Queen's County, 
 parts of Kilkenny, King's County, and Ki'l- 
 dare, together -n-ith the part of county Dublin 
 south of the Liffey, had been consolidated into 
 one kingdom .under the Maelmordas, or Mac- 
 Murroughs. It had already been partially 
 converted to Christianity by Palladius. The 
 
 Leinster kings seem to have been practically 
 independent of the over-kings of the Hui- 
 NeOl dynasty (438 and onwards), and in 681 
 they obtained an abolition of the "boro- 
 mean" tribute, at the instance of St. Moling. 
 From time to time, however, their country 
 was invaded from Meath, and terrific defeats 
 infiicted upon them. The country suffered 
 also from the ravages of the Northmen and 
 Danes, the latter of whom took from them a 
 considerable district roundDublin (about 850). 
 In 984 the Kings of East and West Leinster 
 had to submit to Brian Boru, King of Munster, , 
 who thus became king of the southern half of 
 Ireland. With the aid of the Danes of Dublin, 
 Leinster attempted in 1000 to cast ofi his 
 yoke, but the allies were completely defeated 
 at Glen Mama. Maelmorda was placed on the 
 throne by Brian as sole king, but promptly 
 began to intrigue afresh with the Danes against 
 him, and was in consequence met by the com- 
 bined forces of Brian Boru and Malachi, King 
 of Meath. The battle of Clontarf (1014) re- 
 sulted in the utter overthrow of the Kings of 
 Leinster and Dublin. It was not long, how- 
 ever, before the kingdom recovered, and by 
 the middle of the century we find Diarmait 
 (Dermot), King of Leinster, driving out the 
 Danish King of Dublin, and his son Mur- 
 chad (Murtough), making the Isle of Man 
 tributary ; but these acquisitions were not 
 long retained. Dermot's great-grandson, 
 Dermot MacMurrough, having been deposed 
 because of his treacheries and cruelties, re- 
 paired to Henry II. in Aquitaine, and obtained 
 permission to raise forces in England against 
 Eoderick O'Connor. Hence began the Anglo- 
 Norman invasion, which speedily resulted in 
 the conquest of the coast towns, and victories 
 over the tribes, into which it is unnecessary 
 to enter here. On the death of Dermot in 
 1171, Strongbow, who had married his only 
 child Eva, claimed the kingdom of Leinster, 
 and his heiress transferred the claim to her 
 husband, William Marshal, Earl of Pem- 
 broke, who left five co-heiresses. These ladies 
 all married English nobles, whose descendants 
 drew their rents, and lived away in England, 
 the estates eventually becoming forfeited to 
 the crown under the statute against absentees. 
 Large tracts of land were also given by Dermot 
 to others of the invaders, and these grants 
 were confirmed by Henry on his visit to Ire- 
 land in 1172. Thus the Leinster Fitzgeralds 
 held by subinfeudation under the De Vescis, 
 Earls of Kildare, the descendants of one of 
 Strongbow's daughters, until in the reign of 
 Edward I. the De Vesci estates wer« forfeited, 
 and bestowed on the Fitzgeralds, who soon 
 became of great importance as Earls of Kil- 
 dare (1316) and Dukes of Leitlster. They 
 maintained a long and arduous struggle witii 
 the Irish tribes, the MacMurronghs and the 
 O'Tooles, who often confined them to their 
 walled towns. In 1399 Richard 11. came to 
 the assistance of the English Pale, hut the 
 
Lei 
 
 (619) 
 
 Leu 
 
 MaoMurroughs evaded battle, and lie had to 
 retire ; Kildare, and the country round Duhlin, 
 was now aU that was left in Leinster to the 
 English. This state of affairs did not mend 
 until the reign of Henry VIII., when a double 
 policy of coercion and conciliation was pur- 
 sued with some success ; the Geraldines were 
 crushed; the estates of absentee landlords 
 were confiscated; MacMurrough, who now 
 took the name of Kavanagh, the represen- 
 tative of King Dermot, was pensioned, and 
 the other chieftains won over, their loyalty 
 being secured by gifts of confiscated Church 
 lands. Under Mary, Gerald of KUdare was 
 restored to his earldom, and the districts of 
 Leix and OfEaly were planted with EngKsh 
 colonists, becoming Queen's County and 
 King's County respectively. - During the 
 reign of Elizabeth Leinster suffered compara- 
 tively little in comparison with Ulster and 
 Munster, the scenes of the O'Neill and Des- 
 mond rebellions, though there was continual 
 war then between the Geraldines and Butlers. 
 In this reign the old kingdom of Meath was 
 added to Leinster, together with Louth, for- 
 merly a part of Ulster. James I., true to his 
 policy of governing Ireland by English ideas, 
 determined to effect the Plantation of Leinster. 
 By means of a commission to inquire into 
 defective titles, he despoiled the natives, and 
 even the Anglo-Irish, of large portions of their 
 lands, which were transferredto " undertakers," 
 who speedily formed a new Irish nobility. 
 Charles I. declared large districts of land in 
 "Wioklow and "Wexford to be forfeited to the 
 crown, but such was the outcry against the 
 proceeding that it had to be abandoned. When 
 Cromwell repaired to Ireland, in order to sub- 
 due the rebellion which had broken out in 
 1641, his stern displeasure feU heavily upon 
 Leinster, and the massacres of Drogheda and 
 "Wexford went far to break all further oppo- 
 sition. In the settlement that followed, the 
 Irish Catholic gentry were transported across 
 the Shannon, and their lands given to Crom- 
 wellian soldiers, and adventurers who had 
 advanced money, but after the Restoration 
 about one-third of their estates were restored 
 to the dispossessed Catholics. The last great 
 Irish land settlement — that which followed 
 the Treaty of Limerick (1691)— resulted in a 
 further forfeiture of Catholic property, but it 
 did not affect Leinster so much as the other 
 provinces of Ireland, and its history as a sepa- 
 rate province may be said to have ended with 
 the Revolution. 
 
 Keating, Hist, of Irelcmd; Prendergast, Crom- 
 viellian Settlrnieni; Carte, Life of the Duke of 
 Ol-monde; Fronde, Hist. 0/ JSmg. ; Haverty, Hist. 
 of IrelamA; Cuaaok, Hist, of the Irish Natirni; 
 Eiug, Estates of the Frotesfants of Ireland under 
 James II.; Walpole, The Kingdom oflr^eland. 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 Leinster, James, Duke of, 20th Earl of 
 Kildare (d. Nov. 19, 1973), was in 1747 made 
 Marquis of Leinster in the English peerage, 
 
 in 1761 he became Marquis of Kildare, and 
 in 1766 Duke of Leinster in the Irish peerage. 
 Individually the most powerful and popular 
 nobleman in Ireland, he refused to act with 
 any other party. Hence it was that he only 
 once was Lord Justice. In 1769 he joined 
 the Patriots, as they called themselves. He 
 raised and commanded the first regiment of 
 "S'^olunteers ; when the trade restrictions were 
 taken away he refused to embarrass the go- 
 vernment, but again took the lead against 
 them after the Mutiny BiU had been passed. 
 He was one of the deputation to the Prince of 
 Wales with the Regency BiU. He signed 
 the " Round Robin," but refused to recede 
 from that engagement; in consequence he 
 lost the Mastership of the Rolls. He was 
 father of Lord Edward Eitzgerald. 
 
 Leith, the port of Edinburgh, was burnt 
 by Hertford, May, 1544. It was afterwards 
 held by the queen regent, Mary of Guise, 
 and a French garrison against the Lords of 
 Congregation, and in 1560 was besieged by 
 a combined force of Scotch and Engli^. In 
 1671 it was held by the party of James VI., 
 who nearly fell into the hands of Lord Both- 
 well here in 1594. During the ascendancy of 
 Cromwell it was occupied by Lambert and 
 Monk. In 1 7 1 5 it was for a time in the hands 
 of the Jacobite insurgents. 
 
 Lennox, EsmE Stuaut, Duke of (rf. 
 1583), the son of John d'Aubigne, captain of 
 the Scots Guard in France, and the nephew of 
 Matthew, Earl of Lennox, came to Scotland, 
 1579, where his polished manners soon re- 
 commended him to the favour of James VI., 
 who created him Duke of Lennox, 1581, having 
 previously made him Governor of Dumbarton, 
 captain of his guard, and Earl of Lennox. 
 Hated by the Scotch nobles as a foreigner and 
 a favourite, Lennox sought to increase his 
 popularity by becoming a Protestant, and to 
 secure his power by the ruin of Morton. 
 He became an object of dread to Elizabeth, 
 who imagined that he would set himself to 
 draw closer the connection between Scotland 
 and France. Hurled from his high position 
 by the Raid of Ruthven, Lennox was com- 
 pelled to return to France, where he died 
 at Paris, May, 1583. He is said, in spite of 
 his vanity and love of ostentation, to have 
 been a " gentle, humane,' and candid " man. 
 
 Lennox, Matthew Stuakt, Eael of {d. 
 1571), was a member of the French house of 
 D'Aubigne. On his marriage with the daugh- 
 ter of the Earl of Angus and Queen Margaret, 
 he joined the party of Henry VIII. in Scot- 
 land, but subsequently threw him over at the 
 same time as the Assured Lords. He was the 
 father of Damley, on whose murder he endea- 
 voured without avaU to bring BothweU to 
 justice, for he dared not appear at the trial as 
 his accuser. In 1 567, on Mary's abdication, he 
 was appointed one of the council of regency, 
 
Leu 
 
 ( 680 ') 
 
 Iiev 
 
 and the foUowing year collected evidence 
 against the Queen of Scots at the York com- 
 mission. In 1S70 he was elected regent of 
 Scotland, and at once attacked and took the 
 castle of Dumbarton, one of the strongholds 
 of Mary's party. He was mortally wounded 
 by a bullet in a fray at Stirling in September, 
 1371. 
 
 Lenthall, William {b. 1591, d. 1662), 
 was called to the bar in 1616, and, having 
 a considerable practice, and being a member 
 of an ancient Berkshire family, was chosen 
 Speaker of the Long Parliament in 1640. 
 He does not appear to have been equal to 
 this important position, though on the 
 attempted arrest of the Five Slembers by 
 the king (Jan. 4, 1642), he showed con- 
 siderable spirit. In 1643 the Parliament 
 made him Master of the Eolls, and in 1646 
 one of the Commissioners of the Great Seal. 
 In 1647, fearing the mob which attempted 
 to overawe Parliament, he withdrew to the 
 army, but soon after returned and resumed 
 his office of Speaker, which he continued 
 to hold down to the expulsion of the Long 
 Parliament in 1653. In the Parliament of 
 1654 he was again chosen Speaker, and in 
 1656 was made one of Cromwell's House of 
 Lords, having taken a prominent part in favour 
 of the Protector's assuming the title of king. 
 On the Eestoration he was deprived of his 
 judicial office, but received the king's pai'don 
 on assuming the royal title, and was made a 
 member of his Upper House. He thereupon 
 retired into private life, unmolested by the 
 new government. 
 
 Fox, Judges of England. 
 
 lMeofvic{d. 1057) was the son of Leofwine, 
 Earl of Mercia. In 1017 he was appointed by 
 Canute Earl of Chester, and soon after suc- 
 ceeded his father in the earldom of Mercia. 
 On the death of Canute Leofric supported the 
 claims of Harold. During the reign of 
 Edward the Confessor Leofi^c occupied a 
 middle position between the foreigners and the 
 party of Godwin, and in 1051, when matters 
 had come to a crisis, he prevented the outbreak 
 of civil war by mediation. He died in 1057, 
 and was succeeded in his earldom by his son 
 Elfgar. Leofric and his wife Godgifu (the 
 " Lady Godiva " of legend) were especially 
 celebrated as builders of churches and monas- 
 teries, chief among them being the great 
 minster of Coventry. [Coventry.] 
 
 Florence of Worcester, Chronicle; Freeman, 
 Norman Conquest^ vol. ii. 
 
 Leofnrine {d. 1066) was the fifth son of 
 Earl Godwin. Probably in 1057 he was ap- 
 pointed to an earldom, which included the 
 ehires of Kent, Surrey, Middlesex, Essex, 
 Hertford, and Buckingham. He was slain in 
 the battle of Hastings. 
 
 Leslie, David (d. 1682), nephew of Alex- 
 ander Leshe, Earl of Leven (q.v.), and an even 
 more able commander, accompanied his uncle 
 
 to England (1644) in the capacity of major- 
 general. He was present at the battles of 
 Marston Moor and Naseby, and in 1645 
 defeated Montrose at PhiUphaugh. In 1650 
 he was opposed to Cromwell, who defeated 
 him at Dunbar, and in the same year was 
 taken prisoner at "Worcester, and sent to the 
 Tower, where he remained until the Eestora- 
 tion. He was made Lord Newark by Charles 
 II. in recognition of his services at Worcester. 
 
 Leslie, NoBMAN, Master of Rothes, was 
 one of the Scotch commanders at the battle 
 of Ancrum. In 1546 he murdered Cardinal 
 Beaton in the castle of St. Andrews, where he 
 was himself captured by a French force 
 (1547), and sent to the French galleys as a 
 heretic ; he subsequently escaped. 
 
 Lethington, William Maitland of, 
 son of Sir Richard Maitland, well known as 
 an able and inscrutable politician at an 
 early age, for some years played an 
 almost continuous part in the history of 
 Scotch politics, and in 1568 was appointed 
 Secretary of State to Queen Mary, and was 
 continually employed as her envoy to the 
 English court. Although he joined the Lords 
 of Congregation, he was nevertheless in 
 favour of extending toleration to the queen 
 as to her religion ; in 1565 he vehemently 
 opposed the marriage with Damley, and 
 a year later persuaded the queen to sue 
 for a divorce. After Damley' s murder he 
 accompanied Mary to Seton in Haddington- 
 shire, but deserted her on symptoms of 
 danger appearing in 1567, and joined the 
 Confederate Lords on Mary's captivity in 
 England. However, he openly joined her 
 party, and in 1569 was arrested and sent to 
 Edinbxirgh as one of Damley's murderers, 
 but was acquitted, and resumed his office 
 of Secretary of State, and remained faithful 
 to Mary until the surrender of Edinburgh 
 Castle placed him in the hands of his enemies. 
 He poisoned himself. May 1573. His poUcy 
 was characterised by a craft and depth that 
 made him no bad match for the astute Cecil, 
 but his whole course of action is steeped in 
 mystery as to its motive and its end. 
 
 Iconographia Scotica; Biirton, Hist, of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Levellers. [See Appendix.] 
 
 Leven, Leslie Alexander, Earl of 
 {d. 1662), having gained considerable military 
 experience in the Low Countries and Sweden, 
 returned to Scotland, 1638, and after serving 
 as lieutenant to Montrose, was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Covenanting army, 
 Feb., 1639, in the May of which year he led 
 the Scotch army to the Borders, encamping 
 on Dunse Land just opposite the royal forces. 
 A collision was for the time averted, but in 
 1640 Leslie entered England, winning the 
 battle of Newbum and taking Newcastle. 
 On a treaty being concluded at Ripon, Leslie 
 was created Earl of Leven by Charles I., who 
 
Lew 
 
 ( 681 
 
 Lig 
 
 hoped to -win him over to his side. In 1644 
 he again, led an expedition into England, and 
 ■was present at the battle of Marston Moor. 
 After the murder of Charles I. Leven sup- 
 ported Charles II. against Cromwell, but 
 being captured by Monk at Angus was sent 
 to the Tower. On his release he went to 
 Sweden, where he remained till after the 
 Restoration. 
 
 Lewes, The Battle op (May 14, 1264), 
 was fought between Henry III. and the barons 
 under Simon de Moutfort (q.T.). After the 
 failure of the Mise of Amiens, war became 
 certain, though negotiations still went on for 
 a while. At first the war was confined to the 
 capture of a few castles on. either side, but in 
 May both armies found themselves in Sussex, 
 De Montfort marching to the relief of the 
 Cinque Ports, which were threatened by the 
 king. The forces met at Lewes on May 1 3, when 
 De Montfort made one last attempt to avoid an 
 encounter by offering the king 50,000 marks 
 if he would engage to carry out the Provisions 
 of Oxford. Henry returned a defiant answer, 
 and De Montfort prepared to fight. At the 
 break of day he suddenly advanced, and 
 seized the heights above the town, and in this 
 strong position forced the royal army to 
 attack. Prince Edward opened the battle, 
 and by a furious charge broke through the 
 Londoners stationed on the right of the 
 baronial army, and pursued them for some 
 miles from the scene of action. Meanwhile, 
 however, the royalist centre and left crowded 
 between the heights and the river, were com- 
 pletely defeated by De Montfort. The king 
 himself, with his brother, the King of the 
 Romans, was taken prisoner. Edward cut 
 his way into the midst of the baronial troops, 
 and, unable to retrieve the fortune of the day, 
 was obliged to surrender also. 
 
 Eiehanger, Chronicle ; Eobert of Gloucester ; 
 Blaauw, Barons' War ; Pauli, Simon von Mont- 
 fort. 
 
 Lewes, Mise of (1264), was the name 
 given to the truce made between Henry III. 
 and the barons after the victory of the latter 
 at Lewes. By this treaty the Provisions of 
 Oxford were confirmed, a new body of 
 arbitrators was appointed to decide disputed 
 points, and to choose a council for the king, 
 to consist entirely of Englishmen ; the king 
 was to act by the advice of this council in 
 administering justice and choosing ministers, 
 to observe the charters, and to live of 
 his own without oppressing the merchants 
 or the poor ; Prince Edward and his cousin 
 Henry of Ahnayne were given as hostages ; 
 and the Earls of Leicester and Gloucester 
 were to be indemnified ; and a court of 
 arbitration to settle disputed questions was 
 to be appointed, consisting of two French- 
 men and two Englishmen. 
 
 EiEfhanger, Chronicle^ Blaauw, Baron^ War. 
 
 ' Libel, The Law of, has always been some- 
 
 HIBT.-22* 
 
 what indefinite in England. Before the Revo- 
 lution of 1688 it was held," says Mr. Hallam, 
 " that no man might publish a writing re- 
 flecting on the government, nor upon the 
 character, or even capacity and fitness of any- 
 one employed in it," even though, as in the 
 case of Tutchin, such reflection was merely 
 general. Under WiUiam III. and Anne, prose- 
 cutions for libel were frequent, while it became 
 an established principle that falsehood was 
 not essential to the guilt of a libel. Under 
 George III. the law became stiU further 
 strained. A publisher was held liable for the 
 act of his servant committed without his 
 authority, and Lord Mansfield, in the case of 
 Woodfall, the printer of the Letters of Junius, 
 went so far as to hold that the jury had only 
 to determine the fact of publication ; the 
 decision of the criminality of the libel resting 
 with the judge alone. The hardship with 
 which persons accused of Kbel were treated 
 led to Fox's Libel Act, which passed in 1792, 
 and declared, in opposition to the judges, that 
 the jury might give a general verdict on the 
 whole question at issue, although the judges 
 were still allowed to express any opinion they 
 pleased. In 1817 Lord Sidmouth's circular 
 to the lord-lieutenants of counties, informing 
 them that justices of the peace might issue a 
 warrant to apprehend any person charged 
 on oath with the publication of a blasphemous 
 or seditious Ubel, and compel him to give bail 
 to answer the charge, called forth great oppo- 
 sition, though it was to a large extent acted 
 upon. In 1820 one of the Six Acta in- 
 creased the punishments for libel. In 1843 
 the law of libel was still further amended by 
 Lord Campbell's Act, which allows a defendant 
 to plead that the publication was without his 
 authority, and was from no want of care on 
 his part, whilst he may also plead that .a 
 libel is true and for the public benefit. In 
 1839 the decision in Stoc/cdale v. Scmsard, 
 that the House of Commons cannot legalise 
 the publication of libellous matter, by order- 
 ing it to be printed as a report, led to an Act 
 in the following year, which provides that no 
 proceedings can be taken in respect of any 
 publications ordered by either House of Par- 
 liament. In 1868 it was held by Lord Chief 
 Justice Cockbum, in an action brought against 
 the proprietor of the Times, that " Criticism 
 of the Executive is at the present time so im- 
 portant that individual character may be 
 sacrificed. " 
 
 Hallam, Const. Kist. ; May, Const. Hist. ; 
 Thomas. Leadmg Cases ; Broom, Const. Law. 
 
 [P. s. p.] 
 
 Ligonier, John, Eahl (5. 1687, d. 1770), 
 belonged to a family of French Protestant 
 refugees. He first appears as a volunteer at 
 the storming of Li^ge (1702), and served as a 
 soldier of fortune under Marlborough, being 
 present at the battle of Blenheim. He was 
 knighted for his gallant conduct at the battle 
 
LU 
 
 ( 682 ) 
 
 "Lim. 
 
 of Dettingen (1743). As commander-in-chiel 
 ol the British forces in Flanders, he greatly- 
 distinguished himself at the battle of Eau- 
 coux (1746) ; but in the following year he 
 was taken prisoner at Lawfeldt, owing to the 
 extreme ardour of the EngHah horse, of 
 which he was in command. It is said that he 
 endeavoured to pass off as one of the enemy's 
 oificers when surrounded. Marshal Saxe 
 availed himself of the capture to make over- 
 tures for peace through Ligonier. In 1748 
 he was returned for Bath, and became Lieu- 
 tenant-G-eneral of the Ordnance, and subse- 
 quently Governor-G-eneralof Plymouth (1752). 
 In 1757 he was removed from the Ordnance, 
 much to his disgust, but created Viscount 
 Ligonier of Enniskillen and commander- 
 in-chief, although no longer fit for active 
 service. He was created an English peer 
 in 1763, and an earl in 1766. 
 
 Lilburne, John (S. 1618, d. 1657), of a 
 good family, in the county of Durham, was 
 apprenticed to a tailor in the city of London, 
 became engaged in the circulation of the pro- 
 hibited books of Prynne and Bastwick, was 
 brought before the Star Chamber, whipped, 
 and imprisoned (1638). On the meeting of 
 the Long Parhament he was released, and 
 compensated for his sufferings (Nov., 1640). 
 "When the war broke out he entered the 
 army of Essex, fought at Edgehill, was 
 made prisoner at Brentford (Nov., 1642), 
 tried for high treason before a council 
 of war at Oxford, and was only saved from 
 death by the intervention of the Parliament. 
 Afterwards he escaped, and served in the Earl 
 of Manchester's army, finally attaining the 
 rank of lieutenant-colonel. At the close of 
 the war he took to writing on aU subjects, 
 and was summoned before the House of Lords 
 for attacking the Earl of Manchester, sentenced 
 to pay a fine, and committed to prison. When 
 released, in 1648, he became one of the leaders 
 of the party termed Levellers, and wrote 
 numerous pamphlets on the heads of the Par- 
 liament and army. In February, 1649, he 
 presented to th« Commons a paper called 
 The Serious Apprehensions of a Part, of the 
 People on behalf of the Commonwealth, On 
 March 5 appeared England's New Chains Dis- 
 covered, and before the end' of the month it was 
 followed by The Stinting- of the Foxes from 
 Newmarket and Triploe Heath to Whitehall 
 by Five Small Eeagles. For this, Lilburne 
 was committed to the Tower, where he found 
 means to summarise his views on government 
 in a new pamphlet called The Agreement of 
 the People, and, after six months' confine- 
 ment, was tried for high treason. The jury 
 acquitted him, and he was released in Nov., 
 1649. In 1652 he was banished, and fined 
 £7,000 for a libel on Sir A. Haselrig. After 
 the expulsion of the Long Parliament he 
 ventured to return to England, but was 
 arrested, tried, and a second time acquitted 
 
 (Aug., 1653). In spite of this he was by order 
 of the Council of State confined in the island 
 of Jersey, but after a time released on his 
 promise to live quietly. 
 
 Grulzot, Portraits poZitigues des hommes des divers 
 partis; Masson, JAft of Milton. rQ_ jj_ pj 
 
 Lillibullero was the name of a song 
 satirising James II. and the Catholics, written 
 by Lord Wharton in 1686. It became very 
 popular, and added in no slight degree to 
 the feeling against the king. Bishop Burnet 
 says that this " fooUsh ballad made an im- 
 pression on the king's army that cannot be 
 imagined by those that saw it not. Tlie 
 whole army, and at last the people both in 
 city and country, were singing it perpetually. 
 And, perhaps, never had so slight a thing so 
 great an efiect." There was some justification 
 for Wharton's boast that he had sung the king 
 out of three kingdoms. " LilUbuUero " and 
 " BuUen-e-lah " are said to have been pass- 
 words used by the Irish Catholics in their 
 massacre of the Protestants in 1641. 
 
 The ballad will be found in tlie Percy's Reliqum, 
 and in Wilkins's Political ;BoUads. 
 
 Limerick, The Pacification op (Oct. 3, 
 1691), was the result of negotiations between 
 the English and Irish commanders at the 
 conclusion of the second siege of Limerick. 
 The articles of capitulation were divided into 
 two parts — a military treaty and a civil 
 treaty. By the first it was agreed that such 
 Irish officers and soldiers as should declare 
 they wished to go to France should be con- 
 veyed thither. French vessels were to 
 be permitted to pass and repass between 
 Britanny and Munster. The civil treaty 
 granted to the Irish Catholics such re- 
 ligious privileges as were consistent with 
 law, or as they had enjoyed in the reign 
 of Charles II. To all who took the oath of 
 allegiance, a perfect amnesty was promised, 
 their lands and all the rights and privileges 
 they had held under Charles II. were to be 
 restored. Of the Irish army eleven thousand 
 volunteered for the French service, but of 
 these many afterwards deserted; three thou- 
 sand either accepted passes from Ginkell, 
 the English commander, or returned home. 
 The terms of the civil treaty were discussed 
 in the English Parliament. A biU was pre- 
 pared in the Commons providing that no 
 person should sit in the Irish Parliament, 
 enjoy any office whatever, or practise law or 
 medicine in Ireland until he had taken the 
 Oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy, and sub- 
 scribed" the Declaration against Transub- 
 stantiation. This was, however, found in- 
 consistent with the terms of the Treaty of 
 Limerick. The bill was accordingly amended 
 by Chief Justice Holt, and accepted in that 
 form by the Commons. The question whether 
 Roman Catholics could be admitted to Par- 
 liament was not finally settled until the reign 
 of George IV. The Irish legislation under 
 
Lim 
 
 ( 683 
 
 Lin 
 
 William III. and Anne, and of the greater 
 part of the eighteenth century, -was completely- 
 opposed to the spirit of the Treaty of Limerick. 
 [Ireland.] 
 
 Ban^e, Sist. ofEng,; Macaulay, Rist. ofBng.; 
 Story, Continuation, 
 
 Limerick, Sieges op. This ancient town 
 was long a stronghold of the O'Briens. In 1651 
 it was taken hy Lreton after six months' siege. 
 In 1690 the Irish army, defeated at the BoyuOj 
 assemhled behind its ramparts. Lauzun and 
 Tyrcoimel refused to defend the place, and 
 retired to Galway. Sarsfield then took the 
 command, and determined to hold out. The 
 Irish forces left in the place amounted to 
 20,000 men. WiUiam III., who was marching 
 against Sarsfield, however, setting out with 
 all his cavalry, surprised the English siege 
 train, dispersed the escort, and blew up the 
 guns. The English troops, nevertheless, 
 attempted the siege ; on August 27, however, 
 when they tried to storm the place, they were 
 driven back with fearful loss, and the rains 
 setting in, the king thought it wiser to raise 
 the siege. Limerick continued to be the head- 
 quarters of the Irish army ; first the Duke 
 of Berwick, then Tyrconnel, after his return 
 from France, being in command. ' Great 
 scarcity prevailed in the army tiU. St. Ruth 
 arrived with a French fleet in 1 69 1 . After the 
 . battle of Aghrim, the greater portion of the 
 Irish forces, 15,000 foot and 5,000 horse, again 
 collected in Limerick. D'XJsson and Sarsfield 
 were in command. On Aug. 11, 1691, Ginkell 
 appeared before the walls with a formidable 
 train of artUlery. The bridge connecting the 
 part of the town situated in Clare with the 
 Connaught part was soon stormed, and the 
 people clamouring for a capitulation. Sars- 
 field had to negotiate an armistice, and on 
 October 3 the so-caUed Articles of Limerick, 
 mOitary and civil, were concluded. The 
 capture of Limerick put an end to the civil 
 war in Ireland. 
 
 Proude, Eng. in Ireland; Macaulay, Sist. of 
 Eng.; Maca^-i^ Excidium ; Story, Continuation. 
 
 Iiincolu was a Celtic town before the 
 coming of the Romans, and afterwards a 
 Roman colony. The name (Lindum Colonia) 
 is a compound of Celtic and Latin. The 
 Roman colony was founded about- a.d. 100; 
 It was besieged by the Angles in 518, and 
 became an English town. It was frequently 
 ravaged by the Danes, and became one of the 
 chief cities of the Danelagh. It was recap- 
 tured by Edmund in 1016. The castle was 
 begun by William the Conqueror in 1068. 
 The cathedral was commenced in 1086, and 
 bmlt chiefly in the twelfth, thirteenth, and 
 fourteenth centuries. 
 
 Lincoln, The Fair of (1217), was the 
 name given to the battle which was fought in 
 Lincoln during the reign of Henry III., be- 
 tween the Earl of Pembroke and the ad- 
 
 herents of Louis of France. The battle was 
 fought in the streets of Lincoln, the castle of 
 which was being besieged by the French. 
 Pembroke was completely victorious, and the 
 leader of the French army, the Count of 
 Perche, fell in the battle. 
 
 Lincoln, John de la Pole, Eael op 
 {d. 1487), was the son of John de la Pole, 
 Duke of Suffolk, by Elizabeth, eldest 
 sister of Edward IV. On the strength of 
 the attainder of the Duke of Clarence, and 
 the stigma of illegitimacy cast upon Ed- 
 ward IV.'s children, the Earl of Lincoln had 
 cherished hopes of an eventual succession to 
 the crown of England, and was recognised 
 by Richard III. as his lawful successor. 
 The accession, therefore, of Henry VII. to the 
 throne, after the victory of Bosworth, was 
 especially distasteful to him, and he eagerly 
 associated himself with the more active oppo- 
 nents of the new monarch. The imposture 
 of Simnel appeared so peculiarly adapted to 
 further his ambitious projects, that he lost no 
 time in giving it a personal and most ener- 
 getic support, crossing over himself to Flan- 
 ders for the purpose of collecting troops and 
 funds. In Ireland, whither he went from 
 Flanders, the Earl of Lincoln met with so enthu- 
 siastic a reception, that he was encouraged to 
 transport his forces with all speed to England. 
 But he was greeted with indifference when he 
 appeared at Fouldsey, in Lancashire. He 
 pushed rapidly southwards in the direction of 
 Newark, with a mixed force of Irish and 
 English, a regiment of "Almains," 2,000 
 strong, commanded by Martin Swartz, an 
 officer of considerable reputation. The king's 
 forces advanced against him, and a bloody and 
 obstinate battle was fought at Stoke, near 
 Newark (June 16, 1487), which resulted in 
 the complete defeat of De la Pole's forces, 
 and his own death. 
 
 Bacon, Hist, of Henry 711. ; Gairdner, Letters 
 ani Papers ofSenry 711. (Eolls Series). 
 
 Lincolnshire Insurrection, Thb 
 
 (1536), commenced in the October of this 
 year, was the first of the rebellious move- 
 ments set on foot by the priesthood after the 
 dissolution of the lesser monasteries. It 
 differed strikingly from the rising, which 
 immediately followed it, in Yorkshire, in the 
 fact that it proceeded almost entirely from 
 the lower orders. So much aloof, indeed, 
 did the county gentry hold themselves from 
 the Lincolnshire revolt, that the insurgents 
 regarded them as opponents rather than as 
 sympathisers, giving unmistakable evidence 
 of their opinions on the subject by holding 
 a large number of the gentry in a state of 
 siege in the close at Lincoln. The town 
 of Louth was the scene of the first distinct 
 outbreak of local discontent, where the rumour, 
 industriously spread about, that Heneage, one 
 of the clerical commissioners, who, accom- 
 panied by the Bishop of Lincoln's chancellor, 
 
Lin 
 
 (684) 
 
 Lit 
 
 was then going his prescribed rounds, had 
 instructions to carry off the more valuable 
 contents of the church treasury, was quite 
 sufficient, in the then state of public feeling, 
 to excite the country people to deeds of vio- 
 lence. Led on by Dr. Mackerel, the Prior of 
 Barlings, who styled himself for that occasion 
 Captain Cobler, the people of Louth locked 
 and guarded the menaced church ; and then, 
 carrying away with them its great cross by 
 way of standard, set forth en masse to raise 
 the neighbouring towns and villages. The 
 speedy arrival, however, of the king's troops 
 under Sir John Russell and the Duke of Suf- 
 folk, prevented any very violent display of 
 hostility, and the rebels contented themselves 
 with sending a humble petition to the king 
 for the redress of their grievances, which 
 they enumerated as coming under five heads, 
 viz. : — (1) the demolition of the monasteries; 
 (2) the employing persons of mean birth as 
 ministers of the crown ; (3) levying subsidies 
 without any adequate occasion ; (4) taking 
 away four of the seven sacraments ; (5) the 
 subversion of the ancient faith through the 
 instrumentality of several of the bishops. 
 Suffolk, having conferred with some few 
 gentlemen who had joined the insurgent ranks 
 with a view to confusing and counteracting 
 their plans, returned an absolute refusal to 
 these requests, biit promised a general pardon 
 from the king in the event of an immediate 
 submission and dispersal of the rebels. This 
 had all the desired effect, and the movement, 
 so far as Lincolnshire was concerned, came to 
 an end on Oct. 19, 1536. 
 
 Proude, Hist. ofBng. ; Burnet, Hist, of (he Re- 
 formation. 
 
 LincUsfaras, The, were an Anglian 
 tribe occupying the part of Lincolnshire, and 
 having their centre about that portion of the 
 county still known as Lindsey. 
 
 Lingard, John (h. 1771, d. 1857), was a 
 native of Winchester. Educated at the 
 English Catholic college at Douay, he was 
 obhged to quit it in 1792, when the college 
 was dispersed at the French Revolution. 
 Some of the refugees founded an academy at 
 Crook Hall, near Durham, and Lingard was 
 appointed vice-president and professor of 
 philosophy. In 1795 he received priest's 
 orders. In 1811 he removed to Hornby, in 
 Lancashire, where he lived till his death at 
 an advanced age. Besides numerous tracts 
 and essays, chiefly controversial. Dr. Lingard 
 published in 1806 The Antiquities of the 
 Anglo-Saxon Church, and, between 1819 and 
 1830, the eight volumes of his Bistory of 
 Mngland. The last-named work, which gained 
 for its author great and well-deserved reputa- 
 tion, is one of our standard histories. It 
 extends down to 1688. In reading the later 
 portion, and that which covers the Reformation 
 period, the author's standpoint as a Roman 
 Catholic historian has to be carefully borne 
 
 in mind. But the general accuracy and im- 
 partiaHty of Lingard have been acknowledged. 
 His facts have been collected with great 
 industry, and are stated with judgment and 
 clearness ; and his work is entitled to a high 
 place among the few general histories of 
 England which have been produced by 
 English scholars. 
 
 Linlithgow, the chief town of the shire 
 of that name, was occupied by Edward I. in 
 1298, and soon afterwards was taken by 
 stratagem by Bruce. It contains a royal 
 palace, the birthplace of Mary Queen of 
 Scots (1542), and the scene of the assassina- 
 tion of the Regent Murray (1570). 
 
 Lisle, Lady Alicia (d. Sept. 2, 1685), 
 was the wife of John Lisle, one of Crom- 
 well's lords. After his death she lived a re- 
 tired life near Winchester. She was acciised 
 before Jeffreys of harbouring fugitives from 
 Sedgemoor. Being reluctantly found guilty 
 by the jury, she was sentenced by Jeffreys to 
 be bnmed, but her sentence was commuted, 
 and she was beheaded at Winchester. 
 
 Litster, John (d. 1381), was a native of 
 Norwich, and, as his name implies, a dyer by 
 trade. ' He headed the insurgents in Norfolk, 
 during the peasants' rising of Richard II. 's 
 reign, and assumed the title of King of the 
 Commons. For a short while the whole country 
 was at the mercy of the rebels ; but Bishop 
 Spence, of Norwich, having raised a force, 
 defeated the insurgents at North Walsham, 
 and caused Litster to be hanged. 
 
 Liverpool, Charles Jenkinson, Eael 
 or (b. 1729, d. 1808), was educated at the 
 Charterhouse, and at University College, 
 Oxford, and iirst came into notice by the 
 lampoons which he furnished to Sir Edward 
 Turner in his contest for Oxfordshire. By 
 him he was introduced to Lord Bute, whose 
 private secretary he soon became. In 1761 
 he was returned to Parhament for Cocker- 
 mouth, and was made one of the Under- 
 Secretaries of State. In 1763 he became 
 Joint Secretary of the Treasury. He was dis- 
 missed from all his appointments on the acces- 
 sion of the Rockingham government. Lord 
 Chatham, however, recognising his talents 
 for business, appointed him a Lord of the 
 Admiralty in 1766, and he was soon afterwards 
 advanced to be a Lord of the Treasury. In 
 this capacity, his particular form of abihty 
 had room for display, and he soon became 
 an influential authority on all matters of 
 finance. In 1778 he became Secretary-at- 
 War, and held that office until he was driven 
 out with Lord North. He then travelled 
 on the Continent, and only returned to 
 England, in 1784, to join Pitt's government 
 as President of the Board of Trade, for which 
 place he was admirably adapted, both by 
 nature and experience. In 1786 he was ap- 
 pointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 
 
£>iv 
 
 ( 686 ) 
 
 Lol 
 
 and was soon afterwards created Baron 
 Hawkesbury. Ten years later, while still at 
 tke head of the Board of Trade, he was raised 
 to the dignity of an earl. As an orator, Lord 
 Liverpool never laid any claim to eminence, 
 and he wisely refrained from speaking in 
 either House except on his own special 
 subject. For that particular department he 
 showed marked ability. 
 
 Stanhope, Tjife of Pitt: Jesse, Mem. of 
 George HI. •^ 
 
 Liverpool, Eobekt Banks Jenkinson, 
 2nd Eael of (4. 1770, d. 1828), son of the first 
 earl, was educated at the Charterhouse and 
 Christ Church, Oxford, where he was the con- 
 temporary and friend of Canning. He entered 
 political life under Pitt's auspices, and was 
 returned for Eye, before he had attained 
 his majority. On his father being created 
 Earl of Liverpool, he became, in 1796, Lord 
 Hawkesbury. In the Addington ministry 
 he was Foreign Secretary, and had charge of 
 the negotiations which ended in the Treaty 
 of Amiens ; but when Pitt returned to office, 
 in 1804, Lord Hawkesbury went to the Home 
 Office. On Pitt's death, the king earnestly 
 wished him to become Premier, but he very 
 wisely declined the troublesome office, as he 
 did also on the fall of Lord Greuville's 
 ministry, in 1807, contenting himself with 
 being Home Secretary. On Perceval's assassi- 
 nation, he imprudently yielded to the urgency 
 of the Prince Regent, and became Premier. 
 He at once became the object of popular 
 hatred by his opposition to reform, especially 
 in the shape of Catholic Emancipation, and 
 the adoption of arbitrary coercion to suppress 
 the violent discontent, which gathered head 
 during the period of his ministry. His un- 
 popularity was still further increased by his 
 introduction of a bill of pains and penalties 
 against Queen Caroline, which he afterwards 
 withdrew. He was struck down by paralysis 
 in 1827, and died after lingering in a state 
 of imbecility for nearly two years. It has 
 been said of him that " his talents were far 
 inferior to his viirtues ; and he is entitled to 
 respect, but not to admiration. In honesty, 
 as a minister, he has never been surpassed ; 
 in prejudices, he has rarely been equalled." 
 
 WaJpole, Englwndfrom, 181S; Dake of Buck- 
 ingham, Courts and Cabinets of the Regency; 
 Lord Holland, Mem. of the Whigs. 
 
 Local Crovemment Board, The, 
 estabhshed in 1871, is a committee of the 
 Privy Council, and superseded the old Poor 
 Law Board. It is concerned with sanitary 
 arrangements, with the public health, with 
 highways, municipal improvements, and the 
 like. Its members are a President, appointed 
 by the crown, the President of the Council, 
 the principal Secretaries of State, the Lord 
 Privy Seal, and the Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer ; but it is a Board only in name, and 
 the work is done by the President and his 
 staff. His signature of itself can give validity 
 
 to a regulation. Its functions are to advise 
 and investigate local questions, and to report 
 on private bills ; to control the poor law 
 administration, and less completely that of 
 the sanitary and improvement Acts, to sanc- 
 tion loans and to audit accounts. 
 
 34 & 35 Vict. , 0. 70 ; Chalmers, Local Qovemment 
 in the English Citizen Series. 
 
 IiOidis was a small British kingdom, 
 comprising Leeds and the district immediately 
 round. It retained its independence till it 
 was annexed to Northumbria by Edwin. 
 
 Lollards, The, is the name given to the 
 followers of Wycliffe, though the derivation 
 of it is somewhat doubtful. The generally re- 
 ceived etymology is from a German word, 
 lollen, to sing, from their habit of singing 
 hymns, but it has also been derived from 
 lolia, tares, and from the old English word, 
 hller, an idler. WycUffe himself organised no 
 band of followers, but only sent out preachers 
 known as " Poor Priests," who at first seem 
 to have recognised him as their head, though 
 before long all kinds of men joined the new 
 movement, from the sincere honest reformer 
 to the wild socialist visionary. That LoUardy 
 was one of the chief causes of the Peasant 
 Eevolt of 1381 is certain, and it must always 
 be remembered that the Lollards were quite 
 as much a social as a religious party. The 
 doctrines which Wycliffe had advanced as 
 philosophical positions were put into practice, 
 and in many instances pushed to an extreme 
 which must have astonished their author him- 
 self. The rising of the villeins showed what 
 LoUardy might become if left unchecked, and 
 as usual, the more moderate men were made 
 to suffer for the errors and crimes of the 
 extreme section of their party. The first Act 
 against the Lollards was passed in 1381, but 
 was merely the work of the Lords and the 
 king. By this statute all Lollards were to 
 be arrested and held in strong prisons till 
 they should justify themselves according to 
 the law and reason of Holy Church. In 1382, 
 and again in 1394, the Lollards addressed a 
 remonstrance to Parliament, in which, among - 
 other points, they asserted that no civil lord 
 or bishop had any power so long as he was in 
 mortal sin, and that human laws not founded 
 on the Scriptures ought not to be obeyed. 
 StiU there was very little persecution, and it 
 was not tin 1401 that the Act Be Hceretico 
 Gomburendo was passed, and even after the 
 passing of that statute, and notwithstanding 
 the close alliance between the Lancastrian 
 dynasty and the Church, only two persons 
 were executed for heresy in Henry IV. 's 
 reign, though the LoUards boasted that they 
 numbered 100,000. It is probable that they 
 intended a rising under the leadership of Sir 
 John Oldeastle, at the beginning of Henry V.'s 
 reign, but the vigilance of the government 
 prevented it, and for complicity in the pro- 
 jected revolt, some forty persona were put to 
 
IiOU 
 
 ( 686 ) 
 
 'Lon 
 
 death. In 1414 an Act was passed extending 
 the provisions of the Se Sceretieo Comburendo 
 statute, and several . Lollards were executed 
 in the early years of Henry VI.'s reign. By 
 the time of Jack Cade's rebellion (1450), the 
 old Lollard idea seems to have died out, as in 
 the complaints of the insurgents at that time 
 we do not find any mention of religious 
 grievances. The success of Lollardy as a 
 popular movement was due to the general 
 discontent which prevailed at the end of 
 the fourteenth century, while the corruptions 
 of the Church gave it a great stimulus. But 
 the gradual emancipation of the viUeins pre- 
 vented its continuance, and the want of any 
 great leader was sufficient to prevent the 
 union of the various bodies of religious, social, 
 and political malcontents. 
 
 "Wright, Political Songs (Rolls Series) ; Pauli, 
 Englische GeschicJite; Wallon, Richard II.; Lewis, 
 JAfu of Wiclif; Shirley, Pref. to Fasciculi Ziza- 
 niorvjm (EoUs Series) ; Brougham, Eng. under 
 the Rouse of Lancaster, fj^. S. p.] 
 
 Loudon. Most authorities think the 
 name is Celtic, and points to the existence of 
 an early Celtic city ; though some modem 
 inquirers thinlt it may be Teutonic. For nearly 
 four centuries (43 — 409) London was a Roman 
 settlement, covering the mouth of the Thames, 
 which was not then far offi. The Eoman city 
 was not large, and lay probably between 
 Cheapside, Ludgate, and the river. After 
 the expulsion of the Eomans, it may have 
 remained desolate for a time. In 604, how- 
 ever, Bede tells us it was the capital of the 
 East Saxons, and an important trading town ; 
 and in this year Ethelbert gave it as a see to 
 the Bishop Mellitus, consecrated by Augustine. 
 A church dedicated to St. Paul was also built 
 at or near the present site. In 851 London 
 was occupied and plundered by the Danes. 
 In the various Danish invasions the .citizens 
 of London always held out stoutly. It was 
 the Witan at London who, in 1016, elected 
 Edmund Ironside king, though the Witan 
 outside had chosen Canute. The abbey of 
 Westminster was built by Edward the Con- 
 fessor, and in the times of the last two or 
 three Anglo-Saxon kings, London was recog- 
 nised as the capital or, at least, the most 
 important place in the kingdom. William 
 the Conqueror began the building of the 
 Tower, and granted a charter to the Londoners, 
 confirming them in all the rights they had held 
 in King Edward's days. Numerous churches 
 and monasteries were built during the Early 
 Norman period; and in 1083 the re-building 
 of the cathedral of St. Paul's was beg-un. 
 In 1100 Henry I. issued a charter to London, 
 which marked an important step in the de- 
 velopment of local seU-govemment. In the 
 war between Stephen and the Empress Maud 
 the Londoners were strongly on the side of 
 the former. In 1176 a stone bridge over the 
 Thames was commenced. In 1191 London 
 ■was recognised as a oommuna or fully or- 
 
 ganised corporation. In the reign of John the 
 barons were much assisted by the Londoners 
 in the contest with the king, and in the 
 Magna Charta it was provided that London 
 should have its ancient rights and customs. 
 A charter of John had previously given them 
 the right of electing their mayor. In the 
 Barons' War of the thirteenth century London 
 sided with the barons. An important feature 
 in the fourteenth century history of London 
 was the struggle for power of the craft 
 guilds, and their ultimate victory over the 
 merchant guild. In 1327 Edward III. granted 
 it a new charter. In 1392 the Londoners 
 refused a loan to Richard 11. , and were de- 
 prived of their charters, which, however, were 
 restored soon after. During the Wars of 
 the Roses the Londoners were generally 
 YorMst, and Edward IV. was always strongly 
 supported in the capital. In the Civil War 
 of the seventeenth century London was the 
 centre of Presbyterianism and of opposition to 
 the king at the beginning of the war, and to 
 the army afterwa,rds. It was occupied by 
 the army in 1648, and by Monk in Feb., 
 1660. In 1665 London was ravaged by the 
 Great Plague, and the following year (Sept. 
 2 — 6, 1666) a large part of the city was de- 
 stroyed by the great fire, with many churches, 
 including the cathedral. The rebuilding was 
 begun immediately, and Sir Christopher Wren 
 was employed to build a new St. Paul's, and 
 many other churches, on the old sites. In 
 James II. 's reign London violently opposed 
 the Romanist tendencies of the king. Its 
 charters had already been seized (Jan., 1683), 
 and violent riots occurred towards the close of 
 the king's reign (Oct., 1688). The charters 
 were restored Oct. 8. In the eighteenth cen- 
 tury London was the headquarters of advanced 
 Whig principles, and frequently opposed the 
 court and the ministers. Serious riots oc- 
 curred owing to the arrest of Wilkes (June, 
 1768). In 1780 London was distracted by 
 the Lord George Gordon riots '(q.v.). During 
 the present century the most remarkable cir- 
 cumstance about London has been its growth, 
 which has caused it to extend far into the 
 counties of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent, and 
 Essex. The Municipal Refonn Act of 1835 
 did not apply to London, which, so far as 
 regards the city, was allowed to keep its old 
 corporation, ruled by the representatives of 
 the wards and the liveries, while the portions 
 outside form various independent parishes, 
 administered by the vestries. The Metropolis 
 Local Management Act of 1865 created a body 
 called the Board of Works to supervise the 
 general sanitary affairs of the metropolis. Abill 
 to create the whole of London and the suburbs 
 a municipal corporation was introduced into 
 the House of Commons in 1884, but abandoned. 
 
 Stow, Swncy of LondMi (1598) , continued by 
 J. Strype (1754) ; Bntick's ed. of Maitland, Hist. 
 0/ London (2 vols., 1775) ; Pennant, iondon 
 (1790) ; J. T. Smith, Antiquities of £ondon (1791) ; 
 
Lou 
 
 (687) 
 
 Lon 
 
 T. Allen, Hist, and Antiquities of London {1827 — 
 29); P. Cunningham, Uandhoolc for London; 
 J. Timhs, Curiosities of London ; D. Lysone, 
 Smirons of London; C. Boach Smith, Eomaii 
 London; CassdVs Old and Ntw London; Loftie, 
 A Hiitory of London (1883J. 
 
 Loudon, The Convention of (Oct. 22, 
 1832), was concluded between England and 
 France, for the pm-pose of coercing Holland. 
 It declared that iinLess Holland withdrew all 
 her troops from Belgian territory hy Nov. 12, 
 1832, the two powers would place an embargo 
 on all Dutch shipping in their ports, would 
 station a squadron on its coasts, would move a 
 French army into Belgium, and would drive 
 theDutch garrisonfrom thecitadel of Antwerp. 
 
 , The TitEATY op (July 6, 1827), was 
 
 concluded between England, France, and 
 Hussia ; and was signed hy Lord Dudley, 
 the Duke of Pohgnac, and Count Lieven. Its 
 provisions were that self-government under 
 Turkey, but saddled with a tribute, should be 
 given to Greece ; that none of the parties to 
 the treaty desired territorial acquisitions or 
 commercial advantages. There were also 
 secret articles which stipulated that if the 
 intervention were rejected, more stringent 
 means must be adopted to oblige its accept- 
 ance both by one party and the other, and 
 that it would be necessary to show coun- 
 tenance to Greece, by acknowledging her as a 
 belligerent power, and estabHshing consuls at 
 her ports ; that a month was to be given to 
 the Porte for consideration, and that if she 
 refused the armistice, the allied fleets were to 
 unite, and intercept all ships freighted with 
 men or arms, destined to act against the 
 Greeks, whether from Turkey or Egypt ; that 
 at the same time all hostilities were to be 
 carefuUy avoided. 
 
 • , The Treaty of (Nov. 15, 1831), was 
 
 concluded between the five powers for the 
 settlement of the Belgian question. It pre- 
 scribed that the western part of Luxemburg 
 should be given to Belgium, the rest remain- 
 ing part of the Germanic Empire, and that 
 Holland should have as an indemnity the 
 eastern part of Limburg; that each country 
 should bear its own debt before the union, 
 and share the liabilities contracted since; 
 that Belgium should have a right of way 
 through Maestricht, and the free navigation 
 of the Scheldt and aE waters between it and 
 the Rhine. This treaty fell through at the 
 conferences held in London, but was even- 
 tually carried out by force after the capitula- 
 tion of Antwerp. 
 
 , The Tkeatt of (1832), was a conven- 
 tion between France, England, and Eussia on 
 the one hand, and Bavaria on the other. The 
 crown of Greece, now made a kingdom, 
 was offered, with the authorisation of the 
 Greek nation, to the King of Bavaria, to be 
 worn by his second son, Rjederick Otho, and 
 was accepted. The limits of the kingdom were 
 to be fixed by treaty with Turkey, according to 
 a protocol of Sept. 26, 1831. A loan to the King 
 
 of Greece was guaranteed by Russia, and if the 
 consent of the Chambers and of the Parliament 
 could be obtained, by France and England. 
 
 , The Treaty of (18il), was concluded 
 
 between England, France, Prussia, Russia, 
 Austria, and Turkey, at the conclusion of the 
 attempts of Mehemet Ali onEgypt. Itprovided 
 that for the future the Sultan would not allow 
 any foreign ships of war to enter the straits 
 of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in 
 times of peace, and that no navy might 
 enter them, without his consent, in times 
 of war. It also confirmed the Quadrilateral 
 Treaty, 1840, which had limited Mehemet Ali 
 of Egypt to Egypt and Acre. 
 
 , The Treaty of (1847), was con- 
 cluded between the representatives of England, 
 France, Spain, and Portugal, for the purpose 
 of averting the Portuguese insurrection. 
 
 , The Treaty of (Mar. 13, 1871). By 
 
 the Treaty of Paris, in 1856, at the close 
 of the Crimean War, the Black Sea was 
 neutralised, and Eussia resigned the right of 
 keeping armed vessels on its waters, with the 
 exception of a few small ones for police pur- 
 poses. In October, 1870, Russia suddenly 
 "denounced" the neutralisation clauses of 
 the treaty. France and Germany being at 
 that time at war, the Wesl^ern Powers thought 
 it advisable to accede to the demand. A Con- 
 ference assembled at Loudon (January, 1871), 
 attended by representatives of the signatory 
 powers of 1856, and the Treaty of London 
 (March 13) de-neutralised the Black Sea. 
 
 Iiondou Company, The, formed 1606, 
 obtained a charter from James I. to colonise 
 Virginia : they were to have the southern 
 half of the territories between the thirty- 
 fourth and forty-fifth degrees. The govern- 
 ment of the new colony was to be vested in a 
 council resident in England, appointed by the 
 king, another council in the colony being 
 charged with the duties of administration. In 
 1609 a new charter was obtained, vesting the 
 appointment of the council in the share- 
 holders, and of the governor in the council. 
 In 1625, the company, which had been com- 
 mercially a failure, was dissolved. 
 
 Loudon, Richard of, was the author of 
 a history of Eichard I.'s Crusade. This 
 Chronicle (which has been erroneously attri- 
 buted to Geoffrey Vinsauf) is printed in the 
 Eolls Series ; there is also a translation of it 
 in Bohn's Antiquarian Jjihrary. 
 
 Londonderry, The town of Derry, in 
 Ulster, was the seat of a monastery founded 
 in 646. It was made a bishopric in 1158. 
 During Tyrone's rebellion of 1566 it was 
 garrisoned by the English. It was surprised 
 by Hugh O'Neil, and burnt to the ground 
 during his rebellion (1608). The corporation 
 of London rebuilt it, getting a grant of the 
 town and 6,000 acres adjoining (1613—1630). 
 In the rebellion of 1646 it held out against 
 the insurgents, though, in 1649, it was only 
 
IiOU 
 
 ( 688 ) 
 
 Lou 
 
 owing to Owen Eoe O'Neil's assistance that 
 it was atle to do so. In December, 1688, 
 Lord Antrim, with a regiment of 1,200 men, 
 was sent by James II. to garrison the town. 
 Though the corporation and hiShop were 
 willing to admit them, thirteen young appren- 
 tices closed the gates before the eyes of the 
 troops, and they had to retire. The citizens, 
 however, were induced to admit a small Pro- 
 testant garrison, under Lieut. -Colonel Lundy. 
 That officer was, however, unable to prevent 
 the proclamation of William and Mary in 1689. 
 By this time some 30,000 Protestants of 
 Ulster had fled there for refuge. Lundy also 
 sent to James, who was now (April, 1689) 
 approaching, and promised to surrender. 
 But when James himself, on April 17th, 
 had got to within a hundred yards of 
 the gate, the inhabitants rose, and shouting 
 " NO' surrender!" manned the walls, 
 James and his escort fled for their lives. 
 liUndy was now deposed, and in the night 
 fled from the town. Major Henry Baker 
 and Mr. George "Walker, a Protestant clergy- 
 man, were appointed governors. Presby- 
 terians and Anglicans uniting heartily against 
 the common foe, 7,000 men were soon under 
 arms. On the 19th all terms were finally 
 refused, and the siege began. It was de- 
 stined to last for 105 days — till July 30. In 
 erder to prevent any help reaching the town 
 from the sea, a boom was placed by the 
 besiegers at the mouth of the river leading 
 into Lough Foyle, and batteries were erected 
 to protect it. At last, on June 15, Kirke was 
 sent by William to try and raise the siege. 
 He, however, hesitated for some time to 
 force his way through the works of the 
 besiegers. Meanwhile the town was in a 
 state _ of famine, and its surrender was a 
 question of days. Baker, one of the gover- 
 nors, had died. Then at last Kirke, having 
 received positive orders to force the boom 
 on July 30, sent off the Dartmouth frigate, 
 with two transports laden with provisions, 
 with this purpose. They succeeded without 
 much difficulty, and by ten in the evening 
 the town was saved. On August 1 the be- 
 siegers withdrew after burning their camp. 
 The garrison had been reduced by famine and 
 by the sword to 3,000 men; the loss of the 
 besiegers is said to have exceeded 5,000 men. 
 Macaulay calls the siege " the most memorable 
 in the annals of the British Isles." 
 
 Walker, True Account of the Siege of London. 
 
 derry (1689); London Gazette, 1689; The Lon- 
 
 deriad; Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Londonderry, Eobeet Stewaht, Vis- 
 count, Eael 01' (*. 1769,- d. 1822), the son of 
 the first Marquis of Londonderry, was born 
 in Ireland, and received his education at 
 Armagh and at St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge. On coming of age, he stood for the 
 county of Down, and was returned at a cost 
 of £30,000, and on the strength of a pledge 
 to support the claims of the Catholics to be 
 
 represented in Parliament. At first he 
 showed himself a good friend to Ireland, and 
 in fact made his maiden speech on behalf of 
 Ireland's right to trade with India in spite 
 of the Company's monopoly. The Whigs 
 welcomed the new member as a valuable addi- 
 tion to their party ; but he showed his true 
 colours when, on the recall of Lord Fitz- 
 WUliam, he supported the coercive measures of 
 the government. In 1798 he was rewarded 
 by being appointed Chief Secretary for 
 Ireland, and in that capacity he was a warm 
 advocate of the Union. When that object 
 was consummated, Lord Oastlereagh sat in 
 the united Parliament as M.P. for Down 
 county, and was appointed by Pitt President 
 of the Board of Control. He did not, how- 
 ever, follow his patron out of office, but con- 
 tinued to hold the same post under Addington. 
 When Pitt again came in, he was further 
 advanced to the position of Secretary at War, 
 which he resigned on Pitt's death, and which 
 he again obtained on the fall of Grenville's 
 government in 1807. By the expedition to 
 Walcheren, which was undertaken at his advice 
 and under his management, he becam:e most 
 unpopular with the nation, nor had his own 
 colleagues a much higher opinion of him. 
 Canning especially conceived an utter con- 
 tempt for the War Secretary, and insisted on 
 his being dismissed to give way to the Marquis 
 WeUesley. Lord Oastlereagh took Canning's 
 action in very bad part, said he had been 
 deceived, and challenged his opponent to a 
 duel, in which Canning was badly wounded. 
 The result of this encounter was the resigna- 
 tion of both of them. Lord Oastlereagh re- 
 mained unemployed until in 1812 he was 
 appointed Foreign Secretary, in which office 
 he remained during the rest of his life, though 
 virtually Prime Minister. In Dec, 1813, he 
 went to the Continent as plenipotentiary to 
 negotiate a general peace. The overtures, 
 however, came to nothing. Oastlereagh re- 
 turned, to again act as English minister at 
 the Congress of Vienna. His conduct there 
 has been often condemned, by no one with 
 greater Severity than by Napoleon, who 
 attributed all the miseries of England to his 
 imbecility and ignorance, and to his general 
 inattention to the real prosperity of his 
 country. His unpopularity was increased 
 by his behaviour on the Continent, and was 
 not in any way softened down by the vote 
 of thanks with which Parliament rewarded 
 him for negotiating a peace which was made 
 regardless of the interests of the nation. 
 In 1816 the first murmurs were heard in 
 Parliament against the Holy AlUance of 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia. This con- 
 federation received the support of Lord 
 Oastlereagh, who thereby brought upon him- 
 self the almost unanimous attacks of the 
 whole House. In 1822 he was much worn 
 out by the labours of a more than usually 
 severe session ; his mind gave way beneath 
 
Lou 
 
 ( 689 ) 
 
 Lon 
 
 the strain, and on Aug. 9 ke put an end to 
 his existence. 
 
 Castlei-eagh Correspondence; Walpole,, Hist. 
 of Eng. since 1815; Waterloo Despatches; Cun-- 
 ningham. Eminent Englishmen. 
 
 [W. E. S.] 
 
 Long, Thomas, "a very indiscrete and 
 unmete man," hribed the electors of the 
 horough of Westbury with £i to return him 
 to the Parliament of 1571. A fine was inflicted 
 hy the House on the borough ; but Long, who. 
 is described as " a very simple man and of 
 small capacity to serve in that place," does- 
 not seem to have been punished. 
 
 Long Farliament, The. This name 
 is that which has been commonly appUed to 
 the Parliament which met on Nov. 3, 1640. 
 Out of a total of 493 members, 294 had 
 sat in the " Short Parliament " of the 
 previous April. They came together now 
 with the determination to remove all grie- 
 vances, and "pull up the causes of them 
 by the roots." The first few mouths were 
 occupied by the trial of Strafford and the 
 impeachment of Laud and other delinquents. 
 The attempt which was made to use the army 
 to save Strafiord caused an appeal to the 
 people called the Protestation, and was 
 followed by a bOl preventing the king from 
 dissolving the present Parliament. The 
 meeting of future Parliaments had already 
 I been secured by the Triennial Bill (Feb. 10, 
 1641). The Star Chamber, and other special 
 courts were abolished, and by the votes on 
 ship-money, and the Tonnage and Poundage 
 Bill, the levy of taxes without consent of 
 Parliament was made impossible. On these 
 purely political questions Parliament was 
 united, and its work was permanent, and 
 became part of the constitution. But on 
 ecclesiastical questions a division arose- which 
 made the Civil War possible. One party 
 wished to aboKsh the bishops, the other 
 merely to limit their power, but Presbyterians 
 and Episcopalians both strove to realise their 
 ideal of a church, and neither were prepared 
 to accept the solution of toleration. The 
 Episcopalian party under the leadership of 
 Hyde and Falkland rallied round the king, 
 and formed a constitutional EoyaUst party. 
 One bill for removing the bishops from the 
 House' of Lords had been rejected by the 
 Lords in June. A second bill for the same 
 purpose was sent up from the Commons at the 
 end of October (1641), and a protest on the part 
 of twelve bishops that Parliament was not 
 free, directed against the mobs which flocked 
 to "Westminster, was used to suspend them 
 from sitting, and commit them to custody. 
 At the same time the Commons, by the Grand 
 Eemonstranee, passed a vote of no confidence 
 in the king, and appealed to the people for 
 support. The king replied by impeaching 
 and attempting to arrest six of the Parlia- 
 mentary leaders (Jan. 5, 1642), but this only 
 
 brought about the closer union of the two 
 Houses. The House of Lords passed the 
 Bishops Exclusion Bill, and united with the 
 Commons in the demand that the king should 
 entrust the command of the militia and for- 
 tresses to persons in whom they could confide 
 (Feb. 1, 1642). The king's attempt to get 
 possession of Hull (April 23), the intolerant 
 treatment of the Kentish, petitioners by the 
 House of Commons (Marfih 28), embittered the 
 quarrel. Parliament summed up the guaran- 
 tees it demanded in the Nineteen Propositions 
 (June 2), and after their refusal by the king 
 prepared for war. The Parliament put in 
 force its ordinance among the militia, and the 
 king his commissions of array. So the 
 Civil War began even before the king set up 
 his standard at Nottingham. Some thirty or 
 forty peers took part for the Parliament, and 
 about sixty sided with the king, Of the 
 House of Commons less than a hundred at 
 first joined the king, and though their number 
 increased in the next two years it never 
 reached two hundred. Parliament entrusted 
 the conduct of the war to a Committee of 
 Safety of ten commoners and five lords sitting 
 at Derby House. It also commenced the 
 nomination of an assembly of divines to be 
 consulted on the proposed ecclesiastical 
 reforms. The ill-success of the first year's 
 war led to the formation of a peace party, 
 and negotiations were opened at Oxford in 
 March, 1643 ; but an agreement proved im- 
 possible. Again in August the House of 
 Lords brought forward a number of peace 
 propositions, which passed the Commons by a 
 small majority, but the tumults which the 
 news of these terms caused, in the city obliged 
 Parliament to abandon them (Aug. 7). The 
 Parliamentary leaders turned to Scotland 
 for aid, and in September the Parliament 
 signed the Solemn League and Covenant as 
 the price of a Scotch army. Representatives 
 of Scotland entered the Committee of Safety 
 (which now took the name of the Committee 
 of the Two Kingdoms), and joined the 
 English divines in the Westminster Assembly. 
 In spite of their reverses the Parliamentary 
 leaders remained firm, and refused to treat as 
 equals with the assembly of Royalist members 
 which the king gathered round him at Oxford, 
 and dignified with the name of a Parliament 
 (Feb. to April, 1644). In the spring of 1645 
 the position of the Parliament was entirely 
 altered by the Self-denying Ordinance, which 
 obliged all members of either House holding 
 military commands to resign them, whilst at 
 the same time the reorganisation of the army 
 produced what soon claimed to be a rival 
 authority (April, 1645). During the autumn 
 of 1645, and the course of 1646 the com- 
 position of the House of Commons was 
 seriously changed by the election of 230 new 
 members to supply the place of those who 
 had deserted or been expelled. Thus a, 
 strong Independent party was formed in the 
 
Lou 
 
 ( 690 ) , 
 
 Lou 
 
 House sympatliisiiig with the army outside. 
 The vain negotiations carried on with the 
 king during the winter of 1645 — 46, and 
 during his presence in the Scottish camp, 
 ended in January, 1647, with his delivery to 
 the commissioners of the Parliament. Whilst 
 the king still delayed to come to terms with 
 the Presbyterian majority in Parliament, the 
 conflict hetween the army and that assembly 
 broke out. The army demanded its arrears 
 of pay before it disbanded, toleration for its 
 religious views, and a voice in the settlement 
 of the country. It required also the suspen- 
 sion of eleven leading Presbyterian members 
 charged with causing the misunderstanding 
 between the Parliament and the army. The 
 eleven members withdrew voluntarily to save 
 the dignity of the House (June 26), but a 
 few weeks later a riot took place, and the 
 Londoners restored the eleven members to 
 their seats. Indignant at mob-dictation the 
 Speaker, with 100 member of the Lower 
 House, and fourteen of the Upper, took 
 refuge with the army (Aug. 3). The soldiers 
 occupied London, and the eleven members 
 fled or were impeached. Seven of the Lords 
 shared the same fate, and a large number of 
 Presbyterians seceded from the House. Thus 
 the army secured in Parliament a majority 
 favourable to its own views, which, after the 
 king had refused to accept the Pour Bills in 
 which the terms of peace were comprised, 
 declared that no more addresses should be 
 made to him (Jan. 3, 1648). Three months 
 later the second Givil "War began, the seceding 
 members took advantage of it to return to 
 their places, the eleven members were re- 
 called, a persecuting ordinance was passed 
 against Sectarians, and negotiations re-opened 
 with the Mng. On Dec. 5 the House, by 
 129 to 83, voted that the king's answers 
 were sufficient ground to proceed upon for 
 the settlement of the kingdom. A second 
 time the army interfered to put an end to 
 Presbyterian rule, and prevent an unsatis- 
 factory settlement. On Dec. 6 and 7 a couple 
 of regiments, directed by Colonel Pride, sur- 
 rounded the House, excluded ninety-six of 
 the leading Presbyterians, and arrested forty^ 
 seven others. The attendance in the House 
 of Lords dwindled to six or seven, that in the 
 Commons to less than sixty members, but the 
 remainder were aU bound to work in accord- 
 ance with the army. On Jan. 1, 1649, the 
 Commons passed a resolution defining it as 
 treason for the king to levy war against the 
 Parliament and kingdom, and an ordinance 
 appointing a High Court of Justice to try 
 Charles. The king's trial lasted from Jan. 20 
 to 27, and his execution took place on the 
 29th. On Feb. C the Commons proceeded 
 to vote that " the House of Peers in Parlia- 
 ment is useless, dangerous, and ought to be 
 abolished." The next day they resolved 
 " that it hath been found by experience, and 
 that this House doth declare that the office 
 
 of the Mng in this realm, and to have the 
 power thereof in any single person is un- 
 necessary, burdensome, and dangerous to the 
 liberty, safety, and public interest of this 
 nation, and therefore ought to be abolished." 
 These resolutions were followed by Acts 
 giving effect to them, and crowned on May 
 19 by an Act declaring and constituting the 
 people of England to be a Commonwealth 
 and free State. At the same time a resolu- 
 tion was passed to consider the constitution 
 of future Parliaments, and this question 
 occupied the House more or less for the next 
 six years. The executive power was in the 
 hands of the Council of State containing all 
 the important members of Parliament, but 
 the committees of the House, and the House 
 itself, stiU retained great power. After the 
 consolidation of the republic by Cromwell's 
 victories, the members present in the House 
 increased considerably, rising on some occa- 
 sions in 16.52 — 53 ta as many as 120 members. 
 After Worcester, Cromwell succeeded in per- 
 suading the House to fix Nov., 1654, as the 
 period of their own dissolution, and m'ged on 
 the question of the Reform Bill. But when 
 he found that the bill they proposed would 
 perpetuate the powers of the Eump, as it was 
 called, by proriding that they should keep 
 their places without re-election, and be sole 
 judges of the election of new members, he 
 endeavoured to stop the progress of the 
 measure by a private arrangement. When 
 that failed, he expelled them from the House 
 by force (April 20) . They did not re-assemble 
 till six years later, when the republicans, who 
 had allied themselves with the army to over- 
 throw Richard Cromwell, procured the Re- 
 storation of the Rump (May 8, 1659). The 
 members expelled as Royalists, and those ex- 
 'cluded by Pride's Purge were still, in spite of 
 their protests, kept out of the House. This 
 assembly consisted of sixty or seventy 
 members, and continued to sit tiU Oct. 13, 
 when it was expelled by Lambert in con- 
 sequence of the attempt to exerdse control 
 over the army. On Dec. 26 it was restored 
 again in consequence of the divisions in 
 the army, and the advance of Monk. Monk 
 entered London on Feb. 3, 1660, just as the 
 Rump was preparing to carry out the scheme 
 for enlarging its numbers, frustrated by Crom- 
 well in 1653. After a moment's hesitation, 
 the resistance of the city emboldened him to 
 declare for a free Parliament (Feb. 10), and 
 to reinstate the members excluded (Feb. 21). 
 According to their agreement with Monk, these 
 members reselved tihat a ne w Parliament should 
 be summoned (Feb. 22), and proceeded to pass 
 a bill summoning it for April. 25, and dis- 
 solving themselves. The last sitting of the 
 Long Parliament took place on March 16, 
 1660. The Restoration swept away most of 
 its work, but the abolition of the Extraor- 
 dinary Courts, and of the king's claim to levy 
 taxes without Parliamentary consent, were 
 
Lou 
 
 ( 691 ) 
 
 Lor 
 
 solid and lasting gains,. Two. of its later 
 measures also, the iastitutioa of an excise 
 (1643), and the abolition of feudal tenures 
 {1646}, were maintained and re-enacted. 
 
 Kushworthj Histoi*ical Collections; Joumats of 
 the House of Lords and House of Commons; Sir 
 Ealpli Vernej^, Diary {Camden Soc.) ; Sir John 
 Korthoote, IKary ; May, Hist, of the Long Par- 
 liament; Clarendou, Hist, of the Rebellion; 
 Forster, Five Members and Grand Remon^ranoe ; 
 Carlyle, Cromwell ; Sanford, Studies of the Great 
 Eebeliion. Gardiner, Hist, of En^., gives tlie 
 best account of the tir^t two sessions ; Masson, 
 Life of Milton, of tlie later period of tlie Long 
 Parliament's existence. Lists of its members 
 are given by Carlyle, Sanford, and Masson. 
 Mr. Gardiner supiilies an electoral map of Eng- 
 land in 1642, showing the local distribution of 
 parties, [C. H. F.] 
 
 Longchamp, William de {d. 1197), was 
 a Norman of low origin, who had managed to 
 ingratiate himself with Richard I. before his 
 father's death. On his patron's accession to 
 the throne Longchamp was at unce made 
 Bishop of Ely, and on the death of Geoffrey 
 de Mandeville he was, in 1190, appointed co- 
 Justiciax of England with Hugh de Pudsey, 
 while, to add to his greatness, he was in the 
 next year, made papal legate. He very soon 
 quarrelled with Hugh, and got the whole power 
 into his own hands. His conduct to Geofirey, 
 Archbishop of York, and his oppressive 
 taxation, combined with a haughty demeanour 
 and unpopular manners, brought great odium 
 upon him, and, despite his loj'al support of 
 Eichard's interests against the treasonable 
 pretensions of John, he was, in 1191, removed 
 from his office, and compelled to return to 
 Normandy, where he consoled himself by ex- 
 communicating his enemies. He was the first 
 to find out where the king was imprisoned, and 
 assisted in raising his ransom. On Richard's 
 release Longchamp returned to England, and 
 was made Chancellor, which office he seems 
 to have held tiU his death. Longchamp's 
 character was a curious mixture. " He was," 
 says Dr. Stubbs, " very ambitious for him- 
 self and his relations, very arrogant, priding 
 himsell on Ms Norman blood, but laughed at 
 as a parvenu by the Norman nobles, disliking 
 and showing contempt in the coarsest way for 
 the English, whose language he would not 
 speak, and declared that he did not under- 
 stand." 
 
 Hoveden, Chronicle (Eolls Series) j Stubbs, 
 Const. Hist. 
 
 LongSWOlrd (or, Longespee), William 
 (J. 1196, a. 1226), was the natural son of 
 Henry II., by Rosamond Clifford. He married 
 Ella, heiress of the Earl of Salisbury, and 
 received the title of Earl of Salisbury himseU. 
 He fought with Richard in the CruSades, as- 
 sisted John against iiie barons and the French 
 king, and was taken prisoSier in the battle of 
 Bou vines. On his release in 1219 he again 
 went on Crusade. 
 
 Lougsword (or, Longbspee), William, 
 
 was the son of the above, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in the earldom of Salisbury. Having 
 quarrelled with Henry III. he was deprived 
 of hia earldom, and joined Richard of Corn- 
 wall's Crusade iu 1240. In 1245 he again 
 took the cross, and went with St. Louis on his 
 expedition to Egypt, where he was slain, in 
 1250, at the battle of Mansourah. 
 
 Loose -coat Field, The Battle of 
 (1470), was the name given to a battle fought 
 near Stamford between the royal forces and 
 the Lincolnshire insurgents under Sir Richard 
 Wells. The royal troops were victorious, and 
 the rebels, in their anxiety to escape, thi'ew 
 off their coats, whence the battle got its 
 name. 
 
 Lopes, Sill Manasseh, was a baronet of 
 Jewish extraction, who was elected for 
 Barnstaple (1820). The election, however, 
 was petitioned against on the ground of gross 
 bribery. The committee found that he had 
 expended £3,000 on the election ; that out of 
 three hundred resident electors sixty-six had 
 received £5 each ; and that the out-voters had 
 been given £20 a- piece. The House of Com- 
 mons thereupon unseated Sir Manasseh. He 
 was, however, indicted the same year for 
 bribery at a previous election "at Grampound. 
 The case was tried at Exeter, and it was 
 found that Sir Manasseh had regularly bar- 
 gained with one of the electors to be returned 
 for the borough for the sum of £2,000, which 
 was, of course, distributed among the voters. 
 He was sentenced to pay a fine of £10,000, 
 and to be imprisoned for two years. 
 
 Lopez, Dr. Eoderigo {d. 1595), a Jew in 
 the service of Elizabeth, was charged by the 
 Earl of Essex with being in the pay of Spain. 
 He was acquitted once, but Essex pursued 
 his investigations, and obtained his conviction 
 on the evidence of two Portuguese, and he 
 was executed. It must still remain a question 
 whether Lopez was really guilty. 
 
 Lord CoUingwood, The (1821—22). 
 In 1821 a Spanish cruiser captured a British 
 merchant vessel, the Zord CoUingwood, and had 
 her condemned in the Spanish courts on the 
 ground tiat she was found trading with 
 Buenos Ayres, one of their revolted colonies, 
 which had already practically obtained in- 
 dependence. The owners complained to their 
 government, and the latter remonstrated at 
 Sladrid. In October, 1822, Canning succeeded 
 Lord Castlereagh at the Foreign Office, 
 and immediately sent a firm note to the 
 Spanish government. The latter was now 
 informed that England would take steps to 
 secure her commerce, and that for this 
 purpose a squadron would be ordered to Cuba 
 to destroy the strongholds of these pirates. 
 The Spanish government, who depended on 
 England at the Congxess of Verona, at once 
 gave wa)'. A decree was issued recognising the 
 right of other governments to trade with their 
 
£or 
 
 ( 692 ) 
 
 Iior 
 
 former colonies, and large compenBation was 
 awarded to the plundered British merchants. 
 
 Lords of the Isles. [Isles, Lohds 
 
 OF THE.] 
 
 Lords, House op. The existing consti- 
 tution of the Lords as an estate of the realm 
 and of Parliament dates from the thirteenth 
 century. At that time their status, their 
 single essential qualification, and their of&ce 
 in the State were finally fixed, and their order 
 received that impress which has ever since dis- 
 tinguished it from the rest of the community. 
 But the Lords may he traced in an unbroken 
 descent to the Witenagemot, which indeed in 
 character and function they still resemhle. 
 They are in theory the nohle and wise of the 
 kingdom, are counsellors of the sovereign, are 
 legislators in a personal or official capacity, 
 and are an august court of justice. The 
 Conquest converted the Witenagemot into a 
 general gathering of feudatories holding their 
 lands immediately from the king, and thus 
 brought the institution a step nearer to its 
 modem character. This, however, was a 
 large and unwieldy body ; a process of selec- 
 tion set in, and in time the tenants-in-chief 
 of larger holdings were recognised as a 
 special class more closely attached to the. 
 long, and entitled to certain peculiar marks 
 of consideration, of which the personal sum- 
 mons addressed to them by the king when 
 their services were required was the most 
 significant. The final stage of their develop- 
 ment was reached when this personal sum- 
 mons had given the person summoned and his 
 heirs a distinctive title to an irrevocable place 
 in the order, independent of any other quali- 
 fication whatever. Neither tenure of land 
 nor nobility of birth, however' extensive the 
 one or unblemished the other, now availed to 
 bestow rank in the favoured class, though the 
 vast majority were great feudal landowners 
 and of noble birth; it was henceforward 
 simply the will of the sovereign, expressed at 
 first in a personal writ of summons, that alone 
 had this virtue. And this writ afterwards 
 was taken to have such efSoaoy as to extend 
 the rights and functions that were its outcome 
 to the representatives of the person to whom 
 it had originally been sent, for ever. Later 
 on, however, patent took its place as the 
 regular manner of expressing the will of the 
 sovereign in the creation of a peer. Thus the 
 historic House of Lords was developed, con- 
 sisting " of the hereditary counsellors of the 
 crown, the right to give counsel being in- 
 volved at one time in the tenure of land, 
 at another in the fact of summons, at another 
 in the terms of a patent The 'noble- 
 man is the person who, for his life, holds the 
 hereditary office denoted or impUed in the 
 title." (Stubbs.) But the position had no 
 legal value for any but the actual holder ; 
 all his children wore commoners. These 
 formed the lay element in the Lords when the 
 
 Parliamentary system split into separately- 
 acting Houses ; and with them were associated 
 as a spiritual element the archbishops, bishops, 
 and summoned abbots and priors. These 
 were included in the baronial body, either 
 because they held their lands on the baronial 
 tenure, or from the reverence naturally due 
 to their offices and learning. Since the falling 
 away of the clerical estate from Parliament, 
 these spiritual peers have been its only 
 representatives in the legislature. Among 
 the members of this composite body there 
 were several degrees of title and honorary 
 rank, but equal rights and powers. The 
 judges also were called to the assembly, but 
 never became full peers ; it was their part to 
 guide it by their counsel, not to vote. The 
 House has still a right to their advice. 
 
 During mediaeval times the Lords were 
 the more powerful division of Parliament, 
 and generally took the lead in, and directed 
 all constitutional struggles. They were the one 
 effective check on the will of the king, and 
 could carry most points that they deemed vital. 
 Yet their numbers dwindled. The decrease was 
 entirely among the abbots and friars ; these 
 soon sank from eighty to twenty-seven, while 
 the bishops were constant at twenty, and the 
 temporal lords never varied much from fifty. 
 It was in Henry VI.'s reign that the practice 
 of making peers of any dignity by patent, 
 hitherto occasionally used, became general. 
 The Wars of the Eoses, by thinning the 
 ranks, greatly diminished the political weight 
 of the Lords ; and their order was of com- 
 paratively small account in Tudor times. 
 And the faU of the monasteries struck nearly 
 thirty peers off their roU at a time when it con- 
 tained barely ninety names in all. But fifty 
 temporal peers were summoned to the last Par- 
 liament of Elizabeth. The rule of the Stuarts 
 added to both their numbers and considera- 
 tion, though the advancing pretensions of the 
 Commons checked the growth of the latter. 
 More than 120 temporal lords sat in the Long 
 Parhament, of whom a third took the Round- 
 head side in the great conflict. Between the 
 Eestoration and the union with Scotland, 
 their history is marked by many disputes 
 with the Commons, and a small increase in 
 numbers and importance. In Charles II.'s 
 reign they established their right to act as a 
 supreme court of appeal in aU ci-vU causes, 
 though they had to abandon their claim to 
 any kind of original jurisdiction. Their 
 judicial function, which they inherit from 
 the old concilium regis, involved them in an 
 embittered quarrel with the Commons in 
 Anne's reign, when a disputed question re- 
 garding the rights of electors at Aylesbury, 
 came before them for a, final decision. In 
 1707 the union with Scotland added sixteen 
 representative temporal peers to their nunj- 
 bers, in 1801 that with Ireland twenty-four 
 temporal and four spiritual, which last, how- 
 ever, have since been taken away by the Irish 
 
Lov 
 
 ( 693 ) 
 
 Lne 
 
 Church Act. They escaped a great danger by 
 the failure of the Peerage Bill in 1719, which 
 would have limited their numbers to about 
 200, and thus kindled against them vehe- 
 ment envy and jealousy. Their political im- 
 portance reached its highest point in the 
 ' ' eighteenth century, in the last years of which 
 they began to increase rapidly by new crea- 
 tions. This expansion has gone on steadily 
 since ; they are now ten times as numerous 
 as they were under the Tudors. The Lords 
 cannot originate money bills ; but the mem- 
 bers of their House can record their protest 
 and its grounds against any measure they 
 dislike. Once, too, they could vote by proxy ; 
 but in 1868 they resigned this invidious 
 privilege. Their persons are " sacred and 
 inviolate," and when charged with any of 
 the graver crimes, a peer has the right of 
 being tried by the whole body of the peers. 
 Lately the crown was given power to create a 
 few life-peerages, to strengthen the legal 
 element in the House. 
 
 The Lords' Report on the IHgwity of a Peer; 
 Courthope, Historic Peerage; May, Practical 
 Treatise; Stubbs, Cffnst. Hist,; Hallam, Const. 
 Hist- [J. K.] 
 
 Lovel, Francis, Viscount {d. 1487 ?), was 
 one of Richard III.'s chief favourites and 
 advisers, and was made Constable of the 
 Household, besides receiving other ofSees. 
 He fought in the battle of Bosworth, after 
 which he took sanctuary, and eventually con- 
 trived to escape to Flaiiders, where he was 
 received by the Duchess of Biirgundy. He 
 supported the claims of Lambert Simnel, and 
 fought in the battle of Stoke in 1487, where 
 he was supposed to have been slain. But the 
 discovery of a skeleton in a secret chamber at 
 Minster Lovel makes it probable that he 
 escaped from Stoke, and hid in his house at 
 Minster Lovel, where he died, perhaps of 
 starvation. 
 
 Bacon, Hist, of Henry FIT. ; lingard, Hist, of 
 Eng. 
 
 Lucius (or, Lud),King {d. circa 180?), is 
 said to have sent an embassy to Rome during 
 the papacy of Eleutherius, entreating that he 
 might be made a Christian. He is described 
 as King of the Britons, and it is said that 
 through him Britain received the faith, and 
 " preserved it uncorrupted and entire." There 
 is, as Canon Bright says, " no intrinsic im- 
 probability in the supposition that a native 
 prince in a Roman island had requested in- 
 struction from the Roman Church in Christian 
 belief." The earliest mention of Lucius is in 
 the second Catalogue of Soman Bishops, which 
 was probably compiled about a.d. 420. 
 
 Bede, Ecclesiastical Hist. ; BrigM, Early Mng. 
 Ch/wreh Hist. 
 
 Lncknow, The Defence of (1857), was 
 one of the most remarkable episodes in the 
 Indian Mutiny. Owing to the foresight of 
 Sir Henry Lawrence, the Residency at Luck- 
 now was armed and provisioned to stand asiege. 
 
 On July 1 the enemy appeared before Lucknow, 
 and the English withdrew to the Residency. 
 On July 2 they lost their gallant leader. For 
 three months, however, without hope of suc- 
 cour, they held out. Mines were sprung by the 
 enemy, and their breaches were defended ; all 
 attacks were driven off, and heroic sallies made, 
 and counter-mines pushed to anticipate the 
 enemy. At the end of July they hoped to be 
 relieved by Havelock, but this proved false. 
 But on Sept. 19 and 20, 2,500 English soldiers 
 under Campbell, Outram, Havelock, and Neill, 
 crossed the Ganges. On the 25th, NeiH lead- 
 ing, the defences of Lucknow were attacked. 
 These consisted of at least two nules of 
 narrow lanes, streets, and massive buildings 
 defended with skill and desperation, and the 
 fire poured upon the assailants was tremen- 
 dous, but they succeeded in making their way 
 into the Residency. Outram now assumed the 
 command of the garrison. The rebel forces, 
 so far from retiring from the city, now 
 pressed the siege more closely with augmented 
 numbers, and for the succeeding two months 
 the defence rivalled that of the preceding. 
 Incessant mining and counter-mining were 
 carried on. It had been impossible either to 
 send away the sick and wounded of the 
 previous siege, or to retire from Lucknow, 
 and the position was maintained. On Nov. 9 
 Sir CoUn Campbell advanced to the relief of 
 Lucknow, and on the 19th the position de- 
 fended so nobly for six months was evacuated. 
 
 , Siege of (Jan. 1— March 21, 1858). 
 
 The operations for the recovery of Lucknow 
 from the rebels began at the beginning of the 
 year. On January 1 Brigadier Hope was sent 
 forward by Sir Colin Campbell to prevent the 
 destruction of the iron suspension bridge over 
 the KaUee Middee. This was done success- 
 fully, and the bridge repaired. Sir Colin, re- 
 inforced by General Sir Hope Grant and 
 General "Walpole, reached Alumbagh, March 1, 
 and entrenched himseU strongly in the Dil- 
 koosha Palace, March 2, with his right on 
 the Goomtee, his left on Alumbagh. Heavy 
 guns were brought up and a bridge of boats 
 thrown across the Goomtee. General Outram 
 on March 6 crossed the Goomtee and attacked 
 the rebels in their strong position in the 
 Kaiser Bagh on the 9th, and drove the rebels 
 before him till he could occupy the Fyzabad 
 road and plant his batteries so as to enfilade 
 the works on the canal and the iron and stone 
 bridges. On the 1 1 th Sir Edward Lingard and 
 his division stormed the large block of build- 
 ings called the Begum Kotee, and inflicted 
 heavy loss on the enemy. Brigadier-General 
 Franks on the 14th successfully stormed 
 the Imambarrah, while the Goorkha army 
 passed the canal and attacked the suburbs. 
 The enemy now began to evacuate the city. 
 On the 19th a combined movement inflicted 
 great loss on the enemy. On the 21st Sir 
 Edward Lingard successfully stormed the last 
 rebel stronghold in the heart of the city; 
 
Luc 
 
 ( 694 ) 
 
 Lnd 
 
 Brigadier Campbell drove the retreating 
 rebels six miles from the city with heavy loss, 
 and Lucknow was won. 
 
 Ann'ual Register, 1857— 5S ; Kaye, Sepoy War; 
 Malleson, Indian Mutiny. 
 
 Lucy, Richard de {d. 1179), one of Henry 
 II. 's great ministers, was a supporter of 
 Stephen against Maud, but directly Henry 
 came to the throne he was appointed Justiciar 
 conjointly with Robert de Beaumont, and 
 after the death of the latter, De Lucy con- 
 tinued to hold the office alone. He helped to 
 draw up the Constitutions of Clarendon, for 
 which he was excommunicated by Becket. 
 In 1173 he defeated the rebel sons of Henry 
 II. at Farnham, and was most energetic 
 in suppressing the revolt. He appears to 
 have been a remarkably able and upright 
 minister, and unswervingly faithful to 
 Henry. 
 
 Poss, Judges of England ; Stubbs, Const. "Hist. 
 
 Luddite Riots, The (1811— 1816), were 
 the expression of an ignorant notion among 
 the workpeople, especially of Yorkshire, 
 Lancashire, and Kottinghamshire, that the 
 distress, which was terrible and almost uni- 
 versal among the poor, was caused by the 
 introduction of machinery. A quarter of a 
 century before, one Ned Ludd, a half-witted 
 boy in a Leicestershire village, made him- 
 self notorious by destroying stocking-frames. 
 The Yorkshire rioters chose to take a 
 name from this poor creature. The distress 
 was widespread ; there was little work to be 
 done; prices were very high; the Continental 
 war was still draining the resources of the 
 country. The causes of the trouble were not 
 far to seek ; yet the use of machinery, which 
 alone kept some few people in work, was set 
 down as the cause of all the mischief : 
 and the poor, ignorant, half-starved crowds 
 set to work busily to destroy all the machinery 
 they could reach. During 1811 — 12, the 
 northern counties were in a perpetual state of 
 disturbance ; the army was busily employed 
 in the Peninsula ; and except where here and 
 there a resolute mill-owner overawed the 
 rioters, no machinery was safe from the 
 marauding bands. In 1816 the riots broke 
 out again. The conclusion of peace was 
 expected to bring back prosperity imme- 
 diately. The expectation was not fulfilled; 
 £'.nd disappointment developed quickly into 
 exasperation, producing constant disturbances. 
 The government of Lord Liverpool was not of 
 a kind to deal with this state of things ; they 
 made no attempt to go to the root of the 
 evil— which was the utter misery of the 
 poor—but on the contrary, thought only of 
 coercion. If the riots were quelled in one 
 place, they broke out in another; and the 
 repressive policy of the government only 
 had the effect of manifesting to the people 
 the necessity of union among themselves 
 by means of secret societies. "With the return 
 
 of prosperity, however, the riots gradually 
 died out. 
 
 State Trials, vol. xxxi. ; Life of JjOtA Sid- 
 
 rnoufh; Liverpool Memoirs; Mrs. Gaskell, Life 
 
 of Charlotte Bronte. 
 
 Ludlow, in Shropshire, was the most 
 important stronghold of the Middle March of 
 "Wales. The castle, built in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, was besieged by Stephen in 1138. It 
 was taken by De Montfort in 1264. In 1459 
 it was occupied by Henry VI., and subse- 
 quently became the residence of Prince Ed- 
 ward, son of Edward I"V., and of Arthur, son 
 of Henry VII., who died here in 1634. In 
 1646 it was captured by the Parliamentarians. 
 From the reign of Edward IV. to 1685 the 
 Lord President of the Marches officially oc- 
 cupied Ludlow, when the office was abolished, 
 and the castle allowed to decay. The holding 
 of the Council of the Marches there made it in 
 a sense the capital of nearly all South "Wales. 
 
 Ludlow, Edmund {b. 1620, d. 1693), mem- 
 ber of a good family in "Wiltshire, was, at the 
 outbreak of the Civil War, a student in the 
 Temple, entered Essex's Guards, and served 
 under Waller and Fairfax. At the end of 
 1645 he was elected member for "Wiltshire, 
 and took his seat amongst the Eepublicans. 
 He sat in the High Court which judged the 
 king, and became a member of the Council of 
 State of the Commonwealth. In 1651 he was 
 sent to Ireland as Lieutenant-G-eneral of the 
 Horse, and, after Ireton's death, held for six 
 months the supreme command until superseded 
 by Fleetwood (Nov., 1651— July, 1652). He 
 remained at his post in spite of Cromwell's 
 expulsion of the Long Parliament, but opposed 
 the proclamation of the Protectorate, and 
 resigned his share in the civil government of 
 the country in order not to recognise the new 
 authority. In Eichard Cromwell's Parlia- 
 ment he vigorously opposed the govern- 
 ment, and urged on the army leaders 
 the restoration of the Rump. In July, 1659, 
 he was sent again to Ireland to succeed 
 Henry Cromwell as head of the govern- 
 ment, with the title of Lieutenant-Geueral 
 of the Horse. In October, having returned 
 to England, he was nominated by Lambert 
 one of the Committee of Safety established by 
 the army, but steered a middle course between 
 army and Parliament, and wished for the 
 restoration of the Rump. After Monk restored 
 the secluded members, Ludlow ceased to 
 attend the House, but still continued his vain 
 attempts to unite the remains of the Republi- 
 can party. He was a member of the Con- 
 vention Parliament, took his seat, and 
 surrendered under the proclamation ordering 
 the regicides to deliver themselves up as 
 prisoners, but remained at large on security. 
 Thus, when he found his life in danger, he 
 was able to fly to France (Sept., 1660). He 
 fixed his residence first at Geneva, then at 
 Vevey, where he remained till the Revolution. 
 
Lnl 
 
 ( 695 ) 
 
 Lyn 
 
 Then he ventured to return to England, but 
 the House of Commons presented an address 
 to the king requesting his arrest, and he was 
 ohiiged again to fly. He died at Vevey in 
 1693. 
 
 Ludlow's Memoirs describe his experieuces 
 from 1640 to 1668, and ai-e particularly valuable 
 for the history ot the Civil War iu Wiltshire, 
 his personal relations with Cromwell, and the 
 events of the year 1659. They were first pub- 
 lished iu 1698—99 (S vols. 8vo). and reprinted in 
 1751 (1 vol. folio). [0. H. F.] 
 
 Luluch was the son of Gilcomgain, Mor- 
 maer of Moray. On the death, of Macheth 
 (1057), he was declared King of Scotland 
 by the supporters of Macbeth. Aiter a reign 
 of a few months he was slain at Esail, in 
 Strathbogie (March 17, 1058). 
 
 Liuuley, John, Lokd {d. 1609), the 
 brother-in-law of the Duke of Norfolk (q.v.), 
 was restored in blood by an Act of Parlia- 
 ment, 1547, his father, George, Lord Lumley, 
 having been implicated in the treason of 
 Sir Thomas Percy and Lord Darcy. In 
 1569 he was arrested and placed in confine- 
 ment at Windsor on suspicion of being favour- 
 able to the Catholic lords in the north. After 
 the collapse of the rebellion Lumley resumed 
 his treasonable correspondence with Spain, 
 and speedily became involved in the Eidolii 
 conspiracy, on the discovery of which he was 
 sent to the Marshalsea. He was subsequently 
 pardoned, and acted as a commissioner at the 
 trials of Mary Queen of Scots and the Earl 
 of Essex. 
 
 Lundy's ^ane, The Battle op (July, 
 1814), during the American War of 1812 was 
 fought near Fort George, on Lake Ontario, 
 between the British troops, under Sir G. 
 Drummond and General Riall, and a superior 
 American force under General Brown. The 
 British gained a complete victory, killing 
 4,000 of the enemy. 
 
 Lxizembnrg Question. In 1830, at 
 
 the Conference of Condon, the Belgian ques- 
 tion was complicated by the Luxemburg 
 question. Luxemburg was really part of 
 the Germanic empire, and though it had 
 been ceded to the King of Holland (1814) it 
 formed no part of Holland. Palmerston 
 wished it to be united with Belgium ; Talley- 
 rand wished it to be handed over to France. 
 The Conference decided that it should remain 
 part of the Germanic empire; but that its 
 western part should be ceded to Belgium 
 [TuEATY OP London, 1831]. The Conference 
 eventually separated without having effected 
 anything, but the provisions of the Treaty of 
 London (November, 1831) were enforced by 
 England and France (1832). 
 
 Ann. Reg.; Walpole, Hist, of Eng. from 1815. 
 
 Lyndhnrst, lord [b. 1112, d. 1863). 
 John Singleton Copley was the son of the emi- 
 nent painter, John Singleton Copley; was born 
 at Boston in America, then an English town ; 
 
 was educated in EnglaAd, at first by a private 
 tutor, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's 
 Inn, 1804 ; was made serjeant-at-law, 1813, 
 and first became prominently known from the 
 abiKty he displayed as one of the counsel who 
 defended Watson and Thistlewood on the 
 charge of high treason, 1817. He entered 
 Parliament as member for Yarmouth, Isle of 
 Wight, 1818, having in the same year become 
 king's Serjeant and Chief Justice of Chester. 
 He afterwards sat for Ashburton and the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge. He was soon looked 
 on as the most rising lawyer of the Tory 
 party, and a convenient opportunity presenting 
 itself by the removal of Sir Samuel Shepherd 
 to the Scotch Bench, Copley was appointed 
 Solicitor-General (1819) and knighted. While 
 holding this office he was engaged, in 1820, 
 for the crown in two memorable cases ; the 
 trial at the Old Bailey of the Cato Street 
 conspirators and their ringleader, his former 
 client Thistlewood, and the proceedings 
 against Queen Caroline in the House of Lords. 
 In both affairs Sir John Copley displayed 
 remarkable eloquence, judgment, and forbear- 
 ance. He became Attorney-General in 1824, 
 and Master of the Rolls in 1826. He at first 
 energetically opposed the Catholic claims, but 
 afterwards sided with those who felt the abso- 
 lute necessity of Catholic Emancipation being 
 carried. He took office in the cabinet formed 
 by Mr. Canning in 1827. He was appointed 
 Lord Chancellor for the first time (April 20, 
 1827), and created Lord Lyndhurst on the 25th 
 of the same month. When his party went out of 
 office in 1830 he retired with them, but was 
 appointed Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer 
 early in 1831'. In the House of Lords he op- 
 posed the Eeform Bill with all his energies 
 and eloquence, and was the virtual leader of 
 the Tory opposition. He declared the mea- 
 sure to be detrimental to the rights of the 
 people, and inconsistent with the prerogatives 
 of the crown. He again took office as Lord 
 Chancellor, under Sir Robert Peel, in 1834, and 
 retired in 1835. In 1841 Sir Robert Peel again 
 returned to power, and Lord Lyndhurst 
 to the Chancellorship for the third time. He 
 finally resigned in 1846. He, nevertheless, 
 continued to take an active part in the debates 
 of the House of Lords. 
 
 Sir Theodore Martin, Life of Lord Lyndhurst; 
 Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors. 
 
 lynedoch, Thomas Gbaham, Lord (S. 
 1750, d. 1843), a gentleman of fortune in 
 Perthshire, served as a volunteer, under Lord 
 Mulgrave, at the siege of Toulon, in 1794, 
 and showed such military genius and courage 
 that he was publicly thanked by the com- 
 mander. Returning to England he raised the 
 90th Regiment in Perthshire, and was ap- 
 pointed colonel of it. For the next few years 
 he served with tlie Austrian army, and then 
 returned to his regiment at Gibraltar. In 
 
IiTO 
 
 ( 696 ) 
 
 Eyt 
 
 1808 he accompanied Sir John Moore to 
 Sweden as his aide-de-camp, and afterwards 
 followed him to Spain. On the return to 
 England after that battle, he was appointed 
 to command a division at the siege of 
 Mushing; but he was soon aiterwards 
 ordered to the Peninsula, where he was 
 nominated second in command. During 
 the winter of 1810 he held Cadiz; but in the 
 spring of the following year, by a series of 
 masterly tactics, he brought on a battle with 
 Victor, whom he defeated in a hard-fought 
 battle at Barosa. He then joined Wellington, 
 and was present with him at the siege of 
 Ciudad Eodrigo, after which he went to 
 England to recruit his health. He returned 
 to Spain in time to take part in the campaign 
 of 1813. He commanded the left wing of 
 the army at Vittoria, and to him was con- 
 fided the whole charge of the siege of San 
 Sebastian, which, after two partial failures,- 
 his firm resolution and skilful management at 
 length reduced. After crossing the Bidassoa 
 he was compelled again to seek rest ; but in 
 the following year was appointed to command 
 the disastrous expedition to the Low Coun- 
 tries (1814). The expedition was a failure, 
 not, however, in any way through the fault 
 of the commander-in-chief. In May, 1814, 
 he was raised to the peerage. 
 
 Lynedoch, Memoirs ; Napier, Peninsular War, 
 
 Lyons, Edmund, Lord {b. 1791, d. 1858), 
 was the sou of Mr. John Lyons, of St. Austiu's, 
 Hants. He went to sea in 1801. In 1828 
 he became captain of the Blonde, in which he 
 co-operated with the French in expelling the 
 Turks from the Morea. In 1835 he was 
 appointed minister at the new court at 
 Athens. From 1849 to 1851 he presided 
 over the mission at Berne ; from 1851 to 
 1853 he resided as minister at Stock- 
 holm. In 1853, however, he was appointed 
 second in command of the Mediterranean 
 fleet. In the Agamemnon he arranged, super- 
 intended, and made possible the embarkation 
 of the allied forces at Varna and the Isle of 
 Serpents, and their landing near Eupatoria. 
 He served all through the Crimean "War, 
 materially assisting the generals by his 
 ready co-operation, and inflicting severe 
 damage on the Eussian fleet. In June, 
 1855, he became commander-in-chief. In 
 1856 he was created Baron Lyons. 
 
 liytteltou, Edward, Lord {b. 158d, d. 
 1645), was a member of a distinguished legal 
 family and the son of the Chief Justice of 
 North Wales. He entered Parliament in 1626, 
 and at once joined the popular side, taking 
 a leading part against Buckingham. In the 
 Parliament of 1628 he was one of the chief 
 advocates of redress of grievances, but by 
 1631 he had made his peace with the king, 
 and in 1634 he was appointed Solicitor- 
 General, in which capacity he conducted with 
 great ability the case against Hampden. In 
 
 1641 he was made Lord Keeper and received 
 a peerage. During the debates with the 
 Long Parliament, Lyttelton had a difficult 
 part to play, ■ and at length finding that 
 moderate counsels were unavailing, he fled to 
 the king at York, taking the Great Seal with 
 him. On the outbreak of the war he raised a 
 regiment consisting of gentlemen of the inns 
 of court and others, and acted himself as 
 colonel. But being unused to military ser- 
 vice, his exertions were too much for his 
 strength, and he died before very long. " He 
 was a man of great reputation in the profes- 
 sion of the law," says Clarendon, " for 
 learning and all other advantages which 
 attend the most eminent men .... and was 
 not only very ready and expert in books, but 
 exceedingly versed in records." 
 
 Lyttelton, George, Lord (J. 1709, d. 
 1773), entered the House of Commons in 1730, 
 when he joined the opposition against Walpole. 
 He was made secretary to Frederick, Prince 
 of Wales, in 1 737, and, on the resignation of 
 Walpole, a Lord of the Treasury (1744). In 
 1755 he was made Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer, and in 1757 raised to the peerage. 
 Besides writing numerous miscellaneous and 
 poetical works, he was the author of a ffis- 
 tortf of Henry II. (1764), which, though now 
 somewhat out of da,te, is valuable from the 
 materials which the author has accumulated 
 and the industry with which he worked at 
 the original and later authorities. 
 
 Lyttelton (or, Littleton), Thomas [d. 
 1481), was a distinguished lawyer, appointed 
 one of the judges of the Common Pleas from 
 1466 to 1481. He is famous chiefly for his 
 Treatise on Tenures. 
 
 The Treatise on Tenures was printed (in 
 Norman - French) at Bouen ahout 1481, and 
 translated into English in 1539. It has been 
 edited by Mr. H. Eosooe, in 1825. Coke's 
 Commeidary, called Coke upon lAttdton, or ihe 
 First Institute, appeared in 1626. 
 
 Lytton, Edward George Earle Bulwer, 
 1st Lord (J. 1805, d. 1873), first entered Par- 
 liament as member for St. Ives in 1831. He 
 attached himself to the Whigs, and in 1835 
 became editor of a Liberal journal, The Crisis. 
 In 1832 he was returned for Lincoln, and re- 
 presented that borough till 1841. In 1843 
 he changed his name to Bulwer-Lytton. In 
 1852 he re-entered the House of Commons as 
 a Conservative, and on the accession of Lord 
 Derby to power (1858) he became Secretary 
 of State for the Colonies. During his short 
 period of office, lasting only a year, he caUed 
 into existence two new colonies, those of 
 British Columbia and Queensland. In 1866 
 he was raised to the peerage. Lord Lytton 
 as one of the most versatile and accom- 
 phshed writers of his time, and was the 
 author of a large number of fictions, poems, 
 dramas, and miscellaneous works. 
 
 Lord Lytton's Memoirs have been compiled 
 by his son, the Earl of Lytton. The first tw6 
 vols, appeared in 1883. 
 
Mac 
 
 ( 697 ) 
 
 Mac 
 
 Macartney, G-eorge, 1st Earl op (i. 
 1737, d. 1806), aiter a distinguished diplomatic 
 and political career, was in 1755 sent out as 
 Governor of Grenada. In 1779 he was taken 
 prisoner by Count d'Estaiug, and sent to 
 France. From 1780 to 1786 he was Governor 
 of Madras, and in 1792 was sent to Pekin as 
 ambassador. In 1796 he was made Governor 
 of the Cape Colony, where his first act 
 was to attempt to check the aggression of the 
 colonists by the proclamation of exact boun- 
 daries; during his tenure of this office 
 (1796 — 98) he managed to restrain in a great 
 degree the turbulence of the Boers. 
 
 Macanlay, Thomas Babinqton, Loud 
 (*. 1800, d. 1859), was the son of Zachary 
 Macaulay, an African merchant, and a leading 
 mover in the agitation against the Slave 
 Trade. He was educated at Trinity CoUege, 
 Cambridge, where, in 1822, he obtained a 
 fellowship. He was called to the bar in 
 1826, and in 1830 entered Parliament for 
 Calne. He joined the Whigs and took a 
 promiuent part in the debates on the Eeform 
 BUI, making some brilliant speeches. Lord 
 Grey appointed him Secretary to the Board 
 of Control. In 1834 he went to India as 
 legal member of Council, and assisted to draw 
 up the Indian penal code. In 1838 he 're- 
 turned. In 1839 he was appointed Secretary 
 for War, which office he held tOl 1841, and was 
 Paymaster of the Forces from 1846 to 1848. 
 In 1857 he was raised to the peerage, but his 
 health would not allow him to take any 
 further part in public affairs. He died Deo. 
 28, 1859, and was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey. In 1843, Maeaulay's Maaays, contri- 
 buted to the JEdimburffh Seview, were pub- 
 lished in a collected form. These essays, 
 which are for the most part on subjects con- 
 nected with English literature and history, 
 such as Lord Chatham, Warren Hastings, 
 Bacon, and Addison, are remarkable for their 
 brifliancy and vigour of style, and the skiU 
 with which the results of wide reading are 
 presented in an easy and interesting form. 
 They have been extraordinarily popular. In 
 1848 appeared the first two volumes of 
 Maeaulay's History of England; the third 
 and fourth being published in 1855 ; and a 
 fifth compiled from the historian's papers ap- 
 peared in 1861. Maeaulay's Hiatory was left 
 unfinished. The author designed to bring it 
 down to a period within the memory of his 
 own generation. As it stands it is only com- 
 plete to the Peace of Eyswiok in 1697, though 
 the final volume, which was in part compiled 
 from the author's papers, takes us to the 
 death of William III. After a general 
 sketch of the earlier history, the historian 
 narrates in detail the reigns of Charles II., 
 James 11., and William III. Maeaulay's 
 
 mstory of England has been more popular 
 and more widely read than probably any 
 other historical work ever written. It is ac- 
 knowledged by scholars to have grave defects 
 iho author's love of paradox has frequently 
 led him to mis-statements and exaggeration ; 
 he is a pronounced partisan, and over-praises 
 some of his characters as greatly as he 
 depreciates others ; and he is constantly un- 
 able to resist the temptation to sacrifice im- 
 partiality for the purpose of making a point 
 or heightening an eflrect. His acquaint- 
 ance with the literature of the period was 
 extensive; but he does not always use his 
 materials with critical judgment, and the 
 statements of worthless authorities sometimes 
 receive an undue prominence. His want of 
 wide sympathy, too, and of real insight into 
 human nature, has prevented his appreciating 
 great men with whom his views were not in 
 accord ; so that his pictures of some of them are 
 madequate and even distorted. But with these 
 defects the merits of the history are conspi- 
 cuous. It remains the chief modem authority 
 in English for the period of which it treats. 
 Its pictures of men and manners have hardly 
 been excelled in graphic power, and bring 
 home the subject to the reader in a manner 
 attained by few historians. The vigorous 
 movement of the narrative, the brilliancy of 
 the sty le, the wit and point with which the book 
 sparkles all through, and the frequent passages 
 of extraordinarily vivid descriptive writing, 
 suffice to give it a permanent place in English 
 literature. 
 
 Maeaulay's Life ani Letters have been pub- 
 lished by his nephew, Mr. Gr. O. Trevelyan. 
 The work gives a pleasing account of his 
 amiable private character. 
 
 Maclbeth, son of Finlay or Finel, Thane 
 of Glamis, was Mormaer of Ross and Moray, 
 and the general of King Duncan against 
 the Norwegians Thorfinn and Thorkell. In 
 1040 he went over to the enemy, slew 
 Duncan by treachery in a smith's hut near 
 Elgin, and divided the kingdom with Thor- 
 finn, taking to himself the districts south 
 and west of the Tay, with the central district 
 in which Scone is situated. Although it 
 is somewhat difficult to separate the Macbeth 
 of history from the Macbeth of Shakespeare 
 and tradition, he appears to have ruled Scotland 
 well, and to have benefited the Church in no 
 smalldegree. Althoughhehad married Guroch, 
 the granddaughter of Kenneth IV., Macbeth 
 was always regarded as a usurper, and in 
 1045 we find Crinan, Abbot of Dunkeld, 
 making an unsuccessful effort to reinstate his 
 grandchildren on the throne. In 1050 Macbeth 
 made a journey to Kome, being the first King 
 of Scotland who entered into communication 
 with the Papal see, and on his return was 
 attacked by Si ward. Earl of Northumbria, and 
 defeated (July 27, 1054). Siward succeeded 
 in establishing Malcolm, son of Duncan, as 
 King of Cumbria. In 1057, on the death of his 
 
Mac 
 
 ( 698 ) 
 
 Mad 
 
 powerful ally Thorfinn, Macbeth was again 
 attacked by Malcolm, and slain at Lumpha- 
 nan. From this tim^ hereditary, instead of 
 collateral, succession became the rule in Scot- 
 land. The reign of Macbeth is shrouded in 
 the mysteries of legend and romance. It must 
 be remembered that the well-known stories of 
 Banquo, the march of Birnam Wood, and the 
 like, are mere inventions of the chroniclers. 
 Skene, Celtio Siotlami; Holinshed for the 
 legendary Mstory. 
 
 Macdonald, Floka {d. 1790), was a lady 
 of South Uist, who is famous for her' story in 
 helping the Young Pretender, Charles Ed- 
 ward Stuart, to escape after the battle of 
 Culloden. She caused the prince to be 
 dressed in woman's clothes, and to pass as 
 her maidservant, and by her courage and re- 
 sources succeeded in bringing him safely to 
 the Isle of Skye, where he escaped to France. 
 Flora Macdonald was arrested and imprisoned 
 in the Tower till July, 1747. She married a 
 relation, also named Macdonald, and went 
 with him to America, but on the death of her 
 husband returned to Scotland. 
 
 A work purporting to be Flora Macdonald's 
 
 Autobiography, edited by her granddaughter, was 
 
 published in 1870. 
 
 Macdonald of the Isles, Alexan- 
 DEE, was one of the Highland chieftains sum- 
 moned by James I. to appear at Inverness in 
 1427. He was there thrown into prison on a 
 charge of disturbing the peace of the kingdom, 
 but, having made his submission, was released. 
 His first act on obtaining his freedom was to 
 burn Inverness, and to invade Lochaber, 
 where, however, he was compelled to surren- 
 der to the royal troops, and was imprisoned 
 at TantaUon Castle in East Lothian. 
 
 Mackay, General Hugh (d. 1692), of 
 Sconry in Sutherlaudshire, having served 
 abroad for thirty years, was sent by William 
 III. to Scotland in 1689, where he endeavoured 
 to bring Claverhouse to bay, fixing his head- 
 quarters at Inverness. For some time he 
 was unsuccessful, but at length forced an en- 
 gagement at Killiecrankie (June 17, 1689), 
 where, although he suffered defeat, he had a 
 more than counterbalancing gain in the death 
 of his great opponent. The following year 
 Mackay, whose movements against the High- 
 landers had been extremely successful, built 
 Fort William. He then went to Ireland, 
 where he served under GrinkeU, and was pre- 
 sent at Aghrim. He was killed at the battle 
 of Steinkirk, in 1692 ; " dying," says Lord 
 Macaulay, "as he had lived, like a good 
 Christian and a good soldier." 
 
 Mackintosh, SirJames (A. 1765,*;. 1832), 
 was the sou of Captain John Mackintosh of 
 Kellachie. He was educated at Fortrose and 
 at King's College, Aberdeen. From thence 
 he went to Edinburgh to study medicine, and 
 became a member of the Koyal Medical 
 Society and also of the Speculative Society. 
 
 In 1789 he published a pamphlet on the 
 Regency Question, in which he supported the 
 views of the Whigs. In 1791 he became 
 known to the world as the antagonist of Mr. 
 Burke ia his Vindicice Oallicce. The talent 
 he displayed made him many illustrious 
 friends in the Opposition, but he was soon 
 converted by Burke himself. In 1795 he was 
 called to the bar. In 1803 he defended the 
 French journalist Peltier. He held for some 
 time the appointment of Professor of General 
 Polity and of Law iu the East India College 
 at Haileybury ; from that situation he was re- 
 moved to the of&ce of Recorder of Bombay, 
 on which occasion he received the honour of 
 knighthood (Deo. 21, 1803). He returned in 
 1811, and was elected member for Nairn 
 (1813). In 1818 he was elected for Knares- 
 borough under the influence of the Duke of 
 Devonshire. He devoted himself during his 
 Parliamentary career to the improvement of 
 the Penal Code. He continued to represent 
 Knaresborough down to his death. Among 
 other works Mackintosh wrote a History of 
 England, extending down to 1572, and a 
 History of the Revolution of 1688. 
 
 Macnaghten, Sir William {d. 1840). 
 Mr. Maonaghten was for several years a mem- 
 ber of the Madras army before he entered the 
 Bengal Civil Service. He gained great dis- 
 tinction at the College of Fort William and 
 in the judicial branch of the service- He 
 entered the political department during the 
 administration of Lord W. Bentinck. In 
 
 1837 he was Lord Auckland's secretary. In 
 
 1838 he was sent to Lahore to negotiate the 
 triple alliance with Kunjeet Singh. He ac- 
 companied the Afghan expedition as political 
 envoy. In 1840, for his services in conclud- 
 ing the treaties, he was made a baronet. On 
 Dec. 23 he was assassinated at Cabul by 
 Akbar Khan. 
 
 Macq,iiarie, Colonel Lachlan, was, in 
 1810, sent out as Governor of New South 
 Wales, an office which he filled for twelve 
 years. He was a man of great energy, and by 
 his amelioration of the condition of the dis- 
 charged convicts, did much to develop the 
 colony, whilst his employment of convict 
 labour in the construction of roads had the 
 effect of opening out the country to an extent 
 hitherto unknown. On his return to England, 
 in 1822, he left New South Wales " four times 
 as populous and twenty times as large as 
 when he went out." 
 
 Madras was granted to the English as a 
 sit^ for a trading factory, with a small adja- 
 cent factory, by the Eajah of Bijuagur, in 
 1639. A fort, called Fort St. George, was 
 erected here. In 1654 it was created a Pre- 
 sidency. It speedily grew in importance, and 
 became almost the largest trading station of 
 the English in India. In 1702 the fort was 
 strong enough to hold out successfully against 
 
Mad 
 
 ( G99 ) 
 
 Mag 
 
 the besieging army of the Emperor Aurung- 
 zebe. In 1746, however, it was captured by 
 the French general, Labourdonnais (Sept. 1), 
 and remained in the hands of the French till 
 restored to the English by the Peace of Aix- 
 la-Ghapelle (1748). In the Seven Years' War 
 it was besieged (Dec, 1758) by Lally, till 
 relieved by Admiral ]?ococke (Feb., 1759). 
 In 1769 it was threatened, though not actually 
 attacked, by Hyder Ali. In 1809 a mutiny 
 of the oflB.cers took place. In 1817 the town 
 was besieged by the Piudarries. In 1833 a 
 bishopric was established there. 
 
 Madras Mutiny, The (1809), was a 
 serious disturbance among the European offi- 
 cers of the East India Company's army. The 
 retrenching theories of the Directors induced 
 them to reduce some of the perquisites of the 
 officers. The whole army broke out into 
 mutiny. A hundred and fifty-eight officers 
 signed an address to government demanding 
 the repeal of the obnoxious order and the 
 restoration of the officers. Supported by the 
 new commander-in-chief and the king's regi- 
 ments, Sir George Barlow appealed to the 
 sepoys against their officers. This was done 
 so successfully that only in Seringapatam was 
 there any disturbance, where the native regi- 
 ments commanded by disaffected officers re- 
 fused to submit, and were fired upon by the 
 long's troops, with the result that 150 were 
 Mlled and wounded. The officers, alarmed at 
 the energetic measures of Sir George and the 
 intention of Lord Miuto to repair at once to 
 Madras, paused at open rebellion. By Angust 
 16th all had returned to their duty. On 
 reaching Madras, Lord Minto issued a gene- 
 ral order of such considerate and anxious 
 reprobation that all were conciliated, and the 
 exception of twenty-one ringleaders from the 
 general amnesty was received with equa- 
 nimity. Of these twenty-one, four were 
 cashiered, one acquitted, and the rest dis- 
 missed ; but all were subsequently restored 
 to the service. 
 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, Case of 
 (1687 — 88), was one of the causes which led 
 to the downfall of James II. In 1687 the 
 presidency of Magdalen College fell vacant, 
 when James II. issued a letter ordering the 
 election of one Anthony Farmer, a Roman 
 Catholic, as president. Farmer was not only 
 disqualified technically from holding the 
 appointment, but was a man of notoriously 
 immoral life and bad reputation. In spite of 
 the royal injunction, the fellows elected one 
 of their number, Dr. Hough, to the presi- 
 dency, whereupon they were cited before the 
 Commission. The proofs of Farmer's dis- 
 graceful conduct were indisputable, and the 
 Commission cancelled his nomination, but 
 insisted on the election of Parker, Bishop of 
 Oxford, another Catholic, to the presidency. 
 Again the fellows refused, and for this all the 
 fellows except two, who yielded to the king's 
 
 wishes, were suspended, and eventually de- 
 prived of their fellowships, and in a few 
 months the whole revenues of the college 
 were enjoyed by Catholics. Parker died not 
 long after, and was succeeded by GifEord, a 
 Romanist bishop; but in 1688 James, being 
 anxious to conciliate his subjects, restored 
 the ejected fellows, and accepted Hough as 
 president. 
 
 Magedauc, The Battle or (750), was a 
 victory for the Britons of Strathclyde over 
 Taloyan,.^brother of Angus MacFergus, and 
 the Picts. Magedauc is Mugdoch, in Dum- 
 bartonshire. 
 
 Magna Carta. The Charter that is 
 called Great, to mark its prominent value 
 among the charters granted by the Norman 
 and Angevin kings, is properly a treaty made 
 between John and his subjects, and was 
 " given imder our hand," that is, sealed with 
 the royal seal, on June 15, 1215. But it had 
 still to undergo several changes. As originally 
 granted, it contained sixty-three clauses, 
 which, among other provisions, set limits 
 to the usuries of the Jews, pledged the king 
 to raise no scutage or aid " save through the 
 common council of the realm, or on the three 
 ordinary feudal occasions," prescribed the 
 forms of summoning this council, forbade 
 any increase of the customary forms, em- 
 powered every one to go away from and come 
 back to the realm unhindered, mitigated the 
 oppressiveness of the Forest Laws, and 
 banished the royal mercenaries. "When first 
 confirmed, in 1216, by the Earl of Pembroke, 
 for the boy-king, Henry UL, it had lost all 
 these and other concessions; and thus its 
 clauses were abridged to forty-two. At its 
 second confirmation, made in 1217, these 
 forty-two had grown to forty-seven, one of 
 which settled the times of holding the county 
 court and view of frank-pledge, whUe another 
 restricted grants in mortmain. The fifth 
 confirmation, made in 1225, reduced the 
 clauses once more, to thirt}'"-seven this time, 
 and these proved the final and accepted legal 
 version. Even in this form it is a most com- 
 prehensive document; hardly an interest is 
 overlooked. To the Church it guaranteed the 
 freedom that mainly meant fuU liberty to 
 choose its prelates ; to tenants-in-chief relief 
 from the oppressive enforcement of feudal 
 obligations ; from disparagement of heirs and 
 spoliation of widows; to mesne tenants 
 similar securities against mesne lords; to 
 London and other cities and towns all their 
 ancient franchises ; to merchants full licence 
 to go about buying and selhng from, to, 
 or through England unfleeced; to villeins 
 that their wainage should not be distrained 
 to pay fines ; to the collective community that 
 Common Pleas should be held in a fixed 
 place ; that fines should be assessed on oath, by 
 upright men of the venue, and be proportioned 
 to the offence; that weights and measures 
 
Mah 
 
 ( 700 ) 
 
 Mall 
 
 should be uniform, and that the sheriffs should 
 be curbed in the exercise of their manifold 
 authority. But the highest pitch of the 
 Charter is reached in the clauses that assure 
 every freeman that his person and property 
 are absolutely secure from every kind of 
 damaging process, " save through the lawful 
 judgment of his peers or the law of the land," 
 and pledge the king not to sell, refuse, or 
 postpone the doing of justice to any one. The 
 later confirmations are almost beyond reckon- 
 ing; fifteen are found in Edward III.'s 
 reign alone. Never has law been held in 
 higher esteem ; the very day that Charles II. 
 entered London as a restored king, the 
 Commons asked him to confirm Magna Carta. 
 Matthew Paris, p. 252, &c. ; Ralph of Cogges- 
 
 hall; Blackstone, Pre/ace fo Magna Carta; 
 
 Stubhs, Const. Ri&t.y ch. xii., and Select CTiarters. 
 
 [J. K.] 
 
 IKCaharajpore, The Battle or (Dec. 29, 
 18i3), took place during the Gwalior War. 
 The impossibility of restoring order to the 
 Gwalior State belonging to Scindia, except 
 by an appeal to arms, determined Lord Ellen- 
 borough to despatch an army to effect this. On 
 Dec. 20 the army advanced on Gwalior. Scin- 
 dia 's troops had taken up a strong position, and 
 during the night seven battalions of infantry 
 entrenched themselves with twenty guns of 
 heavy calibre in the village of Maharajpore. 
 Sir Hugh Gough, despising his enemy, made 
 no reconnaissance, and therefore knew nothing 
 of this change of position. The discharge of 
 the masked batteries gave the first notice of 
 the proximity of Scindia's army. The heavy 
 guns had been left behind, and so Sir Hugh 
 Gough at once launched his troops on the 
 Mahratta batteries, which were served with 
 frantic desperation till all the gunners were 
 shot down at their posts. After the guns 
 were captured, the infantry maintained their 
 ground with great determination, and the vic- 
 tory was not gained till 1,000 of the British 
 army fell, killed and wounded. 
 
 Mahidpore, The Battle op (Dec. 21, 
 1817), was fought during the war against 
 Holkar. Sir Thomas Hislop moved up to 
 Mahidpore to bring on the issue of a battle. 
 Holkar's army was protected by a river in 
 front, its left fiank resting on a deep morass 
 and its front lined with a formidable bat- 
 tery of seventy guns. Sir Thomas launched 
 his men across the difficult river by a 
 single ferry, in the face of a terrific fire, to 
 seize the guns which had silenced his own 
 light infantry. Holkar's artillerymen fought 
 with great gallantry, but were struck down 
 at their guns. A general rout took place and 
 the victory was complete though won at the 
 expense of 778 killed and wounded. 
 
 Mahomet Ali (d. 1795) was the son of 
 Auwar-ud-deen, Nabob of the Carnatic. In 
 1749 he was placed on the throne after, 
 the recapture of Arcot fi-om the French and 
 
 Chunda Sahib. He was shortly, however, 
 attacked in his camp, and with difficulty es- 
 caped to Nazir Jung. He now made overtures 
 to the French, but Clive's success at Arcot 
 (1751) confirmed him to the English. He 
 now entered into an alliance with Mysore 
 and Tanjore, and raised an army of Mah- 
 rattas under Morari Rao. The Carnatic was 
 gradually reduced by the English and native 
 annies. In 1756 a suspension of arms was 
 agreed to, and Mahomet Ali was acknow- 
 ledged Nabob of the Carnatic. He was beset 
 with difficulties, and in 1757 required the 
 aid of a British detachment to put down the 
 rebellion of his brothers and collect his re- 
 venue. During the war he was compelled to 
 pay tribute to the Mahratta Bajee Eao. 
 His rebellious subjects gave him considerable 
 trouble. In 1769 he quarrelled with Tan- 
 jore. The result of the war which followed 
 was the conquest of Tanjore, which was given 
 to Mahomet AH by the English. In 1776 he 
 was compelled to disgorge it again. He was 
 an object of pecuKar aversion to Hyder Ah, 
 owing to the malign influence he was sup- 
 posed to exercise on the English counsels. 
 The Carnatic became the scene of the war 
 again on the outbreak of hostilities in 1778. 
 During the reign of Mahomet Ali the Car- 
 natic gradually assumed a position of com- 
 plete dependence on England. Its defence 
 was guaranteed in return for tribute. All 
 its foreign relations were conducted through 
 the English. Its contribution was liable to 
 be raised in war time. Its government was 
 assumed by the English in war time. 
 Mill, Hist, oflniia. 
 Mahou, LoKD. [Stanhope, Lord.] 
 
 Mahrattas, The, consisted of several 
 tribes of Hindoo mountaineers whose origin 
 and early history is obscure. They were 
 brought into prominence towards the end of 
 the seventeenth century by the chief Sivaji. 
 Beginning with a small estate and a small 
 army, he took advantage of the weakness of 
 the Moguls, and the wars of Aurungzebe, to 
 enlarge his army, and extend his dominions at 
 the expense of his neighbours. His head- 
 quarters were fixed at Satara, from which 
 plundering hordes sallied in every direction, 
 until the whole surface of India was studded 
 with their possessions. The break up of the 
 Mogul empire, which followed the invasion 
 of Nadir Shah, enabled them to extend their 
 dominions from Delhi in the north to the 
 Toombuddra, a southern tributary of the 
 Kistna on the south, and from the Bay of 
 Bengal to Gujerat on the west. During the 
 reigns of Sivaji's weak successors all autho- 
 rity was usurped by the principal officers of 
 State. Two powerful kingdoms were formed, 
 the one under the Peishwa, or prime minister, 
 whose capital was at Poonah, and the other 
 under the commander-in-chief, who fixed his 
 capital at Nagpore, and is known as the 
 
mah 
 
 ( 701 ) 
 
 Mai 
 
 Eajah. of Berar. The authority of the Eajah 
 of Satara became merely nominal, and all 
 power resided in the Peishwa, ■who hecame 
 head of the Mahratta Confederacy. A herds- 
 man founded a sovereignty in Gujerat, fixing 
 his court at Baroda, and was known by the 
 title of the Ouicowar. Another band sallying 
 south founded the state of Tanjore ; all these 
 chieftains, including the Eajah of Berar, or 
 the Bhonslah, acknowledged the supremacy 
 of the Peishwa, and marched to battle under 
 his standard. This ill-cemented confederacy 
 tended to split up owing to the weakness of 
 successive Peishwas and the rise of other 
 chieftains, such as Scindia and Holkar, who 
 waged almost independent wars in Eajpootana 
 and Malwa. This disintegrating tendency 
 was shown at the Peace of Salbhye, when 
 Mahdajee Scindia assumed an almost inde- 
 pendent position as mediator between the 
 Poonah State and the English government. 
 The confederacy, however, still held toge- 
 ther, and in 1795, for the last time, the whole 
 Mahratta army assembled under the banner 
 of the Peishwa, to crush the Nizam. The 
 civil wars and disturbances which attended 
 the accession of Bajee Eao II., and the rivalry 
 between the various chiefs, especially Dowlut 
 Eao Scindia, and Jeswunt Eao Holkar, caused 
 the total break-up of the confederacy by the 
 Treaty of Bassein. The result of the wars 
 which followed was to reduce the Peishwa to 
 the position' of a dependent on the English 
 government, and to establish Scindia, Holkar, 
 and the Eajah of Berar, as independent 
 sovereigns. Tanjore had already feillen to 
 the Enghsh, and the Guicowar was bound 
 by a defensive alliance to the conquerors of 
 India. The dissatisfaction of the Peishwa at 
 his dependent state, and his attempts to 
 recover independence, in which he was aided 
 by the Eajah of Berar, Appa Sahib, caused 
 the' deposition of the former, the annexation 
 of his territories, and the final dissolution of 
 the Mahratta Confederacy (1818). 
 
 The chief members of the Mahratta Con- 
 federacy were : — 
 
 The Rajah of Satara, the descendant of 
 Sivaji. The authority of this prince, long 
 obsolete, was revived in 1819, on the down- 
 fall of the Poonah State. A nortion of terri- 
 tory was restored to him with limited political 
 power. This re-organisation was dangerous 
 as supplying a fresh nucleus for Mahratta 
 intrigue, and like all iU- judged measures was 
 productive of disastrous results. In 1839 it 
 was discovered that the Eajah was in corre- 
 spondence with the Portuguese of Goa, with 
 Appa Sahib, the dethroned Eajah of Nagpore, 
 and with other enemies of the EngHsh 
 government with the object of exciting a con- 
 federacy against his benefactors. Lord Auck- 
 land, finding the Rajah refused to conform 
 to the treaty of 1819, which had restored 
 him to power, deposed him and elevated his 
 brother to the throne on the same conditions 
 
 of dependence. The latter governed the 
 country with great vigour and beneficence 
 for ten years. As he left no legitimate heirs 
 and had not obtained the consent of the Eng- 
 lish to adopt a son. Lord Dalhousie held that 
 as the Satara State existed only by treaty 
 with England, it had now fairly lapsed to the 
 Company, and it was inexpedient to recon- 
 stitute it. It was therefore annexed (1848). 
 
 The Peishwa, resident at Poonah ; ruling in 
 Poonah, Khandeish, the Konkan, and Gujerat, 
 with a nominal supremacy over the whole 
 confederation. His territory and power was 
 greatly diminished by tho Treaties of Bassein, 
 and the rise of the other chieftains. His 
 dominions were finally annexed by the 
 treaties of 1817 and 1818. 
 
 The Majah of Berar, resident at Nag- 
 pore ; ruling what now constitutes the Central 
 Provinces. The Berar State was annexed in 
 1853, on the death of the last Eajah, leaving 
 no children, on the same principle as the an- 
 nexation of Satara. 
 
 The Rajah of Tanjore, ruling at Tanjore. 
 [Tanjokb.] 
 
 The Guicowar, ruling at Baroda. [Gui- 
 cowar.] 
 
 Scindia, ruling at Gwalior. [Scindia.] 
 
 Holkar, ruling at Indore. [Holkar.] 
 
 The Rajah of Bundelkhimd. In 1786 two 
 Mahratta chiefs during the Mogul and Mah- 
 ratta wars in Eajpootana, had established an 
 insecure throne in Bandelkhund. In 1803 the 
 Peishwa Bajee Eao, as head of the Mahratta 
 State, ceded his claims on Bundelkhund to 
 England. The province was definitely an- 
 nexed, and in 1817 the Peishwa formally 
 gave up all claims on it. 
 
 The Rajah of Kolapore was the possessor of 
 a jaghire in the Poonah State. This small 
 territory, originally in conjunction with its 
 neighbour, Sawuntivaree, a piratical State, 
 has survived the empire of the Peishwas,. 
 and exists as a dependent state no longer 
 piratical. 
 
 Of these chiefs, Scindia, Holkar, the Gui- 
 cowar, and the Eajah of Kolapore, still exist 
 dependent protected princes. 
 
 Grrant Duif , Jlfahrattas ; ElpMustone, India ; 
 Mill, Hist, of India, 
 
 Mahratta Ditch. In 1742 the Mah- 
 rattas invaded Bengal. The inhabitants 
 crowded into the foreign factories, and espe- 
 cially Calcutta, for protection. The President 
 sought permission of the Nabob to' surround 
 the Company's territory with an entrench- 
 ment. It was readily conceded, and the work 
 was commenced, and prosecuted with vigour, 
 but suspended on the withdrawal of the enemy. 
 This entrenchment was called the Mahratta 
 Ditch. 
 
 Maintenance is defined ,in the law 
 books as " the act of assisting the plaintifE in 
 any legal proceeding in which the person 
 giving the assistance has no valuable in,teTest,,. 
 
Mai 
 
 { 702) 
 
 Mai 
 
 or in wHcli lie acts from an improper motive ; ' ' 
 or, lesa technically, it is simply "interference 
 "with the due course of justice." It was often 
 found easier in the England of the Middle 
 Ages for a man to have recourse to some 
 powerful neighhour who would "maintain" 
 his cause, than to seek, on his own motion, 
 for the expensive, uncertain, and cumbrous 
 remedies of the law courts. In return for 
 help, which might be warrantable, but 
 which was more commonly a gross perversion 
 of the course of justice, the person assisted 
 became the dependent or client of the baron 
 who supported him. In other cases, lawyers 
 were guilty of similar acts of "maintenance." 
 Allied with maintenance was the custom of 
 giving livery, which, besides its more direct 
 political result in exciting and stimulating 
 dynastic factions, was commonly resorted to 
 as giving a colourable excuse for maintenance. 
 In conjunction the customs of livery and 
 maintenance produced a " chronic organised 
 anarchy, striking at all law and government 
 whatsoever." Associations were formed to 
 maintain the suits of their members. Great 
 lords conferred with lavish profusion their 
 liveries on all who would wear them, and 
 regarded it as a point of honour to " main- 
 tain" the causes of their clients. A long 
 series of statutes and proclamations were 
 directed against these evils, but to very little 
 purpose. By the Statute of Westminster the 
 First it was ordered that no sheriff or officer 
 of justice should maintain parties in quarrels. 
 Two other enactments of Edward I.'s reign, 
 in 1285 and 130.5, were to the same effect. 
 In 1327 and 1346 stronger measures, which in 
 themselves were evidences of the develop- 
 ment of the custom, were passed. By for- 
 bidding the return to Parliament of main- 
 tainers of false suits, an indirect but effectual 
 blow was aimed against the practice. But 
 maintenance was never more flagrant than 
 when Alice Ferrers, the mistress of Edward 
 III.'s dotage, took her seat in the courts of 
 law to maintain the causes of her friends, or 
 when John of Gaunt and Percy " maintained" 
 Wycliffe when attacked for heresy by the 
 Bishop of London. A series of statutes in 
 the reign of Richard II. had little effect, and 
 maintenance flourished during the weak 
 government of the fifteenth century. Mean- 
 while the practice of livery had increased 
 also, and the importance laid on heraldry 
 during the later Middle Ages largely brought 
 this about. During the period 1377 — 1468 a 
 long series of Acts of Parliament limited the 
 right of nobles to confer liveries as well as 
 strengthened the laws against maintenance. 
 But their weakness for good lay in the fact 
 that there was no efficient court to carry them 
 out, since the law courts were themselves 
 brought into contempt by the custom of 
 maintenance. A famous Act of Henry VII. 
 (the Statute of Livery and Maintenance, 3 
 Hen. VII., cap. i.) remedied this defect of 
 
 previous legislation by constituting a court of 
 royal officials, who were by their position free 
 from the fear of violence and corruption that 
 beset the assizes. This measure, in conjunc- 
 tion with the stricter government of the 
 Tudors, soon brought an end to maintenance. 
 An Act of Henry VIII. passed in 1S40 was 
 indeed directed against maintenance, but its 
 provisions show that fraud, not force, was the 
 means then sought to pervert the course of 
 justice; and the offence of maintenance in 
 subsequent periods has consisted of fraudulent 
 rather than forcible attempts to interfere with 
 the due course of justice. 
 
 Stubljs, Const. Hist., vol. iii. ; Stephen, History 
 of the Crininal Law, vol. ill. rqi TP T 1 
 
 Maitland, Sik John (i. 1545, d. 1595), 
 brother of Maitland of Lethington, was made 
 Lord Privy Seal (1567), though in 1570 he was 
 deprived of his office by Act of Parliament. 
 In 1584 James VI. made him Secretary of 
 State, and a few years afterwards Chancellor. 
 He was a great enemy of the second Earl of 
 Bothwell, who attacked Holyrood House 
 with a view to seizing him. In 1589 he ac- 
 companied James to Norway to fetch his bride, 
 Anne of Denmark, and in 1590 was created 
 Lord Maitland of Thirlestan. 
 
 Major-Generals. In 1655, after the 
 disagreement with his first Parhameut, and 
 the rising under Penruddock, Cromwell de- 
 mised the plan of dividing England into military 
 districts, to be governed each by a major- 
 general, responsible only to the Protector and 
 Council. The major-generals were entrusted 
 with the command of the miHtia, with the 
 duties of putting down all attempted insurrec- 
 tions, carrying out the Protector's police re- 
 gulations, and raising the ten per cent, in- 
 come tax imposed on Royalists. The first 
 appointed was Desborough, in May, 1655, for 
 the six south-western counties ; but the 
 whole organisation was officially announced 
 in October. Including "Wales, there were, in 
 aU, twelve districts. When Cromwell's second 
 Parliament met, after a vigorous defence of 
 his "poor little invention," he was obliged 
 to abandon it. The House of Commons, on 
 Jan. 29, 1657, rejected by 121 to 78, the 
 second reading of a " Bill for the continuing 
 and assessing of a tax for the paying and 
 maintaining of the Militia forces in England 
 and Wales," and thus deprived the Protector 
 of the machinery by which the system of 
 major-generals was maintained. 
 
 Ci-omwell's Letters and Speeches ; Hasson, Life 
 of Milton, gives a list o{ districts and their com- 
 manders, from the Order Books of the Council, 
 vol. v., p. 49, 
 
 Malabar Coast is the coast of India 
 west of the Western Ghauts, south of Canara, 
 and north of Travancore. 
 
 Malacca, on the west coast of the Malay 
 Peninsula, was held by the Portuguese until 
 1640 i it then feU into the hands of the Dutch, 
 
Mai 
 
 ( 703 ) 
 
 mai 
 
 who kept it until it was taken by the English 
 in 1795. In 1801 it was restored to the Dutch 
 Dy the Peace of Amiens, and did not finally 
 come into the possession of the British until 
 1825, when it was obtained in exchange for 
 the island of Sumatra. In 1867 Malacca was 
 separated from the Indian government, and 
 together with the other Straits Settlements, 
 came under the Colonial Office. Its local 
 afEairs are now administered by a Resident, 
 who is under the Governor of Singapore. 
 
 Kalcolm I., King of Scotland (943 — 
 954), son of Donald, succeeded to the throne 
 of Alban on the resignation of Constantinell. 
 (943). One of his first acts was to attack and 
 slay Cellach, the provincial King of Moray. 
 In 945 Edmund of England made over to him 
 the province of Cumberland, on condition 
 that he should give him aid both by land and 
 sea, a compact which was renewed by Ed- 
 mund's successor, Eadred. In 949, however, 
 Malcolm, having broken the condition, ravaged 
 Northumbria as far as the Tees ; he was slain 
 (954), either at Alwin, near Forres, by the men 
 of Moray, in revenge for the death of their 
 king, Cellach, or at Fetteresso. 
 
 Malcolin II., King of Scotland (1005 
 —1034), son of Kenneth II., came to the 
 throne of Scotland as the successor of 
 Kenneth III. (1005), and at once attacked 
 Northumbria, besieging Durham with a 
 large army. He was, however, defeated by 
 Uchtred, son-in-law of Aldun, Bishop of Dur- 
 ham. TJnsuccessf ul in his attempts to wrest 
 Caithness from the Norwegian earls, he con- 
 cluded an alliance with Sigurd, giving him 
 his daughter in marriage, whose son, Thorfiun, 
 he made Earl of Sutherland and Caithness. In 
 1018, Malcolm retrieved his former defeat by 
 a brilliant victory at Carham over Eadulf, 
 who was forced to cede Lothian to the Scot- 
 tish king as the price of peace. In 1031, 
 Malcolm submitted to Canute and became 
 "his man." In 1034 he was assassinated 
 at Glamis. In him the direct male line of 
 Kenneth MacAlpiu came to an end. During 
 his reign Strathclyde finally became part of 
 the Scotch kingdom. Malcolm was the first 
 king who was called King of Scotia; his 
 successful policy of consolidation obtained for 
 him the title of " the Lord and Father of the 
 "West." 
 
 EobertsoB, Early Kingi of Scotland ; Skene, 
 Celtic ScotUind. 
 
 Malcolm III., King of Scotland (1058 
 —1093), sumamed Canmore (Great Head), 
 was the eldest son of King Duncan, some 
 say by a miller's daughter, but more probably 
 by the daughter of the Earl of Northumbria. 
 On his father's death, Malcolm and his 
 brother Donaldbane, who were mere infants, 
 were protected for a time by their grandfather, 
 Cunan. Malcolm afterwards sought aid from 
 
 his uncle, Siward of Northumbria, who de- 
 feated Macbeth near Dunsinane (1054), and 
 on his death, from Tostig, son of Earl God- 
 wine. The cause of the young prince was 
 also espoused by Edward the Confessor, vidth 
 the result that Macbeth was slain ' at Lum- 
 phanan (1057), and that Malcolm obtained 
 undisputed possession of the throne a few 
 months later, being crowned at Scone (April 
 25, 1058). In 1061 the king broke his alliance 
 with Tostig, and ravaged Northumbria, but 
 became reconciled to him, and gave him shelter 
 on his defeat by Morcar (1065). In 1068, 
 Edgar Atheling, his mother and two sisters, 
 with a number of Saxon exiles, took refuge at 
 the Scottish court, and were well received by 
 Malcolm, out of gratitude for the aid formerly 
 received from the Confessor. In 1070 the 
 Scottish king married Margaret, Edgar's 
 sister, as his second wife (his first having been 
 Ingebiorga, widow of Thorfinn of Caithness), 
 a marriage which, in conjunction with the 
 asylum granted to Saxon refugees, had a most 
 important effect in improving the condition of 
 the country, both by promoting civilisation 
 and education. Malcolm, in 1070, bound by 
 his alliance with Edgar, harried the northern 
 districts of England, upon which William re- 
 taliated by penetrating as far as Fife, in 1072, 
 where, at Abemethy, the Scottish king swore 
 fealty to him, and surrendered his son Duncan 
 as a hostage, receiving in return the grant of 
 certain lands in England. In 1075, Malcolm 
 succeeded in persuading Edgar to renounce 
 his claim to the English throne. In 1079, on 
 William's absence in Normandy, Malcolm 
 ravaged England as far as the Tyne, drawing 
 down by this act an invasion of Scotland by 
 Prince Robert in the following year. In 1091, 
 Malcolm again espoused the cause of Edgar 
 Atheling, and invaded England, meeting Wil- 
 liam KufuB near Leeds; here, however, a peace 
 was concluded by the exertions of Robert and 
 Edgar, Malcolm swearing fealty to the King of 
 England. In August, 1093, the Scottish king 
 was summoned to Gloucester for the comple- 
 tion of the treaty, but was there threatened 
 with so much arrogance by William that he 
 asserted his independence and hurried back to 
 Scotland, where he collected an army with 
 which he invaded England. He was slain in 
 battle on the banks of the Alne, by the hand 
 of Morel of Bamborough (November _ 13th, 
 1093), and buried at Tynemouth. His sou 
 Edward perished at the same time. " An able 
 king, and a bold and fearless warrior," says 
 Mr. Robertson, "the traits that have been 
 preserved of his private character evince the 
 kindliness of disposition and frank generosity 
 which not unfrequently adorn so gracefully 
 the character of a brave man." Malcolm had 
 six sons and two daughters, the eldest of whom, 
 Maud, married Henry I. of England; the 
 younger, Mary, Eustace, Count of Boulogne. 
 The reign of Malcolm, from its effects in 
 civilising and consolidating Scotland, is a 
 
Mai 
 
 ( 704) 
 
 Illal 
 
 most important epoch in tte history of that 
 country. 
 
 Eobertson, Earlg Kings of Scotlani ; Burton, 
 Mist, of Scotland. 
 
 USalcolm IV. (the Maiden) , King of Scot- 
 land (1153 — 1165), son of Prince Henry and 
 Ada de "Warenne, succeeded hisi grandfather, 
 David I. (1153). A few months after his 
 succession, an attempt was made to wrest the 
 kingdom from him by Somerled of Argyle 
 and the sons of Wymund. In 1157 he sur- 
 rendered to his cousin, Henry II. of England, 
 the counties of Northumberland and Cum- 
 berland, an act which excited much opposi- 
 tion in Scotland, and led, in 1160, to a 
 rebellion headed by six Scottish earls. 
 Malcolm, who was with Henry in France, on 
 the Toulouse expedition, hurried back to 
 Scotland, and succeeded in quieting the 
 rebels. He also subjected Galloway and 
 Moray in the same year. In 1164 Malcolm 
 again defeated Somerled, who was invading 
 his territory. He died at Jedburgh, at the 
 early age of twenty-four (December, 1165). 
 
 malcolm, natural son of Alexander I., 
 conceived the idea of making himself king of 
 the country north of the Forth and Clyde, in 
 place of David I. In this project he was 
 aided by Angus of Moray. He was, how- 
 ever, defeated in 1130, and finally reduced to 
 subjection (1134). 
 
 Malcolm, Sie John (J. 1769, d. 1833), 
 was bom at Langholm, in Dumfriesshire. In 
 1783 he went to India as a cadet. He was 
 present during the second Mysore War (q.v.), 
 and was appointed Persian interpreter in the 
 camp of the Nizam. In 1798 he was assistant 
 to the Resident at Hyderabad. He was present 
 at the third Mysore "War (q.v.), and at its 
 termination was appointed secretary to the 
 commission which was to arrange the settle- 
 ment of Mysore. When the commission had 
 done its work, Malcolm was sent to the 
 Persian court (1799), where he successfully 
 concluded a treaty of alliance against the 
 French. He acted as private secretary to 
 Lord Wellesley in 1801—2. He acted as 
 political agent in Lord Lake's camp during 
 the Holkar War, and negotiated the Treaty 
 of Raipoor Ghaut (1806). In 1806—7 he 
 returned to Mysore, to act as Resident. In 
 1808 he was despatched on a second mission 
 to Persia, in which he was totally unsuccess- 
 ful. In 1810 he was again sent to Persia, 
 and was well received. In 1814 his ffistorjr 
 of Persia was published. He was present as 
 Madras political agent and general during 
 the Mahratta War (1817—18). He fought 
 with great courage at Mahidpore, and nego- 
 tiated the treaties with Holkar and Bajee 
 Rao. He was prominent in the settlement of 
 Central India (1818—19), and was appointed 
 political agent. In 1821 he returned to 
 England. He was created G.C.B. In 1827 
 he returned to India as Governor of Bombay. 
 
 In 1830 he returned to England; and in 
 1833 he died. Malcolm's Political History of 
 India from 1784 to 1823 is a very valuable 
 work. He also wrote a Sketch of the Sikhs, a 
 Memoir of Central India, and a Life of Lord 
 
 'Ksbje, Indian Officers. 
 
 Maldou, TheBattle of (991), was fought 
 between the English, under Brihtnoth, and 
 the Danes, led by Guthmund, and Olaf Trygg- 
 vesson. The invaders were boldly resisted, 
 but proved victorious, and Brithnoth and a 
 large number of the English fell. This 
 battle owes its chief importance to the grand 
 song which was written in commemoration 
 of it. 
 
 The story of Maldon may be read in Sweet's 
 Anglo-SajEon Reader. A'fine translation is 
 given by Mr. Freeman in his Old English His- 
 tory. 
 
 Malignants, The. A phrase used by 
 the Parliament to describe the king's evil 
 advisers. It occurs frequently in the Grand 
 Remonstrance. " All the fault is laid upon iU 
 ministers, who are there called a malig- 
 nant party " (May). The Commons began 
 by saying that for the last twelve months 
 they have laboured to reform the evils which 
 afflict the kingdom, and "do yet find an 
 abounding malignity and opposition in those 
 parties and factions, who have been the cause 
 of those evils." They go on to say that "the 
 root of all this mischief " is "a maHgnant and 
 pernicious design of subverting the funda- 
 mental laws and principles of government, 
 upon which the religion and justice of this 
 kingdom are firmly established." Strafford 
 and Laud were the heads of this "malignant, 
 party," who were " the actors and promoters 
 of all our misery." This party, they con- 
 clude, still exists, hinders the work of refor- 
 mation, and sows discord between king and 
 Parliament, and between Parliament and 
 people. The name came to be applied after- 
 wards to all who supported the king against 
 the Parliament. The Lord Mayor of London, 
 Sir Richard Gourney, says Clarendon, "grew 
 to be reckoned in the first form of the maUg- 
 nants, which was the term they imposed upon 
 all those they meant to render odious to the 
 people." 
 
 May, Long Parliament ; Clarendon, Rebellion. 
 
 Malmeslinry, William oe (S. circa 
 1195), is one of the greatest of our mediasval 
 chroniclers. His uneventful life was spent in 
 the abbey of Malmesbury, of which he was 
 librarian and precentor. His most important 
 historical works are. The Gesta Regum, The 
 Gesta Pontificum, The Life of St. Dunstm, 
 The Sistory of Glastonbury, and the Sistorin 
 Novella. The Gesta Regum extends from the 
 year 449 to 1128. " Considering the age in 
 which he lived," says Sir T. Hardy, "the 
 sources whence he has drawn his materials 
 are surprisingly numerous. . . . Little 
 
Mai 
 
 ( 705 ) 
 
 Mai 
 
 seems to have escaped him, and his skUl and 
 judgment in arranging them have so kept 
 pace with his industry, that more information 
 relating to manners and customs is, perhaps, 
 to be gathered from him than from all those 
 •who preceded him." The Historia Novella 
 extends from the year 1126 to 1142, where it 
 ends abruptly. 
 
 An edition ot the Sist. ' Novella and Gesta 
 Regum was published by the Bng. Hist. Soc, 
 and there is a translation in Bohn's AntiquoA-ian 
 Library, The Gesta Pontificv/m has been pub- 
 lished in the Bolls Series. 
 
 Malowu, The StEOE or (April 15, 
 1815), occurred during the Goorkha "War. 
 After an extremely arduous service amid the 
 hills of the Upper Sutlej, General Ochterlouy 
 succeeded in confining TJmur Singh, the 
 Goorkha general, to the fort of Malown, 
 which was situated on a mountain ridge, with 
 a steep declivity of 2,000 feet on two sides. 
 On April 16 a sally was made upon the 
 British works by the whole Goorkha force, 
 which, however, was obliged to retire, vrith 
 the loss of 500 men. The occupation of 
 Almorah (AprU 27) isolated the Goorkha force 
 in Malown, and, as TJmur Singh refused to 
 come to terms, the greater part of his force 
 deserted to the English. He himself retired 
 into the fort, with about 200 men, who stiU 
 clung to him. But when the English batteries 
 were about to open, he felt unwilling to 
 sacrifice in a forlorn conflict the Kves of the 
 brave men who had generously adhered to 
 hJTn to the last, and accepted the terms 
 offered to him, thus ceding the whole of the 
 conquests which the Nepaulese had made 
 west of the Kalee. General Ochterlony 
 allowed him to march out with his arms and 
 accoutrements, his colours, two guns, and all 
 his personal property, "in consideration of 
 the a kin , bravery, and fidelity with which he 
 had defended the country committed to his 
 charge." [Goorkha Wae.] 
 
 lEalplaqTiet, The Battle op (Sept. 11, 
 1709), was fought during the War of the 
 Spanish Succession, between the EngUsh and 
 the troops of the Empire, under the Duke of 
 Marlborough and Prince Eugene, and the 
 French, under Marshal TiUars. The battle 
 was the most bloody and obstinately contested 
 of the whole war. The French fought with a 
 determination such as they had not shown in 
 the earlier battles of the war, and their 
 desperate resistance made the battle a 
 slaughter. Twelve thousand of the French 
 were slain, but the loss of the allies was even 
 greater, and has been put at double the 
 number. The object of Marlborough and 
 Eugene was gained, however, and the strong 
 town of Mons was forced to surrender. 
 
 Martin, Histoire de France ; Coxe, Marlborough ; 
 
 Marlborough Despatches; Stanhope, Beign of 
 
 Qiteen Anne. 
 
 Malsneclltan, "King of Moray," was 
 the son of Lulach. In 1077 he rebelled 
 HIST.-23 
 
 against, and was defeated by, Malcolm Can- 
 more. He died in 1085, having obtained a 
 partial independence. 
 
 Malta, an island in the Mediterranean 
 Sea, has been well known in history ever since 
 the fifth century before Christ. In 1070 the 
 Arabs, who had held the island since 870, 
 were driven out by the Norman lords of 
 Sicily, 1090. Henceforth it followed the 
 fortunes of the Sicilian kingdom until 1630, 
 when it was made over to the Knights of 
 St. John by Charles V., who had inherited it 
 in 1516 together with the crown of Aragon; 
 in 1566 the island was attacked by the Turks, 
 but was successfully defended, and in spite of 
 subsequent attacks by various nations, re- 
 mained in possession of the Hospitallers until 
 1798, when it capitulated to the French. The 
 Maltese, however, speedily revolted against 
 their new masters, and endeavoured to drive 
 the French out while the island was blockaded 
 from 1798 to 1800 by a combined fleet oi 
 Portuguese, Sicilian, and English vessels. 
 The Maltese were also assisted on land by 
 English troops, and in September, 1800, the 
 French, who were commanded by General 
 Vaubois, were compelled to surrender to 
 General Pigot. By the Peace of Amiens 
 (1802) it was proposed that Malta should be 
 restored to the Knights of St. John, but this 
 was never done, and in 1814 the island was 
 finally annexed to England by the Treaty 
 of Paris, to the gi'eat joy of the Maltese. 
 The island is now most important as an 
 arsenal and dockyard, and is the head- 
 quarters of the Mediterranean fleet, whilst its 
 value as a military station is great. The 
 capital of Malta is LaTaletta, founded (1566) 
 by La Valette, the Grand Master of the 
 Knights of St. John. The government of the 
 island is vested in a governor, who is also the 
 commander-in-chief, and a council of eighteen 
 members, ten of whom are ofScial and eight 
 elected. The government of Malta also in- 
 cludes the neighbouring islands of Gozo and 
 Comino. 
 
 Maxtin, Colonies. 
 
 Malthus, Thomas {b. 1766, d. 1834), 
 studied at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he 
 obtained a fellowship and took orders. In 
 1804 he was appointed professor of history at 
 Haileybury College. He wrote several works 
 on political economy, including the famous 
 Treatise on Population (1798), an Inquiry into 
 the Nature and Progress of Pent (1816), and 
 Principles of Political Economy (1820). The 
 leading principle which Malthus lays down in 
 his economical writings is that of the misery 
 caused by over-population, and of the ten- 
 dency of the population everywhere to increase 
 faster than the means of subsistence. Hence 
 he argues that unless the population is kept 
 down, the time must at length come when 
 it will be no longer possible to find food 
 for it. His theories are not accej>ted com- 
 
Mai 
 
 ( 706 ) 
 
 Kan 
 
 pletely by modern economists ; but their efleots 
 on the economical speculation and the poli- 
 tical thought of the present century have 
 been unequalled. 
 
 Maltote, or Malatolta, meaning 
 literally " an evU tax," was the term gene- 
 rally applied to the unjust tax upon wool 
 levied by Edward I., and other kings. It 
 was abolished by art. vii. of the Confirmatio 
 Cartarum of Edward I. 
 
 Man, The Isle of (Mona), was in early 
 times inhabited by a Celtic population of the 
 Groidelio stock. According to Bede, it was 
 included in the Empire of Edwin of North- 
 umbria. Subsequently, it was settled by 
 Norse pirates, and its political institutions have 
 since been mainly of the Norse tj'pe, the bulk 
 of the population and the language remaining 
 Celtic. On its conversion to Christianity it be- 
 came the seat of a bishopric called the Bishopric 
 of Sodor [i.e., the Southern Isles, Sudreyjar) 
 and Man, which first depended on Trondhjem, 
 but ultimately on York. In 1264 Alexander 
 III. of Scotland acquired the Southern Isles 
 hy purchase from Magnus of Norway, and in 
 1275 finally subdued the Manx men. Shortly 
 afterwards the island came into the hands of 
 the English, and in 1290 was granted by 
 Edward I. to John Baliol. In 1307 Piers 
 Gaveston was made lord of the island by 
 Edward II., though he did not retain his 
 territory for long. Man now passed succes- 
 sively through the hands of the Montagues, 
 Scropes, and Percys until it was given in 
 1406 to Sir John Stanley, who became Lord 
 or King of Man ; the island remained in the 
 possession of the Stanley family (Earls of 
 Derby) until 1735, when it became the 
 property of the Dukes of Athole ; it was partly 
 sold to the crown in 1765, and entirely 
 given up hy its owner in 1829. In 1651 
 Castle Eushen, at Castletown the capital, was 
 bravely defended hy Charlotte de la Tre- 
 mouille, Countess of Derby, against the 
 Parliamentary forces, and was only sur- 
 rendered at last owing to the treachery 
 of the governor. Christian. The island was 
 given back to the Stanleys at the Restoration. 
 During the last century it was notorious as 
 the resort of smugglers. The government of 
 the island is independent, and is adminis- 
 tered by a governor and the Tynwald, which 
 is composed of two houses — namely, the 
 Upper House, or Council, consisting of cer- 
 tain officials (usually ten in number), and the 
 House of Keys, which consists of twenty- 
 four of the principal islanders. There are 
 two deemsters, or judges, who try civil and 
 criminal cases ; there are courts of exchequer 
 and chancery besides common law courts. 
 
 Munch, Chvonicon Begum Mawnim; Saclie- 
 verel, Hiat. of Man. 
 
 . Manchester was a small Roman settle- 
 ment, first occupied in a.d. 79. It was re- 
 duced by Edwin of Northurabria in 620, and 
 
 seems to have been occasionally 'one of the 
 residences of the Northumbrian princes. 
 One of Edward the Elder's fortresses was 
 built here in 923. It was made a market town 
 in 1301, and was an important seat of the 
 wooUen manufacture early in the fourteenth 
 century. In the Civil War of the seven- 
 teenth century Manchester declared for the 
 Parliament. It was unsuccessfully besieged 
 by Lord Strange, September, 1642, and occu- 
 pied by Fairfax, January, 1643. In the re- 
 bellion of 1745 it was occupied for a few days 
 by Prince Charles Edward. During the 
 American War the citizens of Manchester 
 (where by this time a cotton manufacture was 
 flourishing) were very hostile to the colonists, 
 and equipped a regiment to serve against 
 them. Serious riots against the introduction 
 of machinery took place October 9, 1779. In 
 March, 1817, a meeting of the " Blan- 
 keteer " rioters took place, and preparations 
 were made for a march on London. In 1819 
 (August 16) occurred the so-called " Peterloo " 
 Massacre, when a large meeting of reformers 
 was dispersed by the yeomanry. Manchester 
 was made a Parliamentary borough by the 
 Reform Bill of 1832, with two members, and 
 received a third member in 1869. In 1847 
 Manchester was made the seat of a bishopric, 
 the collegiate church built in 1422 being con- 
 stituted the cathedral. 
 
 Manchester, Edwakd Montagu, 2nd 
 Earl of (6. 1602, d. 1671), eldest son of 
 Henry, first earl, educated at Sidney Sussex 
 College, Cambridge, accompanied Prince 
 Charles to Spain, represented Huntingdon- 
 shire in the first two Parliaments of Charles 
 II., and was summoned to the Upper House 
 in May, 1626, as Baron Montagu, of Kim- 
 bolton. He succeeded his father as Earl 
 of Manchester, Nov. 7, 1642. In 1640 Lord 
 Kimbolton was one of the peers who urged 
 Charles to call a Parliament ; he also acted as 
 one of the commissioners to treat with the 
 Scots, and his name was amongst those used 
 by Lord Saville in the forged invitation to the 
 Scots. In the Long Parliament he was one of 
 the leaders of the Puritans in the House of 
 Lords, and his importance was shown by his 
 being the only peer joined with the five 
 members impeached by the king. He raised 
 a regiment and fought under Essex at Edge- 
 hill. In Aug., 1643, Manchester was ap- 
 pointed Serjeant-major-general of the six 
 associated counties, in which capacity he 
 reconquered Lincolnshire, and took part in 
 the battle of Marston Moor. His subor- 
 dinate, Cromwell, to whom most of these suc- 
 cesses were due, blamed him for the slowness 
 of his movements after that battle, and the 
 little use he made of the victory. Manches- 
 ter, with the army of the Association, was 
 summoned south to oppose the king after his 
 victory over Essex, in Cornwall. But he 
 showed at the second battle of Newbury, and 
 
Man 
 
 ( 707 ) 
 
 SEaU 
 
 after it, the same hesitation to make use of a 
 success, or an opportunity. Cromwell ac- 
 cused him to the House of Commons, and a 
 Kvely quarrel took place. A committee of 
 the Commons was appointed which heard 
 witnesses, and collected evidence against the 
 earl; hut the charge was dropped when 
 Manchester had heen removed from command 
 hy the SeU-denying Ordinance. The earl 
 remained, however, one of the Dgrhy House 
 Committee, and became Speaker of the House 
 of Lords, and one of the Keepers of the Great 
 Seal. He also hecame Chancellor of the 
 University of Cambridge, and conducted the 
 visitation and reform of that university. 
 Manchester resisted the trial of the king and 
 the foundation of the Commonwealth, re- 
 fused to sit in Cromwell's House of Lords, 
 and helped to bring about the Restoration. 
 Charles II. appointed him Lord Chamberlain 
 in order to prove his reconciliation with the 
 Presbyterians. 
 
 Manchester's Quarrels with Cromwell (Camden 
 Society) ; Camden Miscellany, vol. viii. ; Claren- 
 don, Hist, of the Rebellion and Life, 
 
 [C. H. F.] 
 
 Kancliester, Charles Montagu, Earl 
 and Duke of (d. 1722), succeeded to his 
 father's earldom in 1682. At the Revolution 
 he joined the northern rising in favour of 
 the Prince of Orange. He accompanied "Wil- 
 liam III. to Ireland. In 1696 he was sent as 
 ambassador to Venice. In the following year 
 Manchester went as envoy to Paris, where he 
 shortly was informed that Louis had accepted 
 the Spanish crown for his grandson. He sent 
 news to William of the proclamation of James 
 III. as King of England, and was at once re- 
 called. His correspondence at the time reveals 
 feehngs of despondency. He became Secretary 
 of State, but on the accession of Anne was 
 dismissed from office. In 1707 he was sent as 
 ambassador to Venice, but was instructed to 
 stop at Vienna, in order to try and dissuade 
 the Emperor from sending troops to Naples. 
 On the death of Anne, Manchester declared 
 for the house of Hanover. He was created 
 Duke of Manchester in 1719. 
 
 mandeviUe, "William de {d. 1189), 
 Earl of Essex and Albemarle, was one of the 
 commanders in Henry II. 's French wars, and 
 was frequently employed by that king on di- 
 plomatic bnsinesa. On Richard's accession 
 MandeviUe was appointed Justiciar and regent 
 of the kingdom in the king's absence on the 
 Crusade conjointly with Hugh de Pudsey, but 
 he held this office only two months, when he 
 suddenly died. 
 
 Mandnbratius was the son of a chief of 
 the Trinobantes, who had been murdered by 
 Cassivellaunus. On Caesar's second invasion 
 MandubratiuB joined the Romans, and assisted 
 them against Cassivellaunus as a reward for 
 his help. Cffisar restored him to his chief- 
 
 tainship, and compelled Cassivellaunus to 
 promise not to make war upon Mm. 
 
 IHCaugalore, Treaty or (May 11, 
 1784), was concluded between the English and 
 Tippoo. It was based on a mutual restitution 
 of conquests, but no compensation was obtained 
 for the atrocious treatment of the English 
 prisoners by Tippoo. Tippoo was recognised 
 sovereign of the Carnatic Balaghaut, which 
 he had conquered from the Nizam. The king- 
 dom of Travancore was declared to be under 
 English protection. 
 
 nXaimers, Lord John James Robert 
 (S. 1818), was the second sou of the fifth 
 Duke of Rutland. In 1841 he was with Mr. 
 Gladstone elected in the Conservative interest 
 for Newark. In 1852 he accepted the post of 
 First Commissioner of "Works under Lord 
 Derby, and was sworn a Privy Councillor. 
 In 1858 — 59 he held the same office during 
 Lord Derby's second administration ; and for 
 a third time, under Lord Derby, in 1866 — 67, 
 with a seat in the cabinet. On the return of 
 the Conservatives to power (1874) Lord John 
 Manners was appointed Postmaster-General, 
 with a seat in the cabinet, 
 
 Manny (or, De Mannay), Sir "Walter 
 {d. 1372), was a native of Hainault, and came 
 over to England in the train of Queen 
 Philippa. He took a very prominent part in 
 the French wars of Edward III.'s reign, and 
 in 1342 relieved the Countess of Montfort, 
 who was besieged in Hennebon. In 1344 he 
 commanded in Gascony under the Earl of 
 Derby. In 1347, despite a safe-conduct he 
 had obtained, he was taken prisoner by the 
 French, and King Philip would have put him 
 to death but for the remonstrances of the 
 Duke of Normandy. He served in France 
 again in 1360 and 1369, and founded the 
 Charterhouse in London shortly before his 
 death. 
 
 Manor. "Manor" was the Norman 
 name for the Saxon township : " Villas quas a 
 manendo manerios vulgo vooamus," Ordericus 
 Vitalis quaintly says. But it difflered from the 
 township, as ordinarily regarded, in that, to 
 use the phrase of Sir B.. Maine, it was not a 
 group of households democratically organised 
 and governed, but a group of tenants auto- 
 cratically organised and governed. It is, 
 however, clear that this change had largely 
 taken place before the Norman invasion ; the 
 Conquest did httle more than organise and 
 extend a system which had already grown 
 up, and give it a new name. Many 
 causes, as yet but imperfectly understood, 
 brought many originally free townships into 
 a condition of dependence. Every freeman 
 had to find someone who would act as a per- 
 manent surety for him, or borh, and be 
 answerable for his appearance in courts of 
 law; and such a borh would naturally be 
 found in the most important men of the 
 
Han 
 
 ( 708 ) 
 
 Man 
 
 village. The turden of military service, also, 
 caused men to commend themselves to others. 
 As this protection vrould only he given in re- 
 turn for services of some kind, there was " a 
 constant assimilation going on between the 
 poor landowner and the mere cultivator of his 
 lord's land" (Stubhs). The state of things at 
 the beginning of the eleventh century is illus- 
 trated by the Sectitudines Singularum Perso- 
 narum. This begins with two general sections 
 as to the duties of thegns and geneats. While 
 the thegn is subject to the trinoda neeessitas^ 
 the geneat is not only to pay gafol or rent, 
 but to " ride and carry and lead loads, work 
 and support his lord, reap and mow, cut the 
 hedge and keep it up ... . and go errands 
 far and near wherever he is directed." A 
 distinction is drawn between two classes of 
 geneats, the cottiers and the geburs. The 
 service of the latter is fixed at two days a 
 week, with some slight additions, and he holds 
 a yardland {virgate in the twelfth century 
 Latin translation). His position seems, in- 
 deed, to ha.ve been the same as that of the 
 ordinary villein of the twelfth or thirteenth 
 century. Soon after the Conquest the whole 
 country is found to be divided into " manors," 
 which are regarded as the units of the feudal 
 organisation of society. For the first two 
 centuries the evidence as to village life is scanty 
 and of doubtful import, but for the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries there are abundant 
 sources of information. Of these the chief 
 are the Hundred Eolls of Edward I. — a sur- 
 vey of five midland counties in 1279, Fleta 
 {eirea Ed. I.), and the Eolls of the Manor of 
 Winslow for the reign of Edward III. The 
 conclusions drawn from these may be thus 
 summarised : — A manor was divided into 
 demesne land and land in vilhnage. The 
 former included the home-farm of the lord, 
 and portions held by "free tenants" either 
 by socage or by military service. The land 
 in villenage was occupied by persons of two 
 classes (as in the Reetitudines). Two-thirds or 
 more of the soil were usually held in virgates 
 orhalf-virgates, by a virgate (=: Northum- 
 brian husiand-land) being understood a house 
 and messuage in the village and some thirty 
 acres of arable land, held in acre or half-acre 
 pieces scattered over the three common fields 
 and cultivated according to a common plan ; 
 to these must, of course, be added a share in 
 the pasture. Inferior to these virgarii or 
 yardlings were the cottiers who tilled only 
 some fl%'e to ten acres. The services rendered 
 by both classes may be divided into week work 
 (ploughing, reaping, &c., usually for two or 
 three days a week, or at fixed times), pre- 
 cariae or boon days (special services), and fixed 
 payments in money or kind. Oxen and 
 ploughs for labour on the lord's demesne were 
 provided sometimes by the villeins alone, 
 sometimes by villeins and lords jointly ; the 
 cottiers, however, having neither, took no 
 part m the work of ploughing. These ser- 
 
 vices were often commuted for money pay. 
 ments, though local usage varied considerably. 
 For instance, in Bedfordshire and Bucking- 
 hamshire, under Edward I., commutation was 
 generiil, while in Huntingdonshire and Ox- 
 fordshire it seems to have been the exception. 
 It must be remembered that' the villeins were 
 also subject to such servile "incidents" of 
 their tenure as the marriage-fine and the 
 like. The chief officials of the manor were 
 the seneschal or steward who represented the 
 lord, sometimes over several manors, held 
 the courts and arranged the ploughing; the 
 preepositus or reeve, representing and elected 
 by the villeins, and responsible for the per- 
 formance of the due services ; and the bailiff 
 or farm manager. In aU manors were two 
 courts, confused somewhat in practice though 
 separate in legal theory : the court baron, re- 
 presenting the old mark moot or assembly of 
 the villagers, to make by-laws for the cultiva- 
 tion of the common fields ; and the court 
 customary, for business arising out of the 
 villein tenure. Many manors had also a 
 court leet or criminal jurisdiction, i.e., an 
 exemption from the hundred courts by grants 
 of sa£ and soc, and to this was often added 
 view of frankpledge, which freed the tenants 
 from the necessity of attending at the Greater 
 Court of the Hundred, or Sheriff's Tourn. 
 Such was the mediseval constitution of the 
 Manor, and such through the changes of 
 English politioal history is what it has since 
 remained to a large extent in theory ; though 
 the functions of the manorial courts and 
 officers have altogether lost their importance. 
 
 The chief original authorities besides those 
 mentioned ahove are Domflsdai/, the JAhm- Niget- 
 of Peterborougli, The Bolien Book, the New- 
 miuster, Kelso, Worcester and Gloucester 
 Cartularies, the Domesday of S. PauVs, and Fitz- 
 Herhert, Boke of Surveying (1539); Stubbs, 
 Const. Hist,, ch. vii. ; Seebohm, Mngl. Village 
 Conmiunity ; Maine, Village Commumties, lect. v. ; 
 and Cunningham, Growth of English Iiidustrj). 
 [W. J. A,] 
 
 Mansfield, William Mukray, Earl of 
 {b. 1705, d.l193), was the fourth son of David, 
 Earl of Stormont, and was bom at Scone, 
 near Perth. He was educated at Westminster 
 and Oxford, and was called to the bar in 
 1730. In 1740 he was made a king's 
 counsel, and two years later SoKcitor- 
 General, with a seat in Parliament for 
 Boroughbridge. In the following year he 
 increased his reputation by his defence 
 of the city of Edinburgh against the 
 proceedings taken in Parliament with refer- 
 ence to the Porteous mob. In 1754 he 
 succeeded to the place of Attorney-General, 
 and two years later he became Lord Chief 
 Justice of England, with the title of Baron 
 Mansfield. In his new position he at once 
 proceeded to reform the slow and tedious 
 practice of the court. In 1757 he was 
 induced to accept the office of Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer, which he held for only 
 
Uan 
 
 ( 709 ) 
 
 Viaia 
 
 three months, and in the same year he was 
 for the second time offered the Great Seal 
 and again refused to take it. Unfortunately, 
 Lord Mansfield accepted a seat in the cabinet, 
 and so assumed the character of a political 
 judge, nor was the popular suspicion re- 
 assured by his growing coldness to Chatham 
 on the death of George II. and the rise 
 of Lord Bute. On the question of general 
 warrants, though still a member of the 
 cabinet, he supported Pratt's judgment 
 and afiii-med their illegality. On the fall of 
 the GrenviHe ministry. Lord Mansfield re- 
 tired from the cabinet, and now for the first 
 time encountered Lord Camden in the House 
 of Lords. On the subject of America the 
 two great judges were opposed. Lord Mans- 
 field holding the absolute dominion of Eng- 
 land over the colonies. When Chatham re- 
 signed in 1768, the Duke of Grafton called in 
 the advice of Lord Mansfield; but when it 
 became necessary to appoint a successor to 
 Camden, he again refused the Great Seal. 
 On Yorke's death the seal was put into com- 
 mission, and Lord Mansfield vii-tually acted as 
 Lord Chancellor. On Lord North's accession 
 to power begaji a series of encounters be- 
 tween Mansfield and Chatham on the subject 
 of Wilkes's election for Middlesex ; the cause 
 of the former was thoroughly bad, and he 
 came but feebly out of the fray. Nor did 
 the Chief Justice add to his reputation by his 
 charges to the jury on the law of libel, which 
 so often occupied the courts in consequence 
 of the prosecution of WoodfaU and other 
 printers; charges which exposed him to the 
 attacks of Junius. In October, 1776, he was 
 raised to the dignity of an earl. During the 
 later years of lus career he confined himself 
 almost entirely to the exercise of his judicial 
 functions, and took but little part in politics. 
 In 1788 "the increasing infirmities of Lord 
 Mansfield induced him to retire from his 
 office, after having presided with distin- 
 guished lustre as head of the common law 
 for upwards of thirty-two years." After this 
 he Hved almost entirely in retirement, taking 
 little or no part in politics, until his death, in 
 March, 1793, at the venerable age of eighty- 
 nine. His reputation has been established 
 beyond all dispute ; and he lives for posterity 
 as the greatest common law judge of modem 
 times, and as the founder of our commercial law. 
 Camp'bell, lAves of the Chief Justices ; Macau- 
 lay, ffrsuvs on Chatham; Stanhope, Hist, of 
 UngUmd; Chatham Correspondmce ; Massey, 
 Hist, of Ung. ; Trevelyan, Eorly Tears of Fox ; 
 Lord Waldegrave, Memoirs, 
 
 [W. E. S.] 
 
 Manufactures. The rise and progress 
 of manufacture in England may be said to be, 
 after the political development of English 
 institutions, the most striking fact in the 
 history of modem civilisation. It will be 
 quite obvious that no community can spare 
 l&bour for any other process than that of 
 
 supplying food, and other bare necessaries of 
 life, as long as all the labour of those who 
 constitute the community is needed for the 
 acquisition of such necessaries. In utterly 
 inhospitable climates, and among peoples who 
 have emerged from barbarism, there is no 
 room for that division of employments which 
 enables persons to devote themselves to call- 
 ings destined to supply the products which 
 can be exchanged regularly for food and 
 similar necessaries. Even after agriculture 
 is practised, and the labour of the husband- 
 man can supply him with more food than is 
 needful for his own wants and the wants of 
 his family, manufactures proper, as opposed 
 to domestic industry, grow very slowly. The 
 husbandman's labour is fruitful, but is exposed 
 to risks, and it is found that in the early history 
 of communities the reality or pretence of defend- 
 ing him in his calling is the first division of 
 employments which is developed, andforms the 
 excuse for the first charge which is put on his 
 resources. The history of modem Europe, as 
 illustrated by its most ancient documents, is 
 quite conclusive on this subject. The change 
 of government, the estabhshment of a reci- 
 procal obligation between superior and in- 
 ferior, which is the essence of that which we 
 know as the feudal system, was aflirmed and 
 justified on the plea that the king's peace 
 and the lord's protection were a real boon to 
 the husbandman, and, therefore, should be 
 paid for. 
 
 In the earlier Middle Ages, and long before 
 the English manufactures had developed, 
 Venice, the Hanseatic towns, and those of the 
 Low Countries had become important seats of 
 industry. In the history of manufactures, it 
 is found to be almost invariably the case that 
 the supply of a surplus of agricultural pro- 
 ducts, other than food, precedes the local de- 
 velopment of maniif acture from other products. 
 The English people supplied wool for the 
 Flemish manufacturers long before they be- 
 came the rivals of the Flemings in woollen 
 goods, just as the Australian English do now. 
 
 Manufacturing countries have always deve- 
 loped at a very early stage of their existence 
 free institutions, and impatience at despotism, 
 whether it was over action or over thought. 
 This has been seen in all European experience. 
 Resistance to arbitrary authority was deve- 
 loped with more or less energy in the manu- 
 facturing towns of southern France, of Italy, 
 of the Low Countries, and in those parts oJE 
 England which were especially the cradle of 
 manufacturing industry. These districts also 
 are characterised by opposition to Papal 
 authority, and by the dissemination of opinions 
 which the hierarchy of the age called hereti- 
 cal. The struggle of the Flemish Nether- 
 lands with the dukes of the house of 
 Burgundy, and their descendants, the princes 
 of the house of Austria, was continued for 
 centuries. The States were at last subdued, 
 and their manufactures were ruined when 
 
Uan 
 
 (710) 
 
 Han 
 
 they became obedient. The same facts apply 
 to the free cities of the Grerman Empire, to 
 those of Italy, northern Spain, and other 
 regions. Political freedom and religious 
 liberty are conditions almost absolute of 
 manufacturing energy and success. 
 
 The opportunity for early manufacture is 
 aided or even caused by advantages of situ- 
 ation, climate, and natural products. In past 
 times the first two were all-important. Manu- 
 facture implies trade, and neither could be 
 conveniently carried on in countries where 
 harboxirs are periodically blocked with ice, or 
 were remote from other centres of commerce. 
 Hence the great marts of early Europe, and by 
 implication the chief manufacturing centres, 
 were situated on the routes of ancient com- 
 merce. The cities of Italy received the eastern 
 produce of the world, and conveyed them 
 across the Alps and down the Rhine, all the 
 localities on the route becoming rich by trade, 
 and the exchange of their own products. When 
 tile roads through Central Asia were blocked 
 ■,; by Turkish hordes, and when, finally, the last 
 remaining route was blocked by the conquest 
 ' of Egypt in the beginning of the sixteenth 
 ' century, Italy was impoverished, and the 
 Grerman cities with them. Amsterdam and 
 the cities of the Netherlands became opulent 
 partly because they were on the highway 
 of the Rhine, partly because they absorbed 
 and distributed the produce of Scandinavia 
 and the Baltic. But some of the advantages 
 of climate were not yet discovered, or had not 
 yet become important. In the manufacture 
 of textile fabrics, a moist and equable climate 
 has been found to be of the highest value ; 
 but in those days it was of little importance, 
 for the texture of the product was coarse, and 
 its quality was low. Similarly, as all weaving 
 was done by hand, and in rude looms, the 
 presence of such materials as would save 
 human labour by mechanical appliances was 
 undiscovered, and its absence was therefore 
 not appreciated. 
 
 Five centuries ago England was, in con- 
 trast with other European nations, opulent, on 
 the way to free institutions, and on the whole 
 possessed of an effective and vigorous police 
 over offenders against the king's peace. It 
 had a considerable export trade in wool, by 
 which the Flemish weavers, as yet under the 
 mild rule of their native counts, grew rich. 
 Inferior to this trade, but still important, was 
 that in hides, which were also exported to the 
 Flemish tanneries. But domestic manufac- 
 tures were few, and these were nearly all 
 centred in the eastern counties, particularly 
 in Norfolk. For fine linens and the better 
 kinds of cloth, England depended on the Low 
 Countries. Notwithstanding her enormous 
 deposits of iron, she relied for the better kinds 
 on the Baltic trade, especially on that from 
 Scandinavia. She manufactured a little glass, 
 but most of what was needed for churches 
 and castles came from Normandy. The use 
 
 of coal for smelting purposes was unknown. 
 It was merely employed for domestic use in 
 London and a few ports on the eastern and 
 southern coasts. For salt, a most important 
 article in mediaeval economy, England relied 
 almost entirely on the south-west of France, 
 where indeed the English king had long ruled 
 over a wide and opulent district. The few 
 articles of luxury which were purchased by 
 the king, his nobles, and the great ecclesiastics 
 came from Italy, such as silk goods and the 
 best kinds of armour. Even the better breeds 
 of horses were imported into England, and all 
 these articles were paid for, in the main, by 
 wool, in which. England had a monopoly of 
 the most characteristic kind. 
 
 Gradually, and particularly during the 
 prosperous period of the first half of the 
 fifteenth century, the cloth manufacture 
 which had been greatly improved by the 
 frequent immigration of Flemings into eastern 
 England, spread southwards and westwards. 
 The reason for this migration was undoubtedly 
 the discovery that a finer and stronger yarn 
 can be twisted in a damp climate. Now, 
 Norfolk, the original home of the woollen 
 manufacture, is the driest county in England, 
 and Devonshire, to which the manufacture 
 gradually spread, is one of the wettest. Here 
 it remained till the discovery of steam power, 
 when it naturally went to the district where 
 coal is cheap and the climate is moist. This 
 is especially the characteristic of Lancashire 
 and Yorkshire, where the industry finally 
 settled. The same causes led to the develop- 
 ment of the linen and, lastly, the cotton 
 industry in England. But the climate is not 
 equally favourable to silk weaving and 
 dyeing, for which a clear sky and bright sun 
 are special requisites. The growth of these 
 manufactures was materially aided by the 
 wars of religion, as a consequence of which 
 numerous exiles, from the Reformation to the 
 Revolution, migrated to England, bringing 
 with them the appliances and the skill with 
 which they had so long been familiar, of 
 which persecution could not deprive them. 
 But for a very long period, English manu- 
 factures could ill bear the competition of 
 foreign manufacture, and while the Parlia- 
 ment and government exercised a very 
 vigorous police over the quality of the articles 
 produced, they were importuned constantly 
 for protection to English industry, a claim to 
 which they gave little heed, till after the 
 Revolution the administration of affairs passed 
 from the king and his agents to a Parliament 
 of landowners and traders, and an administra- 
 tion dependent on their good- will. 
 
 The manufacture of iron was chiefly carried 
 on in Derbyshire, Sussex, Surrey, and the 
 Sheffield district, the produce of the former 
 being far inferior to that of the latter, and 
 both being greatly so to that of Spain and 
 Sweden. _ The art of producing cast-iron from 
 pit-coal is commonly said to have been a 
 
Man 
 
 (711) 
 
 Mar 
 
 discovery of the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. This is an error, for it was known 
 a century hefore ; many of Elizabeth's pieces 
 of ordnance having been made from cast- 
 iron. But smelting with pit coal was not 
 extensively . practised till the middle of the 
 eighteenth century. It is probable that 
 Dudley, who is credited with the invention, 
 did BO more than make considerable improve- 
 ments in the process. It is certain that great 
 progress was made in manufactures during 
 the seventeenth century, and as usual a great 
 development of trade took place, for whatever 
 may be the course of trade in a country 
 where commerce is firmly developed, it is 
 exceedingly difficult to establish trade except 
 domestic manufacture is first fairly started. 
 At the latter end of the seventeenth century 
 the Eevocation of the Edict of Nantes was 
 followed by a considerable immigration of silk 
 weavers into England, especially into London, 
 and the establishment of a silk industry in 
 this country, after many attempts had been 
 made to introduce this manufacture, the 
 earliest being in the fifteenth century. 
 
 But the beginning of England's real pre- 
 eminence in manufacture dates from the dis- 
 covery of steam, and of the simultaneous inven- 
 tion of those mechanical processes by which the 
 labour of man is saved and force is regulated 
 and multiplied. The former was the work of 
 Watt and others, the latter of Arkwright and 
 his rivals. England possesses the largest 
 deposits of coal and iron in proximity to each 
 other and to the market. The coal and iron 
 fields of the United States are infinitely 
 more extensive, but they are distant from 
 the seaboard. There are deposits of coal 
 and iron in Belgium, but the field is 
 small, and the produce may soon be ex- 
 hausted. Hence England, were trade free 
 with other parts of Europe and the world, 
 could for a long period, the length of which 
 is rather guessed at than measured, supply 
 the wants of the civilised world, at least in 
 the most important particulars. She has also 
 the enormous advantage of a moist and 
 equable climate, a condition which is likely to 
 endure, even if the other advantages are 
 lessened, and to make this country the per- 
 manent home of the higher and finer textile 
 fabrics. 
 
 English industry has not only had to over- 
 come the ordinary difficulties which beset all 
 industries, and the rivalry of other com- 
 munities, natural obstacles to all industry, 
 but the jealous and watchful energy of 
 foreign protection. Undoubtedly English 
 goods are excluded from, or only grudgingly 
 admitted into countries where they might 
 advantageously compete on fair grounds. 
 But it will be noticed that even when thus 
 weighted they do overleap these barriers ; and 
 it may be safely concluded that invention and 
 intelligence being invariably developed under 
 difficulties, the training which both factors in 
 
 the result, employers and workmen, have had, 
 has rendered them peculiarly ready for the 
 adoption of more generous tariffs by foreign 
 countries, and for the occurrence of those emer- 
 gencies which arise in the political history of 
 all countries, when an exceptional demand 
 levels, for a time at least, the barriers which 
 a protective policy has raised. 
 
 See for the Middle Ages and contemporary his- 
 tory, Bogers's Risttyi-y ofAgricultwe and Prices; 
 The Century of Inventions; Porter, Progress of 
 the Nation ; McGullocli, Pictionai-y of Commerce; 
 Cunningham, History of Commerce. (The mono- 
 graphs on particular trades are too numerous 
 for insertion. rj_ jj "p^ jj^i 
 
 Maori Wars. After the transfer of 
 the sovereignty of New Zealand to the crown 
 by the Treaty of Waitangi, 1840, the settlers 
 were engaged in constant disputes with the 
 natives respecting land. The first Maori 
 War took place 1843 — 47, and resulted in the 
 definition of boundaries. In 1863, in con- 
 sequence of the encroachments of the whites, 
 war broke out again, and was ended by the 
 submission of the natives, Aug., 1864. 
 In 1868 there were renewed disturbances, 
 and a massacre of the settlers at Poverty 
 Bay and Mohaka. The third war broke out 
 in consequence in July, 1869, and lasted tiU 
 January, 1870, when the natives submitted. 
 
 [AuSTRAilA.] 
 
 Mar, Donald, Eakl of, the son of 
 
 Christian, sister of Robert Bruce, had passed 
 most of his youth in captivity at the English 
 court, and was therefore singularly ignorant 
 of his native country, when in 1332 he was 
 elected regent in the place of Eandolph. 
 Soon after his election to this responsible 
 office, he was completely beaten at Duplin by 
 Edward Baliol. 
 
 Mar, Alexander, Eael of, the natural 
 son of Alexander of Ross, sumamed the 
 WoU of Badenoch, was in his youth a sort of 
 Highland robber; in 1392 he defeated the 
 Lowlanders, whose lands he was about to 
 ravage at Gasklune, and in 1404, carried off 
 the Countess of Mar from her castle of 
 Kildrummy ; having married her, he became 
 Earl of Mar, and in that capacity led the 
 royal troops at Harlaw (q.v.). In 1431 he 
 was defeated at Lochaber by a Highland force 
 under Donald Baloch. 
 
 Mar, John, Eakl of, was a brother of 
 Alexander, Duke of Albany, and James 
 III. He is described as "comelie in aU 
 his behavioures," and as a bold warrior and 
 skilful politician. His popularity aroused the 
 jealousy of Cochrane, the favourite of 
 James III., who persuaded the king to give 
 orders for his murder. 
 
 Mar, John Erskine, Earl of {d. 1672), 
 the uncle of Murray, Regent of Scotland, 
 was Governor of Stirling Castle, where he 
 had the charge of the infant James VI. In 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 712) 
 
 Mar 
 
 1571, he repulsed an attack upon Stirling by 
 the queen's party, and in the same year, 
 on the death of Lennox, he was elected 
 regent, an office which he filled with 
 moderation and ability until his death (Oct. 
 28, 1572). " He was perhaps the only person 
 in the kingdom," says Mr. Bobertsou, " who 
 could have enjoyed the office of regent with- 
 out envy, and have kept it without loss of 
 reputation." 
 
 Mar, John, Earl of (d. 1634), son of the 
 regent, made an unsuccessful attempt (1578) 
 to obtain possession of the young king 
 James VI. In 1582, he was one of the 
 leaders of the Euthven Raid (q.v.), and had in 
 consequence to take refuge in England, where 
 he resided for some time at Newcastle, in 
 company with other "banished lords." He 
 was one of those who attempted to go to the 
 rescue of the king at the Gowrie tragedy 
 (q.v.). In 1601 he was sent as ambassador to 
 Elizabeth ; he accompanied James VI. to 
 England, and became one of his Privy 
 Councillors and Lord High Treasurer of 
 Scotland (1615). 
 
 Mar, John Erskine, 11th Earl op 
 {d. 1732), entered public life early in Queen 
 Anne's reign as a Whig, but soon joined the 
 Tory party. His trimming policy obtained 
 for him the nickname of " Bobbing John." 
 He joined the "Whigs ' in advocating the 
 Scotch ITnion, and in 1706 was Secretary of 
 State to the Duke of Queensberry at the last 
 session of the Scotch Parliament. In 1710, 
 he became Secretary of State and Manager 
 for Scotland under the Tory administration. 
 On the accession of George I. he was de- 
 prived of office, and at once plunged into 
 Jacobite intrigues. The Pretender's standard 
 was raised by him at Braemar on Sep- 
 tember 6th. He was at once joined by 
 TuUibardine, heir of the Duke of Athole, the 
 Gordons and other clans, and was at the head 
 of 12,000 badly-armed men. A detachment 
 under Brigadier Macintosh was sent to 
 surprise Edinburgh, and was ultimately 
 defeated at Preston. At Sheriffimuir he en- 
 countered the royal troops under Argyle, and 
 after an undecided battle Argyle withdrew 
 from the field. In January, the Pretender, 
 after long delay, appeared in Scotland. But 
 his presence infused no energy in the army. 
 They withdrew from Perth to Montrose, and 
 from thence Mar and James Edward stole off 
 to Prance, deserting their followers. He 
 continued in favour with the Pretender, and 
 succeeded in indi;icing him to dismiss Bol- 
 ingbroke from his councils [St. John]. In 
 1719,^ Mar was arrested, by orders of the 
 English government, at Geneva. 
 
 March, The Peerage of. (1) English: 
 The earldom of March was granted (1328) 
 to Roger Mortimer, who, however, was at- 
 tainted in 1330. His grandson, Roger, 
 
 was restored to the earldom, and transmitted 
 it through three generations. Edmund, the 
 last of this line, died childless in 1424. His 
 sister Ann was the mother of Richard, Duke 
 of York, whose son Edward, afterwards King 
 Edward IV., bore the title of Earl of March 
 in his father's lifetime. In 1478 the idug 
 conferred the earldom on hia son, the future 
 King Edward V., on whose accession it be- 
 came merged in the crown. (2) Scottish : 
 In 1619 James I. created Esme Stuart, after- 
 wards Duke of Lennox, Earl of March ; but 
 this creation became extinct at the death of 
 his grandson Charles, third Duke of Rich- 
 mond, in 1672. Three years afterwards the 
 Lennox titles were granted to Charles Lennox, 
 natural son of Charles II., by whose descen- 
 dants they have been since held. 
 
 Marcli, Agnes, Cotjntess of, was a 
 daughter of Randolph, Earl of Murray, 
 and from her dark complexion was known as 
 Black Agnes of Dunbar. In 1338, in the 
 absence of her husband the Earl of March, 
 she gallantly and successfully, defended the 
 castle of Dunbar against an EngUsh force 
 under the Earl of Salisbury. 
 
 March, Edward Mortimer, Earl op 
 {d. 1381), son of Roger, second Earl of March, 
 married Philippa, daughter and heiress of 
 Lionel, Duke of Clarence. In 1380, he was 
 made Lieutenant of Ireland, and large 
 possessions in that country given to him. 
 
 March, Edmund Mortimer, Earl op 
 (d. 1424), was the heir to the throne on the 
 abdication of Richard II., and his claims were 
 unsuccessfully advanced by Archbishop Scrope 
 and others in 1405, and again by Cambridge 
 in 1415. He, however, submitted to Henry 
 and fought in the Erench wars. He was sub- 
 sequently appointed Lieutenant of Ireland, 
 and died of the plague in the C3,stle of Trim. 
 He married Anne, daughter of the Earl of 
 Staiford, but left no issue. 
 
 March, Roger Mortimer, Earl op {d. 
 1398), was the son of Edmund, third Earl of 
 March. He married Eleanor, daughter of 
 Thomas Holand, Earl of Kent, and was de- 
 clared heir to the throne by Richard II. in 
 1386. He was, appointed Lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, where he was killed in a skirmish at 
 Kenlys, in Ossory. 
 
 Marches of Wales, The. [Wales ; 
 Borders.] 
 
 _Margaret,QuEEN(i. 1281,(^.1317), second 
 wife of Edward I., was the daughter of Philip 
 III. of Prance, and was married to Edward I. 
 in 1298. Her character is highly praised by 
 contemporary writers : "she was good with- 
 outen lack," says Peter Langtoft; and she 
 seems to have been a worthy successor to 
 Eleanor of Castile. After her husband's 
 death she lived in retirement, and devoted 
 her time and her wealth to acts of charity. 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 713 ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 Margaret or Anjou, Queen (6. Mar 
 24, 1429, d. Aug. 25, 1482), wife of Henry 
 VI., was the daughter of Eene, Count of 
 Guise, afterwards Duke of Lorraiae and 
 Anjou, and titular King o;f Naples, Sicily, 
 and Jerusalem. It was her relationship to the 
 French king, whom her father's sister, Mary 
 of Anjou, had married, that caused her to 
 he selected by Suffolk and Beaufort as the 
 wife of Henry VI. Her marriage, which 
 took place on April 22, 1445, was to be ac- 
 companied by the cession of Anjou and Maine 
 to Xing Eene, and it was hoped to found on 
 it a permanent peace. The queen became a 
 violent political partisan, and strong supporter 
 of Suffolk and Somerset, and a bitter enemy 
 to Gloucester (whose death has been with 
 very little evidence attributed to her) and to 
 the Duke of York. Margaret's first chUd, 
 Edwa,rd, was born on Oct. 13, 1453, during 
 the king's insanity, and this event placed her 
 in immediate competition with the Duke of 
 York for the regency. The death of the 
 Duke of Somerset, at the first battle of St. 
 Albans, deprived her of her most trusted 
 counsellor, and forced her stiU more into 
 the foreground. Her preponderance helped 
 to ruin the cause of her son and her husband. 
 From the beginning she represented an un- 
 popular policy, and her strong partisanship in 
 domestic affairs and her foreign connection, 
 increased that unpopularity. She had no 
 scruples about intriguing with the native 
 Irish, the Scots, or the French to damage the 
 Duke of York, nor did she shrink from making 
 Calais the price of French aid. When the 
 three earls landed in Kent in 1460 she was 
 in the north of England, and their victory 
 at Northampton (June, 1460) obliged her to 
 take refuge in Scotland. She raised in the 
 north a new army, defeated and slew the 
 Duke of York at Wakefield (Dec, 1460), and 
 marched south to beat Warwick at St. Allsans. 
 But the battle of Towton (March 28—29, 
 1461) forced her to fly again to Scotland. She 
 contrived by French and Scotch help to main- 
 tain war on the Border until in 1464 the battles 
 of Hedgeley and Hexham put an end to the 
 struggle. For the next six years she lived in 
 exile, mainly at Bar, in Lorraine. In 1470 
 Warwick was forced to fly from England, and 
 Louis XI. brought about a reconciliation be- 
 tween the earl and Margaret, and an interview 
 took place at Angers, in which it was agreed 
 that Prince Edward should be restored by 
 Warwick's arms and marry his daughter. But 
 the queen and the prince did not land at 
 Weymouth till the day on which the battle 
 of Barnet had destroyed all hopes of their 
 restoration (April 13, 1471). The prince 
 was taken and killed at the battle of Tewkes- 
 bury (May 4, 1471), and the queen herself 
 remained in prison till 1476. Louis XI. ran- 
 somed her by the payment of 50,000 crowns 
 of gold, but she was obliged to renounce in 
 favour of Edward IV, aU her claims to the 
 
 HI8T_23* 
 
 English throne, and to cede to Louis her 
 rights in the inheritance of her father and 
 mother (Bar, Lorraine, Anjou, and Provence). 
 She was handed over to the officers of Louis 
 on Jan. 29, 1476, and spent the remainder 
 of her life in poverty and retirement. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Gairdner, Paston Letters ; 
 L. de la Marohe, Le Boi Rim; Freer, lAfe oj 
 Margaret of Anjou. FC H F 1 
 
 Mark System, is the name applied by 
 modern German historians to a social system 
 based on the tenure and cultivation of the 
 land in common by groups of individuals or 
 families, organised into small self-governing 
 communities. The Mark, strictly speaking, 
 is the land held in, common by the community 
 in question. The primitive Aryan community, 
 which either was, or supposed itself to be, 
 constituted by the descendants of a common 
 ancestor, is regarded as having cleared for 
 itself a settlement in the dense primaeval 
 forest, separated from all other similar settle- 
 ments by a thick border of woodland, to which 
 properly the word mark (i.e., boundary, march) 
 belongs. Within the limits of the mark was 
 raised the primitive village, where each of 
 the members of the community had his home- 
 stead and farm buildings in severalty. Every 
 owner of such a homestead had .a right to the 
 usufruct of a portion of the land, which was 
 the general property of the whole community. 
 This land was roughly divided into three 
 portions. Firstly, there was the mark itself, 
 the forest or waste, including the rough natural 
 pastures, which were never enclosed, and into 
 which each of the markmen could tinn a fixed 
 number of cattle. Secondly, there was the 
 meadow land, which was sometimes enclosed, 
 but sometimes open. During the open period 
 it was treated like the waste, but when the 
 grass began to gxow in the spring it was 
 divided into the same number of allotments as 
 there were households in the village. Each 
 markman looked after his own hay, and 
 gathered and housed his crop of it for winter 
 use. When this was done the fences were 
 thrown down again, and the pasture remained 
 in common until the following spring, when 
 a fresh apportionment occurred. Thhdly, the 
 arable land was divided in much the same 
 way as the pasture. A system of rotation of 
 crops gradually sprang up, and from three to 
 six groups of flelds were required to allow of 
 this. In each of these the markman would 
 have his share. AH the shares may originally, 
 have been equal, but constantly tended to 
 become unequal. 
 
 The mark, besides its social and economical 
 importance, was also the political unit of the. 
 early state. Every markman was a member 
 of the markmoot, which regulated the partition 
 of land, the rotation of crops, the admission 
 df new members, and the transf errence of pro- 
 perty among the old members. In early times 
 it is possible that the marks were judicial. 
 
ULax 
 
 (714) 
 
 scar 
 
 aasemblies as well, but in historical times 
 these functions belonged to the larger organi- 
 sations into which the marks were combined. 
 The extent to which the mark system actually 
 existed is difficult to define. It is safest to 
 regard it as a stage in the development of the 
 German peoples, and not as the one principle 
 t9 which their whole primitive policy may be 
 referred. In England, as in Germany, the 
 traces of its existence are still abundant. The 
 commons, still so numerous, despite a multitude 
 of Enclosure Acts ; the common fields, which 
 until very recently were allotted from year 
 to year to the commoners of the parish ; the 
 " three-fold system of tillage ; " the place- 
 names ending in " ing," suggesting, as 
 it does, the primitive family settlement 
 which the mark system involved, and the 
 importance of the kindred in Anglo-Saxon 
 jurisprudence, are among its many survivals. 
 But Dr. Stubbs has pointed out that the mark 
 system by itself will not account for all the 
 complex phenomena of primitive English 
 society. Perhaps this is true of Germany 
 as well. Neither the vicua, nor the town- 
 ship, nor the village community, can be 
 directly affiliated to it ; but as involving the 
 " two radical principles of German antiquity, 
 the kindred and the community of land," the 
 investigation of the mark system has thrown 
 new light on the study of early institutions. 
 The greatest authority on the mark system is 
 G. L. von Maurer, esp. in his Geschichte der 
 Markenverfassung in Veutschland. See also 
 Nasse, On the Agricultural Community of the 
 Middle Ages ICobiem Club), Laveleye, Primitive 
 Pr(yperty ; Maine, Village Communities, and 
 Seebohm, The English Village Oommimity. Dr. 
 Stuhbs in hie Const. Hist, gives a succinct sum- 
 mary of the system, with valuable observations on 
 its relation to English history. riji J' qi n 
 
 Marlboroughy The Paeliamekt of 
 (1267), was held for the purpose of restoring 
 order and good government after the Barons' 
 War. It re-enacted as a statute of the realm 
 the Provisions of 1259 with very few altera- 
 tions, the most important being that the ap- 
 pointment of the royal ministers, and the 
 sherifis, was now left in the hands of the Mng. 
 
 Marlborough, Sarah, Duchess of (*. 
 1660, d. 1744), at an early age entered the 
 household of the Duchess of York. There 
 she became the companion and fi-iend of the 
 Princess Anne, who became passionately at- 
 tached to her. So intimate were they 
 that they afterwards, as is well known, 
 corresponded under the names of Mrs. Morley 
 and Mrs. Freeman. In 1678 Sarah Jennings 
 married Colonel John Churchill, afterwards 
 Duke of Marlborough. Owing to the influence 
 of the Churchills, Anne deserted her father, and 
 joined the party of the Prince of Orange. In 
 1692, on her husband's disgrace, Anne refused 
 to dismiss Lady Marlborough from her em- 
 ployment. The result was a quarrel between 
 the queen and the princess, and the latter set 
 up an opposition court at Berkeley House. 
 
 On the accession of Queen Anne, she received 
 the rangership of Windsor Park and the 
 offices of Groom of the Stole and Mistress of 
 the Eobes. The duchess soon proved herself 
 a violent Whig, having been converted to 
 these principles by the Dowager Lady Sun- 
 derland. Hence she often had disputes with 
 her mistress, in which Marlborough was not 
 unfrequently involved. In 1703 she lost her 
 only son. Her violent temper had already caused 
 the friendship of the queen to cool towards 
 her. She gradually found herself supplanted 
 in the royal favour by Mrs. Abigail Hill, a poor 
 relation of her own, whom she had introduced 
 into the household. She found that Harley 
 was employing this lady as an instrument 
 whereby to undermine the administration of 
 her husband and Godolphin. In 1708 Marl- 
 borough threatened to resign, and the duchess 
 implored Anne to confer her places on her 
 daughters. A temporary reconciliation took 
 place on the death of the queen's husband ; 
 but on the departure of the duke for the Conti- 
 nent the friendship cooled again. It was in this 
 year that she is said to have spilled the myth- 
 ical glass of water on Mrs. Masham's gown, 
 which, according to Voltaire, " changed the 
 face of all Europe." She several times forced 
 herself into the queen's presence. In April, 
 1710, she saw Anne for the last time. Early 
 in 1711 Anne demanded her key of office, nor 
 were the personal entreaties of the duke of 
 any avail. The duchess promptly began to 
 lampoon the queen and the Tory ministrj'. 
 She also sent in a claim for the payment of 
 sums she would have received had she ac- 
 cepted the queen's offer of an additional pen- 
 sion as Keeper of the Privy Purse. In 1712 
 she joined the duke on the Continent. She 
 prayed him not to accept employment under 
 the Hanoverian regime. In 1720 she was 
 accused by Sunderland of having furnished 
 money to the Pretender, but she disproved 
 the charge in a series of letters to the king. 
 On the death of Marlborough (1722), the Duke 
 of Somerset and Lord Coningsby were smitten 
 by her mature charms, but both were rejected. 
 Her last years were occupied in drawmg up 
 the celebrated Vindication of her husband's 
 character and her own. Of the numerous 
 sketches of her character the most famous is 
 Pope's, in his moral essay. On the Characters 
 of Women, where she is satirised under the 
 name of " Atossa." [Mahlbokouoh ; Anne.] 
 Burnet, Hist, of His Ou-n Time ,• VinMcation 
 of Wic Duchess of MarXhrn-ovgh; Mrs. Thomson, 
 MemoxTS of the Ducheis of Marlborough: Private 
 iilol'^o"'*™",', °L "■" -Dxctes of Marlborough 
 V ' i V™?'-"^'"'"'"''""''' •• Wyon, ReignofOmen 
 Anne ; Stanhope, BMgn of Queen Anne : Macaulay, 
 Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke 
 of (A. 1650, d. 1722), was the eldest son of 
 Sir Winston Churchill. He became a page of 
 the Duke of York. In the year 1672 he 
 fought under the Duke of Monmouth, and 
 with the French against HoUand. He greatly 
 
Uar 
 
 ( 715 ) 
 
 UEar 
 
 diBtinguished himself at the siege of Maes- 
 tricht, and subsequently went through several 
 eampaigns under Turenne. In 1678 he 
 raarried Sarah Jennings, and shortly after- 
 wards became colonel in the Life Guards. 
 On the accession of James he was raised to 
 the peerage. In 1 685 his skill repaired the 
 mistakes of the commander-in-chief, Lord 
 Feversham, and crushed Monmouth's rebellion 
 at Sedgemoor. He opened communications 
 with WUIiam of Orange in 1687. On the 
 arrival of William in England, Churchill 
 deserted James at Warminster, leaving be- 
 hind him a polite letter of regret. In the 
 discussion on the disposal of the crown, 
 Churchill voted for a regency ; but, finding that 
 his friends were in a minority, he absented 
 himself from the House. On the accession of 
 William and Mary, he was sworn of the Privy 
 Council, made Lord of the Bedchamber, and 
 created Earl of Marlborough. In 1689, on 
 the outbreak of war with France, he com- 
 manded the English brigade under the Prince 
 of Waldeck, and defeated the French at 
 Walcourt. On the departure of William for 
 Ireland, he was appointed one of Queen 
 Mary's Council of Nine. When William re- 
 turned to England, he landed in the south of 
 Ireland, and in five weeks took Cork and 
 Kinsale (1690). He began in this year 
 to correspond with James. His professions 
 of repentance were rewarded by a written 
 pardon. On William's departure for the 
 Continent, Marlborough accompanied him. 
 The Jacobites expected him to desert at the 
 head of his troops. It appears that his plot 
 was to work on the dislike entertained by the 
 English towards the Dutch, in order to induce 
 Parliament to petition the king to discharge 
 all foreign forces. He then hoped to get 
 the 'English army to further his views. The 
 Princess Anne was persuaded to write re- 
 pentant letters to her father. But Marl- 
 borough was hated and mistrusted by the 
 Jacobites, who thought that he would declare, 
 not for James, but for the Princess Anne. 
 They disclosed the scheme to Portland. 
 William deprived Marlborough of all his 
 ofiices (1692). As the real state of the case 
 was unknown, his fate excited general 
 sympathy. In this year he was sent to the 
 Tower on account of false accusation given 
 to government against him by an informer 
 called Young ; but was soon released. He 
 passed into opposition, exciting the aristocracy 
 against the Dutch ; and vigorously supported 
 the Place BiU. In 1694 he betrayed to the 
 Jacobites an intended expedition against Brest 
 commanded by Talmaah. So thoroughly 
 was he now mistrusted, that William re- 
 fused to entrust the regency to Anne on his 
 departure for the Continent. The death of 
 Mary (1694) was followed by a recrimination 
 between William and Princess Anne. Marl- 
 borough's designs were now changed, and he 
 was content to wait till the death of William 
 
 for his own aggrandisement. He became 
 governor to the Duke of Gloucester. In 
 1696 he was implicated in Sir John Fenwick's 
 confession, but William ignored the accusa- 
 tion. He took a neutral part in the debates 
 on the Resumption Bill, and declared against 
 the reduction of the army. In 1701, when 
 the War of the Spanish Succession was im- 
 minent, he was sent to Holland as commander- 
 in-chief; and negotiations for the grand 
 alliance were entrusted to him. William, on 
 his deathbed, recommended him to Anne as 
 the fittest general to carry on his projects. On 
 the accession of Anne, he assumed a position 
 quite unique. " He was at once genersfl, 
 diplomatist, and minister." He occupied 
 the same position which William III. had 
 held as the leader of the European opposi- 
 tion to Louis XIV. His voice was for 
 war, and it was chiefly by his influence that 
 the wish of the Tory party, that England 
 should merely act as an auxiliary, was over- 
 come. War was declared in March, 1702, and 
 Marlborough was made commander-in-chief of 
 the English and Dutch forces. A sketch of 
 Marlborough's military operations is given 
 elsewhere [Spanish Succession, War of]. 
 On his return from his first campaign he be- 
 came Marquis of Blandford and Duke of Marl- 
 borough. At home his design to rely on a 
 mixed government had not been carried out, 
 but an almost entirely Tory ministry was 
 formed, of which his friend Godolphin was 
 chief. But the dismissal of Rochester (1703) 
 was followed by that of the extreme Tories 
 in 1704, and a moderate section of that party 
 were placed in ofiice. After the campaign of 
 1705, Marlborough visited Vienna, Berlin, 
 and Hanover, where he reconciled the differ- 
 ences between the English and Hanoverian 
 courts. In 1 706 he with diflSculty persuaded 
 his friend Heinsius, Pensionary of Holland, to 
 reject the French terms of peace. In 1707 he 
 visited the camp of Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 and dissuaded that monarch from joining 
 the French alliance, whereby the cause of 
 the allies would probably have been ruined. 
 Meanwhile, at home Marlborough's affairs 
 were not progressing favourably. The nation 
 was getting weary of the war, and the duke's 
 Tory followers would not support his policy. 
 He determined to complete his idea of a com- 
 posite ministry by admitting a section of the 
 Whigs to office. But the plan was doomed to 
 failure. Harley, seeing the weakness of the 
 coalition, began to intrigue against it, through 
 the queen's new favourite, Mrs. Masham, by 
 arousing in Anne a dread of the subversion of 
 Church interests. The Whig party de- 
 termined to make their power felt, and joined 
 the High Tories in an attack on the duke's 
 foreign policy. Marlborough and Godolphin 
 were, therefore, obliged to dismiss Harley and 
 his followers, and admit the Whigs to office 
 (1708). Marlborough has been accused of 
 wishing to continue the war from purely selfish 
 
Mar 
 
 (716) 
 
 Mar 
 
 motives. He was sent as plenipotentiary to 
 the Hague, and seemed to have strongly but 
 ineffectually urged upon his colleagues to ac- 
 cept the terms offered hy the French in 1709. 
 He made two desperate attempts to obtain a 
 position independent of home politics. He 
 demanded from the Archduke Charles the 
 office of Governor of the Low Countries, worth 
 about £60,000 a year, and he demanded from 
 Anne the post of Captain-General for life. 
 Both requests were refused. In England the 
 violent temper of the duchess had alienated 
 the good- will of Qiieen Anne. On the fall of 
 the Whigs (1710), Marlborough at once made 
 overtures to the Tories. He seems to have 
 done his best to further the negotiations of 
 Gertruydenberg. But the fall of the duchess 
 already foreshadowed his own. Harley se- 
 cretly pushed on negotiations for peace. When 
 the duke returned fiomthe campaign of 1710, 
 he entered into communication with his old 
 friends the Whigs, who had joined a section 
 of the Tories under Nottingham. Harley and 
 St. John determined to ruin Marlborough. 
 He was accused of having received large sums 
 of money, amounting to £63,000, on the con- 
 tracts for supplying the army with bread, and 
 also of having received 2^ per cent, on all 
 subsidies for foreign troops, amounting to 
 £177,000. Marlborough's defence was that 
 the bread money had been habitually received 
 by every commander-in-chief and was em- 
 ployed as secret-service money ; and that the 
 percentage on the subsidies was a free gift 
 from the allies. He was, however, deprived 
 of all his offices on Dec. 31. On the death of 
 his friend Godolphiu (1711), Marlborough re- 
 turned to the Continent, and resided first at 
 Frankfort, then at Antwerp. He corresponded 
 frequently with the Hanoverian court, for 
 which he displayed great zeal, advising the 
 Elector to go over to England with a body of 
 troops. At the same time he continued the 
 intrigues with the Jacobite court that he had 
 begun before his fall. On the dismissal of 
 Oxford [Hablby], he resolved to return to 
 England, perhaps at the instigation of tha.t 
 poKtieian, perhaps hoping to play a part in 
 the crisis that was at hand. He arrived ia 
 England on the day of Anne's death. Much 
 to his disgust, he was omitted from the list of 
 lords justices who were to act until the 
 accession. of George. Later on in the year, 
 he was reappointed commander-in-chief; 
 but his power was gone, and he was dis- 
 trusted by the king. We find him sending 
 money to the Pretender just before the in- 
 vasion of 1715. Next year ah attack of 
 paralysis greatly impaired his faculties. He 
 Hved in retirement and partial insanity at 
 Blenheim until his death. "He wasr' says 
 Ranke, "a true child of the years of the Re- 
 storation, of their social training and lax 
 morality, their restless activity in Church and 
 btate, in which each individual hoped to turn 
 his natural gifts to account free from the 
 
 trammels of any thought of consequences, and 
 to attain everything which in the eyes of men 
 seems desirable. . . His father's motto had 
 been ' faithful, but unfortunate.' He, on the 
 contrary, had the favour of fortune in all he 
 undertook : he belonged to those men whose 
 special property it is, men suppose, to be fortu- 
 nate ; but of his fidelity to his sovereign he him- 
 self could not have boasted. . . The organisation 
 of the English army after the Revolution was 
 in the main his work. ... In conducting 
 public affairs, Marlborough by no means lost 
 sight of his own interests. . . His cupidity 
 may have had in it an element of ambition 
 that the family which he was to found might 
 take an equal place with aU that was wealthy 
 and aristocratic in England ; but over the 
 brilliancy of his success and fame it cast a 
 shade which made the contrast all the more 
 painful." 
 
 Coxe, Marlborough ; Marlborough Despatches ; 
 Burnet, Hist, of Sis Own Time ; Maoaulay, Kist. 
 ofEng, ; Stanhope, Wyon, and Burton's Histories 
 of Queen Anne's reign ; Arneth, Prmz Eugeti 
 vo)i Savoyen ; Martin, Hist, de .France; Banke^ 
 Hist, of En^. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Marg^ais was in early times used to 
 denote the Marchers or lords of the borders. 
 It was first used in its later sense as a title of 
 nobility in England by Richard II., who created 
 Pe Vere, Marquis of Dublin. The etymology of 
 the word was entirely forgotten, and it was 
 simply used as a title of honour, superior to 
 that of earl, and inferior to that of dukS. It 
 has always been sparingly given in England. 
 
 Marriage La-ws. In the Middle Ages 
 the marriage fines exacted by the king and 
 other lords from wards, and the widows of 
 their tenants, formed one of the most oppres- 
 sive of feudal incidents. This is shown from 
 the fact that though a lord could bestow 
 his female — and, by the time of Henry 
 III., his male — ward in marriage, yet the 
 king's lioence was necessary ; and that 
 the abuse of giving widows in marriage 
 against their will had to be guarded against 
 in Heni-y I.'s Charter of Liberties and in 
 Magna Charta. The civil disabilities of 
 marriage were for the most part incorporated 
 into the common law from the canonical law, 
 the prohibited degrees being regulated by 
 32 Hen. YIII., c. 88 ; and 2 & 3 Ed. VI., 
 c. 23. Gradually the law drifted into an 
 uncertain state. The number of forms which 
 constituted a pre-contract multiplied, so that 
 subsequent marriages were liable to be 
 suddenly dissolved; and the consent of 
 parents and guardians was evaded by the 
 aid of Fleet parsons. The Act commonly 
 called Lord Hardwicke's Act (1763) provided 
 therefore that marriages must be performed 
 m the parish church (those of Jews and 
 Quakers alone being excepted) after the puK 
 hcation of banns, or by special licence granted 
 by the archbishop. Any clergyman breaking 
 these restrictions was liable to transportation 
 
Mar 
 
 (717) 
 
 Uar 
 
 for seven years. Further regulations for 
 marriages within the Churuh of England 
 •were provided hy the Act of 4 Geo. IV. , o. 76. 
 The hardships inflicted npon Dissenters 
 under these Acts occupied for some time the 
 attention both of Lord John Russell and 
 of Sir Eohert Peel. In 1836 the latter 
 carried the Dissenters' Marriage Bill, by -which 
 marriage by notice to the Registrar of a 
 district was legalised, as well as the publica- 
 tion of banns or licence, and marriages of 
 Dissenters might be solemnised in their own 
 chapels ; or, if they preferred it, they might 
 enter into a civil contract before the Superin- 
 tendent-Registrar. In the previous year all 
 marriages thereafter celebrated between 
 persons within the prohibited degrees were 
 made absolutely void instead of being valid 
 until annulled by sentence of the eccle- 
 siastical court. The marriages of members 
 of the royal family are regulated by the Eoj'al 
 Marriage Act of 1772 (amended by the 
 Act 3 & 4 Vict., c. 32), by which the consent 
 of the sovereign is required for the marriage 
 of the heir to the throne. In Scotland the law 
 is considerably more lax with regard to the 
 recognition of irregular marriages, and in other 
 respects the law remains in the state in which 
 it was in England before Lord Hardwicke's 
 Act. In Ireland cruel and unnecessary re- 
 strictions were imposed under the penal laws 
 on the marriages between Protestants and 
 Catholics. These, however, have since been 
 repealed, and in 1844 the law relating to 
 marriages in Ireland was practically assimi- 
 lated to that existing in England and 
 Wales. 
 
 Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law, vol. i. ! ^I'ly. 
 
 Hist. ofEng., vol. ii., ch. xlv. ; Stanhope, Htst. of 
 
 Eng., vol. iv., ch. xxxi. ; 26 Geo. II., c. 2& ; 4 Geo. 
 
 IV., c. 76j S & 6 WiU. IV., o. 54; 6 & 7 WiU. 
 
 IV., c. 85 ; 7 & 8 Vict., o. 81. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Marshal, The, was one of the great 
 offices of the household of the Norman and 
 Plantagenet kings, holding equal or slightly 
 inferior rank to the Constable and the Chan- 
 cellor. His special function was that of 
 Master of the Horse; but he came to be 
 also charged vrith a superintendence over 
 the practice of chivalry and the laws of 
 honour. The Marshal, together with the 
 Constable, was the judge of the court of 
 honour. The office of Earl Marshal was 
 made hereditary in the family of the Earls of 
 Pembroke at the close of the twelfth century. 
 It passed by female descent to the Bigods, 
 Earls of Norfolk, and was held by the 
 Mowbrays, the Howards, and the Arundels. It 
 Was made perpetual in the descendants of 
 Henry Howard, Earl of Norwich, and has 
 since continued in his descendants, the Dukes 
 of Norfolk. The Earl Marshal is stiU head of 
 the Heralds' CoUege and appoints officers of 
 arms. In Scotland the office of Marisohal 
 became hereditary in the fourteenth century, 
 in the family of the Earls of Keith. The 
 
 Marischal was made an earl in 1458. The 
 dignity came to an end in 1716, when 
 G-eorge, the tenth earl, was attainted for his 
 share in the Jacobite rising. 
 
 Marshal, Eiohakd [d. 1234), was the son 
 of the great "William Marshal, Earl of 
 Pembroke. He succeeded to the earldom 
 on his brother's death in 1231, and soon came 
 forward as the champion of the English 
 against Peter des Roches and the foreign 
 courtiers. For this he was declared a traitor, 
 and the king marched against him. The earl 
 allied himself with the Welsh, and defeated 
 the royal troops. Des Roches now had re- 
 course to treachery, and having induced him 
 to go over to Ireland to defend his possessions, 
 took care that he should be betrayed. He 
 fell mortally wounded at Kildare, having 
 been drawn into a battle by the agents of Des 
 Roches. Mr. Pearson calls him "the first 
 gentleman of his day, with as much learning 
 as a knight needed, and with all his father's 
 loyalty of nature." 
 
 Marshal, or Mareschal, William, 
 Eaul of Pembroke {d. 1219), first appears 
 as one of the judges in Richard I.'s time, 
 and one of the council appointed to advise 
 the justiciars^, during the king's absence 
 from England. He upheld John's claim to 
 the throne, and during that king's struggle 
 with the barons was one of his chief sup- 
 porters. By his marriage with the daughter 
 of Strongbow he became Earl of Pem- 
 broke, and received besides many valuable 
 grants from the king. On the death of 
 John, he was at once appointed regent, and 
 by his wisdom and ability secured the throne 
 to the yoimg king, Henry III. He defeated 
 Louis, of France, and compelled him to quit 
 England, and confirmed the Great Charter. 
 
 MarstOU Moor, The Battle of (July 2, 
 1644), was fought during the Great Rebellion. 
 York was laid siege to on May 20, 1644, by 
 the Scotch army under the Earl of Leven, 
 and the Yorkshire army under the command 
 of the Fairfaxes. They were joined on 
 June 2 by the army of the Eastern Associa- 
 tion under the Earl of Manchester. On July 
 1 the combined armies raised the siege at 
 the news of the approach of Prince Rupert, 
 who by skilful manoeuvring contrived to 
 enter the city without a battle. Against 
 the advice of the Marquis of Newcastle he 
 determined to offer battle, and pursued the 
 Parliamentary army for that purpose. The 
 allied army, numbering in all about 15,000 
 foot and 9,000 horse, was posted between 
 the viUageB of Long Marston and Tockwith. 
 The Royalists, about 22,000 strong, were 
 ranged on Marston Moor itself. The battle 
 began about seven in the evening with a 
 general attack on the part of the allies. On 
 the left Cromwell and David Leslie routed 
 Prince Rupert's horse, and, aided by the Earl 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 718 ) 
 
 SCax 
 
 of Manchester's foot, put to flight a portion of 
 the Eoyalist infantry. Meanwhile the whole 
 right wing was utterly defeated, with the 
 exception of Fairfax's own regiment, which 
 succeeded in joining Manchester's horse on 
 the left. A desperate struggle now took place 
 in the centre. The Scotch infantry were 
 attacked in front by Newcastle's foot, in the 
 flank hy Goring's victorious cavalry, and at 
 the third charge the regiments of the reserve 
 hroke and fled. But the greater part main- 
 tained their ground, and their resistance 
 gave time for Manchester's foot, and the 
 cavalry of the left wing under Cromwell 
 and David Leslie, to come to their help. 
 This decided the day. Goring's horse were 
 driven from the field, the Eoyalist foot 
 scattered, and ^Newcastle's own regiment of 
 white-coats, which made the most desperate 
 resistance, cut to pieces. The pursuit was 
 continued hy moonlight to within three miles 
 of York. ■ The losses on both sides were 
 heavy. The killed alone numbered 4,150 of 
 whom 3,000 were Eoyalists. The whole of 
 the artillery and baggage of the conquered 
 army was captured, with 100 colours and 
 10,000 arms. 
 
 Sanford, Studies and IllTJistrafions of the Great 
 RehelUon ; Markham, Life of Fairfax ; Baillie's 
 Letters ; Holies' Memoirs ; CromweU's Letters ; Sir 
 Thomas Fairfax's Short Memorial ; Itushworth's 
 Collections ; Clarendon, Hist, of the Behellion ; Sir 
 Henry Slingsby's Diary. m JJ pi 
 
 Martin Mar-Frelate, Works of, 
 were certain publications by various authors 
 containing attacks on the bishops and Queen 
 Elizabeth. They were supposed to be the 
 composition of John Penry, who was executed 
 in 1593, but were in reality the work of more 
 hands than one, and consisted of " the moat 
 coarse, scurrilous, and indecent pasquinades " 
 against the episcopal system. They had a 
 very injurious effect, and were the means of 
 bringing on the controversy between Thomas 
 Cartwright and Archbishop Whitgift. 
 Burnet, Kist. of the Reformaiion. 
 
 Mary, Ql-een (S. Feb. 18, 1516, s. July 
 19, 1553 ; d. Nov. 17, 1558), was the daughter 
 of Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon. 
 Several marriage alliances were arranged for 
 her in childhood. In 1518 a treaty was con- 
 cluded for her marriage with the Dauphin 
 Francis, and when this was broken oil it was 
 arranged that she should marry Charles V. 
 (1522), and the project of marrying her to 
 Francis I. of France was also discussed (1527). 
 She was carefully educated, and was an ac- 
 complished and precocious child. On the 
 rise of Anne Boleyn the young princess was 
 treated with great harshness. By an Act of 
 1534 she was declared illegitimate, and she 
 was refused permission to see her mother. 
 She was compelled to subscribe a document 
 in which she declared her own illegitimacy, 
 and the invalidity of her mother's marriage. 
 
 She was again declared illegitimate in 1536, 
 but by an Act of 1544 (35 Hen. VIII., c. i.) 
 the succession was secured on her. In the 
 reign of Edward VI. she refused to obey the 
 Act of Uniformity ; but the Council, though 
 they threatened her, were afraid to proceed 
 to violent measures with her because of her 
 popularity with the people ; and though she 
 felt in such danger that she attempted to 
 escape to the Continent, she was never- 
 theless able to resist all the attempts of 
 the Council to compel her to accept the New 
 Service Book (1551). On the death of Ed- 
 ward she laid claim to the crown (July 9, 
 1553). Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed 
 queen in London on the following day. But 
 she was absolutely destitute of support ; and 
 Mary, advancing from the eastern counties, 
 was joined by considerable numbers of the 
 gentry and nobles, and found herself at the 
 head of a large body of followers. The 
 Duke of Northumberland's forces melted 
 away, and he proclaimed Mary at Cambridge 
 (July 20). On August 3 she entered London, 
 and her reign began. She was a firm and 
 sincere Roman Catholic, and to her uncle, 
 Charles V. of Spain, she looked for assistance 
 and support. Her first act was to liberate 
 the Catholic bishops imprisoned during her 
 brother's reign, and to prohibit preaching 
 without a licence ; while some of the promi- 
 nent Reformers, Hooper, Cranmer, and 
 Latimer were imprisoned. She was declared 
 legitimate by Act of Parliament, and crowned 
 by Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester (Oct., 
 1553). In Jan., 1554, much to the disap- 
 pointment of her subjects, she concluded a 
 marriage treaty with jphilip of Spain, son of 
 Charles V. Henceforward her reign, which 
 had opened well, was unhappy and disastrous. 
 The insurrection of Wyatt in Kent followed, 
 and though this was put down without much 
 difliculty, it led to the execution of Lady 
 Jane Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), who had been tried 
 and found guilty in the previous November, 
 together with her husband and father. In 
 July the marriage took place. Cardinal Polo 
 capie to England, and the Catholic reaction 
 was pushed on. All statutes against the Pope 
 since the twentieth year of Henry VIII. were 
 repealed, though the monastic lands were not 
 resumed. The following year the persecuting 
 statutes of Henry IV. and V. were revived, 
 and under them Hooper, and many other 
 eminent Reformers, were burnt. Under the 
 investigation of Pole and the Spanish court 
 the persecution continued during 1556, and 
 Cranmer, with Latimer, Ridley, and a large 
 number of clergymen and others were put to 
 death as heretics. In the midst of the gloom 
 and distress caused by this persecution, 
 Philip persuaded Mary to declare war against 
 the French. The Spaniards and English won 
 a brilliant victory at St. Quentin (1557) ; but 
 the campaign was disastrous to England, 
 since it resulted in the capture of Calais by 
 
Uar 
 
 ( 719 ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 the Duke of Guise (Jan., 1558). The queen, 
 who had long heen sinking under the per- 
 plexity and strain of public afEairs, and the 
 failure of her measures, never recovered from 
 this last hlow. She died a few months after 
 it (Nov., 1558). Mary's character has heen 
 indelibly stained in popular opinion by the 
 sanguinary persecution of her reign. Yet it is 
 probable that the full extent of the martyrdom 
 was hardly known to her, for during a great 
 part of the time she was in a state of depres- 
 sion and inaction owing to mental and bodily 
 ill-health. She seems to have been by no 
 means harsh or cruel in her disposition, and 
 conscientiously anxious for the welfare of her 
 country, as well as for the good of the Church 
 to which she was devotedly attached. The 
 unfortunate Spanish marriage was responsible 
 for the worst evils of her reign. 
 
 !Foxe, Act and Monuments ; Bumet, Hist, of the 
 Rt'/ormabion ; Froude, Sist. of Eng, ; Lingard, 
 Mist, of Eng. ; Tjtler, Edtoard VI. and Mary ; 
 Calendars of State ^wp&rs ; Noailles, Amhassadna 
 en AngJetsrre ; ChvotiiciA of Queen Jane and Queen 
 Mai'y (Camden Soc). [S. J. L.] 
 
 Uary II., ftxjEEN {b. 1662, s. 1688, d. 
 1694), wife of William III., was the daughter 
 of the Duke of York, afterwards James II., and 
 Anne Hyde. By the command of Charles II., 
 she was educated in the Protestant religion. 
 At the age of fifteen she was betrothed to 
 William of Orange, and married to him 1677. 
 In 1687 they sent a joint expression of. their 
 opinion to James, condemnatory of the Declara- 
 tion of Indulgence. Mary approved of William's 
 expedition to England. She probably never 
 cared for her father, who had established a 
 system of espionage at the Hague, and had re- 
 fused her pecuniary assistance. In company 
 with the rest of the world, she believed the 
 Prince of Wales to be supposititious. A large 
 section of English statesmen determined, on 
 the flight of James II., to proclaim her as 
 queen. She might, they thought, make her 
 husband Prime Minister, or even give him 
 the title of king. The leader of the party was 
 Danby, while Halifax was the chief supporter 
 of William's interests. At length, in February, 
 1689, Bumet (q.v.) thought it right to de- 
 clare her views, that she would surrender her 
 power, with the consent of Parliament, into 
 the hands of her husband. At the same time 
 she wrote an earnest letter to the same effect 
 to Danby. She arrived that month in Lon- 
 don. Before her arrival the dispute had been 
 settled. The crown was tendered to William 
 and Mary Jointly, and accepted by them. 
 They were proclaimed in Ijondon on Feb. 14, 
 1689. Mary immediately, from her amiable 
 qualities, gained deserved popularity. The 
 court, owing to William's infirmities, was re- 
 moved from Whitehall to Hampton Court, 
 and from thence to Kensington House. On 
 April 11, 1689, she was crowned with her 
 husband. In the same month they received 
 the crown of Scotland. During William's 
 campaign in Ireland, Mary, aided by the 
 
 steady friendship of Bumet, acted with ad- 
 mirable decision. Clarendon, her uncle, and 
 several other suspected Jacobites, were lodged 
 in the Tower. On receiving the news of the 
 battle of the Boyne, she wrote to William, 
 imploring that no harm should happen to 
 her father. In 1692 the treachery of Marl- 
 borough was discovered, and he was dismissed 
 from hie employments, much to the anger of 
 the Princess Anne. The quarrel between the 
 two sisters was final. The guard of honour 
 previously allotted to the princess was taken 
 away ; the king and queen went to unjustifi- 
 able lengths in their resentment. But Mary 
 soon regained her lost popularity. Once more 
 WiUiam left England, and the French fleet 
 was known to be about to escort a French in- 
 vading army across the Channel. The English 
 navy was understood to be disaffected. The 
 queen sent a despatch, written by Notting- 
 ham, in which she refused to believe the re- 
 ports in circulation, and placed her entire 
 confidence in her naval ofiicers. All disafiec- 
 tion was checked at once, and the battle of 
 La Hogue (1692) resulted in a glorious victory 
 over the enemy. By the queen's order, those 
 wounded in the engagement were relieved at 
 the public charge. In 1694 she sickened of 
 the smallpox, and it was evident that her end 
 was near. William remained day and night 
 at her bedside. Before she died she received 
 a letter of reconciliation from the Princess 
 Anne. Her death, to which she submitted 
 with noble resignation, took place on Dec. 28. 
 
 Bumet, Hist, of his Own Time ; Echard, Hist, 
 of the Revolvtinn; Coxe, Marlborough j Marl- 
 borough Despatches ; Lnttrell, Rflation of State 
 Affairs; Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; Banke, Hist, 
 of Eng. 
 
 Kary, Queen of Scots (i. Dec. 7, 1642; 
 s. Dec. 14, 1542 ; li. Feb. 8, 1587), was the 
 daughter of James V. and Mary of Guise, 
 and was born at Linlithgow, a week only 
 before her father's death. In 1543 a treaty 
 with England arranged for a marriage be- 
 tween the young princess and Prince Edward 
 of England. In Aug., 1548, Mary was 
 taken to France for greater security, a 
 marriage being arranged between her and the 
 Dauphin. This marriage took place on April 
 24, 1558, the Dauphin receiving the title of 
 King of Scots from the Scottish Com- 
 missioners. The following year, on the death 
 of Henry II., Mary became Queen of France 
 (as the granddaughter of Margaret, sister of 
 Henry VIII.), being also declared Queen of 
 England by the French and Spanish courts. 
 In Dec, 1560, her husband, Francis II., died, 
 an event which seems to have caused the 
 young queen deep grief, and the following 
 year (Aug., 1561) she returned to Scotland. 
 Here her devotion to the Eomish Church at 
 once brought her into collision with Knox 
 and the Eeformers. But the lavish splendour 
 of Mary's court, her beauty, and her accom- 
 plished wit, soon rendered her exceedingly 
 
Mar 
 
 { 720 ) 
 
 BCar 
 
 popular amongst her people. The first years 
 of her rule in Scotland were taken up with 
 overcoming the disafiection of the Catholic 
 lords of the north, finding a modus vivendi 
 with the Reformers, and discussing various 
 ■projects for the queen's marriage, in all which 
 transactions Mary's adroitness and courage 
 were conspicuous. In 1663 a marriage with 
 Don Carlos, son of Philip II., was proposed 
 by the Guises, and in 1564 fruitless negotia- 
 tions took place for her marriage with 
 Elizabeth's favourite, Robert Dudley. In 
 July, 1565, however, she married Henry 
 Darnley (q.v.), to the great disgust of most of 
 her friends. A force quickly collected by the 
 discontented lords was scattered at the ap- 
 proach of Mary and her husband at the head 
 ■of the loyal army, the confederates taking 
 refuge at the court of Elizabeth, who, in 
 consideration of their efforts to restore Pro- 
 testantism in Scotland, aided them with 
 money. Meanwhile the vice and folly of her 
 husband rendered it impossible for Mary's 
 domestic life to be a happy one. The murder 
 of her favourite, Eizzio (Mar. 9, 1566), in 
 her presence at Damley's instigation, is only 
 one of the many insults she endured at his 
 hands. This murder was, however, followed 
 by a feigned reconciliation, the queen escaping 
 from the Confederate Lords in her husband's 
 company to Dunbar Castle. Here a force 
 raised for her protection by BothweU caused 
 her enemies to fall back. After the birth of 
 her son (afterwards James VI.) on July 19, 
 1560, Mary became reconciled to many of the 
 rebellious lords, reserving all her resentment 
 for her husband, to whose murder at Kirk of 
 . Eield she was almost certainly privy. After 
 the acquittal of BothweU for the murder, 
 Mary was carried off by him to Dunbar 
 Castle, and on his obtaining a divorce from 
 his wife. Lady Jane Gordon, married him 
 (May 16, 1567). She was not, however, 
 destined to remain undisturbed for long. 
 A month later a combination of discon- 
 tented lords against BothweU and the queen 
 led to his flight and to her surrender to 
 Kirkcaldy of Grange at Carberrj' HiU (June, 
 1567). Insulted at Edinburgh by the people, 
 she was removed to Lochleven Castle, where, 
 on July 23, 1567, she was forced to sign a 
 deed of abdication and to appoint Murray 
 regent of the kingdom during the minority of 
 her son. Queen Elizabeth's interference on 
 her behalf was of no avail, but by degrees 
 the remnants of her party coUected, and on 
 her escape in May, 1668, she found herself 
 under the protection of the HamUtons and 
 other nobles, and at the head of 6,000 men. 
 Her abdication was at once revoked, and aid 
 sought from England and France ; but her 
 triumph was of short duration, for on the 
 defeat of her army at Langside (May 13, 
 1568), she was compeUed to take refuge in 
 England, where she hoped to find a friend in 
 EUzabeth. Having landed at "Workington, 
 
 in Cumberland, she was escorted to CarKsle, 
 and thence to Bolton Castle. Elizabeth, 
 however, refused to grant her a personal 
 interview, and also refused to aUow her to 
 return to Scotland, alleging the danger to 
 which she would be exposed as the excuse for 
 detaining her. In Sept., 1568, a commission 
 sat at York to settle the diiferenees between 
 Mary and her subjects; to consider the 
 charges brought against her; to pronounce 
 on the authenticity of the Casket Letters 
 (q.v.), and to provide for the abandonment on 
 the part of the Scottish queen of aU claim to 
 the EngUsh crown " during the life of Queen 
 Elizabeth or her descendants." This com- 
 mission was afterwards removed to London, 
 where, on Nov. 26, the charge of murder was 
 formally brought against the Queen of Scots. 
 Mary, in spite of Elizabeth's request that she 
 would answer the charges against her and 
 " clear her good name," refused to aUow her 
 commissioners to answer the accusations. 
 On Jan. 10, 1669, judgment was given to the 
 eifect that Murray had not been proved guiltv 
 of disloyalty, neither had there been anything 
 produced or shown against Mary, " whereby 
 the Queen of England should conceive or 
 take any evil opinion of the queen, her good 
 sister, for anything yet seen." EUzabeth 
 still kept possession of her rival. Plots 
 against the EngUsh queen, proposed rebel- 
 lions, and the papal bull whicU excommuni- 
 cated Elizabeth foUowed, and it is certain 
 that England was in considerable danger from 
 France, Spain, and Eome. In 1670 Mary, 
 having been removed to Tutbury and Chats- 
 worth, was imprisoned in Sheffield Castle, tiU 
 1585, when she was taken back to Tutbury, 
 and thence to Chartley. Detected by the 
 espionage of Walsingham in the concoction of 
 Babington's plot against the queen's Uf e (Sept., 
 1586), she was sent to Fotheringay Castle, in 
 Nottinghamshire, tried, and found guilty (Oct. 
 25, 1587). She was sentenced to death and 
 beheaded at Fotheringay (Feb. 8, 1587). Con- 
 cerning her character the most divergent 
 views have been taken. These can hardly be 
 discussed here, nor is the evidence such as to 
 make any decisive verdict possible. 
 
 Anderson, CoUect. relating to Mary, Queen of 
 Scotland (1717); BwlCTjh State Papers; Keith, 
 Hist, of Affairs in Scotland from Bef ormation to 
 1568 (Spottiswoode Soc.) ; Hogack, Life of Mary 
 Queen of Scots; Labanoff, Mim. de Marie Stuart; 
 Gauthier, JMario Stuart: Migmt, Marie Stuart ; 
 Strickland, Quems of Scotland; Burton, Hist, of 
 Scotland; Froude, Hist, of Eng. ; Sohiem, 
 BothweU; Mr. Swinburne's article in Ency- 
 clopredia Britannica (9tli ed.). 
 
 Mary of Modena, Queen, wife of 
 James II. (J. 1658, d. 1718), was the 
 daughter of Alfonso, Duke of Modena, 
 and was married to James in 1673. She was 
 unpopular in England owing to her reUgion. 
 By James she had six sons, of whom James 
 Edward, the "Old Pretender," was one. 
 After her husband's death she retired to the 
 nunnery of ChaiUot. 
 
Mas 
 
 ■( 721 ) 
 
 Mat 
 
 Maserfield, Battle of (642), was fought 
 between Oswald of Northumbria and Penda 
 of Mercia, and resulted in the defeat and 
 death of the former. Mr. Ingram identifies 
 Maserfleld with Mirfield in Yorkshire. It io 
 more likely to have been near Oswestry, a town 
 taking its name from Oswald. 
 
 UKasham, Abigail [d. 1734), afterwards 
 Lady Masbam, was a favourite of Queen Anne. 
 Her father was a London merchant who be- 
 came a bankrupt, her mother was the aunt of 
 Sarah Jennings, Duchess of Marlborough. 
 Mrs. lEIl entered the house of Lady Kivers, 
 and afterwards that of Lady Marlborough, 
 who obtained for her the post of bedchamber 
 woman to the queen. In 1707 she was pri- 
 vately married, in the queen's presence, to 
 Mr. Samuel Masham, one of Prince George's 
 gentlemen. This roused the suspicions of 
 the duchess, who soon discovered that Mrs. 
 Masham's cousin Harley, afterwards Lord 
 Oxford, was using her as a means of further- 
 ing his interests with the queen. It was 
 thought to be owiug to the influence of 
 Harley and Mrs. Masham that Anne created 
 two new bishops without consulting the 
 minister Godolphin. In spite of her violence 
 the duchess found herself gradually sup- 
 planted by her former dependent. On the 
 downfall of Godolphin's ministry (1710), 
 Mrs. Masham introduced Harley, now vir- 
 tually Prime Minister, to the queen. She 
 received the Privy Purse after her rival the 
 duchess had been dismissed, and her husband 
 was raised to the peerage, apparently against 
 the wish of Anne. Harley quarrelled with 
 her, probably about some money he bad pro- 
 mised her out of the Asiento Contract, and 
 now relied on the rival favourite, the Duchess 
 of Somerset. Lady Masham joined the Boling- 
 broke faction, although Swift attempted a 
 reconciliation between the two ministers at her 
 house. In fact, there is some reason to 
 believe that it was through her and Ormonde 
 that the Jacobites at St. Germains induced 
 the queen to dismiss Harley, and she had 
 certainl}' reproached him for his uselessness 
 shortly "before that event took place (July, 
 1714). Of the remainder of her life nothing is 
 known. From this time Lady Masham's name 
 disappears from history. Her influence over 
 Queen Anne is to be ascribed, first, to her 
 political and Church principles, which were 
 in almost exact accord with those of her 
 mistress, and, secondly, to that " suppleness 
 of temper" which formed so great a con- 
 trast to the violent character of the Duchess 
 of Marlborough. 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. ; J. H. Burton, Hist, 
 of Queen Anne. 
 
 Mason, Sir John {d. 1566), was distin- 
 guished during the reigns of Henry A^IL, 
 Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, as a 
 statesman and as a diplomatist. He was sent 
 in 1S50 to France to discuss the possession of 
 
 Boulogne with the French commissioners. He 
 subsequently sided with Northumberland, 
 but was employed on various missions under 
 Mary. After the accession of Elizabeth he, 
 in conjunction vTith Lord Paget, opposed 
 Cecil, and warmly advocated a Spanish policy. 
 Mason was said to have brought back from 
 his various embassies " the Italian's quickness, 
 the Spaniard's staidness, the Frenchman's air, 
 the German's resolution, and the Dutchman's 
 industry." Mason himself accounts for his 
 success in gaining the favour of four sove- 
 reigns by his "speaking little, and writing 
 less," and by "attaining to something which 
 each party esteemed serviceable to them, and 
 being so moderate that all thought him their 
 own." 
 
 Tytler, Edmard VI. anA Mary. 
 
 Matilda {d. 1033), wife of William the 
 Conqueror, was the daughter of Baldwin V., 
 Count of Flanders. She was married to 
 William in 1053, but, being near relations, 
 and riot having obtained the papal dispen- 
 sation, they were placed under excommuni- 
 cation. By Lanfranc's intercession this ban 
 was removed subsequently. Her fame chiefly 
 rests on the Bayeux tapestry (q.v.), which 
 there is great reason for believing to be her 
 own handiwork. Of her personal character 
 little is known, but the story of her having 
 vindictively deprived Brihtric — a Saxon noble 
 who rejected her advances in the days when 
 she was at her father's court — of all his lands, 
 if true, is unfavourable to her character. 
 
 Matilda, or Maud {d. 1118), the first 
 wife of Henry I., was the daughter of Malcolm 
 of Sco,tland and Margaret, sister of Edgar 
 Atheling. Her original name was Edith, but 
 on her marriage the Saxon appellation was 
 discarded for the Norman one of Matilda or 
 Maud. She had been brought up in the 
 convent of Romsey by her aunt Christine, 
 but never took the veU. Her title, "Good 
 Queen Maud," seems to have been well 
 deserved. She ministered to the poor with 
 her own hands, and was a great supporter of 
 Anselm, and the Church. _ Her later years 
 were passed in pious seclusion. 
 
 Matnda, or Maud {i. 1103, d. 1167), 
 
 was the only daughter of Henry I. In 1114 
 she was married to the Emperor Henry V., by 
 whom she had no issue. Henry died in 1 1 25, 
 and her brother William having been drowned, 
 Maud was summoned to England, and homage 
 was done to her as the future queen (1126). 
 In 1128, contrary to the wishes of many of 
 the barons, she was married to Geofflrey of 
 Anjou. The unpopularity of this match gave 
 an opportunity to Stephen to seize the crown 
 on the death of Henry I., but bis misgovern- 
 ment quickly alienated a large number of his 
 subjects, and in 1139 Maud (or the Empress, 
 as she' was usually styled) landed in England, 
 and the country was practically divided. 
 
Mat 
 
 (722 ) 
 
 May 
 
 Stephen being in possession of the eastern 
 part, Maud of the western. A period of civil 
 ■war ensued with varying success till 1147, 
 when the death of Robert of Gloucester, her 
 great partisan, induced Maud to quit the 
 country, and content herself with attempting 
 to estabUsh her authority in Normandy. Her 
 want of success is to be attributed partly to 
 her own overbearing and tyrannical conduct, 
 and partly to the inveterate disKke of the 
 Normans for the Angevins. She Uved, how- 
 ever, to see her son Henry crowned King of 
 England. 
 
 Matilda, or Maud {d. 1161), wife of 
 King Stephen, was the daughter and heiress 
 of the Count of Boulogne, and the niece of 
 Henry I. ' s queen. She was extremely popular, 
 and deservedly so, as she followed in the foot- 
 steps of her aunt, the " Good Queen Maud." 
 She seems to have energetically supported 
 her husband in his wars with the Empress. 
 
 Mauritius (or the Isle of France), an 
 island in the Indian Ocean, lying to the east 
 of Madagascar, was discovered in 1507, by a 
 Portuguese navigator named Pedro Masca- 
 renhas, who named his discovery Cerne. In 
 1598 the island was occupied by a Dutch 
 expedition imder Tan Neck, and called Mau- 
 ritius in honour of Maurice, Prince of Orange ; 
 but no settlement was made until 1644. In 
 1712 the island was abandoned by the Dutch 
 only to be occupied three years later by the 
 French, by whom it was held until 1810, 
 when it was taken by an English expedition 
 under Sir Ealph Abercromby. Mauritius 
 has ever since remained under British rule, 
 having been finally ceded to England by the 
 Treaty of Paris (1814). In 1825 a reduction 
 of ten shillings per cwt. on Mauritian sugar 
 caused the island to make rapid progress in 
 civilisation ; and at the present day the ex- 
 ports of sugar, rum, and vanilla, are very 
 considerable. The government is vested in a 
 governor, assisted by an executive council of 
 five members, including the colonial secre- 
 tary, the commander-in-chief, and the advo- 
 cate-general. There is also a legislative 
 council appointed by the crown, consisting of 
 eight ofiioial and eight non-official members. 
 The Seychelles and Eodriguez Islands are 
 dependencies of Mauritius. 
 
 Maxima Csesarieusis was one of the 
 Roman districts of Britain. Of its situation 
 nothing is known. 
 
 Maximus, Roman commander in Britain, 
 was in the year 383 proclaimed Emperor. He 
 established his power in Britain and Gaul, 
 and in 387 invaded Italy with an army largely 
 composed of British troops. He expelled 
 Valentinian, but in a.d. 388 he was himself 
 defeated and slain. 
 
 May, Thomas (5. 1595,<?. 1650), belonged to 
 a good family in Sussex, and was educated at 
 Cambridge. He was one of the most successful 
 
 and popular authors of the time of Charles I. 
 He wrote five plays and two historical poems, 
 besides translating the Georgics, and some 
 of Martial's Epigrams.- His failure to obtain 
 the Jaureateship in 1637 is said to be the cause 
 which made him seek the patronage of the 
 Parliament, and become its historian and 
 apologist. His History of the Parliament was 
 published in May, 1647, and chronicled events 
 as far as the battle of Newbury (Sept., 1643). 
 He also wrote, first in Latin and then in 
 English, a Breviary of the Bistory of the 
 Parliament of England, which extended to the 
 end of the second Civil "War. In November, 
 1650, he died, and was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey. At the Restoration his body was 
 exhumed and removed to the burial-ground of 
 St. Margaret's Church. Chatham praises his 
 "honesty," andWarburtonhis ' 'candour." But 
 within a few years after his death, Marvell 
 characterises him as a " most servile wit and 
 mercenary pen." He was by no means im- 
 partial, but being a skilful advocate strove to 
 avoid the appearance of partiality. 
 
 May, Hist, of ihe LonfT Pai-lmmmt (Preface 
 to the edition ol 1854) . Clarendon, Li/o ; Guizot, 
 Portraits politigwes des Tiommes des divers parties. 
 
 Maynard, Sra John (J. 1602, d. 1690), 
 was bom at Tavistock, educated at Exeter 
 College, Oxford, entered the Middle Temple 
 in 1619, and represented Chippenham in 
 the first Parliament of Charles I. He 
 speedily obtained eminence as a lawyer, 
 and was in consequence appointed by the 
 Long Parliament one of the managers in 
 the prosecution of Strafford, and also of 
 Laud. In 1648 he vehemently opposed the 
 vote of non-addresses, and when it passed in 
 spite of his opposition, for a time seceded 
 from Parliament. Thus he took no part 
 in the measures which led to the king's 
 execution and the foundation of the Republic, 
 nor did he again sit in a Parliament until 
 1656. During the Protectorate, Maynard 
 was committed to the Tower by CromweU for 
 his argument in Cony's case, showing the 
 illegality of the customs' duties levied by the 
 Protector. To obtain his release he was 
 compelled to sign a submission acknowledging 
 his fault. In spite of this incident Maynard 
 was offered and consented to accept from 
 CromweU in May, 1658, the post of Sergeant to 
 the Commonwealth. In 1659 Maynard steered 
 his course with great skill; he did not take 
 his seat in the first restoration of the Rump, 
 but waited till the second, and then used 
 his influence to pave the way for the re- 
 turn of the king. Thus he easily made his 
 peace, was knighted, and appointed one of 
 the king's sergeants. In that capacity he 
 frequently took part in the State trials, and 
 he also acted as principal manager for the 
 Commons in the trial of Lord Stafford. In 
 the solitary Parliament of James II., May- 
 nard opposed the encroachment of the king, 
 and he refused to appear for the crown 
 
May 
 
 ( 723 
 
 Mea 
 
 against the Seven Bishops. In the Conven- 
 tion Parliament Maynard took a prominent 
 part, conducted the conference with the 
 Lords on the question of the "abdication" of 
 James, and was nominated the first of the 
 Commissioners of the Great Seal. 
 FosB, Judges of England^ 
 
 Masrne, Cuthbert, a Catholic priest, was 
 executed Nov., 1577, for having denied the 
 queen's supremacy, and celebrated mass. 
 The trial is remarkable for the fact that no 
 proof was obtained, and the prisoner was 
 actually convicted on the ground of strong 
 ipnsumption only. 
 
 Mayo, EicHARD Southwell Bourke, 6th 
 Lord (A. 1822, d. 1872), eldest son of the fifth 
 Lord Mayo, entered IParliament in 1847, as 
 member for Kildare. He was Chief Secretary 
 for Ireland under Lord Derby in 1852, and 
 again in 1858 and 1866. In 1868 he was 
 appointed Governor- General of India. His 
 reign was a period of peace, and was marked 
 by the inauguration of numerous enterprises 
 for the improvement of the social and mate- 
 rial condition of the natives. Lord Mayo 
 was assassinated Feb. 8, 1872, by a Mohamme- 
 dan fanatic at Port Blair, in the Andaman 
 Islands. 
 
 Mayor. The title " Mayor " symbolises 
 municipal self-government — the possession of 
 those rights which were implied in the recog- 
 nition of a town as a " communa." The first 
 certain instance of its use appears to be in 
 London. Here the concession of the communa 
 by Earl John and Walter of Eouen in 1191 is 
 followed at once by the appearance of a mayor, 
 Henry Fitz-Alwyu. Three years after the 
 death of Henry Pitz-Alwyn, who had retained 
 the office for life, John in 1215, in order to win 
 the support of the citizens, conceded to the 
 barons of London by charter the right of an- 
 nually choosing their mayor. The person 
 elected was, however, to be approved by the 
 Iv'ing. Though chosen only for a year it was 
 usual until 1319 to re-elect the same person for 
 several years ; from that year dates the prac- 
 tice of an annual election. According to the 
 evidence of the Rolls, it is to the reign of John 
 that the possession of a mayor in the other 
 great towns, such as Bristol, York, Norwich, 
 Lincoln, and Winchester is due. Local lists 
 • of mayors giving earlier dates are scarcely 
 trustworthy. During the thirteenth century 
 town politics turn chiefly on the question 
 who was to elect the mayor — the aldermen, 
 representing the propertied class, or the 
 populace. This struggle is particularly im- 
 portant in London during the Barons' War, 
 when the commons sided with De Montfort's 
 party, the magnates with the king. The 
 popular party were successful, and secured the 
 election of their own candidate in 1263 — 65, 
 but the royal victory in 1265 brought with it 
 a suspension of the city constitution altogether. 
 
 and the town remained under a " oustos," and 
 not a mayor, till 1270. The contest was 
 renewed in 1272, but in 1273 the aldermen, 
 supported by the Royal Council, regained their 
 power. The suspension of the town consti- 
 tution was the penalty not only for popular 
 violence, but also for attempts of the magis- 
 tracy to extend its power. Thus London 
 was without a mayor, and under a custos, 
 from 1285 to 1298, because the mayor tad 
 endeavoured to gain exemption for the city 
 from the jurisdiction of the justices in eyre. 
 The fourteenth century sees the rise of the 
 craft guilds, and their efiorts to gain control 
 of the administration, including the election 
 of the mayor. In these efforts they are 
 entirely successful in the reign of Edward IV. 
 The same general lines of development are 
 seen in the other' great towns; the struggle 
 of the magnates against the commons for the 
 election of the mayor, against royal inter- 
 ference, the occasional nomination of a custos, 
 and the increasing importance of the trade 
 societies. The struggle between the aldermen 
 and the people of York happened curiously 
 enough in 1381 ; whether it had any connec- 
 tion with the Peasant Rising has not been 
 ascertained. In conferring a new charter in 
 1389 Richard II. gave the mayor his own 
 sword : after this he assumes the title of Lord 
 Mayor, hitherto only borne by the mayor of 
 London. Another point of interest is ofiiered 
 in the confiicts between the mayors, repre- 
 senting town self-government, and the lords' 
 of such towns as were in the demesnes 
 of prelates. The most notable instance is 
 that of Reading, when in the thirteenth 
 century mayor and abbot struggle concerning 
 the merchant guild, and in the fourteenth 
 concerning tjie nomination of constables, and 
 when as late as the fifteenth century the 
 abbots claimed a, voice in the choice of the 
 mayor. 
 
 Stubbs, Comrf. Hist., o. U, 13, 21. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Meal-Tub Plot, The (1679), was a 
 pretended conspiracy fabricated by the in- 
 former Dangerfield, who hoped thereby to 
 emulate Gates and Bedloe. He declared that 
 the Presbj'terians were conspiring to raise 
 an army and establish a republic. At first he 
 was believed, but his imposture being dis- 
 covered, he was committed to Newgate, when 
 he suddenly turned round and declared that 
 the pretended conspiracy was an impostm-e 
 concocted by the Papists to hide a real Popish 
 Plot, "which had for its object the murder of 
 the king. The papers relating to this plot 
 wete, he declared, concealed in a Meal-tub in 
 the house of Mrs. Cellier, a Roman CathoUo 
 lady, who was tried -with Lady Powys for the 
 alleged plot, but acquitted. 
 
 Measnres, The Assize of (1197), was 
 issued for the purpose of securing the uni- 
 formity of weights and measures throughout 
 
Meft 
 
 ( 724 
 
 IVCee 
 
 the kingdom. But it was found impossible to 
 break down local custom, and even Magna 
 Charta was not obeyed in this respect. Indeed, 
 it is only just now that any serious attempt is 
 being made to secure that uniformity which 
 would be so beneficial. 
 
 meath, The Kingdom of, is said to have 
 been formed about 150 a.d., by Tuathal 
 Techmar, a chieftain of the Scoti tribe 
 (probably aUied to the Brigantian Gauls) 
 as the demesne land of the ard ri, or 
 over-king of Ireland. For this purpose he 
 took pieces of land from each of the four 
 kingdoms ; from Connaught the hill of Us- 
 neeh, the old religious centre of the Irish, 
 from Munster the mound of Tlachtga, from 
 TJlster, Tailti (Teltown), and fi'om Leinster 
 thejhill of Tara. The last became his prin- 
 cipal residence, and the place of assembly of 
 the under-kings of Ireland, while each of 
 those places became a religious centre where 
 great festivals were held. Meath now com- 
 prised the present county of Meath, West- 
 meath, and parts of Longford and King's 
 County. Tuathal made Leinster completely 
 subservient, and is said to have created 
 a standing army, which afterwards became 
 celebrated as the Fenians. The power 
 of the ard ri was soon menaced by that 
 of the rival kingdom of Munster, and 
 Tuathal's grandson, Conn, " of the hundred 
 battles," was forced by Mug of Munster 
 to divide Ireland into two parts, the north 
 being Conn's half, the south Mug's half. 
 The power of the ard ri seems to have been 
 precarious, and the over-kings were chosen 
 from various branches of the Milesian race, 
 until in the fifth century Miall " of the 
 nine hostages," of the race of Elimon, foimded 
 the Hui-NeiU dynasty, which from 483 — when 
 Lugaid, the son of Laeghaire, established 
 himself upon the throne — was dominant in 
 Ireland for five hundred years, the sovereignty 
 alternating between the two branches. In 
 558 the ard ri deserted Tara in consequence 
 of a curse pronounced upon it by St. Rodamis, 
 or Ruadan, because of the violation of his 
 sanctuary by King Diarmaid (Dermot), and 
 their residence became unsettled, the kings of 
 the southern Hui-Neill dynasty, whose settle- 
 ments were in Meath, living in Westmeath, 
 those of the northern race, whose possessions 
 were in Ulster, establishing themselves in 
 Derry. There was therefore no central power, 
 and hence the weak resistance offered to the 
 Teutonic invaders of whom the Fingals, or 
 Norwegians, founded a considerable colony in 
 Meath, and by whom a tribute was imposed 
 upon the southern Hui-Neills. In 980, how- 
 ever, Malachi II., of the clan Colmain, King 
 of Meath, became ard ri, on the extinction 
 of the direct branches of the Hui-Neills or 
 O'Neills aa they now called themselves, and he 
 was the last of his race who held that dignity 
 without dispute. During his lifetime it was 
 
 usurped for a time by Brian Boru, and after 
 his death it was assumed more than once by 
 the Kings of Leinster, and by the O'Loughlins 
 of Ailech. In fact, from the beginning of the 
 eleventh century, the power of the O'Melach- 
 lins (sons of Malachi) of Meath was, as a rule, 
 at a low ebb, and after the Anglo-Norman 
 invasion the province was bestowed on 
 Hugh de Lacy, through whose great-grand- 
 daughters it passed into the families of De 
 Gennerville, lords of Trim, and of De Verdon, 
 barons of Dundalk. The lordships of Trim 
 passed by marriage into the hands of Mor- 
 timer, Earl of March, and vested in the 
 crown, while the De Verdon property went 
 to the Talbots, Earls of Shrewsbury, by whom 
 it was forfeited to the crown under the 
 statute against absentees. In the reign of 
 Elizabeth, Meath, now reduced to its present 
 dimensions, was added to the province of 
 Leinster. It received a large English colony 
 during James I.'s later plantations, and again 
 during the CromweUian settlement. The 
 ancient tumuli with which Meath is covered 
 are thought to be relics of the Tuatha de 
 Danarus (tribes of Dia and Ara), the fourth of 
 the invading tribes, a branch of the Nemi- 
 diaus, who were probably of Gaulish origin. 
 Keating, Sist. of Ireland ; Haverty, Hist, of 
 Ireland ; O'Halloran, Hist, of Ireland ; Walpole, 
 The Kingdom of Ireland ; Cusack, Hist, of the 
 Irish Nation; Lodge, Irish Peerage. 
 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 lUeaux, Annals of, is the name given to 
 the records of the Cistercian abbey of Meaux, 
 in Yorkshii-e, which extend from 1150 to 1406, 
 and were collected by Thomas de Burton, the 
 nineteenth abbot. They have been published 
 in the Rolls Series. 
 
 IKEeer Cossim. was the son-in-law of Meer 
 JafiSer. Raised to the musnud of Moorsheda- 
 bad by Mr. Vansjttart on the deposition of 
 Meer Jaffier (1760), he quarrelled with the 
 English about the revenue laws, and mm-- 
 dered an embassy sent to effect a pacification. 
 War was declared ; Moorshedabad was taken, 
 and the Nabob was compelled to fly. Before 
 he fled he caused the whole of the English resi- 
 dents in the Patna factory (1 50 in number) to be 
 imprisoned, shot down, and cut to pieces, their 
 mangled remains being thrown into wells. 
 Meer Cossim fled to Oude. Sujah Dowlah, 
 the vizier, received him with favour ; but the 
 terrible defeat of Buxar, and the return of 
 Olive to India, so alarmed the vizier that he 
 compelled Meer Cossim to leave the country 
 (1765). 
 
 Meer Jaffier was appointed Nabob of 
 Moorshedabad, or Bengal, by Clive after 
 Plassey (1757), and granted the zemindary of 
 Calcutta to the English. On the death of his 
 son Meerun, during the Mogul invasion, he 
 lost his reason, and his affairs fell into 
 anarchy. His son-in-law, Meer Cossim, took 
 advantage of this to obtain the throne from 
 
Mee 
 
 725 ) 
 
 Mee 
 
 Mr. Vanaittart, Governor of Bengal, at the 
 price of the cession of Midnapore, Chittagong, 
 and Burdwan, to the Company, and a gra- 
 tuity of twenty lacs to his benefactors. 
 
 meeting. The Right or Public, as op- 
 posed to rioting, first became important in 
 1768, when the Middlesex electors, supported 
 by the most prominent politicians of the day, 
 assembled to protest against the infringe- 
 ment of their rights by the House of Com- 
 mons. Meetings were also held in their 
 support in no less than seventeen counties. 
 The question, which became intimately con- 
 nected with that of petition, was again 
 raised in 1779 — 80, when an agitation began 
 in Yorkshire and spread over England, in 
 favour of economical and Parliamentary re- 
 form. The House of Commons at this time 
 protested against the practice of sending 
 delegates to London with petitions, but were 
 unable to prevent it. The right of meeting 
 was grievously abused by the Protestant asso- 
 ciations which led to the Lord George Gordon 
 riots of 1780; but the Anti-Slave Trade 
 Association of 1787 carefully kept within 
 the law. The terror caused by the French 
 Revolution at length determined ministers 
 to have recourse to repressive measures. 
 Several societies already established, chief 
 among which were the Revolution Society, 
 the Society for Constitutional Informa- 
 tion, and the London Corresponding Society, 
 had received a fresh impulse from events 
 occurring on the other side of the Channel, 
 and members of the latter especially had in- 
 dulged in violent language. This was met 
 by several trials for sedition both in England 
 and Scotland, in which the sentences imposed, 
 especially in the northern country, were of 
 terrible severity, and the cases invariably 
 prejudged. The acquittal of Home Tooke, 
 Thomas Hardy, and other members of the 
 great societies on the charge of treason, in 
 1794, was, however, a severe blow to the 
 government, which nevertheless continued 
 the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, and 
 procured the conviction of Henry Rediead 
 Yorke on a charge of conspiracy. The 
 London Corresponding Society continued to 
 hold meetings, one of which, being followed 
 by an attack on the person of the king (1795), 
 resulted in the passing, in company with a 
 Treason Practices Bill, of a Seditious Meetings 
 Bill, which provided that no political meeting 
 of more than fifty persons could be held 
 without previous notice to a magistrate, who 
 was to attend in person, and might disperse 
 them according to the Riot Act if he thought 
 them dangerous. In spite of the vehement 
 oppobition of Eox and his friends, these bills 
 became law by large majorities. The only 
 result was that the societies had resort to 
 secret conspiracy in conjunction with the 
 French clubs and the United Irishmen, and 
 were in consequence suppressed by the 
 
 stringent Corresponding Societies Bill (1799). 
 In 1817, when discontent, want, and zeal for 
 Reform had caused riots in various parts of 
 the country and an attack on the Prince 
 Regent, the Acts of 1795 and 1799 against 
 corresponding societies were extended to other 
 associations, such as the Hampden and 
 Spencean clubs. Meetings, however, only 
 became larger and more revolutionary, espe- 
 cially in the manufacturing districts ; and 
 the rash action of the military resulted in the 
 " Manchester Massacre " of 1819, and that 
 crinainal blunder was followed by the " Six 
 Acts," one of which placed rigorous restric- 
 tions on all meetings of more than fifty 
 persons, and entrusted magistrates with the 
 amplest powers for their suppression and 
 adjournment. In the following year, Orator 
 Hunt, Sir C. Wolseley, the Rev. Joseph 
 Harrison, and others, were tried for unlaw- 
 fully meeting together, and sentenced to 
 various periods of imprisonment. From that 
 time onwards the right of meeting has been 
 generally recognised by government, and 
 lawful agitation is no longer confounded with 
 riotous and disorderly assemblies. The 
 Catholic Association in Ireland was allowed 
 to continue, restrictions being placed alone on 
 the proposal to appoint managers of petitions 
 as being a violation of the Irish Convention 
 Act of 1793, until it threatened to supersede 
 Parliament. It was thereupon suppressed 
 (1825), but continued in another form ; and, 
 being revived on the expiration of the Act, 
 was again suppressed, but not until its objects 
 had been completely gained (1829). The 
 great Reform Bill was ushered in by the 
 agitation of political unions throughout the 
 country, and on the rejection of that measure 
 by the House of Lords, these organisations 
 exceeded their lawful limits by sending 
 delegates to' a national union in London. 
 They were in consequence proclaimed, but 
 continued nevertheless ; and the surrender of 
 the Lords alone prevented much violence and 
 consequent coercion. The agitation for the 
 Repeal of the Irish Union produced some 
 monster meetings, such as that on the Hill of 
 Tara (1843), which were so dangerous to the 
 peace that the government had to repress 
 them. A similar fate attended the Orange 
 lodges, which, established about 1795 in 
 opposition to the Catholic Association, spread 
 into England, especially into the army, and 
 dabbled in plots for placing the Duke of 
 Cumberland on the throne (1835). The trades 
 unions' procession, the object of which was 
 the release of the Dorchester labourers, dis- 
 persed upon the refusal of Ijord Melbourne to 
 receive a deputation which relied to some 
 extent on the exhibition of physical force 
 (1834). A similar attitude was adopted 
 towards the Chartists, who were not allowed 
 to appear in large numbers at Westminster 
 under pretence of presenting their hufre 
 petition, but whose meetings were tolerated 
 
Meg 
 
 ( 726) 
 
 mem 
 
 as long as they were orderly. The agitation 
 for the repeal of the Com Laws was happily 
 unaccompanied by any attempts at terrorism 
 or rioting. In Ireland the Land Agitation of 
 1880 and the subsequent years unfortunately 
 compelled the government to place restric- 
 tions on the right of public meeting. The 
 Land League was suppressed in October, 
 1881, as " an illegal and criminal association," 
 and the Prevention of Crimes Act of the fol- 
 lowing year empowered the Lord-Lieutenant 
 to disperse assemblies calculated to disturb 
 the peace ; which power was frequently exer- 
 cised in 1883 and 1884-, in the case of Land 
 League, Nationalist, and Orange assemblies. 
 [Riot Act.] 
 
 Stanhope, Life ofPiH; Pari. Hist., xxi., xxxii'., 
 
 and xxxiv. ; State Trials, xxii. ; ErsMae, Speeches ; 
 
 iiiat. of the Two Acts; Lord Sidinoutli's Life; 
 
 "Wyse, Catholic Association ; Courts and Cabinets 
 
 o/ William IV.; ffiEartinean, Hist, of England; 
 
 Frentice, Hist, of Anti^Oora Law League ; Morley, 
 
 Life of Cohden ; May, Const. Histof England, vol. 
 
 ii., clis. is. and x. TL C S 1 
 
 MegaiSSBtas, The, were a Saxon tribe 
 occupying the present county of Hereford. 
 
 Mellitus, Archbishop of Canterbury (619 
 — 624), was sent over by Gregory in 601 to 
 assist Augustine in the conversion of the 
 English. He preached the Gospel in Essex, 
 baptised King Sebert, and became the first 
 Bishop of London. On the death of Sebert, 
 his sons re-established Paganism, and Mellituo 
 fled to France, but returned to England in 
 618. On the death of Laurence in 619, 
 Mellitns succeeded him, and held the arch- 
 bishopric five years. 
 
 Meltin, Treaty OF (1.593), was concluded 
 between Elizabeth and Henry IV. of France 
 (after the latter had embraced the Catholic 
 faith), and hound both sovereigns to maintain 
 an offensive and defensive war against Philip 
 as long as he should remain in hostility to 
 either England or France. 
 
 Melville, Anduew (5. 1545, d. l'!22), 
 entered the University o St. Andrews in 
 1560, and subsequently studied at Paris and 
 Poitiers. In 1569 he was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Humanity at Geneva, and held that 
 appointment tiU 1574. In the latter year he re- 
 turned to his own country and was appointed 
 Principal of Glasgow University (1574), 
 and subsequently Principal of St. Mary's 
 College, St. Andrews (1580), and Rector of 
 the University in 1590. He was moderator 
 of the General Assembly, 1587—94. In 1603 
 he was summoned to London in company 
 with seven other of the leading Scottish 
 ministers to discuss the question at issue be- 
 tween the king and the Scotch Church. A 
 conference took place, which ended in an ex- 
 plosion of rage on Melville's part against the 
 Primate.. He was ordered to be imprisoned 
 in the Tower and kept there for four years. 
 In 1611 he was released at the request of the 
 Duke of Bouillon. He passed the remaining 
 
 years of his life as Professor of Divinity at 
 Sedan. 
 
 Melville, Sir James (J. 1530, d. 1606), a 
 gentleman of HalhiU in Fife, entered the 
 service of the Elector Palatine, and was era- 
 ployed in several diploinatic missions. In 
 1531 he returned to Scotland, and was ap- 
 pointed a privy councillor and gentleman of 
 the bedchamber to Mary Queen of Scots. 
 He was continued in his employment about 
 the court by James VI. His Memoirs, first 
 printed in 1683, are of much value, and ex- 
 ceedingly interesting. 
 
 Members of Parliament. The House 
 
 of Commons has no right to decide the eligi- 
 bility of members ; it can merely insist on 
 the performance of those conditions under 
 which alone it is lawful to sit and vote. In 
 1769 Wilkes, having been expelled the House, 
 was declared " incapable of being elected a 
 member to serve in this present Parliament," 
 and Colonel Luttrell, though defeated by him at 
 the poll, was admitted as member for Middle- 
 sex, but in 1782 the resolution against Wilkes 
 was, on his own motion, expunged from the 
 journals of the House as subversive of the 
 rights of the whole body of electors. This 
 principle was not acknowledged in earlier 
 times, for in 1711 Sir Robert Walpole 
 was declared ineligible in consequence of a 
 previous expulsion. Nevertheless, a member 
 though duly returned cannot sit and vote, until 
 he has taken the oath provided by 31 and 32 
 Vict., c. 72, in place of the oaths of supremacy, 
 allegiance, and abjuration settled by 30 Cai-. 
 II., s. 2, though Quakers, Moravians, and 
 Separatists are allowed to affirm instead. On 
 May 3, 1880, Mr. Bradlaugh, member for 
 Northampton, claimed to affirm, and his claim 
 being rejected by a Select Committee, ofiered 
 to take the oath. Aa, however, he had de- 
 clared that an oath was not binding on his 
 conscience, the House refused to allow him to 
 do so. His claim to affirm was referred to 
 the law courts, and the High Court of Justice 
 decided that it was invalid. Any member 
 sitting or voting before taking the oath, 
 incurs a penalty of £500 for each offence 
 besides Vacating his seat. But though a 
 member who refuses to be sworn may not 
 take his seat, he does not cease to be a 
 member of the House; he generally sits 
 within its walls, though he must take care 
 that his seat is below the bar, which for this 
 purpose is held to be without the House; and 
 he may, like Baron Rothschild in 1868, be 
 called on to serve on committees. A member 
 having been sworn, subscribes the oath in the 
 test-book, and is presented to the Speaker by 
 the Clerk of the House. The personal privi- 
 lege of members formerly extended to freedom 
 from arrest or molestation for themselves, 
 their servants, and their goods. This privilege 
 was founded on a law of iEthelberht, and was 
 recognised by statute (5 Hen. IV., c. 6) in the 
 
Dlep 
 
 ( 727 ) 
 
 Dler 
 
 case ol Chedder. For tlie reign of George III. 
 this privilege was dropped as regards servants, 
 and now extends only to the person ol 
 memters for forty days before, during, and 
 for forty days after a session. It never 
 covered treason, murder, felony, or breach of 
 the peace, and since the House in 1753 took 
 a less liberal view of its own privileges — ^by 
 refusing in Wilkes's case to extend them to 
 seditious libel — ^than was held by the Court of 
 Common Pleas, it has not covered any indict- 
 able offence. It is the duty of a judge on 
 committing a member to prison to inform the 
 House of the fact, that it may satisfy itself as 
 to the question of privilege. A member is 
 not exempted from punishment for contempt of 
 court, for in 1831 Lord Chancellor Brougham 
 committed Mr, Long WeUesley for contempt, 
 and the House refused to interfere in hi s behalf. 
 More lately, in 1882, Mr. Gray, member for 
 DubUn, was imprisoned for contempt at the 
 end of the session. His imprisonment ended 
 before the next meeting of Parliament, and a 
 Select Committee reported that the case did 
 not demand the attention of the House. A 
 member may be expelled, and expulsion may 
 be said to follow such ill-conduct as would 
 render a man unfit to sit in the House, while 
 it is also inflicted on any member absconding 
 from justice, as in the case of Sadleir in 1857. 
 By a standing order of 1880 suspension is 
 incurred by wilful obstruction of the business 
 of the House. All members are bound by 
 
 5 Rich. II., c. 4, to render personal service 
 in Parliament, and their attendance may be 
 enforced by a call of the House, though there 
 has been no instance of such a proceeding 
 since 1836. When, therefore, a member 
 wishes to remain in the country he should 
 obtain leave of absence. A member vacates 
 his seat by elevation to the peerage, and since 
 
 6 Anne, 3. 7, by the acceptance of a lucrative 
 office under the crown. If, however, he 
 has already vacated hia seat by taking office, 
 and has been re-elected, he does not again 
 vacate it by the acceptance of a new office. 
 M'o member can relinquish his seat, and since 
 1750 the custom has obtained that a member 
 wishing to retire from Parliament should 
 apply to the crown for a nominal office, such 
 as the Stewardship of one of the three 
 Chiltern Hundreds. These offices are in the 
 gift of the Treasury. They are generally 
 granted to all members applying for them, 
 and are surrendered as soon as they have 
 worked the desired end. The grant of these 
 offices, however, is in the discretion of the 
 minister, and in 1775 Lord North refused the 
 Chiltern Stewardship to a member wishing to 
 be relieved of his seat in order that he might 
 stand against a ministerial candidate at 
 Abingdon. [Parliament.] 
 
 May, Procedv/ee of Parliament^ 9tli editioii. 
 [W. H.] 
 
 Uepeham, Simon (or Simon op Meop- 
 
 ham). Archbishop of Canterbury (1328 — 
 1333), was a canon of Chichester, and was 
 elected to the primacy by the influence of 
 Queen Isabella, whose chaplain he probably 
 was. His five years' tenure of office was un- 
 eventful. 
 
 Merchant Adventurers, The, were 
 
 a trading guild established in Brabant in 
 1296, and having numerous branches in Eng- 
 land. In the latter country they received 
 the title by patent of Henry VII. in 1505. 
 In 1564 the Merchant Adventurers were in- 
 corporated by Elizabeth, and received some 
 extensive privileges of trade to the East. 
 
 Merchants, The Charter of the 
 (1303), was granted by Edward I. to the 
 foreign merchants, and gave them certain im- 
 portant privileges, in return for which he 
 received from them a considerable sum of 
 money in the shape of duties on wool and 
 other articles. 
 
 Merchants, The Statute op (1283), 
 known also as the Statute of Acton Bumell, 
 from the place where the Parliament which 
 enacted it was held, was one of Edward I.'s 
 important commercial measures. It provided 
 for the registration of merchants' debts, their 
 recovery by distraint, and the debtors' im- 
 prisonment. 
 
 Mercia was the great Anglian kingdom of 
 central England. Originally the term seems 
 to have been confined to that particular Anglian 
 settlement which occupied the district round 
 Tamworth and Lichfield, and the Upper Trent 
 Valley. West of this a range of moorland? 
 checked the progress of the invaders for a 
 considerable period. Their proximity to the 
 uncouquered Welsh gave them the title 
 of Mercians, or Men of the March. Nothing 
 definite can be determined as to the date of 
 this original Mercian settlement, but it must 
 have been later than that of the more eastern 
 Anglian settlements in mid England. It 
 was, however, probably made in tho latter 
 half of the sixth century. Nothing is known 
 of its fitrst king, Crida, who died in 600 ; 
 Wybba (600—610) and Ceorl (610—626) were 
 of equal insignificance. But in 626 a great 
 king, Penda, son oi Wybba, began to reign. 
 He found Middle England split up into a 
 large number of independent Anglian settle- 
 ments. These had, perhaps, been already 
 dependent on Ethelbert of Kent and Rsedwald 
 of East Anglia. Penda reduced them to a 
 permanent dependence on the men of the 
 March. Henceforth Lindiswaras and Gymas, 
 Middle English and South English, Pecsaetan, 
 Hwiccas, Hecanas, and Megassetas were but 
 under-kingdoms of the Mercian monarch. 
 They were still centres of local feeling. Lines 
 of subreguli, or hereditary ealdormen, con- 
 tinued to reign in them. But for great 
 political purposes, Mercia is henceforth 
 sjTionymous with Middle England. Penda, 
 the creator of this greater Merjia, was also 
 
Mer 
 
 ( 728 ) 
 
 Uer 
 
 the representative of the heathen re-action 
 which followed Augustine's mission. He was, 
 moreover, the uncompromising foe of the 
 rising power of Northumhria. In alliance 
 with the Welshmen he defeated and slew 
 Edwin the Bretwalda. Oswald, the sainted 
 king, was equally unahle to withstand him. 
 But at last Oswiu, his successor, destroyed 
 the power of Mercia at the hattle of Winwood 
 (655). Penda fell on the field. Oswiu gave 
 law to all England. The greater Mercia 
 began to hreak up, and some parts were even 
 conquered by Oswiu. But in 659, on the death 
 of Peada, the next king, the Mercians seized 
 arms in despair, and led by Wulfhere, nephew 
 of Penda, drove out the Northumbrians, and 
 effectually consolidated the greater Mercia. 
 It may have been now that the Mercian 
 boundary was pushed southward to the 
 Thames. Meanwhile Christianity had silently 
 become the religion of Mercia, and Theodore 
 of Tarsus found in Wulfhere and his brother 
 and successor, Ethehed (675 — 704), active and 
 powerful auxiliaries. In 704 Ethelred with- 
 drew to a monastery. His nephew Cenred, 
 son of "Wulfhere, reigned over the Mercians 
 till 709, when Ceolred, son of Ethelred, suc- 
 ceeded, and in 715 sustained the great defeat 
 of Wanborough from Ine of Wessex. He 
 died in 716. His successor, Ethelbald, sou of 
 Alweo, brother of Penda (716 — 755), took 
 advantage of Ine's abdication, and the growing 
 anarchy of Northumbria, to establish that 
 Mercian overlordship that was to endure for 
 f uUy a century. A series of successful wars 
 subdued all the neighbouring States, and 
 Ethelbald with good reason claimed to be 
 rex non solum, Mercensium sed et omniv/m popu- 
 lorum qui generali nomine Sutwngli dimmtur. 
 But the end of his reign was unfortunate. In 
 754 the revolt of the conquered people was 
 followed by the defeat and flight of Ethel- 
 bald at Burford. Next year he died, and 
 even the genius of Offa (757 — 795), who, after 
 a year of anarchy, became King of the 
 Mercians, could not wholly undo this great 
 disaster. Yet Ofia became the greatest Idng 
 of his day. He put his dependents in the 
 neighbouring kingdoms, and established a 
 series of alliances that made his power irre- 
 sistible; conquered eastern Powis from the 
 Welsh, and built the dyke that goes by his 
 name to protect his western frontier : estab- 
 hshed at Lichfield a short-lived archbishopric 
 that made Mercia ecclesiastically independent, 
 and corresponded on equal terms with Charles 
 the Great himself. Cenwulf, a successor (796 
 — 819), was hardly less powerful. But soon 
 after his death the collapse of the Mercian power 
 at EUandun — ^where Beornwulf was defeated 
 by Egbert — hmded over the supremacy of 
 Britain to Wessex. The power of Mercia had 
 been based on nothing but the prowess of its 
 kings. It retained that want of centralisation 
 which flowed naturally from its origin; and 
 if remarkable for military abHitj--, was behind- 
 
 hand in culture and civilisation. The failure 
 of the royal house, combined with the great 
 invasion of the Danes, completed the Mercian 
 overthrow. Ludecan and Wiglaf were mere 
 puppet kings. When the struggle was over, 
 half Mercia was regularly settled by Norse 
 Vikings ; the other haU, that to the west and 
 south of Watling Street, was a mere ealdor- 
 manship under the West Saxon kings. Ethelred, 
 the new ealdorman of the Mercians, and after 
 his death his wife Ethelflaed, " Lady of the 
 Mercians," the daughter of Alfred the Great, 
 were strong and vigorous rulers; but they 
 ruled in the West Saxon interest. On the 
 latter's death, Mercia, enlarged by the gradual 
 re-conquest of the Danish portion, ceased to 
 have a ruler of its own. Yet it retained for 
 many generations its local patriotism. The 
 policy of Dunstan may have conciUated it ; 
 the policy of Edwy led to its revolt, and the 
 setting up a king for itself in Edgar. But on 
 Edwy's death conquered Mercia gave a king 
 to the victorious West Saxons. The estab- 
 lishment of the great earldoms revived local 
 Mercian feeling. Elfgar, Leofrio, Edwin, 
 and Morcar becamie in a sense new rulers of 
 Mercia. Had not the Norman Conquest inter- 
 vened they might have re-established Mercian 
 independence. But the Norman administra- 
 tive system for ever put an end to dreams of 
 particularism. Despite the schemes of Earls 
 Halph and Roger to revive the Heptarchy in 
 the interests of feudalism, despite the dis- 
 tinction of law that survived down to the 
 days of the Dialogus De Scaccario, Mercia 
 ends its political existence with the Norman 
 Conquest. [T. E. T.] 
 
 Kings 
 
 OP Mercia. 
 
 
 Creoaa,(?). . . , . . 600 
 
 Wybbaf?). . 
 Ceorl (f ) . . 
 
 
 600-610 
 
 
 
 610—626 
 
 Penda . 
 
 
 
 626—655 
 
 Peada . 
 
 
 
 655-659 
 
 "Wulfhere . 
 
 
 
 659-675 
 
 Ethelred 
 
 
 
 675-701 
 
 Cenred . 
 
 
 
 704-709 
 
 Ceolred 
 
 
 
 709-716 
 
 Ethelbald . 
 
 
 
 716-765 
 
 Beomred 
 
 
 
 . 757 
 
 Offa . 
 
 
 
 757—795 
 
 Egferth 
 
 
 
 . 796 
 
 Cenwulf 
 
 
 
 796-819 
 
 CeolwuU 
 Ludecan 
 
 
 
 819—821 
 . 825 
 
 "Wiglaf 
 
 
 
 . 838 
 
 There are no peculiarly Mercian Chroniclea of 
 early date, so that its early history is very 
 obscure. It has to be pieced together from 
 casual references in "West Saxon and Northum- 
 brian Chronicles, and from charters and laws. 
 J. E. Green, MaMng and Oonaiiest of Engloini, 
 and Palgrave's Ejiglish CommonweaMh may he 
 referred to for modem account. 
 
 Merciless, or Wonderful Parliament, 
 The (1388), was summoned, by the Lords 
 Appellant after the defeat of De Vere and 
 the royalist party, for the purposeof obtaining 
 a sanction to their acts. Gloucester declared 
 his innocence of any attempt to depose the 
 king; the judges who had declared the com- 
 
Ker 
 
 729 ) 
 
 Mil 
 
 mission of regency illegal were arrested and 
 ■banished to Ireland ; the royal ministers were 
 impeached and .sentenced to death, and other 
 offenders were punished, and £20,000 was 
 voted to the Lords Appellant. The legis- 
 lative work was undertaken by this Parlia- 
 ment, and Its acts, as Dr. Stuhhs says, " fully 
 estahlishits right to the title [of "merciless"], 
 and stamp with infamy the men who, 
 whether their political crimes were or were 
 not salutary to the constitution, disgraced the 
 cause by excessive and vindictive cruelty." 
 
 Mertou, The Statute op (1236), was 
 enacted by the barona in a great council as- 
 sembled at Merton, January 23, 1236, shortly 
 after the marriage of Henry III. and Eleanor 
 of Provence. The barons declared in it that 
 they were unwilling to 'change the laws of 
 England, which would seem to intimate a 
 fear on their part of the foreign influences 
 which might be expected from the marriage. 
 
 Metcalfe, Chaeles, Lord (i. 1784, 
 d. 1846), entered the East India Company's 
 service, and was trained up in the school of 
 Lord Wellesley ((l.v.). In 1808, at the early 
 age of twenty-four, he was selected by Lord 
 Minto to negotiate the alliance with Eunjeet 
 Singh. He carried out his mission successfully, 
 and succeeded in concluding the treaty of 
 Umritsur (1809). Subsequently he negotiated 
 the treaty with Ameer Khan in 1817 during 
 the Mahratta War, and conducted the delicate 
 negotiations with Toolsye Bhye, the regent 
 of the Holkar State, during the same war. In 
 1820 he was appointed Resident at Hydera- 
 bad. On the resignation of Sir David Och- 
 torlony (1825), Sir Charles MetcaUe was 
 appointed Resident at Delhi for Eajpootana. 
 In 1834 he was appointed Governor of the 
 newly-created Presidency of the North-West 
 Provinces, and in 1835, in consequence of the 
 premature departure of Lord William Ben- 
 tinck, he was obliged to return to Calcutta, 
 and assume the provisional Governor-General- 
 ship, which he continued to hold for ■-- year. 
 On the arrival of Lord Auckland he proceeded 
 to Agra. Soon after his arrival (1836), he 
 learned that the press law carried by him dur- 
 ing his Governor-Generalship had exasperated 
 the India House, and that in consequence his 
 name had not even been mentioned in con- 
 nection with the vacant governorship of 
 Madras. He resigned his appointment. His 
 services were fully appreciated by the crown. 
 He was appointed Governor of Jamaica (1839 
 —41), and Canada (1842 — 45) successively, 
 and for his eminent services was raised to the 
 peerage as Lord Metcalfe in 1845. The 
 difiBculties which he experienced from factious 
 opposition, and his own ill-health, produced 
 lus resignation (1845), and he returned to 
 England to die in 1846. 
 
 Methodists. — The name was first given 
 in derision to the society formed for religious 
 study and conversation by John and Charles 
 
 Wesley at Oxford in 1729. Wesley, in 1739, 
 began to hold great evangelical meetings in 
 London and elsewhere. In the same year he 
 formed the first regular Wesleyan Methodist 
 society. The society was divided into 
 "classes" with "leaders" and "stewards." 
 Two years before, Wesley had begun to in- 
 stitute lay preachers to his various local 
 societies. — In 1744 the first Conference was 
 held; but it was not till 1784 that Wesley 
 constituted the Conference the supreme au- 
 thority of the sect, and vested the property of 
 the society in trustees under its jurisdiction. 
 In 1784 Wesley gave letters of ordination to 
 Dr. Coke, and constituted him " bishop " of 
 the American Methodist body, thus beginning 
 the American Episcopal Methodist Church. 
 It was not, however, till 1788 that Wesley 
 ordained preachers to assist him in adminis- 
 tering the sacraments to the societies in Eng- 
 land. Wesley died in 1791. After his death 
 the Connexion was distracted by disputes, 
 which ended in the " plan of pacification " in 
 1795. In 1796 Alexander KiUiam separated 
 from the society and founded the " New 
 Connexion," the government of which was 
 of a more republican and less sacerdotal 
 character than that of the older body. The 
 career of the Wesleyan Methodists since that 
 date has on the whole been one of uninter- 
 rupted progress and prosperity, though they 
 have been disturbed by several secessions — 
 notably those of the " Protestant Methodists " 
 in 1798 (who subsequently were joined by 
 another body of seceders and became the 
 " Methodist Free Churches "), and the 
 " Primitive Methodists" in 1807. 
 
 Methnen Treaty, The, was a com- 
 mercial convention between England and 
 Portugal, concluded on Dec. 27, 1703, by Paul 
 Methuen. Portugal bound itself to admit 
 English woollen manufactures on the same 
 terms as before the late prohibition of them. 
 England agreed to admit Portuguese wines on 
 payment of two-thirds of the duty imposed on 
 French wines. It was annulled by the supple- 
 mentary treaty of 1835. 
 
 Smitli, Wealih of Jfations, book iv., chap. vL 
 
 Military System. In the earliest 
 times, the military system of the Teutonic 
 races reposed on the broadest and most 
 national basis. Ruled over by elective duces, 
 encouraged to valour by the presence of 
 kindred and neighbours, the old Teutonic 
 host, described by Tacitus, was in a very 
 intimate sense the army of the people. Yet 
 even in those days the comitatua of the prin- 
 cepa, which, by devoting its whole energies 
 to fighting, was probably the most efficient 
 military force, was of other than popular 
 origin. It was the body-guard, the personal 
 following of the king or leader. After the 
 migration to England, the same system con- 
 tinued. It was a primary principle of Anglo- 
 Saxon jurisprudence that every landholder 
 
mu 
 
 ( 730 ) 
 
 MU 
 
 was otliged to serve in the fyrd, as the 
 popular host was now called. Fyrdbot was 
 part of the trinoda necessitm. Arranged by 
 the sheriff, the fyrd was simply the county 
 court in arms. But want of cohesion between 
 various locaUtiea made its operations uncer- 
 tain, and the want of discipline in a citizen 
 militia frequently rendered it ineffective. 
 The glorious fight of Brihtnoth and the East 
 Anglian fyrd against the Danes at Maldon, 
 shows what the fyrd of a limited district could 
 do ; but attempts to aggregate the national 
 militia of the whole nation in a single body 
 were in those early times nearly impossible. 
 Yet, when well led, the fyrd fought well, and 
 its national character was of great political 
 importance as keeping alive national feeling. 
 Still the West Saxon kings would hardly have 
 attained to their imperial position, if, in addi- 
 tion to the forces of the allodial system, they 
 had not also to rely upon the services of their 
 gesiths and thegns. TThese personal retainers 
 of the monarch, the comites in a developed 
 form, formed a body-guard of trained soldiers, 
 always at hand. But as time went on, the 
 thegn became more of a feudal noble, dwelling 
 on his estate, and only serving his lord on 
 occasion. Thus the thegnhood became un- 
 trustworthy also, until its revival in a more 
 primitive form, in the huscarls of Cnut, gave 
 the king again the services of a standing 
 body-guard of highly-trained professional 
 soldiers. 
 
 Such was in outline the old English mili- 
 tary system. In it we have the germ of most 
 of the later developments of the English 
 army, the national miUtia, the feudal les-ies, 
 and even permanent mercenary troops. The 
 Norman Conquest largely developed the feudal 
 element by the wholesale introduction of 
 tenure by military service, and by gradually 
 dividing the land of England into " knights' 
 fees," held by the tenure of providing and 
 equipping a heavy-armed horseman to serve 
 his lord for forty days in the year. "William 
 the Conqueror himself saw clearly the consti- 
 tutional danger and the military worthlessness 
 of the feudal army. In want of discipline, 
 irregularity, and incapacity for development, 
 it surpassed the fyrd. It was, moreover, 
 largely composed of the disloyal party of the 
 feudal baronage, ever anxious to destroy the 
 royal power, and consequently a, source of 
 weakness more than of strength. Henry II. 
 saw this, and by the institution of scutage, 
 largely superseded the direct service of the 
 feudal array by a money composition. This 
 enabled him to carry out still farther the policy 
 of the Norman kings, and depend for the most 
 part on Flemish or Brabancjon mercenaries, 
 who, bound to their lord by no tie but good 
 pay and the rough loyalty of a soldier to his 
 general, and often composed of the very scum 
 of society, were yet eihcient military instru- 
 ments. 
 
 But mercenaries were expensive, unpopular, 
 
 and frequently treacherous. They were un- 
 pleasant necessities, rather than welcome ones. 
 The Norman and Angevin monarchs conse- 
 quently sought, by the maintenance of the 
 fjnrd-system, to retain the services of a body 
 which always supported the crown against 
 the feudal party. The history of the national 
 militia subsequently to the Conquest, strongly 
 illustrates the continuity of English constitu- 
 tional development. William I. exacted 
 from every freeman the old national oath to 
 join in defending the king, his lands and his 
 honour both at home and beyond sea. In 
 1073 the fyrd took a prominent share in the 
 conquest of Maine. William II. cheated the 
 fyrd out of the ten shillings a-pieoe which 
 the shires had given them for their mainte- 
 nance. Yet it was always faithful to the 
 crown in its struggle against the feudalists. 
 The defeat of Robert of Belesme, the repulse 
 of David of Scotland at Northallerton, the 
 suppression of the feudal revolt of 1173 were 
 largely due to its valour and patriotism. 
 
 Still, the heavy cavalry of the barons was, 
 from the military point of view, a necessary 
 supplement to the infantry of the fyrd, and 
 with the political importance of feudalism 
 annihilated, there was less danger in the feudal 
 array. Yet Henry II., while relying for 
 foreign service mainly on mercenaries paid for 
 by the scutages of the barons, trusted to the 
 fyrd for home defence. His Assize of Arms 
 (1181) revived and reorganised that ancient 
 body, and devised an excellent machinery for 
 compelling every citizen (tota eomiiiuna libera- 
 rum hominum) to possess the arms appropriate 
 to his station in life. The increased dread of 
 mercenaries, through their misuse by John, 
 and their attempts. to control the destinies of 
 the kingdom during his son's minority, gave 
 an increased importance to the re-issue of the 
 Assize of Arms by Henry III. in close con- 
 nection with the system of Watch and Ward. 
 In the Statute of Winchester, Edward I. 
 (1285) stiU further developed the same system, 
 which a series of later measures of Henry IV., 
 Philip and Mary, and James I. has brought 
 down to our own days. 
 
 The vague power, never perhaps formally 
 taken away from the sheriff, of summoning 
 the posse eomitatus, was from the fourteenth to 
 the sixteenth century supplemented by more 
 definite commissions of array, empowering 
 those addressed to muster and train all men 
 able to bear arms within the counties included 
 in the commission: while in the reign of 
 Philip and Mary the institution of lord-lieu- 
 tenants in every county practically deprived 
 the sheriff of his command of the national 
 forces. Henceforth, the lord-lieutenant was 
 the deputy of the crown for aU military mat- 
 ters, and the ultimate custodian of law and 
 order. But the Act of 1 Jac. I., 0. 25, had to 
 some extent repealed the long series of statutes 
 which enforced the obligation of keeping 
 Buifioient arms on each citizen. The Artillery 
 
aiii 
 
 ( 731 ) 
 
 am 
 
 Company of London, vhich still continues 
 to exist, sprang from a voluntary association 
 during Henry VIII.'s reign, and the " train 
 bands " of the seventeenth century, which the 
 Act of James I. sahstituted for the mediaeval 
 system, though in a sense the continuation of 
 the f yrd, were also largely of voluntary origin. 
 The difficulties caused hy the militia question 
 in 1642, hetween Charles I. and his Parlia- 
 ment, the prominent part taken by the train 
 bands in the Great EebeUion, rendered it 
 necessary for the Restoration Parliament to 
 reorganise the national forces, and reconstitute 
 the militia under the headship of the crovm. 
 Up to 1757 this force was, however, quite 
 neglected, when the absence of the regular 
 army on the Continent caused it to be re- 
 vived as a local organisation for internal 
 defence. Its importance as a recruiting 
 ground for the army was also a great reason 
 for its revival. Under George III. and Vic- 
 toria a series of Acts of Parliament have modi- 
 iied the militia laws. During these reigns army 
 reforms were effected that brought the militia 
 into organic relation with the standing army, 
 without destroying its local basis. Previous 
 to these reforms, service was nominally com- 
 pulsory, 'though a Militia Ballot Suspension 
 Act made it practically voluntary. As a 
 means of national defence, the militia has been 
 at various times supplemented by a volunteer 
 system, self-supporting and unpaid. The 
 Artillery Company is an early example of 
 such a force. In 1803 the fear of French 
 invasion caused nearly half a million of men 
 to enrol themselves into volunteer regiments ; 
 but the cessation of the panic led to the 
 gradual dying out of the movement. In 1859 
 a more permanent volunteer organisation was 
 started, which has continued to flourish until 
 the present day, and which now includes 
 nearly 200,000 effective citizen soldiers. An 
 Act of 1863 gave this organisation a legal 
 status, and the tendency of recent military re- 
 form is to connect them more closely with 
 the militia and the regular army, as essential 
 factors of the British military system. 
 
 Thus far the non-professional and irregular 
 military forces have mainly been dealt with. 
 But even in mediseval times the national 
 miHtia became gradually both unfit and 
 unwilling for foreign service, for which the 
 shortness of the service of the feudal levies 
 still more disqualified them. The mercenary 
 system of the Normans and Angevins became 
 impossible with the development of constitu- 
 tional government. The need of regular 
 forces became greater with the development 
 of the political power of England. During 
 the Middle Ages the feudal tenants, or the 
 militia of the neighbouring shires, were 
 enough to repel a Scotch or Welsh inroad ; 
 but the systematic wars with France which 
 the fourteenth century witnessed required 
 more systematic forces. The armies which 
 fought in the Hundred Tears' War, though 
 
 to a small extent composed of feudal tenants 
 and of forced levies of pressed men, were 
 mainly raised by indentures or contracts 
 made with some great noble or experienced 
 general, who agreed to serve the king abroad 
 with a certain number of men at a fixed rate. 
 The pay was very high, and there was never 
 any difiioulty in raising the men. The con- 
 tract generally ended with the war, so that 
 these armies, though composed of trained 
 troops, were not permanent. Penalties for 
 desertion and disobedience were inflicted by 
 statutes which anticipated the later Mutiny, 
 Acts. 
 
 The germ of a standing army is found in 
 the Yeomen of the Guard instituted by Henry 
 VII., and in the small garrisons of Calais, 
 Berwick, and Dover. In the reign of Eliza- 
 beth there were anticipations, in the reign of 
 Charles I. the beginnings, of a larger standing 
 force. The complaints of martial law and 
 illegal impressment now became general. The 
 struggle of the crown for the right of main- 
 taining a standing army had now begun. It 
 was to last until the principle was unwillingly 
 accepted at the end of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 The abortive armies of Charles I. and the 
 commencement of a military law that marked 
 his reign were soon eclipsed by the great 
 army levied by Parliament [New Model], 
 which the genius of CromweU moulded into 
 the most efficient fighting machine known in 
 English history. Under the Restoration several 
 regiments of Cromwell's army were still main- 
 tained. At first, these numbered only 3,000 
 men, but during Charles II.'s reign not 
 only were temporary armies levied for emer- 
 gencies, but several new regiments added to 
 the permanent forces. The abolition of the 
 feudal levies by the Act 12 Car. II., long after 
 they had ceased to be of any great value, 
 though they were summoned so late as 1640, 
 made a standing army the more necessary. 
 James II. largely increased these troops, and 
 the French war, which the Revolution in- 
 volved, prevented their disbandment. But a 
 standing army was very unpopular with all 
 parties. To the Whigs it suggested tyranny 
 and popery, to the Tories the military 
 despotism of Cromwell. Only after a great 
 struggle was an army of 7,000 men retained 
 after the Peace of Ryswick. But those 
 debates practically decided the question. 
 Henceforth England has always had a stand- 
 ing army. The constitutional difficulty had 
 been got over by passiug an annual Mutiny 
 Act, which alone empowered the sovereign to 
 govern the troops by martial law. Despite 
 popular jealousy, the numbers of the army 
 have steadily risen. After the Peace of 
 Utrecht the army numbered 8,000. In 1750 
 it was nearly 19,000. In 1792 it had decreased 
 to 17,000 in time of peace, though in 1777 it 
 had been 90,000 ; and in 1812 nearly a quarter 
 of a miUiou of men were under arms. The 
 
Mil 
 
 (732 ) 
 
 HCin 
 
 East India Company had been allowed to 
 levy a separate army for the defence of the 
 Indies. After the Indian Mutiny it was 
 incorporated with the royal forces. In the 
 years 1871 and 1872 important changes were 
 made which had the effect of joining together 
 all the various branches of the BngHsh military 
 system into a single whole. In 1871 the pur- 
 chase of commissions by officers was abolished 
 by royal wan'ant. 
 
 The modern- standing army of England has 
 always been mainly raised by voluntary 
 enlistment. But so late as the American 
 War "idle and disorderly persons" were 
 impressed for the army as well as for the 
 navy. Difficulties in the way of recruiting 
 were often felt. Perhaps this partly accounts 
 for the survival of the contract system of the 
 Edwards as late as the eighteenth century. 
 So great was the constitutional difficulty sug- 
 gested by the standing army that only 5,000 
 men were allowed to live in barracks at the 
 beginning of this century. 
 
 The administration of the modem military 
 system is stiU complicated by the double 
 powers of the Commander-in-chief and the 
 Secretary of State for War. Up to the 
 Crimean War it was extraordinarily cumber- 
 some. The Commander-in-chief, responsible 
 to the crown ; the " Secretary of State for 
 War and the Colonies," whose power was 
 limited to war time ; the " Secretary at War," 
 the Parliamentary representative of the army ; 
 the Treasury, which controlled the Commis- 
 sariat ; the Home Office, which governed the 
 Militia — all exercised clashing jurisdictions. 
 The piecemeal growth of our military system 
 is in no way better illustrated. All modern 
 reforms have been in the direction of simplicity. 
 Stubbs, Const. Htst. ; Hallum, Const. Hist. ; 
 May, Const, Hist. ; Grose, JlfiJitiir!; Antiquities ,- 
 Clode, Military Forces of the Crown; Encvclo- 
 :p<Bdia Britannica (ninth ei.), art. Army. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 Mill, James (J. 1773, d. 1836), was li- 
 censed a preacher in the Scotch Church, but 
 came to London and devoted himself to litera- 
 ture. He received an appointment in the 
 India Office, and rose to be head of the revenue 
 department. Mill was one of the most 
 prominent of those who understood and deve- 
 loped the views of Beutham on government 
 and legislation. [Bentham.] Besides nu- 
 merous worts on metaphysics, economics, 
 and political theory, which have exerted 
 great influence on the thought of the century, 
 Mill wrote a Mistory of British India (1817— 
 18), which, though somewhat unhappy in point 
 of style, and coloured by the author's desire to 
 illustrate his own theories, is a very valuable 
 work, compiled with great industry and re- 
 search. 
 
 Prof. A. Bain, Biographj/ o/ James MM. 
 Mill, John Stuaet (i. 1806, <«. 1873), son 
 of the above, after a very careful education 
 by his father, entered the India House in 
 
 1823, and in 1856 became head of the Ex- 
 aminer's department, from which he retired in 
 1858. In 1865 he was elected member for 
 Westminster, but was defeated in 1868. In 
 Parliament he was an advanced Liberal, and 
 supported with much earnestness Woman's 
 Suffrage. Mr. MiU wrote numerous works, 
 including A System of Logic, 1843 ; The Prin- 
 ciples of Political Economy, 1848; On Liberty, 
 1859 ; Dissertations and Discussions, 1859 — 75 ; 
 The Subjection of Women, 1869; Three Essays 
 on Religion, 1874. In almost all departments 
 of political, social, and moral philosophy, Mr. 
 Mill's influence has been very great. As the 
 thinker who attempted to develop and adapt 
 the utilitarianism of Bentham to the compli- 
 cated needs of modern society, his place is 
 specially important; while as a political 
 economist he forms one in the line of succes- 
 sion of great Engheh writers on, the subject, 
 which began with Adam Smith. 
 
 Mill's Autobiogra'phy, an interesting and fasci- 
 nating work, appeared after Ms death, in 1873. 
 
 Milton, John (J. 1608, d. 1674), claims a 
 place in the present work owing to his con- 
 nection with the movement known as the 
 Great EebeUion. In May, 1641, he came 
 forward as one of the Hterary champions of the 
 Puritan party, and wrote a pamphlet Of Re- 
 formation touching Charch Discipline in Eng- 
 land, followed by four others directed agaiust 
 the moderate Episcopalians. The most im- 
 portant is The Reason of Church Government 
 (1641—2). In 1644 he published his famous 
 -Areopagitica. Within a fortnight of the 
 king's execution he published a pamphlet 
 justifying the act. In March, 1649, he was 
 made secretary for foreign tongues to the 
 Council of State. In this year he pubhshed 
 his EikonoMastes, in reply to Eikon Basilike, 
 and Pro Populo A.nglicana Defensio. In 1652 
 he became quite blind, and practically gave 
 up the work of his secretaryship. In May, 
 1654, he published his Pro Populo Anglieana 
 Defensio Secimda. He continued to assist ia 
 the foreign correspondence of the Eepublic till 
 the Restoration, and tried by a series of 
 vehement pamphlets to prevent that event. 
 After May, 1660, he lived for some months ia 
 hiding, but he was not molested by the new 
 government, and passed the remainder of his 
 life quietly. 
 
 Masson, Life of Milton, 6 vols., 1859—1880. 
 
 Minden, The Battle of (Aug. 1, 1759), 
 was fought during the Seven Years' War. Fer- 
 dinand of Brunswick, the commander of the 
 allies, had under him 10,000 or 12,000 British 
 soldiers, under Lord George SackviUe. He 
 had previously made an unsuccessful attempt 
 to recapture Frankfort from the French. The 
 French commanders, De Broglie and Contades, 
 pushed after him, and rapidly took Cassel, 
 Miinster, and Minden. Ferdinand main- 
 tained his position on the right bank of the 
 Weser, and left a detachment of 5,000 men, 
 
Miu 
 
 ( 733 ) 
 
 IKE'1.6 
 
 seemingly unguarded, to lure Contades from 
 his strong position at Minden. The Duke de 
 Broglie was despatched to attack this body of 
 men, hut he was compelled to summon Con- 
 tades to his assistance. The French generals, 
 thus ohUged to accept hattle on unfavourable 
 ground, were compelled to retreat. Orders were 
 sent from Ferdinand to Lord George SackviUe, 
 who was with the cavalry on the right of the 
 eiUies, to charge, and annihilate the enemy ; hut 
 he declined to ohey. A vigorous cliarge was, 
 however, made by the Marquis of Granby 
 with the second line of cavalry ; and though 
 this was now too late to be efieotual, the re- 
 treating French were broken by a body of 
 10,000 men, whom Ferdinand had despatched 
 to cut ofE their communications. 
 
 Stanhope, Hist. o/Eng. ; Leoky, HUt. of En^. 
 during the Eighteeiiih Centwry, 
 
 Minorca was taken (1708) during the 
 War of the Succession in Spain. The ob- 
 ject of the English commanders was to 
 acquire a harbour in which the fleet could 
 pass the winter. Stanhope prevailed on Sir 
 John Leake, much against his will, to join 
 him in the enterprise. The natives were 
 found to be well disposed, and though con- 
 siderable difficulty was experienced in drag- 
 ging the guns up the rocks, the walls were 
 soon battered down, and the Spanish gar- 
 rison surrendered. The island was ceded 
 to England by the Treaty of Utrecht. 
 In 1756 it was recaptured by the French. 
 Although it was known that the French were 
 meditating an expedition against the island, 
 no adequate' measures were taken to defend it. 
 "When 16,000 troops under the Due de Eiche- 
 lieu arrived at the island, General Blakeney, 
 with his 2,800 men, withdrew into the citadel 
 of St. Philip. Admiral Byng, after a feeble 
 attempt to relieve the town, left it to its fate. 
 The island was restored to England by the 
 Treaty of Paris (1762). In 1781 it was again 
 recaptured by 12,000 French and Spaniards, 
 although General Murray and his men, re- 
 duced by sickness to 700, made a resolute 
 defence. In the following year it was ceded 
 to Spain, and in 1783 formally given up to 
 her. In 1798, in the midst of the struggle 
 with Napoleon, it was re-taken by General 
 Stuart, but finally given up to Spain by the 
 Treaty of Amiens (1802). 
 
 Mahon, War of Succession vn Spam; Wyon, 
 Reign of Queen Anne; Stanhope, Hist ofEng. 
 
 BEiuorities, Representation op. Pro- 
 vision was made for the representation of 
 minorities in large constituencies by the inser- 
 tion into the Eeform Bill of 1867 of two 
 clauses declaring that in three-cornered con- 
 stituencies no elector should be allowed more 
 than two votes ; and that no elector of the 
 city of London should be allowed more than 
 three votes. It has been found possible, how- 
 ever, for one party to carry three members 
 
 in a three-cornered borough. This has 
 happened especially at Birmingham. On the 
 formation of School Boards under the Educa- 
 tion Act of 1870, minority representation was 
 secured by the system of cumulative voting. 
 In 1884 a society, including members of 
 Parliament of both parties, was formed to 
 promote the representation of minorities by a 
 system of proportional representation. 
 
 mintO, Lord (J. 1761, d. 1813), after 
 having filled the office of President of the 
 Board of Control, was appointed Governor- 
 General of India in 1806. His first task 
 was to deal with the VeUore Mutiny, and 
 punish the mutineers. He then devoted him- 
 self to the establishing of order in India, and 
 to securing the frontiers of the Company's 
 territories by treaties with foreign powers. 
 Marching an army into Nagpore, he com- 
 pelled Ameer Khan to retire. The pirates of 
 Kolapore and Sawuntwarree were attacked 
 and overawed. The growth of the power 
 of Eunjeet Singh now attracted his atten- 
 tion. Lord Minto was desirous (1 808) at once to 
 check the power of that chief in the east, and 
 to form an alliance with him. He sent an 
 embassy to Lahore, under Mr. Metcalfe, who, 
 after some difficulty, succeeded in concluding 
 with Eunjeet the Treaty of XJmritsir, of 
 perpetual amity between the British govern- 
 ment and the State of Lahore. About the 
 same time Sir Harford Jones reached Persia 
 in the character of a plenipotentiary of the 
 British crown, and by him (1810) a treaty 
 was concluded binding the sovereign of Persia 
 to resist the passage of any European force 
 through his country to India, and the 
 government of England to furnish aid in 
 case Persia should be invaded from Europe. 
 Having thus established order and security at 
 home. Lord Minto turned his attention to the 
 hostile colonies of the enemy or his allies. 
 Macao and the Chinese colonies of Portu- 
 gal were occupied (1809), ■ but were subse- 
 quently abandoned, owing to the firmness and 
 threats of the Chinese government. The 
 islands of Mauritius and Bourbon were 
 captured (1809), thus cutting ofE a. great 
 resort for French privateers. The Dutch 
 colonies in the Spice Islands and Java were 
 captured after a gallant defence (1811). In 
 1812, on his return from Java, Lord Minto 
 learned that he had been superseded in the 
 government. He was raised to an earldom, 
 and recalled, and in October, 1813, returned 
 to England. His death took place within a 
 few weeks of his return. 
 Xord Mvrdo in India. 
 
 M'Leod Affair, The (1841). During 
 the Canadian Eebellion an American steamer 
 called the Caroline, which had been engaged 
 in carrying arms to the rebels, was boarded 
 in the night by a party of loyalists, set on 
 fire, and driven over the Falls of Niagara. 
 She was lying at that time within the terri- 
 
Mod 
 
 ( 734) 
 
 Mon 
 
 torial jurisdiction of flie State of New York, 
 and an American citizen lost his life in the 
 struggle. The matter caused some excite- 
 ment in the United States ; and in January, 
 1841, Alexander M'Leod, a British subject, 
 was arrested in the State of New York on a 
 charge of murder, for heing concerned in the 
 attack on the Caroline. The British govern- 
 ment at once demanded his release, asserting 
 that he was acting under and within his 
 orders, and that in consequence the responsi- 
 bility rested solely with them. The United 
 States government replied to this communi- 
 cation that they could not interfere with 
 the internal affairs of the State of New 
 York. Lord Palmerston repHed that the 
 execution of M'Leod would be followed by 
 war. M'Leod was tried at Utica in October, 
 and was declared " Not Guilty." This was a 
 simple solution of what seemed likely to prove 
 a very disastrous affair. 
 
 Modus Teneudi Farliamentum is 
 
 a document containing a sketch of the con- 
 stitution and manner of holding Parliament. 
 It pretends to give an account of Parliament 
 as it existed in the time of "William the Con- 
 queror, but it would seem to have been 
 written about the reign of Richard II., and in 
 many particulars to describe rather the au- 
 thor's idea of what Parliament should be, 
 than the actual condition of that assembly in 
 the fourteenth century. 
 
 Tlie document is to be found in Dr. Stu'b'bs's 
 Select Charters. 
 
 Mogul, The Gkeat, was the name com- 
 monly given to the Indian prince who was 
 the descendant of Timour the Tartar, "the 
 firebrand of the universe." Baber, one of his 
 successors, established himself as Emperor of 
 India at Delhi, and transmitted his dignity 
 to his posterity. The invasion of Nadir Shah, 
 and the sack of Delhi, 1739, struck a fatal 
 blow at the grandeur of the Mogul Empire. 
 Already the Decoan had split off under a 
 powerful chief, the Nizam-ool-Moolk. The 
 government of Oude was usurped by another ; 
 and the conquests of the Mahrattas tended 
 to reduce the imperial authority to a shadow. 
 In 1788 Delhi was sacked again ; the wretched 
 emperor was blinded by a ruffian, and his wives 
 and daughters exposed and dishonoured. After 
 the battle of Patun (1790), the emperor fell 
 wholly into the power of Scindia. After 
 the battle of Delhi he became a British 
 pensioner, with a large and liberal pension 
 and his residence in Delhi. On the outbreak 
 of the Indian Mutiny in 18.57, after a bloody 
 massacre, the descendant of Timour was pro- 
 claimed King of Delhi. But after the siege 
 and capture of Delhi by Archdale Wilson, he 
 surrendered, and his two murderous sons were 
 shot in the midst of their attendants by Cap- 
 tam Hodson. The Mogul himself was tried, 
 found guilty of treason and murder, and 
 
 transported to Tounghoo in Burmah, with his 
 favourite wife and son. 
 
 Elphinstone, India ; Malleson, Indian Mutvay ; 
 Grant Buflf, Mahrattait. 
 
 Mohamrah, The, a strong Persian for- 
 tress on the river Karoon, a branch of the 
 Euphrates, was stormed by the English 
 during the Persian Campaign (March 26, 
 1857). 
 
 Townsend, Persian Campaign. 
 
 Mohun, LoKD {d. 1714), " the bully of the 
 Whig faction," was a nobleman of bad cha- 
 racter, conspicuous at intervals during the 
 reigns of William III. and Anne. In 1692 he 
 was tried for aiding his friend Captain Hill 
 in the murder of the actor, William Mount- 
 ford, before the court of the Lord High 
 Steward. Although palpably guilty, he was 
 acquitted. He behaved with great bravery 
 while serving as a volunteer in the expedition 
 against Brest (1694). In Anne's reign he 
 was chiefly conspicuous for his uncompro- 
 mising Whiggism. He spoke against Not- 
 tingham's Occasional Conformity Bill, and 
 wished to have him sent to the Tower for 
 an imputation on the memory of King Wil- 
 liam. He warmly defended the Godolphin 
 ministry after its fall (1710). Marlborough 
 chose him as his second in a duel arranged 
 with Lord Powlett, which was stopped, how- 
 ever, by royal authority. Mohun was him- 
 self slain in a duel with the Duke of Hamil- 
 ton, not, however before he had mortally 
 wounded his adversary. The quarrel was of 
 a private nature ; but as Hamilton was about 
 to be sent to France, it was believed with 
 favourable messages to the Pretender, his 
 death was regarded by the Tories as a poli- 
 tical murder. 
 
 Moleyns, or Molineux, Adam {d. 
 14o0), Bishop of Chichester, was one of the 
 negotiators of the marriage between Henry 
 yi. and Margaret of Anjou, and also assisted 
 m arranging a truce with France, both of 
 which acts made him very unpopular. He 
 was one of the victims of Jack Cade's rebel- 
 hon, being murdered by the insurgents as he 
 was on the point of escaping to France. 
 
 Monasticism. Monks were bodies of 
 men, living together apart from the world, for 
 the purpose of leading a religious life. Monas- 
 ticism first sprang up in the East, where it 
 assumed a solitary and contemplative cha- 
 racter; as it spread in the West its organi- 
 sation became more practical. The first monks 
 who exercised any influence on Great Britain 
 were the Celtic monks of Ireland, where 
 Christianity early assumed a monastic and 
 tribal character. The Irish Church was not 
 so much organised round the bishops aB round 
 the monastery. The tribe was reproduced in 
 the monastic brotherhood, of which the abbot 
 was father and head. Celtic Christianity was 
 poetical and imaginative. It sent forth mis- 
 
IIEoii 
 
 ( 735 ) 
 
 SEon 
 
 eionaries amongst the Britons and the Picts. 
 In the fourth century Ninian established a 
 monastery at Candida Casa, or Whithem, in 
 Galloway. Soon afterwards two bishops of 
 Gaul dotted along the Wye settlements, which 
 rapidly spread. Columba's monastery at lona 
 was the source whence Christianity was carried 
 into the Northumbrian kingdom (635), and 
 IJndisf arne became the great missionary station 
 whence the conversion of the north of England 
 was carried on. When the Roman monk Au- 
 gustine converted the Kentish kingdom he Kke- 
 wise established a monastery at Canterbury 
 (698). The Roman and the Celtic Church ad- 
 vanced in their work of conversion till they came 
 into collision. When in 664 it was agreedat the 
 Synod of Whitby that the Roman use should 
 prevail in the Northumbrian kingdom, the 
 downfall of Celtic monasticism followed. Such 
 monks as remained conformed to the Roman 
 rule ; those who refused returned to lona. 
 Before the end of the eleventh century Celtic 
 monasticism died away, and the more vigorous 
 system of Rome had taken its place. There 
 was no great difierence between the objects 
 which the two systems proposed. Prayer, 
 work, and reading were alike the aims of the 
 communities. The monks settled on unoccu- 
 pied lands, and by their labour brought them 
 under cultivation. They taught the neigh- 
 bouring folk, and by their active lives gave a 
 standing protest against the prevalent sen- 
 suality of a rude people. The monasteries 
 were the homes of peace and learning, and 
 were the means of spreading civilisation. The 
 Northumbrian thegn, BenedlctBiscop, founded 
 his monasteries of Wearmouth (674) and Jar- 
 row (682), -where rose a band of English 
 scholars, of whom Bede is the chief. But 
 even before his death, Bede saw the decline of 
 the great days o£ monasticism. His letter to 
 Egberht, Archbishop of York, complains of 
 the excessive number of monasteries founded 
 from a desire to obtain from the king grants 
 of folkland. The monks were the mere 
 creatures of the thegns who put them there ; 
 they lived idle and useless lives ; they set a 
 bad example, £ind impoverished the State. 
 Bede's warnings were unheeded, and punish- 
 ment was not long in coming. The Northmen 
 attacked the monasteries, which were near the 
 sea, and whose treasures offered them a rich 
 booty. The ninth century saw the overthrow 
 by the heathen of most of the renowned monas- 
 teries of England. The rule of life, such as it 
 was, seems after this to have fallen into disuse, 
 and they were mostly left in the possession of 
 secular clerks. In the middle of the tenth 
 century a monastic revival spread from the 
 abbeys of Glastonbury and Abingdon. Dun- 
 stan and Ethel woU laboured to restore a system 
 which alone could repair in English society the 
 ravages wrought by the Danes. They pursued 
 two objects, the substitution of monks for 
 secular canons, and the introduction of the 
 rule of St. Benedict for the vaguer and less 
 
 organised rules which had been previously 
 adopted. Their efforts met with great success. 
 Kings and nobles again endowed monasteries, 
 and monasticism became once more a great 
 influence in the progress of English society. 
 
 The Norman Conquest brought still stronger 
 and more definite organisation. The great 
 monastic reform on the Continent, which had 
 begun at Cluny, was steadily pursued in 
 Normandy at Bee. From Bee came the two 
 archbishops, Lanfranc and Anselm. Not only 
 were the English monasteries more rigidly 
 ruled by Norman abbots, but in cases where 
 cathedrals had been originally of monastic 
 foundation, Lanfranc replaced the secular 
 canons by regulars. [Cathedbals.J By means 
 of the monasteries especially the superior civili- 
 sation of the Normans was spread through 
 England. But the institution of monasticism 
 itself had well-nigh spent its strength. The 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries witnessed the 
 formation of a number of new orders, all 
 following the Benedictine rule in its main 
 features, but each striving to give it greater 
 reality. 
 
 Each of the monastic movements which led 
 to the formation of the Carthusians, Premon- 
 stratensians, Austin Canons, and, above all, 
 Cistercians, found its echo in England. 
 Amongst the founders of the Cistercian order 
 was an Englishman, Stephen Harding, and 
 the Cistercians were a favourite order in 
 England, as the remains of their great abbeys 
 in Yorkshire sufficiently show. The Crusades 
 created a new kind of monasticism — the mili- 
 tary orders of the Knights Templars and the 
 Knights of St. John. One order only was 
 specially English, the Gilbertines, founded by 
 Gilbert of Sempringham, in Lincolnshire, about 
 1135, which is remarkable for double monas- 
 teries of men and women, side by side. 
 
 This feverish growth of new orders was a 
 sign of weakness rather than of strength. 
 Monasticism could not save itself from de- 
 generacy, and in the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century a new effort was made by 
 St. Francis and St. Dominic, who established 
 the mendicant orders. [Friars.] The friars 
 rapidly increased in numbers and in popular 
 estimation, and the glory of the old orders 
 paled before them ; but in spite of their greater 
 activity, the friars also rapidly ran their 
 course. The fourteenth century saw the 
 gradual growth of a feeling against reli- 
 gious orders. The Templars, through their 
 pride and wealth, and the mystery which 
 surrounded their doings, were the first to fall. 
 They were dissolved in 1310. In England 
 the roj'al power showed great jealousy of 
 " aUen priories," or houses depending on 
 foreign monasteries. Edward I. and Edward 
 III. both confiscated their lands and posses- 
 sions. Finally, in 1416, Parliament dissolved 
 these " alien priories," and vested their lands 
 in the crown. 
 
 The feeling against monastic institutions 
 
Mon 
 
 (736) 
 
 Kon 
 
 ■was largely increased ty the Lollard move- 
 ment ; but on many sides it "was felt that their 
 usefulness had really gone. In early times 
 the monks had heen settlers and reclaimers of 
 barren land ; later they had been good farmers, 
 ■who had not dealt hardly -with those "who worked 
 underthem. The Cistercians in Yorkshire espe- 
 cially "Were the chief merchants in the wool trade 
 ■with Flanders. But monasteries, like all cor- 
 porations, though easy masters, "were tenacious 
 of their rights. They were often inyolved in 
 quarrels with the rising spirit of municipal 
 freedom. At St. Albans, for instance, the 
 monks and the burghers were in constant 
 strife about trifling matters. The enfranchise- 
 ment of "villeins, and the gradual extinction 
 of villeinage in the fourteenth century, brought 
 economic changes, which were unfavourable 
 to the tenure of lands by corporations. The 
 land was more and more let to tenants, and 
 not worked by the monks themselves. Luxury 
 and idleness went hand in hand. It becam.e 
 clear that any reform in the Church must 
 begin with the monasteries. In 1523 Wolsey 
 obtained bulls from the Pope suppressing 
 forty of the smaller monasteries, and autho- 
 rising the application of their revenues to 
 educational purposes. The Renaissance had 
 made men feel that a learned clergy was 
 necessary, instead of indolent monks. 
 
 The example set by Wolsej"" was rapidly 
 followed when Henry VIII. threw ofB from 
 the Church of England the papal headship. 
 The monasteries were particularly obnoxious 
 to the king as harbouring those who were dis- 
 contented with his changes. Their weakness 
 and their wealth made them a tempting 
 object of attack. A visitation of the monas- 
 teries was followed by an Act of Parhament 
 authorising the suppression of the smaller 
 monasteries whose incomes were below £200 
 a year (1536). Their fall was quickly followed 
 by that of the larger monasteries also (1539). 
 The monastic system was swept out of England. 
 The monasteries themselves were cast down. 
 Their lands were granted to nobles, or were sold, 
 and the result was a sudden change in social 
 conditions which was not for the better. The 
 easy-going monks were replaced by capitalists. 
 The old-fashioned farming of the monks was 
 superseded. Arable land was turned into 
 pasture for the more profitable purpose of 
 growing wool. Many peasants were thrown 
 out of work, and the doors of the monasteries 
 no longer stood open for the relief of destitu- 
 tion. There was great distress, and much 
 discontent, which caused the popular risings 
 under the Tudors, and the legislation of 
 Henry YIII. against ' ' sturdy beggars." Ulti- 
 mately the Poor Law of Elizabeth adopted 
 the principle of distributing alms to those in 
 want, and replaced the charity of the monks 
 by the legal contributions of the community. 
 In constitutional matters the suppression of 
 the monasteries largely diminished the mem- 
 bers of the House of Lords. The greater 
 
 abbots ceased to exist, and the character of 
 the Upper House was changed by the loss of 
 the preponderance of spiritual peers. [Abbot.] 
 The general character of English religious 
 orders may be shown by the number of their 
 houses at the time of the dissolution. There 
 were 186 Benedictines, 173 Augustinians, 
 101 Cistercians, 33 of the four orders of friars, 
 32 Premonstratensians, 28 of the Knights 
 Hospitallers, 25 Gilbertines, 20 Cluniacs, 
 9 Carthusians, and a few other orders. The 
 total number of monasteries was 616, and 
 their revenues were approximately valued at 
 £142,914 yearly. 
 
 A full account of Eugllsli niouasteries is giveu 
 in Dugdale's Monast^mi; of laonasticism in 
 general a popular accoxmt is in Montalembert's 
 Monks of the Went, ITor the dissolution of the 
 monasteries Dixon's History of the Chwrch of 
 England. [M. C] 
 
 monk, George. [Albemarle.] 
 
 IKtouino'ath, James, Duke op (6. 1649, 
 d. 1685), was the natural son of Charles II. by 
 Lucy Walters, and was born at Rotterdam. 
 During the king's exile he was generally 
 known as James Crofts, but in 1662 he was 
 brought over to England, and created Duke of 
 Monmouth and Orkney, recognised by Charles 
 as his son, and apartments in Whitehall given 
 to him. In 1663 he was married to Lady 
 Anne Scott, daughter and heiress of the Duke 
 of Buccleugh. In 1665 he took part in a naval 
 engagement "with the Dutch, and in 1668 he 
 was made captain of the first troop of Life 
 Guards. In 1672 he was appointed to an im- 
 portant military command in the Dutch War, 
 and distinguished himself by his bravery and 
 discretion. In 1678 he fought in the army of 
 the Prince of Orange, from whom he earned 
 high praise. In 1679 he was sent to Scotland 
 to repress the Covenanters, whom he defeated 
 at Bothwell Bridge, but earned a name for 
 humanity by preventing the indiscriminate 
 slaughter of the insurgents. About this 
 period dates his great popularity and his 
 friendship wdth Shaftesbury and other leaders 
 of the Protestant or Presbyterian party, and a 
 design was formed whereby Monmouth should 
 succeed to the throne. But Charles sternly 
 refused to countenance such an idea, and ex- 
 pressly declared that Monmouth was not his 
 legitimate son, while, to prevent these in- 
 trigues from being carried on any longer, he 
 banished Monmouth to Holland in 1679. In 
 1680 he returned, was received by the people 
 with the greatest enthusiasm, and made a 
 progress through England, being hailed every- 
 where ■with demonstrations of popular joy. In 
 the midst of his progress he was arrested at 
 Stafford by the king's orders. He quickly 
 made his peace -with his father, and lived 
 quietly in London till 1683, when he joined 
 in the Revolution plot, though probably 
 not in the Eye House conspiracy. Charles, 
 however, treated Monmouth with the utmost 
 
Mon 
 
 737 ) 
 
 JVCou 
 
 kindness, but finding tliat he still consorted 
 with men who were suspected of designs 
 against the governluent, he was compelled 
 to banish him once more to Holland. Here 
 he remained till the accession of James II., 
 when he was expelled from HoDand by- 
 William of Orange, and returned to Brussels, 
 where the invasion of England was planned. 
 On June 11 (1685) he landed at Lyme Regis 
 in Dorsetshire, where he issued a proclamation 
 against "the Duke of York," as he termed 
 James H., asserting his own legitimacy, but, 
 at the same time promising that he would 
 leave his claims to be decided by a free Par- 
 liament. Prom Lyme he marched to Taunton, 
 Bridgewater, WeUs, and Frome, at aU of 
 which places he was solemnly proclaimed. 
 The royal troops ' under Feversham and 
 ChurchiU encountered his levies at the battle 
 of Sedgemoor, and Monmouth was utterly 
 routed (July 5, 1685). After wandering 
 about for some days, he was discovered near 
 Holtbridge, in Dorsetshire, in a dry ditch, 
 covered with fern. He now exhibited the 
 greatest cowardice and terror, and entreated 
 James to grant him an interview, which the 
 king did, but, finding that he would not betray 
 his accomplices, rejected aU his appeals for 
 mercy, and Monmouth was executed on Tower 
 HiU on July loth. He left three children — 
 James, Earl of Dalkeith, Henry, Earl of 
 Deloraine, and Anne, who died from grief 
 shortly after her father. 
 
 Eoljerts, Jji/e of M(mmouth; ^VTacaulay, Sist. of 
 Eng. ; Christie, lAfe of Shaftesbury. 
 
 [F. S. P.] 
 
 monopolies. The first attack upon the 
 power of the crown to issue patents confer- 
 ring exclusive rights of carrying on certain 
 trades, was made in 1597. According to the 
 common law every man was entitled freely 
 to exercise his trade, but the principle was 
 generally recognised that exceptions might 
 be made to this rule in the case of any process 
 newly invented or introduced from abroad. 
 Anxious to gain a control over the increasing 
 commerce of the country, the government 
 was likely to stretch this principle farther 
 than it would bear, and the grant of patents 
 to courtiers was among the readiest means of 
 satisfying their demands. In 1597 the Com- 
 mons sent up an address to Elizabeth against 
 the abuse of monopohes, but an evasive reply 
 was given, and in 1601 a bitter debate of four 
 days took place on the subject. The queen 
 thought it wise to yield, promised that all in- 
 jurious grants should be repealed, and caused 
 most of the patents to be revoked. Their 
 number increased again under James I. : 
 " whereas, at the king's coming in," says a 
 contelnporary, " there were complaints of some 
 eight or nine monopolies then in being, they 
 are now said to be multiplied by so many 
 scores." A detailed examination of the most 
 important oases has been made by Mr. Gar- 
 diner, who declares that they were not open 
 
 HIBT.-24 
 
 to the usual charges brought against them. 
 " They were not made with the object of 
 filling the Exchequer. They were not made, 
 primarily at least, with the object of filling 
 the pockets of the courtiers. They were, it 
 is impossible to doubt, the result of a desire 
 on the part of ofScial persons to encourage 
 commerce, and to promote the welfare of the 
 State, though it cannot be denied that their 
 zeal was often greater than their knowledge, 
 and that their best efforts were not unfre- 
 quently tainted by ... . favouritism and 
 corruption. Take,.for example, the commis- 
 sion for gold and silver thread. Such thread 
 had been made before in England, but on a 
 smaU. scale; in 16H and 1616 patents were 
 granted to certain persons, including several 
 courtiers, on two grounds : first, that they 
 would establish a manufacture large enough 
 to compete with the Continent ; and secondlj', 
 that they would import bullion, and not use 
 English coin, the sinews and strength of oui- 
 state." In 1618 the monopoly was taken 
 into the king's hands, and a proclamation 
 issued forbidding the manufacture of gold 
 and silver thread by private persons, while 
 a commission was issued for the punishment 
 of offenders. The commissioners caused dis- 
 obedient workmen to be arrested, tools 
 seized, and goldsmiths and sUkmen impri- 
 soned upon refusal to' enter into bonds not 
 to sell to unlicensed persons. The harshness 
 with which the monopolies were enforced, 
 together with the fact that the chief monopo- 
 lists were also profiting by patents for the 
 control of alehouses and inns, and shame- 
 fully abusing their power, caused a storm of 
 indignation which broke in the Parliament of 
 1621. On Feb. 19, Noy moved for an inquiry, 
 and his proposal was seconded by Coke. A 
 committee of the whole House investigated 
 the patents for inns, and also those confer- 
 ring monopolies. The king yielded to the 
 storm, and Buckingham, on the advice of 
 Dean Williams, declared he woiild not even 
 protect his brother. Sir Giles Mompes- 
 son and Sir Francis Mitchell were accused 
 by the Commons before the Lords (a measure 
 usually regarded as the revival of the power of 
 impeachment, though not technically such), 
 and heavy penalties were imposed. Finally, 
 in the ParHament of 1624, an Actwas passed 
 abolishing most of the monopolies. Some 
 few, however, were specially retained as for 
 the public advantage. A few years later 
 the Lord Treasurer Weston endeavoured to 
 raise money by creating chartered companies, 
 which escaped the Act of 1624 by being open 
 to all merchants who cared to pay certain 
 fees. Much discontent was caused among 
 those traders who were unable to join, and 
 the grants were all revoked in 1639. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of England, iv. ; Hallam, Const. 
 Hist. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Kontague, John Neville, MABams 
 
Mon 
 
 ( 738 ; 
 
 IVEon 
 
 OF {d. 1471), was the son of Richard, Earl of 
 Sahshury, and the younger brother of the 
 Earl of Warwick. He joined his father and 
 brother in espousing the cause of York, and on 
 the accession of Edward IV. was made Warden 
 of the East Marches. In 1464 he defeated 
 the Lancastrians at Hedgeley Moor and 
 Hexham. In 1467 he was created Earl of 
 Northumberland, and the estates of the 
 Percies were granted to him. He resigned 
 this position in two years in order that 
 Percy might be restored, and received in lieu 
 the title of Marquis of Montague. He joined 
 Warwick in his intrigues against Edward, 
 shared in Henry VI.'s restoration, and fell 
 with his brother in the battle of Barnefc. 
 
 JVEontague, Anthony Browne, Vis- 
 count (rf. 1593J, "a man of great wisdom, 
 prudence, and loyalty," was son of Sir 
 Anthony Browne, Master of the Horse to 
 Henry A1II., and as a staunch Eoman 
 Catholic was high in favour with Marj', by 
 whom he was created a peer (September, 1653). 
 He was lieutenant of the English forces at the 
 siege of St. Quentin, and in 1560, in spite of 
 his vigorous opposition to the Acts of Uni- 
 formity and Supremacy, was sent by Elizabeth 
 on a mission to the court of Spain. His reli- 
 gion caused him to be suspected of sympathy 
 with the northern rebels in 1569, but he 
 nevertheless contrived to retain the favour of 
 the queen. Lord Montague was one of the 
 commissioners at the trial of the Queen of 
 Scots in 1586. 
 
 Monte, Robert de {d. 1186), was a monk 
 of Mont St. Michel, in Normandy. He wrote 
 a Chronicle, extending to the year of his 
 death, and a Bistort/ of Henry I., which is 
 generally considered the eighth book of Wil- 
 liam of Jumifeges' Chronicle. " His Chronicle," 
 says Sir T. Hardy, "is the most important 
 authority we possess for the history of the 
 Continental actions of our later Norman 
 kings and the earlier monarchs of the house 
 of Plantagenet." 
 
 This work will be found in Pertz, and a trans- 
 lation in the Church Historians of England. 
 
 Montfort, Simon de {b. 1208). The 
 marriage of Simon, lord of Montfort and 
 Evreux, with the sister and co-heiress of the 
 Earl of Leicester, 'in the reign of Henry II., 
 was the origin of the connection of the 
 Montforta with England. Their second son, 
 Simon, the leader of the Albigensian crusade, 
 to whom fell the title and haK the estates 
 of the earldom of Leicester, married Alice de 
 Montmorency, and of this marriage, Simon, 
 the great Earl of Leicester, was the fourth 
 and youngest son. His father was deprived of 
 his English estates in 1210, and died in 1218, 
 leaving to his sons -of whom only two, 
 Almeric or Amaury, and Simon, now re- 
 mained — nothing more than his ancestral ter- 
 ritories and his claims in England. Amaury 
 resigned his rights, to his younger brother, 
 
 who came to England in 1230 to try his for- 
 tune. He at once became a royal favourite, 
 was given a pension of 400 marks ; and in the 
 year 1238 was secretly married to the king's 
 sister, Eleanor, widow of William Marshall. 
 In 1239 he was invested with the earldom of 
 Leicester, and soon after acted as godfather 
 at Prince Edward's christening. Up to this 
 date, then, there had been nothing to dis- 
 tinguish him from the crowd of foreign ad- 
 venturers who haunted the court of Henry. 
 Political causes precipitated the first quarrel. 
 In 1239 Frederick II. was excommunicated 
 by the Pope ; after some hesitation the Eng- 
 lish king made up his mind to side with the 
 pontiff, and determined to get rid of a man 
 whom he knew greatly admired the Pope's 
 enemy. When next he came to court, Henry 
 greeted him with coarse and causeless abuse, 
 and ordered him to depart. With his wife 
 he hastened to France, cheered in his exile 
 by a letter from Grosseteste of Lincoln, whom 
 he had made his friend. In less than a year, 
 however, the king was reconciled, but Simon 
 was glad to take refuge from the annoyances 
 of the English court in the excitement of a 
 crusade (1240 — 41). In Palestine he could do 
 little, though his ability so impressed the 
 barons of the kingdom of Jerusalem that they 
 begged the Emperor to appoint him governor 
 of the land. In 1242 — 43 Henry's miserable 
 campaign in Poitou engaged him ; and then 
 for five years he lived quietly on his Leicester 
 estates, in the enjoyment of the friendship of 
 Grosseteste and Adam de Marisco. In 1248 
 he was summoned from his retirement to be- 
 come Lieutenant of Gascony. Into the details of 
 his five years' administration it is not neces- 
 sary to enter. Possibly he occasionally acted 
 with ill-timed severity, and the pleasure 
 which a strong man has in the sense of 
 mastery may have led him into indiscretions. 
 But it is clear that his administration was on 
 the whole successful, and also that he was 
 again and again shamefully abandoned by his 
 weak master, who seemed to welcome the 
 complaints made against him. On his return 
 Simon again retired to his own estates, and 
 watched the coui-se of events, and it is not 
 tDl the Mad Parliament of 1258 that he again 
 becomes prominent. But from this time to 
 his death he is the foremost figure in the op- 
 position, and it was during this period that he 
 made so powerful an impression upon the 
 popular mind by his political measures and 
 personal qualities. Avoiding details, his sub- 
 sequent action may be thus summarised : He 
 was one of the twenty-four who drew up the 
 Provisions of Oxford, and a member of the 
 permanent Council of fifteen ; negotiated 
 peace with Louis IX. : quan-elled with Glou- 
 cester in the Parliament of February, 1259, 
 according to popular belief because the latter 
 was content with getting power into the 
 hands of the barons, and objected to further 
 reform; he joined with the Bishop of 
 
Uou 
 
 ( 739 ) 
 
 IKCon 
 
 Worcester in Bummoning the Parliament of 
 1261, in which knights of the shire were 
 present ; on the death of the elder Gloucester 
 he practically governed England for some 
 months at the end of 1262 and beginning of 
 1263 ; rejected the Mise of Amiens ; took up 
 arms and won the battle of Lewes (1264), which 
 put the king into his hands ; established a 
 standing Council of nine instead of the 
 elaborate constitution of 1208 ; and brought 
 to the support of this a Parliament to which 
 knights of the shire were summoned, and in 
 1265 representatives of the towns for the first 
 time. He was kiUed at Evesham, Aug. 4, 
 126.5. 
 
 Simon has long enjoyed the reputation of 
 being the creator of the English House of 
 Commons. It has, however, been pointed 
 out that the writs of 1265 for borough repre- 
 sentation were not sent through the sheriff, 
 but to the mayors direct ; and thus Simon's 
 action stands outside the regular development 
 of Parliament, which consisted in bringing 
 the county courts into contact with the Great 
 Council. It cannot, however, be doubted that 
 the precedent of 1265 was of the utmost sub- 
 sequent importance. It may fairly be argued 
 that the constitution of 1258 does not repre- 
 sent Simon's own policy, but that of the 
 barons with whom he was forced to associate ; 
 while that of 1264, arranged at a time when 
 he had broken with the oligarchical party, 
 represents his own ideas as to what was 
 fitting in the existing state of things. Simon 
 in 1264 — 65 showed his confidence in the 
 knights and burghers by summoning them to 
 a Parliament which was to ha,ve a permanent 
 place in the constitution. 
 
 "Matthew Paris ; Annals of Burton ; MattJimo of 
 Westminster; Monutnenta Franciscana; Grosse- 
 teste's Letters, and Royal Letters of Senry Ill.'s 
 Reign (all in Bolls Series) ; Wright's Political 
 Songs (Camden Soc). Blaauw, Barons' War, 
 and Paull, Simon de Montfort, are good moclern 
 books ontlie period. Especial reference should 
 he made to Stuhbs, Const. H.ist., ii., ch. 14, and 
 to the documents in hia Select Charters. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Montfort, Henry be {d. 1265), was the 
 eldest son of Simon de Montfort. He took 
 part with his father in his opposition to 
 Henry III., and commanded the right wing 
 of the baronial army at Lewes, and, after the 
 victory, took charge of Prince Edward. The 
 conduct of Henry and his brothers during 
 the period between the battles of Lewes and 
 Evesham was one of the chief causes of their 
 father's fate. Henry seized all the wool in 
 England, and sold it for his own profit, while 
 he quarrelled with and estranged the powerful 
 De Clares. He fought bravely at the battle 
 of Evesham, and fell in a vain attempt to 
 rally the baronial forces after his father's 
 death. 
 
 Montfort, Simon de {d. 1273?), second 
 sou of Simon de Montfort, first distinguished 
 
 himself in the year 1264 by defending 
 Nortnampton against the royalists. He 
 was, however, defeated, taken prisoner, and 
 his life only saved by the personal inter- 
 vention of Prince Edward. He was not 
 released till after the battle of Lewes, when 
 he was appointed by his father Warden of 
 Surrey and Sussex. After the battle of 
 Evesham, he held out in the castle of Kenil- 
 worth, and through his intercession the lives 
 of the King of the Romans and his son were 
 spared. After the capture of the castle, he 
 retired to the sea-coast, where he put himself 
 at the head of a body of pirates, and subse- 
 quently fled to Italy, where, in conjunction 
 with his brother Guy, he barbarously mm-- 
 dered Henry of Almayne, at Viterbo, in 
 1269. For this crime he was excommunicated, 
 and, "after a brief wandering on the earth 
 with the curse of Cain upon him," he died in 
 a castle near Sienna. 
 
 Montfort, Axmeeic be, was the third 
 son of Simon de Montfort. He was ap- 
 pointed Treasurer of York, but, after lus 
 father's death, was deprived of his office, and 
 fled abroad. Being supposed to have been 
 privy to the Viterbo murder, he was taken 
 prisoner by Edward I. in 1276, but in 1281, 
 at the Pope's intercession, he was released, 
 and repaired to Rome, where he remained till 
 his death. 
 
 Montfort, Gl'y be, was the fourth 
 son of Simon de Montfort, and took part 
 with his father in the Barons' War, com- 
 manding the right wing at the battle of 
 Lewes. He subsequently brought great 
 odium on himself by his plunder of the 
 merchant-ships in the Channel, and by his 
 turbulence contributed to his father's down- 
 fall. Wounded at the battle of Evesham, he 
 fled to Italy, where in 1270 he murdered 
 Henry of Almayne at Viterbo. For this he 
 was excommunicated, but was subsequently 
 allowed to do penance, and fought bravely in 
 the Papal army, but in 1288 was taken 
 prisoner by the Sicilians, and ended his days 
 in prison. 
 
 Montserra.t, one of the Leeward Islands 
 south-west of Antigua, was discovered by 
 Columbus in 1493, and so called by him from 
 its supposed resemblance to a mountain of 
 this name near Barcelona. In 1632 it was 
 colonised by a party of English settlers from 
 St. Kitts, and remained in British hands until 
 1782, when it was taken by the French, and 
 kept by them until the close of the war. Its 
 affairs were formerly administered by a lieu- 
 tenant-governor, an executive and legislative 
 council of seven members, and a house o£ 
 assembly of twelve. In 1871, however, it 
 joined the federation of the Leeward Islands, 
 its local legislature being now under a 
 president. 
 
 Edwards, West Indies. 
 
Slon 
 
 ( 740) 
 
 Moo 
 
 Mouumeuta Franciscana is the title 
 of a work published in the EoUs Series, 
 under the editorship of Mr. Brewer, which 
 coataius valuable original materials for the 
 history of the arrival and settlement of the 
 Franciscans in England, the letters of Adam 
 Marsh, and other documents connected with 
 the foundation and diffusion of this great 
 body. Mr. Brewer's preface throws a flood 
 of light on the early history of the mendicant 
 orders in England. 
 
 IHCoodkee, The Battle op (Dec. 18, 
 1845), was fought during the Sikh 'War. 
 After a fatiguing march of twenty-one miles 
 over an arid plain, Sir Hugh Grough 
 found himself face to face with the army of 
 Lai Sing. Ho was taken completely by sur- 
 prise. The enemy's horse endeavoured to out- 
 flank our force, but were gallantly repulsed. 
 In this first conflict between the English 
 and the Khalsa soldiers, the superiority 
 of the latter in discipline and musketry was 
 very apparent. The commander-in-chirf had 
 himself to rally a flying native regiment, and 
 in the confusion one of our regiments fired 
 into another. Lai Sing was the first to fly, 
 with his cavalry, and he was at length followed 
 by the infantry, who withdrew under cover of 
 night, leaving seventeen guns in the hands of 
 the English. The British loss amounted to 
 872 killed and wounded. 
 
 Moolraj, Insurrection of. Moolraj, 
 the Governor of Mooltan, a strong fort in the 
 Punjaub, was the son of Sawan Mull, whom 
 he succeeded in 1844. In March of 1848, 
 after some differences with the Durbar, he 
 offered to resign the fort and government. 
 This was accepted, and Khan Singh was sent 
 to assume the government, accompanied by 
 Mr. Agnew, as political agent, and an escort 
 of 350 Sikh troops. On the morning of the 
 19th, there was a stormy interview with 
 Moolraj, who was ordered to produce the 
 accounts of the last six years. On the 20th 
 an attempt was made to assassinate Mr. 
 Agnew. On the 21st a brisk fire was opened 
 on the encampment from the citadel. The 
 Sikh escort proved treacherous, and deserted 
 to the enemy; a crew of howling savages 
 rushed in and murdered Mr. Agnew and his 
 companion. Lieutenant Anderson, with the 
 greatest brutality. On the 22nd Moolraj issued 
 a proclamation of a religious war against the 
 English. Lieutenant Edwardes, who was em- 
 ployed itt the revenue settlement at Buunoo, 
 across the Indus, Tyithout waiting for orders, 
 crossed the Indus with 1,200 infantry, 350 
 horse, and two guns. The Nabob of Bhawul- 
 pore was requested by the Resident to 
 advance. Lieutenant Edwardes joined him 
 at Kineyree. Timely reinforcements enabled 
 him to win the battles of Kineyree and 
 Sudoosain, and to shut Moolraj up in Mool- 
 tan, when the outbreak of Shore Sing merged 
 these operations in the second Sikh War. 
 
 Mooltan, Siege of (1848). This was 
 begun iu July, 1848, by Lieutenant Edwardes 
 with a British force, supported by one troop 
 of the friendly Nabob of Bhawulpore. The 
 investment continued till Sept. 12, when the 
 town was ineffectually bombarded. The 
 siege was raised Sept. 22. General Whish, 
 with 17,000 men and sixty-four heavy guns, 
 re-opened the siege (Dee. 27), and pushed it 
 with great vigour. For five days, in spite of 
 desperate sallies, the batteries played on the 
 town. On the third day an enormous powder 
 magazine exploded in the town, doing im- 
 mense damage. On January 2, 1849, the 
 town was carried by assault. The siege of 
 the citadel was now pushed on. After a con- 
 tinuous fire from the English batteries for 
 several days, Moolraj endeavoured to treat, 
 but was informed that no terms would be 
 granted short of unconditional surrender. 
 He therefore continued to defend the, fort, 
 till his garrison insisted on surrender or an 
 attempt to cut their way out. On Jan. 22, 
 therefore, he surrendered, and the fort was 
 placed in charge of Lieutenant Edwardes. 
 
 Moore, Sir John (J. 1761, d. 1809), was 
 the son of a Glasgow physician. His education 
 was chiefly acquired on the Continent, till in 
 1776 he entered the army. Two years later 
 he was ordered to Newfoundland, where he re- 
 mained almost inactive during the American 
 War. On the conclusion of peace in 1783, 
 he was placed on half pay, and was returned 
 to Parliament for a district of Scotch burghs. 
 Inl790hebecamelieuteuant-colonelof theSlst 
 Regiment. Five years later he saw almost 
 his first active service at the siege of Calri, in 
 Corsica, where he led the storming party of 
 grenadiers into the chief fort. He was ap- 
 pointed adjutant-general of the island, but ha 
 soon threw it up, and, returning to England, 
 was ordered to the West Indies under Sir 
 Ralph Abercromby. In the expedition against 
 St. Lucia, he distinguished himself by his won- 
 derful courage and energy, and was rewarded 
 by being appointed governor of the island. 
 In this position his continuous exertions, 
 combined with the malarious character of the 
 climate, twice laid him low, and in the summer 
 of 1797 he went to England with Abercromby, 
 whom he followed to Ireland. He was en- 
 gaged against the rebels at New Ross and 
 defeated them at Wexford. In 1799 he was 
 sent to Holland, whence he returned severely 
 wounded. In 1800 he was again employed 
 under Abercromby in the expedition to 
 Egypt. At the landing of the troops Moore 
 signalised himself by his prompt decision in 
 bringing up the reserves at the crisis of the 
 battle, _ and so gaining the victory. At 
 Aboukir he was again conspicuous, and again 
 wounded. While the Peace of Amiens lasted, 
 he remained at home on staff employment, 
 but on the renewal of the war was placed as 
 second in command of the troops in the. 
 
KTor 
 
 ( 741 ) 
 
 Mor 
 
 Mediterranean. In 1807 lie was sent to 
 Sweden in command of 10,000 men to help the 
 king. Some difference occurring between them, 
 lloore was placed under arrest, and on freeing 
 himself,, returned at once with his troops to 
 England. He had no sooner arrived than he 
 was sent off to the Peninsula to act under 
 Burrard and Dalrymple ; but on their recall 
 after the Convention of Ciutra he was ap- 
 pointed to the command in chief (Oct. 6, 1808). 
 At last he had an opportunity of displaying 
 his great military talents, and he did not 
 throw the chance away. He advanced up the 
 country, but was compelled to retreat to Co- 
 runna under terrible difficulties, before Soult. 
 On Jan. 16, 1809, he won a great victory at 
 Corunna, and covered the embarkation of his 
 army, but was himself killed in the action. 
 
 Memoir of Sir John Moore ; Napier, Peninsular 
 War ; Alison, Kist. of Europe^ 
 
 More, Sir Thomas (J. 1480, d. 1535), 
 was the son of Sir John More, a judge of the 
 King's Bench. At an early age he entered 
 the household of Cardinal Morton. In 1497 
 he went to Oxford, and in 1499 entered Lin- 
 coln's Inn ; already before this time he had 
 become acquainted with Erasmus and other 
 eminent scholars. In 1501 he entered the 
 House of Commons, and speedily became. a 
 prominent member of what may be called 
 the popular party, opposing Henry VII.'s 
 demand for subsidies. In 1508 he was made 
 a judge of the sheiiff's court, and in 1510 be- 
 came under-sheriff of London. In 1514 and 
 1515 he was employed as envoy to the Low 
 Countries, and soon after he was made a mem- 
 ber of the Privy Council, and in 1 521 kpighted. 
 He became dosely connected with Henry 
 Vm., and assisted the king in his book 
 against Luther. In 1523 he was appointed 
 Speaker of the House of Commons at Wol- 
 sey's request, but he nevertheless opposed the 
 grant which the cardinal tried to obtain from 
 the House. He, however, was reconciled to 
 Wolsey, and in 1527 accompanied him on a 
 mission to France. In 1525 he had been 
 made Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 
 and in Oct., 1529, he became Lord Chancellor. 
 Conspicuous as he had been all his life as one 
 of the party of Church Reform, More was 
 altogether opposed to the assumption of su- 
 premacy by Henry "VIII. In May, 1532, he 
 was deprived of the seals, and in 1534 (April 
 17), committed to the Tower. He declined 
 to take the oath of supremacy, and was in- 
 dicted for misprision of treason, Nov., 1534. 
 More's noble and beautiful character was 
 acknowledged by all his contemporaries. As 
 the most distinguished of the English expo- 
 nents of the " New Learning," he has an 
 interest beyond that of his historical position. 
 In addition to a Life of Edward VI. and other 
 works, he wrote the Utopia (1526), one of the 
 most remarkable political romances in this or 
 any language, which is especially noteworthy 
 
 for the way in which the author anticipates 
 many of the results of modern progress. 
 
 Eoper,ii/e of More; Jorten, Life ofErasmut; 
 Seebohm, The Oi:f or A Reformers ; Brewer, Bdgn 
 of Henry VIII. ; Burnet, Hist, of the Refoxmation. 
 
 Moreville, Hugh de, one of the murderers 
 of Beeket (q.v.), had been one of the itinerant 
 justices. After the murder he fled to his 
 castle of Knaresborough, and is said to have 
 undertaken a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 
 expiation of his crime. From a charter we 
 learn that he was living at the accession of 
 King John, and he seems to have died shortly 
 afterwards. 
 
 Morgan, Sie Henky, one of the chief 
 buccaneers of Jamaica, was frequently em- 
 ployed by Charles II. to harass the shipping 
 of the Spaniards in the West Indies. In 
 1670 he plundered and burnt Panama, and as 
 a reward was created a knight, and Governor 
 of Jamaica. 
 
 Morgan, Thomas, a Welshman, and a 
 devoted adherent of the Queen of Scots, was 
 imprisoned on a charge of complicity in the 
 Ridolfi Conspiracy. On his release he went 
 abroad, and became Mary's chief agent in 
 con'esponding with her friends. He was 
 declared by Dr. Parry to have instigated him 
 to assassinate Elizabeth, and his arrest was ac- 
 cordingly demanded fromHenrylll. of France, 
 hut refused. In 1585 he formed a fresh plot 
 against the life of the queen, and was more 
 or less impUcated in the Babington Con- 
 spiracy. His letters to Mary, written in 
 July, 1585, communicating the details of the 
 proposed invasion and rebellion, were produced 
 in evidence at the Queen of Scots' trial. 
 
 Morice, James {d. 1596), attorney of the 
 Court of Wards, moved in the Parliament of 
 1593 that the abuses of the bishops' courts 
 should be reformed. On this the queen for- 
 bade the House to consider " any biU touching 
 matters of state or reformation of causes 
 ecclesiastical," and Morice himself was dis- 
 abled from practising as a barrister, and was 
 kept in confinement for some years at Tut- 
 bury (or, according to others, at Tilbury 
 Castle), in spite of the efforts of Essex to 
 obtain his release. 
 
 Morice, Sm William (J. 1602, d. 1676), 
 a Devonshire gentleman of somewhat retired 
 life, but of high repute in his own county, 
 played an important part in the Restoration. 
 He was the first person to whom Monk en- 
 trusted the secret of his desig-n to restore 
 Charles, and he was used as a go-between 
 between Monk and Sir John Grenville, who 
 was sent over to Charles. The king appointed 
 him one of the Secretaries of State in 1660, 
 which office he continued to hold tiU 1668, 
 when he retired into private life. 
 
 Mortimer, The Family op, was one of the 
 most important families of the Welsh Marches. 
 Roger Mortimer, the paramour of Queen 
 
Mor 
 
 ( H2 ) 
 
 IVTor 
 
 Isabella, waa created Earl of March, with con- 
 siderable estates and influence on the Welsh 
 border. He was attainted in 1330, but the 
 attainder was reversed, and the title and 
 estates restored to his grandson (1354). His 
 great-grandson, Edmund Mortimer, married 
 Philippa, daughter of Lionel of Clarence, son 
 of Eilward III. Their grandson, the Earl 
 of March, was heir presumptive to the 
 crown in Henry IV. 's reign, and the un- 
 successful conspiracy of the Earl of Cam- 
 bridge and Lord Scrope (1415) was intended 
 to place him on the throne. His sister Anne 
 married Eichard, Earl of Cambridge, son of 
 Edmund of Langley, Duke of York, son of 
 Edward III. Their son was Richard, Duke 
 of York (killed at Wakefield, 1460), who thus 
 united the claims of the houses of York and 
 Mortimer, and was descended directly from 
 two sons of Edward III. 
 
 IKortimer, Roger (4. 1287, d. 1330), was 
 a ward of Piers Gaveston, and held many 
 important offices in the reign of Edward II., 
 being appointed Lieutenant of Ireland in 
 1317. He sided with Lancaster in his op- 
 position to the king, was taken prisoner in 
 1322, and condemned to perpetual captivity. 
 Escaping in 1324 he fled to France. In 1325 
 Queen Isabella being sent over to the French 
 court, Mortimer formed an intrigue with her, 
 and in the next year accompanied her to 
 England. The king fled, and was sub- 
 sequently deposed, and in 1327 Mortimer was 
 master of the situation. For nearly four 
 years the queen and Mortimer ruled the 
 country. All attempts to upset or curtail their 
 power were defeated ; the Earl of Lancaster, 
 who endeavoured to rival Mortimer, was 
 compelled to submit in 1328, and a plot set 
 on foot by the king's uncle, Edmund, Earl of 
 Kent, which had for its object the restoration 
 of Edward II., who was supposed to be still 
 alive, failed utterly, and Kent was executed 
 (1330). But this was Mortimer's last act, 
 for the young king had determined to rid 
 himself of the intolerable yoke he had borne 
 so long. Mortimer was surprised in Notting- 
 ham Castle, arraigned as a traitor, accused of 
 the death, of Edward II. and the Earl of Kent, 
 and hanged, to the universal joy of the nation. 
 His arrogance and vindictiveness recalled the 
 worst features of the Despencers, and his 
 adultery with the queen rendered biTn stOl 
 more odious in the eyes of the people. 
 
 Mortimer's Cross, The Battle of 
 
 (1461), was fought between Edward, Duke of 
 York (EdwardI v.), and theLancastrians, under 
 theEarl of Pembroke. In 1460, while Richard, 
 Duke of York, marched to the north against 
 Queen Margaret, Edward was despatched to 
 raise forces in the Welsh Marches. With 
 these troops, he marched to Gloucester, where 
 news reached him of his father's defeat and 
 death at Wakefield (q.v.), and he prepared to 
 march against Queen Margaret, when he 
 
 learnt that the Earls of Wiltshire and Pem- 
 broke had assembled a large army of Welsh 
 and Irish in order to attack him. Accor- 
 dingly he turned round, and met them at 
 Mortimer's Cross, in Herefordshire, between 
 Leominster and Wigmore, and totally routed 
 them. Pembroke and Wiltshire escaped, but 
 Owen Tudor was captured and beheaded. 
 Edward then proceeded with his army to join 
 the Earl of Warwick, who had just been 
 defeated by the Lancastrians at the second 
 battle of St. Albans. They efiiected a junc- 
 tion at Chipping Norton, in Oxfordshire, and, 
 with their united armies, marched towards 
 London, where Edward was proclaimed king. 
 
 Hortmaill. The abuse which the Statute 
 of Mortmain {De Religiosia) (Nov. IS, 1279) 
 was designed to remedy was by no means one 
 of late origin at the time of the passing of 
 this Act. Five hundred and fifty years earlier 
 Bede had complained of the way in which 
 pretended monks secured to themselves large 
 grants of the public land, and on their pro- 
 duce, which ought to have supported the 
 king's warriors, lived a life of ease and de- 
 bauchery. But however great this evil may 
 have been in the intervening centuries, it 
 does not seem to have called for legal inter- 
 ference till the days of Magna Charta. By 
 chapter 36 of the Magna Charta, confirmed 
 9 Henry III., " It was ordained that it should 
 not for the future be lawful for any one to 
 give his land to a religious house, and to take 
 the same land to hold of that house." The ob- 
 ject of this enactment was to prevent any more 
 of the land from passing into the hands of 
 the Church, and so ceasing to owe military ser- 
 vice to the king, while at the same time the 
 overlord lost all chance of ever recovering an 
 estate so alienated by escheat ; for by feudal 
 law on the failure of the heirs of the grantee 
 lands lapsed back to the grantor, and of course 
 there could be no failure of heirs when lands 
 were held by a corporation such as an abbey 
 or church. Some thirty-four years later the 
 Provisions of Westminster enacted in a some- 
 what similar spirit that no men of religion 
 should enter into any man's fee without the 
 licence of the chief lord of whom the fee is 
 immediately holden. But this may well have 
 been treated as a dead letter, for it was not 
 re-enacted in the Statute of Marlborough 
 (1267). Edward I., the whole bent of whose 
 mind seems to have been towards definiteness 
 and order, soon saw with disgust how much 
 of the land was steadily freeing itself from 
 the duty of military service, and securing 
 itseU against ever lapsing into the royal hands. 
 To remedy this defect he issued the famous 
 Statute of Mortmain, or Statutum de Beligiosis 
 (1279). This enactment forbids "any per- 
 son whatsoever, religious or other, to buy or 
 sell, or under colour of any gift, term, or 
 other title, to receive from any one any lands 
 or tenements in such a way that such lands 
 
Mou 
 
 (743) 
 
 Mun 
 
 and tenements should come into mort main.'' 
 The penalty a£Exed to breaking this enact- 
 ment was forfeiture to the next superior lord, 
 and if he failed to insist on this forfeiture 
 within a year, the right lapsed to his over- 
 lord, and so on to the king. Bat clerical 
 cunning was not long in finding a means of 
 evading even this law, and some six years 
 later the king had to issue a fresh statute 
 to check this new abuse. As might be ex- 
 pected, the great body of the clergy strongly 
 disapproved of the king's measures, and 
 in 1294, when Edward demanded half their 
 revenue for the year, offered to grant it if he 
 would only repeal the statute " Be Eeligiosis." 
 This, however, Edward was by no means 
 prepared to do. We must not, however, sup- 
 pose that all gifts of landed property to eccle- 
 siastical foundations were cut short by this 
 Statute of Mortmain. Passing by the system 
 of " Trusts and uses," by which the monks 
 attempted to evade its stringency, " the kings 
 never withheld their licence from the endow- 
 ment of any valuable new foundation." Another 
 device, that of bringing land into the posses- 
 sion of the Church, under pretence of pur- 
 chasing it as a burial-ground, was forbidden 
 by another Statute of Mortmain under 
 Richard II. (1391), a statute which at the 
 same time specially declares the provisions 
 and penalties of Edward's Act to extend to 
 gmlds and fraternities, and even to the 
 " Mayors, Bailiffs, and Commons of Cities, 
 Boroughs and other Towns, which have a per- 
 petual Commonalty," and so could hold land in 
 perpetuity without any chance of its lapsing. 
 Of later Acts dealing with the alienation 
 of land in mortmain, we may notice 7 & 8 
 Will. III., t. 37, which empowered the king 
 " to grant any person or persons, corporate or 
 not, Ucence to alien in mortmain without ren- 
 dering the lands liable to forfeiture." Again, 
 the statute of George II. specified the condi- 
 tions under lands which alone, &c., could be 
 devised for charitable purposes. Oxford and 
 Cambridge, Eton, Winchester, and West- 
 minster, were excepted from the operation of 
 this Act, and by the 5th of Geo. IV., the 
 British Museum was likewise excepted from 
 the Statutes of Mortmain, as other religious, 
 educational, and charitable bodies have been 
 in later times by Act of Parliament. 
 
 " Mortmain [Fr. morte, dead ; main, hand] 
 is," says Dr. Lathom, " such a state of pos- 
 session as makes property inalienable ; whence 
 it is said to be in a dead hand, in a hand that 
 cannot shift away the property." In the 
 later of the statutes the phrase runs lest lands 
 " deveniant ad manum mortuam ; " and in the 
 French equivalent it is " devenir a mortmayn." 
 Reeves, Hist, o/ English Law ; Stuhbs, Const. 
 Hist. [T. A. A.] 
 
 lUorton, John, Cardinal (S. 1410, d. 
 1500), studied at Balliol College, Oxford, and 
 became a prebendary of Salisbury in 1458. 
 
 In 1474 he was appointed Archdeacon of 
 Winchester, and in,1478 was made Bishop of 
 Ely and Chancellor by Edward IV. He 
 was regarded with suspicion by Eichard III., 
 and given into the custody of the Duke of 
 Buckingham. He escaped to Henry Tudor, 
 on the Continent, and became one of his chief 
 advisers. When Henry came to the throne, 
 Morton became one of the Privy Council, and 
 on the death of Bourchierin 1486, Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, and in 1487 he again became 
 Chancellor. In 1493 he was created a 
 Cardinal. During the remainder of his lite 
 he was Henry VII's chief minister, and in- 
 curred much of the odium of that king's 
 measures. But he seems to have been a wise 
 and enlightened prela,te, and a friend to learn- 
 ing and education. His character is eulogised 
 by More in the Utopia. 
 
 Houutjoy, William Stewart, Viscount 
 {d. 1692), was one of the few members of the Es- 
 tablished Church who held office in Tj^rconnel's 
 Jacobite administration (1689). Master of 
 the Ordnance and colonel of an Irish 
 regiment, he was also president of a, roya' 
 society, formed in imitation of the Boya>. 
 Society of London. When it was seen that 
 Ulster was determined to hold out for 
 William III., he was sent there to win them 
 over. The inhabitants of Londonderry per- 
 mitted him to leave a portion of his regiment 
 there, but the EnnisHUeners declined to listen 
 to his proposal. Shortly afterwards, Tyr- 
 connel, wishing him out of the way, sent him on 
 a mission to St. Germains, with Rice, who was 
 to tell James that he (Mount] oy) was a traitor 
 at heart. He was accordingly thrown into the 
 BastUe. After three years' imprisonment he 
 was exchanged for Richard Hamilton, and, con- 
 verted by his wrongs to Whiggism, volun- 
 teered in WiUiam's army. He feU at Stein- 
 kirk. 
 
 ]yiacaula.7, Hist. o/Bng. 
 
 Munro, Sir Thomas {d. 1827), entered the 
 military service of the East India Company. 
 He was present at the first march on Seringa- 
 patam, and the battle of Arikera, and sub- 
 sequently took part in the more successful 
 march of 1792. In 1799 he was included 
 in the commission appointed to complete 
 the organisation of Mysore after the fall 
 of the Mohammedan dynasty. In 1813, 
 having seen the disadvantages of the zerain- 
 dary system of land settlement in Ben- 
 gal' and Mysore, he instituted the ryot- 
 wary system 
 
 Mnnster, The Kingdom and Province 
 OP, is believed by modem authorities to have 
 been peopled chiefly by the Milesians, a group 
 of tribes of Gaulish or Spanish origin. The 
 Irish legends represent Munster as having 
 been divided between the Milesian chiefs Eber 
 and his brother Lugaid, of whom the former 
 prevailed, and drove the latter into the south- 
 
Mun 
 
 ( 744 ) 
 
 DKtui 
 
 ■western comer. President W. K, Sullivan 
 ttinks that the tribes of Eber are to be identi- 
 fied with the Scoti, or Brigantian Gauls, who 
 invaded Ireland from Meath, and appears to 
 thi'ow some doubt on the theory of an invasion 
 fi-om Spain. The tribes of Eber were in turn 
 subdued by the tribe of Degaid, probably of 
 the rival Milesian race of Erimon, but the 
 former, under the famous Mug of Munster, 
 having recovered their strength, drove out 
 the Degaidian tribe. Mug further defeated the 
 ard rij or over- king Conn " of the hundred 
 battles," and compelled him to consent to adi vi- 
 sion of Ireland, by which the former received 
 the southern part, Loth Moga or Mug's half 
 {circa A.D. 130). Munster now comprised the 
 modem counties of Tipperary,Waterford, Cork, 
 Kerry, Limerick, part of Kilkenny, and Clare, 
 which had orignally belonged to Co.inaught. 
 It was divided into the districts of Thomond, 
 Desmond, and Ormonde. The kings of these 
 distriUs formed a confederacy under the King 
 of Cashel, who, according to the oldlrish custom, 
 was .chosen alternately from the Eoghamists 
 (afterwards the O'Donovans and the Mac- 
 Carthys) of Desmond, and the Dalcasians 
 (the O'Briens) of Thomond. It seems that 
 Munster was partly converted to Christianity, 
 probably through the Irish colonies in Wales, 
 before the arrival of St. Patrick in 431, but 
 even after the coming of that saint it would 
 .seem, from the fact that Queen Ethne the 
 Terrible was still a heathen, that the new 
 faith gained ground but slowly. The Munster 
 kings were throughout this period the rivals 
 of the ard ris of the Hui-NeiU dynasty, and 
 disputed the supremacy of Ireland with them, 
 often not without success. They seized the 
 opportunity of the Scandinavian invasions 
 (795 — 1014), to revive their claim to the 
 over-kingship, and unpatriotically ravaged 
 the territories of the Hui-NeiUs. From 915, 
 however, there was an interval of comparative 
 peace throughout Ireland for forty years, 
 during which time Cormao MacCullinan, the 
 king-bishop of Cashel, is a prominent figure 
 in Irish history, one of his feats being the 
 defeat of the joint forces of the King of Con- 
 naught and of Flann, the ard ri, in battle. 
 He is said to have re-established the system 
 of alternate succession which had fallen into 
 disuse in consequence of the weakness of the 
 Thomond dynasty, and thus Mahoun, brother 
 of the famous Brian Boru, was seated on the 
 throne of Cashel. After his death (976) 
 Brian slew the king of the rival clan, and 
 speedily made Munster as powerful as it had 
 been in the days of Mug. In 998, after a 
 protracted struggle, he obtained from the 
 oyer-kmg Malachi the acknowledgment of 
 his authority over Mug's half of Ireland ; in 
 1002 he wrested from him the title of ard ri, 
 and in 1014, in aUiance with Malachi, he 
 defeated the King of Leinster and the Danes 
 of Dublin at Clontarf. After his death, how- 
 ever, Munster again fell into anarchy until 
 
 1050, when Donnchad O'Brien succeeded in 
 reducing the country to order by peaceful 
 means. During the period of ruthless inter- 
 provincial war which followed, the O'Briens 
 frequently got the upper hand in Ireland, 
 and assumed the title of ard ri. Moreover, 
 they administered their kingdom well, and 
 cared for the Church; amongst other good 
 deeds elevating Cashel into an archbishopric. 
 They also entertained relations more or less 
 friendly with the Norman kings. After the 
 Anglo-Danish invasion, the kings and chiefs 
 of Munster, headed by MacCarthy of Desmond, 
 " came in " readily to Henry and surrendered 
 their strongholds. The EngUsh king retained 
 Cork and Limerick for himself, but gave the 
 greater part of Cork county to Fitz-Stephen 
 and De Cogan, while Limerick went to De 
 Braose, and the Deoies to De la Poer. Their 
 families were, however, speedily supplanted 
 by the Munster Fitzgeralds, who had received 
 gxants of land in Limerick, Cork, and Kerry, 
 and who founded the Desmond line together 
 with the younger branches of the Knights of 
 Kerry, and the Knights of Glyn. The Fitz- 
 geralds, after a prolonged struggle with the 
 MacCarthys and O'Briens, intermarried with 
 them, and established a generally recognised 
 authority. Ormonde, or East Munster, was 
 occupied by the Butlers, who spread thence 
 over Kilkenny and Tipperary. During the 
 invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce (1315) 
 the Geraldines and Butlers suffered severely 
 at the hands of the O'Briens, and Edward 
 III., in order to strengthen their power, 
 created the great earldoms of Desmond and 
 Ormonde. These two houses were weakened 
 further by the Wars of the Roses ; the Butlers, 
 moreover, becoming involved in a deadly 
 feud with the Kildares, which lasted for 
 generations. Through these dissensions the 
 O'Briens and MacCarthys again obtained 
 power, though the cautious policy of the 
 Tudors kept them under. Thomond became 
 county Clare, and was added to Connaught. 
 In the reign of Elizabeth occurred the Des- 
 mond rebellions. Wishing to put a stop to 
 the anarchy in Desmond,'EHzabeth, and her 
 governor. Sir Henry Sydney, in 1514, deter- 
 mined to colonise Munster with gentlemen 
 from the west of England, headed by Sir 
 Peter Carew, who claimed the old Fitz-Stephen 
 estates. Moreover, the long-standing quarrel 
 between the Desmonds and Ormondes was 
 decided in the law courts in favour of the 
 latter ; and Desmond, who had been sent to 
 London on a charge of high treason, thought 
 it necessary to surrender large portions of his 
 lands which it was proposed to plant with 
 other colonists. However, the barbarities of 
 Sir Peter Carew soon drove the whole country 
 into a wild and bloody rebellion, the 
 MacCarthys, and even Ormonde's brothers 
 joming the Desmonds in the revolt, which 
 was led by Sir Maurice Fitzgerald, a cousin 
 of the eail. The Ai-chbishop of Cashel was 
 
Unr 
 
 {745) 
 
 Mys 
 
 sent to Spain for help. Ormonde, however, 
 pacified his brothers, and Sir Henry Sydney 
 crushed the rebels, being succeeded after his 
 recall by Sir John Perrott (1571), who, 
 throus^h the most brutal measures succeeded 
 in reducing the district to order. Munster 
 tecame an English presidency. The English 
 government was, however, exhausted by the 
 efEort, and thought it necessary to have re- 
 course to the most terrible severity. Sir 
 "William Drury hanging four hundred persons 
 in one year. Thereupon the second Desmond 
 rebellion broke out (1579), which, owing to 
 the cowardice of the earl, who had escaped 
 from prison, the early death of the brave Sir 
 Maurice Fitzgerald, and the tardy arrival of 
 assistance from Spain, was broken without 
 much diHioulty by the loyal Duke of Ormonde. 
 The estates of the Fitzgeralds and their allies 
 were confiscated and granted to English adven- 
 turers. In 1.598 James Fitzthomas Fitzgerald 
 assumed the title of Earl of Desmond, and in 
 conjunction with O'Neil, Earl of Tyrone, 
 raised the last of the Munster rebellions. After 
 Essex had failed to cope with it. Sir George 
 Carew suppressed it in 1600, and but little more 
 is heard of the Geraldines. Munster, except 
 Kerry, which was reserved for the govern- 
 ment, was finally colonised by Cromwell with 
 soldiers and adventurers ; these were promptly 
 absorbed by the Irish population, and though 
 the Cathohc gentry received back small por- 
 tions of their estates at the Restoration, they 
 lost most of them again under the " broken 
 treaty of Limerick." From that last settle- 
 ment the history of Munster has varied but 
 little from that of the rest of CathoHcIreland. 
 O'Douovan, Annalsofihe Four Masters; Keat- 
 mg, Hist, of Ireland; Prendergast, Cromwellian 
 Settlement; Haverty, Kist. of Ireland; Cusack, 
 Bist. of Irinh Nation s Walpole, The XiTigdom of 
 Ireland; Siag, Sstiitet of the Protestants of Ire- 
 land vmder James 11. ; Gardmer, Hist. ofMng. 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 HCTtcdnuu is defined in the Diahgua de 
 Smccm-io as " mors occulta alicujus, cujus in- 
 terfector ignoratur." The term was, however, 
 often extended to the murder fine exacted 
 from the hundred by the law of William I. 
 when the murdered man could not be proved 
 to be an Englishman, This process of proof 
 was called " Presentment of Englishry." It 
 was, however, obsolete so early as the reign 
 of Henry II., owing to the way in which 
 English and Normans were mixed up. 
 
 Cmlogus de Scaiioario,ia Stufbs's Select Charters. 
 
 Uurimuth, Adam, a canon of St. 
 Paul's in the time of Eichard II., wrote a 
 Chronicle from 1303 to 1336, which was con- 
 tinued subsequently to the year 1380. Ithas 
 been published by the English Historical Society. 
 
 Mutiny Act, The, was first enacted in 
 
 1789, and was facilitated by the mutiny at 
 
 Ipswich of a Scotch regiment. Before this a 
 
 person guilty of desertion or other military 
 
 HIST.-24* ■ 
 
 offences had ranked as an ordinary felon. 
 " It was then enacted," says Macaulay, "that, 
 on account of the extreme perils impending at 
 that moment over the State, no man mustered 
 on pay in the service of the crown should, on 
 pain of death, or of such Hghter punishment 
 as a court-martial should deem sufficient, 
 desert his colours or mutiny against his com- 
 manding officers. This statute was to be 
 in force only six months. . . . Six months 
 passed and still the public danger continued. 
 By slow degrees familiarity reconciled the 
 public mind to the names, once so odious, of a 
 standing army and a court-martial. ... To 
 this day, however, the Estates of the Realm 
 . . . solemnly assert every year the doctrine 
 laid down by the Declaration of Right ; and 
 "they then grant to the sovereign an extra- 
 ordinary power to govern a certain number 
 of soldiers according to certain rules during 
 twelve months more." The bill was frequently 
 attacked by the Tory party ; since the 
 reign of George I., however, it has been 
 ■usual to pass it without discussion, and it is 
 now annually brought in and read as a matter 
 of form. From 1713 to '1715 the court- 
 martial had no power to award capital punish- 
 ment. Since 1748 it has been provided that 
 no sentence touching life or limb could be im- 
 posed except for offences enumerated in the 
 Act ; and in the same year members of the 
 court-martial were forbidden to divulge the, 
 sentence until approved, or the votes of any 
 member unless required by Parliament. In 
 1754 the operation of the Act was extended 
 to troops serving in India and North America. 
 In 1756 the militia were brought under its 
 provisions, and in 1785 haU-pay officers were 
 exempted from it. [Military System.] 
 
 Mysore. The Mohammedan kingdom 
 of the Deccan was founded by Hyder All 
 •on the wrecks, of the southern principalities. 
 It included, when at its greatest power, not 
 only Mysore proper, but also the whole of 
 Malabar, Coclun, and Calicut, and extended 
 north into the Poonah and Hyderabad 
 States ; while to the east and south it included 
 the Camatic Balaghaut, the Baramahal, and 
 the provinces of Coimbatoor and Dendigul. 
 These outlying possessions were gradually 
 shorn off by English conquest, and in 1799 the 
 Mohammedan State of Mysore came to an end at 
 the second siege of Seringapat^m and the death 
 of Tippoo. The Hindoo State of Mysore was 
 thereupon created, deprived of all the outlying 
 provinces andSeringapatam, for the descen- 
 dants of the old Hindoo rajahs. A strictly 
 personal settlement was made with the rajah, 
 leaving the Company the right of assuming the 
 management if necessary. The insufferable 
 rule of the rajah, culminating in rebellion, com- 
 pelled Lord William Bentinck, in 1831, to 
 assume the entire management. But in 1867 
 the native sovereignty was re-established, 
 and orders were issued by the Secretary for 
 
Wag 
 
 (746 ) 
 
 ZTap 
 
 India that the country should he surrendered 
 to the rajah's adopted son on his coming of 
 age. This was done in 1881. 
 
 Wdlesley De-ipcOelies ; Wilks, Mysore; Mill, 
 Hist, of India. 
 
 N 
 
 Ifagpore, The Town of, was captured 
 by the English, Nov. 26, 1807, after a severe 
 defeat inflicted on the rajah's troops. In 
 1853, on the death of the rajah, the town 
 and territory of Nagpore were annexed by 
 the English. 
 
 ITana Sah.i'b. Dhoondoo Punt, a Mah- 
 ratta Brahmin, was the adopted son of Bajee 
 Eao, the last of the Peishwas. On the death of 
 the latter the Nana petitioned the Lieutenant- 
 Governor of Agra to continue the Peishwa's 
 pension to him. The petition was rejected 
 ty Lord Dalhousie and the Directors, 
 though the jaghire of Bithoor was granted 
 him rent free for life (1853). In revenge he 
 devoted himself to plots against the English 
 government. His agents were employed 
 in aU the discontented portions of India, 
 and his agent in England, Aaim DoUa Khan, 
 on his return encouraged him with ex- 
 aggerated tales of English disasters in the 
 "Crimea. On the outbreak of the Indian 
 Mutiny he became the chief instigator of the 
 carnage. It was his object at once to revive 
 the old empire of the Peishwas in his own 
 person, and to sacrifice as many Europeans 
 as possible to his revenge. It was by his 
 orders that the sepoys fired on the garrison 
 of Cawnpore after they had surrendered, and 
 that the final massacre of Cawnpore was per- 
 petrated. At the end of the Mutiny the 
 Nana .escaped to the Terrai jungles of Nepaul, 
 where he is supposed to have died. In 1874, 
 however, the Maharajah Scindia delivered 
 up to the English government a prisoner, 
 who represented that he was the Nana. 
 He turned out to he an impostor ; the 
 reason for this .imposture has never been 
 discovered, nor is it certain whether the 
 Maharajah was himself deceived. 
 
 Kaye, Sepoy War; Mallesou, Itidiwn MvUvAj ; 
 Annual Register, 
 
 ITapier, Libutenant-Gteneral Sir Wil- 
 liam (J. 1785, d. 1860), was the brother of Sir 
 Charles and Sir George Napier, and the cousin 
 of the admiral. His military services, unlike 
 those of his brothers, were confined to the 
 period of the great French War between 
 1807 and 1814. He served at the attack on 
 Copenhagen, and in all the Peninsular cam- 
 paigns down to Orthes. He was severely 
 wounded at the bridge of Almeida (1810) ; 
 received three other wounds during five 
 years ; obtained seven decorations ; and at 
 the close of the war was made a Commander 
 
 of the Bath, though he had attained no higher 
 rank than that of lieutenant-colonel. Bi 
 1819 he retired on half-pay; and from 1824 
 to 1840 he was unremittingly engaged on his 
 Mistory of the Peninsular War, which is one 
 of the masterpieces of military history. In 
 1842 he was appointed Lieutenant-Governor 
 of Guernsey, being now a major-general. In 
 1848 he became a K.C.B. In 1848 he puh- 
 lished his Conquest of Scinde, a defence of hie 
 brother. Sir Charles. 
 
 Martineau, Biogra'phical Sketches. 
 
 Napier of Magdala, Lord (J. 181«)i. 
 Sir Robert Cornelius Napier was the son M 
 Major C. F. Napier, and was educated at the 
 Military College, Addiscombe. He entered the 
 corps of Royal Engineers (1828), and served 
 wilii distinction in the Sutlej campaign, at 
 the, conclusion of which he was appointed 
 engineer to the Durbar of Lahore. He was 
 present! at the siege of Mooltan and the battle 
 of Gujerat. He was named chief engineer 
 under the new Punjaub administration, and for 
 some time was engaged in building roads and 
 cutting canals to open up that province. In 
 1857 he served as chief engineer in the army 
 of Sir CoUn CampheU, and the part he played 
 in the suppression of the rebellion greatly en- 
 hanced his reputation. He also distinguished 
 himself in China as second to Sir Hope Granti, 
 and was rewarded hy heing made a K.C.B., a 
 major-general, and a member of the Council 
 of India.. In 1865 he hecame commander-in- 
 chief at Bombay. In 1867 he received the 
 appointment to command the Abyssinian 
 expedition, and was made a K.G.C. of the 
 Star of India. While he was in Abyssinia he 
 achieved a brilliant success. King Theodore 
 on' his defeat committed suicide, the captives 
 were restored, and Magdala besieged and burnt. 
 On his return Sir Robert received the thanks 
 of Parliament, the sum of £2,000 per annum 
 was settled on him and his next heir, and he 
 was elevated to the peerage by the title of 
 Baro^ Napier of Magdala. 
 
 ITapier, Sm Charles (J. 1782, d. 18535, 
 eldest son of Colonel George Napier, was 
 educated at home, and sent into the army 
 (1794). He was employed in Ireland during 
 the insurrection ; he was at Corunna with 
 Sir John Moore, and fought under the 
 Duke of Wellington at Fuentes D'Onoro 
 and Badajos. Later he was employed in a 
 fighting cruise off the Chesapeake, and re- 
 turned in time to accompany the English 
 army to Paris, though he was not pre- 
 sent at Waterloo. A period of military 
 inactivity followed; hut in 1841 he was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief of the army of 
 Bombay. His first and greatest exploitrwas 
 the conquest and annexation of Scinde, of 
 which he was c6nstituted governor by iiord 
 EUenborough. The general proceeded to 
 subjugate the hill trihes and all the warlike 
 populatioii. He completely reorganised ti>c 
 
Ifap 
 
 (747) 
 
 ITat 
 
 whole physical and moral condition of the 
 district, and gained the respect and reverence 
 of the inhabitants — even of the Beloochees. 
 His proceedings, however, highly offended the 
 Directors, and a quarrel ensued, in which Sir 
 Charles treated them with very shght cere- 
 mony. His plans for the termination of the 
 Sikh War (q.v.) were not ripe when the 
 battle of Sobraon ended it. Before leaving 
 Seinde he succeeded in changing the feudal 
 system of landholding into a landlord and 
 tenant system, which he considered the best 
 means of forming loyal subjects, by raising a 
 race of independent farmers attached' to the 
 government. In 1847 he returned to Eng- 
 land and lived in semi-retirement until the 
 disasters of the second Sikh War (q.v.) made 
 everyone look around for a general. Sir 
 Charles started (March, 1849), but found on 
 his airrival at Bombay that the Sikhs had 
 been finally routed. He now devoted himself 
 to military reform ; but after two years re- 
 turned to Sngland, where he died. 
 
 Narpier, Vice- Admiral Sir Charles 
 (J. 1786, d. 1860), was the cousin of the three 
 Napier brothers, Charles, George, and WiUiam. 
 He went to sea 1799; was employed all 
 through the French War in the colonies and 
 the Mediterranean. He served on shore in 
 the Peninsula, and was present at Busaco. 
 ,At the close of the war he had a long 
 interval of rest, but on his return in 1829 he 
 was employed off the coast of Portugal in the 
 Galatea. He supported the Constitutionalists ; 
 defeated the fleet of Don Miguel, and settled 
 Donna Msiria on the throne. Don Pedro was 
 unbounded in his gratitude ; created him 
 Viscount of Cape St. Vincent ; gave him all 
 the Portuguese orders, and named him admiral- 
 in-chief. He proceeded to remodel the corrupt 
 Portuguese navy; was thwarted by the 
 officials, and threw up the appointment. In 
 1840 he was employed in the Mediterranean 
 against Mehemet Ali as commodore, and con- 
 cluded a convention with him. For his services 
 .he was made K.C.B., and received the thanks 
 of both Houses. In 1841 he was elected for 
 Marylebone. In 1847 he received the com- 
 mand of the Channel fleet, and compelled the 
 Emperor of Morocco to make compensation for 
 injuries done to the British commerce. During 
 the Bussian War he was nominated to the 
 command of the Baltic fleet, but had little 
 opportunity' of earning distinction. On his 
 return he quarrelled with the government on 
 the subject, and mutual recriminations were 
 interchanged. In 1855 he was returned for 
 Southwark, and cleared himself in the eyes 
 of Parliament and the nation. From this 
 time he devoted himself to attacking the 
 abuses in the navy, until his failing health 
 required him' to withdraw altogether from 
 pidilic life. 
 
 " Ifapierville, The Battle op (1 839), was 
 tetghl near Montreal between the British troops 
 
 under Sir James McDonnell and thef Canadian 
 rebels, who were completely defeated. 
 
 Naseby, The Battle of (July 14, 1645), 
 was fought during the Great Bebellion. 
 Both armies took the field in May, 1646. 
 Charles I. marched northwards, and, whilst 
 Fairfax was besieging Oxford, the king 
 stormed Leicester. Leaving Leicester, Charles 
 established himself at Daventry, collecting 
 provisions to revictual Oxford, and threaten- 
 ing to attack the eastern counties. Fairfax, 
 who left Oxford on July 5, overtook the 
 king on the 12th. The king resolved to give 
 battle, and took up his position on an eminence 
 called Dust HiU, about two miles north of 
 the village of Naseby. The army of Fairfax 
 was drawn up on Red Pitt Hill, about a mile 
 from Naseby. The two armies were both 
 about 11,000 strong, the Royalists being rather 
 the stronger in cavalry. The Royalist right, 
 commanded by Rupert, commenced the 
 attack, and, after a hard fight, routed the 
 Parliamentary left, under Ireton, and at- 
 tacked the baggage of the Parliamentary 
 army behind the line of battle. Meanwhile 
 the Parhamentary right wing, led by Fairfax 
 and Cromwell, charged and broke the division 
 commanded by Sir Marmaduke Langdale, 
 which formed the left of the king's army. 
 Fairfax and his guards returned from this 
 charge to take part in the struggle between 
 the foot of the two armies in the centre. 
 For this decisive struggle Fairfax brought up 
 all his reserves, and was aided by part of 
 Cromwell's horse and what remained of 
 Ireton's division. Under their combined 
 attack the Royalist centre was utterly routed. 
 Rupert returned too late to the field to turn 
 the fortune of the battle. The king, at the 
 head of his reserve of horse, was resolved to 
 charge in the hope of recovering the day, 
 when a courtier seizing his bridle caused a 
 confusion, which effectually prevented an 
 attack. The cavalry of the Parliament pur- 
 sued the flying Royalists to within two mil^s 
 of Leicester, and the slaughter during the 
 flight was very great. The Parliamentarians 
 lost about 200 men ; the Royalists, 1,000 killed 
 and about 5,000 prisoners, besides all their 
 guns and baggage and the king's private 
 correspondence. 
 
 The best account of tlie battle is in Sprig^e'i^ 
 Anglia Redimva. The letters of Fairfax, Crom- 
 well, and the Parliamentary Commissioners 
 addressed to the Speaker give the official report 
 of the battle. Whitelooke's and Clarendon's 
 accounts contain valuable details. Markham's 
 Life of Fairfax contains a list of authorities, and 
 a criticism of their value. rQ^ JJ^ |p T 
 
 National Debt, The. The kings of the 
 Middle Ages, and notably the later Planta- 
 genets, had frequently borrowed large sums of 
 money on their own credit on the secmity of 
 the crown property and estates: but' th'e 
 modern national debt was originated in the 
 reign of William III. by Montague, in 1B93, 
 
Nat 
 
 ( 748 ) 
 
 ITav 
 
 ■when Chancellor of the Exchequer. In 
 order to defray part of the military expenses, 
 Montague borrowed a million sterling, the in- 
 terest of which — at first at ten, and, after the 
 year 1 700, at seven per cent. — was secured on 
 new duties on liquors. These duties were to 
 form a fund, and on the credit of this fund the 
 loan was to be raised by life annuities, which 
 were to he extinguished when the survivors 
 were reduced to seven. In the following year 
 another loan was obtained, in the shape 
 of the capital of the newly-created Bank 
 of England, which amounted to £1,200,000. 
 By the date of the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) 
 the national debt exceeded 20 millions; by 
 that of the Treaty of Utrecht it was more than 
 50 millions. This rapid increase was the 
 cause of great alarm to the Tory party, and 
 it was the fear of the Whigs that the Pre- 
 tender would come "with a sponge" and 
 wipe out the national debt. Its gradual ex- 
 tinction was one of the objects of statesmen. 
 In 1711 Harley founded a floating debt (a 
 debt payable on demand) of ten millions, 
 which became the capital of the South Sea 
 Company, who in return were allowed the 
 monopoly of the privileges of the Assiento 
 (q.v.) contract with Spain. In 1717 Walpole 
 established the first sinking fund, borrowing 
 £600,000 at four per cent, only, to extinguish 
 liabilities bearing a higher rate of interest. 
 The high rate of interest, and the confusion 
 caused by the fact that some of the annuities 
 by which the various loans had been raised 
 were redeemable and others irredeemable, 
 induced the government in 1720 to accept the 
 proposal of the South Sea Company that they 
 should add the national debt to their capital, 
 and should in return make the fund uniform 
 and redeemable, paying at first five, and 
 after 1727 four per cent. ; but the failure of 
 the company caused the plan to fall to the 
 ground. Pelham was more successful in his 
 measures, carrying out in 1750 a uniform 
 arrangement, called the Consolidated Fund, 
 xnd reducing the interest to three per cent., 
 paying off those who were unwilling to accept 
 the terms. Meanwhile the debt increased by 
 leaps and bounds. At the Peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (1748) it was over 78 mOlions ; at the 
 Peace of Paris (1763), over 138 millions ; and 
 at the conclusion of the American War (1784), 
 249 mOlions. In 1786 the younger Pitt pro- 
 posed a new sinlring fund, by which scheme 
 the sum of one million was annually set apart 
 from the income of the country for the re- 
 duction of the debt. The faUaoy of the 
 system became evident when times of difficulty 
 arose ; and the nation was forced to borrow, 
 often at a higher interest than it gained, in 
 order to meet current expenses. It was 
 gradually abandoned, being finally laid aside 
 by Lord Grenville in 1828. The struggle 
 with Napoleon was a fearful strain on the 
 national resources, and in 1817, when the 
 English and Irish exchequers were consoli- 
 
 dated, the capital was over 840 millions, and 
 the annual charge exceeded 32 millions. Since 
 that date it has been gradually reduced, partly 
 by arrangements of economy, such as that by 
 which, under the Bank Charter Act of 1833, 
 the Bank of England was to receive £120,000 
 less than before for the management of the 
 debt ; partly, as in 1868 and onwards, by the 
 conversion of stock into terminable annuities. 
 In 1875 a new and permanent sinMng fund 
 was established, which was to be maintained 
 by annual votes of the legislature. In 1883 a 
 great scheme in connection with the national 
 debt was formed by Mr. Childers, by 
 which, through the creation of new annuities 
 terminable in twenty years, £70,000,000 of 
 debt could be immediately extinguished, and 
 £173,300,000 in twenty years. The national 
 debt in this year amounted to £756,376,519. 
 In 1884 Mr. Childers carried an Act by which 
 a portion of the debt was to be converted 
 from three per cent, to two and a halt per 
 cent, stock.. [Banking ; South Sea Company.] 
 
 Macaulay gives a clear account of the origin 
 of the debt, and Lord Stamn'pe of its con- 
 nection with tbe South St-a Company. See also 
 Massty, Hi^. of Eng. ; Martineau, Hist of the 
 Peace; McCuUoch, Commercial Dictionary; 
 Stateaman's Year-Book: PL C S 1 
 
 ITavarrete, or Ifajara, The Battle 
 or (April 3, 1367), was fought during the 
 alliance between the Black Prince and Pedro 
 the Cruel, King of Castile. Pedro, a monster 
 of vice, had been expelled from his kingdom 
 by his natural brother, Henry of Trastamare, 
 who was supported by a considerable French 
 force, commanded by the Breton hero, Du 
 Guesclin. Pedro applied for assistance to the 
 Black Prince, who after some hesitation agreed 
 to march into Spain to his aid, on condition 
 that the expenses of the campaign should be 
 defrayed by Pedro, and certain Spamsh towns 
 ceded to England. Aciordingly he crossed the 
 Pyrenees with an army of 24,000 men, and 
 met the combined force of the French and 
 Spanish, numbering 60,000 men, on the plain 
 of Navarrete just beyond the Ebro near the 
 town of Logrono. This victory was almost 
 equal in the importance of its results to 
 Creoy and Poitiers. The English archers won 
 the day, the loss of the enemy being very con- 
 siderable, and among the prisoners was Du 
 Guesclin himself. 
 
 ITavarino, Battle of (Oct. ^0, 1827). 
 In 1827, on the refusal of Turkey to grant the 
 armistice to the Greeks demanded by the 
 powers, the French, English, and Russian 
 fleets entered the Eastern Mediterranean, and 
 appeared before Navarino Bay, where twenty^ 
 eight Turkish and Egyptian ships-of-war lay 
 waiting fresh reinforcements from Europe. 
 The allies explained the negotiations, and 
 declared they should not shII. Ibrahim Pasha 
 agreed, but sailed in spite of this. The allies 
 returned, and drove the Turkish fleet into 
 
NaT 
 
 (749) 
 
 ITav 
 
 Navarino. Ibrahim now ordered a general 
 massacre on shore. On the 20th, Sir Edward 
 Codrington, the English admiral, sailed in to 
 say that he would convoy the Turkish and 
 Egyptian ships hack to their respective coun- 
 tries. Codrington went on parleying till the 
 Turks opened fire upon him and the French. 
 The battle then began, and in four hours the 
 Turkish fleet was entirely destroyed by the 
 allies. 
 
 ITaTigatiou Laws, The, regulated the 
 privileges of British ships, and the conditions 
 under which foreign ships were admitted to 
 the trade of this country. Legislation of this 
 kind was naturally of early development ; we 
 find instances of it under the later Angevin 
 kings, and in the reigns of Henry VII. and 
 Elizabeth laws were passed excluding foreign 
 ships from our coasting trade. Cromwell 
 was, however, the first to adopt the naviga- 
 tion system as a policy ; in 16.50 he excluded 
 all foreign ships without a licence from 
 trading with the plantations of America, and 
 in 1631 the famous Navigation Act was passed, 
 which forbade the importation of goods into 
 England except in English ships, or in the 
 ships of the nation which produced the goods. 
 This measure was levelled at the Dutch carry- 
 ing trade ; it forced the Dutch into war, but 
 in the end they accepted it. The mercantile 
 system, as it was called, was continued after 
 the Restoration. In 1660 an Act was passed 
 providing that aU colonial produce should he 
 exported in English vessels; that no man 
 might establish himself as a factor in the 
 colonies, and that various sorts of colonial 
 produce could only be exported to England 
 and her dependencies. In 1 663 it was enacted 
 that the colonies should receive no goods 
 whatever in foreign vessels. In 1672 came 
 the Navigation Act of Charles II., based 
 on that of Cromwell, under which the pro- 
 hibition against introducing goods, except 
 in English ships manned by a crew of which 
 at least three-fourths were English, applied 
 to all the principal articles of commerce 
 known as the "enumerated articles." This 
 Act ruined the Dutch merchant navy, and the 
 cruel restrictions of the navigation laws 
 were one of the main causes of the American 
 rebellion. After the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, the United States were placed on 
 the, footing of a foreign nation, and hence 
 came under the operation of the Act of 
 Charles II. They promptly retaliated by 
 excluding our ships, and in 1814 the Treaty of 
 Ghent was concluded, by which discriminating 
 duties were mutually abolished. Long since 
 the folly of these restrictions on commerce 
 had been pointed out by political economists, 
 and Mr. Wallace and Mr. Huskisson began 
 from 1821 and onwards, introducing a series 
 of measures of which the object was to place 
 England and the foreign nations with which 
 she was at peace on the same footing. The 
 
 most important of these was the Reciprocity 
 of Duties Act of 1823, which was directed 
 against Prussia, the Netherlands, and Por- 
 tugal, all of whom had raised their duties on 
 English vessels; and the Act of 1826, by 
 which the Navigation Act was repealed, and 
 a new set of regulations established of a more 
 liberal character, though the goods of Asia, 
 Africa, and America were still restricted to 
 English vessels, or those of the producing 
 country. The free-trade legislation of 1842, 
 1846, and 1849 finally abolished a most 
 vexatious system. Lastly, in 1854, the coast- 
 ing trade of England was thrown open tf 
 foreign vessels. 
 
 The effects of the Navigation Act on America 
 are mentionsd in Doyle, The English m America, 
 and Bancroft, History of the United States. See 
 also Adam Smith, Wealth of Hations ; and 12 Car. 
 II., c. 18 ; 3 Geo. IV., c. 42, 43, 44, 45 ; 12 & 13 
 Vict., c. 29. Per the increase of English com- 
 merce since the repeal of the Acts see Mr. 
 Gladstone's speech at Leeds, Oct., 1881. 
 
 [L. S. C] 
 
 ITavy, The. According to the strict 
 sense of the word, the navy did not come into 
 existence until the reign of Henry VIII. 
 Before that period the King of England had 
 the power of calling upon a certain part of 
 the people to serve against his enemies at sea, 
 and to supply ships and arms ; but there was 
 no permanent naval force, although some of 
 the sovereigns had ships which were their 
 personal property. It seems, however, to 
 have been the custom to pay the crews of 
 these ships when on active service out of 
 the national treasury. The Cinque Ports 
 were endowed with privileges on considera- 
 tion of rendering especial service at sea, but 
 the obligation to serve was common to the 
 whole coast. Until the end of the thirteenth 
 century the general control of the navy was 
 left to officers called leaders, governors, or 
 justiciaries of the king's fleet. In the reign 
 of John the office was held by an ecclesiastic, 
 the Aichdeacon of Taunton. In 1303 the 
 title of admiral was already in use. Gervase 
 Alard is stated to be " captain and admiral 
 of the fleet of ships of the Cinque Ports, 
 and of all other ports from the port of Dover, 
 and of the whole county of Cornwall." 
 Admirals for parts of the coast, or for 
 different seas, were appointed on varying 
 conditions until the office of Lord High 
 Admiral grew out of the older " captain and 
 admiral" of particular districts. [Admiral.] 
 From the beginning of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, the navy has always been governed, 
 nominally at least, by a Lord High Admiral, 
 either in person or by commissioners ap- 
 pointed to discharge the office. Its powers 
 were very great, including the commandership- 
 in-chief at sea, the authority of the present 
 Lords of the Admiralty, with the jurisdiction 
 of the Admiralty Court in peace, and the 
 prize courts in war, [Admikalty.] The last 
 
Ifav 
 
 (. 730 ) 
 
 Lord High Admiral who really exercised the 
 powers of the office was James II. when Duke 
 of York. Henry VIII. began the modern 
 navy by the appointment of a comptroller, 
 and by setting aside a portion of his revenue 
 every year to meet the expenses of building 
 new vessels and of keeping his ships in fight- 
 ing order. It was, however, long before an 
 organised body of naval officers was formed. 
 Until the reign of James II. it was the 
 custom to appoint a captain who might or 
 might not be a seaman, and who had a 
 master to navigate for each voyage. The 
 captain then collected his crew by voluntary 
 enlistment or press. When the special service 
 for which the ship had been commissioned 
 was performed, the whole crew was paid off, 
 and ceased to have any further necessary 
 connection with the royal service. The pay 
 of the captains was largely made up by fees 
 for convoying, &o., until the abuses of the 
 system induced James II. to abolish it, and 
 compensate the cnptains by the large increase 
 of sea-pay, known as service-and-table raonej'. 
 James II. also established the system of giving 
 half-pay to oBEicers not on active service. It 
 seems to have been regarded as a species of 
 retaining fee, and even until the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century naval officers in 
 the intervals of active service commanded 
 merchant ships, and traded on their own 
 account. There are well-known cases of 
 merchant skippers appointed to command 
 war ships as late as the end of the seventeenth 
 century. Captain Cook is an example of a 
 man who worked his way to command through 
 the rank of sailing-master from before .the 
 mast. Step by step, however, our organisa- 
 tion has become more strict, and to-day naval 
 officers are a highly trained professional body. 
 The materiel of the navy has gone through a 
 process of development very similar to that of 
 the personnel. Under the Tudors, the first 
 two Stuart princes, and the Commonwealth, 
 the navy consisted of a nucleus of royal ships 
 (or national, as the case might be), which 
 was joined in war time, or whenever the king 
 thought fit to make an imposing demonstra- 
 tion in the Channel, by a crowd of merchant 
 vessels. Scarcely a fifth of the ships col- 
 lected against the Armada belonged to the 
 queen, and the proportion in Wimbledon's 
 fleet which sailed against Cadiz in 1625, and 
 in Buckingham's at the Isle of Rhe, 1626, 
 was about the same. Even the great fleet 
 which fought the three days' fight with 
 Tromp in the Channel contained many armed 
 merchant ships. By that time, however, the 
 armed merchant ships had become a mere 
 nuisance to the fighting vessels. What had 
 done well enough in 1588, though even then 
 the queen's oiEcers did not think the ships 
 from the ports good for much except to make 
 a show, had become completely useless fifty 
 years later. The causes of this change were two. 
 In the first place the heroic enthusiasm of the 
 
 Elizabethan days passed away with the Eliza- 
 bethan heroes. In 1625 it was found impossible 
 to get obedience from pressed crews and 
 merchant skippers, and the English flag was 
 disgraced by insubordination and cowardice 
 before the enemy. In the second place 
 Phineas Pett, James I.'s builder, had begun 
 to make the war ship something far more 
 different from the merchant vessel than it 
 had "been in the si-xteenth century. The 
 progress of the seventeenth century in ship- 
 building was as rapid as anything seen in 
 our time. When James I. ascended the 
 throne a ship of five hundred tons was a 
 match for anything ; the liners of his grand- 
 sons were vessels of from 1,500 to 1,600 tons. 
 Their superiority in build and rigging was 
 enormous. As the war ship therefore became 
 a special instrument, it was found impossible 
 to improvise it out of a merchant ship any 
 longer. Accordingly the number of royal 
 ships had to be increased very rapidly. 
 James I. left only thirty-three; Charles raised 
 the number to sixty-seven; under the 
 Commonwealth it rose to 150, and at the 
 Revolution it was 234. At one period since 
 then it has reached upwai-ds of 900. The 
 beginning of the eighteenth century may be 
 considered as the period at which the navy 
 became fully developed. 
 
 Since then the organisation of the navy has 
 remained almost the same in form, Jihough 
 it has undergone innumerable modifications 
 in points of detail. The administrative 
 machinery, the rank and status of officers, 
 the code of laws by which naval discipline 
 was preserved, and the duties of the various 
 branches of the service were fixed at the 
 beginning of the last century ; and though 
 the changes in the consti'uction and manage- 
 ment of ships has been enormous, the attempt 
 has constantly been made to adapt this 
 organisation to it, without departing from it 
 in essentials. Great progress was made in ship- 
 building and naval tactics in the eighteenth 
 century. In 1745 "first-rates" were or- 
 dinarily ships of 2,000 tons ; in the American 
 War they were 2,100 ; and in 1808 there was 
 a ship of 2,616. The results of the great 
 war with France from 1793 to 1815 was that 
 the navies of the chief Continental States 
 were almost annihilated, and that of England 
 obtained an enormous preponderance. Great 
 improvements in the construction of the vessels 
 were made after the close of the war; and the 
 English ships of the line reached their per- 
 fection betwefen the years 1 820 and 1845. But 
 in 1838 steam was applied to war vessels, and 
 by the time of the Crimean War many Eng- 
 lish liners were fitted with auxiliary screws. 
 Shortly afterwards armour-plated ships were 
 introduced, and since then change has suc- 
 ceeded change with bewildering rapidity. 
 Wooden ships of the line have become 
 quite obsolete, and during the last twenty 
 years the English navy has been completely 
 
ITaz 
 
 ( T51 ) 
 
 Nel 
 
 reconstructed, aud ships of size far exceeding 
 
 the largest vessel of the past, aud carrying 
 
 ordnance of enormous powers have heen 
 
 built. The old system of "rating" is still 
 
 nominally kept up, and generally speaking 
 
 the names, ranks, and duties are assigned to 
 
 the fighting part of the service ; but each 
 
 ship now carries a large number of engineers, 
 
 aitilicers, and scientific officers. [Admiiialty.] 
 
 Berrict, Rise and Progress of the RoyaX havn ; 
 
 James, Naval History ; Yonge, Hist, of the 
 
 Navy ; Brassey, The Briish Navy. rj) jj -i 
 
 Nazir Jung was the second son of 
 Nizam-ool-Moolk, on whose death (1749), he 
 seized the royal treasure and the throne, and 
 called in the aid of the English to resist the 
 confederation formed against him by Dupleix 
 to support Mozuiler Jung, the grandson of 
 Nizam-ool-Moolk. The alliance did not, 
 however, last long, and Nazir Jung was of 
 too reckless and pleasure-loving a nature 
 to he able to cope successfully with the in- 
 trigues of Dupleix. In December, 1750, he 
 was assassinated by a treacherous dependant. 
 
 Nechtau's Mere, The Battle of 
 (May 20, 685), was fought between Brude, 
 the Pictish king, and Ecgfrith of Northum- 
 bria, his cousin, who had crossed the Forth to 
 subdue the Picts. The result of this battle 
 was most important. The Picts at once 
 shook off the Northumbrian yoke, and the 
 Northumbrian overlordship itself came to an 
 end. Nechtansmere is the modern Dunnichen, 
 about four miles south-east of Forfar. 
 
 Neck-verse, The. [Benefit or Clesgy.] 
 
 Nectan Morbet («?• 481), King of 
 the Picts, was banished to Ireland by 
 his brother and predecessor, Talorgan, on 
 whose death, however, he returned. He is 
 said to have founded the church of Abemethy, 
 and to have given his name to Drum-nechtan 
 or Dunnichen in Forfarshire, where the battle 
 of Nectansmere was (685) subsequently fought. 
 
 Nectan {d. 732), son of Derili, succeeded 
 his brother Brude as King of the Picts in 706. 
 In 710 the king and nation were persuaded by 
 St. Boniface to conform to the Koman Church, 
 and to adopt Roman usages instead of the 
 Columban. The Columban clergy were con- 
 sequently in 717 expelled, and driven into 
 Dalriada; this had the effect of stirring 
 into antagonism the latent hostility between 
 the Scots and Plots. In 724 Nectan ab- 
 dicated and entered a monastery, which, 
 however, he subsequently left, and after a 
 victory over Alpin, the reigning king at 
 Scone, recovered his kingdom. He was 
 very shortly afterwards defeated by Angus 
 MacFergus. 
 
 Nelson, Hokatio, Tiscount (*. 1758, d. 
 1805), was the son of the Eector of Bum- 
 ham Thorpe in Norfolk. • He went to 
 school first at Norwich, and afterwards 
 at NOTth Walsham. In 1771 he went to 
 
 sea with his uncle in the Saisonnable, but 
 soon returned, and was commissioned to the 
 Triumph at Chatham. In 1773 his uncle's 
 influence obtained a place for him in an 
 expedition to the Arctic Seas. Tho expedition 
 was at one time in great danger, but eventually 
 returned in safety. He was then ordered to 
 the East Indies, where, after serving eighteen 
 months, he was invalided home, in 1777 he 
 received his commission as second lieutenant 
 of the Lowesioffe, ordered to Jamaica. In the 
 West Indies he soon became noticeable for 
 his bravery and application, and in December, 
 1778, he was appointed to command the 
 Badger, from which he was transferred in the 
 following June as post-captain to the Sin- 
 chinbrook. In the spring of 1780 he was 
 appointed to command an expedition against 
 San Juan in the isthmus of Panama. The 
 expedition ended in failure, not through any 
 fault of Nelson's, but on account of the deadly 
 nature of the cUmate, against which only 380 
 out of 1,800 men were proof. Nelson himself 
 was so shattered by the exerl ions he had gone 
 through that he had to go to England to recruit 
 his health. In 1783 he was appointed to the 
 Boreas bound for the West Indies, where he 
 found himself senior captain. In this position 
 he became involved in some troublesome 
 disputes, and finally in a law-suit, owing to 
 his determination to enforce the Navigation 
 Act. On the breaking out of the French 
 War in 1793 he was appointed to the 
 Agamemnon of sixty-four guns to proceed to 
 the Mediterranean. In 1796 Sir John Jervis 
 took the command in the Mediterranean, and 
 Nelson became at the same time commodore. 
 After various encounters with Spanish and 
 French ships, he joined the main fleet off 
 Cape St. Vincent, where, on Feb. 14, 1797, 
 he took a conspicuous part in the great 
 battle, and contributed much to the victory. 
 Nelson was now advanced to the rank of 
 rear-admiral, and commanded the inner 
 squadron at the blockade of Cadiz. In July 
 he conducted a night attack on Santa Cru«, 
 which failed through the darkness; Nelson 
 himself lost his right arm. Early in the 
 following year he rejoined Lord St. Vincent 
 in the Vanguard, and was immediately 
 despatched in command of a small squadron 
 to watch the movements of the French fleet 
 in the Mediterranean. On Aug. 1 he 
 came in sight of them anchored in Aboukir 
 Bay, near Alexandria. He at once attacked 
 with such fury and skill that, after the battle 
 had raged aU night, the whole French fleet, 
 with the exception of four ships, was either 
 taken or destroyed. The victory was hailed 
 with delight in England, where honours were 
 showered upon Nelson from all sides, and he 
 was created Baron Nelson. There was work 
 for him next to do at Naples in trying to 
 strengthen that kingdom to resist France. At 
 Naples Nelson's infatuation for Lady Hamilton 
 led him to holster up the decaying monarchy 
 
Nen 
 
 (752) 
 
 ITen 
 
 of the Bourbons, and to commit the only act 
 of injustice recorded of him — the execution 
 of Caraocioli. In the spring of the year 
 1800 Nelson returned to England, and in 
 the following year he was sent as second in 
 command under Sir Hyde Parker to the 
 Baltic, and on April 2 bore the chief part in 
 the bombardment of Copenhagen. Nelson was 
 made a viscount, and on the recall of Sir 
 Hyde Parker was left in sole command. 
 On his return to England he was at once 
 appointed to a command extending from 
 Orfordness to Beachy Head. He organised 
 an attack on the flotiUa lying at Boulogne, 
 but the expedition failed in its immediate 
 object, though it had the effect of terrifying 
 the French. On the war breaking out afresh in- 
 1803 he was appointed to the command of the 
 Mediterranean fleet, and took his station ofi 
 Toulon. From May, 1803, to August, 1805, 
 Nelsonleft his ship only three times, so constant 
 was his watch for an opportunity of engaging 
 the enemy. But when the alliance of Spain and 
 Trance was concluded Napoleon determined 
 J) carry out his- long-intended invasion of 
 England. The combined fleets put out of 
 Mort. Nelson went in search of them. From 
 /anuary to April, 1805, he beat about the 
 Mediterranean ; then pursued them to the 
 *Vest Indies. Here they were in advance of 
 him; and he was baffled by conflicting 
 accounts of their movements. At length he 
 followed them northwards, and on July 19 
 anchored ofE Gibraltar, but could hear no 
 tidings of them. Unrelentingly he resumed 
 his search round the Bay of Biscay and the 
 coast of Ireland, and returning, joined 
 Admiral Comwallis off TJshant on August 
 15, where he received orders to proceed to 
 Portsmouth. There he learnt that Admiral 
 Calder had fallen in with them off Cape 
 Finisterre on July 22, and that they had put 
 into Vigo to refit. He again offered his 
 services, which were eagerly accepted ; and 
 on Sept. 29 he was off Cadiz. Villeneuve 
 hesitated to obey peremptory orders to put to 
 sea ; but at length he ventured out, and on 
 Oct. 21 gave Nelson his long-wished-for 
 opportunity. The fleets met off Trafalgar, 
 and in the battle which ensued the French 
 and Spanish fleets were utterly destroyed. 
 The victory was, however, only obtained at the 
 cost of Nelson's life. He died at the early 
 age of forty-seven. " Yet," as Southey says, 
 "he cannot be said' to have fallen prema- 
 turely, whose work was done." 
 
 Southey, Life of NeUon ; Pettigrew, Mmnmrs 
 of Nelson; Nehon De^atches; James, Naval 
 Hist. ; Alison, Eist. of Europe. r-Ty- T? g n 
 
 Nennius is the supposed author of the 
 collection of chronicles and genealogies of 
 very different date and value which is styled 
 Historia Britonum. Very different views 
 have been held as to the authenticity, author- 
 ship, and historical usefulness of Nennius. 
 
 Many have agreed with Milton's description 
 of him as a " very trivial writer," and one 
 recent author speaks of " the stuff called 
 Neimius." Mr. Skene, however, has formed 
 a higher opinion of his veilue. 
 
 Nennius has been published by the Enff. Hist, 
 Soc, and in the Mon. H-ist. Brit. There is a 
 ti^nslatiou in Bohn's Antiquarian Library, The 
 best account of him will be found m Mr. 
 Skene's Celtic Scotland, vol. 1. 
 
 ITepaill. About the middle of the 
 fourteenth century it was colonised by 
 Bajpoots, and in the middle of the last 
 century, a chief of the Goorkha tribe united 
 all the small principalities and founded the 
 military dynasty of Katmandoo. The at- 
 tempts of the Nepaul princes to extend their 
 dominions north ended in a collision with 
 China, which resulted in their being com- 
 pelled to pay tribute. Foiled in the north, 
 they turned south. Their greatest general, 
 TJlmur Singh, who acted almost indepen- 
 dently, carried their arms west beyond the 
 Kalee to the Upper Sutlej, coming in contact 
 with the rising power of Eunjeet Singh. 
 Not content with this, they pushed their 
 encroachments' to the British frontier and 
 beyond, until their aggressions ended in the 
 Goorkha War (q.v.), which effectually re- 
 pressed their attempts in the south and west. 
 The treaty which ended the war has never 
 been violated, and the Goorkhas, instead of 
 taking advantage of our exigencies in the 
 Mutiny of 1867, sent a large force to assist 
 in quelling it. The barren region which 
 was the scene of the war has proved an 
 invaluable acquisition. It has furnished sites 
 for sanatoria at Simla, Mussooree, Landour, 
 and Nynee-thal, where the rulers of British 
 India can recruit their strength during the 
 heat of summer. The distance between Cal- 
 cutta and Simla is abridged by a railway, 
 and to this beautiful place the Governor- 
 General, the commander-in-chief, and the 
 chief officials, fly during the intense heat of 
 summer. 
 
 Ifentrality may be either perfect or con- 
 ventional, independent of, or affected by, 
 treaty. Examples of conventional neutrality 
 are afforded by the perpetual neutrality and 
 inviolability of the Swiss cantons declared in 
 1815, and bythe neutrality of Belgium declared 
 in 1833. In some cases also neutrality has been 
 qualified by a pre-existing alliance vrith one 
 of the belligerents. Thus, in the war between 
 Kussia and Sweden in- 1788, Denmark, though 
 supplying the Empress Catherine with certain 
 aid, as arranged by previous treaty, was yet 
 held to be neutral. Such a limited neutrality, 
 however,. would scarcely be recognised in these 
 days. No hostilities are lawful on neutral 
 territory, nor may troops pass through such 
 tei-ritory for the purposes of war. "Within 
 the limits of the maritime jurisdiction of a 
 neutral state all captures are invalid, and 
 every belliger:ent act is unlawful. In 1863 
 
ITeu 
 
 •( 763 
 
 ITev 
 
 the crew of the American merchantman the 
 Chesapeake mutinied, seized the ship, and de- 
 clared her a Confederate man-oi'-war. The 
 United States government took the ship with, 
 three of the crew in British waters, but Mr. 
 Seward considered the capture a violation of 
 the law of nations, and delivered ship and 
 men to the British authorities. Such viola^ 
 tion of territorial right is a matter which 
 lies between the neutral state and the captor. 
 A neutral state is bound not to- afford any- 
 kind of warlike help to either of two- bellige- 
 rents, and not to refuse to one what she grants 
 to the other. Acting on these principles, 
 Washington, on the outbreak of the European 
 war of 1793, issued a proclamation of neutra- 
 lity, with instructions to prevent the equipment 
 of belligerent vessels in the ports otthe United 
 States. No legislative effort in this direction 
 was made by Great Britain until the Foreign 
 Enlistment Act of 1819, which followed the 
 lines laid down in America. This Act was 
 relaxed in 183.5 in respect of troops levied to 
 uphold the claim of Queen Isabella to the 
 throne of Spaini During the civil war in 
 America, 1861 — 65, much dispute arose con- 
 cerning our duty as a neutral. Many cruisers, 
 such as the Alabama^ the Florida-y and the 
 Shenandoah, were built at Liverpool for the 
 Confederate States, and were received in British- 
 ports. These ships did immense damage to 
 the shipping and trade- of the Federal States; 
 The most famous of them, ihe Alabama, was 
 built in Liverpool in 1-862, received her crew 
 from that port, and sailed thence to- the Azores, 
 where she put on board her armament, which- 
 had been sent out from Liverpool forthat pur- 
 pose. Duringthe next two years she took sixty- 
 five vessels, before she was herself destroyed. 
 As she and her fellows- left our ports without 
 warlike equipment, the law was evaded rather 
 than broken. Since, however, it was at least 
 doubtful how far we had exercised due vigi- 
 lance in the matter, we submitted the American 
 claims to arbitration, and, in 1872, were con- 
 demned, to pay £3,000,000 damages. As regards 
 the rights of neutrals in trading and carrying,, 
 primitive law allows the capture of an enemy's 
 goods in any place save the territory of a' 
 neutral state ; public ships, "being reckoned as 
 such territory, are not subject to visitation or 
 capture of goods. This does not apply tot 
 private vessels. In respect of these, however, 
 primitive law has been modified by treaty in 
 favour of the rule that free, or neutral ships, 
 make the goods they carry free also. Treaties 
 to this effect were made by Holland, a great 
 trading and carrying country, with Spain in 
 1650, with France in 1662, and again at the 
 Peace of Ryswick in 1697. Though the maxim 
 "free ships, free goods," does not imply the 
 other maxim, " enemy's ships, enemy's goods" 
 (for the one is founded on the principle suum 
 cuique, while neutral goods, since they belong 
 to a friend, should not be subject to capture), 
 yet they have often been joined together, as in 
 
 the Treaty of Utrecht in 1 7 1 3. The parties to 
 the Armed NeutraUty of the Baltic, in 1780,in- 
 sisted on "free ships, free goods," which was 
 contrary to British, custom. This rule has been 
 established by the Declaration, of Paris, made 
 in 1856, with the exception of contraband of 
 war, a term including such goods as are of 
 primary importance in war, together with such 
 as are of doubtful use, as naval stores and coal, 
 if they are rendered contrabrand by circum- 
 stances. A neutral ship is subject to capture 
 when carrying military persons or despatches, 
 or contraband goods, when they belong to the 
 owner of the ship, or when fraud is practised. 
 The right of neutrals to cany persons was in- 
 volved in the 'Irent affair. In.November, 1861, 
 the Trent, a- British mail steamer, was stopped 
 by a United States ship,, and two Confederate 
 commissioners, Messrs. SlideU and Mason, 
 with their secretaries, were taken from her. 
 Earl Kussell declared that these persons were 
 not contraband, and finally they were delivered 
 up to us, the question of their character being 
 left unsettled. Neutral rights are further 
 limited by blockade. The right to blockade 
 by proclamation was asserted by Bonaparte, 
 when; in 1-806, without a ship to enforce his 
 decree, he declared- the blockade of the British 
 Isles, and the same assertion was involved in 
 our retahatory Orders in Council. It has now 
 been settled by the Declaration of Paris that 
 a blockade to be binding on a neutral must be 
 "effective." These restraints on neutrals 
 imply the belligerent right of search and 
 capture, and a neutral ship resisting this right 
 is. thereby rendered subject to confiscation. 
 
 Wlaeaton, IntevrndioKial Law, ed: Dana, pp. 
 412-537. [iw H.] 
 
 MTeville, The Family of. The Nevilles 
 were lords, of Eaby from the early part of the 
 thirteenth century. In 1397 Ealph de Ne-viUe 
 of Eaby was created Earl of "Westmoreland. 
 The title was forfeited in 1570. Ralph's 
 younger sons, Richard, William, and Edward, 
 became respectively, through his marriage, 
 Earl of Salisbury, Baron Fauconberg, and 
 Abergavenny (with the titles of Despencer 
 and Burghersh). Another son, George, 
 was created Lord Latimer. Richard, Earl 
 of Salisbury, was the father of Richard, 
 the famous Earl of Warwick (by marriage 
 -with Ann, sister and heiress of Henry Beau- 
 champ, Earl and ultimately Duke of Warwick) , 
 -whose daughter, Isabel, married George, Duke 
 of Clarence, created Earl of Warwick and of 
 SaHsbury (1472). John Ne-viUe, a younger 
 brother of the " King-maker," was created 
 Marquis of Montagu (1470), and his son, 
 George, Duke of Bedford, in 1469. The latter 
 was degraded from all his dignities in 1477, 
 but a descendant in the female line, Anthony 
 Browne, was created Viscount Montagu (1664). 
 Returning to the generation next subsequent 
 to Ralph, first Earl of Westmoreland, George 
 Lord Latimer's title fell into abeyance in 
 
ITev 
 
 [ 754 ■) 
 
 ITew 
 
 1577, while that of Edward, Lord Aberga- 
 venny, still remains. It was raised to an 
 earldom (with the viscounty of Neville of 
 Birling in Kent) in 1784, and to a marquisate 
 (with the earldom of Lewes) in 1876. Between 
 1598, however, and 1604 there was a dispute 
 between the heir general and the heir male 
 of the title, which ended in the latter holding 
 only the barony of Abergavenny, while the 
 former received that of Uespencer. The son 
 of the holder of the Despencer title was in 
 16'24 raised to the barony of Burghersh and 
 earldom of Westmoreland, and the title still 
 remains with his descendants. 
 
 BTeville, Alexander {d. 1392), was elected 
 Archbishop of York in 1373, and on the ac- 
 cession of Richard II. became one of his 
 chief advisers. The barons were determined 
 to get rid of all the royal ministers, and in 
 1387 Neville was impeached of treason. The 
 Merciless Parliament declared him guilty 
 of treason, and the Pope was induced to 
 translate him to the see of St. Andrews, 
 which act, as Scotland acknowledged the rival 
 Pope, was a mere mockery. Neville retired 
 to Flanders, where he obtained a, benefice, 
 which he held till his death. 
 
 ITeville, George, Bishop of Exeter (d. 
 1476), was the youngest son of the Earl of 
 Salisbury, and brother to Warwick, the 
 " King-maker." In 1456 he was made Bishop 
 of Exeter, and on the triumph of the Yorkists 
 in 1460, received the Great Seal. In .1465 
 he was appointed Archbishop of York ; but 
 on the breaking out of a quarrel between the 
 Earl of Warwick and the king in 1467, he 
 was deprived of the chancellorship. In 1470 
 he joined his brothers in their restoration of 
 Henry VI., bywhom he was appointed Chan- 
 cellor ; but after Edward's victories at Barnet 
 and Tewkesbury, his goods were seized and 
 he himself was imprisoned for three years. 
 He took no further part in pubHo affairs, and 
 died not long after his release. 
 
 Neville's Cross, The Battle op 
 (Oct. 17, 1346), was fought near Durham, 
 between an invading army of the Scotch, 
 under David II., the Steward and the Knight 
 of Liddesdale, and the northern militia 
 under Henry Percy and Ealph Neville. The 
 Scotch were completely defeated, owing to 
 their inability to cope with the English 
 archers; David himself was captured, to- 
 gether with many of the chief men in the 
 Scottish army, and it is said that 15,000 men 
 were slain. 
 
 ITevis, one of the Leeward Islands, was 
 discovered by Columbus (1493), and colonised 
 by English settlers from St. Kitt's (1628). 
 The progress of the island made rapid strides 
 until 1706, when a French invasion carried 
 off most of the slaves ; and for some time 
 after this attack, the colonists had consider- 
 able difficulty in supporting themselves. In 
 
 1871 Nevis joined the Federation of the 
 Leeward Islands. Previous to this time the 
 government was vested in a president, a 
 council of seven members, and a representa- 
 tive assembly of nine. 
 
 New Brunswick at first formed part 
 of Nova Scotia, and, like that country, was 
 discovered first by Cabot in 1497. In 1639 
 and 1672 it was partially colonised by the 
 French, and was by them held as a fishing 
 and hunting station until 1760, when it was 
 taken by the British. Shortly afterwards 
 English colonists began to arrive in large 
 numbers, and the fisheries were found to be 
 extremely valuable. In 1783 the country was 
 still further colonised by a number of disbanded 
 troops, who were sent from New England, 
 and in the following year New Brunswick 
 was separated from Nova Scotia, and made 
 an independent province, with a consti- 
 tution similar to those of Nova Scotia and 
 Canada. In 1837, in consequence of repre- 
 sentations made to the home government, 
 the entire control of taxation was vested in 
 the legislative assembly. In 1867, under the 
 British North American Act, New Brunswick 
 was incorporated with other provinces under 
 the title of the Dominion of Canada. Its 
 government, which is now subject to the 
 central authority at Ottawa, consists of a 
 lieutenant-governor, an executive and a legis- 
 lative council, and a legislative assembly. 
 The capital of New Brunswick is St. John's, 
 tind its wealth is derived from fisheries, coal, 
 and iron, besides other minerals. [Canada.] 
 E. M. Martin, ftritisTi Colonies; Creasy, Tha 
 
 Imp. and Col. Consts. of the BHtannic JEmpire ; 
 
 Gesner, Ntw BrunsKiclc. 
 
 New England. [Colonies, American.] 
 
 New IKEodel was the name given to the 
 army of the Parliament as new modelled in 
 April, 1645. The term referred at first to the 
 plan on which the army was reorganised, but 
 soon came to signify the army itself. The 
 Lordsrejectedtheflrst Self-denying Ordinance, 
 because they did not know " what shape the 
 army would suddenly take." The Commons 
 produced a. scheme lor the reconstruction of 
 the army on the following plan. The new 
 force was to consist of 22,000 men, divided 
 into 6,600 horse, 1,000 dragoons, and 14,400 
 foot, the horse to be formed into eleven regi- 
 ments of 600 men each, the dragoons into ten 
 companies of 100 men, and the foot into 
 twelve regiments of 1,200 men each in ten 
 companies. The army was to cost £44,955 a 
 month, to be raised by assessment throughout , 
 the kingdom. On 'January 21 it was resolved 
 that this force should be commanded by Sir 
 Thomas Fairfax, with Skippon as major- 
 general. The officers were to be nominated 
 by the commander-in-chief, subject to the 
 approval of the two Houses. This scheme, 
 and these appointments, were confirmed by 
 the House of Lords on February 15, 1645. The 
 
Ifew 
 
 ■ ( 765 ) 
 
 IStevr 
 
 new army contained a large number of In- 
 dependents, for Fairfax was empowered to 
 dispense with the signature of the Covenant 
 in the case of religious men. Several of its 
 officers had risen from the ranks, and had 
 originally filled very humble stations. Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonels Pride and Hewson had been, 
 the one a drayman and the other a cobbler. 
 But the assertions made at the time by oppo- 
 nents of the new scheme that most of the 
 colonels were " tradesmen, brewers, tailors, 
 goldsmiths, shoemakers, and the like," were 
 entirely untrue. Out of thirty-seven generals 
 and colonels it is computed that twenty-one 
 were commoners of good families, nine mem- 
 bers of noble families, and only seven not 
 gentlemen by birth. It deserves notice that 
 a large number of these officers were Crom- 
 well's kinsmen and connections. Clarendon 
 in 1H60 described the army thus founded aa 
 " an army whose sobriety and manners, whose 
 courage and success, have made it famous and 
 terrible all over the world." 
 
 Markhiim, L'fe of Fairfax; Peacoct, Army 
 Lists 0/ Cavaliers and Bounahedds. 
 
 [C. H. F.] 
 
 ITew Ross, The Battle of (June 5, 
 1799), was fought during the Irish .EebeUiou 
 between General Johnstone, with some 1,400 
 men, and no less than 30,000 rebels, under 
 Father Roche and Bagenal Harvey. The 
 rebels were at first successful, and reached 
 even the market-place ; here, however, John- 
 stone rallied his men, and, charging with the 
 bayonet, drove 4them out of the town with 
 fearful carnage. The troops, .enraged to 
 frenzy, gave ne quarter, and after eleven 
 hours' fighting, no less than 2,600 rebel 
 corpses wore left on the field. 'This defeat 
 prevented the rebels from marching on 
 Dublin. 
 
 New Sontll Wales. [Australia.] 
 ITew Zealand. [Adstkalia.] 
 ITewbnrgh, "William op (b. 1135 ? d. 
 1200 ?), wrote a history cowering the period 
 1154—1198. It is particularly interesting 
 from its anecdotes of distinguished persons. 
 The writer's stj-^le is clear and sedate, while 
 his observations are acute and sensible. All 
 that is known of the author is that he was an 
 
 rtinian canon. 
 
 An edl'ion of his wort is published by the 
 English Historical Society. 
 
 XTewbnrii, Battle of (Aug. 28, 1640). 
 At the opening of the second war be- 
 tween Charles I. and the Scots, "Viscount 
 Conway, with about 12,000 men, was 
 charged to hold the line of the Tyne. 
 Leaving two-thirds of his forces in Newcastle, 
 Conway, with 3,000 foot and 1,500 horse, 
 posted himself at the ford of Newbum, four 
 miles above the town. There he threw up 
 some hasty entrenchments, but they were 
 commanded by the higher ground on the 
 
 opposite bank, and, after a three hours' 
 cannonade, the raw levies who defended them 
 took to flight. The Scots now crossed the 
 river, and after a couple of charges, routed 
 the English cavalry. This defeat forced 
 Conway to evacuate Newcastle, which the 
 Soots occupied on the following day. 
 Gardiner, Hist. o/Eng., 1803—1842. 
 
 Newbury, The .First Battle of (Sept. 
 20, 1643), was fought during the Great Ee- 
 bellion. The Earl of Essex raised the siege 
 of Gloucester (Sept. 8), and managed to evade 
 pursuit during the first portion of his march 
 hack to London. But Prince Eupert, with 
 the royal cavalry, oveitook him and delayed 
 his progress, so that the king was enabled to 
 occupy J^ewbury, and bar the road to London. 
 The royal army WM advantageously posted 
 on a hill to the south of Newbury with its 
 right resting on the liver Kennet. Charles 
 was resolved to maintain a defensive attitude, 
 but the rash attack of some of Jiis horse pre- 
 vented this resolution being carried out. The 
 battle was -decided by the Parliamentary 
 infantry, led by Essex in person, who stormed 
 the hill by sheer hard fighting. " The trained 
 bands of the city of London," writes an officer 
 present, " endured the chief est iieat of the 
 . day, and had the honour to win it." " They 
 behaved themselves to wonder,' ' says Claren- 
 don ; " standing as a ^bulwark and rampart to 
 defend the rest." The iing lost many noble- 
 men .and officers, including the Earl of 
 Carnarvon, ihe 'Earl of Sunderland, and Lord 
 Falkland. TEsbcx martaied on to Beading, 
 unopposed, the next morning. 
 
 May, Ki&to^-y of the Long Parliament ; Claren- 
 don, ilikt. of the Rebellion; Forster, British 
 Stafetnieii, vol. vi. 
 
 Newbury, The Second Battle of (Oct. 
 27, 1644). After the surrender of the Earl of 
 Essex in Cornwall (Sept., 1644), Charles 
 marched back towards Oxfordshire. He 
 found that the Parliament had united a new 
 army of -about 16,000 men from the armies 
 of "Waller and Manchester, and the remains 
 of that of Essex. The king, with little more 
 than 8,000 men, took up his position to the 
 north of Newbury between Shaw and Speen, 
 with. his front proteited by the river Lam- 
 home, with Donnington Castle, and a house 
 called Coleman's House, serving- as outworks. 
 Here the king was attacked on Oct. 27. On 
 the king's left, round Speen, theEoyalists lost 
 that village and several guns, but they held 
 their ground in the fields between Donnmg- 
 ton and Newbury. On the right, at Shaw, 
 the earthworks round Doleman's House 
 were successfully defended, and the Parlia- 
 mentary troops were repulsed with great 
 loss. Nevertheless the loss of ground on the 
 left obliged the king to abandon his position, 
 and he withdrew the same night by Don- 
 nington Castle to "Wallingford. Cromwell 
 declared that this imperfect victory might have 
 
ITew 
 
 (756) 
 
 STew 
 
 been turned into a decisive success had the 
 Earl of Manchester heen willing^. " I showed 
 him evidently," says Cromwell, '" how this 
 success might he obtained, and only desired 
 leave with my own brigade of horse to charge 
 the king's army in their retreat, leaving it to 
 the earl's choice if he thought proper to 
 remain neutral with the rest of his forces. 
 But he positively refused his consent." So 
 far did the inactivity of the Parliamentary 
 general go, that the king was allowed twelve 
 days later to return and. remove his artillery 
 and stores from Donuington. 
 
 Ludlow, Memoirs; Claxeudon, Sist of the 
 Uehellion; Sir E. Walter, Histori-al Discourses/ 
 Simeon Asli, A Time Relation of the Most Chief 
 Occurrences at and since the Battle of Neuhury ; 
 Warburtou. Prince Bwpert; Manchester's Quarrel 
 with Cromwell {Oamden Soc). rQ^ H. F 1 
 
 ITewcastle, Thomas Hoeles, Duke op 
 (A. 1693, d. 1768-), succeeded to his uncle's 
 property in 1 7 11 . He attached' himself to the 
 Whigs. On the accession of George I. he 
 became Lord-lLieutenant of Middlesex, and 
 was created Duke of Newcastle in 1716. In 
 that year he displayed great zeal in suppress- 
 ing the Jacobite rebellion. He was made 
 Lord Chamberlain, and sworn, of the Privy 
 Council. He followed Sunderland and Stan- 
 hope when the schism took place in the "Whig 
 ministry, but onr their deaths in 1720 he 
 joined 'Townshend and Walpole; In 1724, on 
 the dismissal of C&rteret, he became Secretary 
 of State. For many years he continued 
 to be a follower of Walpole. At length, in 
 1738, seeing thart Walpole- was deprived of the 
 friendship of Queen Caroline, and that the 
 king was opposed to his peace policy, New- 
 castle began to intrigue against him. The 
 Idng was encouraged in his wish for war; 
 angry despatches were sent to the English 
 ambassador in Spain. Walpole's appointment 
 of Lord Hervey as Lord Pirivy Seal further 
 alienated him. In 1742 his intrigues were 
 successful ; Walpole resigned. Wilmington 
 was made premier, and on his death- (1743) 
 Newcastle's brother, Henrj' Pelham, became 
 leader of the ministry. All opposition in 
 Parliament had ceased, but the Pelhams were 
 jealous of Carteret. They brought matters to 
 a crisis by demanding the admission of Pitt 
 and Chesterfield to the cabinet. The king re- 
 fused, and they resigned. Carteret was com- 
 missioned to form a ministry, but he failed, 
 and the Pelhams returned tO' power. In 1747 
 Newcastle succeeded in getting rid of Chester- 
 field. Contrary to the wish of Henry Pelham, 
 he stiU promoted the war. Chesterfield, 
 finding his peace policy disregarded, resigned. 
 Shortly afterwards Newcastle (1748) con- 
 cluded the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. In 
 1751 an estrangement took place between 
 the two brothers. On the death of Pel- 
 ham, Newcastle took his brother's place 
 as head of the Treasury. He was at a loss 
 for a leader in the Commons. Sir Thomas 
 
 Robinson, a weak man, was appointed to lead 
 the House. Pitt and Fox contrived to 
 torment him, but Fox making terms with 
 Newcastle, he contrived to get through the 
 year. It was evident that war was at hand. 
 Newcastle was quite incapable. He gave con- 
 tradictory orders to the English admirals, and 
 on the failure of Admiral By ng the popular out- 
 cry against him was so great that he was com- 
 pelled to resign (1756). He immediately began 
 to intrigue for oflB.oe. On the failure of Pitt's 
 administration, a complicated series of nego- 
 tiations' ensued. During eleven weeks there 
 was no- Parliament. For a brief period Lord 
 Waldegrave attempted to form a ministry. 
 At length Pitt and Newcastle came to terms, 
 and that strong government so gloriously 
 known as Pitt's ministry was formed. " Mr. 
 Pitt," said Horace Walpole, ""does everything ; 
 the duke gives everything." On the death of 
 George II., Newcastle sent abject messages to 
 Bute, offering to serve not only with him but 
 under him. But patronage and the manage- 
 ment of elections' were taken out of his hands. 
 In 1761 he d'eserted Pitt, and spoke against 
 the Spanish War. But his position was un- 
 tenable, and in 1.762 he resigned. In 1763 
 he was dismissed from his lord-lieutenancy 
 for censuring the terms of the peace. In 1765 
 he received the Privy Seal in. Rockingham's 
 administration. In 1768 he died, intriguing 
 to the last. "-His peculiarities," says Lord 
 Stanhope, " were sO' glaring and ridiculous 
 that the most careless glance could not mis- 
 take, nor tho most bitter enmity exaggemte 
 them. Extremely timorous, and moved to 
 tears on the slightest occasions, he abounded 
 in, childish caresses and empty protestations> 
 Fretful and peevish with his dependants, 
 always distrusting his friends, and always 
 ready to betray them, he lived in a continual 
 turmoil of harassing affairs, vexatious oppo- 
 sition, and burning jealousies. What chiefly 
 maintained him in power was his court-craft, 
 his indefatigable perseverance, his devoting 
 every energy of his mind to discover and 
 attach himself to the winning side-f 
 
 Horace Walpole; Smollett, Hist., of Eng.; 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eixg. ; Macaulay, Jssay on 
 CJiatJiam ; Lecky, Htst. of the Eighteenth Century ; 
 Coxe, felham. 
 
 Newcastle, Wieliam Cavendish, Duke 
 or (A. 1592, d. 1676), son of Charles Cavendish 
 and Katherine, Lady Ogle, was created suc- 
 cessively Baron Ogle (1620), Earl of Newcastle 
 (1628), Marquis of Newcastle (1643), and 
 Duke of Newcastle (1664). He took up arms 
 for the king during the Civil War, and seized 
 Newcastle, thus securing for Charles the com- 
 munication he needed with the Continent. 
 At the close of 1642 he marched into York- 
 shire, recovered York, defeating after a six 
 months' campaign the army of Lord Fairfax, 
 and forcing him to take refuge in Hull. But 
 the siege of Hull was unsuccessful (Sept. 2— 
 Oct. 27), and in the next campaign the 
 
Kevr 
 
 (757) 
 
 ITew 
 
 advance of the Scots, and their junction 
 with Fairfax, forced him to shut, himself up 
 in York. The city was relieved hy Prince 
 Rupert, who, against the advice of the Marquis 
 of Newcastle, gave battle at Marston Moor 
 (July 2, 1644). After this defeat the marquis 
 took ship at Scarborough, and retired to the 
 Continent, where he lived until the Restora- 
 tion. At Paris he married, in 1645, Margaret 
 Lucas, celebrated for her learning and eccen- 
 tricity, and author of a life of her husband. 
 She estimates the losses sustained by the 
 duke in consequence of his loyalty, and his 
 services to the king, at £940,000. As com- 
 pensation for these losses he was, in 1684, 
 made Duke of Newcastle. Clarendon describes 
 the duke as " a very fine gentleman," "active 
 and full of courage," " amorous in poetry and 
 music," hut "the substantial part, and fatigue 
 of a general, he did not in any degree under- 
 stand, nor could submit to." 
 
 Li/e oj the DvJce of Newcastle, by Margaret, 
 Duchpss (f Newcastle ; Clarendon, Hist, of the 
 Rehtllion ; "Warwick, Memoirs ; Karkham, Life of 
 Fairfax, 
 
 Newfoundland is an island at the 
 entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It was 
 discovered and colonised at a very early period 
 by the Norwegians, and rediscovered by Cabot 
 in 1497. Its valuable fisheries made it the 
 resort of traders of all nations, and although 
 always claimed by the English, since the 
 attempt to colonise it hy Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert in 1583, it was not until the Treaty 
 of Utrecht in 1713 that it was finally created 
 a crown colony. In 1583 Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert headed an expedition to New- 
 foundland, and two years later Sir Francis 
 Drake claimed the island in the name of 
 Queen Elizabeth. In 1623 a colony was 
 established in the south of the island by 
 Lord Baltimore and another by Lord Falk- 
 land, in 1635. Throughout the seventeenth 
 century quarrels were continually taking 
 place between the English and French fishing 
 companies ; and when the island was finally 
 surrendered to England in 1713, certain fish- 
 ing rights were reserved to the French, 
 which enabled them to impair considerably 
 the English trade. The value of the 
 fisheries, however, continued to attract 
 numerous settlers, and in 1724 Newfoundland 
 was separated from Nova Scotia and made a 
 distinct province, with a governor. In 1762 
 Newfoundland was again attacked by the 
 French, but the towns taken by them were 
 restored by the Treaty of Paris in the follow- 
 ing year. Up to 1832 the country was 
 governed by a system of local Jurisprudence, 
 but in that year a constitution was granted, 
 and its representative house of assembly es- 
 tablished. Responsible government was estab- 
 lished in 1855. It has a governor appointed 
 by the crown, an executive council of seven 
 members, a legislative council of fifteen, and 
 a house of assembly of thirty elected by 
 
 household suffrage. It was made a bishopric 
 in 1839. Newfoundlaud is now the only part 
 of British North America which is not incor- 
 porated under the title of the Dominion of 
 Canada. Its chief wealth is derived from its 
 fisheries, which are stiU the cause of occasional 
 disputes between the French and Enghsh 
 fishing companies. 
 
 Creasy, Bviiannic Empire ; E. M. Martin, 
 JBritish Colonies. 
 
 ITewport, The Treaty of (1648). In spite 
 of the vote that no more addresses should he 
 made to the king (Jan. 15, 1648), the Pres- 
 byterian majority in Parliament seized the 
 opportunity of the second Civil War to open 
 fresh negotiations. On July 3 the resolutions of 
 January were rescinded, and it was agreed 
 (July 28) that efiorta should be made to enter 
 into a general and open treaty with Charles, and 
 that the place of negotiation should be Newport 
 in the Isle of Wight (Aug. 1 0). The Parlia- 
 mentary commissioners, five lords and ten com- 
 moners, arrived in the island on Sept. 15, and 
 the negotiations began three days later. The 
 negotiations continued till Nov. 27, as the 
 king argued every point, and delayed to give 
 decided answers in the hopes of escaping, or 
 being freed by help from France or Ireland. 
 He ofEered to consent to the establishment 
 of Presbyterianism for three years, but would 
 not agree to the abolition of bishops. His 
 answers on the Church question, and the 
 question of the "delinquents," were both voted 
 unsatisfactory (Oct. 26—30). Nevertheless, 
 on Deo. 5 the House of Commons, by 129 to 
 83 voices, voted " that the answers of the king 
 to the propositions of both Houses are a ground 
 for the House to proceed upon for the settle- 
 ment of the peace of the kingdom." 
 Masson, Jn/e of Milton. 
 
 Newtown Barry, in Wexford (June 
 1, 1798), was the scene of a skirmish. in the 
 Irish Rebellion. Colonel L'Estrange, with 
 400 militia and some guns, here defeated the 
 rebels, 400 of whom were kiUed. 
 
 Newtown Butler, The Battle or 
 (Aug. 2, 1689), was a victory gained by the 
 defenders of Enniskillen over the Irish ad- 
 herents of James II. It had been determined 
 to attack the city- from several quarters at 
 once. The Enniskilleners applied to Colonel 
 Kirke for assistance, and received some 
 arms, ammunition, and experienced officers, 
 chief of whom were Colonel Wolseley and 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Berry. The royal troops, 
 already dispirited by a reverse at Linaskea, 
 were thrown into utter confusion by a word of 
 command incorrectly given. Berry, who com- 
 manded the advanced troops, drove back Ma- 
 carthy's dragoons, under Anthony Hamilton. 
 Macarthy soon came up to support Hamilton, 
 and Wolseley to support Berry. The armies 
 were now face to face. Macarthy had above- 
 5,000 men and several pieces of artillery, 
 Wolseley under 3,000. The Catholics re- 
 
jua 
 
 ( 758 ) 
 
 Niz 
 
 treated in good order through the little town 
 of Newtown Butler. About a mile from the 
 town they made a stand. The hattle was, 
 however, soon over. Wolseley's infantry 
 struggled through the bog and cut down the 
 Irish cannoneers. The Enniskillen horse came 
 along the causeway. The Irish dragoons were 
 again seized with panic, and the infantry, find- 
 ing themselves deserted, fled for their lives. 
 Nearly 1,500 were put to the sword, while 
 about 500 more were drowned in Lough Erne. 
 Macnulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 Nile, The Battle of the (or Battle of 
 Abodkie Bay), was fought August 1, 1798. 
 Nelson, who had followed and passed the 
 French fleet which convoyed Bonaparte's 
 army to Egypt, had arrived at Alexandria 
 two days before the French squadron. Not 
 finding them there he set sail immediately 
 for Candia, and spent the next four weeks 
 searching the Mediterranean for them. On 
 the morning of the 1st of August his fleet 
 came in sight of that of the French, under 
 Admiral Brueys, which was lying off Alex- 
 andria. The French ships lay just outside 
 the harbour in a curve, extending from the 
 shoal on the north-west on the left to near 
 the batteries of Aljoukir on the right. The 
 English advanced to the attack sailing in two 
 lines, one of which passed between the French 
 and the shore, while the other, led by Nelson 
 in the Vanguard, anchored outside the French 
 line, the nine first vessels of which were thus 
 taken between two fires. The action began 
 about half-past six in the afternoon, and 
 before nine five of the French ships had 
 struck, or were rendered helpless. Shortly 
 after this the gigantic Orient caught fire and 
 blew up. The battle continued till midnight, 
 by which time nearly all the French ships 
 were too shattered to reply. At daybreak it 
 was seen that the whole French line, with 
 the exception of two ships which cut their 
 cables and stood out to sea, had either sunk 
 or struck their colours. The victory was 
 in great part due to Nelson's admirable 
 manoeuvre of enveloping a portion of the 
 French fieet between the two divisions of his 
 own. The effects of the battle were very 
 important. Bonaparte's army was entirely 
 isolated, and the ultimate failure of the 
 Egyptian expedition ensured. The French 
 had in all nineteen ships, with 1,19B guns and 
 11,230 men. The English fleet consisted of 
 fourteen ships, with 1,(?12 guns, and 8,068 men. 
 The British l.ss was 895 killed and wounded. 
 Among the latter was Nelson, who sustained 
 a severe wound in the head. Two of the 
 French ships of the line were destroyed and 
 nine were captured. Their total loss in 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners was 9,830. 
 Admiral Brueys was among those who 
 perished in the action. 
 
 l>lcls(m Bespatchfs, ii. 49 scq. ; James, NaviU 
 
 Historiii Soutliey, Life of Nelson ; Alison, Hist. 
 
 of Europe, iv. 597, eeg. 
 
 Ifisi Plains was a name given to a writ 
 first issued in 1285, by which the juries em- 
 panelled in any ordinary civil cause were to 
 be presented by the sherifi' at Westminster 
 on a certain day, unless before that day {nisi 
 prius) the justices of assize came into the 
 county, in which case the trial was to be 
 before the justices, and not at Westminster. 
 
 ITivelle, The Passage of the (Nov. 
 10, 1813), was one of the great successes of 
 the closing period of the Peninsular War. 
 The river was strongly defended by Soult, 
 but Wellington found a weak point in his 
 defences, and introduced through it the light 
 division into the heart of the French position. 
 This mistake of Soult's resulted in his com- 
 plete defeat, after a long and severe struggle. 
 Soon after, Soult withdrew to Bayonne. 
 'J'he loss of the allies was heavy, but small 
 compared with that of the French, who, in 
 addition to 4,300 men, abandoned fifty-one 
 guns and all the field magazines at St. Jean 
 de Luz and Espelette. 
 
 Napier, Peni/nsular War; Clinton, PeninslHa/r 
 War ; WoLHiigton Despatches. 
 
 Nizam., The. On the break-up of the 
 Mogul Empire the Nizam-ul-Moolk, Viceroy of 
 the Deccan and feudal lord of the Camatic, 
 became almost independent of the court of 
 Delhi. He was the ruler of a vast territory 
 between the Kistna and the Nerbudda, with 
 35,000,000 inhabitants. On his death (1749) 
 a struggle for the throne arose between 
 Nazir Jung, his son, and Mozuffer Jung, 
 his grandson, the former being supported 
 by the English, the latter by the French. 
 The deaths of Nazir and Mozuffer, the one 
 by treachery, the other in battle (1750), 
 made way for Salabut Jung and Nizam Ali, 
 brothers of Nazir Jung. The former suc- 
 ceeded to Mozuffer, the latter, out of hatred 
 towards Bussy, became the English candidate 
 against his brother. Nizam AH {d. 1803) 
 eventually captured and murdered Salabut, 
 and obtained the chief power in the Deccan. 
 In 1765 — 66 the English obtained from him 
 the Northern Circars, which had been granted 
 to the Company by the Emperor. In 1786—87 
 he became engaged in war with Tippoo in 
 alliance with the Mahrattas, in which he was 
 not very successful. The feebleness of the 
 Nizam, and his hatred and fear of Tippoo, 
 made him very eager to join the Triple Alliance 
 of 1 790, but his fear of the Mahrattas, who 
 had claims of ehoiite on him, induced him 
 to try and -get a guarantee against the latter. 
 This, however, was refused. His services 
 during the war were not of much value, but 
 in spite of this he gained a large accession of 
 territory by the Treaty of Seringapatam. In 
 1794, seeing a Mahratta war ivas inevitable, 
 he endeavoured to get English help, which 
 was refused by Sir John Sliore. Deserted by 
 the English, he was beaten i.i the Kurdlah 
 campaign. He now fell into the hands of i 
 
(759) 
 
 IToii 
 
 ^French officer, Sayraond, who organised a 
 disciplined corps, which was at first intended 
 as a protection against the Mahrattas, but 
 eventually absorhed the whole power of the 
 country, so that the Nizam himself became 
 alarmed, and accepted with alacrity Lord 
 Wellesley's proposal to disband them, and 
 renew tbe EngUsh alliance. The treaty of 
 1798 stipulated that the corps of British 
 troops in the Nizam's pay should be aug- 
 mented to 6,000 with a proper complement of 
 artillery, on condition that a provision of 
 twenty-four lacs of rupees a year should be 
 made for their support. In 1800, fearing 
 the rapacity of the Mahrattas, the Nizam 
 proposed that the subsidiary force should 
 be augmented, and that territory should 
 be substituted for the subsidy in money ; 
 a treaty was therefore concluded by which 
 the districts the Nizam had obtained from 
 Mysore (1793 — 99)' should be ceded as a com- 
 mutation for subsidy, and that the English 
 in return should guarantee the defence of his 
 kingdom against all enemies. Thus Nizam 
 Ah's long reign ended in making the 
 Hyderabad State completely dependent on 
 the English. In consequence, the Hyderabad 
 State has survived the wreck of the other 
 native principalities, and exists atiU as a 
 dependent protected State. 
 
 No Addresses, Vote OP. In December, 
 1647, after the king's flight to the Isle of 
 Wight, the Parliament summed up their 
 demands in four bills. The king on Dec. 28 
 declined to assent to these bills, having on 
 the 26th come to an arrangement with the 
 Scots. On the king's refusal the House of 
 Commons resolved, by a majority of 141 to 
 92, that no further addresses should be 
 made to the king, by that House; that no 
 addresses or applications to him by any 
 person whatsoever should be made without 
 leave of the Houses under the penalties of 
 high treason ; that no messages from the king 
 should be received, and that no one should 
 presume to bring or carry such messages (Jan. 
 3, 1648). The Lords agreed to these resolu- 
 tions with only two dissentients (Warwick and 
 Manchester) out of sixteen present (Jan. 15). 
 
 IToimnees, The Assembly of, is the 
 name given by some historians to the Parlia- 
 ment which met in 1653, and is generally 
 known as " Baiebones' Parliament." 
 
 Non-Coiupoiuiders, The, who gained 
 their name about 1692, were a section of the 
 Jacobite party who were willing to aid in 
 the restoration of James IX. without imposing 
 any conditions on him whatever. They con- 
 sisted chiefly of Roman Catholics, with some 
 Protestant Non-jurors, such as Kettlewell 
 and Hickes. They were all-powerful in 
 the court of St. Germains during the 
 years that followed the Eevolution, and 
 their leader, Melfort, ruled the councils of 
 James. , We find them much disgusted by 
 
 the Second Declaration which James issued 
 in 1693 by the advice of Middleton, the leader 
 of the Compounders. On the dismissal of 
 his rival, Melfort and his party guided the 
 Jacobite councils abroad. As the parties 
 ceased after some years to come into collision, 
 the title was gradually dropped. 
 
 ITonconformists is a name generally 
 given to all Protestants who refuse to conform 
 to the doctrine, discipline, or worship imposed 
 by law on the Church of England, and who 
 have organised religious associations of their 
 own on a difEerent basis. The mediaeval 
 Church system, more intolerant of schism 
 than even of heresy, was incompatible with 
 the existence of Nonconformity. The Re- 
 formation necessarily gave scope for freedom 
 of discussion and difference of opinion. At 
 the accession of Queen EHzaheth the consti- 
 tution of the English Church was- definitely 
 settled. The followers of the Continental 
 Reformers found much in the Reformed Church 
 to which they took very strong exception. 
 [PniiiTANS.] But the early Puritans were 
 discontented Conformists, and not Noncon- 
 formists. The laxness of the ecclesiastical 
 administration during the early part of the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth allowed many who 
 objected decidedly to the Act of Uniformity to 
 retain their cures without really carrying out 
 the Act. Even Gartwright, who attempted 
 to superimpose a presbyterial organisation 
 on the existing ecclesiastical system, was 
 in full communion with the Church. The 
 attempt to enforce discipline which was 
 marked by the publication of Parker's Ad- 
 vertisements in 1566 was followed by the 
 first definite secession. Thirty-seven out of 
 one hundred and forty beneficed clergy in 
 London were driven from their cures for 
 refusing to wear the surplice. Two deans and 
 many country clergy were similarly deprived. 
 Despite the exhortations of Knox, Beza, and 
 BuUinger, a large number of these " assembled 
 as they had opportvmity, in private houses 
 and elsewhere, to worship God in a manner 
 which might not ofiend against the light of 
 their consciences." Others took refuge' in 
 Holland. Those who remained in England 
 formed separate congregations of the Inde- 
 pendent type. From their leader, Robert 
 Brown, they received the name of Brownists, 
 From another leader they were called the 
 Barrowists. [Independents.] They re- 
 mained the only important Nonconforming 
 body for nearly" a centur)'. Practically the 
 only other Nonconformists were the Ana.- 
 baptists. Stray foreign members of this re- 
 volutionary sect had atoned for their opinions 
 at the stake between the reigns of Henry 
 VIII. and James I. But neither they nor the 
 FamUy of Love, a mystical branch of the 
 same communion, were at all numerous^ 
 The constant emigration, especially of the 
 Independents, to New England, kegt- down 
 
STou 
 
 (760) 
 
 TSton 
 
 their numters; yet it is remarkatle that, 
 despite the constant irritation to which they 
 ■were subjected, but lew of the Puritans 
 seceded. Down (to the Civil "War, they con- 
 tinued, as a wJiole, members of the Church ; 
 and, though the high monarchist doctrines of 
 the Caroline bishops and the need of the 
 Scottish alliance forced the bulk of the 
 Parliamentary leaders to accept Presbytery, 
 the Book of Discipline, and the General 
 Assembly, the flux of opinion during the whole ' 
 of the period of the Civil "War makes it hard 
 to draw the hue between Conformist and 
 Nonconformist. Presbyterians, Independents, 
 and Baptists, along with the old clergy who 
 accepted the " Engagements," could be Con- 
 formists vmder the Established Church of 
 Cromwell ; while Quakers, Fifth Monarchists, 
 and rigid Anglicans were united in a Non- 
 conformity that was hardly tolerated. The 
 Restoration destroyed a system which the 
 historian of Puritanism admits "to have 
 never been to the satisfaction of any body of 
 Christians. The Act of Uniformity (May 17, 
 1662) imposed on all the beneficed clergy 
 the duty of reading publicly the amended 
 ■Book of Common Prayer, and of declaring 
 their unfeigned assent (to everything con- 
 tained in it ; to receive episcopal ordina- 
 tion if they had it not already ; and to 
 abjure the Covenant. Nearly two thousand 
 ministers gave up their cures rather than 
 submit to such conditions. "With their 
 secession the history of Nonconformity in 
 England really begins. Despite the series of 
 stringent statutes by which Clarendon and 
 the High Church Parliament made Non- 
 conformity penal, the chief Dissenting 
 Churches now received their organisation. 
 The older bodies, the Independents and 
 Baptists, simply returned with augmented 
 membership to their former condition. A 
 powerful Presbyterian Church was added to 
 the Nonconforming bodies, which included 
 not only the zealots of the Covenant, but 
 liberal Low Churchmen like Baxter, whom 
 a conciliatory policy would have easily re- 
 tained. The swarm of minor sects which the 
 religious anarchy of the Commonwealth had 
 created still continued. The Quakers were 
 the most important of these who did not 
 ultimately become extinct. A few Socinian 
 congregations had aU-eady been established, 
 despite the ban of all parties alike. 
 
 In 1662 the Corporation Act deprived the 
 Dissenters of some of their most valued rights 
 as citizens. In 1664 the First Conventicle 
 Act made the meeting of five Nonconformists 
 for religious worship an offence punishable, 
 for the 'first time by fine and imprisonment, 
 and for the third by slavery in the American 
 plantations. In 1665 the Five Mile Act strove 
 to^ make it impossible for Nonconforming 
 ministers to earn a living, and hard for them 
 to escape being sent to gaol. In 1673 the Test 
 Act imposed a sacramental q^ualiflcation. on all 
 
 officials, which most Nonconformists could 
 not conscientiously take. StiU, even in 
 this black period, when the gaols were full 
 of men like Baxter and Bunyan, traces of 
 more liberal feeling, such as bishop "Wilkins's 
 abortive attempts at comprehension, were not 
 wanting. The politic attempt of the crown 
 to unite the Nonconfoi mists with the Catholics 
 against the Church — which marked the various 
 Declarations of Indulgence — signally failed. 
 Nearly successful with the Exclusion Bill, 
 the Nonconformists — this time in alliance 
 with the whole Church party — signally 
 triumphed in the Revolution of 1688. Their 
 period of direct persecution was now over. 
 The Comprehension Bill indeed, which was 
 to do justice to the descendants of the ejected 
 of 1 662, was a failure. But the Toleration Act 
 gave "ease to scrupulous consciences" by 
 allowing those who took new oaths of alle- 
 giance and supremacy, and a declaration 
 against popery, to worship freely after their 
 own manner, and exempted them from the 
 penalties for absenting themselves from church, 
 and holding illegal conventicles, and even per- 
 mitted Quakers to afiirm instead of swearing. 
 But meetings were to be held with open 
 doors, ministers were to approve the thirty- 
 six out of the Thirty-nine Articles which con- 
 cerned doctrine, and Papists and Socinians 
 were excluded from the Act. This imperfect 
 measure of toleration, in conjunction with the 
 practice of occasional conformity, which opened 
 up municipal and other offices, were at the time 
 enough for practical purposes. The attempts 
 of the High Churchmen under Anne to 're- 
 voke its benefits were not successful. The 
 Schism Act, and the Act against Occasional 
 Conformity, were with difficulty passed. But on 
 the accession of George I. began the long reign 
 of Latitudinarian Low Churchmanship that 
 saw in the Nonconformist a strong support of 
 the "Whig party. Though "Walpole refused 
 to stir up Hish Church hostility by repealing 
 the Acts of Charles II., it became the custom 
 from the accession of George II. to pass an 
 annual Act of Indemnity to those who had 
 broken the Test and Corporation Acts, which 
 made them partially inoperative. In 1718 
 the repeal of the Occasional Conformity and 
 Schism Acts, and failure to repeal parts of the 
 Test and Corporation Acts, marks the spirit 
 of the compromise. In 1727 the Presbyterians, 
 Independents, and Baptists were loosely or- 
 ganised into a body known as the Three 
 Denominations, which enjoyed some legal 
 recognition and exceptional privileges. But 
 the general decay of religious fervour which 
 marked the eighteenth century fully affected 
 the Nonconformists. The Presbyterians 
 gradually drifted into Unitarianism in doc- 
 trine, and almost into Congregationalism 
 in organisation. Nearly all missionary fer- 
 vour had abated when the "Wesleyan move- 
 ment arose during the reign of George III. 
 The ecclesiastical connections and Armioian 
 
ITou 
 
 ( 761 
 
 ITon 
 
 theology of "Wesley retarded his influence upon 
 the Nonconformist todies for a, long time ; 
 and it was not till after his death that the 
 " people called Methodists " could be regarded 
 as distinct from the Church from which they 
 sprang. The influence of Whitefield was 
 perhaps more direct. But before the end of 
 the century the Evangelical movement had 
 given new life to the Nonconformist churches. 
 The increased interest in religious matters, 
 and the spread of the habit of chui-chgoing 
 largely increased the numbers of all the 
 great religious bodies; a process which has 
 been continued during the present century. 
 Another remarkable feature of the religious 
 history of the eighteenth century was the vast 
 growth of Nonconformity in "Wales, not only 
 through the Methodist movement, which de- 
 veloped independently the similar movement in 
 England, but also through the enormous in- 
 crease of the older Nonconformist communions 
 in that country. The growth of astrong body of 
 Presbyterian Nonconformists from the Church 
 of Scotland, as the result of a series of schisms 
 on the question of church patronage, must 
 also he mentioned. In Ireland alone, where 
 the two Protestant denominations — the Irish 
 Church and the Presbyterians — correspond 
 roughly to the English and Scotch settlers, 
 was there a comparatively slight development 
 of Nonconformity. 
 
 Side by side with the numerical increase of 
 Nonconformity, a series of remedial laws 
 gradually removed the disabilities and in- 
 equalities which still attended Dissent, even 
 after the days of the Toleration Act. In 
 1779 the subscription imposed by the Tolera- 
 tion Act on the Dissenting clergy was 
 aboUshed. In 1792 the Scottish Episco- 
 palians were relieved from the severe restraints 
 in which their disloyalty had involved them. 
 But Fox's attempt to relieve the Unitarians 
 in the same year failed. At last, in 1828, 
 the Test and Corporation Acts were repealed. 
 The Dissenters' Marriage Act of 1836 allowed 
 the solemnisation of Nonconformist marriages 
 in their own chapels. In 1868, after a long 
 agitation, compulsory Church rates were 
 aboUshed. In 1869 the Irish Church was 
 disestablished. In 1870 the University Tests 
 Acts opened to the whole nation the old 
 universities. In 1880 the Burials Act allowed 
 Nonconformist burials in the parish church- 
 yards. It was only after so long a series of 
 struggles that the religious equality of the 
 Nonconformists was finally established. [PuEi- 
 TAKS ; Methodists, &c.] 
 
 Neal, History of the PuritoM ; Calamy, THon 
 con/ormiats' Memorial; Bogue, Htsfory of BKsen- 
 ters ; Dr. Stoughton, Religion in England ; Bees, 
 History of Welsh Ifoncoi./ormitv ; Abbey and 
 Overton, The Blnglish Chvjrch in tlw Iti^htemth 
 CentuTO,- Tyerman, Ufe of Weslev: Hallam, 
 Const. Hist.; May, Const. Hist.; Leoky, Hist, of 
 Eng. im the BigMemth Century. For the early 
 NonconformiBts see aaso the article Pukitans. 
 [T F. T.] 
 
 ITon-Jnrors, The, comprised a consider- 
 able minority of the clergy of the Church of 
 England who refused to take the oath of 
 allegiance to "William and Mary at the Eevo- 
 lution. They were about four hundred in 
 number, and included the Primate Saneroft, 
 and four others of the "Seven Bishops," Ken, 
 of Bath and "Wells, "White, of Peterborough, 
 Lloyd, of St. Asaph, Turner, of Ely, and 
 several eminent divines, of whom Jeremy Col- 
 lier and Charles Leslie were perhaps the most 
 celebrated. They based their objections on 
 the doctrine of non-resistance, maintaining 
 that by the " powers that be " St. Paul meant 
 the powers that " ought to be ; " but their 
 writings were more numerous than solid, and 
 Dr. Johnson entertained no unfounded con- 
 tempt for their reasoning powers. Tery few 
 of the laity followed them, as the Protestant 
 Jacobites were not required to take the oath of 
 allegiance as a qualification for attending di- 
 vine service, and, being in the position of shep- 
 herds without sheep, the non-j uring clergy sank 
 into idle habits, or took to secular professions. 
 In 1690 the issue of a form of prayer and 
 humiliation by the Jacobite press, at a time 
 when a French invasion was daily expected, 
 aroused the utmost indignation against the 
 non-juring bishops, but they issued a reply 
 solemnly denying any knowledge of the pub- 
 lication. In the following year, after Bishop 
 Burnet had made an inefEectual attempt to 
 conciliate them on dangerously liberal terms, 
 the sees of these bishops were filled up, San- 
 croft being superseded by TiUotson. The 
 ex-Primate, who bore his deprivation with 
 far less dignity than Bishop Ken, thereupon 
 drew up a list of divines which he sent to 
 James with a request that two might be 
 nominated to keep up the succession. James 
 chose Hickes and "Wagstafie. This hierarchy 
 at first caused some alarm to the government, 
 especially when the Non- jurors were found to 
 be implicated in the various Jacobite con- 
 spiracies, and they suffered considerably both 
 after 1715 and 1745. Soon, however, schisms 
 broke out within the little body, some having 
 leanings towards the Greek Church, some 
 towards Rome, others being rigidly orthodox in 
 their Anglicanism. By 1720 the communion 
 had broken into two main sections, of which 
 that headed by Spinkes dissented only on the 
 question of the oaths and prayers for the reign- 
 ing sovereign, while Collier introduced a new 
 communion office of Eoman Catholic tendencies. 
 There were also minor divisions. Neverthe- 
 less the Non-jurors, who counted among their 
 numbers "WiUiam Law, the author of The 
 Serious Call, and Carte the historian, were 
 not finally extinguished until the beginning 
 of the nineteenth century. Gordon, the last 
 bishop of the Tegular body, dying in 1779, 
 and Borthe, the last of the Separatists, in 1806. 
 There were also Presbyterian Non-jurors m 
 Scotland. These declined to acknowledge 
 William and Mary, first because they were 
 
Wor 
 
 ( 762 ) 
 
 Ifor 
 
 ■not of their covenant, secondly, "because ttey 
 had spared King James. Calling themselves 
 the Keformed Presbytery, they continued to 
 thunder against William and his successors ; 
 and, though they split up into factions, there 
 was still in 1780 a considerable number who 
 resolutely declined to own the government by 
 paying taxes or accepting municipal offices. 
 At length they became so few as to be unable 
 to keep up meeting-houses, and were called 
 Non-hearers. [Jacobites ; Sanckoft.] 
 
 Lathburj, Hist, of the Non-Jururs ; Macaulay, 
 iii., ch. xiv. aud xvi. ; and iv., ch. xvii. j and 
 Lecky, i., oh. i. [L, Q. g.] 
 
 ITorfolk, Peerage or. [Howard, Family 
 
 OF.] 
 
 Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray, Duke of 
 (d. 1400), was the son of John Mowbray and 
 Elizabeth, granddaughter and heiress of 
 Thomas of Brotherton, Earl of Norfolk. He 
 was created Earl of Nottingham in 1383, and 
 Earl Marshal in 1386. He was one of the 
 Lords Appellant of 1387, but afterwards joined 
 the king and helped to execute his father-in- 
 law, the Earl of Arundel. He was Governor 
 of Calais, and to his charge Gloucester was 
 entrusted in 1397, where he died, probably 
 murdered by Mowbray, who in the same year 
 was created Duke of Norfolk. In the next 
 year he quarrelled with the Duke of Hereford, 
 and each accused the other of treason. It 
 was decided that the matter should be fought 
 out at Coventry, but before the duel com- 
 menced, the king stopped the proceedings 
 and banished both the combatants, Norfolk 
 for life, and Hereford for six years. Norfolk 
 set out on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and 
 died at Venice. 
 
 ITorfolk, John Howard, 1st Dcke of {d. 
 1485), was the son of Sir Thomas Howard by 
 Margaret, daughter and heiress of Thomas 
 Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk. He took part in 
 Talbot's expedition to Gascony, and fought 
 in the battle of Castillon. He was much 
 favoured by Edward IV., who made him 
 treasurer of the household, and in 1478 cap- 
 tain-general at sea. He accompanied the 
 Duke of Gloucester in his expedition to Scot- 
 land in 1482, and on Eichard III.'s accession 
 to the throne was made Duke of Norfolk 
 and Earl Marshal. He steadily adhered to 
 Richard, and was killed whilst fighting for 
 him at Bosworth. Norfolk was warned of 
 treachery_ the night before the battle by a 
 paper which he found pinned to his tent with 
 the following rhyme upon it : — 
 
 " Jockey of Norfolk, be not too bold, 
 For piokon thy master is bought and sold." 
 
 ITorfolk, Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke 
 OF {d. 1524), was the son of John Howard, 
 Duke of Norfolk, who was killed at Bosworth 
 Field while fighting on the side of Richard 
 ni. Like his father, he fought under 
 Richard's banner at Bosworth, and, being 
 
 taken prisoner, was lodged for a period in the 
 Tower, his newly-acquired title of Earl of 
 Surrey being declared forfeited. He trans- 
 ferred his allegiance to Henrj' VII.; and he 
 was entrusted as the king's lieutenant with the 
 important duty of tranquillising the northern 
 districts of England. In 1497 Surrey was 
 directed to provide against the expected 
 Scottish inroads. His rapid march , to 
 Norham, undertaken at the request of Fox, 
 Bishop of Durham, compelled James IV. 
 to make a hasty retreat into his own 
 kingdom. Under Henry VIII., Surrey 
 became a trusted member of the royal 
 ministry ; he also still further distinguished 
 himseU in the field by his decisive victory 
 over James IV. at Flodden (q.v.) in 1513; 
 and by the complete check he succeeded in 
 giving in 1523 to the Scotch invasion under 
 Albany, the consequence of which last suc- 
 cess was a peace of eighteen years between 
 the two countries. In 1522 he was placed 
 in command of the English expedition de- 
 spatched to France for the purpose of act- 
 ing against that kingdom in conjunction 
 with the Imperialist forces. Circumstances 
 were, however, not favourable to any decisive 
 engagement, and Surrey's hostile proceedings 
 were limited to a general ravaging of the 
 coast of Britanny. Surrey had his dukedom 
 and the earl-marshalship restored to him in 
 1514, and was made Lord Treasurer and 
 Knight of the Garter. 
 
 ITorfolk, Thomas Howard, 3rd Dvke 
 OP {b. 1473, d. 1654), was a distinguished 
 soldier and statesman under Henry VIII. 
 and his two immediate successors. His 
 first public appearance in. the field was at 
 Flodden, where he fought under his father. 
 Subsequently, on becoming Duke of Nor- 
 folk in 1524, he took a prominent part 
 in the proceedings of the king's Council as 
 the political opponent of Wolsey, and the 
 acknowledged leader of the English nobility. 
 His tact and firmness enabled him to put 
 down the Suffolk riots in 1525. On Wolsey's 
 fall in 1530, Norfolk became Henry's chief 
 minister. As the recognised head of the 
 conservative party in Church matters, and the 
 chief representative of the" older nobility, he 
 was deputed by Henry to negotiate with the 
 rebel leaders in the Pilgrimage of Grace. 
 He was instrumental in passing the statute 
 known as the Six Articles. In October, 1542, 
 he was in command of the English army in 
 Scotland, on the occasion of the hostilitiea 
 between the two countries which ended in the 
 Scottish disaster of Solway Moss. In Decem- 
 ber, 1546, however, the influence of the king's 
 brother-in-law, Lord Hertford, who had taken 
 Cromwell's place as leader of the reforming 
 party, was strong enough to bring about 
 Norfolk's arrest on a charge of treason. A 
 suspicion of pretensions to the throne was a 
 fatal one for Henry to conceive of any of his 
 
ITor 
 
 (763 ) 
 
 Uor 
 
 nobles, and Norfolk would have shared the 
 fate of his gifted son, the young Earl of 
 Surrey,, who was executed on the same 
 groundless charge of treason (Jan. 21, 1347), 
 had not the king's own death preceded the 
 day appointed for his execution. All through 
 the reign of Edward TI., however, he was 
 kept a close prisoner, and was only restored 
 to Uberty on the accession of Mary to the 
 throne. He presided at the trial of the Duke 
 of Northumberland, and took an active part 
 in the suppression of the rising under Sir 
 Thomas "Wyatt. 
 
 Norfolk, Thomas, 4th Duke op {b. 1536, 
 d. 1572), the son of the third duke, was one 
 of the most powerful nobles in England 
 during the leign of Elizabeth, and a Catholic 
 in politics, though in creed he professed him- 
 self an Anglican. Whilst in command of the 
 Army of the North, during the Scotch cam- 
 paign of 1560, he incurred the suspicion of 
 the queen, who feared his popularity. In 
 1568 Norfolk was appointed president of the 
 commission of inquiry at York to examine 
 the charges brought against Mary of Scot- 
 land.' It was at this time that the idea first 
 arose amongst the Catholic nobles of a 
 marriage between the duke and the Queen of 
 Scots. This marriage, urged on by Murray 
 and Maitland, was extremely distasteful to 
 Elizabeth, to whom Norfolk declared that 
 nothing would induce him to marry one who 
 had been a competitor for the crown. He sub- 
 sequently, however, gave his adhesion to the 
 scheme, and, in conjunction with others of 
 the queen's Council, such as Leicester, Sussex, 
 and Throgmorton, he joined the plan of 
 marrying Mary on condition that she out- 
 wardly conformed to the rites of the Church 
 of England. Elizabeth, however, remained 
 averse to the match. A plot formed against 
 Cecil was discovered, and Norfolk, who had 
 been intriguing with Spain for an attack on 
 the commercial interests of England, re- 
 nounced Protestantism, and threw himself 
 into the 'arms of the Catholic lords in the 
 north. In October, 1569, however, Norfolk 
 was arrested and sent to the Tower, but re- 
 gained his liberty the following year by 
 giving a written promise not to pursue the 
 scheme of the marriage. The duke, however, 
 quickly found himself involved in a fresh 
 CathoHo conspiracy, known as the Ridolfi Plot 
 (q.v.). In Sept., 1571, some letters which fell 
 into Cecil's hands caused Norfolk to be lodged 
 in the Tower, being brought to trial in the 
 following January. The charge against him 
 was that of compassing the queen's death — 
 
 (1) by seeking to marry the Queen of Scots ; 
 
 (2) by soliciting foreign powers to invade the 
 realm ; (3) by sending money to the aid of the 
 English who were rebels, and of the Scotch 
 who were enemies to the queen. The duke 
 denied all the charges, but was found guilty 
 of high treason, and, after some delay caused 
 
 by the unwillingness of Elizabeth to sign the 
 warrant, was executed June 2, 1572. 
 
 Burleigh Paocrs ; Lingard, Mai. of Mng. ; 
 Stowe, Annals ; Froude, Hist, of Eng, 
 
 ITorhaiu, The Conference of (Jime, 
 1291), tools: place at Norham, on the Tweed, 
 between Edward I. and the Enghsh barons 
 on the one side, and the competitors for the 
 crown of Scotland, together with some of the 
 representatives of the Scotch Estates, on the 
 other. Edward ofiered to settle the dispute 
 for the Scottish crown, only asking as a 
 reward for his services the acknowledgment 
 of his overlordship on the part of the Scotch. 
 The conference was dissolved for three weeks 
 in order that the Scotch representatives might 
 consult the rest of the nation, and, at the end 
 of that time, reassembled at the same place. 
 Edward's title to the superiority over Scot- 
 land was not disputed; the competitors 
 all acknowledged Ms authority, and, after 
 some inquiry into their various claims, the 
 conference was adjourned for a year, the 
 question not being settled until Nov., 1292. 
 
 IToriuau Conquest, The. It might, 
 perhaps, be more accurate to describe the 
 passage of history that goes by this name aa 
 the conquest of the English crown by a 
 Norman duke, whom a curious train of acci- 
 dents and circumstances had tempted into the 
 position of a candidate for the regal dignity, 
 but who had to assert the right to offer him- 
 self, not, strictly speaking, against the men of 
 England, but against a rival candidate that 
 had stolen a march upon him. It was cer- 
 tainly an event that involved several conse- 
 quences galling to the national temper, as 
 well as ruinous to some and injurious to 
 many of the inhabitants ; but it was not a 
 conquest of the country in the ordinary sense 
 — the land and people were not conquered 
 by a single alien race, and made subject 
 to another land and people, as was Ire- 
 land in earlier and India in later times. 
 A splendid foreign adventurer brought 
 the country to such a pass that its chief 
 men had no choice but to elect him king. 
 This event does not essentially differ in its one 
 radical characteristic from that of the ascent 
 of William of Orange to the throne — in degree, 
 in circumstances, in nature and extent of con- 
 sequences it is in marked contrast to the later 
 conquest of the crown, but it is not without 
 strong features of resemblance. The conditions 
 of which this conquest was the outcome were 
 the usual historical mixture of seeming acci- 
 dent and personal character; these began to 
 combine towards the event that was to be 
 their product about 1052. In that year the 
 royal stock of Cerdic and of Egbert — from 
 which the unforced choice of the nation had 
 hitherto never swerved — appeared to be ap- 
 proaching extinction ; it was as good as 
 certain that the reigning king, the saintly 
 Edward^ would die childless, whilst the only 
 
Nor 
 
 ( 764) 
 
 Wor 
 
 other immediate scion of the stock that might 
 he available, Edward, called the Outlaw- 
 Edmund Ironside's sole surviving son— was 
 an exile in Hungary. Moreover, the lately 
 all-powerful family of Godwin, which might 
 possihly have supplied material for a new 
 royal house, had just, to its last male member, 
 been disgraced and driven from the kingdom. 
 The ordinary and extraordinary possibihties 
 were apparently exhausted. Now, in the 
 eleventh century such a conjuncture could 
 hardly fail to breed ambitious thoughts in an 
 able and enterprising kinsman — albeit by the 
 female and alien side only— of the existing 
 king's, a young man whose spirit was up- 
 lifted by great achievements at home, and 
 who knew that King Edward had, from early 
 associations, a preference for the stranger 
 race to which he belonged. This kinsman 
 was William the Bastard. At the end of the 
 second of two wars that Etheh-ed the Un- 
 ready had waged with a Norman duke, the 
 English king had (1002) married Emma, 
 daughter of Duke Eichard I. King Edward 
 was an ofEspring of this marriage. Thus, not 
 :only did the ruling houses of England and 
 Normandy become connected, but also the 
 fugitive Athehngs of the former found an 
 asylum with the latter, and the one of them 
 that lived to be chosen king learned to love 
 the ways and men of the land of his educa- 
 tion better than those of the land of his birth. 
 His eye, therefore, must have fallen with 
 favour on the foremost man of the race he 
 cherished, the great-grandson of his Norman 
 grandfather. And under Edward's fostering 
 care a purely Norman interest was already 
 fast growing up in England : Norman adven- 
 turers in considerable numbers were settling 
 in the kingdom and reaping an abundant 
 harvest of lands and preferments, ecclesias- 
 tical and civil. Canute's success, too, had 
 shown that the great prize was not beyond 
 the reach of an utter stranger. Moved 
 doubtless by such considerations, in 1062 
 Wilham seized the occasion of the expulsion 
 of the family of Godwin to cross the Channel 
 on a visit to his cousin Edward, who pro- 
 bably then gave him the assurances of sup- 
 port which William afterwards represented 
 as a promise of the succession to the crown. 
 The crown was not Edward's to bestow, but 
 his persuasions and influence might do much 
 towards fixing the choice of the Wise Men 
 after his death. Yet, if we are to take the 
 word of the Chronicle, when Edward came 
 near his dying hour, he recommended 
 another candidate, Harold, the eldest living 
 son of Godwin ; for William was not long 
 returned home when Godwin and his sons 
 forced their restoration. The Norman in- 
 terest in England was depressed, and in 
 course of time Harold had made him- 
 self the first man of the English people. 
 In him, too, ambitious thoughts must 
 have arisen. What looks like an effort on 
 
 Edward's paort to avert the conflict, failed ; 
 in 1057 he recalled Edward the Outlaw, 
 only to enable him to die in England. And 
 the Outlaw's only son, Edgar, though not 
 too young to be elected at a less critical time, 
 appears for the moment to have been lost in 
 the shadow of the two mighty antagonists. 
 About 1064 a misadventure of Harold's gave. 
 WiUiam a decided advantage over his future 
 rival. Cast ashore on the territory of Guy of 
 Ponthieu, Harold was delivered from the 
 captivity that necessarily followed by the 
 interference of Wilham, who was Guy's 
 immediate lord, and was obliged to share his 
 deliverer's hospitality till he had complied 
 with the conditions that his host exacted. 
 These are not certainly known; but pro- 
 bably were that Harold should marry Wil- 
 liam's daughter, and support his claim to the 
 English crown. It is said — and the story 
 may be true — that to add a greater awful- 
 ness to Harold's oath, a heap of rehcs 
 had been secreted under the sacred things 
 on which Harold was made to swear. But 
 the oath had no power to bind the aspiring 
 Englishman. Within two years Edward died 
 (Jan. 6, 1066), and on the next day Harold, 
 presumably after some form of election, was 
 crowned king by Aldred, Archbishop of York, 
 in the newly-consecrated abbey church of 
 Westminster. A few days later tidings of 
 this event came to William, who at once re- 
 solved to dispute the possession of the great 
 prize with the man that had swom to befriend 
 him in his suit, but had now snatched it from 
 him. He first challenged Harold to fulfil the 
 alleged compact; and receiving either no 
 answer at all or an answer that pleaded seve- 
 ral excuses for non-fulfilment, he set about 
 making extensive preparations for an expe- 
 dition against the new ting. At Lillebonne 
 he won his somewhat reluctant barons to a 
 participation in the enterprise ; he gained the 
 willing assistance of the trading class among 
 his subjects ; he denounced Harold as a per- 
 jurer over Europe ; by pledging himself 
 hberally he secured the sympathies and in a 
 sense the apostolic benediction for his under- 
 taking of Pope Alexander II., who even sent 
 him a consecrated banner and a ring with a 
 hair of St. Peter ; he invited volunteers from 
 other lands ; and from Flanders, Anjou, 
 Touraine, and Britanny men thronged to his 
 standard. The north-western comer of Europe 
 was awakened to an unwonted enthusiasm by 
 his ardour and loud trumpeting of the merits 
 of his cause. In forwarding Jiis design, 
 Lanfrano of Pavia, and William, the son of 
 the self-sacrificing Osbem, were especially 
 helpful. Forests were felled to build him 
 innumerable ships. By these exertions a 
 great host of mixed composition, given, at 
 the highest, as 60,000, at the lowest as 
 14,000, was, while it was yet summer, col- 
 lected, first at the mouth of the Bive, and then 
 at St. Valery upon the Somme, where a trans- 
 
JStov 
 
 ( 765 ) 
 
 N'oi: 
 
 port fleet, whose lowest estimate is 696, lay 
 residy to receive them. After a long and 
 harassing delay, due to thwarting winds, the 
 expedition was at last allowed to lift anchor 
 on Sept, 27, and next day it appeared off the 
 coast of Sussex. The moment was eminentlv 
 favourable. Harold's fleet, which had lain 
 there all the summer to guard the approaches 
 to the land, had been forced from its post by 
 the exhaustion of its provisions; and the 
 Norman host disembarked at Pevensey unob- 
 structed. Indeed, the moment was doubly 
 favourable. Harold and the choicest de- 
 fenders of his kingdom had, on the very eve 
 of the dread hour, been called northwards to 
 repel a fatally-timed invasion of his brother 
 Tosti and the Norwegian king, Harold Har- 
 drada ; and two days before William left St. 
 Valery, had vanquished and slain them both 
 at Stamford Bridge. Coast and southern 
 shires alike were thus bare of defence, and 
 WiUiam was free to act as he thought best 
 fitted to serve his ends. He led his host 
 to Hastings, raised defensive works there, and 
 proceeded by a systematic destruction of the 
 houses and ravage of the fields that were 
 within his power, to provoke Harold to stake 
 the issue on a single battle. Harold did not 
 disappoint him. On being told of his rival's 
 landing, he gathered round him his house- 
 carls and marched with a weU-nigh incredible 
 swiftness from York to London, mustered to 
 his standard all the available strength of 
 Wessex and his brothers Gyrth and Leof- 
 wine's earldoms, then led his men rapidly 
 to the hill of Senlac (now Battle) ; and, ar- 
 riving on October 13th, threw up earth-works, 
 bmlt paJisadings, and awaited the onset of 
 the invaders. On the following morning 
 (Saturday, Oct. 14), this onset was given, 
 and after an entire day's fighting, as fierce 
 and obstinate as any recorded in the annals 
 of warfare, the sun set on the slaughter of 
 Harold, his brothers, and the flower of his 
 force, and the hopeless rout of the rest. The 
 completeness of the result is ascribed by some 
 to the impatience of Harold, whose eagerness 
 to rescue the invaded soil, or close with his 
 antagonist, made him give battle with but a 
 fraction of his strength, and, by others, to 
 his brothers-in-law, the Earls Edwin and 
 Morcar, who held their levies aloof from the 
 struggle tin it was too late. But it looked as 
 if the terrible day had merely cleared from 
 William's path his most formidable com- 
 petitor; the surviving leaders of the nation 
 were not yet persuaded to elect him to the 
 kingdom. They chose the boy Edgar instead, 
 and made ready to continue the struggle. 
 Thereupon William took his way by Romney, 
 Dover, and Canterbury towards London, 
 scattered a body of Londoners who tried to 
 check his progress, and set fire to Southwark. 
 But finding the capital still insubmissive, he 
 went with his army to Wallingford, crossed 
 the river there, and moved on London from 
 
 the west. This advance brought the Wise Men 
 that directed the resistance to their knees ; 
 they decided to offer William the crown ; and 
 meeting him at Berkhampstead with Aldred 
 of York at their head, they annoimced to him 
 the choice they had made. Yet William did 
 not accept the proffered crown till he had 
 consulted with his Norman nobles, and been 
 advised by them to do so. He then despatched 
 a part of his army to London to begin the 
 construction of a fortress there, and following 
 leisurely with the maio body, was, on Christ- 
 mas Day, crowned in the great Minster by 
 the hands of Archbishop Aldred. An un- 
 pleasant incident marred the ceremony. The 
 approvkig shouts of the English within the 
 church, mistaken for cries of onslaught by 
 the Normans without, made these set the 
 neighbouring houses on fire, and a scene of 
 wild riot and disorder ensued. The crown 
 was now conquered ; and shortly afterwards; 
 at Barking in Essex, the f uU obedience of the 
 country seemed to be conquered also. Thither 
 came the great men of the north, Edwin, 
 Morcar, Waltheof, Copsi, and others, and 
 made formal acknowledgment of William as 
 their king. The Conquest might now be 
 thought complete. Erom the vast estates of 
 Harold, his brothers, and other partisans, 
 WiUiam rewarded his followers ; but he either 
 left undisturbed or confirmed in their posses- 
 sions and offices those who had not fought 
 against him or had submitted. To outward 
 appearance the only material change was a 
 Norman instead of an English king, and the 
 addition to the higher and official ranks of the 
 population of a contingent of foreign nobles, 
 each with a foreign following. AH was 
 quiet; and the king, having deputed the 
 government to his brother Odo, now Earl of 
 Kent, and his friend Eitz-Osbem, now Earl of 
 Hereford, returned home with his army in 
 March, 1067. But the work of conquest proved 
 to be only half done. Owing, it may be, to the 
 harsh or inefficient rule of the regents, armed 
 risings broke out all over the country; and 
 WiUiam came back to find that the west and 
 north had stiU to be subdued. In 1068 he 
 marched upon Exeter, which had placed itself 
 in the hands of Harold's mother and sons, 
 took it after an honourable resistance, and 
 thus brought under his sway the western 
 counties. The northern lands, which were 
 also in rebeUion, were awed into transitory 
 obedience by a movement upon Warwick ; 
 WiUiam entered York, and a Norman force 
 under De Comines went on to Durham. The 
 sons of Harold, after a vain attempt on 
 Bristol, and a defeat in Somerset, sailed away. 
 Again the prospect cleared. But again it 
 turned out to be illusive. In 1069 the north 
 was once more in arms ; the Normans in 
 Durham were slain to a man ; and York was 
 besieged by Gospatric and Edgar the 
 AtheUng. Eor a moment reheUion subsided 
 before WiUiam's arrival at York, but only to 
 
Nov 
 
 ( 766 ) 
 
 ITor 
 
 renew its fury after his departure. The -west, 
 the Welsh border, and parts of the Midlands 
 also sprang to arms ; Gospatric, Edgar, Wal- 
 theof, and Edric the "Wild took part in the 
 outbreak ; a large Danish expedition that had 
 just landed joined the insurgents ; York was 
 stormed, and almost every man of its 
 Norman garrison was put to the sword. 
 Leaving the other centres of insurrection to 
 the industry of his lieutenants, who did not 
 fail him, WiUiam took in hand those of the 
 north, and quelled them one by one. The 
 Danes disappeared; Edgar fled; Gospatric 
 and Waltheof submitted, and were replaced 
 in their earldoms. The chastisement, pro- 
 bably cruel, of the country folk that WiDiam 
 deemed necessary, grew in the narratives of 
 later writers into a pitiless laying waste of all 
 northern England, into a clearance from this 
 region of every form of life. From this 
 representation we may withhold our belief 
 till evidence sufficient to establish so com- 
 prehensive a crime be produced. An arduous 
 march to Chester in the first months of 1070, 
 and the occupation of that city, finished the 
 campaign, and with it the process of conquest. 
 When William dismissed his troops at Sahs- 
 bury in March, 1070, the work was practically 
 done. Isolated attempts had still to be 
 crushed, but the Conqueror's hold on the 
 kingdom was now secure. 
 
 The earhest eifeot of the Conquest re- 
 sulted from the struggle to complete it ; for 
 the fresh services therein rendered by his 
 foreign followers to WiUiam were rewarded 
 by the fresh forfeitures that the confiiot 
 generated. The ranks of the great land- 
 owners were thus stocked in large majority 
 by foreigners ; and the English titled and 
 untitled nobUity were for centuries largely of 
 foreign origin. The rulers of the land, the 
 men who administered affairs in Church and 
 State, were for some generations taken almost 
 exclusively from the same class ; WUlianx 
 was either afraid to trust Englishmen, or did 
 not find among them the human quahties he 
 sought. But few direct radical changes came 
 of the Conquest; the laws and customs of 
 the EngHsh were left unaltered ; the ground- 
 work of the political system continued the 
 same — compurgation, ordeal, view of frank- 
 pledge, fyrd, witenagemot, aU survived in 
 their entirety ; to every Englishman his full 
 sum of rights and capacities remained. But 
 two consequences of the event led to important 
 changes : the tenure of land was feudalised, 
 and a new system and new principles of law 
 were planted side by side with the old. The 
 former process created in time a thorough 
 revolution in the tenure of land, in the re- 
 lation of the Iring to the land, and the relation 
 of the landowners to the king; while the 
 latter, though appHcable only to men of 
 foreign origin, insensibly influenced and 
 very largely transformed the native usages. 
 " And this," says Dr. Stubbs, "ran up into 
 
 the highest grades of organisation ; the king's 
 court of counsellors was composed of his feudal 
 tenants ; the ownership of land was now the 
 qualification for the witenagemot instead of 
 wisdom ; the earldoms became fiefs instead of 
 magistracies ; and even the bishops had to 
 accept the status of barons." Ainong the 
 miscellaneous effects are prominently notice- 
 able the union of the various divisions of the 
 kingdom, which had not yet learnt to hold 
 loyally together, into a single homogeneous 
 state and people ; the establishment of a 
 strong central government and a %'igorous 
 execution of the laws ; the separation of the 
 ecclesiastical from the civil administration; 
 the closer connection of the English Church 
 with the Roman see, and its expansion into 
 an imposing grandeur hitherto unknown; 
 the breaking down of the national isolation, 
 and the final entrance of England into the 
 family of European peoples. Great import- 
 ance is given by some writers to the moral 
 discipline that the Conquest brought; we 
 may perhaps regard the Norman and Angevin 
 sway as the rugged school that fitted the nation 
 for constitutional rule and self-government. 
 
 The history of England and Normandy before 
 and during the reign of Wilham, and the circum- 
 stances of the Conquest, are told in detail in the 
 great work of Professor Ereeman, The Worm« 
 Comguest oj England. [J. E.] 
 
 N'ormans, The. The Normans were 
 simply Northmen or Scandinavians advanced 
 some stages further in civilisation by a few 
 generations of residence in the land of a more 
 humanised people and the neighbourhood of 
 settled states. Their ' marvellous efficiency in 
 their palmy days is probably explained by 
 theii having kept their native hardiness and 
 hardihood of character — their moral muscu- 
 larity, as we may call it — and their bold 
 spirit of enterprise unimpaired by the culture, 
 the turn for art and taste for the finer 
 pursuits, that they acquired by living in 
 Gaul. Their new experience merely added 
 intellectual keenness, deftness, and brilliancy 
 of stroke to their resources for action; the 
 old stimulating forces, their courage and 
 their endurance, remained. Their ferocity 
 had become valour, and their bodily strength 
 the mastery of circumstances. That they 
 owed the qualities which made their practical 
 capacity to the good fortune that planted 
 them on French soil, is suggested by the 
 totally different history of their kinsfolk who 
 had taken up their abode in other lands. 
 The marauding bands of Norwegian pirates 
 that had been roaming about and forming 
 settlements along the Seine in the ninth and 
 tenth centuries were at last admitted to an 
 authorised participation in the soil by an 
 agreement that Charles the Simple made, in 
 912, at St. Clair, on the Epte, with their 
 most formidable leader, Eolf the Norseman. 
 Thus taken within the pale of Continental 
 civilisation, they rapidly profited by their 
 
Nov 
 
 (767) 
 
 ITor 
 
 advaatages. They tecame Christians; they 
 discarded their own, and adopted the French 
 language; they cast aside their semi-barbarous 
 legal usages, and took those of the Frank 
 cultivators of the soil over whom they domi- 
 nated ; they learned or discovered improved 
 modes and principles of fighting; they ac- 
 quired new weapons — the shield, the hauberk, 
 the lance, and the long-bow ; they became 
 masterly horsemen; they developed an im- 
 pressive style of architecture, and hmlt 
 churches and monasteries; they founded 
 bishoprics — in a word, they soon furnished 
 themselves with the whole moral, spiritual, 
 and practical garniture of human conduct 
 then available, with additions and improve- 
 ments of their own. Their territory had 
 increased by taking in both kindred settle- 
 ments and the lands of neighbouring peoples, 
 till, from a vaguely described "land of the 
 Northmen," it became historic Normandy. 
 Yet this wonderful growth was compatible 
 with a political condition which was often 
 not far removed from anarchy. The aristo- 
 cratic class that the free-living, hot-natured 
 pirate leaders had founded, and the unre- 
 strained passions of the dukes replenished 
 from generation to generation, were ever on 
 the watch for an opportunity to break loose 
 from all rule, and govern themselves and 
 the native tillers of the soil that lay beneath 
 them at their own sole discretion. Nor did 
 the sense of moral obligation keep pace with 
 the other elements of progress ; a connection 
 free from the marriage tie was held no shame ; 
 bastardy brought no taint. But, in spite of 
 these defects, the Normans made themselves 
 the foremost race in Europe ; there are few 
 other things in history so striking as the 
 contrast between the smaUness of their 
 numbers and the frequency and greatness of 
 their achievements. During the eleventh 
 century, in the Eastern Empire and in Spain, 
 in Italy and in England, men of the Norman 
 race gained renown and the lordship of 
 spacious lands, became kings and princes, and 
 determined the course of history. "The 
 twelve tall sons of Tancred of HautevUle" 
 had grown into a kind of proverbial phrase 
 suggestive of what it is in the power of man 
 to do. Their craving for movement and ad- 
 venture sought relief in pilgrimages ; and as 
 they always went armed, to enable them to 
 resist lawless attacks, they were ready for any 
 chance of showing their prowess they might 
 fall in with, and they fell in with a good 
 many. Their career in Italy and Sicily in 
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries is even 
 more astonishing, and in not a few of its 
 features more honourable, than their better- 
 known exploits in Britain. 
 
 Freeman, Norman Conquest; Hallam, Middle 
 ^9e»- [J. E.] 
 
 ITorth, Fbedebick, Lord, afterwards Earl 
 of GruiHord, was the eldest son of the first 
 
 Earl of GuOford (*. 1733, d. 1792). He 
 entered Parliament first as member for Ban- 
 bury in 1754, and in 1759 was named a Lord 
 of the Treasury through the influence of his 
 relative, the Duke of Newcastle. In 1766 
 Chatham made him Joint-Paymaster of the 
 Forces along with George Cooke, and it was 
 to this singular conjunction that Burke 
 specially alluded when he said that " it did 
 so happen that persons had a single ofiice 
 divided between them, who had never spoken 
 to each other in their Hves untQ they found 
 themselves, they knew not how, pigging 
 together, head and points, in the same 
 truokle-hed." On the death of Charles 
 Townshend in 1767 he accepted the ofiice 
 of Chancellor of the Exchequer, and became 
 leader in the House of Commons. On the 
 fall of the Grafton ministry the king at once 
 sent for Lord North, and found him so use- 
 ful a servant that he retained his services 
 for twelve years. Those years formed a 
 most eventful period, for during them the 
 Wilkes question was fought out, and the 
 American colonies were for ever lost to the 
 empire. To Lord North cannot fairly be 
 imputed all the mistakes of that ministry. 
 He was essentially weak and yielding, and 
 was constantly overruled by the king, 
 where his own better sense would have 
 led him to adopt a different course. His 
 daughter says of him, " although I do not 
 believe my father ever entertained any doubt 
 as to the justice of the American War, yet I 
 am sure that he wished to have made peace 
 three years before its termination." These 
 words exactly express Lord North's position 
 throughout the period of his administration. 
 On the Wilkes question he fully believed in 
 the right of Parliament to reject a member 
 duly elected by a constituency ; but he had 
 the good sense to know when it was necessary 
 to yield to public opinion, and he would have 
 followed the dictates of his own observation 
 had it not been for Ms easy temper, which 
 made him give way to the more immediate 
 pressure of the king. The same was the case 
 with the American question ; and as early as 
 the spring of 1778 we find Lord North ex- 
 pressing his wish to resign : a wish which he 
 repeated at intervals during the next four 
 years, and which he was only prevented from 
 carrying into execution by the king's almost 
 piteous entreaties to him to remain in office to 
 carry out the court policy. At length the 
 surrender at Yorktown gave the final blow to 
 his ministry, and in the spring of 1782 he 
 insisted on resigning. Then followed the 
 short Eockingham ministry, which collapsed 
 on the death of Lord Eockingham, and was 
 succeeded by Shelbume's ministry, which in 
 turn gave way to the celebrated CoaKtion 
 ministry, in which North and Fox were 
 strangely united as Secretaries of State. But 
 the universal unpopularity and distrust 
 which such a formation roused, and the secret 
 
ITor 
 
 ( 768 
 
 Nor 
 
 influence employed Ijj- the king to thwart its 
 measures, brought it to a speedy conclusion 
 in Decemher, 1783. When Pitt began his long 
 tenure of office Lord North retired into 
 private life, retaining the Wardenship of the 
 Cinque Ports, to -which he had been appointed 
 on his retirement in 1782. In 1790 he suc- 
 ceeded to the earldom on the death of his 
 father, and died two years afterwards, having 
 been afflicted with total blindness during the 
 last five years of his life. 
 
 Stanhope, Hist. ofEng,, v., vi., vii. ; Walpole, 
 Memoirs of George III. ; Junius, Letters ; Tre- 
 velyan, Early Tears of Fox; Brougham, Eistori- 
 cat Slietches ; Macaulay, Essays on Chatham and 
 Pitt ; Massey, Hist, of Eng. r^_ jj g n 
 
 ITortb., The Council of the, was in- 
 stituted in 1636 by Henry VIII., originally 
 for the purpose of trying persons connected 
 with the Pilgrimage of Grace. The court was 
 held at York, and had jurisdiction over all the 
 counties north of the Humber. Long after 
 all traces of the insurrection had disappeared 
 the court remained, and was one of the illegal 
 jurisdictions revived and made instruments of 
 oppression under the earlier Stuarts. It took 
 the place in the north of the Star Chamber in 
 the rest of England, and could inflict any 
 punishment short of death. It was abolished 
 by the Long Parliament in 1641. 
 
 Gardiner, HUt. of Eng., 1603—1642; Hallam, 
 Const. Kist., chapti. viii. andix, 
 
 North Foreland, The Battle of the 
 (July 25, 1666), was fought between the 
 English and Dutch fleets, the former being- 
 commanded by Prince Kupert and the Duke of 
 Albemarle, the latter by' De Euyter. The 
 Dutch were totally routed, and lost about 
 4,000 men and 20 ships, and the English were 
 complete masters of the narrow seas. English 
 ships attacked various unfortified places on the 
 coast of Holland, and destroyed a large num- 
 ber of merchant vessels. 
 
 U'orth-'west Pro-vinces, The, were 
 the acquisitions of Lord Wellesley, and were 
 so named because at the time they formed the 
 north-west frontier of India. " They com- 
 prehended the country lying between the 
 western part of Behar, the eastern boundary 
 of Eajpootana and the Cis-Sutlej States, and 
 the northern line of the provinces included in 
 the Central India agency. They touched 
 the Himalayas, included Eohilcund, and 
 ran into the central provinces below 
 Jhansi. "Within their limits were the im- 
 perial cities of Delhi and Agra, the great 
 Hindoo city, Benares, the important station 
 and fortress of Allahabad, the flourishing 
 commercial centres of Mirzapore and Cawn- 
 pore. The rivers Ganges and Jumna rolled 
 in majestic rivalry through their length." 
 They are ruled by a lieutenant-governor, and 
 were created a Heutenant-govemorship in 1 835. 
 
 Northampton, The Battle of (July 
 10, 1460), was fought during the Wars 
 
 of the Roses (q.v.). In 1459 the Yorkist lords 
 had fled in confusion from Ludford, and 
 Parliament had attainted them. In the 
 summer of 1460 they returned to England, 
 landed in Kent, and speedily raised a large 
 army, with which they entered London. 
 Henry VI. was at Coventry, and thither the 
 confederate lords marched ; the Lancastrians 
 advanced to meet them, and took up a 
 position on the banks of the Nene close to 
 Northampton. Here they were attacked 
 by the Yorkists, and, after an obstinate 
 resistance, totally routed. The Duke of 
 Buckingham, the Earl of Shrewsbury, and 
 many others were slain on the Lancastrian 
 side ; the king was taken prisoner, and the 
 queen obliged to take refuge in Scotland. 
 Henry was subsequently compelled to acknow- 
 ledge York heir to the throne. 
 
 Northampton, Henky Howard, Earl 
 OF [d. 1614), the son of Henry, Earl of 
 Surrey, and the brother of Thomas, fourth 
 Duke of Norfolk, was created an earl by 
 James I., 1603. He has incurred the infamy 
 of having betrayed the secrets of his patron, 
 the Earl of Essex, to the Privy Council, and 
 will be remembered in history as a man of 
 shameless principles, who for various selfish 
 reasons changed his religion no less than five 
 times. Under James I. he rose rapidly to 
 honour, being made Warden of the Cinque 
 Ports, and Lord Privy Seal ; he was a com- 
 missioner at the trial of his enemy. Sir Walter 
 Ealeigh, and was subsequently concerned in 
 the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, and 
 though he had inherited " the talents, the 
 taste, and the accomplishments of his father," 
 was in reality, as Mr. Tytler justly calls him, 
 " a monster of wickedness and hypocrisy." 
 
 Northampton, William Pare, M.ui- 
 auis OF [d. 1571), the brother of Queen 
 Catherine Parr, was named one of the coun- 
 cillors appointed under the will of Henry 
 VIII., 1547, to assist the executors in the 
 government during the minority of Edward 
 VI. During the rebellion in Norfolk, in 1549, 
 he was for part of the time in command of 
 the royal troops, but owing to his incapacity 
 was superseded by Warwick. On the acces- 
 sion of Mary he was sent to the Tower for the 
 support which he had accorded to Northum- 
 berland, but was subsequently pardoned. In 
 1554 Northampton was implicated in Wyatt's 
 rebellion, and was again imprisoned, but was 
 shortly afterwards released, and in the next 
 reign became one of Elizabeth's councillors. 
 
 Northbrook, Thomas George Baring, 
 Earl of (4. 1826), was educated at Christ 
 Church, Oxford. He was successively private 
 secretary to Mr. Labouchere at the Board of 
 Trade, to Sir George Grey at the Home 
 Office, to Sir Charles Wood at the India 
 Board and at the Admiralty till 18.57, when 
 he was returned for the House of Commons 
 
Nor 
 
 ( 769 
 
 Nor 
 
 at Penrhyn and Falmouth, which con- 
 stituency he continued to represent till he 
 became a peer at the death of his father in 
 1866. He was a Lord of the Admiralty from 
 May, 1857, to Feb., 1858 ; Under Secretary 
 of State for India from June, 1859, to Jan., 
 1861 ; Under Secretary for War from the 
 latter date till June, 1866. On the accession 
 of Mr. Gladstone to power in 1868 Lord 
 Northbrook was again appointed Under Sec- 
 retary for War ; and after the assassination 
 of Lord Mayo (q.v.) he was appointed Gover- 
 nor-General of India in Feb., 1872. In 1876 
 Lord Northbrook returned to England. In 
 Mr. Gladstone's second ministry (1880) he 
 became First Lord of the Admiralty. In July, 
 1884, he was appointed High Commissioner in 
 Egypt. 
 
 ITorthcote, Sm Stafford Henry {i. 
 1818), was educated at BaUiol College, 
 Oxford ; was called to the bar at the Inner 
 Temple in 1847, and was returned for 
 Dudley in the Conservative interest in 1855. 
 He was unsuccessful in contesting North 
 Devon in 1857 ; was returned for Stamford 
 (1868) ; and was eventually elected for North 
 Devon (1866). He was private secretary to 
 Mr. Gladstone when the latter was President 
 of the Board of Trade, and was Financial 
 Secretary to the Treasury from January to 
 June, 1859. He was appointed President of 
 the Board of Trade in Lord Derby's third ad- 
 ministration (1866) ; and was Secretary of State 
 for India (1867—68). He was elected Governor 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company (1869) ; pre- 
 sided over the Congress of the Social Science 
 Association held at Bristol in the same year ; 
 and was appointed a commissioner to inquire 
 into the law affecting the Friendly Societies 
 (1870). Subsequently he was a member of 
 the commission which arranged the Treaty of 
 "Washington. In 1874 he took office as Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer under Mr. Disraeli, 
 and when his chief retired to the House of 
 Lords he became leader of the House of Com- 
 mons. On the fall of the Beaconsfield 
 ministry he became leader of the Opposition 
 in the House of Commons. 
 
 Northmen. [Danes.] 
 
 Northtiiiiberlaixd, Henky Percy, Earl 
 OF (d. 1408), served in France in the wars of 
 Edward Ill.'s reign. He was made "Warden 
 of the East Marches, and in la78 captured 
 Berwick. He was frequently employed by 
 Richard II., but his espousal of the cause of 
 Henry of Lancaster in 1393 caused the king 
 to declare his estates forfeited. On Henry's 
 landing in 1399 Northumberland was one of 
 the first to join him, and when Henry became 
 king he received large grants of land, among 
 others the Isle of Man. In 1402 Northumber- 
 land and his son defeated the Scots at Homildon 
 Hill, but about this time they grew dis- 
 contented with the king; either ofiended at 
 Henry's negligence in ransoming their kins- 
 HiST.— 25 
 
 man, Edmund Mortimer, or at the king's claim 
 to deal with the prisoners taken at Homildon, or 
 from having suspicions of his intentions to- 
 wards them. At all events Hotspur joined 
 Glendower, and was defeated at Shrewsbury, 
 vvhile his father, who was marching to his 
 aid, was compelled to submit, but was very 
 soon forgiven by the king. In 1405 Northum- 
 berland joined other nobles in a fresh con- 
 spiracy against Henry, and on the plot being 
 betrayed fled to Scotland. In 1408 he again 
 took up arms, and met the royal troops at 
 Bramham Moor, in Yorkshire, where his force 
 was dispersed and himself slain. 
 Pauli, Qeschichte von England. 
 
 NorthTHuberland, John Dudley, Duke 
 OF (4. 1502, d. 1553), was the son of 
 Edward Dudley, the extortionate minister of 
 Henry "VII. Created Lord Lisle by Henry 
 VIII., he distinguished himself in naval 
 warfare with the French, as Lord High 
 Admiral (1545), and was named by the king 
 one of the executors to carry on the govern- 
 ment during the minority of Edward TI., 
 being shortly afterwards created Earl of 
 "Warwick. In 1547 he again distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Pinkie, and two 
 years later was instrumental in crushing the 
 rebellion of Ket. About this time he at- 
 tached himself to the Protestant party from 
 motives of self-interest chiefly, and on the 
 fall of Somerset (1549), assumed the office of ' 
 Protector, two years later being made Duke 
 of Northumberland. After the execution of 
 Somerset (1552), Northumberland obtained 
 complete ascendencj'', not only over the 
 Council, but also over the young king, whose 
 favour he won by his pretended zeal for Pro- 
 testantism ; though at the same time he con- 
 trived to conciliate to a certain extent the 
 Emperor and the Catholic party. The ill- 
 health of Edward VI. in 1553, made it 
 evident that he had not long to live; 
 and Northumberland, partly from ambition, 
 and partly fi'om the knowledge that, if Mary 
 succeeded her brother, his own ruin was in- 
 evitable, formed the design of getting the 
 succession altered in favour of Lady Jane 
 Grey, whom he shortly afterwards married 
 to his son, GuiUord Dudley. He had little 
 difficulty in persuading the king to enter into 
 his project ; the privy councillors he had more 
 trouble with, but eventually the will in Lady 
 Jane Grey's favour was signed, and the duke, 
 relying on the Protestant party and on 
 French aid, thought the success of his plot se- 
 cured, and it was even hinted that he hastened 
 Edward's and by poisoning. On the king's 
 death (July 6, 1553), Northumberland at once 
 caused Lady Jane to be proclaimed, and an- 
 nounced to her that she was queen; but, con- 
 trary to his expectation, the feeling of the 
 country was against the usurpation, and al- 
 most the whole of England declared in favour 
 of Mary. The duke was arrested at Cam- 
 
Nor 
 
 ( 770 ) 
 
 Nor 
 
 bridge (-where, seeing tte failure of his scheme 
 inevitable, he had proclaimed Mary) by the 
 Earl of Arundel, who conveyed him to Lon- 
 don. He was tried in Westminster Hall, by 
 a court presided over by the Duke of Norfolk, 
 and was condemned to death, being executed 
 on Tower HiU (Aug. 22, 1553). Before his 
 execution he confessed himself a Roman 
 Catholic — "a needless and disreputable dis- 
 closure," remarks Mr. Turner, "of a masked 
 and unprincipled mind." 
 
 Stowe, Annals ; Sharon Turner, Hist, of Eng. ; 
 
 Froude, Hist, of Entj. ; Lingard, Hist of Eng. ; 
 
 Tytler, Hist of Edward YL and Mary, 
 
 Northumberlancl, Thomas Peboy, 
 7th Earl of {d. 1572), was the nephew of 
 the sixth earl, and son of Sir Thomas Percy, 
 who was attainted in the reign of Henry 
 VIII. As one of the leaders of the Catholic 
 party in England, the earl was regarded 
 with suspicion from the very commencement 
 of Elizabeth's reign, and his implication in 
 the Catholic intrigues of 1562 with Philip 
 did not improve his position at court. A few 
 years later Northumberland wai-mly espoused 
 the cause of the Queen of Scots ; and entered 
 into a conspiracy with the Earl of West- 
 moreland, Leonard Dacre, and others, for her 
 release from Tutbury Castle, where she was 
 in confinement. In Oct., 1569, the queen 
 summoned the rebel lords to appear in Lon- 
 don, but they refused to obey her commands, 
 and rose in arms. The energetic measures of 
 the queen's ministers compelled the rebel 
 earls to withdraw across the border without 
 having gained more than some very tempo- 
 rary successes ; and Northumberland — who, 
 it is said, would have sought pardon from 
 Elizabeth, had it not been for the brave spirit 
 of his wife — was then given up to Murray by 
 Hector Armstrong, of Harlaw, and impri- 
 soned in Loehleven Castle, with William 
 Douglas as his gaoler. After a captivity of 
 two years and a half, an attempt was made to 
 ransom him, and convey him to Flanders ; but 
 Elizabeth, fearing that his liberty might prove 
 prejudicial to her interests, prevailed upon 
 Douglas and the Earl of Morton to give him 
 up to the English governor at Berwick (Lord 
 Hunsdon) for £2,000. In spite of strenuous 
 efforts made by Lord Hunsdon to obtain his 
 pardon, he was beheaded at York (Aug. 22, 
 1572) without a trial, as an attainted traitor. 
 Stowe, Annals; Froude, iftst. of Eng. 
 
 Northumberland, Henry Percy, 8th 
 Earl of {d. 1585), brother of Thomas, seventh 
 earl, whom he succeeded (1572), was in 1559 
 sent to Scotland on a mission to the Congre- 
 gation ; and in the following year took part 
 in the siege of Leith. In 1669, on the rising 
 in the north, and the disaffection of his 
 brother, the earl, then Sir Henry Percy, took 
 no part in the insurrection, though he is said 
 to have been implicated in the subsequent 
 plot of Ridolfi. In 1583 he was arrested and 
 
 sent to the Tower on a charge of complicity 
 in the conspiracy of Francis Throgmorton, 
 who had implicated him in his confession. 
 On June 20, 1685, he was found shot through 
 the head in his bed. The earl was said at 
 this time to have committed suicide, and this 
 view is held by Mr. Froude. Lingard, how- 
 ever, and others, have considered that he was 
 murdered. 
 
 Northum'berlaucl, Henry Percy, 9th 
 Earl of {d. 1632), distinguished himself in 
 the Low Countries under the Earl of Leicester. 
 He warmly espoused the interests of James 
 during the last days of Queen Elizabeth, and 
 was by him sworn of the Privy Council. He 
 was subsequently charged with comphcity in 
 the Gunpowder Plot, and although the accu- 
 sation could not be proved, was deprived of 
 his offices, fined £30,000, and imprisoned for 
 fifteen years. "This unfortunate nobleman," 
 says Miss Aikin, " was a man of considerable 
 talents ; the abundant leisure for intellectual 
 pursuits afforded by his long captivity, was 
 chiefly employed by him in the study of 
 mathematics." 
 
 Aikin, Cowt of James I. 
 
 Northumbria, the most northern of the 
 great old English states, included as its normal 
 limits the whole of the territory between the 
 Firth of Forth on the north, and the Humber 
 on the south. The sea bounded it on the east, 
 while on the west the Pennine Range, with 
 its northern continuation, the Ettrick Forest,, 
 divided it from the British kingdoms of Cum- 
 bria andStratholyde. But considerable districts 
 to the south of the Humber were at one time 
 included within its boundaries, while the 
 western frontier was necessarily constantly 
 shifting, and was gradually, although slowly, 
 pushed farther back. 
 
 Like the other so-called "Heptarchio" 
 kingdoms, Northumbria consisted originally 
 of several separate settlements, though the 
 absence of so definite a tradition as that in the 
 south makes it harder to ascertain their hmits 
 and history. In the north a Frisian settle- 
 ment seems to have been made on the shores 
 of the Firth of Forth, which Nennius calls 
 the Frisian Sea (see on this subject Mr. Skene's 
 Celtic /Scotland and Frisian Settlements on the 
 Firth of Forth), but of this state we have 
 practically no knowledge. The rest of North- 
 umbria was colonised by Angles. Bemicia, 
 the district north of the Tees, had for its first 
 king Ida, who is said to have come from the 
 north, and to have built as his capital Bam- 
 borough, named after his wife, Bebba. He 
 gained many victories over the Britons, the 
 confused tradition of which is, perhaps, pre- 
 served in the oldest Welsh poetry (see Skene's 
 Four Ancient Books of Wales). He reigned 
 twelve years (547 — 559), and was succeeded 
 by several sons in succession, of whose history 
 nothing is known. In 593 his grandson, 
 Ethelfrith, son of Ethebic, became king., He 
 
Nor 
 
 ( 771 ) 
 
 ITor 
 
 was a man of energy and ambition. His 
 marriage with the daughter of Ella, who in 
 660 had established another Anglian kingdom 
 in Deira, the district between the Tees and 
 the Humber, was the excuse for the expulsion 
 of Edwin, the son of that monarch, and the 
 union of Bemioia with Deira. Thus Ethel- 
 frith became the first king of the Northum- 
 brians. His defeat of the Scots at Degsastan 
 (603) , and of the Welsh at Chester and Bangor- 
 Iscoed (607), gave further strength to the new 
 kingdom. JBut Edwin of Deira had found a 
 powerful protector in Eedwald of East Anglia, 
 the " Bretwalda," and in 617 Ethelfrith was 
 slain on the banks of the Idle in an attempt 
 to subdue his chief rival for the sovereignty 
 of Britain. Edwin now became King of the 
 Northumbrians. His marriage with Ethel- 
 burga, daughter of Ethelbert of Kent, led to 
 his conversion to Christianity in 627. In a 
 solemn Witenagemot the Northumbrians 
 accepted the new religion, and Paulinus, the 
 queen's chaplain, became first English bishop 
 of York, the old capital of Deira, and now of 
 Northumbria. The victories of Ethelfrith had 
 prepared the way for the overlordship over 
 South Britain, which Edwin seems now to 
 have assumed. He is fifth on the list of 
 Bretwaldas, and Bede says "that he ruled both 
 over EngUah and Britons," and that his domi- 
 nion included the two Monas — ^Anglesey and 
 Man. With him the Northumbrian supre- 
 macy, which lasted for the greater part of the 
 century, really begins. But he found in Penda 
 of Meroia, and in CadwaUon, the great Welsh 
 king, formidable competitors. In 633 their 
 combined forces defeated and slew Edwin at 
 Heathfield. All Northumbria was for a 
 whole year subject to the conquerors, who 
 seem to have aimed at lessening its power 
 by splitting it up again into its original divi- 
 sions of Bemicia and Deira. But in 634 
 Oswald, son of Ethelfrith, returned from his 
 refuge in lona, drove out the Britons and 
 Mercians, reunited the two kingdoms, and 
 laboured for the introduction of the Columban 
 type of Christianity with a zeal that meiited 
 his canonisation. Yet in 642 he, too, was 
 slain by Penda at the battle of Maserfield. 
 His brother, Oswiu, who succeeded him, was 
 compelled to yield Deira to Oswin, son of 
 Osrio, his cousin. In 651 Oswiu contrived to 
 compass the death of his rival, but the jealousy 
 of Penda provided Deira with another king 
 in OidUwald. But in 654 the victory of Win- 
 widfield over the Mercians, weakened by the 
 defection of Oidilwald, Penda's dependant, 
 led to the final triumph of Oswiu. Penda 
 perished on the field. Bemicia and Deira 
 were again united. Oswiu became undisputed 
 lord of the English, as well as master of 
 Straitclyde Welsh, Picts, and Scots. In 
 alliance with Theodore of Tarsus he settled 
 the ecclesiastical constitution of England, and 
 his declaration in the Synod of Whitby (664) 
 for the Eoman in preference to the Scottish 
 
 Churches was critical in determining the 
 course of the future history of Britain. He 
 was the most powerful of all the Northum- 
 brian raonarchs, but with him departed the 
 glory of his country. His son and successor, 
 Egfrid (670 — 685) wasted, in efforts to convert 
 a real supremacy over the Picts into a 
 thorough conquest, the resources that Oswiu 
 had used so well. The death of Egfrid on the 
 fatal field of Nectansmere (685) was followed 
 by the revolt of the Picts, Scots, and Strath- 
 clyde Welsh. His long quarrel with Wilfrid 
 of York had convulsed the internal relations 
 of the country. The rise of' Meroia now gave 
 the English states a new master. The next 
 king was Aldfrid (685 — 703), an iUegitimate 
 brother of Egfrid, who had in exile been a 
 pupU of the Scottish monks, and was called 
 the " learned king." He was the patron of 
 the great literary movement which had begun 
 with Caedmon and Benedict Biscop, and which 
 long outlasted the political importance of 
 Northumbria. During t}ie eighth century 
 Northumbria is only remembered as the home 
 of Bede, Alcuin, Archbishop Egbert, and 
 other great scholars. Meanwhile a series of 
 revolutions, seditions, and tumults had brought 
 the Northumbrian monarchy to the verge of 
 dissolution. No less than fourteen qbscure 
 kings ascended the throne between the death 
 of Alcfrid and 796 ; of these " at least thirteen 
 ended their reign by extraordinary means." 
 Eadwulf (705) was dethroned after a reign of 
 two months. Osred, son of Alcfrid, was slain 
 by his kinsfolk (716). Cenred, after a two 
 years' reign, came to a calamitous end (718). 
 Osric, his successor, was slain in 731. Ceol- 
 wulf , the next king, abdicated, and became a 
 monk (737), as did his Uncle's son Eadbert in 
 758, after an almost unprecedented reign of 
 twenty-one years. Oswull (758) was slain 
 by his own household after a year's reign. Of 
 his successor, MoU Ethelwald (758—765), we 
 are only told that he "lost his kingdom." 
 The solemn deposition of Alcred (765—774) 
 by the Witan was an important precedent for 
 later times. Ethelred, son of Ethelwald 
 (774 — 778) was driven into exUe. EUwald 
 (778 — 789) was slain by conspirators. Osred 
 (789 — 792) was deposed, and exiled, but 
 returned, and was murdered, whereupon 
 Ethelred was restored, only to be killed by his 
 turbulent people in 794 during a great famine 
 that was accompanied by portents, and 
 succeeded by a destructive Danish inroad. 
 Osbald, anoble, became king for l-wenty-seven 
 days, but Eardulf was then called from exile 
 to the throne. In 806 he was driven into 
 exile, but was restored by papal influence. 
 When he died is uncertain. The chroniclers 
 now cease to give a regular succession of the 
 Northumbrian kings. The Danes had reduced- 
 the kingdom to an extremity of disorder. 'The 
 Mercian overlords had few difficulties with 
 the decrepid state. In 827 the Northumbrians 
 became the vassals of Egbert without so much 
 
Nov 
 
 ( 772 
 
 ITot 
 
 as a battle. In 867 the Danes took advantage 
 of the deposition of King Osbryht, and the 
 election of a prince not of the royal blood, to 
 take possession of York. In 875 inroads for 
 plunder were exchanged for definite conquests, 
 and next year HaUdane, the Danish leader, 
 divided Deira amongst his willing followers. 
 Thus ingloriously the kingdom of Edwin 
 came to an end. A line of English ealdormen 
 long continued to reign in Bamborough over 
 Bemicia, but they were cut off from the great 
 West Saxon monarchy by Danish Deira. The 
 gradual subjection of Halfdane's successors 
 to the Basileus of Winchester, the incorpora- 
 tion of the Bamborough earldom, the reasser- 
 tion of Northumbrian local feeUng in the 
 great earldom of Canute, the grant of the 
 Lothians to the King of Scots, the final con- 
 quest of Northumbria by William I., from 
 which time alone we can date its extinction as 
 a separate district, are the chief events of later 
 Northumbrian history. 
 
 Bede, Sistoria Ecclesiastica ; Simeon of Dur- 
 ham, De Qestis S^gum jlngloiiim, and the Anglo- 
 Saxon GlvroniclB, give most information among 
 the original authorities. J. R. Green, The Malcmg 
 of England and the Conquest of England ; Stubba, 
 Crnisb. Hist. ; Palgrave, English Comnwnwealth, 
 and Skene, Oeliic Scotland, are the most im- 
 portant modem works. rip p T "1 
 
 KlWaS OF NOBTHDMBKIA. 
 
 
 Ethelfrid .... 
 
 . 593—616 
 
 Edwin . 
 
 
 . 616-633 
 
 Oswald 
 
 
 . 634—642 
 
 Oswiu . 
 
 
 642—670 
 
 Egtrid . . . 
 
 
 670-685 
 
 Alfrid .... 
 
 
 . 685—705 
 
 EadwiJf 
 
 
 . 705 
 
 Osred . 
 
 
 . 705-716 
 
 Cenred . 
 
 
 . 716-718 
 
 Osrio . 
 
 
 . 718—731 
 
 Ceolwulf 
 
 
 . 731—737 
 
 Bdbert .... 
 
 
 737-758 
 
 Oswnlf .... 
 
 
 768-759 
 
 Ethelwald Moll . 
 
 
 . 759-765 
 
 Alured . 
 
 
 . 765-774 
 
 Ethelred 
 
 
 . 774—778 
 
 EHwald 
 
 
 . 778—789 
 
 Osred . 
 
 
 . 789—792 
 
 Osbald . 
 
 
 . 794 
 
 Eardulf. 
 
 
 794—806 
 
 ITorton,, Geantley Fletcher, Lord 
 (b. 1716, d. 1789), was born at Grantley, near 
 Kipon. After being caUed to the bar, he was 
 in turn appointed king's counsel, Attorney- 
 General for the County Palatine of Lan- 
 caster, and Solicitor-General. In 1763 he 
 became Attorney-General, but went out ynCa 
 the GrenviUe ministry in 1765. While in 
 that ofiSce he had to encounter the difficult 
 question of general warrants ; and his im- 
 petuous recklessness did not smooth the way 
 for his colleagues. Upon the resignation, in 
 1769, of the chair of the House of Commons 
 by Sir John Gust, Sir Fletcher was elected to 
 fill the vacancy. Through the excited years 
 of Lord North's administration, Norton filled 
 the office of Speaker with some ability, and a 
 fearless indifference to consequences. In 
 1780 he paid the penalty of his independence 
 
 by being dismissed from the chair. When, 
 in 1782, the Marquis of BocHngham came 
 into power. Sir Fletcher Norton weis raised to 
 the peerage, with the title of Baron Grantley. 
 Manning, Speakers of the Commons; Stanhope, 
 Hist. ofEn^g. 
 
 ITortou, EicHARD, a zealous Catholic of 
 the north, took part in the Pilgrimage of 
 Grace, and in 1S69, though a very old man, 
 was an active supporter of the rebel Earls 
 of Northumberland and Westmoreland, whom 
 he joined with his sons. His son Christopher 
 formed a plan to carry ofE Mary Stuart from 
 Bolton Castle, but was foiled in its execution. 
 He subsequently took an active part in the 
 northern rebellion of 1569, and was in conse- 
 quence executed at Tyburn. 
 
 STorwicll has by some been identified 
 with the Venta Icenorum of the Eomans, 
 but this is improbable. It is more likely an 
 English city. It was burnt by the Danes, 
 linder Sweyn, in 1003. After the Conquest a 
 strong castle was built there, and it was made 
 an episcopal see. A serious riot occurred in 
 Norwich in 1272, and the insurgents, in 1381, 
 headed by John Litster, attacked the city and 
 plundered it. Once again, in 1549, Norwich 
 suffered from a popular revolt, when the city 
 was captured by Eobert Ket and his asso- 
 ciates. Since this time it has occupied no 
 important position in English history, though 
 it has gradually and steadily grown in pros- 
 perity and commercial importance. 
 
 ITorwicll, The Bridal of (1075), was the 
 occasion of the organisation of a powerfid 
 conspiracy against William the Conqueror. 
 The refusal of the king to allow Ealph Guader, 
 Earl of Norfolk, to marry the sister of Roger 
 Fitz-Osbem, Earl of Hereford, was disre- 
 garded, and a plot formed at the wedding-feast 
 (" That bride-ale that was many men's bale ") 
 to depose William, and bring back the country 
 to the condition it was in at the time of the 
 Confessor. The conspiracy was detected be- 
 fore any attempts could be made against the 
 Hng, and the conspirators either fled or were 
 punished heavily. 
 
 Preemau, Worman Conquest. 
 
 ITottiugliain. was taken by the Danes in 
 868, and confirmed to them by the Peace of 
 Wedmore. It was restored and re-fortified 
 by Edward the Elder, 922. In 1067 William 
 the Conqueror reconstructed and strengthened 
 the castle. It was taken and burnt twice 
 during the wars between Stephen and Maud. 
 In 1461 it was the scene of the proclamation 
 of Edward IV. In 1485 it was the head- 
 quarters of Richard III. before the battle of 
 Bosworth. In the Great Rebellion it was the 
 place where Charles I. set up his standard, 
 Aug. 22, 1642. The castle was dismantled, 
 by Cromwell's orders and re-built in 1680. 
 In 1811 — 12 Nottingham was the scene of 
 formidable " Luddite " riots, and of a Reform 
 riot in October, 1831. 
 
Not 
 
 ( 773 ) 
 
 Nov 
 
 XTottingliain, Thomas Mowbray, Eael 
 o^id. 1405), was the Boa of Thomas Mowhray, 
 Dui^e of Norfolk, the adversary of Henry 
 Bolnnghroke. He joined Henry on his landing 
 in 1 399, and was made Earl Marshal. In 1405, 
 a dispute with the Earl of Warwick being 
 decided against him, he left the court in 
 chagrin, and joined Scrope and others in a 
 conspiracy against Henry IV. Through the 
 treachfiry of Westmoreland, he was seized 
 and heheaded. 
 
 ITottingliaixi., Heneage Finch, Earl or 
 (S. 1621, d. 1682), was called to the bar in 
 1645, but his Eoyalist sentiments prevented 
 his coming prominently forward till the 
 Eeatoration, when he was appointed Solicitor- 
 General. He conducted the prosecution of 
 the regicides with great fairness and judg- 
 ment. In 1670 he became Attorney-General, 
 and in 1673 Lord Keeper, which title he ex- 
 changed for that of Lord Chancellor in 1675. 
 He held the Great Seal till his death in 1682, 
 having in 1681 been created Earl of Notting- 
 ham. He figures in Dryden's Absalom and 
 Achitophel imder the name of Amri. "From 
 his persuasive powers," says Mr. Poss, "he 
 acquired the titles of 'the sUver-tongued 
 lawyer ' and ' the English Cicero,' and from 
 his graceful action that of 'tiie English 
 Eoscius.'" 
 
 I'oes, Lines of the Lord ChamseUors. 
 
 TStotUxkgbAJia., Daniei- Finch, Earl op 
 [i. 1647, d. 1730), entered early into public 
 He. In 1 679, he was placed on the Adnuralty 
 Commission. Under James IX. he rigorously 
 opposed the abrogation of the Test Act. 
 In 1687 he entered into negotiations with 
 Dykvelt, envoy of the Prince of Orange. 
 He and Danby were representatives of the 
 Tory party in those proceedings. He fol- 
 lowed Sancroft's ideas on the setflement of the 
 Revolution question, and advocated a regency 
 to be exercised in James's name and during 
 his life, but gradually abandoned the idea 
 before the opposition of the Commons. He 
 was appointed Secretary of State under 
 WiUiam and Mary, thereby acquiescing in 
 the king de facto, and bringing a large body 
 of Tory supporters to the ministry. He was 
 soon involved in quarrels with his Whig 
 colleague, Shrewsbury. In 1689 he carried 
 his Toleration BUI, by which Nonconformist 
 divines were allowed to preach after signing 
 thirty-four out.of the Thirty-nine Articles. He 
 also moved a Comprehension Bill, but was com- 
 pelled to drop it on account of the opposition 
 it encountered. On the departure of William 
 for Irelamd, he was placed on the Council of 
 Nine. The resignation of Shrewsbury had made 
 him sole Secretary of State. It was to his 
 timely discovery of the intended invasion, and 
 his vigorous measures to confirm the loyalty of 
 the fleet, that the victory of La Hogue was m 
 great part due. At the close of that year (1692) 
 he bitterly inveighed against the subsequent 
 
 mismanagement which had neutralised that 
 victory. Nottingham and Russell became 
 mortal enemies. A vague vote of censure 
 was passed on the former in the Commons by 
 a majority of one, but he was warmly sup- 
 ported by the Lords. William, wishing to 
 reserve for himself the services of Notting- 
 ham, induced Russell to accept a place in the 
 household. But on the appointment of EusseU 
 as First Lord of the Admiralty, he was forced 
 to resign. In 1694 he vigorously opposed 
 the establishment of the Bank of England. 
 On the accession- of Anne, he became Secre- 
 tary of State. But his ideas were quite at 
 variance with the schemes of Godolphin and 
 Marlborough. In 1704 he declared that 
 the ministry must be purged of the Whig 
 element, and resigned. In opposition he raised 
 the cry of the " Church in danger." In 1707 
 he proposed a motion to the eSect that the 
 English Church was threatened by the Union. 
 He was struck off the Privy Council. As 
 Harley neglected to give him office (1710), he 
 joined the Whigs. They agreed to support 
 his Occasional Conformity Bill if his Tory 
 followers would oppose all ideas of peace. He 
 therefore proposed and triumphantly carried 
 a resolution "that no peace was honourable 
 if Spain or the West Ladies were allotted to 
 any branch of the house of Bourbon." He 
 was placed on the Privy Council by George 
 I., but in 1716, disapproving of the con- 
 demnation of the leaders of the Jacobite 
 rebellion, he was dismissed, and quitted public 
 life. 
 
 Biimet, Rist. of his Own Tims; Hjackay, 
 
 Memoirs; Macaulay, Kist, ofBng, ; Baiike, Sist. 
 
 of JBng. ; Stanliope, Reign of Queen Anne. 
 
 Nova Scotia, now the most easterly 
 province of the Dominion of Canada, was 
 discovered by John Cabot in 1497. In 1698 
 it was partially colonised by a French ex- 
 pedition under the Marquis de la Roche, and 
 in conjunction with New Brunswick, re- 
 ceived the name of Acadia. In 1602 Acadia 
 was granted by Henry IV. of France to a 
 Huguenot nobleman, but in 1614 the English 
 made a descent from Virginia, and destroyed 
 the whole of the French settlements. In 
 the year 1621 the country was granted by 
 James I., under the title of Nova Scotia, to 
 William Alexander, Earl of Stirling, whilst 
 four years later, in order to encourage emi- 
 gration, the order of Baronets of Nova Scotia 
 was created. Sir William Alexander, how- 
 ever, sold the country to the French, but on 
 the outbreak of the war between France and 
 England iu 1627, he, in conjunction with Sir 
 WiUiam Kirk, expelled the French, but re- 
 stored their settlements to them on the con- 
 clusion of peace in 1631. The claim of Eng- 
 land to Nova Scotia was again successfully 
 put forward by Cromwell, but in 1667 it was 
 ceded to France by the terms of the Treaty of 
 Breda. In 1689 it was again taken, by the 
 English under Sir William Phipps, but re- 
 
2fov 
 
 (774') 
 
 Oat 
 
 stored by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. In 
 1710' the capital, Port Eoyal, was captured by 
 General Nicholson, and, in spite of various 
 efforts made by the French to dislodge him, 
 was held by him until the whole of Nova 
 Sootia was formally ceded to England by the 
 Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Though subject 
 to frequent disturbances. Nova Scotia re- 
 mained uninvaded until 1744, when De 
 Quesnel, the French Governor of Cape 
 Breton, attempted to take Annapolis, as the 
 capital, Port Royal, was then called. After 
 the Treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe (1748) nearly 
 4,000 emigrants — chiefly (fisbanded soldiers — 
 went out to Nova Scotia, under the command 
 of General ComwaUis, and established the 
 town of Halifax. The French did not, 
 however, give up hopes of recovering Nova 
 Scotia, and, in alliance with the Indians, con- 
 tinued to harass the new settlers to such a, 
 degree that in 1756 it was found necessary to 
 expel 18,000 of the old French Acadians. 
 Two years later the Nova Scotians received a 
 constitution, consisting of a house of as- 
 sembly, a legislative councU, and a governor 
 representing the British crown. From this 
 time the condition of the country began 
 rapidly to improve, and its prosperity was 
 also materially increased by the influx of a 
 large number of American loyalists during 
 the War of Independence. Disputes and dis- 
 content in the legislature were of frequent 
 occurrence, just as in Cana,da, and in 1840 
 Mr. Thomson (afterwards Lord Sydenham), 
 Governor-General of Canada, was commis- 
 sioned to inquire into the alleged grievances, 
 and in consequence of his report the executive 
 counoU was remodelled and the legislative 
 council was increased by the addition of 
 several members of the popular party. In 
 1858 Lord Durham included Nova Scotia in 
 his contemplated scheme of a union of the 
 British North American provinces, but he 
 died before he could carry out Ms plan. In 
 1867 Nova Scotia was united with other pro- 
 vinces under the title of the Dominion of 
 Canada, and is subject to tl/e central govern- 
 ment of the dominion at Ottawa, though it 
 still retains its own provincial government 
 vested in a lieutenant-governor, an executive 
 and a legislative council, and a house of 
 
 Martin, British Colonies; Col. Haliburton, 
 Btsi. of Nova Scotia; Creasy, Constitiittotis of 
 Britannic Empire. 
 
 Novel Disseisin. [Assize.] 
 
 XTuncomar was a high-caste Brahmin, 
 who intrigued for the deposition of Moham- 
 med Eeza Khan from the dewanny of 
 Bengal, hoping to obtain his place. Disap- 
 pointed of this, and encouraged by the 
 enmity of the Council, he brought various 
 charges of peculation against Hastings. 
 Hastings, in return, had him accused and 
 hanged for forgery. 
 
 ITluiueries. The large majority of 
 English nunneries before the Dissolution 
 (1536 — 40) belonged to the Benedictine order. 
 The following is a list of the most important : 
 Shaftesbury (Dorset), according to tradition, 
 founded by Alfred, which was so wealthy that 
 Fuller teUs us it was a proverb with the 
 country folk " if the Abbot of Glastonbury 
 might marry the Abbess of Shaftesbury, their 
 heire would have more land than the King of 
 England ; " Barking (Essex), said to have 
 been founded by Erkenwald, Bishop of Lon- 
 don, 677, which had for its first abbess, 
 Ethelburga, afterwards canonised ; Amesbury 
 (WUts), founded (980); St. Mary (Win- 
 chester) ; MaUing (Kent) ; Mergate (Bedford- 
 shire); Catesby (Northamptonshire) ; Clerken- 
 well, founded 1100 ; Godstow (Oxfordshire), 
 founded 1138; Holy well (Middlesex); St. 
 Helen's (London), founded at the beginning 
 of the thirteenth century; Stratford-at-Bow 
 (Middlesex) ; Chatteris (Cambridgeshire) ; 
 Polesworth (Warwickshire) ; Sheppey (Kent) ; 
 WherweU (Hants). 
 
 The Cistercian houses were usually sinall : 
 among the most important were Tarrant 
 (Dorset) and Swi?e (Yorks). The great 
 nunnery of Dartford, founded 1355, was dis- 
 puted between the Au'gustinian and Domini- 
 can orders, but was held by the latter at the 
 Dissolution. Syon (Middlesex), almost the 
 wealthiest house in England, was held by 
 Brigittine nuns (a branch of the Augiis- 
 tinians, reformed by St. Bridget of Sweden) ; 
 Syon House was, in 1604, granted to the Earl 
 of Northumberland. 
 
 The Minoresses, or Poor Clares (the female 
 Franciscans), held four houses in England. 
 The greatest was that in London, where they 
 were placed by Blanch of Navarre, wife of 
 Edmund of Lancaster, about 1293. This 
 nunnery outside Aldgate has given its name 
 to the Minories. The only other house of 
 importance was at Denny (Cambridgeshire). 
 Diigdale, STonosKcoTi. rw J a "1 
 
 Oakboys, The, was the name given to 
 the Western Protestant tenants in Ireland, 
 who, complaining chiefly of exorbitant county 
 cess, collected in bodies in 1764, houghed 
 cattle, and burnt farms. They never became 
 formidable. 
 
 Dates, TiTTJS (S. ciroa 1620, d. 1705), 
 was educated at Merchant Taylors' School 
 and Trinity College, Cambridge. He took 
 holy orders and was presented to a small 
 living by the Duke of Norfolk. A charge of 
 perjury being brought against him he was 
 forced to give up this position, and was for a 
 short time chaplain in the navy. He then 
 
Oat 
 
 ( 775 
 
 Oat 
 
 identified himself with the Eoman Catholics, 
 being, however, dismissed in the year 1678. 
 He set hi mself to work to gain a livelihood by 
 his wits, and devised the story of the Popish 
 Plot; that was readily accepted by the popular 
 fears. Everywh^e it was rumoured that 
 Protestantism was in danger, and Gates 
 communicated to the authorities that the 
 Catholics were on the point of rising; that 
 the principal features of their programme 
 were a general massacre of Protestants, the 
 assassination of the king, and the invasion of 
 Ireland. Various incidents just then hap- 
 pened that confirmed Gates' s story — none so 
 much as the murder of Godfrey, the magis- 
 trate that had been most active in giving pub- 
 licity to the conspiracy. Gates became a hero, 
 his story being widely credited. He was re- 
 warded with a pension of £900 a year, and a 
 suite of apartments was devoted to his use at 
 Whitehall. For two years multitudes of 
 Catholics were, on the merest suspicion and 
 on the slenderest evidence, condemned to 
 death. In 1685 Gates was convicted of per- 
 jury, and sentenced to stand in the pillory, 
 be whipped at the cart's taU, and then im- 
 prisoned for life. After the Kevolution 
 (1688), Parliament declared Gates's trial to 
 be illegal, and ordered his release, granting 
 him a pension of £300 a year. His attempts 
 to regain notoriety after this were unsuccess- 
 ful. [Popish Plot.] 
 
 Maoaulay, Hid. o/ Eng. ; Bamet, Hist, of his 
 (hun Time. 
 
 Oath, The Coeonation. [Coronation.] 
 
 Oaths, Pakliamentary, were first im- 
 posed in the year 1679, when it was enacted 
 that no member could sit or vote in either 
 House until he had taken in its presence 
 the several oaths of allegiance, supremacy, 
 and abjuration, severe penalties being im- 
 posed on any one who should neglect the 
 ceremony. This measure was re-enacted in 
 1700 and 1760, but in 1829 the Catholic Re- 
 lief Act provided an especial form of oath for 
 Roman Catholics. In 1866 the Parliamentary 
 Oaths Act substituted one oath for the three 
 previously in use, which in 1868 was altered 
 with the idea of including all religious de- 
 nominations, the form being, "I, A. B., do 
 swear that I wiU be faithful, and bear true 
 allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Victoria, 
 her heirs and successors, according to law. 
 So help me God." By the law of 1866 a 
 penalty of £300 was imposed on members of 
 both Houses for voting before they had taken 
 the oath, and in the House of Commons the 
 seat is vacated as if the member were dead. 
 In the Upper House, however, a bill of 
 indemnity is usually passed. Standing orders 
 also provide at what hour the oath is to be 
 taken. The most remarkable refusals to take 
 the oaths were those of Sir H. Monson and 
 Lord Fanshaw in 1688, and of Mr. O'Connell, 
 in 1829, before the Relief Act was passed. 
 
 but m neither instance was the objection en- 
 tertained. The case of the Jews was brought 
 up by claim of Baron Rothschild in 1850, to 
 take the oaths, omitting the words " on the 
 true faith of a Christian " in the oath of ab- 
 juration. A resolution was carried, however, 
 that he was ineligible, nor was Alderman 
 Salomons more successful in the foUowiug 
 year. After the question had been discussed 
 in several successive sessions, an Act was 
 passed in 1858 by which a Jew was allowed 
 to omit the obnoxious words, and a resolution 
 to that effect became a standing order in 
 1860. The Parliamentary Gaths Act of 1866 
 finally placed Jews on an equality with other 
 members, by omitting the words altogether 
 from the form of oath. The right of Quakers, 
 Moravians, and Separatists -to make an 
 affirmation instead of taking the oath, was first 
 contested by John Archdale in 1693, but un- 
 successfully. Several statutes were, however, 
 passed to that effect in the reign of Anne, 
 George I., and George II., and upon a general 
 construction of these statutes, Mr. Pease, a 
 Quaker, was allowed to affirm in 1833. In 
 the same year Acts were passed allowing 
 Quakers, Moravians, and Separatists, and 
 those who had ceased to belong to those per- 
 suasions, to make an affirmation instead of 
 taking the oaths; and this concession was 
 confirmed by the Parliamentary Gaths Acts of 
 the following reign. In 1880 Mr. Bradlaugh, 
 who had been elected for Northampton, 
 claimed to make an affirmation under the 
 Evidence Amendment Act of 1869 and 1870. 
 The report of a select committee being ad- 
 verse, he presented himself to take the oath, 
 but the House decided that he should be 
 allowed neither to take the oath nor affirm. 
 Subsequently, in 1883, the government at- 
 tempted to deal with the case by introducing 
 an Affirmation BiU, but it was thrown out 
 in the Commons, nor were Mr. Bradlaugh's 
 subsequent efforts to take his seat rewarded 
 by success. 
 
 Gaths in Courts of Law are imposed both 
 upon jurymen and witnesses. They may be 
 traced back to a very remote date, and are 
 intimately connected with the much-vexed 
 question of the origin of trial by jury. 
 The law of Ethelred II. directed that the 
 twelve senior thegns in each wapentake should 
 be sworn not to accuse any falsely. Though 
 this is an isolated piece of legislation, we find 
 that in England, as among the other Germanic 
 races, an oath was habitually imposed in the 
 courts upon the parties to a suit and their com- 
 purgators, and upon the witnesses who were 
 called in if it was held that the oaths of the 
 former were inconclusive. By the system of 
 sworn recognition introduced by the Normans, 
 which they derivedprobablyfrom the Frank ca- 
 pitularies, oaths were also enforced, and though 
 first applied to civil cases, this system was ex- 
 tended by the Assize of Clarendon to criminal 
 cases as well. It is needless to discuss here the 
 
O'Br 
 
 ( 776) 
 
 Occ 
 
 gradual divergence of the three elements of the 
 jury system, the grand jury, the petty jury, and 
 the witnesses, and it is enough to say that 
 when their separate functions became defined 
 {circa Edward III. to Henry IV.) oaths were 
 stiU imposed upon aU three. The later aspects 
 of the question of oaths in courts of law 
 chiefly concern the claims to exemptions frorai 
 taking the oath that have heen put forward 
 from time to time. As in the case of the 
 Parhamentary oath, the three classes of persons 
 afEected are those who beheve in God, hut 
 are not Christians, Quakers and kindred sects, 
 and Atheists, and the legislation concerning 
 them falls chiefly within the present reign. 
 In the first year of Victoria it was provided 
 that anyone not professing the Christian 
 religion might take the oath in any form they 
 consider binding ; hence Jews employ the 
 words " so help me, Jehovah," and Moham- 
 medans swear by the Koran. Quakers were 
 permitted to make an affirmation instead of 
 taking the oath, in 1833, and this privilege 
 was confirmed by subsequent legislation. In 
 1854 it was provided chiefly for the benefit of 
 those who belonged to no recognised religious 
 sect, and consequently did not come under the 
 former relief Acts, that if any person called 
 as a witness should be unwilling to be sworn 
 from conscientious motives, the court on being 
 satisfied of the sincerity of the objection should 
 permit him to make a solemn afiirmatiou, and 
 the same privilege was granted to jurors in 
 1867. These enactments were consolidated 
 in the Evidence Amendment Acts of 1879 
 and 1880. 
 
 May, Fajrliaimentary Practice and Const. Hist, ; 
 Forsyth, Hist of fhe Jurn ; Tyler, Origin and 
 Sist. of Oaths; and Stephen's Commentaries, 
 where the statutes bearing upon the subjects 
 are mentioned, rr Q g 1 
 
 O'Brien, "William Smith {b. Oct. 17, 
 1803, d. June 18, 1864), was the second son 
 of Sir Edward O'Brien, of Cahimoyle. His 
 eldest brother. Sir Lucas O'Brien, who was 
 a Tory, became in 1855 Lord Inchiquin, as 
 heir of the Marquis of Thomond. Smith 
 O'Brien was educated at Harrow and at Cam- 
 bridge, and in 1826 became the Tory re- 
 presentative of Enuis. He was an energetic 
 opponent of O'CouneU. From 1835 to 1849 he 
 represented Limerick, and in 1846 he openly 
 joined the Young Ireland party, led by 
 Meagher and Mitchel. His descent from Brian 
 Boru, and the claims he imagined himself to 
 have to the Irish crown, seemed to a certain 
 extent to have turned his brain. His idea 
 was to establish an Irish EepubUc with him- 
 self as president. In 1 848 he opposed in Parlia- 
 ment the Security BiU then proposed, and he 
 was afterwards tried under that very biU in 
 Ireland, but the jury disagreeing, it became 
 necessary to allow him to go free. The trea- 
 sonable character of his plans was, however, 
 becoming clear, and an attempt was made to 
 arrest him. He now left Dublin, and began 
 
 haranguing the peasantry of the souths At 
 last, on July 25, he assembled a large body 
 in arms, and led them on the 26th against 
 the police at Bonlagh Common. O'Brien es- 
 caped after the fight, and a reward of £800 
 failed to lead to has apprehension. On Au- 
 gust 5, however, he was recognised at 
 Thurles, as he was quietly taking a ticket for 
 Limerick and lodged in Kilmainham gaol. 
 On September 21 he was tried at Clonmel by 
 a special commission, and sentenced to death. 
 But his punishment was commuted to trans- 
 portation. Unlike his fellow-conspirators, 
 he refused a ticket-of-leave, and was sent to 
 Norfolk Island. In 1856 he received a free 
 pardon, and returned to Ireland. He died at 
 Bangor in "Wales, and the transportation of 
 his remains from thence to Ireland led to a 
 Nationalist, demonstration. In private life 
 he was one of the most truthful and kind- 
 hearted of men. 
 
 O'Briens, The Sept of, the most power- 
 ful clan in Munster, their chief stronghold 
 being the city of Limerick, claimed descent 
 from Brian Boru. In 1543 Murrough O'Brien 
 was made Earl of Thomond for life. He 
 became a Protestant, and displayed more than 
 the usual eagerness for Church lands; he 
 sent a paper to England called the " Irish- 
 man's Eequest," asking for Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge men to convert the people. Ulti- 
 mately all his dignities fell to his nephew, 
 Eonagh, whom, in accordance with the Irish 
 custom of tanistry, he had supplanted. The 
 fourth earl was a distinguished soldier, and 
 fought against the Spaniards at Kiusale. The 
 family became extinct in 1741. 
 Burke, Extinct Peerages. 
 
 Obscene Publications Act. In 
 
 1857, Lord Chief Justice Campbell succeeded 
 in passing a biU to suppress the traffic in 
 obscene publications, prints, pictures, and 
 other articles. 
 
 Occasional Conformity, The Bill 
 Against, was designed to prevent Dissenters 
 from complying with the provisions of the 
 Test Act (q.v.) only so far as to qualify them- 
 selves for oflioe or membership of a corpo- 
 ration. It was introduced for the first time 
 in 1702 by three Tory members, one of whom 
 was Henry St. John, and provided that anyone 
 who attended a dissenting meeting-house after 
 having taken the sacrament and test for officec 
 of trust or the magistracy of corporations 
 should be immediately dismissed, and heavily 
 fined. This unjust measure passed the Com- 
 mons, but was rejected by the Lords, though 
 Queen Anne put great pressure on that House 
 to pass the bUl. A similar fate attended it in 
 the following year, and again in 1704, when 
 the more violent Tories, led by Nottingham, 
 proposed to carry it through their opponents 
 by " tacking it " to the Land Tax Bill. In 1711, 
 however, Nottingham and his "Dismsils" 
 formed an unprincipled coalition with the 
 
Ocli 
 
 ( 777 ) 
 
 O'Co 
 
 Whigs, the terms teing that the latter should 
 support the Octasional Conformity Bill, and 
 it accordingly became law, the money fine 
 heing reduced from £100 to £40. This dis- 
 creditable Act continued in force until 1719, 
 ■when General Stanhope introduced a measure 
 under the cunning title of a " Bill for strength- 
 ening the Protestant Interest," by which the 
 Occasional Conformity Act and the Schism 
 Act were abolished, but from which he was 
 forced to exclude the Test Act. 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Reign of Anne, and Hist, of 
 Eng.f vol. i., ch. 9 ; 10 Aime, cap. 2. 
 
 Ochterlony, Sir David (i. 1758, d. 
 1826), after having served in the Camatic 
 under Hastings and Coote, first appears 
 prominently as Colonel Ochterlony in the 
 capacity of Resident at Belhi (1803), after 
 the conquest of Seindia's French troops. In 
 this capacity he conducted the defence of 
 Delhi in the most gallant manner, when 
 Holkar besieged it on his return from Malwa 
 in 1804. In 1814 he was given the command 
 of the division destined to act against 
 Umur Singh in the Goorkha War. Driving 
 TJmur Singh from point to point he at last 
 shut him up in Malown. He was raised to 
 the rank of a major-general, and had conferred 
 upon him the Grand Cross of the Bath, being 
 the first of the Company's officers to attain to 
 that honour. In 1816, Sir David took com- 
 mund of the army for the second Goorkha 
 campaign, and brought it to a successful con- 
 clusion. After the war he was appointed 
 British Resident in Malwa and Rajpootana, 
 and as such had in 1823 to deal with the dis- 
 puted succession at Bhurtpore. The Governor- 
 General, Lord Amherst, disapproved of Sir 
 David's measures, and he was reprimanded. 
 He thereupon resigned. The treatment he 
 had received broke his heart, and he retired 
 to Meerut, where he died within two months. 
 
 O'Counell, Daniel (S. Aug. 6, 1773, d. 
 1847), was the son of an Irish gentleman of 
 very ancient family. He studied at Louvain, 
 St. Omer, and Douai ; was driven from the 
 Continent by the French Revolution, and went 
 to London to read for the bar. In spite of the 
 opposition of his family he came forward 
 (Jan. 13, 1800) as a determined opponent of 
 the Union, soon became the leader of the 
 Catholic party, and in 1823 founded the 
 Catholic Association. In 1825, he was pro- 
 secuted for saying, "that he hoped some 
 Bolivar would arise to vindicate Catholic 
 rights," but the grand jury ignored the hill. 
 It was at his instigation that, in the year 1826, 
 the Catholics began to show their power at 
 elections. In 1828, he himself stood against 
 Vesey Fitzgerald, and by means of the 
 "forties" won the famous Clare election, 
 his opponent retiring after five days' polling. 
 His influence in the same year was strong 
 enough to prevent a collision between the 
 Catholics, and the Orangemen, which seemed 
 
 H19T.-25* 
 
 impending. The Emancipation BUI followed, 
 but O'Connell having been elected before was 
 still excluded from Parliament. He presented 
 himself (May 1 5, 1 829) , and pleaded with great 
 ability to be allowed to take his seat ; his ap- 
 plication was refused, and a new writ issued, 
 but O'Connell was returned imopposed and 
 allowed to take his seat. He was now called the 
 " Liberator " in Ireland, and was the object of 
 intense adoration on the part of the people. In 
 1831, he was forced to plead guilty to a charge 
 of holding illegal meetings ; although he was 
 not prmished, his influence was shaken at the 
 time. He in vain opposed the Coercion Act 
 of 1833, but did much service to the Whigs 
 in promoting the cause of Reform. After- 
 wards, O'Connell and his "tail," as his fol- 
 lowers in Parliament were derisively called, 
 were for some time able to exercise great in- 
 fluence in that assembly, for he held the 
 balance between Whigs and Tories. In 1838, 
 however, he had to submit to a reprimand 
 from the Speaker for accusing a member of 
 perjury. In 1840, he revived the Repeal 
 agitation, and in 1843, uttered language that 
 was considered treasonable at the monster 
 meetings he convened. But when govern- 
 ment forbade the meeting at Clontarf on 
 October 7, he failed to make good his words, 
 and the Young Ireland party, among whom 
 were the most talented of his followers, 
 separated from him. O'Connell and his 
 more immediate followers were arrested aud 
 prosecuted for conspiracy. A jury, entirely 
 composed of Protestants, found him guilty, 
 and he was sentenced to a year's imprison- 
 ment, and to a fine of £2,000. The English 
 House of Lords by three to two reversed this 
 decision. This result was hailed with enthu- 
 siasm, but the Repeal agitation was neverthe- 
 less crushed. O'Connell hved for some years 
 longer, but his health was giving way. On 
 Feb. 8, 1847, he delivered his last speech in 
 the Commons, and died soon after at Genoa. 
 In England he was scarcely looked upon as a 
 serious personage, and derisive epithets such 
 as the " big beggarman," were constantly ap- 
 plied to him. But in Catholic Ireland the 
 influence obtained by his character, his ener- 
 getic championship of the cause of his co- 
 religionists, and his powers as a popular orator, 
 was unpreoedentedly great. 
 
 May, Const. Hist. ofBng.; Annual Register; 
 O'Connell's Speeches, edited by Us son ; Pauli, 
 Qeschichte von England srit ISU; J. McCarthy, 
 Hist, of Our Own Times. 
 
 O'Connell Centenary, The (August 5, 
 1875), was celebrated by processions and ban- 
 quets in Dublin. It led to a furious quarrel 
 between the Home Rulers and the Nationalists, 
 which brought the banquet in the evening, 
 presided over by the Lord Mayor of Dublin, 
 to an untimely end ; part of the guests wish- 
 ing Mr. Gavan Duffy, and not Mr. Butt, to 
 be associated with the toast of the "legis- 
 lative independence of Ireland." 
 
O'Co 
 
 ( 778 ) 
 
 Odo 
 
 O'Connor, Arthur, heir expectant to 
 Lord Longueville, an intimate friend of all the 
 English Whigs, was one of the United Irish- 
 men from 1796. In that year he was with Lord 
 Edward Fitzgerald in France, and concerted 
 ■with Heche for an invasion. In 1797 he was 
 imprisoned in Dublin Castle, hut was soon 
 released. Though the government was aware 
 of his treason, it was unable to produce its 
 information. O'Connor now established 
 virulent papers like the Press and the Northern 
 Star, advocating assassination. On Feb. 27, 
 1798, while on his way to the French Direc- 
 tory, as envoy of the Irish insurrectionary 
 party, he was arrested at Margate, and 
 brought before the Maidstone assizes. All 
 the most distinguished members of the Oppo- 
 sition, however, came forward as witnesses 
 to character, and he was acquitted. He 
 returned to Ireland, but was arrested on 
 another charge, and kept inprison. In 1798 
 Lord Cornwallis gave hinv and his confede- 
 rates a pardon on condition of a full confes- 
 sion of his treason. This he did in a tone of 
 bravado before a committee of the Lords. He 
 was then sent to Fort Georgei and kept there 
 till the Peace of Amiens. T-he American 
 government refused to receive him, and he 
 went to France. 
 
 Froude, English in Ireland ,' Musgrave, Hist, 
 of the Rebellion, 
 
 O'Connor, Feaeous. [Chartists.] 
 
 O'Connor, Eoderiok, King of Con- 
 naught, and last native King of Ireland {d. 
 1198), was the son of Turlough O'Connor. 
 In 1161 he attempted to succeed to his father's 
 power, but was unable to recover it till 
 O'Loughlin, of Ulster, died (1166), and he-, 
 was then recognised in the north at least as. 
 Lord of Ireland. [For his struggles with. 
 Dermot and the English, see. article on 
 Ireland.] In cruelty he was fully equal, 
 to Dermot ; thus he put to death a son and< 
 grandson of that king, who were his hostages. 
 It was by his command, too, that the eyes of 
 all his own brothers were put out. "When 
 Henry II. came over to Ireland in person, all 
 he could obtain from O'Connor was that he 
 consented to receive his envoys,. De Lacy 
 and Fitz-Aldhelm. In 1175, however, he 
 concluded a treaty with Henry through am- 
 bassadors at Windsor. He thereby acknow- 
 ledged himself as Henry's vassal, and pro- 
 mised to pay tribute. In return the English 
 king recognised him as overlord of all Ireland 
 which was not in the hands either of the king 
 himself or of his Norman barons. Eevolt of his 
 sons embittered his later years, and in 1182, 
 after a fierce civil war, he resigned the crown 
 to his eldest son, and retired to a monastery, 
 where he died, at the mature age of eighty -two. 
 Moore, Hist, of Ireland,; Giraldus rambreusis, 
 
 ExpuqnaUo Hihem,, and T(ypographia Hibem. ; 
 
 The Chronicle ofihe Four Masters. 
 
 O'Connors, The Sept op the, was long 
 
 supreme in Connaught. [O'Connor, Rod- 
 erick.] Feidlim, Eoderick's successor, was 
 recognised as chief after a fierce civil war, in 
 which he triumphed by the aid of the De 
 Burghs. In the invasion of Edward Bruce, 
 the O'Connors at iirst sided with the English, 
 but soon after they changed sides, and the 
 slaughter at Athenry in 1316, put an end to 
 their existence as a great clan. [Connaught.] 
 Moore, Hist, of Ireland; Lmgard, Hist, of 
 
 Octennial Bill (1768). In 1761 an 
 agitation for a Septennial Bill had begun in 
 Ireland, where, till then, a Parliament was of 
 necessity dissolved only by the king's death. 
 In 1761 a bill to this effect was passed, but 
 though returned from England, an error of 
 the draftsman served as an excuse to the 
 Irish Parliament for rejecting it. In Oct., 
 1767, the agitation, however, recommenced, 
 chiefly because the bOl had not been men- 
 tioned in the speech from the throne. In 1768 
 it was finally introduced as an Octennial Bill, 
 and passed. 
 
 October Club, The (1710), was com- 
 posed," says Hallam, " of a strong phalanx of 
 Tory members, who, though by no means en- 
 tirely Jacobite, were chiefly influenced by those 
 who were such." " It had long been custo- 
 mary," says Mr. Wyon, " for the members of 
 a party, when some important measure was 
 before ]?arliament, to meet at a tavern for 
 the purpose of concerting a plan of action. 
 The society was termed a club." Soon after 
 the beginning of 1710, a few of the extreme 
 Tories began to hold a series of meetings at 
 the " Bell," in Westminster. " The password 
 of this club — one of easy remembrance to a 
 country gentleman who loved his ale — was 
 October." The October Club soon set itself 
 to work to undermine the power of Harley, 
 whose moderation they scorned. It was 
 from thence that the Jacobites looked for 
 SHpporters in the last years of Queen Anne's 
 reign. The Bolingbroke faction belonged to 
 the October Club. They took great delight 
 in wndictive attacks on the Whigs, especially 
 Sunderland. 
 
 Odal, or Udal, Eight, is a tenure of land 
 that still prevails in the Orkney and Shetland 
 Islands, and which before the growth of 
 feudalism was the ordinary tenure of the 
 Teutonic retces. [Alodial Land.] Its dis- 
 tinctive feature lies in the fact that land held 
 by this right is held absolutely, and not de- 
 pendent upon a superior. Odal right is thus 
 antagonistic to feudalism, which recognised 
 only service as a title to land. 
 
 Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury (942 — 
 9.58), was the son of one of the Danish ■ 
 chieftains who had taken part in the invasion 
 of 870. Odo was attracted by the preaching 
 of a Christian missionary, and embraced the 
 Christian faith. He was adopted by Arch- 
 
Odo 
 
 ( 770 ■) 
 
 Off 
 
 bishop Athelm, and in 926 was made Bishop 
 of Eamabury. In 942 Dunstan's influence 
 gained Odo the ai-ohbishopric. The arch- 
 bishop-elect at once declared his intention of 
 becoming a monk, thus placing himself at the 
 head of the pai-ty of reform in the Church, 
 whose object it was to encourage monasticism, 
 introduce the Benedictine rule, and enforce 
 celibacy amongst the clergy. During the 
 reign of Edred this party had the ascendency, 
 but his successor, Edwy, seems to have joined 
 the party of the secular clergy. Odo and 
 Dunstan declared that Edwy's marriage with 
 Elgjva was unlawful, and after a great deal 
 of violent dispute, Edwy consented to divorce 
 her. The story of Odo's cruel persecution 
 of Elgiva is in all probability absolutely 
 mythical. [Dunstan.] 
 
 William of Malmesbury j Hook, Archbishops 
 of Canterbury, 
 
 Odo, Bishop of Bayeux {d. 1096), was the 
 half-brother of William the Conqueror, whom 
 he accompanied and greatly assisted in his 
 invasion of England. In 1067, during 
 William's absence in Normandy, he acted 
 as regent of the kingdom in conjunction with 
 William Fitz-Osbern. Their harsh and op- 
 pressive rule contributed to the risings of the 
 English in various parts of the country, which 
 disquieted the early part of William I.'s 
 reign. However, in 1073 he was again ap- 
 pointed regent, and helped to crush the rebel- 
 lion of the Earls of Hereford and Norfolk. 
 He was munificently rewarded, raised to the 
 second rank in the kingilom, and given the 
 earldom of Kent and several rich manors. 
 He now aimed at the papacy, but his am- 
 bitious projects were cut short by the king, 
 who had him arrested as Earl of Kent, and 
 committed to prison, where he remained till' 
 William's death. Though he was released 
 and restored to his earldom and estates by 
 Eufus, he joined Robert in his invasion of 
 England. Being taken prisoner he was com- 
 pelled to quit the country, and retired to 
 Normandy, where he acted as minister to 
 Robert, and accompanying him on the 
 Crusade died, it is said, at the siege of 
 Antio(3h. 
 
 Orclericua Vitalia, Hist, Eccles. ; Freeman, Nor- 
 liuin Conqutst. 
 
 O'Donnell, Baldeakg, the descendant 
 of an ancient Celtic race, was in the 
 service of the Spanish government when 
 he heard that his countrymen had risen 
 against the Revolution settlement of 1688. 
 The Spanish king refused him permission to 
 join them. He thereupon made his escape, 
 and after a circuitous route through Turkey 
 he landed at Kinsale. His appearance excited 
 great enthusiasm; 8,000 Ulster men joined 
 him, and he came to the assistance of the 
 garrison at the first siege of Limerick. After 
 the defeat of the Irish at Aghrim it was 
 hoped that he would come to the defence 
 
 of Galway. But he studiously held aloof. 
 Soon afterwards he joined the English army 
 with a few of his devoted followers, and 
 on several occasions did valuable service to 
 William. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist. ofEng. 
 
 O'Donnell, Hugh, called Red Hugh 
 {d. 1602), was son and heir of Rory 
 O'Donnell, Earl of Tyroonnel. In 1588 he 
 was treacherously seized by order of Sir John 
 Perrot, and kept a prisoner at Dublin as a 
 hostage for his father's good behaviour. He, 
 however, escaped after three years' captivity, 
 and at once joined Hugh O'Neil. In 1601 
 he commanded the O'Donnells, who marched 
 with O'Neil to raise the siege of Kinsale, and 
 their defeat there is said to have been, in part 
 at least, due to his impetuositj'. In 1602 he 
 sailed to Spain with a long train of followers, 
 and was received by the court with great dis- 
 tinction, but died soon afterwards. 
 Moore, Hist, of Ireland. 
 
 O'Donnell, Roky, Earl of Tyroonnel 
 {d. 1618), was brother of Red Hugh O'Donnell. 
 In 1603 he gave up his Irish title, and re- 
 ceived a grant of his lands and the earldom 
 from James I. In 1607, however, he seems 
 to have conspired with O'Neily Earl of 
 Tyrone, and with him at all e\'ents he went 
 abroad, where he died after being, attainted 
 in 1612. 
 
 O'Donnells, The Sept. of the, •were 
 powerful in Ulster, where the O'Neils were 
 their hereditary foes and rivals. Calwagl 
 O'Donnell was captured by Shane O'Nei], 
 together with the Countess of Argyle, Tiis 
 wife, in 1560, and remained a prisoner till 
 1564, and even then he had to purchase his 
 release by the loss of a large part, of his 
 lands. In James's reign, however, he Te- 
 gained his possessions, and became Earl of 
 Tyroonnel. Soon afterwards, being involved 
 in a plot, he fled, and, with his family, became 
 prominent at the Spanish court.. 
 Froude, Bist, ofEng. 
 
 Offa, King of Mercia (757—796), was of 
 the royal house of Mercia, though not nearly 
 related to Ethelbald, the last sovereign in 
 the direct line of descent. He drove out 
 the usurper Beornred, and quiokly made 
 himself master of the kingdom. Under 
 him Mercia became the greatest power in 
 Britain. He thoroughly subdued Kent by 
 his victorj' at Otford in 774, inflicted in "777 
 a great defeat on Wessex at Bensington, and 
 annexed Oxfordshire to Mercia. He fre- 
 quently defeated the Welsh, and 'pushed tlie 
 boundaries of Mercia westward. To protect 
 his frontiers' he constructed from the Wye to 
 the Dee a dyke, the remaining traces of which 
 still bear his name. To strengthen his power 
 he got leave from the Pope in 786 to estaWisTi 
 at Lichfield an archbishopric independent of 
 the see Of -Canterbury, Tlie "murder til EtJiel>- 
 
Off 
 
 ( 780 ) 
 
 Old 
 
 bert of East Anglia is one great blot on Offa's 
 character. On the whole he appears to 
 hare been a, wise and humane ruler, and to 
 have encouraged learning. He drew up a 
 code of laws which have unfortunately- 
 perished. He was very liberal to the Church 
 both at home and abroad, and founded many 
 monasteries, aimong which was the great 
 abbey of St. Albans. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; Matthew Paris, Yitce 
 duorurn Offarum; Lappenberg, Anglo-Saxon 
 Kings I J. E. Green, The Making of England. 
 
 Offaley, Lobd Thomas {d. 1536), was the, 
 eldest son of the ninth Earl of Kildare. He 
 renounced his allegiance to the sovereign 
 power, and broke out into open rebellion. 
 He was totally defeated near Naas, and sent 
 to England as a prisoner, where he and five 
 of his uncles were hanged at Tyburn. 
 
 Oglethorpe, General James Edward 
 (5. 1698, d. 178.5), after serving in the army 
 with distinction, was returned to Parliament as 
 member for Haslemere (1722). He was cele- 
 brated for his philanthropy, and founded the 
 colony of Georgia, and an asylum for debtors. 
 
 Olaf (Anlaf), Haroldson (or St. Olap) 
 {d. 1030), was brought up in the kingdom of 
 Novgorod, and at an early age put to sea on 
 a buccaneering expedition. He next appears 
 as the friend of the Norman dukes, and fought 
 as Ethelred's ally in England. Finding that 
 Canute had his hands full in England, he 
 resolved to make an attempt for the crown 
 of Norway, and, leaving England, was suc- 
 cessful in estabhshing himself there. Canute, 
 when he found himself secure in England, 
 set out with a magnificent fleet, largely 
 manned by English, to assert his supremacy, 
 which Olaf had denied. The Norwegian 
 king fled before him into Sweden, where 
 he managed to secure the help of many 
 outlaws and broken men. With them, and a 
 faithful knot of personal friends, he returned 
 to Norway to regain his throne. At the 
 battle of Sticklestead, he was defeated and 
 slain (1030). His body was hastily buried, 
 but was later taken up, being found incor- 
 rupt, and buried in great state in a shrine 
 at Trondhjem (Drontheim). Many English 
 churches are consecrated to him. Tooley 
 Street, in London, stiU preserves his name in 
 the old Danish quarter. 
 
 Snorro Sturleson, Heimsknngla ; Skulason 
 Glajs Saga apud Sci-ipta Rv,t. Manionm; Saxo 
 Grammaticus, Hist. lianica, lib. x. ; Maurer, 
 Beliehrung des No^-wogisohen Stammes. 
 
 Olaf (Anlaf), Trygwason {d. 1000), 
 was the son of a Norwegian sea-king of 
 royal blood, and was probably bom in the 
 British Isles. The accounts of his early days, 
 which originate in a Latin chronicle, now 
 lost, are not to be trusted. His first ap- 
 pearance in English annals is probably 988, 
 when Watchot was harried, and Gova, the 
 
 Devonish thane, slain, and many men with 
 him; but in 993 we are told how he came 
 with 4.50 ships to Stone, and thence to Sand- 
 wich, and thence to Ipswich, harrying all 
 about, and so to Maldon. Here he was 
 met by Brihtnoth, the famous ealdorman, 
 whom he defeated and slew. Next year, with 
 Sweyn, the Danish king, he laid siege to 
 London, but failed to take it. They then 
 harried, burnt, and slew all along the' sea- 
 coasts of Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Hamp- 
 shire. On receipt of £16,000 they agreed to a 
 peace, and Olaf promised never again to visit 
 England save peacefully. Next spring he 
 went to Norway and wrested the kingdom 
 from Earl Hacon; here he ruled for five 
 years, during which time he established 
 Christianity in the various districts of Norway 
 and her colonies. He disappeared mysteriously 
 after a battle that he had lost ; rumours of his . 
 living at Rome and the Holy Land as a hermit 
 were long rife in the North. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ; Snorro Sturleson, Seim- 
 
 sTcringla ; Mauxer, Bekehrung deB Narwegisclien 
 
 Stammes, 1856. 
 
 Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham {d. 
 
 1417), was a member of the royal household 
 and a personal friend of Henry V. He was 
 the leader of the Lollards. In 1413 the 
 clergy determined to strike a blow at them by 
 indicting Oldcastle. He refused to appear 
 before Convocation, and was excommuni- 
 cated. At last, compelled to attend before a 
 spiritual court at St. Paul's, he yet refused to 
 recant his opinion, and re-asserted many of 
 his former statements, declaring, among 
 other things, that " the Pope, ihe bishops, and 
 the friars constituted the head, the members, 
 and the tail of antichrist." Thereupon he was 
 pronounced a heretic, and imprisoned in the 
 Tower. Making his escape, he was expected 
 to put himself at the head of a large body of 
 followers, who assembled in St. Giles's 
 Fields; but Henry's promptitude prevented 
 the rising, and Oldcastle escaped from Lon- 
 don. In 141.5 he attempted to excite a rebel- 
 lion, and in 1417 he was captured in the 
 Welsh Marches, and put to death as a heretic 
 and a traitor. " Perhaps we shall most.safely 
 conclude," says Dr. Stubbs. " from the tenor 
 of history, that his doctrinal creed was far 
 sounder than the principles which guided 
 either his moral or political conduct." Sir 
 John Oldcastle married the heiress of the 
 barony of Cobham, and in her right was sum- 
 moned to Parliament as Lord Cobham, by 
 which name he is often known. [Lollards.] 
 
 Old Samiu is generally regarded as the 
 Roman Sorbiodunum. The Saxons in 552 
 captured it from the Britons, and named 
 it Searesbyrig. In 960 a Witenagemot 
 was held at Old Sarum, and the barons 
 were assembled here by William in 1086. 
 From the reign of the Conqueror till 
 the. thirteenth century it was the seat of a 
 
Oli 
 
 ( 781 ) 
 
 O'Ne 
 
 bishop ; but the town then, followed the 
 church, which was rebuilt in the plain; 
 and hereafter it has continued to be almost 
 deserted. Nevertheless, it sent two members 
 to Parliament, and it was for Old Sarum 
 that Williaui Pitt, Earl of Chatham, first 
 sat (1735). In 1832 it was disenfranchised 
 by the Reform BiU. 
 
 Olive Branch Fetition, The (July, 
 1775), was the ultimatum on the part of the 
 American colonies prior to the War of Inde- 
 pendence. It was a petition drawn up by 
 Congress, urging the king to direct some 
 mode of reconciliation. Respectful and con- 
 ciliatory, the petition proposed no terms or 
 conditions, though it was generally under- 
 'stood that the colonies would insist on the 
 repeal of the obnoxious statutes, and would 
 reijuire some solemn charter regulating the re- 
 lations of the two countries in the future. The 
 petition was entrusted to Richard Penn, joint 
 proprietor of the influential colony of Penn- 
 sylvania. But on his arrival in London in 
 August, " no minister waited on him or sent 
 for him, or even asked him one single question 
 about the state of the colonies." The king 
 would have nothing to do with the petition or 
 its bearer. The American envoys foresaw too 
 clearly that the result of the refusal would be 
 bloodshed ; but Lord Dartmouth only expressed 
 tlie popular misconception of the gravity of 
 the situation, when he said that if he thought 
 the refusal would be the cause of shedding 
 cue drop of blood he would never have con- 
 curred in it. [George III.] 
 
 Bancroft, Hist, of American Revolution, ii., c. 
 49 ; Stanhope, Hist, of Eng., tI, c. 52. 
 
 Omdut-nl-Omrall, Nabob of the Car- 
 natic, on the death of Mahomet All (1793) suc- 
 ceeded to the throne and debts of his father. 
 During his administration the prosperity of 
 the country was rapidly declining, and the re- 
 sources of government were threatened with 
 extinction. He was, however, surrounded by 
 European money-lenders, and enabled to pay 
 the English subsidy, and thus defer the crisis 
 for a short time. Lord Hobart, Governor of 
 Madras, proposed that the mortgaged dis- 
 tricts should be ceded to the Company in 
 lieu of the subsidy. This the Nabob refused, 
 and also a similar proposition by Lord Mor- 
 uington in 1799. On the outbreak of hosti- 
 lities with Tippoo, Lord "WeUesley demanded 
 a war contribution of three lacs of pagodas ; 
 this was promised, but not paid. Various 
 propositions of cession were made in lieu of 
 subsidy, but all were refused. Meanwhile 
 the Nabob had continued the intercourse and 
 correspondence with Tippoo which his father 
 had begun 'in violation of the Treaty of 1792,^ 
 and at the capture of Seringapatam proofs oi 
 this were discovered. Before, however, any 
 action was taken the Nabob died (1800). 
 
 Welles ey Despatcftes ; Mill, Hist, of Iniia; 
 Wilks, Mysore. 
 
 Omiclinild was a wealthy banker of 
 Moorshedabad, who became acquainted with 
 the plot which Meer Jaflier had arranged 
 with Clive for the destruction of Surajah 
 Dowlah. He demanded £300,000 as a bribe 
 for silence. Clive therefore caused two 
 treaties to be made out — the real one on white 
 paper, in which Omichund was not men- 
 tioned, and the other, the false one, on red. 
 Clive and the committees signed both, but 
 Admiral "Watson refused to sign the false 
 one. CUve therefore forged his signature. 
 When Omichund became aware of the de- 
 ception that had been practised upon him, he 
 lost his reason. 
 
 Macaulay, Essays, 
 
 O'Neil, CoNX, Earl of Tyrone {d. 
 circa 1552), joined the Geraldines in their 
 rebellion, and for a long time maintained 
 himself against the Enghsh forces. In 1542 
 he consented to resign his title of " The 
 O'Neil," and, being refused the earldom of 
 Ulster, went over to England, and was made 
 Earl of Tyrone : his favourite, though illegi- 
 timate, son Matthew being elevated at the 
 same time to the peerage as Lord Dungannon 
 and the earldom entailed on him. On his 
 death, a furious struggle broke out between 
 Matthew's son and his uncle Shane, in which 
 the latter triumphed. 
 
 O'Neil, Hugh, Earl of Tyrone, called 
 "the arch rebel" {d. 1616), was the son of 
 Matthew, Baron of Dungannon, who was 
 himself the base son of Conn O'Neil, the first 
 Earl of Tyrone. He first appears as com- 
 mander of a troop of horse on the queen's 
 side against Desmond. In 1587 the rank 
 and title of Earl of Tyrone is acknowledged 
 to be his, and, on his appeal to the queen, he 
 is also invested with the lands attached to the 
 earldom. He married the daughter of Sir 
 H. Bagenal, but was suspected of having 
 carried her off by force. Afterwards he was 
 the ally of Red Hugh O'Donnell, but, never- 
 theless, he still temporised while he sought to 
 obtain help from Spain. In 1597 he at last 
 threw off the mask, and, assuming the royal 
 title of " The O'Neil," allied himself with the 
 neighbouring clans. After some fighting, he 
 seemed ready to submit, and allowed the 
 EngUsh to rebuild Blackwater Fort. He was 
 soon in arms again, however, and, in 1589, he 
 overthi-ew Sir H. Baggnal in person at the 
 battle of Blackwater. Ulster, Connaught, 
 and Leinster in consequence rose. The 
 queen, now thoroughly alarmed, sent over 
 the Earl of Essex as Lord-Lieutenant. He 
 brought with him ample powers, and an army 
 of 20,000 foot and 2,000 horse, the largest Ire- 
 land had ever'seen. The two leaders met near 
 Ballyduich, in the middle of the river Brenny ; 
 a truce was arranged, and Essex consented to 
 submit O'Neil's demands to the queen. They 
 included complete freedom of religion and the 
 
O'Ne 
 
 ( 782 ) 
 
 O'TSte 
 
 restoration of all forfeited land to the O'Neils, 
 the O'Donnells, and to Desmond. Essex soon 
 after left Ireland, and Lord Mountjoy suc- 
 ceeded him as commander of the English 
 forces. The rest of the country gradu- 
 ally submitted, hut O'Neil still held out 
 in hopes of foreign succour. In 1601, .5,000 
 Spaniards at last landed at Kinaale, and 
 some 2,000 more at Castlehaven. Kinsale 
 was at once hesieged by Lord Mountjoy and 
 the Earl of Thomond. O'Neil, joined by 
 O'Donnell, and by Captain Tyrel with the 
 2,000 Spaniards from Castlehaven, marched 
 to- raise the siege. Against his own better 
 judgment, he engaged the English forces on 
 Dec. 23, 1601, and was defeated with a loss of 
 1,200 killed. In crossing the Blackwater on 
 his retreat, he suffered another severe loss 
 and was himself dangerously wounded. The 
 iiord-Deputy then followed him into Tyrone, 
 took his forts, ravaged the country, and even 
 broke to pieces the old stone seat on which 
 the O'Neils had been from time immemorial 
 inaugurated as chiefs. When all hopes of 
 Spanish succour came to an end by the sur- 
 render of Kinsale, and finally by the capture 
 of Dunboy and the non-sailing of the Spanish 
 armament, Mountjoy induced the queen to 
 accept O'Neil's submission, which he made at 
 MeUefont, being reinstated in his earldom of 
 Tyrone. James I. at first treated him very 
 kindly, but, when the English shire system 
 began to be introduced and the penal laws 
 began to be carried out, Tyrone conspired 
 with Tyrconnel and the Spaniards. In 1607, 
 thinking himself discovered, he fled the 
 country and settled in Bome, where he died 
 in 1616. His lands were confiscated after his 
 flight. By the death of his sons soon after, 
 this branch of the O'Neils became extinct. 
 
 Froude, Bng. in Ireland; Moore, Hist, of Ire- 
 land; Camden, Annales rerum Antjlicaruni et 
 Kibemicarum; Morysou, Hist, of Ireland, 1635. 
 
 O'lfeil, Owen Eoe {d. 1680), had been an 
 ofiicer in the Spanish service, but returned to 
 Ulster, and in July, 1642, assumed the com- 
 mand. He was soon hailed as " The O'lSTeil," 
 though he was not in the direct line of 
 descent. The Council entrusted him with the 
 command in Ulster ; but he was not at flrst 
 very successful, and had to appeal to them for 
 help. But, on June 5, 1646, he won the 
 splendid victory over Monroe's Scots and 
 English at Benburb. He was opposed to the 
 reconciliation between Ormonde and the 
 Catholics, and, in 1649, went so far as to 
 come to an agreement with Monk ; but, after 
 Rathmines, the English Parliament refused 
 to, agree to this treaty, and he then proceeded 
 to join Ormonde. Before he could effect his 
 purpose, however, he was struck down by ill- 
 ness, or, as some say, poison, and died at 
 Clonaoter, in Cavan. Lecky says of him that 
 "during the whole of his career he showed 
 himself an able and honourable man." 
 
 Leoky, England in the Eighteenth Century; 
 
 Proude, English in Ireland; Watner; Corte, 
 Hist, of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde. 
 
 O'Neil, Shane (d. 1.567), was the legitimate 
 eldest son of Conn O'Neil. By Henry VIII.'s 
 patent the earldom of Tyrone, as granted to 
 Conn, was to descend to Matthew, his base son, 
 and his heirs. Matthew had before Conn's 
 death fallen by Shane's hand, but his son was 
 supported by England. Shane O'Neil, how- 
 ever, got recognised as the O'Neil by a large 
 part of the clan, and held out in rebellion 
 against the Earl of Sussex, his personal foe. 
 An attemptto set up O'Donnell against him 
 led to that chief's capture, and his wife, the 
 Countess of Argyle, became Shane's mistress 
 (1560). Nevertheless, however, Shane pro- 
 fessed himself anxious for peace, and even for 
 an English wife ; at last he was induced with 
 this view to go over to England, where he was 
 well received by Elizabeth, but not allowed 
 to return. When, however,_ in 1561, the 
 young Earl of Tyrone was murdered by one 
 of his kinsmen, SKane was allowed to depart 
 and at once succeeded -to all his nephew's 
 power. In 1564 the LordTDeputy made an 
 attempt at a meeting with Shane at Dundalk 
 to induce him to liberate O'Donnell, who was 
 still his prisoner. This he finally did, but on 
 terms sufficiently humiliating for England 
 and its ally. Soon after he concluded a 
 treaty with Sir Thomas Cusaeke, in accord- 
 ance with which he submitted ; he was, how- 
 ever, allowed to call himself the O'Neil till 
 an English title should be found for him and 
 the garrison of Armagh was withdrawn. 
 This treaty he observed very faithfully, and 
 in accordance with the wishes of the English 
 he attacked and for the time destroyed the 
 Island Scots in 1564. When Sir H. Sidney 
 came over as Lord-Deputy, he refused to 
 restore O'Donnell's lands, and ravaged the 
 Pale ; in consequence he was attacked by the 
 united forces of the Lord-Deputy, of the Pale, 
 and of the O'Donnells, and in 1567 all his 
 forts were taken, and his own clan abandoned 
 him. He fled to the Scots, but Oge Mac- 
 Cormel, determined to revenge the defeat and 
 fall of his brother, and had him murdered in 
 his camp. Shane's head was stuck up in 
 Dublin by order of the Lord-Deputy. Shane 
 was a remarkable character, and seems to 
 have governed Ulster uncommonly well. It 
 is also evident that he had made a favourable 
 impression on Elizabeth. 
 
 Moore, Hist, of Ireland; Sidiifj/ Papers; 
 Froude, Hist. ofEng, 
 
 O'Neil, Sir Phelim (d. 1652), a relation 
 of the last Earl of Tyrone, was one of the 
 leaders in the Ulster rising of 1641. He was 
 a weak man, and the only one among the 
 leaders who seems to have really allowed and 
 encouraged outrages. At first he spared the 
 prisoners, but after meeting with some 
 reverses, he began to execute his prisoners, 
 and on one occasion even burnt down 
 
O'Ne 
 
 ( 783 ) 
 
 Ord 
 
 Armagh. Early in 1642 he announced that 
 he was entrusted with a royal commission, 
 and showed in support of hia assertion a 
 parchment with the Great Seal of Scotland. 
 It was probahly, but not certainly, torn from 
 an old charter. He also began to style him- 
 self the O'Neil. In July, 1642, however, the 
 command dropped from his feeble hands, and 
 Owen Eoe O'Neil, his successor, expressed in 
 strong terms horror and disgust at his conduct. 
 Sir Phelim's mother, on the other hand, had 
 greatly distinguished herself in protecting 
 the Protestants from her son's cruelty. Sir 
 Phelim's chief success in actual warfare was 
 obtained over the garrison of Drogheda. In 
 16.52 he was tried before the High Court of 
 Justice at Kilkenny, presided over by Fleet- 
 wood, and, together with some 200 others, 
 convicted and executed. 
 
 Froude, Eiig, in Ireland ; Carte, Hist, of the 
 Life of James, Duke of Ormonde. 
 
 O'lTeils, The Sept of the, was the regal 
 race of Ulster, descended from the ancient 
 race which governed Ireland before the days 
 of Brian Boru. In Edward Bruce's invasion 
 their chief resigned his title to the crown. The 
 regal title of the O'Neil was, however, always 
 borne by their chief when he was in arms 
 against England. In Elizabeth's time the 
 O'Neil submitted {circa 1.543), and became 
 Earl of Tyrone, being refused the earldom of 
 Ulster. 
 
 Moore, Sist. of Ireland. 
 
 Orangemen, The, was a term which 
 began to be used as early as 1689, and. 
 was applied to the upholders of Revolution 
 principles. On Sept. 21, 1796, the first 
 Orange lodge was instituted by the Peep 
 o' Day Boys, after the celebrated battle 
 of Diamond. The lodges soon multiplied, 
 their chief object at that time being to 
 disarm the Catholics, who indeed had no 
 right to keep arms. By 1797 they could 
 muster 200,000 men. Many noblemen and 
 gentlemen joined them, and it was their 
 influence which counteracted that of the 
 United Irishmen in 'the north. In 1798 the 
 rebels were more afraid of them than of the 
 regular troops, but Lord Camden, perhaps 
 rightly, refused to employ them, and thereby 
 give a sectarian character to the rebellion. 
 In 1825 they were dissolved by the Associa- 
 tion Bill. In 1836 they, however, again 
 numbered 145,000 members in England and 
 125,000 in Ireland. The Duke of Cumber- 
 land was Grand Master, and the Orangemen 
 were suspected of a wish to change the suc- 
 cession in his favour by force of arms. Con- 
 sequently, after a parliamentary inquiry, their 
 lodges were broken up. In 184.5 they were 
 again revived, and many faction fights fol- 
 lowed in Ireland. In 1869 great excitement 
 was created by the arrest of their Grand 
 Master for violating the Party Processions A ct. 
 Pronde, Eiig. in Ireland ; May, Const. Hist. ; 
 McCarthy, Hist. ofOm Own Times. 
 
 Ordainers, The Lords, consisted of earls, 
 barons, and bishops, appointed in March, 1310, 
 to hold office tUl Michaelmas, 1311, and to 
 draw up ordinances for the reform of the 
 realm. A precedent for the appointment of 
 such a commission was found in the proceed- 
 ings of the Oxford Parliament of 1258, and 
 in both cases it is noticeable that the Com- 
 mons had no share in the matter. The 
 Ordainers were twenty-one in number, viz., 
 seven bishops, eight earls, and six barons. 
 
 Ordeal. This name, once written orddl 
 and ordil, etymologically signifies a distri- 
 bution into " deals " or parts, then a discrimi- 
 nating, and then a deciding (Ger. Urtheit), and 
 was given to a peculiar method of reaching 
 the facts in criminal cases that made a feature 
 of the Anglo-Saxon judicial system. Though 
 represented as an inheritance from Pagan 
 times, it is described as "a reference to the 
 direct judgment of God," and would seem to 
 have been allowed as an alternative to those 
 who failed in or shrank from the process by 
 compurgation or by oath. " If he dare not 
 take the oath," says an old law, " let him go 
 to the triple ordeal.' ' But the recorded details 
 wiU not warrant a positive statement; We 
 only know that under certain circumstances, 
 while the court, sheriff, bishop, thegns, &c., 
 declared the law, the ordeal was expected to 
 reveal the facts. The ceremony took place in 
 church. After three days of severe discipline 
 and austere diet, having communicated and 
 made oath that he was innocent, the accused 
 person, standing between twelve friends and 
 twelve foes, when a special service had con- 
 cluded, plunged his arm into boiliilg water, 
 drew out a stone or lump of iron, and had his 
 arm bandaged by the priest. This was the 
 ordeal of water ; or he was called on to seize 
 a bar of iron that had lain on a fire till the 
 last collect of the service had been read, cany 
 it for three feet, and hasten to the altar, when 
 the priest promptly applied the bandages. 
 This was the ordeal of iron. If in three 
 days' time the priest could say the arm was 
 healed, the sufferer was pronounced guiltless, 
 if not, he was judged as one convicted of God. 
 Minor or less accredited ordeals were the 
 coraned, or eating of the consecrated'or accused 
 morsel, and the casting of the subject, bound, 
 into deep water. If the former did not choke, 
 if the latter threatened to drown, it was taken 
 as a proof of innocence. Walking on burning 
 ploughshares also appears as an ordeal, but 
 seldom, if ever, save in incredible stories, as 
 in that told of Emma, Canute's widow. 
 
 Ordeal continued after the Conquest. The 
 Conqueror allowed it to Englishmen when 
 challenged by Normans in place of the newly- 
 introduced trial by battle. "Domesday," Prof. 
 Freeman tells us, " is full of cases in which 
 men offer to prove their rights ... by 
 battle or by ordeal." In the Assize of North- 
 ampton (1176) it is ordered that men presented 
 
Ord 
 
 ( 784) 
 
 Ore 
 
 before the king's justices for the darker crimes 
 should " go to the -judgment of water." But 
 it fell iuto disrepute ; the Church withdrew 
 her countenance from it; other processes, 
 notably the crude forms of the jury system, 
 gr^ into favour; the Laterau Council of 
 1215 abolished it. This sealed its doom in 
 England as elsewhere ; a letter of Henry HI.'s 
 to the itinerant justices in 1218 is usually 
 accepted as marking its final extinction. 
 
 Palgi-ave, E^iglish Coinmov.v:ealth ; Lingard, 
 Hist, of Sng.; Stubtis, Const. Htst. rj_ jj I 
 
 Ordericus VitaUs (i. 1075, d. 1145) 
 was of mixed parentage, his father being a 
 native of Orleans and his mother an English- 
 woman. He was born in England, but spent 
 most of his time at Lisieux, in Normandy. 
 He wrote an Ecclesiastical History^ chiefly con- 
 cerned with the aif airs of Normandy, and he is 
 on the whole the most valuable authority for the 
 reigns of William the Conqueror and his son. 
 The first part of his work deals with the 
 history of the Church from the beginning of 
 the Christian era to the year 855 ; the second 
 part gives the history of the monastery of 
 St. Evroul ; and the third part is a general 
 history of events in Western Christendom 
 from CaroUngian times down to the year 
 1141. 
 
 The "best edition is that publislied at Paris by 
 
 Le Prevost, and a translation will "be found in 
 
 Bolin's Antiquarian Ijihravy. 
 
 Orders in Coiuicil are orders by the 
 sovereign with the advice of the Privy 
 Council. They have been issued in times of 
 emergency. In 1766 an embargo was im- 
 posed on the exportation of corn, because of a 
 deficient harvest and the prospect of a famine. 
 Napoleon I.'s Berlin decree, declaring the 
 whole of the British Islands to be in a state 
 of blockade, called forth, on Jan. 7, 1807, an 
 Order in Council prohibiting all vessels, under 
 the penalty of seizure, from trading to ports 
 under the influence of France. Further' 
 orders bearing upon the same question were 
 issued on Nov. 11 and 21 of the same year. 
 On April 26, 1808, by a new Order in Council, 
 the blockade was limited to France, Holland, 
 a part of Germany, and the north of Italy. 
 The legality of Orders in Council has been 
 frequently questioned. They have, however, 
 been authorised by statute in various matters 
 connected with trade and the revenue ; and 
 the International Copyright Act, 7 and 8 Vic, 
 cap. 12, contains a clause empowering the 
 crown by Order in Council to extend the 
 bnnefits of that Act to works first published 
 in any state that gives a like privilege to the 
 productions of this country. 
 
 Ordinance is a form of legislation op- 
 posed to a statute. An ordinance has been 
 defined as "a regulation made by the king, 
 by himself, or in his council, or with the 
 advice of his council, promulgated in letters 
 patent or in charter, and liable to be recalled 
 
 by the same authority." The essential 
 difference between an ordinance and a statute 
 lay in the fact that the former did not require 
 to be enacted in Parliament, and might be 
 repealed without Parliament. Moreover, the 
 ordinance is the temporary Act of the execu- 
 tive ; the statute, the permanent Act of the 
 legislature. From the earliest days of Parlia- ■ 
 ment a great deal of jealousy was felt, on 
 account of the ordaining power of the king 
 and his council. It very frequently happened 
 that an ordinance practically repealed or 
 materially modified what had been enacted 
 by statute; and in 1389 a petition was pre- 
 sented by the Commons praying that no 
 ordinance be made contrary to the common 
 law, the ancient customs of the land, or the 
 statutes made by Parliament. The sovereign 
 still possesses the power, which must be given 
 to the executive, of legislating by ordinance 
 in certain cases. But these ordinances, or 
 Orders in Council, as they are termed, are 
 only made with the consent of Parliament, 
 are in most cases laid before the two Houses, 
 and may be abrogated by Act of Parliament. 
 
 Ordovices, The, were an ancient British 
 tribe who occupied the north of Wales and 
 
 Oregon Question, The. The treaty 
 of 1783 between the United States and 
 England had omitted to define the frontier 
 between Canada and the United States east- 
 wards from the great lakes, and also west- 
 wards from the Rocky Mountains, leaving 
 open the disposal of the vast district lying 
 between the Eocky Mountains and the 
 Pacific. In November, 1818, a convention was 
 concluded between the two governments con- 
 taining this stipulation, that " whatever terri- 
 tory may be claimed by one or other of the 
 contracting parties on the north-west coast of 
 America, to the west of the Eocky Mountains, 
 as also all bays, harbours, creeks, or rivers 
 thereon, shall be free and open to the ships, 
 citizens, and subjects of both powers, for ten 
 years from the date of the signature of 
 the present convention." This convention 
 was renewed Aug. 6, 1827, for an indefinite 
 period, with the understanding that either 
 party might rescind the stipulation by giving 
 twelve months' notice. The boundary ques- 
 tion was thus left still in abeyance. Numerous 
 difficulties occurred, and in 1846 the American 
 legislature gave notice that the existing con- 
 vention would terminate in twelve months. A 
 great deal of indig-nation had previously been 
 excited in England by President Polk's in- 
 augural address in 1845, in which he dis- 
 tinctly claimed Oregon as part of the United 
 States, and asserted that the Americans would 
 maintain their right to it by force of arins if 
 necessary. This speech was replied to by 
 Sir Robert Peel in a spirited address to the 
 House of Commons. England at once trans- 
 mitted a proposition for a settlement, and this 
 
Orf 
 
 ( 785) 
 
 Orl 
 
 was eventually accepted by the United States. 
 The territory was then equitably divided be- 
 tween the two countries by the Oregon Treaty 
 of 1846. The north-west frontier was defined 
 along the main land to the coast, but there 
 were some minor points which were not 
 defined with sufficient precision to prevent 
 mistake. In consequence a dispute arose later 
 as to the ownership of the little island of San 
 Juan, which was decided by arbitration. 
 
 EUenborough, Diary; Martin, Xi/*j of fhs 
 Pnnce Consort; Moleswortli, Hist. ofMng. 
 
 Orford, EAitL of. [Eussell ; Waipole.] 
 
 Orkney and Shetland, the northern- 
 most county of modern Scotland, consists of 
 two groups of islands, of which the Orkneys 
 are the southernmost. There are faint traces 
 of their having been originally inhabited by 
 Picts. If Nennius could be believed {Mon. Hist. 
 Brit,, p. 56a) it was the original settlement of 
 that nation. In a.d. 86 Agrioola took posses- 
 sion of the Orkneys, but it is improbable 
 that the Eomans ever effected a definite oc- 
 cupation. When in 682 the Pictish king, Brude 
 MacBile, devastated the Orkney Islands, 
 he must have waged war against some civil 
 foes. But the real history of the northern 
 islands begins with the Scandinavian settle- 
 ments. Their position exposed them to 
 Viking outrages, and invited the settlement 
 of the hardy Norsemen, who fled beyond sea 
 from the tyranny of Harold Harfagr. In 874 
 Thorstein the Red, son of a Norse King of 
 Dublin, had already conquered both Orkney 
 and Shetland, and Caithness and Sutherland. 
 But within ten years Harfagr himself sailed 
 to Orkney, added it to his empire, and consti- 
 tuted it an earldom in favour of Eognwald, 
 who handed it over to his brother Sigurd. 
 Jarl Sigurd soon added to his government 
 Caithness and Sutherland, if not districts still 
 further south. It is unnecessary to enter into 
 the detailed history of the Jarls of Orkney, of 
 their wars with the Scots, in the Hebrides, 
 and in Ireland. Their district was frequently 
 split up into two portions, held by different 
 members of the reigning family. Tlie Scottish 
 kings claimed some indefinite suzerain rights 
 over Caithness, but Orkney paid scat or tribute 
 to Norway alone. Some of the more valiant 
 of the earls conquered the whole of the 
 districts north of the Spey, but the evidence 
 of language no less than df history shows that 
 "Suther land" was the southernmost point 
 of the district permanently occupied by the 
 Norsemen. Unlike the Hebrides, the jarldom 
 of Orkney was not only conquered, but colo- 
 nised. The original inhabitants were nearly 
 extirpated. To this day the language of the 
 district is English, the nomenclature Norse, 
 the laws and constitution purely Scandinavian. 
 The udal tenure, and the Norse poor law are 
 but things of yesterday in Orkney. After the 
 introduction of Christianity by Olaf Trygg- 
 vason in 997, Orkney became the seat of a 
 
 bishopric, and Shetland later of an arch- 
 deaconry, which were included in the province 
 of Trondijem. But the obedience of the 
 Bishop of Caithness was more doubtful. Earl 
 Thorfinn (1014—1064), the founder of the 
 cathedi'al of Kirkwall, was almost the last of 
 the great conquering Jarls of Orkney. His 
 conquests lapsed on his death. His sons, 
 Paul and Erling, who joined Harold Har- 
 drada's expedition to England in 1066, ruled 
 jointly, and were the founders of two lines of 
 earls. The son of Erling was the famous St. 
 Magnus. Malcolm Canmore by bis marriage 
 with Thorfinn's widow brought the whole 
 district into some relation with the Scottish 
 crown. But in 1093 both Orkneys and 
 Western Isles were conquered for a time by 
 Magnus Barefoot of Norway, but on his death 
 in 1104 the native jarls regaiued their practi- 
 cally supreme authority. In 1196 William 
 the Lion definitely subjected Caithness to his 
 throne. In the next centurj' the earldom of 
 Caithness was divided between the Angus 
 and Moray families. At a later period the 
 Sinclairs got possession of it. The islands 
 remained under the nominal suzerainty of the 
 Kings of Norway, and, after the Danish con-, 
 quest, of the Kings of Deumark. In 1470 
 they were handed over to James III. as 
 security for the portion of his wife, Margaret 
 of Denmark. At the same time the bishopric 
 was transferred from the province of Trond- 
 hjem to that of St. Andrews. The pledge was 
 never redeemed, and at last, on the marriage 
 of James VI. with Anne of Denmark, the 
 pretensions of the Danish kings were more 
 formally ceded. The islands were constituted 
 into a Scottish county, though it was not 
 until the Eeform Act of 1832 that Shetland 
 had any voice in returning Parliamentary 
 representatives. The land gradually got into 
 the hands of Scottish proprietors, but the 
 bulk of the population remained Norse, 
 though that language died out with the cessa- 
 tion of the political coimection. 
 
 Anderson's edition of tke OrkneTjimgwr Saga ; 
 Skene, CeMe Scotland; Eobertson, Scotland 
 under her Early Kings ; Torfaei, Orcode.s ■ Barry, 
 Hist, of Orkney ; Biurton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Orleans, The Siege op (1428—29), was 
 commenced by the Duke of Bedford m 
 October, 1428. The English were at this 
 time masters of the whole country north of 
 the Loire, and were anxious to extend their 
 conquests across that river. For this purpose 
 it was necessary that Orleans should be taken, 
 as it commanded the vaUey of the Loire. The 
 size of the city rendered a strict blockade 
 almost impossible, while a considerable French 
 force harassed the besiegers. The battle of 
 Patay, which was fought in Februarj' 
 1429, seemed to deprive the besieged of 
 all hope of succour, and the fall of Orleans 
 was certain, when the sudden rise of Joan 
 of Arc, and the enthusiasm she created. 
 
Orl 
 
 (-786 ) 
 
 Orm 
 
 ■ aided by the skill of Dunoia and ^ othecr 
 generals selected by her, entirely changed 
 the aspect ol affairs. Led by the heroine of 
 Domremy, the French succeeded in entering 
 Orleans in April, -and. on May 8 the English 
 raised the siege and retired, being defeated 
 with considerable -loss ten days later at Patay. 
 Sir E. Creasy places the siege of Orleans 
 among the decisive battles of the world, and 
 
 -certainly its results were very considerable. 
 The raising of the siege was the turn of the 
 tide ; after this the English lost town after 
 town, fortress after fortress, till at last, of all 
 their great French possessions, jCalais alone 
 was left to .them. 
 
 Monstrelct, -jChroniques ; Michelet, ififit. de 
 France, vol. v. 
 
 Orletou, AoAM, Bishop of "Winchester 
 {d. 1^5), was made Bishop of Hereford in 
 
 "the year 1317, and translated to Winchester 
 in 1333. In 1323 he was accused -of high 
 "treason before Parliament. -He refused to 
 recognise the jurisdiction of a lay court, 
 and was supported by all the -other prelates 
 and many of the barons. Edward II. 
 summoned a council of laymen and had 
 Orletou tried before them. A verdict of 
 guilty was returned, and his -property seques- 
 trated. TBefore long, 'however, he was recon- 
 ciled with the king ; but he never f org-ot the 
 insult, and in "1326 he took 'the lead -among 
 the bishops in support of Isabella and Mor- 
 
 'timer. He pla;j"ed a -very important part 
 in the "events which led to Edward's depo- 
 sition and murder, and is largely responsible 
 
 'for both' these acts. 
 
 Ormonde, James Butlek, '4th Eakl of 
 {d. 1452), was Lord-Deputy in Henry IV.'s 
 reign. In Henry V.'s reign. he was Lord- 
 Lieutenant, and succeeded in keeping the 
 natives out of the Pale (q^v.). In 1423 he 
 was superseded. In 1440, however, he again 
 -became 'Lord-Lieutenant, and remained .-bo 
 tin 1446. 
 
 Lodge, Porti^its, 
 
 Ormoude, James Bctler, 5th Eakl op 
 {d.^ May 1, r461), was created Earl of 
 Wiltshire in 1449, and was knighted by Henry 
 VI. In 1453 he became Lord-Lieutenant of 
 Ireland, and got tonnage and poundage graiited 
 .to him on sondition of guarding the seas. Ho 
 ■was an ardent Lancastrian, and fought against 
 the Earl of Warwick at sea. .At Wakefield, 
 "he was one of those who captured the Duke 
 of York. In 1461, .'however, he was taken 
 prisoner at Towton, and beheaded at New- 
 castle (May 1, 1461). Together with his 
 brothers he was attainted in Edward IV.'s first 
 Parliament ; his brother, the six:th earl, was, ' 
 however, soon afterwards restored .in blood. ! 
 
 Ormonde, Thomas Bvtler,7th TEabl on? 
 {d. 1515), succeeded his 'brother, the sixth 
 earl. The act of attainder was finally re- 
 versed by the first Parliament' of Henry VII., 
 
 and he was summoned to the English Parlia- 
 ment as Baron Ormonde of Roehford, in 
 1495. -In 1515 he died, without male issue. 
 Through his daughter, his English barony 
 passed .to the Boleyns, and they were created 
 Earls of Ormonde as well. But on the death 
 of Thomas Boleyn without male issue, in 
 1539, the earldom was restored by Henry 
 VIII. to the Butlers. 
 Lodge, Portraits. 
 
 Ormonde, Thomas Butlek, 10th Earl 
 ■OF {d. 1614), was in 1559 Lord High Trea- 
 surer of Ireland, which ofiice he held tiU. his 
 death. :He was a staunch Protestant, having 
 been educated at the English court ; this em- 
 bittered his -feud 'with the Earl of - Desmond 
 (q.v. ). In 1580 .he 'was appointed Governor of 
 Munster, and the duty .was imposed on him 
 X)f destroying; his old foe, the .Earl of Des- 
 mond. In January, 1580, he. advanced into 
 the country of the .Fitzgeralds, destrojdng all 
 ■before him. It is said that in one year his 
 ■forces killed':836 malefactors, and 4,000 other 
 people. So relentless was his policy that 
 Munster was a desert whenhe left it. .During 
 the remainder of ihis life Ormonde continued 
 -a firm supporter of .the English supremacy. 
 
 Ormonde, James Butler, .1st Duke of 
 [d. 1688), was the most powerful-nobleman in 
 .Ireland. In 1641, -when the .rebellion broke 
 out, rhe -was made lieutenant-general of the 
 iking's forces. In -consequence .of his victory 
 -over Lord Mountgarret at Kilrush in^pril, 
 1 642, he became a marquis. He soon after de- 
 .feated General -Preston, but. the position of the 
 -king in .England being critical, he obeyed, the 
 royal orders, and concluded with^the rebels the 
 .peace called <the Cessation. Soon after he was 
 made Lord-Lieutenant, but being unable to 
 .hold his own, he honourably chose rather to 
 <give up J)ublin to .the .Puritans than .to the 
 vnativea, and surrendered it to ColoneUones, 
 and in 1647 he concluded a regular treaty 
 with the Parliamentary commissioners. .On 
 •ieaiing, however, of Charles L-'s execution, 
 he took out a, new commission as Lord- 
 Lieutenant from .'Charles II., and soon found 
 'himself at the head of all the Irish forces, ex- 
 oepting only O'Neil's troops ; Jiowever, his at- 
 'tempt to besiege 'Dublin was .frustrated by the 
 battle of JRathmines (Aug. 2, 1649), and soon 
 after he left the kingdom. After the battle of 
 Worcester, he remained with -Charles II. in 
 his exile. .On the Eestoration he became Lord 
 .-Butler and Earl of Brecknock in the English 
 peerage, and in i661 Duke of Ormonde in 
 Jreland. Se was again Lord-Lieiitenant 
 from 1661 to 1668, and again from 1677 to 
 .1682. His losses in the king's service 
 were estimated at £900,000. His reputation 
 -for loyalty, ability, and integrity stood very 
 high, and he held aloof from the immorality 
 of Charles's court. His latter years were 
 clouded by his fears for James II., and they 
 
Orm. 
 
 (787) 
 
 Ort 
 
 probably hastened his end. His eldest son, 
 Lord Ossory, had fallen by the hand of an 
 assassin in 1680. .This son was nearly as 
 popular as his father, and had greatly dis- 
 tinguished himself in the Netherlands. 
 
 Burnet, Hist, nf his Own Tinue ; Clarendon, 
 Hist, of the Rehelliosi.; Garte, l^ife of Ormonde. 
 
 Ormonde, James Butler, 2nd Duke op (J. 
 1663, rf. .174:5), was grandson.of the first Duke 
 of Ormonde. On the death of his grand- 
 father, he was elected Chancellor of the Uni- 
 versity of 'Oxford. On the arrival of William 
 in England, he deserted James II. in company 
 ■with Prince George of Denmark, . and was 
 present at the coronation of William and 
 Mary. He was present at the battle of the 
 Boyne, at Steinkirk, and at :Landeu, wher.e 
 he was taken prisoner. In 1696 he voted 
 for the, attainder jof Fen.wick. In 17.00 large 
 grants of land were made him by the Com- 
 mons. ..On the outbreak of the War of 
 the Spanish Succession, he was sent with 
 an expedition to Cadiz, together with ..Sir 
 George Rooke. In 170,3 the duke became laord- 
 Lieutenant .of Ireland, on the resignation of 
 Eoi'hester, and was reappointed in i710. His 
 policy of favouiing.the Catholics and.opposing 
 the Jrish J?arliameut made him vary popular 
 in Ireland. On the dismissal-of Marlborough 
 he was appointed to command the troops in 
 Flanders. He was ordered to undertake no 
 offensive qperations against the .French, in 
 -view of the proposed treaty.^ but he could 
 jiet refuse to join Eugene in the .siege of 
 ^uesnoy. 'On the declaration-of an armistice 
 •{June, 1712), the English troops were-ordered 
 to separate from, Eugene. After the accession 
 of George, it wasTesolved to impeach him for 
 acting in concert with Marshal "Villars. He fled 
 to .France. Bolingbroke ascribes the .ruin of 
 the firetender's cause in 1713 to the .flight of 
 Ormonde and the death of Iiouis XIV. The 
 duke soon started for the coast of Devonshire, 
 hoping to find ihat. county in a state of rebel- 
 lion. But his agent had betrayed his plana.; 
 and there was every appearance ■ of the most 
 profound peace. On his return he quarrelled 
 with Bolingbroke, and induced James Edward 
 todismisshira. In 1719, Alberoni, the Spanish 
 minister, fitted out a fleet, with 3,000 soldiers 
 under the command of Ormonde. -He was to 
 join it at Corunna as " Captain-General of 
 the King of Spain." But the ships were 
 scattered by storm. .He speitt ihe<remamder 
 of his life chiefly in jetirement,at Avignon. 
 In 1740, on the outbreak of war, Ormonde 
 went once more to Madrid, butcould gain no 
 promises of help. In 1744 Charles Edward 
 neglected to summon him ^to join his m- 
 tended invasion of England, until all chance 
 of success was over for the year. " Ormonde, 
 says Stanhope, "unlike Bolingbroke, having 
 taken his part steadily and adhered to it 
 in evil fortune, and never returned to his 
 native country. He was certainly • a .man of 
 
 very amiable temper, and no mean accom- 
 plishments ; and with no blot on his character 
 unless incapacity and. utter want of vigour 
 .are to be looked on as such." 
 
 Bolingbroke, Letter to Wyndham; Maciuilay, 
 Hist, of Eng. ; Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Orsini Question. On Jan. 14, 18S8, 
 "Felix "Orsini and his ^gang attempted '.the 
 assassination of the Emperor of the 'Frenoh 
 ■by means of e::(;plosive bombs. As these men 
 came from 'London, where they had made their 
 ■preparations, great indignation was raccited in 
 France that shelter was afforded to such a 
 ■ crew of ruflians. Count Walewski, Minister 
 'of Foreign Afllairs, wrote to Count Persigny, 
 French ambassador at London, .on the subjeiJt 
 with some acrimony, inveighing against the 
 'defective laws of "England, which aHowedthe 
 right of asylum .to protect such 'assassins. 
 "The French ambaBsador made representations 
 ■to the'English government, and Lord "Palmer- 
 stouj recognising' the justice of the represen- 
 tations, introduced a bill for the punishment 
 of conspiracy ■to mm-der. Unfortunately, 
 however, certain French officers had thought 
 •fit to give vent to their indignation against 
 -England-in their congratulations to the Em- 
 ;peror, and entreated him 'to allow them ,to 
 " demand an account of the land of iniquity 
 -which contains the haunts of the monsters, 
 •who are sheltered by its laws." The -result 
 was 'that -in spite of Count Walewski's en- 
 deavours to remove the bad impression, the 
 spirit of England was roused . and Lord Pal- 
 merston's measure was regarded as an un- 
 worthy concession to the menaces of the 
 'JErench sarmy. It was thrown out on a di- 
 vision, and Lord Palmerston resigned. His 
 iSuccessor, djord Derby, took up a stronger 
 .position,, and ratumed a firm answer ito Count 
 Walewdd's note. A satisfactory reply was 
 received, and the matter terminated in a, 
 friendly and honourable manner. 
 
 Ashley, Life o/ iord jPnlmerston; McCarthy, 
 Jliet. of Our Own Times. 
 
 Orthes, The Battle op (Feb. 27, 1814), 
 ■was fought atihe close.of the Peninsular War, 
 and gained- one of the strong positions which 
 ,Soult had taken up in J)he south' of France. 
 .Two days before the battle, Beresford forced 
 the passage of. the Gave de i?au, below iDrthes. 
 On the next day, Soult learnt this, and took ijp 
 a strong position on a ridge, which was in part 
 covered ■with woods, -and presented :a concave 
 front to the allies. The jidge .was crossed by 
 the main road from .Orthes to iDax,,and was 
 protected in front of its centre -by some 
 swampy ground, at the .further side of which 
 was an old Roman camp, which was oc- 
 cupied, on the day of the battle by the light 
 division. Wellington's plan was to turn 
 the French right, while HiU, skirting the 
 French left, should seize the road to St. Lever ; 
 thus Soult would have no line of retreat, 
 aiid would be shut up in Orthes. The 
 
Osg 
 
 788 ) 
 
 Osw 
 
 attacks of Roe and Pioton on the French, 
 right on the morning of the 27th completely- 
 failed; but Wellington ordered a concentrated 
 assault to be made on the French left and 
 centre. "Wading through the marsh, the troops 
 were not noticed until they drove in the 
 skirmishers, and carried all before them. 
 The confusion soon became general, and 
 the French fell back. Hill meanwhile had 
 forced the ford at Sonars, and was now in 
 possession of the Pau road. There was thus 
 only open to Soult a narrow road to Sault 
 de Navailles. Of this he determined to avail 
 himself, and conducted the retreat with 
 such skill and order that the French were 
 able to seize a small ridge, before Hill could 
 occupy it. "Wellington, being wounded, was 
 unable to superintend the pursuit himself, 
 which was not carried on so vigorously 
 as it might have been. As it was, however, 
 Soult lost an enormous number of stragglers, 
 many of whom fell into the hands of the 
 allies. 
 
 Napier, Feninsular War; Clinton, Peninsular 
 War. 
 
 Osgod Clapa was a Dane in the service 
 of Hardicanute. It was at the marriage of 
 his daughter with Tovi the Proud that 
 Hardicanute died. On the accession of 
 Edward the Confessor he was made Staller, or 
 Master of the Horse, but seems to have been 
 suspected of intrigues with Magnus, and was 
 accordingly banished in 1046. Clapham, near 
 London, is supposed to be named from his 
 mansion. 
 
 Florence of Worcester, Chronicle. 
 
 Osred II., King of Northumbria (788 
 — 789), was the son of Aired ; he succeeded 
 on the murder of Alfwold, but held the 
 kingdom scarcely a year when Ethelred (q.v.) 
 returned, and compelled him to abdicate. 
 He was obliged to assume the tonsure, and 
 subsequently to seek refuge in exile. 
 
 AnglO'Saxon Chronicle; Simeon of Durham. 
 
 Ostmen, or Eastmen (Norse, Aiist- 
 mathr), was the name generally applied to 
 the Scandinavian settlers in Ireland. Towards 
 the end of the eighth century the exception- 
 ally disturbed condition of Ireland, where the 
 power of the ard ri (over-king) had been re- 
 duced to nothing, and sept constantly waged 
 war against sept, invited the Viking rovers to 
 plunder and settle on its coasts. In 795 the first 
 recorded invasion took place. For the next 
 half century the invaders sought plunder only. 
 But about 850 they formed permanent settle- 
 ments along the whole east coast. Dublin, 
 whose suburb Oxmanstnwn still preserves the 
 name of the Ostman, "Wexford, "Waterford— 
 both purely Norse names — Limerick, even in 
 the remotest part of the island, became the 
 centres of Norse jarldoms. "With character- 
 istic facility, the new-comers soon mixed 
 with the natives. Besides the pure races — 
 the Dub-gaill, or black foreigners, and Find- 
 
 gaill or fair foreigners, as various branches of 
 the Norsemen were called — the mixed race of 
 Gall-goidel soon became equally famous as 
 pirates, warriors, and mariners. They con- 
 stantly spread devastation along the shores of 
 Britain. The Welsh coast, from its proximity, 
 was especially often attacked by them. But 
 they also had close relations with the Norse- 
 men more to the north. A son of a King of 
 Dublin first conquered Orkney ; and names 
 like Njal give weight to the theory that 
 Iceland was largely settled by Irish Danps, 
 or at least had constant dealings with them. 
 The Danish kings of Dublin were especially 
 powerful. At last the vigour of the Viking 
 states began to abate. The Ostmen were 
 compelled to acknowledge the overlordship 
 of great English kings, like Edgar. , They 
 became too much mixed up with the clan 
 system of the Irish to retain their old charac- 
 teristics. A great Celtic reaction set in, 
 which culminated in the decisive victory of 
 the famous Brian Boroimhe at the battle of 
 Clontarf in 1014. {See Skene, Celtic Scotland, 
 i. 386.) The power of the Norseman was 
 broken, though the weakness of the con- 
 querors left Dublin a Danish city until the 
 arrival of Strongbow. Their conversion to 
 Christianity still farther weakened the old 
 Viking prowess. Their bishopries, connected 
 with Trondhjem in early times, were in 
 striking contrast to the clan system of the 
 Irish Church. The anxiety of these Norse 
 bishops to avoid amalgamation by the latter 
 by acknowledging the supremacy of Canter- 
 bury, is strikingly brought out by the rela- 
 tions of Lanfrano with the Archbishop of 
 Dublin. (Freeman, Norman Conquest, iv. 529.) . 
 At last the remnants of the Ostmen readily 
 assimilated themselves to their kinsfolk the 
 Norman lords and soldiers who conquered the 
 greater part of Ireland in the reign of Henry 
 II. Except for their influence in the place- 
 names of the island, and on the growth of the 
 towns, they left few permanent traces in the 
 later history of Ireland. 
 
 Chronicles of the Picts and Scots, edited by 
 Skene ; Wars of the Goidhel and thi Gael (Eolls 
 Series) ; Daseut, Burnt Njal; Worsaee, Danes 
 aTid iiorwegians in England, Scotland, and Ira- 
 
 land, rrp -pi T^ T 
 
 Ostorins Scapula, Eoman Governor 
 in Britain (47 — 51), conducted the suc- 
 cessful campaign against Caractaous. The 
 subsequent rising of the Silures taxed his 
 energies, and is said to have occasioned his 
 death. 
 
 Oswald, King of Northumbria (634— 
 642), was the son of Ethelfred. After his 
 father's death, he retired to Scotland, where 
 he remained till the death of his elder brothers 
 gave him the claim to the throne. He de- 
 feated Cadwallon at Heavenfield, near 
 Hexham, and obtained the sovereignty both 
 of Bernicia and Deira. He ranks as the sixth 
 
Osw 
 
 ■{ 789 ) 
 
 Olid: 
 
 Bretwalda, and is said to have reigned over 
 Angles, Britons, Picts, and Scots. He re- 
 established, with the help of St. Aidan, 
 Christianity in Northumbria, and his virtues 
 receive high praise from Bede. He perished 
 at Maserfield in battle against Penda of 
 Mercia. By his subjects he was regarded 
 as a martyr, .and miracles were said to be 
 wrought by his relics. 
 
 Bede, Hist. Ecdes. ; Anglo-Samn Chronicle. 
 
 Oswestry is a town in Shopshire of con- 
 siderable antiquity. It derives its name from 
 Oswald, King of Northumbria, 642. The re- 
 mains of a castle said to date from the Norman 
 Conquest are there, situated on a hiU to the 
 west of the town. 
 
 Oswy, or Oswin, King of Bemicia 
 {b. 642, d. 670), was the sou of Ethelfred. 
 On the death of his brother Oswald, he 
 succeeded to Bemicia and the Bretwalda- 
 ship, while Deira went to his nephew, 
 Oswine. In 6.51 Oswiu murdered his 
 nephew, but failed to conquer the whole of 
 Deira. During the early part of this reign, 
 Northumbria was exposed to frequent attacks 
 from Penda of Mercia, who was, how- 
 ever, defeated and slain by Oswiu in 654. 
 For a short time after this, Oswiu ruled over 
 the whole of Mercia, but was eventually com- 
 pelled by Wulphere to retire within the 
 boundaries of his own kingdom. Oswiu's 
 reign is also important for the union of the 
 Churches in England, which took place now, 
 the Scottish missionaries being obliged to 
 submit to the authority of the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. His reign was most prosperous, 
 and his kingdom "was greatly enlarged by 
 victories over the Picts. 
 
 Bede, JSiM, JEccleg, ; Anglo-Saxon Ch/l'Onicle; 
 Lappeuberg, Anglo-Saxon Kings. 
 
 Otadeui, or Ottadeni, The, were an 
 ancient British tribe occupying the coast from 
 the Tyne to the Firth of Forth, including a 
 large part of Northumberland, with the 
 present counties of Berwick and East Lothian, 
 and part of Roxburghshire. 
 
 Otford, The Battle op (773), was fought 
 between Offa and Alrio of Kent, and resulted 
 in a victory of the former, and the sub- 
 mission of Kent to Mercia. 
 
 _ Otho, one of the chaplains of Pope Hono- 
 rius III., was sent over to England as nuncio 
 in 1225, partly to plead for Falkes de Breaute, 
 in which he was unsuccessful, and partly to 
 raise money for the Pope by obtaining a grant 
 of two prebends in each cathedral. This 
 monstrous demand was refused, and in 1226 
 Otho left England, to return in 1237 with 
 f-uU legatine powers. He now acted with 
 great moderation, arranged some difficulties 
 with Scotland, reformed the Church, and 
 attempted to abolish pluralities. But his 
 rapacity, was unbounded, and when he left 
 
 England in 1241, it was said that he had then 
 drained the country of more money than he 
 had left in it. 
 
 Ottawa is the capital of Canada. It was 
 named Bytown, after Colonel By, until 1854, 
 when it was incorporated as a city under its 
 present name. In 1865 it was made the 
 Canadian capital and seat of the legislature. 
 The Parliament Houses are reckoned amongst 
 the finest buildings in America. 
 
 Otterburn, The Battle of (Aug. 19, 
 1388), was fought between an invading force 
 of Scotch troops,, headed by the Earls of 
 Douglas and Murray, and an English force, 
 led by the Percies. The Scotch army was 
 divided into two portions, which marched 
 into England by different routes. The smaller 
 division, after being repeatedly threatened by 
 the English, besieged the tovrn of Otterbum, 
 in Northumberland, where they were attacked 
 in an entrenched position by Hotspur with a 
 force of 9,000 men. Although the Scots were 
 numerically far inferior, their victory was 
 decisive; both the Percys (Hotspur and 
 Ralph) were taken prisoners, and about 2,000 
 of the English were slain. The battle of 
 Otterbum has been commemorated in ballad 
 poetry under the name of Chevy Chase. 
 "The battle of Otterburn," says Mr. Burton, 
 [' has this much significance in history, that 
 it marks the fadijog from the defenders of 
 Scotland of the dread of immediate absolute 
 conquest by ."lilngland." 
 
 rroissart ; Burton, Hist.- of Scotlani. 
 
 Otterbnrue, Thomas op {d. cirea 1421), 
 a Franciscan, wrote a Chromeh of English 
 History from the earliest times to the year 
 1420. This work is of some value for the 
 reigns of Henry IV. and V., and has been 
 published by Hearne. 
 
 Oude, at one time a province of the 
 Mogul Empire, became connected with Eng- 
 land during the governor-generalship of 
 Warren Hastings, through the Treaty of 
 Benares and the transactions with regard to 
 the Eohillas. The treaty began that defensive 
 alliance which gradually tended to subject 
 the Vizier to the English, and which, in 1801, 
 after various cessions of territory, placed him 
 in an isolated position, surrounded by the 
 English territories, without the necessities of 
 defence. The sovereigns, in consequence, 
 gave themselves up to extravagance, de- 
 bauchery, and misgovernment, in spite of the 
 repeated protests and threats of the English. 
 Gazee-ud-deen, on his accession in 1814, 
 assumed, by the advice of Lord Hastings, the 
 title of King of Oude, and no longer recog- 
 nised the authority of the Mogul. In 1866 
 Lord Dalhousie annexed the country by the 
 order of the Directors, the king becoming a 
 state prisoner. 
 
 Oudenarde, The Battle op (July 11, 
 
Onl 
 
 ( 790 ) 
 
 Ove 
 
 1708). This was one of the great battles in 
 the War of the Spanish Succession. Finding 
 that the war was becoming unpopular both 
 with the English and Dutch, Marlborough 
 resolved on a decisive blow. The French, 
 numbering 100,000, under the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, a prince of the blood, who was jealous 
 of Vend6me, the second in command, were 
 attempting to take Oudenarde, a fortress on 
 the Scheldt. Marlborough, having been 
 joined by Eugene, in command of the allies 
 amounting to little more than 80,000, ad- 
 vanced towards them, and they promptly 
 raised the siege. Although the French out- 
 numbered the allies, they were- under the 
 disastrous disadvantage of being led by com- 
 manders with different views ; and when, 
 accordingly, the armies met, they were utterly 
 routed. They Iost3,000-menandhad7,000 taken 
 prisoners, besides ten pieces of cannon and 
 4,000 horses. The allies lost nearly 2,000 men-. 
 Coxe, Marlborough; Marlborough BespatcheK ; 
 Stanhope, Reign of Queen Anne; Martin, Hist. 
 de France. 
 Oulart, Skirmish at.. On May 27, 
 1798, during the Irish Eebellion, 8,000 in- 
 surgents were defeated here.- Of some 200 of 
 the North Cork Militia,, all but five were 
 killed. Father Murphy led the rebels. 
 
 Outlawry, !•«., exclusion from the pro- 
 tection and benefit of the law, has- been from 
 very early times the punishment which has at- 
 tended flight from justice, or refusal to appear 
 before a legal tribunal. In the laws of Edgair 
 it is even enacted that a person refusing 
 obedience to a decision of the hundred, shall, 
 after being fined" three times, become an out- 
 law, unless the king allows him to remain in 
 the land. An outlaw was said to-" bear a 
 woU's head," and therefore to be lawfully 
 slain by any who met him. But as early as, 
 the thirteenth century some doubt seems to' 
 have been felt as ■ to' the expediency of so 
 summary a prooedure. Thus Bracton laid it 
 down that though an outlaw might be killed 
 if he defended himself or ran away, so that it 
 was difiicult to- take him, when once taken his 
 life was in the king^s handsjiand any one then 
 killing him must answer for it as for any 
 other homicide. Yet Fleta, under Edward 
 II., declares that an outlaw may be killed 
 anywhere with impunity, and the case which 
 Coke refers to, in order to prove that under 
 Edward III. such an act was declared by the 
 judges unlawful, shows really that the old 
 principle was still recognised. But as manners 
 softened, the question ceased to be of practical 
 importance, though the legal doctrine was- 
 still doubtful as late as Philip and Mary. 
 The most important consequence of outlawry 
 was the forfeiture of chattels for all cases, 
 with the addition, in cases of treason or 
 murder, of the forfeiture of real property ; for 
 other offences, of the profits of land during 
 the outlaw's lifetime. Outlawry in civil 
 cases for refusal to appear in court was 
 
 abolished by 42 and 43 Victoria. In criminal 
 cases it is practically obsolete, and no longer 
 necessary, since extradition treaties have be- 
 come general. It may be added that outlawry 
 does not lie against a peer except for treason, 
 felony, or breach of the peace. 
 
 Schmid, Gesetze der Angelsachs&n, ; Stephen, 
 ComnientarieSj iii. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Outram, Sm James (i. 1803, d. 1863); 
 saw active service in Afghanistan (1838), and 
 subsequently acted as Resident at Hyderabad, 
 Satara, and Lucknow. In 1842 he was ap- 
 pointed commissioner to negotiate with the 
 Ameers of Scinde, in which capacity he 
 differed from Sir G. Napier as to the latter's 
 conduct. In 1856 he became chief commis- 
 sioner of Oude. His name is inseparably 
 connected with the defence of Lucknow, and 
 he ranks as one of the saviours- of India 
 during the Indian Mutinj'. In 1856 he 
 commanded during the Persian. War, and 
 became in 1-858^ a baronet, and . Keutenant- 
 
 Kaye, Sepoy War. 
 
 Overbury, Sir Thomas (J. 158-1, d. 1613), 
 born in 1581, educated at Qjieen'.s College, 
 Oxford, became a student at the Middle 
 Temple, and was knighted in 1608. Over- 
 bury earned distinction as a poet, traveller, 
 and writer,, and became the friend and con- 
 fidential adviser of Robert Garr. The king 
 became jealous of his influence, and wished to 
 remove him from the court, whilst at the same 
 time his opposition to Rochester's proposed 
 marriage -with Lady Essex made Rochester 
 wish to get him out of the way for a time. 
 James offered Overbury a diplomatic post 
 abroad, which Rochester encouraged him to 
 refuse, and the king for thisrref usal committed 
 Overbury to the Tower (April' 21, 1613). 
 Rochester merely wished to keep Overbury 
 quiet. Lady Essex seized the opportunity to 
 get rid of him altogether, and at length 
 succeeded' in, getting him poisoned (Sept. 15, 
 1613). On Dec. 20, the same year, took 
 place the marriage of Lord Rochester, now 
 created Earl of Somerset, to the divorced 
 Countess of Essex. Early in 1615 the fact 
 that Overbury had been poisoned came to the 
 J>nowledge of Sir Ralph Winwood, the king's 
 ambassador in the Low Countries,, and was 
 by him revealed to the king. Four of those 
 concerned in the plot were executed, and the 
 earl and countess were tried before the Lord 
 High Steward's court (May, 1616). Both 
 were declared guilty, but pardoned by the 
 king, and, after 1623, released from their 
 confinement in the Tower. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, ffEng. (JTr. Gardiner believes 
 Somerset not guilty) ; Speddine, Sftfites tn Eng. 
 Hist. ; Amos, The Great -ityer of Poisoning ; Eim- 
 banlt. The JTorJis of Sir ITiotnas Overimr i ; Stats 
 Trials. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Overkirk, General {d. 1708), was one 
 of -the Datdi favourites of William III., 
 
Orf 
 
 ( 791 ) 
 
 Oye 
 
 whose life at the battle of St. Denis he 
 saved, receiving; as reward from the States 
 General a costly sword. On the accession of 
 William he became Master of the Horse. 
 He took an active share in "William's battles 
 in Ireland, and received grants of Irish land, 
 whichwere among those assailed by the Re- 
 sumption BiU. He was present at the deathvbed 
 of Williara III. On the outbreak of the "War of 
 the Spanish Succession he shared with Opilan 
 the command of the Dutch troops, and was 
 entrusted to command the line of the Mouse. 
 At the battle of Eamillies he headed a charge 
 on the French cavah-y, but was driven back by 
 a ooTiuter charge from the " Maison du Roi." 
 Soon afterwards, he invested- and reduced 
 Ostend. At the battle of Oudenarde he 
 turned the French right, and cut it off from 
 the main body. Shortly afterwards he died 
 worn out by the labours of the campaign; 
 
 Bumet,., Hist. .0/ his Omn Time.; Macaulav. 
 Hist. ofXng. 
 
 Oxford, The Towsr op, is- mentioned as 
 the seat of a- school or college as early as 802. 
 It was taken by Edward the Elder in 912, 
 and became one of the most important of the 
 "West Saxon towns. It was captured by the- 
 Daues under Sweyn in 1013, and was 
 several times the seat of the "Witeuagemot 
 under Canute. It was stormed by "WiUiam 
 the Conqueror in 1067, and the castle built 
 about 1070. The castle was occupied, by the 
 Empress Maud' in 114-2, and' captVired by 
 Stephen on her escape. The treaty between 
 Henry II. and Stephen was made at Oxford 
 (Nov. 7, 1153). In 12.58 the Mad Parlia- 
 ment met there, and the Provisions of 0!rford 
 were drawn up^ In 1542- Oxford became one 
 of Henry Yfll.'s new bishoprics. Ridley, 
 Latimer, and Cranmer were executed here in 
 1555 and 155ff. In the Civil "War it was the 
 head-quarters of Charles I. after Oct., 1642. 
 The king established his. mint there in 1643, 
 and held a Parliament in 1644. It was un- 
 successfully besieged by Fairfax in May, 
 1645, and again besieged the foUowiiig May, 
 and taken June 24, 1646. 
 
 Oxford, John de Veee, Eael op {i. 1409, 
 d. 1461), fought inthe French wars, and" was 
 one of the ambassadors who.negotiatedi peace 
 with France. He was a staunch Lancastrian, 
 and on the accession of Edwardi IV. he was 
 attainted and beheaded on Tower HitL 
 
 Oxford, John de Verb, Eakl op (d. 
 1513), son of the above, was restored to his 
 earldom in 1464, but on the restoration of 
 Henry VI. joined the Lancastrians. After 
 the battle of Baxnet he fled to France, and 
 getting together some ships, maintained him- 
 self by piracy. , He afterwards seized on St. 
 Michael's Mount in Cornwall, where he was 
 besieged for some months. He at last sur- 
 rendered and was imprisoned at Hamnes, in 
 Picardy. Here he remained till 1484, when 
 
 he induced the governor of the castle to 
 espouse the cause of Henry of Richmond, 
 whom he accompanied to England, and assisted 
 at Bosworth. He was rewarded by Henry 
 VII., and made Constable of the Tower and 
 Lord Chamberlain. He commanded the 
 armies employed against Simnel and the 
 Cornish rioters, became High Steward and 
 High Admiral, and was high in Henry VII.'s 
 favour. Yet he was fined 15,000 marks for 
 bis violation of the Statute of Livery on the 
 occasion of a royal visit to his seat. 
 Bacon, R&nry VII, 
 Oxford, Edward Verb, 17th Earl 
 OF (*. 1540, d. 1604), one of the haugh- 
 tiest and most overbearing of the . nobles 
 of Elizabetb-'s reign, was one of the com- 
 missioners at the trial of Mary Queen of 
 Scots in 15S6. He subsequently did good 
 service for England in fitting out, at has own 
 expense, ships- for the defence of the .country 
 against the proposed Spanish invasion (1588), 
 
 Oxford, Provisions op (1258), were the 
 schemes of reorganisation and reform, forced 
 on Henry III. by the Mad Parliament of 
 Oxford in 1258. A commission of twenty-four 
 persons was appointed^ twelve nominated by 
 the king, and twelve by the barons. By the 
 advice of these commissioners, the king was 
 " to draw up means for the reform of the civil 
 ■administration, the Church, and the royal 
 household. "When the Parliament met, the 
 barons brought forward a schedule of griev- 
 ances which they desired the commissionera 
 to remedy. The Provisions of Oxford them- 
 selves supply the machinery by which these 
 grievances might be-redressed. The twenty- 
 four commissioners, met, and each twelve 
 selected two out of the other twelve, and 
 these four nominated fifteen who were taform 
 a council for advising the king and to hold 
 three annual Parliaments. "With them the 
 barons were to negotiate through another- 
 committee. There was also'another committee 
 of twenty-four, whose business it was to 
 inquire into financial matters ; wMle the 
 original twenty-four were to, undertake the ■ 
 reform of the Church. The commissioners 
 drew up the Provisions of "Westminster (q. v.), 
 and drove the foreigners out of th-e country. 
 This goveramient lasted till 1261, when Henry 
 repudiated his oath, and the Pope issued a 
 bull absolving him. [Montfort, Simon de.] 
 Stubba, Const. Hist, aaid Select Charters. 
 
 Oxford, University of. [TJniversities.] 
 
 Oyer asnd Terminer is the name given 
 to a commission granted by the crown to 
 judges and others, " to hear and to deter- 
 mine " cases of treason felony and trespass. 
 By virtue of this commission, judges deal 
 with criminal cases in the various circuits. 
 The words oyer and terminer are derived from 
 the French (Mr, to hear, and terminer, to 
 determine. 
 
Fac 
 
 ( 792 ) 
 
 Fai. 
 
 Facifico, Don, was a Jew, a native of 
 Gibraltar, and consequently a British subject, 
 resident at Athens. In April, 1847, his house 
 was attacked and burnt by the mob. The 
 Hellenic authorities took no steps to prevent 
 the outrage, and refused to indemnify Don 
 Paciflco, who claimed heavy damages. Lord 
 Palmerston demanded instant compensation ; 
 and on the- refusal of the Greeks to satisfy 
 this claim, or that raised in the case of the 
 Fantome, and of Mr. Finlay [Finlay Gues- 
 tion], a British fleet was ordered to enter 
 the Piraeus, and seize the shipping there be- 
 longing to Greek owners. The Hellenic 
 government appealed to France and Russia. 
 Negotiations took place between the govern- 
 ments of England and France, in the course 
 of which a serious quarrel between the two 
 powers was with difficulty avoided. Finally 
 the claims were settled by arbitration, and 
 Don Pacifico received about one-thirtieth of 
 the sum he demanded. Lord Palmerston's 
 coercive measures towards the Hellenic go- 
 vernment formed the subject of animated de- 
 bates in' both Houses of Parliament. In the 
 House of Lords a vote of censure was carried 
 against the government by a, majority of 
 thirty-seven. In the Commons, however,^ a 
 vote of confidence was carried by forty-six, 
 after a remarkably brilliant speech from Lord 
 Palmerston. 
 
 Ann. Reg., 1847 ; ffansard's Debates ; McCarthy, 
 Hist, of Our Own Times. 
 
 Faget, William, Lord (5. 1506, d. 1563). 
 Bom of humble parents, he attracted the 
 notice of Bishop Gardiner, and rising rapidly, 
 was knighted, and became one of the secre- 
 taries of state in 1543, and in that capa- 
 city negotiated peace with France in 1546. 
 He was appointed one of the council of 
 regency by the will of Henry VIII., with 
 the ofBce of chief secretary, and supported 
 Somerset in setting aside that arrangement, 
 and assuming the office of Protector. In 
 1549 Sir William Paget was sent on a diplo- 
 matic mission to the Emperor Charles V., with 
 instructions to try and persuade him to join 
 England in a war with France ; and, though 
 unsuccessful, he was on his return raised to 
 the peerage. In a very statesmanlike letter, 
 written from Germany, he attempted to in- 
 spire the wavering councils of the Protector 
 with prudence and vigour in dealing with the 
 rising in the west of England, but to little 
 purpose. The see of Lichfield also lost the 
 greater part of its lands in order to furnish 
 him with an estate. On the fall of Somer- 
 set, to whom he had been consistently faith- 
 ful, Paget was thrown into the Tower, and 
 deprived of his appointments (1551), but was 
 pardoned in the following year. On the ac- 
 cession of Mary he became one of her most 
 
 trusted advisers, and was made Keeper of 
 the Seals. He was throughout in favour 
 of moderation, and had no sympathy with 
 those who wished for the estabHshment 
 of the Inquisition, and the execution of 
 the Princess Elizabeth. Lord Paget was 
 one of the promoters of the marriage between 
 Mary and Philip of Spain, and was disposed 
 to regard the friendship of Charles V. as 
 highly necessary for England. On the acces- 
 sion of Elizabeth, he resigned the seals ; but 
 though he did not enjoy the confidence of the 
 queen, he continued from time to time to give 
 her advice. During the last years of his life, 
 he advocated an alliance with Henry IV. of 
 France in preference to the friendship of 
 Spain. 
 
 State Papers dv/ring the Ssi^n of Henry YIII. 
 
 (Eecord Commission) ; Strype, Memorials, vol. 
 
 iv. J Hayward, Life of Edward VI. 
 
 Faget, Thomas, 2nd Lokd {d. 1589), the 
 second son of Lord Paget, of Beaudesert, was 
 a zealous Catholic, and a supporter of Mary 
 Queen of Scots and the Jesuits. He was 
 attainted, and compelled to take refuge abroad 
 on suspicion of being concerned in Throg- 
 morton's plot. 
 
 Faine, Thomas {i. 1737, d. 1809), was 
 the son of a Norfolk staymaker. He lived 
 first at Sandwich and then in London, prac- 
 tising various trades with indifferent suc- 
 cess. In 1774 he emigrated to America, 
 where he became editor of the Pennsylvania 
 Matjazine, and in 1776 published his famous 
 pamphlet. Common Sense, which was followed 
 by a periodical called the Crisis, written for 
 the purpose of keeping up the flagging spirits 
 of the colonists. Paine was rewarded by 
 Congress by the appointment of Secretary to 
 the Committee of Foreign Affairs, and in 1781 
 was sent to France in company with Colonel 
 Laurens to negotiate a loan for the United 
 States. He visited France a second time in 
 1787, and went from thence to England, 
 where, in 1791, he published the Rights of 
 Man in reply to Burke's Reflections on the 
 French Revolution. The government thereupon 
 resolved to prosecute him for his attack upon 
 the Constitution, and in spite of Erskine's 
 brilliant defence, he was found guilty. 
 Paine had already anticipated his sentence by 
 retiring to France, where he was returned to 
 the National Convention by the electors of 
 Pas-de-Calais. " The foreign benefactor of 
 the species," as Carlyle calls him, voted with 
 the Girondists, and advocated the banishment 
 rather than the execution of the king. His 
 moderation procured for him expulsion as a 
 foreigner from the Convention by the Jaco- 
 bins, and imprisonment. In 1794, however, 
 he was released on the intercession of the 
 American government, and resumed his seat. 
 The Age of Reason, composed during his im- 
 prisonment, was a defence of Deism, written 
 I in extremely gross taste. Paine returned to 
 
Fai 
 
 ( 793 ) 
 
 Fal 
 
 America in 1802, and spent the rest of his life in 
 obscurity. 
 
 State TriaXs, xxii. 357; Cobbett, Life of Thomas 
 Paine; Chalmers, Life of Thomas Paine ; Fame's 
 WorJa, edited by Mendum (Boston, 1856). 
 
 Pains and Penalties, Bills of, are 
 
 analogous to bills of attainder, from which 
 they differ in the fact that the punishment 
 is never capital, and does not affect the chil- 
 dren. [Attainder; Impeachment.] 
 May, Law of ParUaTnent. 
 
 Pakenham, Sm Edward {d. 1815), was 
 a brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington, 
 and one of his most trusted subordinates. He 
 distinguished himself greatly in the Peninsular 
 War, plajTng an important part in the victory 
 of Salamanca (1812). During the war with 
 America, which began in 1812 he commanded 
 the expedition sent against New Orleans. 
 The place was vigorously defended by General 
 Jaclison, and in the disastrously unsuccessful 
 assahlt (Jan. 8, 1815) Pakenham lost his Ufe. 
 
 Pakington, Sib John {d. 1727), was a 
 high Tory, and member for the county of 
 Worcester during the reigns of William 
 III. and Anne. He preferred a. complaint 
 agaiost William Uoyd, Bishop of Worces- 
 ter, and his son, for using their influence 
 in the elections against him, and proved 
 his case, the House censuring their con- 
 duct as "unchristian.'' Sir John Pakington 
 was throughout his life a violent partisan; 
 his speech against the union with Scotland 
 was hooted down because of its ungenerous 
 insinuations, and he was equally head- 
 strong iu his opposition to the Occasional 
 Conformity Bill. There does not appear to 
 be the slightest ground for the idea that he 
 was the original of Sir Roger de Coverley. 
 He was the ancestor of Sir John Pakington, 
 created Baron Hampton {d. 1880), who held 
 various posts in Lord Derby's ministry, and 
 who, in 1866, disclosed to his constituents the 
 secret of the famous " Ten Minutes' BiU." 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. ; Wyon, Hist, o/ Queen 
 Anne. 
 
 Palatine, Counties, are so called from 
 the fact that their lords had royal rights, 
 equally with the king in his palace (palatium). 
 The earl of a county palatine could pardon 
 treasons, murders, and felonies; while all 
 writs were in his name, and offences were 
 said to be committed against his peace, and 
 not against that of the king. Palatine counties 
 origioated in the time of WUHam I., who 
 practically created three— Chester, Durham, 
 and Kent— whilst Shropshire had, until the 
 time of Henry I., palatine rights. Iliese 
 coimties were selected as being especially 
 liable to attack— Chester and Shropshire 
 from the Welsh Marches, Kent from France, 
 and Durham from Scotland. The disturbed 
 state of the borders rendered it an easy task 
 for an earl, who was as powerful as a 
 sovereign in his own territory, to extend his 
 
 frontiers at the expense of his enemies. 
 Kent ceased to be a palatine earldom after 
 the death of Odo of Bayeux, whilst Pem- 
 brokeshire and Hexhamshire, in Northumber- 
 land, were made counties palatine. Henry I. 
 granted royal rights over the Isle of Ely to 
 the Bishop of Ely, and in the year 1351 Lan- 
 caster was created a palatine earldom. " The 
 palatine earldom of Chester," says Bishop 
 Stubbs, "had its own courts, judges, and 
 staff of officers, constable, steward, and the 
 rest ; it had its parKament, consisting of the 
 barons of the county, and was not until 1541 
 represented in the Parliament of the king- 
 dom." The other counties palatine, with the 
 exception of Lancaster and Chester, which 
 were held by the crown, and of Durham, were 
 assimilated to the rest of the country during the 
 sixteenth century. The palatine jurisdiction 
 of Durham remained with the bishop until 
 1836, whilst the jurisdiction of the Palatine 
 Courts at Lancaster, with the exception of the 
 Chancery Court, were transferred to the High 
 Court of Justice by the Judicature Act of 1873. 
 
 Pale, The. That part of Ireland which 
 was de facto subject to English law began to be 
 called the " Pale " in the fifteenth century. It 
 was in earlier times distinguished from Celtic 
 Ireland as " the English land." The Pale 
 was surrounded by a belt of waste marches, 
 beyond which lay the lands of the Irish 
 enemy. From the invasion of Edwaid 
 Bruce, in 1315, untU the Geraldine rebellion 
 in the sixteenth century, the extent of 
 " the EngHsh land " steadily diminished. 
 Bruce hairied the Pale mercilessly in 1316 
 and 1317. The small English freeholders 
 were forced to follow the Lord-Deputy in 
 his " hostings." Their abandoned farmsteads 
 were robbed and burnt by EngKsh and Irish 
 aUke. They fled in great numbers across 
 the seas, iu spite of the most strenuous legal 
 prohihitions. The Statute of Kilkenny (1367) 
 openly acknowledges the division of Ireland 
 into a Celtic and an English territory, and 
 attempts to isolate them from each other by 
 decreeing savage penalties against Celtic 
 intruders into the Pale, and English colonists 
 adopting Irish customs. But the law was 
 soon a dead letter. The statute of Edward 
 IV., u. 3, provides, just a centurj' later, for 
 the swearing-in of the Irish inhabitants of 
 the Pale as lieges, and declares that deputies 
 shall be named to accept their oaths "for the 
 multitude that is to be sworn." The Parlia- 
 ment of Drogheda in 1 494 ordered the construc- 
 tion of a mound and ditch around the English 
 borders, " in the county of Dublin, from the 
 waters of Auliffiy to the mountain iu KU- 
 dare, from the waters of AuHffy to Trim, and 
 so forth, to Meath and Uriel." These prac- 
 tically continued to be the limits of the' Pale 
 until Henry VIII. undertook the conquest of 
 the whole island. Dalkey, TaDaght, Kil- 
 cullen, Naas, Kilcock, Sydan, Ardee, Denver, 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 794) 
 
 Pal 
 
 and Dundalk formed the torder in 1515. In 
 1534 there was '.' no folk subject to the king's 
 laws, but half the county Uriel, half the 
 county of Meath, half the county of Dublin, 
 half the county of Kildare." In 1537 Justice 
 Luttrell describes the Pale as a " httle precinct, 
 not much more than 20 miles in length ne in 
 bredth." Bullied by the crown, " ceased " 
 by the Parliament, subjected by their lords 
 at once to feudal dues and to tribal imposi- 
 tions, plundered by corrupt judges and ex- 
 tortionate deputies, blackmailed by the Irish 
 in time of peace, and harried by both sides in 
 time of war, the dweller in the Pale was 
 probably the most wretched of all the 
 wretched inhabitants of Ireland. 
 
 Historical and Mitmcipal Documents of Ireland, 
 
 1172—1320 (Record Series); Eiohey, Lectures 
 
 on the History of Ireland. 
 
 Palgrave, Sie Peaiicis (*. 1788, d. 1861), 
 ■was called to the bar (1827), and having served 
 on the Eecord and Municipal Corporation 
 Commissions,, was appointed in 1838 Deputy- 
 Keeper of her Majesty's Eecords. Palgrave 
 wrote largely on historical subjects ; his chief 
 work, the Jtise and Progress of the English 
 Commonwealth : Anglo-Saxon Feriod {1S32), was 
 the fruit of unwearied research and examina- 
 tion into original authorities, and though 
 many of the conclusions have not been ac- 
 cepted by later scholars, and some mistakes in 
 details have been pointed out, it is valuable 
 for its learning and acuteness. He wrote 
 besides a History of England: Anglo-Saxon 
 Period (1831) ; a Sistory of Normandy and 
 England (1851—57); and edited for the 
 government the Calendars and Inventories of 
 the Treasury of the Exchequer, Parliamentary 
 Writs, Eotuli Curia Segis, and Docmnents 
 Illustrative of the History of Scotland, besides 
 writing an Essa/g on the Original Authority of 
 the King's Council. Sir Francis was of Jewish 
 parentage, and his name was Cohen, which 
 he changed to Palgrave on his marriage. 
 
 Palladius, St., was one of the numerous 
 Christian missionaries who preceded St. 
 Patrick in Ireland. He was consecrated 
 Bishop of Ireland by Pope Celeatine I., and 
 despatched by him in 431 to that country. 
 Little is known about his previous history ; 
 he is supposed to have been a Briton, and 
 appears to have been sent in the first instance 
 by the British bishops to the GauUsh bishops, 
 and by the latter to the Pope. He landed in 
 Munster, but failed to gain many converts, 
 and departed, having erected there three 
 wooden chiirches. On his way back to Rome 
 he died, one account representing him as 
 having been martyred by the Scots. 
 
 ! O'Donovan, Four Masters : Colgan, Jmes of 
 
 St. Patrick. 
 
 Palliser, Sie Hugh (b. 1720, d. 1796), 
 was second in command to Admiral Keppel 
 in a ludicrously abortive action with the 
 French ofe Cape Ushant in 1778, in which. 
 
 after several hours' fighting, the rival fleets 
 withdrew without any advantage having been 
 gained on either side. Keppel declared that 
 Palhser was to blame for this failure, mutual 
 recriminations ensued, and the former being 
 a member of the Opposition, the latter a 
 Lord of the Admiralty, their case was made 
 a party question. At length the matter was 
 referred to a court-martial, which, reflecting 
 the unjust tone of popular opinion, trium- 
 phantly acquitted Keppel, and when PalKser, 
 feeling that this was a reflection on himself 
 resigned his appointments, and demanded an 
 inquiry, he could only obtain a very qualified 
 sentence of approval. 
 
 Hunt, Life of Pallisffr ; Stanhope, Hist, of 
 Eng., vol.vi,, ch. 58. 
 
 Palmer, Sir Thomas {d. 1553), was joint 
 commander of the English force which invaded 
 Scotland in 1648, and took Haddington. On 
 the blockade of the town by the French and 
 Scotch he was taken prisoner while escorting 
 a relieving force which re-victualled the 
 exhausted garrison. Palmer's chief notoriety 
 is derived from his betrayal (in 1551) of the 
 Protector Somerset to the Earl of "Warwick, 
 to whom he revealed a plot to murder 
 Warwick himself, and others of the Protector's 
 enemies, which, when supplemented by some 
 false additions, led to his death. Palmer was 
 subsequently condemned by a special com- 
 mission, and executed for his share in the 
 treason of Northumberland and Lady Jane 
 Grey. 
 
 Palmerston, Henry John Temple, 
 Viscount (4. 1784, d. 1865), was the eldest 
 son of the second viscount. He succeeded 
 to the title, which was in the Irish peerage, 
 in 1805, and was promptly chosen by the 
 Tory party in the IJniversity of Edinbtirgh 
 to contest the seat, but without success. In 
 1807, however, he began his parliamentary 
 career as the representative of Newport, and 
 two years later became Secretary at War in 
 the Duke of Portland's administration. This 
 ofiice he held under successive governments 
 until 1828, and aided the Duke of Wellington 
 in his great exploits as far as a rotten mihtary 
 system permitted. Lord Pahnerston early 
 attached himself to the more liberal section 
 of the Tories, which was led by Canning and 
 Huskisson, and he followed the latter out of 
 office. He now joined the Whigs, and in 
 1830 accepted the Secretaryship for Foreign 
 Affairs under Earl Grey, plapng an honour- 
 able part in the negotiations which led to the 
 independence of Belgium, to the settlement of 
 the Spanish and Portuguese questions, to the 
 European resistance to the designs of Mehemet 
 Ali, which brought him into so much odium 
 in France. Having retired from office with 
 the rest of his colleagues in 1841, he re- 
 turned with them, and again became Foreign 
 Secretary in 1846. Palmerston's unsympa- 
 thetic attitude towards the European revolu- 
 
Pal 
 
 (796) 
 
 Pap 
 
 tions of 1848, and the quarrel with. Greece 
 about the Don Paoifioo affair, caused his 
 foreign poKoy to he called in question; a 
 vote of censure was passed upon it in 
 the House of Lords, but in the House 
 of Commons an amendment, moved by 
 Hr. Roebuck in favour of the government, 
 was carried by a majority of forty-six, 
 Palmerston making a magnificent speech on 
 the status of British subjects abroad. In 
 1852 he was dismissed from office by the 
 Queen, acting on the advice of Lord John 
 EusselJ, for expressing, entirely on his own 
 responsibility, the government's approval of 
 Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat. In spite of 
 Mr. DisraeK's saying, " There was a Palmer- 
 ston," he promptly defeated his late leader 
 on the Militia Bill, and having declined office 
 in Lord Derby's stillborn ministry, became 
 Home Secretary in Lord Aberdeen's Coalition 
 cabiuet (Dec, 1852). In that capacity he 
 inaugurated the ticket-of-leave system, but 
 he was chiefly employed the while in watch- 
 ing the Eastern question, and urging his 
 colleagues forward to the war with Russia. 
 On the fall of the Aberdeen administration 
 before Mr. Roebuck's vigorous attack, it was 
 felt that he was, as he said, r inevitable, andiii 
 Feb., 1855, he became Prime Minister. After 
 the peace a period of languor followed until 
 in 1857, the government was defeated on Mr. 
 Cobden's motion condemning the measures 
 taken in " the lorcha Arrow " affair, when 
 Lord Palmerston appealed to the country, 
 and came back again to power with a larger 
 majority than before. The Indian Mutmy 
 was followed by his biU for the transferrence 
 of the authority oftheEastlndian Company to 
 the crown. InFebruary, 1858, he was most un- 
 expectedly defeated over the Conspiracy Bill, 
 caused by Orsini's attempt on the life of 
 Napoleon III., but the Conservative adminis- 
 tration that supplanted him proved short- 
 lived, and in 1839 he came into power again 
 as First Lord of the Treasury, and continued 
 to hold that office until his death. During 
 his administration the treaty of commerce 
 with France was concluded (1860) through 
 Mr. Cobden's exertions. He was on the side 
 of the North during the American Civil 
 "War; in the Trent and Alabama affairs he 
 displayed some want of wisdom. Then came 
 the Maori War; the Polish insurrection of 
 1863, during which his distrust of the Em- 
 peror of the French compelled him to dis- 
 countenance the idea of intervention ; and 
 the Schleswig - Holstein question, during 
 which he uttered words that were universally 
 interpreted to imply that England would 
 intervene on behalf of Denmark. Lord 
 Palmerston's last great speech was in reply 
 to Mr. Disraeli's attack on the conduct of the 
 government, and it saved him by a majority 
 of eighteen. His death was rather sudden. 
 He was buried in Westminster Abbey, Oct. 
 27, 1865. Lord Palmerston was essentially 
 
 a European rather than an English states- 
 man ; he has been charged with understand- 
 ing little, and caring still less, about the 
 great movements of the time at home. On 
 the Continent he made it his first business to 
 uphold the interests of his country, and that 
 fact, combined with his genial good-humour, 
 was perhaps the cause of the great popularity 
 which he enjoyed to the end of his career. 
 
 The best life of Lord Palmerston is tliat of 
 Lord Dalling, the last volume of which is 
 edited by the Hon. Evelyn Ashley, M.P. 
 
 Pandulph, Papal legate (A. 1226),one of 
 Innocent III.'s ministers, was sent to England 
 in 1213 to make terms with King John. For a 
 little while the king held out, but finding him- 
 self deserted by everyone, he consented to Pan- 
 dulf's terms, and resigned his kingdom to the 
 Pope, receiving it back as a fief of the holy 
 see. Shortly after this Pandulf left England 
 and did not return till 1218, when he was ap- 
 pointed legate in the place of Gualo. He 
 held this ofiice for three years, during which 
 time he brought a considerable odium on hims 
 self by his alliance with Peter des Roche- 
 against the English members of the Council. 
 StiU we find him lending valuable assistance 
 to the cause of order by repressing the tur- 
 bulence of the barons. In 1218 he was ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Norwich. Stephen Lang- 
 ton strongly opposed Pandulf' s pretensions, 
 and in 1221 procured the recall of his com- 
 mission as legate, together with a promise 
 from the Pope that during his (Langton's) 
 lifetime no legate should be appointed. Pan- 
 dulf retired to his diocese of Norwich, where 
 he died. 
 
 Papacy, Relations with. The conver- 
 sion of the south of England by the Roman 
 monk Angustine, who was sent by Pope 
 Gregory I., established a close connection 
 between the Church in England and the 
 Papacy. Gregory I. drew up a scheme'f or the 
 ecclesiastical organisation of England accord- 
 ing to the lines of the provincial organisation 
 of the Roman Empire. There were to be two 
 ecclesiastical provinces — one in the south, and 
 one in the north— and each of the metro- 
 politans was to have twelve suffragan bishops 
 under him. This scheme was never entirely 
 realised. The north of England was con- 
 verted by Celtic missionaries ; but the superior 
 organisation' of the Roman Church made it 
 more attractive to many minds. The North- 
 umbrian Wilfrid visited Rome, and returned 
 a staunch adherent to the Roman system. 
 The struggle between the Roman and Celtic 
 Churches disturbed Northumbria, till the 
 Synod of Whitby (664), chiefly owing to 
 Wilfrid's influence, decided in favour of 
 Rome. This decision brought England 
 within the circle of Western civilisation, and 
 made possible her political union. Soon 
 afterwards the death of an Archbishop of 
 Canterbury at the papal court gave Pope 
 
Pap 
 
 ( 79S ) 
 
 Pap 
 
 Vitalian an opportunity of nominating Theo- 
 dore of Tarsus as his successor. It is a 
 striKng instance of the cosmopolitan iniiuence 
 of the Eoman system that an Eastern 
 monk should rule tie English Church. Arch- 
 tishop Theodore had a rare gift for organisa- 
 tion. He established the framework of tlie 
 ecclesiastical system pretty much as it re- 
 mains at present. He made the Chiurch in 
 England strong in religion and learning. 
 England became a centre of missionary 
 activity. In the eighth century Englisli mis- 
 sionaries spread Christianity along the Rhine, 
 and paid back England's debt of gratitude 
 to the papacy by bringing tbe Frankisb 
 Churcb into closer connection with the 
 holy see. In 787 a sign of England's 
 relationship to Rome was given by OfEa, King 
 of Mercia, who, to obtain the Pope's consent 
 to the establishment of a Mercian arcb- 
 bishopric at Lichfield, granted a tribute to 
 the Pope. This payment of a penny from every 
 hearth passed on under the name of Peter's 
 pence, and in later days the traditional sum 
 of £201 93. was paid for the whole kingdom. 
 Though the papacy was regarded with 
 great respect, its interference was rarely in- 
 vited in the affairs of the English Church. 
 In the tenth century Dunstan made the in- 
 tercourse with Rome closer, and the arch- 
 bishops from that time went to Rome for 
 their palls. 
 
 On the whole, it may be said that in 
 Anglo-Saxon times the Church in Eng- 
 land was decidedly national, and worked 
 harmoniously with the Slate. Few mat- 
 ters were referred to the Pope's decision. 
 Even Dunstan rejected a papal sentence, and 
 legates were rarely seen in England. But 
 the events preceding the Norman Conquest 
 tended to bring the papacy into closer rela- 
 tions with EngHsh politics. Under Edward 
 the Confessor, a Norman favourite, Robert of 
 Jumieges, was made Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury. On Godwin's return from exile. 
 Archbishop Robert fled amongst the other 
 Normans. His place was filled up by the 
 election of Stigand, which Pope Leo IX. 
 refused to recognise, as being uncanonical. 
 Pope Alexander II. favoured the expedition 
 of Duke WiUiam of Normandy, and sent him 
 a consecrated banner. The papal approbation 
 lent the Norman Conquest somewhat the 
 appearance of a crusade, and three papal 
 legates were sent afterwards to reform the 
 Enghsh Church. Many bishops were de- 
 posed, and Norman successors were given to 
 their sees. But neither William I. nor 
 Archbishop Lanfranc were men who were 
 willing to surrender any of the rights of their 
 position. The great Pope Gregory VII. sent 
 to demand arrears of Peter's pence, which he 
 considered as a feudal due, and claimed also 
 the performance of homage. William I. 
 answered that he would pay the arrears ; as 
 to the homage, he had never promised it, his 
 
 predecessors had never performed it, and he 
 knew not on what grounds it was claimed. 
 Moreover, WiHiam I. reduced to shape the 
 claims of the crown in ecclesiastical matters. 
 He set forth three points : (1) That- no Pope 
 should be acknowledged in his realm save after 
 his consent. The reason for this was the fre- 
 quency of disputed elections to the papacy, 
 and conflicting claims between rivals. (2) 
 No decision of national or provincial synods 
 were to be binding without his consent. (3) No 
 vassal of the crown was to be excommunicated 
 till he had been informed of the offence. 
 
 The strong position assumed by William I. 
 was used by William II. as a means of tyranny 
 and extortion. Ecclesiastical fiefs were treated 
 like lay flefs ; bishoprics were kept vacant, 
 and their revenues were seized by the crown. 
 The reign of William II. shows the need which 
 there was for a power like that claimed by 
 Gregory VII. to protect the Church from 
 feudal exactions. A schism, however, weakened 
 the papacy. Archbishop Ansehn was at- 
 tacked by William II. because he wished to 
 receive the paU from Urban II., whom 
 the king had not yet acknowledged as Pope. 
 Finally the pall was sent to England, and 
 was taken by Ansehn from the high altar at 
 Canterbury. But Anselm could not stand 
 against the persecution of William II., and 
 fled to the Continent, where the papacy was 
 stUl powerless to help him. On Henry I.'s 
 accession he returned ; but he had learned in 
 his exile the most advanced principles of the 
 HUdebrandine policy, and on his return he 
 raised an objection to the investiture of 
 spiritual persons by a layman. This was 
 practically to assert the entire freedom of the 
 Church from the State. Henry I. would not 
 yield, and Anselm again went into exile. 
 But the king needed the archbishop's help, 
 and in 1107 Pope Paschal II. agreed to a 
 compromise, wMoh ten years afterwards 
 was extended universally. The crown was 
 to receive homage for the temporalities 
 attached to an ecclesiastical office, while the 
 spiritual emblems, the ring and crosier, were 
 to be conferred by spiritual persons. Soon 
 after this, Henry I. used the mediation of 
 Pope CaUxtus II. to compose his differences 
 with the French king. Another subject of 
 dispute arose about the presence of papal 
 legates in England. The Pope, as universal 
 visitor of the Church, sent legati a latere for 
 special purposes. The English clergy main- 
 tained that the Archbishop of Canterbury was 
 permanent representative of the Pope {kgatus 
 nattts) in England, and could not be super- 
 seded. Henry I. did not figfht this question. 
 In 1125 a papal legate, John of Crema, pre- 
 sided at an important council in London ; but 
 the protest against legates was not in vain. • 
 
 Henry II. procured from the one English 
 Pope, Hadrian IV., a buU conferring on him 
 the sovereignty of Ireland, which was granted 
 on the ground that by the donation of Con- 
 
Pap 
 
 ( 797 ) 
 
 Fap 
 
 stautine all islands were vested in the Eoman 
 see. But he made no use of this grant tiU 
 the murder of Arehhishop Thomas Beeket 
 made it desirahle for him to show some zeal 
 in the Pope's service. During the quarrel 
 between Henry II. and Beeket, the papacy- 
 was not strong enough to interfere with effect. 
 Even after Becket's murder Alexander III. 
 received Henry II.'s excuses, and did not join 
 his enemies. Henry II.'s invasion of Ireland 
 was followed hy the Synod of Cashel, in 
 which the Irish Church was reformed in 
 accordance with the Pope's wishes. 
 
 The reign of John marks the farthest 
 advance of the papal power in BngHsh afiairs. 
 Under Innocent III. the papacy reached its 
 highest point, and John's brutal character 
 was no match for the Pope. A disputed 
 election to the see of Canterbury led to an 
 appeal to Rome. There was enough infor- 
 mality to justify Innocent III. in setting 
 aside both liie claimants ; but he went further, 
 caused a new election to be held in Eome, 
 and nominated Stephen Langton to the suf- 
 frages of the monks. John refused to admit 
 Ijangton, and Innocent III. laid his kingdom 
 under an interdict. John confiscated the 
 goods of the clergy: Pope Innocent III. 
 proceeded to excommunicate, and finally 
 to depose, the king. John's tyranny had 
 alienated his subjects, and the French king 
 was ready to execute the papal sentence. In 
 despair John made abject submission, granted 
 his kingdom to the Pope, and received it 
 back as a fief, by the annual rent of 1,000 
 marks. As John debased himself the spirit 
 of the English barons rose. Aided by Arch- 
 bishop Langton they demanded a charter of 
 libelees. Innocent III., to his disgrace, took 
 the side of his vassal, and the Great Charter 
 was a victory won by a united people against 
 the king and the Pope alike. Innocent III. 
 annulled the charter, but died as the struggle 
 was about to commence. John's death quickly 
 followed, and the minority of Henry III. 
 gave time for reflection. The young king 
 was crowned by the legate Gualo, and for 
 a time there was an attempt on the part of 
 the papacy to set up a legatine government in 
 England. Archbishop Langton, by earnest 
 remonstrances, procured the withdrawal of 
 legates, and the confirmation by the Pope of the 
 legatine power of the Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury. Eor two centuries there was no further 
 attempt to interfere by legates in English affairs. 
 The papacy was soon involved in a des- 
 perate struggle against the imperial house 
 of Hohenstaufen, for which it needed large 
 supplies. England was exposed to in- 
 creasing exactions, and the feeble character 
 of Henry III. made him a willing tool in 
 the hands of the resolute Popes Gregory IX. 
 and Innocent IV. The Pope taxed the Eng- 
 KSh clergy to the extent of a. twentieth or a 
 tenth of their annual incomes. They pro- 
 tested at the Council of Lyons (1245), but 
 
 their remonstrances were not supported, by 
 the king. Moreover, the Pope used recklessly 
 his prerogative of provisions, or nominations 
 to vacant benefices, suspending the rights of 
 the patrons. It was said that the incomes 
 thus drawn from England by foreign and 
 non-resident ecclesiastics amounted to .50,000 
 marks. An association was formed, headed 
 by a knight, Sir Eobert Twinge, which took 
 the law into its own hands, harried the papal 
 collectors, and drove them from the kingdom. 
 Innocent IV. offered Henry III. the kingdom 
 of the Two Sicilies for his second son 
 Edmund, and Henry III. did his best to 
 induce England to pay the expenses of the 
 war necessary to gain possession of this dis- 
 puted heritage. The laity refused to pay; 
 but the clergy suffered from every device which 
 the papal ingenuity could frame. Hence 
 clerical discontent was a strong element in 
 the Barons' War, and the nation generally 
 looked upon the Pope as a foreign intruder. 
 
 The great King Edward I. had to face a 
 resolute Pope in Boniface VIII., who aimed 
 at making the papacy the centre of the inter- 
 national relations of Europe. By the bull 
 Clericis laicos, Boniface VIII. forbade the 
 taxing of the clergy except by his consent. 
 The Convocation in 1297 pleaded the Pope's 
 prohibition against a heavy demand for 
 money made hy the king. Edward I. 
 replied by outlawing those who refused to 
 pay, and the clergy were driven to make 
 composition with the royal officers. Soon 
 afterwards, however, Edward I. was glad to 
 employ Boniface VIII. as arbitrator in an 
 untimely difference between himself and the 
 French king. Boniface VIII., wishing to 
 extend his influence, encouraged the Scots 
 to appeal to him as judge between them 
 and Edward I. Edward, to avoid a personal 
 quarrel with the Pope, laid his letter before 
 Parliament at Lincoln in 1301. The barons 
 replied that the Kings of England had never 
 pleaded, nor been bound to plead, concerning 
 their temporal rights before any judge, eccle- 
 siastical or secular ; their subjects would not 
 permit them to do so. Boniface VIII. was 
 engaged in a contest with the French king, 
 which ended in his defeat, and led to the 
 establishment of the papacy at Avignon. The 
 feeble Edward II. was ready to use Pope 
 John XXII. as the means of procuring a 
 truce with Scotland ; but the fortunes of war 
 had changed after Bannockburn, and it was 
 now the turn of the Scots to refuse the papal 
 mediation. 
 
 The French war under Edward m. in- 
 creased the English resistance to papal 
 exactions, which under the Avignonese Popes 
 grew heavier and heavier. The Popes at 
 Avignon were on the French side, and Eng- 
 land would not see her money carried to her 
 foes. In 1343 the agents of two cardinals 
 who held preferment in England were driven 
 from the land. In 1351 was passed the 
 
Pap 
 
 ( 798 ) 
 
 Pap 
 
 Statute of Provisors, whicli enacted that if 
 the Pope appointed to a benefice, the pre- 
 sentation for that time was to fall to the 
 king, and the papal nominees were liable to 
 imprisonment till they had renounced their 
 claims. To avoid the conflict of jurisdiction 
 between the royal courts and the papal 
 courts, the Statute of Prtemunire in 1353 
 forbade the withdrawal of suits from the 
 king's court to any foreign court. In 1366 
 Pope Urban V. demanded arrears for the 
 last thirty-three years of the tribute of 1,000 
 marks which John had agreed to pay to the 
 papacy. The prelates were foremost in giving 
 their opinion that John had no power to bind the 
 nation to another power without its consent. 
 Lords and Commons together resolved that 
 they would resist to the utmost the Pope's 
 claim. Urban V. withdrew in silence, and 
 the papal suzerainty over England was never 
 again revived. 
 
 The spirit of resistance to the papacy was 
 expressed in the teaching of Wyclif, who 
 began his career as an ardent supporter of 
 the English Church against the Pope. When 
 he passed into the region of doctrine, Pope 
 Gregory XI. issued bulls ordering his trial ; 
 but Wyclif was not personally condemned. 
 The great schism in the papacy led to an 
 increase in papal expenditure and papal 
 exactions, especially under Boniface IX. But 
 the spirit of England and the Statutes of 
 Provisors and PraBmunire were strong enough 
 to oifer determined resistance. In 1391 Boni- 
 face IX. annulled the statutes by a buU, and 
 proceeded to issue provisions which the Eng- 
 lish courts refused to recognise. Parliament 
 at the same time asserted that they would 
 not recognise the Pope's power of excommuni- 
 cation if it were directed against any who 
 were simply upholding the rights of the 
 crown. At the same time a more stringent 
 statute against provisors was passed. The 
 schism in the papacy greatly diminished the 
 papal power, and led to many efforts to heal 
 it. Ultimately, in the Council of Constance 
 the rival popes were deposed or resigned, and 
 in the vacancy of the papal office there was 
 an opportunity for reforming abuses in the 
 ecclesiastical system. The Emperor Sigis- 
 mund was desirous of reform, and at first 
 Henry V. of England promised his aid. But 
 the difficulties of harmonious working in the 
 council were so great that Henry V. deserted 
 Sigismund, and joined those who thought 
 that a new election to the papacy was a 
 necessary prelude to reform. Henry Beaufort, 
 Bishop of Winchester, the king's uncle, was 
 called to Constance, to mediate between con- 
 tending parties. By his good offices arrange- 
 ments were made for the election which ended 
 in the choice of Martin V. (U18). Martin V. 
 showed his gratitude by raising Henry Beau- 
 fort to the dignity of cardinal. It shows the 
 wealcness of the government under Henry 
 VI., that Beaufort was allowed to hold this 
 
 dignity together with his bishopric. Up to 
 this time English bishops had been compelled 
 to resign their sees on accepting the car- 
 dinalate. Moreover, Beaufort was nominated 
 papal legate against the Hussites. He raised 
 troops in England, and led an expedition. 
 Archbishop Chicheley was weak and timid. 
 Martin V. ordered him to procure the repeal 
 of the Statute of Praemunire, and when he 
 pleaded his inability, suspended him from his 
 office as legate. In 1428 Chicheley was 
 driven to beg the Commons to repeal the 
 Statute of Prsemunire ; but weak as was the 
 government, the Commons refused. Martin 
 V. humihated the English episcopate, but 
 gained nothing for himself. 
 
 The next relations of the papacy with Eng- 
 land are purely political, arising from the 
 Pope's position in the politics of Italy. In 
 1489 Henry VII. of England joined the 
 League which was formed by Pope Alexander 
 VI., against the French, in consequence of 
 Charles VIII. 's invasion of Italy. Similarly 
 in 1512, Henry VIII. joined the Holy League 
 which Julius II. formed against France. 
 Juhus II. promised to transfer, to him the 
 title of "most Christian King," which had 
 hitherto belonged to the French monarch. 
 The transfer was not made, but a few years 
 later Henry VIII. was satisfied with the title 
 of " Defender of the Faith," granted to, him 
 by Leo X. in return for a treatise against 
 Martin Luther. Henry VIII.'s great minis- 
 ter, Wolsey, became a cardinal, aspired to 
 the papacy, and entertained projects for a 
 reform of the Church. But Henry VIII.'s 
 desire for a divorce from his wife, Catherine 
 of Aragon, led to a collision with the papacy. 
 Henry demanded that' the Pope should an- 
 nul, or declai-e to be invalid from the first, 
 the dispensation by virtue of which he had 
 married his brother's widow. Clement VII. 
 temporised, and even endeavoured to procure 
 Catherine's consent. He committed the cause 
 to Wolsey and Campeggio as legates, and 
 then revoked it to his own court. Henry 
 VIII. had gone too far to recede. Wolsey 
 was declared liable to the penalties of Prae- 
 munire for having exercised the authority 
 of legate. The clergy were by a legal quibble 
 involved in the same penalty, and only es- 
 caped by admitting the royal supremacy. 
 Henry VIII. hoped to intimidate the Pope ; 
 but Clement VII. dared not give way. In 
 1533 the royal supremacy was established by 
 Act of Parliament, and all direct relations 
 with the Court of Eome were suspended. In 
 1537 Pole was made legate north of the Alps, 
 with a view to influence English afEairs ; but 
 Henry VIII. proclaimed him a traitor, and 
 Pole was obliged to return from Flanders. 
 Under Mary, in 1664, Pole was received as 
 papal legate^ in England, and all Acts of Par- 
 liament against the Pope's jurisdiction were 
 repealed. Pope Paul IV. was injudicious 
 enough to urge upon Mary and Pole the 
 
Pap 
 
 ( 799 ) 
 
 Par 
 
 impossible work of restoring tke possessions 
 of the Chxirch. On Mary's death he showed 
 such an implacahle spirit towards Elizabeth 
 that she felt that Anne Boleyn's daughter 
 could not be reconciled to the Roman Church. 
 In 1559 the royal supremacy was restored, 
 and there was never again a question of its 
 abolition. England drifted further and 
 further from the papacy, and ia 1571 Pius V. 
 excommunicated Elizabeth. 
 
 The marriage of Charles I. to Henrietta 
 Maria renewed to some degree diplomatic 
 intercourse with the Pope. Papal messengers 
 were sent to England, and the queen had 
 a representative at Rome. Charles I. 
 wished to confirm his claims to- the alle- 
 giance of his Catholic subjects ; and his pro- 
 ceedings were viewed by the Puritans with 
 growing displeasure. The talk of union 
 between the Church of England and the Church 
 of Rome was one cause of popular discontent. 
 Under Charles II. and James II. these 
 relations were again renewed, with the result 
 of accentuating more clearly the Protestantism 
 of England by the Act of 1701, which secured 
 the Protestant Succession. Prom this period 
 relations with the papacy became regulated 
 by the ordinary exigencies of diplomacy. 
 During the Napoleonic war, England took 
 the part of Pius VII., and restored to him 
 the Papal States, of which he had been vio- 
 lently dispossessed. The last act of hostility 
 towards the papacy was the Ecclesiastical 
 Titles Act of 1851, which regarded as papal 
 aggression the appointment of Roman CathoUc 
 bishops with territorial designations. 
 
 Collier, Ecclesiastical Sistory ; Stubts, 
 Const. Hist. I Lmgard, Hist, of Mng. ; Oiicon, 
 Hist, of the Englisli. Church; Perry, Hist, of 
 the Cfilirch. of England ; Milman, latin Chris- 
 tianity; Creighton, Bistort) of the PapoAiij during 
 the Beriod of the Be/ormation. rjj Q "l 
 
 Fapinean, M., was a leader of the French 
 Canadian party of Lower Canada, and one of 
 the chief movers of the petitions to the home 
 government, setting forth the' grievances of 
 the National party. He was a man of great 
 ability, and having been elected a member 
 for the city of Montreal in 1820, became in 
 a very short time Speaker of the assembly. 
 On the outbreak of the riots in 1836, the 
 government attempted to arrest Papineau for 
 his democratic utterances, but failed, though 
 they succeeded in compelling him to leave the 
 country. 
 
 Paris, Matthew (<?. eirca 1259), was a 
 Benedictine monk of the abbey of St. Albans. 
 He was sent to Norwaj' as visitor of the 
 Benedictine order by the Pope in 1248, and 
 probably employed in other important diplo- 
 matic and ecclesiastical missions. He was a 
 man of great accomplishments, and was a 
 mathematician, poet, and theologian. He is 
 specially notable as an historian. He wrote 
 a work called Chronica Majora, which is 
 a continuation of the History of Roger of 
 
 Wendover from the year 1235. He also 
 wrote Sistoria Minor, which extends from 
 1067 to 1253, and the Lives of the Abbots of 
 St. Alhams. He is supposed also to have 
 written the abridgment of the Sistoria 
 Major called Flores Mistoriarum, and attri- 
 buted to Matthew of Westminster. Matthew 
 Paris is the greatest of our mediaeval chroni- 
 clers, and almost the only one deserving 
 the name of historian. He seems to have 
 been on intimate terms with Henry III. and 
 the chief men of his daj', and to have made 
 good use of his opportunities. .His works, 
 from their fulness, their evident signs of ac- 
 curate information, and their plain-spoken 
 candour, are by far the most important 
 authorities for the first haU of the thirteenth 
 century ; while in point of style, and ia the 
 acuteness of their observations and refiections, 
 they are very greatly superior to most of the 
 mediseval annals. 
 
 An edition of the Hist. Minor is published in 
 the Rolls Series. The C(tronica Majora were 
 first printed in 1571. There is a translation in 
 Bohn's Anti/iuarian lAhrary. 
 
 Paris, The Declaration op, 1856. At the 
 Congress of Paris, 1856, four important points 
 of international law were agreed to by the 
 representatives of the powers : — (1) Privateer- 
 ing is and remains abolished. (2) The 
 neutral flag covers even enemies' goods, with 
 the exception of contraband of war. (3) 
 Neutral goods, with the exception of contra- 
 band of war, are not liable to capture under 
 an enemy's flag. (4) Blockades in order to 
 be binding must be effective : that is to say, 
 maintained by a force really sufficient to 
 prevent access to the enemy's coast. The 
 concurrence of the government of the United 
 States of America was sought for these resolu- 
 tions. It was refused to the first, but given 
 to the rest. This refusal was due to the 
 objections raised by the European powers to 
 the American proposition that for the future 
 all private property should be exempted from 
 capture by ships of war. Spain and Mexico 
 also decKned to accede to the four articles. 
 
 , The Treaty of (Feb., 1763), brought 
 
 to an end the Seven Years' War between 
 France and England. Separate negotiations 
 had been opened in March, 1761, but had 
 been broken off by Pitt on learning of 
 the Family Compact between France and 
 Spain. Upon this discovery, Pitt resolved on 
 war with Spain, and laid energetic plans for 
 carrying on that war before the Council. 
 Temple alone supported him; and finding 
 that he could not lead, he resigned in October. 
 In November the treaty was concluded by 
 the Duke of Bedford, English ambassador at 
 Paris. As to Spain, each nation was to 
 observe the same limits as before the war 
 began, Spain conceding all the points on 
 which she had based her declaration of war. 
 Between France and England both nations 
 
Par 
 
 ( 800') 
 
 Par 
 
 agreed to take no further part ia the war in 
 Germany ; and the French were to restore all 
 territories held by them in Hesse and 
 Hanover. Minorca was to he given by them 
 in exchange for Belleisle. America passed 
 wholly to England ; but the French were 
 to retain their rights of fishing off Newfound- 
 land. In the West Indies, England retained 
 Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, and (Jrenada ; 
 but restored Guadaloupe, Martinique and St. 
 Lucia. In Africa France gave up Senegal, 
 but recovered Goree. In India, she agreed 
 to have no mihtary establishment; and on 
 this condition the French were allowed to 
 resume the factories which they had held 
 before the war. Before the peace was finally 
 concluded, news came of the capture of 
 Havannah ; and the English cabinet insisted 
 on some equivalent being given, if England 
 was to cede this, her most recent conquest. 
 Florida was accordingly given up by France. 
 Stanhope, Hist. 0/ Eng. ; Thackeray, Life of 
 Chatham; Koch and Schoell, TraiUs de Paix. 
 
 , The Treaty op (May, 1814), was 
 
 concluded by the allies soon after the ab- 
 dication of Napoleon, and his despatch to 
 Elba. Its terras were very moderate, when 
 considered by the side of the terrible havoc 
 inflicted on the Continent during nearly 
 twenty years by the French armies. The 
 frontier of 1790 was to be generally restored; 
 but on the north, and towards the Rhine, it 
 was to be advanced, so as to include several 
 strong fortresses, while towards the Alps a 
 considerable part of Savoy was included 
 within the French border. England and 
 Austria refused to make France pay any 
 contribution towards the. expenses incurred 
 by the war. The only real advantage gained 
 by England was the surrender of the Isle of 
 France, in order to secure the route to 
 India, while it retained Malta for the same 
 object. 
 
 , The Treaty op (Nov. 20, 1815), 
 
 was concluded on the close of Napoleon's final 
 campaign in Flanders. It rigorously in- 
 sisted on confining France to its old boun- 
 dary of 1790, and deprived it of the additions, 
 which the treaty of the previous year had 
 allowed to it. A large contribution towards 
 the war expenses was levied upon it, to the 
 amount of 700,000,000 francs, which was all 
 to be paid in five years. As a security for 
 the payment of this large indemnity, and for 
 the future tranquillity of the country, it was 
 stipulated that the northern fortresses should 
 be held for five years by the troops of the 
 allies. 
 
 Alison, Hist, of EuroTfte ; Londonderry Co^^re- 
 spondence j Stapleton, Life of Cannvng. 
 
 , The Treaty op (Feb., 1856), came 
 
 at the close of the Crimean War. In the 
 beginning of the year 1856 the plenipoten- 
 tiaries of the great powers assembled at Paris. 
 Four articles were brought forward as the 
 
 basis of a peace. They were eventually 
 accepted in a slightly amended form by 
 the Czar. The first redressed the Mol- 
 davian frontier, so as to render it more easily 
 defensible against Russian invasion. The 
 second took from Russia all control over the 
 mouths of the Danube, appointing first a 
 commission of the great powers to arrange 
 preliminaries, and secondly a permanent 
 commission from Austria, Turkey, Bavaria, 
 Wurtemburg, and the three Danubian pro- 
 vinces to draw up rules, establish a police, 
 and superintend navigation. The third pro- 
 posed that no fleet, and no naval station of 
 any country, should be permitted in the 
 Black Sea, but that Russia and Turkey should 
 be empowered to make a convention to keep 
 up a small light-armed force for police and' 
 coast service; on the other hand merchant 
 ships of all classes were to be allowed freely 
 to enter it. 
 
 Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty. 
 
 ■ , The Treaty or (March 3, 1857), was 
 
 concluded between England on the one hand 
 and Persia on the other. By it Persia re- 
 nounced all claim or dominion over Herat 
 and Afghanistan, and engaged to refer any 
 future differences she might have with the 
 Afghan States to the friendly offices of the 
 British government. The slave trade in the 
 Persian Gulf was also by this treaty abolished. 
 
 Parish is derived from the Greek itapoma, 
 and means primarily the district assigned to 
 a particular church. In early times the 
 bishoprics were small and the spiritual 
 care of each town or district was in the 
 hands of the bishop, but with the spread 
 of Christianity and the develojjment of the 
 importance of the episcopate, it became 
 usual to assign special districts within the 
 diocese to the care of a single presbyter under 
 the bishop's supervision. By the ninth or 
 tenth centuij- at latest this parochial system 
 became universal, but it had been gradually 
 growing up long before that time. In England 
 the original missionaries were monks, who 
 were organised together by their dependence 
 on the bishop, but it soon became an evidence 
 of piety for the lord of a district to build and 
 endow a church on it, in return for which he 
 seems to have acquired the right of nomi- 
 nating the minister, who gradually obtained 
 the disposal of the tithe, whici origi- 
 nally had been administered by the bishop. 
 Archbishop Theodore of. Tarsus gave the 
 first impulse towards the development of 
 the parochial system in England, and 
 Bede urged strongly on Archbishop Egbert 
 the importance of the work. TJltimaitely 
 the whole of England, with insignificant 
 exceptions, was divided into parishes, 
 which were usually, though not necessarily, 
 conterminous with the township or manor, 
 though in many cases the township was too 
 smaU to require a priest and church of its owl 
 
Par 
 
 (801) 
 
 Par 
 
 so that some parishes contain several town- 
 ships, and sometimes the boundaries of 
 parishes and townships even overlap. Still, 
 as a whole, the parish became little more than 
 the township in its ecclesiastical aspect, and 
 as the old English local system became ob- 
 solete, the parish encroached, so to say, upon 
 the township. In modem times the parish 
 suggests civil quite as much as ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction. The parish has become for many 
 purposes the unit of local government, of high- 
 way management, of rating, of poor relief, as 
 much as the district under the jurisdiction 
 of the rector or vicar. The ' parish vestry, 
 originally an ecclesiastical assembly of aU the 
 inhabitants, has become a eivU court that has 
 acquired some of the slender functions of the 
 townshipmoot. The churchwardens and over- 
 seers, its officers, have become in a sense civU 
 as well as ecclesiastical officers. One of the 
 churchwardens is elected by the ratepayers 
 in the Easter vestry meeting. 
 
 Besides civil parishes, as old parishes are 
 called, the Church Building Act of 1818 per- 
 mitted the establishment of new ecclesiastical 
 parishes or districts, which, independent in 
 ecclesiastical matters, remained for eivU pur- 
 poses part of the mother parish. 
 
 Hatch, Organisation of the Early Christian 
 Cfhurches ; Stabhs, Const. Hist. ; Blackstone, 
 Commeiitaruis ; Barn, PomTi Law ; Cobden 
 Club Essays on Local Gotjemment of England,. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Parisi, The, were an ancient Celtic tribe 
 occupying the south-eastern portion of the 
 present county of York. 
 
 Parker, Matthew {h. 1504, d. 1575), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, was bom at Nor- 
 wich and educated at Cambridge, where he 
 attained great celebrity as a scholar and a 
 theologian. He became famous as a preacher, 
 and was appointed Chaplain to Henry VIXI., 
 and in 1552 Dean of Lincoln, but having 
 distinguished himself by his zealous advocacy 
 of the Reformation, narrowly escaped martyr- 
 dom during the Marian persecution. His 
 sound judgment caused him to be singled out 
 by Elizabeth on her accession for the primacy, 
 which he accepted much against his will, 
 being consecrated at Lambeth by Barlow, 
 Bishop of Chichester; Hodgkins, suffragan 
 Bishop of Bedford; MUes Coverdale, late 
 Bishop of Exeter; and John Scory, Bishop 
 of Hereford (Dec. 17, 1559). From this time 
 the history of Archbishop Parker is that of 
 the Church of England. On several occa- 
 sions the archbishop found himself brought 
 into collision with Elizabeth, especially on 
 the subject of the marriage of the clergy, 
 which he favoured. He took an important 
 part in the translation of the Bishop's Bible 
 (1563 — 68), and in his revision of the 
 Thirty -nine Articles showed much good sense. 
 Parker was the author of the famous Adver- 
 tisements of Queen Elizaieth, which formed a 
 HiBT.— 26 
 
 book of discipline for the clergy, and the 
 enforcement of which has earned for their 
 author the obloquy of the Puritanical pariy 
 and the reproach of having been a persecutor. 
 In 1575 the archbishop died, having during 
 the whole tenure of his office followed the 
 consistent policy of maintaining ecclesiastical 
 affairs as they had been left by Edward VI. 
 In theology he was Calvinistic, but in matters 
 of ecclesiastical government he was altogether 
 opposed both to the Catholics and the 
 Puritans, and anxious, with due prudence and 
 circumspection, -to obtain uniformity in the 
 English Church. Parker was a student of 
 English antiquities and early history. He 
 wrote a work, De Antiqaitate Britanniie 
 EeclesuB (1572), and edited Matthew Paris in 
 1571. 
 
 Strype, Memorials ; Hook, lAves of the Arch' 
 Tnshops. Parker's Wm-ks have been published 
 by the Parker Society, established 1840, 
 
 Parker, Samuel (5. 1640, d. 1688), Bishop 
 of Oxford, was the son of one of the Barons of 
 the Exchequer. At the Eestoration he forsook 
 the Puritan party, to which he had belonged, 
 and made himself conspicuous by his bitter 
 attacks on them. He was consecrated Bishop 
 of Oxford m 1685, and next year was forcibly 
 intruded into the office of President of Mag- 
 dalen College. He died shortly after this, 
 leaving the reputation of a volunlinous and 
 acute writer, and a dishonest man. He left 
 an historical work, De Sehts sui Temporis, 
 published in 1726. 
 
 Parker, Sir Hyde (S. 1739, d. 1807), 
 entered the navy at an early age, and was 
 made a post-captain in 1763. He distin- 
 guished himself during the American War, 
 and captured Savannah in 1778. He took 
 part in the relief of Gibraltar in 1782, and 
 the operations before Toulon in 1799. In 
 1801 he was appointed to the chief command 
 of the expedition to Copenhagen, with 
 Nelson as his second. The actual command 
 of the fleet which was in action at the battle 
 of Copenhagen was taken by the latter. 
 
 Parkhnrst, John (i. 1511, d. 1574), 
 Bishop of Norwich, the tutor of Bishop Jewel, 
 was one of the most earnest of the Reformers 
 of Edward VI.'s reign, and was in conse- 
 quence obliged to take refuge at Zurich 
 during the Marian persecution. On the 
 accession of Elizabeth he returned to England 
 and became Bishop of Norwich. Bishop 
 Parkhurst was a supporter of the Noncon- 
 formists, and a vehement opposer of persecu- 
 tion. 
 
 Wood, Lives; "Wordsworth, Ecdes. Biog. 
 
 Parkyns, Sir "William {d. 1696), was a 
 lawyer and a Jacobite conspirator, chiefly 
 notorious from his share in the Assassination 
 Plot. He had been one of the most violent 
 opponents of the Exclusion BUI, and had 
 supported James II. to the last. After the 
 Revolution, however, he swore allegiance to 
 
Par 
 
 ( 802 ) 
 
 Par 
 
 William. He did not take a very active share 
 in the Assassination Plot (1696), owing to the 
 infirmities of age. His chief duty was to 
 provide arms for the conspirators. Large 
 quantities were seized at his house on the 
 detection of the plot. He was tried and con- 
 demned to death (March 24). A committee 
 of the Commons went to interrogate him at 
 Newgate, but he refused to betray his accom- 
 plices. He died, "not only without a word 
 indicating remorse, but with something which 
 resembled exultation." 
 
 Parliament. The fundamental notion 
 that has alwaj's upheld the ofSce and action 
 of Parliament in the constitution, and has been 
 professedly the guiding principle of all deal- 
 ings with it on the part of the crown, is that 
 it is the realm of England in little, embracing 
 in its conception all the separate parts, which 
 united make the conception of the great 
 English nation. Every capacity, every poli- 
 tical virtue inherent in the whole nation, is 
 inherent in it. The history of the institution, 
 taken apart from its origin, begins with Nov. 
 27, 1295. On that day the first assembly, 
 whose parliamentary character is uncontro- 
 verted, met at Westminster ; but the word 
 Parliament — which translates colloquium, means 
 n talking, and came to us from Italy — had been 
 already in frequent use; it was given, for 
 instance, to the peculiar^ constituted meet- 
 ings that the Provisions of Oxford determined 
 should be held three times a year. Its earliest 
 recorded application to a national assembly is 
 found under the year 1246, and even after 1295 
 mere councils were now and then called by 
 the name. Parliament, in the words of Bishop 
 Stubbs, is " the concentration of aU the consti- 
 tuents of the shiremoots in a central assembly. 
 They contained in their ultimate form the 
 great folk, clerical and lay, the freeholders, 
 and representatives of the townships and 
 municipalities of the several shires. Parlia- 
 ment contains practically the same component 
 parts of the nation, and the kinship of the 
 humbler with the grander institution is seen 
 in the employment for centuries of the sheriffs 
 and county courts in Parliamentary elections. 
 Through the sheriffs the whole electoral- 
 machinery was set in motion : at the county 
 courts the elections of knights of the shire 
 was made, and to them those of citizens and 
 burgesses were reported. The county court, 
 too, had long been the chief depository of the 
 principle of representation ; when the need 
 arose its merit as a model for the great repre- 
 sentative body could hardly be missed. But 
 the historic Parliament is something more 
 than the express essence of all the county 
 courts in the kingdom ; it is an assembly that 
 is an image of the people, not as an undivided 
 whole, but as split up into separate interests. 
 It is " not only a concentration of machinerj', 
 but an assembly of estates." The clergy, the 
 baronage, and the commons had all to be in 
 
 it, united yet distinct, to make it a full Par- 
 liament. Now the higher clergy and the 
 baronage had always been in the national 
 council ; the lower clergy and the commons 
 had only to be added, and the work would be 
 done. The process of adding those took some 
 time, and but for the strong motive that kept 
 driving on the king to its accomplishment, 
 might have taken much longer. Personal 
 property or " movables " had become subject 
 to taxation ; the methods of getting the neces- 
 sary consents, expressed or constructive, which 
 the pre-Parliamentary regime obliged the 
 king to resort to, were complicated and 
 tedious, and the need of a simple and swifter 
 method was strongly felt. Accordingly we 
 find several assemblies before 1295 which 
 contained one oi more of the Parliamentary 
 elements that were still wanting, but which 
 still lacked something to make them perfect. 
 In 1213 two such were summoned, one with 
 chosen men of the towns in it, to St. Albans ; 
 the other, with chosen men of the shii-es in it, 
 to Oxford. In 1254 the sheriffs were directed 
 to see that their several shires returned two 
 knights each to settle what aid they were 
 willing to give the king. During the years 
 that follow similar instances are found ; but 
 in none were citizens and burgesses combined 
 with knights of the shii'e tUl the meeting in 
 Jan., 1265, of the renowned Parliament called 
 at the instance of Simon de Montfort. This 
 contained 117 dignified churchmen, 23 lay 
 nobles, two men summoned from each shire 
 through the sheriff, and two men summoned 
 from each city and borough, but not through 
 the sheriff. This, however, "was not prim- 
 arily and essentially a constitutional assembly. 
 It was not a general convention of the tenants- 
 in-chief, or of the three estates, but a Parlia- 
 mentary assembly of the supporters of the 
 existing government." Consequently Bishop 
 Stubbs refuses to see in it the first Parliament 
 of the modern tj'pe. During the next thirty 
 years there was no lack of assemblies that got 
 the name of Parliaments, in which the com- 
 monalty is recorded to have been present. 
 Under 1282 we read even of provincial Parlia- 
 ments, one at York and one at Northampton, 
 both representative of the lower clergy and 
 lay commons — which, however, sat apart from 
 each other — but without the lay nobility. A 
 general tax was their object, in which fact we 
 have a proof of the close connection between 
 taxation and the birth of representative 
 government. A Parliamentary gathering at 
 Acton Burnell in 1283 is a good example of 
 those rmfinished Parliaments. It contained 
 no clergy, and representatives of only twenty- 
 one cities and boroughs ; and its business was 
 to see David of Wales tried for his life. Others, 
 equally imperfect, succeed. At last the 
 troubles that crowded in upon Edward I. in 
 1295 persuaded him to throw himself upon 
 his whole people. In October he issued writs 
 for an assembly, which should be a complete 
 
Far 
 
 ( 803 ) 
 
 Far 
 
 image of the nation. On Nov. 27 this assembly- 
 met, and in it historians discern all the com- 
 ponent parts and type of a finished Parliament. 
 It was composed of 97 hishops, abbots and 
 priors, 65 earls and barons, 39 judges and 
 others, representatives of the lower clergy, 
 summoned through their diocesans, and repre- 
 sentatives of the counties, cities, and boroughs 
 summoned through the sheriff. Every section 
 of the population that had political rights was 
 jn it, in person or by proxy. 
 
 Tliis fully developed Parliament did not at 
 once fall into the exercise of all the powers be- 
 longing to the body of which it was the expan- 
 sion. One of them, indeed, the judicial, it has 
 taken care never to assume. Taxation was at 
 first the sole business that all its parts had in 
 common, but time and circumstance soon 
 brought rights and privileges. By slow degrees 
 legislation and general political deliberations 
 came to be classed among its powers. All its 
 parts, however, did not advance towards these 
 with equal speed; those which have since 
 far outstripped the others moved but timidly 
 at first. For a time, also, the several parts 
 held aloof from one another, and even when 
 the pairing process began, the "tendency was 
 towards the combination of the barons and 
 knights of the shire into one body, the citizens 
 and burgesses into another, while the clergy 
 made a third. But this did not go far ; within 
 little more than a generation the clerical and 
 lay baronages had coalesced into the joint 
 estate of the lords spiritual and temporal, and 
 all the lay representatives into the estate of 
 the commons ; and within little more than 
 fifty years the lower clergy, preferring to tax 
 themselves in Convocation, had fallen away 
 altogether. From this time Parliament grew 
 steadily in importance, and in a few genera- 
 tions was firmly rooted in the constitution. 
 It had become indispensable to the legal 
 transaction of the greater affairs of state. 
 During medieval times it was, except at rare 
 and brief intervals, convoked often and regu- 
 larly, and not seldom to provincial towns ; 
 its influence was felt in every department of 
 government ; it occasionally curbed the king 
 of his will; its members had become privi- 
 leged, and a system of rules — a whole code of 
 laws, in fact — had grown up to guide its 
 conduct and prescribe its procedure. From 
 the time of Edward III. it is undoubted that 
 no tax could be levied, and (in secular matters 
 at least) no law be made that had not origin- 
 ated in and been sanctioned by Parliament.. 
 Throughout the Tudor period it kept all its 
 powers unimpaired, though in exercising them 
 it was moved by special causes to submit for 
 a .time to the dictation of the crown. In 
 Elizabeth's days it began to recover its inde- 
 pendence, and under the early Stuarts it 
 entered upon a course of action which de- 
 veloped into a struggle for supremacy in the 
 state. This it pursued so doggedly that it 
 measured its strength with the crown and 
 
 overthrew it, but only to be itseli overthrown 
 by one of its own soldiers. Restored with 
 the monarchy, it again drifted into a lees 
 violent conflict with its former antagonist, in 
 which it was less disastrously successful, for 
 at the Revolution it secured its supremacy, 
 and it has since become the one all-important 
 political power, whose wUl must be obeyed in 
 everything, and throughout the empire. 
 
 Round such an assembly there is sure to 
 grow a formidable fence of privilege. The 
 powers and exemptions, known as Privilege of 
 Parliament, which both Houses enjoy in 
 common, are of two kinds — those that belong 
 to the Houses in their corporate capacity, and 
 those that belong to individual members. Of 
 the former the most vital are freedom of 
 speech, liberty of access to the presence of 
 the sovereign, that the sovereign should not 
 notice anything said or done in Parliament, 
 save on the report of the House, the power 
 of committing for contempt, and an exclusive 
 jurisdiction in disputed claims to seats. The 
 first and second of these are of very early 
 date, and are still formally granted by the 
 crown at the beginning of every Parliament. 
 The third was of slower growth, having been 
 often violated by Charles I. The fourth, 
 called " the keystone of parliamentary privi- 
 lege," was won with difficulty, but has now 
 long been exercised in all cases of breach of 
 privilege, such as disobedience, slander of 
 members, interference with the officers of 
 Parliament, and such-like. The fifth was 
 not secured, by the Lower House at least, till 
 1604. Of the latter class the most valuable 
 is exemption of members from arrest when 
 going to, attending, or returning from. Parlia- 
 ment, except on a charge of treason or felony, 
 or a refusal to give surety of the peace. Once 
 their privileges were far more extensive ; they 
 could not be impleaded in civil suits; their 
 goods could not be distrained, and their 
 servants enjoyed the same immunity from 
 arrest as themselves. But legislation has 
 taken these away, and generally removed the 
 area of their personal privilege to the one 
 immunity given above. 
 
 Stubbs, Select Charters and Const. Hist. ; 
 May, Practical Treatise; Parry, Parliaments and 
 Councils ; Hallam, Const. Hist. r j^ j^n 
 
 Farliamentary Trains Bill (1864). 
 This bin was introduced by Lord Derby. It 
 proposed that in every railway leading to the 
 metropolis, provision should be made for the 
 accommodation of the working classes by 
 cheap trains. This measure was accepted by 
 the government, and was the first of a long 
 series of similar measures. 
 
 Parry, Dr.- William {d. 1586), was a 
 Welshman "of considerable learning, but 
 vicious and needy," who was einployed by 
 Burleigh to reside abroad, and to act as a spy 
 on the English exiles. On his return home, 
 he had frequent interviews with the queen, 
 
Par 
 
 ( sn^ ) 
 
 Fas 
 
 disclosing various designs on her life, which he 
 appears to have contemplated taking himself 
 on several occasions. In 1584, having vio- 
 lently opposed in Parliament the act against 
 the Jesuits, he was expelled from the House, 
 and imprisoned for a short time, but released 
 by the queen's orders. He was shortly after- 
 wards denounced by a feUow plotter and spj', 
 named Edmund Neville, as having formed a 
 scheme to assassinate the queen. Under tor- 
 ture he confessed that he had been urged to 
 murder Elizabeth by Morgan and Cardinal 
 Como, and that the intention was to place the 
 Q,ueen of Scots on the throne. He was exe- 
 cuted for treason at Tyburn (March, 1585). 
 Alkiu, Memoirs of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Parsons, Robert (J. 1S46, d. 1610), "a 
 subtle and lying Jesuit," was bom in Somer- 
 set, and educated at Oxford, where he be- 
 came a fellow of Balliol. Being compelled 
 to quit England on- a charge of embezzling 
 thq college money. Parsons went to Rome, 
 and joined the Jesuits. In June, 1580, he 
 visited England in company with Edmund 
 Campian, and caused great alarm to the go- 
 vernment ; and a very severe statute against 
 those who harboured or concealed Jesuits was 
 passed by Parliament (Jan., 1581). So active 
 was the search after the two missionaries, that 
 Parsons was compelled to return to the Con- 
 tinent, barely escaping his pursuers. He then 
 went to Scotland for the purpose of under- 
 mining the English influence there ; and in 
 1582 met the Duke of Guise at Paris, where 
 he arranged the plan of associating Mary and 
 James in the government of Scotland, and 
 went to Spain to procure assistance from 
 Philip. His schemes were, however, frus- 
 trated by the prompt measures of Elizabeth's 
 ministers, and by the Raid of Ruthven. After 
 the destruction of the Spanish Armada, in 
 1588, Parsons constantly urged Philip to renew 
 his attempts to invade England, and was con- 
 tinually forming schemes for the assassination 
 of the queen, and for the succession of a 
 Catholic sovereign. In 1594 he published, 
 under the name of Doleman, his famous Con- 
 ference about the Succession to the Crown of 
 jBingland, dedicated to Essex, in which he set 
 forth the claims of the Infanta. 
 
 Partition Treaties were an at- 
 tempt to settle from outside the complex 
 question of the Spanish Succession on the 
 death of the king, Charles II. (1) (Oct. 11, 
 1698). It was proposed to confer the 
 greater part of the Spanish dominions on 
 the least powerful of the candidates, the 
 Electoral Prince of Bavaria. The first over- 
 tures were made by Louis XIV., and in con- 
 sequence. Marshal Tallard was sent to London 
 in April, and the first rough form of the divi- 
 sion was broached. In August Louis, still 
 hoping to secure the whole of the Spanish do- 
 minions for one of his grandsons, was inclined 
 to break ofi the negotiations, but was dis- 
 
 suaded by Tallard. The departure of Wil- 
 liam for Holland, where it was feared that he 
 might form a union with the emperor, the 
 Elector of Bavaria, and the chief Protestant 
 princes against France, caused Louis to wish 
 for a definite settlement. By the Treaty of 
 Loo, as it is sometimes called, signed by the 
 representatives of England, France, and Hol- 
 land, France consented to resign all claims on 
 Spain, the Indies, and the Netherlands in 
 favour of the electoral prince. The dauphin 
 was to have the province of Guipuscoa, with 
 Naples, Sicily, and some small Italian islands, 
 which were part of the Spanish monarchy. 
 The Milanese was allotted to the Archduke 
 Charles. As the electoral prince was still a 
 child, it was agreed that his father, who was 
 then Viceroy of the Spanish Netherlands, 
 should be Regent of Spain during the mi- 
 nority. Unfortunately, the electoral prince 
 was carried off by smaU-pox (Feb., 1699), 
 and no arrangement had been made for the 
 case of his dying before succeeding to the 
 throne. "Thus perished," says Ranke, "an 
 arrangement which was in harmony with ex- 
 isting circumstances, and probably could have 
 been carried out." (2) (Oct. 11, 1700), was 
 another attempt to settle the Spanish Succes- 
 sion, again unsettled by the death of the 
 Electoral Prince of Bavaria. This time, the 
 Archduke Charles of Austria was to be king 
 of the greater part of the Spanish domimons. 
 France was to receive Guipuscoa, in the north 
 of Spain, and the two Sicilies, together with 
 Milan, which was to be exchanged for the 
 Duchy of Lorraine. Spain, the Indies, and 
 the Netherlands were to pass to the Archduke 
 Charles. It was evident that Louis was in- 
 sincere. Soon the Spanish minister, Portocar- 
 rero, and the French diplomatist, Harcourt, in- 
 duced the dying King of Spain to make a new 
 will declaring the Duke of Anjou, a son of the 
 dauphin, heir to the whole of his dominions. 
 The treaty was unpopular in England. In 
 November the King of Spain died, and Louis, 
 with complete disregard of treaties, accepted 
 the Spanish ioheritance for his grandson. The 
 Tory House of Commons proceeded to im- 
 peach Portland, Oxford, Somers, and Mont- 
 ague for their share in the treaties ; but this 
 resentment proved abortive, although in 
 March, 1701, both treaties were severely 
 censured. " It was felt," says Ranke, " that the 
 whole advantage arising from the late war 
 was being lost by it. By getting South Italy 
 and the Tuscan shores, France would be 
 mistress of the Mediterranean and of the 
 Levant trade ; out of the Mediterranean ports 
 no ship would be able to sail without her 
 leave." 
 
 Ranke, Hist, of Sng. ; Maoaulay, Hist, of Bug. ; 
 Martm, Hist. d,e Francs ; Mahon, War of Sponisk 
 Succession, 
 
 Passaro, The Battle op Cape (Aug. 11, 
 1 7 1 8) , resulted in the destruction of the Spanish 
 fleet. Alberoni, as a preliminary step towards 
 
Fas 
 
 ( 805 ) 
 
 Pec 
 
 tho fulfilment uf his designs agaiijst tUe power 
 of Austria in Italy, made himselj: master of 
 Sicily, a country which neither England 
 nor France was pledged to support. At this 
 crisis, Admiral Byng arrived in the Mediter- 
 ranean. The Spaniards laid siege to the 
 citadel of Messina on July 31. Byng em- 
 barked 2,000 German infantry at Naples, 
 and proceeded to its relief. He proposed' 
 however, to the Spanish commander a sus- 
 pension of arms for two mouths. Perplexed 
 by the non-arrival of instructions from his 
 government, the Spanish admiral, Castaneta, 
 neither accepted nor rejected the proposal, but 
 put out to sea. Byng encountered him off 
 Cape Passaro. Tbe first shot was fired by 
 some detached Spanish ships, and a general 
 engagement ensued. " The Spaniards," says 
 Lord Stanhope, " were without order and con- 
 cert ; and vessel after vessel, attacked in succes- 
 sion by a superior force, found even the highest 
 courage, the most stubborn resistance, un- 
 availing." Castaneta continued to cheer on 
 his men, though wounded in both legs. The 
 report to the English government was : ' ' We 
 have taken and destroyed all the Spanish 
 ships which were upon the coast ; the number 
 as per margin." 
 
 Faston Letters, The, are a series of 
 letters written by and to the members of the 
 family of Paston, of Norfolk, from 1424 to 
 1506. Besides the letters, which are from and 
 to many of the most illustrious persons of the 
 time, a considerable number of public docu- 
 ments of great importance are preserved in 
 the Paston archives. The importance of this 
 series of family documents cannot be over- 
 rated. Besides throwing much light on family 
 affairs, they present a complete picture of 
 English family life in the fifteenth century. 
 A portion of them were published by Sir John 
 Fejm in 1787, but by far the best edition is 
 that of Mr. J. Gairdner, with critical and his- 
 torical introductions of much value. 
 
 Patay, The Battle op (May 18, 1429), 
 was fought after the raising of the siege of 
 Orleans. The English army retired towards 
 Beaugency, but this important town was 
 captured by the French, and a pitched battle 
 was fought at Patay, between Orleans and 
 Bretigny, in which the English were defeated 
 with a loss of 2,000 men, and their general, 
 Talbot, 'taken prisoner. 
 
 Fatent Soils, The, contain accounts 
 of aR grants of offices, honours, and pen- 
 sions, and particulars of individual and 
 corporate privileges. The term patent was 
 given to these roUs because they were delivered 
 open, with the great seal aifixed, and were 
 supposed to be of a public nature and addressed 
 to all the king's subjects. A Calendar to 
 some of the Patent RoUs has been printed by 
 the Record Commission. 
 
 Fanlet, Sie Amyas, alter being for some 
 
 time the English ambassador at Paris, was 
 created Governor of Jersey, and in 1585, 
 owing to his stern Puritanism, was chosen to 
 guard the Queen of Soots at Tutbury. He 
 was insensible alike to Mary's charms and to 
 her endeavours to win him over to her side, 
 declaring " that he would not be diverted from 
 his duty by hope of gain, fear, or loss, or any- 
 private respect whatsoever." In spite of his 
 sternness, Paulet seems to have treated the 
 Scottish queen with respect and courtesy ; 
 and though the letter signed by Davison and 
 Walsingham after the trial, requesting him 
 to " find out some way to shorten her life," 
 was undoubtedly sent, and that too on the 
 authority of Elizabeth, he flatly refused to 
 do what "God and the law forbade." He 
 was subsequently a commissioner at Mary's 
 trial, and was present at her execution. In 
 1588 he was sent as a commissioner to the 
 Netherlands, in conjunction with Henry, 
 Earl of Derby, and Sir James Crofts. 
 
 FanlinilS was one of the missionaries 
 who came to reinforce Augustine in 601, and 
 on the marriage of Ethelburga, daughter of ■ 
 Edbald of Kent, to Edwin of NoAhumbria, 
 he was selected to accompany the princess. 
 Through his instrumentality, Edwin was 
 brought to Christianity in 626, and with the 
 assent of the Witenagemot the Christian 
 religion was established in Northumbria, and 
 Pauhnus was made Bishop of York. In this 
 new position he was energetic, and in the 
 course of six years had traversed nearly the 
 whole of Northumbria, preaching and bap- 
 tising. The death of Edwin in 633, and the 
 ravages of Penda, compelled Paulinus to quit 
 the kingdom, and seek refuge in Canterbury. 
 The see of Eochester being vacant, he was ap- 
 pointed to it, and held it until, his death in 644. 
 
 Bede, Hist. Socles.; BrigM, Earlj; Bng. Ch. 
 Siat. 
 
 Feada, King of Mercia (655 — 656), was 
 the son and successor of Penda. He was 
 only allowed by Oswiu of Northumbria, his 
 father-in-law, to, hold the southern portion of 
 Mercia. His reign is important as seeing the 
 introduction of Christianity into Mercia, 
 Peada himself having been converted during 
 his father's lifetime. He is said to have been 
 murdered by the treachery of his wife. 
 
 Feckbam, John, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (1279—1292), was Provincial of the 
 Franciscans, and on the resignation of Kil- 
 wardby, was appointed to the archbishopric. 
 As a friar, at a time when the friars had not 
 lost their missionary spirit, Peckham looked 
 upon himself as the agent of the Pope to 
 England, and had little sympathy with the 
 national feelings. The greater part of his 
 pontificate was occupied in disputes with 
 the king, with the Archbishop of York, 
 or with the monks of Canterbury. Of his 
 policy Dean Hook says : " It is clear that he 
 was not on the patriotic or national Bide in 
 
Pec 
 
 C 806 ) 
 
 politics, although the peaceful and prosperous 
 state of the country did not render it neces- 
 sary for him to declare himself. 
 
 Trivet j Hook, Lives of thB ArchhisUops, 
 
 Fecock, Reginald, said to have been 
 horn in Wales, was elected in 1417 fellow of 
 Oriel College, ordained priest four years later, 
 appointed in 1431 Master of Whittington 
 College in London, and became in 1444 
 Bishop of St. Asaph, and Doctor of Divinity. 
 In 1450, on the murder, of Bishop Moleyns, 
 he was translated to the see of Chichester. 
 Pecock distinguished himself by the origin- 
 ality of the views he expressed in his preach- 
 ings and writings. His great work, the 
 Repressor of Overmuch Blamitig of the Clergy, 
 was directed against the errors of the Lol- 
 lards, and vindicated the reasonableness of 
 the usages of the Church. For this and other 
 books Pecock was attacked in the council 
 held at Westminster in 1457, cited before the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, his works ex- 
 amined by twenty-four doctors, and he him- 
 self finally condemned as a heretic. Under 
 this pressure he abjured the heretical posi- 
 tions charged against him, and made a public 
 recantation at Paul's Cross (Dec. 4, 1457). 
 He was deprived of his bishopric, and though 
 he appealed to Rome and procured buUs 
 ordering that it should be restored to him, 
 he was unable to recover it. He spent the 
 rest of his life in compulsory seclusion in the 
 Abbey of Thomey, in Cambridgeshire. 
 
 The Repressor, edited by Churoliill Babing- 
 
 ton (Bol& SeriesJ ; Gairdner, Stvdies in Eng. 
 
 Sist. 
 
 Pecquigny, The Treaty op (1475), was 
 made between Edward IV. and Louis XI. of 
 France. The English invaded France in 
 1476, Edward IV. having made an alliance 
 with Charles of Burgundy, but directly 
 the English set foot in France, Louis offered 
 to treat for peace, and eventually the treaty 
 of Pecquigny was made on these terms : — 1. 
 Edward to return to England on the payment 
 of 75,000 crowns. 2. A truce to be kept for 
 seven years. 3. The Kings of England and 
 France to assist each other agaiost foreign 
 enemies or rebellious subjects. 4. Prince 
 Charles, son of Louis XL, to marry the 
 Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 
 5. The King of Prance to pay annually to the 
 King of England the sum of 50,000 crowns. 
 
 Peel, Sm RoBEKT (*. Feb. 5, 1788, d. 
 July 2, 1850), was the son of Sir Robert Peel, 
 an enormously wealthy Lancashire cotton 
 manufacturer. Educated at Harrow and 
 Christ Church, Oxford, Peel, after a very 
 brilliant university career, entered Parlia- 
 ment for Cashel in 1809, as a supporter of 
 Mr. Perceval. In 1810 he was made Under- 
 Secretary for the Home Department. In 
 1812 he was Chief Secretary for Ireland under 
 Lord Liverpool. In 1817 he was returned as 
 member for Oxford University, and ia 1819 
 
 he was chosen chairman of the committee on 
 the currency, in which capacity he was 
 mainly instrumental in bringing about the 
 return to cash payments. From 1822 to 1827 
 Peel was Home Secretary ; but on the acces- 
 sion of Canniag (April, 1827), he retired, 
 being unable to agree with that minister on 
 the subject of Catholic Emancipation. In 
 1828 he returned under the Duke of Wel- 
 lington; and in March, 1829, having become 
 convinced of the necessity of granting the 
 demands of the Catholics, he moved the 
 Catholic Relief Bill in the House of Com- 
 mons. In May, 1830, Peel succeeded his 
 father in the baronetcy, and, having been 
 rejected the previous year by the University 
 of Oxford, re-entered Parliament as member 
 for Tamworth. During the discussion on the 
 Reform Bill, Peel, who resigned with his 
 colleagues (Nov., 1830), strenuously opposed 
 the measure. In 1834 he was recalled to 
 office during the brief Conservative ministry 
 of WiUiam IV. On May 5, 1839, on the 
 resignation of the Melbourne ministry, Sir 
 Robert Peel was sent for by the queen ; but 
 his request for the removal of certain of her 
 majesty's ladies of the bed-chamber who 
 were connected with \\'Tiig leaders being 
 refused, he declined to form a ministry, and 
 the Whigs returned to office. In Aug., 1841, 
 they resigned, and Sir Robert Peel became 
 Prime Minister, holding office till June, 1846. 
 His regime was marked by some important 
 financial changes, including the Bank 
 Charter Act of 1844. But it was specially 
 marked by the repeal of the Com Laws 
 (q.T.), and the removal of protectionist re- 
 strictions on trade. Sir Robert, with the bulk 
 of his followers, was altogether opposed to the 
 removal of the com duties, and vigorously 
 resisted the Anti-Corn Law agitators. Bat 
 he at length became convinced of the justice 
 of their cause, and, to the intense disgust of 
 many of his followers, himself brought in 
 the bill for the repeal of the duties on com. 
 But a large portion of the Conservatives 
 abandoned him, and the Liberals gave him 
 little support, and in June, 1846, he resigned. 
 During the remaining years of his life he 
 gave a general support to the home and com- 
 mercial policy of the Whig ministers, though 
 he opposed their foreign policy. He died 
 from the effects of a fall from his horse while 
 riding in St. James's Park. Peel's public 
 action, especially in the matter of the Catholic 
 Claims and the Corn Laws, exposed him to 
 much misconstruction in his lifetime. But 
 his honesty, his zeal for the welfare of the 
 country, his moral courage and independence 
 of character, have been amply acknowledged 
 by the succeeding generations. And what- 
 ever exception might be taken to his general 
 statesmanship, no one has doubted that his 
 talents as an administrator and a. financier 
 were of the highest possible order. 
 
 Sir Robert Peel and his Era (1844); Taylor and 
 
Fee 
 
 ( 807 ) 
 
 Fee 
 
 Mackay, Sir Robert , Peel's Life and Times ; 
 Doutleday, PoUMcal Life of Sir Robert Peel] 
 Kuenzel, Das Leben und die Reden &ir RobeH 
 Jr'«el8(1850) j Gnizot, Sir fiobert Peel. 
 
 [S.J.L.] 
 Feelites was the name given to those 
 Conservatives who, after the Kepeal of the 
 Com Laws (1846) , formed a third intermediate 
 party in Parliaiment. Liberal-Conservatives, 
 they refused a junction with either political 
 extreme ; kept aloof alike from the Whigs 
 under RusseU and Pahnerston, and the Con- 
 servatives under Derby and Disraeli. Even 
 after the death of Peel, in 1850, the presence 
 of Sir James Graham, Mr. Gladstone, the 
 Duke of Newcastle, Sidney Herhert, Mr. 
 Cardwell, among the Peelites made them es- 
 pecially formidable. On the accession of the 
 Earl of Aberdeen in 1852 the isolation of the 
 Peelites ceased, as that ministry was formed 
 hy a coalition of Peelites and Whigs. Mr. 
 Gladstone became Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
 Sir James Graham became First Lord of the 
 Admiralty, the Duke of Newcastle became 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies, and Mr. 
 Sidney Herbert returned to his old position 
 of Secretary at War. 
 
 Feep-o'-Day Boys, The, was the name 
 assumed by many of the Ulster Presbyterians 
 between 1780 and 1795, who banded them- 
 selves together to resist the Catholic "De- 
 fenders." Many fights took place between 
 these two parties. On the institution of the 
 Orange lodges in 1790 many of the Peep-o'- 
 Day Boys passed into them. The Peep-o'- 
 Day Boys bore a large share in the " Battle 
 of the Diamond" (Sept. 21, 1795). 
 
 Feerage. It was doubtless from France 
 that England first learned to narrow the poli- 
 tical application of the word peets — which in 
 literary and general usage still collectively 
 designates all persons that are equals in rank 
 or belong to the same class — to members of the 
 specially privileged order, the hereditary no- 
 bility. The German companions in arms, 
 who had conquered Gaul and divided the 
 land among them, were at an early period 
 called peers, that is, fellow-warriors pledged 
 to mutual support. Its limitation in England 
 to the hereditary counsellors of the sovereign, 
 whose capacity to fill such an office originated 
 at one time in the tenure of certain fiefs, at 
 another in the direct receipt of a personal 
 writ of summons to Parliament, at a third in 
 a formal patent of peerage, and, in its femi- 
 nine form, to the wives of such hereditary 
 counsellors, and in certain contingencies their 
 female descendants, as well as created peer- 
 esses, may perhaps have been encouraged by 
 the perfect equality of privilege, that held 
 the varying ranks of the order on the same 
 level in the political system. In that system 
 kings, princes, dukes, marquesses, earls, vis- 
 counts and barons, have all been equals, 
 whatever social precedences may have dis- 
 tuiguished them. The latest created baron 
 
 had a voice and vote in Parliament as potent 
 as a King of Scotland's or a Prince of Wales's. 
 But though all peers were once lords of Par- 
 liament, there never has been a time when aU 
 lords of Parliament were peers. The lords 
 spiritual have never been considered peers ; 
 they are not regarded as having the right, 
 when accused of treason or felony, to be tried 
 by the peers ; and they do not sit in judg- 
 ment on a peer arraigned on a capital charge. 
 The word came into regular use in the four- 
 teenth century ; it is found in the sentence 
 passed on the Despencers in 1321. The 
 status and composition of the peerage had 
 then been definitely established, and its 
 place in the constitution been settled. The 
 English peerage had then declared itself 
 to be no caste, such as was the French 
 nobility, but merely a small knot of citizens 
 whose distinguishing feature was that they 
 had inherited the capacity, or been invited, 
 or been commissioned by the king, to fiU a 
 responsible ofiice in the State, that of per- 
 petual adviser of the crown, had a few 
 cherished privileges conceded to them in con- 
 sequence, and on dying passed on their duties 
 and privileges to their heirs. For in time 
 tenure lost its ennobling virtue, in time the 
 writ of summons was discontinued as a mode 
 of creating peers, and the more deliberate 
 proceeding of bestowing the dignities that 
 admitted to the peerage by a formal patent, 
 was exclusively used, and enabled the crown, 
 when it seemed advisable, to limit the right 
 of inheritance, which hitherto had descended 
 to heirs general, to heirs male. In mediaeval 
 days, when the dignity devolved upon an 
 heiress, though she could not herself take the 
 official seat in Parliament and in Council, she 
 yet could give her husband, if not a right to 
 the dignity, at least a presumptive claim to a 
 writ of summons. Thus the Kingmaker was 
 for a time Earl of Warwick, merely because 
 he had married the sister and heiress of 
 Henry de Beauchamp. And the state of 
 suspended animation for a peerage that is 
 known as abeyance, arose when a peer left his 
 honours at his death to co-heiresses, whose 
 posterity had no power of assuming them till 
 the stock of aU but one of the daughters had 
 been exhausted. 
 
 The special privileges of the peerage descend 
 from an early period ; but it was the quarrel 
 of Edward III. with Archbishop Stratford in 
 1341 that first made the most valuable of 
 them matters of record. In the course of that 
 dispute the lords reported that " on no account 
 should peers ... be brought to trial, lose 
 their possessions, be arrested, imprisoned, 
 outlawed or forfeited, or be boimd to answer 
 or to judge, except in full Parliament and 
 before their peers." And in 1442 it was 
 settled by statute that peeresses had the same 
 rights, when placed in the same position. 
 But the value of the right was for centuries 
 greatly impaired by its practical restrictioa 
 
Pel 
 
 ( 808 ) 
 
 Fern 
 
 to the times -when Parliament was sitting ; 
 during the recess the Lord Steward, who was 
 appointed hy the crown, formed the court at 
 his discretion, by choosing whomsoever he 
 pleased from the body of peers, generally to 
 the number of twenty-three only. This hard- 
 ship was removed by the Treason Bill of 
 1696, which made it obligatory to summon to 
 the court of the Lord Steward " all the peers 
 who have a right to sit and vote in Parlia- 
 ment." It is only on charge of treason, mis- 
 prision, and felony that peers are entitled to 
 the privilege ; for ijiinor offences they are 
 tried by the ordinary courts. The other 
 rights of a peer — freedom from arrest, admis- 
 sion on demand to the presence of the sove- 
 reign, liberty to kill venison in a royal 
 forest, a claim to higher damages for slander, 
 &c. — are now of little or no account. Since 
 the completion of the Imperial Parliament, 
 there are many Scottish and Irish peers who 
 are not lords of Parliament ; but they enjoy 
 all the other distinctions of the order ; and an 
 Irish peer can sit among the Commons for 
 any constituency in Great Britain. The 
 two most striking features in the later history 
 of the peerage are the amazing increase in its 
 numbers, and the unreserved admission to its 
 ranks of men of distinction in every honour- 
 able employment, soldiers, lawyers, diplo- 
 matists, bankers, tnidesmen, manufacturers. 
 In this way the order has grown from 59 
 landed proprietors in 1603 to more than 500 
 representatives of almost every form of social 
 and personal distinction, literature not ex- 
 cepted. 
 
 Courthope's Edition of Nicolas'B Historic 
 Peerage ; May, Practical Treatise ; May, Const. 
 Hist., Vol. i. ; Hallam; Stubbs. rj R "| 
 
 Felagius was bom in Britain, towards 
 the end of the fourth century, and his 
 original name appears to have been Morgan, 
 of which Pelagius is a Grsecised form. 
 He left his native land very early, and 
 lived most of his life in Gaul, where he 
 became notorious for his heretical teaching on 
 the subject of original sin and free-will. 
 Pelagiauism took root in Britain, and it was 
 to combat this heresy that Germanus and' 
 Lupus came over from Gaul. It would seem 
 to have died out in Britain in consequence of 
 the English Conquest. 
 
 Felham, Heney {i. 1696, d. 1754), wag 
 a younger son of the Duke of Newcastle. 
 He took an active part in the suppression 
 of the rebellion in 1715; and first sat for 
 Seaford in 1718. He became Lord of the 
 Treasury (1721), Secretary of State for War 
 (1724), and Paymaster of the Forces (1730). 
 He was a zealous supporter of Walpole, and 
 faithfully upheld the measures of that minis- 
 ter against the attacks of the Opposition. 
 Walpole's resignation in 1742 was followed 
 by Wilmington's short ministry. On his 
 death the candidates for the premiership were 
 
 Pelham and Pulteney. With extreme re- 
 luctance the former was induced to assume 
 the management of the Commons as First Lord 
 of the Treasury. He was supported by the 
 brilliant Carteret, who had been Pulteney's 
 friend. The Pelhams succeeded to the difS- 
 culties of the Austrian Succession question, 
 and were obliged to obey tte dictates of their 
 party, who were determined on hostilities 
 with France. Carteret finding his policy 
 thwarted, retired in 1744. Pelham, who, un- 
 like Walpole, dreaded opposition, now per- 
 suaded Chesterfield and Pitt to support the 
 ministry, and placed several Tories in sub- 
 ordinate positions. Finding themselves super- 
 seded by Carteret in the king's councils, the 
 Pelhams determined to bring the matter to a 
 crisis by demanding the admission of Chester- 
 field and Pitt to ofiice. On the king's refusal, 
 they resigned ; but as Carteret failed to form 
 a ministry, they were placed again in power. 
 Meanwhile the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 had 
 the effect of bringing the Pelhams back to 
 Walpole's peace policy, and the war was 
 concluded by the Treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe 
 (Oct., 1748). .There had now ceased to be 
 any opposition in Parliament. In 1750 Pel- 
 ham introduced his successful financial bill, 
 whereby the interest of the national debt was 
 decreased from five and four to three per 
 cent. The reform of the calendar and Lord 
 Hardwicke's Marriage Act (1753) are the 
 remaining points of interest in his adminis- 
 tration. In 1754 he died, and George de- 
 clared, " Now I shall have no more peace." 
 "Like Walpole," says Mr. Lecky, "he was 
 thoroughly successful in questions of finance, 
 and almost uniformly successful in dealing 
 with them. A timid, desponding, and some- 
 what fretful man, with little energy of cha- 
 racter or intellect, he possessed, at least, to a 
 high degree, good sense, industry, knowledge 
 of business, and Parliamentary experience." 
 Coxe, £i/c o/PclIiam; Smollett, Hist ofEng.; 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Sng. ; Lecky, Hist, of l?is 
 
 Eighteenth Century. 
 
 Pembroke, Jasper Tudob, Eakl of 
 {d. 1493), was the son of Owen Tudor and 
 Catherine of France. In 1461 he fought 
 against the Yorkists at the battle of Mortimer's 
 Cross, where he was defeated, and with diffi- 
 culty escaped. He was attainted, and deprived 
 of his honours, but in 1470 he landed in 
 England with the Duke of Clarence, and the 
 Lancastrians driving Edward out, he was 
 restored to his titles and estates. In 1471 he 
 once more had to flee, and this time in 
 company with his nephew, Richmond. For 
 many years he lived in Britanny, till 1485, 
 when he accompanied Eichmond to England, 
 and shared the victory of Bosworth with him. 
 He received •great rewards from Henry VII., 
 and was one of the commanders at the battle 
 of Stoke, in 1487. 
 
 Pembroke, Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl 
 or, and 5th Earl of Montgomery [b. 1656, 
 
Pem 
 
 ( 809 ) 
 
 Fen 
 
 d. 1733), was educated at Christ Church, 
 Oxford, and succeeded to his brother's title 
 in 1683. He raised the trained-bands of 
 Wilts in order to suppress Monmouth's rebel- 
 lion. In 1687 he was deprived of his lord 
 lieutenancy. He took part in the coronation 
 ceremony of William and Mary, although he 
 had voted for a regency, and was shortly 
 afterwards sent as ambassador extraordinary 
 to the States-General. Pembroke was sworn 
 of the Privy Council, and placed at the head 
 of the Admiralty Commission. On the depar- 
 ture of William for Ireland he was placed on 
 the Council of Nine. Pembroke was made 
 Lord Privy Seal in 1691. When the king 
 went to the Netherlands to take command of 
 the army he was appointed one of the Lords 
 Justices. He voted against Fenwick's at- 
 tainder, although desirous that that con- 
 spirator should be brought to the scaffold. 
 Pembroke was first plenipotentiary at the 
 Treaty of Eyswick. He was created President 
 of the Council in place of Leeds in 1700 ; and 
 by an able speech expressed the dislike of the 
 Tory Peers to the Eesumption Bill. On the 
 accession of Anne he was dismissed from the 
 Admiralty in order to make room for Prince 
 George. He was one of the commissioners to 
 treat of the Union vrith Scotland, and Lord 
 Lieutenant of Ireland in 1707. Pembroke 
 was subsequently created President of the 
 Council, from which the Whigs attempted to 
 thrust him in order to make room for Somers. 
 On the death of Prince George, he again be- 
 came Lord High Admiral, but resigned in 1 709 
 on receiving a pension. Before fie ajrival of 
 George I. in England Pembroke was one of 
 the Lords Justices who carried on the adminis- 
 tration. During the remainder of his long life 
 he took but little part in politics. Although 
 Pembroke played a prominent part during 
 two reigns we know but little of his personal 
 character. He was a moderate Tory in 
 opinions, and seems to have carried out his 
 official duties with zeal and integrity. 
 
 Bnmet, Bist. of His Oum Time; Macaulay, 
 Hist ofEtig. ; Wyon, Reign of Anne. 
 
 Vemibvoike, William Hbebebt, Eael op 
 (d. 1570), one of the most powerful men of 
 ids day, was employed in crushing the western 
 rebellion in 1549, and as a reward was made 
 Master of the Horse and President of the 
 Coimcil of Wales. In 1551 he was created 
 Earl of Pembroke, and in conjunction with 
 Warwick and Northampton virtually ruled 
 England. At first deeply implicated in Nor- 
 thumberland's plot to set Lady Jane Grey on 
 the throne, the Earl soon found that his 
 interests lay really on the other side, and on 
 perceiving that the country was in favour of 
 Mary, proclaimed her at St. Paul's Cross. 
 In 1554 he threw the whole weight of his 
 influence into the scale in favour of the 
 queen, whom however he personally regarded 
 with dislike ; and it was owing in a great 
 HIST.-26* 
 
 measure to his course of action that Sir 
 Thomas Wyatt's rebellion was so easily sup- 
 pressed in the following year ; he was one of 
 the commissioners sent to France to arrange 
 for a general peace, and in 1556 led a 
 reinforcement of troops to Calais to ward off 
 the threatened French attack. On the acces- 
 sion of EUzabeth he accorded her his warmest 
 support. In 1669 he was, however, arrested 
 on suspicion of beinjg implicated in the plot 
 to marry the Duke of Norfolk to Mary, 
 Queen of Scots, but he cleared himself at 
 once, and was placed in command of part of 
 the queen's army. 
 
 Penal Code, The, in' Ireland, was first 
 felt under James I. In 1603 a royal procla- 
 mation was issued ordering all Roman CathoKe 
 priests to leave the country under pain of 
 death, and announcing that the penal clauses 
 of the Act of Uniformity would be put 
 in force. Parliament, however, remonstrated, 
 and in 1613 a promise was given that the 
 laws would not be enforced. A period of 
 some toleration followed, which was out short 
 by the OomweUian conquest. Under the 
 Protectorate the CathoKo gentry and priests 
 were shipped off wholesale to Barbadoes as 
 slaves ; no Catholic was allowed to carry 
 arms, to live in garrison towns, or to go a 
 mile from his residence without a passport. 
 In spite of the second Act of Uniformity, the 
 Irish enjoyed a considerable amount of tolera- 
 tion under Charles II. and James II., and 
 their sufferings began again after the broken 
 treaty of Limerick. After the English 
 Parliament had in 1693 excluded Catholics 
 from the Irish Parliament by imposing the 
 oath of allegiance and abjuration, and a de- 
 claration against transubstantiation, upon 
 members, the latter body set to work upon the 
 legislation known to infamy as the Irish penal 
 code. (1) The first of the penal statutes, 
 passed in 1695, provided that no Catholic 
 should keep a school under penalty of 
 £20 or three months' imprisonment ; that 
 parents should not send their cluldrea abroad 
 for education under penalty -of outlawry and 
 confiscation, the case to be tried without a 
 jury. (2) The Disarming Act commanded 
 all papists to deliver up their arms under 
 penalty of a heavy fine for the first offence, 
 and imprisonment for life and forfeiture for 
 the second. (3) In 1697 all Roman Catholic 
 ecclesiastics who were in correspondence with 
 Rome were expelled the kingdom, and for- 
 bidden to return under pain of death; new 
 priests were forbidden to enter Ireland, and 
 in the following reign the existing clergy 
 were placed under a strict system of registra- 
 tion (1704). (4) The Intermarriage Act pro- 
 vided that a. Protestant woman marrying a 
 Catholic should be dead in the eye of the 
 law, and a Protestant man who married a 
 Catholic should be regarded as a papist. 
 (5) , Catholics were disqualified in 1698 from 
 
Feu 
 
 ("810 ) 
 
 Fen 
 
 practising as solicitors, and further measures 
 were passed in the reigns of Anne and George 
 II. to prevent evasions of the Act. The 
 legislation of Anne's reign was terribly severe, 
 and was deliberately framed with the object 
 of depriving the native Irish of what little 
 property they still possessed: — (1) The Act 
 for the Suppression of Papacy (1704) provided 
 that any person who perverted a Protestant 
 should be guilty of praemunire ; that Catholic 
 parents should be compelled to maintain and 
 educate their Protestant children ; that no 
 Catholic could be guardian or trustee ; that 
 the eldest son of a Catholic, by turning Pro- 
 testant, converted his father's interest in his 
 estates into a mere life-tenancy; and that 
 lands of Catholics were to descend in gavel- 
 kind unless the eldest son declared himself a 
 Protestant. Again, no Catholic could buy 
 land or take leases for more than thirty-one 
 years; he could not inherit land without 
 taking the oaths, the estate passing at once, 
 until his apostacy or death, to the next 
 Protestant heir; no Catholics were to be 
 allowed to settle in Limerick or Galway ; no 
 person was to hold ofSce, civil or military, 
 without taking the oaths and subscribing the 
 declaration of transubstantiation. (2) By the 
 Act of 1709 an informer who could prove that 
 a lease or sale had been secretly made in 
 favour of Papists was to have the property ; 
 and the previous legislation compelling 
 Catholic fathers to support their Protestant 
 children, suppressing papist schoolmasters 
 and regulars, and commanding parish priests 
 to be registered, were enforced with additional 
 rigour. Lastly, in 1727 an Act was passed 
 by which every Roman Catholic was deprived 
 of his vote, both at Parliamentary and muni- 
 cipal elections. The only eifect of this 
 terrible code was the destruction of the 
 ■ Catholic gentry in Ireland ; many of the best 
 families emigrated, and a few apostatised. 
 The other measures were either evaded or not 
 put into execution. The cruel persecution of 
 the "Irish enemy" began to abate towards 
 the end of Walpole's administration ; and to 
 Lord North belongs the credit of the first 
 substantial Eoman Catholic Belief Bill, by 
 which, on taking the oath of allegiance, 
 they were allowed to hold leases of 999 years 
 (1778). In 1782 the penal code was further 
 relaxed, the provisions against the purchase, 
 inheritance, and disposition of land, residence 
 in Limerick and Galway, instruction by 
 popish schoolmasters, and the guardianship of 
 children, being repealed. Additional measures 
 for the freedom of the Roman Catholics were 
 passed in 1792, when the restrictions on the 
 legal profession were removed, the odious 
 Intermairiage Act was repealed ; and in 1793, 
 when £40 freeholders were allowed to vote in 
 Parliamentary and municipal elections, to 
 enter Dublin University, and to fill, with a 
 few exceptions, civil and military offices. 
 These were stepping-stones to the great 
 
 Eoman Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829, 
 by which the last relics of the abominable 
 Penal Code were swept away. 
 
 Irish S'atufes ,■ ' Lelaud, Hist, of Ireland; 
 Lecty, Hist. ofBng. ; Hallam, c. xviii. ; Proude, 
 Enghsh in Ireland; "Walpole, The Kingdom of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Feuda, King of Mercia (626 — 654), was 
 the son of Pybba or Wybba, and claimed to be 
 descended from Woden, tjnder him Mercia 
 first assumed a position of equality with the 
 other kingdoms. . The petty states which 
 hitherto had occupied Middle England were 
 conquered by him, and consolidated into the 
 later Mercian state, which was conterminous 
 with Central England. He was the opponent 
 of Christianity and of Northumbria, against 
 which he even formed an alliance with 
 the Welsh. In 633 he defeated and slew 
 Edwin of Northumbria at Heathfield, and 
 ravaged the whole country of the North- 
 umbrians ; in 642 he again defeated the 
 Northumbrians at Maserfield. He frequently 
 defeated the East Angles, and slew three of 
 their kings. He drove Cenwealh of Wessex 
 out of his kingdom, and at one time seemed 
 likely to make himself master of almost the 
 whole of England. But in 654 he was him- 
 self defeated and slain at Winwidfield by 
 Oswiu of Northumbria. " This prince," says 
 Lappenberg, " presents a striking and almost 
 inexplicable phenomenon. Ruler of a terri- 
 tory surrounded more than any others by a 
 numerous hostile British population, a state 
 which was of all the youngest; a state 
 formed in the middle of the country, of 
 immigrants and aftercomers, who found the 
 maritime parts already occupied ; protected 
 by marshes, rivers, mountains, succeeding to 
 power at the age of sixty, yet displaying the 
 energy of youth; the last unshaken and 
 powerful adherent of paganism among the 
 Anglo-Saxons, this prince had during his 
 reign of thirty years first assailed the Bret- ' 
 walda of Northumbria, and afterwards re- 
 peatedly the other states of his countrymen, 
 with great success and still greater cruelty, 
 yet, notwithstanding the destruction of five 
 kings, without securing to himself any lasting 
 result." [Mercia.] 
 
 Florence of Worcester, CTironicIe; Lappen- 
 berg, Anglo-Saxon Kings. 
 
 Feuinsular War, The (1808—1814), 
 was, so far as England was concerned, the 
 most important episode in the wars with 
 Prance, which lasted, with little intermission, 
 from 1793 to 1815. In July, 1808, an alliance 
 was signed between England and Spain, and 
 two British divisions were at once despatche(} 
 to Portugal, under Wellesley and Moore. 
 From Aug. 1—5, Wellesley was engaged in 
 disembarking the troops in Pigueras Bay, 
 and on the 8th he moved towards Lisbon. 
 On the 17th Laborde opposed him at Rorica, 
 and was defeated ; and Junot met with the 
 same fate at Vimiero four days later. Welles- 
 
Fen 
 
 ( 811 ) 
 
 Fen 
 
 ley was, however, prevented from following 
 up the advantage he had gained hy a rapid 
 pursuit ; and on the 30th, the Convention of 
 Cintra was signed, by which the French were 
 allowed to quit Portugal unmolested with all 
 their stores, guns, and ammunition. Much 
 as this convention was condemned at home, 
 it secured, by the occupation of Portugal, a 
 firm basis of operations. In November, 
 Napoleon himself took command in Spain; 
 and after severe struggles with the Spaniards, 
 the French, on Dec. 4, entered Madrid, 
 and installed Joseph for the second time on 
 the throne of Spain. Meanwhile, Sir John 
 Moore, who, on the other generals being 
 recalled after the Convention of Cintra, had 
 succeeded to the command in Lisbon, had 
 arranged to form a junction at Salamanca 
 with Sir David Baird, who was bringing up 
 reinforcenxents from Corunna, but owing to 
 want of transport, and the stupidity of the 
 native authorities, neither general could 
 move at an adequate pace ; and it was not 
 till Nov. 13 that Moore arrived with his 
 vanguard at the place appointed. In spite of 
 the fact that all his precautions in the rear 
 had been overthrown by the treachery of 
 the Spaniards, he determined to press on to 
 the assistance of the Spanish armies. On 
 Dec. 9 he first learnt that Madrid was 
 in the possession of the French, and that 
 one French army had been despatched to 
 Lisbon by way of Talavera, thus cutting ofE 
 his retreat to Portugal, while Soult was on 
 his march against Moore's army. He at once 
 marched against Soult, and checked him in a 
 brilliant skirmish at Sahagun ; but Napoleon 
 was drawing his armies round to enclose him ; 
 and there was nothing left but to retreat. 
 This movement was begun on. the 24th, and 
 the several divisions concentrated at Astorga 
 on the 31st. The next day Napoleon had to 
 leave the army, and Soult was. left to pursue 
 a force, which under extreme difficulties had 
 forgotten all discipline. Nevertheless Moore 
 managed to bring them safely to Corunna, 
 where he halted to collect the stragglers. 
 On Jan. 15, 1809, he gave Soult battle, 
 defeated him, though killed himself in 
 the moment of victory; and the army was 
 embarked without further molestation and 
 sailed for England. In May Wellesley took 
 command in Portugal, where the French were 
 almost supreme. He at once advanced 
 against Soult, and drove him back from Lis- 
 bon in a series of skirmishes. He followed 
 up his partial successes by an advance up 
 the Valley of the Tagus, and on July 28 
 defeated Victor and Joseph in a hard-fought 
 battle at Talavera. He, however, retreated 
 soon afterwards into winter quarters on the 
 Mondego. In the spring of 1-810, Massena 
 opened a brilliant campaign, the object of 
 which was the conquest of Portugal. After 
 many successes he was met by Lord Wel- 
 lington (for a peerage had been bestowed 
 
 upon Wellesley after Talavera), at Busaco 
 on Sept. 27, defeated, and driven back. 
 Wellington took advantage of the victory to 
 retreat to the lines of Torres Vedras, which 
 he had constructed as a defence for Lisbon. 
 In March (18il), having received reinforce- 
 ments, Wellington issued from his lines, 
 and by a series of masterly movements 
 forced Massena to retreat to Salamanca. On 
 April 9 he began to blockade Almeida, 
 and in the beginning of May, at Fuentes 
 d'Onoro, again defeated Massena, who had ad- 
 vanced to its relief. During the battle, the 
 Governor of Almeida had taken advantage of 
 the carelessness of the investing force to de- 
 stroy the fortress and escape. In the mean- 
 while Graham had broken out from Cadiz, 
 where he had been invested all the winter, 
 and on March 5 defeated Victor at Barossa. 
 Beresford had on March 15 been detached by 
 Wellington to recapture Badajos, which had 
 been lost to the French by the treachery of its 
 commander. Early in May he had made all 
 the dispositions necessary for the siege ; but 
 the operations had soon to be abandoned on 
 account of Soult!s approach with a strong 
 relieving force. Beresford gave him battle 
 on the ridge of Albuera on May 16, and 
 after a terrible struggle, in which victory 
 was long doubtful, entirely defeated the 
 French army. Wellington, coming up soon 
 after the battle,, at once ordered Badajos to 
 be reinvested. An assault, however, on 
 Badaj/js on June 9 was repulsed with 
 great loss; and the siege was finally aban- 
 doned on the approach of Soult and Marmont^ 
 who had united their forces. Wellington re- 
 tired, behind the Guadiana, but took up so 
 bold a position that he imposed on the two 
 marshals, who, thinking him much stronger 
 than he really was, in their turn withdrew, 
 Soult to Seville, Marmont to the Tagus 
 valley, where he quartered his army around 
 Almaraz. Wellington at once advanced, but 
 was foiled in an attempt to surprise Ciudad 
 Eodrigo, which, however, was now completely 
 blockaded. Late in September, Marmont 
 marched with an overwhelming force to its 
 relief ; and after checking him in a vigorous 
 combat at El Bodon Wellington ordered a 
 general retreat. On the 27th he again re- 
 pulsed an. attack of the French, and withdrew 
 to a position so strong that Marmont did not 
 venture to attack it, and from want of sup- 
 plies withdrew again to the Tagus valley. 
 In October Hill successfully drove the French 
 from CacereB,,and opened up the whole dis- 
 trict for a foraging ground for the allies. 
 For two,months Estremadura was completely 
 in Hill's power, till in. Jan. (1812), be was 
 recalled to Portugal by a threatened advance 
 of Marmont.. Meanwhile in the east of 
 Spain, the French had been very successful, 
 and Valencia and Catalonia had been reduced. 
 On Jan. 1 (1812), Wellington with all things 
 ready crossed the Agueda, and on the 8th 
 
:&eu 
 
 812 ) 
 
 Fen 
 
 broke ground in front of Ciudad Eodrigo. 
 The siege waa hurried on in order to fore- 
 stall Marmont's arrival. On the 19th the 
 place was assaulted and carried after a ter- 
 rible struggle. When Marmont in his ad- 
 vance learned the fall of Ciudad Eodrigo, he 
 hastily retired to Salamanca, which he 
 fortified. Wellington lost no time in march- 
 ing to the south, and preparing for the siege 
 of Badajos. The works were begun on 
 March 17, and here again had to be 
 conducted with all speed from the fear of 
 Soult's reKeving force. On April 7 the 
 place was captured by one of the most deter- 
 mined and sanguinary assaults on record. 
 On May 19 Hill surprised and destroyed 
 the bridge of Almaraz, which formed the 
 only communication across the Tagus between 
 Marmont and Soult, and Wellington followed 
 up this success by laying siege to the forts of 
 Salamanca. In ten days they were reduced, 
 and on July 22 Wellington utterly defeated the 
 French in the great battle of Salamanca. For 
 eight days he followed up the pursuit to VaUa- 
 doUd. Thence, leaving OUnton to watch the 
 movements of the French in the direction of 
 Burgos, he continued his march to Madrid, 
 which he entered in triumph on Aug. 12. 
 Here he was again prevented by the illi- 
 berality and bad management of the home 
 government from carrying the war any fur- 
 ther into Spain, although either Soult or 
 Suchet might have been crushed. He ac- 
 cordingly turned towards the north, where 
 Clausel had rallied the fragments of the Sala- 
 manca army. Clausel retreated before Welling- 
 ton with much skill ; and Wellington halted 
 before Burgos, resolved to take it before 
 proceeding further north. He was, however, 
 very badly supplied with siege tools, and even 
 ammunition ran short ; and the siege, which 
 was begun on Sept. 19, was finally abandoned, 
 after a month had been spent in unsuccessful 
 attempts to storm the place. The retreat 
 was conducted under great difficulties, aggra- 
 vated by the utter disregard for discipline 
 to which the men gave way. After several 
 skirmishes, Wellington's army found itself 
 secure at Ciudad Eodrigo. Wellington then 
 disposed it in winter quarters, and made 
 strenuous preparations for renewing the 
 campaign in the following year. The earliest 
 movements of 1813 were, however, made by 
 Murray against Suchet in the east, and re- 
 sulted in the defeat of the latter near CasteUa. 
 It was not tin May that Wellington began 
 his forward movement, but then aU his plans 
 were so matured that the position of the 
 French behind the Douro was turned, and they 
 were in fuU retreat, without a battle having 
 been fought. A union had been also effected 
 by the same operations with the Spaniards 
 in GJallicia. Burgos was destroyed by the 
 French in their retreat ; and without taking 
 any advantage of the natural difficulties of the 
 country, Joseph abandoned every position, 
 
 until he had crossed the Ebro and taken up a 
 strong position at Vittoria. It was, however, 
 of no avail, for on June 21 Wellington carried 
 the position, and inflicted on Joseph the most 
 crushing defeat suffered by any army through- 
 out the war. Graham was at once despatched 
 to lay siege to San Sebastian ; but in a few 
 weeks the works had to be suspended on ■ 
 account of the arrival of Soult, who had been 
 sent to supersede Joseph and was reorganising 
 the northern army. In a series of fierce 
 combats fought among the passes of the 
 Pyrenees, Soult's efi^orts to break the hne 
 of the allies were utterly baffled ; he re- 
 tired, and Wellington ordered the siege of 
 San Sebastian to be resumed. On Aug. 31 
 it was stormed. Soult made one more effort 
 to succour it, but he was worsted in the 
 combats of Vera and San Marcial, and had to 
 retire again. Wellington, by the fall of San 
 Sebastian, was free to devote his whole atten- 
 tion to Soidt. By a series of skilful move- 
 ments he forced the passage of Bidassoa early 
 in October. A month later he attacked Soult 
 in a strong position, which he had been forti- 
 fying for three months, on the NiveUe. Each 
 redoubt was successively carried, and the 
 English troops crossed the river. A month 
 later he crossed the Nive, in the face of 
 Soult's opposing force. The next day Soult 
 issued from Bayonne, thinking that he could 
 cut off the left wing of the allies. The attack 
 was met by a stubborn resistance, till 
 Wellington sent up reinforcements and com- 
 pelled the French to withdraw in haste. 
 But Soult directed a new attack against the 
 right, which had been thus weakened. Wel- 
 lington had, however, anticipated the attack, 
 and after " one of the most desperate battles 
 of the whole war," succeeded on Deo. 13 in 
 completely baffling the French on aU points. 
 The country was, however, so. flooded, that no 
 further movement was possible ; and the 
 allies went into winter quarters along the left 
 bank of the Adour, the French being disposed 
 along the opposite bank. In February, 1814, 
 Wellington determined to advance into 
 France ; but to do this it was necessary to 
 drive Soult from Bayonne. It was only 
 possible to cross the Adour below Bayonne, 
 as it was weakly guarded there on account of 
 its natural difficulties. His plan, therefore, 
 was to draw Soult away by an advance of his 
 centre and right, while Sir John Hope with 
 the left effected the passage of the river. 
 Accordingly HiU, with 20,000 men, moved 
 off on Feb. 12 towards the east. The French 
 outposts were everywhere driven in, and 
 Soult was hopelessly mystified as to Welling- 
 ton's real design. He accordingly made his 
 dispositions soas to be able to concentrate on 
 Orthes. Wellington continued to drive in the 
 enemy from aU their outposts, and on the 
 26th Beresford crossed the Gave de Pau and 
 false attacks were directed against Orthes 
 On the foUowing day the English attacked 
 
Fen 
 
 (813) 
 
 Fen 
 
 Soult's position at Orthea. For a long time 
 the battle was doubtful ; indeed, at one time 
 the French seemed to be on the point of 
 repulsing the attack and winning the day ; 
 but Wellington, quickly changing his mode 
 of attack to suit the altered circumstances, 
 won a complete victory, which would have 
 resulted in the entire destruction of Soult's 
 army had the pursuit been energetically 
 executed. Meanwhile Hope had grappled 
 with stupendous difficulties ; had crossed the 
 Adour, and in the face of the enemy had, by 
 the indefatigable energy of soldiers and 
 sailors combined, contrived a bridge which 
 should resist alike the force of the tide and 
 the attacks of the enemy. The investment of 
 Bayonne was now complete ; and Wellington, 
 crossing the Adour, despatched Beresford 
 with 12,000 men to Bordeaux, while he him- 
 self prepared to follow Soult, who was re- 
 tiring towards Toulouse. In three skirmishes 
 the allies encountered the French outposts, 
 and drove them in; but Wellington was 
 moving cautiously, and it was not till March 
 26 that the two armies were in sight of one 
 another. Soult was resolved to hold Toulouse, 
 in order to keep his communications open 
 with the other armies, and Wellington was 
 equally resolved to isolate him. Accordingly 
 he attacked him on April 10 ; and at length, 
 after a most terrible struggle, in which the 
 allies lost more men than in almost any other 
 battle in the whole war, the chief positions 
 were carried. But even then Soult did not at 
 once give up the place, and was ready to 
 receive an attack the next day. Wellington, 
 however, designed a new plan of operations, 
 and Soult, afraid of being surrounded, carried 
 off most of his troops to ViUefranche. The 
 movement was a most masterly conception, 
 and its execution did not fall short of the 
 skin with which it was planned. But its 
 resxilts were never known, because news had 
 already arrived of the Convention of Paris 
 and the abdication of Napoleon. Thus ended 
 the War of the Peninsula, and the English 
 forces made all haste to evacuate France. On 
 June 14 Wellington issued a general order, 
 in which he thanked the troops for their 
 glorious services throughout the long struggle, 
 which had had an incalculable influence on 
 the affairs of Europe, and had in no small 
 degree contributed to the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 Napier, Peninsular War ; Clinton, Pminsular 
 War; Aiison, Hi«t. ofSmrope; Thiers, Hi«f. of 
 the Ccmsidale and Empire. [W. R. S.] 
 
 Fenn, Sir Whliam {b. 1621, d. 1670), a 
 native of Bristol, entered the merchant service, 
 and afterwards the royal navy. In the war 
 between the Commonwealth and the Dutch 
 he greatly distinguished himself, and in 1 653 
 became an admiral. In 1655 he bore a large 
 share in the capture of Jamaica, and in the 
 same year became M.P. for Weymouth. In 
 1660 he was knighted, and made one of the 
 
 commissioners of the navy. He took part 
 in the subsequent Dutch wars, and was en- 
 gaged in the great victory of 1665. 
 
 Fenn, William, son of Admiral Sir 
 William Penn, educated at Christ Church, 
 Oxford and at Saumur. He became a Quaker 
 in 1667, and was in 1668 — 9 eight months 
 imprisoned in the Tower, and in 1671 six 
 months in Newgate, for propagating their 
 doctrines. On March 4, 1681, he received 
 from the king, in satisfaction for debts due to 
 his father, the land lying between Maryland 
 and New York, and founded the colony called 
 after him Pennsylvania. From the summer 
 of 1682 to the summer of 1684 he was engaged 
 in laying the foundations of the colony in 
 America and establishing good relations with 
 the Indians. On his return to England, he' 
 obtained great iniluence with James II., ap- 
 proved and supported the Declaration of 
 Indulgence, and endeavoured to secure for 
 the policy of the king the support of WiUiam 
 of Orange. In 1690 and in 1691 he was 
 accused of treasonable correspondence with 
 the exiled king, but in neither case was the 
 charge proved. Nevertheless he was in 1692 
 deprived of his government of Pennsylvania, 
 which was restored to him two years later. 
 In 1699 he made a second visit to America, 
 whence he returned in 1701. His relations 
 to the colony, and the colonial assembly in- 
 volved him in many debts, and frequent 
 disputes arose. He could not " but think it 
 hard measure " he wrote to the colonists in 
 1710, "that, while that has proved a land of 
 freedom and flourishing, it should become to 
 me, by whose means it was principally made 
 a country, the cause of grief, trouble, and 
 poverty." In 1712 Penn was struck by 
 apoplexy, just as he was preparing to sell to 
 the crown his rights as proprietor, and, though 
 he lived till 1718, was incapable for the rest 
 of his life of doing any business. 
 
 TToi-toi, published 1728; Life, by Hepworth 
 
 Dixon, Forster Clarkson, and Granville Penn. 
 
 Macaulay's charges are refuted in Faget'a 
 
 Pvazles and Paradoxes. 
 
 Fenry (or Ap Henry), John (i. 1559, d. 
 1593), a Welsh clergyman, became one of 
 the most zealous followers of Kobert Browne 
 and a determined opponent of Episcopacy. 
 He is supposed to have originated the attacks 
 on the bishops published under the name of 
 Martin Marprelate, but it was found impos- 
 sible to trace the work to him. He was 
 subsequently brought to trial on a charge of 
 having libelled the queen, and though the 
 evidence was incomplete, was found guilty 
 and hung at St. Thomas Waterings (May 29, 
 1593). 
 
 Wordsworth, Eccles. Biog.; Strype, Annals; 
 Burnet, Rist. ofihe Information. 
 
 Fen Selwood, The Battle or (1016), was 
 fought between Edmund Ironside and Canute, 
 and resulted in the victory of the former. 
 
Feu 
 
 (814) 
 
 Pep 
 
 Pen Selwood is in Somerset, not far from 
 GiUingham. 
 
 Pension Bill, The (1730), was intro- 
 duced by Sandys as a weapon of attack 
 against Sir Robert Walpole. By an Act of 
 1708, all persons holding pensions from the 
 crown during pleasure were made incapable 
 of sitting in the House of Commons, and this 
 ■was extended by an Act of 1714 to those who 
 held them for any term of years. " But the 
 difficulty," says Hallam, " was to ascertain 
 the fact, the government refusing informa- 
 tion." Accordingly Sandys proposed a Bill 
 by which every member of the Commons was 
 to swear an oath that he did not hold any 
 such pension, and that if he accepted one, he 
 would disclose it to the House within fourteen 
 days. Walpole allowed this measm-e to pass 
 the Commons by a smaJl majority, and threw 
 the responsibility of its rejection in the Lords 
 on Townshend as leader in that House. This 
 was one of the reasons that led to the latter's 
 resignation. The measure suffered a similar 
 fate in 1734 and 1740. 
 
 Hallam, Const. Hist. ; Stauhope, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Pensions, The Qttestion of, is intimately 
 connected with that of the alienation of royal 
 demesne, which was so frequently made a 
 subject of complaint by the reformers of the 
 Middle Ages. It was not until the accession 
 of Queen Anne that steps were taken to 
 prevent the sovereign from charging the 
 hereditary revenues with pensions and an- 
 nuities, which were considered to be binding 
 on his successors, when it was provided 
 that no portion of the hereditary revenues 
 should be alienated by the crown beyond 
 the life of the king. Pensions, however, 
 were still granted on the hereditary re- 
 venues of Scotland and Ireland, and on the 
 4| per cent, duties, for the lives of the 
 grantees. When George III. surrendered 
 the hereditary revenues in exchange for a 
 fixed civil list amounting first to £800,000, 
 and afterwards to £900,000, it became the 
 fund from which pensions were paid. There 
 were no limits to pensions, except the civil 
 list itself, and debts frequentlj' accumulated 
 in consequence ; moreover, they dangerously 
 increased the influence of the crown. Burke 
 proposed in consequence (1780) that the 
 pension list should be reduced to £60,000, 
 but his Bill for " the better security of the 
 independence of Parliament, and the econo- 
 mical reform of the civil and other establish- 
 ments " did not become law. However, the 
 Civil List Act of the Rockingham adminis- 
 tration, which was passed in 1782, was built 
 on the same lines. The pension list was to be 
 gradually reduced to £95,000, and no pension 
 to any one person was to exceed £1,200. In 
 order to prevent the practice of granting 
 secret pensions during pleasure, it was 
 directed that aU future pensions were to be 
 paid at the exchequer, and they were to be 
 
 granted only in cases of distress or desert. 
 The pension lists on the Irish and Scotch 
 revenues, and on the 4J per cent, duties, still 
 remained, however, and were sources of much 
 political corruption. (1) In 1793 the Irish 
 pensions had reached the sum of £124,000, 
 the gross annual revenue being £275,102. 
 After several atteiripts had been made to 
 remedy the abuse, a Bill was introduced into 
 the' Irish House of Commons, at the instiga- 
 tion of the Lord Lieutenant, by which the 
 hereditary revenues were surrendered in 
 exchange for a civil list of £145,000, and a 
 pension list of £124,000, which was eventuallj^ 
 to be reduced to £80,000. No grants in any 
 one year were to exceed £1,200, but pensions 
 held during the pleasure of the crown were 
 exempted from the provisions of the Act. 
 The contemplated reduction was effected by 
 1814 ; and on the accession of George IV. the 
 Irish pension list was further reduced to 
 £50,000, no grants exceeding £1,200 to be 
 made until the list was so reduced. (2) The 
 Scotch hereditary revenues remained exempt 
 from Parliamentary control until 1810, when 
 the pensions charged on them amounted to 
 £39,379. It was then provided that the 
 amount of the pensions should be reduced 
 to £25,000, and no more than £800 should be 
 granted in one year until the reduction had 
 been effected. (3) In 1830 the 4 J per cent, 
 duties were surrendered by "William IV. for 
 his life, the pension charged upon them con- 
 tinuing payable. At the same time the three 
 pension lists of England, Scotland, and Ireland 
 were consolidated, and arrangements made 
 for their reduction from £145,760 to a future 
 maximum sum of £75,000 on the expiration 
 existing interests. Lastly, on the accession of 
 Victoria, the right of the crown to grant 
 pensions was restricted to £1,200 a year; 
 these pensions to be granted in strict con- 
 formity with the resolutions of the House of 
 Commons of 1834, which limited them to 
 " such persons only as have just claims on 
 the royal beneficence, or who, by their per- 
 sonal services to the crown, by the pei-form- 
 ance of their duties to the public, or by their 
 useful discoveries in science and attainments 
 in literature and the arts, have merited the 
 gracious consideration of the sovereign, and 
 the gratitude of their countrj'." There has 
 of late (1884) been some outcry against per- 
 petual pensions, such as those granted to the 
 ChurchUl and Penn families, and arrange- 
 ments have been made for their commutation. 
 Pensions are now granted for two lives. 
 
 See May, Const. Hist., vol i., cbap iv. The 
 most important Acts bearing on the question of 
 civil hst pensions are 1 Anne, 3. 1, o 7 ■ 22 
 George III. c. 82 ; 33 George HI. , o, 34 (Ireland) ; 
 1 Georse IV., c. 1 s. 10 ; 60 George HI., c. iii. ; 
 audlVict., 0. 2 See also Burke, Works, ed. 1815, 
 and RepoH on the Ciml List, Bee 1837 
 
 [l!c. s.] 
 
 Pepys, Samuel (S. 1632, d. 1703), was 
 educated at St. Paul's School, and Magdalen 
 
Per 
 
 ( 815) 
 
 Per 
 
 College, Cambridge. He became Clerk of the 
 Acts to the Navy in 1660, and Secretary to 
 the Navy in 1673. During the reigns of 
 Charles II. and James II. the administration 
 . of naval affairs was largely in his hands, and 
 he introduced some important reforms. He 
 was imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of 
 being concerned in the popish plot in May, 
 1679, but liberated the following February. 
 He became President of the Eoyal Society in 
 1684. He wrote Memoirs of the Eoyal Navy 
 (1690), and left in his manuscripts a Diary, 
 written in shorthand, which was deciphered 
 and first published by Lord Braybrooke in 
 1825. The work is almost unequalled for its 
 naive candour, and its gossiping pages give a 
 singularly piquant sketch of the court and 
 society of Charles II.'s reign. 
 
 Perceval, Spencer {b. 1762, d. 1812), 
 was the second son of John, Earl of Egmont, 
 and was educated at Harrow and Trinity 
 College, Cambridge. In 1786 he was called 
 to the bar, and ten years later took silk. At 
 the same time he entered Parliament as M.P. 
 for Northampton, and was soon noticed by 
 Pitt as a promising member. In supporting 
 the Treason and Sedition Bills he rendered 
 good service to the government. Addington 
 appointed Perceval his Solicitor-General, and 
 in 1802 Attorney-General, in which capacity 
 he had to conduct the prosecution of Peltier 
 for a libel on Bonaparte, and in spite of the 
 brilliant defence of Sir James Mackintosh, he 
 secured a verdict of guilty. He held that 
 oflBce until Pitt's death in 1806. In March, 
 1807, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
 and on the death of the Duke of Portland in 
 1809 he was named First Lord of the Trea- 
 sury. At that time the war in the Peninsula 
 was being carried on: Napoleon had as yet 
 received no check on the Continent ; England 
 was spending millions in enpouraging the 
 nations of Europe to offer an effectual resist- 
 tance to him. Foreign politics were thus 
 all engrossing, and scarcely any attention 
 was paid to the reforms at home, which were 
 so badly needed. For three years his ministry 
 lasted, and then on May 11, 1812, he was 
 shot by one Bellingham, in the lobby of the 
 House of Commons. Nothing could have 
 happened so opportunely for Perceval's repu- 
 tation as his murder, which raised him to the 
 position of a martyr. From having been 
 really a minister of moderate abilities, by his 
 death he suddenly became, in public estima- 
 tion a political genius, a first-rate financier, 
 and a powerful orator. We can now look 
 back more calmly and see in him a man of 
 shrewd sense, imperturbable temper, narrow 
 views, and restless ambition, which, to his 
 credit, never led him astray from the path of 
 integrity. 
 
 Alison, UHt. of Europe ; Duke al Buckingham, 
 Memoirs of Court of the Begenem Q. Eose, Diary. 
 
 Percy, Henuy (A. 1366, d. 1403), who 
 
 from his impetuosity and daring was surnamed 
 " Hotspur," was the son of Henry Percy, 
 Earl of Northumberland. When quite young 
 he was associated with hia father in the charge 
 of the Scotch prisoners, and in 1385 he was 
 sent to release Calais, and made many daring 
 excursions into Pioardy. He killed the Earl of 
 Douglas in the battle of Otterbum, where he 
 was himself taken prisoner. On his release he 
 fought in France and Britanny. He joined 
 Henry of Lancaster on his landing in England 
 in 1399, and received substantial rewards from 
 him subsequently. Becoming discontented, 
 however, with the king, Percy joined in 1403 
 with Douglas, but was defeated and slain in 
 the battle of Shrewsbury. He married Eliza- 
 beth Mortimer, eldest daughter of Edward, 
 Earl of March. 
 
 Ferrers, Alice, was one of the ladies of 
 the bedchamber of Philippa, queen of Edward 
 III. After his wife's death she acquired 
 immense influence over the king, and inter- 
 fered in the affairs of State, supporting the 
 policy of John of Gaunt., In the Good Par- 
 liament (1376) most serious charges were 
 brought against "her. She had interfered with 
 the administration of justice, and her rapa- 
 city and extravagance were equally un- 
 bounded. She was compelled to take an oath 
 never to return to the king's presence ; and it 
 was ordained that if in the future she be- 
 haved as she had in the past, she should for- 
 feit her goods and be banished. On the death 
 of the Black Prince, however, the proceed- 
 ings of the Good Parliament were reversed, 
 and Alice Perrers resumed her influence over 
 the king. She was present at his death-bed, 
 but fled from it after robbing him of his 
 finger rings. Of her subsequent history 
 nothing is known. 
 
 Perrot, Sir John (*. 1527, d. 1592), was 
 reputed to be the son of Henry VIII. He 
 was imprisoned by Mary for his religious 
 opinions, but under Elizabeth rose for a time 
 to high favour. In 1572 he was appointed 
 President of Munster, where he suppressed a 
 widespread rebellion, and in 1585 was made 
 Lord Deputy of Ireland. His policy, though 
 calculated to benefit the country, gave such 
 offence to the clergy that they contrived, by 
 means of forged documents, to obtain his 
 recall, which was followed by his trial for 
 high treason in 1592. He was found guilty, 
 though probably on very insufficient evidence, 
 of using language derogatory to the queen, 
 and of giving secret encouragement to Spain ; 
 and died in the Tower of a broken heart, 
 September, 1592. 
 
 Persian War, The (1856). At the end 
 of 1855 a series of studied insults towards 
 Mr. Murray, the British minister at the 
 Persian court, obliged him to withdraw his 
 mission from Teheran, and break off com- 
 munication with the Persian government. 
 
Per 
 
 (816) 
 
 Pet 
 
 Attempts were made to patoli the matter up, 
 ■but the news of the siege and capture oi 
 Herat, in spite of treaty obligations, was 
 followed ty a declaration of war by England 
 (Nov. 1, 1856). Aaarray of 6,000 men, under 
 the command of Sir James Outram, was at 
 once despatched ta the Persian Gulf. The 
 Eng^sh. attacked Eushan, a fort near 
 Bushire,. and. the place was carried after an 
 abstioate defence. The next day Bushire 
 was- attacked and similarly, captured. On 
 Jan^ 27,. Sir James Outram arrived and 
 took the command. Being joined by part of 
 Havelook's- division, he advanced on Burras- 
 goon, where the Persians were encamped, 
 found it deserted, and returned after destroy- 
 mg all the stores found there. On his return 
 lie was much annoyed by the Persian cavalry, 
 but eventually succeeded in attacking and 
 driving off the pursuing force. A short lull 
 in. hostilities occurred now. But on March 26 
 the strong fortress of Mohamrah on the 
 Karoon river was attacked by sea and land. 
 The garrison was commanded by Prince 
 Khan Mirza. No real attempt was made at 
 a defence ; the guns of the fort and town 
 were quickly silenced by the fleet, and then 
 the prince abandoned the place and retreated 
 to Akwaz, 100 miles up the Karoon, where 
 he had large magazines and supplies. Sir 
 James Outram immediately organised an 
 expedition under Commander Eennie to 
 ascend the river and destroy this place. The 
 steamer advanced on the 29th, and on April 
 1 foimd the enemy, about 7,000 strong, posted 
 at Akwaz. The troops landed and advanced 
 against the town. There was, however, no 
 struggle. The Persians, cowed by their 
 disasters, fled at once, and again allowed 
 their camp to be taken possession of with all 
 the stores it contained. On the 4th the 
 expedition retui'ned to Mohamrah, and thus 
 the operations closed. Meanwhile, the pre- 
 liminaries of a peace had been adjusted at 
 Paris. The Shah agreed to renounce all 
 pretensions to Herat, to withdraw his troops 
 from Afghanistan, to guarantee protection to 
 the English commerce, and to suppress slavery 
 in the Persian GuU . 
 
 Outiam, Persian Expedition : Annual Register . 
 1856. 
 
 Perth was taken by Bruce from the 
 English (1311), and in 1332 was fortified by 
 Edward Baliol, who was for a time besieged 
 there by the Earl of March. In 1 339 it was re- 
 taken by Robert the Stewart from Sir Thomas 
 Ughtred, Edward III.' s lieutenant. In 1559 it 
 was occupied by the Queen Regent and a, 
 French bodyguard ; in Sept., 1644, it was taken 
 by Montrose after the battle of Tippermuir, and 
 in May, 1689, by Glaverhouse. In 1715 it 
 was occupied by Lord Mar, and in 1745 was 
 also in the hands of the rebels for some time. 
 James I. was murdered (1436) in the monas- 
 tery of Black Friars in Perth. 
 
 Peterljorougll, Benedict op {d. 1193), 
 was of unknown origin. In 1173 he was ap- 
 pointed chancellor to the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury; in 1177, Abbot of Peterbo- 
 lough; and in 1191, Yice - Chancellor of - 
 England. The Chronicle, which is erroneously 
 attributed to him, extends from 1169 to 1192, 
 and is highly important for the period it em- 
 braces, giving much ; information not to be 
 found in any other writer. 
 
 Benedict of Peterborougli'e Chrmiele has 
 l)een pubUshed in the EoUs Series, with invalu- 
 able introduotioins by Bishop Stubba, who' sug- 
 gests, with much probability, that Richard 
 Fitz-Neal, Bishop of London, is the author. 
 
 Peterborough., Chaeles Mordaunt, 
 Eakl or (i. 1668, d. 1735), in 1675 succeeded 
 to, his father's estates. In his youth he 
 served under Admirals Torrington and Marl- 
 borough in the Mediterranean. For his bold 
 apposition to the designs of James II. he 
 was compelled to betake himself to the Hague, 
 where he strongly recommended the Prince of 
 Orange to invade England. "When William 
 had landed at Torbay, Mordaunt went on 
 before him, and occupied Exeter. He became 
 First Commissioner of the Treasury, a post 
 to which he was unsuited ; and where he 
 quarrelled with Godolphin, who was an ex- 
 cellent financier. He was created Earl of 
 Monmouth. In 1690 Caermarthen procured 
 his retirement from office. In 1696 he at- 
 tempted to ruin his opponents by the help of 
 Sir John Penwick's confessions. But the 
 attempt failed, and Monmouth, now hated by 
 both parties, was stripped of his employments. 
 In 1697 he succeeded to his uncle's fortunes and 
 title. On the accession of Anne he was offered 
 and refused the command of the forces in 
 the West Indies. In 1705 he was sent to 
 command in Spain. He captured the for- 
 tresses of Montjuich, and Barcelona fell. 
 Though he had but a handful of men, he 
 at o^ice pushed on to relieve San Mattheo. 
 He accomplished the feat with 1,200 men, 
 and drove the Spanish army of 7,000 men 
 before him into Yalencia. Froaa Valencia he 
 set out in the night and defeated a reinforce- 
 ment of 4,000 men. A French army under 
 Marshal Tesse, and a fleet under the Count of 
 Toulouse, were sent to blockade Barcelona, 
 Peterborough attempted to raise the siege, 
 but failed. He then produced a commission 
 appointing him commander of the fleet as 
 well as the army, and set out in an open boat 
 in quest of it. He was picked up by one of 
 the ships ; and though he failed to bring on 
 an engagement with the French fleet, he re- 
 lieved Barcelona. But he quarrelled with the 
 Archduke Charles, who disapproved of his de- 
 sign of marching at once on Madrid. Unable 
 to endure a command divided between himself 
 and Galway, he left the army for Genoa. In 
 1707 he returned as a volunteer ; but Sunder- 
 land, a warm supporter of Galway, roughly 
 recalled him. He visited Vienna, the camp 
 
Pet 
 
 (817) 
 
 Pet 
 
 of Charles XII. at Alt-Eastadt, and that of 
 Marlborough in Flanders. In 17U he was 
 sent to Vienna in order to reconcile the 
 Emperor and the Duke of Savoy, In 1713 
 he was made Governor of Minorca. On 
 the accession of George I.,, he was nxade 
 general of the marine farces of Great 
 Britain, an office continued under George 
 II. In 1717 he was suddenly arrested at 
 Bologna ou the groundless charge of plotting 
 against the Pretender's life. la 1719 he 
 conducted, on his own responsibility, an in- 
 trigue with the French court through the 
 Duke of Parma, uncle of the Queen of Spain, 
 which resulted in the dismissal of the minister 
 Alberoni. In 1735 he died at sea, on his way 
 to Lisbon. " This man," says Macaulay, 
 " was, a not the greatest, yet assuredly the 
 most extraordinary character of that age. . . 
 But his splendid talents and virtues were 
 rendered almost useless to his country by his 
 restlessness, his irritability, his morbid craving 
 for novelty and for excitement. His weakness 
 had not only brought him, on more than one 
 occasion, into serious trouble, but had impelled 
 him to some actions altogether unworthy of 
 his humane and noble nature." 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; Stanhope, Hist, of 
 Eng. and War of Sitccession in Spain, 
 
 Peterloo IXCeetiug', The (August 16, 
 1819), was the most celebrated of the meetings 
 in which the national desire for Parliamentary 
 Reform found expression. Manchester decided 
 to follow the example of Birmingham, and 
 made extensive preparations for a ^and meet- 
 ing on Aug. IS, 1819, under the lead of a noted 
 reformer, " Orator " Hunt. The county execu- 
 tive made extensive military arrangements to 
 prevent any rioting or disturbance. On the 
 day fixed, between 50,000 and 60,000 people 
 marched into St. Peter's Field, then on the 
 outskirts of Manchester, while the magistrates 
 were watching the proceedings from a neigh- 
 bouring house. As soon as Hunt rose to ad- 
 dress the assembled crowd, they sent the chief 
 constable to arrest him — a hopeless impos- 
 sibility in the face of an enthusiastic mob. 
 The Yeomanry were then sent to charge the 
 crowd ; but they became scattered, lost their 
 order, and were beginning to experience 
 some rough treatment at the hands of the 
 crowd, when the magistrates gave the 
 Hussars orders to charge. ITothing could 
 have been more effectual ; " the charge swept 
 the mingled mass of human beings before 
 it; people, yeomen, and constables, in their 
 confused attempts to escape, ran over 
 one another." The meeting was broken 
 up ; Hunt was arrested, and the field was 
 left strewed with the victims of the im- 
 petuous charge, which has given to the 
 Peterloo Meeting the name of the Manchester 
 Massacre. 
 
 Walpole, Bist, of Eng, from 1815; Annual 
 Register ; Life of Eldm, 
 
 Peters, or Peter, Huoh (J. 1599, d. 
 
 1660), was a native of Fowey in Cornwall, and 
 was educated at Cambridge. He became 
 lecturer at St. Sepulchre'^ Church in the city, 
 and in 1633 minister of an Independent con- 
 gregation at Eotterdam, In 1634 he emi- 
 grated to Massachusetts, and succeeded 
 Eoger WiUiams as pastor at Salem. He 
 returned to England in 1641. "I was sent 
 over to his majesty," he said on his trial, 
 " that we might have a little help in point of 
 excise and customs, and encouragements in 
 learning." He remained in England, and 
 became an active preacher and army chaplain. 
 In 1649 he accompanied GromweU to Ireland, 
 and became one of the commissioners for the 
 amendment of the laws (1651). He was also 
 appointed one of the Triers (1654). At the 
 Restoration he was excepted from the Act of 
 Indemnity, tried as a regicide and condemned 
 to death. He was charged with plotting the 
 king's death with Cromwell, and with exciting 
 the soldiers against him by his preaching 
 before and during the trial. He was also 
 accused by rumour of being himself the exe- 
 cutioner of Charles I., but this was not 
 brought forward on his trial. He was exe- 
 cuted on Oct. 16, 1660, 
 
 Peter's Pence. [Bom-feoh.] 
 
 Petition and Advice (1657) . On Feb. 
 23, 1657, Sir Christopher Pack brought 
 forward in the House of Commons an address 
 proposing the recasting of the constitution. 
 This was discussed and amended for a month, 
 and finally presented to Cromwell on Mar. 31 
 under the title of the "Petition and Advice." 
 April was spent in discussions between Crom- 
 well and a committee of the House touching 
 the question of the kingship (definitely re- 
 fused by CromweU on May 8), and dealing 
 with defects which he perceived, and amend- 
 ments which he suggested in other portions 
 of the proposed constitution. The Commons 
 finally added a supplement to the original 
 " Petition and Advice," called " The Humble 
 Additional and Explanatory Petition and 
 Advice." The two documents together, 
 known shortly by the title of the first, 
 made up the new scheme of government. 
 Cromwell was empowered to choose his suc- 
 cessor, and confirmed in the Protectorate. 
 Parliaments were to be called every two 
 years at the furthest, and enjoy all their 
 customary rights. Several classes of persons, 
 viz., all Roman Catholics, and generally all 
 persons who had borne arms against the Par- 
 liament, and not since given signal testimony 
 of their good afiections, were excluded from 
 political rights. The Protector was em- 
 powered to nominate a second House of 
 seventy members, his Church establishment 
 sanctioned, and a limited toleration secured. 
 To the Protector's Council, consisting of 
 twenty-one persons, approved by Parliament, 
 an important share in the government was 
 
Pet 
 
 (818) 
 
 Pic 
 
 given. Protector and Council together disposed 
 of tlie fixed yearly revenue (£1,300,000), now 
 granted, and were responsible for its expen- 
 diture to Parliameilt. On the whole the 
 Petition and Advice established a far more 
 ■workable distribution of political power than 
 the instrument of government. 
 
 IHasson, Life of MUtan ; Guizot, Cromwell; 
 Carlyle, Ci'onmiell's Letters and Speeches ; Bur- 
 ton, Diary. rQ_ ^ -p.l 
 
 Petitioners (1679) was the name given 
 to those members of the Opposition, or 
 " Country " party, who in this year presented 
 petitions to Charles II. asking him to summon 
 a Parliament in Jan., 1680. Their opponents 
 presented oounter-petitions, expressing ab- 
 horrence of the attempt to encroach on the 
 royal prerogative, and woto hence called Ab- 
 horrers (q.v.). 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Oum Time, ii. 238. 
 
 Petition of Right (1628). When 
 the third Parliament of Charles I. met, the 
 Parliamentary leaders resolved te begin by 
 vindicating the violated rights of the subjects 
 rather than renewing the attack on Buck- 
 ingham. After a general discussion the 
 Commons proceeded to pass resolutions 
 against arbitrary imprisonment, unparliamen- ■ 
 tary taxation, and other grievances. Went- 
 worth suggested that they should proceed by 
 a hill which should define what the law 
 should be in the future, hut though his idea 
 was adopted by the Commons, the king's 
 openly expressed opposition obliged them to 
 drop it (April 28). Coke now proposed that 
 they should ask the Lords to join with them 
 in a Petition of Right (May 6), and after about 
 three weeks' debate the Upper House passed 
 the petition (Mty 28) . The petition demanded 
 four things : — (1) That no freeman should be 
 obliged to give any gift, loan, benevolence or 
 tax, without common consent by Act of Par- 
 liament. (2) That no freeman should be im- 
 prisoned contrary to the laws of the land. 
 (3) That soldiers and sailors should not be 
 billeted in private houses. (4) That commis- 
 sions to punish soldiers and sailors by martial 
 law should be revoked, and no more issued. 
 Charles, with the consent of the Council, 
 answered evasively, " The king willeth that 
 right be done according to the laws and 
 customs of the realm, and that the statutes 
 be put in due exeoutiou." Dissatisfied with 
 this reply, the Commons prepared a remon- 
 strance against the advisers by whose counsel 
 the king had acted. The king interrupted 
 them by a message forbidding them to meddle 
 with affairs of State. The House boldly took 
 up again the charges against Buckingham. 
 Before this determination, and before the am- 
 biguous attitude of the House of Lords, the 
 king yielded and assented to the petition ac- 
 cording to the usual form. But the king's 
 final surrender did not secure the agreement 
 of king and Commons. A new quarrel soon 
 
 arose on the question whether the petition 
 rendered illegal the levy of tonnage and 
 poundage without a Parliamentary grant. 
 Nevertheless, the king's acceptance marked the 
 beginning of a great era in English history. 
 Gardiner, Htsf. qf Ung., 1603—1642; Hallam; 
 Const. Hist. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Petitions. [Pahuament ; Crown.] 
 
 Philip, King (5. 1527, d. 1598), though 
 nominally sovereign of England, had only a 
 brief and transient connection with this country. 
 He was afiianced to Queen Mary in 1554, and 
 celebrated his marriage with her in July of 
 that year. He remained in the country little 
 more than a year, during which time he 
 hurried 6n the Catholic reaction, and began 
 the ■" Spanish terror." Disgusted, however, 
 with his wife, the country, and the parha- 
 mentary Constitution, he quitted England in 
 1555 (September), never to return. In October 
 of this year his father abdicated the crown 
 of Spain in his favour. [Mary ; Elizabeth.] 
 
 Fhiliphaugh, The Battle or (Sept. 13, 
 1645), was fought at a place two miles west of 
 Selkirk, when Montrose's Highland army was 
 surprised by David Leslie with 4,000 horse 
 from the Scottish camp before Hereford. 
 Jlontrose himself escaped with a small por- 
 tion of his force, the rest were cut in pieces. 
 
 Philippa, Queen (b. circa 1312, d. 1369), 
 wifo of Edward III., daughter of William, 
 Count of Holland and Hainault, was con- 
 tracted to Edward in 1326, and the idarriage 
 was celebrated in 1328. She accompanied her 
 husband on some of his foreign expeditions, 
 and at other times defended the kingdom in 
 his absence ; though the story of her presence 
 at the battle of Neville's Cross rests on in- 
 suiEcient authority. Better authenticated is 
 the well-known anecdote of her intercession 
 for the burgesses of Calais. 
 
 Phipps.SiR Constantine, was Lord Chan- 
 cellor of Ireland (1711 to 1714), Lord Justice 
 in 1711 and in 1714. He was an active 
 Jacobite, and in 1712, by his efforts, won the 
 Dublin elections for his party. 
 
 Picton, Generai Sir Thomas (*. 1757, 
 d. 1815), entered the army in 1771. In 1784 
 he was ordered to the West Indies ; and on 
 the capture of St. Lucia, two years later, Sir 
 Ralph Abercromby recommended him for the 
 lieutenant-colonelcy of the 68th, and soon 
 afterwards appointed him Governor of the 
 island of Trinidad. In this capacity he al- 
 lowed torture to he applied according to the 
 Spanish law. Legal proceedings were insti- 
 tuted, and in 1805 he was found guilty by a 
 jury in the Court of King's Bench. A new 
 trial was, however, granted, and the verdict 
 was reversed in 1808. In 1809 he commanded 
 a brigade in the Walcheren expedition, and 
 was appointed Governor of Flushing. Before 
 he had recovered from a malarious fever, 
 
Fie 
 
 ( 819) 
 
 Pic 
 
 which he had contracted on this expedition, he 
 ■was ordered to Portugal to command the 3rd 
 Division, nicknamed the Fighting Division. 
 At Badajoz he rendered most signal service. 
 He was soon afterwards invalided, hut re- 
 sumed his command in time to share in 
 the battle of Vittoria, where his division bore 
 the brunt of the fighting. He was engaged 
 in nearly all the battles of the Pyrenees and 
 in the south of France. On the news of the 
 escape of Napoleon from Elba, at Wellington's 
 express desire, Picton accepted a command 
 under him. At Quatre Bras he was with a 
 very inferior force opposed to Ney, and for 
 three hours sustained, unaided, a most obsti- 
 nate contest. In this battle he received a 
 wound, of which he told no one, lest he 
 should be prevented from taking part in the 
 greater battle, which he knew must soon 
 take place. Accordingly he was present in 
 command of the 5th Division, against which 
 Napohon launched one of his earliest, and, 
 as the Duke of Wellington testified, "one 
 of his most serious attacks." As he was in 
 the act of giving the word for that charge, 
 which repulsed the attempt to break the 
 English line, he was struck by a musket-ball 
 on the temple, and killed instantaneously. 
 The story that the Duke of Wellington was 
 on bad terms with Picton has been totally 
 denied by the duke himself, who appreciated 
 his qualities and solicited his services both in 
 the Peninsula and in Flanders. 
 
 Memoirs of Picton ; Napier, Peninsular War ; 
 Wellington Despatches. 
 
 Ficts, The {i.e., Picti, or painted people), 
 were the nation who in early times inhabited 
 the north- eastern and northern parts of the 
 modern Scotland. Their ethnology has been 
 one of the most controverted points even in 
 Celtic antiquities. But no one now believes 
 that they were of Teutonic origin, and the 
 general consensus seems to be that they were 
 Celts of the Goidelic rather than of the 
 Brythonic type. It has, however, been shown 
 that not only some of their place-names, but 
 also some of their customs, can hardly be of 
 Aryan origin, and that consequently they 
 were largely of " Ivemian " or pre-Aryan 
 descent. But the term Picts, which is 
 obviously of Eoman origin, does not seem to 
 be indicative of race, but to have been simply 
 used to denote a group of people of various 
 origin dwelling together, who ultimately 
 became members of the same political organi- 
 sation. To the classical writers the term Pict 
 simply meant the whole aggregate of the 
 tribes dwelling to the north of the Eoman 
 walls, who at an earlier age were known as 
 the Caledomi and Meatse. They never were 
 subjugated by the Romans, and even when 
 the Scots had occupied the western coast of 
 Scotland, they still held the region north of 
 the Forth, and east of Drumalban, though at 
 a later date Scandinavian conquests deprived 
 them of the extreme north of the island. The 
 
 range of mountains called the Mounth divided 
 the northern from the southern Picts. There 
 was also a third Pictish territory ia Galloway, 
 whose inhabitants, shut off by Brythonic 
 tribes from their northern brethren, were 
 called the Niduari Picts, and, curiously 
 enough, retained the name long after it had 
 become extinct north of the Forth. [Gal- 
 loway ; OuMBKiA.] When they first became 
 prominent in history as the devastators of the 
 abandoned province, the Picts were mostly 
 heathens. The Picts of Galloway had become 
 at least partially converted to Christianity by 
 the preaching of Niuian at the end of the 
 fourth century. At the end of the sixth 
 century the teaching of Columba established 
 among the Picts the authority of the monastic 
 and tribal church of lona, and created intimate 
 relations between the immigrant Scots and 
 the race they had driven over Drumalban. 
 About the same time a united Pictish 
 monarchy seems to have grown up, with a 
 peculiar rule of succession in the female line 
 that was certainly pre-Aryan. Before long, 
 however, the Picts were compelled to fuUy 
 acknowledge the supremacy of the great 
 Northumbrian mouarchs of the seventh 
 century. The rash enterprise of Egfrid led, 
 however, to the Pictish victory of Duimichen 
 (Nechtansmere), which again secured their 
 freedom (686). In the next century the 
 teaching of the missionary, St. Bonifacius, 
 induced Nectan, King of the Picts, to expel 
 the Columban clergy, and introduce the 
 Roman usages (717). The result was constant 
 war with the Scots, which, along with the 
 Danish inroads, which now became constant, 
 reduced the Pictish kingdom to much misery. 
 The history of the period after Bede's invalu- 
 able work ends is very obscure. The Pictish 
 law of succession especially exposed the state 
 to the danger of foreign kings. At last, in 
 844, Kenneth MacAlpin, "the first of the 
 Scots,"-established a new dynasty in the land 
 of the Picts, which produced the political 
 union of Picts and Scots. After the end of 
 the ninth century there are no more kings of 
 the Plots — or of Scone, as, after its capital, 
 the state was sometimes called — but of Alban. 
 The whole of Scotland north of the Forth and 
 Clyde was thus, except for the Norse jarldoms 
 on coasts and islands, united, at least nomi- 
 nally, into a single state. 
 
 Kings of the Picts. 
 
 Bmde, son of Mailcoa . 
 
 
 
 . 3.584 
 
 Graxtnaidh, son ot Domelch 
 
 
 
 . d. 599 
 
 Nectan, grandson of TTerd 
 
 
 
 . d. 612 
 
 Onioch, son of Luchtrea 
 
 
 
 . d. 631 
 
 Gartnaid, son of Wid . 
 
 
 
 . a. 635 
 
 Brude „ „ 
 
 
 
 . d. 641 
 
 Talorgan „ „ 
 
 
 
 . d. 653 
 
 Talorgan, son of Eanfred 
 
 
 
 . d. 657 
 
 Gartnaid, son of Domnall 
 
 
 
 . d. 663 
 
 Drust „ „ 
 
 
 
 . d. 672 
 
 Brude, son of Bile . 
 
 
 
 . d. 693 
 
 Taran, son of Bntefldich 
 
 
 
 . d. 697 
 
 Brude, son of Derili 
 
 
 
 . d. 706 
 
 Nectan „ „ 
 
 
 , ab. 724 
 
 Drust „ „ . 
 
 
 
 . ex. 7J6 
 
Fil 
 
 ( 820 
 
 Pit 
 
 d. 836 
 
 d. 839 
 
 d. S42 
 
 d. 843 
 
 d. 869 
 
 Alpin, son of Eochaidli d. 728 
 
 TNeotan, son of Derili . . ret. * d. 729 (31?) 
 
 Angus, son of Pergus d. 761 
 
 Brude „ „ d. 763 
 
 Ciniod, son of Wredech d. 775 
 
 Alpin, son of Wroid d. 780 
 
 Talorgan, son of Angus d. 782 
 
 Drest, son of Talort^an d. 785 
 
 Conall, son of Taidg .... (2.789(90?) 
 Constantin, son of Fergus . . , , d. 820 
 
 Angus „ d. 832 
 
 Drust, son of Constantin \ 
 Talorgan, son of Wtlioil ) 
 Eoganan (TJven), son of Angus 
 Wrad, son of Bargoit 
 Brude „ „ . . 
 
 Kenneth MacAlpin . 
 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland, gives the only full and 
 critical account of the Picts, hased on the 
 original authorities, edited hy Mr. Skene in his 
 Chronicles of the Fiats and, Scots. Rhjs's Celtic 
 Britain gives a good summary of the history, and 
 throws much hght on the ethnology of the Picts. 
 
 • [T. r. T.] 
 
 Pilgrimage of Grace was the name 
 given to the insurrection in Yorkshire and 
 Lincolnshire in 1537, caused chiefly by the 
 ecclesiastical and other relormaof Henry VIII. 
 and CromweU. It was headed by a young Lin- 
 colnshire gentleman, named Robert Aske, and 
 joined by most of the gentlemen and nobility of 
 Yorkshire. The rebels mustered in great force 
 and advanced towards York, which they occu- 
 pied. Joined by the Archbishop of York, Lord 
 Darcy, and the Percies, the rebels, 30,000 strong, 
 moved southwards. At Doncaster they were 
 met by the royal commissioners, the Earl of 
 Shrewsbury and the Duke of Norfolk. A 
 conference was held, and the rebels were in- 
 duced by the terms offered to disband. But, 
 finding that their demands were not really to 
 be complied with, an insurrection broke out 
 anew under Sir Francis Bigod. This was 
 suppressed. with great severity. Martial law 
 was established in the north. Asie, Darcy, 
 and twenty other leaders were seized (March, 
 1537) and executed, and the movement was 
 stamped out. 
 
 Pindarrie War. The Pindarries were 
 a body of freebooters, established in the 
 Vindhya Hills, recruited from aU nations and 
 r#igions, and finding employment sometimes 
 with the armies of native princes, sometimes 
 in predatory excursions of their own. Their 
 ejcpeditions were of the most destructive 
 character ; all mounted and lightly armed 
 they crossed the country in marches of from 
 forty to fifty miles a day, fell upon the devoted 
 district, carried off everything movable in it, 
 and burnt the houses and crops. In 1815 the 
 Pindarries crossed the Nerbudda, and ravaged 
 the English possessions in the Deccan. Lord 
 Hastings determined to eni this, and pre- 
 pared large armies in all the presidencies. 
 The matter was complicated by the extensive 
 ' conspiracy organised by Bajee Rao and Appa 
 Sahib, and the treachery of Dowlut Eao 
 Soindia. The vigorous measures tif Lord 
 Hastings, however, broke up the conspiracy, 
 and the Pindarries were beaten again and 
 
 again (1817). Chetoo Singh, their chief, how- 
 ever, with the remnant of his followers, to 
 the number of 20,000, assembled in arms. 
 The English forces were concentrated for a 
 great attack ; the Pindarries seeing the hope- 
 lessness of resistance, fled ; Chetoo, deprived 
 of his followers, sought refuge in the forests 
 of Malwa, where he was devoured by a tiger, 
 and the Pindarries submitted (1818). 
 
 Pinhoe,THE Battle of (1001), was fought 
 between the English and the Danes, in which 
 the latter were victorious. Pinhoe is a village 
 three miles east of Exeter. 
 
 Pinkie Clench,, The Battle op (Sept. 
 10, 1647), was fought during the Protector 
 Somerset's campaign. The two forces were 
 drawn up on eaoli side of the Esk, the English 
 under Somerset and Warwick, the Scotch 
 under the Earl of Huntly. The Scotch 
 crossed the river and at first gained the ad- 
 vantage, but were scattered by a great charge 
 of the English. 
 
 Pipe Rolls, The, or Great RoUs of the 
 Exchequer, are preserved in the Record Office 
 and are almost perfect from 2 Henry II. to 
 the present date. They relate to all matters 
 connected with the revenue of the crown, 
 erown lands, &c., and are of great value for 
 historical and genealogical purposes. A Pipe 
 Roll Society, for the publication of these docu- 
 ments, was formed in 1883. 
 
 Pipewell, The Council of (1199), was 
 held by Richard I., immediately after his 
 coronation, to raise money and make other 
 preparations for his Crusade. Pipewell Abbey 
 is in Northamptonshire, in the neighbourhood 
 of Rockingham. 
 
 Pitcairu Island. In April, 1798, the 
 crew of H.M.S. Boimty mutinied, owing to 
 the harsh conduct of their commander, Lieu- 
 tenant Bligh. After many adventures, a 
 remnant of the mutineers reached Pitcaim 
 Island in the Pacific Ocean, where, together 
 with some women, natives of islands in the 
 South Seas, they formed a settlement, remark- 
 able for the orderly and exemplary conduct 
 of its inhabitants. Their descendants inhabit 
 the island to this day. The settlement was 
 visited by Captain EUiot in 1839, who gave 
 such a favourable report of the state of the 
 islanders, that assistance was sent out to them 
 by the government. 
 
 Pitt, William (*. 1759, d. 1806), the son 
 of the first Earl of Chatham and Lady Hester 
 GrenvjUe, was born May 28, 1759, and very 
 early gave signs of his future greatness in hia 
 marvellous precocity. In 1773 he went up 
 to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his 
 industry led him to devour mathematics and 
 classics alike. He left Cambridge soon 
 after his father's death, and, being called to 
 the bar in 1780, went the Western Circuit. 
 But in the autumn of that year a general 
 
Pit 
 
 (821 ) 
 
 Pit 
 
 election took place, and Pitt was returned to 
 Parliament for Appleby. In tlie following 
 Petruary Pitt made hia first 'speech in favour 
 of Bnrke's plan for Economical Eeform. His 
 power was recognised at once ; Fox proclaimed 
 him one of the first men in Parliament. He 
 continued to gain influence and admiration by 
 every speech he made. Early in December 
 news came of Cornwallis's surrender in 
 America, and Pitt seized the opportunity to 
 attack the government. The ministry re- 
 signed, and was succeeded by Rockingham's 
 cabinet. Pitt was offered the Vioe-Treasurer- 
 ship of Ireland; but he knew his own 
 value, and^ declined the offer, which would 
 not have given him a seat in the cabinet. 
 He nevertheless supported the government 
 tin Eookingham's death. Then foEowed 
 Lord Shelbume's brief tenure of office, suc- 
 ceeded by the Coalition. "When that came 
 to an end in Dec, 1783, the king invited 
 Pitt to form a government. Never had a 
 Prime Minister a more difficiilt task before 
 him. In December the majority against him 
 was almost two to one ; but such was Pitt's 
 resolution and tact, that by March 5, 1784, 
 it had dwindled, after sixteen divisions, 
 down to a hare majority of one. The country 
 at large was veljement in its support of the 
 government, and the city of London pre- 
 sented Pitt with its freedom. Pitt now 
 dissolved the Parliament, and government 
 candidates were everywhere returned. Pitt 
 at twenty-four ' ' domineered absolutely over 
 the cabinet, and was the favourite at once of 
 the sovereign, the Parliament, and the nation." 
 Already in 1782 he had demanded an inquiry 
 into the system of Parliamentary representa- 
 tion. When, however, he was in power with a 
 large majority at his back, he was prevented 
 by the king's strenuous opposition from again 
 introducing the subject, and the French Eevo- 
 lution soon had the effect of driving the mere 
 notion of reform of any kind out of men's 
 minds. He nevertheless did make an effort in 
 that direction when, in 1785, he introduced a 
 bin "to amend the representation of the 
 people of England in. Parliament." During 
 his first eight years of power, Pitt enjoyed a 
 time of tranquility and peace, when there were 
 no wars being carried on by England, at any 
 rate at a nearer distance than India, and the 
 country and Parliament alike were anxious 
 to see carried out some of the numerous 
 reforms which had been so often talked about. 
 The first of these measures which Pitt ap- 
 proached was the vexed question of Indian 
 government, which had proved the death of 
 the Coalition ministry. Pitt's Indian Bill 
 was quite successful, and was followed by his 
 scheme for the reduction of the National 
 Debt. In the same year (1786) began the 
 measures for the impeaehinent of Warren 
 Hastings. Pitt took no active part in it, 
 though he gave his support to the prosecution. 
 In 1788 the king fell iU, and Pitt, supporting 
 
 the constitutional view of the Regency ques- 
 tion against Fox, who warmly took up the 
 cause of the Prince of Wales, attached him- 
 self more firmly than ever to George III. 
 In the same j'ear he advocated with all his 
 eloquence a BUI for the Abolition of the Slave 
 Trade. When the French Revolution broke 
 out, Pitt appeared in a new light. For the 
 remaining years of his Kfe he was chiefly 
 engaged in leading the European opposition 
 to France. His war administration, however, 
 was far from fortunate, and his military 
 enterprises were Ul-planned and unsuccessful. 
 But at home he still held his own in the con- 
 fidence of his countrymen. He saw the im- 
 mediate necessity for the imion of Ireland 
 with England ; but the king's narrow-minded 
 obstinacy prevented him combining Union 
 with Catholic Emangipation, which alone, he 
 said, would make the Union effectual. But 
 Pitt was not the man to be baulked in 
 his endeavours to fulfil a promise ; and, as 
 he could not have his own way in the 
 matter, he resigned, in 1801, the post which 
 he had held so triumphantly for seventeen 
 years, and with him went all the abler mem- 
 bers of his administration. "All that was 
 left to the king was to call up the rear ranks 
 of the old ministry to form the front rank of 
 a new ministry." Addington became Prime 
 Minister, and for a time seemed to succeed, 
 chiefly by the help of Pitt, who supported 
 him, and by the conclusion of a peace with 
 France on the terms of the Treaty of Amiens. 
 But the real incapacity of Addington, com- 
 bined with the restless ambition of Bonaparte, 
 at length compelled Pitt to assume a different 
 attitude towards the ministry. Parliament 
 and the nation at large looked to Pitt as the 
 only man who could save the country in the 
 event of the war which it was seen must soon 
 be continued with France. Addington felt the 
 pressure on all sides, but tried to come to 
 terms with Pitt, which would still leave him 
 in the possession of a large share of power. 
 In May, 1803, Pitt emerged from the retire- 
 ment in which he had been living, and made a 
 great speech, advocating the declaration tf 
 war. In April, 1804, Addington resigned. 
 Pitt was commanded to form a ministry. 
 He desired a broad government, which should 
 include all the highest talent in the kingdom 
 — Fox, Grenville, Windham, and others. 
 But the king's obstinacy once more defeated 
 an excellent scheme. Pitt yielded, and formed 
 a Tory administration. Most strenuous efforts 
 were made both at home, and by the develop- 
 ment of foreign combinations, to avert the 
 threatening danger ; and the glorious victory 
 of Trafalgar in Oct., 1805, crushed'the French 
 navy. But the close of Pitt's career is melan- 
 choly. The Opposition, which had refrained 
 from any factious resistance to the war policy 
 of the government, in April, 1805, proposed 
 a vote of censure on Lord Melville for mis- 
 management of the navy whUe Treasurer 
 
Fla 
 
 ( 822 ) 
 
 Fla 
 
 under Pitt's former administration. Pitt stood 
 by his old friend ; but the Speaker's casting 
 vote decided a division against the accused. 
 Pitt regarded the adverse vote as akaost a 
 vote of censure on himself, and was quite 
 crushed. In the following July, Parliament 
 was prorogued; but the war was carried on 
 with Napoleon's usual activity. In September 
 Pitt had the satisfaction of negotiating with 
 Eussia and Austria a general coalition against 
 Napoleon, who in reply made every prepara- 
 tion for invading England. Circumstances, 
 however, prevented him from carrying out 
 that scheme, and he turned his attention to 
 the Continent. The capitulation of the 
 Austrian army at Ulm on Oct. 19 was the 
 first result of this change of plan. The news 
 proved a death-blow to Pitt, which even the 
 news of Trafalgar four days later could not 
 avert. The next day, at the Lord Mayor's 
 dinner, he spoke the last words he was ever to 
 utter in public. In December he retired to 
 Bath to rest ; but the news of Austerlitz com- 
 pleted the breakdown of his health. He was 
 j list able to travel to London in January for 
 the opening of Parliament on the 21st ; but 
 when he arrived at Putney, he was too ill 
 to attend, and two days later, on Jan. 23, 
 1806, he died. Pitt has iDeen justly called 
 the man of Parliamentary government. No 
 man ever, from his earliest appearance in 
 the House of Commons to his latest days, exer- 
 cised so absolute a sway over that assembly. 
 By his incorruptible integrity, conspicuously 
 displayed during nineteen years, he did more 
 than any one man to crush out the corruption 
 in high places which had prevailed during the 
 first eighty years of the eighteenth century. 
 Massey, Hist. ; Stanhope, Life of Pitt ; The 
 GrenviUe Correspondence ; Pitt's Speeches ; Parlia- 
 mentary Hist. ; Jesse, Mem, of Beign of George 
 III. ; Maj-, Const. iJiBt. ; Macaulay, .Essays ; 
 Adolphus, Sist. n^ R. S 1 
 
 Place Bills. The First (1672) was a 
 measure congenial to the Tory reformers of 
 William III.'s reign. Its object was summarily 
 to exclude all placemen from the House of 
 Commons. ' ' Nobody thought of drawing a 
 line between the few functionaries who ought 
 to be allowed to sit in the House of Commons, 
 and the crowd of functionaries who ought to 
 be shut out. A member who was to be 
 chosen after 1693 was not to accept any place 
 whatever." The bill was violently opposed 
 in the Upper House, Marlborough making a 
 great speech in its support. When the ques- 
 tion was put, forty-two were in its favour and 
 forty-four against it. Proxies were called, 
 however, and the bill was lost by three votes. 
 Next year the bill was introduced again, and 
 again easily passed the Commons. It pro- 
 vided that no member of the House of Com- 
 mons, elected after Jan. 1, 1694, should 
 accept any place of profit under the crown, 
 on pain of forfeiting his seat, and of being 
 incapable of sitting again in the same Par- 
 
 liament. The Lords added the wise amend- 
 ment, " unless he be afterwards chosen to 
 serve in the same Parliament." The Com- 
 mons agreed to this amendment. William, 
 who appears to have misunderstood the 
 nature of the bill, refused his assent. The 
 angry Commons first passed an address, 
 affirming that those who had advised the 
 king on this occasion were public enemies; 
 and then, on the motion of Harley, appointed 
 a committee to draw up a representation to 
 the king. William, however, in his reply, 
 yielded nothing. " Thus ended, more happUy 
 than William had a right to expect,, one of 
 the most dangerous contests in which he ever 
 engaged with his Parliament." In 1694 the 
 bill was introduced again into the Commons. 
 It was thrice read, but _ on the third reading 
 was rejected by thirty-three votes. The result 
 of the bin would nave, as Eanke remarks, 
 caused ' ' Parliament and the administration 
 to stand against one another as two distinct 
 bodies." The Second (1743) was originally 
 proposed by Sandys, but subsequently op- 
 posed by him on the ground that George II. 
 was antagonistic to the measure. "Derided," 
 says Hallam, " though it was at the time, it had 
 considerable effect ; excluding a great num- 
 ber of inferior officers from the House of 
 Commons, which has never since contained so 
 revolting a list of court-deputies as it did in 
 the age of Walpole." 
 
 Flautagenet, the name by which the 
 house of Anjou is generally known, is derived 
 ivoiaplanta genista, the broom-plant, a sprig 
 of which was usually worn by Geoffrey of 
 Anjou, father of Henry II., on his cap. It is 
 doubtful whether this custom of his is to be 
 taken to indicate his love of field-sports, or as 
 a sign that he was not ashamed of the humble 
 origin of the house of Anjou, which had for 
 its founder a woodman of Eennes. [Angevinb.] 
 
 Flautagenet, Family op. [Angetins.] 
 
 Flassey, The Battle of (June 23, 1757), 
 was fought by Clive against the troops of 
 Surajah Dowlah in the campaign undertaken 
 to avenge the massacre of the Black Hole of 
 Calcutta. Clive having concluded his arrang e- 
 ments with Meer Jaffier, addressed a letter to 
 Surajah Dowlah, recapitulating the grievances 
 which the English had to complain of, and 
 stating that he was coming to Moorshedabad 
 to arrange them. He set out from Chander- 
 nagore on June 13 with an army of 1,000 
 Europeans, 2,000 natives, and eight pieces of 
 cannon. Meer Jaffier, however, proved faith- 
 less, and on the 19th the rains set in with 
 great violence. Clive saw that he had 
 advanced too far to recede, and that there 
 would be more danger in retiring than pro- 
 ceeding. Accordingly he called a council of 
 war on the question, and it was almost unani- 
 mously decided not to risk an action. In 
 spite of this, however, on June 22, the British 
 
Fla 
 
 ( 823 ) 
 
 Flu 
 
 fprce crossed the Hooghly, and at midnight 
 encamped in a grove of mango-trees at 
 riassey. In the morning the Nabob's troops, 
 headed by a body of fifty Frenchmen, were in 
 motion, and the assault began -with a furious 
 cannonade. The English escaped the shots 
 by sitting down under cover of a high bank. 
 About noon a slight shower damaged the 
 enemy's powder. They were compelled to 
 withdraw their artillery, and Clive advanced 
 vigorously to the attack of their Hues. .In 
 spite of the gallantry of the French, Clive 
 was able' to storm the camp, rout the whole 
 ai-my, and pursue them for about six miles. 
 The enemy, it is supposed, lost about 500 men ; 
 the English only seventy-two. The Nabob, 
 influenced by the conspirators, had been the 
 first to fly, and, mounted on a camel, and 
 followed by about 2,000 horse, bore to his 
 capital the news of his disgrace. 
 
 Mill, Hist. 0/ India ; Gleig, Life of Clive. 
 
 Flateu, Madame de, was a sister of the 
 Countess of Darlington, the mistress of 
 George I. We find the sisters supporting 
 Carteret against Walpole and Townshend, 
 who relied on the influence of the Duchess of 
 Kendal. She received a bribe of £10,000 to 
 facilitate the passing of the South Sea BUI. 
 In 1723 a marriage was arranged between 
 her daughter and the Count of St. Flo- 
 rentin, but the countess required as a con- 
 dition that a dukedom should be granted to 
 the bridegroom. This Carteret, as Secretary 
 for the Southern Department, exerted himself 
 to obtain from the Duke of Orleans. Horace 
 Walpole was thereupon sent by his brother 
 to Paris to counteract the intrigue. Madame 
 de Platen was ultimately consoled by a 
 portion of £10,000 from Greorge, but the 
 interference of Walpole eaused Carteret to 
 retire to the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland. 
 
 Flayhouse BilI,THE ( 1 737) , was brought 
 forward by Sir Eobert Walpole in order to 
 check the indecency of the stage. His Play- 
 house Act was an amendment to the Vagrant 
 Act of Queen Anne's reign. " It declared," 
 says Lord Stanhope, " that any actor without 
 a legal settlement, or a licence from the Lord 
 Chamberlain, should be deemed a rogue and a 
 vagabond. To the Lord Chamberlain it gave 
 legal power instead of customary privilege; 
 authorising him to prohibit the representation 
 of any drama at his discretion, and compelling 
 all authors to send copies of their plays four- 
 teen days before they were acted, under for- 
 feiture of £.50, and of the licence of the 
 house. Moreover, it restrained the number 
 of playhouses, by enjoining that no person 
 should have authority to act except within 
 the liberties of Westminster, and where the 
 king should reside." The bill was carried in 
 spite of the vigorous opposition of Lord 
 Chesterfield ; and its effect in subjecting all 
 plays acted to the previous examination of 
 
 the Lord Chamberlain and the ofiBciala ap- 
 pomted by him, has never been undone. 
 
 Fleas, The Cotikt or Common, or Com- 
 mon Bench, gained existence as a separate 
 court from the curia regis by the 17th article 
 of Magna Charta, which provided that " com- 
 mon pleas should not follow the court, but be 
 held in some fixed place." In the early part 
 of the reign of Henry III. it was distinguished 
 from the Exchequer and the King's Bench 
 as having cognisance of the private suits of 
 subjects. The Court of Common Pleas was 
 held at Westminster. In the reign of Ed- 
 ward I. the Barons of the Exchequer were 
 forbidden to interfere in its jm-isdiction, 
 and from the beginning of that reign com- 
 mences a regular series of Chief Justices of 
 Common Pleas. A fuU bench consisted of 
 the Chief Justice and of four (after 31 & 32 
 Yic, of five) puisne judges. This court had 
 a concurrent jurisdiction with the Queen's 
 Bench and Exchequer in personal actions 
 and ejectment. It had an exclusive jurisdic- 
 tion in real actions. Under the Parliamentary 
 Elections Act of 1868, and under the Railway 
 and Canal Act of 1853, it also received ap- 
 peals from the Eevising Barristers' courts, 
 -iippeals from this court formerly lay to the 
 King^ Bench, but were transferred by 21 
 Geo. rv. and 1 Will. IV. to the judges of 
 the King's Bench and the Barons of the Ex- 
 chequer sitting in the Exchequer Chamber. 
 The exclusive jurisdiction of the court was 
 maintained by the Judicature Act of 1873, 
 for the Common Pleas Division, but in virtue 
 of 8. 31, has since been merged by Order of 
 Council in the general jurisdiction of the 
 High Court of Justice. 
 
 Whaiton, Law Lexicon ; Stubbs, Conit. Hist., 
 ii.266. ^^ jj^ 
 
 Flegmuud, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (890 — 914), was a man of very extensive 
 literary acqidrements, and one of the chief 
 ornaments of Alfred's court. It is generally 
 supposed that it is to him that we owe the 
 compilation of a portion of the Anglo-Saxmi 
 Chronicle, and it is known that he assisted the 
 king in many of his literary undertakings, 
 notably in the translation of Gregory's pas- 
 torals. " He carried out consistently the 
 plans of Alfred, and laboured diligently to 
 secure for the Church a learned ministry." 
 
 Asser, Vita Alfvedi; William of Malmesbury, 
 Ge:da Fontijicma ; Hook, Arclibislwps. 
 
 Fluuket, William Conyngham, Lobd 
 (i. July, 1764, d. Jan. 4, 1854), the son of a 
 clergyman ; he was educated at Trinity 
 College, and in 1787 was called to the Irish 
 bar. In 1807 he became member for Mid- 
 hurst; in 1812 for Dublin University. He 
 was one of the most brilliant speakers in an 
 age of orators. He was not a Whig, but a 
 follower of Lord GrenviUe. In 1821, after 
 Grattan's death, he became the chief pro- 
 
Poi 
 
 ( 824) 
 
 Pol 
 
 moter of CatKolie Emancipation (q.v.) in 
 Parliament. He had before "been Solicitor- 
 General, and in 1821 became Attorney- 
 General. As such he proceeded ex officio against 
 the promoters of the " Bottle Plot " (q-v.), and 
 his conduct was criticised in Parliament, hut 
 he was able to vindicate it successfully. In 
 1827 Canning tried to get him made Lord 
 Chancellor, but the king refused. He was, 
 however, made Lord Chief Justice of the Irish 
 Court of Common Pleas, and a peer. In 1830 
 he became Lord Chancellor. 
 
 PluuWs Speeofces ; May, Const. Hiat. 
 
 Poitiers, The Battle op (Sept. 19, 1356), 
 was the second of Edward the Black Prince's 
 great victories over the French. In 1355 the 
 truce which had been concluded for eight 
 years came to an end. The Black Prince at 
 the head of a great army, largely composed of 
 mercenaries, landed in Guienne, and marched 
 up the Garonne, plundering the country. 
 The following year he marched towards the 
 Loire ; but near Poitiers he found his way 
 barred by 60,000 men under King John of 
 France. ," The prince's army is said not to 
 have exceeded 8,000 ; but it was very strongly 
 posted behind lanes, hedges, and vineyards, 
 which were lined with archers. His ofiers to 
 treat were rejected, and the French horse 
 pressed on up the lane. But they fell back 
 in confusion before the arrows of the 
 English. At the same time they were 
 charged in flank by the English cavalry, 
 while the main body of the English foot 
 advanced on their front. The French fought 
 desperately, but were completely routed. 
 8,000 of them were killed, and among the 
 crowd of prisoners was King John himself. 
 
 Proissart, Ghromcle; JehanleBel, CTiromques; 
 Longman, Echjuard t?ie Third. 
 
 Poitiers, William of (i. circa 1020), 
 was a Norman soldier who subsequently took 
 orders, and became one of "William the Con- 
 queror's chaplains. He wrote Geita Gulielmi, 
 an account of the Norman Conquest, em- 
 bracing the period from 1036 to 1067. Being 
 a contemporary account, Ms history is of con- 
 siderable value. 
 
 Pole, Akthub, son of Geoffrey Pole, and 
 nephew of Cardinal Pole, attempted in 1562 
 to form a conspiracy in conjunction with his 
 brother, Edward Pole, and with the aid of the 
 Duke of Guise, against Elizabeth, offiering in 
 case of his success to sink his own claims to 
 the throne in favour of Mary Queen of Scots. 
 The plot was discovered before it came to 
 anything, and Pole was sent to the Tower, 
 and condemned though not executed. His 
 claims to the throne, by which he hoped to 
 win over a large number of adherents, were 
 derived from George, Duke of Clarence, 
 brother of Edward IV. 
 
 Pole, John de la; Michael de la. 
 
 [SUFPOLK..] 
 
 Pole, Reginald, Cahdinal (J. 1500, d. 
 1558), was the younger son of Sir Richard 
 Pole, by Margaret, daughter of George, Duke 
 of Clarence, brother of Edward IV. Though 
 educated for the Church and destined for the 
 highest ecclesiastical preferments, he gave up 
 all his prospects rather than acquiesce in the 
 divorce of Queen Catherine and the separation 
 of England from the Papacy. He retired to 
 Italy, and was made a cardinal by Paul III. 
 He was the intimate associate of Contarioi 
 and the early reformers of Catholicism; 
 took an important share in the business 
 of the Curia, and, it is said, narrowly missed 
 the papal chair. He took a leading part in the 
 Council of Trent, though that assembly con- 
 demned his doctrine of justification. He 
 never lost sight of England; wrote a book 
 against Henry; constantly stii-red up the 
 Catholic powers against him, and was the 
 leading representative of English Catholicism 
 in Europe. At last the reaction under Mary 
 restored him to England as papal legate and 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. He was her 
 leading adviser in ecclesiastical affairs, 
 though he is said to have been averse to 
 some of the more brutal aspects of her perse- 
 cutions. Towards the end of his life he 
 was involved in a quarrel with Paul IV., who 
 deprived him of his legatine position. 
 
 Phillips, lAfe of Pole, with Eidley'a AnimM- 
 ucrsitms ; Froude, Hist, of Erui., and Pole's 
 Worlcs, including his Epistoltx and De Schismate 
 Anglicane, 
 
 Polish Note, The (1863). The news of 
 the Polish insurrection, and its sanguinary sup- 
 pression, excited great enthusiasm and sym- 
 pathy in England and France for the Polish 
 cause. France was ready for intervention if 
 England would join. Earl Russell went to 
 the extent of drawing up, in concert with 
 France and Austria, a note on the subject, 
 urging on the Russian government six points 
 as the outline of a pacification of Poland. 
 These were — a complete amnesty, a national 
 representation, a distinct national administra- 
 tion of Poles for the kingdom of Poland, fuU 
 liberty of conscience, with the repeal of all 
 the restrictions imposed on Catholic worship, 
 the recognition of the Polish language as 
 official, the establishment of a regular system 
 of recruiting. Lord Palmerston, however, 
 refused to hear of anything like armed inter- 
 vention. When Russia learnt that the note 
 was a mere unsupported suggestion, she treated 
 it coolly and contemptuously. The question, 
 however, was brought up in the House of 
 Commons by Mr. P. Heunessy. The result 
 was a hot debate, in which Mr. Disraeli, Lord 
 Palmerston, Mr. Walpole, Mr, Stansfeld, Lord 
 Robert Cecil, and others, vied with each other 
 in expressing detestation of these barbarities. 
 A great meeting was held on the subject at 
 the Guildhall, at which similar indignant 
 speeches were delivered. Nothing, however, 
 
1*01 
 
 ( 825 ) 
 
 Poo 
 
 was done by the governmeut beyond the 
 despatch of the Note. ' , 
 
 Annual Regist^r, 1863; Hansard's Debates; 
 McCaTth^, Hist, of Our Own Time. 
 
 Polish Question (1831—32). At the 
 outbreak of the Polish rebellion England 
 warmly sympathised -with the rebels. At 
 the same time Palmerston, occupied with the 
 Belgian question, steadily refused to assist the 
 Poles except by suggestions to Russia. But 
 that power knew he would not interfere by 
 arms, and his remonstrances were treated 
 with derision. He made another attempt to 
 obtain mercy for the Poles after the fall of 
 Warsaw, but Nesselrode briefly informed 
 him that the only obligation incumbent on 
 Russia by the Treaty of Yienna, was the 
 duty of maintaining the union, and that the 
 constitution was a grace of the emperor, 
 which had been forfeited by rebellion. In 
 1831, however, the woes of Poland attracted 
 the attention of the House of Commons. But 
 these attacks produced no result. The feeling 
 in favour of the Poles grew as the news of 
 the Russian cruelties were brought home, 
 and in July, 1833, Mr. CuDar Fergussou 
 moved an address to the crown in favour 
 of the Poles. Palmerston, however, opposed 
 this, urging that the British government 
 could not do more than it had done, unless 
 it declared war, and that the latter course 
 would be hardly advisable. However, the 
 most violent language was applied to Russia 
 and Its emperor in Parliament, and the feeling 
 against them became so strong, that later in 
 the session, the ministry was compelled to 
 give way, and grant a sum of £10,000 for the 
 relief of the PoKsh exiles. 
 
 Annual Register ; Sa/nsa/rd' s Dehates, 
 
 Pontage was a duty imposed upon aU 
 freemen for the making and repairing of 
 bridges, and is the same as the " Brig-bot " 
 of Anglo-Saxon times. In a charter of 
 Edward I. to certain foreign merchants, we 
 find them exempted from "pontage." 
 
 Poor, Roger le (or, Roger Pauper), was 
 the son of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury. By his 
 father's influence he was made Chancellor by 
 King Stephen in 1135, but in 1139 he was, to- 
 gether with many other ministers, arrested by 
 the king. He was carried to Devizes, where his 
 cousin Nigel, Bishop of Ely, was holding out 
 against the royal troops, and the threat that, 
 unless he surrendered, his cousin should be 
 put to death before his eyes, had the intended 
 effect. After remaining in captivity for some 
 time, he was released on condition of quitting 
 the kingdom, to which he never returned. 
 
 Poor Xaw, The (Ireland). There 
 was no legal provision for the Irish poor pre- 
 vious to the year 1828, though some two 
 and a half millions were annually spent in 
 charity. In 1838 the Enghsh system was in- 
 troduced, and though the Irish were, and are. 
 
 especiaEy unwiUing to enter a poor-house, it 
 on the whole succeeded. During the famine, 
 indeed, the poorer unions were very soon 
 bankrupt, and Parliament was more than once 
 called on to relieve them. At last, in 1849, the 
 Rate in Aid Bill was passed, by which to re- 
 lieve the poor districts of Connaught — a general 
 rate all over Ireland was resorted to, govern- 
 ment lending £100,000 for the relief of imme- 
 diate distress, on this security. 
 
 Poor ImHWS is the name which has been 
 given to the legislation providing for the 
 relief and maintenance of the destitute. In 
 mediaeval England the care of the helpless 
 poor was undertaken generally by the 
 lords of manors, the parochial clergy, the 
 monasteries, and reUgious guilds, and in the 
 case of poor craftsmen by the trade guilds. 
 After the Black Death in 1349 the surviving 
 labourers refused to work, except at higher 
 wages. By an Act of the same year (the first 
 of the many " Statutes of Labourers ") an 
 attempt was made to force all able-bodied 
 men to work, and almsgiving to " sturdy " or 
 " valiant " beggars was forbidden. In the Act 
 of 1388, confinning the Statute of Labourers, 
 appears the first germ of a law of settlement. 
 The labourer was thereby forbidden to leave 
 his place of service, or to wander about the 
 country without a passport ; impotent beggars 
 were to remain where they were at the pass- 
 ing of the Act, or if not there provided for, to 
 seek a maintenance within their hundreds, or m 
 the places where they were born. In the Acts 
 of 1495 and 1504 it was further provided that 
 beggars should be "sent to the place where 
 they were bom, or have dwelt, or are best 
 known, to support themselves by begging 
 within the hundred." 
 
 In the sixteenth century the break-up of 
 the system of the manor and craft-guild, 
 the dissolution of the monasteries and reli- 
 gious guilds, and the increase of prices 
 owing to debasement of the coinage, made 
 the question of pauperism much more 
 pressing than it had ever been before, and 
 some systematic attempt to provide relief was 
 necessary to prevent social anarchy. In 
 1536 it was enacted that while the "lusty" 
 poor might be "daily kept on continual 
 labour," the poor who were not able to work 
 should be provided for. For this purpose the 
 congregation of each parish were to be 
 exhorted to charitable oiierings, and a book 
 was to be kept by the clergy showing how 
 the money was spent. In 1561 collectors of 
 alms at church on Sunday were to be ap- 
 pointed, and persons refusing to subscribe 
 were to be expostulated with by the bishop. 
 By a later Act the bishop was empowered to 
 send them before the justices, who, if per- 
 suasion failed, could impose upon them the 
 payment of a definite amount. It was not, 
 however, till 1601 that a general compulsory 
 rating was substituted for semi-voluntary 
 
Poo 
 
 ( 826 ) 
 
 Poo 
 
 contritution. This Act, tlie foimdatiou of 
 English Poor Law, ordered the nomination by 
 the justices of two or three overseers in each 
 parish, who were empowered to raise the 
 amount necessary for the relief of the poor by 
 taxing every inhabitant. The Act drew a 
 clear distinction between able-bodied poor 
 unwilling to labour, or unable to find employ- 
 ment, who were to be set to work, and 
 impotent poor unable to work, who were to 
 be relieved. Persons able but refusing to 
 labour were to be committed to prison. 
 
 The Law of Settlement, which took the place 
 of the various Tudor statutes to suppress 
 vagrancy by imprisonment, whipping, brand- 
 ing, and the hke, began with an Act of 1662. 
 This authorised the justices, upon complaint 
 of the overseers, made within forty days of a 
 person's coming to a strange parish, to order 
 him to be removed to his own place of settle- 
 ment, unless he could give securities to the 
 parish against becoming chargeable to it. 
 The natural result of this Act was to keep the 
 poor to their own parishes, and to prevent 
 labour going where it was needed. Intolerable 
 tyranny was its outcome. In 1685 it was 
 enacted that insomuch as " poor people at 
 their first coming do commonly conceal them- 
 selves," the forty days should count from 
 their giving notice of their residence to the 
 overseers. In 1691 various other ways of 
 obtaining settlement were established, such 
 as payment of taxes for a year, or a year's 
 hiring, or the serving of an annual office. 
 Still more important was another provision 
 of the same Act. In order to prevent misuse 
 of the powers of overseers, it was ordered that 
 a register should be kept of paupers and of the 
 amounts received by them, that a new list 
 should be made out yearly, and that no one else 
 should receive relief, except by authority of one 
 justice, or by order of the bench of justices 
 at quarter sessions. This latter clause was 
 speedily interpreted as empowering justices 
 to order relief to applicants at their own 
 discretion. An attempt was in vain made to 
 meet the misuse of this power by an Act of 
 1723, which enacted that the applicant must 
 prove that he had already applied to the parish 
 officers, who must show cause why he was 
 not relieved. But the evil result of aUow- 
 mg justices to act independently in the 
 matter of relief were not very apparent tiU 
 the end of the eighteenth century, and, on the 
 whole, the Poor Law woi-ked well down to 1760. 
 
 In 1697 a workhouse had been buUt in 
 Bristol under a special Act, and there " the 
 workhouse test " was first adopted, i.e., wiUing- 
 nesa to enter the house was alone taken as a 
 test of destitution. The plan proved so 
 successful that it was imitated in some other 
 towns, and by the Act of 1723 parishes were 
 empowered, singly or in unions, to provide 
 workhouses, with the proviso that persons 
 refusing to enter such houses should be refused 
 relief. This Act resulted in a great diminu- 
 
 tion of expenditure where adopted, yet it 
 seems to have been carried out in compara- 
 tively few parishes. 
 
 The industrial revolution which began in 
 the second half of the eighteenth century, 
 and the increase of enclosures, led to a rapid 
 extension of pauperism, which was stiU further 
 encouraged by a slipshod philanthropy. By 
 Gilbert's Act of 1782 parishes were empowered 
 to form unions or incorporations with ad- 
 jacent parishes; these incorporations were 
 permitted to build workhouses. The justices 
 were to appoint guardians (paid officials, like 
 modem relieving-officers) to administer relief. 
 The Act of 1723 was practically repealed in 
 the case of incorporations by the provision 
 that none but the impotent were to be sent to 
 the workhouse, while suitable employment 
 was to be provided for the able-bodied near 
 their own homes. Sixty-seven such incorpo- 
 rations were formed, and the result of the 
 statute was that in five years the cost of relief 
 rose from one and a half to two million pounds. 
 
 The pressure of the Continental war led to 
 still more disastrous measures. In 1795 the 
 Berkshire magistrates drew up a declaration 
 (the so-called " Speenhamland Act of Parlia- 
 ment ") fixing a scale of relief according to 
 the price of wheat, and the number of chiidreu 
 in a family, and they were imitated in seveial 
 other counties. The practical effect of this 
 was that relief was granted in aid of wages, 
 and the farmers, themselves benefiting through 
 their long leases by the high price of com, 
 were able to throw part of the cost of their 
 labour upon non-farming residents in their 
 parishes. Next year an Act legalised generally 
 out-door relief, and formally repealed the Act 
 of 1723. In 1801, moreover, the justices 
 became the rating as well as the relieving 
 authority. Some attempt was made in 1819 
 to improve the state of things by empowering 
 such parishes as chose to elect a " select 
 vestry" to superintend the overseers. In 
 most parishes, however, especially in the 
 rural districts, relief was stiU adminis- 
 tered by the overseers, with the right of 
 appeal to the justices on the part of the 
 labourer when the overseers were not suffi- 
 ciently pliant. The worst consequences 
 followed — the agricultural labourers were 
 pauperised, the bastardy laws made vice very 
 profitable, and a premium was set on idleness 
 and improvidence. Between 1784 and 1818 
 the amount of poor rate increased about three 
 times as fast as population (population from 
 eight millions to nearly twelve millions, poor 
 rate from two million pounds to almost eight 
 millions). These evils led to a commission of 
 inquiry in _ 1833, and the great Act of 1834, 
 the most important in the history of Poor 
 Law after 1601. It attempted to restore the 
 workhouse test for able-bodied paupers; 
 parishes were grouped into unions, and placed 
 under elected boards of guardians, and the 
 guardians were put under a central board at 
 
Poo 
 
 ( 827 ) 
 
 Fop 
 
 London — the Poor Law Commissioners, 
 superseded in 1847 by the Poor Law Board, 
 and that in 1871 by the Local Government 
 Board, headed by a responsible minister as 
 President. The measure was for a time very 
 successful, and by 1841 the poor rate had 
 fallen to £4,760,000. In 1844 the " Out-door 
 Prohibitory Belief Order" finally forbade 
 all relief except in the workhouse. But the 
 commissioners still allowed out-door relief in 
 case of sickness or " bodily infirmity," and 
 this was speedUy construed to cover relief to 
 persons over sixty years of age incapable of 
 earning wages. But this led once more to a 
 rapid increase of out-door relief, encouraging 
 improvidence, and causing wages to be lower 
 than they would otherwise have been. During 
 the ten years 1861 — 71 the expenditure 
 rose from five and three-quarter to more 
 than seven and three-quarter million pounds, 
 and the number of paupers from 883,921 to 
 1,037,360. Thisincrease of pauperism, together 
 with the growth of a spirit of scientific philan- 
 thropy, led to strong efforts to enforce the 
 workhouse test, and these have met with con- 
 siderable success. They have been seconded 
 in London by Goschen's Act of 1870, which 
 placed workhouse expenditure on a metro- 
 poHtan fund, while leaving out-door relief to 
 be borne by each district. It has been gene- 
 rally found, however, impossible to get rid of 
 out-door reKef, unless some charitable organi- 
 sation, working in concert with the Poor Law 
 authorities, deals with cases of temporary 
 distress, and with the misfortunes of the 
 provident poor. 
 
 For mediffival laws, see Stubbs, Const, Sist.f 
 iii., cb. xxi. The main autborities for the Poor 
 Law are NioboU, Hist, of Poor Law; Eden, Stats 
 of the Poor; Report of Poor Law Commission, 
 1831; Glen, Poor Law Orders; Annual Reports of 
 Local Government Board, and of tbe Conferences of 
 Poor Lam Guardians. The Poor Law, by Fowle, is 
 an exceHenii history, covering tbe whole period, 
 and giving parallel information as to other 
 countries. The subject is treated in itsrelation 
 to the general economic movement in Toynbee, 
 Tlie Industrial Rmolution. For a criticism of 
 the laws of settlement see Adam Smith, Wealth 
 of Nations, bt 1., ch. x., pt. ii. ; and for an 
 account of the Vagrancy Acts, &c., Karl Marx, 
 Bos Kapital, ch. xxviii. For recent efforts see 
 Ootavia Hill, Homes of London Poor and Our 
 Common Land, [W. J. A.] 
 
 Foomnder, The Treaty op (March 1, 
 1776), was concluded between the East India 
 Company and the Poonah State. It annulled 
 all the engagements of the Treaty of Surat to 
 Eagoba, who was to disband his army and. 
 retire to the banks of the Godavery on a 
 pension. The British army was to quit the 
 field, Salsette was to be retained if the 
 Governor- General desired it, but all other 
 acquisitions were to be relinquished; the 
 claim of the English on the revenues of 
 Baroach was conceded with twelve lacs for the 
 expenses of the war. 
 
 Popham, Sir John (*. 1531, d. 1607), 
 appointed Solicitor-General in 1579, was two 
 
 years later elected Speaker of the House of 
 Commons. He became Attorney-General the 
 same year, an office which he held for eleven 
 years, during which he took part in most of 
 the important State trials of the period. In 
 1592, Popham succeeded Sir Christopher 
 Wray as Lord Chief Justice, in which 
 capacity he presided at the trials of Sir 
 Walter Ealeigh and the conspirators in the 
 Gunpowder Plot. He is said to have been 
 the originator of the idea of the transporta- 
 tion of felons to New England and other 
 colonies. Sir Edward Coke calls him " a man 
 of ready apprehension, profound judgment, 
 most excellent understanding, and admirable 
 experience and knowledge of all business 
 which concerned the Commonwealth." 
 Fosa, Judges ofEng. ; Fuller, Worthies. 
 
 Popish. Plot, The, was the name given 
 to an imaginary conspiracy of the Catholics 
 in the reign of -Charles II. Though, no 
 doubt, there were some projects for an attempt 
 against the government agitated by the 
 English Catholics, there is little doubt that 
 the " plot " owed its existence chiefly to the 
 imagination of Titus Gates and other in- 
 formers. Gates was an English clergyman 
 of bad character, who had become a Boman 
 Catholic, and joined the Jesuits at St. Omer. 
 In 1678 he deposed before a magistrate that 
 he knew the particulars of a papist scheme, 
 by which the king was to be killed, a Eoman 
 Cathoho ministry appointed, and a massacre 
 of the Protestants prepared with the assistance 
 of a French army. A few days afterwards 
 Sir Edmondbury Godfrey, the magistrate 
 before whom Gates had sworn, was found 
 murdered on Primrose HiU, and a universal 
 panic spread over the nation, which seemed 
 for the time to have lost its senses. The 
 wildest stories of Gates and the informers 
 who arose were believed without question. 
 Parliament met on Oct. 21, and the Commons 
 resolved, " that there hath been, and still is, a 
 damnable and hellish plot, carried on by 
 papist recusants for assassinating the king, 
 the subverting the government, and for root- 
 ing out the Protestant religion." The plot 
 was taken up by Shaftesbury as a weapon 
 against his political opponents and the Duke 
 of York. On the evidence of Gates, Danger- 
 field, Carstairs, and Bedloe, many leading 
 Eoman Catholics were tried, convicted, and 
 imprisoned, or executed, and Gates went so 
 far as to swear that he had heard the queen 
 give her consent to the king's murder. On 
 Nov. 30 an Act was passed " for disabling 
 papists from sitting in either Houses of Par- 
 liament." In March of the following year 
 (1679) the bill to exclude the Duke of York 
 from the throne was brought in, and though 
 Charles deferred it for that year by a disso- 
 lution, it was carried through the Commons 
 in Nov., 1580, and rejected in the House of 
 Lords. In Dec, 1680, Lord Stafford, the 
 
Pop 
 
 ( 828 ) 
 
 Fop 
 
 most distinguished of the victims of the 
 Popish Plot, was executed. But by this time 
 a reaction ■ had set in. The judges would no 
 longer convict on the evidence of the in- 
 formers, and the people w«re alienated by what 
 seemed like a Whig persecution of the Duke 
 of York. In March, 1681, Charles dissolved 
 his fifth Parliament, and governed without 
 one during the remainder of his reign; and 
 later in the year one of the false witnesses, 
 CoUege, was put on his trial, and condemned 
 at Oxford, and Shaftesbury himself was prose- 
 cuted by the crown for treason, though the 
 bill was thrown out by the grand jury in 
 London. [Gates.] 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of Ms Oram Time; Maoaulay, 
 
 Hist, of Eng.; Christie, Life of Shajteshwry , 
 
 Hallam, Const. B-ist. 
 
 Population. There is no subject on 
 which wilder guesses have been made than 
 those which, without enumeration, or some- 
 thing equivalent to enumeration, have been 
 hazarded about the population of cities and 
 counties, about the numbers of contending or 
 invading armies, and about the ravages of 
 famine and pestilence. Accounts of those 
 numbers have been given, occasionally with 
 some statement which appears to be confir- 
 matory, but which later research has accepted 
 with distrust. Thus, Herodotus states a 
 number for the invading host of Xerxes, and 
 asserts in confirmation of his figures that a 
 rough census was taken of the army and its 
 followers. But in the more critical age of 
 Juvenal the whole narrative was scouted as 
 the invention of a vainglorious and menda- 
 cious Greek. In the same manner, but with 
 a better critical apparatus, Hume, in his essay 
 on the populousness of ancient cities, chal- 
 lenged the assertions of those who claimed 
 millions where thousands would have been 
 nearer the truth. In our own country the 
 same exaggerations have been made, doulDtless 
 in good faith. G-ascoigne, the critic, and in 
 some degree the chronicler of the fifteenth 
 century, a Chancellor of Oxford University, 
 and a highly estimable and honourable person, 
 alleges that he read the names of thirty 
 thousand students in Oxford during the period 
 immediately antecedent to the great Plague 
 of 1 349. They could not possibly have been 
 housed in the town, or if housed, could hardly 
 have been fed. "We are told that sixty thou- 
 sand persons perished by disease in Norwich 
 between January and July in the above-named 
 year, but it is certain that till the last thirty 
 years, or thereabouts, Norwich has never had 
 60,000 inhabitants. Numbers are habitually 
 exaggerated, and when panic is abroad the ex- 
 aggeration rapidly becomes a geometrical ratio. 
 During the fourteenth century, and nearly 
 to the end of the sixteenth, the population of 
 England and Wales could not have been 
 more than from two to two and a half millions. 
 The proof of this statement is partly indirect, 
 and partly direct. It may be confident!}' 
 
 affirmed that, provided the inhabitauts of a 
 country subsist on one kind of grain, as the 
 English from the remotest period have on 
 wheat — more generally, indeed, from the 
 Middle Ages to the eighteenth century than 
 they even do at present — the number of persons 
 in the country will be almost exactly equal to 
 the number of quarters of wheat which is 
 annually produced in the country. Now it 
 could be shown, and it has been shown else- 
 where, that the maximum produce of wheat 
 in England and Wales from the beginning of 
 the fourteenth to the close of the sixteenth 
 century could not have been more than two 
 and a half millions of quarters, and was 
 probably much less, the average rate of produc- 
 tion per acre being below eight bushels. The 
 writer of this article has examined many 
 thousands of farm accounts, giving the exact 
 amount of produce from the acreage sown in 
 aU parts of England, and he is confident that 
 eight bushels to the acre is a hberal estimate in i 
 average years. 
 
 We are not, however, without direct esti- 
 mates. There are several taxing roHa in the 
 Record Ofiice, especially records of poU taxes, 
 from which it is possible to arrive at an 
 approximate estimate of population. One of 
 those more than a centuxy ago was published, 
 and commented on in the Archmologia. In 
 1377, the last year of Edward III.'s reign, 
 Parliament granted the king a poU tax of 
 four pence a head on all lay persons over 
 fourteen years of age, none but known beggars 
 being exempted from contributing. Beneficed 
 clergymen paid a shilling ; other ecclesiastical 
 persons, except mendicant friars, paid, like 
 the laity, four pence. The number of persons 
 who paid the tax in the whole country, and 
 in the principal towns is given, and Mr. Top- 
 ham added one-third to the amount, in order 
 to include the untaxed part of the population, 
 a quantity which the vital statistics of the 
 time entirely j ustified, though now, owing to 
 sanitary improvements, the life of childhood 
 is prolonged beyond what was to be expected 
 then, and, therefore, the proportion of youth 
 to a more adult age is higher. The forty-two 
 towns, which are separately enumerated, had 
 an aggregate population of 168,720 persons. 
 The rest of the population in the county and' 
 small towns is 1,207,722. But from this 
 enumeration Durham and Chester, and Wales, 
 including Monmouth, are excluded, not being 
 taxed in the grant. Mr. Topham put this 
 population at 182,123, making a total of 
 1,558,565. By adding a third of this number 
 for the children, and giving a very liberal 
 allowance for beggars and begging friars, a 
 total of two and a quarter millions is reached. 
 Again, there exists in the archives of the 
 Record Office an enumeration of the popula- 
 tion and the quantity of com produced in 
 nine of the Kentish hundreds. This was 
 certainly made in the first half of the sixteenth 
 century. Kent was one of the wealthiest 
 
Pop 
 
 ( 820 ) 
 
 Pop 
 
 counties in mediaeval England, if we take into 
 account the large amount of down and wood- 
 land which, it contains. The district referred 
 to contained no large town then, and contains 
 none now. The population was 14,813 in the 
 period referred to, and was 88,080 in 1871, or 
 almost exactly six times more. Now six times 
 two and a haU millions is about the number 
 of persons who can in average years be sup- 
 ported by the produce of English agriculture, 
 the residue being dependent on foreign 
 supplies. But it is in the highest degree im- 
 probable that those calculations, derived from 
 different elements, not two being from matters 
 of fact, should so closely agree in the con- 
 clusion, and that conclusion be an error. 
 
 The readers of Macaulay will remember 
 that this author, in his excellent but unequal 
 chapter on the state of England at the death 
 of Charles II., argues with conclusive force 
 that three separate calculations have been 
 made as to the population of England and 
 Wales about that time. Gregory King calcu- 
 lated the quantity from the hearth tax, and 
 set it at five and a half millions. The second 
 estimate is taken from a return made to 
 William III. as to the number of the several 
 religious sects, and concludes with a popu- 
 lation of under five and a half millions. The 
 third is that of a writer of our own time, who 
 has gathered his inferences from the registers 
 of baptisms, marriages, and burials, and reaches 
 nearly the same figure. We could add a fourth 
 estimate, which would arrive at almost exactly 
 the sanle conclusion, viz., from the rate of 
 production from the soil, which was at this 
 time more than double that at which it stood 
 in the period from the accession of Edward 
 III. in 1327 to the death of Elizabeth in 1603, 
 so great had been the progress of agriculture 
 during the seventeenth century, and we may 
 add, also, of opulence. 
 
 The fact is, a country will always contain 
 as many people as can subsist on the produce 
 of its own soil, or being engaged in manufac- 
 ture and trade, can procure from foreign 
 sources the whole or part of what it needs for 
 its subsistence. Occasionally it produces 
 nothing, but gets all its wants from external 
 sources, as Venice did in the time of its greatest 
 opulence and power. More frequently, if it 
 be eminent as a trading or manufacturing 
 country, it obtains a portion of its supplies 
 in exchange for its service as a trader, or for 
 its goods as a producer. The population will 
 be nearly or quite stationary if it cannot 
 expand in the direction of trade, or of 
 generally merchantable commodities. The 
 population may be stationary by reason of 
 climate, or, perhaps, of race, but the soU of 
 a diminishing fertility, or the" soil of an un- 
 equal progression, wiU be filled by foreign 
 immigrants. It is sometimes said that the 
 native population of the American Union, 
 especially in the Eastern States, is unprogres- 
 sive, thongh this has been denied or disputed. 
 
 But the accession of the foreign population 
 in America is an enormous annual total, and 
 would be, even if the growth of the native- 
 bom stocks was obvious and indisputable. The 
 fact is, the production of food within the limits 
 of the American Union is vastly in excess of 
 the possible wants of the existing population. 
 
 Fears have been expressed that the growth 
 and increase of the human race would at no 
 remote period induce some enormous calamity, 
 that the area of cultivable land is limited, 
 that the power of occupation is limited, and 
 that the facilities of transport are limited also. 
 But at present, and as far as one can interpret 
 the facts, for an indefinite future these con- 
 tingencies are increasingly distant. The 
 distribution of products is rendered year by 
 year more easy, and the distribution of labour, 
 though certainly not so obvious and imme- 
 diate, is sufficiently easy for some relief to a 
 local plethora of labour, or to a temporary 
 lack of employment, or for the attractiveness 
 of a new field of labour. It is not, indeed, 
 true, as some modern socialists have alleged, 
 that a rapid growth of population can never 
 meet with a glutted market, or deficient sus- 
 tenance, but there are checks which the 
 theorists of the pessimist view do not enume- 
 rate, and there are risks which the optimist 
 interpreters of the situation do not recognise. 
 If Malthus and Bicardo and the elder and 
 younger Mill had been told that now (1884) 
 the three kingdoms would contain nearly 
 forty millions of people, and that food would 
 be cheaper, employment more constant, and 
 wages higher that when they sought to inter- 
 pret the facts, they would have possibly 
 retained their theories, but would have been 
 far less confident in their accuracy. 
 
 Over-population, like over-production, is 
 partial, and confined to particular employ- 
 ments or classes. When a calling is prosperous 
 or reputable it attracts persons, and those 
 who are attracted are not easily able to 
 abandon their choice. In the United States, 
 and the English colonies, where there is a 
 boundless field for certain callings, there is a 
 very restricted market for others. In these 
 countries there has long been an over-popu- 
 lation of clerks and shopmen, and such 
 persons have been warned for many years 
 past that there is no field for their service in 
 a country which has infinite opportunities, 
 for in truth there never is an over-population 
 of industrial agents, whose services are per- 
 manently and increasingly in demand, and 
 there always is an over-population of those 
 who cannot find employment for the labour 
 which they think they can give, but which 
 the market does not estimate. So, again, 
 there are employments of capitalists which 
 are over-crowded, perhaps at present more so 
 than among artisans. [For the numbers of 
 the population since 1801, see Census.] 
 
 The theory of population is discussed by many 
 writers, from Gregory King in the seventeentu 
 
Por 
 
 ( 830 ) 
 
 For 
 
 neutury down to the economista of our own 
 time. The principal work, on which the largest 
 and mostpermanent controversy has heen waged, 
 is thatofMalthus (q.v.). See Godwin, Political 
 Justice ; Doubleday, Theory of Fetation ; the 
 writings of the two Mills, father and son ; and, 
 for the ancient condition of England, Rogers, 
 AgricvXture and Prices^ and Sta: Centuries of 
 Work and Wages. [J. E. T. K] 
 
 Portland, Eichaud Weston, Eakl op 
 (*. 1577, d. 1634), became collector of the 
 customs in the port of London, and one of the 
 commissioners charged with the reform of 
 the navy (1618). He was subsequently en- 
 trusted with important negotiations in Ger- 
 many (1620), and at Brussels (1623). In 
 Sept., 1621, he was appointed Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer. In 1624 he strongly 
 opposed war with Spain, but contrived to 
 preserve Buckingham's favour, and was 
 created Baron Weston, April 13, 1628. 
 In the House of Lords he strove to amend 
 the Petition of Right by inserting a clause 
 saving the king's " sovereign right," and two 
 months later was made Lord Treasurer (July, 
 1628). After Buckingham's death he suc- 
 ceeded to his influence, and became the king's 
 chief adviser. As such he advised the dis- 
 solution of the third Parliament, and was 
 threatened with impeachment by Ehot. In 
 the administration of the Treasury he was 
 careful and economical, but succeeded in 
 securing for himself a large fortune. In 
 foreign affairs he aimed at an understanding 
 with Spain, and was partly responsible for 
 the two treaties with that power for the 
 partition of Holland (1631 — 34). He opposed 
 intervention in the German War. His in- 
 fluence in the Council was assailed by Laud, 
 by the queen, by the Earl of Holland, and 
 many others, yet he retained the king's con- 
 fidence till his death. He was created Earl of 
 Portland on Feb. 17, 1633. Clarendon terms 
 him " a man of big looks and a mean and 
 abject spirit." He declared himself a CathoHc 
 on his death-bed. 
 
 (Jardloer, Hist, of JSng.; Clarendon, Hist, of 
 the Rebellion. 
 
 Portland, William Bentinck, Eaul of, 
 afterwards Duke of {/>. 1649, d. 1709), was 
 a member of a noble Dutch family, and a 
 close friend of William III. His friend- 
 ship with WiUiam of Orange is said to have 
 originated from his nursing the prince 
 through a severe attack of small-pox. On 
 the discovery of the Rye House Plot he was 
 Bent by WiUiam of Orange to England to 
 congratulate Charles II. and the Duke of 
 York on their escape. He was sent to 
 England in 1687 in order to confer with the 
 leaders of the Opposition there. He ac- 
 companied William to England. In 1689 
 he was in favour of William's sole claim 
 to the throne, and had a violent dispute 
 with Burnet on the subject. In 1690 he was 
 sent by William to Holland in order to calm 
 Amsterdam, where the citizens refused to 
 
 allow William to nominate the magistrates. 
 He had been created Earl of Portland, and 
 Groom of the Stole. He accompanied the 
 king to Ireland, and commanded a troop of 
 Dutch horse. In Jan., 1691, he sailed with 
 William for Holland. WilHam had given 
 him large grants of land in Wales, but the 
 hostihty of the Commons compelled him to 
 revoke the grant (1695). In July, 1697, a 
 series of informal interviews took place be- 
 tween him and Marshal Bouiflers at HuU, 
 while the conference was sitting at Ryswick, 
 with a view to terms of peace. It was through 
 these interviews that the Treaty of Ryswick 
 was eventually concluded (Sept., 1697). Mean- 
 while the friendship between Portland and 
 William was growing cold, for the former 
 showed an unworthy jealousy of the king's 
 new favourite, Arnold Van Keppel. Next 
 year, therefore, the king sent him to Paris at 
 the head of a magnificent embassy. Portland 
 executed his duties with fidelity. Together 
 with Marshal Tallard, he laid down the lines 
 of the Partition Treaty. Portland returned to 
 England, and in the beginning of 1699 sur- 
 prised everyone by resigning his office as 
 Chamberlain. His jealousy of Keppel seems 
 still to have been the motive that influenced 
 him. The quarrel between Portland and 
 Albemarle grew in intensity, and at length 
 he retired altogether from court. In 1701, 
 he came forward to defend the Second Par- 
 tition Treaty. Together with Somers he was 
 impeached for his share in the matter, and the 
 Commons requested that he might be Removed 
 from the king's councils. There were ad- 
 ditional charges against him for grants and 
 dilapidations of the royal revenue. But the 
 Commons, who refused to appear at the trial 
 of Somers, allowed the impeachments to drop. 
 He was present at the deathbed of William, 
 and in his last moments the king took the 
 hand of his old friend and pressed it tenderly 
 to his heart. Portland lived in retirement 
 for the remainder of his life. "Bentinck," 
 says Macaulay, "was early pronounced by 
 Temple to be the best and truest servant that 
 ever prince had the good fortune to possess, and 
 continued through life to merit that honour- 
 able character." 
 
 Burnet, Htsi. of Tiis Own Time. ; Bnyer, An- 
 nals; Macaulay, Hist, of Bug.; Eanke, Hist, of 
 Eng. 
 
 Portugal, Relations with. The friendly 
 relations which Henry II. had established with 
 the princes of the Iberian peninsula made the 
 few dealings between the early Portuguese 
 monarchs and the English court of a generally 
 amicable nature. More intimate relations 
 began when the Black Prince became the 
 partisan of Peter the Cruel of Castile, and 
 John of Gaunt claimed his throne as his 
 daughter's husband. The reigning King of 
 Portugal, Don Ferdinand, joined the English 
 against Henry of Trastamare, who had suc- 
 ceeded in winning the throne of Peter In 
 
For 
 
 (831 ) 
 
 Por 
 
 13SI an English army, under tho Earl of 
 Cambridge, who had also married a daughter 
 of Peter's, came into Portugal; hut very- 
 little was done, the English troops behaved 
 badly, and Ferdinand concluded a truce with 
 the Castilians. The marriage of Cambridge's 
 son John to Beatrice, the king's daughter, 
 was annulled on the retirement of the English, 
 and on Ferdinand's death in 1383, Don John 
 of Avis had to flght for his throne against 
 Beatrice's husband. King John of Castile. 
 In 1386 John of Gaunt came with an 
 EngKsh army to help the new king, whom he 
 married to his daughter Philippa. But the 
 campaigns proved unfortunate, and John of 
 Gtaunt abandoned both Portugal and his hopes 
 of the Castilian crown. The career of mari- 
 time glory into which Portugal embarked in 
 the fifteenth century brought it into no 
 direct relations with England, though it pre- 
 pared the way for later English enterprise ; 
 and when the English first appeared in India 
 they were welcomed by the Grreat Mogul as 
 likely to counterbalance the Portuguese. 
 Intimate commercial relations between Eng- 
 land and Portugal also sprang up during the 
 later Middle Ages. The conquest of Portugal 
 in 1580 by Philip II. of Spain led to the 
 fitting out of the Armada in Lisbon harbour, 
 but sdso to the EngHsh afiiording a refuge to 
 Don Antonio Prior of Crato, the popular can- 
 didate for the Portuguese throne, in whose 
 behalf Drake, iu 1589, avenged the Armada 
 by an expedition to the coast of Portugal. 
 But though Antonio accompanied the fleet, it 
 did more harm to Spain than good to Por- 
 tugal, and the plundering of Portuguese 
 vessels, and the devastation of Portuguese 
 colonies by the English, involved their old 
 ally in their war against her new master. 
 In 1640 Portugal began her successful revolt 
 under John of Braganza against Spain. One 
 of the first acts of the new State was to con- 
 clude, in 1642, a commercial treaty with 
 Charles I. ; but this rather complicated its 
 relations with the government of the Common- 
 wealth. In 1650 John refused to surrender 
 the fleet of Princes Rupert and Maurice, which 
 had taken refuge in the Tagus, to Blake ; an 
 act which, despite the voluntary retirement of 
 the princes, caused some disagreemont. But 
 in 1652 the English war against the Dutch, 
 the enemies of Portugal, and CromweU'a 
 adoption of an anti-Spanish policy soon after, 
 made it an easy matter to renew in 1664 the 
 treaty of 1642. This began the political and 
 commercial dependence of Portugal on Eng- 
 land, which was continued by the marriage 
 of Catherine of Braganza to Charles II. ; a 
 measure necessitated by the abandonment of 
 the Portuguese by the French in the Treaty 
 of the Pyrenees, and justified by the security 
 it gave to Portuguese independence, both 
 against the Spaniards and Dutch. But the 
 cession of Bombay and Tangier almost 
 acknowledged the commercial supremacy of 
 
 the English. At last the designs of Louis 
 XIV. on Spain involved the Portuguese in 
 hostility to him, and Justified the conclusion 
 of the Methuen Treaty (q.v.) in 1706, which 
 completed the dependence of Portugal. 
 Through it Portuguese armies fought with 
 Stanhope and Galway against the French 
 and Spaniards during the Succession War. 
 All through the eighteenth century Portugal, 
 like HoUand, was a satelUte of England. 
 The whole trade of Portugal fell into English 
 hands. The commerce of Lisbon and Oporto 
 was entirely carried on by English factors. 
 The vineyards of the Douro, and the mines 
 of Brazil, were ultimately quite dependent 
 on English capital. The bread which the 
 Portuguese ate, and the clothes which they 
 wore, were brought from England ; and, what 
 was worse to disciples of the mercantile 
 system, the "balance of trade'' was con- 
 stantly in favour of the English. The famous 
 Marquis of Pombal, who, during the reign of 
 King Joseph (1750 — 1777) upheld almost 
 alone the power of Portugal, sought to 
 change this dependence into alliance on 
 equal terms. The Englisli factors and Jesuits 
 combined to plot his ruin ; but his triumph 
 resulted in a transient revival of Portuguese 
 trade through his commercial companies, and 
 Pitt was willing to accept the assistance of 
 the Portuguese army, which the Count von 
 der Lippe had reorganised in the war against 
 Spain at the close of the Seven Years' War. 
 The death of King Joseph, and the fall of 
 Pombal, renewed the degradation of Portugal. 
 The war against revolutionary France again 
 necessitated its dependence on England. Even 
 in 1801, when France and Spain were united 
 against it, Portugal struggled some time 
 before accepting the Treaty of Madrid, which 
 gave France equal commercial rights with 
 England. But the refusal of Portugal in 
 1807 to accept the Continental system in- 
 volved it in fresh hostilities with France. 
 English help alone forced Junot to conclude 
 the Convention of Cintra. Henceforth Por- 
 tugal was the basis of operations against the 
 French during the whole Peninsular War. 
 Government and army became alike de- 
 pendent on England, and the Portuguese 
 troops disciplined by Beresford, proved no 
 unworthy allies of the English under Welling- 
 ton. The conclusion of the war left Por- 
 tugal, where the liberal spirit was rising, in 
 the hands of the tyrannical government of a 
 king who had sought in Brazil a secure 
 refuge from the French. In 1822 a con- 
 stitution was obtained; but in 1824 an abso- 
 lutist reaction under Don Miguel took place ; 
 which was renewed in 1828. Canning exerted 
 all his energies in favour of the constitutional 
 party. But after his death the Wellington 
 ministry took a neutral attitude, which prac- 
 tically meant supportiug Don Miguel. The 
 heroic struggle of Dona Maria provoked, how- 
 fiver, much sympathy, and in 1833 an English 
 
Por 
 
 ( 832 ) 
 
 Prse 
 
 expedition under Napier powerfully assisted 
 in the tiiumpli of the constitutional party, 
 and the quadruple aUiance of England, France, 
 and Spain with Portugal guaranteed their 
 success. In 1835 the Methuen Treaty was 
 annulled. But up to the present time the 
 long commercial dependence which the treaty 
 had occasioned has not entirely ceased to show 
 its results. 
 
 Schafer, GeschicHe von Portugal ; Bouchot, 
 Histoire de Portugal et de ses Colonies; Pauli, 
 GeschicMe von England ; Schanz, JSnglischo 
 HandelsfjoUtik ; 1 he British Merchwnt ; Maliou, 
 War of the Succession in Spain ; The Rights of an 
 Englishman i/n Portugal ; Napier, P&ninsuXar 
 War ;' Camota, The Marquis of Pomia'. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 Portugal, The Joxjenet op, was the 
 name given to the expedition undertaken in 
 the year 1589 for the purpose of wresting the 
 Portuguese crown from Philip of Spain, and 
 hestowing it on Don Antonio, the pretended 
 rightful sovereign, who was an illegitimate 
 son of Henry of Portugal. The expedition, 
 which was under the command of Sir Francis 
 Drake and Sir John Korria, and consisted of 
 fifty vessels carrying 15,000 men, sailed in 
 March, 1589. Coruima was the first place 
 attacked; much damage was done to the 
 shipping, and part of the town was burnt, 
 whilst Sir John. Norris defeated a large force 
 of Spaniards, who had come to reheve the 
 city. Drake then sailed up the Tagus to 
 Liahon, whilst Sir John Norris landed at a 
 place called Peniche and marched overland to 
 join him, proclaiming Don Antonio on the 
 way. Lisbon, however, was too strong to be 
 taken, the country refused to rise for the 
 pretender, and in May the expedition returned 
 home, having failed in. its primarj- object, 
 though it had the effect of inspiriting the 
 English. 
 
 Post-lTati, Case op the. On the acces- 
 sion of James I. to the throne of England, it 
 became a question whether his Scottish sub- 
 jects, born after his accession to the English 
 throne (post-nati), were aKens in England 
 or not. The Scots contended that they were 
 not, and the same view was taken by the 
 judges in the House of Lords. In the House 
 of Commona it was contended that a statute 
 would be required to naturalise them. The 
 point was decided in the Court of Exchequer 
 Chamber, when the friends of an infant bom 
 in Scotland after 1603 sought to establish his 
 right to hold land in England. Ten of the 
 twelve judgea decided that the post-natus was 
 not an alien in England. 
 
 State TrioZs, ii. 569 ; Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 
 1803-1642. J n • 
 
 Pojrnmgs, Sik Edwakd {d. 1512), after 
 a distinguished military career was sent 
 to Ireland as Lord-Deputy by Henry VII. 
 soon after his accession. "He was very 
 successful both in subduing the partisans of 
 the house of York, and in quelling the native 
 Irish rebels in Ulster, and along the borders 
 
 of the Pale. He reduced the eastern portion 
 of the island to order. His period of govern- 
 ment is specially noted for the passing in 
 December (1549) of the famous statute known 
 as " Poynings' Act," by which it was enacted 
 that aU existing English laws should be in 
 force in Ireland, and that no Parliament 
 should be held in Ireland without the sanction 
 of the king and council, who should also be 
 able to disallow statutes passed by the Irish 
 Houses. Thus the legislative independence 
 of the English colony in Ireland was at 
 an end. " Poynings' Act " remained in force 
 for three centuries, till repealed in 1782. 
 [Ireland.] 
 
 Praecipe, The Writ op, was a per- 
 emptory command addressed to the sheriff, 
 ordering him to send a particular cause to bo 
 tried in the king's court, instead of the local 
 court. This was felt to be a great grievance, 
 and by section 34 of Magna Oharta its use 
 was limited. 
 
 Praeumnire, Statutes of. In the four- 
 teenth century there seem to have been two 
 forms of papal exaction more distasteful to 
 the English Parliament than any others: 
 the one — of no modem standing even then 
 — the right claimed, and often exercised, by 
 the Pope of giving away Church benefices 
 in England to men of his own choice, and 
 often to aliens; the other, his persistent 
 action in assuming to himself and his curia 
 the right of deciding cases of law which 
 ought properly to have been dealt with by 
 the king's courts at home. Against each of 
 these abuses the Parliaments of the middle of 
 Edward III.'s reign aimed statutes : at- 
 tempting to check the first abuse by the 
 Statute of Provisors (1350 — 51), and the 
 second by the first Statute of Prcemtrnm 
 (1353). By the latter of these two statutes 
 the king " at the grievous and clamorous 
 complaints of the great men and the commons 
 of his realm of England," enacts that all his 
 liege people of every condition who refer any 
 matter properly belonging to the king's court 
 to any jurisdiction outside the realm shall be 
 allowed two months within which to appear 
 before the king's Coimcil, his Chancery, or his 
 justices of either bench, &c., to answer for 
 their contempt of the king's rights in trans- 
 ferring their cases abroad. "If," the statute 
 continues, "they fail to put in an appearance 
 at the due time, their lands and chattels are 
 all forfeited to the king ; thoir persons are 
 liable to be seized, and if not found, the 
 offenders are to be outlawed." Two things 
 are worth noticing with reference to the 
 statute; first, that the clergy are not men- 
 tioned aa petitioning for its enactment or 
 assenting to it; and, second, that although 
 the measure is plainly levelled against the 
 pretensions of the Eoman Curia, yet its aim 
 IS nowhere stated in the body of the Act. 
 There were several subsequent Statutes of 
 
Fra 
 
 ( 833 ) 
 
 Fra 
 
 Praemunire. The later and fuller are naturally 
 more often called the statute, as in a way 
 they superseded the earlier. The name is 
 more especially reserved to an Act passed in 
 the sixteenth year of Kiohard II. (1393). In 
 this statute it is plainly stated that the right 
 of recovering the presentation to a church 
 benefice " belongeth only to the king's court 
 hy the old right of his crown as used and ap- 
 proved in the time of all his progenitors, kings 
 of England." The statute then proceeds 
 to condemn the practice of papal translation, 
 and after rehearsing the promise of the three 
 estates of the realm to support the king in 
 his rights, enacts without any circumlocution, 
 " that if any purchase, or pursue, in the 
 Court of Rome, or elsewhere, such trans- 
 lations, processes, excommunications, bulls, 
 &c." he and his notaries, counsellors, and 
 abettors shall forfeit all their lands and tene- 
 ments, goods, and chattels to the king, while 
 the offenders themselves are to he attached and 
 brought before the king and his council, or be 
 proceeded against by writ of Priemtmire facias, 
 as is ordained in other Statutes of Provisors. 
 It is from the phrase Frtemunire facias that 
 the whole enactment has derived its name. 
 These are the opening words of the writ 
 directed to the officer, bidding him forewarn 
 the offender when and where he is to appear 
 to answer to the charges brought against him. 
 The word Pramunire is said to be a corrup- 
 tion of Prcemonere, to forewarn. The scope 
 of these Praemunire Acts was still further 
 enlarged under 2 Henry IV., 3 Henry V., &c. 
 The Statutes of Praemunire were, however, 
 constantly disregarded. Papal provision be- 
 came in the 15th century the most usual way of 
 appointing to bishoprics. The custom of grant- 
 ing dispensations from the statute had much 
 influence on the growth of the King's dispensr 
 ing power. It was by a dexterous manipulation 
 of tiie clause, which included the abettors of 
 a breach of the Statute of Praemunire in the 
 penalty due to the prime offender, that, 
 Henry "VIII. laid the whole body of the 
 clergy at his mercy in 1531 for having 
 acknowledged the legatine authority of 
 Wolsey; and the king's pardon was only 
 bought by a large sum of money, and their 
 ' acknowledgment of him as supreme head of 
 the church. Under Elizabeth, to refuse the 
 oath of supremacy was made a breach of the 
 Statute of Praemunire ; and also to defend 
 the pope's Jurisdiction in England, or to 
 support a Jesuit college, or any popish 
 seminary beyond the sea. By later enact- 
 ments the penalties following a breach of this 
 statute have been extended to offences very 
 different from those which were commonly 
 connected with the word Praemunire. 
 
 Statutex of the Bedim ; Stubls, Const. Hist. ; 
 i Beeves, Hisl:orif of , English Law i Sir T. E. 
 Tomlisa, Law IKctiouary, 
 
 Prayer Boo!k, or, properly, the Book 
 of Common Prayer, is, the Liturgy 
 ■ HIST.-27 
 
 of the Church of England, ordained by 
 law for national use. Before the Reforma- 
 tion, Latin service-books were in use 
 throughout Christendom, founded upon a com- 
 mon model, but containing considerable varia- 
 tions. The prayers for various hours of the 
 day were contained in the Breviary ; the 
 order for celebrating the Holy Communion in 
 the Missal. There was also a manu£(l of de- 
 votions in English called the Pryraer, current 
 in the fifteenth century. The desire of the 
 reforming party, headed by Cranmer, was 
 for greater simplicity and intelligibility in 
 the service-books, and Cranmer steadily 
 moved in that direction. In 1641 a new 
 edition of part of the Sarum Breviary was 
 issued ; and in 1542 Cranmer notified to 
 Convocation the King's pleasure that thp 
 service-books should be examined, corrected, 
 and reformed of aJl superstitious prayers. 
 A committee of bishops and divines sat for that 
 purpose and prepared materials for the future. 
 Portions of the Scriptures were ordered to 
 be read in English in churches; and in 1544 
 the Litany, which was already in English for 
 use in processions, was revised bj' Cranmer. 
 In '1545 was issued the "King's Prymer," 
 which contained the Creed, the Lord's 
 Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and several 
 canticles and collects, as well as the Litany 
 in English. 
 
 In the reign of Edward VI. the work of 
 liturgical revision first bore definite fruit. In 
 the first year of the reign. Convocation and 
 Parliament ordered the Communion to be 
 administered under both kinds; and a com- 
 mittee of divines was appointed to draw up 
 " The Order of Communion," which was 
 published in 1548. This, however, was only 
 a temporary measure for immediate use. The 
 commissioners applied themselves, under 
 Cranraer's presidency, to the task of framing 
 a complete Book of Prayer. Thej' completed 
 their labours within the year, and submitted 
 the Book to Parliament, by which it was 
 accepted. The Act of Uniformity, passed in 
 Jan., 1549, ordered the Book to come into 
 general use on the evening of Whit Sunday. 
 The objects of the compilers of this Book are 
 stated in their preface to be (1) the formation 
 of a uniform use for the whole realm, (2) the 
 simplification of rubrics, (3) the reading of 
 the whole Psalter in order, (i) the continuous 
 reading of the Bible, (5) the omission of 
 needless interruptions, (6) conformity to the 
 pure Word of the Scripture, (7) the formation 
 of a Prayer-book in the vulgar tongue. The 
 first Prayer-book of Edward VI. followed 
 closely on the Prymer for morning and even- 
 ing prayer, .so as to make as little change as 
 possible. Its chief diffeiences fmrn the 
 Prayer-book now in use are — (1) Matins and 
 Evensong began with the Lord's Praver and 
 ended with the Third Collect. (2) The Litany 
 followed the Communion o85c' , nnd there 
 were no instructions for its use. (3) In the 
 
Fra 
 
 (834) 
 
 Pre 
 
 Communion office the Commandments were 
 not read ; the prayers were differently 
 arranged, and included a mention of -the 
 Virgin and prayers for the dead ; there was 
 an invocation of the Holy Ghost hefore con- 
 secration ; the words used in giving the 
 elements were only the first clause of the two 
 now in use ; the priest was ordered to stand 
 " afore the midst of the altar"; the old vest- 
 ments, albs and copes, were prescribed for the 
 celebrant; water was mixed with the wine. 
 (4) In the Baptismal Service a form of exor- 
 cism was used ; trine immersion was directed ; 
 the child was arrayed after baptism in a 
 white garment, called a ehrisom, and was 
 anointed with oil on the head. (5) The 
 Burial Service contained prayers for the 
 dead, and provision was made for a Com- 
 munion at a burial. 
 
 This Prayer-book was well received by the 
 people generally ; but an influx of foreigners 
 brought to England opinions more decidedly 
 Calvinistic. The Prayer-book was no sooner 
 in use than a small party called for its re- 
 vision. They prevailed with the King, who 
 again appointed a committee, with Cranmer 
 at its head. In their work the committee 
 askeid the opinions of the learned foreigners, 
 Peter Martyr and "Bucer. The results of 
 this revision was the Second Prayer-book of 
 Edward VI., which was published in 1552. 
 It added the introductory portion of Morning 
 and Evening Prayer, appointed the Litany 
 to be used as at present, added the Decalogue 
 to the Communion office, reduced its prayers 
 to the order in which they ' now occur, 
 omitting the points noticed above; directed 
 the priest to stand "at the north side of the 
 table," and to wear no vestment save the 
 surplice. The tendency of the alterations 
 made are most clearly seen in the substitution 
 of the second clause now used at the adminis- 
 tration of the elements for the first clause, 
 which was omitted. The Second Prayer-book 
 showed no desire to retain old uses because 
 they were old, but was a movement towards 
 the doctrines of the Continental reformers. 
 
 The Second Prayer-book of Edward VI. 
 had scarcely time to come into use before it 
 was swept away by the Marian reaction. 
 When Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558, 
 she behaved with great caution, and was 
 crowned according to the rites of the Roman 
 Pontifical. A comrtiittee was, however, ap- 
 pointed early in 1559 to compare the two 
 Books of Edward VI. and correct them. 
 The commission, of which the chief mover 
 was Edward Guest, after Bishop of Roches- 
 ter, decided in favour of Edward VI. 's Second 
 Prayer-book, with a few alterations. These 
 were adopted by Parliament, and the revised 
 Prayer-book came into use on June ^l, 1659. 
 The alterations were not important, but were 
 significant of Elizabeth's desire for compre- 
 hension. The ornaments in use in the second 
 year of Edward VI. were recognised; the 
 
 two olaiases in the administration of the 
 elements at the Communion were put together 
 as they are now ; a petition was omitted from 
 the Litany — " From the Bishop of Rome and 
 all his detestable enormities, Good Lord 
 deliver us." 
 
 Again the return of exiles from the Con- 
 tinent brought discord, and the Puritan 
 party desired another revision. At the acces- 
 sion of James I. the King agreed to hear the 
 Puritan demands at a conference at Hampton 
 Court in 1603. The Puritans met with little 
 attention, and the changes made in the 
 Prayer-book were slight ; chief of them was 
 the addition of the Thanksgiving Prayers, 
 and of the latter half of the Catechism. 
 Charles I. attempted to force on Scotland the 
 use'of the English Liturgy, and his attempt 
 led to a revolution. Under the Commonwealth 
 the Prayer-book was swept away. After the 
 Restoration, a conference was held at the 
 Savoy, in 1661, between twelve bishops and 
 twelve Presbyterians, to discuss the wishes of 
 the Presbyterians for a revision of the 
 Prayer-book. This Coiiference did not show 
 much attentpt at conciliation on either side. 
 A committee of bishops was again appointed 
 to revise the Prayer-book, and no steps 
 were talken to meet the wishes of the Presby- 
 terians. What alterations were made rather 
 increased than diminished the scruples of the 
 Puritans against receiving the work. The 
 revised Prayer - book, finally reduced to 
 the 'Shape in which we now have it, was 
 approved 'by Parliament, and its use was 
 enforced by the Act of Uniformity of 1662. 
 Some printed copies were carefully compared 
 with the original, were 'then sealed with the 
 Great Seal, and were sent to all cathedraiB, 
 to 'the 'Courts -at Westminster, and to the 
 Tower, to \>B preserved for ever. Since then 
 the Sealed Books have remained the standard 
 for preserving the Prayer-book in its original 
 form. It is true that in 1689 a committee 
 was appointed to 'prepare such alterations "as 
 might reconcile, as much as possible, all 
 differences." But Convocation was opposed 
 to all change, and the proposals were never 
 considered. 
 
 Paltner, Origmes Liturgies ; "Wheatley, On tie 
 Book of Common Prayer; Procter, History b/ 
 the Book -.of Common Prayer : ■Litm-gies of Xl'ttg 
 Edvmrd ri. and, of Queen .Blizabcth ipublishsd 
 by the Parker Society). rjj, Q T 
 
 Prerogative, The Royal. Prerogative 
 has been defined as an exclusive privilege. 
 Historically considered, it is not much moie 
 than the legal exercise of the rOyal ailtho- 
 rit}'. An old judge expounded it as "that 
 law m case of the king which is law in 
 no case Of the subject." "It is of blood;" 
 ■Bacon said, "to the Common Law; it 
 
 ^P,!?^^.^""?} ^°"'''^®^ *™ to those from 
 which the Common Law has sprung ; it did 
 for the 'king and still does for the crown 
 what the Common Law did for the subject" 
 
Vrb 
 
 835') 
 
 Pre 
 
 "It grew,'' says iJidhop Stubbs, " out of cer- 
 tain conditions of the national life, some of 
 which, existed before the Norman Conquest, 
 others were the products of that great change, 
 and others resulted from the pecuUar course 
 of Henry II. and his descendants." Before 
 1377 it had actually or virtually parted with 
 most of its legislative and taxing powers. 
 Chief among its admitted and exclusive 
 powers at this time were those of calling, 
 interrupting, and dismissing Parliaments, 
 of ratifying legislation, of creating peers, 
 and conferring every form of honour, of 
 making cities and boroughs, of pardoning 
 criminals, of negotiating with foreign powers, 
 of declaring and conducting war, of nominat- 
 ing to Church dignities and presenting to an im- 
 mense number of benefices, 'of appointing all 
 public officials, of coining money, regulating 
 trade, fixing weights and measures, and es- 
 tablishing markets and havens. And a law 
 of uncertain date, but given as 17 Edw. II., 
 palled Prerogativa Regis, adds to these the cus- 
 tody of idiots and lunatics, wreck of the sea, 
 whales amd sturgeons, and the right to the 
 lands and goods of attainted felojis. And, 
 with few exceptions, these advantages are 
 still conceded to Prerogative. But besides 
 these it then claimed, and despite a long and 
 stubborn opposition continued to exercise, the 
 rights of purveyance, and of issuing commis- 
 sions oi array with all the manifold accom- 
 paniments and consequences of both. A 
 power to dispense with and even suspend the 
 operation of a statute was also among its de- 
 mands. Such was the mediaeval meas<ire of 
 Prerogative a.t its widest possible legal stretch, 
 though even to this a king like Eichard II., 
 in his days of absolutism, would seek to give 
 an unquestionably illegal extension. During 
 the constitutional rule of the Lancastrian 
 dynasty the tendency opposite to Kichard's set 
 iu,tth£»tof not.only dislodging Prerogative from 
 its disputed position, but also of placing its le- 
 gitimate exercise under Parliamentary control. 
 The Tudor despotism, however, forced this to 
 yield in its turn ; and for a time it became 
 the fashion to strain the principle to the ut- 
 jmost, and give it a practically unbounded 
 sphere of action. The high prerogative doc- 
 trine then came into voj^ue, which vested in 
 the king, besides his ordinary power limited 
 by law, an extraordinary power as extensive 
 as the whole province of government, to he 
 resorted to, if the safety of the Commonweal 
 were judged by the king to require its appli- 
 cation, when the constitutional resources of 
 authority were deemed inadequate. This -was 
 perhaps what Bacon meant when he described 
 'Prerogative as " the accomplishment and per- 
 fection of the Common Law," stepping in to 
 the rescue of the State when the Common 
 Law was found wanting. At the same time 
 the erection of exceptional jurisdiction, and 
 the granting of monopolies were regarded as 
 ^covered by "the regular prerogative. The 
 
 dangerous doctrine and the questionable prac- 
 tices were effaced for ever by the action of 
 the Long Parliament. But the dispensing 
 and suspending powers still lingered ; Charles 
 II. and James II. employed them without 
 scruple. These, however, were finE^lly extin- 
 guished by the Bill of Rights. The Eevolur 
 tion started a new method of dealing with 
 Prerogative ; it was left with most of its 
 powers unimpaired, and some of them even 
 strengthened, but their exercise was gradually 
 drawn under the eflicient control of Parlia- 
 ment. This now belongs to a body of min- 
 isters who are responsible for it to the Com- 
 mons and the country, and are virtually 
 chosen and dismissed by both. 
 
 Allen, 'Rise (mi Growth of the Royal Prerogative 
 Ml England ; the Conetitutional Histories of 
 JSaUgm, May, and Stubbs. [J. R.] 
 
 FeSSS, The Libekty op the, was only 
 secured after long and arduous struggles. 
 Soon after (she inventio^i of printing the press 
 throughout Europe was placed imder the 
 severe censorship of the Church, and after 
 the Eeforuaation this censorship bectamje 
 in England part of . the royal prerogative. 
 Printing was granted as a monopoly, confined 
 by regulations issued by the Star Chamber 
 under Mary to the Stationers' Company ; and 
 ■under Elizabeth it was interdicted, except in 
 London, Oxford, and Cambridge, the licensing 
 heing placed in the hands of the Archbishop 
 oi Canterbury or the Bishop of London, on 
 special occasions in those of the qvieen's 
 printer, and in the case of the law-books with 
 one of the chief justices. Mutilation w^s 
 inflicted on transgressors of the law ; for 
 instance, in the case of Stubbes. Further 
 restrictions were imposed by the Star Chamber 
 under James I. and Charles I. In 1637 the 
 number of master-printers was limited to 
 twenty, and of letter-founders to four. Th|e 
 penalty for printing, bookbinding, or letter- 
 founding without a licence was whipping, 
 the pillcry, and imprisonment ; and even new 
 editions of authorised books had to be sub- 
 mitted to the licensers. It was in the midst 
 of these peuseoutions that the first newspaper, 
 The Weekly Newes, appeared (1641), and it 
 was followed after the fall of the Star 
 Chamber by large quantities of tracts, and 
 newspapers. The .censorship was, however, 
 continued under the Commonwealth, and 
 the Independent writers were •suppressed 
 with such severity as to call forth from 
 Milton a noble vindication of freedom of 
 opinion in the Aneopagitica. After the Ees- 
 toration came the Licensing Act of 1662, by 
 which printing was confined to London, York, 
 and the two universities, and the number of 
 master-printers was limited to twenty as 
 before, and all new works subjected to, exa- 
 mination by an officer called the licenser. 
 Its cruel provisions were used with terrible 
 jiarshness by the .licenser Eoger L'E^trangSi 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 836 ) 
 
 Pri 
 
 and all newspapers stopped except the Official 
 london Gazette and the Obsei-vator. The Act 
 expired in 1679, hut was revived at the 
 accession of James II., and continued until 
 1695, when the renewal of the censorship of 
 the press was negatived by the House of 
 Commons. 
 
 The press was now free in theory ; hut still 
 suffered considerable restrictions in practice 
 from the stamp duty, and the law of lihel. The 
 first Stamp Act (q.v.) was imposed in 1712, 
 partly as a means of raising revenue, partly 
 as a check upon the scurrility of the cheaper 
 papers. It was gradually raised to fourpence, 
 and in 1820 it was imposed hy one of the 
 Six Acts upon tracts and kindred publications. 
 Evasions of the Stamp Act were frequent, 
 and were severely punished hy the State. 
 In 1836, however, the stamp duties on news- 
 papers were reduced to one penny, and in 
 1855 they were altogether abandoned. Another 
 tax on knowledge, the paper duty, was 
 abolished in 1861. The law of libel was ex- 
 ceedingly ill-defined, and was frequently used 
 as an instrument of government oppression 
 under William III. and Anne, among its 
 victims being Defoe and Steele. Sir Robert 
 Walpole, however, who was comparatively 
 indifferent to attack, allowed it to slumber 
 during his long administration, and it was 
 not until the accession of George III., when 
 public opinion had become keenly alive to the 
 corruption of Parliament, that the govern- 
 ment and the press came into collision again. 
 Wilkes, by the famous " No. 45 " of the 
 North Briton, raised the question of the right 
 to arrest authors and printers of an obnoxious 
 publication on a general warrant, and gained 
 a complete victory. Then came Junius's 
 " Letter to the King," the trial for the republi- 
 cation of which hy the bookseller Almon 
 established the important doctrines that a 
 publisher was criminally liable for the acts 
 of his servants, and that a jury had no right 
 to determine the criminality of a libel. The 
 latter theory was, however, evaded at the 
 trial of Woodfall, the original publisher, who 
 was found guilty by the jury of " printing 
 and publishing only ; " it was the subject of 
 frequent comments of a hostile nature in both 
 houses of Parliament, and was vigorously com- 
 batted by Erskine in the oases of the Dean of 
 St. Asaph in 1779, and of Stockdale in 1789, 
 Knally, in 1792, Fox's Libel Act established 
 the important principle of the right of juries 
 to find a general verdict of guilty or not 
 guilty on the whole matter. 
 
 The outbreak of the French Revolution 
 unfortunately produced a strong reaction 
 against the freedom of the press. Between 
 1792 and 1820 the Libel Acts were frequently 
 invoked. The ill-advised prosecutions of the 
 Duke of Wellington's administration in 1830 
 and 1831 were the last important attempts to 
 suppress the free written expression of opinion. 
 Since that time the press has been completely 
 
 free to discuss public men and measures. 
 Moreover its position has been established on 
 a firmer basis by Lord Campbell's Libel Act 
 (1843), by which a defendant in a ease of 
 defamatory libel is allowed to plead that it is, 
 true, and that its publication is for the public 
 benefit, and by which publishers are no 
 longer held liable for the unauthorised acts of 
 their servants. Measures for the suppression 
 of newspapers have frequently formed part of 
 the Irish coercion Acts. 
 
 Hal' am, Cnnst. Hist. chs. ziii. xv. ; May, Const, 
 Hist., 11., chs. ix. and x. ; Macaulay, Hist, of 
 Bng. i Grant, TTie Newnpaper Press. See also 
 23 Eliz,, c. 2; 13 and 14 Charles II., c. 33; 10 
 Anne, c. 19 ; 32 George III., c. 60 ; 6 and 7 Vict., 
 0.96. 
 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 Pretender, The Old. [Stuart, James 
 Edwakd.] 
 
 Pretender, The Youno. [Stuart, 
 Ohakles Edwakd.] 
 
 Pride's Purge is the name given to 
 the violent measure by which (Dec. 6, 1648) 
 the army excluded a lai ge number of the Pres- 
 byterians from the Parliament. At the close of 
 1648 the army resolved to bring the king to a 
 trial, and to put a stop to the treaty pro- 
 ceeding between him and the Parliament. 
 Parliament on Dec. 5 decided that the king's 
 answers to their proposals offered foundations 
 for a peace. The army, which had occupied 
 London on Dec. 2, surrounded the House of 
 Commons on the morning of the 6th with 
 the regiments of Colonels Pride, Hewson, 
 and Hardress Waller. Pride, with a list of 
 names in his hand, prevented those members 
 from passing whom he judged fit, and looked 
 up those who resisted. The number of those 
 arrested amounted in the, course of the next 
 day to 47, and 96 were excluded. On the 
 same day a paper, called the "Humble Pro^ 
 posals and Desires," was presented to the 
 members still sitting on behalf of the council 
 of officers, setting forth the demands of the 
 army. The House, reduced to' less than 
 80 members, decided by 50 to 28 to proceed 
 with the consideration of these proposals 
 (Deo. 7), and in the next three weeks rescinded 
 its late votes, and determined to try the king'. 
 
 Prior, Matthew (i. 1664, d. 1721), was 
 one of the most distinguished of the literary 
 diplomatists and politicians of William III.'s 
 and Anne's reigns. He was educated at West- 
 minster and St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 of which he became a Fellow. He was a 
 friend of Charles Montague, afterwards chief 
 of the Whig party, and wrote with him The 
 City Mouse and the Country Mouse, a satire on 
 Dryden's Fable of the Hind and the Panther. 
 Prior was sent as secretary to the congress at 
 the Hague, and became one of William's 
 gentlemen of the bedchamber. He was ap- 
 pointed secretary to the English legation at 
 Eyswick (1697), and was entrusted with thp 
 
Pri 
 
 ( 837 ) 
 
 Pro 
 
 duty of ■bringing the treaty to England. Next 
 year he was sent in the same capacity to France 
 under the Duke of Portland. When factions 
 hroke out in the court, Prior deserted Portland 
 and attached himself to Albemarle. He was 
 appointed Under Secretary of State to the 
 Earl of Jersey, but was removed from office 
 on the retirement of that nobleman. In 
 1701 he was elected for East Grinstead and 
 appointed Commissioner of the Board of 
 "Trade. Under Anne he remained out of 
 favour while the Whigs were in power ; but 
 in July, 1711 he was sent with the Abbe 
 Gualtier to Paris with propositions for peace. 
 In August, 1712, the ministry, weary of 
 the length of the negotiations, sent Boling- 
 broke to Paris to shorten the work by personal 
 conversation with Torcy. Prior accompanied 
 him, and on BoHngbroke's return he was left 
 as charge d'affaires, without regular au- 
 thority, and with scanty remittances. Dis- 
 grace rapidly overtook him on the death of 
 Anne. As soon as he returned to England 
 he was examined before the Committee of 
 Safety, of which Walpole was chairman, 
 for Ms share in the negotiations for peace. 
 He was imprisoned, and on June 10 Walpole 
 moved an impeachment agaiiost him, but 
 eventually he was released without trial. The 
 rest of his life was spent in retirement. 
 
 Johnson, Lives of the Poets; Macaulay, Hwt. 
 of Eng. ; Stanhope, Reign of Queen Anne ; Prior's 
 collected works, including his incomplete 
 Memoir qf ifta Oujn Time, were puhlished in 1733. 
 
 Prisons, Legislation on. As early as 
 1166 it was enacted (by the Assize of Claren- 
 don, c. 7) that in each county the sheriff 
 should provide a gaol at the king's cost if one 
 did not already exist. In addition to these 
 " common gaols," some of the law courts had 
 special prisons connected with them, such as 
 the Marshalsea, attached to the King's Bench, 
 and the Fleet to the Star Chamber and Chan- 
 cery. Little attention was paid to the con- 
 dition of these prisons until the eighteenth 
 century. The gaolers were paid, not by sala- 
 ries, but by the fees which they could exact 
 from the prisoners, and men were often re- 
 tained long after their innocence had been 
 pronounced because they could not pay the 
 sums demanded. In 1728 the discovery of 
 certain cruelties perpetrated in the Fleet led 
 to the appointment of a Parliamentary com- 
 mission. The warden and his agents were 
 put upon their trial for murder, but were 
 acquitted; and the Act passed in 1729 to 
 remedy the worst evils was almost useless. 
 The question was apparently forgotten until 
 Howard began to prosecute his inquiries. In 
 1774 two acts were passed, one providing that 
 every prisoner against whom the Grand Jury 
 failed to find a true bill should be immediately 
 and without fee released, and that the gaoler 
 should be paid from the county rate ; and the 
 other to secure the due cleansing, etc., of 
 prisons. After this time numerous statutes 
 
 were passed. Of these the most important 
 were those of 1823, 1865, and 1877. The 
 Act of 1823 was largely the result of Mrs. 
 Fry's efforts, and introduced a classification 
 of prisoners. In 1865 the distinction, which 
 had never been carefully maintained, between 
 common gaols and houses of correction — the 
 latter intended only for convicted criminals, 
 was finally aboHshed ; and what was far 
 more important, it was enacted that in all 
 cases imprisonment should be " separate," 
 i.e., solitary. Finally, the Prison Act of 
 1877, which is now the principal statute on 
 the subject, gave an increased power of con- 
 trol to the Home Secretary and to the Prison 
 Cormnissioners appointed on his recommen- 
 dation. It is to be added that between the years 
 1853 and 1864 transportation was abolished, 
 and penal servitude, i.e., imprisonment with 
 hard labour on public works, substituted. 
 
 Stephen, Hist. CHm. Law, I., eh. xiii. ; State 
 Trials, vol. xvii. (1813), p. 297; Memaira of 
 Howard and Mrs. Fry. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Probate and Divorce, The Court 
 OF, was created in 1857, and received the 
 testamentary and matrimonial jurisdiction, 
 which had previously been vested in the 
 Ecclesiastical Courts. By the Judicature 
 Acts of 1873 this court, together with the 
 Admiralty Court, forms one of the divisions 
 of the High Court of Justice. 
 
 Proclamatious. In mediaeval and 
 later times, when the range of customary and 
 statute law was still comparatively limited, 
 and many practices that gave concern to 
 kings and ministers were left uncorrected 
 therebj', the king took upon himself at times 
 to supply the defect by issuing proclamations, 
 which either expanded and applied the provi- 
 sions of already existing laws — in any case 
 were presumed to be fair deductions from 
 such laws — or were independent acts of pre- 
 rogative. They were under the Plantagenet 
 and Lancastrian kings avowedly temporary. 
 Under the Tudors proclamations took a bolder 
 tone, and began to encroach on the domain of 
 legislation, indeed in 1539 they seem to have 
 actually entered it. In that year was passed 
 theastounding Statuteof Proclamations, which 
 enacted that the king, with the advice of his 
 council, might set forth proclamations, with 
 penalties in them, as obligatory on the subject 
 as an Act of Parliament, provided they did 
 no damage to the estates, Hberties, or persons 
 of the king's subjects, and infringed no 
 law. But the first law of Edward VI. 
 repealed this measure. In Elizabeth's reign 
 they were not seldom used to supplement 
 legislation, assist in the promotion of a 
 policy, or regulate the conduct of the people. 
 The banishment of Anabaptists, fasting in 
 Lent, building houses round London, carrying 
 daggers, or wearing long rapiers, trading with 
 the' French king's rebels, are a few of the 
 things that were commanded or forbidden in 
 themunderpenalties,and it isnot clear thatvery 
 
Pro 
 
 ( 838 ) 
 
 Pro 
 
 many of them were distinctly illegal ; statute 
 law certainly warranted some, the unstrained 
 prerogative others. James I. resorted to the 
 practice so often, and pushed it so decidedly 
 across the houndaries of legality, that in 1610 
 the alarmed Commons made it a subject of 
 formal complaint, alleging that the king's 
 proclamations touched the liberty, goods, in- 
 heritance, and livelihood of men, and that 
 there was a general fear they would grow to 
 the strength of laws. The gravest examples 
 were that which in 1604 dictated rules to the 
 constituencies in choosing members of Parlia- 
 ment, and those which forbade new buildings 
 about London, and the making. of starch out of 
 wheat, and in most cases disobedience was 
 made punishable in the Star Chamber. James 
 gave a reassuring reply, and consulted his 
 chief judges. An important consequence 
 followed. The consulted judges, led by Coke, 
 were unanimously of opinion that by his pro- 
 clamation the king could not create an offence. 
 He could only admonish his subjects to keep 
 the law, and could not make an offence 
 punishable in the Star Chamber if it were not 
 so already. James frankly accepted this 
 statement of the law, and desisted from issu- 
 ing proclamations imposing fine and imprison- 
 ment. But in Charles I.'s reign proclamations 
 were greatly multiplied, especially during the 
 long cessation of Parliament. For staying in 
 London despite a proclamation ordering 
 country gentlemen with their families back 
 to their homes, one Mr. Palmer was, in 
 1632, fined f 1,000 by the Star Chamber. 
 " The illegality of these proclamations," 
 says Hallam, " is most unquestionable." 
 It is curious, however, that they after- 
 wards found no place in the Grand Remon- 
 strance. In the ecclesiastical province the 
 sovereign's action in this respect is less 
 disputable. Proclamations for and against 
 certain religious tenets, practices, and ritual 
 were frequent between 1529 and 1640. That 
 of Charles I., in 1626, "for the establishing 
 of the peace of the Church," is one of the 
 latest examples. The practice survived, but 
 just survived, the great convulsion of 1640-60. 
 To only one or two of Charles ll.'s reign has 
 exception been taken. It is significant that 
 no mention is made of them in the Declara- 
 tion of Eights. Those that are still issued by 
 the Privy Council are invariably warranted, 
 sometimes commanded, by the statute law. 
 
 Brodie, Const. Hist.; Hallam, Const. IJisi. 
 
 [J. E.] 
 
 Frophes3rillgrs was the name given in 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth to meetings of 
 the clergy, under the superintendence of the 
 bishops, for the discussion and explanation of 
 passages of Scripture. The meetings, which 
 were held in public for the edification of the 
 people, were presided over by a moderator. 
 The system began during the primacy of 
 Archbishop Parker, and were very obnoxious 
 
 to Elizabeth, as savouring of Puritanism. 
 Most of the bishops were in favour of them, 
 as were many of the Privy Council, and 
 Archbishop Grindal was sequestered for five 
 years from the exercise of his jurisdiction for 
 refusing to put down the " prophesyings " at 
 the queen's command. They were finally 
 suppressed by a special command of Elizabeth, 
 about 1577, and never subsequently revived. 
 Mosheim, Eccles. Hist. ; Hallam, Const, Hist. ; 
 Proude, Hist, of Eng. ; Book, Lives of the Arch- 
 bishops. 
 
 Protector, The Title of, was first 
 given to the governors appointed during 
 the minority or incapacity of the king. It 
 was borne by the Duke of Bedford during 
 the minority of Henry VI. (or in his absence 
 by the Duke of Oloucester), and by the Duke 
 of York in 1454, and again in 1455 during 
 Henry's illness; the Duke of Gloucester in 
 1483, and the Duke of Somerset from 1547 
 (Jan.) to 1548 (Oct.). The House of Lords, 
 in answer to Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, 
 thus defined the meaning of the word. " It 
 was advised and appointed by authority of 
 the king assenting the three estates of this land, 
 that ye, in absence of my lord your brother 
 of Bedford, should be chief of the king's 
 council, and devised unto you a name different 
 from other counsellors, not the name of tutor, 
 lieutenant, governor, nor of regent, nor no 
 name that should import authority of gover- 
 nance of the land, but the name of protector 
 and defender, which importeth ' a personal 
 duty of attendance to the actual defence of 
 theland, as well against enemiesoutward if case 
 required, as against rebels inward, if any 
 were, granting you therewith certain power, 
 the which is specified and contained in an 
 Act of the said Parliament, to endure as long 
 as it liked the king.' " In the case of the 
 Duke of Somerset he was in the instrument 
 signed by the Privy Council on Jan. 31, 1547, 
 said to be appointed because the good govern- 
 ment of the realm, the safety of the king, and 
 "the more certain and assured direction of 
 his affairs " required " that some special man 
 of the number aforesaid (the executors) should 
 be preferred in name and place before the 
 other, to whom, as to the head of the rest, all 
 strangers and others might have access, and 
 ■who for his virtue, wisdom, and experience in 
 things, were meet and able to be a special 
 remembrancer, and to keep a most certain 
 account of all our proceedings." The title of 
 Protector given to- Cromwell (which may be 
 compared with that of " custodes libertatis 
 Anglits," assumed by the Long Parliament) 
 was chosen becauseitwasnot altogether strange 
 to English ears, and, perhaps, also because 
 it left the definite form of government, 
 whether monarchical or republican, an open 
 question. Cromwell's title was "Lord Pro- 
 tector of the Commonwealth of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland." It was given to him, 
 first in the Instrument of Government, and 
 
Pro 
 
 ( 
 
 )■ 
 
 Prn 
 
 after his.refueal to accept the crown, confirmed 
 by the Petition and Advice. 
 
 HilUm, Middle Ages; Stubbs, Const. Hist.; 
 Froude, Hist, of Eng. The discussions on the 
 question of the titles of king and Protector are 
 tobefoandin Burbou, Parliamentary Diary. See 
 also Cromwell's own speeches in Cailyle's 
 CromweU, and Whitelocke's Memorials. 
 
 [C. H. F.] 
 Protestant Rsfagees in England. 
 
 — Aa soon as the Reformation was established 
 in England, this country became the prin- 
 cipal resort for the oppressed Calvinists of the 
 Low Countries and of western and northern 
 France, just as Switzerland was for the cen- 
 tral and southern provinces of the latter. 
 The immigration began before the end of King 
 Henry VIII.'s reig-u ; it received a powerful 
 impulse through the policy which guided the 
 ministers of King Edward VI ; and in 1550 
 a charter was granted to the Protestants 
 settled in London, allowing them free exer- 
 cise of their religion, and appointing the 
 church of Austinfriars for the joint worship 
 of Dutch, Walloons, and Huguenots. The 
 whole community was placed under the 
 superintendence of John A Lasco, a devoted 
 minister who had abandoned high preferment 
 as a Catholic priest in Hungary, in order to 
 found a Protestant church at Emdea, in East 
 Friesland. Driven from his charge there, 
 A Lasco had sought refuge in England in 
 1548, and took an active part in securing 
 public support for his fellow exiles. A few 
 months after the establishment of the con- 
 gregation of Austinfriars, the French-speak- 
 iug portion of it — -Huguenots and "Walloons — 
 separated to found a distinct church in 
 Threadneedle Street, known as " The London 
 Walloon Church;" in 1840 they removed to 
 St. Martin's-le-(irand. Meanwhile colonies 
 were being formed in other parts of England. 
 The silk- weavers of Canterbury settled there 
 as early as 1547, and from 1561 until 
 the present day, although now their in- 
 dustry can hardly be said to exist, they 
 have worshipped in the crypt of the cathe- 
 dral. By 1575 colonies were in exist- 
 ence at the seaports of Southampton, 
 Winohelsea, Rye, Dover, Sandwich, and Yar- 
 mouth ; and inland at Glastonbury, Wands- 
 worth, Maidstone, Colchester, Norwich, Thet- 
 ford, and Stamford. All, or nearly all, of 
 these had their own religious services. Other 
 sporadic Walloon settlements appear to have 
 existed at Buckingham, Stony-Stratford, 
 Newport-Pagnell, and other places in the 
 southern Midlands. In the first years of this 
 immigration the Dutch and Walloon element 
 seems to have greatly outnumbered the 
 Huguenots. An account of the year 1567 
 reckons 2.993 Dutch to only 512 French 
 within the City of London proper ; but on the 
 south coast the French appear to have almost 
 exclusively prevailed. The success, however, 
 of the Dutch in the resistance to Spanish rule 
 soon put an end to the emigration from that 
 
 quarter ; and the issue also of the Edict of 
 Nantes (16'98), which gave a legal status to 
 the Calvinistic conmmnity in France, had the 
 natural result of keeping the Huguenots at 
 home. There was, therefore, a pause in the in- 
 flow into England until the fourth quarter of 
 the seventeenth century. But the measures 
 preliminary to the revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes (1685), had their effect in a great 
 multiplication of the French settlements in 
 England. Between 1686 and the beginuing of 
 the eighteenth century no leas than thirty 
 French churches sprang into existence in, 
 London and its immediate vicinity. Others' 
 arose at Bristol, Barnstaple, Bideford, Ply- 
 mouth, Stonehouse, Dartmouth, and Exeter, 
 at Faversham, at Thorpe-le-Sokcn in Essex, 
 and in Edinburgh. A whole set of colonies 
 was founded in Ireland, at Portarlington and 
 Youghal, in Dublin (where the French had 
 three churches), as also at Lisburn, Waterford, 
 Cork, and other places. The last influx of 
 Protestant refugees was that of the mixed 
 multitude of French and Germans who 
 were ejected from the Palatinate in 1709 ; 
 several thousands of whom were re- 
 ceived in England, and the majority, prob- 
 ably, sent on to America. Many of the 
 English congregations named were from 
 the beginning attached to the National 
 Church ; nearly all in time became so. The 
 foreigners soon adapted themselves to English 
 customs, and although they experienced much 
 opposition from native tradespeople, were 
 able to exercise their handicrafts to the signal 
 advantage of the country. There are few 
 industries that have not benefited by the 
 work of the immigrants. In particular may 
 be mentioned those in silk (at Canterbury 
 and Spitalfields), linen, cotton, wool, paper, 
 beaver (at Wandsworth), sailcloth, glass, &c. 
 The total number of those who settled in 
 English territory after the revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes can hardly be short of 
 80,000. 
 
 J. Southerden Barn, Wiit. of the Foreign Pro- 
 testant B,efugees settled in England. 1846 ; C, 
 "Weiss, H'st. of the French Frotentant Refugees, 
 bk. ill. (English translatioi, 1854); D. C. A. 
 Agnew, Proiestawt Exiles from France in the 
 Reign, of Louis XI7., 2nd Ed., 1871, |6tc. ; K. L, 
 Poole, Hist, of the Huguenots of the Bi persiou,; 
 chs. Tii.— ix., 1880. [E. L. P.] 
 
 Prussia, Relations with, began with 
 the commercial and crusading intercourse 
 between England and the Teutonic order. 
 The towns of the old Prussian state were all 
 Hanse Towns, and the intimate dealings 
 between England and the Hansa [Hansa] 
 extended to Elbing, Danzig, and Riga. 
 At last rising English commerce was checked 
 by the exclusive system of the Hansa. 
 At the end of the fourteenth century, the 
 quarrels between Prussian and English mer- 
 chants led the Hoohmeister in 1385 to confis- 
 cate all English merchants' goods. In 1388 
 an understanding was arrived at, but the 
 
Pm 
 
 ( 840 
 
 Try 
 
 desire of the English for more privileges 
 involved constaut disputes all through the 
 fifteenth century. Despite this, crusading 
 expeditiona to help the Teutonic knights m 
 their struggle against the heathen were not 
 unfrequent. In 1352 Duke Heury of Lan- 
 caster took the cross, and in 1391 Thomas of 
 Gloucester projected, and Henry of Bolmg- 
 broke accomphshed, a crusade against the 
 Lithuanians. Meanwhile, relations with 
 Brandenburg became friendly during the 
 tenure of the Margraveship by the Bavarian 
 and later Luxemburg houses. The Eeforma- 
 tion united Prussia and Brandenburg under 
 the HohenzoUern. The acquisition of the 
 Rhenish duchies brought the Prussian House- 
 into relations with James I. and Charles I. 
 The close connexion of the HohenzoUerns 
 with Holland, at first a, cause of disunion 
 with England, ultimately became a bond of 
 connection. The Great Elector's last act was 
 to contribute powerfully to the Revolution of 
 1688, by sending his troops into Holland to- 
 invade England. He had felt himself threat- 
 ened by James II.'s alliance with Louis XIV., 
 and had strongly urged "William to seize the 
 English crown. Common alliance with- Aus- 
 tria, common hostility to France, now united 
 England and Prussia. Frederick I., the first 
 king, married the sister of George I., Sophia 
 Charlotte. His son, Frederick William I., 
 married his cousin Sophia Dorothea, daughter 
 of George I. Frederick William I. for many 
 years remained on good terras with England. 
 In 1725 he signed the Treaty of Hanover ; 
 but secretly deserted the English for the 
 Austrian alliance, and the double marriage 
 . project by which Prince Frederick of Wales 
 was to marry Wilhelmina, the king's daughter, 
 and his heir Frederick, the Princess Amelia 
 of Hanover, was never carried out. The 
 accession of George II. hardly mended 
 matters. He bore no goodwill to his brother- 
 in-law, or to his nephew Frederick II., who 
 became king in 1740. The Elector of Han- 
 over feared the growing power of Prussia ; 
 yet so important was Prussia's help against 
 France that English diplomacy did its, utmost 
 to compel Maria Theresa to acquiesce in 
 Frederick's conquest of Silesia. During the 
 Seven Years' War, Fredericli found in Eng- 
 land his one important ally. His brilliant 
 feats of strategy won him great popularity in 
 England, where he was regarded, strangely 
 enough, as the "Protestant Hero." The acces- 
 sion of George III. led, however, to England's 
 sudden desertion of Prussia in a way that 
 Frederick never forgave. His later policy of 
 Russian alliance was largely the result of his 
 conviction that no stable alliance could be 
 formed with England. Frederick William 
 II., however, found in England an ally, first 
 against Austria and Russia, next in the 
 intervention in Holland to restore the House 
 of Orange, and, lastly, in the war against 
 Revolutionary France. In 1796, however, 
 
 Prussia concluded peace with.France at Basel, 
 and refused to join the second coalition of 
 1799 ; and delayed in 1805 to join the war 
 until Austria was defeated and Prussia itself 
 threatened by the French. After Jena Prus- 
 sia was compelled by Napoleon to exclude 
 English manufacturers and join in his mea- 
 sures to reduce the power of his great enemy. 
 The -War of Liberation renewed the alliance 
 between Prussia and England, and Blucher 
 and Wellington destroyed Napoleon's last 
 army at Waterloo. The Tory government, 
 after the Peace of 1815, found in Prussia a con- 
 genial ally. Since then, the relations between 
 England and Prussia have been generally 
 friendly. The refusal of Prussia to co-operate 
 against Russia during the Crimean War, its 
 attacks on Denmark in order to restore 
 Schleswig-Holstein to Germany, caused some 
 discontent in England. But the sympathy 
 felt for the power which alone could give 
 unity to Germany, and the alliance between 
 the courts-, which culminated in the marriage 
 oi the Crown Prince of Prussia to the eldest 
 daughter of the tiueen of England, have been 
 sufiicient to maintain a general friendliness, 
 though the different aims and objects of the 
 two coimtries would prevent any very inti- 
 mate alliance. 
 
 Voigt, Geschichte von Preiiasen ; and Scbanz, 
 Englische HandelsgeschicMey for the early rela- 
 tions with Prussia under tile Teutonic Kuiglits 
 aud Hansa. Eankc, Eng, Sist. ; Carlyle, Pceie- 
 rick the Great; Seeley, Life of Stein; Stenzel, 
 GescMcMe des Freussisohen Staats ; Beimanu, 
 ifeuerfl Geschiohte des Preussischen S'aa^s. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Prynne, William (b. 1600, d. 1669), 
 matriculated at Oxford 1616, and entered 
 at Lincoln's Inn 1620i He was an un- 
 tiring student of ecclesiastical and legal 
 antiquities, a bitter Puritan, and a voluminous 
 writer on controversial subjects. In 1632 lie 
 published a work entitled Riatriomastix, 
 attacking the immorality of the stage, 
 and containing words supposed toi reflect on 
 the queen, For this he was fined £5,000 by 
 the Star Chamber ; degraded from his degree- 
 and the practice of his profession, and sen- 
 tenced to be pilloried and to lose both his 
 ears. Again, in. 1637, for attacking the 
 bishops, in his- News from Ipswich, he was 
 sentenced to imprisonment for life. The 
 Long Parliament released him, and declared 
 these sentences illegal, He became, in 1641, 
 member for Newport, was most active in the 
 prosecution of Laud, and was appointed one 
 of the Visitors of the University of Oxford. 
 As he opposed the king's trial, and considered 
 Charles's answers to th e Parliam entary proposi- 
 tions to oflier grounds for a treaty he was ex- 
 pelled by Pride's Purge in 1648. In 1669 he 
 exerted himself very actively to procure the 
 restoration of the secluded members, and 
 when admitted worked to bring about the 
 king's return. In the discussions on the 
 punishment of the Regicides, he was one of 
 
Pub 
 
 (841 ) 
 
 Pur 
 
 their severest opponents. In 1660 he was 
 appointed Keeper of the Records in the 
 Tower, which post he held till his death. 
 
 Public Worship Begnlation Act 
 
 (1874), The, was introduced into the House 
 of Lords hy the Archbishop of Canterbury, and 
 into the House of Commons hy Mr. EusseU 
 Gumey. The object of the bill was to give 
 parishioners a ready way of invoking the 
 authority of the bishop, and to enable the 
 bishop to prohibit by his own mandate any 
 practices which he considered improper, or 
 else to submit the question to the decision of 
 a judge specially appointed to decide in such 
 cases. All that was requisite to put this 
 machinery in motion against any clergy- 
 man was that three of the parishioners should 
 declare themselves dissatisfied, and proceed 
 to make use of the law. A new court 
 was erected, to which was transferred all the 
 authority of the Court of Arches, and at its 
 head was placed Lord Penzance, as the first 
 judge, who thus became the direct successor 
 of the Dean of Arches. There was a very 
 warm debate on the subject in both Houses. 
 Lord Salisbury,. Mr. Hardy, and Mr. Glad- 
 stone opposed it with great vehemence as 
 destructive of the independence of the Church. 
 Mr. Disraeli and Sir William Harcourt stood 
 forward as its most prominent champions. 
 The bill was eventually passed. 
 
 Puckering, or Pickering, Sm John 
 (<?. 1596), after having distinguished himself 
 as a Parliamentary lawyer, was elected 
 Speaker of the House of Commons, 1585, and 
 again in 1586. He was active in promoting 
 the execution of Mary Queen of Scots, and 
 subsequently prosecuted Secretary Davison 
 for the despatch of the warrant for her death. 
 He was counsel for the crown on the occasion 
 of the prosecutions of the Earl of Arundel 
 and Sir John Perrot for treason ; and in May, 
 1392, received the Great Seal with the title of 
 Lord Keeper as the reward of his services to 
 the queen, succeeding Sir Christopher Hattou. 
 He maintained in his new position his repu- 
 tation as a sound lawyer. 
 
 Campbell, iMies of the ChoMcellors; Poss, 
 Judges of England. 
 
 Pncklecburcll, a village of Gloucester- 
 shire, a few miles north-east from Bristol. 
 There was a, royal palace there in Anglo- 
 Saxon times, and there it was that in 946 
 King Edward was stabbed by a robber named 
 Liofa, while keeping the feast of St. Augus- 
 tine of Canterbury. 
 
 Pnnjanb is the district lying about the 
 five rivers, the tributaries of the Indus. It 
 was inhabited by a haU-religious, half -military 
 community,- the Sikhs, or Akalees. Their 
 commonwealth was divided into fraternities 
 oaUed minis, the chief of each of which was 
 the leader in war and arbiter m time of 
 peace. Of these chiefs twelve were deemed the 
 HIST.— 27* 
 
 foremost in rank. In 1806 Eunjeet Singh, 
 the chief of one of these misils, ended a 
 long and gradual course of encroachment by 
 becoming the ruler of the whole Punjaub. The 
 old independence still survived, and the 
 " Khalsa," or Sikh, commonwealth was re- 
 garded with almost superstitious devotion by 
 the chiefs, people, and soldiery. Eunjeet was 
 but the head of the Khalsa, the army was the 
 army of the Khalsa, everything was done in 
 its name and to its honour. On his death 
 (1839) the. government fell into anarchy for 
 six years. In 1845 the fears of the ministers 
 launched 60,000 Sikhs, the magnificent army 
 of the Khalsa, across the Sutlej [Sikm 
 "Wars]. The victory of the English involved 
 cessions and submission (1846). National in- 
 dignation at this humiliation produced the 
 second Sikh "War, which ended in the annexa- 
 tion of the Punjaub (1849); It was placed 
 under a board of commissioners. 
 CuuDiughain, Hist, of Silclis. 
 
 Puritans, The. During the course of 
 the English Eeformation a diflierence sprang 
 up between the moderate Reformers, and 
 those who wished to make the forms and 
 ceremonies of religious worship as simple as 
 possible. The attempt to impose certain 
 external forms and ceremonies gH.ve rise to 
 more open disunion. " The English bishops " 
 (writes Fuller under the date 1564) " con- 
 ceiving themselves empowered by their 
 canons, began to show their authority in 
 urging the clergy of their dioceses to sub- 
 scribe to the liturgy, ceremonies, and disci- 
 pline of the Church : and such as refused the 
 same were branded with the odious name of 
 ' Puritans.' " Up to about 1570 the question 
 at issue between the Elizabethan Puritans 
 and the authorities of the Church was a 
 question of ritual. After that date the institu- 
 tion of Episcopacy was attacked, especially, 
 by Cartwright, on the ground of the apos- 
 tolic ordination of Presbyterianism, and the 
 question of Church government added to the 
 former cause of division. Thus was founded 
 the Presbyterian section of the Puritan party. 
 The first Puritans were anxious to remain 
 within the national Church and reform it 
 after their own ideas. But from the first 
 attempt to enforce conformity some of them 
 began to form separate conventicles. In 
 June, 1567, a company of more than 100 were 
 seized at worship in Plummers' HaU, London, 
 and fourteen or fifteen sent to prison. This 
 is "the first instance of actual punishment 
 inflicted on Protestant Dissenters" (Hallam). 
 Later in the reign a sect arose, called — from 
 their leader, Robert Brown — Brownists (or 
 Separatists), holding that each congregation 
 was in itself a complete Church, denying that 
 the State, or any assembly of the clergy had' 
 any right to control it, and proclaiming the 
 duty of separation from the National Church. 
 This was the origin of the Independent seotioa 
 
Pur 
 
 ( 842 ) 
 
 Pur 
 
 of the Puritan party. The result of the 
 spread of these views was the Act of 1573, 
 enacting imprisonment, hanishment, and death 
 as penalties for Nonconformity. 
 
 The demands of the Puritan clergy were 
 expressed in the Millenary Petition presented 
 to James in 1603, and at the Hampton Court 
 Conference (1604). They asked for certain 
 definite alterations in the ritual, for a preach- 
 ing ministry, and for the amendment of the 
 articles in a Calvinistic direction. Thej' 
 ■wished to maintain uniformity in. ritual and 
 in doctrine, but to change the characters 
 of both. After the rejection of their demands, 
 conformity to the existing order was enforced, 
 and about 300 of the Puritan clergy were 
 ejected from their livings, as many had been 
 expelled by Whitgift during the previous 
 reign. English Puritanism in the earlier 
 part of the seventeenth century continued to 
 adhere more and more exclusively to Cal- 
 vinistic doctrine, and by the mouth of the 
 House of Commons to demand the suppression 
 of the opposite views. The resolution passed 
 by that body on March 2, 1629, declared that 
 " whosoever shall bring in innovation in reli- 
 gion, or by favour seek to extend or introduce 
 Popery or Arminianism or other opinions 
 disagi-eeing from the true and orthodox 
 Church, shall be reputed a capital enemy to 
 this kingdom and the commonwealth." 
 During the same period questions of ritual 
 and ceremonial became of less importance in 
 Puritan teaching, and the demand for a 
 purer morality and a reformed life more and 
 more its characteristics. The number of 
 Puritans within the Church increased. Baxter 
 describes them thus : " Most men," he says, 
 " seemed to mind nothing seriously, but the 
 
 body and the world The other sort 
 
 ■were such as had their consciences awakened 
 to some regard of God and their everlasting 
 state ; and according to the various measures 
 of their understanding, did speak and live as 
 serious in the Christian faith, and would 
 much inquire what was duty and what was 
 sin, and how to please God ; and made this 
 their business and interest, as the rest did 
 the world.'' Under the government of 
 Charles I. and Laud, a series of mea- 
 sures were directed against the Puritans. 
 Controversial preaching was silenced by a 
 royal proclamation, so that the doctrines 
 at issue between the two parties in the 
 Church could not be freely discussed, the 
 lectureships were suppressed, and -writers 
 against the hierarchy or the Prayer-book 
 severely punished. The summoning of the Long 
 Parliament at length gave the Puritans the 
 ascendency, and they set to work to carry out 
 their ideas on Church Eeform. The Grand 
 Uemonstrance set forth their programme. 
 They wished (1) to reduce within bounds the 
 " exorbitant power " of the prelates ; (2) to 
 unburden the consciences of men of needless 
 and superstitious ceremonies, suppress inno- 
 
 vations, and take away the monuments of 
 idolatry; (3) to effect this intended refor- 
 mation, a synod of British di-vines, " assisted 
 ■with some from foreign parts professing the 
 same religion," was to be assembled to discuss 
 and submit to the confirmation of Parlia- 
 ment the necessary measures. At the same 
 time they meant to maintain uniformity of 
 doctrine and discipline. " "We hold it requisite 
 that there should be throughout the whole 
 realm a conformity to that order which the 
 laws enjoin according to the Word of God.'* 
 To carry out these ■views the Presbyterian 
 system of church government was established 
 in England, and a new Prayer-book and Con- 
 fession of Faith drawn up, two or three thou- 
 sand of the clergy were ejected from their 
 K^vings, and a severe law passed against all 
 heretics and sectaries. But the Independent 
 section of the Puritan party, the successors of 
 the Separatists, defended the cause of tolera- 
 tion and congregational government, purged 
 the Parliament, put a stop to the Assemblj' of 
 Divines, and finally dissolved both. The 
 advanced section of the Independents would 
 have abolished altogether an Established 
 Church. Cromwell, however, was determined 
 to carry out a more conservative policy, 
 " his definite ideal had come to be a State 
 Church that should comprehend Presbyte- 
 rians, Independents, Baptists and pious men 
 of all sound evangelical sects with an ample 
 toleration of dissent round about it." Tnis 
 ideal he carried out during the Protectorate. 
 After his death, when the secluded members 
 had been' readmitted to sit in Parliament, 
 Presbyterian government was re-established 
 (Mardi, 1660), and the Restoration found it 
 in possession. Charles had promised a liberty 
 for tender consciences, and led the Presby- 
 terians to hope for their comprehension ■within 
 the Church Establishment. Negotiations 
 for that purpose were carried on, and a con- 
 ference took place at the Savoy (1661), but 
 attempts at a compromise failed, and the Act 
 of Uniformity was passed (May, 1663). About 
 2,500 of the Puritan clergy were deprived of 
 their li^vings in consequence of this change. 
 Those who conformed and remained within 
 the Church formed the Low Church party, 
 those who now definitely separated themselves 
 from it, the Nonconformist, or Dissenting 
 party. 
 
 Neal, History of the Puritans: Gardiner, Hist. 
 of England : Masson, it/e of Milton. 
 
 [C. H. P.] 
 Purveyance. " Purvey " is but another 
 form of " provide." Purveyance, in its general 
 sense, was the obligation believed to be of 
 immemorial antiquity, imposed upon all 
 people of the country-side through which the 
 king was making progress, of pro^viding him 
 and his multitudinous following with the 
 means of support and conveyance, at prices 
 fixed by the royal officers, and paid, if paid 
 at all, in taUies, the value of which was to be 
 
Pur 
 
 ( 843 ) 
 
 Pym 
 
 deducted from the next taxes that the several 
 viotima of the exaction would have to pay. 
 Eeduced to particulars, it meant the right of 
 huying for, and the duty of selling goods to, 
 the king in preference to any other purchaser 
 (called pre-emption), the power of demanding 
 personal services, horses, and carts, and 
 everything else that the case needed, from 
 those of the neighbourhood who could give 
 them, at whatever cost of damage, loss, and 
 inconvenience, with no chance of ever being 
 adequately paid, and httle of ever being 
 paid at alL No irregular royal right 
 was of greater antiquity, better estab- 
 lished, or of longer continuance. We can 
 track it by the efforts to correct its evils from 
 the Great Charter till the CivU Wars ; and it 
 was undoubtedly much older than the Charter. 
 Even in its warranted use it was specially 
 oppressive in England ; the very eagerness 
 of our best kings to do their work well, by 
 keeping them constantly travelling from 
 place to place, aggravated its hardships. But 
 its nature lent it readily to abuse; it was 
 accordingly grossly abused, and most galling 
 its abuses were. Not only were the pur- 
 veyors outrageously unjust, dishonest, and 
 unfeeling, making, as an authority states, 
 every old woman tremble for her poultry till 
 the king had gone by, and perverting their 
 office to their own enrichment, but the son or 
 servant of the king was counted as the king 
 himself, and every other colourable pretext 
 for making the requisition was seized without 
 scruple. It was, moreover, construed into a, 
 claim to call upon whole counties for supphes 
 of beef, pork, and com, on great state occa- 
 sions. Purveyance was, therefore, odious 
 in itseU ; and it loaded the crown with a 
 heavy burden of unpopularity. No grievance 
 provoked so much legislation ; it is prominent 
 in every remedial movement and measure 
 for centuries ; we are told that not less than 
 thirty-six statutes were passed to restrain 
 it, ten in Edward III.'s reign alone. Yet its 
 legality was always admitted, nor was there 
 ever any thought of removing the " accursed 
 prerogative " itself, as Archbishop Islip called 
 it. The curtailing legislation was not alto- 
 gether useless ; after 1362, when Edward III. 
 enacted that purveyance should provide for 
 the personal needs of the king and queen 
 only, and that purveyors should change their 
 name to buyers, its abuses would seem to 
 have been less grievous. In process of time, 
 however, an abundant crop of new ones had 
 grown round it ; of these the Commons' peti- 
 tion, in 1604, gives a detailed account that 
 shows a wonderful ingenuity on the part of 
 the purveyors and cart -takers in working the 
 prerogative for their own benefit, and to 
 the oppression and vexation of the people. 
 Bacon told the king that their practices 
 were "the most common and general abuse 
 of all others in the kingdom." It was 
 then proposed to compound the right for 
 
 an annual payment of d65O,OO0, but the 
 proposal fell through. Two years later the 
 king pruned away the worst of the evils 
 by proclamation; and the rage against the 
 olficials subsided. In 1610 a surrender of 
 the right by the crown was almost arranged 
 in the bargain known as the Great Contract, 
 but broke down with the collapse of that 
 negotiation. It was discontinued, however, 
 with the relics of feudalism, at the fall of the 
 monarchy, and was not restored with its 
 restoration. In 1660 purveyance was formally 
 abolished by the Convention of that year. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Hallam, Middle Ages and 
 
 Const. Hid. ; Grardiner, Hist, o/ JEng., vol. i. ; 
 
 Spedding, Bacon's Letters, vol. iii. [J. R.] 
 
 Fym, John (S. 1584, d. 1643), descended 
 from a good Somersetshire family, educated 
 at Broadgates Hall, Oxford, early obtained a 
 responsible office in the Exchequer, and 
 entered Parliament in 1614 as member for 
 Calue. In the second Parliament of Charles I. 
 he was one of the managers of Buckingham's 
 impeachment, and in the third he took a 
 prominent part in the debates about the 
 Petition of Eight. In 1640 he was naturally 
 pointed out to head the popular party, and 
 the great speeches in which he summed up 
 their grievances were widely circulated 
 amongst the people. He moved the impeach- 
 ment of Strafford, drew up with the aid of 
 St. John the charges against him, and was 
 the chief manager of his trial. The Bill of 
 Attainder was forced on him by the extreme 
 party amongst his followers, and Pym did his 
 best to give the proceedings a judicial form. 
 Not only was he a very able debater and 
 Parliamentary tactician, but he had what 
 Clarendon terms " a very comely and grave 
 way of expressing himself." He was a strong' 
 Presbyterian, though not at first disposed to 
 go the length of the Root-and-Branch party, 
 and it was probably on accoimt of this relative 
 moderation that it was at one time intended 
 by the king to offer him the post of Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer. The Protestation 
 and the Grand Eemonstranoe, two appeals to 
 the people, were particularly his work. The 
 influence which he exercised gained him from 
 the Royalists the nickname of King Pym, and 
 marked him out for the impeachment on the 
 charge of treasonable correspondence with 
 the Scots, and attempt to subvert the funda- 
 mental laws of the kingdom brought against 
 him by the king in January, 1642. After 
 the refusal of the guarantees demanded by 
 Parliament, Pym became a leading member 
 of the Committee of Safety (July 4, 1642). 
 He was practically the head of the govern- 
 ment, and unceasingly active in directing the 
 conduct of the war, and maintaining the spirit 
 of resistance in city and Parliament. He was 
 excepted from pardon in the king's proclama- 
 tions, and exposed both to the slanders of the 
 EoyaUsta and to many accusations from the dis- 
 contented of his own party. But he retained' 
 
Pyr 
 
 ( 844 ) 
 
 Qua 
 
 the confldence of the Parliament to the laat, 
 and a month hef ore his death they conferred on 
 him the important post of Lieutenant- General 
 of the Ordriance of the Kingdom. His last 
 important work was the bringing about the 
 alUance with the Soots. He died on Dec. G, 
 1643, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 Clarendon thus describes his position in 1640. 
 " He seemed to all men to have the greatest 
 influence upon the House of Commons of any 
 man ; and, in truth, I think he was at that 
 time, and for some months after, the most 
 popular man, and the most able to do hurt, 
 that hath lived in any time." 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of JSng., 1603—1642; Forster, 
 
 British Statesmen; May, Long Parliament; 
 
 "Clarendon, Hehellion. [C. H. F.l 
 
 F3rreiiees, The Battles of the (July 25 
 — Aug. 2, 1813), during the closing period of 
 the Peninsular War, were a series of com- 
 bats which resulted in the defeat of Soult's 
 attempt to relieve San Sebastian. In July, 
 Soult had been sent to supersede Joseph. 
 On the 25th and 26th, General Cole was 
 vigorously attacked by Soult at Ronces- 
 vaUes, and only just managed to maintain his 
 position until Picton and Campbell arrived, 
 while, at Maya, Stewart was all but driven 
 from the pass, after losing two successive 
 positions. WeUington, on returning from 
 San Sebastian, heard of these combats at 
 Imeta, and at once gave orders for all the 
 troops to concentrate in communication with 
 the force at Pampeluna. The retreat of the 
 troops was successfully accomplished. On 
 the 28th a combat took place at Bantarem, 
 where Wellington, with very inferior num- 
 bers, held a strong position against the 
 attacks of Soult. On the 30th, Hill was 
 attacked at Bueuzas in a difficult position, 
 and his position was turned ; but in the 
 meantime Wellington had assaulted and taken 
 Santarem, and had thrown the French who 
 were engaged against him into hopeless con- 
 fusion. Soult's position had become desperate, 
 and it was necessary to retreat. In the 
 narrow passes he with difficulty escaped 
 being surrounded and losing his whole 
 army. During nine days' fighting the allies 
 had lost 7,300 men, while the French loss 
 must have been quite double. Soult's army 
 was rendered incapable of further action for 
 the present, and Wellington at once ordered 
 Graham to renew the siege of San Sebastian. 
 Napier, Pminsviar War ; Clinton, Peninsular 
 
 Quadruple Alliance, The (August, 
 1718), was the name given to the extension 
 of the Triple Alliance of 1717 between 
 England, Prance, and Holland by the adhe- 
 sion of the Emperor to its principles. A 
 treaty was drawn up by the allied powers, 
 with the main object of maintaining the 
 
 European settlement effected by the Treaty 
 of Utrecht. With a few changes of detail, 
 the chief articles of the treaty were that 
 Spain was to restore Sardinia to the Emperor, 
 and the King of Spain to renounce his claim 
 to succeed to the French crown ; whUe the 
 Emperor renounced all claim to what had 
 been guaranteed to Philip V. by the Treaty 
 of Utrecht. Philip was to renounce his 
 claim to the Itahan possessions of the Emperor 
 and to the Netherlands. The Emperor was to 
 be put in possession of Sicily, in return for 
 which the Emperor was to give up Sardinia 
 to the King of Sicily, wjio was to be con- 
 firmed in all the c'essions made to him by the 
 Treaty of Turin in 1703 ; while the Emperor 
 was to acknowledge the house of Savoy's - 
 right to succeed to the crown of Spain in 
 case of the failure of Philip T.'s heirs. 
 France and Great Britain promised to aid 
 the Emperor to acquire possession of Sicily ; 
 while the Emperor and the French bound 
 themselves to maintain the Protestant suc- 
 cession in England. The Kings of Spain and 
 Sicily were to be forced to submit to these 
 terms, but were allowed three months' con- 
 sideration. If any one of the mediating 
 powers was attacked, the others should assist 
 him. If both Spain and Sicily held out, 
 Sardinia was to be first conquered, and then 
 Sicily, of which two islands the former was 
 to be put in the guardianship of England ; 
 and in case of this resistance on the part of 
 these two powers, the Emperor was aUowed to 
 recover the part of Milan ceded by the Treaty 
 of Turin. When once in possession of Sicily 
 the Emperor was to give up all claim upon 
 Spain and the Indies. 
 
 Kocli and Schoell, Hist, des Traitis de Paix. 
 
 Quakers, The, owe their origin to 
 George Pox, who seems to have com- 
 menced preaching about the year 1647, from 
 which time his life was almost constant 
 travel or imprisonment. The term Quaker 
 seems to have been first bestowed upon the 
 new religious body at Derby in 1650, in allu- 
 sion to Fox's phrase bidding people " tremble 
 at the word of the Uord." Before long his 
 wilder followers began to draw attention to 
 themselves by their strange habits, which 
 disturbed public worship, and by declaiming 
 against all sorts of clergy, against the 
 use of " steeple-houses " and fixed times of 
 assembling. But the extravagances of the new 
 sect were confined to fanatics, and must not be 
 set down to the discredit of its more respecta- 
 ble members like Barclay and Penn. By 1662 
 the Quakers had already set up assemblies in 
 Lancashire, and, a few years later, held their 
 first separate Loudon meeting in WatHng 
 Street. Neal relates, though apparently on 
 somewhat doubtful authority in some cases, 
 the most extraordinary tales of their conduct 
 in these days ; and Whitelocke assures us that 
 one Quaker came to the door of the Parlia- 
 
Qna 
 
 (845 ) 
 
 Que 
 
 ment-house with drawn sword, being "in- 
 spired by the Spirit to kill every man that 
 sat in the house." Such extravagant conduct 
 gained them many enemies ; but Cromwell 
 was willing to lend them his protection, and 
 was specially averse to the treatment of Nay- 
 lor, a Quaker who received a severe sentence 
 as a blasphemer, Dec. 17, 1656. On Charles 
 II.'s restoration, they petitioned the king in 
 favour of the four hundred men and women 
 of their sect imprisoned in or near London, and 
 petitioned for toleration. The only answer to 
 this petition was a declaration that if, after 
 a certain date, any people should refuse 
 to take an oath — a ceremony which the 
 Quakers considered wicked — or should as- 
 semble for worship, thej- should be liable to two 
 fines of £5 and £10, and for the third offence 
 to transportation. The Acts of Uniformity and 
 the Corporation Act told upon them as upon 
 other Dissenters. On James II.'s accession 
 they petitioned the new king for toleration, 
 and now had a defender at court in the person 
 of Penn. They gladly accepted the privi- 
 leges of the Declaration of Indulgence. In 
 1682 Penn had founded the colony of Penn- 
 sylvania, and one of the leading articles of its 
 constitution granted freedom of conscience 
 to all who acknowledged the " one eternal 
 God." The Quakers shared in the benefits 
 of the Toleration Act, and in many of the 
 various Acts by which, in subsequent times, 
 the bounds of religious and civil liberty have 
 been enlarged. In 1833 they were allowed to 
 make a " solemn affirmation and declaration" 
 in lieu of an oath in Parliament and courts 
 of law. 
 
 Neal, Sist. of the Pvritans ; Bo^e, Mist, of 
 
 IHssmtera; Stoughton, Hist, of Beligion m 
 
 England. 
 
 Quatre Bras, The Battle op (Jime 16, 
 1815), was an encounter between the left of 
 the French army and the English advanced 
 guard in the short campaign of 1815. Quatre 
 Bras itself was merely a mass of farm- 
 buUdings situated at the point where the four 
 main roads to Brussels, NiveUes, Charleroi, 
 and Namur intersect. Napoleon's orders were 
 that, while he attacked the Prussians at 
 Ligny, on the 16th, Ney should simultaneously 
 overwhelm the British force at Quatre Bras. 
 The attacks began at three o'clock in the 
 afternoon, and as evening wore on, Ney be- 
 came aware that no reinforcements could reach 
 him ; and at the same time fresh troops were 
 arriving for the allies, among whom were 
 two brigades of the Guards. As the attacks 
 became feebler, Wellington ordered all the 
 troops to advance. They at once drove 
 the French before them, and carried every 
 position which the French had wen. Night 
 had now fallen, and the troops bivouacked on 
 the field of battle. The reinforcements had 
 now given Wellington a numerical supe- 
 riority over Ney ; but the necessity of forming 
 a connection with B?.ucher, who was falling 
 
 back from Ligny, compelled him to forego 
 the opportunity of attacking Ney on the 
 17th, and at ten o'clock next morning he 
 began a retreat to the field of Waterloo. 
 
 Siborne, Watetloo Camjtaign; Chesney, Waterloo 
 Lectures. 
 
 QueTiec, The Capture op (Sept. 13, 1759), 
 was eiiected by General Wolfe during the 
 campaign in America which formed part of 
 the Seven Years' War. The idea of attacking 
 Quebec, the capital of French Canada, was 
 one of long standing with English ministers, 
 and in 1711 an expedition was sent against 
 it, which returned without being able to make 
 its way through the channel of the St. Law- 
 rence. The town was, from its position, 
 considered impregnable, and was defended by 
 13,000 French troops under the Marquis de 
 Montcalm. Wolfe's force of 8,000 men, 
 on board Admiral Saunders's fleet, succeeded 
 in landing on the Isle of Orleans before the 
 city, by June 27, 1759. An attempt to de- 
 stroy the English shipping by means of fire- 
 ships failed, and next day (June 29) Wolfe 
 took possession of the headland of Port 
 Levi, which faces Quebec. The city was 
 situated on a promontory of lofty rocks, 
 which, continuing beyond the city, were 
 called the Heights of Abraham. Montcalm 
 had so disposed his- troops as to command 
 the only dangerous position of assault, with 
 the river and the sandbank in his front, and 
 behind him heavy woods. Wolfe commenced 
 to fire on the city from his two batteries, 
 while Montcalm remained for the most part 
 on the defensive. On July 9 Wolfe carried 
 his troops over to the left bank, while a 
 squadron of English ships, passing further up 
 the river, maintained the blockade. At last, 
 being unable to induce Montcalm to move, 
 Wolfe crossed the Montmorency, but was 
 beaten back. Still the two other English 
 armies failed to appear. To add to the other 
 difficulties, Wolfe fell iU of a fever, and there 
 were only between 3,000 and 4,000 effective 
 men. So matters continued till the night of 
 Sept. 12, when Wolfe determined to attempt 
 to scale the Heights of Abraham. In the 
 darkness of the midnight, half his forces were 
 carried across with the tide. Clambering up 
 the precipice by the aid of bushes and stumps, 
 they startled the French company guarding 
 that part of the heights. Before Montcalm 
 could muster his men, the English were at the 
 very back of Quebec. In the engagement 
 that followed, Wolfe was wounded in the 
 groin, and died in the moment of victory, at 
 the early age of thirty-three. 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Bug. ; Gleig, Britith Com- 
 
 manders ; E. WrigM, Mantoirs of General 
 
 Wolfe. 
 
 Qnebec Act, The (1774), was passed at 
 the instigation of Lord North, to conciliate, 
 as far as possible, the French Canadians, and 
 to secure their allegiance to Britain in the 
 approaching war with America. This Act 
 
Que 
 
 (846) 
 
 Que 
 
 restored the old French, system, and estah' 
 lished the Roman Catholic Church, to which 
 the vast majority of the Canadians belonged, 
 whilst it " confirmed the French Canadians in 
 their possessions, their laws, and rights, on 
 condition of their taking an oath of allegiance 
 which was so worded as not to hurt the 
 conscience of Roman Catholics." It also pro- 
 vided for the establishment of a legislative 
 council, with authority over everything except 
 taxation. 
 
 Creasy, Britarmic Empire, 
 
 Queen is a word which originally meant 
 no more than woman, wife, though it early 
 came to be used for the wife of a king. 
 Asser, after telling how EthelwuH upon 
 his return to England with his second 
 wife, Judith, placed her upon a throne by 
 his side, " contrary to the perverse custom " 
 of the West Saxons, proceeds to explain that 
 the evil deeds of Eadburh, wife of Beorhtric 
 of Wessex, had caused the nobles of that 
 kingdom to swear that they would not 
 henceforth allow any king's wife to sit upon 
 the throne beside her husband, or even to 
 be called "queen" {regina). According to 
 Professor Freeman (Norm. Conq.), this ex- 
 plains the fact that in Wessex the usual title 
 for the king's wife was " Lady," Hl<efdige, 
 though in Mercia "Queen," cwen, was still used. 
 From the time of Ethelred, however, a special 
 form for the coronation of the queen appears 
 , in the rituals ; Eadgyth, wife of the Confessor, 
 is said by the chronicler to have been " hal- 
 lowed to queen," though she is afterwards 
 always spoken of as "lady ; " and from the 
 coronation of Matilda, wife of the Conqueror, 
 onward, the title " queen " is always applied 
 to the wife of the king. But it stiU carried 
 with it the sense of king's wife, and this may, 
 perhaps, explain the fact that the Empress 
 Matilda, who claimed the crown in her own 
 right, is never spoken of as " queen," or 
 " regina," but in the chronicles appears as 
 " Empress," and in William of Malmesbury 
 and a charter, as " Domina." On the other 
 hand, Stephen's wife, Matilda, is spoken of 
 as " the king's ewen." 
 
 Henry I.'s attempt to secure the accession 
 of his daughter broke down, partly because 
 the rule of a woman was unprecedented, and 
 opposed alike to the old English theory of 
 election, and the new feudal spirit, but still 
 more because of her marriage with the Count 
 of Anjou, the hereditary enemy of the Nor- 
 mans. But till long afterwards there were 
 doubts whether a queen oould reign in 
 England. The accession of Mary Tudor 
 was secured alike by her father's will, au- 
 thorised by Act of Parliament, and by 
 the strong legitimist feeling of the country. 
 To extinguish, however, " the doubt and folly 
 of malicious and ignorant persons," a statute 
 was passed declaring that a queen regnant has 
 the same powers and prerogatives as a king. 
 
 Mary, wife of William III., occupied a curious 
 position, midway between that of queen consort 
 and queen regnant, for while the Bill of Rights 
 declared the Prince and Princess of Orange 
 joint sovereign's, and her name accompanied 
 his in all public documents, " the sole and fuU 
 exercise of the regal power " was entrusted to 
 the prince. 
 
 The medisBval queens consort of England 
 usually possessed considerable estates sepa- 
 rately administered, and had their own chan- 
 cellors. In modem times they have had their 
 attorneys and solicitors-general, though the 
 oiHces are merely nominal. Apparently even 
 before the Conquest the queen consort received 
 "queen's gold" [aurum regime, probably the 
 same as thegersamma regina of Domesday), i.e., 
 one mark of gold for every one hundred marks 
 of silver paid to the king in feudal dues and the 
 like. As there was no queen consort from the 
 death of Henry VIII. to the accession of 
 James I., its payment was suspended, and 
 Anne of Denmark never exacted it. In 1636 
 writs were again issued for levying it, but 
 Charles afterwards bought the right from his 
 wife for £10,000, and it was never enforced. 
 
 By the Act 25 Edward III. it was rendered 
 treason to compass or imagine the death of 
 the queen, or to violate her, and in the latter 
 case the queen herself, if consenting, was 
 guilty of treason. For this offence Anne 
 Boleyn was tried before the peers of Parlia- 
 ment ; Caroline, wife of George IV., was 
 proceeded against in a like case by a bill of 
 pains and penalties. The legal position of a 
 queen consort is that of a, feme sole, and not of 
 a feme covert. She "is of ability to purchase 
 lands and convey them, to make leases, to 
 grant copyholds, and do the other acts of 
 ownership (without the concurrence of her 
 lord), which no other married woman until 
 very recently could do. She may likewise 
 sue and be sued alone without joining her 
 husband. She may also have a separate pro- 
 perty in goods, as well as in lands, and she 
 has a right to dispose of them by will." 
 (Stephen.) But though she can be sued, she 
 is not liable to any amercement. 
 
 A queen dowager is not protected by the 
 Statute of Treasons. An Act is said to have 
 been passed in the reign of Henry VI. , though 
 of this there is little evidence, rendering any 
 person who dared to marry a queen dowager 
 without special royal licence liable to the 
 forfeiture of his lands and goods. No action, 
 however, seems to have been taken when it 
 was discovered that Lord Seymour of Sudeley 
 had married Catherine Parr before leave was 
 given. 
 
 Stattbs, CoTWt. Hist., i. § 118 ; Freeman, Norman 
 Conqwst. For the legal position of the queen 
 consort and dowager, Stephen, Commentaries, 
 bk. iv., pt. i., oh. iv. VW. J. A.] 
 
 Queen Anne's Bounty was instituted 
 in 1704 for the relief of the poorer clergy. 
 The tax known as the first-fruits and tenths 
 
Que 
 
 (847) 
 
 Que 
 
 of livings on the Clmrcli (the surrender, that 
 is, of the entire income of the first year of 
 every eoolesiastical living, and the tenth part 
 of the income of every subsequent year), had 
 heen originally imposed by the papacy, but this 
 had been transferred to the crown by Henry 
 "VIII. Under Charles II. the condition of the 
 clergy was miserable in the extreme ; their 
 incomes hardly ever amounted to £100 a year 
 — they were often less than £15. At this time 
 the tax only produced £14,000 a year, and the 
 king used it as a fund from which to pension 
 his mistresses and their offspring. In 1697 
 Bishop Burnet presented to William III. a plan 
 for transferring the proceeds of the tax from 
 the crown to the poor clergy, but the king set 
 it aside. J^he design was carried out in the 
 next reign. On Feb. 7, the day after the 
 queen's birthday. Sir Charles Hedges, Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer, announced to the 
 House that her Majesty intended to make a 
 grant of her whole revenue, arising out of the 
 first-fruits and tenths of livings, for the benefit 
 of the poorer clergy. The project was warmly 
 approved by the House, and a biU passed 
 empowering the queen to incorporate such 
 persons as she should select as trustees for 
 her bounty. The measure passed through 
 the Lords after some opposition. Various 
 regulations have been made with reference to 
 this fund since it was first handed over for 
 the benefit of the clergy by Queen Anne. Of 
 these Acts the principal are 2 & 3 Anne, t. 20, 
 authorising the queen to establish a corpora- 
 tion' for the management of this fund, which 
 was done the same year, consisting of arch- 
 bishops, bishops, privy-councillors, various law 
 officers, the mayors of cities, custodes rotulorum, 
 and lieutenants of counties, &o. By 1 Geo. I. 
 these trustees were allowed to examine wit- 
 nesses 6n oath. £200 was to be invested for 
 the increase of each living with a stipend of 
 less than £10 a year : then those not exceeding 
 £20. To every living under £45 a year the 
 governors might make a grant of .£200 on 
 condition of a similar amount being raised 
 from other sources. By 46 Geo. III., c. 133, 
 £6,000 a year was granted for the augmen- 
 tation of livings not exceeding £150 a year. 
 By 28 & 29 Vic, i;. 69, any five of the 
 governors (three being archishops or bishops) 
 are constituted a quorum. Other statutes 
 have allowed certain advances for repairing 
 chancels, building parsonages, and other 
 similar purposes. 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Oum Time; Stanhope, 
 Beign of Queen Arme; Wyon, Hist, of Great 
 Britain during the Beign of Qaeen Anne. 
 
 Queen-gold {Auriun SegitK^) was a claim 
 made by the Queens of England on every 
 tenth mark paid to the king on the renewal 
 of leases or crown-lands on the granting of 
 charters — matters of grace supposed to be 
 obtained by the powerful intercession of the 
 queen. 
 
 Queeusberry, James Douglas, 2nd 
 Duke op (16Q2 — 1709), succeeded to his 
 father's title in 1695. He had been a staunch 
 supporter of the Prince of Orange, and in his 
 earlier years had served in the army. In 
 1700 he was appointed High Commissioner to 
 the Parliament of Scotland, and in 1702 and 
 1703 occupied the same office for Queen Anne. 
 In the latter year he was driven out of office 
 for his share in what is popularly called 
 " The Queeusberry Plot " (q.v.), but two 
 years later was made Keeper of the Privy 
 Seal, and a Commissioner for the treaty of 
 the Union. For the purpose of carrying the 
 Union through, he was appointed Lord High 
 Commissioner to the last Scotch Parliament 
 in 1706, and on his journey to London was 
 received with the utmost honour in England 
 as some recompense for the execrations he 
 had to encounter in Scotland. As a reward 
 for his services on this occasion he was 
 created an English peer (1708), a pension of 
 £3,000 a year was granted him out of the 
 Post Office, and "the whole patronage of 
 Scotland was vested in his hands." In 1709 
 his vote in the election of the Scotch repre- 
 sentative peers was disallowed, as he now sat 
 in the House of Lords in his own right. His 
 death occurred in 1711. His son Charles, 
 the third Duke of Queensberry, was friend 
 and patron of Prior and Gay. 
 
 Queensberry Plot, The (1703). In 
 March, 1703, Queen Anne granted a pardon 
 to all Scotch political offenders who would 
 take the oath to her government. Encouraged 
 by this act of generosity several of the exiled 
 adherents of the Stuarts availed themselves 
 of this opportunity of returning to their own 
 country for the purposes of stirring up sedi- 
 tion. Amongst those who took advantage of 
 the new state of affairs was Lord Lovat. Be- 
 fore long it got noised abroad that there was 
 to be a great Highland gathering at Lochaber 
 early in August, and people were not long 
 in discovering or inventing a political mean- 
 ing to this event. Lovat now availed him- 
 self of the general feeling of disquietude to 
 gratify a grudge which he had long held 
 against Lord Athole, the Keeper of the Privy 
 Seal. Having in his possession sm nnad- 
 dressed letter written by the Pretender's 
 queen to some Scotch noble, he filled in the 
 blank of the superscription with the name of 
 Athole, and then forwarded the document to 
 the commissioner, the Duke of Queensberry. 
 The latter nobleman, glad of an opportunity 
 of ruining his colleague, sent on the letter 
 unopened to the queen. Before long, how- 
 ever, one of Lovat's friends revealed the 
 deceit, and the chief plotter had to fly to the 
 Continent. But as a result of his deception 
 Queensberry had to quit office, and even 
 then the effects of this movement were not all 
 over. In December the queen informed the 
 House of Lords in London that there were 
 
Que 
 
 848 ) 
 
 Qui 
 
 Frenoli emissaries stirring up rebellion in 
 Scotland, and this body at once commenced 
 investigating the question on its own account, 
 but without coming to any very definite 
 result. In the meanwhile, however, the ap- 
 pointment of a committee of inquiry in the 
 House of Lords had wounded the feelings of 
 the Scotch, who naturally considered that 
 such a question should be dealt with by their 
 own Privy Council. At the same time the 
 proceedings of the House of Lords had 
 stirred up indignation nearer home. The 
 Commons discovered in the action of the 
 Peers that this body were assuming powers of 
 criminal inquiry which did not belong to it, 
 and prayed the queen to give orders for the 
 investigation to be carried on by her officers. 
 Accordingly, when the Scotch Parliament 
 met in January, 1704, the queen desired the 
 Privy Council to ascertain how much truth 
 there was in the suspected plot. 
 
 Queensferry Paper, The (June, 1680), 
 was found in the pocket of Henry Hall, one 
 of the leading Covenanters in Scotland. He 
 was captured at Queensferry, and the docu- 
 ment that had been in his possession read at 
 the council board. This document was a pre- 
 liminary sketch of the more famous Declara- 
 tion of Sanquhar (q.v.). 
 
 Queensland. [Australia.] 
 
 Queenston, The Battle of (Oct., 1812), 
 was fought on the shores of Lake Ontario be- 
 tween an invading force of Americans, and the 
 English and Canadian forces led by Generals 
 Brock and SheafBe. The victory remained 
 with the English, who, however, purchased it 
 by the death of General Brock. 
 
 Qneronaille, Louise de. Duchess of 
 Portsmouth {d. 1734), came over to England 
 in the train of Henrietta of Orleans, the 
 sister of Charles II., whose mistress she soon 
 became, and who soon created her Duchess of 
 Portsmouth (1673). She appears to have been 
 friendly with Arlington, and to have long 
 kept up a communication with the French 
 ambassadors, being very anxious for the 
 friendship between Louis XIV. and Charles II. 
 to continue. Towards the close of the reign 
 she became a strong partisan of the Exclusion 
 Bill. A little later she became on good 
 terms with the Duke of York, finding that he 
 was willing to guarantee her £5,000 a j'ear 
 from the receipts of the Post Office. Next 
 year (1682) she was mainly instrumental in 
 securing Sunderland's recall to office, and in 
 1684 was one of the prime movers of the 
 ruling ministers, Sunderland and Godolphin. 
 "When the king was seized with his fatal 
 apoplectic stroke, it was she who reminded 
 the Duke of York that his brother was at 
 heart a Catholic, and who thus succeeded in 
 calling Francis to the royal deathbed. By 
 Charles II. she was the mother of the Duke of 
 Richmond ; but her own title died with her. 
 
 Quia Emptores is the name given to 
 the statute enacted in 1290, which dii-ected 
 that in all future transfers of land the new 
 tenant should hold the land not from the 
 alienor, but from the next lord. Thus if B 
 holding land from A transferred some of that 
 land to C, C would hold it not from B but 
 from A. In this way sub-infeudation was 
 checked, and no new manors could be formed. 
 The real importance of this act consisted in 
 its stopping the creation of fresh manors, and 
 by putting a great bar to the practice of sub- 
 infeudation, largely increasing the chances of 
 the greater landlords, and above all the land- 
 lord par excellence, the king, to escheats. 
 From this point of view it may well be com- 
 pared with the Statute of Mortmain. 
 
 Stubbs, Select Charters and Const. Kid. ; 
 Digby, Hist of ike Law of Real Property, 
 
 Quiberon, The Battle of (Not. 20, 
 1759), was fought between the English and 
 French during the Seven Years' War. 
 Sir Edward Hawke had been engaged during 
 the summer of 1759 in blockading the 
 French fleet, which lay at Brest under De 
 Conflans, and when, in the autumn, he was 
 forced to stand off, the French admiral seized 
 his opportunity to sally forth in the hope of 
 overpowering a few English frigates that 
 were cruising about under Captain Duff, 
 before Sir Edward Hawke could come up to 
 their aid. In this plan, however, De Conflans 
 was unsuccessful, and the united English 
 fleets drove the French — to whom they were 
 slightly superior in numbers — back from the 
 point of Quiberon to coast near the mouth of 
 the Vilaine. The French ships were drawn 
 up close to a shore rocky and set with islands. 
 Shoals and quicksands rendered their positi8n 
 still more dangerous to attack. Nevertheless, 
 Hawke determined on an engagement, and 
 refused to listen to the representations of his 
 pilot, whom he answered with the words, 
 " You have done your duty in this remon- 
 strance ; now lay me alongside the French 
 admiral." The battle resulted in a decisive 
 victory for the EngHsh, who only lost forty 
 men, and by night two French ships had 
 struck, four were sunk, and the others had 
 drawn up the Vilaine. To set against this, 
 two English vessels were stranded, but their 
 crews were saved. In return for this victory, 
 which relieved England from all fear of inva- 
 sion, and shattered the French naval power 
 for a time, a pension of £1,500 a year was 
 conferred upon Admiral Hawke. 
 
 Quiberon, The Expedition to, took place 
 in the year 1795, and was intended to assiet 
 the Royalist insurgents of La Vendee and 
 Britanny. After much delay, the expedition, 
 consisting largely of French royalist refugees, 
 left England (July, 1795), and landed at the 
 peninsula of Quiberon, near Camac. Here 
 they were joined by a large number of 
 
Quo 
 
 ( 849 
 
 Bad 
 
 "Chouans" and irregular troops, com- 
 manded by the Eoyalist generals De 
 Puisaye and D'Hervilly. The little fort of 
 Penthievre was captured hy these troops ; but 
 after that nothing was done, owing to jealou- 
 sies among the leaders. Meanwhile, Hoche, 
 the Eepublican general, had raised 10,000 
 troops, and managed to recapture the fort, 
 and to shut the invaders up in the Peninsula 
 of Quiberon. They were then attacked by 
 the Republicans, and cut to pieces, or di-iven 
 into the sea. About 900, with the leader. Be 
 Puisaye, escaped to the English vessels. The 
 remainder were killed or taken captive. Of 
 the prisoners 700 were shot by their captors 
 after the fighting was over. 
 
 Alison, Hist, of Europe; Toil Sylael, French 
 Revolution, 
 
 Qnoriliu, Justices or the. When jus- 
 tices of the peace were appointed in each 
 county, it was customary in empowering any 
 two or more of them to inquire into offences, 
 to specify the names of some few of these 
 justices, without whose presence business 
 could not be treinsacted. The specifying 
 words were " quorum {i.e., of the whole 
 number) aliquem vestrum. A., B., C, D., &c.» 
 unum esse volumus," and from this phrase 
 these more important justices were called 
 " justices of the quorum." It has now, how- 
 ever, become customary to make no distinc- 
 tion between special justices and others ; and 
 as a rule, the " qttorum " clause simply repeats 
 all the preceding names, with perhaps one ex- 
 ception, for the sake of form. The writ at 
 present used in the appointment of these jus- 
 tices, has continued with very little alteration 
 indeed since the year 1590. 
 
 Quo Warranto Commissions were 
 issued by Edward I., for the purpose of 
 inquiring into the questions — (i.) what were 
 the royal manors ; (ii.) by what warrant 
 estates that were formerly crown lands ; or 
 (ui.) judicial rights that were once exercised 
 by the crown, had passed into the hands 
 of private individuals or corporations. In 
 1274 the king had appointed a commission of 
 inquiry, which resulted in the " Rotuli Hun- 
 dredorum," and by the Statute of Gloucester 
 (1278), the itinerant justices were to order 
 the people by proclamation " to show what 
 kind of franchises they had, and by what 
 warrant." These commissions were fre- 
 quently resisted, notably by Earl Warenne ; 
 but the inquiry was continued through a 
 period of more than twenty years. The most 
 important effect of these commissions was 
 that they prevented any further encroach- 
 ments on royal property or rights. 
 
 Babbling the Curates, was the 
 
 name given to the expulsion of Episcopalian 
 clergymen from the south-west of Scotland 
 
 by the Cameronians in 1689 — 90. There 
 seems to have been comparatively little mob 
 violence. Cameronian committees were 
 formed to superintend the ejectment, and 
 formal notices to quit were sent to the 
 curates. A subsequent act of the Scottish 
 Parliament legalised these proceedings by 
 declaring the parishes vacant. 
 
 The expulsion is described in the Cameronian 
 pamphlet, Faithful Contendings Displayed, Some- 
 what opposing accotmts will be found in Burton, 
 HisL Scot.,, ch. Ixxxi., and Cunningham, Cli/wrch 
 Hi^tory^ ch. xxi.„ 16 — 19. 
 
 Badcot Bridge, The Battle or (1387), 
 was a skirmish on the Thames near Faring- 
 don, between De Vere, Duke of Ireland, the 
 favourite of Eichard II., and the baronial 
 forces under the Earl of Derby (afterwards 
 Henry IV.). De Vere, finding himself out- 
 numbered, fled, and his men surrendered 
 after a slight skirmish. The result of this 
 defeat was to place the king entirely at the 
 mercy of Gloucester and the other Lords 
 Appellant. 
 
 Badical. The exact origin of this term 
 as applied to a political party is unknown ; 
 possibly it was derived from a speech delivered 
 by Fox in 1797, wherein he declared that 
 " radical reform " was necessary. The word 
 seems to have come into general use about 
 1816, and was applied to jpersons agitating on 
 behalf of extreme measures of Parliamentary 
 reform. The best account of the early 
 character of the movement is given by the 
 weaver Samuel Bamford (Passages in the Life 
 of a Radical) . Describing a meeting of 
 representatives fi'om several "Hampden 
 Clubs," he says " Resolutions were passed 
 declaratory of the right of every male to 
 vote who paid taxes ; that males of eighteen 
 should be eligible to vote ; that parliaments 
 should be elected annually ; that no place- 
 man or pensioner should sit in Parliament ; 
 that every twenty thousand inhabitants should 
 send a member to the House of Commons. 
 It was not until we became infested by 
 spies, incendiaries, and their dupes, that 
 physical force was mentioned among us." 
 The most importEtnt leaders of the party were 
 "Orator" Hunt, Cobbett, and Major Cart- 
 wright, it was also patronised by Sir Francis 
 Burdett. Some of the extreme Radicals, how- 
 ever, seem to have planned an armed move- 
 ment : and the action of the goverimient and 
 public fear caused the terms Radical and rioter 
 to be used as synonjTnous. Even Brougham 
 said in 1819, " The Radicals have made them- 
 selves so odious, that a number even of our 
 own way of thinking would be pleased 
 enough to see them and their vile press put 
 down at all hazards." During the struggle 
 over the Reform BiU of 1832, the term 
 began to be adopted by some comparatively 
 moderate Parliamentary advocates of reform. 
 In the Parliaments which followed they num- 
 bered from fifty to seventy, including Grote, 
 
Baf 
 
 ( 850 ) 
 
 Bal 
 
 Molesworth, Roebuck, Joseph Hume, etc. 
 Henceforth the term came to indicate little 
 more than an advanced Liberal ; and after the 
 Reform Bill of 1867 was frequently used as a 
 designation for the whole Liberal party. 
 
 For the early Radical movement, besides 
 Bamt'oi d, see. Martiiieau, Histori/ 0/ t/ie Feace, 
 bk. i. ; and Spencer Walpole, Hid. of Eng., vol. 
 i., ch. v. 
 
 Baffles, Sir Thomas Stamford {i. 1781, 
 d. 1826), a colonial administrator and natura- 
 list, was the son of a naval captain. He 
 became a clerk in the India House, and 
 was appointed in 1805 under-secretary at 
 Prince of Wales' Island. His ability brought 
 him under the notice of Lord Minto, to 
 whom he suggested the conquest of Java 
 from the Dutch. This island he admi- 
 nistered as Lieutenant-Governor from 1811 
 to 1816. From 1818 to 1824 he was Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor of Bencoolen in Sumatra, 
 and succeeded in estabhshirig the settle- 
 ment at Singapore. In Java and in Sumatra 
 he emancipated the slaves, and introduced 
 many reforms. Everywhere he made re- 
 searches in zoology and botany ; and on his 
 return founded the Zoological Society. 
 
 Baglan, Lord (4.1788,(^.1855). Fitzroy 
 Henry Somerset, youngest son of the fifth 
 Duke of Beaufort, entered the army in 1804. 
 In 1808 Sir Arthur Wellesley appointed him 
 his aide-de-camp ; in this capacity he served 
 aU through the Peninsular War, and was pre- 
 sent at Waterloo, where he lost an arm. He 
 was afterwards employed on several diplo- 
 matic missions, and sat in the House of 
 Commons for Truro during two Parliaments. 
 In 1852 he was appointed Master General of 
 Ordnance and elevated to the House of Peers. 
 In 1854 he became Field Marshal. On the 
 breaking out of the Crimean War Lord 
 Eaglan was appointed commander-in-chief of 
 the British Army. He reached the Crimea 
 in September, 1854, and shared with Marshal 
 St. Arnaud the command of the allied forces 
 during the winter and the following spring 
 [Crimean War]. Lord Eaglan was heavily 
 weighed down by the anxiety caused by the 
 sufferings of his men in the trenches. His 
 health had been gradually failing before he 
 was seized by the attack of cholera which 
 carried him off (June 28, 1866). Of Lord 
 Raglan's personal bravery and sense of duty 
 there was never any doubt. His merits as a 
 commander were never put to a fair test in 
 the Crimea. He shared a divided command 
 and conducted the operations of the British 
 army at a time when 40 years of peace had 
 reduced our military establishments to the 
 completest inefficiency. 
 
 Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea; Annual 
 Register, 1855. 
 
 Bagman Bolls, The, are a collection of 
 documents recording the homage performed by 
 the Scotch barons and clergy to Edward I. on 
 his progress through Scotland in 1296. They 
 
 are a most important source of information 
 upon the condition of Scotland in the four- 
 teenth century. The Bannatyne Club pub- 
 lished the documents in full in 1834. 
 
 Bainsborongh, Colonel {d. 1648), one 
 of the Parliamentary officers who took part 
 under Cromwell in the storm of Bristol, 
 where he "had the hardest task of all" 
 (Cromwell's letter). In 1648 he was ap- 
 pointed admiral, but the fleet mutinied and 
 set him ashore. He was assassinated in 
 October of that year in his lodgings at Don- 
 caster by a party of Royalists, who had 
 sallied from the Castle of Pontefract. 
 
 Baipoor Ghaut, The Treaty of (Dec. 
 24, 1805), terminated the war between the 
 East India Company and Jeswunt Rao 
 Holkar. All his territories were restored to' 
 him, but he was obliged to renounce his 
 claims to Boondee and Rampoor, and accept 
 the Chumbul as his northern boundary. The 
 treaty was the result of the policy of concili- 
 ation and peace adopted in India after Welles- 
 ley' s return to England. 
 
 Mill, Bntish India, vol. vi., ch. xiii. 
 
 Bajputana, "the land of the Rajputs," is 
 a considerable district in North-western India, 
 including eighteen native states, of which the 
 most important are Oodeypoor or Mewar, 
 whose Rana is recognised as the overlord of 
 the rest — Jeypore, Jodhpore, Kotah, Bikanir, 
 Ulwar, and Jeysulmir. The Rajputs vigor- 
 ously resisted the Mohammedan invaders, but 
 internal anarchy caused their division into 
 several states, and thus laid them open to 
 the attack of the Mahrattas. In 1803 Lord 
 Wellesley took them under British protection 
 on condition of their paying tribute, and in 
 1817 they recognised British suzerainty. 
 
 Baleigh, Sir Walter (A. 1652, d. 1618), 
 was the sou of Walter Raleigh of Budleigh, 
 in Devonshire. After spending three years 
 at Oxford, he went in 1669 to France to aid 
 the Huguenots. Returning in 1578, he 
 accompanied his half-brother, Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert, on a voyage of discovery to New- 
 foundland, which proved unsuccessful. In 
 1580 Raleigh obtained military employment 
 in Ireland, where he distinguished himself by 
 his ruthless severity, and took part in the mas- 
 sacre of the Smerwick garrison. For his ser. 
 vices he received 12,000 acres of the Desmond 
 land, and it was upon these that he first planted 
 the potato in 1596. After the suppression of 
 the rebellion he attracted the attention of the 
 queen, whose favour he soon won, and who 
 sent him on a mission to the Prince of Orange 
 in 1582. In 1684 he obtained a charter for 
 the colonisation of any lands not held by a 
 Christian prince ; three expeditions were des- 
 patched by Raleigh to America, but the colony 
 which had received the name of Virginia had 
 to be abandoned in 1690. In 1585 Raleigh 
 had been knighted, and in 1587 had become 
 captain of the Queen's guard. After taking 
 
Bal 
 
 (851 ) 
 
 Ram 
 
 aa active part in the defence of the country 
 against the Armada, he voyaged to Guiana to 
 find El Dorado in 1595, accompanied Essex to 
 the capture of Cadiz in 1596, and joined in 
 the expedition to the Azores in the following 
 year. It was on this occasion that Ealeigh, 
 who had taken the island of Fayal without 
 waiting for the arrival of the rest of the 
 expedition, had a serious quarrel with Essex 
 (q. V.) who had all along been his rival. On the 
 accession of James I., he was deprived of his 
 office of captain of the guard, and dismissed 
 from court, owing to the enmity of Sir Robert 
 Cecil (q.v.). He was shortly charged with 
 complicity in Lord Cobham's plot in favour 
 of Lady Arabella Stuart, was found guilty of 
 treason and sentenced to death. The true 
 history of the plot can scarcely be recovered, 
 but it seems certain that Raleigh was guilty 
 of nothing more than vague talk. The 
 sentence of death was, however, not carried 
 into effect, and Raleigh remained a prisoner 
 in the Tower for twelve years, occupying 
 himself in writing his History of the World. 
 In 1615 he was released, in order to conduct 
 an expedition to Guiana in search of gold ; 
 on his arrival in South America he was 
 attacked in the Orinoco by the Spaniards, whom 
 he defeated, but the gold mine remained 
 undiscovered, and Ealeigh returned to Eng- 
 land in 1618. He was badly received by 
 James, who, disappointed at the iU success of 
 the expedition, declared his intention of 
 punishing those who had committed acts of 
 violence " against his dear brother of Spain." 
 Raleigh was executed on his old sentence 
 (Oct. 29, 1618). 
 
 Edwarda, Li/e aud Lettffrs of Ealeigh, the most 
 complete biography. Pope Hennessy's Baleigk 
 in Ireland and Schomhurgh's edition of Ba- 
 leigh'g Discovery of Guiana are useful for par- 
 ticular periods. The best discussion of his 
 share in Cobham's plot is in Gtardiner, -BTist.^ of 
 Eng., vol i., and account of his last expedition 
 to Guiana in voL iii. A useful little sketch lias 
 been written by Mrs. Creighton, 
 
 Ralph, Jambs, was a native of Phila- 
 delphia. He settled in England in 1725. He 
 devoted himself to literature, and produced 
 some plays and dramas of little merit. In 
 1742 he published a pamphlet in answer to 
 the memoirs of the Duchess of Marlborough, 
 and thus became known as a political writer. 
 He devoted his services to the Opposition 
 and the Prince of "Wales' party, and wrote 
 numerous tracts in their interest. He re- 
 ceived a pension on George XL's accession. 
 Among other works he wrote The Use and 
 Abuse of Parliaments, and a History of Eng- 
 land during the reigns of Charles II., James 
 II., and William III., which, though pos- 
 sessed of little literary merit, is of some 
 value owing to the facilities which Ralph 
 had for acquiring information on this period. 
 
 Ralph OF EscuRES, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (1114—1122), was the son of a 
 Norman baron, and became Abbot of Seez. 
 
 He was ejected from his abbey in 1104 by 
 Robert de Belesme, and sought refuge 
 in England with Henry I. In 1108 he was 
 made Bishop of Rochester, and as such, on 
 the death of St. Anselm in 1109, he acted as 
 administrator of the see of Canterbury. For 
 five years Henry refused to fill Anselm's 
 place, but at length he was obliged to consent 
 to an election, and in 1114 Ralph was chosen 
 archbishop. An attempt to exact from 
 Thurstan, Archbishop Elect of York, an 
 acknowledgment of die supremacy of the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, is the most im- 
 portant event in Ralph's subsequent career. 
 In 1119 he had a stroke of palsy, and died in 
 1122. He is described by Ordericus as " deeply 
 learned, fluent of speech, good humoured, and 
 popular." 
 
 The fiillest modem account isin Rook's Avch. 
 bishops of Cant&rbuvy, based on Eadmer, Hinttjria 
 Novorum, William of Malmesbury, and Order- 
 icus Vitalis. 
 
 Ramillies, The Battle or (May 23, 
 1706), the second of Marlborough's great 
 victories in the War of the Spanish Succession. 
 Both -Marlborough and ViUeroi, the French 
 commander, were eager for a battle, and the 
 armies met near Ramillies, between Namur 
 and Louvain. Villeroi's right wing was com- 
 posed of the household troops, while his left, 
 which he considered sufficiently protected by 
 the swamp created by a stream (the Little 
 Gheet), consisted only of a single line of 
 infanliy. Marlborough made a feint of at- 
 tacking tlie left; ViUeroi was at once de- 
 ceived, and withdrew troops from his right to 
 strengthen it. Then the main body of the 
 English and Dutch attacked the French 
 extreme right, which was also taken in the 
 flank by the Danish cavalrj', which had 
 galloped round unperceived. Thus the 
 French position was turned, and now the 
 main body was attacked, ^fter a hard 
 struggle, the household troops retreated. 
 The difficulties caused by the baggage 
 waggons in the rear created a panic, and the 
 whole army fled in the direction of Brussels. 
 Many towns at once surrendered, and before 
 the end of the year the only places of import- 
 ance held by the French in the Netherlands 
 were Mens and Namur. 
 
 Marlborough Despatches ; Mahon, TTar of 
 Spanish Succession ; Wjon, Reign of Anne. 
 
 Hsnanviggxa:, The Battle oe (1848). 
 At the beginning of the second Sikh war, 
 the British army, under Lord Gough, attacked 
 Shere Sing at Ramnuggur on the Chenab. 
 His position, however, was too strong to 
 storm ; and many lives were lost in a charge 
 of the dragoons to clear the Sikhs from the 
 dry sandy bed of the river. A flanking 
 movement was then attempted, whereupon 
 Shere Sing withdrew to SadooUapoor. 
 
 Ramsay, Sib Alexander, of Dalhousie, 
 compelled tne EngUeh in 1538 to raise the 
 siege of Dunbar (q.v.). After carrying on a 
 
Kan 
 
 ( 852 ) 
 
 Rat 
 
 suocessM guerilla war against them for some 
 years, he took the castle of Roxburgh (1542), 
 receiving as his reward the sherifEdom of 
 Teviotdale. This aroused the jealousy of Sir 
 William Douglas, who captured him at 
 Hawick and starved him to death in Ms 
 castle of Hemoitage. 
 
 Bandoljlh, Sir Thomas (J. 1523, d. 1590), 
 one of the ministers of Queen Elizabeth, was 
 compelled to seek an asylum abroad during 
 the reign of Mary, owing to his religious 
 opinions. On his return to England, 
 after Mary's death, he was employed on 
 several important diplomatic missions to 
 France and Russia, and more especially to 
 Scotland, in connection with which country 
 his statesmanship was chiefly shown. His 
 first embassy to Scotland was in 1559, when 
 he accompanied the Earl of Arran, and in the 
 following year he was employed by Elizabeth 
 to testify to the Scotch her disapprobation of 
 the Confession of Faith. In 1563 — 4 he was 
 sent to Mary, Queen of Scots, charged with 
 the delicate mission of recommending a 
 husband for her, the individual selected being 
 Lord Robert Dudley, afterwards Earl of 
 Leicester. La 1564 Randolph was named a 
 commissioner at the Conference of Berwick 
 (q.v.), and in the subsequent year was again 
 ambassador in Scotland, sending to the queen 
 " accounts from week to week of the position 
 of parties and of the progress of the crisis." 
 In the same year he was commissioned to as- 
 sure the Protestant lords in Scotland of Eliza- 
 beth's sympathy, and to promise Argyle and 
 Murray that they should have what aid from 
 England they required. In 1 5 6 6 the Queen of 
 Soots ordered him to withdraw from her court, 
 knowing, says Mr. Froude, that he " had 
 shared Murray's secrets, that he had been 
 Elizabeth's instrument in keeping alive in 
 Scotland the Protestant faction, and that so 
 long as he remained the party whom she most 
 detested would have a nucleus to gather 
 round." In 1570 he was again sent to the 
 north, but the feeling against England was so 
 strong in Edinburgh that he found that he 
 could not with safety remain. Two years 
 later he was obliged to return to Edinbm-gh, 
 and was twice shot at. In 1581 he was 
 ordered to demand the release of Morton from 
 James VI. ; but the hatred of the English 
 still continued, and the ambassador had to 
 flee for his life. Cautious, trustworthy, and 
 deeply skilled in Scotch politics, Randolph 
 obtained the confidence of the queen and the 
 goodwill of Cecil, who wrote of him, " He is 
 worth more than I fear our time will well 
 consider." 
 
 BurgWei; Fwpers; Burton, Hist, of Scotland; 
 Froude, H^st. of Eng. 
 
 XtangfOOn, the capital of Burmah, was oc- 
 cupied by the English in 1824, during the first 
 Burmese war. In the second Burmese war, 
 undertaken on account of the oppression of 
 British subjects at Rangoon, the town was 
 
 taken by storm by the English forces under 
 General Godwin, April 14, 1852. .At the con- 
 clusion of the war the province of Pegu m 
 eluding Rangoon, was annexed to British India. 
 Situated at the mouth of the Irrawaddy, it la 
 an extremely favourable situation for trade, 
 and has become one of the most important 
 commercial cities of British India. 
 
 Rape, A, is a territorial division of Sussex. 
 Sussex is divided into six rapes, which again 
 are subdivided into hundreds. It is no more 
 than a geographical term, and difiera from 
 the lathe of Kent in that the judicial organisa- 
 tion is retained by the hundred. The rape 
 may possibly represent the shires into which 
 Sussex was divided while it was yet an 
 independent kingdom. The original meaning 
 is apparently "share." 
 
 Kapparees, were bands of Irish led by 
 dispossessed proprietors who refused to submit 
 to the CromweUian transplantation to Con- 
 naught, and carried on a guerilla warfare 
 against the new English possessors. At first 
 known as Tories, they came later to be called 
 Rapparees, which Burnet, writing in 1690, 
 calls "a new name." But the names Tory 
 and Rapparee came to mean in Ireland only 
 ordinary felons at large. Their numbers 
 were immensely exaggerated : thus in 1707 
 "there were but six Tories in the county Tip- 
 perary, and four iu the county of Cork." 
 
 Lecky, Eng. in the JEighteenth Century, vol. ii. ; 
 Prendergast, CromweUian Settlement in Ireland. 
 
 Batcliffe, Sm Richard, was a confidential 
 friend of Richard III. To his advice it was 
 largely due that Richard abandoned the plan 
 of marrying his niece, the princess Elizabeth, 
 for RatcUfEe declared that it would cause him 
 to be suspected of having poisoned his own 
 wife Anne to make way for the match, 
 and that her northern adherents would aban- 
 don him if it were not at once disavowed. 
 
 Kates are assessments upon owners and 
 occupiers of real property by local authorities 
 and for local purposes ; they are in fact local 
 taxes. As the power of levying rates is noi 
 recognised by the common law of England, 
 the conditions under which they are to be 
 enforced are always stated in the statutes pre- 
 scribing them. Most of these are of very 
 recent date, for though contributions for 
 common purposes had been levied for cen- 
 turies iu every parish and borough this was 
 done frequently under local by-laws. The 
 rates authorised by statutes are of various 
 kinds : — {a) By the authorities of the civil 
 parish the poor rate is levied, the management 
 of which was in 1834 taken out of the hands 
 of the vestry and placed in those of overseers 
 [Poor Law]. The highway rate is levied 
 by the highway parish, which need not co- 
 incide with the poor-law parish. The control 
 of the roads was under the Turnpike Acts of 
 the last century vested in trustees who de- 
 
Kat 
 
 ( 853 ) 
 
 Heh 
 
 frayed the expenses by tolls, but this system 
 is fast disappearing, and facilities for its aboli- 
 tion were granted by an Act of 1878. Burial 
 board rates may be levied by burial boards, 
 consisting of from three to nine ratepayers, 
 elected by the vestry under the various Burial 
 Acts dating between 1852 and 1875, but the 
 legislation on this point is very confused. 
 The free libraries rate is also collected by the 
 vestry, and the lighting and watching rate by 
 the Act of 1883. (J) The ecclesiastical parish, 
 which may be distinct from the civil parish, 
 levies the church rate through the vestry. 
 This tax, however, ceased to be compulsory in 
 1868, when it was enacted that it could no 
 longer be enforced by a legal process, (c) In 
 unincoi"porated towns, improvement rates may 
 be levied by commissioners under special acts. 
 (d) Borough rates are levied by municipal 
 councils as constituted under the Municipal 
 Corporations Act of 1835, they are imposed 
 to make up any deficiency in the borough 
 accounts, and are usually assessed on the poor- 
 rate valuation. This rate is often increased 
 considerably by the loans, which, under the 
 Act of 1835 and subsequent Acts, corporations 
 are authorised to borrow, {e) County rates 
 are levied for the general expenses of each 
 county. They are collected like the poor rate 
 from each parish by the overseers, and appor- 
 tioned by a committee of quarter sessions. 
 Police rates are levied in the same way. 
 {/) Rates for sanitary purposes, such as 
 sewerage rates, and borough baths and wash- 
 houses rates, and water rates, are imposed 
 under the various Public Health Acts which 
 have been passed since 1848. By the Act of 
 1875 the guardians are constituted the autho- 
 rities in rural districts ; and in urban districts 
 the town council, or the improvements com- 
 mission, or a local board appointed by the 
 ratepayers. {ff) Lastly, school -rates are 
 levied by the Act of 1870, to make up the 
 difference between fees and expenditure. In 
 boroughs they form part of the borough rate, 
 and in parishes outside boroughs part of the 
 poor rate. In the City of London there are 
 nine different rates collected by different 
 authorities. The poor rate is assessed by the 
 Local Government Board, and sanitary votes 
 are controlled by the Board of Works. In 
 1881 the total receipts for England and 
 Wales were nearly £54,000,000, of which 
 £31,000,000 was raised by local taxation, but 
 in 1867 the total receipts had been only 
 dS36,000,000. 
 
 Chalmers, Local Government in tlie English 
 Citizen Sdvies ; Palgrave, Local Taxation of threat 
 Britain. [L.C.S.] 
 
 Ka.tll'aiines, The Battle of. In 1649 
 the Royalists under Ormonde besieged Dubhn, 
 having already captured all the other places 
 held for the Parliament. On August 2 he 
 ordered a night attack, but Colonel Jones, the 
 Parliamentarian commander, sallied forth, 
 drove back the advancing force, and attacked 
 
 the main body encamped at Eathmines. Just 
 outside the walls Ormonde was completely 
 routed, four thousand men were slain, and his 
 artillery and two thousand men captured. 
 
 Ravenspiir, or Ravenser, nea* Spurn 
 Head in Yorkshire, was in early times the 
 most considerable port on the Plumber, but 
 the encroachments of the sea gradually 
 destroyed it, although it does not seem to 
 have been entirely submerged till the middle 
 of the sixteenth century. It was at Eavenspur 
 that Henry IV. landed in 1399, and Edward 
 IV. in 1471. 
 
 Baymond, Michel, was a French ad- 
 venturer, who entered the service of Nizam 
 Ali in 1785, and soon organised a force 
 of 15,000 disciplined troops, officered by 124 
 Europeans, chiefly French. In the war be- 
 tween Nizam Ali and the Peishwa in 1795, 
 these forces fought well, and they would have 
 become formidable to the English, but for 
 the death of Raymond in 1798. The Marquis 
 Wellesley upon landing as Governor-General 
 demanded the dismissal of the French con- 
 tingent, to which the Nizam consented in the 
 treaty of Sept. 1, 1798. No adventurer in 
 India ever stood higher than he did. His 
 death, just as the crisis to which he might 
 have been equal was approaching, was the 
 last drop in the cup of ill-fortune which at- 
 tended French enterprises in India. 
 
 Malleson, Final French Struggles in Ind>a; 
 Owen, Selection of TTellesley's Despatches, p. 165. 
 
 Beading, the chief town of Berkshire, 
 mentioned first in 871 vyhen Ethelred and his 
 son Alfred were there defeated by the Danes, 
 though the victory of Ashdown near the town 
 was afterwards won. The town was impor- 
 tant as defending the frontier of Wessex 
 against Mercia, since Wessex had been de- 
 prived of the lands north of the Thames. 
 Under Ethelred the Unready in 1006 the 
 town was reached by the Danes and burnt. 
 Here Henry I. founded a great monastery in 
 which he himself was afterwards buried. " It 
 was not unfit," says Professor Freeman, " that 
 the victor of Teuchebrai should sleep on a spot 
 all whose associations were purely English, a 
 spot which had won its earlier place in history 
 as the scene of some of the greatest exploits 
 of Alfred." It was frequently favoured by 
 the royal presence, and several parliaments 
 were held here by Henry VI. and Edward IV. 
 
 Beliellion, The Gkeat. The struggle 
 between the monarchy and the Parhament 
 which led to the Great Rebellion began with 
 the accession of the House of Stuart to the 
 English throne. James I. and Charles I. in- 
 herited the Tudor dictatorship, but the autho- 
 rity which Henry VIII. and Elizabeth had 
 exercised in harmony with the feelings of the 
 nation, they endeavoured to use for unpopular 
 purposes. The Commons, who had grown 
 strong and rich during the sixteenth century, 
 
Reb 
 
 (854 ) 
 
 Heb 
 
 •woke to a consciousness of their strength, 
 and headed the opposition to the crown, as 
 the harons had done in the thirteenth. Whilst 
 James I. formulated a dogmatic theory of 
 the sovereign power, and strove to realise it, 
 the Commons revived the constitutional 
 claims of the fourteenth and fifteenth centu- 
 ries. The Petition of Eight in 1628 was an 
 attempt to limit the king's powers, and secure 
 the subject's rights, but there was no impar- 
 tial authority to interpret the meaning of the 
 contract, and the Commons claimed by virtue 
 of it much that the king had not meant to 
 concede. For eleven years the king governed 
 through the Privy Council without calling a 
 Parliament. The judgment on Hampden's 
 case in June, 1637, definitely settled the ques- 
 tion of taxation in the kiag's favour. But at 
 this very time the king's ecclesiastical policy 
 had called forth in Scotland an opposition 
 which obliged him, after an unsuccessful 
 attempt to suppress it by arms, to have 
 recourse once more to an English Parliament. 
 The Short Parliament, which met in April, 
 1640, instead of supporting the king in the 
 war, demanded the abolition of ship money 
 and the taxes levied for the support of the 
 army, and was about to petition in favour of 
 the Scots, when it was dissolved. The ill 
 success of the second Scotch war, and the 
 invasion of England, obliged Charles again 
 to call a Parliament, known afterwards as 
 the Long Parliament, on Nov. 3, 1640. 
 On the 11th the impeachment of Strafford 
 was moved by Pym, that of Laud followed 
 a little later, and other leading officials 
 fled abroad. Ship money was declared illegal, 
 and tonnage and poundage were no longer 
 to be levied without the consent of Parlia- 
 ment. The Star Chamber, the Court of 
 High Commission, and other extraordinary 
 jurisdictions were abolished. The Triennial 
 BUI bound the king to summon a Parliament 
 every three years, and he was obhged to 
 consent to an Act prohibiting him from dis- 
 solving the existing Parliament. Hitherto the 
 Commons had been united, but the question 
 of Church reform caused a division in their 
 ranks. One party wished to abolish the 
 bishops altogether, the other merely to limit 
 their powers. Thus the king was enabled to 
 gather round him a party which gave him 
 their support on the further questions which 
 rose out of this disagreement. In the Grand 
 Eemonstrance the Parliamentary leaders 
 appealed to the people, setting forth the 
 king's misgovemment in the past, and the 
 political and ecclesiastical reforms they 
 demanded for the future. The Irish rebellion, 
 which broke out in Oct., 1641, raised the 
 question whether the king could be trusted 
 with an army. In England war began in the 
 autumn. The king set up his standard at 
 Nottingham on Aug. 22, 1642. On the king's 
 side were the north and west of England ; in 
 Wales and Cornwall, and on the border he found 
 
 his strongest adherents, while the south and 
 east, and the manufacturing districts especially, 
 took the side of the Parliament. The battle 
 of Edgehill (Oct. 23) had no decisive results, 
 and a second battle at Brentford (Nov. 12) 
 was equally fruitless. In the campaign of 
 1643 the advantage was decidedly on the 
 king's side. In the spring and the summer a 
 Cornish army conquered the west, and the 
 Marquis of Newcastle recovered Yorkshire. 
 The fate of the Parliamentary cause seemed 
 to depend on the question whether Gloucester 
 and Hull would hold out. But the Earl of 
 Essex relieved Gloucester, and defeated at 
 Newbury the king's attempt to intercept his 
 march back to London, whilst three weeks 
 later Newcastle was forced to raise the siege 
 of Hull. In one part of the country, however, 
 in the eabtem counties, the Parliamentary 
 cause had not only held its own, but gained 
 gTound, and an army had been formed there, 
 headed by the Earl of Manchester, but 
 inspired by Cromwell (q. v.) , which exercised a 
 decisive influence on the next campaign. Both 
 king and Parliament sought aid outside 
 England. The king concluded a truce with 
 the rebels, and brought over troops from 
 Ireland. The Parliament made an alliance 
 with the Scots, confirmed by the Solemn 
 League and Covenant, which procured them 
 the assistance of a Scotch army, but bound 
 them to endeavour to bring the three king- 
 doms to religious uniformity, and to reform 
 the English Church " accorcUng to the Word 
 of God, and the example of the best reformed 
 Churches." The Westminster Assembly ,which 
 had in July, 1643, commenced the delibera- 
 tions, ending two years later in the establish- 
 ment of Presbyterianism in England, was now 
 joined by Scotch divines, and Scotch repre- 
 tatives entered the committee which directed 
 the war. A Scotch army, under the Earl of 
 Leven, crossed the border, joined the troops 
 of Fairfax and Manchester, and laid siege to 
 York. Eupert relieved York, but oft'ered 
 battle under its walls, and the victory of 
 Marston Moor (July 2, 1644) was followed by 
 the conquest of all England north of the 
 Trent. In the west and south the king was 
 more fortunate. He defeated Waller at Cro- 
 predy Bridge (.June 29), and shut up Essex in 
 Cornwall, where his foot were obliged to 
 surrender (Sept., 1644). But the advance of 
 the Eoyalist army on London was put a stop 
 to by the second battle of Newbury (Oct, 27, 
 1644). Whilst the fruitless negotiations of 
 Ilxbridge were going on, the Parliament, urged 
 by Cromwell, resolved to adopt a new 
 system of carrying on the war. By the Self- 
 denying Ordinance the members of Parliament 
 who held commands were obliged to resign, 
 and by a second ordinance the army was re- 
 modelled, reduced to 21,000 men, and placed 
 under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax. 
 He was allowed to retain the services of 
 Cromwell, who became his lieutenant-general. 
 
Beb 
 
 ( 855 ) 
 
 Bee 
 
 Well armed, well disciplined, and well paid, 
 its ranks full of men "who had the fear of 
 Grod hefore their eyes, and made some con- 
 science of what they did," the " New Model " 
 changed the face of the war. Fairfax took 
 the field on May 1, 1645, and on June 14th 
 Charles was defeated at Naseby with the loss 
 of half his army. One after another the 
 king's fortresses in the west were conquered. 
 Winter alone stopped the progress of Fair- 
 fax ; hut in March, 1646. the king's last army 
 laid down its arms, and his last fortress, 
 Eaglan Castle, surrendered in August. Charles 
 himself took refuge in tho Scotch camp at 
 Newark at the beginning cf May. In the 
 negotiations which followed ihe Parliament's 
 chief demands were the control of the militia 
 and the establishment of Presbyterianism in 
 England. The king delayed gi -ing a definite 
 auswer as long as possible, but finally offered 
 to concede the militia for ten years, and the 
 establishment of Presbyteriaiiism for three. 
 The fcScots at last, weary of his delays, surren- 
 dered him to the Parliament, receiving in return 
 compensation for their expenses in the war 
 (Jan. 30,1647). The Presbyterian leaders were 
 as anxious to impose uniformity, and as hostile 
 to liberty of conscience and diversity of 
 worship as Laud himself. The army, on the 
 other hand, had fought for reHgious as well 
 as for civil liberty, and were resolved to 
 secure it. They believed also that " God's 
 Providence " had " cast the trust of religion 
 and the kingdom upon them as conquerors." 
 They had also a special grievance as soldiers 
 in the proposal to disband them without 
 payment of their arrears, so they did not 
 scruple when their demands were refused 
 to seiae the king's person (June 4, 1647), 
 march on London, expel eleven of the Presby- 
 terian leaders from Parliament (Aug. 7), and 
 treat directly with the king themselves. The 
 king still continued his attempt to play o£E 
 one party against the other, and refused to 
 accept the terms of the soldiers. He escaped 
 from the hands of the army (Nov. 11), and 
 took refuge in the Isle of Wight, where, whilst 
 publicly negotiating with the Parliament, he 
 privately concluded a treaty with the Scots, 
 promising in return for his restoration to 
 establish Presbyterianism for three years, and 
 suppress all dissident sects. Parliament 
 replied to his rejection of the Four Bills, in 
 which they had embodied their demands by a 
 vote that no more addresses should be made to 
 the king (Jan. 3, 1648), and a meeting of the 
 officers of the army decided that it was their 
 duty so soon as the expected war was over to 
 call " Charles Stuart, that man of blood," to 
 account for the blood he had shed, and the 
 mischief he had done. In April the second 
 Civil War broke out. Fairfax defeated the 
 Kentish Royalists, shut up the main body of 
 •the insurgents at Colchester, and starved them 
 into surrender (Aug. 28). Cromwell, after 
 putting down the insurrection in Wales, 
 
 attacked and destroyed the Scotch army under 
 the Duke of Hamilton in a three days' battle 
 in Lancashire (Aug. 17, 18, 19). Meanwhile 
 the Presbyterian majority in Parliament had 
 seized the opportunity to pass a severe law 
 against heresy, and reopen negotiations with 
 the king (Treaty of Newport). The victorious 
 army trusted nether king nor Parliament, but 
 resolved to put a stop to the negotiations, and 
 effect a settlement of the kingdom itself. The 
 king was seized at Carisbrooke, and removed 
 to a place of security (Dec. 1). The House 
 of Commons, purified by the exclusion of 
 ninety-six Presbyterian members (Dec. 6), 
 and the voluntary abstention of many others, 
 became the obedient instrument of the army. 
 It passed a resolution to bring the king t" 
 justice (Deo. 13), assumed the supreme power 
 (Jan. 4, 1649), and erected a High Court of 
 Justice to trj' Charles (Jan. 9). The trial 
 lasted from Jan. 20 to 27, and the king was 
 executed on the 29th, but out of the hundred 
 and thirty-five members of whom the court 
 was. composed only fifty-nine signed the death 
 warrant. The new government, which took 
 the name of Commonwealth, consisted of a 
 Council of State of forty-one persons exercis- 
 ing the executive power, and a House of 
 Commons, which rarely numbered more than 
 sixty members. [Commonwealth ; Loko 
 Parliament.] 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the Rebellion ; Caxlyle, 
 Cromwell's Letters and, Speeches ; Majr, Hifi. of 
 the Long Parliament ; Whitelocke, Memorial; 
 Thurloe, State Papers; Ludlow, Memoirs; Sco- 
 bell. Acts and Ordinances made in Parliament, 
 1640—1658; Memoirs of Col. Hutchinson by Ms 
 Wife ; EuBhworth, Collections ; Brodie, Const. 
 Hist. o/.Bng., 1625—1660; Gulzot, Oliver Crom- 
 well and the English Commonwealth ; S. E. Gar- 
 diner, Hist, of Bn^., 1603—1642, and Tht PnrUan 
 Revolution. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Bebellion, The Irish. [Ireland.] 
 Bebelliou, Cade's. [Cade's Rebellion.] 
 Bebellion, Wat Tylek's. [Tyler's 
 Rebellion.] 
 
 Becord, Courts op, are those " where the 
 acts and judicial proceedings are enrolled in 
 
 parchment which rolls are called the 
 
 records of the court, and are of such authority 
 that their truth is not to be called in 
 question." (Stephen's Commentaries.) They 
 have power also to impose fine and imprison- 
 ment for contempt of court. A court must 
 either be a Court of Record by immemorial 
 recognition or by modem creation through 
 Act of Parliament. James I. by yielding to 
 the Commons in the case of Goodwin (1603), 
 recognised that their house was a Court of 
 Record. 
 
 Becord 0£5.ce. In 1800 a committee 
 of the House of Commons was appointed to 
 examine into the condition of the public 
 records, and in accordance with its recom- 
 mendations, a royal commission was ap- 
 pointed, which was renewed six times, and 
 
Kec 
 
 ( 856 ) 
 
 Bed 
 
 lasted till the accession of Victoria. The 
 Eeoord Gommissiou published its Report in 
 1837, and on its recommendation, by an 
 Act of 1838, the guardianship of the re- 
 cords was conferred upon the Master of the 
 EoUs, with power to appoint a deputy. Under 
 this act the documents have been removed 
 from their many receptacles, and placed in 
 the new Record Office in Fetter-lane, London, 
 and a staff of officials and clerks is em- 
 ployed in their preservation and arrangement. 
 In 1857 the Master of the Rolls began the 
 publication of the series of Chronicles and 
 Memorials known as the Rolls Series (q. v.) . 
 
 Becorder. Before the Municipal Cor- 
 porations Act of 1835, 169 out of the 246 
 corporate towns in England, had recorders or 
 stewards. Most of these were nominated by 
 the Common Council, sometimes however by 
 the aldermen only, sometimes by all the bur- 
 gesses. " They were mostly magistrates 
 within their boroughs, and quorum judges of 
 the Courts of General and Quarter Sessions, and 
 Courts of Record where those existed." But 
 few recorders, however, actually resided in 
 the towns, and in many cases ^he office was 
 obtained only in order to facilitate the exercise 
 of political influence. By the Act of 1835 
 all towns without a separate Court of Quarter 
 Sessions were deprived of their criminal juris- 
 diction; but boroughs were permitted to 
 petition the crown lor a separate Court of 
 Quarter Sessions, .stating the salary they are 
 ready to pay the recorder. If the petition is 
 granted the crown henceforward nominates the 
 recorder. He must be a barrister of at least 
 five years standing. He holds his court four 
 times a year, or more often if necessary, and 
 is sole judge therein. He is also a justice of 
 the peace for the borough, and has precedence 
 next after the mayor. In 1879 ninety-six 
 boroughs had recorders under the Act. 
 
 Vine, English Municivalities ; Stephen, Hist. 
 of CriTiimal Law, 1, cli. 4. 
 
 Recruiters. The Royalist members who 
 deserted the Parliament at Westminster after 
 the outbreak of the Civil War were one by 
 one "disabled" by the House of Commons 
 in 1645. Writs were moved for new elec- 
 tions in their place. More than 230 new 
 members were returned, who were called 
 scoffingly by the Royalist writers, " Re- 
 cruiters." They were naturally all Puritans, 
 and the Independent element was consider- 
 able. The most important of them wereBlake, 
 Ireton, Hutchinson, Ludlow, and Algernon 
 Sidney. 
 
 A full list ot the members of the Long Par- 
 liament, with the Eecruiters marked, is given 
 in an Appendix to Carlyle's Oram-uiell. 
 
 Bedan, The, was a fortress protecting the 
 southern side of Sebastopol. [Crimean 
 Wah.] On Sept. 5, the English attempted 
 to take it by storm, while the French attacked 
 the MalakofE. The numbers of the attacking 
 
 party were, however, so diminished while 
 crossing the open ground immediately in 
 front, and there was so much difficulty in 
 sending for reinforcements, that the handful 
 of men who had entered the works were 
 forced to retire. The evacuation of the 
 southern side of Sebastopol during the night 
 made a further attack unnecessary. 
 
 Bedeswire, The Raid of (1575), was a 
 disturbance on the borders arising from a 
 dispute between Forster, the English warden, 
 and Carmichael, the Scotch warden, of the 
 marches. The English were defeated, their 
 warden and the Earl of Bedford being taken 
 prisoners. The affair nearly led to a rupture 
 with the English court. 
 
 Bed Biver Expedition, The. In 
 
 1869 the Red River Settlement, in North 
 America, which had been in the territories 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company, was trans- 
 ferred to the new Dominion of Canada. Some 
 of the settlers, however, refused to acknow- 
 ledge the transfer, or to receive the new 
 lieutenant-governor. On Nov. 24 the rebels, 
 under Louis Eiel, took possession of Fort 
 Garry, and resisted by force an attempt of 
 Major Boulton to get possession of the place. 
 One of Boulton's followers, named Scott, was 
 seized and shot. An expedition, consisting 
 of about 350 British troops and a number of 
 Canadian militia, • under the command of 
 Colonel Wolseley, was sent against them. 
 After a three months' journey in boats across 
 the lakes and rivers. Colonel Wolseley reached 
 Fort Garry (Aug. 23, 1870). The rebels sur- 
 rendered without resistance. The Red River 
 territory, under its new name, Manitoba, 
 became a lieutenant - governorship of the 
 Dominion of Canada. 
 
 Red Sea Expedition, The. In 1800, 
 the Marquess Wellesley despatched 4,000 
 Europeans and 5,000 sepoys, under General 
 Baird, to co-operate with the forces under 
 Abercromby in the expulsion of the French 
 from Egypt. The expedition proceeded up 
 the Red Sea to Cosseir ; thence they marched 
 120 miles over the desert to the Nile, reached 
 Cairo Aug. 10, and encamped on the shores 
 of the Mediterranean on the 27th. Before, 
 however, the Indian contingent could be 
 brought into action, the report of its approach, 
 and the energy of General Hutchinson, who 
 succeeded to the command on the death of 
 Sir Ralph Abercromby, induced the French 
 general to capitulate. 
 
 Wellesley, Bespaiches; Alison, Sist. of Eurojie. 
 
 Reduction, Action op, is a process of 
 Scotch law by which a settlement wrongly 
 made is questioned. Acting upon this analogy, 
 the Scotch Government in 1628 drew up "a 
 summons or initial writ of an Action of Re- 
 duction, against all copyholders of ecclesias- 
 tical _ property," declaring the king's right to 
 all kirklands. Charles's object was to restore 
 
Red 
 
 (857) 
 
 Bef 
 
 to the Scotoli duuch. part of the lauds of 
 which it had been depri.ved at the Eeforma- 
 tion. 
 
 Xtedwald^ King of East Anglia (*. circ^ 
 599), became a, Christian probablj'- owing- 
 to the pressure of his oyerlord, Eth'elbert of 
 Kent. Returning home from Kent,, where he 
 had received baptism, he- was " led astray by- 
 his wife and certain perverse teachers, so that, 
 like the ancient Samaritans, he seemed at the 
 same time to serve Christ and the gods whom 
 he had served before ; and in the same temple 
 he had an altar to sacrifice to Christ, and 
 another small one to- offer victims to devils " 
 (Bede). But it, would appear from Bede that 
 even while Ethelbert was living, his. place as 
 overlord in Central Britain had- been taken: 
 by Redwald., So that it is probable a war 
 had arisen, bet^veen Ethelbert and Eedwald 
 from this neligjous, compromise, and had 
 ended in Bthelbert's. defeat. "If middle 
 Britain threw- off the supremacy of Kent, its 
 states none the less remained, a political 
 aggregate ;_ and' their fresh union under the 
 King of Eastern Anglia was only a prelude 
 to their final' and- lasting union under the 
 lordship of Mercfa." (Green.) In 617 Edwin 
 of Northumbria took refuge at his court from. 
 Ethelfrith, and in. the same year Eedwald 
 attacked and defeated Ethelfrith on the Idle 
 — " the first combat between the great powers 
 which had now grouped the English peoples 
 about them." But EBdwaJd died, soon after, 
 and the East Anglian power seems to have 
 broken up under his son, Eorpwald. Bede 
 ii. 5, after describing Ethelbert's overlord- 
 ship (imperium), says that Redwald was the 
 fourth, king who gained a power of this kind 
 (imperium hnijmmodij. In the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle Eedwald is placed fourth, on the hst 
 of Bretwaldas. 
 
 Besides Bede and the Anglo-Saxon Chron., see- 
 Green, Making of Englanid, 
 
 Reeve (Sax. gerefa), a> name applied to 
 many classes of officials, especially to those 
 charged -with the management of some terri- 
 torial di-vision ; as the so-called Laws of Ed- 
 ward the Confessor say," est multiplex nomen ; 
 greve enim dicitur de. scira,. de wapentagiis, 
 de hundredis, de burgis, de viUis." [Of these 
 the most important was the shire-reeve, for 
 which see Shekiffj] Besides the sheriff, the 
 following uses of the term are to be noted :. — 
 Sigh-reeve (heah-gerefa) mentioned in the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, s. a. 778, 780, 1001, and 
 1002. Fort-reeve (port-gerefa), borough-reeve 
 (burh-gerefa) , and wic-gerifa also frequently 
 occur, in the sense of the chief officer of a 
 to-wn, who presided over its courts, &c. The 
 first title was only used in trading towns 
 (not necessarily ports), and was borne by 
 the presiding officers of several of the smaller 
 towns until recent times. Tun-gerefa ie the 
 usual term for the headman of a township. 
 He was probably chosen by the inhabitants | 
 
 ia free townships, but would be nominated by 
 the lord in dependent townships. He ap- 
 peared with the four best men in the hundred 
 court, and in dependent townships was legally 
 responsible for his lord's men. The position 
 of the manor-reeve (the representative of the 
 earlier tun-gerefa) in the thirteenth century 
 is clearly described in Fleta., He was to be a 
 good husbaadman chosen by the villati, and 
 was responsible for the cultivation of the 
 land, having especially to, watch over the 
 ploughs, and see that due service was 
 rendered. A kind of co-ordinate authority 
 was apparently exercised by the lord's bailiff, 
 and both alike were subject to. the seneschal 
 or steward, who often superidsed several 
 manors. 'The term hwnAred-reeve nowhere 
 appears. But a reeve is mentioned as holding 
 the court of the hundred in the laws of 
 Edward the Elder and Ethelred, and it is 
 possible' that there were two officers in the 
 hundred, the reeve representing the king's 
 interests, becoming, after the Conquest, the 
 bailiff of the hundsred, and the hundreds- 
 ealdor representing the freemen. 
 
 The derivation of the name- is uncertain. 
 It has usually been conneoted with German 
 groS^ and grau, grey, i.e. old, and explained in 
 the same -way as "alderman," "seigneur," 
 Arc. ; but there are philological objections 
 to this derivation, Schmid was inclined to 
 follow Spelmain, and connect it with reafan, 
 to, plunder,, since a large part of the sheriff's 
 duties was to,levy fines, &c., and the term exac- 
 tor was often- applied to him. Kemble sug- 
 gested that it was derived from refim, to call 
 aloud, and thus denoted fcaiwi-itor, the summon- 
 ing oificer. Mr. ISTax Miiller (Lectures on Lang,. 
 II. 884, ed. 1880)„while regardiiig'the>derivation 
 from gvaai as better- than the otiherB, thought 
 some more satisfactory etymology might be 
 discovered. More recently Mr. Skeat (Itymol. 
 'Bid., s. V.) has decided that the original sense 
 is simply " excellent," " famous,." formed from 
 rof, active, excellent, famous. 
 
 Schmid, Gesetze d&r Angelsaclisen, and Kemble, 
 Saaons, ii., Bk. ii., ch. vii., discuss all the uses 
 of the term. See also Stubbs, Oonst. Hist., i., 
 § 39, 45 ; and for the High-Eeeve, Green, Con- 
 guest o/Eng., especially ch. x., fW. J. A.] 
 
 Reformation, The. The process which 
 ended in the separate organisation, of the Eng- 
 lish Church was due to three principal causes : 
 (1) dissatisfactioa with the practical operation 
 of the papal head8hip>; (2) a desire to reform 
 the clergy,, and render the Church more use- 
 ful; (3) a conviction that the system of the 
 mediaeval Church had in many ways deviated 
 from the teaching of Christ and the apostles, 
 and from primitive custom. The fii-st of 
 these causes showed itself in England in 
 the reign of Henry III., and gi-adually led 
 to legislative acts by which England en- 
 deavoured to protect itself from imdue in- 
 terference on the part of the pope. The 
 Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire se- 
 cured England against the heavy exactions 
 by -which the papacy during the Great Schism 
 oppressed Christendom. [Papacy.] In the 
 reforming councils of the fifteenth century, 
 
I&ef 
 
 ('858 )■ 
 
 Kef 
 
 whicli laboured in vain, England did not take 
 a prominent part, because it already bad the. 
 means of keeping in check the claims' of the 
 papacy. It was, however, an Englishman 
 who first gathered together and expressed the 
 dissatisfaction of Europe. John Wycliffe began 
 his career by maintaining the independence 
 of the State from hierarchical interference. 
 To this he added a longing after greater 
 simpUoity and spirituality of life. He sent' 
 forth preachers among the people. He de- 
 nounced the worldliness of the papacy as anti- 
 Christian. He undertook the noble task of 
 translating the Bible into English. He wrote 
 numerous tracts to stir up the people to greater 
 earnestness in religion. He asserted the exist- 
 ence of a true spiritual Church founded on 
 faith in Christ, and depending for its rule in 
 the law of the Gospel. Moreover, as a means 
 of reducing the organisation of the Church to 
 greater purity, he attacked the central point 
 of sacerdotalism — ^the material conception of 
 transubstantiation in the sacrament of the 
 altar. He did not deny the presence of 
 Christ in the Eucharist ; he denied only the 
 change of substance in the elements after 
 consecration. Thus Wycliife united in his 
 teaching the three principles which brought 
 about the Reformation — a strong sense of 
 national patriotism, a deep desire for greater 
 spirituality of life, and an acute criticism of the 
 doctrines on which the existing system of the 
 Church was founded. Wycliffe's teaching drew 
 upon him ecclesiastical condemnation. His 
 opinions spread in Bohemia, and gave birth to 
 the rising of the Hussites. In England his 
 followers, the Lollards, were unfortunately 
 associated with political risings, and were 
 suppressed. Still WychiJe's translation of the 
 Bible, and many of his writings were passed 
 from hand to hand, and bodies of " Bible- 
 men " scattered here and there throughout 
 the land prepared the way for more decided 
 efforts. [Wyclipfe.] 
 
 The end of the Wars of the Eoses saw 
 a great change in the social condition of 
 England. The ideas of the Middle Ages were 
 languishing. The Feudal Sj'stem had prac- 
 tically passed away. "While the nobles were 
 fighting, the middle class had grown more 
 prosperous. A narrow but practical spirit 
 prevailed, which looked enviously on the 
 wealth of the Church, which was unafBected 
 by its sentiment, and which in a dim way 
 wished to see it made more useful. As 
 the new learning made its way in England 
 men like More dreamed of a new organisation 
 of society, and Colet bestirred himself in the 
 cause of a broader system of education. The 
 Church itself was vexatious to the people by 
 the wide extension of its inquisitorial courts 
 of spiritual discipline. The rabble of useless 
 and lazy priests excited the contempt of 
 thinking men. There was small hope of 
 reform from within ; for the organisation of 
 the Church depended on Rome, and the 
 
 secularised papacy of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury- was powerless to initiate reforms. 
 Politically the English Church, through fear 
 of the Lollards, had relied for help on the 
 crown, and had trusted to the balance of 
 parties. The overthrow of the baronage by 
 the Wars of the Roses left the crown 
 practically supreme, as the people were 
 too much engrossed in business to care for 
 anything save a strong and peaceful govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The desire for some reform in the Church 
 was felt by Wolsey, who obtained from the 
 pope permission to suppress thirty monas- 
 teries, and devote their revenues to educa- 
 tional foundations at Oxford and Ipswich. 
 Perhaps Wolsey's schemes for internal reform 
 would have progressed fuither, if a crisis in 
 the relations between Church and State had 
 not been brought about by the self-wiU of 
 Henry VIII. Henry VITL, fascinated by 
 Anne Boleyn, was resolved on a divorce from 
 his wife Catherine. He had married Catherine, 
 his brother's widow, by virtue of a papal 
 dispensation; he needed the papal consent 
 for a divorce. The papacy was the source of 
 ecclesiastical law, the supreme judge, with 
 equitable powers in cases of grievance. So 
 long as Henry VIII. expected to obtain his 
 divorce he was content to wait. But when 
 Wolsey's plans failed, and Pope Clement 
 VII. showed that he dared not gratify the 
 English king at the expense of offending the 
 Emperor, Henry VIII. resolved to give the 
 pope a sample of his spirit. The powerful 
 minister Wolsey was declared subject to the 
 penalties of the Statute of Praemunire, be- 
 cause he had exercised legatine powers with- 
 out the king's consent. He fell, and no voice 
 was raised in his favour (1529). Henry VIII. 
 appealed from the pope to the learning of 
 Christendom, and proceeded to gather the 
 opinions of the universities on the legality of 
 his man-iage, and the propriety of his divorce. 
 Further, to terrify the pope by a display of 
 his power, he involved all the clergy of the 
 realm under the penalties of Praemunire, 
 because they had recognised Wolsey's lega- 
 tine authority. The Convocation of 1531 was 
 compelled to sue for the king's pardon, and 
 grant him a large subsidy by way of a fine. 
 Moreover, the king demanded that he should 
 be called in the preamble of the Bill granting 
 the subsidy, " sole protector, and supreme 
 head of the Church and clergy of England." 
 With difficulty Archbishop Warham modified 
 the term " supreme head " by the limitation 
 " as far as the law of Christ allows." In the 
 Parliament of 1532 the pope was still further 
 threatened by an Act forbidding the payment 
 of annates to Rome. The clergy were terrified 
 by the presentation by the Commons of a long 
 petition ccmcerning ecclesiastical grievances. 
 It was clear that Henry VIII. was in a posi- 
 tion to do what he would. The Commons, as 
 representing the middle cl^ss, were on his 
 
Bef 
 
 ( 859 ) 
 
 Bef 
 
 side, because they had many practical 
 grievances which they hoped to see redressed. 
 The clergy had no strong hold on the people, 
 and had little organisation amongst them- 
 selves. They were helpless before the king, 
 and the pope was unable -to give them any 
 succour. What is known as " the submis- 
 sion of the clergy" was simply the practical 
 recognition of this fact. Convocation in 1532 
 " submitted themselves humbly to his high- 
 ness," and undertook thenceforth to pro- 
 mulgate no ordinance which had not received 
 th*e royal approval, and to submit the provincial 
 constitutions then in force to revision by a 
 committee of sixteen laymen and sixteen 
 clergy appointed by the king. In 1533 the 
 new Archbishop, Craumer, took cognisance of 
 the question of the king's divorce, and pro- 
 nounced his marriage invalid from the lirst. 
 As the pope had pronounced ia favour of its 
 validity, this was a decided assertion of the 
 Act passed in 1532 that appeals in such cases 
 as had hitherto been pursued in the Court of 
 Eome should thenceforth be had within the 
 realm. Henry VIII.'s marriage with Anne 
 Boleyn announced his breach not only with 
 the papacy but with the public opinion of 
 Europe. He had advanced step by step till 
 there was no return possible. The Parliament 
 of 1534 passed Acts confirming the submission 
 of the clergy to the jurisdiction of the crown, 
 forbidding the payment of annates and all 
 other dues to the pope, establishing the king 
 as supreme head of the Church, with authority 
 to reform all abuses, and conferring on him 
 all payments that previously were made to 
 the pope. All that was implied in the papal 
 headship over the Church was now swept 
 away from England. The secular privileges 
 of the pope were conferred upon the crown. 
 The Church, whose machinery had already 
 been broken down by papal encroachments, 
 was left without any power to repair that 
 machinery. Its legislative power was subject 
 to the royal assent, its courts were left un- 
 reformed, and appeals were to be heard and 
 decided in some court approved by the 
 crown. 
 
 Henry VIII. had overturned the papal 
 headship, and was na doubt aided in so doing 
 by the example of those German states where 
 the ideas of Luther had prevailed. But 
 Henry himself was opposed to Luther's 
 teaching, and had no sympathy with the 
 cause of doctrinal reform. He wished the 
 Church to remain as it had been, save that 
 the rights of the pope were transferred to 
 the crown. Even Cranm«r, though Txe had 
 broken the rule of clerical celibacy, did not 
 meditate any great change. But in Oxford 
 and Cambridge especially men turned their 
 attention to German theology. At the end of 
 1534 Convocation petitioned the king_ to 
 decree a translation of the Bible into English, 
 a work which was not allowed till 1537. The 
 Tisitatorial power of the crown, vested in the 
 
 hands of Cromwell as Vicar-general, was not 
 allowed to slumber. The visitation of the 
 smaller monasteries led to an Act in 1535 
 giving to the crown all reHgious houses below 
 the annual value of £200. In 1539 the sup- 
 pression of the greater monasteries followed. 
 The centres of the reactionary and papal 
 party were abolished. The wealth and social 
 importance of the Church was greatly 
 diminished. The political power of the 
 Church in the House of Lords was reduced. 
 Those who were .accused, with some reason, 
 of making the ecclesiastical profession a 
 cloak far idleness were dispersed. 
 
 These changes were not made without pro- 
 foundly affecting English society. The bulk 
 of the lower classes were .attached to the 
 old state of things, and suffered from the 
 abolition of the monasteries. The number of 
 those who were influenced by the teaching- 
 of Luther increased in activity. The middle 
 class alone was satisfied, and Henry VIII. 
 took care to satisfy them in his measures. To 
 define the position of the English Church, 
 Ten Articles "to stablish Chiistian quiet- 
 ness " were put forward by the southern 
 Convocation in 1536, which asserted as "laud- 
 able ceremonies'' the chief uses of the old 
 Church. In 1537 was issued the Bishop's 
 Book, or Institution of a Christen Man, which 
 discarded the papal monarchy, but otherwise 
 maintained the existing system. Free dis- 
 cussion of dogmatic questions was not ac- 
 cording to Henry VIII. 's views. He valued 
 his reputation for orthodoxy, and in 1539 
 the Six Articles inflicted the punishment 
 of death on all who should call in question 
 the chief dogmas and practices of the mediaival 
 Church. So long as Henry VIII. lived no 
 further changes were made in the position of 
 the Church of England. His strong hand 
 kept contending parties from struggling, and 
 his strong will impressed itself on the nation. 
 
 With the accession of Edward VI. long 
 pent-up antagonisms made themselves felt. 
 One party, headed by Gardiner, Bishop of 
 Winchester, was contented with the abolition 
 of the papal headship, and was opposed to 
 further change. The reforming party was 
 divided into three chief bodies — one consisted 
 of revolutionary sectaries, whose wild talk 
 had already created alarm ; another body of 
 advanced reformers had absorbed much of 
 the theology of the Swiss teacher Zwingli, 
 and regarded the sacraments as external 
 symbols ; the more moderate reformers, 
 headed by Cranmer, leaned to the teaching 
 of Luther and Melanohthon ; they were willing 
 to reform superstitious errors, but they held 
 bv the sacraments and the system of the 
 Church. This last party succeeded in getting 
 matters into their hands, and expressed their 
 views in the first prayer-book of Edward VI., 
 and in the jBook of the Bomilies. The prayer- 
 book provided a uniform use for the service 
 of the English Church; the homUies pro- 
 
Kef 
 
 ( 860 ) 
 
 fi,ef 
 
 vided for the restoration of preaching as a 
 means of teaching the people ; the Bible was 
 already translated. The practical character 
 of the" English Church was thus emphasised. 
 It aimed at meeting the national needs, and 
 appealed to the national intelligence. But 
 the first Prayer-book did not satisfy the more 
 ardent reformers, whose numbers were rein- 
 forced by a large intLnx of foreign teachers- 
 driven by religious, persecution from the Con- 
 tinent. Under their influence Cranmer's. 
 views developed, and in 1552 a second Prayer- 
 book was issued, which simplified vestments, 
 omitted some usages which were deemed 
 superstitious, and re-modelled the Communion 
 Ser^dce that it might be more acceptable to. 
 the followers of Zwingli and Calvin. The 
 formularies of the Church were also set forth 
 in Forty-two Articles, which in the main, 
 followed the ideas of the Saxon reformers, 
 while retaining much of the conservatisni 
 which especially marked the beginnings of 
 the English movement. No sooaer had this- 
 been done than the accession of Mary pro- 
 duced a reaction, which the. bulk of the 
 people regarded with indifference. The 
 progress of the Reformation under Edward 
 VI. had been too rapid. It had been accom- 
 panied by many outrages on the' opinions of 
 those who held by the old forms. It showed 
 little tenderness or consideration for others, 
 and was endured rather than welcomed. 
 
 Under Mary, Gardiner and his party pre- 
 pared to return to a recognition, of the papal 
 headship. England was agstin reconciled to 
 the papacy. Many of the English reformers- 
 fled to the- Continent ; many who remained, 
 amongst them Cranmer, sufered death for 
 their opinions. But Mary's government was- 
 a failure. Her religious persecution was carried 
 on in a spirit of narrow fanaticism, which 
 stirred the popular mind against her. Her 
 brief reign of five years ' undid the iU effects 
 of the excessive zeal af the reformers under 
 Edward VI., and disposed men to look regret- 
 fully on the reign and policy of Henry VIII. 
 Elizabeth had lived through both, and had 
 conformed to Romanism under Mary. She 
 made no change at first, but Anne Boleyn's 
 daughter could not seriously contemplate a 
 reconciliation with the papacy. Her first 
 Parliament in 1559 passed an Act to " restore 
 to the crown the ancient jurisdiction over 
 the estate ecclesiastical and spiritual, and 
 abolish aU foreign jurisdictions repugnant 
 to the same." Elizabeth explained the mean- 
 ing of the royal supremacy so re-established 
 to be " under God to have the sovereignty 
 and rule over all persons born within these 
 her realms of what estate, either ecclesiastical? 
 or temporal, soever they be, so as no other 
 foreign power shall or ought to have any 
 superiority over them." At the same time 
 heresy was defined to be what was contrary 
 to the canonical Scriptures, or the first four 
 general councDs. The Prayer-book was revised 
 
 and legalised, and uniformity of worship was 
 enforced by an Act bidding aU men to resort 
 to their parish church. The greater part of 
 the Marian bishops refused to take the oath of 
 supremacy, and were deprived of their sees. 
 Matthew Parker, the new Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, brought great learning and much 
 moderation to the difficult task of re-organis- 
 ing the English Church upon a basis which 
 should be at once comprehensive and definite 
 enough to form a strong institution. The 
 exiles who had fled before Mary's persecution 
 returned to England, strongly imbued with 
 the ideas of Calvin. The Catholic party 
 resented its loss of supremacy. Elizabeth 
 supported as a compromise the system which 
 her father had devised. The old order and 
 ceremonies of the Church were left untouched, 
 while loom was made for the exercise of the 
 spirit of personal religion. At first the Eliza- 
 bethan system was net strong in its hold on the 
 popular mind. It was tolerated because it was 
 the only means of securing peace. Soon the 
 feeling of the mass of the people gathered round 
 it, and the events of the reign of Elizabeth 
 identified it with the English spirit. A body 
 of Calvinists, known as Puritans or Pr-ecisions, 
 objected to some of its ceremonies, and to its 
 episcopal organisati-on. They vainly strove 
 to make alterations, and the " Martin Mar- 
 prelate" controversy (1588) is a testimony to 
 their zeal. They were strong in the House 
 of Commons, and grew in strength under 
 James I. and Charles I., so that the Great Re- 
 bellion was as much a religious as a political 
 controversy. On the other hand, the Roman,-- 
 ists organised themselves into a political party. 
 Elizabeth was excommunicated' in 1570, and 
 Jesuit missionaries fiocked into England. 
 They were persecuted, and the ^eat mass oi 
 the English Catholics- remained loyal to their 
 queen and country against the attacks of 
 Spain. Practically the reiga of Elizabeth 
 saw England established as a Protestant 
 coimtry. The Church of England has in the 
 main adhered to the lines then laid down, 
 while Romanists and Nonconformists have 
 gradually been admitted to civil and religious 
 equality, 
 
 Proude, Hist: of Eug. ; liingard, Sist. of 
 Eng. • Strype, Memoi-ials; Dixon, Hist, of the 
 Churofi of Eng. ; Heylin, Hist, of the Reforma- 
 tion ; Poxe, Acts aud Monuments ; Burnet, Ri^t. 
 of the Reformation; Pocock, Records of the 
 Reformation'; Calendtr of State Papers of Henry 
 Till, a/nd Elizabeth; the publications of the 
 Parker Society; Seebohm, Oa,/ord Reformers; 
 D'Aubisn^-, Hist, of the Reformation in the Time 
 of Imther. rjj-_ q-. 
 
 Reformation in Ireland. The Par- 
 liament which met at Dublin in May, 1536, 
 rapidly copied the measures which the Eng- 
 lish Parliament had just passed. In the first 
 session the king was declared supreme head 
 of the Church of Ireland, and given the first- 
 fruits ; and appeals to Rome were abolished. 
 To facilitate the work, Poynings' Act was 
 
I&ef 
 
 (861 ) 
 
 ■Re£ 
 
 suspended, so that the English statutes needed 
 only to he copied, aild it was not necessary to 
 send drafts to London and hack. No opposi- 
 tion was ottered hy the laity ; hut the spiritual 
 peers sturdily resisted the progress of the 
 bills; and the proctors of the clergy (who 
 were in Ireland memhers of Parliament, 
 though not apparently sitting with the Com- 
 mons, hut in a separate house) were so ener- 
 getic in obstruction that the Privy Council 
 decided that they had no right to vote, and 
 caused an Act to be passed in the next session 
 depriving them of the privilege. In 1637 
 certain monasteries were suppressed, and this 
 was soon followed by a general dissolution. 
 A small part of the monastic revenues were 
 transferred to bishoprics ; but, as in England, 
 the greater portion of the land was sold at 
 nominal prices to private persons. An im- 
 portant part was played in these transactions 
 by George Browne, the " Cranmer of Ire- 
 land," who had been Provincial of the Austin 
 Friars, and had been created Archbishop of 
 Dublin in 1 .5 35. The Bidding Prayer issued by 
 him in 1538 is the fiist document in which the 
 union of the churches of England and Ireland 
 is declared. Until the accession of Edward 
 VI., no change was made in worship or belief. 
 But when an attempt was made hy the council 
 without Act of Parliament to enforce the use 
 of Edward's Prayer Book, the Archbishop of 
 Armagh and most of the bishops and clergy 
 refused to obey. Only Browne and five 
 bishops accepted the new liturgy. As Armagh 
 was in the land of O'Neil, and beyond the 
 control of the council, the primacy was trans- 
 ferred to Dublin, and some of the vacant 
 bishoprics were filled up by advanced Re- 
 formers, of whom the most important was 
 Bale of Ossory. Under Mary the old state 
 of things was restored. Browne, the con- 
 forming bishops, and the married clergy were 
 deprived. In the second year of Elizabeth, a 
 carefully packed Parliament passed the Act of 
 Uniformity, and copied the contemporarj' 
 English measures. Three bishops alone re- 
 fused to conform ; but in a large part of the 
 country mass continued to be performed, and 
 where the new system was really introduced, 
 the dissolution of the monasteries, which had 
 in many places served the parish churches, 
 left half the parishes without clergy. The 
 English Church, which had been imposed by 
 the English Government, and was used as a 
 means of Anglicising the Irish, never laid hold 
 of the Irish people. They adhered finnly to 
 the old opinions, and persecution only inten- 
 sified their steadfastness. The disestablishment 
 of the Irish Church in 1869 was an admission 
 that the Reformation in Ireland had been a 
 failure, and that the people were practically 
 Roman Catholic. 
 
 Dixon, History of Ihe CT'irrA of Englcmd, 
 
 vol. ii. cli. ix. : Wa'pole, hin^jdom of Ireland ; 
 
 JTant, Hint, of the Clfrch of lehnd; Eh-iBgton, 
 
 Life of Uscher; O'SulUviun, Historia Catholica 
 
 IberniiB. 
 
 Beformatiou in Scotland. The Re- 
 formation was the first national movement 
 in Scotland which originated with the people, 
 who now came forward for the first time as a 
 power in the State. By the beginning of the 
 fifteenth century the church in Scotland had 
 become very unpopular. Favoured by the 
 crown it had amassed riches and lands. Its 
 prelates held the great offices of state, and 
 were arrogant and overbearing, delighting in 
 displays of their pomp and power. This 
 roused the jealousy of the baronage. The 
 burden of the tithes and church dues, and the 
 greed and injustice that were exercised in 
 extorting them by the clergy, in whom the 
 spirit of avarice was dominant, woke the 
 hatred of the people, who lent a willing ear 
 to the reformed doctrines. These doctrines 
 were imported by the fugitives, who fled over 
 the Border to seek safety from the Marian 
 persecution in Eagland. Sympathy with 
 their sufferings overcame the prejudice against 
 their nation, and roused a Protestant re- 
 action among the people. Many of the land- 
 owners, inspired by a desire to get hold of the 
 church lands, joined the popular movement. 
 The Reformers signed the bond which pledged 
 them to united support [Covenant] in 
 1557. Abjuration of Papal authority and 
 adoption of the English Bible and Prayer- 
 book were its principles. The "Lords of 
 the Congregation," as the supporters of the 
 bond were called, demanded of the regent, 
 Mary of Guise, a reformation of rehgion in 
 accordance with these principles. She refused, 
 and summoned their preachers before the 
 Privy Council. This roused a tumult. The 
 mob, excited by John Knox, rose in Perth, 
 sacked the religious houses, and defaced the 
 churches (1559). Their example was followed 
 throughout the country. The regent em- 
 ployed French soldiers to queU the insirr- 
 gents, and thereby excited a civil war. The 
 congregation took up arms and appealed to 
 England for support. On the death of the 
 regent the estates passed the Reformation 
 Statutes, which abjured the authority of the 
 pope, adopted the Genevan Confession of 
 Faith, and declared the celebration of the 
 mass a capital offence (Aug. 25, 1560). Thus 
 the Church of Scotland was nominally sepa- 
 rated from that of Rome. But these statutes 
 were not confirmed by the crown, for the 
 queen, Mary Stuart, was in France. "When 
 she arrived in Scotland (1561), though she 
 did not attempt to restore the old church, she 
 demanded toleration for herself and her 
 attendants, and re-established the mass in 
 her private chapel. Meanwhile the ministers 
 and the lairds fell out over the disposal of 
 the church lands. Most of the richest of 
 the ecclesiastical estates had been already 
 secured by laymen. Of the lands that 
 were stiU unappropriated the Privy Council 
 set aside one third to pay the stipends of 
 the mioisters of the reformed Church. The 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 862) 
 
 Bef 
 
 rest remained in posseeaion of the churchmen 
 who held it, and as they died off it was to 
 faJl to the crown. But the Lords refused 
 to accept the First Book of Discipline, a code 
 of stringent statutes drawn up by the ministers 
 for the government of the Church, even more 
 tyrannical in spirit than the exactions of the 
 old church, which had heen found so galling. 
 For the Presbyters imagined that they had 
 succeeded to the power of the pope, and 
 assumed the right of interfering in matters 
 secular as well as spiritual. On the deposition 
 of the queen (1567) the Earl of Murray, her 
 half-brother, was made regent for the infant 
 king. He had been foremost as a leader of 
 the Congregation, and during his regency 
 Presbyterianism was in the ascendant. The 
 government of all ecclesiastical matters was 
 committed to the General Assembly, a council 
 of Presbyters elected by their brethren. 
 Liturgical worship, however, was not alto- 
 gether swept away with the rites and cere- 
 monies of the Romish Church. A prayer- 
 book, called the Book of Common Order, was in 
 daily use in the churches. tTnder the regency 
 of Mar episcopacy was again restored (1572). 
 But the bishops were merely nominal, as they 
 had neither lands nor dignities, and were 
 subject to the authority of the General As- 
 sembly. In 1592 this shadowy episcopacy was 
 again abolished, and the Presbyterian polity 
 established. Each Presbyter was supreme in 
 his own parish. A certain number of parishes 
 formed a Presbytery or council of Presbyters, 
 who despatched the ecclesiastical business of 
 the district. The Synod, composed of several 
 Presbyteries, was a court of appeal for matters 
 of graver import, while the supreme court, 
 the General Assembly, met yearly at Edin- 
 burgh. It was formed of ministers and lay- 
 men, elders as they were called, sent up as 
 deputies by the several Presbyteries. The 
 king, or his commissioners, was the secular 
 president. There was also a moderator 
 elected from among the Presbyters as acting 
 president. The Covenant, based upon the 
 principles of the first bond, was very generally 
 signed, and the second Book of Aseipline, 
 drawn up by Andrew Melville, was accepted 
 as a code for the government of the church. 
 Shortly after, the accession of King James to 
 the English throne again restored epis- 
 copacy. The General Assembly was not, 
 however, abolished, though deprived of its 
 despotic power. No change was made 
 in the established form of worship. The. 
 attempt made by Charles I. to substitute the 
 English Liturgy for the Book of Common 
 Order, and a Book of Canons for the Book of 
 Discipline led to the outbreak of the Civil 
 War. Under Cromwell Presbyterianism was 
 again established, and again displaced by 
 episcopacy under Charles II. After the 
 Revolution the bishops and the episcopal 
 clergy were turned out. The Presbyterian 
 Church was re-established by law (1690). 
 
 Since that date it has been the Church of 
 Scotland. And at the Union the liberty of 
 the Church was secured by a provision that 
 the Presbyterian should be the only church 
 government in Scotland from that time 
 forward. 
 
 Peterkin, Boohe of the Vniversal Kwh of 
 Scotland; Calderwood, Hist, of the Kirh .»/ 
 Scotland; Spottiswoode, Hist of the Church 
 of Scotland; Kuosr, Hist of the Reformation ; 
 McCrie, Life of John Knox ; Burton, Hist, of 
 Scotland; Gardiper, Hist, of Eng.i.,ch. ii. The 
 best modem account of t]ie Reformation from 
 the Presbyterian side will be found in Cun- 
 ningham, Church Hist, of Scotland; from th© 
 Episcopalian side in Grub, Eccl. Hist, of Scot- 
 land ; and from the Catholic side in Belleaheiin, 
 Geschichte ier Kathol. Kirche in Sohottland (1883). 
 
 [M. M.] 
 
 Reform Bills. The question of Parlia- 
 mentary Reform was first raised in a practical 
 shape by Pitt, when he brought forward in 
 1785 a motion, proposing to disfranchise 
 thirty-six rotten boroughs returning two 
 members each, and to give the members to 
 the counties and to London. The motion 
 was rejected by 248 to 174. The breaking 
 out of the French revolution a few years 
 afterwards, and the European war, diverted 
 men's minds from the subject, and produced a 
 disinclination towards the extension of popu- 
 lar liberty. In 1793 both Burke and Pitt 
 opposed Mr. Grey's Parliamentary' Reform 
 motion, which was negatived by 232 to 41, 
 and met with no better fate when brought 
 forward again in 1797. The Fox ministry 
 had no leisure, and the Portland ministry 
 no inclination, to attend to the matter. 
 In 1*17 'a motion of Sir Francis Burdett 
 was lost by 265 to 77, and a bolder attempt 
 of the same member to introduce manhood 
 suffrage the following year found not a 
 single supporter beside the mover and 
 seconder. In 1820 Lord J. Russell carried 
 a Bill for withholding writs from the rotten 
 boroughs of Camelford, Grampound, Penryn, 
 and Barnstaple, which was thrown out by 
 the Lords. Each year from 1821 to 1829 Lord 
 J. Russell or some other Whig introduced a 
 motion for reform, which in each case was 
 rejected. In Feb., 1830, the Marquess 
 of Blandford moved an amendment to the 
 address in favour of reform, which was 
 rejected by 96 to 11. The same year 
 Calvert's Bill to transfer the representation of 
 East Retford to Birmingham, and Lord J. 
 Russell's motion to enfranchise Leeds, Man- 
 chester and Birmingham, were rejected. 
 When Lord Grey became Prime Minister in 
 this year the subject was at once taken up by 
 the Cabinet. On March 1, 1831, Lord J. 
 RusseU introduced the Reform Bill. After 
 most animated debates the second reading of 
 the bill was carried (March 2) by a majority 
 of one (302 to 301). On an amendment in 
 committee for reducing the whole number of 
 members the ministry were defeated. On 
 April 22 Parliament was dissolved, to meet 
 
Ref 
 
 863 ) 
 
 Beg 
 
 again in June with the reformers in a great 
 majority. The Eeform Bill was again carried, 
 this time by 367 votes to 231. On Sept. 22 
 the bill finally passed the Commons, but was 
 thrown out by the Lords (Oct. 8) by 199 to 
 158. In .December a ,third Eeform Bill was 
 brought in and carried by a majority of 162. 
 The BiU sent up to the Lords in 1832 passed 
 the second reading on April 14 of that year. 
 But on May 7 the Peers, by a majority of 35, 
 postponed the disfranchising clauses of the 
 Bill, thus virtually rejecting it. The king 
 refused to create new Peers, the ministers 
 resigned, and the Duke of Wellington 
 attempted to form a Tory ministry. But the 
 attempt was hopeless, and the nation almost 
 in a state of insurrection. On May 15 the 
 Grey ministry returned to office, and the king 
 wasiprepared to create new Peers if necessary. 
 The Lords, however, at length gave way, and 
 on June 4 the Bill was passed. The Eeform 
 Bill of 1832 disfranchised 56 boroughs, having 
 less than 2,000 inhabitants, and deprived 
 30 other boroughs of one member each. 
 Of the 14^ seats gained, 65 were given to the 
 counties, 22 of the large towns received two 
 members each, and 21 others one each. A 
 uniform £10 household franchise was 
 established in boroughs, and in the counties 
 the 'franchise was given to copyholders, lease- 
 holders and tenants-at-wUl holding property 
 of the value of £50 and upwards. Eeform 
 Bills with analogous provisions were also 
 passed for Scotland and Ireland in 1832. 
 Between 1832 and 1850 motions for further 
 extending the franchise were frequently made 
 and lost. In 1852 and 1854 Lord J. Eussell 
 introduced Eeform BiUs which were with- 
 drawn. In 1859 Mr. Disraeli, on behalf of 
 the Conservatives, introduced a bill, which 
 was defeated by 39 votes. In 1866 (March) a 
 comprehensive Eeform Bill was introduced by 
 Mr. Gladstone. The "Adullamite" section 
 of the Liberals had, however, seceded from 
 their party, and the BiU, after fierce debate, 
 was carried only by '6 votes, and in June the 
 government were defeated on an amendment. 
 The Liberals resigned and the Conservatives, in 
 Feb., 1867, brought forward and passed (Aug.) 
 Mr. Disraeli's Eeform BiU of 1867. This 
 biU conferred a household and lodger franchise 
 in boroughs, though it stiU left a property 
 qualification in counties [Elections] . Between 
 1872 and 1883 motions in favour of household 
 franchise in the counties were moved 
 (generaUy by Mr. G. 0. Trevelyan) and 
 rejected. In 1884 Mr. Gladstone introduced 
 a Eeform BUI intended to render the franchise 
 •uniform in England, Scotland and Ireland, 
 and to assimilate it in counties and boroughs. 
 No provisions for the redistribution of seats 
 were made, but the government under- 
 took to bring in a BiU dealing with the 
 subject at an early date. After several 
 amendments in "favour of joining the Franchise 
 BUI with a RedistributionBiU had been thrown 
 
 out in the Commons, the bill passed its third 
 reading in the lower house by a majority of 
 130. The Lords, however, declared by a 
 majority of 51 that no biU would be satisfac- 
 tory which did not deal with the two subjects 
 of extension of the franchise and redistribu' 
 tion. The two bills were brought in the 
 next Session and carried. 
 
 Molesworth, Hist, of (fee Reform Bill; AlTVbeuB 
 Todd, ParliaTfientary Govt, in JEwg, ; Pauli. 
 EngliscJie Geschichta seit, 1815; Walpole, Hift, 
 of Eng. from 181S ; J. MoCarthy, Hist, of 
 Owr Own Times ; Hansard's Dihaies ; Awvaai 
 Register. 
 
 Begalia, the insignia of royalty, includ- 
 ing various articles used at coronations and on 
 state occasions. The most important of these 
 were mnder the charge of the Abbot of West- 
 minster tUl the Eeformation ; they are now 
 preserved in the jewel office at the Tower. 
 In 1649 the crowns were broken to pieces; 
 new ones were made for the coronation of 
 Charles II., and have been used ever since. 
 
 Zbegency may exist during the absence 
 or the incapacity of the sovereign through 
 nonage or disease. WiUiam I. , on his visit 
 to Normandy in 1067, left Odo, Bishop of 
 Bayeux, and Wilham Fitz Osbern, Earl of 
 ■Herefoird, joint guardians of his kingdom, 
 though he assigned to each a special pro- 
 vince. When the functions of the chief jus- 
 ticiar became defined, the vice-gerency of the 
 •kingdom was reckoned among them, though 
 the relative rights of this officer and of the 
 members of the royal house were not settled. 
 Henry II., during his absence, caused his 
 authority to be vested in his son, the younger 
 Henry, even before he associated him with 
 himself in the kingship. On the death of 
 H«nry II. Eleanor acted as regent untU the 
 return of her son, and on the faU of the jus? 
 ticiar Longchamp, while Richard was on the 
 crusade, the barons recognised John as the 
 vice-gerent of the kingdom. From the time 
 of Henry III. it became customary for the 
 king to appoint certain lieutenants, and some- 
 times his eldest son, though an infaint, to aci 
 during his absence. Accordingly William 
 III.,on leaving England in 1695, Queen Maiy 
 being then dead, appointed seven lords . jus- 
 tices for that purpose. George I. left the 
 Prince of Wales as regent during his first 
 absence from England,! but never did so again 
 on any like occasion. The question of the 
 exercise of the royal authority during the 
 absence of the king is now of little importance. 
 
 As the common law does not recognise in- 
 capacity in the sovereign, special provisions 
 have been made as to regency when occasion 
 required. On the acoession of Henry III. at 
 the age of nine, the barons appointed the 
 Earl of Pembroke as regent with the title 
 rector regis et regni, and associated -certain 
 counciUors with him. When Edward III. 
 succeeded his father at the age of fourteen, the 
 
Keg 
 
 (,8fi4) 
 
 Beg 
 
 ParHaHnent nominated a council to advise him. 
 No regent was appointed during the nonage 
 of Kichard II., but .the magnates in this case 
 nominated the coiuicil. On the accession of 
 Henry VI., his uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, 
 claimed the regency as next of kin, and by 
 the will of the late king. Both these claims 
 were disallowed by the council, and Parlia- 
 ment constituted the Duke of Bedford pro- 
 tector, allowing Gloucester the protectorate 
 during the absence of his brother. When 
 the king fell ill in 1454, the Duke of York 
 was appointed protector by the Lords, with 
 the assent of the Commons. On his renewed 
 illness the next j'ear, the lords in again ap- 
 pointing the duke assumed the right of 
 choice, thomgh the assent of the Commons 
 appears in the Act of Ratification. On the 
 death sf Edward IV. his widow tried t9 obtain 
 the guardianship of her son, but the Duke of 
 Gloucester was made protector by the council. 
 In 1536 Parliament granted Henry VIII. 
 authority to name such guardians as he chose, 
 in the event of his leaving a successor under 
 eighteen, if a male, or under sixteen if a 
 female. The king accordingly appointed his 
 sixteen executors as guardians of his son 
 Edward VI., constituting them a. council of 
 government. In spite of this arrangement 
 these councillors invested the Eaxl of Hert- 
 ford with the protectorate. 
 
 After the death of Frederick, Prince of 
 Wales, in 1751, Parliament provided for a 
 possible minority by enacting that the Prin- 
 cess of Wales should be regent and guardian 
 of the king's person, and by nominating a 
 council of regency to which the reigning king 
 had the right of adding four members. 
 George III., after a severe iUness in 1765, 
 wished Parliament to allow him the right of 
 appointing any person regent whom he chose. 
 A bill, however, was passed naming the queen, 
 the Princess of Wales, and any descendant of 
 the late king, as those from whomaregentmight 
 be selected. When the king was deprived of 
 reason in 1788 — 9, Fox asserted that the 
 Prince of Wales had a right to the regency, and, 
 though he soon substituted " legal claim " for 
 the word "right," maintained that Parlia- 
 ment had only to recognise the prince's 
 claim, and could not lay restrictions on his 
 authority. Pitt on the other hand declared 
 that the prince had "no more right to the 
 royal authority than any other subject," 
 and having caused Parliament to be opened 
 by commission under the great seal, intro- 
 duced a biU restricting the power and patron- 
 age of the proposed regent. The recovery of 
 the king prevented the settlement of these 
 questions for the time. On a like occasion in 
 1811, ParUament passed a bill imposing re- 
 strictions on the regent's authority. The 
 next regency bill, passed in 1830, provided 
 that, in the event of the death of William IV., 
 before the queen was of the age of eighteen, 
 the Duchess of Kent should be regent, no 
 
 council being appointed. As on the accession 
 of the queen, the King of Hanover became 
 heir presumptive, a Kegency Act passed 
 1837, provided that, on the decease of her 
 majesty, the royal function should be dis- 
 charged by -lords j ustices until the arrival of 
 the king. Another Act, passed on the mar- 
 riage of 'the queen in 1840, provided that, 
 should Her Majesty leave a successor under 
 age, Prince Albert should be regent, without 
 iany council, and with full powers save that 
 he might not assent to any bUl for altering 
 the succession, or affecting the rights of the 
 Church of England or the Church of Scot- 
 land. From these examples it wiU be gathered 
 that the right of selecting the person and de- 
 termining the power of a regent pertains to 
 the estat3S of the realm assembled in Par- 
 liament. [For the various Regency Bills see 
 the next Article.] 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., i., .'563; ii., 20, 368; iii. 
 97, 167, 221; Hallam, Middle Ages, iii., 184—194; 
 May, C nst. Hist., iii., c. 3 ; Sir G. C. Lewis, 
 Administrations, 112, 121 ; Sir N. Wraxall, Pos- 
 thumous ifemoirs, iii., 201—339. [W. H.] 
 
 Regency Bills. " In judgment of law 
 the king, as king, cannot be said to be a 
 minor," says Coke ; he lias, therefore, by 
 common law no legal guardian, nor has any 
 provision been made for the exercise of the 
 regal authority during his youth or incapacity. 
 It has accordingly been necessary to make 
 special iprovision as occasion has arisen, and 
 the various measures which have been adopted 
 have been of considerable political importance. 
 
 (1) 1751. TJpon the death of Frederick 
 Pnnce of Wales, an Act was passed appoint- 
 ing the Princess of Wales regent in the event 
 ■of the death of George II. before the Prince 
 ■of Wales was eighteen years old. She was to be 
 assisted by a council of regency nominated in 
 the Act, to which the king was empowered to 
 add foul: others. 
 
 (2) 1765. Upon the recovery of G-eorge III. 
 from his first attack of mental disease, it was 
 thought desirable to provide for the regency 
 during any such illness as should incapacitate 
 him, or in case of his death, during the child- 
 hood of his children. With his lofty vie'ws 
 of royal power, George III. was not ready to 
 place the nomination of a regent in the hands 
 of Parliament, but proposed that Parliament 
 should confer on him the power of appointing 
 anj- person he pleased as regent. He almost 
 certainly intended to nominate the queen, 
 but the ministers feared lest the Princess of 
 Wales should be nominated, and thus her 
 favourite, Bute, become aU powerful. George 
 had so far yielded to his ministers that he 
 consented to the limitation of his choice " to 
 the queen and any other person of the royal 
 family usually resident in England," and a bill 
 had been introduced into the House of Lords 
 to this effect. After the doubt as to whether 
 the queen was naturalised, and so capable of 
 acting as regent, had been set at rest by the 
 
Beg 
 
 ( 
 
 ■) 
 
 opinion of tte judges that marriage witli the 
 Iring naturalised her, the question arose as to 
 the meaning of the term " the royal family," 
 and most of the ministers, moved by hatred 
 of Bute, declared it did not include the 
 Princess of "Wales. Having caused a resolu- 
 tion ' introducing her name to be rejected, 
 they persuaded the king to consent to the 
 introduction of a clause Smiting his choice to 
 the queen and the descendants of the late 
 king, on the ground that otherwise the Com- 
 mons would exclude the princess hy name. 
 The Commons, however, reinserted her name, 
 and this evidence of the duplicity of his 
 ministers was one of the main causes of the 
 fall of the Grenville ministry. It is to he 
 noticed also that the Act nominated a council 
 of regency, consisting of the king's four 
 brothers and of his uncle, the Duke of Cum- 
 berland, and the great officers of state, and 
 empowering the king, in the event of the 
 death of a brother or of an uncle, to nominate 
 another person in his place. 
 
 (3) 1788— 89. In 1788 the king, after 
 proroguing Parliament, lost his reason, and it 
 became necessary to provide for the regency. 
 Parliament met without royal summons on 
 the day to which it had been prorogued, and, 
 after a fortnight's adjournment, proceeded to 
 discuss the question. Fox laid down that 
 " the Prince of Wales had as clear a right to 
 exercise the power of sovereignty during the 
 king's incapacity as if the king were actually 
 dead, and that it was merely for the two 
 Houses of Parliament to pronounce at what 
 time he should commence the exercise of his 
 light," while the Premier, Pitt, declared that 
 " unless by decision of Parliament, the Prince 
 of Wales had no more right — speaking of 
 strict right — to assume the government than 
 any other individual subject of the country." 
 The position taken up by the two statesmen 
 is explained by the fact that if the prince had 
 become regent, Pox would at once have been 
 made Prime Minister ; and Pitt was anxious 
 to delay the creation of a regent. In this he 
 was assisted by the Opposition, who resisted 
 the proposal to limit the future regent's 
 authority. At last, on Feb. 6, 1789, after 
 Parliament had been formally opened by 
 letters patent under the G-reat Seal affixed by 
 authority of ParKament, the bill in which, 
 among other limitations, the prince was 
 forbidden to bestow peerages except on royal 
 princes, was introduced in the Commons, 
 and soon sent up to the Lords; but the 
 king's sudden recovery put an end to further 
 proceedings, and, though the king was anxious 
 for some permanent provision for a regency, 
 nothing was done. 
 
 (4) 1810. When George III.'s mind finaUy 
 gave way, the precedent of 1788 — 89 was 
 followed exactly. The hill passed both 
 Houses ; and consent was given to it hy com- 
 mission under Great Seal affixed by authority 
 oi Parliament 
 
 Hlf5T.— 28 
 
 (5) 1830. The Duchess of Kent was ap- 
 pointed regent, in the event of the Princess 
 Victoria succeeding to the throne before 
 arriving at the age of eighteen. The regent 
 was not to be controlled hy a council, as in 
 previous Regency Acts, but to govern through 
 the ordinary ministers. 
 
 (6) 1837. On the accession of Victoria, as 
 the King of Hanover was presumptive heir, 
 an Act was passed providing, in the event of 
 the queen's dying while the successor was 
 abroad, for the carrying on of the government 
 by lords justices until his return. 
 
 (7) 1840. Upon the marriage of Victoria, 
 an Act was passed enacting that in the event of 
 any child of her Majesty coming to the, throne 
 under the age of eighteen. Prince Albert 
 should become regent, though without power 
 to assent to any bill for altering the succes- 
 sion, or afBecting the worship of the Church 
 of England, or the rights of the Church of 
 Scotland. 
 
 May, Const, Sist., i., oh. iii. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Begiam DSajestatem (so called from 
 its opening words) was a code of Scotch law 
 datin'g from the reign of David I., which was 
 regarded until recent times as the indepen- 
 dent work of Scotch lawyers of the twelfth 
 century. It is, however, scarcely more than 
 a copy of Glanvilie's Treatise on the Laws and 
 Customs of England, and was probably prepared 
 by some Scotch lawyer, who incorporated 
 with it fragments of earlier local usage, and 
 of the ancient customs known as " the Laws 
 of the Brets and the Scots." The character 
 and history of the Eegiam Majestatem illus- 
 trate the process of feudalisation . in Scotland 
 and the extent of English influence. 
 
 Burton, Kist. of Scotland, ii., p. 58 ; Preface 
 to vol. i. of Scots' Acts, by IiLoes. 
 
 Begioides, The. Those persons who sat 
 in judgment on Charles I., or were instru- 
 mental in his death, were both at the Re- 
 storation included under this title. , The 
 ordinance nominating the High Court of 
 Justice finaUy appointed 135 persons to judge 
 the king. Not half of thesejattended.the.faial, 
 the number present at the opening, counting 
 Bradshaw, the president, vras sixty-seven, and 
 sixty-seven also were present on Jan. 27, 1649, 
 when sentence was pronounced. Out of these 
 sixty-seven, fifty^ight, and one other person 
 (Ingoldsby) signed the death warrant. At the 
 Restoration, the House of Commons ordered 
 that " all those persons who sat in judgment 
 upon the late king's majesty when the 
 sentence was pronounced for his condem- 
 nation," should be forthwith . secured (May 
 14). In all the House of Commons placed 
 in the category, eighty-four persons, viz., 
 sixty-seven present at the last sitting, 
 eleven frequently present, four offipers of 
 the court, and two executioners. Out of 
 these the Commons proposed to punish capi- 
 tally only twelve persons, viz., seven judges. 
 
Beg 
 
 ( 866 ) 
 
 Bern 
 
 three court officers, and two executioners. 
 The House of Lords went further, and pro- 
 posed to except for capital punishment all 
 those who had been present at the last sitting, 
 or signed the warrant, saving only Colonels 
 Hutchinson, Tomlinson, and lagoldsliy, 
 in all sixty-six persons. But the Com- 
 mons resolutely opposed the Lords' amend- 
 ment. In the Bill of Indemnity as it finally 
 passed (Aug. 29, 1660), the penalties of the 
 Begicides were ordered as follows : — (1) 
 Four dead Regicides excepted by posthumous 
 attainder for high treason, viz., Cromwell, 
 Ireton, Bradshawe, and Pride. (2) Twenty 
 dead Regicides excepted as to their estates, 
 to be subject to future fines or forfeiture. (3) 
 Thirty living Regicides (viz.,twenty-two judges 
 and eight others) absolutely excepted. (4) Nine- 
 teen living Regicides, excepted with a saving 
 clause, stating that they might be legally at- 
 tainted ; but that their execution should be 
 suspended "until his majesty, by the advice 
 and assent of the Lords and Commons in 
 Parliament, shall order the execution by Act 
 of Parliament to be passed for that purpose." 
 (5) Six more living Regicides were excepted, 
 but not capitally. (6) Two Regicides ex- 
 cepted, but with the sole penalty of incapa- 
 citation for ofBce, viz. , Hutchinson and Las- 
 celles. Tomlinson and Ingoldsby escaped 
 without any penalties whatever. The trial 
 of the Regicides took place in October before 
 a court of thirty-four commissioners (Oct., 
 1660). Twenty-nine were condemned to 
 death, of whom ton were executed; the re- 
 maining nineteen with six others who had 
 not been tried, were mostly imprisoned till 
 their deaths, though the fate of some is still 
 obscure. There were still nineteen fugitives 
 living in exile, of whom three were subse- 
 quently caught in HoUand, brought over 
 and executed, and one (Lisle), assassinated in 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Masson, Life of Milton, vol. t£. ; Noble, Lives 
 of the Regicides: Howell, Strife Trialx; Willis- 
 Bund, Selections from the State Trials. 
 
 [C. H. F.] 
 
 Registration Act, The (1836), created 
 an elaborate machinery for the registration 
 of births, deaths, and marriages. It regulated 
 the method of registration, the appointment of 
 the necessary officials, and the creation of a 
 central registry office at Somerset House 
 under a Registrar -General, who was to 
 present annual reports to Parliament. The 
 system then established has remained sub- 
 stantially unaltered till the present. 
 
 Begium Donum was the endowment 
 of £1,200 a year granted by William III. 
 to the Presbyterian clergy of Ireland to re- 
 ward them for their activity against James. 
 In 1695 the Lords Justices advised the dis- 
 continuance of the grant, but "William refused 
 to do so. From 1711 to 1715 the Irish House 
 of Lords succeeded in preventing its being 
 
 paid. But on the accession of George I. it 
 was revived and increased to £2,000. In 1870, 
 in consequence of the Irish Church Act, it 
 was abolished, but a compensation was 
 granted to all interested parties. 
 
 Begni, The, were a British tribe occupy- 
 ing the present county of Sussex, with a chief 
 town Begnura (Chichester). 
 
 Begnlating Act, LokdNokth's (1773), 
 was the first important intervention of the 
 English government in the direct adminis- 
 tration of British India. The difficulties 
 of the East India Company drove them 
 in 1772 to seek a loan from Parliament, 
 and the ministry in consequence brought in 
 a bill for the better government of India, 
 which was carried in spite of the oppo- 
 sition of the India House. Its provisions 
 were that the administration of Bengal should 
 be vested in a Governor- General and four 
 councillors, and that this government should 
 bo supreme over the other presidencies ; that 
 the first Governor-General and councillors, 
 who were nominated in the Act, should hold 
 office for five years, and be irremovable except 
 by the crown on representation of the Court 
 of Directors ; that vacancies should be sup- 
 plied by the court subject to the approbation 
 of the crown ; that a Supreme Court of Judi- 
 cature should be established at Calcutta to 
 consist of a chief justice and four puisni 
 judges to be nominated by the crown, and 
 paid by the Company ; that the qualification 
 for a vote in the India House should be the 
 possession of £1,000 stock, and that the 
 possession of more should entitle to a plurality 
 of votes in a fixed proportion ; that the 
 directors should be elected for four years, and 
 that one-fourth of the entire number should be 
 renewed annually; that all the Company's 
 correspondence relating to civil and military 
 affairs, the government of the country, or the 
 administration of the revenues should be laid 
 before one of his Majesty's secretaries of state, 
 and that no servant of the crown or Company 
 should receive presents. 
 Mill, Hist. 0/ India. 
 
 Bemonstrance, The Grand. In the 
 first week after the Long Parliament met, it 
 was moved by Lord Digby " to draw up such 
 a remonstrance to the king as should be a 
 faithful and lively representation of the state 
 of the kingdom." In the following August it 
 was resolved that this proposal should be 
 adopted, and the remonstrance was brought 
 forward on Nov. 8th, finally discussed on 
 Nov. 22nd, and passed by 159 votes to 148. 
 It was presented to the king on Dec. Ist^ 
 ordered to be printed on Deo. 15th,' and 
 answered by Charles on Dec. 23rd. In aim 
 and substance the remonstrance was "an 
 appeal to the nation rather than address to 
 the crown." It stated the case of the Com> 
 mens against the king, described the con- 
 
Bern 
 
 ( 867 ) 
 
 Bep 
 
 dition in which they had foimd the nation, 
 what reforms they had ah-eady effected, what 
 they proposed for the future, and what diffi- 
 culties they had to struggle against. The 
 preamble explained the causes which made a 
 remonstrance necessary. Clauses 1 to 10-t 
 traced the history of the king's misgovern- 
 ment from his accession to the meeting of 
 the Long Parliament. Clauses 105 to 142 
 described the abuses abolished and reforms 
 effected and prepared by the Parliament. 
 Clauses 143 to 180 enumerated the obstruc- 
 tions to the work of reformation, evil counsel- 
 lors and slanderers, the army plots, and the 
 Irish rebellion. Clauses 181 to 191 explained 
 and defended the scheme of the Parliamentary 
 leaders for the reform of the Church. The last 
 fourteen clauses (192 to 206) pointed out the 
 remBdial measures the Commons demanded; 
 the establishment of certain safeguards 
 against the Roman Catholic religion; securities 
 to be given for the better administration- of 
 justice ; the king to choose for ministers and 
 agents such persons as the Parliament " might 
 have cause to confide in." The earlier clauses, 
 which merely set forth the king's past mis- 
 government, were adopted without opposition, 
 but the ecclesiastical clauses met with an able 
 and vigorous opposition from Hyde, Cole- 
 pepper, and others. The final debate also 
 was long and excited, and the two questions 
 whether the remonstrance should be printed, 
 and whether the minority miglit enter their 
 protestations, nearly led to a personal struggle. 
 It was the fact that it was a party manifesto 
 which led to this opposition, and brought the 
 Civil War nearer. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng. ; Forster, The Grand 
 Remonstrance; Kushworth, Historical Collections. 
 [C. H. P.] 
 
 Kemoustrants, The. In 1650 a schism 
 took place amongst the Scotch Presbyterians. 
 "Warned by the defeat of Dunbar (Sept. 3), 
 and the attempt of Charles II. to join the 
 Scotch Royalists, Argyle and his followers 
 determined to unite with the Royalists 
 to oppose Cromwell. Against this policy 
 two leading divines, Guthrie and Gillespie, 
 with Johnston of Warriston, and the chiefs 
 of the rigid Presbyterians of the south-west, 
 presented to the Committee of Estates " a 
 remonstrance of the gentlemen commanders 
 and ministers attending the forces in the 
 west" (Oct. 22, 1650). Those who joined in 
 this opposition were called Remonstrants or 
 Protesters. 
 
 Repeal Agitation is the name given 
 to the movement headed by Daniel O'ConneU 
 for the repeal of the English and Irish 
 Union. From his first appearance in pub- 
 lic life, O'Connell displayed a steady hos- 
 tility to the Act of Union. His activity 
 was long absorbed in the great struggle 
 for Emancipation, but he consistently avowed 
 his purpose of using Emancipation as a step 
 
 to Repeal. The Catholic controversy had 
 two abiding results : it substituted the power 
 of the priests for the power of the land- 
 lords in Ireland, and it gave an immense im- 
 petus to the system of organised agitation in 
 English politics. When the Act became 
 law, O'Connell applied the machinery which 
 carried it to the promotion of Ref eal. The 
 agitation was suspended in 1831, renewed 
 after the Coercion Act of 1833, and again 
 suspended on the accession of Lord Melbourne 
 to power in 1836. The Emancipation Act 
 had been in force for six years, but Catholics 
 were still systematically excluded from office 
 by the government. O'ConneU believed that 
 the new premier would admit them to the 
 equality they demanded, and upon those 
 terms he was prepared to drop the question 
 of Repeal. His expectations were not alto- 
 gether disappointed. The Whig administra- 
 tion carried many just and useful reforms, 
 and dispensed its Irish patronage between the 
 rival creeds. But in the end O'Connell's 
 support was fatal to his allies. Sir Robert 
 Peel returned to office in 1841. The Repeal 
 agitation was at once revived. It was con- 
 ducted by a " Repeal Society," modelled on 
 the lines of the Catholic Association. The 
 ecclesiastical organisation of the popular 
 Church, which necessarily permeated every 
 comer of the land, was again the basis of a 
 political movement. The subscribers were 
 classified according to the amount of their 
 payments, which were collected by the 
 priests. Repeal wardens administered the 
 several districts. The great agitator himself 
 controlled the whole. The educated Catholics 
 had dissevered themselves from O'Connell 
 early in the Emancipation contest. They held 
 utterly aloof from Repeal. Their conduct gave 
 a last blow to their political power. The 
 Repeal Society manipulated elections, pre- 
 pared gigantic petitions, and, above all, 
 devoted itself to the promotion of "monster 
 meetings." These enormous gatherings proved 
 in O'Connell's hands the most striking feature 
 of the agitation. It is credibly reported that 
 at Tara (Aug. 15, 1843) he addressed an 
 audience of 250,000 men. On Oct. 1 there 
 was a demonstration at MuUaghmast, in 
 Kildare. Aixangements were made to hold 
 another at Clontarf on the 8th. The govern- 
 ment were seriously alarmed. The Clontarf 
 meeting was prohibited by proclamation on the 
 7th. Ample military measures were taken t( 
 enforce obedience. The action of the govern- 
 ment, as O'Connell afterwards complained, had 
 made a massacre imminent. Such an event 
 would probably have strengthened his posi- 
 tion ; but he shrank from bloodshed. By 
 strenuous exertions he succeeded in inducing 
 his followers to disperse. The Repeal move- 
 ment virtually ended with the Clontarf pro- 
 clamation. O'Connell was tried for con- 
 spiracy, and convicted on Feb. 12, 1844. 
 The judgment was reversed by the House of 
 
K«p 
 
 ( 868 ) 
 
 Bes 
 
 Lords on Sept. i. The agitation completed 
 the division of classes in Ireland, and made 
 the Union essential to the -existence of the 
 minority. . 
 
 Annual Megister ! Lecky, The Leoders of Public 
 Opinion in Ireland, [J. W. F.] 
 
 Bepingdou, Philip {d. circa 143i), was 
 one of the chief supporters of Wiclif at 
 Oxford, but subsequently being alarmed at 
 the progress of LoUardy he became one of its 
 strongest opponents. In 1408 he was made 
 Bishop of Lincoln and cardinal by the Pope, 
 but in 1419 he was compelled to resign the 
 see, having violated the Statute of Prasmunire 
 in accepting the cardinalship without royal 
 consent. After this he seems to have lived 
 in obscurity for some fifteen years longer. 
 
 Bepreseutation. [Elections ; Paklia- 
 
 MENT.] 
 
 Bepreseutative Peers are those peers 
 
 of Scotland and Ireland selected by their order 
 to represent them in the House of Lords. By 
 the Act of Union with Scotland (1707) it was 
 enacted that Scotland should be represented 
 in the British House of Lords by sixteen 
 peers chosen by the whole body of the Scotch 
 nobiKty (at this time numbering 154). The 
 proportion of Scotch to English members 
 of Parliament had been fixed at one to 
 twelve, and the same proportion was observed 
 in the House of Lords. The representative 
 peers were to bS elected for each Parliament 
 by open voting, and proxies of absent nobles 
 were allowed. No fresh Scotch peerages were 
 in future to be created. In 1711 the House 
 of Lords denied the right of Scotch non- 
 representative peers who had been given 
 EngKsh peerages to sit among them. This, 
 however, did not prevent the conferring of 
 English titles on the eldest '^Bons of Scotch 
 peers, and after a decision of the judges in 
 1782 the crown recommenced to grant 
 patents of peerage in Great Britain to Scotch 
 peers. More than half the Scotch peers are 
 now also peers of England, and ultimately 
 only sixteen will remain without an here- 
 ditary right to sit, and these wiU doubtless be 
 made hereditary peers of Parliament. It 
 may be added that one of the proposals of the 
 Peerage Bill of 1720 — 21 was to substitute 
 twenty-five hereditary for sixteen elected 
 peers from Scotland. By the Act of Union 
 with Ireland (1801), twenty-eight Irish repre- 
 sentative peers were added to the House of 
 Lords : these, however, were to be elected for 
 life, and not, as in Scotland, for one Parliament 
 only. One new Irish peerage may only be 
 created when three have become extinct. But 
 when the number shall have fallen to 100 
 it is to be kept at that figure by the creation 
 of one new peerage whenever a peerage 
 becomes extinct, or an Irish peer becomes a 
 peer of Great Britain. 
 
 Lords' Report on the Dignity of a Peer; May, 
 Practical Treatise, 
 
 Bequests, The Col'KT of, was an off- 
 shoot of the Privy Council in its judicial 
 capacity. The creation of a minor court of 
 equity was necessitated by numerous failures 
 of justice in the common law court, which 
 refused to afford any remedy beyond that 
 specified by the king's original writ. Ac- 
 cordingly an order for regulating the Council,' 
 of the I'sth Eichard II., requii-ed the Keeper 
 of the Privy Seal and a certain number of the 
 Council to meet between eight and nine 
 o'clock in order to examine and despatch the 
 bills of people of lesser charge. In the 4l8t 
 of EUzabeth this court, which was frequently 
 resorted to, was declared illegal by a decision of 
 the Court of Queen's Bench, and was finally 
 abolished, together wifh the Star Chamber, 
 by the Long Parliament. There were also 
 local tribunals, known as courts of request or 
 courts of conscience for the recovery of small 
 debts, limited at fii-st to sums under 40s., and 
 afterwards under £5. The first of these was 
 established by Act of Parliament in 1625,, 
 which confirmed a court which had been in- 
 stituted in London by order of Council in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. ; and similar courts were 
 soon afterwards set up by Act of Parliament 
 in various parts of the kingdom. They 
 proved, however, very inadequate, and were 
 suppressed by the County Court Act of 1846. 
 Spence, Eiiuitahle Jurisdiction of the Court of 
 Chancery ; Tidd Pratt, Ah^itract of Acts of ParUa- 
 merit relating to Courts o/iieguest; Stephen, Com- 
 mentaries, vol. iii. 
 
 Bescissory Act, The, was an Act passed 
 by the Scotch Parliament of 1661. " It re- 
 scinded or cut off from the body of the law 
 all the statutes passed in the Parliament of 
 1640 or subsequently. This withdrew from 
 the statute-book all legislation later than the 
 year 1633, for the Parliament of 1039 passed 
 no statutes " (Burton) . It was proposed by 
 Sir Thomas Primrose with the object of an- 
 nulling the Acts establishing Presbj'terianism 
 in Scotland. It was brought in and passed 
 in one day (March 28th), and immediately 
 approved by Lord Middleton, the High 
 Commissioner, without waiting for leave from 
 the king. Burnet says of it, "This was a 
 most extravagant thing, and only fit to be 
 concluded alter a drunken bout." 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Own Time; Burton, Hist. 
 of Scotland, 
 
 Besolutioners was the name given to 
 the supporters of the coalition between the 
 Scotch Royalists and the Presbyterian party 
 proposed by the Ai-gyle government in the 
 autumn of 1650. In the Kirk commission, 
 which met at Perth, a resolution was passed 
 empowering the government to relax the Act 
 of Classes, and allow the Royalists to take 
 part in the war. Those who supported this 
 policy were called Eesolutioners. 
 
 Besponsibility of ministers. As 
 
 now understood, this phrase expresses the 
 
Bes 
 
 ■ ( 
 
 ) 
 
 Bes 
 
 grand working and motive principle of parlia- 
 mentary and party government. That every 
 holder of a ministerial office should have at 
 any moment to give an aecount of his 
 stewardship, not to the power that nomi- 
 nally appoints and dismisses him, hut to 
 the Commons and the country, who can 
 withdraw from him the confidence that 
 is essential to his staying in oiBce, is a 
 practical doctrine that has turned the nobler 
 parts of government into a seM-acting 
 machinery of rare efficiency hitherto. This 
 is now the outcome and function of ministerial 
 responsibility, when the great officers of 
 state have come to he clothed with the whole 
 prerogative of the crown. Once it was some- 
 thing different, and served another purpose. 
 It was once a device for reconciling the in- 
 violability of the sovereign with the rights of 
 the subject, and the legal saw, " the king 
 can do no wrong," with the fact that the 
 subject was often wronged by the crown, and 
 the rule of law that every wrong has a 
 remedy. Officers of the king were answer- 
 able for the king's measures to the courts of 
 j ustioe and to the High Court of Parliament, 
 and might have to smart for them. This 
 principle was early admitted ; Hallam finds it 
 to have been an essential check on the royal 
 authority, though somewhat halting in its 
 operation, in 1485 ; and it was ruled to be the 
 law on a most solemn occasion — the trial of the 
 Eegicides in 1660. " The law in all cases," 
 said Bridgman, " preserves the person of the 
 king, but what is done by his ministers imlaw- 
 fully, there is a remedy against his tninistera 
 for it." The higher action of the principle, 
 that which has brought the entire ministerial 
 system into subjection to the Commons and 
 the country, has only recently reached its final 
 development. Its germs, however, were 
 sown with the rise of Parhament, and 
 attempts to reduce it to practice were 
 made from, time to time as Parliament became 
 strong. In 1341 a pledge was exacted from 
 Edward III. that the Chancellor and other 
 great officers should be appointed in Parlia- 
 ment, and - their work tested by Parliament ; 
 according to Bishop Stubbs this implies 
 " that it is to the nation, not to the 
 king only, that ministers are accountable." 
 In 1378 another was given, that during 
 Richard II:'s minority the great ministers 
 should be chosen by Parliament. But neither 
 of these engagements stood ; Parliament has 
 never succeeded in permanently enforcing 
 its win by the direct method. In the inven- 
 tion of impeachment the right path towards 
 the indirect and smoother way of working 
 tne principle was hit upon ; but even im- 
 peachment was premature. Under the house 
 of Lancaster signs that this first of constitu- 
 tional powers was among the births of time 
 are easily discoverable ; but under the Tudors 
 there is not a trace of such a promise. With 
 . the Stuarts thSy -reappear. • The Parliamentary 
 
 prosecutions of Bacon and Cranfield, the pro- 
 ceedings against Buckingham, Strafford, and 
 others, were all manifestations of the instinct 
 that was pushing the Commons towards the 
 momentous issue ; and when Charles I. thought 
 of admitting Pym and Hampden to important 
 office, and actually bestowed such on Essex 
 and Falkland, he gave a hint, the earliest in 
 history, of what proved to be the true manner 
 of working the principle. But Pym had no 
 perception of this ; his aim was to make 
 Parliament immediate master of the adminis- 
 tration. After the Restoration the movement 
 began in earnest, and on the right line ; in the 
 fall of Clarendon, of the Cabal, and of Danby, 
 we see one thing clearly, that the Commons 
 had learned the secret of turning out minis- 
 ters. The incidents of Danby's overthrow 
 are specially instructive ; they show that the 
 responsibility of ministers had become a 
 reality, and was on its way to great ends. 
 When the Revolution had been consummated, 
 the doctrine was established beyond dispute ; 
 it became the rule that the sovereign should 
 choose the ministers, but Parliament should 
 decide whether his choice should hold good. 
 By one power office was given, to another the 
 men who held it were responsible ; gained by 
 favour of one, it could be kept only by fav.onr 
 of the other. The voting power in the 
 country could take away but not give. By 
 getting the control of this voting power, at 
 one time the great families, at another King 
 George III., contrived to intercept the effect 
 of the principle, and for more than a century 
 it operated only in seasons of unusual excite- 
 ment. But the first Reform Bill first brought 
 into play its logical consequence. Since 1835 
 the Commons and voting power of the 
 country have virtually indicated to the sove- 
 reign the men who must compose the ministry, 
 as well as dismissed it when so minded. HoW' 
 ever, since a ministry is now a solid mass, 
 usually entering on and resigning power with 
 unbroken ranks, it would be more accurate 
 to name the doctrine the responsibility of 
 ministries. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Sist. ; Hallam, Const. His*.; 
 May, Const. Hist. ; Bagehot, The Engli'-h Con- 
 stitution. [J. R.l 
 
 Besnmptiou Bill (1700). At the time 
 of the conquest of Ireland by William III., 
 a bill had been introduced providing for tho 
 application to the public service of forfeited 
 Irish lands. This hill, however, had not been 
 carried through, and William had freely dis- 
 posed of the forfeitures — some 1,700,000 acres 
 in all. Of these a quarter was restored to the 
 Catholics in accordance with the Articles of 
 Limerick; sixty-five other great proprietors 
 were reinstated by royal clemency ; and a 
 pai-t was bestowed on persons who had com- 
 manded in the war, such as Ginkel and 
 Galway. But the greater part was lavishly 
 granted to courtiers and favourites, chief 
 among them Woodstock, Albemarle, and 
 
Bev 
 
 ( 870 ) 
 
 TSLev 
 
 Lady Orkney. In 1699 the Commons 
 "tacked" to a Land Tax Bill a clause nomi- 
 nating seven commissioners to examine into 
 forfeitures. The majority report , of these 
 commissioners, with its exaggeration of the 
 value of the grants, and bitter attacks upon 
 the government for favouring Catholics, 
 was welcomed by the Conunons, who iinally 
 passed a Eesumption Bill, appointing trustees, 
 in whose hands the lands were to be vested. 
 This they again tacked to the Land Tax Bill ; 
 the Lords were inclined to resist, but the 
 country was on the side of the Commons, and 
 the peers were induced to yield. 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Chm Time ; Macauln.^, Hist, 
 of Evg., c. xxv. 
 
 Revenue, The. The coUeotion and as- 
 sessment of the revenue previous to the Con- 
 quest was a simple matter. The machinery 
 of government was supplied by the people 
 themselves, notably by the obligations of the 
 Trinoda Necessitas (q.v.) ; and all that had to 
 he supplied were the personal wants of the 
 crown. These were met by the fee-farm of the 
 folkland, fines in the law courts, market and 
 harbour dues, the right of maintenance, after- 
 wards known as purveyance and heriots. 
 Extraordinary taxes, such as the Danegeld, 
 were imposed by the Witenagemot. Under 
 the Norman kings the rents from the public 
 lands were commuted and became the ferm 
 of the shire ; the Danegeld continued, whUe 
 the heriot was supplanted by the feudal aids. 
 The fines of the local courts, and the port and 
 market dues, were still raised. Under Henry 
 II. the towns began to be an important 
 source of taxation ; aids were raised ' from 
 them, which subsequently acquire an evil 
 significance under the title of taDiage. 
 Taxes on movables, afterwards so frequent in 
 the form of thirteenths, fifteenths, &c., were 
 established by the Saladiu tithe in the same 
 reign. By the fourteenth century they had 
 supplanted scutage and taUiage, which were 
 levied on land. They fell chiefly on the 
 clergy, who, with the merchants, contributed 
 from this time the greater part of the 
 revenue. In the reign of Richard the prin- 
 ciple of sworn recognitors was first applied 
 generally to purposes of taxation. The reigns 
 of John and Henry III. are noted for the 
 illegal pretexts by which all classes were 
 oppressed, and the more or less successful re- 
 sistance of the baronial party. Edward I. 
 first instituted the customs by the tax on 
 wool imposed in 1275, although this impor- 
 tant article had frequently been seized by 
 previous kings. [Customs.] In this reign taxes 
 ceased to be imposed locally, and were voted 
 by the estates sitting in Parliament. Among 
 the financial experiments of the fourteenth 
 century we may note the poU-tax, which 
 was afterwards abandoned ; and tunnage and 
 poundage, which was perpetuated. The kings 
 showed great ingenuity in evading the maxim, 
 
 " What touches all should be allowed of aU." 
 Among illegal sources of revenue were loans 
 from foreign merchants, forced loans from 
 individuals, which became known as benevo- 
 lences, purveyances, and exactions from the 
 towns for forced levies of men, known as 
 commissions of array. The revenue in the 
 fourteenth century may be estimated at about 
 £65,000 in times of peace, and £130,000 in 
 times of war. To go into the financial devices 
 of the Yorkist and Tudor dynasties with any 
 minuteness is not possible here ; it is enough 
 to notice the creation of monopolies in the 
 latter period, and the institution of fines for 
 religious nonconformity. When the king 
 became the head of the Church, the support of 
 the establishment fell upon the crown, and 
 then the tithe system originated as it existed 
 until commuted in 1836. The Stuarts were 
 adepts at inventing methods for raising 
 revenue. A permanent source of income which 
 dates from the reign of Charles I. is the 
 excise, first imposed by the Long Parliament 
 in 1643, and presented to the crown after the 
 Restoration upon the surrender of the feudal 
 dues. At the Restoration the revenue was 
 fixed at £1,200,000 a year, and after the 
 Revolution at the same figure. The hearth- 
 tax was abolished at the latter date. [For the 
 arrangement by which the hereditary 
 revenues of the crown were separated from 
 the taxes for the support of government, see 
 Civil List.] It would be impossible here to 
 give a thorough account of the many devices 
 for raising revenue adopted since the Restora- 
 tion. We may notice the rapid multiplica- 
 tion of import and export duties under the 
 mercantile system, and their abandonment on 
 the introduction of free trade ; the stamp 
 duties introduced 1671 and diminished in the 
 present reign, the land-tax imposed in 1689 
 and first commuted in 1798, the succession 
 duty relegated in 1863, and lastly the income- 
 tax. The chief sources of revenue at 
 present (1884) are the customs, excise, stamps, 
 land-tax and house-duty, property and 
 income-tax, post ofiice, telegraph service, the 
 crown lands, and the interest on advances to 
 local works. 
 
 Revolntion, The (1688—89), is the name 
 usually given to the series of events by which 
 James II. was expelled, and William and 
 Mary established on the throne. In the three 
 years of his reign, James II. succeeded in 
 making many enemies. Two events pre- 
 cipitated his fall— the trial of the Seven 
 Bishops and the birth of the Prince of 
 Wales. So long as the clergy could expect 
 that in a few years James would be suc- 
 ceeded by the Princess Mary, they were 
 able patiently to bear reverses. But this 
 hope was now destroyed; the young prince 
 would be brought up a papist, and would 
 be surrounded by papist counsellors. Bo 
 necessary was it to the success of James's 
 
( an ) 
 
 Kev 
 
 plans that Mary of Modena should have a sou, 
 that the majority of the people sincerely 
 heUeved the Jesuits had schemed a great im- 
 posture. The -whole nation, Whig and Tory, 
 were anxious to he saved from the rule of a 
 Catholic prince, however parties might differ 
 as to the means to he employed. 
 
 Such was the state of things when, on June 
 30, 1688, an invitation was sent to William 
 of Orange to- come to England at once with 
 an armed force. It was signed by seven 
 persons of influence — the Earl of Devonshire, 
 one of the chiefs of the Whig party ; the 
 Earl of Shrewsbury ; the Earl of Danby ; 
 Compton, Bishop of London ; Henry Sidney, 
 brother of Algernon Sidney ; Lord Lumley, 
 and Edward Russell. The Prince of Orange 
 at once determined upon action. The birth 
 of the young prince destroyed the hopes 
 which he had built upon the probability of his 
 wife's accession to the English throne. If he 
 could succeed in dethroning James, he might 
 expect to gain far more power than that of a 
 king-consort ; if he could bring the power of 
 England into the confederation against Louis 
 XIV., his pre-eminence among the allies would 
 be assured. But there were almost insuperable 
 difficulties in the way. The magistrates of 
 Amsterdam had long been opposed to the 
 Orange princes and attached to France ; 
 the opposition of one tciwn would he suflicient 
 to prevent the States-Generalfrom consenting 
 to the expedition to England, and if it did 
 not altogether stop it, might cause a dangerous 
 delay. If Louis determined to begin the 
 impending war by an attack upon Holland, 
 William's troops must be retained at home to 
 defend their country. And, finally, if only 
 James could induce his English troops to 
 fight one battle against the Dutch invaders, 
 whatever its issue might be, national feeling 
 would be enlisted upon his side, and he might 
 be able to retain his throne. But the revoca- 
 tion of the Edict of Nantes, and the recent 
 alterations in the French tariff had destroyed 
 the French party in Amsterdam, and aU the 
 states and towns of the republic were en- 
 thusiastic in support of Orange. The pre- 
 parations which were being made in Holland 
 did not escape the observation of the French 
 ambassador, and his master did what he could 
 to save James. A French envoy was sent to 
 London to offer naval assistance. But James 
 petulantly declared he would not be patronised ; 
 the JVench envoy could gain no answer to 
 his message ; and the European powers were 
 informed that the close alliance of England 
 and France was a mere invention on the part 
 of Louis. In anger Louis left him to his 
 fate ; he determined to open the war by an 
 invasion of Germany, and William could 
 venture for a while to leave Holland un- 
 protected. In his negotiations with CathoHc 
 powers, William was able to represent his 
 undertaking as one which had little to do with 
 religion, and his expedition certainly had the 
 
 good wishes of the sovereign pontiff. And 
 the folly of James in bringing Irish troops 
 into England, and WilKam's wise policy of 
 putting forward his English supporters on 
 every occasion when a conflict seemed likely 
 to occur, threw national sympathy on the 
 side of the Prince of Orange, aud removed the 
 most formidable difficulty out of his way. 
 
 Before the expedition started, a declaration 
 was drawn up and published. It set forth 
 that the fundamental laws of England had 
 been violated, illegal measures had been 
 taken to favour Catholics, prelates venturing 
 to petition their sovereign had been impri- 
 soned, judges had been dismissed, and pre- 
 parations were being made to bring together 
 a packed Parliament. Moreover, just doubts 
 were entertained as to the birth of the Prince 
 of Wales. For these reasons, it was declared, 
 William was about to enter England with an 
 army in order to assemble a free Parliament, 
 to whose decision all the questions in dispute 
 should be referred. 
 
 James was terrified when at last he heard 
 of the impending storm. A formidable fleet 
 was put under the command of Lord Dart- 
 mouth, and troops were brought from Scot- 
 land and Ireland. All the dismissed magis- 
 trates and deputy-lieutenants were replaced, 
 and a proclamation was issued announcing 
 the king's intention to abandon the attempt to 
 repeal the Test Act, and his desire to carry 
 out the Act of Uniformity. Witnesses were 
 brought before the Privy Council to prove the 
 birth of the young prince ; and at the request 
 of the bishops the Court of High Commission 
 was abolished and the borough charters re- 
 stored. But these concessions were too evi- 
 dently dictated by fear to be of use, and James 
 still obstinately refused to give up the dis- 
 pensing power. 
 
 On Oct. 19 William set sail from Helvoet- 
 sluys with a force of some 14,000 men, the 
 fleet being wisely placed im.der the command 
 of the Englishman Herbert. He was driven 
 back by a gale, but set out again on Nov. 1. 
 A favouring breeze carried the fleet into the 
 Channel, while it held Dartmouth in the 
 Thames ; on the 5th William landed unmo- 
 lested at Torbay. Hence he proceeded to 
 Exeter, where he began to be joined by the 
 neighbouring gentry. Soon the defections 
 from James became numerous ; very sig- 
 nificant was the desertion of Clarendon's son. 
 Viscount Cornbury, doubtless prompted by 
 Churchill. James at once set out for Salis- 
 bury, but here Churchill aud Grafton left 
 him, and no longer daring to trust his army, 
 the king returned to London. On his way he 
 was abandoned by Prince George and Or- 
 monde, and when he reached the capital he 
 found that the Princess Anne had taken 
 flight. In desperation the king yielded to 
 the advice of the Council, and issued writs 
 for a Parliament. Halifax, Nottingham, and 
 Godolphin were appointed commissioners to 
 
Be7 
 
 ( 872 ) 
 
 Eey 
 
 treat with "William, but this negotiation, as 
 James told Barillon, was only a feint to gain 
 time. Meanwhile the prince had advanced to 
 Hungerford, and there, on Dec. 8, the com- 
 missioners met him. "William's terms were 
 scrupulously moderate; aU questions should 
 he- referred to a Parliament, and in order 
 that its deliherations, might he free, neither 
 army should come within forty miles of the 
 capital, though James and "William were each 
 to he allowed to visit "Westminster with a 
 hody-guard. These terms were arranged on 
 Dec. 9 ; on the 10th Mary of Modena and the 
 young prince were sent out of the country 
 under the care of the Count of Lanzun, and 
 next day James himself took flight. Such 
 peers as were in London met in the Guildhall 
 under the presidency of Bancroft, and drew up 
 a declaration that now that the king had left 
 the country they had determined to join with 
 the Prince of Orange, and until his arrival 
 would act as a provisional government. But 
 greatly to the vexation of "William, James was 
 stopped in his flight, and returned to London. 
 It now hename "William's object to terrify him 
 into again leaving the country. Remaining 
 himself at "Windsor, "William sent Dutch 
 troops to occupy "Whitehall, and peremptorily 
 insisted that James should remove to Ham. 
 Again meditating flight, James proposed Ro- 
 chester instead, and to this Orange readily 
 consented. Next day, Dec. 19, "William en- 
 tered London, and on the 22nd James fled 
 from Eocheater, and this time succeeded in 
 reaching Prance. 
 
 William had already called together the 
 Lords and the members of Charles II. 's Par- 
 liaments, together with the Citj' magistrates. 
 These advised the prince to assume the ad- 
 ministration provisionally, and summon a 
 Parliamentary convention. The Convention 
 Parliament met on Jan. 22, 1689. One party, 
 especially among the clergy, were in favour 
 of negotiating with James and restoring him 
 upon conditions, but they could scarcely ven- 
 ture to propose this when James was himself 
 issuing manifestoes declaring all their griev- 
 ances imaginary. Another party, headed by 
 Sancroft, proposed that the royal title should 
 be left to James, but that the government 
 should be put into the hands of "William with 
 the title of regent. A third but smaller 
 section, the chiefs of which were Danby and 
 Compton, urged that by the flight of James 
 the throne had been vacated, that judgment 
 must go by default against the claims of the 
 young prince, and that Mary was already de 
 }ure queen. But Mary refused to exclude her 
 husband from the throne, and "William himself 
 declared that he would not remain merely as 
 his wife's usher. The "Whigs, meanwhile, 
 were unanimous in proposing to confer the 
 crown on "William and Mary together, and to 
 put the executive into the hands of the prince, 
 arid after long discussions this was agreed to 
 by both Houses. The principal resolution of 
 
 the Commons accepted by the Lords, ran 
 thus : " King James the Second, having en- 
 deavoured to subvert the constitution of the 
 kingdom by breaking the original contract 
 between king and people, and by the advice 
 of Jesuits and other wicked persons having 
 violated the fundamental laws, and having 
 withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, has 
 abdicated the government, and the throne 
 has thereby become vacant." Of this resolu- 
 tion, as Macaulay justly says, the one beauty 
 is its inconsistency; "There was a phrase 
 for every subdivision of the majority. The 
 mention of the original contract gratified the 
 disciples of Sidney. The word abdication 
 conciliated politicians of a more timid school. 
 There were, doubtless, many fervent Pro- 
 testants who were pleased with the censure 
 cast on the Jesuits. To the real statesman the 
 single important clause was that which de- 
 clared the throne vacant ; and, if that clause 
 could 'be carried, he cared little by what pre- 
 amble it might be introduced." On Feb. 13, 
 the crown was offered to "William and Mary, 
 accompanied by the Declaration of Eights. 
 This they accepted, and the same day were 
 proclaimed king and queen. 
 
 The same general plan had been followed 
 in Scotland. There the withdrawal of troops 
 had left the ground clear for the "Whig lords. 
 "While the Covenanters rose in the west, and 
 carried out a violent ecclesiastical change, the 
 leading peers went to London, and advised 
 "William to call a Convention of Estates. This 
 was done, and upon its advice the Estates were 
 summoned for March 14. After an easily 
 balke"d attempt of the Jacobite minority to 
 hold a rival convention, a declaration was 
 drawn up almost in the same terms as in 
 England, with the addition that prelacy was 
 an insupportable grievance. In Ireland, Lon- 
 donderry and Enniskillen declared for Wil- 
 liam, but the rest of the country under TyrL 
 connel's administration remained firm in its 
 allegiance to James, and not till the Irish had 
 been crushed in war was the Eevolntion settle^, 
 ment accepted by them. ' '■ 
 
 Barnet, Hist, o/ ?iis &mn Time (criticised iti 
 Eauke, Bug. Hist., vi., and compared witt tlie 
 Dutch Eeports) ; Life of Jamps II.; Bereshy, 
 afemoirs; Evelyn, J)iai;y ; Luttrell, I>iary;Dal- 
 rymple, Mevfioivs of Gi. BHIain (1773), giviug; 
 extracts from Barillon's despatches ; Macaulay, 
 Hist. ofEng. rytf_ j ^-i 
 
 Reynolds, "Walter, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (1313^1327), was a man of humble 
 origin. He was made by Edward I. pre^- 
 ceptor to Prince Edward, and subsequently 
 treasurer. He obtained a considerable in- 
 fluence over the prince, and on Edward II/S 
 accession, Eeynolds was made almost at once 
 (jhanoellor, 'and Bishop of Worcester. On 
 the death of Winchelsey, the king obtained 
 from the Pope his nomination to the archf. 
 bishopric. After the defeat at Bannockbum 
 Eeynolds. resigned 'office,, and'-iu -the latter 
 
JOie 
 
 ( 873 ) 
 
 Bic 
 
 part of the reign we find him. siding with 
 the queen against his tenefaetor. He crowned 
 Prince Edward, and preached the coronation 
 sermon, taking as his text. Vox populi, vox 
 Dei. Shortly afterwards he died. Dean 
 Hook says with truth, " of all the primates 
 who have occupied the see of Canterhury, 
 few have teen less qualified to discharge the 
 duties devolving upon a Metropolitan than 
 "Walter Reynolds. He was not equal to the 
 situation, whether we have regard to his 
 talents, his learning, his piety, or his virtues." 
 Hook, Arclibishops of Canferburi/, 
 
 Bill^, Expedition to, 1627. In 1627 a 
 rupture took place hetween England and 
 France, and Charles resolved to defend the 
 independence of the French Protestants, and 
 maintain his own claim to the mastery of the 
 sea. For both these objects the possession of 
 the island of Ehe, lying ia face of Eochelle, 
 and commanding the commerce between 
 France and Spain, would be valuable. The 
 English fleet, commanded by the Duke of 
 Buckingham, sailed on June 27, and a landing 
 was made on the island on July 12. St. 
 Martin's, the capital, was besieged from July 
 17 to Oct 29. The destruction by a storm of 
 the expedition destined to reinforce the 
 besiegers, and the failure of an assault 
 attempted on Oct. 27, combined with the 
 landing of a French force in the island, com- 
 pelled the duke to raise the siege. These 
 French troops, to the number of 6,000, com- 
 manded by Marshal Schomberg, had gradually 
 been collected at the fort of La Pr3e, which 
 Buckingham had neglected to take imme- 
 diately after his landing. They now assailed 
 the English during their retreat, and inflicted 
 a very heavy loss on them. The re-embarcation 
 took place on Oct. 30. The English loss dur- 
 ing the siege and retreat was about 4,000 men. 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 1603—1642, vol. vi. ; 
 Lord Herbert of Cierbury, The Ea^edition to the 
 Isle ofBhe. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Blinddlau Castle. A fortress was first 
 built at Rhuddlan, a position of considerable 
 military importance commanding the vale of 
 Clwyd, by Llewelyn ap Sitsyll early in the 
 eleventh century. Upon the rebellion of the 
 Prince Grufiydd, in 1262, Harold marched 
 upon biTTi at Ehuddlan ; Grufiydd escaped to 
 the sea about two miles distant, but Harold 
 burnt the castle. It was rebuilt, and after- 
 wards conquered by a, nephew of Hugh 
 Lupus. Edward I. caused a stately castle to 
 be erected near the site of the former one ; 
 here Queen Eleanor gave birth to a daughter ; 
 and here a baronial assembly was held by 
 the advice of which, in 1284, the "Statute 
 of Wales " was drawn up, assimilating the 
 administration of that country to that of 
 England. The castle was held for the king 
 in the civil wars, but captured by the Parlia- 
 mentary general, Mytton, in 1646, and dis- 
 mantled by order of Parharaent. 
 
 HIBT.-28* 
 
 Ribbon Society, The, was a secret Irish 
 confederacy, consisting of small farmers, 
 cottiers, labourers, and in the towns small 
 shopkeepers and artisans, which appeared 
 about 1820 (the name "Eibbon" not being 
 attached to it tiU about 1826) ; and gained 
 great strength from 1835 to 1865. " In Ulster 
 it professed to be a defensive or retaliatory 
 league against Orangeism. In Munster it 
 was at first a combination against tithe 
 proctors. In Connaught it was an organisa- 
 tion against rack-renting and evictions. In 
 Leinster it often was mere trade-unionism^ 
 dictating by its mandates, and enforcing by 
 its vengeance the employment or dismissal 
 of workmen, stewards, and even domestics." 
 Though the society was vigorously opposed 
 and denounced by the Catholic clergy, it 
 remained entirely Catholic. It was never 
 more than an agrarian combination, though 
 its chief officers seem to have sometimes 
 endeavoured to give it a political object. To 
 belong to a Ribbon Society was declared 
 illegal by the "Westmeath Act of 1871 ; since 
 which time the confederacy has died away, or 
 become merged in other secret associations. 
 A. M. Sullivan, N&w Ireland, cb. iv. 
 
 Bich, St. Edmund, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury (1234 — 1240), was bom at Abingdon, 
 came to Oxford at the age of twelve, after 
 staying there several years begged his way to 
 Paris, and upon his return to Oxford became 
 one of the most popular teachers of theology 
 and philosophy. About 1222 he was ap- 
 pointed Treasurer of Salisbury Cathedral, 
 and became the spiritual adviser •of the 
 Countess of Salisbury, widow of King John's 
 half-brother. Upon the death of Aichbishop 
 Richard le Grand some dispute arose as -to 
 the election of a successor, and Pope Gregory 
 IX. induced the monks who had graie to 
 Rome to elect Rich upon their return, a 
 measure to which the king's consent was 
 readily obtained. But Edmund was aot dis- 
 posed to act as a tool of king or pope, though 
 the latter had written urging him to persuade 
 the English to overcome their prejudices 
 against the aliens. Immediately after his 
 consecration he visited the king, insisted on 
 the reform of abuses, and the dismissal of 
 foreign ministers, especially Peter des Roches, 
 and threatened him with excommunication if 
 he refused. Henry yielded, and Peter and 
 his creatures were dismissed. " Edmund was 
 a bishop of the type of Anselm, with some- 
 what of the spirit and practical instincts of 
 Langton ; but he lived in an unhappy period 
 for the display of either class of qualitiesj 
 under a pope whom he knew only as a task- 
 master, and under a king whose incapacity 
 and want of firmness made it as hard to 
 support as to resist him " (Stubbs). To 
 diminish his influence Henry III. applied to 
 the pope to send a legate to England, and 
 Edmund had to struggle during the rest of 
 
Ric 
 
 ( 874 } 
 
 Ibic 
 
 his life against Otho's efiorta to obtain 
 benefices for foreigners in England. The 
 archbistiop also came into conflict with Henry 
 in the matter of the marriage of Simon de 
 Montfort to the king's sister Eleanor, widow 
 of the Earl Marshal, whom he refused to free 
 from her vow of perpetual widowhood. In 
 1238 Edmund visited Rome to obtain papal 
 support in his attempt to enforce discipline in 
 the monasteries of Canterbury and Rochester. 
 But the pope in revenge for his action in the 
 matter of the alien clergy treated him with 
 studied insult, and decided aU the appeals 
 against him. At last in despair Edmund 
 retired to the abbey of Pontigny in France, 
 and died at the neighbouring priory of Soissy 
 in 1240. The popular belief in his sanctity 
 and the miracles reported from his tomb 
 forced Innocent IV., much against hi") will, 
 to consent to his canonisation in 1246. 
 
 Hook, Archliishoys of Canterbury, vol. ill., 
 based on a contemporary Life byBertraiid,Abl)ot 
 of Pontigny. Green, Hist, ofJBngHsTi People, gives 
 some account of Ms Oxford life, and Stubba, 
 Corntt. Hist., ch. xiv., of bis constitutional 
 action. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Bich, Richard, Lord Rich, (d. 1560), 
 who " brought a greater strain upon the 
 bar of England than any member of the 
 profession" (Campbell), was in 1533 made 
 SoKcitor- General; took a prominent part in 
 the trial of Sir Thomas More (1535), giving 
 as evidence an untrue version of a private 
 conversation with More, and so securing his 
 conviction. He was rewarded in 1537 by 
 being recommended to the office of Speaker, 
 and during the rest of the reign was a ready 
 agent of the court in the prosecution alike of 
 Protestants and of Roman Catholics. Under 
 the will of Henry VIII. Rich was appointed 
 a councillor to assist in the government during 
 the minority of Edward VI., and in October 
 (1547) succeeded Paulet as Lord Chancellor 
 of England. In 1549 he drew up the articles 
 charging Lord Seymour of Sudeley with 
 treason, and subsequently joined the Earl of 
 Warwick, taking an active part in the pro- 
 ceedings against his former patron Somerset. 
 In 1551 he retired from public Ufe. 
 Campbell, Lives of the thancellors. 
 
 Richard I., King, (J. Sept. 13, 1157, 
 s. July, 1189, d. April 8, 1199), was the second 
 son of Henry II. and Eleanor of Aqui- 
 taine. He was destined by his father to rule 
 his mother's possessions in the south of 
 France, and when still quite young was en 
 trusted with the government of Aquitaine, 
 where he speedily joined in the great con- 
 spiracy of 1173 against his father. Pardoned 
 at the suppression of the revolt, he passed 
 several years in a series of chivalrous and 
 brilliant exploits among the wild feudal nobles 
 of Guienne and Poitou. His success made 
 his elder- brother so envious that he insisted 
 on Richard doing homage to him, and on his 
 refusal a war broke out between the brothers 
 
 (1183). In aUiance with Bertrand de Bom, 
 Richard's great enemy, Henry and Geofiry 
 reduced Richard to such straits that Henry 
 II. had to go to his assistance. The death 
 of the younger Henry concluded the war, 
 but in 1184 another quarrel between Richard 
 and his father ensued on the former's 
 refusal to gratify the latter by surrendering a 
 portion of Aquitaine to his brother, John. 
 Richard's restless temper was constantly in- 
 volving him in wars with his neighbours, 
 from which nothing but his father's influence 
 could extricate him. Yet in 1189 he in- 
 spired that last successful revolt, in the midst 
 of which the old king died. 
 
 Despite his constant revolts, Richard seciired 
 the succession without difficulty. He hurried 
 to England, not with the view of taking pos- 
 session of the government so much as to 
 secure means to embark on the projected 
 crusade, into which he threw all his energ)'. 
 He held a great council at Pipewell, in which 
 he displaced Henry's old ministers, sold a 
 large number of places, and made arrange- 
 ments for the government during his absence. 
 About three months after his coronation he 
 left England. 
 
 The history of Richard's reign naturally 
 divides itself into two main subjects — the 
 personal adventures of the king in Palestine, 
 Germany, and finally in France, and the 
 government of the covmtry during his absence. 
 The brilliant and chivalrous spirit of the king, 
 and that martial prowess which gave him 
 the name of Cwur de Lion were nowhere better 
 displayed than in his adventures in the east. 
 After some delays in France, Richard and 
 Philip Augustus landed in SicUy in June, 
 1190. After rescuing his sister from the 
 hands of the usurper, Tancred, and incurring 
 the French king's hostOity Ijy repudiating the 
 latter's sister, Alice, to whom he had been long 
 contracted in marriage, in favour of Beren- 
 garia of Navarre, Richard set out for Palf stine, 
 conquering Cyprus on his way, and bestow- 
 ing it on Guy of Lusignan. He arrived in 
 Palestine in time to save Acre, but the return 
 home of Philip Augustus, and the quarrel of 
 Richard with the Duke of Austria, made the 
 barren victories against the Saracens of little 
 avail in effecting the deliverance of the Holy 
 City. At last in 1192 Richard was glad to 
 conclude a three years' truce with Saladin, 
 which saved the remnants of the Prankish 
 kingdom, and gave pilgrims free access to 
 Jerusalem. On his way home he was im- 
 prisoned by his old enemy the Duke of 
 Austria, and handed over to the Emperor 
 Henry VI., who as the representative of the 
 Hohenstaufen, was glad to get hold of the 
 uncle and protector of Otto the Guelf. 
 
 Meanwhile the soundness of the adminis- 
 trative system which Henry II. had established 
 was being thoroughly tested in England 
 Despite the incompleteness of Richard's ar- 
 rangements, despite the intrigues of Earl 
 
Bic 
 
 ( ^15 ) 
 
 Kic 
 
 John, England remained in a prosperous 
 condition during the whole of the period. 
 Four successive justiciars ruled the laud as 
 practically independent sovereigns, burdened 
 only hy the heavy tribute which the absent 
 king exacted. The first, William Longchamp, 
 Bishop ol Ely, was unpopular as a foreigner, 
 and Earl John profited by this to excite the 
 baronage against him. In 1191 the Archbishop 
 of Eouen, Walter of Coutances, arrived with 
 ! a commission from Richard to supersede him. 
 His government, which lasted till 11.93, was 
 ■disturbed by the unsuccessful rebellion of 
 John, in connection with an attack of Philip 
 on Normandy, and by the exertions necessary 
 to raise the enormous ransom' of £100,000, 
 which the Emperor required for the release of 
 Eiohard. At the end of 1193 he was succeeded 
 by Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, whose administration continued until 
 1198. The latter at once succeeded in sup- 
 pressing John's revolt. When Eichard paid 
 his second and last visit to his kingdom in 
 the spring of 1194 the land was in profound 
 peace. At a great council at Nottingham 
 the accomplices of John were punished, the 
 sheriffs removed, and money raised by all 
 possible means. A second coronation at Win- 
 chester was a solemn declaration that, whatever 
 humiliation Eichard had been subjected to in 
 his captivity, his royal dignity remained un- 
 impaired. As soon as he had got all he could 
 Eichard hurried to France, where he spent 
 the rest of his life in a constant petty warfare 
 against Philip of France, until he met his 
 death in 1199, while besieging the obscure 
 castle of Chaluz. Meanwhile Hubert Walter 
 administered England with success. The 
 judicial iter of 1194, and the first germs of the 
 offices of coroner and conservator of the peace, 
 showed that he not only maintained, but also 
 developed, the system of Henry II. In 1198 
 the refusal of a royal demand for money by 
 the great council led t& his resignation. His 
 l«uccessor, Geofl'ry FitzPeter, had not long 
 ■entered upon his office when the king died. 
 
 Eichard I. is the most un-English, of our 
 kings. He knew and influenced England, 
 ^ here he hardly ever Hved, either before or 
 after his accession, less than any other prince. 
 Yet, besides his fame as a knight-errant, he 
 had no inconsiderable talent for rough and 
 ready statesmanship. But he was a bad 
 king, careless, extravagant, and neglectful of 
 aU his duties. The main interest of his reign 
 in EngKsh history is its story of quiet admi- 
 nistrative routine and constitutional develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Bishop Stubbs' Editions of Hnveim, and of the 
 Chronicles ojid Memorials o/ Richard II., in the 
 Bolls Series, are, with his Const, Kv-t.^ the most 
 importajit works bearing on Bichard's reign. See 
 also Pauli, Geschichte von England; Lyttelton, 
 Hmry II. ; and Michaud, Histoire des Croieades. 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Richard II. (*. Feb. 1366; r. June 22, 
 1377— Sept. 30, 1399), was the son of Ed- 
 
 ward the Black Prince and Joan of Kent. Soon 
 after his father's death he was created Prince 
 of Wales, and recognised as heir to the throne. 
 During the early years of his reign he 
 was in tutelage, but the boldness and presence 
 of mind which he showed during the peasant 
 revolt seemed to augur a successful and 
 prosperous career. He appears to have been 
 suspicious of the designs of his uncie, 
 Gloucester, and to have determined to sur- 
 round himseK with ministers of his own 
 choosing, and it must be admitted that they 
 were selected with judgment, and (with 
 perhaps the exception of De Vere) they 
 hardly deserve to be stigmatised as favouritf s. 
 But they were not successful administrators, 
 and the heavy taxes which were imposed 
 afforded an opportunity to Gloucester and 
 his associates to denounce them. In 1386, 
 Eichard's minister, Michael de la Pole, Earl 
 of Suffolk, was impeached by the Commons, 
 and the king was compelled to agree to the 
 appointment of a Commission of Eegency, 
 consisting of the Dukes of Gloucester and 
 York, and eight other lords and prelates. In 
 the following August (1387), Eichaxd pro- 
 cured from the judges a declaration that the 
 Commission was illegal. But Gloucester en- 
 tered London with a large force ; and the 
 king, unable to resist, was obliged to give 
 way and to allow his chief advisers to be ap- 
 pealed of treason (Dec, 1387). The Parlia- 
 ment of 1388, the "Merciless Parliament," 
 condemned Tore, Suffolk, and six others to 
 death ; and though the two chief personages 
 escaped, the sentence was carried out in 
 four cases. The power of Gloucester lasted 
 till 1389, when Eichard suddenly declared 
 that he was old enough to manage his 
 own affairs, and dismissed the Council of 
 Eegency. But he did not resort to his 
 former methods of government ; on the con- 
 trary, he was reconciled to Gloucester and 
 his associates, and was content to admit them 
 to a share in the government. For some 
 years nothing happened to disturb the har- 
 mony between the king and the nobles, and 
 the first symptoms of a revival of troubles 
 was in 1396, when Eichard proposed to marry 
 Isabella of France and form a firm alliance 
 with that country. This was strongly op- 
 posed by Gloucester, who was suspected by 
 the king of treasonable designs, was .arrested, 
 and sent to Calais to await his trial, but died 
 before it came on, murdered, it was generally 
 believed, by the king's orders. It would 
 seem that Eichard was panic-stricken at the 
 thought of a plot against his life, and de- 
 termined .to resort to tjie most arbitrary 
 measures to secure his position. At any rate 
 a complete change came over his conduct. The 
 pardons granted to the barons in 1388 were an- 
 nulled ; two of the most prominent were ap- 
 pealed of treason. Arundel was executed, and 
 his brother, the archbishop, banished. The 
 proceedings, of the MercUess Parliament .were 
 
Bic 
 
 ( 876 ) 
 
 Bic 
 
 rescinded, and the power of Parliament dele- 
 gated to a small committee. Thus Richard 
 seemed to have estahlished his absolute power, 
 hut still there "were rumours of conspiracies. 
 The Duke of Hereford (Henry of Boling- 
 broke, son of John of Gaunt), and Thomas 
 Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, accused each 
 other of treason, and were sentenced to 
 banishment, the latter for Kfe, the former for 
 six years. Richard now resorted to various 
 illegal methods of raising money, and he had 
 already ahenated the people from him, as 
 well as the leading nobles, when, in 1399, 
 he committed two acts of reckless folly 
 which were the immediate cause of his down- 
 fall. He ha,d promised Hereford that if 
 during his exile his father were to die, the 
 Lancastrian estates should be secured to him. 
 Nevertheless, on Gaunt's death, he seized the 
 ■whole of his domains into his own hands. 
 This gave an excuse to Hereford (or Lan- 
 caster, as he had now become) to return to 
 England to claim his patrimony; and the 
 circumstances were most auspicious for him, 
 for Richard had gone upon an expeditioA to 
 Ireland, leaving the Duke of York as regent 
 in England. Henry of Lancaster landed in 
 England, declared that he came simply to 
 obtain his lawful inheritance, was joined by 
 many of the great nobles, and not opposed by 
 the Duke of York ; so that when Richard re- 
 turned from Ireland he found the kingdom 
 was lost. Discovering hie true position, 
 Richard offered to resign the crown. The 
 abdication was accepted by Parliament, which 
 drew up articles of accusation against him, 
 enumerating all the illegal and despotic acts 
 he had been guilty of. Henry challenged the 
 vacant throne and was accepted as king. 
 After this, Richard disappears from history, 
 and nothing is known for certain of the time, 
 manner, or place of his death. According to 
 one account, he was murdered at Poute&act 
 by Sir Piers Exton, while other writers assert 
 that he starved himself to death. The Revo- 
 lution of 1399 was not a popular movement, 
 but was brought about by a series of circum- 
 stances to a considerable extent unconnected 
 with each other, but which all combined to 
 produce one result — a change of dynasty. 
 The Church was opposed to Richard" on ac- 
 count of his supposed LoUard tendencies and 
 his treatment of Archbishop Arundel; the 
 nobles hated him because he had refused to 
 govern according to their views, and had 
 endeavoured to curb their independence. 
 The people supported Henry as being the 
 representative of Thomas of Lancaster, and 
 having been unjustly defrauded by Richard; 
 while many asserted that Richard was not 
 the son of the Black Prince, but a suppositi- 
 tious child, and others maintained that Henry 
 was the true heir to the throne as the repre- 
 sentative of EdmundiCrouchback, who it was 
 said was in reality the elder brother of Ed- 
 ward J.. The extravagance and foreign 
 
 manners of the court were extremely distaste* 
 ful, and the war party strongly resented the 
 French marriage. Among the charges alleged 
 against Richard by Parliament the most im- 
 portant are these : — The tampering with the 
 judges in 1387 ; the revocation of the pardons 
 of the Appellants ; the murder of Gloucester ; 
 the ill-treatm.ent of Lancaster and Arundel ; 
 illegal taxation ; aKenation of crown lands ; 
 excessive power of the household courts ; and 
 rash words asserting his own absolute au- 
 thority. The truth probably is that Richard 
 attempted to do what Edward IV. and Henry 
 VII. were able to effect later on — to crush 
 the power of the nobles, rule by means of 
 ministers, avoid expensive foreign wars, and 
 keep the Church in submission. Like them, 
 he worked by means of Parliament, and thus 
 obtained a legal sanction to his most uncon- 
 stitutional acts. The chief reasons why they 
 succeeded where he failed were, that by the 
 time of Edward IV. the strength of the 
 baronage had been utterly broken by the 
 Wars of the Roses, the Church had lost its 
 power, and the nation was anxious for peace 
 under a strong government. In Richard's 
 own character there was much that is attrac- 
 tive. He is to be compared, says Dr. Stubbs, 
 rather to Edward III., " the chivalrous mag- 
 nanimous king who left him heir to difficul- 
 ties which he could not overcome," than to 
 the feeble and worthless Edward II. If his 
 theory of kingship was too lofty for the age, 
 it was at least an intelligible one, and he 
 .seems to have kept before him with steadi- 
 ness and purpose the idea of a despotic but 
 reforming monarchy. Though his fate was 
 immediately caused by his own deeds, the 
 misfortunes of his career were in great 
 part due to the events and policy of his 
 grandfather's reign. "In personal appear- 
 ance," says Mr. Gairdner, " he was hand- 
 some. There was a delicate beauty in his 
 features which corresponded with a mode 
 of life too luxurious for the age. He was a 
 lover both of art and literature ; the patron 
 of Froissart, Gower, and Chaucer, and the 
 builder of Westminster Hall. But he was 
 thought too fond of show and magnificence, 
 and some of his contemporaries accused him 
 of too great love of pleasure. Yet of positive 
 immorality we have no real evidence, and his 
 devotion and tenderness to both his queens 
 (child as the second was) is a considerable 
 presumption to the contrary." Richard was 
 twice married, first in 1382 to Anne of 
 Bohemia, daughter of the Emperor Charles 
 IV., and secondly in 1 396 to Isabella, daughter 
 of Charles VI. of France. He left no issue. 
 
 The contemporary authorities are Knighton's 
 Compilation, De Evmtihvs Anglite, dc. (in Twys- 
 den, Script. Decern), and the Atmales Kicardi 
 Secundi et Henna, Qimrti (Eolls Series), which 
 forms the hasis of Walsingham's ffistorto • a 
 French Chronique de la Tmhison (English Hist 
 Sec), and metrical Histoire du Roy Richard'- 
 for Lollardism, Fasciculi Zizaniorum (Rolls 
 
Bic 
 
 (877 ) 
 
 Kic 
 
 Series). The "best modem accouut is "by M. 
 ■Wallon, EicTiard II. (1864). See also Wright, 
 PoliUcal Songs ( Rolls Series) ; Mr. Skeat's, ed. 
 of Piers the flonghman (Early Eug. Text Soc.) ; 
 The Beposition of Richard II. (Camden Soc). ; 
 Rogers, Svs Centuries of Worle and Wages, and 
 Stubbs, Const Hi&t.t vol. ii., chap. xvi. 
 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Richard III., King (J. October 21, 
 1450, s. July 6, 1483, d. August 22, 
 1485), waa the son of Richard, Duke of 
 York, who was killed at Wakefield, and 
 brother to Edward IV., and George, Duke 
 of Clarence. Born at Fotheringay in 1450 he 
 was early inducted into state affairs. In 
 1461 he was recalled from Flanders, where he 
 had been sent for safety, and created Duke of 
 Gloucester and Lord High Admiral. He 
 held faithfully to his brother during his reign, 
 and showed himself a wise councillor to him, 
 a good soldier, and a vigorous administrator in 
 the capacity of Warden of the Scottish Marches 
 and other posts. In 1470, on the outbreak 
 of Warwick's insurrection, Kichard left the 
 kingdom with Edward, and returned with him 
 to take part in the battle of Bamet (April, 
 1471). Immediately afterwards he engaged 
 in the campaign of the West, and contributed 
 to the victory of Tewkesbury. In 1472 he 
 married Anne NeviUe, the widow of Prince 
 Edward, and in consequence became involved 
 in a violent quarrel with his brother Clarence 
 about the inheritance of the Earl of Warwick. 
 The rivalry between the two brothers was 
 keen, but it is not certain how far Eichard 
 was responsible for Clarence's downfall, or for 
 his murder, if he was murdered. During the 
 remainder of Edwai'd's reign Gloucester was 
 much occupied with Scottish affairs, and the 
 management of the Border. In Aprils 1483, 
 he left the North, and on the 30th of the 
 month got possession of the young king, 
 Edward V., as he was being taken to London. 
 In May Richard was appointed Protector, and 
 immediately entered upon the functions of 
 government. A violent quarrel broke out 
 between Richard and the queen's party in 
 tbe council, which was headed by Lord 
 Hastings. In June Richard, at a sitting of 
 the council, charged the ftueeu and her 
 friends with a plot against his life. _ Hastings 
 was seized and beheaded without trial on the 
 spot. Lords Grey and Rivers, the queen's 
 relations, were beheaded, and the young 
 prince Richard of York was surrendered to 
 the custody of the Protector. On June 22 
 Dr. Shaw, in a sermon at Paul's Cross, 
 asserted the claim of Eichard to the crown, on 
 the 'ground that Edward V. and his brother 
 were illegitimate ; and on June 24 Bucking- 
 ham, joiaed by a crowd of the citizens of 
 London, urged Richard to accept the crown. 
 This Richard did on June 26, and on July 6 
 he was crowned. Richard now adopted a 
 policy of conciliation, but there was consider- 
 able disaffection against him, especially in 
 southern England. The young princes dis- 
 
 appeared soon after, and though nothing 
 certain has ever been discovered about their 
 fate, it was believed, and it is extremely 
 probable, that Richard had them put to death. 
 The story increased the feeling against 
 Eichard, and meanwhile a rapprochement took 
 place between the queen's party and the 
 Lancastrians, headed by Henry of Richmond. 
 Richards chief supporter, Buckingham, joined 
 the conspiracy. In October Buckingham 
 headed a rising in the West of England which 
 came to nothing. The duke was captured and 
 put to death without trial. But the con- 
 spiracy was not crushed, and active prepara- 
 tions were made by the Lancastrians during 
 the next year. Meanwhile Richard was 
 becoming thoroughly unpopular in England. 
 His finances were in disorder, and he was 
 obliged to have recourse to the raising of 
 money by benevolences, though he had 
 himself passed a bill through Parliament the 
 previous year to put an end to that system. 
 In Aug., 1485, Richmond landed at MUford 
 Haven. The Welsh were in his favour, for 
 they looked upon him as a national leader ; 
 the old nobility were alienated from Richard, 
 and the new nobles disliked him ; his own 
 chief followers, the Stanleys, were in corres- 
 pondence with the enemy; and the people 
 were indifferent or favourable to the invaders. 
 Richard met them at Bosworth (Aug. 22, 
 1485). In the crisis of the battle Lord 
 Stanley, with his troops, suddenly joined 
 Richmond. The king was killed fighting 
 desperately. Richard has been represented as 
 a monster of iniquity by Sir Thomas More 
 and other historians who wrote under the 
 Tudors. Unscrupulous, cruel, and violent as 
 Richard was, he was, however, probably no 
 worse than contemporary princes and states- 
 men ; no worse, certainly, than his brother or 
 his successor. His capacity was undoubted, 
 and he seems to have made an effort at the 
 beginning of his reign to govern well. He 
 attempted to restore order, to check the 
 tyranny of the nobles, and to develop com- 
 merce. He, however, lacked the astuteness 
 that enabled Henry VII. to accomplish in a 
 great measure the work he had attempted. 
 His private character was not without amiable 
 traits, and had he lived in times of less diffi- 
 culty, and held the throne by a more secure 
 title, he might have obtained a more favour- 
 able verdict from posterity. 
 
 The Continuator of the Croj/'ond Chronicle; 
 J. Bous, Hist. Ecrum Anglia (pub. by Hearne) ; 
 Fabian, Concordance of Histories (Ed. o£ 1811) : 
 Sir Thomas Mnre, History of Richard III. and 
 Life of Edward v., all of whom are Tudor par- 
 tisans. Modem works on the reign are Horace 
 Walpole's ingenious Histonc Doubts concerning 
 the Life atid Reign of King Richard III. ; Miss 
 Haxte'd, Life of Richard III., and J. Gairdner, 
 Life and Reign of Richard III. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Bicliard, Archbishop of Canterburj' 
 (1174 — 1184), was Prior of Dover, and three 
 years after the mufder of JBecket was bhoaea 
 
Ric 
 
 ( 878 ) 
 
 Bid 
 
 to fill the vacant See. He was essentially a 
 moderate man, and his appointment was 
 welcome to the king as well as the supporters 
 of Becket's poHcy. His great work was the 
 rebuilding of Canterbury Cathedral, which 
 had been destroyed by fire previous to his 
 enthronement. He was frequently employed 
 by Henry II. on affairs of state : e.g., in 1176, 
 we find him negotiating a marriage between 
 the Princess Joan and King William of Sicily. 
 Hook, Archbishops of Canterbury. 
 
 Richard, Duke op York {b. 1472, 
 d. 1483), was the second son of Edward IV. 
 In 1477 he was married to Anne, daughter 
 and heiress of John Mowbray, Duke of 
 Norfolk. Soon after Edward IV.'s death, his 
 mother fled into sanctuary with him, but was 
 subsequently induced to let him join his 
 brother in the Tower, where he was murdered 
 by his uncle's orders. 
 
 Richard Fitz-ueal succeeded his father, 
 Bishop Nigel of Ely (nephew of Eoger of 
 Salisbury), in the office of Treasurer (1169), 
 and became Bishop of London in 1189. He 
 was the author of the Dialogus de Scaceario, 
 the main source of information for the ad- 
 ministrative system of Henry II. 
 
 Richard of ComwaU (*. no9,d. 1271) 
 was the son of John by his second wife 
 Isabella. In 1240 he led a crusade to the 
 Holy Land, and succeeded in securing very 
 favourable terms for the Christians by a 
 treaty with the Sultan of Egypt. In 1252 he 
 was offered, but declined, the crown of Sicily ; 
 in 1257 he was elected King of the Romans, 
 but was never crowned emperor. During 
 the long years of disputes between Henry III. 
 and his barons, Bichard tried to act the part 
 of a mediator, but when war broke out he 
 sided with his brother and commanded the 
 left wing at the battle of Lewes, where he 
 was taken prisoner, and he did not recover 
 his liberty till after the battle of Evesham. 
 He married first Isabel, daughter of William 
 Marshall ; secondly Sanchia, daughter of Bene 
 of Provence ; and thirdly IBeatrice, niece of 
 the Archbishop of Cologne. It is very diffi- 
 cult to obtain a true view of Bi chard's 
 character, as, with scarcely an exception, all 
 the contemporary writers are on the baronial 
 side, and strongly prejudiced against him, but 
 " he must have been on any showing," says 
 Dr. Stubbs, " a man of much more enterprise 
 and energy than his brother Henry. 
 
 Besides Stubbs, Const. Hist., ii., see Blaauw, 
 JSixrOM' War, and Prothero, Simon de Montfort. 
 
 Richhoroug'h (Rutupi^e) , a Roman town 
 and citadel guarding the eastern entrance to 
 the Wantsum — an inlet of sea between Thanet 
 and the mainland, Riohborough was the chief 
 port for commerce with Gaul, and the starting 
 point for the great high road of Kent through 
 Canterbury and Rochester to Dover. The 
 fortress was the head-quarters of the legion. 
 
 protecting the Saxon shore, but after the • 
 withdrawal of the Romans it was but feebly 
 defended, and it seems to have been captured 
 by Hengest toward the end of his life. 
 J. E. Green, Making of Unglani, ch. i. 
 
 Richmond, Edmund Tudor, Earl op 
 {d. 1456), was the eldest son of Owen Tudor 
 l)y Catherine, widow of Henry V. He was 
 created Earl of Richmond in 1452, and married 
 Margaret Beaufort, daughter and heiress of 
 John, Duke of Somerset, by whom he had 
 one son, afterwards Henry VII. 
 
 Richmond, Henry Fitzboy, Duke op 
 {b. 1517, d. 1536), was a natural son of 
 Henry VIII. by Elizabeth Blount, wife of 
 Sir Gilbert Tailbois. Before he was seven 
 years of age he was made a Knight of the 
 Garter, and created successively Earl of 
 Nottingham and Duke of Richmond and 
 Somerset. At the same time he was appointed 
 Warden of the Marches towards Scotland, 
 and placed in possession of many great estates. 
 He was also subsequently raised to the dignity 
 of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the actual 
 duties of his position being performed for him 
 by his deputy, Sir William Skeffington. He 
 was married to Mary, daughter of the Duke 
 of Norfolk, but died before the consummation 
 of the marriage. Had he lived he would 
 almost certainly have been nominated in 
 Henry's will to follow Edward A1. in the 
 succession to the crown. 
 
 Fronde, Hist. ofEng., ch. v. 
 
 Ridge Way, The, one of the great 
 Roman roads, was a branch of the Iknield 
 Way, from which it separated at Streatley in 
 Berkshire. It proceeded along the Berkshire 
 and WUtshire downs to Glastonbury, thence 
 to Taunton, and through Devonshire to Strat- 
 ton in Cornwall, thence keeping along the 
 hills to Redruth and the Land's End. [Roman 
 Roads.] 
 
 Ridings, is the name applied to the three 
 divisions of Yorkshire, and with the arrange- 
 ment of the country appears to be of Scan- 
 dina,vian origin. The four things into which 
 Iceland was partitioned were divided into 
 thirds, thrithungar ; and the fylker, or petty 
 kingdoms of South Norway were similarly 
 divided. As such a partition of the land is 
 in England only found in Yorkshire and 
 Lincolnshire (for Lindsey, one of the three 
 " parts " of Lincolnshire was at the time 
 of Domesday divided into ridings, though 
 the name afterwards dropped out of use), it 
 seems natural to attribute it to the Danish 
 occupation. The loss of the th of thrithing 
 may be due to misdivision of the compound 
 words " north-thrithing," &c. At the time of 
 the Conqueror the ridings of Yorkshire and 
 Lincolnshire seem to have had their own 
 moots, though these do not appear later ; at 
 present each riding in Yorkshire has its own 
 , lord-lieutenant, and is treated as a distinct 
 
Bid 
 
 ( 879 ) 
 
 Big 
 
 county for poor-law purposes. By the Eeform 
 Bill of 1832 two members of Parliament each 
 were given to the east and north ridings, 
 while the west was arranged in two divisions, 
 each with two members ; bythatof 1867 three 
 divisions were made of the west riding with 
 two members each. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., i., ch. v. ; Robertson, 
 Scotland under its Early Kings, ii,, 433 ; Wor- 
 saae, Danes and Northmen, 158 ; Cleasby and 
 Vigf usson, Icel. Dict.^ s. v. thing and ihrithungr ; 
 Skeat, Bngl. Diet. [T/V. J. A.] 
 
 Bidley, Nicolas, Bishop of London (4. 
 1500, d. 1555), was educated at Pembroke 
 College, Cambridge, where he gained a fel- 
 lowship. After studying theology for a 
 couple of years at Paris and Louvain, he 
 returned to Cambridge, and became proc- 
 tor and public orator. His learning and 
 energy commended him to the notice of 
 Cranmer, whose chaplain he was appointed 
 in 1537, and who speedily obtained for him 
 the mastership of Pembroke, and a royal 
 chaplaincy. In 1547 he became Bishop of 
 Boohester, and took a considerable part in 
 the preparation of Edward VI.'s first Prayer- 
 book, and in carrying out the changes which 
 accompanied it. Upon Bonner's deposition 
 by the Privy Council, Eidley was translated 
 to London (April, 1550). In the same year he 
 is found vainly attempting to convince Joan 
 Bocher of her errors, and assisting in the trial 
 of Gardiner. As in Rochester Cathedral so 
 in St. Paul's, he caused the altars to be 
 destroyed ; in St. Paul's he substituted a table 
 for the high altar, and in 1557 placed it in 
 the nave before the screen, setting it with its 
 sides north and south. Like Cranmer and 
 Latimer, he was disgusted by the violence of 
 the council, and in a sermon before the king 
 in 1552 spoke strongly of the distress caused 
 by the seizure of the guild revenues. His 
 fear lest Mary might restore the old worship 
 led him to join in the attempt to secure the 
 throne for Jane Grey, and on July 16, 1553, 
 he preached at St. Paul's Cross that Mary and 
 Elizabeth were bastards, and, therefore, with- 
 out right to the throne. As soon, however, as 
 Northumberland and the council had declared 
 for Mary, he set out to meet the princess to 
 obtain pardon, but he was taken prisoner at 
 Ipswich, and sent to the Tower. Here he 
 remained some eight months, Bonner mean- 
 while regaining his bishopric. In April, 1554, 
 he was sent to Oxford, with Cranmer and 
 Latimer, and committed to the charge of one 
 of the aldermen. After being made to appear 
 in a disputation, wherein he denied tran- 
 substantiation, and being in consequence 
 excommunicated, he was remitted to custody, 
 and nothing further was done till Sept., 1555, 
 When he was tried for heresy before three 
 bishops, commissioned by Pole as legate. On 
 ■Oct. 16 he was executed, together with 
 Latimer, in front of BaUiol College. One of 
 the most careful modem investigators of the 
 
 period writes : — " Ridley has left few remains 
 to vindicate the reputation for theological 
 learning which has been demanded for him 
 by modern biographers, but he was a learned 
 man ; in his way he was a moderate man, and 
 certainly he was a, man of great resolution. 
 His decision of character supported the 
 primate; the gravity of his manners com- 
 mended him to all who knew him, and he 
 rose into notice at a very opportune time for 
 the credit of the Reformation. But his temper 
 had a vehemence which sometimes betrayed 
 him into rashness, and in his nature there 
 was something of severity, and even of hard- 
 ness " (Dixon). 
 
 Eidley, TTorls (Parker Society) ; Foxe, 
 Acts and Monuments; Blunt, RBformation of 
 the Church of England, ii.j Dixon, History of 
 the Cuurch of Engltmd^ ii. 
 
 Bidolfi Conspiracy, The (1571), so- 
 called from one of the chief agents, Robert 
 Ridolfi, a Florentine banker residing in 
 London, was a plot formed by the Catholic 
 party in England for the deposition of Eliza- 
 beth, and the elevation of Mary Stuart to the 
 throne by the help of Spain, and her marriage 
 to the Duke of Norfolk. The chief conspirator 
 was Leslie, Bishop of Ross, who was in com- 
 munication with most of the Catholic nobles, 
 whilst the Duke of Norfolk was involved in 
 the scheme apparently against his will. 
 During 1571 frequent negotiations were 
 carried on between Mary Stuart, Philip II., 
 the Duke of Alva, and the Pope. Ridolfi was 
 sent to Madrid to request the aid of Philip, 
 which was at once promised. On his way he 
 had an interview with the Duke of Alva in 
 Brussels, but the messenger conveying the 
 news was arrested at Dover in possession of a 
 packet of treasonable letters. For these 
 letters, however, the Bishop of Ross contrived, 
 by the connivance of Lord Cobham, the 
 warden of the Cinque PortsJ to substitute 
 others of a comparatively innocent nature, 
 and although the measeuger confessed on the 
 rack that he had received the letters from 
 Ridolfi, and although the Bishop of Boss was 
 arrested,, and Mary severely cross-examined, 
 nothing definite was discovered. Suspicion 
 had, however, been aroused, and in Sept., 
 1571, the whole of the plot was discovered 
 through the instrumentality of a merchant, 
 who had been employed by Norfolk to convey 
 money and letters to Ms secretaries. Several 
 of the leading conspirators, including the 
 Bishop of Ross, the Earls of Arundel and 
 Southampton, and Lord Lumley, were at 
 once arrested. The bishop made a full con- 
 fession, and Norfolk, as the centre of the 
 plot, was executed (June, 1572). 
 Fronde, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Bievaxilx, Aelued op. [Aelred.] 
 
 Bigby, Richard {b. 1722, d. 1788), was 
 the son of a Bedford lineu-drnper, who had 
 
Big 
 
 ( 880 ) 
 
 lEtig 
 
 made » fortune as factor to the South Sea 
 Company. He attached himself in early life 
 to the Prince of Wales, but quarrelled with 
 him before long. The Duke of Bedford be- 
 came his patron, and on becoming Lord-Lieu- 
 tenant in 1758, took him to Ireland, as his 
 private secretary, and procured for him the 
 sinecure office of Vice,- Treasurer of Ireland 
 with a salary of £3, 500, to which he afterwards 
 added the emoluments of the Mastership of 
 the EoUs of that country. On returning from 
 Ireland, the duke had procured the return of 
 Kigby for Tavistock ; and when the duke 
 became president of the council in 1763, he 
 procured for his faithful henchman the most 
 lucrative of all offices — the paymastership of 
 the forces. "When county meetings were being 
 held on all sides in 1769, to protest against the 
 rejection of Wilkes by Parliament, " Eigby 
 made a summer tour through the east of Eng- 
 land, and, by the admission of his opponents, 
 checkmated the party of action in at least three 
 counties." After his patron's death, he suc- 
 ceeded in maintaining his position as " boat- 
 swain, of the Bloomsbury crew," according to 
 one of the lampoons of the day ; and stiU 
 lived on his sinecure offices. He was, how- 
 ever, disturbed for a moment by being ac- 
 cused in 1778 of appropriating public money, 
 as paymaster-general, though as Lord North's 
 administration had strong reason for not 
 inquiring too deeply into cases of peculation, 
 the matter was allowed to drop. Again, in 
 1782, when he opposed with imprudent 
 warmth a motion for reconciliation with 
 America, Pitt rebuked him sharply, and told 
 him that the nation was tired of paying him. 
 He lived till 1788, drawing money alike from 
 the revenues of Ireland and England, building 
 up for himself a lasting reputation as the 
 most notable placeman of the age. 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, o/ Emg. ; Trevelyau, Tlarly 
 
 Life of C. J, Foxi Bedford, Correspondence; 
 
 Junius, Letters. 
 
 Bight, Claim of. [Claim of Eight.] 
 
 Bight, Petition op. The, was the mani- 
 festo drawn up by the House of Commons in 
 1628, in the form of a petition to the king, 
 stating the principles of the Constitution 
 which Charles had broken. The events lead- 
 ing up to the Petition of Eight may be, briefly 
 summarised. Charles I. had. dissolved his 
 first two Parliaments before they had granted 
 any supplies, and, as he was, determined to 
 retain his minister, Buckingham, and to carry 
 out his policy of war vrith France and Spain, 
 he was obliged to have recourse to a loan. 
 Those persons who refused to subscribe were 
 imprisoned, but five of them, of whom one 
 was Sir Thomas Darnel, demanded their 
 habeas corpus. The crown lawyers fell back 
 upon the king's prerogative power to imprison 
 without showing cause whenever he deemed 
 it necessary, and this doctrine was accepted 
 by the judges. When, therefore, a new 
 
 Parliament met in 1628, it at once began to 
 discuss the recent forced loan and the arbi- 
 trary imprisonments. Wentworth, at this 
 time leader of the Commons, proposed that a 
 short biU should be drawn up merely reciting 
 and confirming Magna Carta, Do Tallagio, &o., 
 with the addition of a clause confirming 
 Habeas Corpus ; but the king objected so 
 strongly even to this moderate proposal that 
 it was resolved, upon the motion of" Coke, 
 that a Petition of Eight should be drawn up. 
 Not only would such a petition receive an im- 
 mediate answer, instead of being sent up at 
 the end of the session and almost certainly 
 rejected by the king when he had gained 
 supplies, but it would contain a definite state- 
 ment that the king had broken the law. As 
 finally drawn up, the petition demanded " that 
 no man hereafter be compelled to make or 
 yield any gift, loan, benevolence, tax, or such 
 like charge, without common consent by Act 
 of Parliament " ; that no one should be im- 
 prisoned without cause shown, and that if 
 imprisoned they should be entitled to their 
 habeas coi-pas ; that soldiers and sailors should 
 not be billeted upon private persons without 
 their consent ; and that martial law should be 
 abolished. Of these clauses the first two were 
 far the most important, and it is clear that, 
 however Charles may have abused his power, 
 his predecessors had without remonstrance 
 exercised the right of imprisonment without 
 showing cause. The Lords accepted the 
 measure, after in vain searching for a formula 
 which should allow the king to imprison in 
 cases of real emergency. Meanwhile Denbigh 
 had been unsuccessful at Eochelle, and the 
 king needed supplies. He demanded from 
 the judges " whether, if the king grant the 
 Commons' petition, he did not thereby ex- 
 clude himself from committing a subject for 
 any time or cause whatsoever without show- 
 ing a cause." They answered that every Act 
 had its exposition, which can only be by the 
 courts of law as each case occurs, " and, 
 although the petition be granted, there is no 
 fear of conclusion as is intimated in the 
 question." Thereupon the king went to the 
 House, and instead of the usual form of 
 assent, read a meaningless declaration that 
 the statutes should be dulj' executed. The 
 Commons were bitterly annoyed, and pro- 
 ceeded to attack Buckingham. Charles at 
 last yielded, and gave his assent in the ac- 
 customed formula (June 7, 1628). In the 
 next session the Commons renewed the 
 struggle on the ground of Tunnage and 
 Poundage, which had been levied, although 
 no Act had as yet granted it to Charles. Its 
 levy was, they declared, in violation of the 
 Petition of Eight. But the words of the 
 petition, interpreted by the usage of the day, 
 certainly did not carry that meaning; and 
 neither the Commons nor the king had the 
 matter in mind when the petition was being 
 discussed. The question became involved 
 
Kisr 
 
 (881 ) 
 
 Kig 
 
 ■with that of religion, and the steuggle on 
 these two points led to the dissolution ot 
 1629. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of JSIrij.,u. Ixi.— Ixiii,, Ixvii.— 
 1?™- [W. If. A.] 
 
 Rig'h.ts, The Bill or. A committee ap- 
 pointed hy the Commons in the Convention of 
 1689 to consider what measures ahouldhe taken, 
 to protect liherty against futute so'eereigns, 
 recommended that the. main constitutional 
 principles violated hy James II. should be 
 solemnly declared to he the ancient rights of the 
 nation, and also that several new laws should 
 he enacted. It was easy to carry out the 
 former proposal ; the latter would be a work 
 of considerable difficulty,, and. might occupy 
 years. After much discussion, therefore, it 
 was resolved to fill the throne at once, but to 
 insert in the instrument which conferred the 
 crown on William and. Mary a declaration of 
 the fundamental principles of the constitu- 
 tion ; all questions of further reform were post- 
 poned till a more suitsible opportunity. Ac- 
 cordingly a committee, presided over by 
 Somers, was appoiated to draw up, a Declara- 
 tion of Rights, which, whea fcamed, was 
 accepted by the Lords with some unianportant 
 amendments. On!Peb. 13, 1689, this declara- 
 tion was read before; William and Mary, and 
 the crown tendered to them; William, in. 
 accepting it, assured the two Houses that his 
 conduct should bg, giovemed by those laws 
 which he had himself vindicated. In the De- 
 cember of the same year, the Convention 
 having meanwhile been dedared by statute to 
 be a Parliament, the Declaration of Eights 
 was confirmed in, the form of a Bill, with 
 certain additions. The Bill of Eights, as 
 finally adopted, was arranged as follows : — 
 
 Its first section recited" the Declaration of 
 Eights. It began by stating the various acts 
 by which James did "endeavour to subvert 
 and extirpate the Protestant religion, and the 
 laws and. Eberties of this kingdom," and 
 then, almost in the same words, proceeded 
 to declare r, Tlmt the pretended power-of sus- 
 pending of laws and the execution of laws, 
 by regal authority without consent of Parlia- 
 ment, is illegal % That the pretended power of 
 dispensing with laws by isegal authority, as 
 it hath been assumed and exercised of late, is 
 illegal ; That the commission, for creating the 
 late court of commissioners for ecclesiastical 
 causes, and all other commissions and courts 
 of the like nature, are. illegal and pernicious ; 
 That levying of money for or to the use of 
 the crown, by pretence of prerogative without 
 grant of Parliament, ias longer time or- in 
 any other manner than the same is or shall 
 be granted, is illegal; That it is the right 
 of the subjects to petition the king,. and that 
 all commitments or prosecutions for such 
 petitions are illegal; That the raising or 
 keeping a standing army within the kingdom 
 in time of peace, unless it be with consent 
 of Parliament, is against law ; That the subjects 
 
 which ■ are Protestants may have arms for 
 their defence suitable to their condition, and 
 as allowed by law ; That election of members 
 of Parliament ought to be free; That the 
 freedom of speech and debates, or proceedings 
 in Parliament, ought not to be impeached or 
 questi(Hied in any court or place out of Par- 
 Hameut ; That excessive bail ought not to be 
 required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
 cruel and unusual punishments inflicted ; 
 That juries ought to be duly impanelled and 
 returned, and that jurors which pass upon 
 men in trials for high treason ought to be 
 freeholders ; That all grants and promises of 
 fimes and forfeitures of particular persons, 
 before conviction, are- illegal and void ; And 
 that for redress of all grievances, and for the 
 amending,strengthenjng,andpreserving of the 
 J laws, Parliament ought to be held frequently. 
 The second section- declared the resolution 
 of Lords and Commons,, that WiUiam and 
 Mary should become king and queen, to be 
 succeeded by their lawful issue if there 
 were any such; in, default of that by 
 the issue of the Princess Anne, &c. The 
 third contained the new oaths of allegiance 
 and supremacy. The fourth recorded the 
 acceptance of the crown, by the prince and 
 princess; who (v.,) were pleased that the 
 Lords and Commons should continue to sit 
 and make pro-vision for the settlement of the 
 religion, laws, and liberties of the country. 
 Parliament,, theiefore, now again- (vi.) de- 
 clares the above to be the indubitable rights of 
 the Enghsh people ; recognises (vii.) that 
 James ha-idng abdicated, WiUiam and Mary 
 have become their sovereign, lord and lady, 
 and fixes (,viii.) the succession as above. The 
 ninth section contains an important addition : 
 as it has been found by experience inconsis- 
 tent with the safety and welfare of this Pro- 
 testant kingdom ta he gosvemed by a popish 
 prince, or by any king or queen marrying a 
 papist, it is enacted that all persons who shall 
 hold communion with the Church of Eome, 
 or shall marry a papist, shall be excluded 
 from the throne, and the-cro-wn shall descend 
 to the next heir. Every king or queen there- 
 fore (x.), on the first day ef their first Par- 
 liament, shall subscribe and audibly repeat 
 the declaration, mentioned in the statute 30 
 Charlesill., i.e., the Test Act (a declaration 
 against transubstantiation, adoration of the 
 Virgin, and the sacrifice of the mass). 
 Finally in the- twelfth section it is declared 
 that no- dispensation by non ohstante of or to 
 any statute shall be allowed, except such dis- 
 pensation be allowed in the statute, or shall 
 be specially provided for by one or more 
 biUs to be passed during the present ses- 
 sion of Parliament. The Lords had already 
 softened the article of the Declaration of 
 Eights against the dispensing power by the 
 insertion of the words "as it hath been exer- 
 cised of late," and now this last section was 
 added to provide for eases where it might be 
 
Biin 
 
 CS82 
 
 "Riv 
 
 desirable that the dispensing power should he 
 used. Though, however, in the next Parlia^ 
 ment, the judges were ordered hy the House 
 of Lords to draft a hill for this purpose, the 
 matter dropped. [Revolution]. 
 
 Macaulay, Sist, ofEng.t cll, x. i Hallam, ConsA. 
 Hist., oh. XV. [W.J.A.] 
 
 Biinucciui, Giovanni Battista, Arch- 
 bishop of Fermo, was sent to Ireland in 1644 
 as the pope's nuncio, with a supply of arms 
 and money, narrowly escaping capture on 
 the way from a Parliamentary frigate. In 
 1645 he opposed Glamorgan's treaty and also 
 the Dublin treaty of 1646. In 1648 he op- 
 posed Lord Ihchiquin's armistice, and after 
 an unsuccessful tenure of office as the presi- 
 dent of the Kilkenny Council, fled to Owen 
 Roe O'Neil, and then to Galway. He was 
 recalled by the pope in 1649. 
 
 Biot Act,THE(1715), was passed at a time 
 when there were apprehensions of Jacobite 
 rising. If twelve persons continued together 
 for one hour after a proclamation bidding them 
 disperse has been made to them by the magis- 
 trate, they were guilty of felony. The magis- 
 trate was required to apprehend persons re- 
 fusing to disperse, and those who acted at his 
 orders were indemnified for any injury which 
 they might commit. This practically meant 
 that an hour after the proclamation the 
 military might be ordered to fire on the 
 mob, or charge them. The question after- 
 wards arose as to the legality of military in- 
 terference without the order of a magistrate. 
 It was decided by Lord Mansfield in a case 
 arising out of the Gordon Riots in 1780, that 
 it is the duty of every subject to resist persons 
 engaged in treasonable or riotous conduct, 
 and that this duty is not less imperative upon 
 soldiers than upon civilians. This decision 
 was confirmed in 1831 in a case arising from 
 the Bristol Riots. 
 
 Biipon, Frederick John Rohinson, Earl 
 OF (*. 1782, d. 1859), was the second son of 
 Lord Grantham. Entering Parliament as 
 member for Ripon in 1807, he received office 
 under Perceval as Under Secretary for the 
 Colonies, and became in 1818 President of the 
 Board of Trade. Created Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer in 1823, he assisted Huskisson in 
 his free trade measures, was made Secretary 
 for the Colonies and Viacoimt Goderich in 
 1827, and was for a few months Prime 
 Minister after Canning's death. But he 
 was unable to arrange a satisfactory ministry, 
 and resigned. From 1830 to 1833 he was 
 again Colonial Secretarj', becoming in the 
 latter year Lord Privy Seal and Earl of 
 Ripon. Though he afterwards became Pre- 
 sident of the Board of Trade under Peel, he 
 had long ceased to be of any political import- 
 ance. 
 
 Biipou, The Treaty of (1640), concluded 
 the second Scotch war. After the successful 
 
 invasion of the northern counties, the Council 
 of Peers, assembled at York by Charles I., 
 resolved, on the motion of Lord Bristol, to 
 appoint sixteen commissioners to treat with 
 the Scots (Sept. 24). The first meeting of 
 the sixteen English and eight Scottish com- 
 missioners took place at Ripon on Oct. 2 : the 
 last on Oct. 26. A cessation of arms was 
 agreed upon, the two northern counties remain- 
 ing' in the possession of the Scots, who were 
 to receive from the contributions of the in- 
 habitants £850 a day for their maintenance. 
 Further negotiations were removed to London, 
 where peace was finally concluded in Aug. 
 1641. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng. 1603—1642; Bruce, 
 
 Jfotes of the Treaty carried on at Ripon (Camden 
 
 Society). 
 
 Bishanger, William (*. 1250), was a 
 monk of St. Albans, who continued the 
 Chronicle of Matthew Paris from 1272 to 
 1306, the intermediate portion, from 1253 
 to 1272, being the work of an unknown 
 author. He also wrote an account of the 
 Barons' "War, and a Life of Edward I. 
 Though inferior to Matthew Paris, Rishanger 
 takes high place among mediseval chroniclers, 
 but his strong feeling in favour of Simon 
 de Montfort prevents his being altogether 
 an impartial authority. 
 
 His Chronicle has been publishea in the Eolls 
 Series, and his Wars of the Barons by the 
 Camden Society. For the vexed question of 
 the authorship of the St. Alban's Chronicles 
 from 125S to 1272, sec Sir T. Hardy, Descriptive 
 Catalogue, on the one side, and Mr. Gairdner, 
 Early Chroniclers, on the other. 
 
 Bivers, Anthony Woodville, Earl 
 (d. 1483), was the son of the first Earl Rivers, 
 and brother-in-law of Edward IV. He 
 married the daughter and heiress of Lord 
 Scales, and in 1462 was summoned to Parlia- 
 ment as Baron Scales. He took part in the 
 siege of Alnwick, and in 1470 accompanied 
 Edward in his flight to the Netherlands, re- 
 turning with him in the next year. In 1469, 
 by the death of his father, he became Earl 
 Rivers. He received many honours from 
 Edward, and, among other offices, held that 
 of Captain-General of the Forces. On the 
 death of Edward IV., he was appointed one of 
 the Council of Regency during the minority 
 of his son, but the jealousy of the old nobility 
 favoured Gloucester's designs, and Rivers 
 was seized by Gloucester's orders at North- 
 ampton, and carried to Pontefract, where, 
 after a short imprisonment, he was beheaded. 
 
 Rivers, Richard "Woodville, Eam 
 {d. 1469), was one of Henry V.'s esquires, 
 and was made by him seneschal, and in 1424 
 Governor of the Tower of London. He 
 fought in the French wars in Henry "ST 's 
 reign, and married Jaquetta of Luxemburg 
 widow of the Duke of Bedford. For thisi 
 clandestine marriage he was fined a thousand 
 pounds, but was soon afterwards restored to 
 
Biz 
 
 ( 883 ) 
 
 Bob 
 
 favour, and in 1448 made Baron Rivers. In 
 the "Wars of the Eoses he fought on the 
 Lancastrian side, but in 1464 his daughter 
 Elizabeth, -who was the widow of Sir John 
 Grey, was secretly married to the young king, 
 Edward IV. By his Bon-in-law Rivers was 
 raised to high honours, made Constable of 
 England, and in 1466 created Earl Rivers, 
 and his sons received equal advantages from 
 their connection with the sovereign. The 
 "Woodvilles were hated by the old nobility on 
 account of their rapid rise, whUe the people 
 complained of their avarice. In 1469 a re- 
 bellion broke out, headed by Sir William 
 Conyers, the insurgents complaining of the 
 influence of the queen's friends. Having de- 
 feated the Royal troops at Edgecote, the 
 rebels seized Earl Rivers and his son, and put 
 them to death at Coventry. 
 
 Bizzio, David, a native of Turin, became 
 musician to Mary, Queen of Scots, and soon 
 afterwards her private secretary. The queen's 
 favour quickly rendered its recipient odious 
 to the Scotch nobles, who banded themselves 
 together against him, and were aided by 
 Damley, who had become jealous of the 
 Italian. On March 9, 1566, HoljTOod Palace, 
 where Rizzio was at the time, was surrounded 
 by an armed force under Lord Morton. 
 Others of the conspirators, chief of whom was 
 Lord Euthven, entered the queen's apart- 
 ment at the instigation of Damley, and 
 dragged her favourite from her presence. 
 He was despatched in Damley's room, and 
 with Damley's sword, though not by his 
 hand. It is extremely improbable that 
 Rizzio was, as Damley coarsely insinuated, 
 the queen's paramour, or that he was any 
 more than a confidential friend and faithful 
 servant. His worst faults, in the eyes of the 
 conspirators, were his arrogance and his 
 religion. 
 
 Mignet, Marie Stwirt; Hosa£k, Mary, Queen 
 of Scots. 
 
 Bobert I., King or Scotland. [Bruce.] 
 
 Bobert II., King of Scotland (a. 
 1371, d. 1390), the first of the Stuart 
 dynasty, was the son of Walter, Lord High 
 Steward of Scotland, and Marjory, daughter 
 of Robert Bruce. On the death of David II. 
 without children, Robert, then 65 years old, 
 succeeded to the throne unopposed. In early 
 life, as Steward of Scotland, he had done good 
 service against the English ; had been present 
 at the battle of Hallidon Hill, and had long 
 acted as regent of Scotland. He married 
 first Elizabeth Mure of Eowallan and secondly 
 Euphemia Ross. In 1375 an Act of Parlia- 
 ment settled the crown on the king's sons by 
 his first wife, a measure rendered necessary 
 by the fact that these children were by eccle- 
 siastical law illegitimate. England at this 
 time was not in a position to be aggressive, 
 and, although the usual border raids con- 
 tinued, Robert's reign was on the whole a 
 
 peaceful one. A close alliance with France 
 at the beginning of the reign, however, led 
 in 1385 to a French army being sent to 
 Scotland with the view of attacking England 
 from the north. The usual course of border 
 devastation followed; but the French, dis- 
 satisfied with their reception bt the Scotch, 
 soon returned home. In 1388 an invasion of 
 England was planned, resulting in the defeat 
 of the English under the Percies at Otterburn. 
 In 1390 Robert died, " leaving the character 
 of a peaceful ruler over a quarrelsome people." 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 Bobert III., King of Scotland {a. 
 1390, d. 1406). He was a man of weak 
 and indolent character, iU fitted to cope 
 with the turbulent spirits of the age. The 
 early years of his reign were disturbed 
 by quarrels amongst the Highland clans 
 and by lawlessness in the Lowlands to such 
 an extent that in 1398 the Scotch Parlia- 
 ment appointed the Duke of Rothesay, his 
 eldest son, lieutenant of the kingdom. In 1400, 
 Henry IV. of England invaded Scotland with 
 the intention of exacting homage from Robert; 
 he failed, however, to take Edinburgh Castle, 
 and retreated without effecting anything. 
 An invasion of England by the Scots was 
 repelled by the Percies at Homildon Hill 
 (1402). On the capture of his son. Prince 
 James, by the English, Robert died, it is said, 
 of a broken heart. 
 
 Bobert (6. 1056, d. 1135-), Duke of Nor- 
 mandy, called Curthose on account of his 
 short stature, was the eldest son of William the 
 Conqueror. In 1073 he was made Count of 
 Maine, which was to be held as a fief of An jou. 
 In 1077 he rebelled against his father and 
 demanded the Duchy of Normandy. War 
 ensued between father and son ; after the 
 Battle of Gerberoi in 1080, peace was made, 
 and the succession to Normandy secured 
 to Robert. On the death of his father he 
 claimed the English throne, but William 
 Rufus's prompt action disconcerted him, and 
 he was obliged to make a treaty by which 
 the survivor was to succeed to the other's 
 dominions if either died without heirs. In 
 1094 Robert again made war with William, 
 but shortly afterwards, being eager to join 
 the first Crusade, he pledged Normandy to 
 his brother for the sum of £6,000. In the 
 Holy Land Robert fought with great bravery, 
 and was offered but refused the crown of 
 Jerusalem. Soon after his return he learnt 
 that WiUiam was dead, and determined to 
 enforce his claims to the throne. He invaded 
 England in 1101, but was induced by Henry 
 to make a compromise whereby he resigned 
 the crown of England and contented himself 
 with the full possession of Normandy and 
 3,000 marks a year. Quarrels soon broke 
 out again between the brothers, Henry com- 
 plaining that the rebellious English nobles 
 found a shelter in Normandy. A war ensued 
 
BoT) 
 
 (884) 
 
 Roll 
 
 in which Henry won the battle of Tenohebrai 
 in 1106 and took Robert prisoner. He was 
 sent to the castle of Cardiil, where he was 
 kept in captivity tfll his death in 1135. By 
 his marriage with Sibyl, daughter of the 
 Count of Conversane, Robert had two children, 
 William CHto and Henry. 
 
 Freeman, Gorman Conquest; OrdericusVitalis, 
 Hist. Eceles. 
 
 Robert of AvesTlury, of whose per- 
 sonal history nothing is known except that 
 he describes himself as keeper of the register 
 of the court of the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 wrote a Historia de MiraUUbus Gestis Jiduardi 
 III., which, after briefly mentioning the 
 deposition of Edward II., gives the history of 
 his son down to the battle of Poitiers. This 
 work is one of the main autharities for the 
 period it covers, and is. particularly valuable 
 for the many, original documents which it 
 contains. The Historicc serves as a> useful 
 corrective to Froissart. 
 
 Robert of Jumi^ges, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (1051.— 1052), was a Norman 
 who, after having been Prior of St. Ouen's at 
 Rouen, became Abbot of Jumifeges in 1037. 
 Edward the Confessor formed a close 
 friendship with- him dai-ing his, stay in Nor- 
 mandy, and two years after his return (1044) 
 conferred upon him the bishopric of I>ondon 
 — ^the first occupation of an English see by a, 
 foreigner since the Conversion. He at once 
 became the leader of the- French party at 
 Edward's court, and the great enemy of 
 Godwin and has family. In 1050^ upon the- 
 death of Archbishop Eadsige,. the monks of 
 Christ Church elfected in Ms place AeUric, a 
 member of their own house and a kinsman of 
 Godwin. But the king refusedi to acqndesce 
 in their choice, and in the mid-Lent meeting 
 of the Witan nominated Robert of London^ 
 to the indignation of all England. The 
 new archbishop visited Rome to obtain his- 
 pallium, and was enthroned July 17. Hence- 
 forth his one object was ta- bring about the 
 fall of Godwin, whose opposition- to the 
 French party had been embittered by this 
 frustration (rf his kinsman's, hopes ais well as 
 by Robert's refusal t'o consecrate the English- 
 man Spearhafoc to the- see which he himself 
 had left vacant. The archbishop. claimed for 
 the Church certaiui lands held by the earl, and 
 even renewed the old accusation against him, 
 of complicity in the murder of Edward's 
 brother, Alfred. The attack of the men of 
 Dover upon the escort of Eustaceof Boulogne- 
 and Godwin's refusal to punish them gave 
 Robert his opportunity. By his advice- 
 Godwin was summoned before the Witam tO' 
 answer charges old and new. With Godwin's- 
 outla-wry the archbishop's triumph seemed 
 complete (September, 1051). Spearhafoc was 
 deposed, and a Norman became Bishop of Lon- 
 don ; and, what was ' still more important, 
 William of Normandy was invited to England. 
 
 But in September, 1052, Godwia returned, and 
 the nation declared in his favour. Robert dared 
 not remain in England, and -with TJlf, Bishop 
 of Rochester, took to flight, cutting his way 
 through London, and riding to what is now 
 Walton-on-the-Naze, where they found a 
 vessel which took them to Normandy. He 
 was immediately outlawed by the Witan and 
 deprived of his bishopric, "for that he had 
 done most to eause the strife between Earl 
 God-win and the king," as the chronicler says; 
 the uncanonical method of his deposition 
 gave William of Normandy afterwards one of 
 his pretexts for invasion. Meanwhile Robert 
 had retired to his monastery of Jumieges, 
 where he continued the building operations 
 which he had commenced before he went to 
 England ;, and here he died in 1058. 
 
 English Chronicle ; "WilBam of Malmesbury ; 
 Hook, Avuhhishops of Canterbury; Freeman, 
 ^orwiou Conquest. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Robin Hood, the hero of a cycle of popular 
 ballads, according to tradition an outhiw com- 
 manding a band of freebooters in Sherwood 
 forest in the reign of Richard I. Stow, writing 
 inl 590, and doubtless giving- the popular story, 
 tells us that "he sufiered- no woman to be 
 oppressed .... poor men's goods he spared, 
 abundantly relieving them with that which 
 by theft he got from the abbeys,, and the 
 houses of rich old carles." It is, however, 
 doubtful at what time he lived, or, indeed, 
 whether he existed at all. No contemporarj'- 
 historian mentions him :' he is first alluded to in 
 jPiers the Mloughman, and the earliest chronicle- 
 which speaks of him is the Seotichronieon (of the' 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries). An itt- 
 scriptionis said to have been found? on a tomb- 
 at Kirklees in Yorkshire in which- he is called 
 Earl of Huntingdon, and the date of hi« death 
 is given as 1247; b-ut this is apocryphal. 
 Thierry thought he was chief of a Saxon 
 band warring against the Norman oppressor ; 
 Grim, that he was purely mythical. It has 
 been attempted- to- identify him. -with a 
 "Robyn Hod" who served as "porteur" to 
 Edwaud II. in, 1223, but. the'evidence is very 
 weak. The earliest ballads concerning him 
 date from Edward III. ; Wynkin de Worde 
 published the Liftel Geste of Eobim Mood in 
 1495.. 
 
 Mbdem-editioDs of the Ballads are by Bitsou, 
 1799, aud Gutoh,^ 1847. 
 
 Robin of Redesdale. In 1469 an 
 insurrection took*place in Yorkshire, caused 
 by a dispute about tithes due to the hospital 
 o4 St. Leonard at York, which was led by 
 Robert Hilyard, called Robin of Eedesdale. 
 This rebellion was- suppressed by Lord 
 Montague. Taking advantage of the dis- 
 content existing a-mong the commons of the 
 north. Sir WiHiam Conyers, adopting the 
 popular name of Robin of Redesdale, succeeded 
 in raising a force, estimated at 60,000 men, 
 in the summer of 1469. They published a 
 
Bob 
 
 ( 885 ) 
 
 Boc 
 
 manifesto charging the ting with miagovem- 
 ment, and demanding reform. This revolt 
 was prohahly instigated by Warwick ; it was 
 certainly approved, supported, and made use 
 of hy Clarence and the Nevilles. The king's 
 forces were defeated at Edgecote, near Ban- 
 bury, the king's adherents, such as William 
 Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, Humphry Staf- 
 ford, Lord Rivers, and others seized and 
 beheaded, and the king himself became the 
 prisoner of the Archbishop of York, and was 
 obliged to make terms with the rebels, and 
 issue a general pardon. 
 
 Bobuison, John, Bishop of Bristol, and 
 afterwards of London (i. 1650, d. 1723)), 
 went in 1685 as chaplain to the Englidi 
 embassy in Sweden, where he stayed more 
 than a quarter of a century, and filled the posts, 
 during the absence of the ambassador, &st of 
 resident and afterwards of envoy extra- 
 ordinary, coming back to England in 1708 
 with the reputation of being a skilful dip- 
 lomatist acquainted with all the details of 
 northern politics. Anne rewarded his political 
 services and good churchmanship with the 
 deanery of Windsor and the bishopric of 
 Bristol. Upon the accession to office of the 
 Tory ministry (1711), and the sudden deaths 
 of the Duke of Newcastle and the Earl of 
 Jersey, to whom the Privy Seal had been 
 offered, the vacant place was conferred on 
 Robinson, the last churchman to hold political 
 office. Next year he was appointed English 
 plenipotentiary, together with the Earl of 
 Strafford, at the Congress of Utrecht, and 
 signed the treaty on March 31, 1713, without 
 waiting for the acquiescence of the emperor. 
 On the death of Compton, 1714, Robinson 
 was translated to the see of London. 
 
 Bobiusou, Sir Thomas, a politician 
 of little ability, who having been minister 
 at Vienna for twenty years, and being 
 acceptable to George II. on account _ of his 
 sympathy with the king's German policy, 
 was chosen by the Duke of Newcastle, on the 
 death of. his brother Henry Pelham, to act as 
 leader of the House of Commons with the 
 office. of Secretary of State. "The Duke," 
 "said Pitt to Fox, "might as well send his 
 jack boot to lead us." Those two, though 
 both in office at the time, united to attack 
 him, and covered him with ridicule, until 
 Fox was won over by a seat in the cabinet, 
 and came to his assistance. In 1755 Robinson 
 retired to his former office of Master of the 
 Wardrobe with a pension of £2,000 on the 
 Irish establishment. In 1761 he was raised 
 to the peerage as Lord Grantham. 
 
 Bob Boy, Macgkegoe Campbell (i. 1665, 
 d. 1735), was at first a grazier, but entering 
 upon large speculations in cattle breeding 
 had iU-luck, and finally absconded with money 
 borrowed from the Duke of Montrose, who 
 thereupon seized his small estate. Rob Roy 
 
 gained the patronage of the Duke of Aigyle, 
 and proceeded to wage a predatory warfare 
 against Montrose, and also against aU 
 favourers of the union with England. He 
 took part in the rising of 1715 and was 
 attainted, but continued his career of free- 
 booting, and evaded aU attempts to capture 
 him. The last few years of his life seem to 
 have been more pea,oef ul, and Rob died in 1 73&. 
 
 Bobsart, Amy or Akne, the daughter of 
 Sir John Robsart, married in 1549 Lord 
 Robert Dudley, afterwards Earl of Leicester, 
 by whom she is said to have been murdered 
 at Cumnor near Oxford in 1560. The charge 
 against her husband cannot be proved, and it 
 is probable that, though Lady Dudley was 
 murdered, the crime was committed by some 
 •of the earl's friends, who thought to derive 
 benefit from his marriage with Queen Eliza- 
 beth, which, it was believed, would at once 
 take place were he free. 
 
 Bochelle, Expeditions to. In 1625 
 EocheUe, the chief stronghold of the 
 Huguenots in the south of France, had 
 rebelled against Louis XIII., but had made 
 terms in Qie beginning of 1626. James I., 
 who understood that Richelieu represented 
 not the principle of religious intolerance, but 
 that of national union, had promised to lend a 
 certain number of English ships to assist in 
 the attack. But on the accession of Charles 
 an attempt was made to escape from this 
 promise, and though the Englis'h government 
 were outwitted, and the ships were actually 
 used against the town, the French king was 
 annoyed by Charles's action. The dismissal 
 of Henrietta Maria's attendants, and the 
 attitude of protector of the Protestants assumed 
 by Charles in his proposals of mediation, 
 led to a declaration of war between England 
 and France. In 1627 Buckingham com- 
 manded an expedition to Rhe, where he 
 landed in July. It was not, however, till 
 the end of August that the- RooheUese yielded 
 to the advice of Buckingham and of the 
 great Huguenot nobles, and openly revolted. 
 In October the English were forced to retreat 
 from Rhe. In May of the next year another 
 English' fleet was sent, under Denbigh, to 
 attempt the relief of the town, which was 
 now blockaded by land and sea. But the 
 English ships were unable to break through 
 the barrier of palisades and vessels, and 
 returned in May. In spite of the death of 
 Buckingham another attempt was made in 
 September. But there was no enthusiasm in 
 the fleet, and the commander Lindsey could 
 do nothing. Charles declared he would renew 
 his efforts, but the Rochellese were now 
 starving, and capitulated in October 18. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., vl. ; Martin, Hist, of 
 Frajnce, xi, 
 
 Boches, Petek deb {d. 1258), Bishop of 
 of Winchester, was a Poitevin friend of John, 
 appointed Justiciar of England on the death, of 
 
Boc 
 
 ( 886 ) 
 
 Boc 
 
 Geofirey Fitz-Peter, in 1213. It was he who 
 anointed and crowned Henry III. at Gloucester 
 three years later, and who was associated with 
 the Earl of Pembroke and Gualo the Legate as 
 chief councillors to the young king. On the 
 death of the above-mentioned earl (1219) Peter 
 des Roches seems to have become guardian of 
 the royal person and president of the council ; 
 ■but he soon showed that . his policy was at 
 variance with that of his predecessor, as he 
 steadily set himself to support the foreign 
 influence which Langton and the Justiciar 
 had opposed so vigorously. He was soon 
 looked upon as the head of the party of the 
 strangers, and persuaded its members to resist 
 the resumption of the royal desmesne that 
 Hubert de Burgh was striving to accomplish. 
 But in this he was unsuccessful, and was soon 
 forced to go abroad, on pretence of joining a 
 crusade (1221). Three years later his power 
 was still further reduced in the fall of Falkes 
 de Breaute, but only for a time. The young 
 king, however, seems to have continued under 
 the tutelage of Peter des Roches till 1227, 
 when he announced his intention of ruling 
 himself, and his late governor departed on 
 another crusade, from which he did not 
 return tiU 1231. But on the Bishop of 
 Winchester's return, aU his old influence 
 revived ; the king, at his instigation, dismissed 
 his old ministers on the plea of peculation, 
 and Hubert de Burgh sufiered imprisonment 
 and forfeiture. The new councillor, how- 
 ever, was soon overthrown ; the barons, headed 
 by the Earl Marshal, refused to meet him, 
 and the bishops threatened him with excom- 
 munication. On the death of this nobleman, 
 Edmund Rich. Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 declared himself ready to excommunicate even 
 . the king ; and then Henry at last gave way. 
 Peter des Roches was confined to his spiritual 
 duties, and his friends fell with him (1234). 
 
 Matthew Paris ; Pauli, Geschichie von England, 
 
 Bocta.ester early, gained importance, 
 during the Roman occupation, as command- 
 ing the point where the main high road of 
 South-Eastern England, that from Rich- 
 borough to London, passed the Medway. 
 So strongly was it fortified that the Jutes 
 seem not to have ventured upon attacking it 
 until they had conquered the rest of Kent. 
 It is possible that Rochester was the capital 
 of a West Kentish kingdom dependent 
 upon the King of East Kent, a relation re- 
 flected in the dependence of the Bishop of 
 Rochester on the see of Canterbury. The 
 dedication of the church of Rochester to 
 St. Andrew may possibly be due to the fact 
 that it was from the monastery of St. Andrew 
 at Rome that Augustine came. The town 
 walls were strong enough to resist Ethelred, 
 when in 986 he attempted to punish the in- 
 habitants for sedition ; and also -withstood 
 an attack of the Danes. The cathedral was 
 rebuilt by Bishop Gundulf, in the reigu of 
 
 Eufua, and, in spite of later additions, re- 
 mains one of the smallest of English cathe^ 
 dral churches. Within the town walls, upon 
 a cliff overlooking the Medway, had very 
 early risen a fortress of earthwork and timber, 
 and here Gundulf built for Eufus a castle of 
 stone. It was probably the earlier fortress 
 which was occupied by Odo of Bayeux, when 
 in 1088 he declared for Robert of Normandy 
 against Eufus. The tower, which was built 
 by Archbishop Walter of Corbeuil in the 
 reign of Henry I., is one of the finest ex- 
 amples of Norman military architecture, and 
 was in vain besieged in 1215 by John, and in 
 1264 by De Montfort. It was, however, 
 taken by the peasantry in "the revolt of 1381. 
 Preeman, William Rufus, i., p. 54, gives a map 
 of the town in the eleventh century. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Bochester, Lawhenoe Hyde, Earl op, 
 the second son of the great Earl of Claren- 
 don, became First Lord of the Treasury in 
 Nov., 1679. He energetically defended 
 the Duke of York during the struggle over 
 the Exclusion Bill, and was rewarded by 
 being created Viscount Hyde in 1681, and 
 Earl of Rochester in 1682. He was in 
 favour of a return to the foreign policy 
 of the earlier years of the reign, a close 
 alliance with France, while Halifax ad- 
 vocated the policy of the Triple Alliance. 
 The influence of Halifax was the stronger, 
 and Rochester was removed from the Treasury 
 in 1684. But shortly afterwards Charles 
 died; James at once created his brother- 
 in-law Lord Treasurer, and he became 
 practically Prime Minister. But Rochester, 
 though ready to go far in the direction of 
 despotic government, was strongly attached 
 to the English Church, and by no means in- 
 clined to support James in his measures for 
 the restoration of Catholicism. A struggle 
 for of&ce ensued between Rochester and the 
 more pliant Sunderland, and when the former 
 definitely refused to change his religion ho 
 was dismissed (1687). In 1700 William, 
 thought it necessary to court the support of 
 the High Church party, and called its leader, 
 Rochester, to the 'cabinet. In the same year 
 he was made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 
 Dissatisfied with the admission of a few 
 Whigs into the first ministry of Anne, he 
 came over from Ireland and strenuously op- 
 posed the carrying on of the war with France. 
 He was ordered to return to Ireland, refused 
 to do so, and sent in his resignation in 1703. 
 In 1710 he became Lord President in Harley's 
 ministry, and died in 1711. 
 
 A sketdi of hia character 13 given ty Macao- 
 lay, ch. ii. 
 
 Bochford, George Boleyn, Baron, was 
 ennobled immediately after the marriage of his 
 sister Anne with Henry VIII. In 1536 he 
 was accused of immoral intercourse with his 
 sister, and executed on May 17. His wife 
 was executed with Katherine Howard (Feb. 
 
Roc 
 
 ( 887 ) 
 
 Bod 
 
 13, 1542), on the charge of having been an 
 accomplice in that queen's treason. 
 
 Bockingliani, Charles Watson Went- 
 ■WOBTH, Marquis op (*. 1730, d. 1782), suc- 
 ceeded his father in the marquisate in 1750, 
 and was in the following year appointed 
 Lord Lieutenant of the North and West 
 Ridings of Yorkshire. From his great wealth 
 and influential position, rather than on 
 .account of any great ability, he was early 
 recognised as one of the chiefs of the "Whig 
 -party. When George IIL succeeded to the 
 throne, and displayed his intention of freeing 
 himself from the Whig control, the Marquis 
 of Rockingham, with the rest of his party, found 
 himself in opposition alike to the ministry 
 and the court, and was orio of those dismissed 
 from their lord-lieutenancies in 1762. On 
 the death of the Duke of Devonshire in 1764, 
 Rockingham was at once acknowledged as the 
 leader of the Whig party ; and in 1765 the 
 king, unahle any longer to endure the haughty 
 independence of Grenville, threw himself into 
 the arms of Rockingham. The king, how- 
 ever, never intended to entrust the govern- 
 ment of the country for any length of time 
 to a minister whose principles difEered from 
 his own on every point, and soon began to 
 thwart the government in every measure by 
 a secret and thoroughlj' organised opposition. 
 In spite of this, the marquis managed to carry 
 .some beneficial measures. He soothed the 
 ill-feeling which had been aroused in the 
 American colonies by the Stamp Act, by 
 repealing the obnoxious measure ; and at 
 home he passed an Act declaring general 
 warrants illegal. But circumstances were 
 .too strong for him. He was always a bad 
 speaker, and had thus failed to acquire much 
 personal influence in Parliament, or to offer 
 any effectual opposition to the secret influence 
 of the court party. In May, 1766, he re- 
 signed, and for the next sixteen years re- 
 maiued out of ofiBce. He offered all the 
 opposition in his power to the ruinous policy 
 which Lord North pursued towards the 
 colonies, and gave what aid he could to 
 Wilkes in his struggle against the tyranny of 
 the House of Commons on the question of the 
 Middlesex election. By his consistent con- 
 duct and unfailing integrity he held his piirty 
 together through a long period of opposition, 
 until, on North's resignation, he for the 
 second time became Prime Minister in March, 
 1782. He formed a cabinet -whichhad all the 
 elements of ' strength and apparently^ of 
 permanence. Negotiations with the American 
 colonies were opened on a broad and liberal 
 basis, which soon resulted in a peace between 
 the iwo countries. Burke introduced a large 
 scheme of economical reform ; but death pre- 
 yented the execution of the liberal plans which 
 had been the programme of the administration. 
 Stanhope, ilis^. of JJng. ; Albemarle, Rocking- 
 1mm arad his Contemporaries ; Walpole, Memrrirs 
 of George in. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Bockinghaia, The Council or (Mar, 
 11 — 14, 1096), was held to discuss the 
 question whether Anselm could acknowledge 
 tjrban II. as pope, in spite of the refusal 
 of Rufus to recognise either of the con- 
 tending pontiffs. Anselm himself had 
 asked that a council should meet to decide 
 whether obedience to Urban was consistent 
 with allegiance to William ; if it decided 
 against him, he declared he would leave the 
 kingdom. Rufus consented to summon a 
 council of magnates, which met in the castle 
 of Rockingham, in Northamptonshire. But 
 when it had come together, the king's party, 
 including most of the bishops, led by William 
 of St. Calais, carefully evaded the real point 
 at issue, and persisted in treating Anselm as a 
 person on trial. Anselm rejected their advice 
 to submit entirely to the IHng, and, greatly 
 to the disgust of Rufus, who had been 
 promised by his bishops that Anselm would 
 easily be crushed, the laymen present distinctly 
 showed their sympathy with the archbishop. 
 Rufus vented his spite upon the prelates 
 by demanding that they should abjure all 
 obedience to Anselm, and those who would 
 not go further than to abjure such obedience 
 as was claimed by the pope's authority could 
 only re-win the royal favour by heavy 
 bribes. Finally the king yielded to the pro- 
 posal of the lay lords, and the discussion was 
 adjourned till May 20. But before that date 
 the legate, Walter of Albano, had induced 
 Rufus to acknowledge Urban. 
 
 A detailed account of the Council, 'based on 
 Eadmer, is given in Freeman, W. JSu/us, i., 
 eh. iv., § i. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Bodaey, George Brydges, Lord [b. 1718, 
 d. 1792), was bom at Walton-on-Thames, 
 and was the son of a naval ofEcer of some 
 renown. He entered the navy when very 
 young, and in 1742 attained the rank of 
 captain. In 1747 he commanded the Sagle in 
 the action off Cape Finisterre. Two years later 
 he was appointed Governor of Newfoundland. 
 On the, breaking out of war with France in 
 1757 he was fully occupied, and served under 
 Hawke and Boscawen on the French coast. 
 In 1759 he was promoted to be rear-admiral 
 of the Blue, and made a most daring and 
 successful raid upon the stores which had 
 been collected in Havre with a view to the 
 invasion of England. In 1761 he was on the 
 West India station. On the conclusion of the 
 war he was made a baronet, and four years 
 later became Master of Greenwich Hospital. 
 In 1768 he was returned, after a very severe 
 contest, for Northampton, and his resources 
 were so crippled that he had to retire to 
 France to retrench. While residing there, 
 offers were made by the French to tempt him 
 to desert his country ; but he rejected the 
 overtures, and was rewarded in 1778, by being 
 promoted to be an admiral. It was not, 
 however, till the following year that he 
 obtained active employment as commander on 
 
Hog 
 
 ( 888 ) 
 
 Rol 
 
 the Leeward Isles station. On his way to 
 that station, he conducted a convoy of sup- 
 plies to Gibraltar, which was then in the 
 midst of its long siege. While in charge of 
 this canvoy, he captured off Cape Finisterre, 
 on Jan. 8, 1780, a valuable fleet of Spanish 
 merchantmen on their way to Cadiz, and a 
 week la,ter encountered a powerful Spanish 
 fleet, which he totally defeated. On his re- 
 turn to England, he was received with loud 
 acclamations, and was returned with Fox to 
 Parliament for Westminster. Early in 1781 
 he was ordered to the West Indies, and 
 captured St. Eustatia ; but, failing to induce 
 ike French admiral, De Grasse, to try an 
 engagement, he returned to England. Being 
 appointed Tice-Admiral of Great Britain, he 
 shortly afterwards sailed again for the West 
 Indies. At length, on April 5, 1782, he 
 obtained his long-wished-for opportunity of 
 meeting De Grasse, who sailed out in the 
 hope of effecting a junction with the French 
 and Spanish fleets at Hispaniola. Eodney 
 pursued, and, after a partial engagement, 
 succeeded in overhauling the French fleet 
 between Guadaloupe and Dominiqiie. The 
 fight on April 19 was gallantly contested, but 
 the English victory was decisive. One of 
 the French ships was sunk, -and five others 
 were taken. Eodney returned to England, 
 to receive the title of Baron Rodney and a 
 pension of £2,009 per annum. He survived 
 his accession .to these honours ten years, but 
 does not seem to have been happy, partly 
 owing to his straitened circumstances. 
 Like Nelson, he was not more brave than kind, 
 and was ahnost as much beloved by his men. 
 Mnaday, Life of Bociney ; Allen, Smial Battlea. 
 
 Roger, Bishop op Salisbury, was a poor 
 priest of Caen, who winning the favour of the 
 ^thehng Henry by the rapidity with which 
 he performed mass, became his chaplain 
 and private adviser. When Henry gained 
 the English throne, Eoger became Chancellor, 
 in 1107 Bishop of Salisbury, and at the same 
 time Ju stioiar. ' ' Under his guidance, whether 
 as chancellor or as .justiciar, the whole ad- 
 ministrative system was remodelled, and the 
 jurisdiction of the Curia Eegis and Exchequer 
 carefully organised " (Stubbs). He swore to 
 the succession of Matilda, though, according 
 to the account he afterwards gave, only on 
 condition that she should not be married to 
 any foreigner without consent of the magnates. 
 Stephen had little difficulty in gaining his 
 support and the royal treasure which he 
 guarded. But in a short time the king began 
 to be jealous of his great minister. Eoger 
 and his family monopoHsed all the important 
 offices in the administration; his son Eoger 
 was Chancellor, his nephew Nigel, Bishop of 
 Ely, was Treasurer, and another nephew, 
 Alexander, was Bishop of Lincoln. More- 
 over, Eoger and his nephews had been build- 
 ing gTeat castles in their diocese, the most 
 
 important being those of Eoger at Sherborne 
 and Devizes, which are also interesting as 
 "bringing to perfection that later form of 
 Norman architecture, Hghter and richer 
 than the earlier type, which slowly died 
 out before the introduction of the pointed 
 ■arch " (Freeman, Normmi Conquest, v., 638). 
 The motives of Eoger in so doing are 
 not quite clear ; it may have been merely 
 for personal aggrandisement, or, as is not 
 improbable, in order to strengthen the ad- 
 ministration in the approaching struggle. 
 At any rate Stephen in June, 1139, caused 
 the bishops of Salisbury and Lincoln and the 
 Chancellor to he arrested at Oxford, and they 
 were not released until the castles had been 
 surrendered. This action on the part of 
 Stephen led at once to the break-up of the 
 administration, and was one of the main 
 causes of that king's later difficulties. Eoger 
 died in Dec. (1139). 
 
 Bialogus de ScaccariOy i ; William of Newliuxgti, 
 i., 6 i William of Malmesbury, Gesta Eegum, t., 
 408; Stubbs, Const. Hist., i., §§ 111, 114, 120; 
 Freeman, Norm, Cong., v. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Roger OP PoNTiGNT, the possible author 
 'of a certain anonymous life of Becket. It 
 was ascribed to Eoger, and printed under 
 his name by Dr. Giles (1845-6), because the 
 author speaks of himself as having ministered 
 to Becket at the time of his exile; while 
 another contemporary writer says that a 
 monk named Eoger was the minister of 
 Becket while at Pontigny. But the life gives 
 no such information as could be derived from 
 close personal knowledge, and becomes slighter 
 and not more detailed on reaching the settle- 
 ment at Pontigny. 
 
 It was edited by 'Canon Eobertson for the Bolls 
 
 Series, in 1879, in volume iv. of Materials for 
 
 History of Becltet . 
 
 Kohilcund was so called from the Afghan 
 EohiUas, who took possession of the country 
 under Ali Mohammed Khan in the first haU 
 of the eighteenth century. About 1770 the 
 EohiUas were unahle to pay the Yizier of 
 Oudh some forty lakhs, for which he had be- 
 come security to huy off the Mahrattas. The 
 vizier gained the loan of an English force 
 from Warren Hastings, with which the 
 country was conquered. In 1801 a. large 
 part was ceded to England, instead of the 
 tribute which the vizier had bound himself to 
 pay. Eohilcund is now a commissionership 
 in the North West Provinces. 
 
 Bohilla. Wars, [Eohilcund.] 
 
 Rolls, The Master op the. John of 
 Langton was the first person who bore the title 
 "Keeper of the EoUs of Chancery" (1256), 
 though the office had doubtless been some 
 time in existence. At first the Keeper or 
 Master was merely the most important of the 
 clerks of Chancery. As such he naturally 
 
Bol 
 
 { 889 ) 
 
 Bom 
 
 had custody of the Great Seal daring the 
 ahaence of the Chancellor from court. With 
 the fall of the Justiciar from his high poli- 
 tical position, his place was taken by the 
 Chancellor, whose judicial duties were gradu- 
 ally devolved upon the Master, who began to 
 sit in Chancery and to transact most of the 
 ordinary business of the court. Thus almost 
 aU the legal work of the first lay Chancellor, 
 Bourchier (1 340 — il )|, was dotie by the Master, 
 though in important matters the Chancellor 
 insisted on acting himself. The Masters of 
 the Kolls were often also Masters of the 
 House of Converts (for Jews) in what is now 
 Chancery Lane. At the end of the reign of 
 Edward III., the mastership of this house 
 was permanently annexed to the office. In 
 the reign of Richard II. the Master for the 
 first time received his office, " quamdiu bene 
 se gesserit," and by the statute of 12 Richard 
 II. he was given precedence before the 
 judges. In modern times his duties have 
 been defined by an Act of 1833, and by 
 the Supreme Judicature Acts of 1873 and 
 1875 
 
 Foss, Judges <^ Englcmd. 
 
 BiOlls Series is the name usually 
 given to the collection known officially as 
 Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain 
 and Ireland during the Middle Ages. As 
 early as 1822 the House of Commons urged, 
 in an address to George IV., the advisa- 
 bility of publishing "a complete edition of 
 the ancient historians of this realm." But 
 nothing resulted from this address till 1857, 
 when the government accepted a scheme laid 
 before them in that year by the Master of 
 the Rolls, Lord Romilly. The plan of the 
 volumes is summed up in Lord RomUly's 
 proposal " that each chronicle and historical 
 document should be edited in such a manner 
 as to represent with all possible correctness 
 the text of each writer , . . and that na 
 notes should be added except such as were 
 illustrative of the various readings . . . 
 that the preface to each work should contain 
 a biographical account of the author . . . 
 and an estimate of his historical credi- 
 bility and value." The series now includes 
 editions by the most competent of English 
 scholars, of the chief mediseval chroniclers 
 of England, inclucKng works of Hoveden, 
 Matthew Paris, Roger of "Wendover, Simeon 
 of Durham, Henry of Huntingdon, Giraldus 
 Cambrensis, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, such 
 public records as the Mimiments of the Guild- 
 hall of London, and the Black Book of the 
 Admiralty, and miscellaneous collections, such 
 as Mr. Brewer's Monumenta Franciscana and 
 Mr. Anstey's Mwnimenta Academioa. In many 
 cases the value of the text is increased by 
 most learned, luminous, critical, or historical 
 introductions by the editors. The whole 
 work has been published in a manner in the 
 highest degree creditable to English scholar- 
 
 ship. Its value to the student cannot be over- 
 estimated. 
 
 Nearly all the works as yet putlished im the 
 Bolls Series wiU be {ouud specified, with the 
 letters (B.S.) appended, under Authorities. 
 
 Boman. Boads, The, were perhaps the 
 most durable of the memorials which the 
 Romans left behind them in Britain. Their 
 occupation of the island was primarily of a 
 military character, and the extreme importance 
 of establishing easy means of communication 
 between the various garrisons led to the 
 gradual establishment of a very complete 
 system of roads. The method of their con- 
 struction largely varies with the nature of 
 the country traversed. But they were uni- 
 formly raised above the surface of the neigh- 
 bouring land, and ran in a straight line, 
 almost regardless of hills, from station to 
 station. The more important lines were very 
 elaborately constructed with a foundation of 
 hard earth, a bed of large stones, sometimes 
 two more layers of stones and mortar, and of 
 gravel, hme, and clay, and above all the 
 causeway paved with stones. The width was 
 generally about fifteen feet, and at regular 
 intervals were posting stations. The distance 
 was regularly marked off by mile-stones. 
 The principal Roman roads were used for 
 traffic many centuries after the Romans had 
 abandoned the island. During- the Middle 
 Ages they were perhaps the only good roads 
 in the country. In the eleventh century, 
 the "four Roman roads" (Watling Street, thfe 
 Foas Way, Icknield Street, and Ermine 
 Street) were specially protected by the king's 
 peace : a privilege afterwards extended to 
 all the highways of the country. Of these 
 Watling Street probably ran from London to 
 Wroxeter (TJriconium). The Peace of Wed- 
 more made it the boundary between Alfred's 
 dominions and the Danelagh. Its northward 
 and westward continuations from Wroxeter 
 into Wales, its southern connection between 
 London and Dover, seem also to have received 
 the same name. The Foss ran from the sea- 
 coast at Seaton in Devonshire, the Roman 
 Maridunum, to Lincoln, with a continuation 
 known as High Street to the Humber. The 
 Icknield Way seams to have extended from 
 east to west from Iclingham near Bury, 
 underneath the chalk-ridge of the Chilterns 
 and Berkshire downs, to near Wantage, and 
 thence to Cirencester and Gloucester. The 
 Ermine Street ran north and south through 
 the Fenland from London to Lincoln. Besides 
 the four g^eat lines, " spacious in their dimen- 
 sions, admirable for their construction, pro- 
 tected alike by the edicts of our kings, and 
 the written laws of the land," as Henry of 
 Huntingdon says, were many scarcely sub- 
 ordinate ones. There were several Icknield 
 Streets. The mines of the Mendips, of Wales, 
 and of the Forest of Dean were opened' 
 out by other lines of highway. One great 
 road ran from the Land's End to Exeter ia ' 
 
Kom 
 
 ( 890 ) 
 
 Rom 
 
 continuation of the Foss. Another ran from 
 
 Venta Silurum to near St. David's Head ; 
 
 another to the Sarn Helen up the "western 
 
 Welsh coast to Carnarvon. 
 
 Dr. Guest, Four Roman Ways, republished in 
 Oriyines Cetticas, vol. ii. ; Burton, Itmera of 
 Antownus ; Elton, Origins of Englfsh History; 
 Scarth, Roman Britain. [T. F. T.l 
 
 Koinaus in Britain. Direct inter- 
 course between the Romans and Britons began 
 with the two expeditions of Julius Csesar in 
 B.C. 55 and o4, but he rather prepared the 
 way for future conquest, by exacting the 
 submission of the tribes of the south-east, than 
 began the conquest himself. Though British 
 kings sought the protection of Augustus, it 
 was reserved for Claudius to add Britain to 
 the Empire. The campaign of Aulus Plautius 
 in 43 A.D., the Emperor's own conquest of the 
 stronghold of Cunobehn, Ostorius Scapula's 
 completion of the conquest of the south and 
 east (50), Suetonius Paulinus's great cam- 
 paign against Caractacus and the Silures (58), 
 the suppression of the revolt of the Iceni after 
 the inactive governments of Aulus Didius and 
 Veranius, the reduction of the Brigantes by 
 Petilius Cerealis (69 — 70), and the final submis- 
 sion of the Silures to Julius Frontinus {circa 
 77), prepared the way for the final triumphs of 
 Julius Agricola (78 — 85). That great general 
 successively defeated the Ordovices and the 
 Brigantes, and, advancing to the north, 
 ravaged the district as far as the Tay, fortified 
 the isthmus between the Forth and Clyde, 
 visited the Western Highlands, and finally, 
 after a three years' war, defeated the Caledo- 
 nians at" Mons Grampius." But these northern 
 districts were never really subdued, and the 
 building by Hadrian of the first Roman Wall 
 between the TyneandtheSolway (120) marks 
 the northern limit of the organised province. 
 . But in 139 Lolling Urbicus, the governor for 
 Antoninus Pius, built a second wall, or rather 
 an earthen rampart, between the Forth and 
 the Clyde, which now became the ultimate 
 northern boundary of the Roman dominions. 
 A series of incursions of the northern bar- 
 barians led to its being further strengthened 
 by Severus, from whom it often takes its 
 name. One remarkable feature in the later 
 history of the province is the constant tendenrcy 
 of the legions in Britain to set up Emperors of 
 their own, such as Carausius, who governed the 
 province from 287 to 294, when he was slain 
 by Allectus, while Britain was reconquered 
 in 296 by Constantius Chlorus. That prince 
 effected important reforms in the government, 
 and fought successful campaigns against the 
 Picts, as the inhabitants of Itbe unconquered 
 north now began to be called. In 369 Theo- 
 dosius restored the province, after it had been 
 ravaged by Picts and Scots, Saxons and Atta- 
 cots. In 383 the revolt of Maximus, and his 
 unfortunate attempt to win for himself the 
 whole Empire, led to the withdrawal of the 
 army, and to fresh barbarian inroads on the 
 
 unprotected land. In 396 Stilicho sent a single 
 legion to help the struggling provincials, but 
 its withdrawal in 402 led to fresh invasions. 
 In 406 Stilicho again restored the army, but 
 the successive usurpations of Constantinus and 
 Gerontius showed the feeble Honorius that 
 the army in Britain was a danger rather than 
 an assistance to his struggHng Empire. In 
 answer to a request for help he bade the pro- 
 vincials defend themselves. In despair the 
 Britons rose, and drove out the civil governors. 
 The unity of the state at once disappeared. 
 The Roman rule in Britain was at an end. 
 
 During more than three centuries the 
 Romans hai governed Britain, but they were 
 unable to effect more than a military occu- 
 pation. They had lost that capacity for 
 assimilating the conquered races with them- 
 selves, which had made Gauls and Spaniards 
 more Roman than even the Italians. The 
 Roman civilisation, wliich Agricola had found 
 the best means of enslaving the Britons, had 
 never penetrated very far. A series of mili- 
 tary posts, connected by a magnificent system 
 of highways, a few commercial and mining 
 centres, an occasional urban settlement, were 
 all that could really he called Roman in Britain. 
 The summer villas of the conquerors were 
 planted amidst British tribes, who retained 
 their old language and customs, and, so far 
 as it was compatible with the central govern- 
 ment, their old tribal organisation. The 
 continued existence of the Welsh language in 
 a district nearly three hundred years a Roman 
 province, the few traces of Roman influence 
 in the earliest Welsh laws and institutions, 
 their similarity to those of the Irish, never 
 subdued by the Romans, show very clearly 
 the limited extent of their power. The 
 influence exerted by the Romans in Britain 
 was analogous to that of the English in India, 
 and the diffusion of a thinly-spread veneer of 
 culture is less important than the great mate- 
 rial Works, such as walled towns, paved roads, 
 aqueducts, and great public buildings, or the 
 development of trade and commerce. These 
 remained to testify to the greatness of Rome 
 long after the more direct civilising influences, 
 and long after the political organisation of 
 Rome had ceased to have much influence in 
 Britain. There is no need to suppose that 
 everything that was Roman left the country 
 in 410, or to think that the English neces- 
 sarily made a clean sweep of all that had 
 previously existed. Yet the contention that 
 the direct influence of the Roman province on 
 subsequent English history was really great, 
 or that there was any real continuity, as, for 
 example, in municipal institutions, cannot 
 really be sustained, despite the brilHant theo- 
 ries and solid stores of learning that have 
 been wasted in the attempt. 
 
 It remains to speak of the military and 
 political organisation of the province of 
 Britain. The number of troops quartered 
 there seems always to have been large. Some 
 
Rom 
 
 (891 ) 
 
 Kom 
 
 were planted throughout the country in 
 garrisons, but the greater number were massed 
 along the northern wall, and on the east 
 coast, which was so exposed to tie assaults of 
 Saxon pirates. The sixth legion had its head- 
 quarters at York, the twentieth at Chester, 
 the second at Oaerleon, the second for a time 
 on the Wall, afterwards at Rutupiaa (Eich- 
 borough). Troops of nearly every known 
 nation were comprised within their numbers. 
 The practice of the same legion being stationed 
 for a long time at the same place must have 
 led to a good deal of intercourse between the 
 Britons and their conquerors. Not unfre- 
 quently the soldiers married native women, 
 and settled down when their term of service 
 was expired upon the lands allotted to them in 
 their adopted country. The Eoman soldiers 
 took a prominent part in road -making, build- 
 ing dykes, working mines, and in the other 
 great engineering operations which marked 
 the Eoman role. The chief towns — most of 
 which, such as York, London, Chester, Lin- 
 coln, Bath, Colchester, have continued ever 
 since to be centres of population — ^very largely 
 owed their origin to | their importance as 
 military stations. 
 
 The system of government of the province 
 more than once was radically changed. The 
 province as a definite administrative district 
 was begun under Aulus Plautius. Its exposed 
 position naturally caused it to be an imperial 
 rather than a senatorial province, and its 
 governor was the legate. Its great e.xtent and 
 the difficulty found in properly defending it 
 led to its division into two districts by Severus, 
 which Dio calls Upper and Lower Britain. 
 Their relative situations are not certainly 
 known. Diocletian's reorganisation of the 
 Empire involved the division of Britain into 
 four provinces — Britannia Prima, Britannia 
 Secunda, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia 
 Csesariensis — the positions of which are quite 
 undetermined. In 369 a fifth province, called 
 Valentia, the result of Theodosius's victories, 
 was added. The two latter were consular, 
 the three former each under a prmses. The 
 whole were under the Ficar Sritanniarum, 
 and he was subject to the Prcefectm Prcetorio 
 Galliarum. The troops were under the 
 command of the Dux Britanniarum and the 
 Comes Litoris Saxonici. 
 
 During the latter part of the Eoman occu- 
 pation, Christianity crept silently into Britain. 
 Before the legions left, it was the religion of the 
 Eoman State ; but the Britons seem only to 
 have been partially converted, and the traces 
 of an organised British Chvirch are few, 
 though distinct. But the Eoman Church in 
 Britain depended on Gaul almost as much as, 
 after Diocletian's reforms, the governors of 
 Britain necessarily did. 
 
 Horsley, Britawnia Bomana, and Camrlen's 
 JBriiamiia, the early part of the Monumenta Sis- 
 torica BrUannica, and Hlihner's edition of 
 the Briiish Bmtian Inscri/ptions in the seventh 
 volume of the Berlin Corpus Im<yripti<nmm 
 
 Latvnarum, are the great repositories of the 
 materials for the history of Roman Britain. 
 HUbner'B preface to the Inscri/ptions, and 
 treatise Dos Komische Heer in Britannien give 
 the best account of the civil and military govern- 
 ment. Uoote's Romans in Britain collects all 
 that can be said for the permanence of Eomau 
 influence. 5k«ne's Celtic Scotland and Elton s 
 Origins of ISng. Hist, are luodei'n authorities 
 of great value on the general history. Scarth's 
 Roman Britain gives a useful summary of the 
 whole subject. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Bomaus, Kma of the. [Eichakd of 
 Cornwall.] 
 
 Bom-feoll, or Bome-SCOt, afterwards 
 known as Peter's Pence, was a tax of a penny 
 on each hearth, which is said to have been 
 fcst imposed by Ini, and sent to the Pope to 
 provide for the support of the English school 
 at Eome. But for this there is little evidence. 
 The payment of the tribute probably com- 
 menced under Offa, who in this way gained 
 papal sanction for the estahHshment of a new 
 archbishopric at Lichfield. From the begin- 
 ning of the tenth century, Eom-feoh was 
 exacted from the whole country, and sent 
 annually to Eome. In the confusion of 
 Stigand's primacy, and of the first years of 
 Norman rule, it seems to have fallen into 
 arrears; but William I. promised about 1076 
 that it should be paid regularly. It suc- 
 cumbed to the general tendency, and became 
 fixed at a comparatively small amount. In 
 1213 Innocent III. complained that the 
 bishops retained 1,000 marks out of it, and 
 only sent 300. In 1306 Clement V. exacted 
 a penny from each household instead of 
 £201 93., which had for a long time been the 
 customarj' payment. The threat of with- 
 holding Peter's Pence became a useful instru- 
 ment in the king's hands; thus in 1366, and 
 for some time after, it was not paid, in order 
 to induce the Pope to acquiesce in the Statute 
 of Praemunire (q.v.). Peter's Pence is to be 
 clearly distinguished from the annual tribute 
 of 1,000 marks promised by John. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Bist. [W. J. A.] 
 
 Bomilly, Sir Samuel (i. 1757, d 1818), 
 the son of a jeweller of French extraction, 
 was bom in Westminster. In 1778 he entered 
 at Gray's Inn, but was so broken down by 
 his industrious application, and his exertions 
 in helping to quell the Gordon Eiots, that he 
 went to Paris to recruit his health. There he 
 became acquainted with D'Alembert and 
 Diderot, from whom he probably gained many 
 of his liberal opinions. He was called to the 
 bar in 1783, but for five years got little or no 
 business. He was at first much impeded by 
 a nervous diffidence, which did not allow him 
 fair play amoag his able rivals. But when 
 he had overcome this difficulty, he rose 
 rapidly, and in 1797 he had come to be recog- 
 nised as a brilliant leader of the bar. In 1800 
 he was made a king's counsel, and in 1806 
 was appointed Solicitor-General by Fox, being 
 returned to Parliament for Queenborough. 
 
Boo 
 
 ( 892 ) 
 
 Bos 
 
 In this position he was one of the managers 
 of the impeachment of Lord Melville, and 
 also took an active part in procuring the 
 abolition of the slave trade. When he had 
 heen successful in accomplishing this object, 
 he turned his attention towards the reform of 
 the penal code ; and though he was prevBnted 
 from carrjring out his reforms as he desired, 
 he succeeded in mitigating some of its seve- 
 rity. In 1812 he was defeated at Bristol, but 
 being returned far Arundel, he continued to 
 support every measure that tended to improve 
 the condition of the people, and was an ally 
 of Sir JTrancis Burdett in his constant attempts 
 to procure a reform in the system of parlia- 
 mentary representation. With him he was 
 returned at the head of the poll for West- 
 minster in 1818. But he did not live long 
 enough to take his seat in the House. His 
 wife died on Oct. 29 of the same year ; and 
 Sir Samuel's mind was so shattered by the 
 blow that he lost all self-control, and within 
 four days committed suicide. Wilberforce 
 said of him that he was " a man whose 
 general knowledge was only equalled by his 
 professional attainments ; and who brought 
 to the subject all the lights of the understand- 
 ing, and all the advantages of experience." 
 " Year after year," says Sir Erskine May, 
 " he struggled to overcome the obduracy of 
 men in power. The Commons were on his 
 side ; Lords G-renville, Lansdowne, Grey, 
 Holland, and other enlightened peers sup- 
 ported him ; but the Lords, under the guid- 
 ance of Lord Eldon, Lord Ellenborough, and 
 their other judicial leaders, were not to be 
 convinced. He did much to stir the pubUo 
 sentiment in his cause ; but little, indeed, for 
 the amendment of the law." 
 
 ii/fe of BomUhj; Twiss, lAfe of Lord Eldon; 
 
 "Walpole's Mist, of Enq.from 1815 ; Lord Holland, 
 
 Memoirs ; Life of Wilberforce. 
 
 Booke, Sir Geoege (*. 1650, d. 1709), 
 entered the navy at an early age, and in 1689 
 became rear-admiral of the red. He took 
 part in the battle off Beachy Head, was made 
 vice-admiral of the blue in 1692, and com- 
 manded under Russell at La Hogue (May 19). 
 For the skill with which he led a night 
 attack upon a part of the French fleet which 
 had escaped into the harbour out of reach of 
 the English ships, he was rewarded withknight- 
 hood, and the post of vice-admiral of the red. 
 Upon peace being made with France in 1697, 
 Eooke gained a seat in Parliament for Ports- 
 mouth, and supported the Tory party. In 
 1702 he was created by Anne " Vice- Admiral 
 and Lieutenantof the Admiralty " under Prince 
 George. When war was renewed, Booke took 
 command of the English fleet, stormed Vigo, 
 and in 1704 took Gibraltar. In the same 
 year he fought a great but indecisive battle 
 off Malaga. On his return to England he 
 found himself treated with coldness by the 
 Whig government, and retired to his country 
 seat in Kent, where he died. 
 
 Boot and Branch. This phrase was 
 derived from a petition asking that episcopacy 
 might be destroyed " root and branch," signed 
 by 15,000 citizens of London, and presented 
 on Dec. 11, 1640, by Alderman Pennington. 
 The party in the Commons which supported 
 this petition was called from it the Root and 
 Branch party. " Of the chief leaders," says 
 Clarendon, " Nathaniel Fiennes and young 
 Sir H. Vane, and, shortly after Mr. Hampden 
 (who had not before owned it) were believed 
 to be for root and branch, which grew shortly 
 after a common expression, and discovery of 
 the several tempers, yet Mr. Pym was not of 
 that mind, nor Mr. HoUis, nor any of the 
 northern men, or those lawyers who drove on 
 most furiously with them." The Root and 
 Branch Bill was drawn by St. John, and then 
 through Vane, CromweU, and Hazelrig handed 
 to Sir Edward Bering, who brought it in on 
 May 27, 1641. It was read a first and second 
 time on the same day, and passed the second 
 reading by 135 to 108 votes. The bill pro- 
 posed to appoint in each diocese a number 
 of commissioners, half lay, half clerical, to 
 exercise ecclesiastical jurisdiction in place of 
 the bishops. It was dropped in August, 1641. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist. ofEng., 1603—1842; Clarendon, 
 Hist, of tike itehellion. 
 
 Bosamund ClifiEbrd, commonly called 
 the Fair Rosamund (d. circa 1175), was the 
 daughter of Walter, Lord CUlford, and mis- 
 tress of Henry II., by whom she had two 
 sons, William Longsword, Earl, of Salisbury, 
 and GeofEi-ey, Archbishop of York. The story 
 of her being poisoned by Queen Eleanor has 
 no authority whatever ; and nothing is known 
 of her death. She was hirried before the high 
 altar at Godstow nunnery, but in 1191 Hugh, 
 Bishop of Lincoln, ordered her body to be 
 removed to the Chapter-house, where it 
 remained tiU the Reformation. 
 
 Tindal's Bapin, vol. v.. Appendix ; Lyttelton, 
 Sisi. of Henry IL 
 
 Boses, The Wars of the, is the name 
 commonly given to the dynastic civil war in the 
 fifteenth century, which may be considered to 
 begin with the first battle of St. Albans in 
 1455, and to end with Bosworth Field in 1485, 
 though during this period of thirty years there 
 were long intervals of peace. The name was 
 given to these wars on account of the badges 
 worn by the representatives of the houses 
 of York and Lancaster, the Yorkists taking 
 as their cognisance the white rose, the Lan- 
 castrians the red rose. The ostensible cause of 
 the wars was the rival claims to the throne 
 ef the families of York and Lancaster, 
 both descended from sons of Edward III. ; 
 the formor could show strict hereditary 
 right, while the latter had possession and 
 Parliamentary title. But there were other 
 causes, without which it may fairly be said 
 that the struggle would never have oc- 
 curred. It was not till some years .after the 
 
Bos 
 
 ( 893 ) 
 
 Kos 
 
 first .'battle of St. Albans, that York put for- 
 ward his claims, and even then suck a com- 
 promise as was come to in 1460 might very 
 fairly have been adhered to, but the other 
 causes which were at work prevented this, and 
 the controversy was decided by the sword. 
 The house of Lancaster had in great m.ea3ure 
 lost its hold on the sympathies of the people ; 
 the loss of France, the mamage with Margaret 
 of Anjou, her haughty and overbearing 
 spirit, the suspicious death of the popular 
 favourite Gloucester, all combined to estrange 
 the people from the Lancastrian dynasty. The 
 two ministers of the latter part of Henry VI. 's 
 reign,-Sufiolk and Somerset, were unfortunate 
 and unpopular, and the one strong man who 
 seemed at all able to restore good government 
 to the country was the Duke of York. The 
 nobles who for so many years had been rang- 
 ing over France, now found themselves cooped 
 up in England, and mutual jealousies arose 
 which made them only too ready to take 
 part in a civil war, while the birth of Prince 
 Edward in H53 perpetuated the Lancastrian 
 claims, and so rendered any compromise im- 
 possible. With regard to the character of the 
 two parties : ever since the time of Richard II. 
 there had been some branches of the royal 
 house which were opposed to the reigning 
 branch; and the opposition princes usually 
 found it convenient to associate themselves 
 with the party in the country that cried out 
 for reform and good government, as Thomas of 
 Gloucester and Henry of Lancaster had done 
 under Richardll. In Henry VI.'s reign, besides 
 the opposition branch of the royal house, the 
 York princes who were naturally antagonistic 
 to the rival Lancasters and Beauforts, there 
 existed the great family of the NeviDes, which 
 had absorbed the territorial possessions of the 
 Beauchamps, and now held a semi-royal 
 position in the country. They were allied by 
 marriage with the family of the Duke of York. 
 In the north of England the Nevilles were 
 great rivals of the powerful family of the 
 Percies ; and since the Jatter were firmly Lan- 
 castrian, this alone would almost have sufficed 
 to make the Nevilles Yorkist. The war was 
 mainly a quarrel among these and the other 
 great houses. But it is possible to find certam 
 geographical and political issues. There was 
 general discontent with the government of 
 Henry VI., its failures abroad, and its close 
 connection with the clerical party ; and on this 
 account York was hailed as the champion of 
 reform, and was very popular in the towns 
 and among the mercantile population of the 
 southern coimties. The Lancastrians more 
 closely connected with the Church and the 
 nobility, excluding a few of the great families, 
 were stronger in the north, where feudalism 
 was strong, trade undeveloped, and reforming 
 ideas had made little headway. The effects 
 of these wars upon our history were very 
 great. They almost entirely destroyed the 
 old nobility, and so paved the way for the 
 
 absolutism of the Tudors, for the new nobility 
 owed its rise entirely to the crown, and so was 
 extremely servile. The people had no leaders, 
 and were moreover glad of a strong govern- 
 ment to preserve them from the horrors of 
 another civil war. The Church, too, which had 
 rested on the support of the barons, became 
 greatly weakened, and was unable to resist the 
 crown. The commercial classes and the great 
 towns had taken but little part in the wars, 
 but had steadily increased in power and in- 
 fluence, and with this goes the gradual rise of 
 the House of Commons as one of the great 
 fpowers of the realm, no longer to be de- 
 pendent on the nobles, but, though at first 
 apparently considerably weakened, in reality a 
 gainer by having to stand alone. The follow- 
 ing is a chronological list of the battles 
 fought during the wars ; a description of each 
 of them will be found in its place. 
 
 . May 22, 14S5 
 
 Sept. 23, 1459 
 
 July 10, 1460 
 
 . Dec. 30, 1460 
 
 . Pel). 2, 1461 
 
 . Feb. 17, 1461 
 
 Max., 1461 
 
 . Mar. 29,1461 
 
 . April 25, 1464 
 
 . July 26, 1469 
 
 Max. 19, 1470 
 
 First Battle of St. Albans . 
 
 Battle of Wore Heath. 
 
 Battle of Northampton 
 
 Battle of Waltefield . 
 
 Battle of Mortimer's Cross 
 
 Second Battle of St. Albans 
 
 Skirmish at Ferry Bridge . 
 
 Battle of Towton 
 
 Battle of Hedgeley Moor . 
 
 Battle of Edgecote . . 
 
 Battle of Loosecoat Field . 
 
 Battle of BRxnet April 14, 1471 
 
 Battle of Tewkesbury . . . . May 4, 1471 
 
 Battle of Bosworth . . . Aug. 22, 1485 
 
 Fabyan, Chronicle; Hall, Histor!;; Polydore 
 Tirgil (Camden Soc.) ; Stowe, .Annals ; ThePas- 
 ton Letters (with Mr. Gairdner's Introductions); 
 Continuator of the Croyland Chronicle; Warh- 
 worth Chronicle; Brougham, Bng. tinder the 
 House of Lancaster ; Gairduer, The Houses of Lam- 
 caster and York. [F. S. P.] 
 
 Boss, Alexaudek, Earl or, was named, 
 from the character of his retainers, " the Wolf 
 of Badenoch;" he was the brother of Robert II. 
 of Scotland, and lord of Badenoch, Buchan, 
 and Ross. He was governor of the northern 
 part of Scotland, where he ravaged the lands 
 of the Bishop of Moray,_for which act of 
 impiety he was excommunicated. 
 
 Boss, Sir James Claek (S. 1801, d. 1862), 
 entered the navy 1-812, under his uncle. Sir 
 John Ross, with whom he continued to serve 
 in the Baltic, the White Sea, and on the coast 
 of Scotland. He accompanied his uncle, as a 
 midshipman, in his first voyage in search 
 of the North-west Passage. Subsequently, 
 from 1819 to 1825, he was engaged with Cap- 
 tain Parry in his three voyages, being pro- 
 moted during his absence in 1822 to the rank 
 of lieutenant. He again accompanied Captain 
 Parry in 1827, and on his return was ap- 
 pointed commander. He also j oined his uncle 
 Captain John Ross from 1829 to 1833, on his 
 second voyage in search of a North-west Pas- 
 sage, and on his return was elevated to the 
 rank of a post-captain, in recognition of his 
 valuable services, among which was the dis- 
 coveiy of the Magnetic Pole. He was after- 
 
Bot 
 
 ( 894 ) 
 
 Bon 
 
 wards employed by the Admiralty in a mag- 
 netic survey of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 In 1839 he was appointed to the command of 
 an expedition in the Erebus and Terror to the 
 Antarctic Seas, the chief purpose in view being 
 magnetic investigations. This voyage, which 
 occupied a period of four years, was rich in 
 additions made to the previous knowledge of 
 the Antarctic regions in geography, geology, 
 zoology, and botany. In 1 844 he was knighted. 
 In 1847 he published the results of his dis- 
 coveries and researches in the southern and 
 Antarctic regions, in two volumes. In 
 January, 1848, he made a voyage in the En- 
 terprise to Baffin's Bay in search of Sir John 
 Franklin, but was unsuccesaftil. 
 
 Botheram, Thomas, Archbishop of 
 York (1480—1500), had been one of Edward 
 IV.'b chaplains, and in 1468 became Bishop 
 of Eochester. In 1476 he was translated 
 to Lincoln, and in 1474 was made Lord 
 Chancellor. He held the Great Seal till 1483, 
 when he was obliged to resign it by the Duke 
 of Gloucester. He was imprisoned by Eichard 
 for some little while, and after his release 
 does not seem to have taken any part in 
 public affairs. In 1480 he had been created 
 Archbishop of York. 
 
 Bothes, John, 6th Earl of, was taken 
 prisoner at the battle of Worcester. After 
 the Restoration he became Lord Treasurer 
 and Chancellor of Scotland, and in 1680 was 
 createdaduke. On his death, however, in 1681, 
 without male heirs, the duchy became extinct. 
 
 Bothesay, David, Duke of, the eldest 
 son of Eobert III. of Scotland, was a man of 
 profligate and idle ha-bits; in 1398 he was 
 appointed heutenant of the kingdom by a 
 Scotch Parliament, and two years afterwards 
 successfully defended the castle of Edinburgh ; 
 the same year he married Marjory, daughteB 
 of Archibald, Earl of Douglas. Soon after- 
 wards he was seized at the instigation, of his 
 uncle, the Duke of Albany, and imprisoned 
 in ^Falkland Castle, where he died of starva- 
 tion (March, 1402). 
 
 Bothsehild's Case (1847). Baron 
 Nathan de Eothschild, a Jew, was returned as 
 one of the members for the city of London in 
 1847. His return was perfectly legal, but he 
 was unable to take the oath because it con- 
 tained the words, " on the true faith of a 
 Christian." He therefore sat below the bar 
 for four sessions in expectation of relief from 
 the legislature. Being disappointed, he re- 
 solved to try his rights by the existing law. 
 He therefore, in 1850, presented himself to be 
 sworn. After some discussion he was allowed 
 to be sworn on the Old Testament, but omitted 
 the words, " on the true faith, &o." He was 
 immediately directed to withdraw, and after a 
 learned discussion it was resolved that he 
 could neither sit nor vote till he had taken the 
 oath in the usual manner. In consequence. 
 
 Baron Rothschild was prevented from taking 
 his seat. [Jews.] 
 
 Commons Journal; Hansard, 3rd ser., cxlii. 
 297, 396, 486, 769. 
 
 Bonndlieacl. The name of Roundhead 
 took its rise at the same time as the name 
 of Cavalier, in the tumults which occurred 
 during the discussion of the Bishops Exclusion 
 Bill at the end of 1641. Like Cavalier, it 
 referred originally to the external character- 
 istics of the men, whose party name it after- 
 wards became. " These people, or citizens," 
 says Lilly, " who used to flock unto "West- 
 minster, were, most of them, men of a mean, 
 or a middle quality. . . . They were 
 modest in their apparel, but not in their 
 language ; they had the hair of their heads 
 very few of them longer than their ears, 
 whereupon it came to pass that those who 
 usually with their eries attended at West- 
 minster, were by a nickname called Round- 
 heads." According to Rushworth the word 
 was first used on Dec. 27, 1641, by David 
 Hide, a disbanded otficer, who in one of the 
 riots drew his sword, and swore to " cut the 
 throats of those round-hearted dogs that 
 bawled against bishops," "which passionate 
 expression of his, as far as I could ever learn, 
 was the first mentioning of that term or com- 
 pellation of Roundheads, which afterwards 
 grewso general." "From these contestiitions," 
 says Clarendon of the tumults, " the two 
 terms, Roundhead and Cavalier, came to be 
 leceived in discourse, and were afterwards 
 continued .for the most succinct distinction of 
 affections throughout the quarrel." A. dif- 
 ferent story of the origin of the name is 
 given by Baxter. " Some say it was beoaase 
 the qu-een at Strafford's trial asked who that 
 round-headed man was, meaning Pym,becau!je 
 he spoke so- strongly." The name did not 
 go out of use tOl after the Revolution. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of ihB Bfibellion ; Eushworth, 
 llistoricaX QoUections; Baxter, lAfe; Lilly, 
 Mimmrehy or no Monarchu, [C. H. F.] 
 
 Bound Bobiu, The (February, 1789), 
 an engagement in writing between twenty 
 Irish peers and thirty-seven commoners, with 
 the Duke of Leinster at their head. It bound 
 all who signed it to make government impos- 
 sible if the viceroy punished any one of them 
 by loss of office or pension for their conduct 
 on the regency question. Lord Buckingham 
 enoounter.ed them by an increase of the 
 pension list, and the majority being frightened 
 consented to give up their engagement. The 
 Duke of Lemster and the Ponsoubys, how- 
 ever, held out ana lost their places. 
 
 BOUS, John {d. 1491), chaplain at Guy- 
 clifl-upon-Avon m Warwickshire wrote a 
 Sutort/ of England fi-om the earlipst times to 
 the accession of Henry VII. It is of some 
 importance for the reigns of Edward IV and 
 RicWm. This work has been piLd; 
 
Bow 
 
 895 ) 
 
 Bum 
 
 Bowena is said to have teen the daughter 
 of Hengest, and to have become the wife of 
 Vortigem. But there is absolutely no autho- 
 rity for her existence, and her name is cer- 
 tainly not Teutonic. The legend of Eowena 
 and Vortigem is told by Geoffrey of Mon- 
 mouth. 
 
 Bowton Heath, The Battle op, was 
 fought during the Great Eebellion (Sept. 24, 
 1645). After Naseby Charles 1. took refuge 
 in Wales, whra-e he strove to collect fresh 
 troops. In the middle of September he 
 formed the plan of marching northwards to 
 join Montrose, and raising the siege of Ches- 
 ter on his way. The king himself, with part 
 of his forces, succeeded in entering Chester, 
 which was not completely invested. But the 
 besiegers under Sir William Brereton were 
 reinforced by a body of Yorkshire horse 
 under Colonel Poynta and Sir Marmaduke 
 Langdale, who commanded the troops charged 
 with the duty of raising the siege, attacked 
 rashly, and was taken between the forces of 
 Brereton and Poyntz, and utterly routed. 
 He lost 300 kiUed and wounded, and 1,000 
 prisoners. This defeat, and the news of 
 Montrose's defeat at Philiphaugh, obliged 
 the king to abandon his plan. 
 FluUips, Civil War in Wales, 
 
 Boxlmrgh., one of the four burghs, was 
 surrendered to the English (1174), as security 
 for the f nlfilment of the Treaty of Falaise (q. v.), 
 being restored to Scotland by Eichardl. (1186). 
 In 1216 it was burnt by John. In 1296 it 
 was given up to Edward I. In 1312 it was 
 surprised by the Black Douglas, and having 
 been regained by the English, was in 1342 
 stormed by Sir Alexander Bamsay. In 1346 
 it was retaken by the English, who, although 
 the town was destroyed in the reign of 
 James I., held the castle until 1460, when it 
 fell into the hands of the Scotch after a 
 severe siege, in which James II. was killed by 
 the bursting of a cannon. The abbey of 
 Roxburgh was destroyed by the Earl of 
 Hertford (1545). 
 
 Boyal Commissions of inquiry may 
 be appointed by the crown at its discretion, 
 or upon the direction of an Act of Parliament, 
 or upon the address of one or both Houses of 
 Parliament ; and it isonly to obtain an inquiry 
 into corrupt practices at elections that it is 
 necessary (by the Act 15 & 16 Vict., c. 57) 
 that both Houses should unite in the address. 
 It is not usual to appoint members of the 
 government unless the inquiry affects their 
 own departments, or is non -political; and 
 members of a commission who subsequently 
 enter oflSce are usually superseded, or abstain 
 from signing the report. In commissions 
 appointed under an Act of Parliament the 
 members are sometimes nominated in the Act 
 itself (the first example of this being the 
 Commission on Land Tax Assessment in 
 
 1692). But in a Eoyal Commission strictly 
 so called, names are not usually commimi- 
 cated to Parliament beforehand. A commis- 
 sion cannot compel the production of docu- 
 ments,_ or the giving of evidence, nor can it 
 administer an oath, except by special Act of 
 ParHament. The most notable case of the 
 conferment of such authoiity is the Act of 
 1867, which not only gave the above powers 
 to the Trades' Union Commission, but also 
 empowered it to indemiiify witnesses from 
 the penalties of the illegal acts they might 
 have committed, upon condition of complete 
 confession. 
 
 A good acconnt of the procedure in Boyal 
 CoinmiSsions will be found In Alpheus Todd, 
 Pariiainentary Governm&tvt in Erigtand. ii.. p. 
 3«- [W.J. A.] 
 
 Boyal Society, The, grew out of two 
 small groups of friends who met occasionally 
 in London and Oxford to discuss scientific 
 questions about the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. These were organised into a definite 
 society in 1660; in 1662 it was granted a 
 charter by Charles II., and incorporated as 
 the fioyal Society. The king, as well as his 
 brother James, placed their names in the list 
 of members. Its. early meetings took place 
 in Gresham College, and afterwards in Crane 
 Court : they were transferred in 1782 to 
 Somerset House, and to Burlington House in 
 1857. 
 
 Sprat, ma. of Boval Society, 1667 ; "Weld, Ilist. 
 of Bayal Society, 1M7 ; Trausucttons (from 1665) . 
 
 Bud-yard, Sir Benjamin. In the Parlia- 
 ment of J621 Eudyard, who had recently been 
 appointed Surveyor of the Court of Wards, 
 was one of " that band of politicians who 
 hoped to reconcile a stirring foreign policy 
 with the fullest devotion to the crown." Im 
 1624 he was put forward as the exponent of 
 Buckingham's new policy of war with Spain, 
 and in subsequent Parliaments was " the 
 usual mouthpiece of the government." At 
 the beginning of the Long Parliament he was 
 so far convinced of abuses in the government 
 that he proposed the removal of evil coun- 
 sellors from the king, though without punish- 
 ing anyone ; and when the Bishops Exclusion 
 Bill was being discussed, he advocated in a 
 vague way a return to primitive episcopacy. 
 He seems to have been a well-meaning dealer 
 in useless commonplaces, without any force of 
 character. 
 
 The iadexto Gardiner, Hist, of England, givea 
 references to his chief speeches. 
 
 Bufas. [William II.] 
 
 Bullion Green.THE Battle op (Novem- 
 ber, 1666), resulted in a defeat of the insurgent 
 Covenanters under Colonel Wallace at the 
 hands of the royal troops led by General 
 Dalziel. Eullion Green is a valley dividing 
 the Pentland Hills. 
 
 Bumbold, Eichard {d. 1685), was an 
 officer in Cromwell's regiment. He guarded. 
 
Kum 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 Itns 
 
 the scaffold at Charles I. 'a execution, aad was 
 present at Dunbar and Worcester. Aiter the 
 liestoration he settled down at the Eye House 
 near Hoddeadon in Hertfordshire. Here, in 
 conjunction with others, he planned the as- 
 sassLaation of Charles II. and the Duke of 
 York. The conspiracy was discovered, and 
 Rumbold had to flee. In 1683 he took part in 
 Argyle's invasion, was captured and put to 
 death. " Surrounded by cowardly and factious 
 associates," says Macaulay, " he had, through 
 the whole campaign, behaved himself like a 
 soldier trained in the school of the great Pro- 
 tector, had in council strenuously supported 
 the authority of Argyle, and had in the field 
 been distinguished by tranquil intrepidity." 
 
 Rump. [Lo.NTG Pakliament.] 
 
 Runes, or Eunic characters, comprise the 
 alphabet used by the Teutonic nations. There 
 were sixteen letters in this alphabet, which was 
 ascribed to the god Odin (b.c. SOS). Probably 
 it was introduced by Phoenician traders to the 
 people living on the Baltic coast. 
 
 Runjeet Singh (i. 1780, d. 1839). 
 Upon the fall of the Mogul empire, its terri- 
 tories were divided between the Mahrattas in 
 the south and the Sikhs, a religious sect, in 
 the Punjaub. It was the work of Eunjeet 
 Singh, the son of a sirdar of one of the Sikh 
 principalities, to weld the loose Sikh con- 
 federacy into a kingdom. Gaining, in 1799, 
 the governorship of Lahore in return for the 
 aid he had given to Zeman Shah of Afghan- 
 istan, he practised upon the religious fana- 
 ticism of his Sikh countrymen, and organised 
 the " khfdsa " or " the Kberated " into an army 
 under European officers, which resembled in 
 many points the Ironsides of Cromwell. He 
 speedily conquered the neighbouring sirdars, 
 hut he found himself shut in on the east by 
 the river Sutlej, the boundary of the British 
 territory. He was wise enough to make a 
 treaty of peace with the English in 1809, and 
 to this he was faithful till his death. He 
 captured Moultan in 1817, Peshawur in 1819, 
 and Cashmere in 1819, and in that year as- 
 sumed the title of Maharajah (King of 
 Kings). The Afghans indicted upon him a 
 defeat in 1836, but his authority was too firm 
 to be shaken by disaster, and He seemed to 
 leave behind him a firmly -established power 
 on his death in 1839. 
 
 Huater, InH^wii ETtipire, p. 312. 
 
 Runuymede was the name of the small 
 island in the Thames near Staines, at which 
 the Great Charter was signed by John, June 
 15, 1215. [Magna Casta.] 
 
 Rupert, Pmnob (i. 1619, d. 1682), was 
 the third son of Frederick V., Elector Pala- 
 tine, and Elizabeth, daughter of James I. 
 Upon the outbreak of hostilities between 
 king and Parliament, Eupert received the 
 command of theEoyalist cavalry, and took 
 part in all the important engagements of the 
 
 first Civil War. He showed impetuous 
 courage, but little judgment, and to this 
 defect the Royahst defeat at Marston Moor 
 was largely due. His surrender of Bristol in 
 August, 1645, caused Charles to deprive him of 
 his command. In 1648, however, he was 
 given command of the Eoyalist fleet, and 
 showed considerable skiU in eluding Blake. 
 At last, in 1651, Blake inflicted on him a 
 crushing defeat and destroyed most of his 
 vessels. With the remnant, Eupert escaped 
 to the West Indies, where he carried on a 
 buccaneering warfare against English mer- 
 chantmen tai 1653, when he managed to 
 reach France. Aiter the Eestoration he again 
 obtained high naval command, and did good 
 service under Monk in the war against the 
 Dutch. The later years of his life were spent 
 in scientific researches, Eupert taking the 
 greatest interest in the proceedings of the 
 Eoyal Society, of which he was a leading 
 member. 
 
 Clareudon, Mist, of the Rebellion ; Prince 
 
 Rupert and the Cavaliers ; Sauford, Stitdies of 
 
 the Great Rehellion. 
 
 Rushwortli, John (b. 1607, d. 1690), a 
 member of Lincoln's Inn, was appointed 
 Assistant Clerk to the Commons at the open- 
 ing of the Long Parliament, became in 1645 
 secretary to his relative. Sir Thomas Fairfax, 
 in 1652 one of the committee for the reform 
 of the common law, and M.P. for Berwick in 
 the Parliaments of 1658 and 1660. After the 
 Eestoration he was for some years in ob- 
 scurity, but in 1677 he was appointed secre- 
 tary to Lord Keeper Bridgeman, and appears 
 in 1679 and 1681 again as M.P. for Berwick. 
 In 1684 he was arrested for debt, and died in 
 the King's Bench Prison in 1690. Eis 
 position gave him opportunities for witnessing 
 the most important events of the period, and 
 his Collections of Private Fassages of Staie^ . 
 Weighty Matters of Law, and Semarhable Pro- 
 ceedings in Five Parliaments, chiefly drawn up 
 from his own shorthand notes of debates and 
 from State papers, is one of the most valuable 
 sources of information for the years it covers. 
 
 The Collections is ii^ eigjilt vols. They are thus 
 arranged :— Vol: i. (1618—1629), puTjUshed 1659 ; 
 vols. ii. and iii. , forming Part n. (1629— -1640), 
 1680 J Trial of Lord Strafford, usually counted es 
 vol. viii., in the same year 1680 ; vols. iv. and v., 
 forming Part III. (1640—1645), 1692 ; vols. vi. 
 and Til., forming Part IV. (1645—1648), 1701. 
 Though fairly impartial, an outcry was raised 
 against them, and Nalson's Impartial Collections 
 appeared ia 1682—83 as a corrective from the 
 loyalist side. ry^ J A 1 
 
 Russel, Lady Frances (i. 1638, d. 1721), 
 the youngest child of Oliver CromweU. Ao- 
 -cording to Burnet, Charles II. thought of 
 asking for her hand to secure his own resto- 
 ration, but this is scarcely probable. In 1657 
 she became the wife of Eobert Eich, grandson 
 of Lord Warwick, who, however, died in three 
 months. She subsequently married Sir John 
 Euasel, by whom she had a large family. 
 
Rns 
 
 ( 897 ) 
 
 Bus 
 
 Ztnssell, The Family of, was one of the 
 most ancient in Dorsetshire. In 1506, during 
 the hrief stay of Philip of Austria on the 
 coast of Dorsetshire, where he was compelled 
 to put into by stress of weather, he made the 
 acquaintance of Mr. John Russell, and re- 
 commended him for employment to Henry 
 VII. Russell received an appointment in 
 the Privy Ohamher, and was henceforth con- 
 stantly employed in the public service. In 
 1539 he was made Lord Russell, and in 1542 
 Earl of Bedford, receiving large grants of 
 the confiscated lands of the abbeys of Wobum 
 and Tavistock. In May, 1694, "William, 
 fifth earl, was created Duke of Bedford. 
 
 Xtnssell, Edward, Eahl of Ohford 
 {b. 1651, d. 1727), was the grandson of Francis 
 Russell, fourth Duke of Bedford. When 
 his kinsman William, Lord Russell, was be- 
 headed, he retired from court. He joined the 
 Opposition, and was one of the seven who 
 signed the invitation to William III. On 
 the accession of WiUiam he was placed on 
 the Privy Council. He began in 1691 to 
 intrigue with James, and complained bitterly 
 to William of the neglect of the Whigs. 
 In 1692 he fought the battle of La Hogue. 
 James had imagined that the English fleet 
 was friendly to him, and trusted the as- 
 surances of Russell. But the ill-timed 
 declaration of the exUed king, and the queen's 
 spirited letter to the fleet, had quite changed 
 the mind of the admiral. He went from 
 ship to ship encouraging the crews, who 
 fought bravely and won a great victory. 
 In the same year he had a violent quarrel 
 with Nottingham because he decided that 
 the summer was too far spent for further 
 enterprise. William found it impossible to 
 keep both ministers in office, and therefore 
 gave Russell a rich place in the household. 
 He was sent to the Mediterranean with most 
 of the English and Dutch ships. On his re- 
 turn he was exceedingly popular, and was 
 elected for Middlesex without opposition. On 
 the accession of the Whig Junto to power 
 in 1696 RusseU became First Lord of the 
 Admiralty. Tn 1697 he became Earl of 
 Orford and Viscount Barfleur. In 1701 he 
 was impeached, together with Portland, 
 Somers, and Montague, by the victorious 
 Tories, and charged with complicity with 
 the crimes of Captain Kidd, an accusation 
 so absurd that it soon fell to the ground. 
 During the reign of Anne he was excluded 
 from office until 1709, when he became First 
 Lord of the Admiralty tiU 1710. On the 
 accession of George I. (1714) he was again 
 placed at the head of the Admiralty Com- 
 mission, but henceforth he took but little 
 part in poHtics. 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Own Time; Coze, Marl- 
 hoi'ougli. 
 
 Russell, John (rf. 1494), was frequently 
 HIST.— 29 
 
 employed in affairs of state by Edward IV., 
 and in 1476 was made Bishop of Rochester. 
 He was translated to Lincoln in 1480, and 
 was one of the executors of Edward's will. 
 In 1483 Gloucester appointed him Chancellor, 
 which office he held till 1485, when Richard, 
 suspecting him of treachery, took the Great 
 Seal from him. The rest of his life was spent 
 in the affairs of his bishopric. 
 
 Russell, John, Eaul (J. 1792, d. 1878), 
 was the third son of the sixth Duke of Bed- 
 ford. He was educated at Edinburgh, and 
 entered Parliament in 1813 as member for 
 Tavistock in the Whig interest. In 1818 he 
 took up the question of Parliamentary Reform 
 and moved four moderate resolutions, hence- 
 forth specially associating himself with the 
 Reform movement, and annually moving a 
 resolution on the subject. In 1828 he carried 
 a motion for the repeal of the Test and 
 Corporation Acts, and a bill was subsequently 
 passed to that effect. In 1830 he became 
 Paymaster of the Forces under Lord Grey, 
 and was entrusted with the presentation of 
 the Reform Bill to the House (March 1, 1831). 
 His reputation was greatly increased by the 
 ability which he displayed in the passage of 
 the bin ; and when Peel gained office, Russell 
 was recognised as leader of the Opposition. 
 In 1835 he became Home Secretary under 
 Melbourne, and in 1839 Secretary for War 
 and the Colonies. At the general election of 
 1841 Russell was returned for London, a seat 
 which he retained for twenty years. In 1845 
 he declared himself in favour of the repeal of 
 the Com Laws, in a letter to his constituents, 
 and in 1846 he became Prime Minister. 
 Four years later, in 1850, he made the great 
 mistake of countenancing the No-Popery 
 agitation by his Letter to the Bishop of Durham 
 upon the creation of a Catholic episcopate in 
 England, and by carrying the Ecclesiastical 
 Titles Bill, which, however, remained a dead 
 letter. At the end of 1851 he quarrelled 
 with and dismissed Palmerston, who in the 
 next year brought about the fall of the 
 Russell ministry. In Aberdeen's ministry 
 Russell was at first Foreign Secretary, and 
 afterwards President of the Council ; in 1855 
 he resigned, and came back to the Foreign 
 Office under Palmerston in 1859. In 1861 
 he was created Earl Russell, and became again 
 Prime Minister on Palmerston's death in 
 1865. He was defeated in 1866 on the 
 Reform Bill, and resigned. He never after- 
 wards held office, though he continued to 
 take an active part in politics, and in 1869 
 introduced a bill empowering the crown to 
 confer life - peerages. Earl Russell was a 
 voluminous writer, and edited himself selec- 
 tions from his Speeches and Despatches with 
 introductions, 2 vols., 1870. 
 
 Russell.WiLLiAM, Lord {b. 1639, d. 1683), 
 the third son of the fifth Earl of Bedford, 
 
Bus 
 
 ( 898 ) 
 
 Kus 
 
 appears as one of the chiefs of the Opposition 
 towards the close of the Long Parliament of 
 Charles II. He commenced the attack upon 
 the Duke of York which led up to the Ex- 
 clusion Bill, by moving an address in the 
 House of Commons, on Nov. 4, 1678, that 
 the duke should he removed from the royal 
 councils. So popular was he in the country, 
 that at the general election in 1679 he was 
 chosen for two counties. He was nominated 
 a member of the Privy Council as reorganised 
 by Temple, but it was impossible that a 
 cormoil' containing such discordant elements 
 should work together, and the Whig leaders 
 speedily sought their dismissal. During the 
 Exclusion Bill debates EusseU was practicallj' 
 leader of the House, and it was he who took 
 up the biU to the Lords (Nov. 15, 1680). 
 But the court was victorious, and in 1683 
 took revenge by accusing EusseU of partici- 
 pation in the Eye House Plot, though it is 
 almost certain that Russell and his friends 
 had merely discussed the possibility of a 
 popular agitation for a new Parliament, and 
 did not contemplate the employment of force. 
 He was tried for high treason at the Old 
 Bailey on July 13, 1683, declared guilty, and 
 executed on the 21st, refusing to the last, in 
 spite of the arguments of Tillotson and 
 Burnet, to assent to the doctrine of non- 
 resistance. 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Own Tim?; Eanke, Hist. 
 of Eng., iv. ; Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Bussia, Relations with. During the 
 Middle Ages there were practically no rela- 
 tions between England and the barbarous 
 kingdom of the Czars. The English captain. 
 Chancellor, began in 1553 both commercial 
 dealings by his voyage to the White Sea, and 
 diplomatic intercourse by bearing to Moscow 
 a letter of Queen Mary to Ivan the Ter- 
 rible. In 1568 this mission bore fruit in 
 Ivan's proposal of a commercial treaty giving 
 exclusive rights to English merchants, and 
 a political alliance against Poland and 
 Sweden ; but neither of these were ever exe- 
 cuted. In 1645 Alexis Mikhailovitch sent 
 Gersim Doktourof to England ; but on finding 
 the king to whom he was accredited a prisoner 
 of his own subjects, the envoy withdrew in 
 disgust, and the execution of Charles was fol- 
 lowed by the expulsion of English merchants 
 from Russia. After the Restoration, the em- 
 bassy of Lord Carlisle restored diplomatic re- 
 lations (1663) ; but nothing of any importance 
 happened until Peter the Great's famous visit 
 to England in 1697. The distant friendship 
 of the two nations was readily broken in 
 1717 by the coaUtion of Peter with Charles 
 XII. and Alberoni, with the intention, among 
 other objects, of depriving Hanover of Bremen 
 and Verden, and of helping the Pretender to 
 the English throne. But these projects soon 
 passed away, and on the whole friendly 
 lelations between the two countries were 
 
 maintained for the greater part of the 
 eighteenth century. The close aUianoe of 
 Russia and Austria, the notion that the de- 
 velopment of Russia would help in keeping 
 down France and its northern ally Sweden, 
 the common policy of maintaining the Cap. 
 faction in power in ' the latter country, 
 and the importance of the trade between 
 the two nations, all helped to establish 
 their alliance. In 1748 the advance of a 
 Russian force secured for England and her 
 allies the Peace of Aachen. But in the Seven 
 Years' War Russia did her best to overthrow 
 England's ally, Prussia. Yet Chatham always 
 maintained the policy of the Russian alliance, 
 and in 1769 England assisted the fleet of 
 Alexis Orlof in its long voyage from the 
 Baltic to the aid of the revolted Greeks, 
 and an Englishman conducted the fire-ships 
 which destroyed the Turkish fleet in the 
 Bay of Tchesme. Less justifiable was the 
 acquiescence on the part of England in the 
 first partition of Poland in the year 1774 ; 
 which was ill requited by Catherine II.'s 
 abandonment, in the latter part of her reign, 
 of the English alliance in favour of a 
 connection with Prance. Thus, in 1780, 
 Catherine joined the Armed Neutrality. 
 Little less offensive to England was her close 
 alliance with Joseph II., whose policy in the 
 Netherlands was diametricalljf opposed to 
 that of the English. The younger Pitt was 
 the first English statesman who took up that 
 position of hostility to Russia which in later 
 times became so general. While Fox elo- 
 quently pleaded for a continuance of the old 
 connection, Pitt formed an alliance with 
 Poland, Prussia, and Sweden, against the 
 " Colossus of the North ; " but his threats 
 were vain to prevent Russia's triumph in the' 
 Turkish war, and the inglorious defeat of 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden. The struggle 
 against revolutionary France brought back, 
 however, the old relations. Catherine in her^ 
 old age was content with denouncing the 
 Revolution. Paul I. joined the Second Coali- 
 tion, and in 1799 English and Russian troops 
 joined to fight an unsuccessful campaign in 
 Holland, which led to mutual jealousies and 
 recriminations. ' As a result Paul formed a close 
 connection with his hero Napoleon, and estab- 
 lished a second Armed Neutrality in the north. 
 After Paul's murder, Alexander I. joined 
 the next coalition, but from 1807 to 1812 his 
 alliance with Napoleon isolated England and 
 allowed the establishment of the Continental 
 System. After 1815 the Tory government 
 kept up a friendship with the instigator of 
 the Holy Alliance. The judicious policy of 
 Canning of joining with Russia to obtain 
 the liberties of Greece, was ignored by the 
 ministry which called Navarino an untoward 
 event. The. triumph of Liberalism in Eng-* 
 land, the sympathy excited by the Polish 
 insurgents, the antagonism of interest in the 
 Levant, and, before long, in Asia as well. 
 
Sut 
 
 ( 899 ) 
 
 Biym 
 
 gradually produced a settled divergence be- 
 tween the two countries, culminating in the 
 Crimean War, and nearly leading to a second 
 explosion in 1877. [Crimean "War.] 
 
 Herrmann, GescliiiifiU ties Russuchen Staa% and 
 Itam'baacl, Hist, of Jtn>sta, are goud general 
 accounts of Bnssiin liistory. See the Haklu>t 
 Society's publications, especially Pletolier'a 
 ^usoia, Horsley's Riisda, aad Lord Carhsle's 
 Relation of Ttivee Em ioasies for the early rela- 
 tions. Schuyler, Life of Peter the Great; 
 Kinglake, Invasion of the Ci-liiwa. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Butliveil, Alexander ' (the Master of 
 Gowrie), conspired, with his brother, the Earl 
 of Gowrie, to kidnap King James VI. at 
 Gowrie House, and to convey him by sea to 
 Fastoastle (1600). Euthven having prevailed 
 upon the king to visit his ' brother's castle, 
 attacked him there, but was himself slain by 
 .the king's retainers. This affair is known as 
 the Gowrie Conspiracy. 
 
 . Buth.'V'eil, The Raid op (August, 1581), 
 was the name given to a plot formed against 
 Lennox and Arran, the favourites of James VI., 
 which was carried out by seizing the young 
 king at Castle Ruthven, and committing him 
 to the charge of the conspirators. In 1.582 an 
 Act of Indemnity was passed in which the 
 thanks of the nation were voted to the Earls 
 of Gowrie, Mar, and Glencairn for their 
 rescue of the king from his obnoxious 
 ministers. In 1.583, liowever, James wishing 
 to recover Ma freedom, collected a body of 
 troops under Argyle and Huntly, and defeated 
 the Ruthven party, and Gowrie was executed 
 (1584). 
 
 Rutland, Charles Manners, Duke op 
 ib. 1754, d. 1787), was appointed Viceroy of 
 Irekindby Pitt in 1783. He found Ireland 
 in a state bordering on open rebellion. His 
 firmness, however, prevented a proposed 
 congress from meeting (1784) ; and, though 
 unable to carry the commercial treaty, he put 
 down the Whiteboy insurrection, and restored 
 internal quiet. He was very popular, and 
 was much lamented when he died. 
 
 Blltlaud, Henry Manners, 2nd Eakl of 
 (rf. 1563), was instrumental in procuring the 
 condemnation of Lord Seymour of Sudely, 
 by bringing forward evidence of his designs 
 against his brother, the Protector. In 1549 
 lie was employed in the relief of Haddington, 
 which was being besieged by the French ; and 
 in 1353 was imjirisoned for a short time as a 
 supporter of Lady Jane Gre}'. In 1558 he 
 collected a small fleet for the relief of Calais, 
 but was too late to save the town. 
 
 Bye House Plot, The (1683), is the 
 name given to a conspiracy formed by some of 
 the extreme "Whigs in Charles II.'s reign, after 
 the failure of the Exclusion Bill ; its object was 
 the murder of the king and the Duke of York. 
 The king was to have been murdered at a 
 place called the Rye House, in Hertfordshire ; 
 
 but the plot never came to anything, and was 
 revealed to the couit by traitors among those 
 concerned in it. It is not probable that ths 
 prominent "Whig leaders were privy to this 
 scheme, which was chiefly formed by Rumbold 
 and some of the more violent and obscure 
 members of the party. But William, Lord 
 Russell, Algernon Sidney, and the Earl of 
 Essex were arrested for complicity in it. 
 Essex died in the Tower, probably by hi^ own 
 hand ; Russell was condemned on the evidence 
 of one witness and executed, together with 
 tSidney (July 21, 1683), at whose trial Hmpub- 
 lished writings of his own were admitted as 
 evidence against him. 
 
 Macaulay, Hint, of Eng. ; Burnet, Hist, of his 
 OiA'n Time ; iki«-moira of W^ttl-tam, i^ord Jiujjet-lt. 
 
 Rymer, Thomas (S. 1639, d. 1714), 
 was bom at Northallerton, and educated at 
 Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. He was 
 entered at Gray's Inn in 1666. He wrote 
 several dramas, translations, and works on 
 constitutional history. In 1692 he received 
 the appointment of historiographer royal. 
 Rymer died in poverty, and was buried in 
 St. Clement Danes Church. Rymer' s chief 
 interest to the student of Enghsh history is 
 his connection, with the *oi^k called Foedera. 
 Early in the seventeenth century began the 
 publication upon the Continent of general 
 collections of treaties, such as that of Goldast 
 (Frankfort, 1607 — 14). Such works became 
 very popular, and the Codex Juris Gentium 
 Diplomaticus ol Leibnitz (1693) seems to have 
 suggested to Halifax and Somers the ad- 
 visability of publishing a similar collection 
 for England at the national expense. The 
 government accepted the proposal, and en- 
 trusted the work to Rymer. The first volume 
 wasissuedin 1704. Fifteen volumes appeared 
 during Rymer's lifetime, and five subse- 
 quently ; and the Fwdera immediately became 
 one of the prime sources of English history 
 for the period it covers (1101 — 1654). It is a 
 very valuable collection, containing an im- 
 mense number of treaties, charters, and other 
 docuihents. 
 
 It is necessary carefully to distinguisli the 
 various eflitions : — (i.) Original, 15 vols., ed. 
 Kymer (1704— 1713), the later volumes departing 
 from the original plan, and including a large 
 numher of documents which touch only domestic 
 affairs ; 16tli vol. (1715), prepared from Eymer's 
 papers by his assistant, Sanderson, who edited, 
 the remaining volumes ; 17th (1717), the last two 
 b»ing still more miscellaneous in the character of 
 their contents. An 18th vol. appeared first in 1726 
 but was withdrawn on account of the remon- 
 strances of the' Commons against the "breach of 
 privilege committed by printing part of their 
 Journal; it was recalled and reissued (1731). 
 Two more volumes were J)ublished in 1732 and 
 1735. Churchill published the first 17 vols; 
 Tnnson the lost three, (ii.) Tonson'a (1727— 
 1729), a reprint of the first 17 vols. (ed. Holmes), 
 published by Tonson throiigh subscription, 
 (iii.) ifaj;?xfl.(1737 — 1745), an edition of the first' 
 17 vols.,with Holmes's corrections, and of Sander.!- 
 son's three Iwb vols., published in 10 vols, at the 
 Hague, with an important abridgment -by 
 
Bys 
 
 900 ) 
 
 Sac 
 
 Bapiu. (iv.) Record Commission (1816 — 1830), 3 
 vols, in 6 parts, and a portion of 4tli \ol. covering 
 the period down to 1383, with additions. To 
 these must be added : (v.) Syllabus of Faidera, in 
 Jinglish, by Sir Thos. Hardy, 2 vols. (1869—1872), 
 for Record Commission. In the prefaces to this 
 most valuable work a full account and criticism 
 is given of the various editions. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Byswick, The Treaty of (Sept. 10, 
 1697;, termiiiKted the war which had begun 
 in 19S9 between France and the coalition 
 composed of the Empire, Spain, England, 
 Brandenburg, and Holland. Louis had opened 
 negotiations in 1696, but the other powers 
 had broken them off.- At length, in March 
 (1697), the French plenipotentiaries as- 
 sembled at the Hague, those of the coalition 
 at Delft, and conferences were held at Rys- 
 wick. But, impatient of delay, Louis and 
 William appointed Marshal Boufflers and the 
 Duke of Portland to hold private meetings 
 together. Terms of peace were concluded 
 (July 6). Spain, and the Emperor refused to 
 agree to them; but Spain soon gave way, 
 and on Sept. 10 the treaty was concluded 
 between France, Holland, Spain, and Eng- 
 land. The terms were that France should 
 acknowledge William as King of England, 
 Anne as his successor, and that all assistance 
 should be withdrawn from James. France 
 also surrendered all conquests made since the 
 Treaty of Nimeguen, and placed the chief 
 fortresses of the Low Countries in the hands 
 of Dutch garrisons. A month later, a treaty 
 was concluded between Louis and^ the Em- 
 peror. France restored all towns captured since 
 the Treaty of Nimeguen, with the exception of 
 Strasburg, together with Freiburg, Breisach, 
 Philipsburg, and the French fortifications on 
 the right bank of the Rhine. Xorraine was 
 restored to its duke, who, however, granted a 
 passage through his dominions for French 
 troops. The Elector of Cologne was recog- 
 nised, and the rights Of the Duchess of 
 Orleans upon the Palatinate compromised for 
 money. " The Prince of Orange," says 
 Kanke, "who was formerly spoken of con- 
 temptuously as the little lord of Breda, had 
 won himself a position in the presence of 
 which the mightiest monarch the western 
 world had seen for many a century was com- 
 pelled to give way." 
 
 Banke, Kist. of Eno, ; Koch and Scboell, 
 Hisloire des TraiUs de Faix. 
 
 s 
 
 Sa, DoM Pantaleon, brother of the Portu- 
 guese ambassador in London, killed a man in 
 a fray (Nov. 22, 1653). He took refuge at 
 the embassy, where it was maintained that 
 he was responsible only to his own sovereign. 
 Arrested and tried, and induced to plead 
 by the threat of the peine forte et dure, he 
 was condemned. Cromwell, while pardoning 
 his accomplices, was inexorable against the 
 
 principal. On July 10 Sa was executed, 
 amidst great popular rejoicings. Cromwell's 
 firm government was no respecter of persons, 
 and not even the divinity which hedged 
 ambassadors sufilered them to violate the 
 municipal law of the state in which they were 
 sojourning. 
 
 State Trials ; Sciafer, GescMchtevonPorlngal. 
 
 Saadut Ali {d. 1814), the brother of Asaf- 
 ul-Dowlah, was by a treaty made by Sir John 
 Shore in 1788 assigned the vacant throne of 
 Oude, upon terms which gave the English 
 the right of garrisoning the important places, 
 and completely subjected Oude to the English 
 power. Saadnt Ali rapidly became so un- 
 popular that he lost all control over his own 
 troops, who, while useless for the defence of 
 Oude, remained a source of great expense. 
 After the insurrection of Vizier Ali, which 
 had to be put down bj' British troops, Lord 
 Wellesley insisted peremptorily on their 
 dismissal. In 1800' the Nawab announced 
 that he intended to abdicate in favour of 
 one of his sons. Lord Wellesley infoimed 
 him that he would consent to the abdica- 
 tion provided it was made in favour of 
 the Company. The Nawab thereupon with- 
 drawing his abdication, Lord Wellesley 
 ordered him to choose between the cession of 
 the whole or part of his dominions. After 
 trying every possible means of escape, the 
 Treaty of Lucknow was concluded (Nov. 10, 
 1801). Its provisions were that the Vizier 
 should cede a large territory, and in return 
 should be released from all future demands 
 on account of Oude or its dependencies ; that 
 the Company should always protect and de- 
 fend the Vizier, and that he should only 
 support a few of his own troops for revenue 
 purposes ; that the English should guarantee 
 to him his remaining territories ; that in the 
 exercise of his authority he should in all cases 
 be guided by the advice of the officers of the 
 Company. On Jan. 10, 1802, Lord Wellesley 
 and the Vizier met at Cawnpore, where the 
 former insisted on such a reform in the ad- 
 ministration of Oude as should remove the 
 evils and abuses which had so long corrupted 
 all the state machinery. Vaiious remon- 
 strances were at intervals addressed to hinj 
 on his government, especially during Lord 
 Minto's administration, but he had no mind 
 for reforms which would embarrass his ar- 
 rangements and curtail his revenue. He 
 died in 1814. 
 
 Mill, Hist, of India ; Wellesley Despatc/tcs. 
 
 Sabert, King of the East Saxons, and 
 nephew of Ethelbert, King of Kent, received 
 Christianity from Augustine, and instituted 
 the bishopric of London with Mellitus for its 
 first bishop. On his death, his sons relapsed 
 into heathenism. 
 
 Sac and Soc was an Anglo-Saxon phrase, 
 also extensively used in the Norman period. 
 
Sac 
 
 (901 ) 
 
 Sac 
 
 meaning the right of jurisdiction possessed 
 by private individuals. When extensive 
 tracts of folkland were turned in bookland, 
 in favour of churches, monastic bodies, or 
 private individuals, such jurisdiction as had 
 been previously vested in the king, in or out 
 of the popular courts, was transferred to the 
 recipient of the grant. Where previously 
 the royal officers had sat in judgmeut, the 
 lord or the lord's reeves now sat ; and the 
 profits of the jurisdiction now went, not to 
 the national exchequer, but to that of the 
 lord. And, as in the later Anglo-Saxon times 
 the tendency was for all folkland to pass into 
 bookland, "the national courts became more 
 and more the courts of the landowners. The 
 ancient process was retained, but exercised 
 by men who derived their title from the new 
 source of justice." (Stubbs.) The grants of 
 sac and soc did not as a rule give immunity 
 from the county courts, though they did from 
 the hundred courts. They became, in fact, the 
 basis of the later manor court leet, which 
 exercised petty criminal jurisdiction over the 
 tenants of the manor. The name is derived 
 from two words, one of which [sacn] properly 
 means a thing, and so presumably a thing. in 
 dispute and litigation ; the other [socn), 
 jurisdiction. But, as Bishop Stubbs says, 
 ' ' the form is an alliterative jingle which will 
 not bear close analysis." 
 
 Stubbs, Ccynst. Hist., i. § 73 ; Ellis, Introduc- 
 tion to Djmesday. 
 
 SachevereU, Henry, D.D. {d. 1724), 
 the son of a Low Church clergyman, entered 
 the Church, and early attached himself to 
 the school of Laud. He became a fellow of 
 Magdalen College, Oxford. In 170.5 he was 
 elected chaplain of St. Saviour's, Southwark. 
 In November, 1710, he preached his celebrated 
 sermon on " The Perils of False Brethren both 
 in Church and State," a tirade against the 
 Revolution principles, Dissenters, and the 
 Whig ministry, especially Godolphin, whom 
 he attacked under the name of Volpone, or 
 Old Fox. It is said that 40,000 copies of 
 this sermon were sold. The ministry were 
 naturally angry, and Sunderland proposed that 
 Sacheverell should be impeached. The idea 
 was taken up by Godolphin, but opposed 
 by Somers and Marlborough Sacheverell's 
 answer to the articles was uncompromis- 
 ing. The Commons foolishly resolved to 
 attend Westminster Hall in a body. The 
 trial lasted three weeks. ■ It was soon very 
 evident that the sympathies of the populace 
 were all on his side. "Sacheverell and the 
 Church ; " became a popular cry. Ai the close 
 of the trial, Sacheverell read an eloquent 
 defence, supposed to have been written for 
 him by Atterbu^3^ The Lords declared him 
 guilty by sixty-nine to . fifty-two. He was 
 suspended for three years, and his sermon 
 was burnt by the common hangman ; but a 
 motion that he ^hould be incapable of prefer- 
 ment was thrown out. The sentence was 
 
 considered an acquittal; a living was bestowed 
 on him in Wales, and his journey thither 
 was like a royal progress. The queen saw 
 how unpopular the ministry had become, and 
 hence was encouraged to carry out her plans 
 for its overthrow. [Anne.] After the period of 
 Sacheverell's suspension was over, the queen 
 presented him with the living of St. Andrew's, 
 Holborn. His first sei-mon, on the text, 
 " Father, forgive them, for they know not 
 what they do," he sold for £100. The Com- 
 mons, to mark their disapproval of the con- 
 duct of the previous ministry, appointed him 
 to preach before them on Ascension Day. 
 Burnet's views of his character are hardly 
 overdrawn: "He was a bold, insolent man, 
 with a very small measure of religion, virtue, 
 learning, or good sense ; but he resolved to 
 force himself into popularity and preferment 
 by the most petulant railings at Dissenters 
 and Low Chui'chmen in several sermons and 
 libels, written without chasteness of style or 
 liveliness of expression." 
 
 Burton, Reign of Queen Anne; Beyer, ArniaU; 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Own 'Time. 
 
 Sacket's Harbonr, The Battle of 
 (1813), was fought on Lake Ontario, between 
 the EngKsh and Canadians under Sir George 
 Prevost, and the Americans under the com- 
 mand of General Brown. The advantage 
 lay with the Americans. 
 
 SackviUe, Lord George (S. 1716, d. 
 1785), was the son of Charles, Duke of Dorset. 
 He served at the battles of Dettingen and 
 Fontenoy, and fought under the Duke of 
 Cumberland at CuUoden. In 1753 he was 
 sent as secretary to Ireland, and quarrelled 
 with the Speaker, Boyle. In 1758 he refused 
 the command on the coast of Britanny, prefer- 
 ring to serve in Flanders, on the ground that 
 he was "tired of buccaneering." He com- 
 manded the English and German cavalry on 
 the right of the allies under Ferdinand of 
 Brunswick at the battle of Miuden, and when 
 orders were sent him to charge, he obstinately 
 refused to do so, affecting to misunderstand 
 the order, probably from motives of jealousy. 
 After enduring several slights from Ferdi- 
 nand, he resigned his command, and on his 
 return home, a court-martial adjudged him 
 unfit to serve in any military capacity. On 
 the death of George II., he attempted to 
 return to court. In the year 1760 he was 
 elected member for Hythe; and in 1762 we 
 find him complaining of the expenses of 
 the war. In 1766 he was restored to the 
 Privy Council. In 1770, in consequence of 
 inheriting an estate, he assumed the name of 
 Germain. In the following year he fought a 
 duel with (xovemor Johnstone. In 1775 he 
 was made Secretary of State for the Colonies, 
 but his military knowledge and talents ill- 
 atoned for his rash and violent temper. He 
 quarrelled with his subordinates, especially 
 Sir Guy Carleton and Sir William Howe, and 
 
Sac 
 
 ( 902- ) 
 
 Sai 
 
 in 1778 threatened to resign, in a fit of anger 
 on Carleton's being appointed Governor of 
 Cliarlemont, He superintended the prepara- 
 tions for the American "War. In the year 
 1782, in order to rid themselves of him, the 
 ministry persuaded the king to raise him to 
 the peerage. There was great outcry at this, 
 and his first speech in the House of Lords 
 ■was an attempt to remove the imputation of 
 cowardice at Minden. We subsequently find 
 him acknowledging the fact that the king 
 was his own minister. Lord Sackville was a 
 man of undoubted talents and great ambition, 
 but of a violent temperament, which urged 
 him to ill-judged courses. 
 
 "Walpole, Memoirs ; Sismondi, Bid, de France ; 
 Lecty, Htsf. of the EighteetitlL Cenlwy ; Stau- 
 liope, Rist. of Eng, 
 
 Sacbville, Sir Eichard {d. 1566), the 
 father of the famous Lord Buckhurst, was a 
 man of great financial abilities, which he so 
 made use of to his own advantage as to gain 
 the nickname of " FiU Sack." Under Queen 
 Mary he was a Catholic, and Chancellor of 
 the Court of Augmentations ; under EUza- 
 beth, a Protestant, and Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer. 
 
 Sadleir's Case (1857). Hr James 
 Sadleir, member for Tipperary, had been 
 deeply concerned with his brother, John 
 Sadleir, member for Sligo, in a series of 
 fraudulent banking transactions. On the 
 discovery, John Sadleir committed suicide 
 and James Sadleir fled. The latter was 
 thereupon formally expelled from the House 
 of Commons (Feb. 19) on the motion of the 
 Attorney-General for Ireland. 
 
 A. M. Snllivan, New Ireland, chaps, xiv., xv. 
 
 Sadler, Sir Ralph (i. 1507, a. 1587), a 
 protege of Thomas Cromwell, was much 
 thought of by Henry VIII. for the skill and 
 ability which he displayed as a diplomatist. 
 In 1539 he was sent on an embassy to James 
 V. of Scotland, to endeavour to detach him 
 from his alliance with France, and to aid the 
 cause of the Reformed religion in Scotland, 
 and fulfilled his mission with such discretion, 
 that Henry appointed him one of the twelve 
 councillors who were to assist his executors 
 in the government during the minority of 
 Edward YI, In 1547 he was present at the 
 battle of Pinkie, and greatly distinguished 
 himself; while in 1549 ho aided in suppres- 
 sing Ket's rebellion. " The able and truthful 
 Sir Ralph Sadler " became one of Elizabeth's 
 most trusted diplomatic agents, and a strong 
 Puritan, and was often employed in Scotch 
 negotiations. In 1559 he was sent to the 
 Scotch border with instructions " to treat in 
 all secrecy with any manner of persons in 
 Scotland for the union of the realms," and to 
 assist the Protestant party with secret sums 
 of money. He was one of the English com- 
 missioners at the Trpaty of Leith (1560), and 
 in 1568 was on the commission of York 
 
 on the occasion of the inquiry into the murder 
 of Damley. In 1584—85 Sir Ralph Sadler 
 acted as gaoler to Mary Queen of Scots in 
 Tutbury Oastle ; but found the charge of her 
 whom " he had held in his aims as a baby " 
 so irksome, that he petitioned to be removed. 
 After the execution of Mary, in whose trial 
 he took part, he was again sent on a diplo- 
 matic errand to Scotland to announce to 
 James VI. his mother's death, and to explain 
 that Elizabeth was in no way to blame. This 
 delicate mission, which he successfully accom- 
 plished, was his last, as he died a month or 
 two later. 
 
 Papers of Sir Ralph SndUr with Memmr by 
 Sir Walter Soott (1809) j Froude, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Sadoolapore, The Battle of (Dec. 3, 
 1848), was fought during the Sikh War. 
 After the failure at Ramnuggur, Lord Gough 
 ordered Sir Joseph Thaekwell to cross the 
 Chenab at Wuzeerabad and turn the Sikh 
 position. Shere Sing thereupon withdrew 
 from Ramnuggur, and the two armies met at 
 the village of Sadoolapore. For two hours 
 the British sustained the fire of the enemy 
 without returning till they were fully in 
 range, when their artillery opened with 
 deadly effect. The Sikhs retired slowly, and 
 Sir Joseph did not deem it wise to follow. 
 The advantage of the action doubtless rested 
 with Shere Sing, who had marched away at 
 his own will to a better position, but Lord 
 Gough thought fit to claim the victory. [Sikh 
 War.] 
 
 St- AlTians, in the immediate neigh- 
 bourhood of the famous Roman municipium 
 of Verulamium, in famous as the site of one of 
 the greatest Benedictine abbeys. It gains its 
 modem name from Alban, said to have been 
 martyred there under Diocletian. The abbey 
 was erected in his honour by OfFa of Mercia 
 in 796. The town dates froiji the days of 
 Abbot TJlfsige, who built the three parish 
 churches. The oppressions of the abbots led 
 the town to join the peasants' revolt of 1381. 
 In 1455 and 1461 two battles of more political 
 Ihan military importance were fought between 
 the Yorkists and Lancastrians. The abbey 
 church, made parochial at the Dissolution, has 
 recently been made into a cathedral. 
 
 St. Albans, The Fik-st Battle op 
 (1455), was the first engagement in the Wars 
 of the Roses. It was brought about by the 
 recovery of Henry VI. in 1455, and the 
 termination of Yirk's protectorate. The 
 Somerset party were again in power, and 
 York, seeing his influence at an end, deter- 
 mined to secure by force of arms the down- 
 fall of Somerset. Accordingly he collected 
 troops in the north and marched towards 
 London. The king advanced in force to 
 meet him, and after a vain attempt at nego- 
 tiation, a battle followed which, though only 
 lasting half an hour, had most important 
 
Sal 
 
 ( 903 ) 
 
 Sal 
 
 results. Somerset was slain, together with 
 other Lancastrian, nobles, the king wounded, 
 and York completely victorious. 
 
 St. Albans, The Second Battle of 
 (1461), was fought by Queen Margaret and 
 the Lancastrians against the Earl of War- 
 wick. After the victory at Wakefield 
 Margaret marched towards London, and was 
 met at St. Albans by Warwick. The Lan- 
 castrians gained the day, the king was re- 
 leased, and Warwick compelled to retire. 
 But with incredible folly the results of the 
 battle were altogether thrown away. London 
 was not occupied, nor was the Earl of War- 
 wick prevented from effecting a junction 
 with Edward. The Lancastrians retired to 
 the north, and within a fortnight the Yorkists 
 were in possession of London, and Edward 
 recognised as king. 
 
 St. Albans, The Council op (Aug. 4, 
 1213), was one of the general councils of 
 John's reign. It is extremely important in 
 constitutional history as a step in the pro- 
 gress of the representative system, since 
 it was attended, not merely by the great 
 barons, but by representatives (the reeve and 
 four others) of the people of the towns in 
 the royal demesne. The Council was called 
 by the Justiciar Geoffrey Fitz-Ptter, who 
 promised to abide by the laws of Henry I. 
 henceforth. In the same year, in a summons 
 to a douncil at Oxford (of the proceedings of 
 which there is no record ; indeed, it is possible 
 that it never met), each of the sheriffs is or- 
 dered to send four discreet men from his shire. 
 
 St. Albans, Francis Bacon, Viscount 
 (i. 1561, (?. 1626), often called (though of course 
 jncorrectlv) Lokd Bacon, was the son of Sir 
 Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper under Elizabeth. 
 At twelve he was sent to Cambridge, at sixteen 
 he became a member of Gray's Inn, and went 
 to France in the retinue of the English 
 ambassador. Sir Amyas Paulet. Here he 
 stayed a couple of years, until he was recalled 
 to England by the death of his father. Left 
 with but scanty means, he now applied himself 
 assiduously to the study of law, and began 
 that long struggle for preferment in which 
 was spent the greater part of his life. In 
 1584 he entered Parliament, and in 1586 
 became a Bencher. But for some years after 
 this he made no progress. Lord Burleigh, to 
 whom he naturally looked for assistance — for 
 the Treasurer had married the sister of 
 Bacon's mother — distrusted him, and paid 
 no attention to his frequent appeals ; while 
 the younger Cecil was probably jealous of his 
 cousin's ability, and constantly threw obstacles 
 in his way. In 1593, however, Bacon's 
 friendship with Essex seemed about to open 
 to him the path to distinction. The place of 
 Attorney-General became vacant, and Essex 
 demanded it for him, but in vain: for the 
 influence of the Cecils was victorious, and 
 
 their nominee Coke was appointed. From 
 this time dates that bitter rivalry between 
 Bacon and the great master of the common 
 law, which was ultimately to bring about the 
 fall of both. Essex failed even to gain for 
 his friend the Solicitor's place, and attempted 
 to console him by the gift of an estate worth 
 some £1,800. Y''et in spite of the many 
 services Essex had rendeied to him, Bacon 
 took a prominent part on the side of the 
 crown in the prosecution of the earl for high 
 treason, and was employed to write a pamphlet 
 to justify the action of the government. 
 
 At James's accession. Bacon, with a crowd 
 of others, was knighted. He was a pro- 
 minent figure in the Parliament of 1604, 
 and, while acting as spokesman of the Com- 
 mons, pleased the king by flattery, and by 
 the slcill with which he arranged compro- 
 mises, especially in the matter of the Bucking- 
 hamshire election. On the question of the 
 union Of the two kingdoms Bacon heartily 
 sympathised with the king ; he was ap- 
 pointed to draw up the proposals to be 
 laid before the commission, and as a member 
 of it argued ably in support of James's project. 
 In 1606 ■ he married Alice Barnham, an 
 alderman's daughter. In June, 1607, he at last 
 gained afoothold upon the ladderof promotion, 
 and became Solicitor-General. As such his 
 work was chiefly of a routine character ; in 
 the Commons, however, he took a leading 
 part in the discussions upon the Great 
 Contract. After Salisbury's death, in 1612, 
 Bacon was able to come into closer contact 
 with the king, and henceforth his rapid rise 
 was certain. In Oct., 1613, he was made 
 Attorney- General ; but though this office 
 gave him a prominent place among the royal 
 ministers, his work was but to carry out and 
 defend royal decisions, and he had no in- 
 fluence upon the general policy of the govern- 
 ment. He took part in the trials of Peacham 
 and Somerset, defended the benevolence of 
 1614 — 15, and assisted in the humiliation of 
 Chief Justice Coke in 1616. Having suc- 
 ceeded in gaining the favour of Buckingham, 
 Bacon became Lord Keeper in March, 1617, 
 in Jan., 1618, Chancellor, in the July of 
 the same year Baron Vertjam, and in Jan., 
 1621, Viscount St. Albans. He was still 
 a mere agent of the government, and when 
 he chanced unintentionally to offend Bucking- 
 ham in the matter of the marriage of Coke's 
 daughter, he had to make a degrading sub- 
 mission. 
 
 When Parliament met in January, 1621, 
 there was no sign of any public hostility to 
 the Chancellor. The Commons were eager to 
 join the king in a contest with Spain, but 
 James refused to declare for a war policy ; 
 whereupon the Commons in disgust turned 
 to the discussion of domestic grievances. 
 Foremost amongst these were (he monopolies. 
 An attack began upon the referees, i.e., those 
 law oflioers (including Bacon) and others who 
 
Sai 
 
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 Sai 
 
 had certified to the legality of the monopolies ; 
 and Coke, now one of the leaders of the 
 House, turned the assault especially upon 
 the Chancellor. Meantime a committee had 
 heen sitting to inquire into abuses in the 
 courts of justice. Apparently to the surprise 
 of the world, Bacon was in March accused 
 of having received bribes ; the Lords, after 
 hearing witnesses, were convinced of his 
 guilt ; and, what is most strange of all. Bacon 
 made no attempt to defend himself, but threw 
 himself on the mercy of the Lords and the 
 king. Yet it is the opinion of Mr. Gardiner, 
 who has given a detailed account of the most 
 important accusations brought against him, 
 that " the charge that Bacon knowingly and 
 corruptly sold or delayed justice falls entirely 
 to the ground. The only possible explanation 
 of his conduct is that, with his usual careless- 
 ness of forms, he contented himself with 
 knowing that the immediate reception of the 
 money, which he believed himself to have 
 fairly earned, would not infiuence his decision ; 
 in other words, that without a corrupt motive 
 he accepted money corruptly tendered" {Hist., 
 iv. 81). Bacon saw that the attack was due 
 to political animosity, and that no defence 
 would save him ; by complete submission he 
 might escape with a more lenient sentence. 
 Moreover, though he was confident, and justlj', 
 of his own integrit}', he could not fail to see 
 how evil was the practice which he had 
 allowed to continue : "I was the justest 
 judge that was in England these fifty years. 
 But it was the justest censure in Parlia- 
 ment that was these two hundred years." 
 He was sentenced to a heavy fine, to 
 imprisonment during royal pleasure, to 
 exclusion from Parliament, office, and court. 
 The fine was remitted and Bacon was re- 
 leased from the Tower after two or three 
 days' imprisonment ; but, though his advice 
 was occasionally sought by the govern- 
 ment, he never again obtained office, and 
 spent the remaining years of his life entirely 
 in literary work. 
 
 More important, perhaps, than the events 
 of his life are the political theories which 
 he consistently advocated. His ideal was a 
 paternal monarchy. The king, aiming at 
 the good of his people, able to employ the 
 wisest counsellors, arid possessed of wide 
 information, must be better able to guide the 
 nation aright than the unorganised body of 
 well-meaning country gentlemen called the 
 House of Commons, though he ought to use 
 their help and explain his purposes to them. 
 The work of government demanded an intel- 
 lectual power such as trained statesmen alone 
 possessed ; the king, unmoved by the interests 
 of any class, could provide for the welfare of 
 all classes better than lawyers or squires. 
 Yet facts proved too strong for Bacon, as 
 they afterwards proved too strong for 
 Strafford, who may be regarded as a Bacon in 
 power. Bacon was employed as a useful 
 
 tool ; he was seldom seriously consulted on 
 important matters. None of his great projects 
 were carried out, and while he was holding 
 up in many a carefully written state paper 
 the picture of a patriot king, the country was 
 being ' governed by Buckingham. Bacon's 
 life was a dual one. His dominant interest 
 was the increase of human knowledge by the 
 new way which he could teach [Advance- 
 ment of Learning, 1605; Novum Organum, 
 1620). There will always be a question as to 
 the relation between Bacon's active and specu- 
 lative life. Probably he wished for power 
 chiefiy because it would enable him to carry 
 out his great plans for the social good, 
 alike in politics and philosophy ; yet he was 
 not without a real fondness for the pomp of 
 office, and for political activity for its own sake. 
 
 Tlie main sources of information about Bacon 
 are his Works, edited with most valuable 
 introductions, &e., by Spedding and Ellis. For 
 Bacon in relation to tbe bistory of the time, 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., especially vol. iv., must 
 be consulted. See also Charles de Bemusat, 
 Bacon sa Vie, &g. A very nsefnl short biography 
 is written by R. W. Church. Kuno Fischer, 
 Franz Bacon von Varulam und Seine Nachfolger, 
 is an exhaustive statement of Bjcon's philoso- 
 phical xJOsition. rW. J. A.] 
 
 St. Brice's Day, The M.^ssacke op 
 (Nov. 13, 1002), is said to have been occa- 
 sioned by the report that the Danes in Eng- 
 land had formed a plot for murdering the 
 king and the Witan. Accordingly orders 
 were sent forth that all the Danes should De 
 slain. Mr. Freeman thinks the story of the 
 massacre has been greatly exaggerated, and 
 that it only included those Danes who had 
 stayed behind from Sweyn's army. 
 
 St. Carilef, William of, or Saint 
 Calais, was first Prior of St. Calais in Maine, 
 and then Abbot of St. Victor's in Le Mans, 
 and ultimately became Bishop of Durham in 
 1080. Famous in the history of his see for 
 substituting monks for secular canons in his 
 cathedral church, he has a place ifi history as 
 the foremost adviser of William Eufus in the 
 beginning of his reign. The chronicler of 
 Peterborough says [s.a. 1088), " So well did 
 the king to the bishop that all England fol- 
 lowed his counsel and did so as he would." 
 But in a few months he joined the feudal 
 movement against William, apparently under 
 circumstances of great treachery. Involved in 
 the general failure, his temporalities were 
 seized, his lands were ravaged, and he him- 
 self brought to trial before the king's court. 
 " His trial," says Mr. Freeman, " is of great 
 constitutional importance, both as illustrating 
 the procedure of the Norman courts at an 
 early stage of development, and because in 
 the course of it William made the first re- 
 corded appeal to Rome against the judgment 
 of the ' Wise Men.' " After every legal 
 subtlety had been exhausted, William was 
 banished to Normandy. But in 1091 he was 
 restored to his see, and again exercised great 
 
Sai 
 
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 Sai 
 
 influence over Kufus. The first appellant 
 to Eome now figures as the king's adviser 
 against Auselm. But in 1095 he reverted to 
 his old policy hy joining the feudal rising of 
 Mowbray, and only his death on Jan. 1, 1096, 
 saved him from a second trial before the 
 Witenagemot. He was buried in the chapter- 
 house, that the monks who loved their founder 
 might ever have his tomb before their eyes. 
 Apart from his liberality to his church, he 
 appears in history as a thoroughly unscrupu- 
 lous man. 
 
 The only full account o£ William of St. 
 CaJais is in Freeman's TFtlHam Rufas, vol. i., and 
 vol. ii., note c. Mr. Freeman complains of the 
 scanty notice taken of the story by modern 
 writers. 
 
 St. Charles, in Lower Canada, was the 
 scene of the defeat of the Canadian rebels in 
 1837 by Colonel Wetherall. 
 
 St. Denis, in Lower Canada, was the 
 scene of a partial victory of the Canadian 
 rebels in 1837 over the government troops 
 under Colonel Gore. 
 
 St. ZaUStache, in Lower Canada, was the 
 scene (1837) of the total defeat of the rebel 
 Canadians under Girod by Sir J. Colborne. 
 This was the last skirmish in the Canadian 
 insurrection. 
 
 St. Giles's Fields, The Meeting in 
 (1414), was planned by the Lollards. Alarge 
 body (report said a hundred thousand in 
 number) was to assemble in St. Giles's Fields 
 outside London, where they would be met by 
 thousands of city apprentices, and headed by 
 Sir John Oldcastle. Their design, it was said, 
 was to murder the king and his brothers, 
 make Oldcastle regent, and destroy all the 
 cathedrals and monasteries in the land. The 
 vigilance of Henry V. defeated their designs ; 
 the gates of the city were closed, and St. 
 Giles's Fields occupied by troops, who easily 
 put the insurgents to flight. 
 
 St. Helena, an island in the South 
 Atlantic, was discovered (1501) by Juan de 
 Nova Castella, a Portuguese navigator ; in 
 1513 a small settlement was formed by some 
 Portuguese, but had only a short existence. 
 In 1588 the island was visited by Captain 
 Cavendish, and in 1645 was occupied by 
 the Dutch, who, however, relinquished it in 
 1651 for the Cape of Good Hope. About 
 1662 the East India Company obtained a 
 charter for the occupation of the island from 
 Charles II., and a large settlement was 
 speedily formed. In 1672 the island was 
 surprised and captured by the Dutch, but 
 was retaken in the following year. It was 
 held by the Bast India Company until 1833, 
 ■when it was surrendered to the British 
 government. St. Helena is celebrated as 
 having been the place of imprisonment of 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, who died there (1821). 
 The climate is very healthy, and the island is 
 much frequented by ships, which use it as a 
 HIST.-29* 
 
 victualling station. It hardly possesses, how- 
 ever, at present the importance which it once 
 had. 
 
 St. John, Oliver (4. circa 1598, d. 1673), 
 a prominent lawyer and politician of the 
 time of Charles I., was called to the bar in 
 1626, and soon identified himself with the 
 popular party. He distinguished himself by 
 his defence of Hampden in the question of 
 Ship-money. He was an active member of 
 the Short and Long JParliaments, and in 
 January, 1641, the king, with a view of 
 conciliating the popular party, made St. John 
 Solicitor-General. Notwithstanding this, he 
 was one of the managers of Straft'ord's 
 impeachment, and on every occasion opposed 
 the wishes of the king, till at last, in 1643, he 
 was removed from his office. He was made 
 by Parliament one of the Commissioners of 
 the Great Seal in 1643, and held this office 
 till 1646. In 1648 he was appointed Chief 
 Justice of the Common Pleas, and was soon 
 after made a member of the Council of State. 
 He was closely connected with Cromwell by 
 marriage, and supported him in his expulsion 
 of Parliament, but was opposed to the Pro- 
 tectorate, though we subsequently find him 
 favouring the idea of kingship, and he was 
 one of the members of Cromwell's House of 
 Lords. After Cromwell's death he supported 
 the Parliament against the army, and on the 
 Restoration he very narrowly escaped being 
 excepted from the Act of Indemnity. The 
 rest of his life was passed in retirement. His 
 character is painted in unfavourable colours 
 by all historians. Mr. Carlyle speaks of him 
 as "a dusky, tough man, whose abstruse 
 fanaticisms, crabbed logics, and dark am- 
 bition issue all in dreaded avarice at last ; " 
 and Clarendon describes him as being " a 
 man reserved, of a dark and clouded coun- 
 tenance, very proud and conversing with very 
 few, and those men of his own humour and 
 inclinations." 
 
 Carlyle, CromwelVa Letters and Speeches ; 
 
 Clarendon, Kut, of the BehelUon; May, Rist. of 
 
 the Long Parliament, 
 
 St. Eitt's (St. Christopher's), one of 
 the Leeward Islands, was discovered by 
 Columbus, 1493, and was the first West 
 Indian island colonised by the English ; they 
 settled there under Sir Thomas Warner (1623), 
 who three years later was made governor of 
 the island by Charles I. In 1629 the colony 
 was attacked by the Spaniards, and many of 
 the settlers killed. Part of the island was 
 occupied by French planters, between whom 
 and the English there was a perpetual in- 
 ternal war ; which lasted until the island was 
 finally ceded to the English by the Peace of 
 Utrecht, 1713. In 1782 St. Kitt's was taken 
 by the French, and in 1805 was again ravaged 
 by a party of marauders of the same nation. 
 The government, which was representative, 
 was vested ia a lieutenant-governor, a legis- 
 
Sal 
 
 ( 906 ) 
 
 Sai 
 
 latiTe and executive council, and a lioiiae of 
 representatives. In 1871 St. Kitt'a joined 
 the federation of the Leeward Islands ; its 
 local legislature being now under the control 
 of a president. ^ The climate is extremely 
 healthy. The chief production of tjie island 
 is sugar. 
 
 B. W. Martin, Bntish Colonies. 
 
 St. Leger, Sir Anthony, was sent over 
 to Ireland in 1540 as commissioner of for- 
 feited lands, and in' August, 1540, hecame 
 Lord Deputy. His government was vigorous 
 and successful. He subdued the Kavanaghs, 
 and their chief had to give up the title of 
 " The MacMurrough." At a Parliament 
 held by him about this time, even Desmond 
 attended, and this was considered a great 
 achievement. He was able to send Irish 
 troops to Scotland and France to take part in 
 the king's wars. In 1546 he subdued the 
 long refractory clans of the O'Moores and 
 O'Connors. In 1550 Sir James Croft suc- 
 ceeded him as Lord Deputy, but he was again 
 Lord Deputy from 1553 to 1558. His sons 
 both in turn became " Lord Presidents of 
 Munater. 
 
 St. iMegBT, Sir "Warham, son of Sir 
 Anthony St. Leger, succeeded in relieving 
 Haddington, 1548, when besieged by the 
 French and Scotch. In 1566 he defeated 
 Shane O'Neil, and in 1579 did good service 
 in the Desmond rebellion in spite of Ormonde's 
 opinion of him, that he was " an old alehouse 
 Imight, malicious, impudent, void of honesty; 
 an arrogant ass that had never courage, 
 honesty, or truth in him." 
 
 St. Iieonards, Edward Burtensbaw 
 SuGDEN, Lord {b. 1781, d. 1875), was the son 
 of a hairdresser of Duke Street, West- 
 minster. He was called to the bar at Lin- 
 coln's Inn (1807). In 1822 he became a 
 king's counsel and bencher of Lincoln's 
 Inn. He at different times was returned 
 to the House of Commons for Weymouth, 
 Melcombe Regis, and St. Mawes ; took a pro- 
 minent part in Parliamentary discussions, and 
 was foremost among those who opposed the 
 Reform Bill. In June, 1829, when the Duke 
 of Wellington was Prime Minister, he was 
 appointed SoUcitor-General ; and in 1834, 
 when Sir R. Peel formed a ministry, Sir 
 Edward Sugden went to Ireland as Lord 
 Chancellor. Resigning that office on the 
 retirement of the cabinet, he was returned 
 for the House of Commons for Ripon, and 
 vacated his seat in September, 1841, on 
 resuming under Sir R. Peel's ministry his 
 position as Lord Chancellor of Ireland, in 
 which he continued until the disruption of 
 the Conservative party in 1846. For some 
 time he did not figure prominently in pubUc 
 affairs, but accepted the post of Lord Chan- 
 cellor in Lord Derby's first administration in 
 1852, and was raised to the peerage as Lord 
 
 St. Leonards. In 1858 Lord Derby was 
 desirous that Lord St. Leonards should again 
 receive the Great Seal, but he declined the 
 responsibility in consequence of his advanced 
 age, though he afterwards took an active and 
 influential part in the business of Parliament, 
 and exerted himself to keep up the character 
 and efficiency of the House of Lords as a 
 judicial tribunal, and to correct by legislation 
 several anomalies in the law of property. 
 Campljell, Lives oftlis Chancellors, 
 
 St. Ijucia, one of the Windward Islands, 
 was discovered, by Columbus in 1502. In 
 1635 it was taken possession of by the French, 
 and four years later an English settlement 
 was formed on the island, though the colonists 
 were almost all murdered shortly afterwards 
 by the natives. In 1664 the island was taken 
 by an English expedition from Barbadoes, 
 headed by Lord Willonghby, but was 
 evacuated in 1667. In 1718 St. Lucia was 
 granted by Louis XV. to Marshal D'Estrees, 
 and in 1722 by George I. to the Duke of 
 Montague. The result was a collision between 
 the two parties of colonists (1723), which 
 ended in a compromise ; by the Treaty of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle (1748) the neutrality of the island 
 was recognised, but in lt56 it was seized and 
 garrisoned by the French, to whom it was 
 given up by the Treaty of Paris (1763). In 
 1 778 it was again taken by the English, and 
 held by them for five years. At the end of 
 which time it was exchanged for Grenada. 
 In 1794 it was taken by Lord St. Vincent, 
 but evacuated in the following year, though 
 in 1796 it again fell into the hands of a 
 British expedition under Sir Ralph Aber- 
 cromby. In 1802 St. Lucia was restored to 
 France by the Peace of Amiens, but the next 
 year was taken by General Greenfield, and 
 has ever since remained under British rule. 
 The government of the island is representa- 
 tive ; there is a legislative and an executive 
 council. The climate is very unhealthy. The 
 chief product of St. Lucia is sugar. 
 
 Martin Colonics ; B. Bdwardea, West Indies. 
 
 St. Mary's Clyst, The Battle of 
 (Aug. 3, 1549), was fought near Topsham in 
 Devonshire, between the royal troops under 
 Lord Russell and the West country insurgents 
 under Humphi-ey Arundel ; the latter were 
 defeated after a severe engagement. 
 
 St. Ruth {d. 1691), a distinguished 
 French general, and a merciless persecutor of 
 the Huguenots, arrived at Limerick in 1691, 
 with D' Usson as his lieutenant, to take com- 
 mand of the Irish army. He had commanded 
 Irish troops in Savoy, and did his best to 
 discipline his forces. Unfortunately, he 
 quarrelled both with Sarsfield and Tyrconnel. 
 Irritated at the capture of Athlono, he deter- 
 mined to give battle to the English in oppo- 
 sition to the advice of his Irish officers. At 
 Aghrim, at the critical moment of the battle 
 
Sai 
 
 ( 90V ) 
 
 Sai 
 
 lis head was carried off by a cannon-ball. If 
 le had lived, the resvdt of the battle might 
 treH have been different. He was buried in 
 he monastery of Loughrea. 
 
 MacaruB Excidium ; Macaulay, Hist, of Eug, 
 
 St. Vincent, one of the "Windward 
 [slands, was discovered by Columbus (1498). 
 [n 1627 it was granted by Charles I. to Lord 
 ZJarlisle, but no permanent settlement was 
 made in the island until 1719, when some 
 French colonists came from Martioique. In 
 1748 the neutrality of St. Vincent was recog- 
 aised by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, but in 
 1762 the island was taken by the English 
 md confirmed to them by the Treaty of Paris 
 in the following year ; in 1779 it again fell 
 into the hands of the French, but was restored 
 to England by the Treaty of Versailles (1783). 
 In 1794 an insurrection broke out amongst 
 the natives owing to the intrigues of the 
 French planters, and on its suppression 5, 000 
 negroes were sent out of the island. The 
 government of St. Vincent, which extends to 
 some of the Grenadine Islands, is representa- 
 tive, and is vested in a lieutenant-governor, a 
 legislative council nominated by the crown, 
 and an elective representative aseembly. The 
 chief wealth of the island is derived from 
 sugar, cofEee, and cotton. 
 
 Shephard, Hist, of St. Vincent ; Martin, 
 Colojties. 
 
 St. Vincent, John Jbkvis, Eabl [b. 
 1736, d. 1823), entered the navy at the early 
 age of ten, and first saw active service in the 
 expedition against Quebec in 17.59, after 
 which he was promoted to be a commander. 
 In 1774 he was appointed to command a ship 
 of eighty-four guns, and in 1778 took a dis- 
 tinguished part in Keppel's engagement off 
 Brest. In 1782 he was knighted for captur- 
 ing a large French ship when separated from 
 the rest of his fleet by a fog. In 1784 he 
 was returned to Parliament for North Yar- 
 mouth. In 1790 he was returned for 
 Wycombe, and was at the same time pro- 
 moted to be rear-admiral. He vacated his 
 seat on the outbreak of war, and was des- 
 patched to the West Indies. His health 
 suffered considerably, but in 1794 he took the 
 command in the Mediterranean, where he won 
 the battle off Cape St. Vincent. Created Ea,rl 
 St. Vincent, he rendered invaluable service in 
 the mutiny of the sailors, by his resolution 
 and prudence. In 1800 he was appointed to 
 command the Channel fleet in succession to 
 Lord Bridport, but threw up the com- 
 mand in the next year on being appointed to 
 preside over the Admiralty. There he set to 
 work to reform some of the many abuses 
 which had long existed in the management of 
 the navy. In May, 1804, he was "superseded 
 by Viscount Melvi'Ue, and on Fox's accession 
 to ofiice in 1806, again took the command of 
 the Channel fleet. In that year he was 
 accused in the House of Commons of " gross 
 
 neglect in the buUding and repairing ot 
 ships." The charge was, however, refuted 
 by most convincing details : and Fox m.oved 
 that " the conduct of the Earl St. Vincent, in 
 his late naval administration, has given an 
 additional lustre to his exalted character, and 
 merits the approbation of the House." The 
 motion was agreed to without a division. In 
 the following March, Eai'l St. Vincent retired 
 from his command, but devoted some of his 
 time to politics, and was a keen opponent of 
 the Perceval ministry. In 1814 he was 
 appointed G-overnor of Marines, and in 1821 
 Admiral of the Fleet. A great and original 
 commander at sea. Earl St. Vincent gained by 
 his impartial justice the love and admiration of 
 his men, and when he was appointed to the 
 Admiralty he devoted all his energies to put 
 an end to the terrible abuses which were 
 almost undermining the strength of the navy. 
 
 Alleu, Battlss of the British JJavy/ James, 
 Naval Hist. ; Alison, Hist, of Europe. 
 
 St. Vincent, The Battle op Cape (Feb. 
 14, 1797), ended in the complete defeat of 
 the Spanish fleet. The Spanish admiral, 
 having been falsely informed that Sir John 
 Jervis had only nine ships, determined to 
 attack him with his twenty-seven. Nelson, 
 sailing to join the English fleet, had fallen in 
 with the Spaniards, and on arriving at Sir 
 John's station ofE Cape St. Vincent on Feb. 
 13, informed him of the enemy's movements. 
 The next morning the Spaniards hove in 
 sight, and were attacked before they could 
 form in line. By a rapid movement, Sir 
 John passed through their fleet, and thus at 
 once cut off nine ships, which were unable to 
 join their companions, and soon took to flight. 
 The admiral then devoted his attention to the 
 main body, and gave the signal to attack in 
 succession. Nelson, in the rear, using his 
 own Judgment, disobeyed the order, and at 
 once came into action with seven Spanish ships 
 at once. He was joined by Trowbridge, and 
 together for nearly an hour they supported 
 this unequal contest. Then Collingwood 
 came up, and took two of the ships off his 
 hands. By these tactics Nelson prevented 
 the main body from joining the nine separated 
 ships, or of getting off without an engage- 
 ment. The battle was, however, confined 
 chiefly to that part of the fleet which Nelson 
 had engaged. These, however, formed the 
 most important part of the fleet, and they 
 were nearly all captured. The greater part of 
 the enemy's fleet got safely away without 
 being severely engaged. Sir John Jervis 
 fully recognised the great service rendered by 
 Nelson, and publicly thanked him. The 
 victory was decisive, and for some time 
 rendered the Spanish fleet almost powerless. 
 The news of it was received in England with 
 rapturous applause, and Jervis was created an 
 earl. 
 
 James, Naoal His*. ; Southey, Life of 'Nelson ; 
 Harrison, Life of Nelson; Alison, Hist. ofEwqpe. 
 
Sal 
 
 ( 908 ) 
 
 Sal 
 
 Salabut Jung (<^. 1782), son of the Nizam- 
 ul-Mulk, was appointed to the sovereignty of 
 the Deccan on the death of Mirzapha Jung, in 
 1751, without grown-up children. His eleva- 
 tion was the result of Bussy's influence, and 
 his close adherence to the enterprising French- 
 man made the French masters of the whole 
 Deccan. A quarrel soon hroke out between 
 the Nizam and Bussy, which, though healed 
 for a time, became permanent in 1759. This 
 threw Salabut Jung into the hands of the 
 English, with whom he speedily concluded a 
 treaty, and was recognised as lawful Uizam 
 by the Treaty of Paris. 
 Mill, Hist, of India. 
 
 Saladin Tithe, The, was levied in 1188 
 for the support of the Crusaders against the 
 powerful Saracen chief, Saladin. Its chief 
 importance lies in the fact that it is the first 
 instance of a tax on personal property, a 
 tenth of all movables being exacted from 
 clergy and laity alike, except those who had 
 themselves taken the cross. It is also in- 
 teresting as illustrating the employment of 
 jury to assess doubtful cases. 
 Stubbs, Select Charters, 
 
 Salamanca, The Battle op (July 22, 
 1812), was one of the most decisive of Wel- 
 lington's victories in Spain. At noon, Mar- 
 mont, whose object was to cut off the English 
 retreat, despatched the whole of his left wing 
 to seize the road from Salamanca to Ciudad 
 Kodrigo, while many of his troops were still 
 marching through a thick forest of cork trees. 
 Wellington at once perceived the opportunity 
 of cutting off the entire left wing thus 
 separated from the rest of the army. The 
 English hurried down from their vantage- 
 ground on the hills, and at five o'clock 
 Pakenham fell upon the head of Marmont's 
 division, which was marching in disorder, 
 under the idea that the British were in full 
 retreat. In half an hour the French left was 
 utterly overwhelmed, and fell back in hope- 
 less confusion upon the centre and right, both 
 of which were already retiring before the 
 attacks of the fourth and fifth divisions. The 
 chief French generals had fallen, and the 
 command devolved on Clausel, who tried to 
 form a connection with the remnants of 
 Marmont's division. But before the French 
 could rally, the English cavalry, supported 
 by infantry, were upon them ; and what the 
 former left undone, the latter completed. 
 Even now Clausel attempted to retrieve the 
 disaster. Bringing up some fresh troops, he 
 made so fierce an attack on the fourth and 
 fifth divisions, already exhausted by • their 
 previous struggles, that they were only saved 
 from destruction by the arrival of Clinton 
 with the sixth division, which had been 
 hitherto unengaged. Their arrival finally 
 decided the battle. The French were hope- 
 lessly routed, and it required great skill on 
 Foy's part to save even the relics of his army. 
 
 Meanwhile the road to Madrid was now open 
 to Wellington. [Peninsulak Wak.] 
 
 Napier, Peninsular War; Clinton, Peninsular 
 War. 
 
 Salar Jung, Sik {d. 1883), was descended 
 from the great Meer Allum. In 1853 he was 
 appointed minister to the Nizam. Under his 
 able management the Hyderabad State con- 
 tinued to prosper. He never swerved in his 
 allegiance to England, even during the Indian 
 Mutiny. In 1860 he was made a Knight of 
 the Star of India. He continued to rule the 
 Hyderabad State with judgment and benefi- 
 cence until his death. 
 
 Salbhye, The Tkeaty of (May 11, 1782), 
 was concluded between the East India Com- 
 pany and Scindia on behalf of the Mahrattas. 
 Its stipulations were that all territory acquired 
 by the English since the Treaty of Poorunder 
 should be restored ; that the G-uicowar should 
 be replaced in his original position in 
 Guzerat; that Eagoba should be allowed 
 three lacs of rupees a year ; that Hyder 
 should be required to relinquish all his con- 
 quests in the Carnatic, and to release all his 
 prisoners within six months, and, in case of 
 refusal, should be attacked by the forces of 
 the Peishwa. 
 
 Sale, Sir Eobekt (i. 1782, d. 1845), after 
 a long and distinguished military career, 
 commanded a column in the second Burmese 
 War. He went with the Afghan expedition 
 in 1839, and was present at the siege of 
 Ghuzni, where he was severely wounded in a 
 hand-to-hand encounter. After the occupa- 
 tion of Cabul and the evacuation of Afghan- 
 istan, he retired into Jellalabad for winter 
 quarters. Here he was besieged by Akbar 
 Khan (1842), but was relieved by General 
 Nott after a gallant defence. He was killed 
 at Moodkee. 
 
 Salisbury vas the seat of a bishopric 
 which was transferred to it from the adja- 
 cent town of Old Sarum in 1217. The Sarum 
 bishopric had been founded in 1058. In 
 1295 Old Sarum returned a member to Par- 
 liament, though Salisbury, or New Sarum, 
 was even then a more important place, and 
 did so regularly from 1360 to 1832, tiU dis- 
 franchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The 
 cathedral of S?,lisbury was begun in 1220. 
 
 Salisbury, Councils at. (1) In 1086, 
 after the completion of the Doomsday Survey, 
 William I. summoned a meeting of all the 
 landowners of England, " of whomsoever they 
 hold their lands," to take the national oath of 
 allegiance to himself. (2) In 1116 a similar 
 gathering was convoked by Henry I. to swear 
 to the succession of the Etheling William. 
 These councils were of great constitutional 
 importance as illustrating the permanence 
 of the national element in the English 
 state during the most flourishing period of 
 feudalism. 
 
Sal 
 
 ( 909 ) 
 
 Sal 
 
 Salisbury, John de Montacute, Eari 
 or {d. 1400), was the son oi Earl William, 
 and one of Richard II.'s chief friends. He 
 took part in the proceedings against Glouces- 
 ter in 1397, and in 1400 joined the conspiracy 
 against Henry IV. He was seized hy the people 
 at Cirencester, and beheaded without trial. 
 
 Salisbury, John op (d. 1180), studied 
 at Paris under Abelard, and other great 
 philosophers of the day. On his return to 
 England he -was made Secretary to Arch- 
 bishop Theobald, and through his influence 
 was employed by the king on diplomatic 
 errands. He was the confidential adviser of 
 Beoket, and shared his disgrace and exile. 
 In 1176 he was made Bishop of Chartres, 
 which see he held for four years. His most 
 important work is the Polycratiem, in which 
 he attacks the vices of the age, and parti- 
 cularly those of the court. Besides this, he 
 wrote a life of his friend Becket, and numerous 
 letters of his have been preserved, and are of 
 considerable historical value. 
 
 Salisbury, Richard Neville, Earl of 
 [b. 1400, d. 1460), was a son of Ralph Neville, 
 Earl of "Westmoreland, and obtained the 
 earldom of Sahsbmy by marrying Alice, 
 heiress of Thomas Montacute. He served in 
 France under his brother-in-law, the Duke of 
 York, became "Warden of the "West Marches, 
 and strenuously opposed the surrender of the 
 EngHsh princes in France. He was a strong 
 opponent of Somerset, and in 1459 Lord 
 Audley was commissioned to arrest him, but 
 he defeated Audley at Blore Heath. For this 
 he was attainted and obliged to flee to Calais. 
 In the next year he returned and joined the 
 Duke of York, but being defeated and taken 
 prisoner at Wakefield, he was beheaded. His 
 eldest son was the famous Earl of Warwick. 
 
 Salisbury, Robert Cecil, Earl of (J. 
 1650, d. 1612), the son of Lord Burleigh by 
 his second wife, after a somewhat distinguished 
 Parliamentary career, was appointed a Secre- 
 tary of State in 1596, in spite of the intrigues 
 of the Earl of Essex to procure that ofiiee for 
 Sir Thomas Bodley. On the death of his 
 father. Sir Robert managed to obtain a large 
 share of the queen's confidence, and so roused 
 the enmity of Essex as to cause him to 
 attempt his removal from court : Cecil was 
 subsequently a chief instrument in the earl's 
 disgrace and fall. During the last few years 
 of Elizabeth's life, Cecil was engaged in a 
 secret correspondence with James, and on her 
 death was the first to proclaim the new king, 
 by whom he was confirmed in all his ofiices. 
 Cecil, who was the bitter enemy of Spain, 
 found himself at variance with James on that 
 point, but nevertheless managed to become so 
 indispensable a minister that he was created 
 in 1604 Viscount Cranbome, and in the 
 following year Earl of Salisbury. In 1608, on 
 the death of the Earl of Dorset, he became 
 Lord Treasurer, and acquired immense power, 
 
 being practically the king's only minister ; he 
 died in 1612, as it was said " of too much 
 business." The four years of his government 
 were marked by vigorous administration, and 
 by disputes on the question of the prerogative 
 of the crown in taxation, the crowning example 
 of which was the issue of the Book of Rates. 
 [James I.] Salisbury was a man of wisdom 
 and experience. He kept up the traditions of 
 Elizabeth's government in the court of James, 
 and though too arbitrary for the Parlia- 
 mentary party, and too little addicted to a 
 Protestant policy abroad to please the Puritans, 
 his removal gave room for much worse advisers 
 for James. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Ung., 1603—1642; Tytler, 
 Life of RaXeigli. 
 
 Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot 
 Gascoigne Cecil, Marquis of (b. 1830), was 
 educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ; 
 was elected to a fellowship at AU Souls' 
 College ; and was returned to Parliament for 
 Stamford in the Conservative interest (1853). 
 He represented that borough till 1868, when he 
 succeeded to the marquisate. In Lord Derby's 
 third administration he was, in July, 1866, 
 appointed Secretary of State for India. 
 In 1869 he was elected Chancellor of the 
 "University of Oxford, to succeed Lord Derby. 
 In 1874 he again took ofiiee as Secretary of 
 State for India. During his tenure of office 
 he introduced and carried the University 
 Commission Bill for the reform of the colleges 
 of the two universities. In 1878, on the 
 resignation of Lord Derby, he was appointed 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Aiiairs, and 
 in that capacity accompanied Lord Beacons- 
 field to the Conference at Berlin. He retired 
 from office with his chief (1880) ; and on the 
 death of the la,tter became leader of the 
 Conservative party in the House of Lords. 
 
 Salisbury, Thomas, one of the six con- 
 spirators in the Babington Plot, who were 
 specially told off to assassinate Elizabeth, was 
 arrested in Cheshire, and executed at Tyburn 
 (September, 1586). 
 
 Salisbury, William Montacute, Earl 
 OF [d. 1346), was, as Lord Montacute, one of 
 Edward III.'s chief friends and advisers, and 
 devised the plan for seizing Mortimer. For 
 his services he was made Seneschal of Aqui- 
 taine and Lord of Man, and in 1337 was 
 raised to the earldom of Salisbury. He was 
 admiral of the fleet, and took a prominent 
 part in the Scotch and French wars. 
 
 Salomons' Case. In 1851 Mr. Alder- 
 man Salomons, a Jew, was returned for the 
 borough of Greenwich, made his appearance 
 in Parliament, and took the oaths, omitting 
 the words " on the true faith of a Christian." 
 He was directed to withdraw. Later, how- 
 ever, he entered the House and took his seat 
 above the bar, and was only removed by the 
 interposition of the Serjeant-at-Arms. The 
 House of Commons agreed to a resolution in 
 
Sam 
 
 ( 910 ) 
 
 San 
 
 the same form as in the case of the Baron de 
 Rothschild. "In the meantime, however," 
 says Sir Erskine May, " he had not only sat in 
 the House, but had voted in three divisions ; 
 and if the House had done him an injustice, 
 there was now an opportunity for obtaining a 
 judicial construction of the statutes hy the 
 courts of law. By the judgment of the 
 Court of Exchequer affirmed hy the Court of 
 Exchequer Chamber, it was soon placed 
 beyond further doubt, that no authority 
 short of a statute was competent to dispense 
 with those words which Mr. Salomons had 
 omitted from the oath of abjuration." [Jews; 
 Oaths.] 
 
 Hansard, Debates, 3rd ser., oxvili. 979, 1320. 
 
 Sampford Courtenay, The Battle op 
 (August, 1549), was fought between Lord 
 EusseU and the Western insurgents, resulting 
 in the final defeat of the latter. Sampford 
 is a village on the slopes of Dartmoor. On 
 Whit Sunday the revolt had begun at the 
 same place by the people compelling the 
 priest to read mass in Latin instead of the 
 new service book. 
 
 Froude, Sist. of Eng., vol. v. 
 
 Sampson, Thomas (S. 1517, d. 1589), one 
 of the Reformers of the reign of Edward VI., 
 "was compelled to live abroad during the 
 Marian persecution on account of his religious 
 opinions. After the accession of Elizabeth 
 he returned to England and became Dean of 
 Christ Church. In 1567 he was imprisoned 
 for Nonconformity. 
 
 Neal, Hist, of Fv/ritans. 
 
 Sanchia, second wife of Richard of 
 Cornwall, King of the. Romans, was the 
 daughter of Count Raymond of Provence, 
 and the sister of Eleanor, wife of Henry III. 
 
 Sancroft, William (4. 1616, d. 1693), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, was bom at 
 Eressingfield, in Suffolk, and educated at 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Ejected 
 from his fellowship in 1649 for royalism, he 
 remained in exile till Charles II. 's accession. 
 In 1662 he was made master of his college. 
 Dean of York and Bishop of London in succes- 
 sion, and in 1677 archbishop. Soon after the 
 accession of James II. he came into collision 
 with the king. On the promulgation of the 
 Declaration of Indulgence, Sancroft and six 
 of his suif ragans presented a petition to the 
 king against the measure. In consequence, 
 the seven prelates were committed to the 
 Tower (June, 1688), and tried in the Court 
 of King's Bench for misdemeanour (June 28), 
 but the jury, in spite of pressure from the 
 government, acquitted them. Sancroft was 
 an honest but narrow-minded man, a strong 
 Tory and High Churchman. Though he led 
 the Seven Bishops against James II., he ad- 
 vocated the regency scheme in the Convention 
 Parliament, and ended by refusing to take the 
 oaths to William and Ms.ry. He was sus- 
 
 pended from his see in 1691, and died two 
 years later at Eressingfield. 
 
 Miss Strickland, Lives of the Seven BisJiofS; 
 Macaulay, Hist. ofEng. 
 
 Sanctuary was the name given to a place 
 privileged as a safe refuge for criminals and 
 political offenders. All churches and ehurcli- 
 yards were, down to Henry VIII. 's time, in- 
 vested with this protective power. The possible 
 stay in sanctuary of any fugitive was strictly 
 limited to a period of forty days, at the ex- 
 piration of which time he was bound to quit 
 the realm by the nearest port assigned him by 
 the coroner to whom he had communicated the 
 circumstances of his case. During his journey 
 to the sea-coast for the purpose of carrying 
 out this self-banishment, the claimant of 
 sanctuary privileges was guaranteed immunity 
 from molestation as he journeyed on, cross in 
 hand. In Henry III.'s reign, Hubert de 
 Burgh's non-compliance with the forty days' 
 sanctuary regulation, placed him in the hands 
 of his enemies. By Henry VII.'s time, the cus- 
 tom of sanctuary was verymuchabused, having 
 become the means of shielding criminals of all 
 kinds from justice, and at his request Pope 
 Innocent VIII. made three important altera- 
 tions in it. First, that if a man, while enjoying 
 the privileges of sanctuary, should take advan- 
 tage of his position to commit some further 
 offence against the laws of his country, he 
 should at once and for ever forfeit the benefit 
 of sanctuary ; secondly, that the benefit of 
 sanctuary should be strictly limited to a man's 
 personal safety, and in no degree apply to the 
 protection of his private property; thirdly, 
 that when treason was the motive for seeking 
 sanctuary, the king might have the offender 
 specially looked to. By 27 Henry VTIL, c. 
 19, sanctuary men were ordered to wear dis- 
 tinctive badges, and were forbidden to carry 
 weapons, or to be out at nights, on pain of 
 forfeiture of their privileges. Until the 
 twenty-first year of James I., the custom 
 still continued, and criminals continued to 
 seek refug-e in the places to which the pri- 
 vilege of sanctuary was attached ; at this time, 
 however, a statute was passed abolishing 
 sanctuary privileges altogether. 
 
 Sanders, Dh. Nicholas {d. 1581), was 
 educated at Winchester, and afterwards be- 
 came fellow of New College, Oxford. An 
 ardent Romanist, he left England in 1658, 
 and -was present at the Council of Trent. In 
 1572 the English refugees sent him to Rome 
 to try and get help. In 1575 he had to leave 
 Rome without having accomplished anything. 
 In 1577 he was in Spain, but was again un- 
 successful. He in the same year published a 
 book called. The OHr/in and JProgress of the 
 English Schism. He accompanied Stukeley, 
 but, unable to per.suade Philip to send more 
 men, he remained in Spain. On July 17, 
 1579, he, as legate, landed with Fitzmaurioe 
 at Dingle. He attached himself to the Earl 
 of Desmond, had many narrow escapes, and 
 
San 
 
 (911 ) 
 
 Sau 
 
 by 1580 he had come to the conclusion that 
 Ireland could not be saved by the Irish. He 
 left Smerwick before the siege. The manner 
 of his death is uncertain. 
 Proude, Hist. 0/ Eng. 
 
 Sandilli was a KafiSr chief who took an 
 active part in the war against the colonists in 
 1846. 
 
 Sau Domingo is the name given by, the 
 Spaniards to the island of Haj'ti. It wps 
 discovered by Christopher Columbus abouL 
 1493, and soon became a valuable plantation. 
 In 1586, war having broken out between 
 England and Spain, Sir Francis Drake took 
 the town of San Domingo. Meanwhile the 
 western part of the island had been colonised 
 by the French, and was ceded to them by the 
 Treaty of Eyswick (q.v.). It was off San 
 Domingo that Admiral Rodney, in 1782, de- 
 feated and captured the French admiral, De 
 Grasae. Alter the English expeditions against 
 the island ceased, it was contended for by the 
 French and Spaniards, the native population 
 being ready to rebel whenever a chance 
 presented itself. The struggle for freedom on 
 their part, under Toussaint L'Ouverture, in 
 1801, aroused great admiration in this country. 
 San Domingo is now a free republic. 
 
 Sandwicll, Edwakd Montagu, Earl of 
 (*. 1625, & 1672), son of Sir Sidney Montagu, 
 took the popular side in the Civil Wars, fought 
 at Marston Moor, and commanded a regiment 
 in the New Model. In 1645 he entered the 
 House of Commons as knight of the shire 
 for Huntingdon, and acted with the Indepen- 
 dents tiU 1648. In the years from 1648 to 
 1633 he took no part in political life, but in 
 1653 he was appointed one of the commis- 
 sioners of the Admiralty, and joined Blake in 
 the command of the fleet. In 1659 he com- 
 municated with the king, and used his com- 
 mand of the fleet charged to arbitrate between 
 Denmark and Sweden, to forward the Restora- 
 tion. Fo;- thi^ service he was made Earl of 
 Sandwich. In the first Dutch "War he com- 
 manded a squadron at the battle of Harwich 
 (June 3, 1665), aifd commanded at the attack 
 on the Dutch fleet at Bergen (Aug. 12). 
 Obliged by attacks in Parliament to give up 
 the command of the fleet, he was appointed 
 ambassador to Spain, and succeeded in 1668 
 in bringing about the treaty which secured 
 the independence of Portugal. He was killed 
 in the battle of Southwold Bay. 
 
 Claxendou, Hist. 0/ tfee Rebellion and Life; 
 Pepys, Diary. 
 
 Sandwich., John, 4th Earl of (i. 1718, 
 d. 1792), early in life obtained public ofiices 
 of importance. As plenipotentiary to the 
 States-General, he signed in 1748 the pre- 
 liminaries of the Treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe. 
 He became First' Lord of the Admiralty 
 on his return to England, and became 
 BO intimately connected with the Bedford 
 
 faction, that when Pelham wished in 1751 
 to rid himself of that faction, he began 
 by the dismissal of Lord Sandwich. During 
 the next twelve years. Lord Sandwich was 
 out of oflice, and was much more congenially 
 employed with the gay brotherhood of Med- 
 menham, of which he was a conspicuous 
 member. In 1763 he became First Lord 
 of the Admiralty, and the same year was 
 made one of the Secretaries of State as a 
 colleague of Lord Halifax. In this post he 
 signalised himself by his violent denunciation 
 of Wilkes, of whom he had but lately been 
 a boon companion. As the head of a de- 
 partment, he was in his proper sphere, for 
 his industry, as Walpole says, was so remark- 
 able that the world mistook it for abilities. 
 In 1765 he was guilty of using the meanest 
 misrepresentation to the king in order to 
 induce him to strike out the iiame of the 
 Princess of Wales from the , Regency Bill. 
 The king was furiously indignant : and 
 within two months dismissed the ministry. 
 In 1767, when the Duke of Grafton made an 
 alliance with the Bedford faction. Lord Sand- 
 wich " took over the salary and the patronage 
 of the Post Office." He remained in that office 
 until the Grafton ministry gave waj' to Lord 
 North's administration, in which Sandwich re; 
 turned to the Admiralty. He failed signally 
 both in the general conduct of business and in 
 reducing the revolted colonies. In April, 1779, 
 Fox attacked him fiercely. Narrowly escaping 
 a direct vote of censure. Sandwich fell with 
 Lord North in 1782, and thenceforth lived in 
 retirement, unrespected and unloved. 
 
 Walpole's Letters; Grenville Papers; Tre- 
 velyau, JEarVy Life of C. J. Fox. 
 
 Sandys, Edwin, Archbishop of York 
 {b. 1519, d. 1388), was at the time of Edward 
 VI.'s death Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge 
 and a zealous Protestant. He favoirred 
 Northumberland's scheme, and preached a 
 powerful sermon in favour of Lady Jane 
 Grey, for which he was sent to the Tower, 
 and subsequently compelled to leave the 
 country. On the accession of Elizabeth he 
 returned to England and became Bishop of 
 Worcester, and in 1570 Bishop of London, in 
 which capacity he exhibited much rigour 
 towards the Nonconformists. In 1576 he 
 was made Archbishop of York. 
 
 Sandys, Samuel, was first returned for 
 Worcester in 1717, but did not become pro- 
 minent until 1741, when he was chosen to 
 bring forward a motion for the removal of 
 Sir Robert Walpole from the king's council. 
 His speech, " probably concerted with the 
 principal Opposition leaders, was elaborate 
 and able." But the motion was lost by a 
 large majority. On the fall of Walpole he 
 became Chancellor of the Exchequer under 
 Wilmington, but soon afterwards resigned 
 office, being raised to the peerage and receiv- 
 ing a pla.ce in the royal household. 
 
San 
 
 (912) 
 
 Sar 
 
 San Juan Award. The question as 
 to the boundar}-' westwards between Canada 
 and tke United States having been submitted 
 to the arbitration of the German Emperor 
 "William, the following award was given: — 
 That according to the Treaty of "Washington 
 (1846) the boundary, after it had been con- 
 tinued westward along the forty-ninth parallel 
 of north latitude to the middle of the channel 
 which separates the contiaent from "Van- 
 couver's Island, and had further been drawn 
 southerly through the middle of the - said 
 channel and of Fuca Straits to the Pacific, 
 should run through the canal of Haro as 
 claimed by the United States, and not through 
 the Rosario Straits as claimed bj' the British 
 government. San Juan itself was a small 
 island near "Vancouver's Island, and by this 
 award became American territory. It was 
 evacuated by England in consequence (1873). 
 
 Sanq[nliar Declaration, The, was 
 issued by Eichard Cameron, Donald Cargill, 
 and others of the extreme Covenanters at 
 Sanquhar in Dumfriesshire (June, 1680). It 
 declared that Charles II. had forfeited the 
 crown of Scotland " by his perjury and 
 breach of covenant both to God and His 
 kirk." Charles was at the same time ex- 
 communicated by CargiU. [Cameronians.] 
 
 San Sebastian, The Siege op, during 
 the last campaign of the war in the Peninsula 
 (Aug. 31, 1813), was necessary, to enable "Wel- 
 lington to cross the Pyrenees and conduct the 
 war in France. The first siege was begun on 
 July 10, 1813 ; but an assault on the town on 
 the 25th was repulsed with terrible loss. "Wel- 
 lington, repairing to San Sebastian, ordered 
 Graham to turn the siege into a blockade. 
 During nine days of ceaseless movement, ten 
 engagements had been fought, the effect of 
 which was that Soult was in retreat, while 
 Wellington's position was so strong, that he 
 was secure from offensive action on the part of 
 the French, and could resume the siege of San 
 Sebastian under the direction of Graham. 
 The natural and artificial diiEculties of the 
 siege were very great, but they were intensi- 
 fied by the negligence of the government at 
 home, who would not supply a sufficiently 
 large fleet or suitable ammunition. Still the 
 works went on gradually, under the energetic 
 commander ; various positions were succes- 
 sively won, and on the 30th, 500 yards of the 
 eastern sea-front were laid open. On the 
 morning of the 31st, the assault was made, 
 and after a terible attack the town was 
 carried, though the castle held out. For some 
 days the town became the scene of atrocities 
 "which would have shamed the most ferocious 
 barbarians of antiquity." "When the troops 
 had in some measure recovered, batteries were 
 raised against the castle, which surrendered 
 on Sept. 8, leaving Wellington free to transfer 
 the war into the south of France. 
 
 Napier.PenmsularJTar; Clinton, Peninsulav War. 
 
 Santal Revolt. The Santals were a 
 tribe inhabiting the hiU ranges of Eajmahal. 
 Being harasBe(i by the processes and bailiffs 
 of the courts, and by the demands of Ben- 
 galee money-lenders, they suddenly rose in 
 rebellion (July, 1855), and carried fire and des- 
 truction among the villages of the Europeans. 
 No troops were available but the hill rangers, 
 who were driven back. The railway now 
 for the first time brought up troops; the 
 rebels were hemmed in and hunted down ; 
 the cholera likewise made great havoc among ■ 
 them. The rebellion was extinguished on the 
 last day of the year. The district was now 
 converted into a non-regulation province, and 
 placed in charge of a commissioner. 
 
 Saragossa, The Battle of (1710), wag 
 fought during the "War of the Succession in 
 Spain. After the defeat at Almanza, King 
 Philip hastUy retreated on Saragossa. The 
 allies followed with difficulty. On Aug. 19 
 Stanhope found the Spaniards drawn up before 
 Saragossa, with the Ebro on their left, a 
 range of hills upon their right, with a deep 
 ravine on their front. The Archduke Charles 
 determined to risk a battle. Stanhope com- 
 manded the left of the allies formed of the 
 English, Dutch, and Palatines, and eked out 
 his cavalry by interspersing among them some 
 battalions of foot. The allies' right wing con- 
 sisted of Portuguese foot, and a part of 
 the Germans under Count Atalaya. The 
 Spaniards had about twenty-five, and the 
 allies about twenty-three thousand men. The 
 left was the first to engage. Then the Portu- 
 guese at once made ofl:, attracting large bodies 
 of the enemy in pursuit. The remainder of 
 the allies steadily stood their ground, and at 
 length drove back the enemy. On the right, 
 the Dutch and Germans soon thi-ew the 
 enemy into confusion. In the centre the 
 veteran Spaniards, after a steady resistance 
 to Staremberg, retreated in good order. Six 
 thousand prisoners were taken, with a large 
 number of cannon, and possession, of Sara- 
 gossa was secured to the victors. After con- 
 siderable debate, the allies, in accordance with 
 Stanhope's desire, advanced on Madrid. 
 
 Beyer, Annals j Stanhope, War of the Siwcession 
 in Spain. 
 
 Sardinian Convention (1855). On 
 
 Jan. 26 the King of Sardinia acceded to the 
 convention between the English and French 
 governments of April 10, 1854, and agreed 
 to furnish and maintain at full for the 
 requirements of the war 15,000 men under, 
 the command of a Sardinian general. By a 
 separate article England and France agreed 
 to guarantee the integrity of the king's 
 dominions. England undertook the charges 
 of transporting the troops to and from the 
 Crimea, and under the treaty a recommenda- 
 tion was to be made to Parliament to advance 
 a million sterling to the King of Sardinia at 
 four per cent. [Ckimean Wau.] 
 
Sar 
 
 { 913) 
 
 Sav 
 
 Saratoga, The Convention of (Oct., 
 1777), during the American War of Indepen- 
 dence, was tlie closing scene of General Bur- 
 goyne's disastrous campaign, 'which, resulted 
 in his retreat on Saratoga, "where he found 
 himself (Oct. 10, 1777) with 3,500 men 
 opposed to Gates with 13,216 men. Bur- 
 goyne receiving no tidings of Clinton, with 
 scarcity in his army developing almost 
 into famine, made proposals for negotiations. 
 Gates offered terms, which were at once re- 
 jected as degrading, and not wishing to drive to 
 despair a body of hrave men, he finally 
 agreed to the terms proposed by Burgoyne. 
 The .chief of these were that the troops should 
 lay down their arms, and should he allowed a 
 free passage to England, on condition that 
 they would not again engage in the war, and 
 that the treaty should he called a convention, 
 and not a capitulation. These terms were 
 agreed to on the 17th, and on that day the 
 British troops marched out. The importance 
 of the surrender was felt throughout the 
 world, as was shown by the fact that France 
 at once acknowledged the "Independent 
 United States of America," and entered into 
 a treaty with them. Spain followed the lead 
 of France, and Holland did not long remain 
 neutral. Lord Stanhope has said of it, that 
 " even of those great conflicts, in which 
 hundreds of thousands have been engaged, 
 and tens of thousands have fallen, none has 
 been more fruitful of results than this sur- 
 render of thirty-five hundred fighting men at 
 Saratoga." 
 
 Bancroft. Hist, of Amer. Epu., iii., e. 24; 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng., vi., c. 56; Gordon, 
 American War ; Creasy, Decisive Battles, 
 
 Sarsfield, Patrick {d. 1693), was an 
 Irish Jacobite of great military genius. He 
 held a commission in the English Hfe-gnards, 
 and served under Monmouth on the continent. 
 He fought brilliantly at the battle of Sedge- 
 moor against his former general. Soon after 
 the landing of the Prince of Orange he was 
 defeated in a skirmish at Wincanton. He 
 sat for the county of Dublin in the Irish 
 Parliament of 1688. In 1689 be was sent by 
 James II. as commander into Connaught. He 
 secured Galway, and drove the English from 
 Sligo. Shortly afterwards James created him 
 Earl of Luean. He was present at the battle 
 of the Boyne, and insisted on making a stand 
 at Limerick against the advice of Tyrconnel. 
 He surprised the English artillery and com- 
 pelled "William to raise the siege (Aug., 1690). 
 His administration of that town was not alto- 
 gether successful. On the arrival of the 
 French general, St. Euth, he soon quarrelled 
 with him ; and his advice to avoid a battle, 
 given after the fall of Athlone. was pertina- 
 ciously disregarded. At the battle of Aghrim 
 he commanded the reserve, and through some 
 misunderstanding never received orders to 
 charge. He covered the retreat. Once more 
 his arrangements for makiag a stand at 
 
 Limerick were hampered by his colleagues. 
 The death of Tyrconnel, however, left him in 
 supreme command, but he soon despaired of 
 the defence. He therefore opened negotia- 
 tions with Ginkell. Limerick capitulated 
 on Oct. 3, 1691, and the majority of its garri- 
 son chose to follow Sarsfield into the French 
 service. He was given a command in the 
 intended French invasion of England in 
 1692. He fought with gxeat gallantry in 
 the French ranks at the battle of Steinkirk, 
 and was mortally wounded at Landen. " A 
 perishing nationality," says Eanke, referring 
 to Sarsfield, " has sometimes men gTanted to 
 it in whom its virtues are represented." 
 
 C. T. Wilson, James II. and the Duke of Ber- 
 
 viiclc ; Macaulay, Hist, of Ung. ; Eanke, Hist, of 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Saucllie Bum, Thij Battle of (June 
 18, 1488), resulted in the defeat and death of 
 James III. of Scotland at the hands of his 
 insurgent barons, headed by Angus " Bell the 
 Cat," Home, Hepburn, and Bothwell, who had 
 plotted to get hold of James's son to make use 
 of him against his father's authority. 
 
 Saunders, Admiral Sir Charles {d. 
 1775), served under Anson in his expedition 
 to the South Seas. In 1741 he became post- 
 captain. In 1747 he aided Hawke in his 
 victory over the French, and in 1750 was 
 returned for Plymouth. He became Treasurer 
 of Greenwich Hospital (1754), and Comp- 
 troller of the Navy (1755). In 1757 Saunders 
 was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 Mediterranean squadron, and in the following 
 year became rear-admiral. In 1759 he com- 
 manded the fleet which conveyed Wolfe to 
 Quebec. He received the thanks of the 
 House of Commons for his co-operation, 
 Pitt calling him a man " equalling those 
 who have taken armadas." In 1760 he went 
 to the Mediterranean as commander-in-chief. 
 He was made vice-admiral. In 1765 he be- 
 came Lord of the Admiralty. Saunders sub- 
 sequently became First Lord of the Admiralty 
 and Privy Councillor (1766), and admiral 
 in 1770. He was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 Savile, Sir George (S. 1721, d. 1784), 
 came of an old. Yorkshire family, which 
 county he represented through five successive 
 elections. He did not often speak in Parlia- 
 ment, but there was perhaps no one in the 
 House more thoroughly respected as a man of 
 liberal principles and unbending integrity; 
 and he was one of the most reliable bulwarks 
 of the Whig party. He was a strenuous and 
 consistent opponent of the American War in 
 all its stages. He resisted the prosecution of 
 Wilkes. He was the first to relieve in some 
 measure the disabilities of Eoman Catholics, 
 by carrying a bill for that purpose in 1778 ; 
 and he was consequently one of the principal 
 sufferers by the Gordon Eiots. Later, he 
 brought in a bill against Popish conversions. 
 
Sav 
 
 (914) 
 
 Sax 
 
 But perhaps the most celebrated measure 
 connected with the name of Sir George Savile 
 is the Nullum Tempus Bill, which had its 
 origin in an attempt on the part of the 
 ministry and the crown to put into force 
 against the Duke of Portland the old maxim 
 "Nullum tempus oocurrit regi" — "that no 
 length of continuance or good faith of pos- 
 session is available against a claim of the 
 crown." Savile's bUl abolished this maxim 
 — "the opprobrium of prerogative and the 
 disgrace of our law '' — by providing that an 
 uninterrupted enjoyment for sixty years of 
 an estate derived from the crown should bar 
 the crown from reclaiming its gift under 
 pretence of any flaw in the grant or other 
 delect of title. 
 
 Trevelyan, Early Life of C. J. Fox; Chatham 
 Correspondmce. 
 
 Savile, Sm Henry (S. 1549, d. 1622), a 
 man of great learning, was tutor in Greek to 
 Q,ueeu Elizabeth. In 1585 he became warden 
 of Merton College, and in 1596 provost of 
 Eton. At Oxford he founded the Savilian 
 professorships of geometry and astronomy. 
 This "magazine of learning," as he was 
 called, edited, amongst other works, four 
 books of the Sistory and the Agricola of 
 Tacitus, the works of St. Chrysostom, and 
 a useful collection of the old chroniclers, 
 which he styled Merum Anylicantm Scripiores 
 post Bedam Praeipui (1596). 
 
 Savoy, Boniface of, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (1245 — 1270), was a prince of 
 the reigning house of Savoy, and uncle of 
 Henry Ill.'s queen. To this he owed his 
 early advancement to the archbishopric, for 
 which he had very few qualifications. His 
 rule was intensely unpopular, as that of a 
 foreigner and dependent of the court. He 
 has made little mark in the historj' of his see. 
 The palace of the Savoy in the Strand took 
 its name from his brother Peter. 
 
 Hook, Arclibisho^s of Canturhury, vol. iii. 
 
 Savoy Conference, The (1661), was 
 held in the Savoy Palace for the purpose of 
 discussing the relations of the Puritans 
 towards the Church, and the proposed changes 
 in the Liturgy. It consisted of twelve 
 bishops, among whom were Cosin, Sanderson, 
 Pearson, and Sparrow ; and twelve Puritan 
 divines, including Baxter, Calamy, Reynolds, 
 and Lightfoot. After sitting from April 15 
 to July 24, they came to no practical con- 
 clusion, and reported that " The Church's 
 welfare, unity, and peace, and his majesty's 
 satisfaction, were ends upon which they were 
 all agreed ; but as to means, thoy could not 
 come to any harmony." The failure of the 
 Savoy Conference excluded a large number of 
 Puritans from the Church. [For the altera- 
 tions in the Liturgy, which so far as they had 
 aajf effect emphasised rather than minimised 
 
 the differences between Anglican and Puritan, 
 see PiiAYEE Book.] 
 
 CardweU, History of Conferences connected 
 vivbh itie Book of Common Prayer, 
 
 Sawtrey, William {d. 1401), a clergy- 
 man at one time beneficed at Lynn, and 
 later in London, was the first person burnt in 
 England for Lollardy. Proceedings ^ were 
 taken against him during the same session in 
 which the Act, De heretico comburendo, was 
 embodied in the statute of the year ; but his 
 execution on the simple authority of the 
 king's writ has given some occasion for con- 
 troversy as to whether, before the passing of 
 the new Act, the king had power to issue 
 writs De heretico comburendo. The a.bsence of 
 precedent, however, makes the supposition im- 
 probable. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist^ vol. iii. 
 
 Sawyer, Sir Robert, an eminent Tory 
 lawyer, was Attorney-General at the time of 
 the Rye House Plot, and distinguished him- 
 self bjr his zeal, if not rancour, in prosecuting 
 the Whigs concerned in that measure. Con- 
 tinuing long in office, in 1686 he refused to 
 help James II. in vindicating the dispensing 
 power, yet such was his fame, and the diffi- 
 culty of getting a successor, that he was not 
 dismissed till 1688. He was leading coun- 
 sel for the Seven Bishops, and after raising- 
 difficulties, accepted the Revolution. In 
 1690 he was violently attacked for his con- 
 duct in relation to the trial of Sir R. Arm- 
 strong, a Rye House plotter, excepted from 
 the Act of Indemnity, and expelled the 
 House of Commons. 
 
 Saxons, The. The earliest contemporary 
 reference to Saxons in extant literature — that 
 of the geographer Ptolemj', who wrote about 
 120 A.D. — describes them as dwelling in the 
 country now called Holstein, and three ad- 
 joining islands. They are next mentioned as 
 fringing the sea-board of the ocean. In 287, 
 .when the first authentic notice of their piracies 
 and plunderings was written, they had not 
 only stamped their name on the British coast 
 [Saxon Shore], but extended it over the 
 northern lands between the Elbe and the 
 Ems ; and in the seventh century broad tracts 
 of Britain, and broader tracts of Germany 
 between the Rhine and the Oder, were in the 
 possession of people called by their name. 
 Those that stayed in Germany were long 
 known as Old Saxons, to distinguish them 
 from the settlers beyond the sea. Those 
 clung tenaciously to their primitive usages 
 and national forms of rule after the others 
 had begun to abandon them. Whether the 
 expansion of the Saxon name on the Conti- 
 nent was due to immigration and conquest, 
 as it was in Britain, is, though possible 
 extremely doubtful. It is thought more 
 likely that it was merely extended to a 
 number of separate but neighbouring tribes 
 already inhabiting those regions, as the 
 
Sax 
 
 (915) 
 
 Sell 
 
 common designation of a huge confederacy. 
 Sucli peoples as the Chauci and Cherusci, 
 ■while keeping their proper trihe names among 
 themselves, would he called Saxons hy those 
 that were outside the confederacy, just as 
 Salii and TJbii were known as Franks. This 
 is the readiest way of explaining the sudden 
 spring of the Saxons from an obscure tribe, 
 confined to a narrow territory, into a great- 
 ness and notoriety that have left a broad 
 mark on human destiny. From the third to 
 the sixth centuries these Saxons were swarm- 
 ing in their " keels" over and up and down 
 the narrow seas, spoiling and wasting the 
 property, and at length depopulating and 
 seizing the soil of civilised peoples within 
 their reach. If Claudian be believed, they 
 watered the Orkneys with their blood ; they 
 certainly founded several kingdoms in 
 Britain, and at least one settlement in Gaul. 
 So deep was the impression made by their 
 strength, ferocity, and persistence on the men 
 whose lands they took that these men gave 
 their name to all the German invaders, and, 
 later still, their subjugation in their native 
 homes cost Charlemagne a generation of effort. 
 Ethnology classes them as a Low German 
 race, with fewer and fainter affinities of 
 language and character to the High German 
 than their partners in conquest, the Angles. 
 The fair hair, blue eye, and robust animal 
 nature, characteristic of the southern English 
 peasant, are ascribed to his Saxon origin. 
 The derivative meaning of the name is 
 disputed ; it has been variously interpreted as 
 seamen, users of the short knife (seaic), settlers 
 {sas), adversaries {sacks), and other things. 
 Their efficiency as makers of history in early 
 days is traced to their having been untouched 
 by Roman civilisation, to their long continu- 
 ance, as Professor Freeman words it, "in a 
 state of healthy barbarism." 
 
 Lappenberg, Anglo-Saxon Kings ; Palgrave. Ung. 
 Comiaonwealth ; Skene, Celtic Scotland; Elton, 
 Origins ofEng. Hist.; Stubbs, Const. Hist. 
 
 [J. E.] 
 
 Saxon Sbore, The, was in Roman times 
 that part of Britain especially liable to the 
 inroads of the Saxon pirates. This neces- 
 sitated the presence of a large force of Roman 
 soldiers. Their commander was the Cotnes 
 Zitoris Saxonici (Count of the Saxon Shore), 
 whose jurisdiction extended from Norfolk to 
 Sussex. There is no reason for believing, as 
 some have maintained, that the Saxon Shore 
 was inhabited by "Saxon" colonies. The 
 expression "Litus Saxonicum" is exactly 
 analogous to the Welsh March of later times, 
 which meant the district specially open to 
 Welsh attacks. 
 
 Guest, Oriqines Celtioce; Coote, Romans in 
 Britain ; Eh^s, Celtic Britain. 
 
 Say, William Piennes, Viscount (S. 1585, 
 d. 1662). educated at Winchester and at New 
 College, Oxford, succeeded his father as Lord 
 Say in 1613, and was created viscount in 1624. 
 
 He was a strong Puritan, "for many years 
 the oracle of those who were called Puritans 
 in the worst sense, and steered all their 
 counsels and designs" (Clarendon). He was 
 one of the founders of the colony of Con- 
 necticut, and thought of emigrating himself. 
 He was also one of the foremost opponents of 
 ship-money, but the government preferred to 
 try Hampden's case rather than his. In 1639 
 he was committed to custody for refusing 
 to take the military oath against the Scots 
 required by the king. He was appointed in 
 May, 1641, Master of the Court of Wards, 
 when the king thought of winning the popular 
 leaders by preferment, but remained firm, 
 voted for the exclusion of the bishops, became 
 a member of the committee of safety, and 
 raised a regiment of foot for the Parliament. 
 He continued to sit in the House of Lords 
 until its abolition. In 1648 he acted as one 
 of the Parliamentary commissioners at the 
 Treaty of Newport, and voted in favour of an 
 accommodation with the king. Cromwell 
 appointed him to sit in his House of Lords, 
 but he refused to accept the ofiier. In 1660 
 • he took part in the intrigues to bring about 
 the Restoration, and was rewarded by being 
 made Lord Privy Seal. His contemporaries 
 charged him with duplicity, and nicknamed 
 him " old subtlety." 
 
 Clarendon, Bist. of the Rchellioni Wood, Athenm 
 O^onienses. 
 
 Say and Sele, James Fiennes, Lord 
 (rf. 1450), was Treasurer of England from 
 1448 to 1450, and a strong supporter of the 
 Duke of Suffolk. Hence he gained great 
 unpopularity, and, on the insurgents under 
 Jack Cade reaching London, he was seized, 
 and after a mock trial beheaded. 
 
 Say and Sele, William Fiennes, 2nd 
 LoKD {d. 1471), son of the preceding, fought on 
 the Yorkist side at Northampton. He was sub- 
 sequently made Lord High Admiral by Ed- 
 ward IV., fled with the king in 1470, and, 
 returning in the next year, was slain in the 
 battle of Bamet. 
 
 Scales, Thomas, Lobd {d. 1460), dis- 
 tinguished himself in the French wars and in 
 repressing Jack Cade's rebellion. He was a 
 faithful follower of the Lancastrian cause, 
 and in 1460, after the battle of Northampton, 
 was captured by the Yorkists, and put to death. 
 
 Scandalum Magnatum was the use 
 
 of language derogatory to a peer or great 
 officer of the realm. It was created a special 
 offence with special punishments in 1275. 
 Sir J. Stephen, Hist, of the Criminal Law. 
 
 Schailb, Sib Luke, was a Swiss in the 
 British service. He first appears in 1718 as 
 the confidential secretary to Stanhope in 
 Spain. 'In 1720 he was knighted, and sent as 
 minister to Paris in 1721, and in the follow- 
 ing year received from the regent communi- 
 cations concerning Atterbury's Jacobite plot 
 
Sch 
 
 (916) 
 
 Set 
 
 whiola led to its detection. He returned to 
 England in 1724, having attempted, as the 
 friend of Carteret, to obtain a dukedom for 
 the intended hushand of a daughter of 
 Madame de Platen, the sister of the king's 
 mistress, the Countess of Darlington. Horace 
 Walpole was sent by Townshend to counter- 
 act his designs, and, as the affairs "were at a 
 deadlock, George was compelled to recall 
 him. His subsequent diplomatic career was 
 unimportant. 
 
 Schism Act, The, -was passed in May, 
 1714. It was a measure devised by the 
 extreme High Church party, and encouraged 
 by BoUngbroke as a party move against 
 Oxford. It was introduced by Sir William 
 Wyndham. Its object was to confirm a 
 clause in the Act of Uniformity which 
 precluded schoolmasters and tutors from 
 giving instruction without previously sub- 
 scribing a declaration of conformity to the 
 Established Church. This restriction, although 
 not abolished by the Toleration Act, had long 
 been practically suspended. The Schism Act 
 therefore imposed severe penalties on all 
 tutors and schoolmasters who presumed to 
 instruct without having first received a 
 licence from a bishop. It easily passed its 
 two first stages, but at the third reading it 
 was vigorously opposed by the "Whigs. In 
 the Upper House several amendments were 
 made in committee. Teachers merely of read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, and navigation were 
 excluded from its operations. The power 
 of convicting ofijenders was lodged in the 
 superior courts alone. By an absurd clause, 
 the tutors of the sons of noblemen were de- 
 clared exempt from its restriction. But the 
 bill was most unjustly extended to Ireland. 
 This iniquitous measure was repealed, together 
 with the Occasional Conformity Act, in spite 
 of much opposition, in 1717. 
 
 Eoyoe, Lettres Hisforignes; Wyon, Reign of 
 QiuRn Anne ; Stanhope, Reign of Queen Anne. 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein Qnestion, The 
 
 (1863). The long desire of the patriotic party 
 in Germany to detach from Denmark the Ger- 
 man Elbe duchies, which already in 1848 had 
 caused a serious war, came to a head in the 
 quarrel between the two countries in 1863. 
 Throughout the negotiations Lord Eussell 
 had given the Danish government sound and 
 sensible advice, to the effect that they must 
 treat the German populations of those two 
 provinces fairly, and give no ground of com- 
 plaint to the German government. On July 23, 
 1863, when the struggle seemed approaching. 
 Lord Palmerston was questioned as to the 
 course England intended to pursue during 
 the struggle, if such should arise, and he 
 replied : " We are convinced — I am con- 
 vinced, at least — that if any violent -attempt 
 were made to overthrow the rights and inter- 
 fere with the independence of Denmark, those 
 who made the attempt would find in the 
 
 result that it would not be Denmark alone 
 with which they would have to contend" 
 This statement Lord Palmerston afterwards 
 explained to be merely intended to convey 
 his own impression that, in the event of 
 Denmark being attacked, some European 
 power would interfere ; but it was undoubtedly 
 taken at the time to mean that England would 
 support Denmark. The Danes, therefore, 
 counted on England, and the English public 
 was eager for war. The English government 
 proposed to France to intervene with arms, but 
 the French emperor refused. The Danes were 
 consequently left to take care of themselves. 
 The English conduct, however,' though 
 prudent, had been decidedly open to censure, 
 for, whether intentionally or not, the govern- 
 ment had certainly led Denmark to believe in 
 EngKsh assistance. AVhen, therefore, the war 
 was ended and Denmark crushed, a vote of 
 censure was proposed in both Houses by the 
 Opposition. In the Lords the vote was carried ; 
 in the Commons Mr. Disraeli made a most 
 telling speech against the government policy, 
 and the vote was only averted by an amend- 
 ment which evaded the question entirely. 
 
 Bryce, Holy Roman Emp., supplem. ch. ; An- 
 nual Register; Hansard; McCarthy, Hist, of Our 
 Own Times. 
 
 Schomberg, Frederick Hermann, 
 Count oe (A. 1618, d. 1690), was bom at 
 Heidelberg. .His father was an officer in the 
 household of the Elector Palatine, his mother 
 an English lad}' of the Dudley family. As a 
 Protestant, he fought against the Imperialists 
 in the Thirty Yefars' War, for the Dutch, 
 Swedes, and French. After the Peace of 
 Westphalia (1648) he became chamberlain to 
 the Prince of Orange. In 1650.he;repairedto 
 France, and served under Turenne until the 
 Peace of the Pyrenees (1660). He then entered 
 the Portuguese service, and it was chiefly by 
 his assistance that that country compelled 
 Spain to recognise the sovereignty of the 
 house of Braganza (1668). He then returned 
 to France, where he was naturalised, and ob- 
 tained the baton of a marshal of France (1675). 
 During the next years he served in Flanders. 
 The revocation of the Edict of Nantes caused 
 a complete change in his fortunes. After a 
 short visit to Portugal, to negotiate a mar- 
 riage between Pedro II. and Maria Sophia, 
 daughter of the Elector Palatine, he entered 
 the service of Frederic William, the " Great 
 Elector" of Brandenburg. On the death of 
 that prince, his successor, Frederic, generously 
 gave up the great commander to aid William 
 of Orange in the execution of his plans. He 
 was immediately made William's second in 
 command, and rode side by side with him 
 through the streets of London. He was 
 made Knight of the Garter, created duke, 
 and appointed Master of the Ordnance. 
 The Commons voted £100,000 to him in 
 gratitude for his services. In 1689 he was 
 placed at the head of an expedition to 
 
Sell 
 
 (917) 
 
 Sci 
 
 Ireland, Hs forces consisting mainlj' of raw 
 recruits. He landed in the north, of Ulster, 
 took Carrickf ergus, and marched into Leinster. 
 Outside Dundalk he declined hattle with the 
 enemy, who were greatly superior in numbers. 
 Still James's army did not attack, and the duke 
 retired into Ulster for winter quarters. His 
 conduct was severely hut unjustly criticised in 
 England. In June, 1690, William landed at 
 Carrickfergus at the head of a large army. 
 Schomhergmet himnear Belfast, andtheunited 
 troops marched on the Boyne. He pronounced 
 strongly against William's intention of attack- 
 ing the Irish there. The battle was won; when 
 Schomberg, seeing the enemy's cavalry making 
 a gallant resistance, rushed at them, cry- 
 ing aloud to his Huguenot troops, " Come 
 on, gentlemen; there are your persecutors." 
 They were his last words. " His military 
 skill," says Macaulay, "was universally 
 acknowledged. For his religion he had re- 
 signed a splendid income, had laid down the 
 truncheon of a marshal of France, and had, 
 at nearly eighty years of age, begun the world 
 a^ajn as a needy soldier of fortune." [Boyne.] 
 Macaulay, Sist. ofEng.; Eauke, Sist. ofEng.; 
 
 Martin, Biistoire de Prance; Scliafer, Geschichte 
 
 von Fiyrtiigal. 
 
 Schomlierg, Meinhart (d. 1709), second 
 son of Marshal Schomberg, commanded Wil- 
 liam III.'s right wing at the battle of the 
 Boyne. He marched some miles up the river, 
 and crossed it by the bridge of Slane, thus 
 turning the French flank and rear. In 1691 
 his father's services and his own were re- 
 warded by creating him Duke of Leinster. 
 In 1693 he was placed at the head of an ex- 
 pedition against the coast of Britanny. But 
 Euasell and the other English admirals de- 
 cided that the year was too far advanced for 
 such an enterprise. Consequently the arma- 
 ment never set out. After the outbreak of 
 ' the war of the Spanish Succession, he was 
 placed at the head of an English and Dutch 
 force, which disembarked at Lisbon. He 
 proved inefficient, and was soon afterwards 
 recalled, and Galway sent out in his stead. 
 "Schomberg," says Mr. Wyon, "seems to 
 have been one of those weak men, who, 
 when beset with difficulties, can do nothing 
 but sit down and complain." 
 
 Macaulay, Sist ofEng. ; Wyon, Great Britain 
 during the lieign of Queen Anns. 
 
 Schwarz, Martin {d. 1487), was a German 
 veteran, commanding the foreign auxiliaries of 
 Lambert Simnel. He was slain, with most of 
 his followers, at the decisive battle of Stoke, 
 which ruined the Yorkist cause. 
 Bacon, Heni-y VII, 
 
 Scilly Islands, The, were inhabited in 
 the earliest times as the abundance of pre-his- 
 torio remains found there shows. They were 
 probably the Cassiterides of the Greek writers. 
 Their position exposed them to Danish occu- 
 pation. In 938 they were conquered, either 
 
 from the Danes or the Cornish Welsh, by 
 Athelstan, and were granted to the monks of 
 Tresco. Afterwards they were transferred to 
 the Abbey of Tavistock. They became part 
 of the Duchy of Cornwall. Queen Elizabeth 
 granted them on lease to tbe Godolphin family. 
 They afterwards were leased by the Duke of 
 Leeds. The lessee has very considerable 
 powers. In the Civil War they held out for 
 Charles under Sir John Granville, and became 
 a centre for privateers. In 1651 Blake reduced 
 them to obedience to the Commonwealth. 
 
 Sciude is the country comprising the 
 lower valley and delta of the Indus. It was 
 divided into three principalities. Upper Sciude, 
 Meerpoore, and Lower Scinde. The rulers of 
 these provinces were called Ameers, and were 
 almost as independent of each other as the 
 princes of Eajpootana ; and Lord Auckland, 
 in consequence, entered into separate treaties 
 with them in 1839, which imposed on them a 
 subsidiary force and tribute. They had for- 
 merly been dependent on Cabul, but had not 
 paid any tribute since 1800. Their secret 
 hostihty to the English during the Afghan 
 expedition of 1839 compelled the latter to 
 take some steps against them, and they 
 were forced to accede to a subsidiary alliance. 
 During the three subsequent years in which 
 Afghanistan was occupied by our troops, and 
 Scinde had become the basis of our operations 
 beyond the Indus, their conduct was marked 
 with good faith if not cordiality. They per- 
 mitted a free passage to the troops ; they sup- 
 pHed the garrisons of Cabul and Candahar 
 and other places with provisions. But two or 
 three of the Ameers were emboldened to hos- 
 tility by our reverses ; and Lord Ellenborough, 
 on hearing of this, determined to inflict signal 
 chastisement on them. Sir Charles Napier (q.v.) 
 was sent to Scinde to inquire into the matter 
 (September, 1843). Violently prejudiced 
 against the Ameers, he soon declared that the 
 treaty of 1839 had been violated, and the 
 draft of a very disadvantageous treaty was 
 forwarded to be negotiated with the Ameers. 
 The intrigues of Ali Moorad, one of the 
 Ameers, who desired to become rais, or lord 
 paramount of Upper Scinde, to the exclusion 
 of Meer Eoostum, caused Sir Charles to believe 
 that all the Ameers, except Ali Moorad, were 
 disafiected. Meer Eoostum was so alarmed 
 by his attitude that he fled to the camp of Ali 
 Moorad. The double traitor thereupon per- 
 suaded Sir Charles that this was intended as 
 an insult, and a proclamation was issued de- 
 posing Meer Eoostum, and appointing Ali 
 Moorad rais in his place. To show his power. 
 Sir Charles captured Emangurb, a fort deemed 
 inaccessible. A conference was now held at 
 Hyderabad between Major Outram and the 
 assembled Ameers, who denied that they had 
 infringed the treaty. The city was in a state 
 of commotion, and on the 1.5th a large body 
 of Beloochee troops attacked the Eesidency. 
 
Sci 
 
 (918) 
 
 Sco 
 
 After a gallant defence of three hours, Major 
 Outram retired -with the loss of seventeen 
 killed, wounded, and missing, to the armed 
 steamer anchored in the river. Sir Charles 
 Napier now marched on Hyderahad, and 
 came upon the Beloochee army at Meanee 
 (Feh. 17, 1843), where a complete victory was 
 gained. Lord EUenhorough now issued a 
 proclamation annexing Scinde. This w^s fol- 
 lowed (March 22, 1843) by a decisive victory 
 near Hyderabad. The complete subjugation 
 of the country followed. The Ameers were 
 pensioned off at Benares, and are State pen- 
 sioners still. Sir Charles Napier himself re- 
 marked of these proceedings, "We have no 
 right to seize Scinde, yet we shall do so, and a 
 very advantageous, useful, and humane piece 
 of rascality it will be." 
 
 Napier, Scinde; Annual Register; TUomton, 
 Hist, of India. 
 
 Sciudia, the name of one of the chief 
 Mahratta princes. The first of the house 
 was Eanojee Scindia, a feudatory of the 
 Peishwa, who in 1743 received as a fief from 
 that chieftain a considerable territory in 
 Malwa. His son Mahdajee Scindia (1750 
 — 1794), after nearly losing life and territory 
 in the Afghan "War, became the most impor- 
 tant of the Mahratta princes. As guarantee 
 of the Treaty of Salbhye (1782), as conqueror 
 of Gwalior in 1784, as the champion of the 
 Mogul against the Sikhs, and as the first 
 native prince who endeavoured, with the aid 
 of French officers, to discipline his army after 
 the European model, he plays a great part in 
 the history of his times. " He was," says 
 Grant Duff, " a man of great political sagacity 
 and considerable genius, of deep artifice, rest- 
 less ambition, and implacable revenge." He 
 handed on his power to his grand nephew, 
 Dowlut Eao Scindia (1794 — 1827). The 
 latter joined the great Mahratta confederacy, 
 which was broken up at Argaum and Assaye. 
 He had to surrender much of his territory, 
 and ruled quietly over the diminished teixi- 
 tory of Gwalior until his death. The next 
 important event in the history of the Scindias 
 is the minority of Bhagerat Eao Scindia, 
 when British intervention to stop the anarchy 
 which the minority occasioned led to the 
 Mahratta "War of 1843, and the temporary 
 occupation of Gwalior by the English. At a 
 later date Bhagerat Rao did his best for the 
 English during the mutiny of 1858. 
 
 Grant Duff, Mahrattas; WeUesUy Despatches; 
 Mill, India ; Malleson, "Native States in Subsidiary 
 Alliance with the British Government. 
 
 Scone, situated on the east bank of the Tay 
 in the old district of Gowrie, became the capital 
 of the Pictish kingdom, and continued to 
 be regarded as the seat of royalty in later 
 history. The Moot Hill, or Hill of Belief, at 
 Scone was the place of assembly for the king's 
 counsellors, and it was at Scone that the 
 Coronation Stone, or Stone of Destiny, was 
 
 " reverently kept for the consecration of the 
 Kings of Alban" until it was removed to 
 Westminster by Edward I. In 729 Scone 
 wi s the scene of a conflict between Alpm, 
 King of the Picts, and Nectan. Many of 
 the later Kings of Scotland, notably Mal- 
 colm Canmore, Alexander III., Eobert Bruce, 
 Robert II., and James I., were crowned there, 
 as well as Charles II. in 1651. 
 Skene. Celtic Scotland. 
 Scory, John, Bishop of Hereford, obtained 
 the see of Rochester (1551) as a reward for his 
 support of the Reformation. He was after- 
 wards translated to Chichester, but was de- 
 prived of his preferment on the accession of 
 Mary. He subsequently assisted at the con- 
 secration of Bishop Parker in 1559, receiving 
 as the price of his support the see of Here- 
 ford. He then, in conjunction with Bishop 
 Barlow, assisted the archbishop to consecrate 
 the other prelates appointed by Elizabeth. 
 He was a man of indifferent character, and of 
 no verj' great influence. 
 
 Scotale is an obscure term denoting an op- 
 pressive local custom in towns, which was levied 
 by the sheriff for his own profit. Some have 
 thought that the sheriff could compel the bur- 
 gesses to grant him quantities of malt, from 
 which the Scotale was brewed, and which 
 belonged to him. Others maintain that the 
 name simply indicates a meeting of the towns- 
 men, in which they were forced to contribute 
 to the same object, or at which heavy fines 
 were exacted on those absent. To obtain 
 exemption from scotale was a great object for 
 the towns in the early stages of the history of 
 corporate town-life. It was probably so im- 
 portant because a step towards their being 
 freed from the jurisdiction of the sheriff. 
 The etymology of scotale is uncertain. Pro- 
 bably it simply comes from scot and ale, 
 though some have thought that the latter 
 syllable comes from tallia, a payment, or hall, 
 as in gUdhall. 
 
 Scot and lot literally signifies " taxes in 
 general," and " the share paid by each house- 
 holder." In many towns municipal privileges 
 were vested in all those who paid " scot and 
 lot," i.e., those who bore their rateable pro- 
 portion in the payments levied from the town 
 for local or national purposes. 
 
 Scotland. The history of Scotland has 
 been more influenced than that of most other 
 countries by the physical features of the land. 
 The southern part of the modem kingdom 
 differs little in character and conformation 
 from the north of England. This part,, known 
 as the Lowlands, is pleasantly diversified with 
 hill and dale, well watered and well wooded, 
 affording rich tracts of pasture and arable 
 land. North of the Lowlands the country is 
 almost intersected by the two Firths of Forth 
 and Clyde, and beyond the firths it wholly 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 919 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 changes its character and becomes barren and 
 mountainous in the west and north. A strip 
 of lowland runs north along the eastern coast. 
 The early inhabitants of these districts dif- 
 fered as much in race as the country in aspect. 
 While the indigenous Celts inhabited their 
 native mountains, the southern and eastern low- 
 lands were peopled by English or Scandi- 
 - navian invaders. "When first Scotland emerges 
 from pre-historio obscurity, it is as Cale- 
 donia, a country of woods and mountains, 
 so stern and wild that the Romans abandoned 
 their attempted conquest, and had great diffi- 
 culty in protecting the southern province from 
 the inroads of the fierce inhabitants. They 
 were of the Celtic race, and are vaguely spoken 
 of as Picts and Scots. The first event of 
 which we have any certain knowledge is the 
 introduction of Christianity. It came in the 
 wake of the Scots from Ireland. In the sixth 
 century these Scots settled on the western 
 coast, and founded the nucleus of the Scottish 
 kingdom. Columba, Abbot of Durrow, came 
 over to join them. The King of the Scots 
 gave him the islet of lona to settle on. Here 
 he, and the twelve monks who shared his for- 
 tunes, made a monastery of the rudest kind — 
 a few wattle huts clustered round a wooden 
 church. From this centre they went forth 
 on missionary journeys to the neighbouring 
 mainland and islands. By this means the 
 Picts and the English of Northumbria were 
 converted to Christianity. In 843 the King 
 of Scots, Kenneth MacAlpin, became king 
 of the Picts also. Thus the Celtic peoples 
 north of the firths were nominally united into 
 one kingdom, though the chiefs of the north, 
 whether Celts or Norsemen, were virtually in- 
 dependent sovereigns. In the tenth century 
 Malcolm I., the King of Scots, got possession 
 of Strathclyde. It was granted to him as a 
 territorial fief by Edmund of England. His 
 grandson, Malcolm II., was invested with Lo- 
 thian, hitherto part of the English earldom of 
 Northumbria (1018). This acquisition _ in- 
 fluenced the whole after-history of the king- 
 dom. At first merely a dependence of the 
 Celtic kingdom, Lothian finally overshadowed 
 it. The Kings of the Scots identified them- 
 selves with this, the richest part of their 
 dominions and with its Teutonic inhabitants, 
 while the Celts of the original kingdom came 
 to be looked on as a subject-race, the natural 
 enemies of the richer and more civilised people 
 of the Lowlands. The reign of Malcolm 11 1., 
 sumamed Canmore (1057—1093), is a turning 
 point in the history of Scotland. His mar- 
 riage with Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, 
 introduced an English element which gave its 
 colour to the national development. There 
 were also other influences at work which all 
 turned in the same direction. The Norman 
 Conquest displaced many Englishmen. Such 
 of these exiles as turned northward were 
 well received at the Scottish court. Ter- 
 ritorial grants were conferred upon them. 
 
 The English system of land tenure was in- 
 troduced, and led to the ecclesiastical division 
 into parishes. The Scottish clergy were 
 induced to give up their distinguishing 
 peculiarities, and were brought into confor- 
 mity with Rome. Malcolm repeatedly in- 
 vaded England, and his army brought back 
 so many captives, that English slaves fell to 
 the lot of the poorest households. Those 
 slaves, more civilised than their Celtic masters, 
 influenced the domestic manners of the people. 
 The frequent aggressions of the Scots provoked 
 retaliation from the Normans. William the 
 Conqueror invaded Scotland (1072), and at 
 Abernethy he compelled Malcolm to acknow- 
 ledge him as over-lord. This submission was 
 a fertile source of dissension in later times. 
 On the strength of it the English sovereigns 
 laid claim to supremacy over the whole 
 kingdom of Scotland, while the Scots main- 
 tained that Malcolm did homage for Strath- 
 clyde and Lothian, which he held from the 
 English crown ; but in no respect violated the 
 independence of his hereditary kingdom. The 
 purely Celtic period of Scottish history con- 
 cludes with the accession of Edgar, son of 
 Malcolm (1097). The second period, during 
 which English influence was in the as- 
 cendant, was one of continued development. 
 The three sons of Malcolm, Edgar, Alexander, 
 and David, reigned in succession, and carried 
 out more fully the Anglicising policy of their 
 parents. The marriage of their sister Matilda 
 with Henry I. of England strengthened tie 
 friendly relations between the kingdoms. The 
 accession of David (1124), who held also the 
 English earldom of Huntingdon, led to a 
 gxeat influx of Normans, to whom the king 
 made large territoi'ial grants. Thus the 
 feudal system was introduced, and took firmer 
 root in Scotland than it ever did in England. 
 Most of the ecclesiastical foundations, as weE as 
 the social and political institutions of the later 
 kingdom, date from the reign of David. He 
 founded or restored the six bishoprics of Dum- 
 blane, Brechin, Aberdeen, Eoss, Caithness, and 
 Glasgow. He endowed many reUgious houses 
 affiliatedwith the greatmonasticordcrs. Among 
 his foundations was the Abbey of the Holy Rood, 
 which afterwards became the favourite palace 
 of the Scottish sovereigns. He introduced a 
 new code of laws, framed on the English 
 model, appointed sheriffs for the maintenance 
 of order, favoured and encouraged the royal 
 burghs, and added to their number and their 
 privi}eges. Under Malcolm IV. (1153), 
 David's grandson and successor, Galloway was 
 reduced to direct dependence on the crown, 
 and the isles and western coast were brought 
 to subjection by the defeat and death of 
 Somerled, Earl of Argyle, so that the kingdom 
 now extended to the boundaries of modern 
 Scotland. William the Lion ( 1 1 6 5 ) , Malcolm's 
 brother, in his efforts to regain the English 
 earldom of Northumberland was taken pri- 
 soner, and to regain his liberty sacrificed the 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 920 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 independence of his kingdom, agreeing in the 
 " Convention of Falaise " to hold it as a iief 
 from the English king. About the same 
 time the Scottish Church rejected the claim 
 to superiority over it put forward by the 
 Archbishop of York, and procured a papal 
 bull (1188) confirming their claim of inde- 
 depence of any spiritual authority save that, 
 of Eome. The reigns of the Alexanders 
 (II. and III. ) was a period of peace and social 
 improvement. The border line betvfeen 
 Scotland and England was fixed for the first 
 time (1222). The last and most formidable 
 invasion of the Northmen was repelled in 
 the battle of Largs (1263). The long peace 
 with England, which lasted nearly a century, 
 was marked by rapid internal development. 
 Agriculture flourished, and the proportion of 
 arable land was much increased. The country 
 was opened up by the making of roads and 
 bridges. The extension of trade and com- 
 merce brought wealth and consequence to the 
 trading towns. This prosperity was suddenly 
 checked by the sudden death of the king 
 (1286). His grandchild and heir, Margaret, 
 was a young child, absent in her father's 
 kingdom of Norway. This child-queen died 
 before she reached her kingdom. A swarm 
 of competitors appeared to claim the vacant 
 crown. Edward of England, who was ap- 
 pealed to as arbiter, placed it on the head of 
 John Baliol (1292), whom be compelled to 
 acknowledge him as over-lord. John's weak- 
 ness and incapacity soon embroiled him with 
 his subjects, who compelled him to revolt 
 against England. This gai'e Edward a pre- 
 text for carrying out his cherished scheme of 
 conquering Scotland. With a large army he 
 crossed the Border, deposed the king, recei'.'ed 
 the homage of the nobles and prelates, placed 
 English garrisons in the strongholds, and 
 entrusted the government to Englishmen. 
 
 These measures roused a spirit of imtriotism 
 among the people, and the War of Indepen- 
 dence began. They revolted against the 
 English authority, and under the leadership 
 of William Wallace, defeated the English at 
 Stirling (1297), and slew or expelled the 
 English governors. A second time Edward in 
 person subdued Scotland, Wallace was defeated 
 at Ealkirk (1298), taken and put to death ; the 
 English rule was re-established. Henceforth 
 Scotland was to be incorporated with England. 
 But just when the subjection of the Scots 
 was deemed complete, they rose again under 
 Robert Bruce, the next heir to the crown after 
 Baliol. Had Edward lived, it is most likely 
 that this effort would have been crushed like 
 the former one. But he died on the Border 
 (1307) just as he was about to enter Scotland for 
 the third time, to subdue it more utterly than 
 before. For seven years the struggle lasted, 
 till the total rout of the English at Bannock- 
 burn (1314) re-established the national inde- 
 pendence. The " War of Independence " 
 had lasted twenty years, and during that 
 
 time Scotland had suffered fearfully. Thrice 
 she had been laid waste by foreign invasions. 
 She had been torn in pieces by internal con- 
 tests, for the struggle had much of the cha- 
 racter of a civil war, as many of the Scottish 
 nobles fought on the English side. This war 
 completely changed the current of Scottish 
 history by implanting among the people that 
 bitter hatred of England and every thing 
 English, which was the most strongly marked 
 feature of the national character for centuries 
 to come. This drove them into close aUiance 
 with France, the sworn enemy of England. 
 France became the model for imitation, which 
 England had been during the previous period, 
 and French influence tinged the manners, the 
 arts, the learning, and the laws of the suc- 
 ceeding centuries. 
 
 This French alliance involved Scotland in 
 the frequent wars between the Fi-eneh and 
 English. Whenever war broke out, Scotland 
 took up arms, and invaded England in favour 
 of her ally. By the Treaty of Northampton 
 (1328) England acknowledged the indepen- 
 dence of Scotland. By this treaty the old 
 vexatious claims of superiority were swept 
 away. Henceforward the Lothians and Strath- 
 clyde were 'on the same footing as the Celtic 
 kingdom. The war had welded more firmly 
 into one the different races of which the nation 
 was composed. Throughout the contest it 
 was the Lowlanders who were most deter- 
 mined not to be annexed to England, but to 
 maintain the independence of the Celtic king- 
 dom to which they were joined. The Celts 
 in the north cared little whether the king, to 
 whom they owed a nominal allegiance, reigned 
 in Edinburgh or London. The struggle also 
 brought the people, for the first time, promi- 
 nently forward in the state. It was by the 
 support of the people and the church that 
 Robert Bruce succeeded in winning the crown. 
 This had two important results. The people 
 obtained a voice in the National Assembly. 
 In the Parliament of Cambuskenneth (1326) 
 the third Estate, the deputies of the burghers, 
 appear for the first time. The baronage was 
 in great part renewed, as Bruce granted to 
 his friends the forfeited estates of his op- 
 ponents. A law passed to prevent the taking 
 of the produce or revenue of the land out of 
 the kingdom, compelled the holders of land 
 in both England and Scotland to make a 
 definite choice of nationality. Those whose 
 estates in England were the richer left Scot- 
 land altogether. Bruce also greatly increased 
 the power of the baronage by granting powers 
 of regality along with the lands. During his 
 life Bruce did what he could to consolidate 
 the kingdom and repair the ravages of the 
 war. But his death (1329) placed a child, his 
 son David, on the throne, and left the country 
 a prey to invasion from without and anarchy 
 within. 
 
 The next stage in the history of Scotland 
 extends to the Reformation. During that 
 
Sco 
 
 (921 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 period reliance on France and distrust 
 of England were the principles of foreign 
 policy. Within the kingdom there was a 
 constant struggle hetween the crown and the 
 haronage, under whose tyranny the people 
 groaned in vain. The crown was too weak to 
 redress grievances or to maintain law. The 
 king was little hotter than a chief with a 
 nominal sovereignty over other chiefs, often 
 more powerful than himself. His only means 
 of reducing a rehel suhject to suhjection was 
 hy empowering another to attack hiia. In a 
 country thus torn by the feuds of a lawless and 
 turbulent baronage there was little room for 
 social improvement. Hence Scotland at the 
 Eeformation was little if at all beyond the 
 point of civilisation reached before the out- 
 break of the War of Independence. The 
 accession of the infant son of Robert Bruce 
 was the signal for the revival of the claims of 
 Baliol. His son Edward was crowned king 
 by his adherents, and civU war again broke 
 out. David was taken by the English, and as 
 he passed most of his Ufe either in captivity 
 or in France, he was the mere shadow of a 
 king, and the government was carried on by 
 a regency. On his death Robert, the grand- 
 son of Bruce by his daughter Margery, and 
 the first sovereign of the famUy of Stuart, 
 mounted the throne. In this family the crown 
 passed from father to child without a break 
 for nearly three centuries. Robert III. suc- 
 ceeded his father. He was so weak both in 
 mind and body that his brother Albany held 
 the reins of government. To maintain him- 
 self in power he contrived that his nephew, 
 the heir to the kingdom, should fall into the 
 hands of the English, and on the death of 
 Robert, acted as regent in his nephew's name. 
 To maintain his own position he winked at 
 the misdeeds of the barons, and when James I. 
 was at length released and came to claim his 
 crown (1424), he found himself surrounded by 
 hostile subjects, each one of whom was as 
 powerful as himself. His first care was to 
 break their power by numerous executions. 
 He then turned his attention to maintain- 
 ing effectively law and judicial reform. By 
 summoning frequent Parhaments, he gave 
 importance to the National Assembly, which 
 in his reign first became defined in the form 
 of the " Estates." The lesser barons who felt 
 the duty of attending Parliament a grievous 
 burden were relieved of it, and allowed 
 to send commissaries, two for every shire. 
 These, with the members for the burghs, 
 formed the third Estate. But they were in 
 no sense representatives of the Commons. 
 Indeed, the Commons of Scotland, outside the 
 burghs, could not be said to he represented in 
 Parliament until the passing of the Reform 
 Bill. The Estates met in one chamber. In 
 this reign the custom of delegating the chief 
 business of the Parliament to a committee 
 became recognised as a regular part of Par- 
 liamentary procedure. This committee was 
 
 called the Lords of the Articles. Its members 
 were elected hy the three Estates, and to it 
 was confided the work of maturing the mea- 
 sures to be passed, which were then approved 
 and confirmed in a full Parliament. 
 
 From this reign dates also the publication 
 of the Acts of Parliament in the spoken lan- 
 guage of the people, and the beginning of 
 statute law. The king caused a collection of 
 the statutes to be made, and separated those 
 which had faUen into disuse from those still 
 in force. He also established the ofBce of 
 treasurer, and set up the Supreme Court of 
 Law, which afterwards developed into the 
 Coiui; of Session. This court, which met 
 three times a year, consisted of the Chan- 
 cellor, who was president, and three other 
 persons chosen from the Estates. They were 
 deputed to hear and decide the causes which 
 until then had come before the Parliament. 
 James also established schools of archery, 
 and patronised and encouraged learning and 
 letters. He was barbarously murdered by 
 a band of malcontents on the verge of the 
 Highlands (1436). Five kings of the same 
 name succeeded James I. There is little lo 
 distinguish one reign from another. The 
 general characteristics of all are the same. 
 Each was ushered in by a long minority, and 
 closed by a violent death. These frequently 
 repeated minorities were very disastrous to 
 Scotland. The short reign of each sovereign 
 after he reached manhood was spent in 
 strugghng to suppress the family that had 
 raised itself to too great a height during 
 the minority. He could only do this by 
 letting loose on the offender a rival, who in 
 turn served himself, becoming heir not only to 
 the former's estates but to his arrogance, and 
 proving himself the disturber of the succeeding 
 reign. Fruitless invasions of England, and 
 abortive attempts to bring the Celts of the 
 north within the power of the law, alternated 
 with the feuds of the rival barons. Under 
 James III. the Orkney and Shetland Isles were 
 annexed to Scotland. They had hitherto 
 belonged to Norway, and were made over 
 to the King of Scots as a pledge for the 
 dowry promised with his wife, Margaret of 
 Norway, but they were never redeemed. 
 James V. worked out more fully the project 
 of his ancestor, James I., of establishing a 
 supreme court of law by founding the Court 
 of Session or -College of Justice. It was 
 formed on the model of the Parliament of 
 Paris, and was composed at first of thirteen 
 judges, though the number was afterwards 
 increased to fifteen. As the members of the 
 court were chosen from the Estates it was 
 supreme in all civil cases, and there was no 
 appeal from its decisions to Parliament, nor 
 could it he called upon to review its own 
 judgments. Scottish law was, like the French, 
 based upon the Civil Law, which was adopted 
 and received as authority except where the 
 feudal law had forestalled it. The three 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 922 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 universities (St. Andrews, Glasgow, and 
 Aberdeen) wMch were founded during this 
 period were modelled on that of Paris, which 
 differed widely from the English univer- 
 sities. Provision had also been made for 
 the advancement of elementary education. 
 Grammar schools were founded in the burghs, 
 and by Act of Parliament (1496) all " barons 
 and freeholders " were commanded to make 
 their sons attend these schools untU they were 
 "competently founded," and have "perfect 
 Latin," under penalty of a fine of £20. The 
 introduction of the printing press by Walter 
 Chapman gave a further stimulus to the 
 pursuit of letters. A purely mythical history 
 of Scotland was fabricated, which was sup- 
 posed to add to the dignity of the kingdom 
 by assuming for it an important position in 
 times of remote' antiquity. These ridiculous 
 legends were put into form by Hector Boece, 
 first Principal of the University of Aberdeen, 
 whose History of Scotland is wholly unworthy 
 of belief. Unfortunately these legends took 
 root in the national mind, and were accepted 
 as fact by all subsequent historians, who based 
 their works upon tham, and it is only in our 
 own days that research has sifted fact from 
 fiction. In the front rank of the Scottish 
 poets stand the two kings, James I. and 
 James V. The favourite themes of the poet's 
 satire were the b icksliding and corruption of 
 the priesthood. The Chm'ch had become too 
 powerful to be popular. AU classes of the 
 community were eager to attack it, and tried 
 to incite the king to follow the example of 
 his uncle, Hem-y VIII. The danger was only 
 warded off by the adroitness of Beaton, who 
 was the most powerful man in the State. 
 He turned to account the long-cherished 
 jealousy of England to spoil the schemes 
 of Henry, and induced the king to turn a 
 deaf ear to all their suggestions of religious 
 reformation. The discussion of the subject 
 ended in an outburst of war. The attack on 
 the temporalities of the Church had already 
 begun. The benefices in the gift of the 
 crown were conferred on laymen, generally 
 the king's natural children, who held them in 
 commendam with the title of Commendator. 
 Since the War of Independence the Church 
 had totally changed its character. In the 
 incessant internal struggles that disturbed 
 the ensuing period the Church always sup- 
 ported the crown, which in return conferred 
 estates and privilege on the Church. On 
 account of their superior learning the great 
 offices of state were filled by Churchmen. 
 This gave them a political influence, which in 
 addition to their wealth was a constant cause 
 of offence to the barons. The two principal 
 sees— St. Andrews (1471) and Glasgow (1492) 
 — had been raised to the dignities of arch- 
 bishoprics, and their holders vied with each 
 other in an arrogant display of pomp and 
 state to support their dignity as princes of 
 the Church. The two Beatons (uncle and 
 
 nephew) who succeeded one another in the 
 primacy swayed the affairs of the state 
 during the entire reign of James V. and the 
 beginning of that of Mary. They held a 
 great number of benefices in France as well 
 as Scotland. This gave them wealth far 
 beyond that of any of the temporal peers, 
 and corresponding power. They used this 
 power to retard the movement of religious 
 reform by persecuting the teachers of the new 
 doctrines, which had made their way into the 
 kingdom from England and Germany, and 
 were rapidly becoming popular. The first 
 sufferer for liberty of opinion in Scotland 
 was Eeseby, a Lollard, who was burnt to death 
 in 1408. After this there are casual notices of 
 persons heing called in question for alleged 
 heresy. But Patrick Hamilton, who was 
 burnt by Beaton, is called the proto-martyr, 
 as he was the first to suffer for the doctrines 
 which were afterwards embodied in the 
 Established Church. His death did more 
 than any other measm-e to hasten the im- 
 pending Eeformatiou. The unexpected death 
 of the king just after a disastrous defeat on 
 the Border, leaving only an infant of a few 
 days old to succeed him, gave it an oppor- 
 tunity for breaking forth. The first open act 
 of violence was the murder of the Primate, 
 Cardinal Beaton (1545). The doers of the 
 deed were taken after sustaining a long siege 
 in the cardinal's own castle, but it was only 
 a manifestation of the ferment that could be 
 no longer controlled, and which now broke 
 forth into the civil war which effected the 
 Eeformation. 
 
 The Reformation effected a complete revo- 
 lution in the policy of Scotland, and in the 
 current of popular opinion. With the change 
 of religion the French influence came to an 
 end, and religious sympathy did much to 
 stifle the hatred of England that had become 
 hereditary. This great national movement 
 had much of the character of the peasant 
 wars of France and England. It was the 
 protests of an oppressed peasantry against 
 the exaggerated feudalism under which they 
 groaned ; the struggle of the people for life 
 and liberty disguised under a show of reli- 
 gious opinions. The movement in the be- 
 ginning was a popular one. But the barons 
 turned it to their own advantage by taking 
 the lead under the specious title of Lords 
 of the Congregation, and appropriating the 
 greater part of the spoil. The refusal of the 
 Regent Mary of Lorraine to reform the 
 Church in accordance with the principles of 
 the First Covenant (1557) was followed by 
 the Reformation riots, in which the religious 
 houses and cathedrals were sacked by the 
 mob. The regent employed French troops 
 for the restoration of order. The congrega- 
 tion called English auxiliaries to their aid. 
 Scotland was turned into the battle-field on 
 which French and English fought out their 
 differences. The death of the regent brought 
 
SCO 
 
 ( 923 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 a temporary lull. The foreigners withdrew. 
 The Estates seized the opportunity of passing 
 the Reformation Statutes, so that by the 
 time Queen Mary returned from France the 
 old church had been formally overthrown, 
 and the faith of Greneva established in its 
 stead. Mary was an ardent Romanist, and 
 would not give up her own form of wor- 
 ship, although she did not interfere with the 
 form her subjects had chosen. Though she 
 did not confirm she did not reverse the Refor- 
 mation Statutes, nor did she openly favour 
 her co-religionists. Still she did not choose 
 her advisers from among the Protestants. 
 Murray and some other leaders of the con- 
 gregation rose in open rebellion on the 
 queen's marriage with her cousin Henry, Lord 
 Darnley, and finally withdrew to England. 
 Mary's suspected complicity in the mui-der of 
 her husband, and the favour she laWshed 
 upon BothweU, and her marriage with him 
 gave the disaffected among her subjects 
 an excuse for her deposition (1.567). They 
 placed her infant son upon the throne, while 
 Murray, as regent, was at the head of the 
 government. For eighteen years Mary was 
 held a prisoner in England. This kept the 
 two countries at peace. The government of 
 Scotland dared not disagree with England 
 for fear of having the queen let loose upon 
 them. Four regents, Murray, Lennox, Mar, 
 and Morton, three of whom died deaths of 
 violence, held the reins of government in 
 succession xmtil the majority of James VI. 
 Though Protestantism was stiU in the as- 
 cendant, the episcopal form of Church govern- 
 ment was restored under the regency of Mar. 
 In 1.t88 the Protestant re-action, excited by 
 the Spanish invasion of England, found vent 
 in once again abolishing episcopacy, and the 
 Presbyterian polity was re-established. After 
 the accession of the king to the English 
 throne (1603), he again restored episcopacy. 
 And on the one occasion, after the union of 
 the crowns, when he revisited his native king- 
 dom, he gave great offence by reviving a 
 ritualistic service in his private chapel. He 
 also made the Assembly pass the " Five Ar- 
 ticles of Perth." These enjoined kneehng at 
 the Sacrament, the keeping of Saints' days 
 and Holy days, and other observances con- 
 sidered Popish. The attack thus began on 
 the liberty of the people through their reli- 
 gion was continued by Charles I. 
 
 The attempt to displace the liturgy of John 
 Knox by that of England drove the Scotch to 
 - rebellion (1637). The Covenant was renewed 
 and signed all over the land. It became the 
 war-cry of the Protestant party. The flame 
 kindled in the north soon spread to England, 
 and both countries were once more plunged 
 into the horrors of civil war. The attempt of 
 the Scots to place Charles II. on his father's 
 throne failed, and Cromwell accomplished 
 what had baffled an earlier conqueror — a legis- 
 lative union of the two kingdoms of Britain 
 
 (1654). But under the Commonwealth the 
 Scotch did not enjoy perfect religious liberty. 
 The Assembly was closed, and the power of 
 the church courts abolished. At the same 
 lime the obnoxious bishops were removed. 
 The Restoration (1660) threw the country 
 into a ferment by re-installing the bishops 
 and the episcopal clergy. No change was 
 made in the form of the service, and as the 
 service-book of John Knox had now fallen 
 out of use the Church now presented the 
 anomaly of a church with bishops, but with- 
 out a liturgy. Party spirit ran high, and 
 though the cause of dispute was really little 
 more than a question of words, it roused a 
 spirit of persecution on the one side, and 
 obstinacy on. the other, that set the whole 
 country in a fiame. When the Revolution 
 (1688) set William oh the throne, the Epis- 
 copal clergy were in their turn ejected, and the 
 Presbyterian polity finally established. The 
 union of the crowns had not been beneficial 
 to the people of Scotland, for the kings iden- 
 tified themselves with the richer kingdom, 
 and only used the increase in their power to 
 assume despotic power and influence on ,the 
 liberty of their Scottish subjects. This state 
 of things could not continue. It was impera- 
 tively necessary to preserve the peace between 
 the two nations that they should become one 
 in law and in interest. This could only be 
 done by a legislative union, which was effected 
 in 1707. By this union Scotland was in every 
 respect the gainer. She was allowed to share 
 in the English trading privileges. The 
 energy of the Scottish people had now for the 
 first time free scope for development. The 
 rebellions in favour of the Stuarts, twice in 
 the eighteenth century, disturbed the peace of 
 the country. Good, however, here came out of 
 evil. The Highlanders were still half savages 
 and looked on by the Lowlanders as an alien 
 race, and their country as an unknown region. 
 The breaking-up of the clan system and the 
 making of roads which followed the rising 
 (1745) first opened up these wild regions for 
 the entrance of civilisation. The abolition 
 of heritable jurisdictions (1748) at last broke 
 the chain of' feudalism, which till then had 
 curbed the progi-ess of the people. [High- 
 lands.] Since the interests of Scotland and 
 England have become one, Scotland has risen 
 to the level of the sister kingdom in agricul- 
 ture, commerce, and manufactures. 
 
 Early history : Chronicles of the Picts and Scotft ; 
 Adamman, Life of St. Columha (ed. Beeves) ; 
 Ch/f(ynicle8 and Memorials relating to Scotland^ 
 issued by the Lord Clerk Eegister ; Bede, Eoclesi- 
 astiral Bist. ; Father Innes, Crdical Essay on 
 Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland; Robertson, 
 Earl <l Kings <f Scotland ; Skene, Celtic Scotland ; 
 Eugllsli Chronicles of Lanercost and Melrose, 
 and of Hemingford and Langtoft; Wyntoun, 
 Chromcle. Mediieval Period: Pordun, Scoti- 
 chronical: Pitscottie, Chronicle; Acts of the 
 Scots Farliaments ; State Papers, Hmry VIII. ; 
 Sadler Papers. Beformation and subsequent 
 period ; John Knox, History (ed. Laing) and 
 Diurnal of Occurrents ; Kist. of James the Sext i 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 924 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 Sir James Melville's Memoirs; Mary Sftwari's 
 Letters (in Labanoii's and Teulet's Collections) ; 
 Grub, Ecclesiastical Hist, of Scotland; "Woodrow, 
 ^iialecta and Rist. of the Sufferings ; Bannatj'ue's 
 Memm-ials ; Spalding's Memonals of the TrouhUs. 
 The best general history is Dr. J. Hill Burton, 
 Sist. of Scotland. See also Cosmo Innes, Sketches 
 of Barly Scottish Sistory and Lecturer on' Scottisli 
 Legal Antiquities. Also the t^ublications of 
 the Bannatyne, JMaitland, and Spalding Clubs. 
 [M. M.] 
 
 Scotland, Chuech op. Christianity was 
 introduced into Celtic Scotland by the Scots 
 who came over from Ireland in the sixth 
 century. Columba, Abhot of Durrow, left his 
 native land of Ireland, and with twelve 
 monks founded a mission station on the islet 
 of lona, lying ofE the west coast. From this 
 germ the Church of Scotland sprang. A 
 group of wattled huts clustered round a 
 wooden church formed the monastery, and 
 from this centre the missionary zeal of the 
 monks carried the Christian faith to the 
 Orkneys and adjacent islands ; eastward to the 
 kingdom of the Picts, and southward to the 
 English kingdom of Northumberland. The 
 Church thus founded was quite independent 
 of the see of Rome, and differed in some 
 points from the general usages of Western 
 Chi-istendom. The fashion of the tonsure and 
 the mode of reckoning the date of Easter were 
 two of these points. The system of Church 
 government was monastic. The power of 
 controlling ecclesiastical afEairs was in the 
 hands of the abbots to whom the bishops were 
 subordinate. It was not until the eleventh 
 century that these peculiarities were abolished, 
 and the Scottish Church brought into con- 
 formity with the rest of Christendom. This 
 was effected by Margaret, the English queen 
 of Malcolm Canmore. By that time the 
 Church had fallen from its primitive purity 
 and simplicity. The dignity of abbot had be- 
 come hereditary in lay families. A body of 
 irregular clergy called " Culdees" were in 
 possession of the religious foundations. The 
 reforms begun by Margaret were more fuUy 
 carried out by her son David, whose bounty 
 to the Church won him the honour of canoni- 
 sation. He established the bishoprics of Dun- 
 blane, Brechin, Aberdeen, Ross, Caithness, 
 and Glasgow, founded the Abbey of the Holy 
 Rood, which afterwards became the favourite 
 palace of the later sovereigns, and many other 
 religious houses. The Archbishop of York laid 
 claim to the spiritual superiority over Scot- 
 land on the ground that the country came 
 within the limits of his province. This claim, 
 which was closely intertwined with that of 
 the English overlordship, had from time to 
 time been hotly contested. At length, in the 
 council of Northampton, 1176, the archbishop 
 formally summoned the Scottish clergy to 
 aclniowledge their dependence. This led to 
 an appeal to Rome. 'The Pope Clement III. 
 vindicated their independence, and declared 
 Scotland to be in immediate dependence on 
 the Holy See (1188). 
 
 During the War of Independence the 
 Church was strongly opposed to the English 
 annexation ; and it was in great measure due 
 to the support of the clergy that Bruce was in 
 the end successful. During the succeeding 
 period, which was a time of almost continued 
 struggle between the baronage and the crown, 
 the Church is invariably found on the side of 
 the crown. In an age of ignorance the superior 
 learning of the clergy gave them great influ- 
 ence, as it threw all the chief offices of state 
 into their hands. The see of St. Andi-ew 
 was raised to the dignity of an archbishopric 
 by Sixtus IV. (1471) ; Glasgow received the 
 same honour some twenty years later. This 
 led to continual strife. St. Andi-ews claimed 
 the superiority over the see of Glasgow on 
 the ground of seniority, while Glasgow as- 
 serted its independence. The brawls between 
 their respective adherents penetrated to the 
 steps of the altar, and the appeals to Rome 
 were so constant that the Estates at last for- 
 bade them as being the cause of " inestimable 
 dampnage " to the realm. During this period 
 the Church did much to promote the welfare 
 of the people. The regular clei-gy were the 
 fosterers of education and letters, and the pro- 
 moters of all agricultural and industrial 
 advancement. The schools in connection 
 with the cathedrals and religious houses were 
 the germs from which have grown the 
 gi-ammar schools of later times ; and it was 
 the monks who awakened the taste for the fine 
 arts, of poetry, painting, music, and archi- 
 tecture. It was they also who showed the 
 people how to make the most of the barren 
 soil and ungenial climate by skilful cultiva- 
 tion. They naturalised foreign fruits and 
 vegetables, first discovered the great coal- 
 fields that have since been such a source of 
 wealth to the country, and showed how the 
 coal could be used for fuel. It was they also 
 who introduced the making of glass and 
 other profitable industries. The foundation 
 of the universities was likewise due to the 
 liberalitj' of Churchmen : that of St. Andrews 
 was founded by Wardlaw (1410) ; that of 
 Glasgow by TurnbuU ; and that of Aberdeen 
 by Elphinstone, in the same century. In each 
 instance the founder was bishop of the see. 
 During the long minority of James V. the 
 Church was at the zenith of its power. James 
 Beaton, the primate, swayed the state at his 
 will, and on his death his nephew David, the 
 cardinal, succeeded to all his preferments, and 
 to even more than his influence and power. 
 The policy pursued by the two Beatons was 
 to foster the old enmity to England, and to 
 widen the breach if possible, while they 
 strove to knit more closely the long-standing 
 alliance with Fi-anee. Their aim in so doing 
 was to stave off if possible the Reformation, 
 which in England and GeiTnany was sapping 
 the foundations of the Church. But the 
 causes which provoked a similar movement 
 in Scotland were already at work, and had 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 925 ) 
 
 Scr 
 
 originated within the Church itseli. The 
 wealth and extent of the Church lands ; 
 the political influence which their tenure of 
 the highest offices of state, and the riches 
 resulting from the custom of conferring many 
 preferments gave to the prelates, aroused the 
 jealousy of the haronage, and even of the 
 crown. Already the practice had begun of 
 conferring the richest abheys and priories on 
 laymen who held the land in commendam, 
 with the title of Commendator. The natural 
 sons of the king were commonly provided for 
 in this way. On the other hand, the priest- 
 hood had alienated the people by the abuse of 
 excommunication, and by the rigorous extor- 
 tion of tithes and church dues. They were, 
 therefore, ready to lend a willing ear to the 
 proposals of reform, which promised to free 
 them from this spiritual tyranny. The first 
 indication of the striving after religious 
 freedom is the burning of John Reseby as a 
 heretic (1408), and at the close of the century 
 we find thirty persons accused of being 
 Lollards. From England in the sixteenth 
 century the reformed doctrines came into 
 Scotland, and spread rapidly among the 
 people. The Beatons were both persecutors 
 of the so-called heretics. The burning of 
 George Wishart (1545) provoked the murder of 
 Cardinal Beaton, which was the first outbreak 
 of the revolutionary movement. [Eepokma- 
 TioN IN Scotland.] This was the first re- 
 ligious war from which Scotland suffered, 
 but it was not to be the last. The contest 
 between Popery and Protestantism may be 
 called a question of doctrine. The second 
 religious war was waged for the disputed 
 form of a liturgy, and the third was based on 
 the contention whether the overseers of the 
 Church should be stvled bishop or presbyter. 
 The Act of 1690, confirmed by the Act of 
 Security at the Union, settled the dispute for 
 ever by establishing Presbyterianism. Since 
 then the Church has been shaken to its 
 foundations by the contention as to the rights 
 of patrons to induct ministers to parishes 
 without consulting the wishes of the congre- 
 gation. The Veto Act, passed by the General 
 Assembly, 1834, declared it to be a "funda- 
 mental law of the Church that no pastor 
 shall be intruded on a congregation contrary 
 to the will of the people." This Act, however, 
 was proved to be illegal, and had to be 
 rescinded. This led to the Disruption, when 
 more than a third of the clergy, the promoters 
 of the Veto Act, left the Church and (founded 
 another sect, Imown as the Free Church, 
 which differs only from the Establishment in 
 having no state support, and giving to each 
 congregation the right of electing its own 
 minister. Since the majority of patrons 
 have now voluntarily resigned their rights of 
 presentation, even this slight cause of differ- 
 ence has been removed. [Church, Celtic; 
 Scotland ; Kepormation in Scotland.] 
 
 J.HUl Burton, Hisfori/ of Scotland; Grub,Bccle- 
 
 siastical Kist. qf^ Scotland-; John Knox, History 
 (ed. Laing) ; Bishop Leslie, Hvdory; Cosmo 
 Innes, Sk&tcjies of Early Scottish Kistory ; Skene, 
 Celtic Scotland. ' The St. Giles Lectures (first 
 series) give a good popular summary of Scottish 
 Church history. [M. M.] 
 
 Scots, The, was a name originally be- 
 stowed upon the inhabitants of Ireland, a 
 fact which until recently has hardly been 
 sufficiently appreciated by historians. After 
 numerous previous expeditions a colony of 
 Scots (who were Gaelic in race) from Ulster 
 crossed over to Argyle (498), where they 
 established the kingdom of Dalriada. There 
 was for long a close connection between the 
 Irish and Scotch Dalriadas, two members of 
 the same family often ruling in Irish and 
 Scotch Dalriada at the same time. The inde- 
 pendence of the Scots was asserted by Aidan 
 (575) at Drumoat ; it was not till the tenth 
 century that the name Scotia ceased to be 
 applied to Ireland, and was transfeiTcd to 
 Scotland; it was even later before the term 
 Scot acquired a national signification. Besides 
 this the independence of Strathclyde ceased 
 altogether. Shortly afterwards Constantine 
 II. procured the throne for his brother Donald, 
 thus paving the way for the amalgamation of 
 the Britons and the Scots, and for the sub- 
 sequent annexation ; a branch of the Mac- 
 alpin family continued to rule in Strathclyde 
 till the time of Malcolm II. In 945 Cumbria, 
 i.e., Strathclyde, which had already in 924 
 chosen Eadward the Elder " to father and 
 lord," was harried by Eadmund, and given 
 up to Malcolm to be held on condition of 
 fealty. On the death of Edgar in 1107 he 
 left Strathclyde to his youngest brother 
 David, to the chagrin of Alexander I., who 
 saw that his kingdom would be much 
 weakened in consequence. Alexander, how- 
 ever, died without heirs, and David suc- 
 ceeded to the whole kingdom ; from his reign 
 dates the rise of Southern Scotland. 
 
 Scot's Water was a name given to the 
 Firth of Forth, the old boundary between 
 the Anglian Lothians and the Celtic kingdom 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter, of Buccleuch, tried 
 unsuccessfully to rescue James V. from the 
 custody of Angus in conjunction with the 
 Earl of Lennox. He was murdered at Edin- 
 burgh by » member of the Clan Ker, who 
 were his hereditary enemies. 
 
 ScroggS, Sir William (rf. 1683), of whose 
 birth and parentage nothing is known, was 
 called to the bar in 1653. In 1676 he was 
 appointed by Danby to a judgeship in the 
 Common Pleas, and in 1678 was advanced to 
 the chief justiceship of the King's Bench. 
 He was one of the worst judges that ever 
 disgraced the English bench. While the 
 national madness of the Popish Plot lasted, he 
 made a point of accepting all the evidence of 
 the most infamous informers without question. 
 
Scr 
 
 ( 926 ) 
 
 Sea 
 
 To te brought before him in 1679 and 1680 was 
 equivalent to being convicted. His inhuman 
 conduct towards the supposed conspirators 
 in the Popish Plot was only equalled by his 
 gross partiality and brutality towards the 
 other party when he discovered that the tide 
 was turning against Shaftesbury and his 
 associates. In 1680 he was impeached by the 
 Commons. The lords refused to commit 
 him, but the king, perceiving how unpopular 
 the chief justice had become, removed him 
 from his otiice in 1681, though allowing him 
 a pension of £1,500 a year. 
 State Trials. 
 
 Scrope, Richard, Archbishop of York 
 {d. 1405), was the brother of Richard II.'s 
 minister, the Earl of Wiltshire. He was 
 made Archbishop of York in 1398. He was 
 strongly opposed to Henry's accession, and 
 advocated the claims of the Earl of March. 
 In 1405 he joined Northumberland and 
 others in a conspiracy against the king. He 
 was entrapped into a conference with the Earl 
 of "Westmoreland, when he was seized and be- 
 headed at York. He was regarded by the 
 people as a martyr, and pilgrimages were 
 made to his tomb. The execution of Scrope 
 was the first instance in England of a prelate 
 being put to death by the civil power. 
 Stubbs, Coii't. His ., vol. iii. 
 
 Scrope, Richard le {d. 1403), after dis- 
 tinguishing himself for his gallantry in the 
 French and Scotch wars of Edward lll.'s 
 reign, was, on. the accession of Richard II., 
 appointed Steward of the Household, and in 
 1378 he held the chancellorship for a brief 
 period, and again in 1381-2. He conducted 
 himself with great moderation during the 
 troubles of Richard's reign, and though he 
 took part in the trial of Tresilian and the 
 other royal ministers in 1387, he was declared 
 innocent in 1397. 
 
 Scrope of Bolton, Lord {d. 1592), "War- 
 den of the "West Marches under Queen Eliza- 
 beth, and Governor of Carlisle, was entrusted 
 for a short time with the charge of Mary 
 Queen of Scots. He aided in crushing the 
 rebellion of 1569, and in the following year 
 was one of the commanders in the raid on 
 Scotland. 
 
 Scrope of Masliaui, Lord {d. 1415), 
 was a nephew of Archbishop Scrope, and one 
 of Henry V.'s most intimate friends. He 
 was employed by the king on many diplo- 
 matic errands, but in 1415 was apparently 
 implicated in the consjjiracy of Cambridge to 
 place the Earl of March on the throne. His 
 gTiilt is somewhat doubtful, but he was con- 
 victed by his peers and executed. 
 
 Scullabogue, The Massacre at, took 
 place on the 5th of June, 1798, during the 
 Irish Rebellion, while Bagenal Harvey and 
 Father Roche were attacking New Ross. 
 All the Protestants taken prisoners by in- 
 surgent bands were here confined in a barn. 
 
 some 300 men being left there to guard them. 
 At nine in the morning, thirty or forty of the 
 men were murdered, but those in the barn were 
 as yet spared. When, however, the rebels had 
 been finally repulsed at New Ross, the rabble 
 set fire to the barn, and 184 old men, women, 
 and children (sixteen Cathohcs amongst them) 
 were either burnt to death or piked as they 
 tried to escape. 
 
 Musgrave, Hist, of the Eebellion. 
 
 Sciltage first appears in 1156 as a tax 
 of twenty shillings on the knight's fee or 
 scutum, imposed, in spite of the protest of 
 Tijchbishop Theobald, upon knights holding 
 estates from churches. In 1159 two marks 
 were taken from every knight's fee in lieu of 
 personal service in the war of Toulouse ; and 
 henceforth the term scutage bore the meaning 
 of a payment in commutation of service. 
 To the majority of the knights it would be 
 more convenient to pay the tax than to go 
 upon a distant expedition, and the money was 
 welcome to the king as enabling him to hire 
 more trustworthy troops. It was indeed one of 
 the most important of Henry II.'s anti- feudal 
 measures, and may be compared in its general 
 policy with Edward I.'s distraint of knight- 
 hood. It was again levied under Henry II. 
 in 1171 and 1186, each time at twenty shil- 
 lings on the knight's fee, and three times 
 under Richard I., once at ten, and twice at 
 twenty shillings. Like all other taxes it was 
 used as a means of extortion by John : two 
 marks on the fee were demanded as often as ten 
 times ; and therefore the Great Charter de- 
 clared that no scutage should henceforth be 
 imposed save by the common counsel of the 
 nation. But this restriction was apparently 
 irksome to the advisers of the young Henry 
 III., and therefore in the second re-is^ue of 
 the Charter in 1217 an article was inserted 
 to the effect that scutage should be taken as 
 in King Henry's time, i.e. (probably) without 
 needing the consent of the commune concilium. 
 Scutage was exacted nine times between 1218 
 and 1233, but after that more rarely. By 
 Edward I. it was resorted to only as an 
 afterthought, and often appears several years 
 after the war for which it is demanded. In 
 the following reigns it was seldom collected, 
 and then only when the king himself went to 
 war. After 1385, when it was remitted after 
 the Scotch expedition, it, disappears. 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., espec, 1., § 161. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Seal, The Great, is the emblem of sove- 
 reignty, and is used on all sulemu occasions 
 when the will of the sovereign is to be ex- 
 pressed. A new Great Seal is provided by the 
 king in council at the beginning of a new 
 reign, or whenever a change is made in the 
 royal arms or style, and the old one is publicly 
 broken. It was introduced into England by 
 Edward the Confessor, who, following the 
 example of the Carolingian kings, placed it 
 
Sea 
 
 ( 927) 
 
 Sea 
 
 in the keeping of a oliancellor. From the 
 time of Becket and onwards the office was 
 one of varied importance, and accordingly we 
 tind that the personal custody of the seal was 
 not unfrequently placed in the hands of a 
 vice-chancellor. Kichard I. violently took 
 possession of the seal, ordered a new one 
 to be made, and proclaimed that all charters 
 ■which had been sealed with the old one were 
 nuU and void. In order to prevent this 
 practice, a statute was passed on the 28th 
 of Henry III., proclaiming the nuUity of any 
 document sealed by the Great Seal during 
 its absence from the hands of the chancellor. 
 This law was, however, often broken, and 
 it was not unusual for the chancellor to 
 entrust the seal to one or more vice- 
 chancellors when he was engaged on the 
 business of his diocese, or absent from Eng- 
 land. Also during the interval between the 
 death or resignation of one chancellor, the 
 Great Seal, instead of reverting to the sove- 
 reign, passed into the hands of a temporary 
 keeper. Gradually this official acquired the 
 right of discharging all the duties connected 
 with the Great Seal, and in the case of Sir 
 Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper during the 
 earlier part of Elizabeth's reign, a statute was 
 passed declaring him to have " the same 
 place, pre-eminence, and jurisdiction as the 
 Lord Chancellor of England." During the, 
 following reigns the Great Seal continued in 
 the ousted}' of the Lord Keeper in the first 
 instance,, but this official was generally 
 raised to the title of Lord Chancellor 
 and kept the seal; since the accession of 
 George III., however, the office of Lord 
 Keeper has been discontinued. The Great 
 Seal was also occasionally placed in com- 
 mission. Under the Tudors and Stuarts 
 the earlier ordinance passed in 1443, re- 
 quiring that the chancellor should not fix 
 the Great Seal without authority under the 
 Privy Seal, was seldom observed. When 
 Lord Keeper Littleton fled to Charles I. at 
 York in 1642, taking with him the Great Seal, 
 the Long Parliament illegally ordered a new 
 Great Seal to be made, to which after some 
 delay the Lords gave their consent, in spite 
 of a proclamation by the king, charging those 
 concerned in making it with high treason. 
 In 1648 a new Great Seal was ordered with 
 EepubHcan insignia, and soon afterwards it 
 was declared high treason to counterfeit it. 
 A rival Great Seal was, however, used by 
 Charles II. immediately after the death of 
 his father, which was lost after the battle of 
 "Worcester. James II. on hia flight from 
 London threw the Great Seal into the Thames, 
 but it was fished up again near Lambeth. 
 Since the Eevolution the use of the Great 
 Seal has been strictly confined to the Lord 
 Chancellor, Lord Keeper, and Lords Commis- 
 sioners, and the regulations for its employ- 
 ment have been carefully observed. By the 
 Act of Union with Scotland one Great Seal 
 
 for the United Kingdom is used for writs 
 to summon Parliament, for foreign treaties 
 and all public acts of state, while a seal 
 in Scotland is used for private grants. Tho 
 Act of Uuion with Ireland, however, made 
 no express provision for establishing one Great 
 Seal for the United Kingdom. By the Great 
 Seal (Offices) Act of 1874, various offices con- 
 nected with the Great Seal were abolished, 
 and further changes are in contemplation 
 (1884). 
 
 Campbell, lAves of the Lord CJtancellors ; see 
 also for lists of Lord Chancellors and Lord 
 Keepers, Haydn, Book of Dignities. 
 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 Seal, The Privy, is affixed to all letters- 
 patent for the grant of charters, pardons, 
 &c., before they come to the Great Seal, and to 
 some things of minor importance which do- 
 not pass the Great Seal at all. The office of 
 Clerk or Keeper of the Privy Seal, now called 
 Lord Privy Seal, is of Norman origin. By 
 the reign of Edward III. he had become one 
 of the chief officers of state and a member of 
 the king's council. The dignity was fre- 
 quently conferred on an ecclesiastic ; for 
 instance, in the reign of Edward IV. John 
 Russell, Bishop of Lincoln, united the offices 
 of Keeper of the Privy Seal' and President of 
 the Council. The keeper was a member of 
 the Court of Star Chamber as organised by 
 Henrj' VII. In the reign of Henry VIII. 
 the Privy Seal was made the warrant of the 
 legality of letters patent from the crown, and 
 authorised the Lord Chancellor to affix the 
 Great Seal. Letters patent formerly passed" 
 from the Signet Office to the Privy Seal 
 Office in the form of Signet Bills, and were 
 then sealed and sent to the Lord Chancellor ; 
 but on the abolition of the Signet Office in 
 1848, it was enacted that warrants under the 
 royal sign-manual, prepared by the Attorney- 
 General and Solicitor-General, 'setting forth 
 the tenor and effect of the letters-patent to, 
 be granted, addressed to the Lord Chancellorj 
 and counter-signed by one of the principal 
 Secretaries of State, would be a sufficient 
 authority for the Privy Seal being affixed. 
 At the same time the appointments of Clerks 
 of the Signet and Clerks of the Privy Seal 
 were abolished. The Lord Privy Seal is the 
 fifth great officer of state, a Privy Councillor 
 in virtue of his office, and takes precedence 
 after the Lord President of the Council. The 
 office of Lord Privy Seal of Scotland was' 
 established by James I. after his return from 
 imprisonment in England. It was directly 
 modelled on the parallel dignity in the 
 English court. The seal had been previously 
 kept by the Lord Chancellor. 
 
 Havdn, Boofc of Dignities; 11 and 12 Vict., 
 0.82. [L. C. S.] 
 
 Search Warrants are issued by justices 
 
 of the peace to the officers to whom they are 
 addressed, requiring them to search a house 
 
Sea 
 
 ( 928 ) 
 
 Sed 
 
 or ather specified place for property suspected 
 to have been stolen. The conditions of their 
 issue are regulated by the Larceny Act of 
 1861 and the Pawnbrokers' Act of 1872. 
 
 SeEttou, John Colboene, Lord (5. 1779, 
 d. 1863), one of the most famous generals 
 of his age, distinguished himself in his first 
 campaign in Holland (1799). In 1801 he 
 was present at the battle of Maida, and seryed 
 throughout the Peninsular War with great 
 distinction. It is said that his handling of 
 the 52nd Regiment at Waterloo contributed 
 in no small degree to the English victory. 
 In 1828 he was made Lieutenant-Governor of 
 Canada, and Governor-General of the same 
 province in 1837. He was also commander 
 of the forces at the same time, and to his 
 energetic action the easy suppi'ession of the 
 Canadian Rebellion of 1838 was mainly due. 
 In the following year his services were re- 
 warded by a peerage, and in 1860 Lord Seaton 
 became a field-marshal. In 1843 he was 
 made Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian 
 Isles, an office which he held for six years. 
 
 SeTiastopol was a strongly fortified city 
 in the Crimea, which the Emperor Nicholas 
 made the head-quarters of the Russian fleet. 
 When the Crimean War broke outits siege was 
 resolved upon. About the end of the war, 
 when the southern side of it was evacuated 
 by the Russians, and the town was occupied 
 by the allies, the Crimean War practically 
 ended (Sept. 9, 1855). [Ckimean War.] 
 
 Seeker, Thomas, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury (A. 1693, d. 1768), was bom of Dissent- 
 ing parents at Sibthorpe, in Nottinghamshire. 
 Abandoning the Dissenting ministry for 
 medicine, and ultimately persuaded by his 
 school friend, Butler, to join the ministry of 
 the Established Church, he entered Exeter 
 College, Oxford, was ordained in 1723, and 
 was made in 1735 Bishop of Bristol; was 
 translated in llAI to Oxford, and in 1768 
 made archbishop. He was an energetic and 
 respectable archbishop. 
 
 Portens, Lt/e o/ Seeker prefixed to Ms Works, 
 
 Secretary of State, The Office of, 
 is supposed to be first mentioned in the reign 
 of Henry III., when we find a ucretarius 
 noster in existence, who carried out the duties 
 which had been previously fulfilled by the 
 king's clerk. Tiiere continued to be one 
 principal secretary of state until towards the 
 end of the reign of Henry VIII., when two 
 were appointed of equal powers (1539). In 
 the same reign secretaries of state, who 
 had previously been mere clerks who pre- 
 pared business for the Privy Council, but 
 were not admitted to its debates, became 
 members of that body. Sir Robert Cecil had 
 the recognised title of " Our Principal Secre- 
 tary of State," and the office of secretary 
 attained its present importance when after 
 the Revolution the Cabinet began to displace 
 
 the Privy Council. On the union with Scot- 
 land a Secretary of State for Scotch affairs 
 was created, among those who held the office 
 being the Earl of Mar, but it expired in 
 1746. In 1768 a secretarj' was appointed for 
 American and Colonial affairs, which from 
 1660 had been managed by the Council of 
 Trade, but this office was abolished in 1782. 
 In the same year an important change took 
 place. Hitherto the two secretaryships had 
 been known as those of the northern and 
 the southern department, of whom the former, 
 in addition to th^ superintendence of the 
 foreign afllairs of Northern Europe, was sup- 
 posed to manage those of Ireland. Tlus 
 clumsy arrangement was now abolished, and 
 their duties devolved upon Home and Foreign 
 Secretaries. In 1794 a Secretary at War was 
 appointed, and he received in addition the 
 business of the colonies in 1801, but the two 
 functions of colonial and military administra- 
 tion were finally separated in 1854. The 
 secretaryship for India was created in 1858 
 on the abolition of the double system of 
 government. The Chief Secretary for Ire- 
 land does not as a rule have a seat in the 
 Cabinet, and is not reckoned as one of the 
 principal secretaries of state. His official 
 title is the Chief Secretary to the Lord 
 Lieutenant. There are also Parliamentary 
 under-secretaries, and permanent secretaries, 
 who are the heads of the working staffs of the 
 government departments. 
 
 Security, The Bill of (Scotland), was 
 passed in 1703 by the Scottish Parliament 
 during the agitation that preceded and neces- 
 sitated the union of the two kingdoms. It pro- 
 vided that Parliament should fix a successor 
 to the Scottish crown on the death of Anne 
 from among the Protestant members of the 
 royal family, provided that he should under 
 no circumstances be the same person as the 
 successor to the English crown, unless full 
 security was given for the religious and com- 
 mercial independence of Scotland, and its 
 equality in trade with England. 'The royal 
 assent was naturally refused to such a 
 measure ; 1)ut this step proved so , unpopular 
 that Parliament had to be immediateljr dis- 
 missed without hope of subsidy. 
 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland and Reign of Qmbch 
 Anne. 
 
 Sedgemoor, The Battle op (July 5, 
 1685), was fought between the Duke of ilon- 
 mouth and the royal troops under the Earl of 
 Feversham. After marching through the West 
 country and failingto capture Bath, Monmouth 
 determined to risk all in a general engagement 
 with the royal troops, who were encamped on 
 Sedgemoor, about three miles south of Bridge- 
 water, while Monmouth was then in Bridge- 
 water. Sedgemoor is a swampy plain, crossed 
 by wide ditches called "rhines." In front 
 of Lord Feversham's camp was one of these 
 called the Bussex Rhino. It was Monmouth's 
 
Sed 
 
 ( 929 ) 
 
 Seg 
 
 intention to attack the royal army in its 
 camp at night. His army was in motion 
 by midnight, and his guides brought him to 
 the brink of the " rhlae," fronting Fever- 
 sham's encampment. This was too deep to be 
 crossed. The insurgents halted in doubt, 
 and by accident shots were fired across the 
 "rhine," and these rousedFeversham's troops. 
 Making a detour, they fell on Monmouth's 
 army. Lord Grey and his horse were the first 
 of the insurgents to give way. The peasants 
 and miners of the West country, however, 
 fought with more courage. But the flight of 
 the cavalry, under Grey, had made the cause 
 of Monmouth hopeless. The duke himself, 
 at dawn, rode away towards Hampshire. 
 Deserted by their leaders, the insurgents en- 
 deavoured to fl.y ; but Colonel Kirke, at the 
 head of his Tangier troops, followed them 
 in close pursuit. A great and barbarous 
 slaughter of the fugitives by the royal troops 
 ensued. The battle, of course, put an imme- 
 diate end to Monmouth's rebellion. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng, ; iBoberts, Monmouf fe. 
 
 Seditions Meetings Bill (1795) was 
 
 provoked by the same state of populax ex- 
 citement which caused the Treasonable Prac- 
 tices Bill. The measure was introduced by 
 Pitt. It prohibited the meeting of more than 
 fifty persons (except county and borough 
 meetings duly called) for the consideration of 
 petitions or addresses for reform in Church or 
 State, or for the discussion of any grievance, 
 without the sanction of a magistrate. It 
 vested large discretionary powers in the 
 magistrates, both as to sanctioning such 
 meetings and dispersing them. Pitt even 
 proposed to restrict the liberty of discussion 
 by only permitting debating societies to meet 
 in duly licensed rooms. The bill was pro- 
 fessedly a measure of coercion, and was as 
 such opposed by Fox and aU his party with 
 even more than their wonted vigour. Only 
 forty-two members followed him in opposing 
 the introduction of the bill ; and on its last 
 reading only fifty-one could be found to 
 oppose it, as against 266 who supported it. 
 May, Const. Hist. ; Massey, Hi«t. of Eng. 
 
 Sedley.SiR Charles [b. 1639,<^. 1701), was 
 a witty but profligate play- writer of the Re- 
 storation period; he was the father of Catherine 
 Sedley, James II. 's mistress, and took soine 
 part in politics as member for Komney. Ulti- 
 mately he became a strong partisan of the 
 Revolution, though his speech in 1690 against 
 placemen showed that he retained his inde- 
 pendence under the new government. 
 
 Seedasseer, The Battle op (March 
 6, 1799), was an English victory in the 
 Mysore War against Tippoo Sultan. General 
 Stuart, with the Bombay division .[Wel- 
 LESLEY, Loan], had ascended the Ghauts, 
 and posted himself at Seedasseer. On the 
 morning of March 5 it was discovered that 
 Tippoo was approaching. Preparations were 
 Hist.— 30 
 
 instantly made to receive him by General 
 Hartley, second in command. On the morning 
 of the 6th the advanced brigade was assailed 
 vigorously by the Sultan's entire force, 
 and three battalions under the gallant Colonel 
 Montresor sustained the assault for six hours 
 with such determination that Tippoo'sofiicers 
 could do nothing. General Stuart, who was 
 ten miles in the rear, hastening up, found them 
 exhausted and reduced to their last cartridge. 
 In half an hour Tippoo's army retreated 
 through the wood with a loss of 2,000 men. 
 
 WeUnsX&y Despatches ; Mill, Hist, of lixMa ; 
 Wilks, Mysore, 
 
 Seetabtlldee, The Battle of (Nov. 24, 
 1817). The result of the intrigues of Appa 
 Sahib with Bajee Rao was an attack on the 
 British Residency. This lay to the west of 
 Nagpore, from which it was separated by a 
 small ridge running north and south, with 
 two hills at the extremity called the Seeta- 
 buldee Hills. It was garrisoned by two bat- 
 talions of Madras infantry, two companies of 
 the Resident's escort, three troops of Bengal 
 cavalry, and a detachment of Madras artillery 
 with four six-poimders. The rajah had 18,000 
 men and thirty- six guns. The guns were 
 brought to bear on the English position, and 
 a vigorous assault, which was repelled with 
 great gallantry, was made all through the night 
 to the next morning. At last the Nagpore troops 
 captured the lower hill, and the English am- 
 munition was running short, when a gallant 
 charge of the Bengal cavalry, under Captain 
 Fitzgerald, resulted in capturing two guns 
 and cutting up the infantry. At this moment 
 one of the enemy's tumbrils exploded, and amid 
 the confusion they brokeandfled. The conflict, 
 which had lasted eighteen hours, thus ter- 
 minated in the triumph of the British. 
 
 Segrave, Stephen (d. circa 1241), was a 
 partisan of King John during his struggles 
 with the barons, and on Henry IIL's acces- 
 sion he allied himself with the party of Peter 
 des Roches. On the dismissal of Hubert de 
 Burgh in 1232, the office of Justiciar was 
 given to Segrave. His administration was 
 unsuccessful; he failed to ingratiate himself 
 with the king, and at the same time incurred 
 the hatred of the barons and the people. He 
 fell in 1234, with his patron Bes Roches, and 
 was called upon to give an account of his 
 stewardship. Subsequently he made his peace 
 with the kmg by the payment of a thousand 
 marks, returned to court, and became one of 
 the royal advisers, but was not reinstated in 
 his ofBee. He retired at the end of his life 
 to the abbey of Leicester, where he died. 
 Segrave was one of the first of the merely 
 lawyer Justiciars. Though so bad a politi- 
 cian, he was a good lawyer. He marks the 
 transition to the chief justices of later times. 
 Foss, Judges of Englaiui. 
 
 Segnise, The Battle op (635), was 
 fought at Dalguise, near Dunkeld, between 
 
Sel 
 
 ( 930 ) 
 
 Sel 
 
 the descendants of Nectan, the Pictish king, 
 who had been driven from the throne in 
 612, and Garnaid, son of Firth, king of the 
 Plots, who, together with Loohene, son of 
 Nectan, was kUled. 
 
 Selbome, Eoundell Palmek, Lord 
 (b. 1812), was the son of the Rev. William 
 Palmer, of Mixbury, Oxfordshire, and was 
 educated at Rugby and Winchester Schools, 
 and Trinity College, Oxford. He was 
 elected to a fellowship at Magdalen, and 
 was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn 
 (1837). In 18i7 he was first returned to 
 Parliament for Plymouth as a Peelite. He 
 represented Plymouth tin 1852, when he 
 was defeated; but regained his seat (1853), 
 and held it till 1857. In 1861 he was ap- 
 pointed Solicitor-General in Lord Palmer- 
 ston's govermnent, though he had not a seat 
 in the House. He was then knighted, and 
 shortly afterwards elected for Richmond, 
 which he continued to represent till his eleva- 
 tion to the peerage. In 1863 he became 
 Attorney-General under Lord John Russell. 
 In 1868 he was offered the Chancellorship, 
 but refused, as he could not agree with the 
 administration on the Irish Church question. 
 He continued, however, to be an independent 
 supporter of the government on most, ques- 
 tions, and represented it at Geneva (1871). 
 [Geneva Convention.] He was appointed 
 Lord Chancellor on tie retirement of Lord 
 Hatherley, on which occasion he was raised to 
 the peerage as Lord Selborne. He retired 
 with the Liberal party in 1874. He again 
 became Chancellor when the Liberals returned 
 to power in 1880. 
 
 Selby, The Battle of (April 11, 1644), 
 was fought during the Great Rebellion. Col. 
 John Bellasis, the Governor of York, during 
 the absence of the Marquis of Newcastle, who 
 was facing the Scots in Durham, occupied 
 with 1,500 horse and 1,800 foot the town of 
 Selby, with the object of preventing the 
 junction of Sir Thomas Fairfax with the 
 Scots. He was attacked on April 11 by 
 Fairfax, with rather superior forces, and his 
 position stormed. Bellasis himself was taken 
 prisoner, and he lost his baggage, artillery, 
 ajid 1,600 men. Clarendon says : — " This was 
 the first action for which Sir Thomas Fairfax 
 was taken notice of, who in a short time grew 
 the supreme general under the Parliament." 
 Markliam, Life o/Fairfaai. 
 
 Selden, John (J. 1584, d. 1654), was edu- 
 cated at Hart Hall, Oxford, and became a 
 member of ClifEord's Inn in 1602. After he had 
 continued there a sedulous student for some 
 time, he " did by help of a strong body and 
 vast memory, not only run through the whole 
 body of the law, but became a prodigy in most 
 parts of learning ... so that in few years his 
 name was wonderfully advanced, not only at 
 home, but in foreign countries, and he was 
 
 usually styled ' the great dictator of learning 
 of the English nation' " (Wood). In 1618, 
 he published a matort/ of Tithes, strongly 
 Erastian in its tendency, and basing the claun 
 of the clergy to them on the grant of the civil 
 power. The book was suppressed by the 
 Court of High Commission, and the author 
 was obliged to make a pubHc acknowledgment 
 of his error. Selden sat in the Parliaments 
 of 1624, 1626, and 1628. He took part in 
 the impeachment of the Duke of Bucking- 
 ham, and had the 4th and 5th articles- en- 
 trusted to him (1626). He also helped to 
 prepare the Petition of Right. In 1629 he 
 was summoned before the Council for his share 
 in the disturbances of the last day of that 
 Parliament, and was imprisoned untU 1633. 
 Two years later he published Mare Clausum, 
 asserting the English sovereignty of the seas, 
 which had originally been written in answer 
 to the Mare Liberum of Grotius. When the 
 Long Parliament assembled Selden was 
 chosen member for Oxford. He brought 
 forward the biU for the abolition of Ship- 
 money, and other measures limiting the pre- 
 rogative; but he opposed the bill for the 
 attainder of Strafford, and the Root and 
 Branch Bill. In 1643 he was appointed one 
 of the representatives of the House of 
 Commons in the Westminster Assembly, 
 where he played » distinguished part, and 
 two years later was selected as a member of 
 the Joint Commission to administer the 
 Admiralty. He died on Nov. 30, 1654, 
 leaving his library to his executors, who 
 gave it to the Bodleian lAbrary at Oxford. 
 
 Wood, Afhenos Oxoniemes; Johnson, Life o/ 
 Seidell. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Self-denying Ordinance, The, was 
 
 a measure proposed in the Long Parlia- 
 ment on Dec. 9, 1644, by Mr. Zouoh Tate, 
 member for Northampton. The words of 
 the resolution were "that no member of 
 either House of Parliament shall during 
 the war enjoy or execute any office or 
 command, military or civil, and that an 
 ordinance be brought in to that effect." An 
 ordinance was brought in and passed the 
 Commons on Dec. 19, by the small majority 
 of seven votes. After some discussion and 
 hesitation the Lords rejected it, giving as a 
 reason that they did not know what shape 
 the army would take. The Commons at once 
 produced a scheme "for new modelling of 
 the army " [New Model], which passed the 
 Commons on Jan. 28, 1645, and the Lords on 
 Feb. 15. A second Self-denying Ordinance 
 was now introduced, which passed the Lords 
 on April 3, 1645. It provided that all 
 members of either House, who had since the 
 beginning of the present Parliament been 
 appointed to any offices, military or civil, 
 should vacate those offices within forty days. 
 But it differed from the first ordinance in 
 that it did not prevent members from taking 
 
Sel 
 
 (931 ) 
 
 Sep 
 
 office oa any future occasion. The name 
 given to tliis ordinance is perhaps derived 
 from a phrase used by Cromwell, who was 
 one of its strongest supporters. " I hope," he 
 said, "we have such English hearts and 
 zealous affections towards the general weal of 
 our mother country, as no members of either 
 house will scruple to deny themselves, and their 
 own private interests for the public good." 
 
 Carlyle, Cromwell; May, Long Favliammt ; 
 Whitelocke, Memorials. 
 
 SelgOVS, The, were an ancient British 
 tribe occupying Annandale, Nithsdale, and 
 Eskdale, in Dumfriesshire, with the east of 
 Galloway. 
 
 Selvach {d. 730), King of the Picts, son 
 of Fearchan Fada, succeeded his brother 
 Aincellach, whom he expelled, as head of 
 the Cinel Loam (698). In 701 he destroyed 
 the rival tribe of Cinel Cathboth, and in 711 
 defeated the Britons at Loch Arklet, in Stir- 
 lingshire. The following year we find him 
 fighting against the Cinel Gabran in Kintyre, 
 and in 717 again defeating the Strathclyde 
 Britons. In 719 he was defeated in the naval 
 battle of Ardanesbi. In 723 Selvach resigned 
 the crown to his son Dungal, and entered a 
 monastery, from which, however, he emerged 
 in 727 to fight the battle of Eoss Forichen on 
 his son's behalf. 
 
 Sepoy Mutinies, (i) 1764. There is 
 
 po instinct of obedience in native armies 
 in India, and the British army of Sepoys 
 was in its earlier days no exception to the 
 rule. Having been instrumental in deposing 
 two Nabobs of Bengal, the Company's Ben- 
 gal Sepoys became inflated with a sense of 
 their own importance, and demanded a large 
 donation and increased pay. It was refused ; 
 whereupon a. whole battalion marched off to 
 the enemy. Major Munro pursued them and 
 brought them back. Twenty-four ring- 
 leaders were selected, tried by court-martial, 
 and condemned to be blown from guns. Four 
 were executed in this way ; whereupon the 
 Sepoys announced that no more executions 
 would be allowed. Munro loaded his guns 
 with grape, placed his European soldiers in 
 the intervals, and commanded the native 
 battalions to ground arms, threatening to 
 discharge the guns on them if a single man 
 was seen to move. The Sepoys were awed by 
 his resolution : sixteen more were blown away ; 
 the mutiny was quenched in their blood ; 
 and discipline was restored. [For second 
 and third mutinies see articles Vellore 
 MuxrNT and Baurackpore Mutiny.] (4) The 
 fourth mutiny broke out in 1844. Scinde be- 
 came a British province, and the Sepoys thus 
 lost the extra allowances which had been 
 granted them while on active service in an 
 enemy's country. The weakness of the com- 
 manders, who tried to induce the revolted 
 Sepoys to return to their duty by promising 
 extra allowances, only aggravated the mutiny. 
 
 The men on arriving in Scinde complained 
 that they had been allured there by false 
 pretences, which was indeed true. It was 
 determined to bring up regiments from 
 Madras; and the Madras governor induced 
 them to undertake the voyage by promising 
 them extra pay. On their arrival they found 
 that the regulations of the Bengal army did 
 not permit of this; and, thus disappointed 
 of their expectations, they broke out into open 
 mutiny on parade. The leaders were confined, 
 and a small advance of money was made. The 
 Madras regiments were returned ; the mutinies 
 were hushed up ; and Scinde was made over 
 to Bombay to be garrisoned from thence. (5) 
 The Punjaub was the scene of the fifth. As in 
 Scinde in 1844, the 13th and 22nd Native 
 Infantry broke into mutiny on the with- 
 drawal of extra allowances when the Punjaub 
 became a British province. The 41st at 
 Delhi, after the order of reduction had been 
 read, refused to march, and only consented on 
 threat of dismissal. At Wuzeerabad the 
 Sepoys of the 32nd hesitated to receive their 
 pay, but were brought to order by the seizure 
 and ironing of the first four. The 66th at 
 Govindgur mutinied, Feb. 1, 1850. One 
 Sepoy endeavoured to close the gate, but 
 Lieutenant Macdonald out him down, and a 
 small squadron of cavalry under Colonel 
 Bradford restored order. (6) 18-57. In this 
 year took place the great Indian Mutiny (q.v.). 
 Sepc^S are the troops, natives of India, 
 in the English pay. At an early date the 
 Company found out that the natives, properly 
 disciplined according to European methods, 
 formed excellent soldiers, and largely used 
 them as cheaper and more efiicient than the 
 produce of the crimp-houses and ale-shops of 
 London. By their arms, rather than by Euro- 
 pean troops, India was conquered by the 
 English; but their religious caste prejudices 
 and dislike of innovation, and sometimes the 
 want of consideration shown to them, have 
 produced mutinies, of which the chief are 
 mentioned above. 
 
 The importance of the native troops in English 
 employ, is clearly shown in Seeley's ilapansioK 
 of England. 
 
 Septennial Act, The (1716), which 
 
 increased the length of Parliament to seven 
 years, was passed, partly because the Triennial 
 Act of 1694 had not worked well in practice, 
 but still more because the very excited state 
 of popular feeling in consequence of the 
 Jacobite revolt, made it unsafe for the Whig 
 ministry to run the risk of a general elec- 
 tion. The right of a sitting Parliament thus 
 to lengthen its own existence was violently 
 contested at the time ; and, indeed, could only 
 be justified by the critical condition of the 
 nation, and the bad state of the representa- 
 tion, which made an appeal to the people 
 almost a farce. Often violently attacked as 
 fixing to the life of Parliament a limit too 
 long for popular freedom, the Saptennial Act 
 
Ser 
 
 ( 932 ) 
 
 has nevertheleaB continued law up to the 
 present day, although recent usage has prac- 
 tically reduced the length of Parliament to a 
 maximum of six years. 
 
 Sergeauty ■was a peculiar tenure, the 
 essence of which was a " peculiar service of 
 special duty to the person of the lord." 
 There were two sorts of sergeanty— (1) grand 
 sergeanty {per magnwm servitium), such as 
 holding an estate on condition of acting as 
 butler or chamherlain at the royal coronation, 
 a tenure analogous to knight service, hut 
 esteemed more honourable, and not, so far as 
 the form goes, aboHshed in 1660; and (2) 
 petit sergeanty, which consisted in holding 
 lands of the king by the service of rendering- 
 some small implement of war such as a bow or 
 sword, and which was very similar to free 
 socage. 
 
 Seringapatam, The Sieges OF. (1) On 
 
 Feb. 5, 1762, the army of Lord Comwallis, con- 
 sisting of 22,000 men, forty-four field-pieces, 
 and forty-two siege guns, and reinforced by 
 Mahratta and Mogul contingents from Poonah 
 and Hyderabad, reached an elevated ground 
 commanding a view of Seringapatam, the 
 capital of Tippoo's State of Mysore. Its 
 defences were three lines protected by 300 
 pieces of cannon, the earthwork being covered 
 by a bound hedge of thorny plants so as to be 
 absolutely impenetrable. Tippoo's force was 
 encamped on the northern side of the stream 
 in a position admirably fortified. Lord Corn- 
 wallis reconnoitred on the 6th, and that same 
 night moved his army to the assault in three 
 main divisions. The centre moved straight 
 into Tippoo's camp ; part forced its way 
 through the river, and seized a village and 
 the guns on the island; part attacked the 
 redoubts within the camp ; while the reserve, 
 gathering up the other divisions, auivanced 
 under Lord Comwallis, fighting its way 
 through Tippoo's army, across the river 
 to the island. Thus in the morning the 
 English had gained all the redoubts, and 
 established themselves in tiie island with a 
 loss of 530 men ; Tippoo's loss killed, wounded, 
 and deserters being estimated at 20,000. 
 Tippoo now began to treat insincerely. On 
 Feb. 16 General Abercromby and the Malabar 
 army joined Lord Comwallis ; the operations 
 of the siege were pushed with vigour, and 
 fifty pieces of cannon were brought to bear 
 on the fortifications. Tippoo, alarmed, con- 
 sented to treat, and even sent his sons to 
 Lord Comwallis as hostages. After a fresh 
 dispute over the cession of Coorg, the treaty 
 of peace was signed (1792). (2) April 6, 1799, 
 this took place during Lord "WeUesley's cam- 
 paign against Mysore. The advanced post of 
 General Harris's army established itself within 
 1,600 yards of the fort of Seringapatam on the 
 south-west side of the river and fort. The 
 works soijth of the river were gradually taken, 
 and batteries established on the north and 
 
 south banks, and on an island in the Cavery 
 commanding the western angle of the fort. 
 On May 3 the breach was practicable. 
 The troops destined for the assault, 4,376 in 
 number, took up their stations in the trenches 
 next morning, and General Baird was selected 
 to lead them. At one o'clock the word was 
 given, and, in spite of a desperate resistance, 
 within seven minutes the British ensign was 
 floating over the breach. The column now 
 wheeled in two divisions, to the left and right 
 along the outer ramparts, exposed to a raking 
 fire from the inner circle. The right column 
 reached the east or Mysore gate, and storming 
 the inner ramparts, directed a flanking fire on 
 the defenders of the outer north rampart. A 
 general stampede followed, and in the flight 
 Tippoo was slain. General Baird succeeded 
 in securing the family of Tippoo, and pro- 
 ceeded to search for the dead body of the 
 Sultan, of whose death he was informed. 
 Thus iu the space of a few hours fell the 
 capital of Mysore, though garrisoned by 
 20,000 troops, defended by 287 pieces of ord- 
 nance ^^'^ provided with well-stored arsenals, 
 and every munition of war. " On the 4th 
 of May " says Sir- John Malcolm, " all our 
 labours were crowned by the completest 
 victory that ever crowned the British annals 
 in India. A State that had been the rival of 
 the Company for nearly thirty years, was on 
 that day wholly annihilated." 
 
 "Wilka, Mysore; Mill, India; Comwallis, 
 DespatclMS ; Wellesley Despatches. 
 
 Seringapatam, The Treaty of (Mar. 8, 
 1792), was concluded between the parties to 
 the triple alliance of 1790 and Tippoo. Its 
 stipulations were the cession of the old 
 Mahratta provinces north of the Tunga- 
 buddra to the Peishwa; the cession to the 
 Nizam of Tippoo's provinces north of that 
 river, the cession to the English of the districts 
 of Malabar, Coorg, Dindigul, Baramahal, and 
 Salem ; and the restoration of the English 
 prisoners. 
 
 CfyrnwdUis Despatches ; "Wilks, Mysore. 
 
 Session, The Court of, the highest civil 
 judicial tribunal in Scotland, was instituted 
 by statute of James V. in 1532. Its functions 
 had previously been discharged by the Council 
 and a committee of Parliament. Its original 
 composition included fourteen judges, called 
 Lords of Session, and a president. Besides 
 this the crown could appoint three or four 
 peers as assessors. In 1808 the court was 
 divided into two courts with separate juris- 
 diction, called the first and second divisions ; 
 the former presided over by the President, 
 the latter by the Lord Justice Clerk. In 
 1810 the junior judges were appointed to sit 
 as Lords Ordinary in the Outer House. In 
 1830 the number of judges was reduced 
 to thirteen, and the quorum was also reduced. 
 An appeal lies to the House of Lords. 
 
Set 
 
 ( 933 ) 
 
 Set 
 
 Seton, Lord, was one of tlie leaders of 
 the Catholic party in Scotland against the 
 teaching of Knox. He was a staunch sup- 
 porter of Queen Maiy, whom he entertained 
 in his castle in Haddingtonshire immediately 
 after Damley's murder. He was one of the 
 first to come to her assistance on her escape 
 from Loohleven Castle (1668). 
 
 Settlement, The Act op, or, as its proper 
 title is, the " Act for the further limitation of 
 the crown and tetter securing the rights and 
 liberties of the subject," was passed in the 
 year 1700. It was necessitated by the un- 
 timely death of the young Duke of Gloucester, 
 son of the Princess Anne, in this year. 
 " There was no question," says Hallam, " that 
 the Princess Sophia was the fittest object of 
 the nation's preference. She was indeed very 
 far removed from any hereditary title. 
 Besides the pretended Prince of Wales and 
 his sister, whose legitimacy no one disputed, 
 there stood in her way the Duchess of Savoy, 
 daughter of Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, 
 and several members of the Palatine family. . . 
 According to the tenor and intention of this 
 statute, all prior claims of inheritance, save 
 that of the issue of King William and the 
 Princess Anne, being set aside and annulled, 
 the Princess Sophia became the source of a 
 new royal line. The throne of England and 
 Ireland stands entailed upon the heirs of 
 her body, being Protestants .... It was de- 
 termiaed to accompany this settlement with 
 additional securities of the subject's liberty. 
 Eight articles were therefore inserted in the' 
 Act of Settlement, to take effect only from 
 the commencement of the new limitation of 
 the house of Hanover." These eight articles 
 were, however, an unreasonable vote of censure 
 of the Tory Parliament which passed the 
 Act on many of the Acts of the reign of 
 WiUiam III. They are : (1) That whosoever 
 shall hereafter come to the possession of this 
 crown shall join in comm.union with the 
 Church of England as by law established ; 
 (2) That in case the crown and imperial 
 dignity of this realm shall hereafter come to 
 any person not being a native of this king- 
 dom of England, this nation be not obliged 
 to engage in any war for the defence of any 
 dominions or territories which do not belong 
 to the crown of England, without the consent 
 of Parliament ; (3) That no person who shall 
 hereafter come to the possession of the crown 
 shall go out of the dominions of England, 
 Scotland, or Ireland without the consent of 
 Parliament ; (4) That from and after the time 
 that further limitation of this Act shall take 
 effect, all matters and things relating to the 
 well-governing of this kingdom which are 
 properly cognisable in the Privy Council by 
 the laws and customs of this realm shall be 
 transacted there, and all resolutions taken 
 thereupon shall be signed by such of the 
 Privy Council as shall advise and consent to 
 
 the same ', (5) That ... no person bom out 
 of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland, or the dominions thereunto belong- 
 ing (though he be naturalised or made a 
 denizen, except such as are bom of English 
 parents) shall be capable to be of the Privy 
 Council, or a member of either House of 
 Parliament, or to enjoy any office or place of 
 trust, either civil or military, or to hiave any 
 grants of lands . . . from the crown . . . ; 
 
 (6) That no person who has an office or place 
 of profit under the king, or receives a pension 
 from the crown, shall be capable of serving 
 as a member of the House of Commons; 
 
 (7) That . . . judges' commissions shall be 
 made guamdiu se bene gesserint, and their 
 salaries established and ascertained ; but upon 
 the address of both Houses of Parliament it 
 may be lawful to remove them ; (8) That no 
 pardon under the Great Seal of England be 
 pleadable to an impeachment by the Com- 
 mons in Parliament. The first of these pro- 
 visions needs no comment. The second was 
 frequently caUed in question during the reign 
 of George II., in regard to subsidiary treaties 
 for the defence of Hanover. Certainly if a 
 power at war with England chose to consider 
 that Electorate as part of the king's do- 
 minions it ought to be defended from attack. 
 The real remedy — the separation of Hanover 
 from England — was effected on the accession 
 of Victoria. The third was repealed shortly 
 after the accession of George I., who fre- 
 quently abused it by his journeys to 
 Hanover. The next articles are extremely 
 important. The fourth is a reactionary 
 measure, being an attempt to suppress the 
 growth of the cabinet as distinct from the 
 Privy Council, which became more fuUy 
 established in the reign of William III. The 
 signature of the privy councillor was devised 
 as a method of obviating the irresponsibility 
 of the cabinet minister. [Cabinet.] The 
 article is also a protest against William's 
 Partition Treaty [Spanish Succession], which 
 was concluded by the instrumentality of Port- 
 land and Somers, without his consulting 
 even the cabinet. It was repealed in 1705. 
 The fifth article is a protest against Wil- 
 liam's partiality for Portland and Albermarle. 
 It was too sweeping in its application, 
 although it had a beneficial effect in the 
 reign of George I. It was afterwards modi- 
 fied, especially with regard to admission 
 to Parliament, and was finally repealed by 7 
 & 8 Vict., c. 66, Mr. Hutt's Naturalisation 
 Act. The next article was a most short- 
 sighted measure. Had it continued in force, 
 the ministry would have been excluded 
 from Parliament : that is, there would have 
 been a complete separation between the 
 executive and legislative. Hence the Com- 
 mons, who alone can grant supplies, would 
 either have roused the people to subvert 
 the monarchy, or they woul_d have sunk 
 to the condition of the Estates-General of 
 
Set 
 
 ( 934 ) 
 
 Set 
 
 France. The evil of the influence of the 
 crown was partially remedied hy Place Bills, 
 but more effectively by limiting the royal 
 revenue. The article was revised in 1705, 
 when, however, the following provisions were 
 inserted : That any member of the Commons 
 accepting an office of the crown, except a higher 
 commission in the army, shall vacate his seat, 
 and a new writ shall he issued; secondly, 
 that no person holding an office created since 
 Oct. 25, 1705, shall be capable of election or re- 
 election. Parliament excluded at the same time 
 all such as held pensions during the pleasure 
 of the crown ; and, to check the multitude of 
 placemen, enacted that the numbers of com- 
 missioners appointed to execute any office 
 should not be increased. The efficacy of the 
 seventh clause was increased by the exclusion 
 of judges from Parliament. 
 
 12 & 13 Will. III., c. 2; Statutes Revised, ii. 
 93 ; Hallam, Const. Hist., c xv. 
 
 [L. 0. S.] 
 
 Settlement, The Act op (1652), was the 
 Cromwellian measure for the Settlement of 
 Ireland. The following were its chief pro- 
 visions : — (1) A free pardon was granted to all 
 whose estates did not exceed £10 in aimual 
 value. (2) AH the land in Ulster, Munster, 
 Leinster was declared confiscated. (3) The 
 Irish proprietors in these three provinces 
 were divided into three classes : (a) All rebels 
 before Nov. 10th, 1642, aU who sat in 
 the Kilkenny Council before May, 1643, 
 all the leaders mentioned by name, and all 
 concerned in the massacre of 1641, to lose 
 their lives and estates ; (i) All other persons, 
 who fought against the Parliament, to lose 
 two-thirds of their estates ; (c) AH persons 
 who had resided in Ireland between 1641 and 
 1650, and who had not served with the Par- 
 liamentary forces since 1649, to lose one-third 
 of their estates. An Act of the Little Parlia- 
 ment in 1653, however, declared that those pro- 
 prietors who were to get part of their estates 
 restored to them, must accept equivalents in 
 Connaught and Clare. (4) The greater part of 
 the forfeited lands was then set apart in equal 
 shares to satisfy the claims of the adventurers 
 and of the Puritan soldiery, the counties of 
 Dublin, Cork, Kildare, and Carlow being re- 
 served for the future disposal of Parliament. 
 The soldiers were to be kept together in 
 regiments ; but the designs of the Protector 
 in this direction were frustrated by the sol- 
 diers themselves, who sold their lands to 
 speculators like Sir W. Petty, before the 
 allotment. Mr. Lecky says of the Cromwellian 
 Settlement, " It is the foundation of that deep 
 and lasting aversion between the proprietary 
 and the tenants, which is the chief cause of 
 the political and social evils of Ireland." 
 
 Prendergast, The CromweUian Se'tlemOTit; Carte, 
 Ormonde ; Froude, English in Ireland, 
 
 Settlement, The Act of (14 & 15 Charles 
 II. — 1662), was passed in the second session of 
 
 Charles Il.'sfirst Irish Parliament, and was sub- 
 stantially based on the Declaration of 1660. 
 It declared that innocent Irish were to regain 
 their estates while the Cromwellian and other 
 settlers also had their land conjfirmed to them. 
 It was found that there was not enough land 
 in Ireland to satisfy aU. Everything de- 
 pended on the construction of the word 
 "innocent" by the Court of Claims. The 
 term innocent was not to include anyone 
 who had been on the rebel side, or even 
 resided within their lines before the cessation, 
 nor any one who had sided with Einuccini 
 against Ormonde. Yet, despite this not very 
 liberal construction, too much land was 
 restored by that court to the natives, and it 
 was found necessary in 1665 to pass a second 
 Act, the Act of Settlement and Explanation. 
 Froude, English in Ireland ; Carte, Ormonde ; 
 Statutes. 
 
 Settlement and Explanation, The 
 
 Act of (17 & 18 Charles II. — 1665), became 
 necessary, owing to the action of the Court 
 of Claims and its construction of the Act 
 of Settlement in favour of the natives. In 
 accordance with the new Act, adventurers and 
 soldiers were to content themselves with two- 
 thirds of what belonged to them; Catholics 
 were to make good their claims as innocent 
 within the year. All doubtful cases were to 
 be construed in favour of Protestants, and 
 some twenty persons were to be restored 
 to their estates by special favour, and at 
 once. The result of this Act, thus avowedly 
 designed to protect the Protestant interest, and 
 especially of the second clause, was to deprive 
 3,000 CatboUcB of all their rights without a 
 trial. The result of the Act, when carried 
 out, was to leave but one-third instead of two- 
 thirds of the good land in Ireland in Catholic 
 hands. An attempt at inquiry into the work- 
 ing of this Act in 1670 had to be given up in 
 deference to the Enghsh Parliament. 
 
 Carte, Ormonde ; Fronde, Englisii in Ireland ; 
 Lecky, iftst. of the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 Settlement of India, The Act fok 
 
 THE (or, as it is more correctly called, " The 
 Act for the better Government of India"), 
 became law in 1858 after vigorous debates on 
 Lord John Russell's resolutions, upon which 
 it was based, and a strong protest from the 
 directors of the East India Company. It 
 provided that all the territories previously 
 under the government of the Company were 
 to be vested in the Queen, who was to govern 
 through one of the principal secretaries of 
 state, assisted by a council of fifteen, of whom 
 seven were to be elected by the court of 
 directors and eight nominated by the crown. 
 After a certain time the right of the directors 
 to appoint members was to be trausfen-ed to 
 the secretary of state. The Governor- General 
 received the new title of Viceroy. The civil 
 service was made competitive, the military 
 forces were amalgamated with the royal 
 
Sev 
 
 ( 935 ) 
 
 Sev 
 
 service, and the navy abolished. It was also 
 provided that Indian revenues should not be 
 applied towards defraying the cost of an 
 extra-frontier military expedition vrithout the 
 consent of Parliament. [India.] 
 Act 31 k 22 Viot., o. 106. 
 
 Seven Bishops, The, were Archbishop 
 Bancroft of Canterbury, Bishops Ken of Bath 
 and "Wells, "White of Peterborough, Lloyd of 
 St. Asaph, Trelawney of Bristol, Lake of 
 Chichester, and Turner of Ely. They drew 
 up at Lambeth a petition against James II. 's 
 requiring the clergy to read his Declaration 
 of Indulgence during divine service in their 
 churches {May, 1687). Arrested and accused 
 of publishing a seditious libel, thoy were 
 tried before venal judges and a packed jury. 
 But on June 30, they were acquitted in the 
 midst of great popular rejoicings. The very 
 same day an invitation to invade England was 
 sent to the Prince of Orange. It is remark- 
 able that the Seven Bishops were such strong 
 Tories and High Churchmen, that the majority 
 of them, including Bancroft and Ken, became 
 Non-jurors. 
 
 Maoaulay, Hist, of Eng.; Burnet, Hist, of 
 
 his Own Time; Strickland, Lives of the Seven 
 
 Bishops. 
 
 Seven Ea.rls, The, were dignitaries of 
 early mediaeval Scotland. The appearance of 
 the term earl as a title, and of the Seven Earls 
 as representing various parts of the country 
 in the council of the kingdom, begins with 
 the reign of Alexander I. The same officials 
 had, if Celts, been previously styled mormaers ; 
 if Norsemen, jarls. The appearance of the 
 Seven Earls is an important step in the feuda- 
 lisation of Scotland, and in the Anghcisation 
 of the northern districts. Under Alexander 
 II. the Seven Earls appear as a recognised 
 constitutional body, and then included the 
 Earls of Fife, Stratheame, Athole, Angus, 
 Menteith, Buehan, and Lothian, but the lists 
 vary at different times. The Seven Earls 
 claimed of Edward I. the right of constituting 
 and appointing the king. But at least as 
 early as this their functions were extended to 
 the Estates, and the creation of additional 
 earldoms put an end to the Seven Earls. 
 Skene, Celtic Scotland, vol. iii. 
 
 Seven Tears' War, The (1756—1763), 
 
 was caused by the alarm entertained by the 
 Continental powers of Europe at the aggres- 
 sive designs of Frederick the Great, and by 
 the desire of Maria Theresa to recover the 
 province of Silesia from the King of Prussia. 
 Austria was readily joined by Louis XV. of 
 France, the Czarina Elizabeth, and the King 
 of Poland, who was also Elector of Saxony ; 
 while Frederick obtained promises of assistance 
 from England — which was nervously afraid of 
 isolation, and was already at warwith France in 
 the colonies — besides some money, and an army 
 in Hanover. Throughout the Continental war. 
 
 however, the British troops played a secondary 
 part. The first campaign was a great triumph 
 for Frederick. Assuming the offiensive, he 
 overran Saxony, defeated the Austrians, who 
 were advancing to its relief at Lobositz, and 
 compelled the Saxon army to surrender. In 
 1757 the attention of Frederick was at first 
 confined to Bohemia, which he invaded; he 
 invested the Imperialists in Prague, unto. 
 Marshal Daun defeated him decisively at 
 Kolin in June, and compelled him to evacuate 
 the country. Meanwhile, in Hanover, the 
 English- Hanoverian army, under the Duke of 
 Cumberland, was opposed to the French under 
 Marshal d'Estrees. After allowing the French 
 to cross the "Weser, he was utterly defeated at 
 Hastenbeck (July 26), and compelled to 
 capitulate under the Convention of Kloster- 
 Seven. This arrangement, however, was 
 repudiated by the British governujent, and 
 the defeated army placed under Ferdinand of 
 Brunswick, who drove back the French on 
 that side. Aided by this timely diversion, 
 Frederick succeeded in making head against 
 the coalition, the Imperialists being routed at 
 Eossbach in November, and Silesia reoccupied 
 after the victory of Leuthen. The sudden 
 withdrawal of the Russians from the cam- 
 paign, owing to the iUness of the Czarina, 
 set the Prussians who had been employed 
 against them free to chastise the Swedes, who 
 had joined the allies in this year. At the 
 same time Clive in India had won the great 
 victory of PJaasey over the French. The next 
 campaign (1758) was one of considerable 
 changes of fortune. Ferdinand of Brunswick, 
 after defeating the French at Crefeld in 
 June, retired before Marshal Contades, 
 only to advance again and drive the enemy 
 behind the Rhine. On his side- Frederick 
 was driven out of Moravia, but won a bril- 
 liant victory over the Russians at Zorndorf ; 
 and though defeated by Daim with loss, at 
 Hofkirehen, he managed before the end of 
 the year to free Saxony and Silesia from the 
 enemy. Meanwhile the English had taken 
 Louisburg and Fort Duquesne in America^ 
 and made successful descents upon Cherbourg 
 and St. Malo. In 1759 the efiiorts of Frede- 
 rick were on the whole unfortunate. The 
 battle of Kunersdorf, at first a victory, was 
 converted into a crushing defeat by the 
 approach of Marshal Loudon ; his general. 
 Fink, surrendered in November, and at 
 the end of the year Saxony and Lusatia 
 were occupied by the Austrians. Ferdinand 
 of Brunswick, however, though frustrated 
 in an attempt to recover Frankfort, won 
 a great victory at Minden on Aug. 1, over 
 Contades and Broglie, and aided by the vic- 
 tor}' of his relative the hereditary Prince of 
 Brunswick, on the same day, succeeded in 
 clearing Westphalia of the enemy. At the 
 same time the resources of the French were 
 being weakened by the English successes 
 in the East and "V\''est, by the capture of 
 
Sev 
 
 ( 936 ) 
 
 Sey 
 
 Queteo in September, by the -riotories of 
 Boscawen at Lagos, and of Hawke at Qui- 
 beron, and by the successes of Coote in India, 
 which terminated with the battle of Wande- 
 wash. In 1760 the English subsidy alone 
 enabled Frederick to resist his encircling 
 enemies. Berlin was occupied by the Rus- 
 sians in October, and though by the brilliant 
 victory of Liegnitz in August, Silesia had 
 been partially recoTered, they came up again 
 in November, and the fearful battle of Torgau 
 only just saved Prussia from destruction. 
 It was followed by the retirement of the aUies 
 on all sides. Soon sifter the death of George 
 II. aU subsidies from England ceased, and so 
 exhausted were both sides, that no operations 
 of particular moment were undertaken. On 
 the Ehine, Eerdinand of Brunswick and the 
 French alternately advanced and retreated, and 
 the Eussians and Austrians were unable to 
 crush Frederick's remnant of an army, owing 
 to the desolation of the country. A double 
 series of negotiations had already begun, 
 those between England and France, and those 
 between Bussia and Austria on the one side, 
 and Prussia on the other. The former, in 
 spite of the opposition of Pitt and the outbreak 
 of the war with Spain, ripened into the 
 Treaty of Paris (q.v.) of 1763. The latter were 
 broken off by Austria, and the war was re- 
 sumed. The death of the Czarina Elizabeth, 
 in Jan., 1762, however, totally changed the 
 balance of afiairs, and Maria Thferesa, thus 
 left alone, was compelled to conclude the 
 Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763, by which 
 Frederick retained Silesia. The war, there- 
 fore, had effected but little change in Europe ; 
 but it had settled the question of the rivalry 
 of England and France in America and India, 
 decisively in favour of this country. 
 
 Carlyle, Frederick the Great ; Martin, ifisf. of 
 France ; Axneth, Mwria Tlieresia ; Brackenbury, 
 I f redericfc the Great ; Lecky, Kist. of Eng, ; Stan- 
 hope, Kist. ofEng.; Seeley, TheExpandon ofEng. 
 
 Severns, L. Septimtjs, Eoman Emperor 
 (193 — 211), is famous in British history for 
 his expedition to Britain in 208, his subdivi- 
 sion of the island into two provinces, his 
 building the wall which goes by his name 
 between the Solway Firth and the Tyne, 
 following the line of the vallum of Hadrian. 
 Soon after he died at York (211). 
 
 Seville, The Tkeaty of (Nov. 9, 1729), 
 settled for awhile the difficulties which had 
 been raised in Europe by the intrigues of 
 the Spanish minister, Don Eipperda, in op- 
 position to the Quadruple Alliance. The 
 question most diificult to arrange was that of 
 the cession of Gibraltar. This possession the 
 ministry were not unwilling to surrender, 
 provided an equivalent was given, but feared 
 opposition from the nation, which was 
 violently agitated on the subject, owing to 
 the publication of a letter of George I., in 
 which it had been vaguely promised. The 
 
 government therefore sent William Stanhope 
 to Spain, who succeeded in concluding the 
 treaty. He was aided by French mediation. 
 It was a defensive alliance between Eng- 
 land, Spain, and France, and subsequently 
 Holland. Spain revoked all the privileges 
 granted to Austrian subjects by the treaties 
 of Vienna, re-established English trade in 
 America on its former footing, and restored 
 aU captures. The Assiento was confirmed to 
 the South Sea Company, and arrangements- 
 were made for securing the succession of Parma 
 and Tuscany to the infant Don Carlos, by 
 substituting Spanish troops for the neutral 
 forces, which since the preliminaries had been 
 occupying those countries. Gibraltar was 
 not mentioned in the treaty, and this silence 
 was regarded as a renunciation of the claims 
 of Spain. " The Treaty of Seville," says Mr. 
 Lecky, " has been justly regarded as one of 
 the great triumphs of French diplomacy. It 
 closed the breach which had long divided the 
 courts of France and of Spain, and, at the 
 same time, it detached both England and 
 Spain from the Emperor, and left him isolated 
 in Europe. He resented it bitterly, protesting 
 against the introduction of Spanish teoops into 
 Italy as a violation of the Quadruple Alliance, 
 threatened to resist it by force, and delayed 
 the execution of this part of the treaty during 
 the whole of 1730." 
 
 Stanhope, Hist. ofEng., ch. xii. ; Coze, Bpam»h 
 Bourbons ; Koch and Schoell, Traith de Paix. 
 
 Sexl)1ir]l, Queen of Wessex (672), suc- 
 ceeded, on the death of her husband Cenwealh, 
 and reigned one year. She is remarkable 
 as affording the sole instance of a woman 
 obtaining the crown in Anglo-Saxon times. 
 WiUiam of Malmesbury says of her, " She 
 ruled her subjects vrith moderation, and over- 
 awed her enemies ; in short, she conducted all 
 things in such a manner that no difference was 
 discernible, except that of her sex." [Queen.] 
 Anglo-Saxon CTiron. ; William of Malmesbnry, 
 
 Seychelles, The, are a group of islands 
 in the Indian Ocean, which were formerly in 
 the possession of the Portuguese and French. 
 On the acquisition of Mauritius by the English 
 in 1810, the Seychelles were made a depen- 
 dency of that colony, together with the island 
 of Eodriguez. 
 
 Seyiaoiir, Sir Edwabd (J. 1633, d. 1708), 
 a descendant in the elder line of the Lord 
 Protector Somerset, was a strong Tory. He 
 was made Speaker of the House of Commons 
 in 1673 ; he was subsequently created Privy 
 Councillor and Treasurer of the Navy. He 
 opposed the Exclusion BiU, but soon after 
 the accession of James II. spoke against the 
 abrogation of the charters of towns, and also 
 against the maintenance of a standing army. 
 He joined the Prince of Orange, and was 
 left in command at Exeter. In the Con- 
 vention he would have been chosen Speaker 
 
Sey 
 
 ( 937 ) 
 
 Sha 
 
 had he not voted for a regency. However, 
 he took the oath of allegiance, and in 1692 
 he was placed on the Treasury Commission, 
 when he soon quarrelled wjth his colleagues 
 on questions of precedence, and in 1694 
 was dismissed from office. He was now ac- 
 cused of having received hrihes from the 
 East India Company for the renewal of their 
 charter. In 1697, exasperated at not being 
 appointed Speaker, he made a violent speech 
 on the election of Littleton, and went beyond 
 the bounds of moderation in his persecution 
 of an officer named Kirke, who had slain his 
 eldest son in a duel. In Queen Anne's reign 
 he was made Comptroller of the Palace. He 
 was dismissed from office in 1704 for his op- 
 position to the war with France. Seymour 
 was a man of great influence, wealth, and 
 debating power, but he was a shifty politician, 
 and his private character was bad. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng.; Biimet, Hist, of 
 HU Ovm Time, 
 
 Seymotir, or Sudblet, Thomas Lord 
 (d. 1549), brother of Protector Somerset, was 
 a man of great ambition, unprincipled in the 
 attainment of his ends. Made a peer and 
 Lord High Admiral of England by his brother, 
 he shortly afterwards married Catherine Parr, 
 the queen dowager, and utilised his improved 
 position to set the young king against his 
 brother, of whose power he was envious. He 
 sought aUies even among the debasera of the 
 coinage and the pirates in the channel. He 
 formed a plot to carry off Edward, and to drive 
 his brother from the protectorship, but his 
 plan was betrayed and Seymour was bribed to 
 remain quiet. On the death of Catherine 
 the admiral endeavoured without success to 
 obtain the hand of the Princess Elizabeth, 
 and formed fresh plans of violence against 
 his brother. At the end of 1548 Seymour's 
 proceedings became so threatening that he 
 was arrested and sent to the Tower, attainted 
 of high treason, and executed, March 27, 
 1S49. " He was," says Mr. Hallam, " a 
 dangerous and unprincipled man ; he had 
 courted the favour of the young king by 
 small presents of money, and appears beyond 
 question to have entertained a hope of marry- 
 ing the Princess Elizabeth, who had lived 
 much in his house during his short union 
 with the queen dowager. It was surmised 
 that this lady had been poisoned to make 
 room for a still nobler consort." Latimer 
 said of him that " the admiral was a man 
 furthest from the fear of Grod that ever he 
 knew or heard of in England." 
 
 Stowe, Annals ; Froade, Ei»t. of Eng. ; 
 Hallam, Const. Hist. 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 
 Eakl op {b. 1621, d. 1683), was the son of 
 Sir John Cooper and Anne, daughter of Sir 
 Anthony Ashley. He was educated at Oxford, 
 and in 1640 entered Parliament. At first he 
 espoused the cause of the Mng, and on the 
 outbreak of the Civil War he was placed in 
 HIST.-30* 
 
 command of Weymouth, but being superseded 
 in this office he went over to the Parliament, 
 by whom he was placed in command of the 
 forces in Dorsetshire. He sat in the Barebones 
 and the first Protectorate Parliaments, but 
 subsequently had some quarrel with Cromwell, 
 and was excluded from the Parhament of 1656. 
 He was a member of Eichard Cromwell's 
 Parliament, and on the restoration of the 
 Long Parliament he was made one of the 
 Council of State. He was one of the deputa- 
 tion sent over to the Hague to invite Charles 
 II. to return, and was elected to the Conven- 
 tion Parliament. In 1660 he was made 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, and in the next 
 year was made Lord Ashley. In 1667 the 
 Cabal ministry, of which he was a promi- 
 nent member, was formed, and in 1672 he 
 was made Earl of Shaftesbury and Lord 
 Chancellor. All the wrong-doings of the 
 Cabal ministry have been attributed to him, 
 but it is now proved that he had no share in 
 advising the closing of -the Exchequer, and 
 that in foreign policy his wish seems to have 
 been to have preserved the Triple Alliance. 
 The last lay lord chanceUor, as a judge, atoned 
 for want of knowledge of law by great impar- 
 tiality and acumen. The passing of the Test 
 Act occasioned the downfall of the Cabal ad- 
 ministration in 1673, and Shaftesbury at once 
 joined the opposition and conunenced in- 
 trigues with Monmouth. In 1677 he brought 
 himself into collision with the crown on the 
 question of the prorogation of Parliament. 
 He was in consequence sent to the Tower, 
 and remained there for twelve months. The 
 year 1678 is memorable for the pretended 
 Popish Plot, of which Shaftesbury has been 
 accused of being the inventor, and whether 
 this be so or no, he was certainly one of the 
 chief supporters of the violent attack upon 
 the Catholics, and especially upon the Duke 
 of York. In 1679 he was made President of 
 the Council, devised by Temple for carrying 
 on the government, but only held office for 
 six months, his strong support of the Ex- 
 clusion Bill rendering him objectionable to 
 the king. It was during this brief tenure 
 of office that he got the Habeas Corpus Act 
 (q.v.) passed, which was generally known at 
 the time as Lord Shaftesbury's Act. In 1680 
 he made an attempt to impeach the Duke of 
 York as a Popish recusant, but he was foiled 
 by the judges suddenly dismissing the grand 
 jury. In 1681 he attended the Oxford Parlia- 
 ment with a large body of followers, many of 
 whom were armed; and this violence, to- 
 gether with the palpable lies disseminated 
 by Oates and other informers, did much to 
 destroy his influence, and Charles committed 
 him to the Tower. He was indicted for high 
 treason, but the grand jury ignored the bill, 
 and he was released. He now plotted with 
 Sydney, Eussell, and others to effect a change 
 of government, probably desiring to place 
 Monmouth on the throne ; but the conspiracy 
 
Slia 
 
 ( 938 ) 
 
 Sha 
 
 being discovered, lie fled to Holland in No- 
 vember, 1682, where he died two months after. 
 Shaftesbury is the Achitophel of Drj'^den's 
 satire, where he is thus described — 
 
 " For close designs and crooked counsels fit, 
 Sagacious, bold, and turbulent of wit ; 
 Eestless, unfixed ih principles and place. 
 In power displeased, impatient oi: disgrace." 
 
 Macaulay practically accepts Dryden's cha- 
 racter, but Ranke regards Shaftesbury with 
 greater respect, and considers that he logically 
 followed the principle of toleration all through 
 his life. 
 
 Christie's Life of Shaftesbury, which puts his 
 conduct in the best light. Banke, Sist. of Eng. ; 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 [F. S. P.] 
 
 Shah Soojah was the brother of Zemaun 
 Shah, King of Cabul, whom he succeeded in 
 1802. In 1808 Mr. Elphinstoue was sent by 
 Lord Minto to negotiate a treaty of defence 
 with Shah Soojah. During the negotiations 
 an expedition which he had sent to recover 
 Cashmere was defeated, and his brother Mah- 
 mood took advantage of this to seize Cabul 
 and Candahar, and threaten Peshawur, Shah 
 Soojah's capital. Shah Soojah thereupon 
 solicited help from the English. In 1810, 
 however, he was totally defeated by his rival, 
 and fled across the Indus. After remaining 
 some time in captivity in Cashmere, he sought 
 refuge with Runjeet Singh, who subjected him 
 to cruelties in order to obtain the Koh-i-noor 
 from him. He succeeded at length in escaping 
 in disguise to Loodiana, where the British go- 
 vernment allowed him a pension of 50,000 
 rupees a year. In 1833 he was encouraged by 
 the treachery of Dost Mahomed's brothers to 
 make an effort to recover his throne. He in vain 
 asked help of the English. He thereupon con- 
 cluded a treaty with Runjeet Singh, guarantee- 
 ing him all his conquests beyond the Indu^ on 
 condition of his support. He marched success- 
 fully through Scinde to Candahar, where he was 
 attacked and utterly beaten by Dost Mahomed. 
 In July, 1834, he fled to Beloochistan, and in 
 March, 1835, he returned to Loodiana. In 
 1838, on the failure of the mission to Cabul, 
 a triple alliance was concluded between the 
 English, Runjeet and Shah Soojah, for the 
 deposition of Dost Mahomed, and the re-es- 
 tablishment of the Shah, on the condition that 
 the possessions of Runjeet across the Indus 
 were guaranteed. The' Shah, however, had 
 no desire to be carried into Cabul by British 
 bayonets. All he wanted was British gold. 
 Therefore he did not contemplate the 
 Afghan expedition (q.v.). On April 25, 1839, 
 he entered Cabul unopposed. In 1840 he es- 
 tablished the order of the Dooranee empire 
 to decorate his English supporters with. 
 During his residence at Cabul he insisted 
 that the Bala Hissar, the citadel, in which he 
 had placed his zenana, should not be profaned 
 by English troops, and thus it was left de- 
 fenceless. He was thoroughly unpopular, 
 
 owing to the cessions to Runjeet Singh, and 
 was merely supported by British bayonets. 
 In 1842 the last survivor of the English 
 garrison at Cabul reached Jellalabad. Shah 
 Soojah still remained ostensibly head of the 
 Afghan government, continuing to occupy the 
 Bala Hissar. He endeavoured to keep friendly 
 both with the English by professing unaltered 
 attachment, and with the chiefs by professing 
 devotion to the national cause. The latter 
 distrusted him, and desired him to prove his 
 sincerity by heading the army destined to 
 expel General Sale from Jellallabad. On 
 April 5, 1842, after an oath of safe-conduct 
 from Zemaun Khan, he descended from the 
 citadel decked out in all the insignia of royalty, 
 and was shot dead by a body of matchlock 
 men whom Zemaun Khan's son had placed in 
 ambush without his father's knowledge. 
 
 Kaye, Affghan War ; Abbott, AJfghan War. 
 
 Shannon, Henry Boyle, Earl of, was 
 for twenty-five years Speaker of the Irish 
 House of Commons (from 1733 to 1756). 
 He was the chief leader of the Irish 
 patriot party, and practically commanded a 
 majority in the House. He at first took the 
 lead against the government in the inquirj' 
 into the pension Ust, but was bought ofi by 
 being elevated to the peerage, and by the 
 grant of a pension of £2,000 per year. He 
 died in 1764, and was succeeded by his son 
 Richard as second earl. 
 
 Shannon, Richard Boyle, 2nd E.^rl, 
 married the daughter of Speaker Ponsonby, 
 and in close union with him endeavoured to 
 control the Castle. In 1770 he lost his office 
 at the head of the ordnance department, but 
 in 1772 the Castle again made terms with him. 
 He was enormously rich and an excellent 
 landlord. He died in 1807. The Earls of 
 Shannon, together with the Ponsonbys, Beres- 
 fords, and the Duke of Leinster, were the 
 real rulers of the Irish Parliament during the 
 greater part of George III.'s reign. 
 
 Shariugton, Sir "William, was master 
 of the Mint at Bristol, and one of the party of 
 Lord Seymour of Sudeley (q.v.), for whose 
 service he coined £100,000 of base money. 
 He was arrested in Feb., 1549, and attainted 
 the same time as Seymour, though he subse- 
 quently obtained a pardon. 
 
 Sharp, Jack {d. 1431), was the real or 
 assumed name of a Lollard leader who, in 
 1431, formed ». plot which had for its osten- 
 sible object the disendowment of the Church. 
 He was captured and put to death at Oxford. 
 
 Sharpe, James, Archbishop of St. Andrew's 
 (b. 1618, d. 1679), was the agent of the Resolu- 
 tioners to Cromwell in 1656, and was one 
 of the leading Presbyterian ministers in Scot- 
 land. He was in favour of the restoration of 
 Charles II., who appointed him in 1660 one of 
 the royal chaplains. In 1661 he was sent to 
 
Slia 
 
 { 939 ) 
 
 She 
 
 London by the Prestyteriana to beg for the 
 establishment of Fresbyterianism in Scotland, 
 but he was bribed to betray his cause, and. 
 returned to Scotland as Archbishop of St. 
 Andrews, -with the full determination to do 
 everything in his power to further episcopacy. 
 He was one of the chief persecutors of the 
 Covenanters, and in 1668 he was shot at, but 
 escaped without injury. His oppressions and 
 cruelties were so great that in 1679 he was 
 murdered by a band of Covenanters under 
 Hackston of Eathillet on Magus Muir, near 
 St. Andrews. 
 
 Burton, Hist, o/ Scotland; 
 
 Sharpe, Samuel, was one of the leaders 
 and chief instigators of the slaves in the 
 Jamaican rebellion of 1831 — 32. [Jamaica.] 
 It was owing to his ability that the rebels 
 were enabled to gain the few temporary suc- 
 cesses they did. He was executed at the close 
 of the insurrection. 
 
 Shav, Doctor, was brother to Sir Edward 
 Shaw, Lord Mayor in 1483. He had high 
 repute for learning and sagacity, and was em- 
 ployed by Eichard, Duke of Gloucester, to 
 preach a sermon at Paul's Cross, to ad- 
 vocate the latter' s claim to the crown. 
 Accordingly, on June 22, he delivered a 
 sermon, taMng his text from the fourth 
 chapter of the Book of Wisdom, in which he 
 impugned the validity of Edward IV.'s mar- 
 riage with Elizabeth Woodville on the ground 
 of a precontract with Lady Elizabeth Butler, 
 daughter of the Earl of Shrewsbury. From 
 this he adduced the inference that Edward V. 
 and his brother were illegitimate, and there- 
 fore, as Clarence's family were attainted and 
 incapable of succeeding, Eichard was the 
 rightful sovereign. 
 
 Shazton, Bishop of Salisbury {d. eirea 
 1356), was a prelate who was for some time 
 associated vrith Latimer. Bishop of Worcester, 
 in a determined opposition to the merciless 
 statute of the Six Articles (q.v.). On his 
 resignation of his see rather than subscribe to 
 the articles, Shaxton was thrown into prison 
 as an obstinate sacramentarian heretic; he 
 subsequently, however, found it advisable to 
 conform to the new opinions, and signalised 
 his conversion by preaching at the burning of 
 several more determined heretics than he had 
 proved to be, his most notable appearance 
 in this way being at the burning of Anne 
 Askew. From the fact that he was in 
 receipt up to 1556 of a crown pension of 
 £66 13s. 4d., he must have survived till that 
 date at least, but the exact year of his death 
 is unknown. 
 
 Shef5.eld, Edmund, 1st Lord (d. 1.549), 
 was second in command to the Marquis of 
 Northampton when he was engaged in sup- 
 pressing the Norfolk rebellion of 1649 : he 
 was killed by the insurgents whilst attempting 
 
 to hold Norwich against them. Lord Sheffield 
 was created a peer by Edward VI. (1547). 
 
 Sheffield, Edmund, Lord {d. 1646), one 
 of the commanders of the English fleet which 
 defeated the Spanish Armada, was knighted 
 for his services, and subsequently became 
 Governor of Brille in the Low Countries. He 
 was created Earl of Mulgrave by James I. 
 
 Sheffield was the seat of a castle which 
 was built probably by the family of De Love- 
 lot during the twelfth century, and which 
 passed from the Furnivals and Talbots into the 
 possession of the Earl of Arundel at the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century. The castle 
 was burnt by John d'Ey ville during the Barons' 
 War (1266). It served as the prison of Mary 
 Queen of Scots from November, 1570, to Sep- 
 tember, 1584. It was occupied for the Parlia- 
 ment at the beginning of the Civil War, but 
 abandoned in 1643, and held for the king by 
 Sir William Saville. In August, 1644, it was 
 captured by Major-General Crawford, and in 
 1646 demolished by order of Parliament. The 
 town was famous for its cutlery as early as 
 the fifteenth century, and its Cutlers' 'Com- 
 pany was incorporated by Act of Parliament 
 in 1624. In 1685 its population was estimated 
 to be about 4,000, in 1760 it had increased to 
 something between 20,000 and 30,000, and in 
 1881 to 284,000. By the Eeform BiU of 1832 
 it was enfranchised and given two members, 
 while in 1843 it received a charter of in- 
 corporation as a municipal borough. It was 
 the scene of some serious trades-union out- 
 rages in 1867. [Sheppield Outrages.] 
 
 Sheffield Outrages. In 1867 a Com- 
 mission was appointed to inquire into the 
 trades-union outrages, and the organisation 
 and rules of these societies. Sheffield had 
 long been conspicuous as a centre of trades- 
 union tyranny of the worst kind. When a 
 workman had made himself obnoxious to the 
 leaders of a, local trades union, some sudden 
 misfortune was sure to befall him. His house 
 was set on fire ; gunpowder was exploded 
 under his windows ; an infernal machine was 
 flung into his bedroom at night. The man 
 himself, supposing him to have escaped with 
 his life, felt convinced that in the attempt to 
 destroy him he saw the hand of the union ; 
 his neighbours were of his opinion ; but want 
 of evidence, and fear of the consequences, 
 made it impossible to punish or even find out 
 the offenders. The secretaries of the trades 
 unions indignantly denied all these statements, 
 alleged the beneficial nature of their societies, 
 and demanded an inquiry into their rules and 
 organisation. In consequence the demand 
 was granted. Three examiners were sent 
 down with Mr. Overend, Q.C., at their head. 
 A searching inquiry, and the offer of a free 
 pardon to any one, even the actual offenders, 
 who would reveal full particulars of the. 
 crimes, elicited full evidence 'that most of 
 these outrages -were perpetrated at the com- 
 
She 
 
 ( 940 ) 
 
 She 
 
 raand of some union, tliat of the imions the 
 saw-grinders deserving the most intamoua 
 notoriety. It was remarkable that the secre- 
 tary of this union, a person named Broad- 
 head, had the most indignantly protested the 
 innocence of his union, while it was proved 
 by the evidence of a man named Hallam that 
 the murder of Linley, an obnoxious workman, 
 ■was done by Broadhead's especial instructions. 
 The crimes -were in most cases regularly 
 ordered, arranged, and paid for by the 
 unions. The actual men who committed 
 them were merely agents of the union, and 
 wholly uninfluenced by personal f eelingagainst 
 the victim. Broadhead at last had the ef- 
 frontery to come before the examiners him- 
 self, and explain the whole system of villany 
 of which he had been the mainspring. 
 
 Ann. Meg. ; Hansard, ParHamtjntary Se'povts ; 
 Macarthy, Hist, of Our Own Time; Howelli 
 Conjiiot of Ca-pital and Labour ; 'i'imes, IS67. 
 
 Shelbume, Lord. [Lansdownb.] 
 
 Sheldon, Gilbert (i. 1598, d. 1677), was 
 a native of Staffordshire, and became Warden 
 of all Souls' College, Oxford, in 1635. He 
 was one of the royal commissioners at the 
 Treaty of Uxbridge, and in 1647 was deprived 
 of his wardenship. On the Restoration he 
 was made Bishop of London, and on the death 
 of Juxon in 1663 was advanced to the Arch- 
 bishopric of Canterbury. He was a strong 
 High Churchman, and rigorous in carrying 
 out the Act of Uniformity, a patron of learn- 
 ing, and the builder of the theatre of the 
 TJiuversity of Oxford. 
 
 Hook, lAvea of the ArcJibishojps of Camterhury, 
 
 Shere Ali was the son of Dost Mahomed, 
 Ameer of Afghanistan. On Dost Mahomed's 
 death (1863) a aeries of struggles ensued 
 for the succession between Shere Ali and 
 his brothers, Afzool and Azim. In one 
 of these Shere Ali was deposed, and Afzool 
 Khan became ruler. He did not live long 
 afterwards, and his son, Abdool Rahman, 
 waived his claim in favour of his uncle, 
 Azim Khan, who had been for some time a 
 fugitive in English territory. Ultimately, 
 however, Shere Ali regained his throne, and 
 the opposing faction was overcome. In 1870 
 Shere AH visited India, and met the Viceroy, 
 Lord Mayo, at Umballa, where the latter's 
 generous conduct went a long way to ensure 
 friendly relations with the Ameer. In 1876, 
 however, began a series of events which pro- 
 duced the Afghan mission of Sir Lewis Pelly, 
 and gradually led up to the second Afghan 
 War (q.v.). 
 
 Shere Singh, one of the most influential 
 chiefs of the Punjab, joined the insurrection 
 of Moolraj, Sept., 1848. This was followed 
 by a general insurrection known as the second 
 Sikh War. Successful at the actions of Eam- 
 nagur and Sadoolapore, owing to the bad 
 generalship of Lord Gougb, he was beaten at 
 
 ChiUianwalla, but the defeat was a practical 
 victory, so much did it elevate the character 
 of the Sikhs for prowess. The rout at 
 Guzerat, however, destroyed all his hopes, 
 and he surrendered to the English, March 12, 
 1849. [Sikhs.] 
 
 Shere Singh was the reputed son of Eun- 
 jeet Singh, on whose death, 1839, followed by 
 that of his son, Khurruk Singh, and gi-andson, 
 Nao Nihal Singh, in 1840, Shere Singh be- 
 came regent of the Punjab in conjunction 
 with Chand Kowur, the widow of Khurruk 
 Singh. In 1841 Shere Singh, with the help 
 of the army, attained supreme power. In 
 1843, during the anarchy which followed, he 
 was assassinated by a discontented chief. 
 
 [SiKHS.] 
 
 Sheridan, Eichakd Brinsley {b. 1751, 
 d. 1816), was born in Dublin. His parents 
 iaving come over to England, the boy was sent 
 to Harrow. After leaving school he spent 
 several years in idleness, till stimulated by 
 the straits to which a runaway match had re- 
 duced him, he applied himself vigorously to the 
 composition of plays, the resnlt being the pro- 
 duction of three of the best comedies in our 
 language. But in 1780, having reached the 
 height of his ambition in the region of the 
 drama, he aspired to politics, and was elected 
 member for Stafford. His first attempt in the 
 House was a failure, but on the subject of the 
 employment of the military in civil distur- 
 bances Sheridan gave some signs of his gxeat 
 oratorical powers. His abilities were so far 
 recognised by the Whig party that on North's 
 fall he was appointed one of the under- 
 secretaries in Eockingham's ministry, and 
 was subsequently Secretary to the Treasury 
 in the Coalition. On Pitt coming into power 
 Sheridan went into opposition, and very soon 
 rose to the first eminence as a debater and 
 speaker. But the occasion of his greatest 
 oratorical triumph took place in 1787, when 
 he presented his charge " relative to the 
 Begum Princesses of Oude " against Warren 
 Hastings. Even Pitt allowed his speech to 
 have " surpassed all the eloquence of ancient 
 and modern times." In the rupture which 
 occurred between Fox and Burke on the 
 subject of the French Eevolution, Sheridan 
 adhered to his earlier friend, Fox, and himself 
 too incurred the hostility of Burke. In 1794, as 
 conductor of the impeachment of Hastings, 
 he made his reply on the Begum charge, and 
 again astonished his hearers by a marvel- 
 lous display of the most brilliant eloquence, 
 sustained before the Lords through four 
 whole days. When Fox retired from Parlia- 
 mentary life, carrying off several of his 
 devoted followers, Sheridan still maintained 
 his post in the opposition, and, perhaps, never 
 spoke with more vigour and power than in 
 the debates on the Irish rebellion and the 
 Union. In 1804 he was appointed by his 
 boon companion, the Prince Eegent, to be 
 
She 
 
 ( 941 ) 
 
 She 
 
 receiver of the Duchy of Cornwall. When 
 on Pitt's death Fox and Lord G-reuville 
 formed a government, Sheridan was rewarded 
 for his long fidelity to his party by the 
 treasurership of the navy, a lucrative but 
 subordinate post. On Fox's death Sheridan 
 succeeded him in the representation of West- 
 minster, but was next year driven to a less 
 conspicuous constituency. On the passing of 
 the Regency Bill he was admitted to extra- 
 ordinary intimacy and confidence by the 
 regent, and his own party seem to have been 
 not without suspicions as to integrity. In 
 the next year he unfortunately confirmed 
 their fears by acting in an indefensible 
 manner towards the chiefs of that party when 
 negotiations were proceeding with them after 
 the death of Perceval. Always a very bad 
 manager of his own affairs, an expensive 
 election in 1812 brought them into hopeless 
 confusion. The last four years of his life 
 were spent in miserable attempts to evade 
 the pursuits of his creditors. He died on the 
 7th of July, 1816. The charge of being 
 a mere political adventurer, whict has been 
 brought against Sheridan, is sufficiently re- 
 futed by the consistent fidelity which he 
 displayed towards his party, more than once 
 from a mere sense of honour towards it re- 
 fusing to accept a place under others. This 
 was especially the case in 1804, when he was 
 offered a place by Addingtou, with whom he 
 agreed in his general policy, but would not 
 accept it on scrupulous grounds of obligation 
 to -Stand by the Whigs. As a statesman he 
 has no claim to permanent fame, but his name 
 will live in. history as one of the most brilliant 
 of a group of orators whom the world has 
 never seen surpassed at any one period. 
 
 Moore, Life of Sheridan ; Bassell, L^fe of Fox ; 
 Pellew, iife of Lord Sidmouth; Lord Holland, 
 Manioirs of the Whig Party; Hansard, Debates; 
 Sheridan, Speeches, 
 
 Sheriff. This officer, the scir-gerefa, or 
 shire-reeve, appears before the Conquest as 
 nominated by the crown, though in very 
 early times he may have been chosen by the 
 people in the folkmoot. He acted as the king's 
 steward, collecting and administering the royal 
 dues in his shire, and presiding over the shire- 
 moot, or assembly of freeholders, which met 
 twice a year to transact fiscal and judicial 
 business. By the Normans the sheriff was 
 identified with the viscount {vieecomes), and 
 the shire was called a county. In order to 
 coTiiiteract feudal tendencies, the Norman 
 kings increased the power of the sheriffs, 
 sometimes giving the sheriffdom of several 
 counties to one man, or granting the office as 
 an inheritance. Under their rule the sheriff 
 was the reijresentative of the crown in judicial, 
 fiscal, and military affairs. Besides presiding 
 in the county court, he, or his substitute, held 
 a court in each hundred twice a year for 
 view of frank-pledsR, called the sheriff's toum 
 and leet. He collected the kings dues from 
 
 his shire, and twice in each year, at Easter 
 and at Michaelmas, accounted at the exche- 
 quer for the form or rent at which he farmed " 
 the ancient profits of the count)' from the 
 crown, and for the sums arising from taxation, 
 feudal rights, jurisdiction, and the sale of 
 offices. In his military capacity he led the 
 posse comitatus, and the lesser tenants of the 
 crown. The vast power exercised by men 
 holding the sheriffdom of several counties 
 was injurious to the interests both of the 
 crown and of the people, and when, as was 
 sometimes the case, the king's justices, to 
 whom the sheriffs had to render their accounts, 
 were themselves made sherift's, they had 
 ample opportunities for fraud. The adminis- 
 trative vigour of Henry II. was displayed by 
 the Inquest of Sheriffs (q.v.), a strict scrutiny 
 into the conduct of these officers, made by his 
 orders in 1170. After this inquest all the 
 sheriffs in England were removed from their 
 offices, though several of them were after- 
 wards restored. By this time most of the 
 hereditary sheriffdoms had been done away, 
 and the office of sheriff was held over one or 
 two counties by local magnates. In place of 
 those sheriffs who were not restored Henry 
 appointed men whom he could trust. Even 
 after this date hereditary sheriffdoms were 
 occasionally granted by the crown. Robert of 
 Vieuxpont, for example, was made hereditary 
 sheriff of Westmoreland by John, and his 
 descendants continued to hold the office until 
 the death of the Earl of Thanet without issue 
 in 1849, when hereditary sheriffdoms were 
 abolished by statute, 13 & U Vict., c. 30. 
 , By a charter of Henry I. the citizens of 
 London obtained the privilege of electing 
 their own sheriff, and other boroughs gained 
 by fine or charter the right to collect their 
 own/enn without the sheriff's interference. 
 
 Thg importance of the sheriff's office was 
 curtailed during the administration of Hubert 
 Walter, for in 1194 sheriffs were forbidden 
 to act as justices in their own shires, and the 
 office of coroners to hold pleas of the crown 
 was instituted. A further step in the same 
 direction was taken by art. 24 of Magna 
 Charta, which forbade sheriffs to hold pleas of 
 the crown. By the provisions made at Oxford 
 in 1258 sheriffdoms were to be subject to an 
 audit, and were to be held for one year only. /' 
 An attempt was made the next year to 
 gain a share in the election of these officers 
 for the freeholders. This privilege was granted 
 by Edward in 1300, where the office was not 
 of fee or hereditary, but was withdrawn in 
 the next reign. The limitation of the tenure 
 of office to one year, enforced by statutes of 
 Edward III. and Richard II., made the right 
 of appointment a matter of small consequence. 
 The nomination was made in the Exchequer 
 on the morrow of All Souls' Day, changed by 
 24 Geo. II., c. 48, to the morrow of St. 
 Martin's. Complaints having been made of 
 the high rent at which the sheriffs let the 
 
She 
 
 ( 942 ) 
 
 Shi 
 
 liundreds, they were ordered by 4 Ed. III., 
 c. 15, to adhere to the ancient ferins, and 
 their power in this respect waa abolished by 
 23 Hen. VI., c. 9. The remains of their 
 criminal jurisdiction were swept away by 
 1 Ed. IV., c. 15. Their military functions 
 were taken away by the institution of lords 
 heutenant in the reign of Mary, and some 
 acts of extortion were met by 29 Ehz., c. 4, 
 limiting the amount they might take on levy- 
 ing an execution. A person assigned for 
 sheriff must by 13 & 14 Car. II., c. 21, have 
 sufficient lands within the county to answer 
 to the king and the people. In his judicial 
 capacity the sheriff stiU holds a county court 
 for the election of members of Parliament, 
 and for a few other purposes. As keeper of 
 the king's peace, he is the first man in the 
 county, and takes precedence of any noble-' 
 man, and in his ministerial capacity he is 
 charged with the execution of all civil and 
 criminal processes and sentences. Nearly all 
 the duties of his office, however, are fulfilled 
 by an under-sheriff, an of&cer whom he is 
 compelled by 3 & 4 WiU. IV., c. 99, to appoint. 
 The inferior officers of the county, such as 
 gaolers, are reckoned as his servants, and 
 until 40 & 41 Vict., c. 21, he was to some 
 extent liable for the escape of a prisoner. 
 
 The office of sheriff existed in Scotland as 
 early as the reign of David I., and is men- 
 tioned in the laws of that king. It appears 
 to have been an office of inheritance until 
 20 Geo. II., u. 43, and has long been purely 
 nominal, the title being generally borne by 
 the lord heutenant. The sheriff depute, on 
 the other hand, holds an office of great im- 
 portance. He is appointed by the crown for 
 life or good behaviour iad vitam aut ad eulpam)^ 
 and is the chief judge of the county. His 
 jurisdiction extends to all personal actions on 
 contract and obligation, to actions relating to 
 heritable rights up to £1,000 value, to aU 
 matters not belonging to any other court, and 
 to suits about small debts. He has also a 
 criminal jurisdiction, and hears serious cases 
 under the direction of a crown councU. The 
 last capital sentence passed by a sheriff was at 
 Glasgow in 1788. By 40 & 41 Vict., c. 50, 
 the appointment of the sheriff substitute was 
 taken from the sheriff depute, and vested in 
 the crown. 
 
 Stubbs, C(mst. Sist. i., passim, ii. 78, 207, 
 and iii. 403 ; Reeves, Hist, of English Law ; 
 "Wbarton, Law Lexicon; Chitty, Collection of 
 Statutes; Barclay, Digest of Scotch Law. 
 
 [W. H.] 
 
 SherifEmuir, The Battle or (Nov. 13, 
 1715), was fought between the Royalist army 
 commanded by the Duke of Argyle, and the 
 clans which had risen in favour of the Pre- 
 tender under Mar. The former included 
 about 3,500 regulars, the latter 9,000 High- 
 landers. The Macdoualda, who formed the 
 centre of the Jacobite army, defeated the left 
 wing of their enemies and drove them to 
 
 Stirling: but Argyle and the dragoons had 
 simultaneously defeated the left wing of 
 Mar's army. But unable to withstand a rear 
 attack from the Highland right and centre, he 
 also contrived a dexterous retreat to Stirling. 
 The victory of the Highlanders was, however, 
 in no respect decisive. Sheriffimuir is in 
 Perthshire, on the north slope of the Ochils, 
 two miles from Dunblane. 
 
 Sheriffs, The Great Inquest op (1170). 
 On Henry II.'s return from Fraiice in this 
 year he was met with loud complaints of the 
 exactions of the sheriffs. This afforded him 
 a good opportunity for curtailing the power 
 of these functionaries, and he proceeded to 
 issue a commission to inquire into the truth 
 of these grievances, the accused sheriffs being 
 meanwhile suspended from their offices. The 
 Commissioners were to inquire whether the 
 sheriffs had administered justice fairly, whether 
 they had taken bribes, whether the Assize of 
 Clarendon had been properly carried out, and 
 whether the aids and other taxes had been 
 equitably levied. They were also to inquire 
 into the condition of the crown lands, and to 
 make a list of those persons who had not as 
 yet done homage to the king and his son. 
 The result of the inquiry was the acquittal 
 of the sheriffs, but they were not restored to 
 their offices, and their places were fiHed by 
 officers of the Exchequer. 
 Stubbs, Select ChaHers. 
 
 Sherstone, The Battle op (1016), fought 
 between Edmund Ironside and Canute, after 
 two days' hard fighting, resulted in a drawn 
 engagement. Sherstone is five and a half 
 miles west of Malmesbury. 
 
 Sherwin (<?. 1581), a Catholic priest, was 
 indicted before Sir Christopher Wray at the 
 same time as Edmund Campian and Bryant 
 for compassing and imagining the queen's 
 death. He was executed in their company at 
 Tyburn. 
 
 Ship-money. Before the Conquest the 
 navy was iumished by the levy of ships on 
 the counties in proportion to the number of 
 hundreds contained in each shire. Under the 
 Plantagenets the port towns and the coast 
 counties were called on to furnish ships and 
 men. To this was added the royal navy, a 
 mercenary force paid by the king, which was 
 the beginning of the permanent navy. As 
 late aa 1626 the fleet collected for the expedi- 
 tion to Cadiz waa got together by contingents 
 from the sea-ports. In 1634 the position of 
 foreign affairs suggested to Charles I. the neces- 
 sity of raising a fleet in order to maintain the 
 sovereignty of the seas, assert the ownership 
 of the North Sea fisheries, prevent the French 
 from capturing Dunkirk, and secure the co- 
 operation of Spain for the restoration of the 
 Palatinate. Noy, the Attorney-General sug- 
 gested that money for the equipment of ships 
 should be levied from the coast towns. The 
 
Shi 
 
 I 943) 
 
 Sho 
 
 first writ was issued in Oct., 1634, and after 
 some remonstrance from the Lord Mayor of 
 London, generally submitted to. Next year 
 a 'second writ was issued by which the inland 
 towns and counties were also required to con- 
 tribute. There was considerable opposition, 
 and Charles obtained from ten of the judges 
 a general opinion that the levy of ship-money 
 from aU was lawful (Dec, 1635). A third 
 writ was issued in Oct., 1636, and called forth 
 still stronger opposition, which even a second 
 opinion from the judges in the king's favour 
 (Feb., 1637) could not still. A fourth writ 
 was issued in the autumn of 1637, but none iu 
 1638, and in Jan., 1639, the sum demjinded 
 in the fifth writ was only about a third of the 
 amount asked in previous years, but in the 
 next year the government, for the second 
 Scotch war, returned to the full amount of 
 the earlier assessment, i.e., about £200,000. 
 It was by the second of these writs that a 
 ship of 450 tons, manned and equipped for 
 six months, or the sum of £4,500, was de- 
 manded from Buckinghamshire. Hampden's 
 trial took place with respect to the twenty 
 shillings due from lands in the parish of 
 Stoke Mandeville. The argument on the 
 point of law began in Nov., 1637, and 
 judgment was finally given in June, 1638. 
 [Hampden.] Ship-money was vigorously at- 
 tacked in the Short Parliament by Pym and 
 GlanviUe ; and Charles, by the advice of 
 Strafiord, was wiUiiig to allow the judgment 
 to be carried before the House of Lords upon 
 a writ of error, and there reversed. But 
 the question of the abolition of the illegal 
 military charges, and other things, prevented 
 an agreement. When the Long Parliament 
 met, the House of Commons on Dec. 7, 1640, 
 the House of Lords on Jan. 20, 1641, agreed 
 to resolutions pronouncing the levy of ship- 
 money illegal. A bill declaring this was 
 . brought in by Selden on June 8, 1641, and 
 received the king's assent on Aug. 7. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 1803—1642; Hallam, 
 Const. Hist. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Shippen, "William (S. 1672), who first 
 sat in Parliament in 1707, was distinguished 
 throughout his life for his uncompromising 
 Jacobitisra. In 1715 he attacked Lord Towns- 
 hend's ministry on the ground that govern- 
 ment was conducted by means of a standing 
 army. In 1718 he was sent to the Tower for 
 remarking that the only infelicity in his 
 majesty's (George I.) reign was that he was 
 ignorant of our language and constitution. He 
 vigorously opposed Walpole's measures for 
 the restoration of public credit in 1720 [South 
 Sea Company] on the ground that they were 
 too lenient. During these years he had led 
 a small body of about fifty Jacobites, who 
 together with the High Tories and discon- 
 tented Whigs formed the opposition to Wal- 
 pole's ministry. [Walpole.] During the wild 
 intrigues of 1740 he was not consulted by the 
 
 Jacobite emissary. Lord Barrymore, as he 
 was generally considered a weak conspirator. 
 In 1741, when the motion for the dismissal of 
 Walpole was brought forward, he left the House 
 with thirty-four of his friends, saying that he 
 did not care what minister was in and what 
 out. He indirectly aided Walpole by pro- 
 posing that his majesty might be ■ entreated 
 not to involve the country in war for the sake 
 of his foreign dominions. On the fall of 
 Walpole, Shippen continued in opposition. 
 He has been well called " downright " Ship- 
 pen. " His reputation," says Stanhope, 
 " grew much more from his courage, his in- 
 corruptibility, his good humour and. frank- 
 ness of purpose, than from any superior 
 eloquence or talent." He always had a per- 
 sonal regard for Walpole, and was accustomed 
 to say " Robin and I are two honest men." 
 
 Sliirley v.PaggjTHECASE of (1675— 7). 
 This was an appeal to the Lords from the 
 Court of Chancer}', the legality of which the 
 Commons denied, resisting it principally be- 
 cause one of the parties in this particular 
 case was a member of their House. A quarrel 
 ensued between the two Houses, which was 
 only terminated by their dissolution. The 
 case was not proceeded with, but the appellate 
 jurisdiction of the Lords in Equity cases was 
 never again denied. 
 
 Shoojah-ood Dowlah (<^. 1775) suc- 
 ceeded to the vice-royalty of Oude (1754). 
 He joined, Ali Gohur, the Prince Royal of 
 Delhi, in his invasion of Bengal (1758), and 
 besieged Allahabad. The advance of CUve, 
 however, easily drove back the invasion. In 
 1759 he became Vizier to the Great Mogul, 
 while his great power and wealth made him 
 practically independent. In 1760 he joined 
 Shah AUum in his invasion of Bengal, but 
 was defeated by the Enghsh at Patna. He 
 assisted Meer Cossim (1763) after the mas- 
 sacre at Patna, but was utterly beaten at 
 Buxar by Mimro. His dominions were re- 
 stored to him by Clive, except Corah and 
 AUahabad (1765). 
 
 Shore, Jane ((?. circa 1509), is said to 
 have been the wife of a London goldsmith, 
 and to have become one of Edward IV. 's 
 mistresses, about 1470. After the king's 
 death she lived with Lord Hastings, and in 
 1483 was accused by Richard, Duke of Glou- 
 cester, of conspiring to injure him by sorcery, 
 but the real reason of his attack upon her 
 seems to have been that she was used as a poli- 
 tical agent and go-between by the Hastings 
 and Woodville party. Richard caused her 
 to be brought before the ecclesiastical courts, 
 where she was sentenced to do open penance 
 in the streets of London for her incontinent 
 life. After the death of Hastings she foimd 
 a new protector in the Marquis of Dorset, 
 but after his banishment she was imprisoned 
 at Ludgate, where her beauty seems to have 
 
Sho 
 
 ( 944) 
 
 Sbj: 
 
 captivated the king's solicitor, one Thomas 
 Lyons, who apparently married her. 
 
 Shore, Sir John (*. 1751, d. 1834), was a 
 distinguished member of the Indian Civil 
 Service, and for some time one of the Council 
 at Calcutta, in which capacity he originated 
 the idea of the revenue settlement of 1793. 
 [Land Settlement.] He succeeded Lord 
 Oornwallis (1793), and was created a baronet. 
 He determined on non-intervention in the 
 aifairs of the native princes, and especially 
 of the Mahrattas. The latter prepared for 
 war with the Nizam to settle old grievances. 
 Shore, regarding the defection of one ally as 
 productive of the dissolution of the Triple 
 Alliance of 1790, refused to assist the Nizam, 
 and allowed him to be crushed by the 
 Mahrattas in the Kurdlah campaign. The 
 result of this defection of the English was 
 greatly to increase the power of the Mah- 
 rattas, the audacity of Tippoo, and the de- 
 pendence of the Nizam, who now fell entirely 
 into the hands of a French officer (Raymond). 
 The disputed succession at Poonah in 1795, 
 and the events which followed, neutralised 
 for some time the power of the Mahrattas, at a 
 time when the Bengal mutiny rendered the 
 English powerless. "With regard to Oude, 
 his conduct was equally injudicious. On 
 the death of Hyder Bey Khan (1795), the 
 government became utterly effete, the Vizier 
 merely living for sensual gratification. On his 
 death (1797) Sir John Shore, without due 
 consideration, first installed his reputed son 
 Vizier Ali, and then on more mature con- 
 sideration and evidence, at the expense of a 
 revolution, deposed him in favour of Saadut 
 Ali, the brother of the last Vizier. [Oude.] 
 Sir John was created Lord Teignmouth, and 
 embarked for England March 25, 1798. He 
 devoted his later years largely to philan- 
 thropic work. 
 
 Malcolm, Polti. Hisf. o/ India ,- Grant Duff, 
 Mahrattas ; C. J. Shore, Life of Lord Teignmouth. 
 
 Shovel, Sir Clocdesley {b. 1650, d. 
 1707), born of humble parents in Suffolk, 
 gradually raised himself from the position of 
 a cabin boy to be one of the leading seamen 
 of his time. He distinguished himself in Ban- 
 try Bay ill 1689, and was knighted by William 
 III. In 1690 he conveyed the king and his 
 army to Ireland, and was made a rear-ad- 
 miral. Shovel was present at the battle of 
 La Hogue. In 1693 he was placed on the 
 Admiralty Commission. On the accession of 
 Anne, Shovel served under Sir George Rooke 
 in the Mediterranean, and made a resultless 
 descent on Valencia. He brought home the 
 treasure from Vigo Bay, and fought at the 
 battle of Malaga, " with a courage closely 
 bordering on rashness." The Whig party 
 !>rocured his appointment as commander-in- 
 chief of the fieet in place of Rooke. He 
 accompanied Peterborough on his expedition 
 to Spain. In 1707 he co-operated with Prince 
 Eugene and the Duke of Savoy in the siege 
 
 of Toulon; the attemptwas, however, a failure. 
 During his return home Shovel was caught 
 by a storm off the Scilly Islands, and his ship, 
 the Association, struck on the Grilstone Rock. 
 His body was washed on shore, rescued from 
 the wreckers who had plundered it and hid- 
 den it in the sand, and was honoured with a 
 public funeral in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Campbell, Lives of the Admirals; Stanhope, 
 Hist, of Eng, 
 
 Shrewsbury, The Battle op (July 23, 
 1403), was fought between Henry IV. and the 
 insurgents under Henry Percy. Percy's object 
 was to join his forces with those of Glen- 
 dower, but the king intercepted him about 
 three miles from Shrewsbury. The royal 
 troops were completely victorious, Henry 
 Percy was slain, and his uncle, the Earl of 
 Worcester, taken prisoner. 
 
 Shrewsbury, Charles Talbot, Earl op, 
 afterwards Duke of (A. 1660, d. 1718), was 
 of 0. Roman Catholic family, but adopted 
 the Reformed faith as early as 1679. He 
 was one of the seven who signed the invi- 
 tation to William of Orange. He became 
 Secretary of State in WilSam III.'s first 
 ministry ; but he early quarrelled with 
 Nottingham, and finding himself powerless 
 a{;;ainst' the superior powers of Carmar- 
 then [Leeds], he began to intrigue with the 
 Jacobite court stt St. Germains. In 1690 
 William was obliged to dismiss him. But at 
 length, in 1694, the personal request of Wil- 
 liam overcame his reluctance to resume office, 
 and he was rewarded with a dukedom and 
 the garter. In 1696 he was gravely im- 
 plicated in the confession of Sir John 
 Eenwick. He at once wrote to the king de- 
 claring that Fenwick's charges were exag- 
 gerated. William forgave him ; but Shrews- 
 bury, overwhelmed with remorse, retired 
 from London. Again, a spy named Matthew 
 Smith accused him of having been privy 
 to the Assassination Plot. William himself 
 offered to prove his innocence, and he was 
 declared guiltless by the Peers. But unable 
 to endure his recollections, he left England. 
 For five years he lived at Rome. On his 
 return he deserted the Whig party, being 
 angry because he could not get office. As 
 member of the Opposition he defended Sach- 
 everell (q.v.) in the House of Lords. In 1710 
 the queen, wishing to drive Godolphin from 
 office, made Shrewsbury Lord Chamberlain 
 without consulting that minister. In 1711 
 he deserted the ministry, and joined his old 
 colleague, Nottingham, in an attack on the 
 proposed peace. But in 1713, on the death 
 of the Duke of Hamilton, he went to 
 Paris as ambassador, with instructions to 
 inform M. de Torcy that peace must be con- 
 cluded. During the last year of Anne's life 
 his views on the succession question seemed 
 doubtful. In Oct., 1713, Bolingbroke prob- 
 ably imagining that he was in favour of a 
 
Shr 
 
 ( 945 ) 
 
 Sid 
 
 Stuart restoration, sent him to Ireland as 
 Lord-Lieutenant. Ho himself declared he ac- 
 cepted the ofSce, " because it was a place where 
 a man had business enough to, prevent him 
 falling asleep, but not enough to, keep him 
 awake." But finding the elections, going 
 against government, and a contest impending 
 between the two Houses of the IrishParliament, 
 he returned to England to watch the course of 
 events. At Queen Anne's deathbed he was, 
 introduced by a deputation and the white 
 stiifE of Treasurer put into his hands. " Use 
 it," she said, " for the good, of my pecple." 
 This coup d'etat was the result of a consultation 
 between himself and the Dukes of Argyle and 
 Somerset. By this stroke on the part of the 
 Whig leaders Bolingbroke's schemes were 
 overthrown. [Bolingbroke.] Until George 
 arrived in England several great offices were 
 uaited in Shrewsburj^'s hands. But hence- 
 forth he ceased to take an active part in 
 politics. 
 
 STireiDsturu Correspondence ; JAfe of CHtarles, 
 Dufce of iS/irewsbury, 1718 : Coxe, MavlhoroMgh. 
 
 [K C. S.] 
 
 Shrewsbury, Francis Talbot, 5th 
 Eakl op {d. 1560), a distinguished soldier, 
 did good service in suppressing the rebellions 
 of 1536. In 1544 he was associated with 
 Lord Hertford in an expedition to Scotland, 
 and again led an army thither four years 
 later. During the reign of Mary he was 
 much favoured by the queen, though he 
 opposed her marriage with Philip. In spite 
 of his religion he was admitted by Elizabeth 
 to her Privy Council, but his unqualified 
 opposition to the Supremacy Bill lost him her 
 favour. 
 
 Shrewsbury, Georoe Talbot, Sth Earl 
 OF {d. 1590), was appointed guardian of Mary 
 Queen of Scots (1569), whom he treated so 
 well as to incur the suspicion of disloyalty 
 towards Elizabeth. In 1571 he was privy to 
 the Eidolfi conspiracy, but subsequently re- 
 turned to his allegiance. He presided at the 
 trial of the Duke of Norfolk in the capacity 
 of Lord High Steward, and afterwards was 
 present as Earl Marshal at the execution of 
 Mary. " He was to the last," says Miss Aikin, 
 "unable so to establish himself in the con- 
 fidence of his sovereign as to be exempt from 
 such starts of suspicion and fits of displeasure 
 as kept him in a state of continual apprehen- 
 sion." 
 
 Aikin, Court of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Shrewsbury, John Talbot, Earl or 
 (J. 1373, d. 1463), was a younger son of Sir 
 Gilbert Talbot, a knight on the Welsh border. 
 He married the daughter and heiress of Lord 
 Fumivall. For some unknown reason he was 
 imprisoned in the Tower early in Henry V.'s 
 reign, but was soon afterwards released a,nd 
 appointed Lieutenant of Ireland, a post which 
 he held for some years, though frequently 
 serving in France, where he was one of the 
 
 strongest supports of the English rule. In 
 1429 he was defeated and taken prisoner 
 in the battle of Patay, but three years 
 later was exchanged. In 1442 he was created 
 Earl of Shrewsbury, and in 1447 Earl of 
 Waterford and Wexford. In 1452 he was 
 sent out with troops to France, and captured 
 Bordeaux ; but in the next year he was de- 
 feated and slain at CastUlon. His bravery 
 gained for him the title of "the English 
 Achilles," and with his death the loss of the 
 English conquests in France was assured. 
 
 Sick Man, The, was a term applied 
 by the Emperor Nicholas of Russia to the 
 Ottoman Empire in a conversation with Sir 
 Hamilton Seymour, the English ambassador 
 (1853). " We have on our hands," said the 
 Emperor, " a sick man — a very sick man ; it 
 will be a great misfortune if one of these 
 days he should slip away from us before the 
 necessary arrangements have been made.'' 
 
 Sidney, Algernon [d. 1683), son of 
 Robert, second Earl of Leicester, bom pro- 
 bably in 1622, served under his brother in 
 the suppression of the Irish rebellion (1642), 
 afterwards entered the Parliamentary army, 
 and was wounded at Marston Moor. He was 
 given the command of a regiment in the New 
 Model, elected M.P. for Cardiff in 1645, and 
 held for a few months the post of Lieutenant- 
 General of the Horse in Ireland. He opposed 
 the king's trial, but continued to sit in the 
 House of Commons, and became in 1652 a 
 member of the Council of State. During the 
 Protectorate he took no part in public affairs, 
 but on the fall of Richard Cromwell became 
 again a member of the Council, and was sent 
 as ambassador to Denmark to mediate between 
 that power and Sweden (1659). The Restora- 
 tion prevented his return to England, and he 
 remained in exile until 1677. In 1679 and 
 1680 he twice unsuccessfully attempted to 
 obtain a seat in Parliament. His name 
 appears about this time, in the accounts of the 
 French ambassador Barillon as the recipient 
 of the sum of 1,000 guineas from him. After 
 Shaftesbury's flight Sidney became one of the 
 council of six which managed the affairs of 
 the Whig party, organised its adherents, and 
 considered the question of armed resistance. 
 In 1683 he was accused of complicity in the 
 Eye House Plot, tried by Chief Justice 
 Jeffreys, condemned, and beheaded. The 
 evidence against him was insufficient, and the 
 manuscript of his work on government, in 
 which doctrines inclining to republicanism 
 were laid down, was used to supply the absence 
 of the second witness necessary in cases of high 
 treason. His attainder was reversed in 1689. 
 Ewald, Tyife of Algernon Si/dnni/; Sidney, 
 Letters to S. SavilU and Discourses conreming 
 Govemmmt. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Sidney, Henry, afterwards Earl of 
 Eomney, was a brother of Algernon Sidney. 
 In 1680 he went as envoy to HoUand, and 
 
Sid 
 
 ( 946 ) 
 
 Sig 
 
 there succeeded in gaining the friendship of 
 William of Orange. He was recalled in 1681. 
 In 1 688 we find him aidiag Admiral Russell 
 in persuading the Whig leaders to invite 
 William to England. He was one of the 
 seven who signed the invitation to William. 
 In 1690 Henry Sidney, now Viscount Sidney, 
 was appointed one of the justices for the 
 government of Ireland. Shortly afterwards 
 he was appointed Secretary of State. In 1692 
 he was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 
 but was soon recalled, and became Master of 
 the Ordnance and Earl of Eomney. The 
 grants of Irish land made to him were among 
 those attacked in the Resumption Bill. 
 
 Sidney, Sir Henry [d. 1586), the son-in- 
 law of John Dudley, Duke of Northumber- 
 land, a great favourite of Edward VI., was 
 slightly implicated in the scheme to place 
 Lady Jane Grey on the throne, but was 
 pardoned by Mary. He subsequently became 
 one of Elizabeth's most valued servants, and 
 is described by De Quadra, the Spanish 
 ambassador, as "a high-spirited, noble sort 
 of person, and one of the best men that the 
 queen has about the court." In 1562 he was 
 sent on a special embassy to Mary of Guiae, 
 the Scottish Regent, and in 1565 was trans- 
 ferred from the Presidency of Wales to the 
 post of Lord Deputy of Ireland, where he 
 discharged his duties with great administrative 
 ability, and, in spite of the enmity of the 
 queen and Lord Sussex, who endeavoured 
 to thwart all his plans, achieved considerable 
 successes against the rebels, defeating Shane 
 O'Neil with gTeat slaughter at Loch Foyle. 
 In 1571 Sidney obtained his recall from a 
 position which had become extremely un- 
 pleasant to him, but four years later was 
 prevailed upon to return to Ireland, though 
 he only retained his office little more than a 
 year. " Sir Henry Sidney," says Mr. Froude, 
 " was a high-natured, noble kind of man, fierce 
 and overbearing, yet incapable of deliberate 
 unfairness." 
 
 Froude, Hist, of Eng. ; Birchall, Ti^dors. 
 
 Sidney, Sra Philip {!>. 1654, d. 1586), 
 who was " regarded both at home and abroad 
 as the type of what a chivalrous gentleman 
 should be," was the sou of Sir Henry Sidney, 
 the nephew of the Earl of Leicester, and the 
 son-in-law of Sir Francis Walsingham (q.v.). 
 After passing some years abroad, he returned 
 to England in 1575, and at once obtained the 
 favour of Elizabeth, by whom he was in the 
 following year sent on a special mission to 
 Vienna, to endeavour to form a Protestant 
 league against Spain. In 1579 he penned his 
 Semonstrunce against the Alen(;ou mar- 
 riage, and shortly afterwards wrote his 
 Arcadia, which was not, however, published 
 until four years after his death. In 1585 he 
 proposed to offer himself as a candidate for 
 the throne of Poland, but was forbidden to do 
 so by the queen, who in the same year sent 
 
 him to the Netherlands as Governor of Flush- 
 ing. Whilst in the Low Countries, Sidney 
 distinguished himself as greatly as a soldier as 
 he had previously done as a courtier. He 
 received a wound at the battle of Ziitphen 
 (having stripped off some of his own armour 
 to lend it to another officer), from which he 
 died. The universally-known story of his 
 refusing a draught of water when fainting on 
 the field of battle, in order that it might be 
 given to a wounded soldier, well illustrates his 
 character. 
 
 Camden, ArmoXs ; Proude, Jli&t. of Eng. ; Hal- 
 lam, Lit. Hist, 
 
 Sierra £eone, on the West Coast of 
 Africa, was discovered by the Portuguese in 
 1463, and was visited in 1562 by Sir John 
 Hawkins. In subsequent years several slave 
 factories were established in the vicinity. In 
 1787 the territory was ceded to Great Britain 
 by the native chiefs, and certain philanthro- 
 pists, foremost amongst whom were Granville 
 Sharp and Dr. Smeathman, established a 
 colony there for the reception of slaves who 
 hadobtained their liberty by coming to England 
 in the service of their masters. In 1789 an 
 attack was made upon the new colony by a 
 neighbouring chief, and the settlement was 
 for a few months broken up. In 1791 the 
 Sierra Leone Company was formed under the 
 direction of Granville Sharp and Wilber- 
 force, and the colony was reorganised. In 1794 
 it was again nearly destroyed by an attack of 
 the French, and for many j-ears frequent 
 attacks were also made upon it by the natives. 
 In 1808 the Sierra Leone Company had 
 become so much embaiTasaed as to be glad to 
 hand over the colony to the British govern- 
 ment. From this time great additions were 
 made to the population by the introduction 
 of slaves who had been liberated. The 
 government of Sierra Leone at first extended 
 to Gambia and the Gold Coast; in 1821 these 
 separate governments were united, only to be 
 divided again in 1842. In 1866 the govern- 
 ment of Gambia was again made subor- 
 dinate to that of Sierra Leone. The affairs 
 are at present administered by a governor, 
 assisted by an executive council and n legis- 
 lative council, consisting of five official and 
 four unofficial members. " There are civil 
 and criminal courts, according to the provi- 
 sions of the charter of justice of 1821 ; and 
 courts of chancery, vice-admiralty, ecclesias- 
 tical or ordinary, and quarter sessions, and 
 also one for the recovery of small debts." -The 
 climate is exceedingly unhealthy, especially 
 to Europeans, and no European settlement on 
 anything like a large scale can therefore be 
 looked for. 
 
 Martin, Colonies. 
 
 Sigebert, King of East Anglia (631— 
 634), was the son of Redwald, and brother of 
 Eorpwald, whom he succeeded. Having been 
 banished by his father, he went to France 
 
Sig 
 
 (947) 
 
 Sik 
 
 where, under the instruction of Bishop Felix, 
 the Burgundian, he " was polished from all 
 harbarianism," and on his return to England 
 encouraged learning by instituting schools in 
 many places. He eventually became a monk 
 in one of the monasteries he had himself 
 founded. Some while after, in order to en- 
 courage his soldiers, he was led out to battle 
 against Penda, and was slain. 
 
 Florence of "Worcester ; Henry of Hunting- 
 don. 
 
 Sigebert {d. 758), King of Wessex, 
 succeeded his kinsman Cuthred. He is said 
 to have " evil-intreated his people in every 
 way," and to have " perverted the laws to his 
 own ends," the result being that before 
 he had been king more than one year we 
 read that " Cynewulf and the West Saxon 
 Witan deprived him of his kingdom except 
 Hampshire, and that he held tUl he slew his 
 faithful follower Cumbra, when they drove 
 hint to the Andredes-weald,' where a swine- 
 herd stabbed him to avenge Cumbra." 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 Sigeidc, Archbishop of Canterbury (990 
 — 994), has justly obtained an evil reputation 
 in our history as having been one of those 
 who advised King Ethelred to adopt the 
 fatal policy of buying off the Danes. This 
 was first done in the year 991. Nothing else 
 that can be considered worthy of record is 
 known of Sigerio. 
 
 William of Malmesbury ; Hook, Lives of the 
 ArcUbishops. 
 
 Sibtric, King of Northumberland [d. 927), 
 grandson of Ingwar, the son of Eegnar Lod- 
 brok. About the year 920 Sihtric seems to 
 have left Dublin (where his brother Godfrith 
 reigned, 918 — 933) and to have established 
 himself in Northumberland. He slew his 
 brother Nial 921, and in 923 succeeded 
 another brother, Efiginald, as head-king over 
 the English and Danish earls and captains. 
 He appears as a suitor for Elf wyn, Ethelfleda's 
 daughter, which alliance Edward refused, but 
 after the accession of Athelstan he went to 
 meet him at Tamworth in Feb., 925, and was 
 married there to the Enghsh king's sister. 
 A year later he died. Athelstan now 
 wished to rule over Northumberland imme-, 
 diately. But Godfrith, Sihtric's brother, came 
 over from Ireland and tried to establish him- 
 self on his brother's throne. After a brief 
 rule he was forced to leave England, by 
 Athelstan, the same year. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chron, ; Irish Annals, 
 
 Sikh Wars. (1) In 1845 the Sikh 
 army, 60,000 strong, vrith a large and ad- 
 mirably served artillery, crossed the Sutlej, 
 and by Dec. 16 were encamped within a short 
 distance of Ferozepore. On Dec. 12 Sir 
 Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief, left 
 IJmbeyla, with the British and native army, 
 and after a march of 150 miles, accomplished in 
 
 six days, reached the front. On the 13th the 
 Governor-General published a declaration of 
 war, and confiscated all the Sikh districts 
 south of the Sutlej. The Sikh army (Dec. 
 17) divided ; LaU Singh pushed on to Feroze- 
 shar ; Tej Singh remained before Feroze- 
 pore. On Deo. 18 LaU Singh took Sir Hugh 
 Gough by surprise at Moodkee, but lost the 
 advantage by cowardice and incapacity. This 
 was followed by the terrible two days' struggle 
 at Ferozeshar, at which the two divisions 
 of the Sikh army were beaten in detail, and 
 driven beyond the Sutlej. Towards the end 
 of Jan., 1846, however, Runjoor Singh, attri- 
 buting the inactivity of the British to fear, 
 crossed the Sutlej, defeated Sir Harry Smith 
 (Jan. 20) at Buddowal, and took up a 
 position at Aliwal, where he received heavy 
 reinforcements. On Jan. 28, he suffered here 
 a complete defeat at the hands of Sir Harry 
 Smith. This was followed by the total rout 
 of the grand Khalsa army at Sobraon (Feb. 
 10), and that same night the English army 
 entered the Punjaub. Negotiations were 
 opened on the 11th; on the 17th Dhuleep 
 Singh himself came and made his submission; 
 on the 20th the English encamped outside 
 Lahore and occupied the citadel. On Mar. 9 
 a treaty was concluded by which the cis- 
 Sutlej districts, and the Jullunder Doab 
 were annexed to the English territory; 
 the province of Cashmere, the highlands of 
 Jummoo, and half a crore of rupees, were 
 to be given up for the expenses of the war ; 
 the Sikh army was to be limited for the 
 future to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 horse; 
 and all the guns which had been pointed 
 against the English were to be surrendered. 
 (2) The intrigues of the Maharanee Jhindnu 
 developed a spirit of sedition at Lahore 
 which her removal to Benares only in- 
 tensified. Chutter Singh and Shere Singh, 
 two influential chiefs of the Punjaub, were 
 both strongly disaffected (1848), and only 
 waited for a favourable opportunity. In 
 Sept., 1848, General Whish sat down before 
 Mooltan [Moolkaj] and summoned it in the 
 name of the Queen, thus alarming the national 
 feelings of the Sikhs. Shere Singh imme- 
 diately passed over to the enemy and pro- 
 claimed a religious war, and the whole 
 Punjaub broke out in revolt. On Oct. 10 Lord 
 Dalhousie proceeded to the front. On the 
 9th Shere Singh marched up the Chenab, 
 gathering men as he advanced till he had 
 collected an army of 15,000 troops. Chutter 
 Singhopened negotiations with Dost Mahomed, 
 for whose alliance he consented to cede the 
 province of Peshawur. In October the 
 English grand army assembled at Ferozepore 
 under Lord Gough, and on the 16th crossed 
 the Eavee. The English had to act on two 
 lines, against Mooltan in the south, and the 
 insurrection in the superior delta of the five 
 rivers in the north, and for this they had not 
 enough infantry. The superior position and 
 
Sil 
 
 ( 948) 
 
 Sim 
 
 artillery of Shere Singh enabled him to win 
 the battles of Eamnuggur and Sadoolapore, in 
 ■which he was aided by the rashness of Lord 
 Gough. After a considerable delay, Lord 
 Gough moved forward again .(Jan. 11, 1849) 
 to Dingee ; attacked the Sikhs in a very 
 strongly entrenched position at Chillian- 
 wallah, and after a long and sanguinary 
 struggle succeeded in compelling them to 
 retreat. The Court of Directors now deter- 
 mined on a change. Sir Charles Napier was 
 requested to proceed to India to supersede 
 Lord Gough. Before he arrived, General 
 Whish had captured Mooltau and the 
 war had ended at Guzerat. All through 
 January the two armies remained watching 
 each other. On Feb. 6 it was found that the 
 Sikhs had marched round the British camp, 
 and were strongly entrenched at Guzerat. 
 In the battle that ensued the persistent with- 
 holding of the troops till the Sikh line was 
 broken by the constant fire of eighty-four 
 heavy guns, caused a total victory with 
 little loss to the English. The rebellion 
 was over. On Mar. 6 the Sikh chiefs 
 restored all their prisoners ; on the 12th 
 Shere Singh and Chutter Singh, surren- 
 dered, and the Khalsa soldiers laid down 
 their arms ; and Sir Walter Gilbert com- 
 pleted the matter by chasing the Afghans 
 across the Indus to the very portals of their 
 mountain range. On Mar. 29, 1849, the 
 Puujaub was annexed to the British territories. 
 Cunuingham, Hist, of the Silchs ; Rardinge 
 Despatches; Marshmaii, Hist, of British India, 
 
 _ Silistria, The Defence or (1854). Be- 
 sieged by the Russians, Silistria was defended 
 by earthworks, and garrisoned by a Turkish 
 force. Fortunately there were present two 
 young English officers. Captain BuUer and 
 Lieutenant Nasmyth, who took the command, 
 and conducted the defence with remarkable 
 skiU and ability. The whole efforts of the 
 Russian generals were concentrated on this 
 siege, and just when the tidings of its fall 
 were looked forward for as a matter of 
 certainty, came the news of repulse after 
 repulse inflicted upon immense masses of the 
 besiegers. It was felt that the loss of Silistria 
 after this gallant defence would not only be 
 intolerable, but would produce a bad effect at 
 the seat of war, and in Europe. The allied 
 governments of England and France, espe- 
 cially the former, were urgent that some 
 assistance should be sent to relieve the town. 
 Lord Jlaglan, however, found it impos- 
 sible, owing to lack of land transport, to 
 etfect anything, and Silistria was left to its 
 fate. On June 22, however, worn out by 
 the gallantry of the garrison, and their own 
 unavailing attempts, the Russians raised 
 the siege, and retreated, having lost upwards 
 of 12,000 men in their unsuccessful assaults 
 on the works. 
 
 ^mtual Register; Kinglate, Invasion of the 
 Cnm ea. 
 
 Silk Riots, The (1765). In 1764 a com- 
 mission had been appointed to inquire into the 
 grievances of the silk- weavers. It recommended 
 the common remedy of those days, namely, the 
 exclusion of foreign silks. A bill to that 
 effect was accordingly brought into the Com- 
 mons, and passed by them without discussion. 
 But in the Lords it was so vigorously opposed 
 by the Duke of Bedford, on the groimd that 
 it was wrong in principle, and could only 
 increase the evil which it was meant to 
 lessen, that it was thrown out. The dis- 
 appointment of the Spitalfields weavers took, 
 the form of a riot. They first made their way 
 into the king's presence, and, meeting with a 
 kind reception from him, directed all their 
 wrath against the peers, especially against the 
 Duke of Bedford. A riotous meeting in 
 Palace Yard was dispersed, only to reassemble 
 in the front of Bedford House, which was 
 threatened with destruction. The discontent of 
 .the weavers, which was encouraged by the 
 masters, was only at length pacified by the 
 promise of the redress of their grievances, 
 and Lord Halifax in the following year ful- 
 filled the promise by adopting the remedy 
 which had been rejected in 1766, and bring- 
 ing in a bOl prohibitiag the importation of 
 foreign silks. 
 
 Massey, Hist. ofEng. ; May, Const. Hist. ; Lord 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng, 
 
 Silures, The, were a British tribe who 
 inhabited the modem counties of Hereford, 
 Radnor, Brecknock, Monmouth, and Gla- 
 morgan. They belonged to the earlier Celtic 
 stock, and probably included a considerable 
 pre-Celtic element. The Silures were amongst 
 the most warlike of the British tribes, and 
 held out against the Romans till subdued by 
 Frontinus shortly before 78 A.n. 
 
 Simeon of Durham, (d. circa 1130), was 
 an early English historian, precentor of the 
 church of Durham. His history, largely based 
 for the earlier portion on the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle, is especially valuable for the light 
 it throws on Northern affairs. It goes down 
 to 1130, and was continued tiU 1156 by John 
 of Hexham. It has been several times printed. 
 
 Simnel, Lambert, was the son of a 
 baker, and is only famous historically as 
 having been the puppet leader of one of the 
 earlier revolts against Henry VII. In this 
 revolt he figured as Edward Plantagenet, Earl 
 of Warwick, son of the murdered Duke of 
 Clarence, and he is commonly reported to 
 have been trained to pla3' his part by a priest 
 named Richard Simon, perhaps at the in- 
 stigation of the queen-dowager. Ii-eland 
 was fixed upon for the scene of the revolt in 
 consequence of the support of Thomas Fitz- 
 gerald, Earl of Kildare, the Lord Deputy 
 and the popularity of the House of York there' 
 In England John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln' 
 the son of Edward IV. 's eldesf, sister, Eliza- 
 beth, the acknowledged heir of Richard IH 
 
Sin 
 
 r 949 ) 
 
 Six 
 
 ■was his cMef supporter. In Flanders he 
 had a powerful friend in. Margaret, Duchess 
 of Burgundy, another sister of Edward IV. 
 Under her auspices the I3urgundian court 
 was made the general rendezvous of the 
 conspirators. Henry meanwhile imprisoned 
 the queen-dowager in the nunnery of Ber- 
 mondsey, and had furnished an unmistakaMe 
 proof of the baseless nature of the conspiracy 
 by parading the real Earl of Warwick through 
 all the principal streets of London. He in- 
 flicted summary punishment on those noble- 
 men whom his spies had detected in corre- 
 spondence with Simnel's friends, and sent 
 troops to repel any rebel landing. But when 
 after a brief stay in Ireland, where Simnel 
 was crowned at Dublin, the rebels — under 
 the command of the Earl of Lincoln, the Earl 
 of Kjldare, and Lord Lovel, accompanied by 
 2,000 " Almains," under Martin Schwarz, a 
 German general — lauded at Fouldry in Lan- 
 cashire, they found no assistance. With the 
 exception of a small company of English, under 
 Sir Thomas Broughton, the rebels marched 
 all the way to York without gaining a single 
 adherent. A determined attack on Newark 
 was resolved upon. Henry decided upon an 
 immediate batfle, and with that object took 
 up a position between the enemy's camp and 
 Newark. Thereupon the Earl of Lincoln 
 advanced to a little village called Stoke, where 
 on the following day, June 16, 1487, the 
 battle was fought. Three hours elapsed before 
 victory appeared to incline either way. 
 Finally the rebels were utterly defeated, and 
 nearly all their leaders pprished, the slaughter 
 being especially great among the German 
 and Irish mercenaries. Among the few 
 survivors of the carnage were Simnel and 
 Simon. Their lives were spared as a matter 
 of policy. Simon was imprisoned for life, 
 but Simnel was contemptuously taken into the 
 royal service as a scullion. Later he was pro- 
 moted to be a falconer. We have no record 
 of the date of his death. 
 
 Bacon, Life of Henry TIL 
 
 Siugapore, an island off the southern 
 extremity of the Malay Peninsula, was bought 
 by Sir Stamford Raffles on behalf of the East 
 India Company in 1819 ; in 1825 its possession 
 was confirmed to the British government. In 
 1867 Singapore was transferred from the 
 control of the Indian government to that of 
 the Colonial Office, and was made the seat of 
 government for all the Straits Settlements. 
 The area of the island is 206 square miles. 
 The city at its southern extremity is a place 
 of great trade, as the entrepot of the Malay 
 Peninsula, with a population of 100,000. 
 
 SiTiTriTig PtUld, The, is a fund collected 
 with the object of paying off some part of the 
 national debt. Perhaps the most celebrated 
 scheme for a sinking fund in English history 
 was that of the younger Pitt. In 1784 that 
 minister found that peace, financial reform, 
 
 and commercial prosperity had brought the 
 revenues into a very flourishing condition. 
 He had a surplus of one million, and, alarmed 
 at the immense development of the debt, he 
 proposed that the surplus should be put aside 
 at compound interest, and the proceeds ulti- 
 mately devoted to the diminution of the debt. 
 He directed that a million should be laid aside 
 every year, apparently under the belief that 
 every year would produce a similar' surplus. 
 For the first few years the plan was very 
 successful, but the long wars against revolu- 
 tionary France soon made it necessary for the 
 nation to spend far more than its income. 
 Yet until 1807 the million a year was solemnly 
 set aside for the sinking fund, although the 
 nation borrowed many millions at a higher 
 rate of interest than it could get for the fund. 
 A belief in the mysterious wisdom of the step, 
 and of the magical power of compound in- 
 terest, blinded men to the obvious absurdity 
 of borrowing at a higher interest to lend 
 out at a lower one. But in 1807 the trans- 
 parent delusion of borrowing for the govern- 
 ment from the sinking fund practically ended 
 the system. In 1828 the whole plan was 
 considered fallacious, and abandoned. Later 
 sinking funds, with less ambitious objgcts, 
 have proved fairly successful, despite the 
 temptation to shift the nation's burden upon 
 posterity. At present the debt is being 
 steadily reduced, among other methods, by the 
 creation of terminable annuities. 
 Stanhope, Life of Pitt, 
 Siuope, The Battle of. In 1853 a 
 squadron of Turkish ships was stationed at 
 Sinope. The Russians, hearing that the Turks 
 had begun the war on the Armenian frontier, 
 proceeded to attack them. The Sebastopol 
 fleet advanced in order of battle into the 
 harbour of Sinope. The Turks struggled 
 gallantly, and maintained the defence for a 
 long time. In the end they were overpowered, 
 destroyed, and it was reported that 4,000 men 
 had been killed. The tidings of this massacre 
 produced the greatest excitement in England. 
 It brought the war fever, already great, to 
 its height, and by throwing public opinion 
 strongly in favour of Lord Palmerston's war 
 policy, practically forced the hands of the 
 ministry, and dragged the country into war. 
 
 Six Acts, The, were six coercive measures 
 passed in rapid succession at a special 
 autumnal session of Parliament in 1819, with 
 the object of suppressing the seditious spirit 
 which commercial depression and reactionary 
 government had excited. They were respec- 
 tively aimed at preventing delay in punishing 
 riot and' sedition, at preventing the training 
 of persons in the use of arms and military 
 evolutions, at preventing and punishing sedi- 
 tious libels, at preventing seditious assemblies, 
 at empowering justices to search for and 
 seize arms, and at extending the stamp duty, 
 and imposing f m'ther restrictions on the press. 
 
Six 
 
 ( 950 ) 
 
 Sla 
 
 Owing to their severity and coercive cha- 
 racter the Six Acta were violently oppoaed by 
 some of the Whigs and the Eadicals ; but 
 were supported hy the whole strength of the 
 government and the Tories. 
 
 S. Walpole, Hist, of Eng. since 1815; Mar- 
 tineau. Hist of the Peace. 
 
 Six Articles, The Statute op, passed 
 in 1539, marks the beginning of the re- 
 actionary period that continued until the 
 close of Henry VIII.'s reign. It enumerated 
 precisely and clearly six points of mediseval 
 doctrine and practice which the Protestants 
 had begun to assail, and imposed severe 
 penalties on all who would not accept them. 
 The first article expressed the doctrine of 
 transubstantiation. Those denying this were 
 to be burnt. If the other five articles were 
 impeached the penalties were, for first offence, 
 confiscation of property, for the second, exe- 
 cution as a felon. The five articles declared 
 (2) that communion in both kinds was un- 
 necessary; (3) that priests ought not to marry; 
 (4) that the vows of chastity ought to be 
 observed in both sexes; (5) that private 
 masses were allowable ; (6) that auricular con- 
 fession was necessary. This sanguinary Act, 
 called by the Protestants, " the whip with six 
 strings,'' continued in force for the rest of 
 Henry's reign. 
 
 J, H. Bhuit, Hist, of the Reformation ; Burnet, 
 Hist, of the Seformation ; Pioude, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Skinner v. The East India Com- 
 pany, Case of. Skinner was a private 
 merchant in the reign of Charles II., who 
 finding that the India Cdmpany, at a time 
 when the Indian trade was open, molested 
 him in his business, and took away from him 
 an island bought from a native prince, peti- 
 tioned the king to give him that redress which 
 he could not get in the ordinary courts. 
 Charles handed the affair over to the House of 
 Lords, but the Company when called upon 
 to defend itself pleaded its jurisdiction. 
 This, however, was overruled, and £5,000 
 damages were awarded Skinner. The 
 Company then petitioned the Commons, who 
 had already some disputes with the Upper 
 House. They resolved that the Lords had 
 acted illegally in depriving the Company of 
 the benefit of the law courts. The Lords, in 
 return, voted the Commons' reception of a 
 '•' scandalous petition" against them a breach 
 of privilege. A furious quarrel ensued. 
 Two conferences of the Houses only added 
 fuel to the flame. At last the Commons voted 
 Skinner into custody for violating their 
 privileges, and the Lords in return imprisoned 
 and fined Sir S. Bamardiston, the chairman 
 01 the India Company. The king, by succes- 
 sive adjournments f orfif teenmonths, attempted 
 in vain to appease the quarrel. When the 
 Houses again met they took it up at once, but 
 as the Lords had let out Bamardiston, the 
 Commons were slightly appeased. Both 
 
 Houses passed bills censuring the other side, 
 which were promptly rejected by the other 
 Houses. At last the king's advice to both 
 Houses to end the dispute, and erase all 
 reference to it in their journals, ended one of 
 the most important disputes in English 
 history between the Upper and Lower Houses. 
 As the Lords never again qlaimed an original 
 jurisdiction in civil suits, the victory may be 
 said to have rested with the Commons. 
 
 Hallam, Const. Hist. ; Hatsell, Frecedenis. 
 
 Skippon, Philip {d. 1660), served in the 
 wars in Holland, and rose from the ranks by his 
 services. Clarendon describes him as " a man 
 of order and sobriety, and untainted with any 
 of those vices which the officers of that army 
 were exercised in." In 1641 he was Captain of 
 the Artillery Garden, and was on Jan. 10, 1642, 
 appointed, with the title of sergeant-major- 
 general, to command the city train-bands, and 
 the guard to be raised for the protection of 
 Parliament. He served as sergeant-major- 
 general under Essex as long as that general 
 retained his command. In Sept., 1644, he was 
 left by Essex in command of the army which 
 was cooped up in Cornwall, and proposed that 
 they should cut their way out at all costs, as 
 the horse had done, but he was oven-uled by 
 the council of war, and forced to capitulate. 
 In 1645 he was appointed major-general of 
 the New Model, and was present at the battle 
 of Naseby, where he was severely wounded. 
 In April, 1647, he was voted the command of 
 the army destined for Ireland, and in the 
 summer of the same year he was actively 
 engaged in trying te reconcile the army and 
 the Parliament. Skippon disapproved of the 
 king's execution, and refused to sit in the 
 High Court of Justice, but became a member 
 of the first Council of State, sat in the Par- 
 liaments of 1654 and 1656, acted as one of 
 Cromwell's major-generals, entered his Privy 
 Council, and accepted a seat in his House of 
 Lords. He died either just before, or imme- 
 diately after, the Restoration. 
 
 Slavery, Abolition of. Slavery in Eng- 
 land is of very ancient standing, It existed 
 as an institution among the Saxons as well as 
 the Celts. Among the former the slaves 
 consisted chiefiy of captives taken in war, or 
 of members of the subject race. [Theow.] 
 After the Conquest, the distinct slave class 
 ceased to exist, and was merged with the 
 lower class of ceorls into the general body 
 of villeins. [Villenage.] Though the 
 Church had early succeeded in putting 
 an end to the traffic in English slaves 
 (e.ff., by the canons of the Council of 
 1102), slavery itself in England was never 
 abolished by any positive enactment. The 
 decision, therefore, of Lord Mansfield in 
 the case of the negro Somerspt (1772) that 
 slavery could not exist in England had no 
 legal foundation, and merely reflected the 
 public opinion of the time, Negro slavery in 
 
Sla 
 
 (951) 
 
 Sme 
 
 English colonies was not, however, touched 
 by this decision. It was of eomparativelj- 
 recent growth; the first importation of 
 negroes to America is said to have been 
 made by the Portuguese in 1503, and the 
 other nations of Western Europe took part in 
 the trade as soon as they had gained any share 
 in the 'New "World. Among Enghshmen, the 
 name of the adventurer John Hawlfins, who 
 made his first voyage in 1562, is especially 
 associated with the beginning of the trade. 
 The merchants of Bristol long had an evil 
 fame in this matter. One of the most sub- 
 stantial advantages which England gained at 
 the Peace of Utrecht was the Assiento, which 
 gave it a monopoly of the supply of slaves to 
 the Spanish possessions in America. 
 
 The movement for the abolition of the 
 slave trade was started by Thomas Clarkson, 
 some ten years after the Somerset decision. 
 His efEorts were assisted by the Society of 
 Friends and by individusd philanthropists 
 such as Zachary Macaulay, father of the 
 historian, and, above all, Wilberforce. In 
 1792 Wilberforce gained the support of Pitt, 
 and a motion was carried in the House of 
 Commons for the gradual abolition of the 
 trade. But, though something was done to 
 lessen the atrocities of "the middle passage," 
 biUs prohibiting the trade itself were re- 
 peatedly defeated by the West Indian interest. 
 In 1805 the first step was gained by the issue 
 of an order in council prohibiting the traffic 
 with colonies acquired during the war, and in 
 1806 a biU was passed against the trading in 
 slaves by British subjects either with these 
 colonies or with foreign possessions. Thus 
 the traific with the older British possessions 
 was still allowed ; but this also was at last 
 abolished by the General Abolition BiU in 
 1 807. Eor a few years offenders against the 
 Act were liable only to fine, but in 1811 slave 
 trading was created a felony punishable with 
 fourteen years' imprisonment ; in 1824 it was 
 declared piracy and punishable with death, 
 but in 1837 this was altered to transportation 
 for life. 
 
 The success of this movement encouraged 
 its supporters to go on to demand the total 
 abolition of slavery in the British dominions. 
 For some years they made no progress ; but 
 in 1823 Canning, though he refused to con- 
 sider the matter one of pressing importance, 
 gave his support to resolutions declaring that 
 it was expedient to improve the condition of 
 the slaves in order to fit them for freedom. 
 In consequence, a government circular was 
 issued to the West Indian Islands directing 
 that women should no longer be flogged, nor 
 the whip used in the fields. It was greeted 
 with sullen discontent, and some of the 
 planters began to talk of declaring themselves 
 independent. In Demerara the negroes, be- 
 lieving that the English government had set 
 them free, and being prohibited to attend 
 church, Tose in lebdlion, but without violence. 
 
 The rising was put down ; and a missionary, 
 John Smith, who had taken no part in the 
 insurrection, but who had done much to 
 civilise the slaves, was tried by court-martial 
 and died in prison. The real meaning of his 
 prosecution was shown by the complaint in 
 the planters' paper that, " to address a pro- 
 miscuous audience of black or coloured people, 
 bond and free, by the endearing appellation 
 of 'my bretliren and sisters' is what can 
 nowhere be heard except in Providence 
 Chapel." The news of Smith's martyrdom 
 gave a great impulse to the abolitionist move- 
 ment in England. In 1825 — 26 Protectors of 
 Slaves were appointed by orders in council to 
 watch over their interests, and in 1827 one of 
 these protectors gained the recognition of 
 the right of a slave to purchase his hberty. 
 Finally, in 1833, the great Emancipation Act 
 was passed. After Aug. 1, 1834, all children 
 under six years of age became free at once ; 
 field slaves were to serve their present masters 
 as " apprenticed labourers " for seven years, 
 and house slaves for five, and after that were 
 to become free ; these terms were shortened 
 by subsequent enactment. Twenty million 
 pounds were to be paid to the planters as 
 compensation. It may be added that from 
 1815 onward, English influence caused the 
 other European nations and Brazil to prohibit 
 the slave trade, and to recognise a mutual 
 right of search. 
 
 Clarkson, Eisi. of (he Abolition (1834) ; Marti- 
 neau, Hist, of the Peace, bt. ii., chap. 6, bk. iv., 
 oh. 8.^ [W. J. A.] 
 
 Sliugsby, SiK Heney, of Scriven, 
 in the county of York, represented Knares- 
 borough in the Long Parliament, and followed 
 the king to York. He fought at Wetherly, 
 Marston Moor, Naseby, and other battles, in 
 the Eoyalist ranks. In 1656 he entered into 
 negotiations with ofiicers of the garrison of 
 Hull for surrendering it to the Royalists. For 
 this he was tried by a high court of justice 
 in 1658, and sentenced to be beheaded. His 
 execution took place June 8, 1658. 
 
 Diary of Sir Henry Slingsby, ed. by Parsons, 1836. 
 
 Smalley, John, was the servant of a 
 member of Parliament who, in 1575, was 
 arrested for debt. The Commons sent their 
 sergeant to deliver him, " after sundry 
 reasons, arguments,' and disputations." But 
 discovering that Smalley had fraudulently 
 contrived his arrest to get the debt cancelled, 
 he was committed and fined. His case is 
 interesting as showing privilege of Parliament 
 in its fullest extent, and able even to protect 
 the servants of members. A statute of George 
 III., however, took away this unnecessary and 
 invidious immunity. 
 
 Hallam, Const. Hist. ; Hatsell, Precedents. 
 
 Siuerwick, a bay and peninsula in Kerry, 
 was the scene of the landing in July, 1529, 
 of a Papal legate and James Fitzmaurioe, 
 
Smi 
 
 ( 952 ) 
 
 Sol 
 
 who built a fort there. Next year the fort 
 ■was enlarged and made the head-quarters 
 of ahout 800 Italian and Spanish soldiers, 
 sent to support the Catholic cause in Ireland. 
 Froude, Sist. ofEng., vol. sd. 
 
 Smith, Admiral S:r Sidney (5. 1765, d. 
 1841), entered the navy at an early age, to- 
 wards the end of the American War. During 
 the long peace which followed, he served 
 in the Swedish navy against Eussia. He 
 afterwards served at Toulon, was for two years 
 imprisoned in France, and subsequently made 
 his greatest mark in history hy his defence 
 of Acre in 1798 against Bonaparte. He 
 concluded the Treaty of El Arish with Kleber, 
 but the government refused to ratify the 
 treaty. He was constantly employed on 
 various services till the end of the war. 
 
 Smith, Sir Thomas (4. 1514, d. 1577), an 
 eminent statesman of the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth. At Cambridge he was in early 
 life the associate of Cheke in promoting the 
 study of Greek, and also of civil law, which 
 he studied at Padua. A zealous friend of 
 the Reformation, he took deacon's orders, 
 became Dean of Carlisle, and was made by 
 Somerset Provost of Eton, and in 1548 Secre- 
 tary of State. Disgraced under Mary, he 
 was restored by Elizabeth to his deanery, 
 sent on various important missions, and em- 
 ployed as a sort of assistant secretary to 
 Cecil, with whose policy he sympathised. He 
 wrote besides other works, a book on the 
 English Commonwealth, which is interesting 
 as keeping up the constitutional tradition 
 even at a time of the greatest depression of 
 English liberty. 
 
 Strype, Annals. 
 
 SmoUett, Tobias (J. 1721, d. 1771), the 
 eminent novelist, published in 1758 a History 
 of England from the time of Julius Csesar 
 to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Written 
 within fourteen months, this history has 
 naturally no pretensions to permanent value, 
 and the old custom of printing the latter part 
 as a continuation of Hume, has perhaps 
 unduly raised its literary reputation. Still, 
 with all its faults, vigorous writing and 
 clear delineation of character give Smollett's 
 history some small place in literature. Smol- 
 lett was a strong Tory, edited a Tory review 
 called the Critical Review, and defended Bute 
 against Wilkes. 
 
 So'braoil, The Battle of (Feb. 10, 1846), 
 was fought during the first Sikh War. The 
 Sikhs had entrenched themselves in semi- 
 circular fortifications with the Sutlej as 
 their base, and their outer line surroimded 
 by a deep ditch. The ramparts were de- 
 fended by sixty-seven pieces of hf^avy ord- 
 nance and 25,000 soldiers of the Khalsa. A 
 bridge of boats united this encampment with 
 another across the river where heavy guns 
 
 had also been planted which completely swept 
 the left bank. On the 10th Sir Hugh Gough 
 moved his army in three divisions, the 
 main attack being led against the western 
 corner, which was weakest. The plan was 
 to draw the Sikhs to the sham attacks of the 
 centre and right, and efiect an entrance at 
 the west, thus turning the whole entrench- 
 ment and rendering the guns useless. After 
 an ineffective though terrific fire on both 
 sides, the main division advanced at a, ran, 
 leaped the ditch, and mounted the rampart. 
 The guns were instantly turned on the Sikhs, 
 who now concentrated their attack on this 
 part and turned their gans in the interior on 
 the assailants. A furious hand-to-hand 
 struggle ensued ; but the gaUant charges of the 
 English centre and right drew oif many of 
 ,the Sikhs ; the entrenchment was pierced in 
 three places, and the Sikhs were driven head- 
 long to the river, where, finding the bridge 
 broken, they plunged in and perished bv 
 hundreds. Horse artillery was brought up 
 along the river, and its cannonade completed 
 the destruction of the enemy. The loss of 
 the Sikhs was estimated at 8,000, our own at 
 2,383 ; but the victory was complete. 
 Cunningham, Sitths. 
 
 Soc, or Soke, is a word of very different 
 meanings. Originally it seems to have meant, 
 in Anglo-Saxon law, a sanctuary or place of 
 refuge ; but it came to be applied to any 
 privilege or exemption granted by the king 
 to a subject, and eventually the territory or 
 precinct within which these privileges could 
 be exercised. From " soc " in the sense of 
 privilege or franchise is derived the term 
 "socage" (q.v.), because land held by that 
 tenure was exempt from all services except 
 those specified and enumerated. The word 
 is also used in the technical phrase, "sac and 
 soc" (q.v.). 
 
 Thorpe, Anglo-Saxon Laws ; Kemble, Saxons, 
 
 Socage was a tenure of lands ohai-acterised 
 by the fixedness of the service due from it. 
 There were three kinds of socage — ^free and 
 common socage, socage in ancient tenure, and 
 socage in base tenure. The latter sorts can 
 only, however, be improperly called socage. 
 The latter is the same as copyhold, the former 
 as tenure in ancient demesne. The Act 
 12 Car. II., c. 24, which abolished knight 
 service, made free socage, except in the case 
 of portions of the Church lands still held in 
 frank-almoign, the universal land tenure 
 in England. The socager was bound to 
 fealty, and to attendance at the lord's 
 courts. [Land Tenure.] 
 
 Socman (Sochemannus) was a tenant in 
 socage. Originally it meant a man who is 
 bound to pay suit to a soken. 
 
 Solebay, The Battle op (1665), was 
 fought by the English fleet under the com- 
 mand of the Duke of York, and the Dutch 
 
Sol 
 
 ( 953 ) 
 
 Soiu 
 
 under Admiral Opdam. The English w©re 
 completely victorious, only losing one ship 
 and about 700 men, while on the Dutch side 
 eighteen -ships and 7,000 men were lost,, 
 among the latter being Opdam himself. Sole- 
 bay is on the Sufiolk coast near Lowestoft. 
 
 Solicitor - General. The Solicitor- 
 General is an assistant to the Attorney- 
 General (q.T.) . The earliest evidence of the 
 existence of the office of solicitor to the king 
 occurs in the first yeaj of Edward IV., and 
 there seems little doubt that before thp.t reign 
 there was no such officer. In the reign of 
 Mary, Eokeby, and in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 T. Fleming, and in the reign of James I., 
 Doderidge, were severally isoharged from 
 the office of Serjeant, in order that they might 
 be capable of serving the. crown in the capa- 
 city of Solicitor-General. 
 
 FosB, Lives of the Judges, vol. iv., p. 398 ; MJtn- 
 
 ning and Granger's JS«ports, p. 589, art. Aitomey- 
 
 GenerdL 
 
 Solutes, Count of {d. 1693), was one of 
 the Dutch favourites of William III. He 
 ocoupied Whitehall in favour of the Prince 
 of Orange, the guards of James 11. retiring 
 before him. He commanded the Dutch 
 troops during WiUiani's campaign in Ireland, 
 and led the charge across the stream at the 
 battle of the Boynft, On William! s departure 
 lor England he was left for a short while in 
 command. He commanded the English troops 
 at the battle of Steinkirls;, and his failure to 
 support Mackay'a division, was in a great 
 measure the cans© of that defeat. The out- 
 cry against bitn was great, and Parliamient 
 commented severely on his conduct. He was 
 mortaUy wounded at Landen, and feU alive 
 into the hands of the enemy. " Sohnes," 
 says Macaulay, " though he was said by those 
 who knew him well to have some valua,ble 
 qualities, was not a man likely to conciliate 
 soldiers who were prejudiced against him as 
 a foreigners His demeanour was arrogant, 
 his temper ungovernable." 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of kb Own Time; Macaulay, 
 Hist, of Engi. 
 
 SolwayJIEosS-, The Battle of (Dee. 14, 
 1542), resulted in the defeat of the Scotch 
 army, which was about to invade England, at 
 the hands of eomie 500 borderers headed by 
 Thomas Dacre and John Musgrave. The 
 attack was made when the Scotch were 
 quarrelling amongst themselves about the 
 appointment of Oliver Sinclair, one- of the 
 favourites of James V., to the office of Com- 
 mander-in-Chief. Solway Moss is just on 
 the English side of the Esk. 
 
 Burton, Htsf . ofScotlami i Fronde, Hist. ofSng. 
 
 Somerled, Lord of Augtll, married the 
 daughter of Olaf, King of Man, and espoused 
 the cause of Malcolm MacHeth, mvadmg 
 Scotland in conjunction with the sons of 
 Malcohn (Nov., 1153). In 1156 he was at 
 
 war with Godred, the Norwegian King of the 
 Isles, and in 1164 again attacked Scotland; 
 he was, however, defeated and killed at 
 Eenfrew. He represents the Celtic reaction 
 which succeeded on the Norse conquest of 
 the Hebrides. The Lords of the Isles traced 
 their descent from him. 
 Stene, Celtia Seotlsmcl. 
 
 Somers, John, Lord (i. 1649, d. 1746), 
 was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and 
 became a barrister. At the trial of the Seven 
 Bishops he pleaded as their junior counsel, 
 and made a short but weighty speech in their 
 favour. Together with Montague he took 
 his seat for &e first time in the Convention 
 Parliament. At the conference between the 
 Lords and Commons he maintained that James 
 had " abdicated " the throne. He framed 
 the Declaration of Eight. Shortly afterwards 
 he was appointed Solicitor-General. In 1690 
 he was made chairman of the committee for 
 considering the rights of .those corporations 
 who had forfeited theias charters in the last 
 two reigns. He conducted the prosecution of 
 the Jacobite conspirators Preston and Ashton 
 with great moderation. In 1692 he became 
 Attorney-General, and subsequently Lord 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal. Meanwhile 
 William was gradually discarding Tories and 
 forming a united Whig ministry. It was led 
 by the Junto, consisting of Somws, Halifax, 
 EusseU, and Wharton. In 1695 the arrange- 
 ments for the restoration of the currency were 
 placed in his hands. Next year the Whig 
 ministry was triumphantly established, and 
 he was nsade Lorcl Chancellor. In 1697, when 
 Parliament vrished to reduce the standing 
 army, Somers wrote a treatise, known as 
 the balancing Letteit, in which, while he con- 
 demned a standing army, he approved of a 
 temporary army annually fixed by Parliament. 
 By Somers' advice WiUiam agreed to the BiU 
 for the disbanding of the army. But the coun- 
 try was rapidly becoming discontented. In 
 1697 Somers was assailed for complicity in the 
 piracies of Kidd, because he had subscribed 
 to the expedition Kidd proposed to start 
 against piracy. Again attacked on the ques- 
 tion of grants of crown lands, he and his 
 colleagues were compelled to retire in 1700. 
 In 1701 he was impeached for his share in the 
 Partition Treaties and in Kidd's misdeeds; 
 but the Commons declined to appear before 
 the Whig majority of the Lords, who there- 
 upon declared him acquitted. The accession 
 of Anne deprived him for some years of any 
 hope of a return to power; but in 1707 
 he joined, with other members of the Junto, 
 the Godolphin ministry as President of the 
 CounoU. He fell with the ministry, and soon 
 after was attacked by paralysis, which put 
 an end to his pohtioal activity. Yet, on the 
 accession of George, Someirs was sworn of the 
 Privy CouncU, and given a seat in the Cabinet. 
 " In his public capacity," says Archdeacon 
 
Som 
 
 ( 954 ) 
 
 Som 
 
 Coxe, " Lord Somers was a true patriot. 
 Of the real Whigs he was the only one who 
 possessed the favour of WiUiam. Though con- 
 stitutionally impetuous and irritable, he had so 
 far conquered nature as to master the move- 
 ments of his ardent spirit at the time when 
 his mind was agitated by contending passions. 
 His elocution was powerful, perspicuous, and 
 manly ; his reasoning clear and powerful. As 
 a lawyer he attentively studied the principles 
 of the constitution. Nor were his acquire- 
 ments confined to internal relations ; he 
 attentively studied foreign affairs, and was 
 profoundly versed in diplomatic business, as 
 well as in the political interests of Europe." 
 This character, though from a Whig source, 
 is only a little too strong praise of one of the 
 greatest statesmen of the Revolution epoch. 
 
 Coxe, Marlborough; Macaulay, Hist, of JBng. ; 
 Campbell, Chancellors; Maddock, Life of 
 Somers; Cooksey, £;ssay on Life and Character 
 of Somers. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, Duke op 
 (d. 14.55), was the son of Thomas, Earl of 
 Dorset, and grandson of John of Gaunt. He 
 fought in the French wars, and was taken 
 prisoner in the battle of Beauje. In 1447 he 
 was made Lieutenant of France, but acted very 
 feebly in this capacity. Under his rule the 
 whole of Normandy was lost. He returned 
 to England in 1450, and was at once made 
 High Constable, and succeeded Suffolk as 
 chief minister and opponent of the Duke of 
 York. In 1452 the Duke of York brought 
 forward a series of charges against Somerset, 
 accusing him of the loss of Normandy, of 
 embezzlement of public money, and other 
 offences. Things seemed on the 'verge of 
 civil war when a compromise was effected, 
 and for a time the charges against Somerset 
 were dropped. At the end of 1453 the Duke 
 of Norfolk made a fresh attack upon him, 
 and he was arrested and imprisoned. He 
 remained in prison for more than a year, 
 during which the Yorkists were in the as- 
 cendant, but in the beginning of 1455 he was 
 released and restored to office. York pro- 
 tested against this, and raised an army, with 
 which he marched towards London ; he was 
 met by the royalists at St. Albans, where he 
 was completely victorious, and Somerset was 
 among those who were slain. 
 
 Somerset, Edmund Beaupout, Duke op 
 {d. 1471), was the son of Henry Beaufort, 
 Duke of Somerset. On the restoration of 
 Henry VI. he was restored to his dukedom, 
 and commanded the archers at the battle of 
 Barnet. He was subequently in command at 
 Tewkesbury, where he was taken prisoner and 
 beheaded. With him expired the male line 
 of the Beauforts. 
 
 Somerset, Henry Beaufort, Duke of 
 {d. 1463), fought in the French wars, and on 
 the Lancastrian side at the battle of Towton. 
 After the defeat, he escaped to Scotland, but 
 was subsequently pardoned by Edward IV. 
 
 Henry having once more joined the Lancas- 
 trians, he was taken prisoner in the battle of 
 Hexham and beheaded. 
 
 Somerset, Edward Seymour, Duke op 
 {d. 1552), Lord Protector of England, rose 
 into importance with the marriage of his sister, 
 Jane Seymour, to Henry VIIL, in 1536. 
 Henceforward he became one of the leaders of 
 the Reformed party at the court, and was 
 constantly employed in military and admiais- 
 trative services, in which he displayed con- 
 siderable capacity. He was created Earl of 
 Hertford (1637). In 1544 he was sent into 
 Scotland at the head of 10,000 men, and cap- 
 tured and sacked Edinburgh and Leith 
 (May, 1544). Immediately afterwards Hert- 
 ford and the greater part of his army were 
 transported to Calais to prosecute the war 
 against France, and met with some successes 
 near Boulogne. In the closing year of 
 Henry's reign Seymoiir was actively em- 
 ployed in counteracting the intrigues of the 
 Howards, and succeeded so well that Surrey, 
 his great rival, was put to death, and Norfolk 
 narrowly escaped with his life. By Henry 
 VIII.'s will Hertford was appointed one of 
 the council of sixteen executors. But the 
 wiU was immediately set aside, and Hertford 
 (now created Duke of Somerset) was appointed 
 President of the Council and Protector of the 
 Kingdom. A fleet and army having been col- 
 lected to assist the Protestants in Scotland, and 
 force on the marriage between Edward VI. and 
 the young Queen Mary, Somerset at the head 
 of a great army invaded Scotland, and won 
 the battle of Pinkie (Sept. 10, 1547), with the 
 result, however, of completely alienating the 
 Scots, and hastening the marriage contract 
 between Mary and the Dauphin of France. 
 In France the Protector was obliged to re- 
 open the war, and his forces were worsted in 
 several actions near Boulogne. In home 
 affairs it was the aim of Somerset and his 
 followers in the council to push on the Refor- 
 mation as speedily as possible. A complete 
 EngKsh service book was drawn up [Prayer 
 Book], and the first Act of Uniformity was 
 passed. (1549). At the same time an attempt 
 was made to reverse the arbitrary government 
 of Henry VIII.'s reign. But Somerset's 
 own conduct was in some respects more 
 arbitrary than that of the late king. In 
 1549 the Protector's brother, Lord Seymour 
 of Sudeley, was engaged in designs for over- 
 turning Somerset's government, and getting 
 the guardianship of the king and kingdom 
 himself. A Bill of Attainder was brought 
 against him, and he was condemned of treason 
 and executed without being allowed the op- 
 portimity of speaking in his own defence 
 (1549). Somerset also made some attempts to 
 relieve the social distresses of the kingdom 
 and issued a commission to inquire into them. 
 The result, however, was only that of in- 
 creasing popular excitement, and of rousing 
 
Som 
 
 ( 955 ) 
 
 Son 
 
 the enmity of the ■whole body of the new 
 nobility who had protited by the recent 
 changes. In 1549 a rebellion of an agrarian 
 character broke out in Norfolk, while another 
 in Devonshire was caused by the advance of 
 the Reformation. Somerset displayed no 
 vigour in suppressing the insurrections, while 
 his rivals in the council acted with energy. 
 John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, his principal 
 opponent, put down the Norfolk rising with 
 much severity, and at once gained great in- 
 fluence in the council. Somerset attempted 
 to bring matters to a crisis, by declaring the 
 council treasonable ; but he was compelled 
 to submit to the majority, and to resign the 
 Protectorship (1549). He was sent to the 
 Tower, but released in February, 1650. In 
 the following year he was gradually regain- 
 ing influence, with the failure of the council's 
 administration. Northumberland ("Warwick), 
 afraid of his designs, had him seized and tried 
 for treason and felony. He was found guilty 
 on the latter indictment and executed (Jan. 
 22, 1552). A man of patriotic feeling, and 
 much ability, Somerset's failure was chiefly 
 due to want of judgment and foresight. 
 
 Hayward, JAfe and ^^iqv, of Edward VI. ; Ed- 
 ward Tl.'s Journal ; Machyn, IHary (Camden 
 Soc.) ; Eden, StaU of the Poor. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Somerset, Chahles Seymouk, Duke of 
 (A. 1662, d. 1748), succeeded to the titles of his 
 brother Francis in 1678. As Gentleman of the 
 Bed-chamber to James II. , he refused to intro- 
 duce the papal nuncio at Windsor, and was in 
 consequence dismissed from his oflice. In 1688 
 he joined the Prince of Orange, was appointed 
 President of the Coimcil, and on the departure 
 of WiUiam to Ireland was one of the Lords 
 Justices who administered the kingdom. On 
 the accession of Queen Anne, he was created 
 Master of the Horse. He was one of the 
 commissioners for treating of the Union with 
 Scotland (1708). Through the influence of 
 his wife, he became a favourite with Anne. 
 After being connected with Harley and the 
 Tories for some years (1708—1711), he began 
 to intrigue with the Whigs (1711), and was 
 in consequence dismissed from his office in 
 the following year. As Queen Anne lay on 
 her death-bed, he repaired to the council, 
 and, in conjunction with Argyle, proposed 
 that the Lord Treasurer's stafi should be 
 entrusted to Shrewsbury. Thus, by taking 
 power out of Bolingbroke's hand, he did a 
 great service to the house of Hanover. Before 
 George arrived in England, Somerset acted as 
 one of the guardians of the realm. He again 
 became Master of the Horse, but resigned in 
 the following year, and took no important 
 part in poKtios subsequently. 
 
 Burnet, Mist, of his Own Time ; Boyer, 
 
 Annals; Stanhope, Reign of Anne, 
 
 Somerset, Robert Cabb, Earl of, 
 was descended from the great border family 
 of the Kers of Ferniehurst. As a boy he 
 had served James VI. as a page, and a 
 
 short time after that monarch became King 
 of England, Carr succeeded in attracting 
 his notice and winning his favour. In 
 1611 his creation as Viscount Rochester made 
 him the first Scotsman who took a seat in 
 the House of Lords. He was made a Privy 
 Councillor, and though without oflice and 
 ignorant of business, he soon became the 
 confidential minister of James. About 1613 
 he formed that connection with Frances 
 Howard, Countess of Essex, which resulted in 
 her divorce from her husband, the imprison- 
 ment and murder of Sir Thomas Overbury 
 (q.v.), her husband's confidant, and ultimately 
 in her marriage with Carr (Dec. 26), who was 
 made Earl of Somerset that the lady might not 
 lose in rank. Somerset became the tool of the 
 Howards, his wife's relations, and squandered 
 the immense sums of money which flowed to 
 him on every side. At last, a courtiers' in- 
 trigTie against him endangered a power preca- 
 rious in its very nature. The circumstances 
 attending Overbury's death were brought to 
 light. The complicity of Somerset (never 
 really proved) was thought to be involved in 
 the ascertained guilt of his wife. In May, 
 1616, the countess was convicted; a week later 
 her husband shared her fate. After a long 
 imprisonment, Somerset was pardoned. He 
 ended his life in an obscurity once only 
 broken by a Star Chamber prosecution. 
 
 State Trials; Gardiner, Hist, of En^., 1603— 
 1642, vol. ii. 
 
 South African Colonies. The 
 
 Cape Colony was founded in 1652 by the 
 Dutch East India Company, and remained 
 under the rule of Holland for a considerable 
 period, which was marked by the cruel 
 oppression of the Hottentot tribes, and the 
 vexatious restrictions imposed on the Boers. 
 The latter, in consequence, revolted in 1796, 
 but the Prince of Orange gained the support 
 of the English fleet, and the country was 
 ruled by British governors until 1802, when 
 it was restored to Holland by the Treaty of 
 Amiens. Cape Colony was, however, again 
 occupied by the English in 1806, and was 
 finally given up by the Dutch government in 
 1815. The first half of the century was 
 marked by the five bloody Kaffir wars (1811 — 
 1853), terminated by the erection of British 
 Kaffraria into a crown colony, which was 
 absorbed into the Cape Colony in 1865, by 
 the foundation of the settlements about 
 Algoa Bay (circa 1820), by the abolition of 
 slavery in 1834, and by the commencement 
 of the Dutch exodus. The first party of 
 rebellious Boers crossed the Orange River in 
 1835, and a portion of them penetrated to 
 Natal, where they founded a republic. The 
 land occupied by the remainder was annexed 
 to the English government in 1848, under the 
 title of the Orange River Sovereignty. But 
 a number of malcontents, under Pretorius, 
 having been defeated by the British troops, 
 retreated still further north, and founded 
 
Sou 
 
 ( 956 ) 
 
 Son 
 
 the third Boer settlement in the Transvaal. 
 These last were granted independence in 
 
 1852, and the Orange Eiver Sovereignty 
 was ahandoned by the British two years later, 
 and hecame the Orange Free State. In the 
 Cape Colony the Dutch landrost and his 
 assessors had been abolished in 1827, and 
 their places had been taken by a governor, 
 assisted by a general and an executive council 
 composed of government officials. An agita- 
 tion, begun in 1850, in consequence of an 
 unwise attempt on the part of the British 
 government to land convicts at Cape Town, 
 speedily developed into a movement in favour 
 of free institutions. A constitution was 
 accordingly granted to the Cape Colony in 
 
 1853, and this has since been modified 
 by Act 28 Vict. cap. 5, and the Colonial 
 Act, III. of 1865, and by the "Con- 
 stitution Ordinance Amendment Act " of the 
 Colonial Parliament of 1872. In its final 
 form, the government is vested in an execu ■ 
 tive council, composed of the governor and 
 office-holders appointed by the crown but 
 holding office at the pleasure of the Colonial 
 Parliament, while the legislative power rests 
 with a legislative council of twenty-two 
 members elected for ten years, and a House 
 of Assembly of seventy-two members for the 
 districts and towns elected for five years. The 
 division of the colony for administrative pur- 
 poses into western and eastern provinces was 
 abolished in 1873, and seven provinces substi- 
 tuted. Between 1853 and 1877 there was con- 
 tinued peace vrith the native races, and the]Cape 
 govermnent was occupied in works of publio 
 utility, such as the harbour breakwater of 
 Table Bay, and the making of various rail- 
 ways, of which that from Cape Town to Beau- 
 fort West is the most important. These 
 works caused the public debt to increase with 
 startling rapidity from less than a million in 
 1872 to over fifteen millions io 1883, an in- 
 crease that was partly due also to wars with 
 the native tribes of the Galekas and G-aikas 
 in 1877 and 1878, and the Basutos in 1880 
 and 1881. The territory of the latter was 
 annexed in 1868 in consequence of their 
 border warfare with the Boers, and in 1874 
 and 1875 Griqualand Bast and the Transkei 
 lands of the Fingos and their neighbours 
 came under British rule. Griqualand West, 
 with its diamond-fields, had become part of 
 our colonial empire in 1872. The idea of the 
 federation of the South African colonies, pro- 
 jected while Lord Kimberley was Secretary 
 of State (1870 — 74), was adopted by his suc- 
 cessor. Lord Carnarvon, and Sir Bartle Frere 
 was sent out in 1877 to arrange the settle- 
 ment. He found, however, that his repre- 
 sentations were coldly received, and they 
 were definitely rejected by the Cape Paxlia- 
 meut in 1880. 
 
 Natal, which was settled, as has been 
 said above, by Boers who "trekked" from 
 the Cape Colony, was annexed by the British 
 
 government in 1842, and erected into a 
 -separate colony in 1856. By its charter of 
 constitution, as modified in 1875, 1879, and 
 1883, the governor is assisted by an executive 
 council of officials and two members nomi- 
 nated by the governor from the legisla- 
 tive council, and a legislative council of 
 thirty, of whorri seven are nominated by the 
 crown, and the rest elected by persons having 
 property of the annual value of £50 or rents 
 of £10. Owing to the vast superiority in 
 numbers of the native over the white popula- 
 tion (the proportions being about 330,000 to 
 28,000), Natal has never been in a progressive 
 condition. In 1879 the English government 
 thought it expedient to break the power of 
 the strong Zulu tribe, but the victory of 
 Ulundi was not gained vm.til our troops had 
 suffered a disastrous surprise at Isandlwana. 
 The attempted settlement of their country 
 by Sir Garnet Wolseley was not a success, 
 and a state of anarchy has since obtained on 
 the north-east frontier of Natal. That colony 
 was only indirectly affected by the Transvaal 
 war, caused by the attempt of the Boers in 
 1880 to shake off the yoke which had been 
 imposed upon them in 1877 ; indeed, since it 
 brought with it a considerable increase of 
 trade, that unfortunate campaign was on the 
 whole popular. By the Convention of Pretoria, 
 agreed upon after the close of the war, the 
 Transvaal Boers, while retaining self-govern- 
 ment, acknowledged the suaeraijity of Britain. 
 Practically the Transvaal since the war has 
 been an independent state. 
 
 Chase and Wilmot, Hist, ofths Colony of the 
 Cape of Good Hope ; Noble, South Africa ; ClieBSoii, 
 The Dutch BepubUcs ; Statham, Blacks^ Boers, and 
 British; TroUope, South Africa; Peaxie, Oitr 
 Colowy of Natal; Broolss, Natal ; Colenso, The 
 Zulu War; Carter, The Boer War; The States- 
 man's Tear Book. [L. C. S.] 
 Soathampton, from its geographical 
 position, has played an important part in 
 English history. The English who settled 
 in Wessex founded the town, called Hamtune 
 and Suth-Hamtuu in the Anglo-Saxon Chro- 
 nicle, near the site of the Koman town of 
 Olausentum. It was frequently attacked by 
 the Danes (in 837, 980, and 994), and Canute 
 used it as his chief point of embarkation. In 
 1338 it was sacked by a fleet of French and 
 Genoese, and was afterwards fortified with 
 care. Southampton was frequently used as 
 a port of embarkation during the Hundred 
 Years' War ; it was there that Henry V., 
 in 1415, just before setting out for France, 
 executed the Earl of Cambridge, Lord Sorope, 
 and Sir Thomas Grey for treason. South- 
 ampton espoused the Yorkist cause during 
 the Wars of the Eoses, after the Lancastrians 
 had made an attempt to take it. Henry VIII. 
 used the town as a basis of operations by 
 sea in his attacks on Fr8,nce. Philip of 
 Spain landed there in 1554. Since then South- 
 ampton has been important chiefly as the prin- 
 cipal commercial port of the south coast. 
 
Sou 
 
 (957) 
 
 Spa 
 
 Southampton, Henry Weiothesley, 
 3ed Babl op (rf. 1624), a favomite of Q,ueeni 
 Elizabetli, and a bosom friend of Essex, was 
 tte grandson of Lord Chancellor Wriothesley. 
 In 1597 lie took part in the disastrous ex- 
 pedition to the Azores, and two years later 
 followed Essex to Ireland, where he was 
 appointed General of the Horse, to the anger 
 of EUzaheth, whose good- will he had forfeited 
 on his marriage. In 1601 his impetuosity 
 and generous support of his friend led him to 
 take an active part in Essex's rehellion, and 
 he was put on his trial for high treason. He 
 was condemned, but, owing to the interces- 
 sion of Sir Robert Cecil, was not executed ; 
 he was, however, confined in the Tower until 
 the death of the queen. He is described as a 
 man of " high courage, great honour, and 
 integrity." His literary relations invest his 
 career with particular interest. 
 
 Sonthampton, Thomas Wriothesley, 
 Earl of {d. 1549), was appointed Lord Chan- 
 ceUor in the place of Lord Audley in 1544. 
 He was a zealous Catholic, and is said to have 
 tortured Anne Ascue with his own hands. 
 Named one of the council of regency in the 
 will of Henry VIII., he was created Earl of 
 Southampton, but failed to obtain the confi- 
 dence of Somerset, to whom he had long been 
 in opposition. In 1547 "Wriothesley of his 
 own authority put the great seal in com- 
 mission, and appointed four iadividual to 
 discharge the duties of chancellor. This act, 
 which was declared by the judges to amount 
 to a misdemeanour, enabled the councU to 
 demand his resignation. Shortly after this 
 Lord Seymour of Sudeley tried to draw him 
 into a plot against the Protector, but, probably 
 from caution, he refused his overtures, and 
 gave information of the intrigue. In 1549 
 he entered into negotiations with Warwick, 
 and took a prominent part in the deposition of 
 Somerset, but soon afterwards retired from the 
 council ia disgust at the treatment he received, 
 and died, it is said, of disappointment. 
 
 Froude, Hist, of Eng. ; Campbell, Chancellors. 
 
 South Sea Scheme, The. In 1711 a 
 
 company was formed for trading to the 
 " South Seas," which was induced to lend ten 
 millions to the government during Harley's 
 treasurership, and to allow the debt to be 
 funded, in return for a monopoly of the trade 
 with the Spanish colonies. In 1717 Walpole 
 persuaded the South Sea creditors to make a 
 further advance of five millions to the govern- 
 ment. In 1720 the South.Sea Company, de- 
 sirous of further government credit, agreed 
 to take up thirty-two millions of the govern- 
 ment annuities, and to persuade the holders 
 to take in exchange South Sea stock. The 
 government annuities had borne seven or 
 eight per cent, interest; the company was 
 to receive five, per cent, till 1727, and four 
 per cent, afterwards. In order to outbid the 
 
 offers of the Bank of England and other as- 
 sociations, the South Sea Company agxeed to 
 pay to government a heavy premium of more 
 than seven millions. The company had thus 
 weighted itself heavily, and it was doomed to 
 failure it the pubHc did not subscribe for its 
 shares readily. At first there seemed no danger 
 of this. The public rushed in to subscribe, 
 and the company's stock was taken with the 
 utmost eagerness. But the success of tho 
 South Sea scheme had developed a spirit of 
 speculation in the nation. Companies of aE 
 kinds were formed, and the public hastened to 
 subscribe, to sell their shares at a premium, 
 and to buy others. A frenzy of gambling and 
 stock-jobbing took possession of the nation. 
 Many of the schemes formed were fraudu- 
 lent or visionary. The South Sea Company, 
 whose own shares were at 900 per cent, 
 premium, took action against some of the 
 bubble companies and exposed them. This 
 produced an instantaneous effect. A panic 
 set in. Everybody was now anxious to sell. 
 All , shares fell at once, and the South Sea 
 Company's own stock fell in a month (Sept^, 
 1720) from 1,000 to 175. The ruin was wide- 
 spread, and extended to all classes of the 
 nation. Popular feeling cried out for ven- 
 geance on the South Sea directors, though in 
 reality the calamity had not been caused by 
 them, but by the reckless speculation which 
 had been indulged in. A retrospective Act of 
 Parliament was passed, remitting the seven 
 millions due to the government, appropriating 
 the private property of the directors for the 
 relief of those who had sufEered, and dividing 
 the capital of the company, after discharging 
 its liabilities, among the proprietors. Aislabie, 
 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Charles 
 Stanhope, and Secretary Craggs and his son, 
 were tried and implicated in the matter ; and 
 an inquiry, ordered by the Commons, resulted 
 in the expulsion of Aislabie, and the acquittal 
 of Stanhope by three votes. The younger 
 Craggs died before the inquiry was over, and 
 the elder committed suicide. 
 
 Southwold Bay, The Battle of (1672), 
 was fought between the English fleet under 
 the Duke of York, and the Dutch under 
 DeEuyter. After a desperate struggle the 
 English gained the day, though with the loss 
 of some vessels, and one of their commanders, 
 the Earl of Sandwich. Southwold Bay is on 
 the coast of Suffolk. 
 
 Spa Fields Riots, The (Deo. 2, 1816), 
 were the result of the extreme depression of 
 trade, the severity of the government, and the 
 intrigues of the Spencean philanthropists. A 
 great meeting was convened in Spa Fields, 
 Bermondsey, which was to be addressed by 
 "Orator " Hunt, but before he came there the 
 mob had started on a career of riot, which, 
 however, was easily suppressed by the Lord 
 Mayor with only seven men to help him. 
 
Spa 
 
 ( 958 ) 
 
 Spa 
 
 Spain, Eelations with. Serious rela- 
 tions between England and the Spanish 
 Mngdom began with the reign of Henry II, 
 The marriage of his second daughter, Eleanor, 
 to Alfonso VIII. of Castile ; his arbitration 
 between Alfonso and King Sancho of Na- 
 varre ; even the younger Henry's pilgrimage 
 to Compostella — always a favourite shrine 
 with Englishmen — Richard I.'s marriage with 
 Berengaria of Navarre, all contributed to 
 fonn a close friendship between the two 
 countries that became traditional all through 
 the Middle Ages. The marriage of Blanche 
 of Castile to Louis, son of Philip Augustus, 
 was regarded as a safe means of insuring 
 peace between John, her uncle, and the French 
 king. The continued possession of Gascony 
 by the English kings made them almost 
 neighbours of some of the Spanish monarchs. 
 The appointment by Henry III. of his son, 
 Edward, as regent of Guienne in 1250 was 
 quickly followed by the marriage of Edward 
 with Eleanor, sister of Alfonso X., whose 
 claims through the elder Eleanor to that 
 duchy made it necessary to conciliate him, 
 but whose legislative instinct may well have 
 established sympathy between him and his 
 brother-in-law. Edward I. had constant 
 dealings with Spain. He sought earnestly to 
 mediate between France and Castile in 1276. 
 In 1288 he visited Catalonia in order to re- 
 concile the French and Aragonese claimants 
 to Naples ; but Alfonso's X.'s death, and the 
 want of success of a policy which rested 
 entirely on mediation, caused Edward's rela- 
 tions to Spain to become less cordial towards 
 the end of his reign, despite the political 
 necessity of seeking in the south a counter- 
 poise to French influence. Again vmder 
 Edward III. the relations were renewed. The 
 Black Prince marched with a great army into 
 Castile to protect Peter the Cruel against 
 Henry of Trastamare, and his victory at 
 Navarette (April 3, 1367) for a time kept the 
 tyrant on his throne. Peter's final discom- 
 fiture led to fierce hostility between England 
 and the house of Trastamare, which thus 
 gained possession of the Castihan throne. John 
 of Gaunt and Edmund of Cambridge both 
 married daughters of Peter. Through his 
 wife, Constance de Padilla, John claimed to be 
 King of Castile, but the brilliant naval victory 
 of the Spaniards over the Earl of Pembroke, 
 which restored La EocheUe to the French 
 (1375), the practical failure of Edmund in 
 Portugal [Portugal, Eelations with], the 
 equally unlucky expedition of John to Spain 
 (1385) as pretender and crusader, showed that 
 his chances were hopeless. At last he con- 
 cluded a treaty with John II. of Castile, in 
 which by marrying Catherine, his daughter 
 by Constance, to the heir of Castile, he prac- 
 tically resigned his claims. This marriage 
 renewed the old friendliness. The kings of 
 Castile sympathised with the misfortunes of 
 the house of Lancaster as with those of their 
 
 own kin. Edward IV. in 1467 concluded a 
 treaty with Castile that gave equal trading 
 rights to Castilians and EngHsh. The libel 
 ofMnglish Policy shows how important Spanish 
 trade was. Yet Edward would not marry his 
 daughter to a Spanish prince, and not until 
 the final Lancastrian triumph under Henry 
 VII. was the alliance of the two countries 
 really renewed, and then on conditions that 
 made England almost a satellite of Spain. 
 The marriage of Catharine, daughter of Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella, with Piinces Arthur and 
 Henry in succession was the most important 
 result of the restoration of intimate relations. 
 Although Ferdinand hardly treated Henry 
 well, and although, his League of Oambrai 
 isolated England from foreign politics, Henry 
 VIII., after breaking up the Cambrai con- 
 federation by the Holy League, fully renewed 
 the Spanish connection. During the war of 
 the Holy League, and the war which broke 
 out in 1521, Henry was the decided supporter 
 of Ferdinand and Charles his successor. At 
 last fear for the balance of power led Henry 
 to a neutral attitude after the battle of Pavia 
 (1525). The divorce of Catharine involved 
 personal and religious difEerences, which for a 
 time dissolved the Spanish alliance. For some 
 years England feared a Spanish invasion, but 
 so strong were the ties which bound the two 
 states that in 1541 the English and Spaniards 
 were again fighting side by side against the 
 French. Charles's desertion of Henry at 
 Cr^py, and the strongly Protestant policy of 
 Edward VI., again produced coolness, until 
 Mary's marriage with Philip, and her sub- 
 sequent participation in the last of Charles's 
 great wars against France, brought the nations 
 more together than ever. But the catastrophe 
 of Mary's reign was the death-blow of the 
 traditional connection with Spain. Though 
 it was Elizabeth's policy to keep on fair terms 
 with Spain, the prevalence of religious over 
 poHtioal considerations during the crisis of the 
 Catholic counter-E«formation, the alliance of 
 England and the revolted Netherlanders, that 
 of Spain with the pretender to the English 
 throne, and the rise of an English naval power 
 that saw in the Spanish colonies an easy and 
 rich prey, and whose piratical forays soon 
 more than counteracted the friendliness which 
 long and settled trade between the two nations 
 had produced, all produced a state of chronic 
 irritation worse than war, and a series of acts 
 of hostility, which in any other period both 
 parties would have regarded as casus belli. At 
 last, on the very eve of the Armada, the long- 
 threatened war broke out. Henceforth hatred 
 of Spain became a mark of the patriotic and 
 Protestant Englishman. James I.'s Spanish 
 policy and Spanish marriage scheme made 
 him intensely unpopular, and Charles I., 
 though less decided than his father, and 
 actually a,t war with Spain in the beginning 
 of his reign, and often rather opposed to it, 
 was regarded with some suspicion for the 
 
Spa 
 
 959 
 
 Spa 
 
 same reason. Crom-well revived Elizabeth's 
 policy of uncompromising hostility to Spain, 
 as the centre of Catholicism in Europe. 
 Though successful in execution, his policy was 
 quite obsolete in idea, and tended to pro- 
 mote the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. 
 Clarendon, who also pursued the Elizabethan 
 tradition, incurred disgrace and exUe for what 
 had brought glory to the Protector. Still, the 
 hostility to France, which began with the 
 Triple Alliance, and the marriage of "William 
 and Mary, and culminated in the Revolution, 
 did not involve any very cordial alliance with 
 the Spaniards, though the effect of the anti- 
 French policy was to help them. So little 
 did WilUam regard Spain as his ally that 
 he joined with Louis XIV. in the Partition 
 Treaties. The mismanagement of the allies 
 in the Spanish Succession War made the French 
 King of Spain the representative of Spanish 
 national feeling, and consequently renewed an 
 active hostility between the two countries, 
 which the retention of Minorca and Gibral- 
 tar, as the spoils of the English triumph, 
 did much to increase. After the Treaty of 
 Utrecht, Alberoni plotted to restore the pre- 
 tender, though the collapse of Cape Passaro 
 (1720) showed that the Spaniards were 
 unable to cope directly with the English. 
 Eipperda's Austrian alliance was equally 
 hostile to England, and involved a short war 
 •that, but for Walpole's peace policy, would 
 have proved serious (1727). The commercial 
 clauses of the Utrecht treaty gave the Eng- 
 lish a limited permission to trade in South 
 America, which involved constant disputes 
 with Spanish revenue officers, and resulted in 
 the war of 1739, the prelude of the more general 
 Austrian Succession War. The family com- 
 pact of the Bourbon Kings of France and 
 Spain involved England in a new hostility 
 to the Spaniards at the close of the Seven 
 Tears' "War. Spain took advantage of the 
 American Revolution to try to regain what 
 her former ill success had caused her to lose. 
 But the long siege of Gibraltar proved a 
 failure. The affairs of the Falkland islands 
 (1770), and of Nootka Sound (1789), again 
 almost involved a conflict. During the French 
 Revolution the weakness of Spain soon com- 
 pelled her to lend her still imposing fleet to 
 the Republican and Napoleonic governments, 
 and thus to enter into a naval war with 
 England, which lost many of her colonies. 
 At last Napoleon's reckless imposition of his 
 brother on the Spanish throne involved 'a 
 national insurrection in Spain, which led to 
 the establishment of a new alliance with 
 England. During the whole of the Penin- 
 sular War, Spanish troops assisted the armies 
 of "Wellington, but the relations between 
 Englishmen and Spaniards were always very 
 doubtful, and the pride, inefficiency, and pro- 
 crastination of his allies were one of Wel- 
 lington's greatest diffioulties. The Spanish 
 popuUr movement, however, showed how 
 
 Napoleon could be beaten, and without theii' 
 irregular forces the Peninsular campaigns 
 would hardly have turned out as they did. 
 Subsequent political relations between Eng- 
 land and Spain have been of inferior impor- 
 tance. Canning recognised the independence 
 of the revolted South American colonies. The 
 English gave considerable help to Queen 
 Christina against the CarUsts. 
 
 Mariana's De Rebus Riajpatiice is a standard 
 general authority fgr the Middle Ages. Dun- 
 ham's Sist. of Spain and Portugal is a useful 
 compilatiou in English. The relations with 
 England may be found in Pauli, Englische Ges- 
 chicTiie, and in the GeschicMe von Spanien^ by 
 various authors^ in the Heeren and £ert series. 
 Prescott's work on Ferdinand and Isabella^ his 
 edition of Bobertson's Charles ?., and his Hist, o/ 
 Philip ir., with Brewer's Henry VIII. , Scbonz, 
 EnglischeRandeUtpoUtik^ and Proude, Sist. ofEng, 
 cover the si:Eteenth. century. See also Gardiner, 
 Hist, of Bug., 1603—1840, for that period ; Eanke, 
 Eng, Hist., for the whole- seventeenth cen- 
 tury ; Miguet, Negotiations Relatives a la Succes- 
 sion d'Espagne ; Stanhope, War of the Suceessimi 
 in Spain, and Coxe, Spanish Bourbons, for the 
 eighteenth century ; Napier, Peninsular Wa/r 
 and the Wellington Despatches, for the struggle 
 against Napoleon. [T..P. T.] 
 
 Spanisb. Blanks, The, was the name 
 given to eight papers seized on the person of 
 a man named Kerr, who was about to convey 
 them to Spain. These papers were blank 
 sheets, signed by the Earls of Huntly, Errol, 
 Angus, and by Gordon of Auchendoun. It 
 was proved by the confession of Kerr that 
 the sheets were to have been filled up by two 
 Jesuits, named "WiUiam Crichton and James 
 Tyrie, and were to have contained assurances 
 that the persons who signed them would not 
 fail to render material aid to the Spanish 
 armies on their landing in Scotland. The 
 result of this discovery was immediate action 
 on the part of the government against the 
 Popish lords, who were compelled to fly, and 
 were finally defeated at Glenlivat. 
 Burton, Hist, of Scotland, 
 
 Spanish Marriages. From 1840 the 
 marnage of Queen Isabella of Spain had 
 beconve a question of interest to Europe, and 
 especially to England and France. The French 
 plan was that Isabella should marry the 
 Duke of Cadiz, and her sister the Due de 
 Montpensier, having in view the eventual 
 succession to the Spanish throne of the child- 
 ren of the latter couple. The English, who 
 strongly disliked this scheme, contended that 
 Isabella should marry the man whom she 
 and the Spanish people selected, and that the 
 welfare of Spain, and not the interest of the 
 Orleans house, should be chiefly consulted. 
 The English government therefore declined 
 to actively recommend any candidate, even 
 Leopold of Coburg, who was desirable in 
 every way, and who would have been the 
 English candidate had there been one. In 
 1841 Prince Albert and Lord Aberdeen both 
 declared that England would not interfere. 
 In 1845, during the Queen Victoria's visit to 
 
Spa 
 
 ( 960 ) 
 
 Spa 
 
 the King of the French, the latter declared 
 " that he would never hear of Montpeusier'a 
 marriage with the Infanta of Spain." This 
 pledge was kept as long as Aberdeen re- 
 mained in oflSce, but the accession of Pal- 
 merston in 1846 changed the views of the 
 French. The defeat of their Eastern policy 
 by that statesman still rankled in their 
 minds, and he was an object of their 
 settled distrust. Use was therefore made of 
 an indiscretion committed by Lord DaHing, 
 the British ambassador at Madrid, and also 
 of a somewhat violent despatch of Palmerston, 
 and on Aug. 29, 1846, the double marriage 
 between the Dukes of Cadiz and Montpenaier, 
 and the Spanish Queen and Infanta, was 
 announced. This statement, communicated 
 shortly by M. Guizot to Lord Normanby, 
 British ambassador at Paris, was received in 
 England with a great deal of indignation. 
 An official protest was made by the English 
 government, and an unofficial one by the 
 Queen; but they were disregarded, and the 
 double marriage was celebrated simultaneously 
 at Madrid (Oct. 10). The conduct of Louis 
 Philippe gave an immense shock to his repu- 
 tation in Europe, and did a, great deal to 
 break off the hitherto friendly intercourse 
 with England. Indignation at his perfidy 
 was increased by sympathy for the young 
 queen thus heartlessly sacrificed to his policy, 
 and a coolness in consequence arose. 
 
 Annual Register ^ 1846; Ilartin, Prince Con^ 
 sort ; Guizot, MemowB, 
 
 SpanislL Snccession, The Wak of 
 
 THE, was caused by the refusal of Louis XIV. 
 to abide by the settlement of the succession 
 question agreed on by him and William III. 
 in the Partition Treaties (q.v.). Besides ac- 
 cepting the will of Chai'Ies V., which made 
 his grandson, Philip of Anjou, King of Spain, 
 Louis had reserved his grandson's right to 
 succeed to the French crown, had put French 
 garrisons into the towns of the Spanish 
 Netherlands, and had acknowledged the Pre- 
 tender as successor to the English throne at 
 the death-bed of James II. This last pro- 
 ceeding had roused the English. William III. 
 in 1701 had laid the foundation of a grand 
 alliance between England, Holland, and the 
 empire. It was now concluded. But on 
 March 8, 1702, William died. War was at 
 once declared on the accession of Anne. The 
 emperor, with the Electors of Brandenburg, 
 Hanover, and the Elector Palatine, Denmark, 
 Holland, and in 1703, Savoy and Portugal, 
 were the allies of England. France had only 
 the electors of Cologne and Bavaria, and the 
 Duke of Mantua in Italy. Marlborough, 
 commander of the English and Dutch armies, 
 at once went to Holland with the object of 
 capturing the Netherland fortresses occupied 
 by the French. Venloo, Liege, and other 
 towns on the Meuse, were taken, and the 
 French cut off from ^16 Lower Rhine. On 
 
 the Upper Ehine, Louis of Baden had taken 
 Landau, but was defeated by ViUars at 
 FriedUngen. In Italy, Eugene had defeated 
 Tilleroi at Cremona, but the French still 
 held the Milanese. [For the war in Spain 
 see below.] In France the Protestants of 
 the Cevennes had broken into open rebellion 
 under Cavalier. In 1703 but little was done. 
 ViUars wished to march on Vienna, but was 
 thwarted by the Elector of Bavaria. Marshal 
 TaUard re-captured Landau. Marlborough, 
 who had formed a great plan to reconquer 
 Antwerp and Ostend, was foiled by the Dutch, 
 and had to content himself with the capture 
 of Bonn on the Rhine, and Huy and Limburg 
 on the Meuse. In 1704 Louis set on foot no 
 less than eight different armies. His chief 
 effort was to be in the direction of Vienna in 
 concert with the Elector of Bavaria. The 
 Hungarians had been incited to revolt. The 
 position of the emperor seemed desperate. 
 Marlborough, however, in a famous march 
 from the Lower Ehine to the Danube, joined 
 Eugene in Bavaria, and marched upon the 
 French commanders Marsin and Tallard. In 
 August the battle of Blenheim was fought. 
 After that disastrous defeat the French with- 
 drew beyond the Rhine. Landau was taken, 
 and Marlborough, marching into the Mo'selle 
 valley, conquered Treves and Trarbach. In 
 this year Gibraltar was captured by Sir 
 George Rooke ; while the merciful policy 
 of ViUeroi put an end to the rebellion of the 
 peasantry in the Cevennes. In Italy, Ven- 
 d6me had nearly reduced the Duke of Savoy 
 to despair. Eugene was sent thither with 
 Prussian troops (1705). Marlborough wished 
 to invade France by the Moselle valley, but 
 was thwarted by the weak co-operation of 
 Louis of Baden. Villeroi suddenly invested 
 Lifege, but on Marlborough's return to Flanders 
 affairs were re-established there. Towards 
 the end of the year Louis of Baden won a 
 great battle at Hagenau. In 1706 Marl- 
 borough determined by a vigorous effort in 
 Flanders to make a diversion to Eugene in 
 Italy. In Brabant he encountered Marshal 
 Villeroi at EamiUies. By that victory the 
 allies gained the whole of the Netherlands. 
 Marlborough wished to besiege Mons, but was 
 deterred by the slowness with which the 
 Dutch forwarded supplies. In Italy, Eugene 
 by his brilliant relief of the siege of Turin 
 accompHshed a work hardly inferior to that 
 of RamiUies. Italy was lost to France, and 
 compelled to join the Grand Alliance. Louis 
 offered terms of peace, but they were, some- 
 what unreasonably, rejected by Marlborough. 
 The campaign of the next year (1707) was 
 xmsuccessful. Marlborough in vain attempted 
 to bring on a pitched battle. On the Rhine, 
 Villars took and destroyed the lines of Stol- 
 hofen. Eugene attempted to attack Toulon 
 by invading France from the south-east ; but 
 he had no supplies, and withdrew before 
 Marshal Tesse. In 1708 Marlborough re- 
 
Spa 
 
 (961 ) 
 
 Spa 
 
 BoivBii to complete the conquest of the Nether- 
 lands in conjunction with Eugene. But the 
 latter experienced great difficulty in raising 
 an army. Vendome suddenly assumed the 
 oflensive, deceived Marlborough by a feint on 
 Louvain, captured Ghent and Bruges, and 
 sat down before Oudenarde. In July the 
 battle of Oudenarde was fought. The 
 results, though it was a victory for the 
 English, were not decisive. Eugene's troops 
 at length joined Marlborough ; Berwick re- 
 inforced the French. The allies detennlned 
 to besiege Lille. It feU in October, Marshal 
 Boufflers having made a gallant resistance. 
 Ghent and Bruges were reconquered. General 
 Stanhope had captured Port Mahon in 
 Minorca. France was now absolutely ex- 
 hausted. Louis once more proposed terms. 
 Once more the demands of the allies were 
 intolerable, consisting of the surrender of the 
 Dutch frontier towns, and all claims to the 
 Spanish succession. Louis appealed to the 
 French people. Villars was sent against 
 Marlborough. He allowed Toumay to fall, 
 but when the allies invested Mons he was 
 obliged to risk a battle. By the advice of 
 Eugene the attack was deferred until troops 
 could be brought up from Toumay. The 
 result was that Villars had time to entrench 
 himself, and that the victory of Malplaquet 
 was almost as disastrous for the allies as for 
 the French. Mons fell, but the campaign was 
 closed. A conference was opened at Ger- 
 truydenberg ; the English and Dutch con- 
 sented to treat, but were opposed by Austria 
 and Savoy, and the war was resumed. Douay 
 was captured. The next year Marlborough 
 fought his last campaign. He was hampered 
 by the withdrawal of .Eugene to superintend 
 and guard the Diet summoned to Frankfort 
 to elect a successor to the Emperor Joseph. 
 By skilful manoeuvres he passed ViUars' lines 
 at Arras, which the French commander called 
 the non plus ultra, and besieged and took 
 Bouchain. But the Tory ministry had already 
 proposed terms of peace. Marlborough was 
 dismissed on his return to England, and 
 Ormond appointed in his place. He re- 
 ceived orders to undertake no offensive 
 operations against the French, but he could 
 not refuse to join Eugene in an attack 
 on Quesnoy. In June, 1712, an armistice 
 was declared, and the English troops ordered 
 to separate from Eugene. The imperial 
 general continued the campaign alone. But 
 he was defeated at Denain, and com- 
 pelled to raise the siege of Landrecies. In 
 March, 1713, the Peace of Utrecht was signed. 
 The Germans fought on. But they lost 
 Landau again, and soon after Speyer, "Worms, 
 and Kaiserslautem. ViUars stormed the lines 
 at Freiburg, and took the town in spite of 
 Eugene's efforts. In the course of 1714 the 
 Treaty of Eastadt was concluded between 
 France and Austria, that of Baden between 
 France and the princes of the empire. Such 
 
 HIBT.— 31 
 
 was the war in Continental Europe. In 
 Spain meanwhile, in 1702, after hostilities had 
 been proclaimed, an armament, under the com- 
 mand of the Duke of Ormond, appeared off 
 Cadiz. It was ill-conducted, and after plunder- 
 ing the town the English sailed off. On his 
 way back Ormond destroyed a fleet of treasure 
 ships in Vigo Bay. Some mOlions of dollars 
 were captured, some millions more were sunk. 
 Next year it was determined to attack Spain 
 from the east and west. The army from the 
 west consisted of Portuguese and English 
 troops commanded by the Earl of Galway. 
 The Archduke Charles, whose claims to the 
 Spanish throne were supported by the coali- 
 tion, appeared in the camp. But Berwick, 
 the commander of the French, held Galway 
 in check throughout the year 1704. On 
 Aug. 3 Admiral Eooke succeeded in taking 
 Gibraltar. In 1705 Peterborough was sent to 
 Spain with 5,000 Dutch and English soldiers. 
 He was joined by the Archduke Charles. He 
 wished to march at once on Madrid, but was 
 compelled by his instructions to attack Bar- 
 celona. The town was almost impregnable ; 
 supplies were wanting ; he quarrelled with his 
 fellow-commander, the Prince of Hesse. He 
 determined to raise the seige, but suddenly 
 resolved to attack, the fortress of Montj uich ; 
 it fell. On Oct. 23 Barcelona was captured. 
 Catalonia and Valencia at once declared for 
 the Archduke. Peterborough, with 1,200 men, 
 advanced to raise the siege of San Mattheo, 
 where a force of 500 men was surroimded 
 by 7,000 Spaniards. Peterborough deceived 
 the Spanish general as to his numbers, relieved 
 the town, and entered Valencia in pursuit of 
 the Spanish army. Meanwhile an army under 
 the command of Anjou, who was advised by 
 Marshal Tesse, and a fleet under the Count of 
 Toulouse, were blockading Barcelona. Peter- 
 borough attempted to raise the siege but 
 failed. A new commission was sent him 
 placing him in command of the fleet as well as 
 of the army. He failed to entice the French 
 to battle, but they sailed away, and were 
 followed by the army. In this year Berwick 
 fell back before Galway, and that general 
 occupied Madrid (1706). Philip, Duke of 
 Anjou, fled, and Arragon declared for the 
 Archduke Charles. This was the highest 
 point of the success of the allies. But the 
 hostility of the natives, and the cowardice of 
 Charles, made it impossible to hold the town. 
 Galway fell back and effected a junction with 
 Peterborough at Guadalaxara. Berwick im- 
 mediately occupied Madrid. Peterborough 
 soon quaiTelled with Charles, and left the 
 army. The allies retreated on Valencia. In 
 1707 Galway was rash enough to attack 
 Berwick in a disadvantageous position on the 
 plain of Almanza, and was utterly defeated. 
 Valencia and Arragon surrendered to the 
 French, and the Archduke Charles was reduced 
 to the province of Catalonia. " The battle of 
 Almanza decided the fate of Spain. " Stanhope 
 
Spe 
 
 ( 962 ) 
 
 Spe 
 
 was sent to command in Spain with. Starem- 
 Lerg, a methodical tactician, as his col- 
 league. For two years nothing was done. 
 At length, in 1710, Stanhope and Starem- 
 herg advanced on Madrid. Philip's troops 
 were defeated at Almenara, and again at 
 Saragossa. Madrid was occupied, and Philip 
 was once more a fugitive.' Again it was 
 found impossible to hold the town. The 
 allies retreated to Toledo, and thence to 
 Catalonia. Vendome, the new Frencn com- 
 mander, followed hard after them. Stanhope, 
 who had separated from Staremherg, was sur- 
 rounded at Brihuega, and had to capitulate ; 
 Staremherg, who marched to his rescue, was 
 defeated after an obstinate resistance in Villa- 
 Viciosa. He fled through Catalonia to Bar- 
 celona. Philip was now safe on the throne of 
 Madrid. The war was practically over ; for, 
 although Argyle was sent to Catalonia in 
 1711, he could effect nothing with a de- 
 moralised army and no supplies. Perhaps, in 
 view of the impending negotiations, it was 
 not intended that he should affect anything. 
 The Peace of Utrecht was signed on March 31, 
 1713. The Catalans, faithful to a hopeless 
 cause, deserted by their allies, still fought on. 
 But in Sept., 1714, Barcelona fell, and the 
 war in Spain was at an end. 
 
 Morlborougrli's Despatches ; Coxe, Jlf arl&orough 
 and Spanish Bouvhons ; Stanhope, Eeign of Queen 
 Anne ; Alison, Life oflHavlhorough; Wjon, Queeu 
 Anne; Burton, Queen Anne; Martin, Ristoire 
 de France; Ameto, Prim Eugen von Savoyen ; 
 Mahon, War of the Succession in Spain ; 
 Macaulay, Essays. [g. J. L T 
 
 Speaker, The, is the name given to the 
 officers who preside over the House of Lords 
 and the House of Commons. The Speaker of 
 the House of Lords is the Lord Chancellor or 
 the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal ; his office 
 is not nearly so important as that of the 
 Speaker of the Lower House. He is allowed 
 to take part in debates, and to vote as an 
 ordinary member; Ms official duties being 
 chiefly confined to putting the question to 
 the House. The Speaker of the House of 
 Commons, on the contrary, is an official of 
 the highest importance ; his duties are not 
 only to preside over the debates and to put 
 the question, but to maintain order, to enforce 
 the decrees of the House, and to act generally 
 as its representative or " mouth " : through 
 their Speaker the Commons have the 
 privilege of access to the sovereign. "Un- 
 like the Speaker of the Lords the Speaker 
 of the Lower House, who holds rank as 
 the first commoner of the realm, can take 
 no part in debates, and has no vote unless 
 the numbers are equal, when he has a 
 casting vote. The office, which is filled by 
 vote of the Commons subject to royal appro- 
 bation, is of very ancient origin. That some 
 spokesman was necessary from the first 
 institution of Parliament is sufficiently 
 obvious, but the position and title of 
 Speaker were only settled in 1377. But 
 
 Henry of Keighley, who in 1301 bore the 
 petition of the Lincoln Parliament' to the. 
 
 royal presence ; Sir William Trussell, who 
 answered for the Commons in 1343, though 
 not a member of the House itself ; Sir Peter 
 de la Mare, the famous leader of the Good 
 
 Parliament in 1376, who discharged the 
 functions without the title, must all practi- 
 cally have been in much the same position as 
 the later speaker. But in 1376 the title is 
 definitely given to Sir Thomas Hungerford, 
 and from that date the list is complete. 
 
 SPEAEBeS OF THE HOTJSE OF COUMOITS. 
 
 Sir Thomas Hungerford . . . 1376 
 
 Sir Peter de la Mare .... 1377 
 
 Sir James Pekeryng . . . . 1378 
 
 Sir John G-ildersburgh . . . 1380 
 
 Sir Bichard de Waldsgrave .... 1381 
 
 Sir James Pickering 1383 
 
 Sir John Bnssy 1394 
 
 Sir John Cheyne 1399 
 
 John Dorewood 14flO 
 
 Sir Arnold Savage 1401 
 
 Sir Henry de Eedef ord .... 1402 
 
 Sir Arnold Savage 1404 
 
 Sir John Cheyney 1405 
 
 Sir John Tivetot 1406 
 
 Thomas Chaucer 1407 
 
 John Dorewood 1413 
 
 "Wautir Hungerford 1414 
 
 Thomas Chaucer 1414 
 
 Eichard Eedman 1415 
 
 Sir "Walter Beauchamp 1416 
 
 EogerPlou 1416 
 
 Eoger Hunt 1420 
 
 Thomas Chaucer 1421 
 
 Eichard Banyard 1421 
 
 Eoger Floa 1422 
 
 Jobn Eussel 1423 
 
 Sir Thomas Wanton 142S 
 
 Eichard Vernon 1426 
 
 John Tyrrell 1427 
 
 William Alyngton 1429 
 
 John TyrreU 1431 
 
 John Eussel 1432 
 
 Eoger Hunt 1433 
 
 John Bowes . . 1435 
 
 Sir John Tyrrell 1437 
 
 "William Boerley ....... 1437 
 
 WilUam Tresham 1439 
 
 William Burley 1445 
 
 "William Tresham 14 17 
 
 John Say 1449 
 
 Sir John Popham 1449 
 
 "William Tresham 1449 
 
 Sir William Oldham 1450 
 
 Thomas Tborp 1453 
 
 Sir Thomas Charleton 1454 
 
 Sir John Wenlok 1455 
 
 Thomas Tresham ] 1459 
 
 John Giene 1460 
 
 Sir James Strangways 1461 
 
 John Say 1453 
 
 William Alyngton 1472 
 
 John Wode 1483 
 
 William Cateaby ..»..! 1484 
 
 Thomas Lovell ', 1485 
 
 John Mordaunt * 1487 
 
 Sir Vhomas Fitzwilliam ..... 1489 
 
 Eichard Empson , . ... 1491 
 
 Sh- Reffinald Bray . ,.'.', 1495 
 
 Sir Robert Drury ". 1495 
 
 Thomas IngelBeld ' 1497 
 
 Edmund Dudeley . ..." 1504 
 
 Thomas Ingelfield . . . ' ' 1510 
 
 Sir Eohert Sheffield .....' ' 1512 
 
 Sir Thomas Nevile . . . [ ' 15I5 
 
 Sir Thomas More ...."* 152J 
 
 Thomas A ndeley. . . . ' icoo 
 
 Sir Humphrey Wingfleld . . ' icoi 
 
 Eichard Rich ... • 1»6 
 
Spe 
 
 '('963 ) 
 
 Spi 
 
 Sir Mioholas Hare . . ... 1539 
 
 Thomas Mqyle 154,2 
 
 Sir John Baker 1547 
 
 Sir James Diar 1553 
 
 John Pollard 1553 
 
 Robert Brooke 1554 
 
 Clement Heigham 1554 
 
 John Pollard . . ... 1555 
 
 William Cordell 1558 
 
 Sir Thomas Gargrave 1559 
 
 Thomas Wylliams 1563 
 
 Bichard Onslow 1566 
 
 Christopher "Wray 1571 
 
 Robert Bell 1^72 
 
 John Pophaiu .... . 1581 
 
 Serjeant Puckering 1584 
 
 Serjeant Snagg 1589 
 
 Edward Coko 1593 
 
 Serjeant Yelverton 1597 
 
 Seqeant Croke 1601 
 
 Sei^eant PhiUpa 1603 
 
 Sir Randolph Crewe 1614 
 
 Sir Thomas Richardson 1621 
 
 Sir Thomas Crewe 1624 
 
 Sir Heneage Knch 1626 
 
 Sir John I'inoh 1628 
 
 John GlanviU 1640 
 
 William Lenthall 1640 
 
 Francis Kous 1653 
 
 William Lenthal 1654 
 
 Sir Tuomas Widdrington .... 1656 
 
 Chaloner Chute 1659 
 
 Thomas Bamfleld 1659 
 
 Sir Hacbottle Urimston 1660 
 
 Sir Edward Turner 1661 
 
 Sir .lob Charlton 1673 
 
 Edward Seymour 1673 
 
 Sir JJobert Sawyer 1678 
 
 Edward Seymour 1678 
 
 Serjeant Gregory 1679 
 
 William Williams ...... 1680 
 
 Sir John Trevor . .... 1685 
 
 Henry Powle 1689 
 
 Sir John Trevor 1690 
 
 Paul Foley 1695 
 
 Sir Thomas Xittelton 1698 
 
 Robert Harley 1701 
 
 John Smith 1V05 
 
 Sir Richard Onslow 1708 
 
 wmiam Bromley 1710 
 
 Sir Thomas Hanmer 171* 
 
 Spen<!er Compton 1715 
 
 Arthur Onslow 1W8 
 
 Sir John Oust IT^l 
 
 Sir Fletcher Norton 1770 
 
 Charles Cornwall 17|0 
 
 William Grenyillc 17|9 
 
 Henry Addington 17°J 
 
 Sir John Mjtford 1™! 
 
 Charles Abbot . . . . . • 1802 
 
 Cha,rles IManners-Sutton . . 1|'7 
 
 James Abercromby l°xx 
 
 Charles Shnw-Lefevre .... 1°?° 
 
 John Evelrn Denison . . • ■ l°j7 
 
 Sir Henry Brand 1°7^ 
 
 Arthur Peel . . . . • 1884 
 
 Speed, John {b. 1552, d. 1629),alatoriouB 
 antiquarian, was a native of Cheshire, who 
 became a tailor in London, until Sir Fulk 
 Greville gave him an allowance to enable him 
 to pursue his favourite researches. His 
 Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain (1606), 
 was a well-executed series of maps of counties 
 and towns. His chief work. The History of 
 Great Britain (1614), was a laborious and 
 voluminous compilation from preceding 
 authors. Though in no sense an authorita- 
 tive work. Speed's compilation is of some 
 use owing to the amount of matter drawn 
 from previous authors which it incorporates. 
 
 Speights Bay, The Battle of (1651), 
 was fought in Barbadoos between the colonists 
 (who were Royalists) under Lord Willoughby 
 of Parham, and a I'arliamentary force (which 
 had been sent out from England by Cromwell 
 for the reduction of the island) under Admiral 
 Ayscue and Colonel AUeyne. The victory 
 lay with the Royalists. 
 
 Spelmau, SirHeney (i. 1562, d. 1641), a 
 Norfolk squire, was an eminent antiquary, 
 whose learned works are still useful. Such 
 are his Glo&sarium Archaologiemn, his treatise 
 on Knight's Tenures, his History of English 
 Councils, etc. A very strong Anglican, Spel- 
 man, wrote a History of Sacrilege to show the 
 fate which holders of church lands were likely 
 to incur, a Treatise concerning Tithes, and a 
 book De non temerandis Ecclesiis. The Seli- 
 quiee Spehnanniame contain a large number of 
 his posthumous works. Spelman's intimate 
 knowledge of the works of earlier writers, 
 and his acquaintance with the intricacies of 
 English law and legal custom in the period 
 at which he lived, make his works of con- 
 siderable value to the student and antiquarian. 
 
 Spencean Philanthropists was the 
 
 eccentric name given to a body of men who 
 followed the teaching of a revolutionary and 
 communistic teacher named Spence, who 
 early in the eighteenth century formed an 
 organised societ}'. They arranged the Spa 
 Fields meeting of Dec. 2, 1816. Thistlewood 
 and other notorious demagogues were mem- 
 bers of the society, whose members were 
 largely connected with the subsequent , Cato 
 Street Conspiracy. 
 
 Spenser, Edmund (S. 1553, d. 1599), the 
 author of the Fairie Queen, and one of the 
 greatest of English poets, was a friend of Sir 
 Philip Sidney (q.v.), by whom he was intro- 
 duced to the notice of the Earl of Leicester. 
 In 1580 he was appointed secretary to the 
 Lord Deputy of Ireland, Lord Grey de Wil- 
 ton, and obtained large estates in that country, 
 where he composed the Fairie Queen. In 
 1598 his property was plundered and de- 
 stroyed by the insurgents in Tyrone's rebel- 
 lion, and' Spenser was obliged to retm-n to 
 England, where he died shortly afterwards. 
 His View of the State of Ireland, written in 
 1596, is a valuable source of information for 
 the condition of the country at that period, and 
 illustrates the stern measures by which the 
 English colonists were prepared to maintain 
 their position. 
 
 Spithead Mutiny, The, took place in 
 1797, and was the result of the legitimate 
 grievance of the seamen at a naval system 
 honeycombed with corruption and abuses, 
 which subjected the sailors to barbarous treat- 
 ment, while keeping their pay at the rate 
 fixed under Charles II., and leaving their 
 commissariat to the control of venal and 
 greedy pursers. In conjunction with the 
 still more famous Mutiny at the Nore, it was 
 
Sp6 
 
 ( 964 ) 
 
 Sta 
 
 a formidable danger in the midst of the war. 
 Every ship refused to obey the order to sail. 
 At a council on board the Qiieen Charlotte, 
 the meeting was organised, • and petitions 
 addressed to the Admiralty. Lord Howe 
 suceeeded by great tact in winning the muti- 
 neers back to their duty, and even persuaded 
 them to express full sorrow, a confession 
 which resulted in an Act that removed their 
 worst grievances. 
 
 Sports, The Book of, is the name generally 
 given to James I.'s Declaration, issued in 
 1618, which permitted the use of "lawful" 
 recreations on Sunday after Church time. 
 Dancing, the setting up of maypoles, archery, 
 leaping, Whitsunales were among the list of 
 lawful sports. Bear baiting, bowling, and 
 interludes were declared unlawful. Those 
 not attending church were not allowed to 
 join in the sports. In 1633 Charles I. re- 
 issued his Declaiation, and enforced what his 
 father had hesitated to do, the reading of it 
 in all churches. Bitterly opposed by the 
 Puritans, the Long Parliament ordered all 
 copies of the Declaration to be burnt. 
 
 Spottiswood, John (*. 1565, d. 1639), 
 Archbishop of St. Andrews, accompanied 
 James VI. to England (1603), receiving the 
 Archbishopric of Glasgow in the same year, 
 and that of St. Andrews in 1615. In 1633 he 
 crowned Charles I. at Holyrood, and two years 
 later was made Chancellor of Scotland. 
 
 Spottiswoode Gang, The (1837), was 
 the name given to an association in London 
 which was formed to collect subscriptions to 
 test the legality of Irish elections. Mr. 
 Spottiswoode, one of the Queen's printers, 
 presided over it, and from this cii-cumstance 
 the name arose. Sir P. Burdett (q.v.) was a 
 zealous supporter of the association. It was 
 attacked in the House by Mr. Blewitt, member 
 for Monmouth, but he met with little support. 
 
 _ Spragge, Sir Edward {d. 1673), wasadis- 
 tinguished naval commander during the reign 
 of Charles II. He took a prominent share in 
 many battles against the Dutch, and, in par- 
 ticular, gallantly, though unsuccessfully, de- 
 fended Sheerness in 1667. In 1671 he took 
 part in an expedition against the Algerine 
 pirates. In 1673 he was kiUed in action 
 against Van Tromp. 
 
 Sprat, Thomas, Bishop of Rochester 
 (*. 1636, d. 1713), was educated at Wadham 
 CoUege, Oxford, and took deacon's orders 
 in 1660. He became a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society in 1662. He was created 
 by rapid promotion Prebendary of West- 
 minster (1668), Canon of Windsor (1680), 
 Dean of Westminster (1683), and Bishop of 
 Rochester (1684). He was weak enough to 
 accept a seat in James's ecclesiastical commis- 
 sion board in hopes of obtaining the Arch- 
 bishopric of York. With trembling voice 
 he read the Declaration of Indulgence in West- 
 
 minster Abbey: Soon afterwards he resigned 
 his place on the commission. When William 
 of Orange landed he declined to sign a declara- 
 tion of fidelity to James. He voted for a re- 
 gency, hut took the oaths of fidelity with- 
 out hesitation, and assisted at the coronation 
 of William and Mary. In 1692 he was in- 
 volved in a supposed Jacobite conspiracy, de- 
 signed by one Robert Young, and lor a while 
 imprisoned ; but his innocence was clearly 
 proved. His chief works are A History of the 
 Royal Society (1667), and An Aecoimt of the 
 Rye-Souse Riot (1685). Macaulay thinks that 
 his prose writings prove him to have been " a 
 great master of our language, and possessed at 
 once of the eloquence of the preacher, of the 
 controversialist, and of the historian. His 
 moral character might have passed with little 
 censure had he belonged to a less sacred pro- 
 fession ; for the worst that can be said of him 
 is that he was indolent, luxurious, and worldly ; 
 hut such failings, though not commonly re- 
 garded as very heinous in men of secular 
 callings, are scandalous in a prelate. " 
 
 Birch, lAfe of TiUotson ; Macaulay, Hist. ofEng. 
 
 Sprigge, Joshua (i. 1618, d. 1676), was 
 born at Banbury, entered at New Town 
 Hall, Oxford, in 1634, became a preacher in 
 London, afterwards chaplain in the New 
 Model, and Fellow of All Souls CoUege, 
 Oxford. He was author of Amjlia Redimva, 
 a history of the successes of the New Mode), 
 of which book, according to Clement Walker, 
 Nathaniel Fiennes was chief compiler. 
 Wood, Athena! OaJonieiises. 
 
 Sprot, Geokge, a notary of Eyemouth, 
 was legal adviser to Logan of Restalrig, from 
 whom he acquired information concerning the 
 Gowrie conspiracy. Having incautiously re- 
 vealed his knowledge, he .was tortured, and, 
 having confessed all he knew, was executed. 
 
 Spurs, Battle of the, is the name 
 usually given to the action fought at Guine- 
 gate, near Terouenne, Aug. 16, 1513, during 
 the campaign of the English under Henry 
 VIII. and the Imperialists under Maximilian 
 in Flanders. The aUies had formed the siege 
 of Terouenne and a body of French cavalry 
 came up to relieve the town. The allies 
 advanced in order of battle, and the French 
 on seeing them were seized with panic, put 
 spurs to their horses, and fled without .a blow. 
 
 Stafford, John, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (d. 1452) was a member of one 
 of the most illustrious families in England 
 in the fifteenth century. After holding 
 several minor preferments, he was made 
 Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1425, and in 
 1443 was translated to Canterbury. He held 
 many important civil offices, being appointed 
 Treasurer in 1422, Keeper of the Privy Seal 
 in 1428, and Lord Chancellor in 1432. He 
 held the great seal till 1450. Stafford was a 
 strong supporter of Beaufort and the peace 
 
Sta 
 
 ( 965 ) 
 
 Sta 
 
 party, and was zealous in promoting the 
 marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of 
 Anjou. In Jack Cade's rebellion he showed 
 great intrepidity, and did much to restore 
 tranquillity to the country by a judicious ad- 
 mixture of flnnnesa and leniencj-. His conduct 
 as a statesman and judge is worthy of consi- 
 derable praise, and while he lived he was able 
 to keep the rivalry between the Yorkists and 
 Lancastrians within bounds. He would seem 
 to deserve higher praise than is bestowed upon 
 him by Fuller, who says — " No prelate hath 
 either less good or less evil recorded of him." 
 Hook, Archbishops of Canteriniry, 
 
 Stafford, Sir Humpbey {d. 1450) was 
 cousin to the first Duke of Buckingham, and 
 nephew of John Stafford, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. On the outbreak of Jack Cade s 
 rebellion he was sent with a, detachment 
 against the insurgents, whom he met at Seven- 
 oaks, and an encounter took place, in which 
 Stafford was defeated and slain. 
 
 Stafford, Sir Thomas {d. 1557), was the 
 son of Lord Stafford, and the nephew of 
 Cardinal Pole. He was for a long time an 
 exile at the Court of France during the reign 
 of Mary, but in April, 1557, headed an expe- 
 dition to the Yorkshire coast, and took the 
 castle of Scarborough, with the object " of 
 delivering his country from foreign tyranny," 
 though " not to work his own advancement 
 touching possession of the crown." The 
 castle was retaken at once by the Earl of 
 Westmoreland, and Stafford was put to death. 
 Strype, AnnaXs; Froude, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Stafford, William Howard, Viscount 
 (J. 1612; d. 1680), was a Roman Catholic peer 
 of high personal character, who in 1678 was 
 aocusedbyOatesandBedloe of complicity in the 
 Popish Plot. He was committed to the Tower 
 with four other Catholic peers, and in 1680 
 was the one chosen to be tided. He was im- 
 peached of high treason by the Commons, 
 and tried by the House of Lords, and, although 
 the only witnesses against him were Gates, 
 and other perjured wretches, he was found 
 guilty by 55 votes to 31. His execution, 
 which took place in Dec, 1680, marks the 
 turn of the tide against Shaftesbury, and the 
 other upholders of the Popish Plot. Stafford 
 protested his innocence on the scaffold, and the 
 populace avowed their belief in his assertion. 
 
 Stair, James Dalrymple, Viscotjwt 
 (b, 1619, d. 1695), had borne arms in his youth, 
 and was subsequently a professor of philo- 
 sophy at Glasgow TJniversity. He was a 
 member of Cromwell's commission of justice, 
 which in 1651 superseded the Court of Session. 
 After the Eestoration he sat in the Privy 
 Council, and became President of the Court 
 of Session, and was knighted by Charles II. 
 On refusing to make a declaration against the 
 covenant, he was condemned to forfeiture. 
 On passing through London, however, he 
 
 had an interview with Charles II., and hia 
 office and estates were restored to him. In 
 1676 he became Lord President, and boldly 
 opposed the severities which preceded the fall 
 of the Stuarts. He was deprived of office, 
 and felt it advisable to retire to Holland. 
 There he composed his Institutes, a legal 
 work of great value. He assisted with his 
 counsel and purse the unfortunate enterprise 
 of Argyle. His estates would probably have 
 been confiscated had not his eldest son taken 
 the Stuart side on political affairs. At the 
 revolution Stair assisted William with his 
 advice. He became President of the Court of 
 Session, and William's trusted agent in Scot- 
 land. An attempt was made by the opposition 
 to rid themselves of him and his son by 
 passing a law to the effect that all who had 
 shared in the proceedings under the Stuarts 
 were to be excluded from office, but the royal 
 assent was refused to the bill. William wished 
 to make him Lord President of the judicial 
 bench, but the estates claimed the appoint- 
 ment. Next year, however, the opposition 
 was overcome. Dalrymple's attempts to 
 reform the bench do not seem to have been 
 particularly successful. On the fall of Mel- 
 ville the government of Scotland passed 
 entirely into the hands of the Dalrymples. 
 Sir James was raised to the peerage, with the 
 title of Viscount Stair (1691). It is not 
 generally asserted that he took any active 
 part in organising the massacre of Glencoe. 
 In 1695 he died. Stair, as well as his son, 
 were thoroughly unpopular in Scotland. " He 
 was," says Mr. Burton, "the unapproached 
 head of the Scotch law ... To the field 
 of Scotch jurispi'udence, such as it was, Stair 
 brought so entire an intellectual command, 
 both in knowledge and genius, that he made 
 his labours within it illustrious." 
 Burton, Hibt. of Scotland. 
 
 Stair, John Dalrymple, ViscoxiNr, 
 AFTERWARDS Earl (J. 1648, d. 1707), is known 
 in history by the title of the Master of St3,ir. 
 He took office under James II., and became 
 Lord Advocate of Scotland. By this means 
 he saved the estates of his father from confis- 
 cation. The coldness that ensued between 
 father and son was merely affected. At the 
 revolution he early changed sides. He was 
 one of the Scotch commissioners who were 
 sent to offer the crown to William.' On his 
 return he was falsely accused by the opposi- 
 tion of having betrayed the liberties of his 
 country. Shortly afterwards he became Lord 
 Advocate, and on the fall of his rival, Mel- 
 ville, Secretary of State for Scotland (1696). 
 In conjunction with Argyle and Breadalbane, 
 he planned the infamous massacre of Glencoe. 
 An inquiry in 1695 clearly traced the design 
 to him, but the Scotch Estates simply censured 
 him in vague terms, and left his treatment to 
 the wisdom of the king. William contented 
 himself with <iismissing the master from 
 
Sta 
 
 •(- 
 
 -) 
 
 Sta 
 
 office. On the death of his father (1695) 
 he became viscount, and was created Earl 
 Stair in 1703. As one of the commissioners 
 of the Scotch Union he displayed his great 
 legal talents. In 1707, during the debate on 
 article 22 he spoke with success, and with 
 considerable earnestness. But the strain on 
 his nerves was too great ; he returned home, 
 and died. " The Master of Stair," says Mae- 
 aulay, " was one of the first men of his time — 
 a jurist, a statesman, a fine scholar, an eloquent 
 orator. His polished manners and lively con- 
 versation were the delight of aristocratical 
 societies, and none who met him in such 
 societies would have thought it possible that 
 he could bear the chief part in an atrocious 
 crime." The defence that is offered for his 
 complicity in the massacre of Glencoe may be 
 given in the words of Mr. Burton : — "If it is 
 to be called malignity, it was no more personal 
 than the desire of a chief of police to bring a 
 band of robbers to justice." 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; Burton, Hist, of 
 Scotland, 
 
 Stair, Thomas Dalrymple, Earl op (son 
 of the foregoing) {b. 1673, (/. 1747), served under 
 William III. in Ireland and the Netherlands, 
 and was one of Marlborough's officers, becom- 
 ing a lieutenant-colonel in 1701. He shared 
 his general's disgrace. In 1707 he succeeded 
 to his father's earldom. In 1715 he was sent 
 as ambassador to France. There his friend- 
 ship with the regent stood the English govei-n- 
 ment in good stead. The fortifications at 
 Mardyk were discontinued owing to his re- 
 presentations. Hearing that ships were being 
 fitted out for the Pretender by the French 
 goveiTunent, he requested that they might be 
 given up, and the regent went so far as to 
 unload them. It is said that he tried to bring 
 about the assassination of the Pretender before 
 he started for the expedition of 1715. On 
 his return from that fruitless attempt he 
 was dismissed from Prance on Stair's demand. 
 In 1718 Stair successfully negotiated the 
 quadruple alliance between England, Prance, 
 Austria, and Holland. In 1720 he was re- 
 called owing a dispute with his fellow-coun- 
 tryman, Law, the financier. Por twenty years 
 he was kept out of employment. At length 
 (1741) he was sent as ambassador to Holland, 
 in order to induce the States General to take 
 part in the war of the Austrian succession. 
 As commander of the Enghsh army in Flan- 
 ders (1743) he displayed great incapacity. It 
 was only by extreme good fortune that the 
 Enghsh army escaped destruction at Dettingen. 
 After the battle jealousy sprang up between 
 him and the German commanders. Disgusted 
 at the rejection of his advice he sent in his 
 resignation. In 1745 he was reappointed 
 commander-in-chief on the occasion of Prince 
 Charles Edward's invasion, but took no active 
 part in the campaign. 
 
 Stanhope, Met. of Eng.; Arueth, Maria 
 Ineresia. 
 
 Stamford Bridge, The Battle of (Sept. 
 26, 1066), was fought between the English, 
 under King Harold II., and the Norwegians, 
 led by Harold Hardrada and Tostig. The 
 early success of the invaders at Pulford, and 
 the submission of York had not prepared them 
 for the sudden advance of Harold, and they 
 seem to have been taken unawares, as they 
 were encamped on the banks of the IDerwent, 
 east of York. The party on the right bank 
 were completely surprised, and could make 
 but little resistance, and, ha%'ing defeated 
 these, the English proceeded to press across 
 the bridge, which was for awhile gallantly 
 defended by a single Norwegian champion. 
 The main fight took place on the left bank, 
 and, after a hard struggle, the English gained 
 a complete victory. Harold Hardrada and 
 Tostig lay dead on the field, and of the 
 Norwegian host very few escaped to their 
 ships. 
 
 Freeman, Norman Conquest. 
 
 Stamp Act, The (1764, 1765, 1766), was 
 one of the chief causes of the war with the 
 American colonies. In it George Grenville, 
 as Chancellor of the Exchequer, in 1764, 
 asserted for the first time the right of the 
 imperial legislature to impose taxation on 
 the colonies ; and by it customs duties were 
 charged upon the importation into the colonies 
 of various foreign products. The proceeds of 
 these duties were, on a totally new principle, 
 to be paid into the imjperial exchequer, and to 
 be applied, under the direction of jparliameut, 
 towards defraying " the necessary expenses of 
 defending, protecting, and securing the British 
 colonies and plantations." This Act was also 
 accompanied by a resolution, passed by the 
 Commons, that " it may be proper to charge 
 certain stamp duties" in America, as the 
 foundation of future legislation. A year's 
 delay was allowed by Grenville before passing 
 the threatened biU," but in the following year, 
 in spite of the unanimous protests of the 
 American colonies, and their assertion of their 
 constitutional right to be taxed only through 
 their representatives, the fatal bill passed 
 almost without opposition. The colonists, 
 however, resisted its execution, and their dis- 
 content became so marked that Parliament 
 was reluctantly obliged to take notice of it. 
 Pitt, who had been prevented by illness from 
 being present at the discussions on the bill, 
 now came forward, and, insisting that taxation 
 without representation was illegal, urged the 
 immediate repeal of the tax, while he proposed 
 to uphold the dignity of the mother country 
 by asserting the general legislative authority 
 of Parliament over the colonies. From this 
 Act he expressly excepted the right of taxation, 
 bnt the crown lawyers were against him and 
 m spite of the fact that Lord Rockingham 
 was now at the head of the government the 
 exception was eliminated, and the bill 'was 
 passed maintaining the absolute right of 
 
Sta 
 
 ( 9G7 ) 
 
 Sta 
 
 England to make laws for tlie colonies. 
 Though defeated in this particular, Pitt 
 carried his original proposal, and in 1766 
 the Stamp Act was repealed, while at the 
 same time several of the ohnoxious duties, 
 which had heen imposed in 1764, were with- 
 drawn, and others were modified. 
 
 Massey, R&ign of George III. ; May, Const. Hist.; 
 
 Adam Smith, WeoXth of Nations, book iv., c. 7 ; 
 
 Burke, American Taxation; Bancroft, Hist, of the 
 
 American Revolution, vols, ii., iii. ; Evidence of 
 
 Franklin, Pari. Hist. xvi. 
 
 Standard, The Battle of the (1137), 
 was fought near Northallerton in Yorkshire. 
 David of Scotland invaded England on the 
 pretext of assisting Maud against Stephen ; 
 hut the hatred and dread of the Scots united 
 all the English of the North against him. 
 Under the authority of Thurstan, Archhishop 
 of York and the leadership of Raoul, Bishop 
 of Durham, an army was collected, while to 
 inspire courage, the consecrated hanners of St. 
 Cuthbert of Durham, St. Peter of York, St. 
 John of Beverley, and St. Wilfred of Eipon 
 were entrusted to the army. " These were all 
 suspended from one pole, like the mast of a 
 vessel, surmounted hy a cross, in the centre 
 of which was fixed a silver casket, containing 
 the consecrated wafer of the Holy Sacrament. 
 The pole was fixed into a four-wheeled car, 
 on which the Bishop stood." The Scots 
 were completely routed, and fled in disorder. 
 
 Standing Orders are orders drawn up 
 by the Houses of Parliament for the reputa- 
 tion of its conduct and proceedings. They 
 continue in force from one Parliament to 
 another, until they are repealed or suspended. 
 
 Stanhope, Charles, 3rd Earl (b. 1753, 
 d. 1816), took a prominent position in 
 poUtics, until his extreme partisanship of 
 the French Revolution lost him all in- 
 fluence. His advocacy of Republicanism 
 often left him single in a, minority in the 
 House of Lords. 
 
 Stanhope, James, General, Earl (i. 
 1673, d. 1720), in 1695 served as a volun- 
 teer in Flanders, and was given a colonel's 
 commission by William III. In Anne's fixst 
 Parliament he sat as member for Cocker- 
 mouth. He was made Brigadier-General in 
 1705. At the siege of Barcelona, he was 
 second in command to Peterborough, and 
 afterwards returned to England. In 1708 he 
 brought forward a BiU for the dissolution of 
 the Highland clans ; but as the danger of a 
 Jacobite invasion passed away, the Bill was 
 dropped. In the same year he was appointed 
 Commander in Catalonia [Spanish Succes- 
 sion, War of]. Unsuccessful on the mainland, 
 he took Port Mahonin Minorca, and in 1710 
 advanced on Arragon. The Spanish were 
 utterly defeated at Almenara, and again at 
 Saragossa. Madrid was occupied. But Stan- 
 hope was caught, defeated, and taken prisoner 
 by Vendome at Brihuega. He was ransomed 
 in 1712, and became on his return leader of the 
 
 Whig opposition. Owing to his firmness, no 
 attempt at rebellion was made by the Jacobites 
 on the death of Anne. He was prepared, if 
 necessary, to seize the Tower. On. the acces- 
 sion of George I. he became Secretary of 
 State, and was despatched to Vienna to per- 
 suade the Emperor to agree to the Barrier 
 Treaty. His vigorous measures checked a 
 serious outbreak in England during the rebel- 
 lion of 1715. He went with George to Han- 
 over (1716), and began negotiations with the 
 Abbe Dubois for the establishment of friendly 
 relations with the Regent of France. The 
 result was the triple alliance between England, 
 France, and Holland (1717). On the retire- 
 ment of Walpole and Townshend from the 
 ministry in April, Stanhope became First 
 Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer. It was thought that a Jacobite 
 invasion was impending. Stanhope was 
 removed from the Treasury, and became 
 Secretary of State for the Southern Depart- 
 ment; At home he succeeded in repealing 
 the Schism Act, but his Peerage BiU was 
 thrown out by large majorities in the Lower 
 House. In 1720 came the downfall of 
 the South Sea scheme. Stanhope had no 
 share in the speculation ; and even pro- 
 posed that ministers who had received bribes 
 from the company should be accounted 
 guilty of " notorious and dangerous corrup- 
 tion." During the examination of the 
 directors, the young Duke of Wharton di- 
 rected a violent attack against the adminis- 
 tration, especially against Stanhope himself. 
 He rose to reply ; but his passion brought a 
 rush of blood to his head, which next day 
 proved fatal. 
 
 Stanhope, Reign of Anne, Hist, of Enq., and 
 
 War of Succession in Spain; ]ttacauU,y, Essay on 
 
 War of Succession. 
 
 Stanhope, Henry, Earl (5. 1805, d. 
 1875), was returned in 1830, as Lord Mahon, 
 to Parliament as member for Wootton Bassett, 
 and afterwards for the Borough of Hertford. 
 In the flrst Peel ministry he was Under- 
 Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and during 
 the last year of Peel's second administration 
 he was Secretary to the Board of Control, 
 and supported the repeal of the Corn Laws. 
 Lord Stanhope was the author of numerous 
 important historical works. His TFar of the 
 Succession in Spain is full and accurate. 
 His History of the Reign of Queen Anne is 
 a useful general history. His more lengthy 
 and elaborate History of England in tlie Eigh- 
 teenth Century has taken its place as a 
 standard work, and though corrected and 
 supplemented has not been superseded by the 
 more recent work of Mr. Lecky. 
 
 Stanley, Sib William (d. 14-95), was the 
 brother of Henry VII.'s step-father. Justice 
 of North Wales, and constable under Richard 
 III., and the nobleman to whose treacherous 
 conduct the king's victory at Bosworth Field 
 was chiefly due. In consideration of his im- 
 
Sta 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 Sta 
 
 portant services on this occasion, Henry made 
 him Lord Chamberlain, and one of his coun- 
 sellors. Stanley, however, was not satisfied. 
 His continued demands alienated the king, for 
 whom Stanley conceived a growing dislike. 
 He became involved in some way with the 
 affair of Perkin Warbeck. On the evidence 
 of the king's spy, Sir Robert Clifford, he was 
 suddenly arrested on a charge of treason, 
 and after the merest sembla,uce of a trial, was 
 condemned and executed on that charge 
 (Feb. 16, 1495). 
 
 Bacon, Jjije of Henry VII. 
 
 Stanley, Sir William, who had been 
 employed for some time in Ireland, was in 
 1.586 recalled, and sent to the Low Countries, 
 when he became Governor of Deventer. He 
 was a traitor to EUzabeth, and a friend of 
 the Jesuits, and is supposed to have been privy 
 to the Babington Conspiracy. After the dis- 
 covery of the plot, Sir Wilham accomplished 
 a long-meditated piece of treachery, and sur- 
 rendered Deventer to the Spaniards, himself 
 entering Philip's service with 1,300 men 
 (June, 1587). 
 
 Stannary Courts, The, were the 
 courts for the administration of justice 
 among the tinners of Cornwall and Devon- 
 shire, held before the Lord Warden and his 
 steward. The privilege of the tin-workers 
 to be subject to the jurisdiction of these 
 courts only was confirmed by a charter 33 
 Edw. I, and by a statute 50 Edw. III., pleas of 
 life, land, and member excepted. There was 
 no appeal to Westminster, but to the council 
 of the Duke of Cornwall after reference to the 
 Warden in person. These courts became the 
 engines of an arbitrary prerogative which 
 robbed the mining districts of the west of the 
 benefit of the common law. The Stuarts 
 largely availed themselves of them ; and in 
 consequence of the complaints made, the Long 
 Parliament (16 Car. I., o. 15) passed an ex- 
 planatory and regulating Act concerning them, 
 at the same time it abolished some other 
 analogous special jurisdictions. Since that 
 date the proceedings of the Stannaries Courts 
 have ceased to possess any great historical 
 importance. 
 
 Stapledon, Walter de (d. 1326), was 
 made Bishop of Exeter in 1308, and in 1319 
 Lord High Treasurer. He sided with the 
 king against Queen Isabella and Mortimer, 
 and soon after the landing of the latter in 
 England he was seized by the citizens of 
 London, whom he seems to have ofllended 
 daring his tenure of the treasurership, and 
 barbarously murdered. 
 
 Staples, or Marts, for the sale of the 
 chief commodities of England, viz., wool, 
 woolfels (skins), leather, lead, and tin, were 
 established in certain places by Edward I. 
 Bind Edward II. The foreign staple was fixed 
 tirst at Antwerp and then at St. Omer. When 
 we took Calais a staple was set up there which. 
 
 on the loss of Calais in 1558 was moved to 
 Bruges. Within England there were staples 
 at several of the principal towns, at London, 
 York, Bristol, Newcastle, &o. After some 
 changes the staple system was established 
 by statute (27 Edw. III., c. 9.) In this statute 
 the staple towns are enumerated, Dublin, 
 Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda being fixed 
 on for Ireland, and Caermarthen for Wales ; 
 the ancient customs payable on staple goods are 
 recited ; all merchants, save merchants of the 
 staple,are forbidden to buyor export thesegoods, 
 and arrangements are made for the govern- 
 ment of each staple by its own mayor and 
 constables. The appointment of staple towns 
 was a measure of considerable importance. 
 As a matter of administration it facilitated 
 the collection of the customs. Constitu- 
 tionally, it bore on the relative rights of the 
 crown and the parliament as regards taxation. 
 Possessing exclusive privileges, and under the 
 special protection of the crown, the merchants 
 formed a body apart from the estates of the 
 realm, and the king negotiated with them 
 separately. The various changes in the 
 policy relating to the staples Dr. Stubbs con- 
 siders to be evidence that parliament looked 
 on the dealings of the crown with these 
 merchants as infringements of its rights. 
 Regarded in this hght, the authority given 
 by statute to the ordinances of the staple 
 previously made by the council, and the 
 recitation of the ancient customs, may be 
 regarded as assertions of the rights of the 
 estates. Commercially, the staples were of 
 importance as insuring the quality of our 
 exports, for at the staple ports the officers 
 viewed and marked the goods of the merchants. 
 From the jurisdiction of the courts of the 
 staples arose a species of estate defeasible on 
 condition subsequent, called statute staple of 
 the same nature as that founded on the 
 statute, De Menatoribus, 13 Edw. I., 
 being a security for debt whereby not only 
 the person and goods of the debtor might be 
 taken, but his lands might be delivered to the 
 creditor until out of the profits the debt 
 should be satisfied. " So much more readily 
 did the feudal restraints on alienation yield 
 to considerations of a commercial kind than 
 to any others" (Stephen's Blaekstone, i. 317). 
 This security, originally granted only to 
 traders, was extended as a recognisance in 
 the nature of a statute staple to all subjects 
 by 23 Hen. VIII., c. 6. Such securities have 
 been superseded by the law of bankruptcy, 
 and the system of staple trading itself has 
 yielded to the modern arrangement of con- 
 solidated customs. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Htst., i. 4H; Stephen, Com- 
 mentariea, i. 314 ; Bacon's Abridgement, art. Sta- 
 ples ; Mlacphersou, Hist, of Commerce, vol. 1 
 [W. H.] 
 
 Star Chamber. One of the main ob- 
 jects of Henry VII. was to secure good 
 " governance " for the country and to keep 
 
Sta 
 
 ( 969 ) 
 
 Sta 
 
 the nobles in order. For tMa purpose he 
 caused an Act (3 Henry VII., c. 1) to be 
 passed, which, after reciting the evils caused 
 by maintenance, and the giving of liveries, 
 by the abuse of the power of the sheriffs, by 
 the bribery of jurors, and by the riots 
 and unlawful assemblies which prevented 
 the administration of justice, empowers the 
 Chancellor, Treasurer, and Keeper of the 
 Privy Seal, or any two of them, with a bishop 
 and a temporal lord of the Council, and the 
 Chief Justices of the King's Bench and Com- 
 mon Pleas, or two other justice^ ■ in their 
 absence, to call before them persons offending 
 in the above-mentioned respects, and to in- 
 flict such punishment, not extending to death, 
 as might be imposed were they convicted in 
 the ordinary course of law. This seems to 
 have been not so much the creation of an 
 entirely new court, as a Parliamentary recog- 
 nition of certain powers of criminal jurisdic- 
 tion long claimed by the Privy Council, and 
 the limitation of their exercise to what may 
 be regarded as practica,lly a committee of that 
 body. The Privy Council had long been 
 accustomed to meet in the Star Chamber, but 
 now this term Star Chamber began to be 
 definitely applied to the new court which had 
 sprung out of the Council. The words do not 
 occur in the bill itself, only in the head- 
 ing, but in the Act 20 Henry VII., which 
 extended the jurisdiction of the court, the 
 title is actually employed. 
 
 Subsequently, however, the jurisdiction 
 of the court was extended beyond the Act 
 3 Henry VII. , so that in the reigns of James I. 
 and Charles I. it included most "misdemea- 
 nours of an aggravated nature, such as 
 disturbances of the public peace, assaults 
 accompanied with a good deal of violence, 
 conspiracies, and libels. Besides these, every 
 misdemeanour came within the proper scope 
 of its inquiry ; those especially of public 
 importance, and for which the law, as 
 then understood, had provided no sufficient 
 punishment." (Hallam.) At the same time 
 the limitation as to the judges came to be 
 disregarded, and any member of the Privy 
 Council was allowed to sit. Thus the Star 
 Chamber became, as has been aptly said, a 
 sort of scratch tribunal consisting of privy 
 councillors, a change which, according to 
 HaUam, probably took place during the 
 reign of Edward VI. It can scarcely be 
 doubted that during a great part at any rate 
 of the Tudor period, the power of the court 
 was beneficially exercised. " It is the effect 
 of this court," says Sir Thomas Smith in his 
 Treatise on the Commomvealth of England, 
 written early in the reign of Elizabeth, " to 
 bridle such stout noblemen or gentlemen who 
 would offer wrong by force to any manner of 
 men, and cannot be content to demand or 
 defend the right by order of the law."_ He 
 goes on to ascribe much of the praise to 
 Wolsey: "It began long before, but took 
 
 HIST.-31* 
 
 augmentation and authority at that time that 
 Cardinal Wolsey was Chancellor of England, 
 who of some was thought to have first de- 
 vised that court because that he, after some 
 intermission by negligence of time, aug- 
 mented the authority of it, which was at that 
 time marvellous necessary to do to repress 
 the insolency of the noblemen and gentlemen 
 in the north parts of England who . ' . . . 
 made almost an ordinary war among them- 
 selves." Moreover, it was able to provide 
 equitable remedies for cases which could not 
 be fairly dealt with by the ordinary law 
 courts. But its power had verj' early been 
 abused ; juries were summoned before it for 
 verdicts disagreeable to the government, and 
 were fined or imprisoned, so that although 
 the Star Chamber could not itself condemn 
 to death, the fear of its displeasure made 
 juries sufiiciently phant. Persons accused 
 before the court were forced to incriminate 
 themselves by examination upon oath, and, it 
 is scarcely necessary to add, no jury was 
 employed to determine the question of guilt. 
 It imposed ruinous fines (though in many 
 cases they were remitted), and began in 
 Elizabeth's reign to sentence to the pOlory, 
 whipping, and cutting off the ears. Under 
 JameS' I. and Charles I., the Star Chamber 
 became the chief weapon of defence used by 
 the government against its assailants ; the 
 punishments inflicted by it in such cases as 
 those of Pryhne, Bui-ton, and Bastwick, 
 excited general indignation ; and it was 
 abolished by Act of Parliament (Jnly,, 1641). 
 A committee of the Lords in 1661 reported 
 " that it was fit for the good of the nation 
 that' there be a court of like nature to the 
 Star Chamber ; " but the government did not 
 venture to submit a bill to this effect to the 
 Commons. 
 
 Coke 4t}i InsiituU, p. 61 ; Stubbs, Const.- Hist., 
 iii., c. 18; Hallam, Const. Kist., cc. 1, 8. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 State Trials, The. Collections of 
 trials for treason and others of political 
 interest have been made and published under 
 the designation of State Trials. They are 
 often invaluable sources of historical informa- 
 tion, especially in the seventeenth centurj'. 
 The earliest collection was in six volumes 
 folio, published early in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. Howell's edition in thirty-four volumes 
 with index includes aU up to. 1820. A useful 
 series of selections from the State Trials is 
 issued from the Cambridge Press under the 
 editorship of Mr. Willis Bund (1880). 
 
 Statutes may be defined as written laws, 
 established by the sovereign, with the ad- 
 vice and assent of the lords spiritual and 
 temporal, and of the Commons in Parliament 
 assembled. Our legislation, however, did 
 not take this form for a long time. The 
 edicts, or assizes of Henry II., are declara- 
 tions of methods of procedure rather than 
 
Sta 
 
 ( 970 > 
 
 Ste 
 
 enactments, and most of the legislative work 
 of Edward I. was done without the co-opera- 
 tion of the Commons. The declaration of 
 Edward II. in 1322, that matters touching 
 the state of the king, the kingdom, and 
 people should be estabhshed in Parliament 
 hy the king with the assent of the prelates, 
 earls, barons, and the commonalty, forms an 
 era in the history of our legislation. Never- 
 theless, the author of the Mirror, writing in 
 this reign, declares that ordinances made by 
 the king and his clerks, by aliens and others, 
 took the place of laws established by Par- 
 liament, and for a long time our kings con- 
 stantly neglected to gain the fuU concurrence 
 of the three estates, legislating by ordinances 
 or temporary regulations put forth by the 
 Council rather than by statute. So long also 
 as statutes were founded simply on petition, 
 it sometimes happened that one estate only 
 gained a statute, and more ' often that the 
 statutes which were drawn after the Parlia- 
 ment had broken up, and which purported 
 to be answers to the petitions presented, were 
 more or less contrary to them. To obviate 
 this, the Commons in the reign of Henry V. 
 demanded and obtained that the judges should 
 frame the statutes before the end of each 
 Parliament. In the next reign the present 
 system of making statutes by Act of Parlia- 
 ment was introduced. Statutes are written 
 laws ; yet such laws as were made before legal 
 memory — i.e., the beginning of the reign of 
 Richard I. — though written, form part of our 
 hx non scripta. Some written statutes also 
 are extant that are not of record, being con- 
 tained only in chronicles and memorials, yet 
 even though a statute be not of record, it is 
 still part of the written law if it is within 
 legal memory. The earliest statute of record 
 is 6 Edward I., called the Statute of Glou- 
 cester. The first statute in the printed col- 
 lection is the Grreat Charter, 9 Hen. III., as 
 confirmed and entered on the statute roll of 
 25 Edward I. The statutes from the Great 
 Charter to the end of Edward II. are said to 
 be incerti temporis, and are called antiqua, 
 while all those that follow are called nova 
 statuta. A statute takes effect from the 
 moment that it has received the royal 
 assent, unless some special time is expressed 
 in the statute itself. Among the rules to be 
 observed in interpreting statutes, it may be 
 noted that a statute is to be interpreted not 
 by the letter, but according to the spirit and 
 intention with which it was made : and so 
 judges, whose business it is to interpret 
 statutes, sometimes depart from the mere 
 words ; that remedial statutes are to be in- 
 terpreted in a wider, penal in a narrower 
 fashion ; and that though it was formerly held 
 that if a statute repealing an earlier one was 
 itself repealed, the earlier statute was thereby 
 revived; since 13 & 14 Vict., u. 21, this is no 
 longer the rule. Statutes have been named 
 in different ways at different times, being 
 
 called sometimes by the name of the place 
 where they were made, as the Statute of 
 Merton, sometimes by their subject, as De 
 Bonis Oonditionalibus ; and sometimes by 
 their first words, as Quia Emptorea. They 
 are now described by the year of the king's 
 reign in which they were made, with the 
 chapter, and when two sessions have been 
 held in one year, with the statute denoting the 
 session in which it was enacted, as 1 William & 
 Maiy, St. 2, c. 2 (the BiU of Bights). Statutes 
 are now divided into Public General Acts ; 
 Local and Personal Acts, declared Public; 
 Private Acts printed and Private Acts not 
 printed. Up to the time of Edward I. our 
 statutes are in Latin; in his re.gn French 
 was also used, and became the constant lan- 
 guage of legislation until Henry VI. Some 
 of the statutes of Henry VI. and Edward IV. 
 are in English ; but Henry VII. was the first 
 king whose statutes are all expressed in our 
 own tongue. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist, passim; Stephen, Com- 
 mentaries, i., Introd. i Bacon, Abridgmeni of the 
 Statutes. r\V. H.l 
 
 Steele, Sir Eichakd (J. 1671, d. 1729) 
 was bom in Dublin. At Oxford he became 
 acquainted with Addison, and when after 
 failing there and in the army, he aspired to 
 a literary career, Addison got him introduc- 
 tions to "the Whig leaders, on whose behalf 
 he soon distinguished himself. In 1709 he 
 entered Parliament, but his pamphlets, The 
 Crisis and The Englishtnan, led to his expul- 
 sion by the irate Tory majority. After the 
 accession of George I. he was knighted, 
 elected a member of Parliament, and wrote 
 numerous political pamphlets. He quarrelled 
 with his party about the Peerage Bill, and. 
 not succeeding in his literary and stock- 
 jobbing projects, retired to Carmarthen, his 
 wife'? home, where he died. Of his literary 
 eminence there is no need to speak here. As a 
 political writer Steele was one of the boldest 
 and most sagacious of the Whigs, and at the 
 same time he was, in a great degree, free 
 from the narrowness which came over some 
 of the " old Whigs," in George I.'s reign. 
 His political pamphlets are among the most 
 important contributions to the controversial 
 literature of the period. 
 
 Steeuie was the pet name given by 
 James I. to his favourite, George Villiers, 
 Duke of Buckingham. 
 
 Steiukirk, The Battle op (Aug. 4, 
 1692), fought between William III. and the 
 French soon after the naval victory of La 
 Hogue. The enemy had taken Namur. On 
 the frontier of Brabant, Luxemburg was left 
 to oppose the English king. William's head- 
 quarters were at Lambeque, Luxemburg's 
 about six miles off at Steinkirk, while still 
 farther off lay a large force under Marshal 
 Boufflers. The country between the armies 
 was exceedingly difficult. A traitor in the 
 
Ste 
 
 ( 971e ) 
 
 Ste 
 
 EngKsh army had habitually informed Mar- 
 shal Luxemburg of the movements of the 
 allies. His correspondence was discovered, 
 and with pistol at *his breast he was forced to 
 write false information dictated by WUUam. 
 The French commander was thrown off his 
 guard. The whole of the allied army marched 
 down upon him in the night. His outposts 
 were driven back. But the progress of Wil- 
 liam's forces was obstructed by several. fences 
 and ditches, and Iiuxemburg was ablato get bis: 
 troops into order. Meanwhile, Boufflers was 
 coming up. Mackay's division was the first 
 to engage. The enemy were attacked and 
 routed. It was determined to send Louis' 
 household troops against the English. After a 
 bloody struggle our men were borne down. 
 Count Solmes refused to bring up his infantry 
 to their support, and the division was nearly 
 destroyed. The French loss was about 7,000, 
 and that of the allies was not much greater. 
 The English army and the English nation 
 loudly expressed their resentment against 
 Solmes. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Stephen, King (4. circa 1094, r. 1135 — 
 1154), was the third son of Stephen, Count 
 of Blois, and Adela, daughter of William the 
 Conqueror. He was brought up at the court 
 of his uncle Henry I., from whom he received 
 in marriage Matilda or Maud of Boulogne, 
 niece of the queen. He took the oath of 
 fealty to his cousin the Empress Maud, but 
 immediately on the death of Henry I. he 
 caused himself to be proclaimed king. The 
 dislike of Maud's husband, Geoffirey of Anjou, 
 contributed in great measure to Stephen's 
 success, and at first he met with no opposi- 
 tion. But his miggovernment, and his con- 
 duct towards the Church and the officials 
 of the administration rapidly alienated his 
 friends, and in 1138 the Empress invaded 
 England in company with her brother, Kobert 
 of Gloucester. From 1 138 to 1145 was a period 
 of complete anarchy, sometimes one, some- 
 times the other party gaining the upper hand. 
 Ever}' lord of a castle acted as king in his 
 own domain. The fearful efitects of feudal 
 government were for the first and last time 
 fully exemplified in England. In 1145 
 Eobert of Gloucester died, and the Em- 
 press retired to Normandy leaving Stephen 
 master of England. But in 1152 her son 
 Henry landed jn England, and the war 
 was renewed. In 1153 a treaty was made 
 at Wallingford by which Stephen was to 
 retain the crown during his lifetime, when it, 
 was to pass to Henry. In the next year 
 Stephen died at Dover Priory on Oct. 25. 
 By his marriage with Matilda, Stephen had 
 'three sons and two daughters — Eustace, his 
 intended heir, who died in 1153 ; William, 
 who received the patrimonial estate and the 
 earldom of Surrey, and died in the service of 
 Henry II. at tbe siege of Toulouse in 1160 ; 
 
 Mary, who became a nun, but leaving her con- 
 vent married Matthew of Flanders ; Baldwin 
 and Maud who died young. Stephen possessed 
 bravery, generosity, and the other simple 
 virtues of a soldier ; but his position required 
 him to be false, and no man trusted him, 
 Icnowing that he could trust no one. He 
 was quite commonplace, and might have been 
 more successful if more unscrupulous or less 
 honest. A terrible picture of the anarchy of 
 Stephen's reign is drawn by the English 
 Chronicler. " When the traitors [i.e., the 
 barons] perceived that he was a mild man, 
 and soft and good, and did no justice, then 
 did they all wonder , . , every powerful man 
 made has castles, and held them against him. 
 They cruelly oppressed the wretched men of 
 the land with castle-works. When the castles 
 were made, they filled them with devils and 
 evil men. Then they took those men that 
 they thought had any property, both by night 
 and by day, peasant men and women, and put 
 them in prison for their gold and silver, and 
 tortured them with unutterable tortures . . . 
 Many thousand they killed with hunger; I 
 cannot and may not tell all the wounds or all 
 the tortures which they inflicted on wretched 
 men in this land, and, that lasted the nineteen 
 years while Stephen was king ; and ever it 
 was worse and worse. They laid imposts on 
 the towns continually, and when the wretched 
 men had no more to give they robbed and 
 burned all the towns, so that thou mightest 
 well go all a day's journey, and thou shouldest 
 never find a man sitting in a town, or the 
 land tiUed . . . Never yet had more wretched- 
 ness been in the land, nor did heathen men 
 ever do worse than they did. . . . The bishops 
 and the clergy consfeintly cursed them, but 
 nothing came of it ; for they were all accursed 
 and forsworn, and forlorn. However a man 
 tilled, the earth bare no corn, for the land 
 was all fordone by such deeds ; and they 
 said openly that Christ and his saints slept." 
 Gesta Stephani; Sexliam Chronicle (Surteea 
 
 See. ) ; ^Tigfo-Soaion Chronicle ; Stubbs, Const. 
 
 Hast. ; liingard, Hist, of Eng. [F. S .• P. ] 
 
 Steward, The Lord High, was a great 
 officer in the court of the Norman kings, but 
 all his important functions were very early as- 
 signed to the Justiciar, and the office soon be- 
 -came little more than honorary. It was here- 
 ditary in the house of Leicester, and was 
 inherited by Henry IV., and so absorbed into 
 the royal dignity. Since that date it has only 
 been conferred for some occasion, and the 
 office ceases when the -business which required 
 it is ended; and this occasion has usually 
 been when a person was to be tried 
 before the House of Lords. The Steward 
 had his own court, the jurisdiction of which 
 was defined in the Articuli super Cartas, but 
 despite this there are many complaints in 
 subsequent reigns of the encroachment of the 
 Steward's court, and 'in 1390 the powers of 
 the court were once more limited. 
 
Sti 
 
 ( 972 ) 
 
 Sto 
 
 Stigand, Archtishop of Canterbury (1052 
 — 1070), is first heard of as a cliaplain, adviser, 
 and minister of Queen Emma, and in 1043 
 was made Bishop of Elmham, but almost 
 immediately afterwards deposed on the occa- 
 sion of a quarrel between his patroness and 
 the king. But in the next year he made his 
 peace with Edward, and was restored to his 
 see. During the whole of the reign of Edward 
 the Confessor we find Stigand heading the 
 English party in the Church, and strongly 
 opposing the Normanising tendencies of the 
 king. The bishopric of "Winchester was given 
 to him in 1047, and on the flight of Robert of 
 Jumieges in 1052 Stigand obtained the arch- 
 bishopric. He still continued to hold the 
 bishopric of Winchester, and seems to have 
 been energetic and conciliatory in the per- 
 formance of his ecclesiastical duties. On the 
 death of Edward, Stigand summoned the 
 Witenagemot which elected Harold, but the 
 archbishop did not actuaUy crown the king. 
 After Harold's death it was Stigand who 
 anointed Edgar Atheling as king, and who 
 when the cause of the young prince was 
 proved to be hopeless, made peace between 
 him and the Conqueror. Stigand was present 
 at William's coronation, and did homage to 
 him, and was one of the Englishmen whom 
 the king took over with him to Normandy 
 in 1067. But the oppression of the Norman 
 nobles drove the English to revolt, and 
 Stigand fled with Edgar to ttie Scotch court. 
 Subsequently we find the archbishop among 
 the small band of patriots who held out 
 against the Normans among the fens of Ely. 
 Taken prisoner with the others in 1072 
 he was condemned to perpetual imprison- 
 ment at "Winchester, where he died. He had 
 previously (in 1070) been deposed from his 
 archbishopric, three charges being brought 
 against him. ( 1 ) That he held the bishopric 
 of "Winchester together with his archbishopric, 
 this being uncanonical ; (2) that he had 
 assumed the archbishopric during the lifetime 
 of Robert, who had been unlawfully deposed, 
 and (3) that he had received the pallium from 
 the anti-Pope Benedict. Of his character, 
 Dr. Hook says, " Stigand was neither a hero 
 nor a saint. He did not possess the moral 
 force or the intellectual power which enables 
 a great mind to make adverse circumstances a 
 stepping stone to usefulness and honour ; and 
 he did not possess the meaner ambition of 
 those who, failing in the arena of manly 
 contest, are satisfied with the effeminate 
 applause which is elicited by sentimentalism 
 and romance. But Stigand was a sturdy 
 patriot, in whose breast beat an honest Eng- 
 lish heart." 
 
 Anglo-Scuon Chronicle; William of Malmes- 
 hixry ; Hoolr, ArcJibishoiis ; Freemao, ^ormttTi 
 Conqueat. 
 
 Stile, John, a servant of Henry "VII., and 
 
 his messenger on several important occasions. 
 From the mention of his name in the instruc- 
 
 tions given to "Wolsey with regard to the 
 treaty of marriage between Henry and 
 Margaret of Savoy, he seems to have taken 
 some part in the more private arrangements 
 on the subject, and he was also one of Henry's 
 confidential messengers with reference to the 
 king's matrimonial plans in Naples. In 1502, 
 for some unknown reason, John Stile seems 
 to have fallen temporarily into disgrace, as 
 there is a mention of a pardon being granted 
 him on June 16 of that year. 
 
 Stillingtou, Robert {d. 1491), after 
 holding minor preferments, was in 1466 made 
 Bishop of Bath and "Wells. He was a strong 
 Yorkist, and in 1467 was entrusted with the 
 Great Seal. He held it till 1470, and again 
 from 1472 to 1475. After Edward's death 
 Stillington became an adherent of Richard, 
 and di'ew up the Act by which Edward's 
 children were bastardised. On the accession 
 of Henry VII. he was imprisoned for a short 
 while, but soon obtained pardon. In 1487, 
 however, he was implicated in the attempt of 
 Lambert Simnel, for which he was kept in 
 prison till his death. 
 
 Stirling, a town of Scotland, situated on 
 the Forth, was one of the four burghs given 
 up to the English (1174) as security for the 
 fulfilment of the conditions of the Treaty of 
 Falaise, but was restored to Scotland by 
 Richard I. (1186). In 1297 it was the scene 
 of the battle between "Wallace and the Earl 
 of Surrey, and in 1304 was taken by Edward I., 
 after being defended for three months by 
 Sir "VTilliam Oliphant. In 1'313— 14 it was 
 besieged by Edward Bruce, and after the 
 battle of Bannockbum, which was fought in 
 the endeavour to relieve it, was surrendered 
 by the governor, Mowbray. In 1339 it again 
 fell into the hands of the Scotch, being given 
 up by its governor, Thomas Rokeby. In 1571 
 an attempt was made on it by the party of 
 Queen Mary, and in 1583 it was taken by 
 the Ruthven conspirators. During the dis- 
 turbances of 1639 it was in the hands of the 
 Covenanters, and in 1715 was occupied by 
 Argyle against the Jacobites. In 1746 it was 
 unsuccessfvdly besieged by the Pretender., 
 
 Stirling, The Battle of (Sept. 11, 
 1297), resulted in a complete victory for Sir 
 William Wallace and the Scotch over the 
 English, who were led by Warenne, Earl 
 of Surrey, and by Cressingham. "Wallace 
 fell on the English, who numbered about 
 50,000 men, as they were in process of cross- 
 ing a narrow bridge over the Forth, and cut 
 them to pieces, killing Cressingham. 
 
 Stockdale v. Hansard, Cases of 
 (1837 — 40), arose from the publication by 
 Hansard, by order of the Commons, of a report, ' 
 which described a book published by Stockdale 
 as indecent. Stockdale suing Hansard for 
 libel, the Queen's Bench decided that the 
 order of the House was no justification, After 
 
Sto 
 
 ( 973 ) 
 
 Str 
 
 five suits liad been brought, and Stockdale and 
 the sheriffs committed by the Commons, an 
 Act was passed preventing any suit in future 
 concerning papers printed by order of either 
 House. 
 
 Stoke, The Battle op (June 16, 1487), the 
 last battle between the rival houses of York 
 and Lancaster, was fought between the 
 Yorkist adherents of Lambert Simnel and 
 Henry YII. at a small village near Newark. 
 John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, Lords Love! 
 and Fitzgerald led the revolters, assisted by 
 an experienced German general, Martin 
 Schwarz, at the head of 2,000 mercenaries. 
 After an obstinate conflict of three hours' 
 duration, on account of their numerical 
 superiority the royal forces, commanded by 
 Henry VII. in person, prevailed. Not one 
 of the rebel leaders escaped. Simnel was 
 taken prisoner. The revolt was thoroughly 
 suppressed. 
 
 Stone, GrEOKGE, Archbishop of Dublin 
 (J. 1707, d. 1764), was the son of a banker. 
 Through the influence of the Duke of New- 
 castle, he became in early life Dean of Derry, 
 and then successively Bishop of Kildare 
 and Derry, and in 1747 was made primate. 
 During Lord Dorset's viceroyalty he was 
 virtually governor of Ireland, and he ruled it 
 by means of the pension list. In 1755 he was 
 dismissed from the Privy Council, but in 1759 
 again joined the ministerial party. He was 
 called the "Beauty of Holiness," and was 
 very unpopular. He was, however, a liberal 
 man, and in favour of the removal of Catholic 
 disabilities. 
 
 Ijecty, Hist, of Eng. in ihe Eighteenth Cen- 
 tury ; Plowden, Hist, of Ireland ; Walpole, M-e- 
 moirs of the Reign of George II. 
 
 Storie, Db. John {d. 1571), was in Jan., 
 1548, whilst a member of the House of 
 Commons, committed to the custody of the 
 Serjeant-at-Arms, "probably," says HaUam, 
 " for some ebullition of virulence against the 
 changes of religion." Under Mary, Storie 
 became one of the most violent enemies of the 
 Reformation, and a leading persecutor. He 
 was queen's proctor at the trial of Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer, and in 1559 made a violent 
 speech in the House against the Supremacy 
 Bill. He was subsequently imprisoned for 
 refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and 
 on his release went abroad, where he occupied 
 himself in plotting against Elizabeth's govern- 
 ment. He is said to have been plotting the 
 death of James YI. of Scotland, in order to 
 smooth the way " for his mother's marriage 
 with some Catholic prince," when he was 
 inveigled on board a vessel at Antwerp by a 
 man named Parker, one of Burleigh's spies, 
 and carried to Yarmouth. He was tortured 
 to extort his secrets, and shortly afterwards 
 was hanged. 
 
 Stowe, John (J. circa 1626, d, 1605), was 
 
 a London citizen and most industrious anti- 
 quarian. Besides minor works, such as his Smn- 
 marie of English Chronicles (1561), his Flares 
 Histm-iarum, his contributions to Holinshed, 
 and to editions of Chaucer, he is chiefly known 
 for his Siirvay of London'T^uhWshBi in 1698, 
 which has been the basis of all subsequent 
 attempts at a history of London. He suffered 
 from great poverty in his old age. 
 
 An enlarged edition of Stowe's Suivay was 
 published by Strype in 1720, and re-issued with 
 further enlargements in 2 vols, folio (1754). 
 
 Stowell, William Scott, Lord (b. 1746, 
 d. 1836), was the elder brother of Lord Eldon. 
 From the Grammar School of Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne, he went up to Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford, as a scholar, and obtained a fellow- 
 ship. In 1774 he was appointed Cam- 
 den Header in ancient history, while in 
 the meantime he was studying for the bar. 
 For eighteen years he remained at Oxford. 
 He then practised in "the Ecclesiastical and 
 Admiralty Courts. Practice flowed in to him 
 at once. In four years he was appointed 
 Registrar of the Court of Faculties, and five 
 years later Judge of the Consistory Court and 
 Advocate-General, with the honour of knight- 
 hood, and, ten years later, he becam.e Judge of 
 the High Court of Admiralty. In 1790 he 
 had been returned to Parliament for Downton, 
 but during a long career in Parliament he 
 scarcely ever made a long speech. In 1821 
 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge 
 he cannot be too highly praised. He ranks 
 even higher than his distinguished brother. 
 He was painstaking, clear, and logical in his 
 decisions, and displayed a breadth of learning 
 and research which has done much to form 
 our international law. " He formed,'' says a 
 contemporary writer, " a system of rational 
 law from the ill-fashioned labours of his pre- 
 decessors, erecting a temple of jurisprudence, 
 and laying its foundations not on fleeting 
 policy, or in occasional interests, but in uni- 
 versal and immutable justice." 
 
 Haggard, Reports; Annual Obituary, 18S7. 
 
 Strafford, Thomas Wentwokth, Earl 
 OF {b. April, 1593, d. May 12, 1641), the son of 
 Sir William Wentworth, was educated at St. 
 John's College, Cambridge, represented York- 
 shire in Parliament from 1613 to 1628, with 
 the exception of the assembly of 1626, when 
 he was incapacitated by being appointed 
 sheriff. In Parliament Wentworth main- 
 tained an independent position, inclining 
 rather to the popular party than to the court. 
 In 1621 he opposed the attempt of James to 
 limit the rights of Parliament, and proposed 
 a protestation. In 1627 he opposed the forced 
 loan levied by Charles, and was for a short 
 time in confinement. In the Parliament of 
 1628 he for a time exercised great influence 
 in the Commons, and attempted to embody 
 the liberties of the subject in a bill, and 
 thereby to lay a secure foundation for. the 
 
Str 
 
 ( 974 ) 
 
 Str 
 
 future, and reconcile king and Commons. 
 But he did not share in the general passion for 
 war with Spain in 1624, nor did he sympathise 
 with the ohjections of the Puritans to the 
 king's religious policy. What he desired 
 was a government 'intelligent enough to per- 
 ceive the real needs of the nation, and strong 
 enough to carry out practical reforms, in 
 spite of the opposition of local and class 
 ■ interests. It was in accordance with these 
 ideas that Wentworth entered the king's 
 service. He was created a peer in July, 1628, 
 and became in December of the same j'ear 
 President of the Council of the North. He 
 entered the Privy Council in November, 1629, 
 and became Lord Deputy of Ireland in the 
 summer of 1636. Measures for the better 
 carrying out of the poor law, for the relief 
 of commerce, and for the general improve- 
 ment of the condition of the people were 
 probably the results of his presence in the 
 Council. In the North his vigorous enforce- 
 ments of the law without respect of persons, 
 was the chief characteristic of his adminis- 
 tration. In Ireland his abilities had freer 
 scope. He protected trade, founded the flax 
 manufacture, organised a respectable army, 
 and introduced many reforms into the Church 
 and the administration. But his harshness 
 to individuals, and his intolerance of oppo- 
 sition gained him numerous enemies amongst 
 the English colonists, whilst his disregard of 
 the king's promises to the native Irish, and 
 the threatened Plantation of Conuaught, 
 created feelings of distrust and dread, which 
 bore fruit in the rebellion of 1641. In Sept., 
 1639, he was summoned to England, and be- 
 came at once the leading spirit in the com- 
 mittee of eight, to whom Scotch affairs were 
 entrusted, and the king's chief adviser. In 
 Jan., 1640, he was created Earl of Strafford. 
 By his advice the king summoned the Short 
 Parliament, and dissolved it when it became 
 unruly. In order to carry on the war 
 with Scotland, he suggested expedients of 
 every kind — a loan from Spain, the debase- 
 ment of the coinage, and the employment 
 of the Irish army to subdue Scotland, or 
 if necessary to keep down England. The 
 king appointed him Lieutenant-General of 
 the English army (Aug. 20, 1640), but his 
 energy could not avert defeat, and when the 
 council of peers advised the Mng to summon 
 a Parliament, his fate was assured. In spite 
 of ilhiess Strafford hurried up to London to 
 impeach the popular leaders for treasonable 
 correspondence. Pym moved Strafford's im- 
 peachment on Nov. 11, and he was arrested 
 the same day. His trial began in "West- 
 minster Hall on March 22, 1641. The ex- 
 treme party in the Commons, dissatisfied 
 with the slow and doubtful course of impeach- 
 ment, brought in a bill of attainder (April 
 10), which passed its third reading in the 
 Commons on April 21, and in the Lords on 
 May 8. The king's attempts to save Straf- 
 
 ford, and above all the discovery of the first 
 Army Plot, sealed his fate, and prevented the 
 acceptance of a suggested compromise, which 
 would have saved his life, but incapacitated 
 him from all office. The king postponed his 
 answer as long as he could, and consulted the 
 bishops and judges, but the danger of a 
 popular rising induced him to yield, and 
 give his assent to the hill (May 10). Straf- 
 ford was executed on May 12. His attainder 
 was reversed in 1662. 
 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 1603—7642; Ensh- 
 wOTfh, Historical, CoUectiuns ; Strafford Papers; 
 Life of Strafford in Porster's British Statesmen, 
 vol. ii. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Straffordians. The bill of attainder 
 against Strafford passed the third reading 
 (April 2, 1641) by a majority of 204 against 
 59. Mr. William Wheeler, M.P. for West- 
 bury, took down the names of the minority, 
 copies of the list got abroad, and one was 
 posted up in the Old Palace Yard, West- 
 minster, with the addition " these are the 
 Straffordians, betrayers of their country." 
 The list included the names of Selden, Lord 
 Digby, Orlando Bridgeman, and Holbome. 
 It did not contain those of Falkland and 
 Hyde, who voted for the bill. The publica- 
 tion of the division lists was at this time a 
 breach of privilege. The House itself first 
 published the names of members voting in 
 the year 1836. 
 
 Clarendon, Hist, of the ReheUion ; T. L. San- 
 ford, Studies and lllustratioils of the Great Rchel- 
 lion. 
 
 Straits Settlements, The, situated 
 in the Straits of Malacca, comprise Penaug, 
 Singapore, Malacca, and Wellesley Pro- 
 vince. These settlements originally formed 
 under the Indian government, were trans- 
 ferred to the charge of the Colonial Office, 
 1867. The government of the collective 
 colony at Singapore is vested in a governor 
 and executive council of nine members, and a 
 legislative council of ten official and six 
 unofficial members nominated by the crown. 
 Penang has a lieutenant-governor, and 
 Malacca a resident, both under the Governor 
 of Singapore. The population is very 
 mixed, and includes Malays, Chinese, Ben- 
 galese, Arabs, Burmese, Siamese, and nume- 
 rous other races. 
 
 Stratford, John, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury {d. 1348), iirst appears as sitting 
 in Parliament in 1317. He was frequently 
 employed on embassies by Edward II., and 
 in 1323 was made Bishop of Winchester by 
 the Pope, contrary to the wishes of the king, 
 who, however, eventually recognised him. 
 He took an active part in the deposition of 
 Edward II., but though he saw the necessity 
 of getting rid of the infatuated king, he did 
 not wish to put the power into the hands of 
 Isabella and Mortimer. His opposition to 
 the guilty pair led to his persecution, and he 
 
Str 
 
 (975) 
 
 Str 
 
 ■was compelled to take refuge in a forest in 
 Hampshire, where he remained till the fall 
 of Mortimer. Edward III. made him Chan- 
 cellor in 1330, and he was translated to the 
 see of Canterhury in 1333. He held the 
 Great Seal twice again, from 1336 to 1337 
 and for a short period in 1340. In this latter 
 year occurred the great quarrel between the 
 king and the archbishop. There is no doubt 
 that Stratford was a faithful minister to 
 Edward, but it was impossible for him to find 
 money sufficient to defray the expense of the 
 costly French wars. Edward, angered by 
 his want of money and the ill-success of his 
 expedition, turned round on the archbishop 
 and accused him of malversation. A lengthy 
 dispute followed, in the course of which the 
 king being desirous of bringing Stratford 
 before the Council, the peers declared that a 
 peer could only be tried by the House of 
 Lords, thus incidentally establishing an im- 
 portant privilege. The archbishop having 
 got Parliament on his side, the king was com- 
 pelled to give in, and a reconciUatiou fol- 
 lowed; Stratford was often employed by the 
 king on important a£airs, but he never again 
 received the chancellorship. Though they 
 can hardly rank as statesmen, the archbishop 
 and his brother were able and faithful min- 
 isters, anxious to check the extravagance of the 
 king, and to preserve the liberties of the people. 
 Hook, Archbishops of Canterbury ; W. Long- 
 man, Bdvjard the Third. 
 
 Strattou, The Battle op (May 16, 1643), 
 took place during the Great Rebellion. The 
 Parliamentary forces under General Chudleigh, 
 Sir Kichard BuUer, Sir Alexander Carew, 
 and the Earl of Stamford, were defeated by 
 the Cornish army under Sir Ealph Hopton 
 and Sir Bevil Grenville. The Parliamentary 
 forces were weakened by the detachment of 
 Sir George Chudleigh with all their cavalry. 
 They were posted on the top of Stratton Hill, 
 which the Cornish army after several hours' 
 hard fighting succeeded in storming. General 
 Chudleigh and 1,700 prisoners were taken, 
 together with thirteen guns, and all the 
 baggage and stores di the defeated army. 
 
 Strickland, Agnes (J. 1806, d. 1874), 
 the daughter of Mr. Thomas Strickland, 
 of Eeydon HaU, Suffolk, was the author of 
 numerous works of fiction and poetry. She 
 published Livss of the Queens of Ung land from 
 the Norman Conquest, 12 vols., 1840 — 48 (new 
 ed., 8 vols., 1851 — 52), which attained great 
 popularity. The work is interesting, and 
 written in a lively style, but the author's 
 judgment was not sufficiently critical, nor 
 her acquaintance with general- English his- 
 tory wide enough, for it to be of much value 
 as an authority. In 1850 — 59 she wrote Lives 
 of the Queens of Scotland, which includes an 
 elaborate, but not conclusive, vindication of 
 Mary Queen of Scots. In 1866 she published 
 Lives of the Seven Bishops. 
 
 Strode, William {d. 1645), was re- 
 turned to the House of Commons in the 
 last Parliament of James I., and the 
 five Parliaments of his son. In the third 
 Parliament of Charles he took part in the 
 tumult caused in the House of Commons by 
 the Speaker's refusal to put Ehot's resolutions, 
 for which he was called before the Council 
 and imprisoned until January, 1640. In the 
 Long Parliament he is mentioned by Clarendon 
 as " one of those ephori who most avowed the 
 curbing and suppressing of majesty," and 
 " one of the fiercest men of the party, and of 
 the party only for his fierceness." On Dec. 
 24, 1640, he introduced the bUl for annual 
 Parliaments, and on Nov. 28, in 1641, moved 
 that the kingdom should be put in a posture 
 of defence. He did not scruple to avow that 
 the safety of the Parliament depended on the 
 Scottish army, and the necessity of keeping it 
 in England. " The sons of Zeruiah," he said 
 (referring to the court party), " are too strong 
 for us." He was one of the five members 
 impeached by the king (Jan., 1642), After 
 the Civil War began he took an active part 
 against the king in Somerset, and in his place 
 in the Commons opposed all proposals to treat. 
 S. E. Gardiner, Bist. o/'Eng., 1603— 164i. 
 
 Stroilg[^OW was the surname of Richard 
 de Clare, Earl of Pembroke, a nobleman of 
 ruined foi-tunes and adventurous spirit. It 
 was this doubtless that made him eager to 
 accept the hand of Eva, daughter of the King 
 of Leinster, and to attempt the conquest of 
 Ireland. He applied to Henry for leave, and 
 got a dubious answer, which became finally 
 an absolute prohibition, but in spite of it he 
 sailed from Milford Haven in 1169. In 1170 
 he married Eva, and was probably elected 
 tanist, and 'succeeded to the kingdom of Lein- 
 ster in 1171. In 1172 he joined Henry in Nor- 
 mandy, and returned to Ireland as governor 
 in 1173. A' mutiny of the soldiery compelled 
 him to supersede his friend Hervey Mount- 
 Maurice by Eaj'mond le Gros, but he refused 
 him the hand of his sister. Being defeated 
 by the O'Briens in 1174 he found it necessary 
 to accept Raymond as a brother-in-law. 
 Though Henry himself had recalled that 
 leader, the voice of the soldiery again com- 
 pelled Strongbow to make Raymond their 
 commander. In 1176 he died at Dublin of a 
 cancer in the leg, and was buried in the 
 cathedral. He left but one daughter, Isabel, 
 who brought his vast lands to William 
 Marshal of Pembroke, her husband. Ac- 
 cording to GiralduS he never originated an 
 enterprise, but allowed himself to be guided 
 by others ; he, however, allows him to have 
 been just and even generous, and brave in 
 battle. He was a munificent patron of the 
 Church, and was the founder of the priory of 
 Kihnainham. 
 
 GiralduB Cambrensis, EaipugnaUo Hihei'nuBj 
 Ly^te.ton,,iieftry IL 
 
Str 
 
 ( 976 ) 
 
 Sta 
 
 Stripe, John (4. 1643, d. 1737), an 
 industrious compiler of materials for the 
 history of the English Reformation, was vicar 
 of Ley.tou in Essex. His chief works are 
 Ecclesiastical Memorials, a Church history 
 under Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Mary, 
 with invaluable original papers inappendices; 
 2'Ae Annals of the Reformation ; the Lives of 
 Cranmer, Parker, Grindal, Whitgift, Chejie, 
 Smith, and Aylmer ; and an enlarged edition of 
 &to^e's Survey of London (1720). A man of 
 little ability and some prejudice, Strype's soliji 
 work has made his collections quite indispen- 
 sable for the history of the chaiUge of religion 
 in England. The best edition is that of the 
 Oxford Press in octavo. 
 
 Staart Pamily, The Stuarts were 
 descended from a certain Walter Fitz-Alan, 
 lord of Oswestry, who entered t;he service 
 of David I., by whom he was created High 
 Steward of Scotland. The office became 
 hereditary in the family. Alexander, the 
 fourth Steward of the Fitz-Alan stock, com- 
 manded at the battle of Largs in 1263 ; the 
 fifth, James, was one of the regents appointed 
 on the death of Alexander III. ; the si:^th, 
 Walter, supported Robert Bruce, commanded 
 a division at Bannockbum, and was rewarded 
 in 1315 by the hand of Bruce's daughter, 
 Marjory. Marjory's son, Robert, ruled Scot- 
 land as regent during the minority of David 
 II. and his captivity in England, and upon 
 David's death, in 1371, succeeded to the 
 Scottish throne. [For the history of the 
 Stuart sovereigns of Scotland, see Robert II. 
 and III., James I., n., III., IV., V., and 
 
 MjtRY.] 
 
 With the accession of James VI. of Scotland 
 to the English throne (1603) as James I., 
 the history of the Stuart rule in Engird 
 begins ; it is that of the transition from 
 the personal government of the Yorkist and 
 Tudor periods to the Parliamentary system 
 of Hanoverian times. Such a transition was, 
 in England, inevitable ; but to the character 
 and policy of the Stuart kings it was due 
 that the change had to be effected by 
 means of a rebellion and a revolution. 
 Parliament had already in the later years 
 of Elizabeth begun to assume a more inde- 
 pendent attitude; but that queen had tact 
 enough to keep it in good temper, and, as in 
 the question of the monopolies, knew when to 
 yield. But James I. was utterly devoid of 
 tact, and neyer succeeded in making himself 
 respected. More than this, he continually 
 forced upon men's attention a doctrine of 
 prerogative which cut at the root of English 
 liberties. Moreover, his Scotch experience 
 had rendered him singularly unfit to deal 
 with English ecclesiastical difficulties. The 
 time had come for concessions to, or at any 
 rate considerate treatment of, the Puritans. 
 But James, though he did no|, as Charles I., 
 regard episcopacy as a sacred institution, 
 
 valued it highly as a means of keeping the 
 clergy in order; any concession to the Puri- 
 tans would, he thought, weaken episcopal 
 authority, and so prepare the way for that 
 independence of the clergy which in Scotland 
 had proved so daugprous to the state ; there- 
 fore he refused all change, and so brought 
 about the union against himself of the poli- 
 tical and religious oppositions. His domestic 
 diflioulties were increased by his ill-advised 
 foreign policy. James knew far better than 
 his subjects the true position of affairs on the 
 Continent ; and, although his policy of me- 
 diation could never have succeeded, a frank 
 statement of reasons would have done much 
 to lessen the opposition .of the Commons ; but 
 as he took no pains to make his people under- 
 stand him, it was inevitable that the Protestant 
 feeling of the country should be offended by 
 the marriage negotiations with Spain, and by 
 the king's refusal to interfere energetically 
 to save the Palatinate. So firm was the 
 distrust which his action inspired, that even 
 when, under pressure from Buckingham, 
 James declared war against Spain, Parliament 
 would not believe that a great continental 
 war was seriously intended, and refused sup- 
 plies. The question more and more clearly 
 defined itself ; could the king persist in a 
 certain policy, or retain a certain minister, 
 against the will of Parliament ? The actual 
 Parliamentary gains of James's reign were 
 but few ; more important was it that the 
 impositions had raised the question of unpar- 
 liamentary taxation, and that the revival of 
 impeachment had given ParHament a weapon 
 against the king. But it is clear that if the 
 king determined to carry out a certain pohcy 
 against the wish of his subjects, and to raise 
 the necessary fjinds by unparliamentary 
 means, and if Parliament in vain attacked 
 ministers, the ultiipate issue would depend on 
 the preponderance of power, and this could be 
 decided only by war. This is what came to 
 pass under Charles I. 
 
 But while the victory of Parliament was 
 inevitable, it was well that it should not be 
 premature. Had Charles yielded to all the ' 
 demands of the Commons in 1629, had he 
 given them complete control of taxation, and 
 recognised the responsibility of ministers, he 
 would have handed over his sovereignty to 
 them. But the Commons were not yet fit to 
 exercise such a power. Their supremacy 
 would have established a, gross tyranny in 
 ecclesiastical matters, for all opinions disliked 
 by the majority of average Englishmen 
 would have been proscribed in the National 
 Church. Nor were the Commons as yet fit to 
 govern. Nothing existed comparable to the 
 modem system of cabinet and party govern- 
 ment ; the rule of the House of Commons 
 would have been the rule of an unorganised 
 mob. 
 
 , Then followed eleven years without a Par- 
 liament. At first the country was quiet ■ but 
 
Stti 
 
 ( 977 ) 
 
 St:;. 
 
 Laud's action upon becoming archbishop, and 
 the attempt to raise Ship-money, strengthened 
 and hound more closely together the Puritan 
 and the constitutionalist apposition; and when 
 the Scotch attack forced Charles to put him- 
 seK into the hands of Parliament, the oppo- 
 sition saw their own strength, and Charles 
 had to surrender one by one the powers and 
 prerogatives by which he had attempted to 
 govern. 
 
 But the redress of political grievances left 
 the religious difficulties still unsolved. It 
 became clear during the struggles a£ 1641 — 
 42 that the main question left was that of 
 the existence of episcapaoy ; from the episco- 
 palian party arose the Cavalier party; and 
 though the attempt to seize the Five Members, 
 and the consequent introduction of the Militia 
 Bill was the immediate cause of the war, the 
 religious element was far more important 
 than the constitutional in the early years of 
 the war. 
 
 The constitutional questions of the second 
 Stuart period differ from those of the first. 
 No longer was there a direct assertion of 
 " absolute power ; " no unparliamentary taxa- 
 tion was attempted ; there was no exercise of 
 judicial power by Council or Star Chamber. 
 Charles II. ruled not against, but through a 
 Parhament which he tried to make subser- 
 vient. Yet the judges were stUl under court 
 influence ; prerogative lingered in the " dis- 
 pensing power ; " and divine right reappeared 
 under the doctrine of " non-resistance." The 
 fall of the Whigs after the dissolution of 1681 
 showed how strong the Royalist feeling of the 
 country remained, in spite of eighteen years' 
 misgovemment ; and even after the lessona 
 of the Great Rebellion, the Stuarts might at 
 the eleventh hour have succeeded in creating 
 a despotism, had not James II. attacked the 
 English Church, and so united all classes 
 against him. 
 
 The reigns of William and Mary, and of 
 Anne, though the sisters were of the Stuart 
 house, are more closely connected with later 
 than with earlier history. In them begins 
 the development cxf party cabinet govern- 
 ment; and instead of a shifting policy of 
 neutrality or a truckling to Prance, the great 
 struggle commences between France and 
 England which was to last till the present 
 century. [Petition op Right; Gbeat Re- 
 bellion, &c.] 
 
 Gtaidiner, Hist, of Emg^ 1603—1642 is the 
 great authority for Charles I. and James I. ; 
 Banke, Sist. of Eng., is specially valuatle for 
 the later Stuarts. For Charles II. and James 
 n. we have also Macaulay's brilliant but not 
 always trustworthy Hist, of Eng. The best 
 short general sketch is in the small volume by 
 Mr. Gardiner, entitled The Puritan Rebellion. 
 
 Stuart, Arabella. [Arabella Sthakt.] 
 
 Stuart, Charles Edward, known as the 
 YotiNG Pretender (4. 1720, d. 1788), was the 
 son of James Edward Stuart, and Clementina, 
 
 ^ granddaughter of John Sobieski, King of 
 Poland. He was born at Rome. His educa- 
 tion was very much neglected. He became of 
 political importance on the renewal of the 
 hostility between England and France after 
 the fall of Walpole. Cardinal Tencin, the 
 French minister, was in favour of an invasion 
 of England, and in 1743 Charles came to Paris. 
 Louis XV., although he refused to see him, 
 was not unfriendly to his cause ; 15,000 veterans 
 under Marshal Saxe were stationed at Dun- 
 kirk, while fleets were collected at Brest and 
 Toulon. But the French admiral, Roque- 
 feuille, feared to attack the English under 
 Sir John Norris ; his ships were dispersed by 
 a storm, and the French ministry abandoning 
 the design, appointed Sax© to command in 
 Flanders. The Pretender retired to Paris, 
 whence he communicated with his Scotch 
 adherents through Murray of Broughton. 
 The results of the battle of Fontenoy (1745) 
 caused him to hasten his plans. He embarked 
 at Nantes (1745) in a pnvateer, attended by a 
 French man-of-war, but the latter vessel was 
 attacked and disabled by an English ship, so 
 that Charles aixived in Scotland stripped of 
 supphes, and with only seven companions. 
 [Jacobites.] After the battle of Culloden 
 Charles fled, and succeeded, after five months' 
 wanderings in the Hebrides, in escaping to 
 France. He owed his Kfe to Flora Mac- 
 donald. On his return to Paris he found that 
 no more help was to be expected from the 
 French court. On one occasion Tencin 
 proposed that he should be snppUed with 
 French troops on condition that in the event 
 of his success, Ireland should be given to 
 Louis. Charles replied, " Non, M. le Cardinal, 
 tout ou rien, point de partage." In 1747 he 
 went to Spain, and in 1748 to Prussia, to try 
 and get assistance, but without success. He 
 quarrelled with his father and brother when 
 the latter became a cardinal. He was com- 
 pelled to leave France by the conditions of 
 the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but he ob- 
 stinately refused to go, and was imprisoned. 
 He resided chiefly after this with his friend, 
 the Due de BoniUon, in the forest of Ardennes. 
 In 1750, and perhaps in 1753, he paid 
 mysterious viMts to England. On the death 
 of his father he repaired to Rome. His 
 character had become degraded; his former 
 chivalrous promise had quite vanished, he 
 was a confirmed drunkard, and his friends 
 were alienated by his refusal to dismiss his 
 mistress. Miss Walkinshaw, who it was said 
 betrayed his plans. In 1772 he married 
 Princess Louisa of Stolberg, a girl of twenty, 
 but the union was unhappy, and she eloped 
 with Alfieri. His adherents had sent him 
 proposals that year of setting up his standard 
 in America. "The abilities of Prince 
 Charles," says Lord Stanhope, " I may ob- 
 serve, stood in direct contrast to his father's. 
 No man could express himself with more 
 clearness and elegance than James . . . 
 
Sta 
 
 (978) 
 
 Stn 
 
 but on the other hand his conduct was always 
 deficient in energy and enterprise. Charles 
 was no penman ; while in action, he was 
 superior. His quick intelligence, his prompt- 
 ness of decision, his contempt of danger, 
 are recorded on unquestionahle testimony. 
 Another quality of Charles's mind was great 
 firmness of resolution, which pride and sorrow 
 afterwards hardened into suUen obstinacy." 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. ; Lecky, Hist, of the 
 Eighteenth Century ; Horace Walpole, Reign of 
 George II. ; 'Ewold., Life of Prince Charles Edward ; 
 Vernon Lee, Tie Countess of Albany. 
 
 Stuart, James Edwaed, known as the Old 
 Pretendek {b: 1688, d. 176-5), was the son of 
 King James II. and Mary of Modena. It was 
 generally believed at the time that he was a 
 supposititious child ; but without just cause. 
 When James II. contemplated flight he was 
 conveyed to France by Lauzun. In 1701, at 
 his father's deathbed, he was acknowledged by 
 Louis XIV., and the king imdertook to uphold 
 his claims. In 1708 Louis fitted out an expe- 
 dition against this country. But James, who 
 was to have accompanied it, was taken ill 
 of the measles, and the expedition failed 
 completely. He then joined the French army, 
 and was present at the battle of Oude- 
 narde. On the fall of the Whigs his pros- 
 pects considerably improved. In 17 U Harley 
 opened negotiations for peace with the French 
 court through the Abbe Gautier, who was 
 also a Jacobite agent. In 1712 James ven- 
 tured to write to his sister Anne. On the 
 conclusion of the Peace of Utrecht, he was 
 compelled to leave France, and removed to 
 Bar in Lorraine. During this period it was 
 constantly urged upon him that he should 
 change his religion, but he distinctly refused 
 to do so. In June 23, 1714, proclamations 
 against him were issued by both Houses of 
 Parliament. On receiving the news of the 
 death of Anne, he went from Bar-le-Duc to 
 Plombieres, where he issued a proclamation 
 claiming the crown, and from thence to Com- 
 mercy. With Bolingbroke as Secretary of 
 State, the Pretender's schemes seemed to have 
 a chance of success. It was hoped that 
 Louis might be induced to break the peace; 
 the Jacobites in England were supposed to 
 be eager to rise. But the flight of Ormonde 
 from England was followed by the death of 
 Louis XIV. Despite Bolingbroke's advice Mar 
 rose in Scotland. [Jacohites.] It was not until 
 JIar's expedition was doomed to failure that 
 James arrived in Scotland. He went to 
 Scone, where he assumed the style of royalty. 
 But it was evident that he lacked all energy. 
 Argyle advanced on Perth, James and Mar 
 withdrew before him, and, deserting their 
 followers, secretly fled to France. On his 
 return James most unjustly laid the blame 
 of^ the failure on Bolingbroke, and dis- 
 missed him. His place was taken by Mar. 
 In 1717 Charles XII. of Sweden, and the 
 Spanish minister Alberoni, resolved to bring 
 
 about a Stuart restoration. But their plans 
 failed. Soon afterwards the Regent of France 
 was compelled by the' English government to 
 expel James from the French dominions. He 
 went to Rome (1717). He was betrothed to 
 Clementina, granddaughter of John Sobieski, 
 King of Poland ; but on her way to Rome, she 
 was arrested by the Emperor, and detained 
 prisoner. In 1719 Alberoni fitted out an 
 expedition against England. The Pretender 
 was invited to Spain, and there publicly 
 received. The expedition under Ormonde was 
 scattered in the Bay of Biscay. This year 
 Princess Sobieski escaped from Austria, and 
 went to Italy, where she married the Pre- 
 tender. In 1721 Charles Edward was born. 
 In 1722 Atterbury's plot for a short period 
 seemed likely to succeed. James sent an extra- 
 ordinary declaration from Lucca, oflrering to 
 allow George II. the succession to tho throne, 
 •and the title of King of Hanover, if he 
 would quietly surrender the English crown. 
 In 1728 an unsuccessful attempt to incite a 
 rebelhon in the Highlands was made by 
 AUan Cameron. James had quarrelled with 
 Mar, and now had as a favourite Colonel Hay, 
 who was made Secretary of State and Earl of 
 Inverness. Clementina, jeflous of Inverness, 
 left him, whereat the Emperor and Spain were 
 alienated from him. On the death of George 
 I. he repaired to Lorraine full of hopes. 
 They were soon dashed to the ground, and 
 the French government were compelled to 
 send him from France. He returned to Italy 
 and was reconciled to his wife. She died in 
 1735, He now took as "his adviser James ' 
 Murray, Inverness's brother-in-law, whom 
 he created Earl of Dunbar. On the breaking 
 out of war between England and France 
 (1746) the Jacobite hopes revived. An asso- 
 ciation of seven was formed in Scotland ; the 
 English Jacobites were roused ; the French 
 minister was friendly to his cause. The 
 ultimate result of these intrigues was the 
 Young Pretender's expedition in 1745. James 
 Edward now ceased to exercise any real in- 
 fluence. He quarrelled with his son in 1747. 
 James had fair abilities, but was thoroughly 
 selfish, faithless, and licentious. 
 
 Jesse, Memoirs of the Pretender ; Stanhope, 
 
 Hist, of Eng.i Lecky, Hist, of Hie Eighteenth 
 
 Century. 
 
 Stubbe, Thomas, a Puritan lawyer, and 
 brother-in-law of Cartwright, wrote in 1579 
 a pamphlet against the proposed marriage of 
 Elizabeth with the Duke of Anjou. For this 
 he was sentenced to have his ijight hand cut 
 oflE ; and on the infliction of the penalty is 
 said to have waved his hat in his left hand, 
 crying, "Long live Queen Elizabeth !" This 
 story is, however, doubtful. Stubbe was in 
 1587 employed by Burleigh to answer the 
 libels of Cardinal Allen. In 1588 he was 
 elected M.P. for Yarmouth. 
 
 Stubbs, Thomas {d. 1373), a Domini- 
 can, wrote a chronicle of the Archbishops 
 
Stu 
 
 ( 979 ) 
 
 Sud 
 
 of York, which contains much valuable his- 
 torical matter. It has been printed by 
 Twysden. 
 
 Stukeley, Sir Thomas {d. 1578), an ad- 
 herent of the Protector Somerset, was impli- 
 cated in the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyatt 
 (1554), and was compelled to leave England, 
 subsequently becoming a noted pirate or 
 privateer. He afterwards went to Ireland 
 and acquired considerable possessions there. 
 In 1570 he betook himself to Spain, and 
 entered into negotiations with Philip, de- 
 claring that his influence was sufficient to 
 procure an easy conquest of Ireland ; but the 
 contemplated invasion came to nothing. A 
 few years later Stukeley again projected an 
 attack on Ireland, but this time with papal 
 aid ; he was killed, however, on his way at 
 Alcazar in battle with the Moors. 
 
 Snbinfeiidaitiou was the process of 
 creating inferior feudal obligations by the 
 lord of a fief. For example, a lord who held 
 an estate of the crown, would grant part of 
 it to a sub-tenant of his own, who would 
 henceforward stand in an analogous relation 
 to him to that in which he stood to his lord. 
 Very often the process of subinfeudation 
 went so far that the nominal holder of a fief 
 had not enough left in his own hands to per- 
 form the services required of him. Fraudu- 
 lent acts of this type were not uncommon. 
 At last the statute Quia Emptores (July, 1290) 
 practically abolished future cases of subin- 
 feudation by enacting that in future transfers 
 of land, the purchaser should not enter into 
 feudal relations of dependence with the ahenor, 
 but should stand to the lord of the fief in the 
 same relation in which the alienor had him- 
 self stood. [Feudalism.] 
 
 Submission of the Clergy, The, was 
 an agreement forced upon the Convocation of 
 Canterbury by Henry VIII. in 1532, that no 
 new canons should be enacted without the 
 king's sanction, and that a review of the 
 existing canons should be made, and all dis- 
 approved of struck out. In 1534 this sub- 
 mission was embodied in an Act of Par- 
 liament called the Statute of the Submission 
 of the Clergy (25 Hen. VIII., c. 19), which 
 moreover gave the king power to summon 
 Convocation by his own writ, annul all done 
 without his licence, and to appoint commis- 
 sioners to review the canon law. The exact 
 significance of these Acts was fiercely debated 
 during the stormy period that preceded the 
 virtual suspension of Convocation in 1717. 
 
 Subsidy, a Parliamentary grant to the 
 crown, acquired during the sixteenth century 
 a fixed and technical sense. The custom of 
 granting a round sum of money which had 
 grown up since the days of Edward IV., 
 became in the reign of Mary stereotyped. 
 Henceforth a subsidy meant a tax of 4s. in 
 the pound for lands, and 2a. 8d. for goods 
 
 from Englishmen, and of double that sum 
 from aliens; in all amounting to £70,000. 
 Besides this a special subsidy of £20,000 was 
 levied on the clergy. From this date, a Par- 
 liament granted one or two or more subsidies. 
 The Subsidy Rolls give an accomit of how the 
 taxes were raised. 
 
 Sudbury, Simon of, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (1375 — 1381), was born at Sudbury, 
 studied canon law at Paris, and became at- 
 tached to the Papal Curia. He also attached 
 himself to John of Gaunt. In 1360 he was 
 made Chancellor of Salisbury, and in 1362 
 Bishop of London. He took part in several 
 embassies. He incurred unpopularity by his 
 enlightened aversion to pilgrimages. In 1375 
 he was made Archbishop of Canterbury. He 
 was . murdered in 1381 by the insurgent 
 peasantry when they took possession of the 
 Tower. 
 
 Hook, Archbiihtyps of Canterbury, 
 
 Sudoosain.THE Battle of (July 1, 1848), 
 was fought during the second Sikh "War. 
 After Kineyree Lieutenant Edwardes was 
 reinforced by 4,000 men from Cashmere. 
 Moohraj, alarmed at the growing power of his 
 opponents, drew together his whole force, 
 which had been augmented by 11,000 deser- 
 ters, and attacked them near Sudoosain. The 
 battle began with a furious cannonade, which 
 lasted several hours, but at last a brilliant 
 charge by one of Colonel Cortland's regiments 
 broke the ranks of the Sikhs. Moolraj fled, and 
 was followed by his whole army to Mooltan. 
 
 Sudreys, The [Sudreyjar], was a name 
 given by the Norwegians to the Hebrides, or 
 Western Islands, in contradistinction to the 
 Orkneys or Norderies. Some authorities say 
 that the WeBtem Islands themselves were 
 divided into the Norderies and Suderies, the 
 point of division being Ardnamurchan. Peo- 
 pled by a Gaehc race, the "Western Isles were 
 early ravaged by the Danes, and in the ninth 
 century colonised by Norwegians, who made 
 themselves the lords of the original inhabi- 
 tants, though the islands preserved more Celtic 
 than Norse characteristics. There were fre- 
 quent contests for the possession of the"WeBtern 
 Isles between the Norwegian -jarls of Orkney 
 and the Danish kings of Dublin about 1070. 
 A new Norwegian dynasty was founded in 
 these isles by the Viking, Godred Crovan. In 
 1154 a division of the islands was made, those 
 south of Ardnamurchan Point becoming the 
 territory of Somerlaed of Argyle. In 1222 
 Argyle was absorbed into Scotland proper, and 
 in July, 1266, the rest of the "Western Isles 
 were ceded to Alexander III. on consideration 
 of the payment of a sum of money. _ The 
 name is still preserved in the designation of 
 the Manx bishop, as Bishop of Sodor and Man, 
 though none of the Southern Islands have for 
 many centuries been included in his diocese. 
 Skene, Celtic '\ Scotland, j Munch, Chromaon 
 
 ^ Regum MannicB, 
 
Sue 
 
 ( 980 ) 
 
 Snf 
 
 Suetonius Faulinus was Roman com- 
 mander in Britain from 59 to 62. His first 
 action was the reduction of the island of Mona 
 (Anglesey), the chief seat of Druidism. From 
 this he was recalled hy the news of the revolt 
 of the loeni, under Boadicea, the capture of 
 Verulamium, Camulodunum, and other ports, 
 and the slaughter of the Eomana and their 
 allies. After a tedious campaign, Suetonius 
 gained a decisive victory over the Britons 
 near London; hut his harshness having greatly 
 conduced to the rehellion, despite his ultimate 
 success he was recalled in the year 62. 
 Tacitus, Vita AgricolcE. 
 
 Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of 
 {d. 1545), a general and courtier of the reign 
 of Henrj' VIII. As a commander his success 
 in an expedition against France was but in- 
 different, but as an exponent of chivalry he 
 was without rival. His marriage to Mary, 
 Henry's sister, very soon after the death of 
 her first husband, Louis XII., was with 
 Henry's consent, and their issue were preferred 
 in the king's will to those of his elder sister, 
 Margaret of Scotla,nd. 
 
 Suffolk, Edmund de la Pole, Duke op 
 {d. 1513), was the son of John de la Pole, 
 Dute of Suffolk, b}' Elizabeth, eldest sister of 
 Edward IV. For consenting to take service 
 under Henry VII. he was created Earl of 
 Suffolk, and allowed to redeem a portion of the 
 estates of his father. A few years later hs was 
 guilty of homicide, and resenting the notion of 
 being tried for the crime as a deadly insult, he 
 fled to Flanders, and entered into active rela- 
 tions with the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy. 
 Henry, however, persuaded him to return, 
 but in the following year he again fled to 
 Flanders, this time with a view of restoring 
 his broken fortunes by some private enter- 
 prise. On the shipwreck of the Archduke 
 Philip in Jan., 1506, Henry did not hesitate 
 to insist upon his surrender as a main article 
 of the treaty he then extorted from Philip. 
 He was at once committed to the Tower, from 
 which he did not emerge again till the day of 
 his execution in 1513. It is supposed that 
 his execution at this date was chiefly due to 
 Henry VIII. 's anger at his brother, Richard 
 de la Pole, entering the service of France. 
 Bacon, Life of Senry VII. 
 
 Suffolk, Henrietta, Countess op {b. 
 eirea 1688, d. 1767), was the supposed mis- 
 tress of George II. She was the daughter 
 of Sir Henry Hobart, and married a Mr. 
 Howard, who afterwards succeeded to the 
 earldom of Suffolk. When her husband tried 
 to remove her from the household of 
 Caroline,, then Princess of Wales, the 
 latter protected her. " Queen Caroline,'" says 
 Stanhope, " used to call her in banter her 
 sister Howard, and was pleased to employ 
 her at her toilot, or in menial offices about 
 her person. Lady Suffolk was placid, good- 
 
 natured, and kind-hearted, but very deaf, and 
 not remarkable for wit. Though the king 
 passed half his time in her company, her 
 influence was quite subordinate to that of the 
 queen." She entertained a strong regard for 
 Swift and Pope, and was courted by the 
 Opposition partly in the mistaken expectation 
 of gaining the royal ear, partly from real 
 regard for her amiable character. After her 
 withdrawal from court in 1734, she married 
 the Hon. George Berkeley. 
 
 Hervey, Memoirs and the" Letters of the Cowl- 
 tess of bnffolk, both edited by Croker. 
 
 Suffolk, Michael de la Pole, Earl op 
 {d. 1389), was the son of William de la 
 Pole, a Hull merchant, who had risen 
 to be a baron of the Exchequer. He early 
 succeeded in ingratiating himself with 
 Richard II., and in 1383 was created Chan- 
 cellor. He was extremely unpopular with 
 the barons, and the misgovemment of the 
 kingdom was in great measure attributed to 
 him. He was made Earl of Suffolk in 1385, 
 and this still further increased his unpopu- 
 larity, so that in 1386 the king was obliged to 
 remove him from the chancellorship, and the 
 Commons drew up articles of impeachment 
 against him. The charges preferred were for 
 the most part frivolous, but his condemnation 
 was determined on, and he was sentenced to 
 imprisonment till he should ransom himself 
 according to the king's pleasure. After the 
 dissolution of Parliament an attempt was 
 made by the king and his friends to annul 
 their decisions, but the barons were too 
 powerful for them, and finding resistance of 
 no avail, De la Pole fled in 1388 to France, 
 where he died in the following year. 
 
 Suffolk, Thomas Howakd, Earl oe 
 {d. 1626), son of Thomas, fourth Duke of 
 Norfolk, was one of the volunteers whd 
 assisted in attacking the Spanish Armada off 
 Calais. In 1591 he was in command of the 
 fleet which attacked the Spanish treasure 
 ships off the Azores, when Sir Richard Gren- 
 ville was kUled, and in 1596 was second in 
 command of the fleet during the expedition 
 to Cadiz. In the following year he accom- 
 panied Essex in his disastrous attempt on the 
 Azores. On his return home he was created 
 Lord Howard de Walden, and in 1603 Earl of 
 Suffolk. In 1604 he was appointed one of 
 the commissioners for executing the office of 
 Earl Marshal, and was mainly instrumental in 
 the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. In 1614 
 Lord Suffolk was created Lord High Treasurer 
 of England, but was deprived of his office four 
 years later. 
 
 Suffolk, William de la Pole, Earl and 
 Duke op (4. 1396, d. 1450), grandson of Michael 
 de la Pole, served with distinction in the 
 French wars, and took part in the battle of 
 Verneuil, and the siege of Orleans. He was 
 one of the ambassadors .at the Congress of 
 
Sun 
 
 ( 981 ) 
 
 Sup 
 
 Arras in 1435, and was the chief promoter of 
 the marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret 
 of Anjou, for arranging which he received a 
 marquisate in 1445, and four years later he 
 was made a duke. From 1445 he was practi- 
 cally prime minister of England, and was 
 strongly inclined towards a peace policy, which 
 hrought great odium upon ham,while the terms 
 of the marriage treaty which he had nego- 
 tiated were greatlj' in favour of France, Anjou 
 and Maine being ceded to King Rene, the 
 father of Margaret. Suffolk's great rival was 
 the Duke of Gloucester, whom he accused to 
 the king of treachery. Gloucester was an-ested, 
 and his suspicious death shortly afterwards 
 was popularly attributed to Suffolk. Suffolk's 
 administration was extremely unfortunate ; 
 abroad disaster followed disaster, while at 
 home taxation was heavy, and misery and 
 desolation prevailed. The popular anger 
 against Suffolk culminated in 1449. The 
 Commons brought grave charges against him. 
 He was accused of gross mismanagement and 
 treachery in France, of wishing to marry his 
 sou to Margaret Beaufort, and thereby of 
 getting the crown for his descendants, and of 
 appropriating and misusing the royal revenue. 
 Suffolk, while denying the charges, placed 
 himself at the king's disposal, who, without 
 declaring his guilt or innocence, banished him 
 from the realm for five years. It would seem 
 that Suffolk assented to this rather than 
 inculpate the king and the Council by awaiting 
 his trial at the hands of the Lords. On his 
 way to Flanders he was seized by the crew 
 of a ship sent in pursuit of him, and put to 
 death by them as a traito;:. He married Alice, 
 daughter and heiress of Thomas Chaucer. 
 
 Brougham, Eng. undev ihe House of Lancaster ; 
 Gaii'dner, Zutrod. to Paston. Letters. 
 
 Sunderland, Charles Spencer, 3rd 
 Earl of {b. 1674, d. 1722), in 1698 married 
 Anne, daughter of the Duke of Marl- 
 borough. He quarrelled with his father-in- 
 law (1702). In 1705 he was sent as envoy 
 extraordinary to Vienna. The Whigs were 
 anxious that he should be admitted to office, 
 as they hoped thereby to draw Marlborough 
 over to their side. The queen disliked him 
 for his impetuosity of temper. However, 
 Godolphin's threats of resignation, and the 
 prayers of Marlborough, induced her to create 
 him Secretary of State (1706). In 1710 he 
 foolishly advised Sacheverell's impeachment, 
 and was therefore to a great extent the cause 
 of his party's overthrow. On the accession 
 of George I. he was much disgusted at being 
 appointed Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland, a post 
 he imagined to be inferior to his merits. He 
 began to cabal with the seceders from the 
 Whigs against Townshend and Walpole. In 
 1716 he went to Hanover, where he gained 
 the ear of George I. and Stanhope. He accused 
 Walpole and Townshend of questionable 
 dealings with the Duke of Argyle. George 
 
 was opposed to Townshend for his opposition 
 to his German plans, and dismissed him; 
 Walpole followed his brother-in-law out of 
 Office. Sunderland became Secretary of State, 
 and subsequently exchanged offices with Stan- 
 hope. The ministry was strong; and in 1719 
 Walpole and Townshend finding opposition 
 useless formed a coalition with him.. The 
 defeat of the government on the Peerage 
 Bill, suggested by Sunderland in order to 
 thwart the future king, had done them but 
 little harm. In 1720 came universal distress 
 owing to the bursting of the South Sea Bubble. 
 The original scheme had been laid before 
 Sunderland, and therefore it was chiefly on 
 him that odium fell. He Avas accused of 
 having received £50,000 stock as a present. 
 He was most probably guiltless; indeed it 
 is said that he had lost heavily by the trans- 
 actions of the company. He was declared 
 innocent by the Lords; but the popular 
 indignation was so great that he was forced 
 to resign. During the last year of his life he 
 is said to have intrigued with the Pretender. 
 "Lord Spencer," says Coxe, " in person was 
 highly favoured by nature, and no less 
 liberally gifted with intellectual endowments. 
 In him a bold and impetuous spirit was 
 concealed under a cold and reserved exterior. 
 He was a zealous champion of the Whig 
 doctrines in the most enlarged sense. Asso- 
 ciating with the remnant of the Eepublicans 
 who had survived the Commonwealth, he 
 taught their spirit. His political idol was 
 Lord Somers, although he wanted both the 
 prudence and temper of so distinguished a 
 leader." 
 
 Beyer, Annals; Coxe, M.arlhoroug% atid Wal- 
 pole ; Stanhope, Reign of Queen Anne ; Wyou, 
 Reign of Queeji Anne. 
 
 Sunderland, Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl 
 OP [b. 1641, d. 1702), was in his earlier career a 
 supporter of the Exclusion Bill, and of the 
 Prince of Orange. But a singularly ambitious 
 and self-seeking disposition made him never 
 hesitate to change his side when it was likely 
 to be unprosperous. He became a strong Tory, 
 the leading minister of James II., and ulti- 
 mately, though quite destitute of religious con- 
 victions, professed his conversion to Catho- 
 licism. James found in him a subtle and 
 accommodating minister of very great abilitj', 
 and quite without scruples. The Revolution 
 of 1688 drove him into exile; bat in a few 
 years he returned, and managed to insinuate 
 himself into William III.'s favour. He was 
 William's adviser in forming a Whig ministry, 
 and was made one of the Lords Justices in 
 1697. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; RaiLke, Hist, of Bng, 
 
 Supplicants, The, was the name as- 
 sumea (1637) by those persons in Scotland 
 who petitioned or " suppfic/ated " against the 
 introduction of Laud's Service Hook, and the 
 Hook of Cations. The Supplicants were so 
 numerous and strong that on the presentation 
 
Sup 
 
 ( 982 ) 
 
 Snr 
 
 of the Great Supplication (which embraced 
 charges against the Service Book, the Book of 
 Canons, the bishops, and the government), the 
 Privy Council found it necessary to authorise 
 the election of delegates from the Suppli- 
 cants to confer with the executive: these 
 delegates were called " The Tables." In 1638 
 the Supplicants signed the Covenant, and 
 thenceforward became known by the name 
 of Covenanters. 
 
 Supremacy, Acts of. (1) 26 Hen. VIII., 
 u. 1, embodied the recognition of Convocation, 
 and enacted " that the king shall be taken, 
 accepted, and reputed the only supreme head 
 on earth of the Church of England," and 
 that he shall have " full power to visit, 
 repress, redress, reform, restrain, and amend 
 all heresies, errors, and enormities, which by 
 any manner of spiritual jurisdiction ought 
 lawfuUy to be reformed." (2) 26 Hen. VIII., 
 c. 1 3, or the Treason Act, made it high treason 
 " to, imagine or practise any harm to the 
 king, or deprive him of any of his dignities 
 and titles. " Under this Act More and Fisher 
 sufeered. (3) Elizabeth's first Act " re- 
 storing to the crown the ancient jurisdiction 
 over the state ecclesiastical," and empowering 
 her to visit, reform, and amend errors, 
 heresies, and schisms as in Henry VIII.'s 
 Act. But some limitations were secured in 
 the clause that nothing was to be judged as 
 heresy but what was proved so out of the 
 Bible, the canons of the four general councils, 
 or what Convocation and Parliament should 
 judge to be so. Elizabeth was also declared 
 no longer "supreme head," but "supreme 
 governor" of the Church. (4) In 1563 a 
 more stringent Act of Supremacy was passed, 
 with sterner penalties, and further obligations 
 in new classes to take the oath of supremacy. 
 By all the above Acts the oath of supremacy 
 was enforced. 
 
 Supremacy, The Eoyal, was in its 
 earlier forms merely the necessary result of 
 the imperial rights of the English crown. 
 Even as against the Ohurch, which in 
 mediasval times was in a sense a state 
 within the state, there are many mediaeval 
 examples of the exercise of the roj^al 
 supremacy. The Customs of William I., 
 preserved by Eadmer, the Constitutions of 
 Clarendon, the Statutes of Provisors and 
 PriKmunire all embodied the principle. But 
 Henry VIII. brought out the principle with 
 a new clearness in his definite claim to be 
 "in all causes and over all persons as well 
 ecclesiastical as civil supreme." Admitted with 
 reservation by Convocation, and enforced by 
 Acts of Parliament, this newly-formulated 
 doctrine soon proved incompatible with the 
 power of the papacy, and even with the in- 
 dependence of the Enghsh Church. Henry 
 VIII.'s interpretation of the supremacv 
 hardly put him in an inferior position to 
 Cierman princes whom the Reformation made 
 
 summi episcopi of their dominions. Under it 
 Cromwell received his extraordinary com- 
 mission. Through it Somerset and Northum- 
 berland revolutionised the Church. Never 
 abandoned even by Mary, it was reclaimed 
 in a new and less insidious form by Elizabeth, 
 and has ever since been part of the preroga- 
 tives of the English crown. 
 
 Surajah Sowlah was grandson of Ali- 
 verdy Khan, and succeeded him in 1756. He 
 perpetrated the abominable crime of the Black 
 Hole ; was beaten by Clive at Plassey, whence 
 he fled, but was recaptured, brought back, 
 and put ignominiously to death by Meer 
 JaflSer's son (1757). 
 
 Surat is a town in the Konkan, in India, 
 situated near the mouth of the Tapti. It was 
 the port to Persia, and one of the largest cities 
 in India. It was originally the chief English' 
 factory on the west coast. The Guicowar 
 and the Peishwa both had claims on it, but in 
 1800, in consequence of the misgovernment of 
 the Nabob, Lord WeUesley ordered it to be 
 annexed. The Guicowar was easily per- 
 suaded to surrender his claim, and in 1802 by 
 the Treaty of Bassein the Peishwa consented 
 also. 
 
 Surat, The Treaty of (March 6, 1775), 
 was concluded between the Bombay Presi- 
 dency, without the authority of Calcutta, and 
 Ragoba, a deposed Peishwa. Its stipulations 
 were that the Bombay government should 
 furnish Ragoba with 3,000 British troops; 
 and that in return Eagoba should pay eighteen 
 lacs of rupees a year, should make an as- 
 signment to the value of nineteen lacs, and 
 should cede Salsette and Bassein. 
 
 Surgee Anjengaom, The Tkeaty op 
 
 (1) (Deo. i, 1803), concluded between the 
 Company and Dowlut Rao Scindia. Its stipu- 
 lations were, the cession of all his territories 
 lying between the Jumna and the Ganges, 
 and north of the Rajpoot kingdoms of Jey- 
 poor and Joudhpoor, ttie fortress and territory 
 of Ahmednugger in the Decoan, and Baroach, 
 with its dependencies in Guzerat; the re- 
 linquishment of all claims on the Nizam, 
 Peishwa, Guicowar, and British government ; 
 the recognition of the independence of 
 all the British allies in Hindostan. (2) 
 (Nov. 23, 1805), concluded between the 
 Company and Dowlut Rao Scindia. Its 
 stipulations were that all the provisions of 
 the first treaty which were not modified by 
 the new arrangement were to remain in 
 force ; that Golind and Gwalior were to be 
 restored to him as a matter of friendship, on 
 his engaging to assign three lacs of rupees 
 from the revenues to the Eana. Pensions 
 which had been gTanted to different officers of 
 his court were relinquished, and annuities 
 were settled on himself, his wife, his daughter. 
 The Chumbul was to form the boundary of 
 the two states, but the British government 
 
Snr 
 
 ( 983 
 
 Sus 
 
 engaged to enter into no treaties with the 
 Rajahs of Oodypore, Joudhpoor, and other 
 chiefs, the tributaries of Scindia in Mewar, 
 Marwar, or Malwa, and Scindia agreed 
 never to admit Shirgee Eao Ghatkay into his 
 counsels. 
 
 Surrey, Henry Howakd, Earl op 
 {b. 1516, d. 1547), was the son of Thomas 
 Howard, third Duke of Norfolk. A promis- 
 ing scholar and soldier, and a poet of con- 
 siderable power, his career was brought to 
 a premature close through Henry's jealous 
 interpretation of some indiscreet assumptions 
 of royal arms and titles and references to 
 his family relationship to royalty, at a time 
 when the king began to reject again the 
 counsels of the conservative Anglicans, of 
 whom Norfolk and Surrey were the chief. 
 Though barely thirty years of age at his 
 death, the young earl had distinguished him- 
 self in some of the Scotch and French 
 campaigns, besides winning fame as a poet of 
 real if limited powers. For a short period he 
 was entrusted with the governorship of 
 Henry's French conquest, Boulogne, but his 
 defeat before the city in 1546 led to his being 
 superseded in his command, and to his en- 
 gaging in a quarrel with his successor at 
 Boulogne, Lord Hertford, which was one 
 main cause of his incurring the king's dis- 
 pleasure. Accused, at the instemce of Hertford, 
 of treason, he was condemned, and executed 
 (Jan.' 21, 1547). The Earl of Surrey was the 
 brother-in-law and frequent compcmion of 
 Henry's natural son, the Duke of Richmond. 
 
 Snsa, The Peace of (April 14, 1629), was 
 made between England and France, through, 
 the mediation of the Venetian ambassador, 
 Contarini, and largely through the good 
 offices of Queen Henrietta Maria. It tacitly 
 recognised the principle that each king was 
 flee to settle his dealings with his own subjects 
 as he thought fit. 
 
 S. E. Gardiuer, Hist, of Eng., 1603—1642, vol. 
 vii. 
 
 Suspeudiug Power, The, was the 
 royal claim to suspend altogether the opera- 
 tion of any statute which was found 
 contrary to the well-being of the state. Like 
 the analogous Dispensing Power (q.v.) it arose 
 from the necessity in the fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries of combining with friend- 
 ship with the Pope the maintenance of the 
 Acts of Provisors and Prsemunire. Abused 
 by the Stuarts, especially by Charles II. 's and 
 James II.'s Declarations of Toleration, which 
 suspended many statutes, and stretched to the 
 uttermost by James II.'s suspensions of the 
 Test Act and others, this power was finally 
 declared illegal in the BUI of Eights. 
 
 Sussex, Kingdom op. The first Saxon 
 attack upon Britain after the conquest of 
 Kent by the Jutes, was that under .iElla, and 
 his three sons (one of whom, Cissa, has given 
 his name to Chichester). Landing with a 
 
 small force at Selsey in 477, the South Saxons 
 slowly fought their way eastward, conquering 
 the strip of land between the Andredes-weald 
 and the Channel, until in 491 they reached 
 Anderida. After a desperate struggle the 
 fortress was taken, and " all that were therein 
 slain." But they were unable to advance 
 further, for immediately to the east of An- 
 derida a dense forest belt came down to the 
 sea and barred further progress. The king- 
 dom of Sussex was always one of the least 
 important of the Eilghsh powers. It fell 
 under the overlordship of Ethelbert of Kent, 
 and after a period of independence, under the 
 rule of WuKhere of Meroia. Hitherto it had 
 remained heathen, but in 661 its king, .Slthel- 
 walch, was baptised in Wulfhere's presence, 
 and at the same time the overlord added to 
 his dominions the Isle of Wight, and the 
 lands of the Meouwara along Southampton 
 Water. But the mass of the people were 
 still heathen, and in 678—83 Wilfred occu- 
 pied his enforced leisure among them in 
 bringing about their conversion. In 685 
 Ceadwalla brought Sussex under West Saxon 
 supremacy, and from this time it ceases to 
 have any separate history. 
 
 Bede, Sist. Eccles. ; Henry of Huntingdon ; 
 Green, Making of England; Lappeuberg, Anglo- 
 Saa'On Kings. [W. J. A.I 
 
 Sussex, Kings op. Besides JElla who, 
 after founding the kingdom of Sussex, 
 probably assisted the Gewissas, and is there- 
 fore mentioned by Bede as the first English 
 prince who held an impermm or ducatus, i.e., 
 war-leadership {v. Green, Making of England, 
 308), few of the South Saxon princes were of 
 importance, .^ithelwalch, the first Christian 
 king, and his successor, Eadric, fell in battle 
 against Ceadwalla of Wessex. Lappenberg 
 [England und^r Anglo-Saxon Kings, ed. 1881, 
 i., p. 313) mentions also the names of Huna, 
 Numa or Nunna, Nothelm and Wattus, as 
 ruling under Ine, and of Osmund, jEthelberht, 
 and Sigeberht as later princes. 
 
 Sussex, Thomas Eadclifpe, 3rd Earl of 
 (rf. 1583), though inclined to Catholicism, was 
 the faithful and honourable counsellor and 
 affectionate kinsman of Elizabeth. He was 
 made, on his father's death in 1557, Lord 
 Deputy of Irelaud, where he distinguished 
 himsebf hy his energetic government. He 
 became an active servant of Elizabeth, and on 
 his recall from Ireland (1567), where he had 
 quarrelled with Sir Henry Sidney, was sent 
 to Vienna to try to arrange the conditions of 
 the queen's marriage with the archduke. On 
 his return to England he became President 
 of the Council of the North, and was one of 
 the commissioners at York for the inquiry into 
 the Darnley murder. Sussex afterwards 
 advocated the marriage of the Scottish queen 
 with the Duke of Norfolk, and on that account 
 was supposed by the confederate earls to be 
 favourable to their cause. He remained loyal, 
 however, and as President of the North took 
 
Snt 
 
 '( 984 ) 
 
 Svre 
 
 part in suppressing the rebellion of 1569) 
 though he incurred the charge of lack of 
 energy. He was one of the few peers who 
 were in favour of the Alenpon marriage, and 
 in his capacity as Lord Chamberlain seems to 
 have exercised a good deal of iniluence at 
 court. Sussex was a man of blunt and straight- 
 forward character, a good soldier, but not 
 much of a courtier. 
 
 Suttee was the Hindoo custom of burn- 
 ing the live widow with the dead husband. 
 It was practised for twenty centuries, and 
 is supposed to be of religious origin, but 
 was really grafted on the original Hindoo 
 law, owing to the unwillingness among the 
 Brahmins that the widow should acquire her 
 settled property, and celebrate the funeral 
 rites of her husband. The English were 
 at first afraid to interfere, fearing that it 
 would create a religious excitement against 
 the English rule. Lord William Bentinck, 
 however, determined to abolish this custom, 
 and in 1830 passed a regulation which 
 declared the practice of suttee illegal, and 
 punishable by the criminal courts as culpable 
 homicide. Not the slightest feeUng of alarm 
 or resentment was exhibited. A few attempts 
 at suttee were prevented by the police, and 
 now the practice is a matter of history. 
 
 Sveaborg, The Bombardment of (1855), 
 took place during the war with Russia. The 
 second Baltic expedition, under Admiral 
 Dundas, addressed itself to the bombardment 
 of Sveaborg. On the morning of Aug. 9 the 
 bombardment was opened. Shot, shell, and 
 rockets rained into the fortress from our gun 
 and mortar boats, and the batteries which the 
 French had established on one of the many 
 neighbouring islands. The bombardment was 
 continued with little intermission till four 
 o'clock on the morning of the 11th, by which 
 time it was computed that no less than one 
 thousand tons of shot and shell had been 
 thrown into the place by the English alone. 
 Finding the destruction of the stores and 
 arsenals, and every building of importance to 
 be complete, the admiral resolved to make no 
 further attempt on the fortifications them- 
 selves, as this must have cost many lives. 
 
 Swainmote was the court of the free- 
 men of the forest. As the forest juris- 
 dictions were arranged on the model of the 
 ordinary shire jurisdictions, its organisation 
 was analogous to that of the shire or hundred 
 court. Swain is an equivalent of freeholder 
 
 Sweating Sickness, The, was the name 
 
 given to a most destructive malady which 
 ravaged Europe, and more particularly 
 England, during the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries. Beginning in' the form of a violent 
 fever, accompanied by a profuse fcetid perspi- 
 ration, it speedily reduced its victims to a state 
 of utter helplessness and prostration, a few 
 
 hours only sufficing, as a general rule, to 
 transform a healthy, vigorous man into a 
 loathsome corpse. The mortality caused by a 
 plague of this mysterious and deadly character 
 was enormously great, and in England, 
 where its effects were more severely felt 
 than in any other part of Europe, it resulted, 
 according to Stow, in a marked depopula- 
 tion of the kingdom. The first appearance 
 of the "sweating sickness" in England 
 was in Aug., 1485, when, breaking out seem- 
 ingly among Henry Vll.'e troops at Milford 
 Haven, it spread with fatal rapidity to London. 
 Here, and generally, the plague raged 
 furiously tiU about the end of October, when 
 its force began to abate, till eventually on New 
 Year's Day, 1486, aU traces of it disappeared. 
 In July, 1517, it again broke out among the 
 people, and ran a violent course of six months. 
 In May, 1528, its ravages brought about an 
 almost total suspension of business. On this 
 occasion the plague lasted on till July, 1529. 
 Its next appearance was in April, 1551, when 
 it destroyed in the space of a few days nine 
 hundred and sixty of the inhabitants of Shrews- 
 bury, from which town it was speedily carried 
 over the surrounding country. It once again 
 took its departure in September, and with the 
 exception of a short interval in 1575, when 
 the ' ' sickness ' ' caused a vast number of deaths, 
 principally in Oxford, we have no record of 
 any subsequent renewal of the visitation. A 
 remarkable circumstance connected with the 
 " sweating sickness " was the comparative 
 freedom which foreign residents in England 
 enjoyed from its effects ; upon the native-born 
 population alone, for the most part, did the 
 sickness exercise its deadly influence. Hence 
 it is supposed that the malady was largely 
 due to the immoderate indulgence in beer so 
 common among all classes of English people 
 in the days of the Tudors. 
 
 Bacon, Hist. ofKenry VII. ; Chambers, Book q/ 
 Daiys. 
 
 Sweden, Relations with. There were 
 practically no dealings between England and 
 Sweden during the JVliddle Ages. Gustavus 
 Wasa at last freed the merchants of Sweden 
 from the commercial yoke of the Liibeckera, 
 as he had previously freed the country from 
 the political yoke of Denmark. And in 1551 
 a commercial treaty between England and 
 Sweden marks the beginning of a trade that 
 ultimately became important. The general 
 leaning of Sweden to France, however, made 
 really cordial political intercourse impossible. 
 Half -mad King Eric's proposal to marry 
 Queen Elizabeth (1560) must not be taken 
 too seriously. Charles IX. sought in 1599 
 the alliance of Elizabeth and her mediation 
 between Sweden and Denmark. Gustavus 
 Adolphus welcomed Scottish settlers into his 
 new commercial town of Gothenburg. But 
 the weak and uncertain policy of James I. 
 and Charles I. determined Gustavus not to 
 embroil himself in thfi Thirty Years' "War 
 
Swe 
 
 ( 985 ) 
 
 Swe 
 
 until he had found in Richelieu a stronger 
 ally than the English kings. Though many 
 English served in his army, and Eng- 
 lish subsidies and troops were slowly doled 
 out to him he found no substantial help from 
 England, and both his opposition to an imcon- 
 ditional restoration of the Elector Palatine 
 and Charles I.'s desire that Germany shovild 
 be freed from foreign conquerors, prevented any 
 close relations between the two parties. Towards 
 the end of Christina's reign, England and 
 Sweden drew nearer together, as is shown by 
 Whitelocke's famous embassy in 1 6 54 , the treaty 
 of amity concluded by him, and Christina's 
 acceptance of Cromwell's portrait. Though 
 Charles X. was generally supported by Eng- 
 land in his Danish war, his unexampled suc- 
 cess necessitated the union of England and 
 Holland to force on him a peace which would 
 prevent his obtaining the exclusive possession 
 of the Sound. A common corruption and 
 dependence on France united England and 
 Sweden under the minority of Charles XI. 
 In 1667 both countries reversed their policy 
 and united with Holland to check France by 
 the Triple Alliance. This wise policy was, how- 
 ever, not pursued again until after 1680, when 
 Charles XI. became master of his kingdom, 
 and declared against France, an act which 
 secured his friendship with the England of 
 the Revolution. His last act was to mediate 
 at the Congress of Ryswick (1697). But 
 Sweden and England really belonged to very 
 different political systems — a fact strongly 
 illustrated by the very slight connection of 
 Charles XII. and his northern wars with 
 the War of the Spanish Succession raging 
 just at the same time. Charles, however, 
 found on his return from Bender that the 
 Elector of Hanover had seized on his German 
 duchies of Bremen and Verden ; and his 
 anxiety to recover these was one strong 
 motive for his union with Peter of Russia 
 and Alberoni against George I., and of his 
 schemes to restore the Pretender. Hence 
 England welcomed the oligarchical revolution, 
 which, on his death, rendered Sweden power- 
 less for nearly two generations. During 
 these " Times of Freedom " the English and 
 Russian ambassadors jointly bribed and in- 
 trigued to obtain the supremacy of the 
 " Caps " over the " Hats," though events 
 showed that the Swedish alliance was hardly 
 worth its cost. Twice the ascendency of the 
 French party involved Sweden in war, first 
 against England and Russia in 1741 — 43, next 
 against Prussia, the English ally during the 
 Seven Years' "War. The failure of each war 
 restored the Caps to power. At last, in 1772, 
 Gustavus III., with French help, got rid of 
 the corrupt oligarchy of placemen that was 
 almost a parody of the English "Whig con- 
 nection. His action was very much resented 
 in England, and his share' in the Armed 
 Neutrality showed that he had become anti- 
 English in policy. 
 
 But the abandonment by the younger Pitt 
 of the old English pohcy of allianoe with 
 Russia, led to a change in our relations with 
 Sweden, and Gustavus's vain attack on Rus- 
 sia (1788 — 90) was a welcome though ineffec- 
 tual help to Pitt's plans. At the end of his 
 reign Gustavus's fury against the French 
 Revolution brpught him into the coaUtiou 
 against France. But he was assassinated in 
 1792, and Gustavus IV., though in 1800 he 
 joined the Armed Neutrality, in 1805 united 
 with Pitt in the coaUtion against France. 
 But after the Treaty of Tilsit, the Russians 
 deprived him of Finland, and, having offended 
 the English general of the forces sent to his 
 assistance, he was compelled to resign his 
 throne to his uncle Charles XIII., who sought 
 by adopting a French marshal as his heir to 
 appease the fury of Napoleon. Nevertheless 
 the Crown Prince — as Bernadotte was now 
 called — joined in the alliance which dethroned 
 his old master in 1815. Since that period 
 Sweden has had no' very striking direct 
 political dealings with England. Her com- 
 mercial relations have for the last two cen- 
 turies been of importance. 
 
 Geijer and Carlsson, Geschichte von Schweden ; 
 Whitelocke, Stuedish Embassy ; Eanke, KUt. 
 of Eng.; GreofErln, Gustave III.; il/emoirs of 
 Charles XIV. I>uiihaiu, Hist, of Norway, Swedpii, 
 and Denmark ; and Otte, Scandinavian History, 
 are the only Bnglisli histories of Sweden. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 
 Sweyn, King of Denmark (d. 1014), 
 during the lifetime of his father, Harold 
 Blaatand, threw off the Christianity which 
 had been forced upon him, and distin- 
 guished himself as a Viking chief. In 982 
 he made a great expedition to England and 
 destroyed Chester, Southampton, and London. 
 Again, in 994, tho hopes of a fresh Danegeld 
 brought him anew to England. In 1002 the 
 murder of his sister in the massacre of St. 
 Brice's Day, gave him a new motive of hos- 
 tihty. At last he succeeded to the Danish 
 throne, and led a great national invasion of 
 England with the object of effecting a per- 
 manent conquest. All the Danelagh sub- 
 mitted at once, and the flight of Ethelred to 
 Normandy, and the submission of the West 
 Saxons made him practically ruler of England 
 (1013). But as he was never crowned, the 
 chroniclers call him Sweyn the Tyrant. His 
 death in the next year left the throne open to 
 his greater son, Canute. 
 
 Freeman, lHorman Conquest. 
 
 Swe3m was the eldest son of Godwin, and 
 in 1043 was appointed to an earldom, which 
 included the shires of Hereford, Gloucester, 
 Oxford, Berks, and Somerset. We read of 
 his wars with the Welsh, and in 1046, on 
 his return from one of these expeditions, 
 he abducted Eadgifu, Abbess of Leominster. 
 Being forbidden to mari^ her, he threw 
 up his earldom and retired to Denmark. In 
 1048 he made overtures to Edward for the 
 
Swi 
 
 ( 986 ) 
 
 Swo 
 
 restoration of his earldom, which had heen 
 divided between Harold and Beorn, but 
 his chances of pardon were destroyed by his 
 treacherous murder of Beom. Iteclared a 
 nithinn by the army, he escaped to Flanders, 
 but in the next year he was xestored to his 
 possessions by Edward. In 1051 he was 
 outlawed with Ms father, and once more 
 retired to Flanders, but did not return with 
 Godwin. " The blood of Beorn, the wrongs 
 of Eadgifu laj' heavj- on his spirit," "■ pil- 
 grimage to the Holy Land could alone expiate 
 him for his crimes. Thither he went .bare- 
 footed, and on his return " breathed his last 
 in some unknown spot of the distant land of 
 Lykia." 
 
 Freeman, Norman Conquast. 
 
 Swift, Jonathan {b. 1667, d. 1745), was 
 born at Dublin, and educated at Trinity 
 CoUege. In 1688 he was received into the 
 family of Sir William Temple, to whom he 
 was related. In 1695 he was ordained, but 
 soon resigned a smaJl Irish living, and 
 returned to reside with Temple. During his 
 residence with Temple began his mysterious 
 connection with Hester Johnson, the " Stella " 
 of his Journal. In 1699, failing of promotion 
 to an English living, Swift went to Ireland 
 as chaplain to Lord Berkeley, and was 
 scantily rewarded by receiving, not the 
 deanery which he had expected, but the 
 living of Laracor, in the comity of Meath. 
 Swift began his political career as a Whig. 
 In 1704 he published the Tale of a Tub, a 
 satire on the corruptions of early Christianity, 
 and the results of the Reformation. The Battle 
 of the Hooks (1704), on the literary dispute 
 about the letters of Phalaris, added to his 
 reputation. During Anne's reign he paid 
 fi'equent and protracted visits to England, 
 and became closely connected with the lead- 
 ing Tories. During the last five years of 
 Queen Anne's reign he played a very prami- 
 nent part in English politics as the leading 
 political writer of the Tories, and the friend 
 and confidant of their leaders. He was on 
 terms of the closest intimacy both with 
 Harley and Bolingbroke, and attempted to 
 allay the quarrel between the rival statesmen. 
 His pamphlet. The Conduct of the AlUes, was of 
 immense service to the Tory party ; and in a 
 paper called the Examiner, he upheld their 
 course with zeal, and supplied the ministry 
 with arguments. In 1713 he received the 
 deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin. There he 
 is thought to have been secretly married to 
 Stella. She died in 17'28. On the death of 
 Anne, the dean retired to Dublin a disap- 
 pointed man. In 1724 he wrote the Drapier 
 Letters, an attack on the monopoly to coin 
 halfpence which had been granted to a man 
 named Wood ; and this was followed by 
 several other tracts on Irish affairs in which 
 the treatment of Ireland by the English 
 government was satirised with unsurpassed 
 
 power. In writing of Ireland Swift thought 
 chiefly of the English colony in Ireland ; but 
 his writings made him the idol of the whole 
 Irish people. In 1726 appeared his greatest 
 work, Gulliver's Travels. It -is a satire on 
 mankind with contemporary allusions. Swift 
 outlived his genius, and sank into idiotcy; 
 the last years of his life were spent in almost 
 complete mental darkness. Apart from his 
 literary renown. Swift owes his position in 
 history to the fact that in his writings we 
 have the Tory view of politics in Queen 
 Anne's reign set forth with the greatest 
 literary skiU. In Irish politics he is the 
 typical representative of the Protestant 
 ascendency in Ireland, whose attack on the 
 English government prepared the way for 
 Grrattan and the Volunteers of 1779. 
 
 Swift's TToWcs, edited "by Scott, and repub- 
 lished 18S3; Forster, Xi/e of Sw'dt, which was 
 left unfinished; Craik, Life of Swift, 1882; 
 Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland ; 
 Macaulay, .Essay on Sir WiUiam Tewipltf ,■ Bol- 
 inghroke. Correspondence, [S. J. L.l 
 
 Swing, Captain. During the agricultural 
 outrages of the year 1830, which had their 
 origin in the increased use of machinery for 
 agricultural purposes, threatening letters were 
 frequently sent to those proprietors who 
 made use of machinery, ordering them to 
 refrain from doing so, and threatening notices 
 were affixed to ^ates and bams. These letters 
 and notices were usually signed " Captain 
 Swing," much as Irish threatening letters 
 are signed "Rory of the Hills." This nick- 
 name was used in order to identify the various 
 documents with the same movement. 
 
 Swintou, Sir John, -was a Scottish 
 knight who fought with great gallantry at 
 the battle of Homildon Hill. He crossed over 
 to the aid of France with the Earl of Buchan, 
 and was present at the battle of Beauge (1421 ), 
 where he unhorsed the Duke of Clarence. In 
 1424 he was kOledat Verneuil. ; 
 
 Swithin (Swithun), St. {d. 862), was a 
 monk of Winchester, of which see he became i 
 bishop in 852. He was one of the chief 
 ministers of Egbert and Ethelwulf, and one 
 of the instructors of Alfred, whom he accom- 
 panied on his journey to Rome. It is said to 
 have been at his suggestion that Ethelwulf 
 bestowed on the Church the tenth part of 
 his lands. 
 
 Swordsmen was the name given to the 
 able-bodied Irish who, in 1652 were allowed 
 to leave their country and enlist abToad. 
 Some 30,000 or 40,000 are said to have 
 availed themselves of this permission. At 
 first this was only a private arrangement 
 between the Irish leaders and the Puritan 
 generals to whom they surrendered. But ] 
 Parliament legalised their capitulations by a 
 special Act ; at the same time banishing all 
 ofiicers, while allowing them to enlist more 
 recruits. Spain, France, Austria, and Venice 
 
Swy 
 
 ( 987 ) 
 
 Tai 
 
 took advantnge of this opjortunity for 
 strengthening their forces. 
 
 Froude, English m Ireland ; Lecky, Hist. ofEng. 
 Swsmford, Catherine (</. 1403), succes- 
 sively governess, mistress, and third wife to 
 John of Gaunt, was the daughter of Sir Paon 
 de Eolt, and widow of Sir Hugh Swjmford. 
 From her are descended the Beauforts, and 
 consequently Henry VII. Her marriage 
 with John of Gaunt took place in 1396, hut 
 aU her children were born previously. 
 
 Sydenham, Chahles "William Poulett 
 Thomson, Loud (A. 1793, d. 1841), was a 
 merchant, who iirst represented Dover (1826 
 to 1830), and then Manchester, in the House 
 of Commons. In 1831) he entered Earl Grey's 
 Reform administration as Vice-President of 
 the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the 
 Navy. In July, 1834, he hecame President 
 of the Board of Trade and resigned with 
 Lord Melbourne's ministry in November fol- 
 lowing. In AprU, 1835, he resumed that 
 oifice untU he was selected to replace Lord 
 Durham in Canada. As a cabinet minister 
 his efforts were directed to amendment of the 
 Custom Laws and extension of our foreign 
 trade by a more liberal policy. On Lord 
 Seaton's recall from Canada, Mr. Thomson 
 was appointed to the supreme government 
 of British North America. In 1840 he was 
 raised to the peerage as Baron Sydenham of 
 Toronto. 
 
 Tables, The, was the name given to 
 a national council in Scotland, formed in 
 1637 to represent all those who objected 
 to the New Service Book, and other 
 changes which the Scottish Council, under 
 orders from Charles I., was attempting 
 to introduce. It was virtually am. extraordi- 
 nary Parliament, its sixteen members being 
 elected equally from the four classes of nobles, 
 barons, clergy, and burgesses. The creation 
 of the Tables was sanctioned by the Privy 
 Council in 1637, as a means of intercourse 
 between the supplicants (or opposition, which 
 included the whole nation almost) and the 
 crown. The following account of them is 
 given in Gordon, Scots Affairs : — " These six- 
 teen thus chosen were constitute as delegates 
 for the rest, who were to treat with the 
 Council thereafter in name of the rest, and 
 to reside constantly where the Council sat. 
 These delegates thus constitute were appointed 
 to give intelligence to all quarters of the 
 kingdom to their associates of all that passed 
 betwixt the king, the Council, and them ; to 
 correspond with the rest, and to receive in- 
 telligence from them, and to call such of them 
 with the mind of the rest as they thought ex- 
 pedient." The Council soon discovered that 
 in authorising the creation of the "Tables" 
 they had called into being a. representative 
 
 body of an extremely troublesome and dan- 
 gerous nature. In 1638, on the publication of 
 a _ proclamation of the king exonerating the 
 bishops, the Tables summoned their adherents 
 to meet at Stirling, and issued the famous Pro- 
 testation, declaring the " king to be deceived 
 by the prelates, and to be personally guiltless 
 of the whole." Shortly afterwards they is- 
 sued the Covenant, compelling persons to sign 
 allegiance to it all over Scotland. To the 
 Tables is due the organisation of the Glasgow 
 Assembly of 1638, and the indictment of the 
 bishops in the same year. It was the Tables, 
 moreover, which made preparations for the 
 war that broke out the following year. 
 Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 1603—1642. 
 
 Tackers, The (1704), was the name 
 given to a party of zealous Tories, headed by 
 Nottingham, who proposed, in imitation of 
 « plan which had been resorted to in the 
 previous reign in the case of the Irish Re- 
 sumption Bill, to tack the Occasional Con- 
 formity Bill to the New Land Tax BOl, "so 
 that the peers could not fling out the pro- 
 posal of intolerance without losing the pro- 
 posal of supply." The moderate Tories, how- 
 ever, headed by Haiiey and St. John, voted 
 against them, and they were routed by 261 
 against 134 votes. 
 
 Tahiti Question, 1842—44. In Sept., 
 1842, the French Admiral Du Petit Thenars 
 extorted a convention from Queen Pomare, by 
 which the French assumed possession of the 
 island of Tahiti. The question was taken up 
 by England with gxeat vigour. The French 
 government professed that they did not desire 
 the annexation, but merely the protectorate of 
 the island. The French people were, however, 
 most indignant. Popular feeling ran high in 
 both countries, and it was only the moderation 
 of the governments which preserved peace. 
 In 1844 the two governments were once more 
 embroiled by the indiscretion of the French 
 officials in Tahiti. They had made them- 
 selves most unpopular in Tahiti, and on the 
 night of the 2nd March one of theii- sentinels 
 was seized and disarmed by the natives. This 
 was made the pretext for seizing and im- 
 prisoning Mr. Pritchard, British consul, and 
 a prominent missionary, who was pecuharly 
 obnoxious to the Roman Catholics. He was 
 only released on the condition of his instantly 
 leaving the Pacific. This outrage created a 
 profound indignation in England, and Sir R. 
 Peel denounced it in Parliament as a gross 
 indignity. After some months of negotiation. 
 Sir R. Peel was able to announce that the 
 question had been satisfactorily settled, and 
 an indemnity given to Mr. Pritchard. 
 
 Tailbois, Lady Elizabeth Blount, was 
 the daughter of Sir John Blount, and the 
 wife of Sir Gilbert Tailbois, at one time 
 Governor of Calais. She was one of Henry 
 VIII.'s favourite mistresses, and the son whom 
 
Tal 
 
 < 988 ) 
 
 Tal 
 
 she bore him was specially distinguished hy 
 the marks of his father's regard, heing created 
 successively Earl of Nottingham, and Duke of 
 Eichmond and Somerset. 
 
 Talavera, The Eattleof (July 27and 28, 
 1809), was perhaps the most important, as it 
 certainly was one of the most hard-fought, of 
 the earlier battles of the Peninsular War. The 
 town of Talavera de la Reyna stands on the 
 left hank of the Tagus, forty-two miles west 
 of Toledo, in a small ^jlain, which is bounded 
 on the north and west by a range of low hills. 
 Wellington extended his hne along these hills 
 and occupied an old ruined building, the 
 Casa des Salinas, in the plain, while Cuesta 
 with the Spaniards, who composed two-thirds 
 of the allied army, was posted in front of the 
 town on his right. Early on the 27th the 
 British division in the Casa des Salinas was 
 surprised by French skirmishers, hut was 
 quickly rallied by Wellington in person, and 
 withdrawn to the hills, where they formed up 
 behind the troops already posted there. Victor 
 followed up his advantage, and opened a heavy 
 fire on the position, which towards evening 
 was suddenly attacked. The Germans, who 
 were in advance, were completely surprised ; 
 but Donkin in the rear repulsed the attack. 
 The French, however, seized an unoccupied 
 eminence on his left, from which they an- 
 noyed the English until Hill by hard fighting 
 drove them from it, just as darkness put an 
 end to the fight. At dawn on the 28th a 
 violent onslaught was made on the English 
 left, but the French were driven off with a 
 loss of 1,500 men. Both sides rested under 
 the scorching heat of a midsummer sun ; but 
 the EngKsh were very short of supplies and 
 were almost starving. In the afternoon the 
 French renewed the attack, and fell on the 
 British right, where they were quickly re- 
 pulsed in confusion. Meanwhile a threatened 
 attack on the left had been checked by a 
 reckless charge of the dragoons, while in the 
 centre the French were completely defeated. 
 The English, however, were too much ex- 
 hausted to pursue, and the Spaniards could not 
 be trusted, so that Wellington only achieved 
 the opening up of a, safe retreat. He had, 
 however, gained a reputation which was of 
 immense value to him. " This battle," says 
 Jomini, "recovered the glory of the suc- 
 cesses of Marlborough, which for a century- 
 had declined. It was felt that the English 
 infantry could contend with the best in 
 Europe." 
 
 Napier, PeniTiRuTar Tfai-; Clinton, Peninsular 
 War ; Alison, Hist, of Em-ope. 
 
 Tallage. In the Pipe Roll 31 of Hen. I. 
 appears a town aid, auxilium bitrt/i, or civitatis, 
 which seeins to answer to the Danegeld in the 
 counties. It is set down in the roU among 
 the ordinary receipts, and it is probable, there- 
 fore, that it was an annual payment ; but how 
 long it had been exacted it is impossible to 
 
 determine. After 1163 Danegeld disappeared, 
 but its place was taken, as far as the towns and 
 demesne lands of the crown were concerned, 
 by a tax described loosely as donum or assisa, 
 but to which the term tallage came later to be 
 definitely attached. The amount to be paid 
 by each county and town was assessed by 
 officers of the Exchequer in special fiscal cir- 
 cuits, or by the justices in eyre ; in the towns 
 themselves the civic authorities, whoever they 
 may have been, decided how much each citizen 
 was to pay— a power the abuse of which led 
 to the rising in London under William Fitz- 
 Osbert. As the king had the right of tallag- 
 ing his demesne, so the barons had the right 
 of tallaging theirs ; and towns frequently de- 
 clared they were liable to the royal taUaging 
 in order to escape the heavier exactions of 
 their lords. The Exchequer, however, suc- 
 ceeded in gaining a general control over these 
 seigneurial tallages ; special permission be- 
 came necessary before an imposition could be 
 made, and when escheated baronies were re- 
 granted, it was always with the condition that 
 tallage should only be paid to the lord when 
 the king taxed his own demesne. As late as 
 1305 the king, probably to prevent opposition 
 to the taDage imposed the year before, granted 
 leave to the barons to tallage their own' an- 
 cient demesnes as he had tallaged his. The 
 seigneurial right was gradually bought off by 
 the communities, and early disappears. In 
 the Confirmation of the Charters in 1297, 
 Edward I. promised only to renounce " aids, 
 tasks, and prises," words which might fairly he 
 interpreted not to include tallage from demesne 
 lands. The document known as De Tallagio 
 lion Concedendo, in which the king expressly 
 renounces the right of tallage, and which has 
 been accepted by Hallam as the basis of his 
 argument on this point, was merely an un- 
 authoiitative abstract of the original articles. 
 After 1297 tallage was demanded three times : 
 in 1304, in 1312 — when it was objected to by 
 London, not on account pf illegality, hut on 
 the ground that the metropolis was exempted 
 from such payments by Magna Charta — 
 and in 1332, when, upon the remonstrance of 
 Parliament, the commissions were withdrawn, 
 and a tenth accepted instead. Finally, by a 
 statute of 1340, " the real Act ' De Tallagio,' " 
 it was enacted that the nation should no more 
 " make any common aid or sustain charge" 
 but by consent of Parliam.ent — words wide 
 enough to include all unauthorised taxation. 
 After this date it was never exacted, though 
 until the end of the reign the Commons were 
 uneasy, and occasionally petitioned that it 
 might not be imposed. 
 
 Tallage was, as Gneist observes, a natural 
 product of feudalism. As military service 
 became the burden of a particular class, it 
 seemed equitable that those who were exempt 
 should contribute by taxation to the national 
 defence. Two causes contributed to ensure 
 for the tallaged class in England more con- 
 
Tal 
 
 ( 989 ) 
 
 Tan 
 
 siderate treatment than abroad. In the first 
 place the fyrd, or national militia, had been 
 maintained, though partly for other purposes, 
 so that the tallaged had weapons in their 
 hands, with which they did good service; 
 and secondly, the kings frequently promised 
 not to raise the amount of tallage in order to 
 gain an increase of the firma burgi. 
 
 M idox.Hist. ofExohequer (1711), p. 480 ; Stubljs, 
 C<m>t. Hist., I. § 161, II. § 275 ; Qneist, Bngitscho 
 Ter/assuugs Qe&ckichU (1S82), pp. 125, 172. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Talmasb., Thomas {d. 1694), first ap- 
 pears as in command of the Coldstream 
 Guards at the skirmish at Waloourt, under 
 the Duke of Marlborough. He served under 
 Grinkell in Ireland, and distinguished him- 
 seU greatly at the siege of Athloae, and at the 
 battle of Aghrim. When the notice of Par- 
 liament was directed to Solmes's conduct at 
 the battle of Steinkirk, it was requested that 
 his place might be filled by Talmash, who, 
 next to Marlborough, was universally allowed 
 to be the best officer in the army. He fought 
 under William at the battle of Landen. He 
 was soon afterwards sent in command of an 
 expedition against Brest. The design was 
 betrayed probably by Marlborough to James, 
 from motives of personal jealousy. Accord- 
 ingly when Talmash attempted to land he 
 was received by a terrible fire from the French 
 troops, and received a mortal wound, " ex- 
 claiming with his last breath that he had 
 been a victim of treachery." 
 
 JjonAon Gazette ; Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. ; 
 Banke, Htst. of Eng. 
 
 Tandy, James Nappeb, a Dublin trades- 
 man, commanded in 1782 the Phcenix 
 Park Artillery. He was an ardent Irish 
 " patriot," and as early as 1784 began to cor- 
 respond with France. He became a member 
 of the Whig Club, and in Nov., 1790, was 
 secretary to the United Irishmen. In the year 
 1792 he had the audacity to challenge the 
 SoHcitor-General ; he was arrested, escaped, 
 and re-arrested the day before the close of 
 the session, so that he was only in prison for 
 a day. In 1795 he went over to America, but 
 was in France in 1797, where he represented 
 himself as an officer. In 1798, he, together 
 with some other Irish rebels, followed Huin- 
 bert in a small vessel, but did not arrive in 
 Ireland till after the defeat of the French at 
 Ballinamuok, and at once fled and reached 
 Hamburg in safety. On Nov. 24th, however, 
 he was delivered up to the English. France 
 afterwards declared war on Hamburg on his 
 account. He was tried in Ireland, but was 
 thought much too contemptible to be made a 
 martyr of, and was liberated after the Peace 
 of Amiens (1802). 
 
 Taugiers, a seaport of Morocco, was 
 taken by the Portuguese from the Moors in 
 1471, and ceded by them to England in 1662 
 
 as the dowry of Catherine of Braganza on 
 her marriage with Charles II. Colonel Kirke 
 was placed in command of the garrison. It 
 was evacuated by the English in 1683, on 
 account of the badness of the climate and the 
 expense of the wars with the Mussulmans, 
 and the works were destroyed. Tangiers 
 subsequently became a nest of pirates, who 
 frequently enslaved British subjects, and 
 whom our government was not ashamed to 
 subsidise in order to keep them quiet. During 
 the reign of Soliman, however (1794 — 1822), 
 Christian slavery was abolished and piracy 
 
 Tanistry, The Custom of, was partly a 
 system of landholding and partly a law of 
 succession. Under the Brehon code the land 
 was regarded as belonging, in the first in- 
 stance, to the people or tribe from whom the 
 chief held it in trust. He held a portion of 
 it as private property in virtue of his rank as 
 a noble, had a life interest in a second portion 
 in virtue of his office, while he possessed 
 jurisdiction over the land of the commune. 
 This peculiar kind of tenure was called 
 tandisteact or tanistry, but the word was 
 more generally applied to the form of succes- 
 sion by which the eldest and worthiest 
 relative was preferred to the eldest son, " as 
 commonly the next brother or next cousin, 
 and so forth." The idea, of course, was that 
 a man of mature years would be able to resist 
 aggression and administer affairs better than 
 a minor, but as in practice it produced endless 
 civil quarrels, it became customary for the 
 people of the tribe or sect to elect the succes- 
 sor {tmiaiste minor or second) in the time of 
 the ruling chief. This law of inheritance 
 obtained among the noble class, all the pro- 
 perty of the inferior orders being held under 
 the law of gavelldnd (q.v.). It was from the 
 first ignored by the English invaders, who 
 attempted to introduce primogeniture. Strong- 
 bow, for instance, claimed the kingdom of 
 Leinster on the ground of his marriage with 
 Dermot's only child, Eva, but the native 
 Irish clung tenaciously to the custom, and 
 their rights were acknowledged more than 
 once by the English kings. Henry III. tried 
 to abolish it, but without success, and thence 
 the O'Neil troubles arose. Soon after the 
 accession of James I., however, in 1603, after 
 a commission had been held to inquire into 
 defective titles, tanistry, together with gavel- 
 kind, was abolished by a decision of the 
 King's Bench in Dublin as a "lewd and 
 damnable custom." A variation of the law of 
 tanistry may be seen in the curious system of 
 alternate succession by which two branches of 
 a race shared the kingship, e.g., the kingship 
 of Munster by the McCarthys and O'Briens. 
 Sir John Davies, Case of Gavelldnd ; Spencer, 
 Views of the State of Ireland, ; O'Ourry, Manners 
 ond Ctisfcims of the Ancient Irish i Maine, miage 
 Communities; Hallam, Hist. o/Bng.. iii., oh. 18; 
 Walpole, Hist, of Irish Nation. [L. C. S.] 
 
Tan' 
 
 ( 990 ) 
 
 Tan 
 
 Tauj ore. The State op, was founded in the 
 middle of the seventeenth century by Shahjee, 
 the father of Sivajee. In 1769 it became 
 involved in hostilities with Madras in conse- 
 quence of a quarrel with Mohammed Ali of the 
 Camatio. The country was quickly subdued 
 and the rajah imprisoned and the sovereignty 
 transferred to Mohammed Ali. The Court 
 of Directors, however, disapproved of this, 
 and ordered that the rajah should be restored. 
 In 1780, therefore, Lord Pigot, Governor of 
 Madras, was ordered to restore him, and 
 establish a Resident at his court. In 1786, on 
 the death of the Eajah Tulfogee (who left an 
 adopted son, Serfogee), a dispute arose as to 
 the succession. It was asserted that Tulfogee 
 was in a state of mental incapacity at the 
 time of adoption, and that Serfogee was an 
 only son, and therefore the adoption was in- 
 valid. Ameer Singh, half brother of Tulfogee, 
 was placed on the throne. Serfogee continued 
 to press his claim, and the misgovemment 
 of Ameer Singh induced Sir John Shore to 
 submit the matter to the most renowned pun- 
 dits, and they declared the adoption perfectly 
 vahd. The directors thereupon ordered Lord 
 Wellesley to place him on the throne on 
 condition that he should accept any arrange- 
 ment the government might think fit.. After 
 an exhaustive report of the condition of 
 Tanjore, Lord WeUesley assumed the entire 
 administration of the country (1800), giving 
 the rajah a liberal pension. 
 
 Taukerville, Ford Gbet, Eael op 
 [d. 1701), better known as Lord Grey of 
 Wark, took a prominent part in the debates 
 of 1681 as a most zealous Exclusionist ; and 
 for his supposed share in the design for iu- 
 suiTeetion was committed to the Tower, but 
 escaped by making his keepers drunk. He 
 fled to the Continent (1682). There he em- 
 ployed his influence on his friend the Duke 
 of Monmouth to urge him to invade England. 
 He landed at Lyme with Monmouth, and 
 was appointed commander of the cavalry. He 
 was driven from Bridport by the militia. He 
 dissuaded Monmouth from abandoning the 
 enterprise at Frome. At the battle of Sedge- 
 moor his cavalry was easily routed by the 
 royal troops, chiefly it is said because of his 
 pusillanimity. He fled with Monmouth, and 
 was taken in the New Forest. In his inter- 
 view with the king he displayed great flrm- 
 ' ness, and would not stoop to ask for pardon. 
 He was suifered to ransomhimself for £40,000 
 and went abroad. He returned to England 
 with William of Orange, and attempted to 
 redeem his character by taking an active 
 share in politics. In 1695 he was created 
 Earl of Tankerville. He supported the Asso- 
 ciation Bill in a brilliant speech, and also 
 spoke in favour of the bill for Fenwick's 
 attainder. He vigorously opposed the bill 
 for disbanding the army (1699). His poli- 
 tical services were rewarded by the office of 
 
 Lord Privy Seal (1701). But his health was 
 broken, and later in the year he died. " His 
 life," says Macaulay, " was so miserable that 
 all the indignation excited by his faults is 
 overpowered by pity." 
 
 Bttcnet, Hist, of his Oim Time; Macaulay, 
 Hist. ofEng.; Eante, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Tantallon Castle, in Haddingtonshire, 
 the stronghold of the Douglases, was success- 
 fully defended (1528) against James V. by 
 the Earl of Angus, who had, however, soon 
 afterwards to seek an asylum in England. It 
 was destroyed by the Covenanters in 1639. 
 
 Tautia Topee, a Mahratta Brahmin of 
 the revolted Gwalior force (1837). He took 
 the command, and on Nov. 28 encountered 
 General "Windham at Cawnpoor with some 
 success. In 1858 he marched to the relief of 
 Jhansi, but was routed at the Belwah by Sir 
 Hugh Eose. Joined by the Eanee of Jhansi 
 he concentrated his forces at Kooneh, but was 
 beaten utterly. He then proceeded to Gwalior 
 and excited an insurrection against Scindia. 
 He was beaten again by Sii' H. Rose outside 
 Gwalior, but escaped, and waged a predatory 
 war for some time. His hiding-place was, 
 however, betrayed ; he was seized when asleep 
 (April 7, 1869) in the jungle in Malwa, and 
 he was tried and executed. 
 
 Tara, The Hill of, situated in Meath, 
 was in ancient days the residence of the 
 Kings of Tara. Near here on May 26, 1798, 
 Lord Fingal, with some 400 fencibles and 
 mounted yeomen, routed several thousands of 
 Irish rebels, killing 350. Here, too, on Aug. 
 15, 1843, Daniel O'Connell held a monster 
 meeting in support of Repeal, said to have 
 been attended by 250,000 people. 
 
 Tara, King of. TiU the seventh century 
 the Ard M Erind, or high king of Erin, re- 
 sided in the palace of Tara. The kingdom of 
 Meath, in which it was situated, formed his 
 appanage. After the overthrow of the 
 Hui Niells by Brian Boru, the position of 
 King of Tara was held by one or another of 
 the provincial kings ; it resembled that of 
 the Anglo-Saxon Bretwalda. Under this 
 over-king there was a complete hierarchy 
 of provincial kings, princes, and nobles. The 
 nature of the relations of these classes to each 
 other was in most cases of the same shadowy 
 nature as the overlordship of the King of 
 Tara. 
 
 Tasmania. [Australia.] 
 
 Taunton was in all probability a Roman 
 station. It was of considerable importance to 
 the kingdom of Wessex ; Ina built a castle 
 there, and it was more than once attacked by 
 the Welsh. After the Conquest, the castle 
 was rebuilt by the Bishops of Winchester; 
 to whom the town and manor were gTanted. 
 It first returned a member to Parliament in 
 1295. Taunton was held for some time by 
 the pretender Warbeok, and during the Great 
 
Tax 
 
 (991 ) 
 
 Tax 
 
 Eebellion sustained a long siege under Colonel 
 Blake against the Royalists vinder Goring, 
 until relieved by Fairfax. Jeffreys held his 
 ' ' Bloody Assize " at Taunton after the failure 
 of Monmouth's rebellion, the duke having 
 previously been proclaimed king there. The 
 charter of the borough, which was granted to 
 it by Charles I., was taken from it by Charles 
 II., and it remained unincorporated until 
 after the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. 
 
 [A. L. S.] 
 Taxation. In Anglo-Saxon times the 
 Witan alone had the power of imposing ex- 
 traordinary taxation — a power which was, 
 however, rarely used, as the public expendi- 
 ture was amply defrayed by the rents of the 
 public lands and by the obligation of trinoda 
 neeessitas. The only instance of extraordinary 
 taxation before the Norman Conquest was 
 the Danegeld, a tax of two shillings on every 
 hide of land, levied to buy off the attacks of 
 the Danes ; this tax continued to be occasion- 
 ally levied down toi the reign of Henry II., 
 and under Richard was revived under the 
 name of carucage. After the Norman Con- 
 quest, the ordinary revenue proved far too 
 smaU for the wants of the king, and as a con- 
 sequence we find the fiiiance of the country 
 occupying much of the attention of the 
 executive, whilst by degrees it was found 
 necessary to increase extraordinary taxation 
 to a very large extent. Up to the reign of 
 Henry II. the indirect taxation of the 
 country, such, as customs, was unimportant, 
 whUe the extraordinary taxes, such as the 
 Danegeld and scutage, fell only on land. 
 In 1188, however, an important innovation 
 was introduced in, the Saladin Tithe, or the 
 first tax on. movables. This tax became 
 vgry popular with, succeeding kings. Under 
 Richard I., onfi-fourth of their goods was de- 
 manded from every one ; John levied one- 
 seventh ; and subsequent kings- usually one- 
 fifteenth. The imposition of taxes under th& 
 Norman kings had been practically at the 
 will of the Hng, though, the consent of the 
 barons was often asked as a matter of form, 
 and the exaction grew so heavy that a clause 
 in Magna Charta provided that no- ex- 
 traordinary scutage or aid should be imposed 
 by the king without the consent of the 
 national council. The growth of representa- 
 tion is closely connected with the history of 
 taxation, and it early became a recognised 
 principle that the votes of those who were 
 present bound those who were absent ; whilst 
 the idea that taxation required the consent of 
 the taxed, which grew up after it became 
 customary to tax movables, made it necessary 
 to summon to Parliament the burgesses and 
 clergy as well as knights and barons. The 
 fact that we often find the different classes in 
 the kingdom making grants of different rates 
 is the result of the "right of self-taxation 
 being recognised to the extent of each class of 
 the community determining, independently 
 
 of the rest, what amount it would contribute. 
 The lords made n separate grant. The 
 knights voted their own quota, and the bur- 
 gesses theirs, whUe the clergy decided for 
 themselves the amount of their taxation., 
 The Confirmation of the Charters by Edward I. 
 declared that henceforth no extraordinary 
 tax should be levied without the consent of 
 the whole kingdom, and a like promise was 
 made in the statute De Tallagio non Con- 
 cedendo (1297). From this time the ex- 
 clusive right of Parliament to impose tax- 
 ation, though often infringed by the illegal 
 exercise of prerogative, became an axiom of 
 the constitution." In spite of this, however, 
 Edward III., in the face of repeated remon- 
 strances from the Commons, frequently 
 resorted to arbitrary taxation, whilst Richard 
 II. raised forced loans ; but under the Lan- 
 castrian kings we find but few cases of illegal 
 imposts. From Richard II. the old taxes 
 of hidage, scutage, and tallage were re- 
 placed by subsidies. A tax imposed upon 
 persons in respect of the reputed value of 
 their estates in 1379 — 80, the imposition of a 
 graduated poll tax, ranging from £4 to 4d., 
 proved the immediate cause of Tyler's re- 
 bellion. Soon after this time it became 
 customary to make a grant to each king for 
 life at the beginning of his reign. This grant, 
 under the name of tonnage and poundage, 
 continued to be made until the time of 
 Charles I. The frequent demands for money 
 by Henry VII. and Henry Till, caused great 
 dissatisfaction to the people. " Taxation," 
 says HaUam, " in the eyes of their subjects 
 was so far fronj being no tyranny that it. 
 seemed the only species worth a complaint," 
 and in 1.525 the arbitrary exactions of Wolsey 
 paved the way for his downfall. Up to 1588 
 it had been usual for the Commons to vote 
 one subsidy (£70,000) and two-fifteenths on 
 goods; but in that year two subsidies and 
 four-fifteenths were granted, owing to the 
 expense occasioned by the Spanish Armada, 
 and from that date a larger number of sub- 
 sidies were granted. The financial difiiculties 
 of the Stuarts led them to resort frequently 
 to illegal imposts. In IfiOS, under James I., 
 Cecil caused a Booh of Mates to be issued, 
 which laid heavy duties on merchandise, while 
 the extortions of Charles I. led to the first 
 article in the Petition of Right, which pro- 
 vides that " no person from thenceforth shall 
 be compelled to make any loans to the king 
 against his will, as having inherited this 
 freedom, that he should not be compelled to 
 contribute to any tax, tallage, aid, or other 
 like charge not set by common consent in 
 Parliament." Taxation under the Common- 
 wealth was heavy, and on the abolition of 
 feudal incidents and aids, excise and customs 
 duties and hearth-money were granted to the 
 king as compensation. In this reign, too, 
 the control of the Commons over taxation was 
 much increased by the introduction of the 
 
Tay 
 
 ( 992 
 
 Tei 
 
 castom of appropriation of supplies, wliile 
 at the same time the Lower House estab- 
 lished their right of initiating all money 
 bills. In the roign of Charles II. the clergy- 
 ceased to tax themselves in Convocation. 
 James II. once more resorted to illegal and 
 arbitrary taxation, and as a consequence the 
 Bill of Eights declared that the king, amongst 
 other things, had endeavoured to subvert the 
 liberties of the kingdom " by levying money 
 for and to the use of the crown by pretence 
 of prerogative, for other time and in other 
 manner than the same was granted by Parlia- 
 ment," which was illegal. From the reign of 
 William III. the customs and excise duties 
 gradually increased, while in 1690 a land tax 
 of 3s. in the pound was imposed, and renewed 
 annually. Windows, dogs, horses, and other 
 things were taxed. In 1796 the legacy duty 
 on personal property was imposed by Mr. 
 Pitt, the real property tax not being imposed 
 till 1833, and two years later the same 
 minister taxed all incomes over £200. This 
 tax was discontinued in 1816, but renewed by 
 Sir Robert Peel in 1842, since which time it 
 has continued to be levied, the rates being 
 varied by Parliament from time to time. In 
 1851 the window tax was replaced by a tax 
 imposed on houses in proportion to their 
 rental. The first permanent tax was hearth- 
 money, imposed in 1663, up to which time 
 taxes had been granted for a year, or other 
 fixed term, as occasion demanded. After 
 the Revolution, however, permanent duties 
 'increased. "These duties," says Sir Erskine 
 May, " were generally granted as a secu- 
 rity for loans, and the financial policy of 
 permanent taxes increased with the national 
 debt, and the extension of public credit." At 
 the present day the power of taxation remains 
 as it was in the days of Lord Chatham, who 
 said — " Taxation is no part of the governing 
 or legislative power. The taxes are a volun- 
 tary gift and grant of the Commons alone." 
 [A.issESSMENT ; Customs ; Excise ; Rates ; 
 Revenue.] 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Hallam, Const. Hisf . ; 
 May, Const. Hist. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, Bishop of Dromore, 
 and of Down and Connor [b. 1613, d. 1667), 
 after being educated at Oxford was made 
 chaplain to Laud in 1637, and in 1638 was 
 appointed rector of Uppingham. Deprived 
 of his living by the rebellion, he retired to 
 Wales and opened a school at Carmarthen, 
 and afterwards became chaplain to the Earl 
 of Carberry. During the Protectorate he 
 was twice imprisoned, in Chepstow Castle 
 and the Tower. In 1658 he went to Ireland, 
 and in 1661 received the bishopric of Down 
 and Connor. Taylor was the author of 
 numerous works on theology and morals, 
 some of which have enjoyed extraordinary 
 popularity. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor's Worfcs were edited by Eisliop 
 Heber, 15 vols., 1822. 
 
 Taylor, Rowland {d. Feb., 1555), was 
 vicar of Hadleigh in Sufllolk, to which living 
 he was presented by Archbishop Cranmer in 
 1544. He was condemned by Bishop Gardiner 
 and a tribunal composed of the Bishops of 
 London, Norwich, Salisbury, and Durham for 
 his Protestantism ; and on refusing to recant 
 was burnt at Hadleigh, Feb. 8, 1655. Foxe, 
 who gives an affecting account of Taylor's 
 martyrdom, says of him, that " he was a right 
 perfect divine and parson." 
 Poxe, .Acts aiidi: Monv/ments, 
 
 Tea Duties, The, were first imposed in 
 1660. In 1772 the East India Company, 
 being in pecuniary difficulties, were allowed by 
 Parliament to export their teas from London 
 warehouses to America free from English 
 duties, and liable only to a small duty to be 
 levied in the colony. Although by this 
 arrangement the colonists got their tea 
 cheaper than they would otherwise have done, 
 they looked upon it as a mere bribe to induce 
 them to consent to the right of England to 
 tax America. Accordingly it was resolved to 
 resist the imposition of the duty, and when 
 the tea-ships arrived at Boston on Dec, 1773, 
 they were boarded by men disguised as 
 Indians, and their cargoes thrown overboard. 
 This was one of the incidents which ulti- 
 mately led to the American War. In Eng- 
 land the East India Company retained its 
 monopoly until its extinction in 1834. In 
 1836 new duties were imposed ; these were at 
 first 2s. Id. in the pound, but they were re- 
 duced to Is. 5d. in 1857, and to 6d. in 1866. 
 
 Tea-room Party, The (1867). On April 
 
 the 8th a meeting was held in the tea-room 
 of the House of Commons of between forty 
 and fifty members of the Liberal party. At 
 this meeting it was decided that the persons 
 composing it should unite for the purpose of 
 limiting the instructions, to be proposed by 
 Mr. Coleridge with regard to the powers of 
 the committee sitting on the Reform Bill, 
 to the first clause of his resolution, which 
 applied to the law of rating. This was noti- 
 fied to Mr. Gladstone, who consented to it. 
 Mr. Disraeli accepted the altered resolution, 
 and the House went into committee on the 
 bill. Thereupon Mr. Gladstone gave notice 
 of several important amendments, which Mr. 
 Disraeli declared to be the relinquished in- 
 structions in another form, and distinctly 
 announced that if they should be carried the 
 government would not proceed with the bill. 
 As most of the members of the tea-room 
 party held together, the government tri- 
 umphed by a majority of twenty-one on the 
 first division. 
 
 Telegraphs, The Purchase or the. In 
 1868 the government ventured on the bold 
 step of acquiring possession of all the lines of 
 electric telegraph in the United Kingdom, 
 and making the control of communication bv 
 
Tern 
 
 ( 993 ) 
 
 Tern 
 
 electricity a part of the general business of the 
 Post Office. 
 
 Templars, The, or the Order of Knights 
 of the Temple of Jerusalem, was a military 
 religious order of knighthood which had its 
 origin in 11 1 8 in an association of knights for 
 the protection of pilgrims to the Holy Land. 
 They did good service in the Crusades, for 
 which they were rewarded with ample grants 
 of land in different countries — England among 
 the rest. After the final conquest of Palestine 
 by the Mohammedans the Templars returned 
 to Europe, where their pride and licentiousness 
 excited considerable odium. Philip the Fair 
 of France determined on their suppression, and 
 obtained the co-operation of his son-in-law 
 Edward II. In England the order was sup- 
 pressed in 1308 without the great cruelties 
 practised in France. The knights were 
 allowed to enter monasteries, and their pos- 
 sessions given to the Hospitallers, or Knights 
 of St. John. 
 
 Temple, Richard Grenville, Earl 
 (4. 1711, d. 1779), was the elder brother of 
 George Grenville, and was elected, in 1734, 
 by the help of family interest, to represent 
 the town of Buckingham, but in all subse- 
 quent elections was returned for the county. 
 In 1752 he succeeded to the earldom, and four 
 years later Pitt, who had married his sister, 
 gave him a place in his administration as First 
 Lord of the Admiralty. In the following 
 April he was summarily dismissed by the 
 king, and Pitt's dismissal followed within a 
 few days. Pitt, however, was recalled, and 
 Lord Temple became Lord Privy Seal, which 
 post he retained until Pitt's resignation in 
 Oct., 1761, when he too withdrew. Lord 
 Temple violently attacked Bate's govern- 
 ment, and more especially made himself con- 
 spicuous by the very open support which he 
 gave to Wilkes. Like many other peers, he 
 incurred on this account the king's displea- 
 sure, and was dismissed from the Lord 
 Lieutenancy of Bucks. In 1766 he broke 
 with Pitt on the question of the Stamp Act, 
 Lord Temple upholding his brother's policy 
 while Pitt was bent on obtaining its repeal. 
 And he went further, by refusing to accept 
 office under Pitt in 1766, not wishing to 
 be " stuck into a ministry as great cypher." 
 Not content with his own refusal, he pro- 
 ceeded to direct a, fierce paper war against 
 the brother-in-law whom he dared not en- 
 counter in the House of Peers. A reconcilia- 
 tion, however, took place between " the three 
 brothers " on Lord Chatham's retirement in 
 1768. But Lord Temple's cherished hopes of 
 a family cabinet were doomed to disappoint- 
 ment. His brother George died in 1770 ; and 
 in the same year Lord North began his long 
 reign. Thenceforth Lord Temple took but 
 an intermittent interest in political affairs, 
 now and then actively opposing the ministry. 
 On the subject of reconciliation with America 
 HIST.-32 
 
 he took the same view as Lord Chatham, 
 deprecating any thought of admitting the 
 independence of America. But his last gleam 
 of ambition faded with Lord Chatham's death ; 
 Lord Temple retired to Stowe, and in the 
 following year died by a fall from his horse. 
 Lord Temple cannot boast a high reputation 
 among the statesmen of George III., nor pro- 
 bably would he have occupied any niche in 
 history at all, had it not been for his able 
 brother, and still abler brother-in-law, to both 
 of whom, at different times, for his own selfish 
 ends, he acted as an evil genius. " It was 
 his nature," says Macaulay, " to grub Under- 
 ground. Whenever a heap of dirt was flung 
 up, it might well be suspected that he was at 
 work in some foul crooked labyrinth below." 
 Temple, however, was certainly a man of de- 
 cided ability. He has been suspected, not 
 without some reason, of being the author of 
 the Letters of Junius, 
 
 GvvmWXa Papers ; Stanliope, Hist, of Sng. ; 
 Chatham Correspondence ; Massey, Hist, of 
 Eng. ; Macaulay, Second Essay on Chathami. 
 
 Temple, Sir William (S. 1628, d. 1699), 
 was the son of Sir John Temple, Master of 
 the Polls in Ireland, and after being educated 
 at Cambridge, and having spent some years in 
 foreign travel, he returned to Ireland, becom- 
 ing in 1660 a member of the Irish Convention. 
 In 1665 he was first employed on diplomatic 
 business, being sent as an envoy to the Bishop 
 of Munster, and the year following he was 
 appointed ambassador to the Court of Brussels, 
 and devoted himself to endeavouring to form 
 an alliance between England and Holland. 
 His exertions were crowned in 1668 by the 
 formation of the Triple Alliance against 
 France, and the consequent peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. But the policy he had inaugurated 
 was short-lived, and the 'rreaty of Dover (q.v.) 
 made it necessary for the ministers to dismiss 
 the author of the Triple Alliance, and he was 
 relieved of his office in 1671. On the fall of 
 the Cabal ministry Temple was offered by 
 Danby, who became Lord Treasurer, a Sec- 
 retaryship of State, but he refused this, and 
 was appointed ambassador at the Hague. In 
 1675 he took an important part in the Congress 
 of Nimeguen. In 1679 Danby was impeached, 
 and sent to the Tower, and Charles looked to 
 Temple as the only man who could help him 
 to weather the storm caused by the Popish 
 Plot. Temple's proposal was that a means 
 should be adopted for including all parties in 
 the government, and for this purpose proposed 
 that the existing Privy Council should be 
 dissolved, and that a new Privy Council of 
 thirtj' members should be appointed, half of 
 whom to be great officers of state, and the 
 other haU independent noblemen and gentle- 
 men of the greatest weight in the country ; 
 that the king should pledge himself to govern 
 by the constant advice of this body, to suffer 
 all his affairs of every kind to be freely dilated 
 
Ten 
 
 ( 994 ) 
 
 Tew 
 
 there, and not to reserve any part of the 
 public business for a secret committee. An 
 attempt was made to carry out this scheme, 
 but it was soon found to be unworkable. The, 
 council was too large for practical purposes, 
 and there was no party tie to bind the 
 members together, and before long an interior 
 cabinet was foiuid, consisting of Temple, 
 Halifax, Essex, and Sunderland. Temple 
 himself, however, was gradually ousted from 
 the debates of the secret committee. In 1681 
 he retired from public life, and devoted him- 
 self chiefly to literary work. His chief works 
 were his w.ell-known Essays, an Account of the 
 United Frovinees, and an Essay on Government. 
 Lord Macaulay says — "He was no profound 
 thinker. He was merely a man of lively parts 
 and quick observation, a man of the world 
 among men of letters, a man of letteis among 
 men of the world. But neither as a writer, nor 
 as a statesman, can we allot to him any very 
 high place." Other writers have formed a 
 higher estimate of Temple, whose skill as a 
 diplomatist was certainly very considerable. _ 
 
 Temple, Tf orfcs ; Ranke, Hist, of Eng. ; Mac- 
 aolay, Kist. of Eng. and Essay ou Tempk. 
 
 [F. S. P.] 
 Tenant-riglit, The Ikish, is a custom 
 by which the tenant is entitled not only to 
 compensation for unexhausted improvements 
 when he relinquishes his holding, but by 
 which a sum is paid, sometimes amounting to 
 as much as the fee-simple of the land, by the 
 incoming to the outgoing tenant for the 
 goodwill of the farm. This tenant-right, 
 known as the Ulster custom, was legalised by 
 the Land Act of 1870, and extended to the 
 rest of Ireland by the Act of 1881. It is 
 supposed to have arisen at the time of the 
 plantation of Ubter (q.v.), the planters re- 
 fusing to give definite leases of twenty-one 
 years to their English and Scotch tenants, 
 and they in disgust selling their interest in 
 the holdings, and the value of their capital to 
 the native Irish — a practice which was in 
 direct contravention to the spirit of the settle- 
 ment. Other systems of tenure which obtain 
 in Ireland are : the cottier system, by which 
 tenants bid against each other for a piece of 
 land, no fixity of tenure being recognised 
 until the Act of 1881 ; and conacre, a feudal 
 survival, by which land is granted to the 
 tenant rent-free in return for so much 
 labour. 
 
 Tenchebrai, The Battle of (Sept. 28, 
 1106), was fought between Henry I. and his 
 brother Robert, and resulted in the complete 
 victory of Heniy, who captured and impri- 
 soned Robert, and annexed Normandy to his 
 dominions. 
 
 Teuterdeu, Charles Abbott, Lord 
 (A. 1762, d. 1832), was the son of a hair- 
 dresser. He was educated at King's School, 
 Canterbur)', and at Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1795. 
 
 His treatise on the Zaio of Merchant Ships 
 and Seamen (1802) was recognised as the 
 standard work on its subject. Owing to the 
 weakness of his health he refused a seat on 
 the bench in 1808, but in 1816 he was made a 
 puisne judge in the Common Pleas. In 1818, 
 on the retirement of Lord EUenborough, he 
 became Lord Chief Justice of the King's 
 Bench, and though a vigorous Tory, he never 
 allowed his political sympathies to colour his 
 judgments. He was raised to the peerage in 
 1827. 
 
 Campbell, Lives of the Chief Justices; Poss, 
 Biographia Juridica. 
 
 Tenure. [Land Tenure.] 
 
 Test Act, The (1673), was a measure 
 passed in the reign of Charles II., and was 
 intended to exclude from office the Catholic 
 councillors of the king. It was passed at the 
 instance of Shaftesbury and the country 
 party after the king had been compelled to 
 abandon his attempt to dispense with the 
 penal laws against Dissenters. It required aU 
 persons holding any office of profit or trust 
 under the crown to take the oaths of alle- 
 giance and supremacy, receive the sacrament 
 according to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
 land, and subscribe the declaration against 
 transubstantiation. This Act was directed 
 against the Catholics, but was equally opera- 
 tive again.st Dissenters. One consequence of 
 it was that Arlington and Clifilord had to 
 retire from office, and the Duke of York was 
 obliged to resign his post as Lord High 
 Admiral. It was not repealed until 1828. 
 Eanke, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Test Act, The, for Scotland (1681) im- 
 posed an oath which was made compulsory 
 on all government and municipal officials. It 
 declares a belief in " the true Protestant reli- 
 gion contained in the Confession of Faith," 
 and disowns " all practices, whether popish or 
 fanatic, which are contrary to or inconsistent 
 with the said Protestant religion and Con- 
 fession of Faith." 
 
 Tevbesbliry, The Battle of (May i, 
 1471), was, strictly speaking, the last battle 
 fought in the Wars of the Roses, for the 
 Battle of Bosworth ' can hardly be included 
 in those wars. Queen Margaret landed in 
 England the very day that Warwick was 
 defeated and slain at Bamet, but despite, 
 this severe blow to the Lancastrian cause, she 
 was persuaded by Somerset and other lords of 
 her party to continue her advance. She had 
 landed at Weymouth, and at first marched 
 westward to Exeter, where she was joined by 
 reinforcements from Devon and Cornwall. 
 She then moved eastward to Bath, but learn- 
 ing that Edward was marching against her 
 she determined to march to the north where 
 the chief strength of the Lancastrians lay. 
 After a tedious march she reached I'ewkes- , 
 bury on May 3, and the next day Edward, 
 
Tew 
 
 ( 995 ) 
 
 The 
 
 gave battle. The Lancastrians were utterly 
 routed, owing in no small degree to the 
 treachery or foUy of Lord Wenlock, who 
 neglected to bring up the reinforcements in 
 time. Queen Margaret was taken prisoner, 
 and her son, Prince Edward, either fell in the 
 battle, or, more probably, was put to death 
 immediately after. The Duke of Somerset 
 and others, who had taken sanctuary, were 
 beheaded two days after in the market-place 
 at Tewkesbury. This decisive battle coming 
 so soon after the victory of Bamet completely 
 established Edward IV. on the throne. 
 
 Warkworth, Chronicle; Hall, Chronicles. 
 
 Tewkesbury Chronicle, The, was 
 compiled by more than one hand during the 
 thirteenth century, and kept in the Abbey of 
 Tewkesbury, whence it passed to the Cotton 
 collection in the British Museum. It begins 
 with the death of Edward the Confessor, and 
 ends abruptly in 12B3. The first part is very 
 meagre, and it is not until after 1200 that it 
 becomes adequate. These annals are chiefly 
 concerned with monastic events, such as eccle- 
 siastical suits, but the war between Henry III. 
 and the Barons is treated very fully. 
 
 Tlie Chronicle haa been published, under the 
 editorship of Mr. Luard, in vol. i, of the Annales 
 Monasticiy in the Bolls series. 
 
 Thanet, The Isle of, in the north-east 
 of Kent, is stiU partly surrounded by the sea 
 and the river Stour, but the passage called 
 the Wantsum, which formerly separated it 
 from the mainland, has been closed since the 
 fifteenth century. It was called by the 
 Britons JRuim, or the headland. As might be 
 expected from its position the island has fre- 
 quently been the landing-place for invaders 
 of England. Tt was there that the mythical 
 heroes, Hengest and Horsa, are said to have 
 disembarked in 449, and it was the starting- 
 point of more than one Danish invasion. 
 Indeed, those buccaneers seem to have held 
 part of the island from 853 to 865, and it was 
 frequently subject to their raids. Several 
 parishes in the isle of Thanet formed part of 
 the Liberty of Dover. 
 
 Thegn was an Anglo-Saxon title bestowed 
 on a class of persons who were inferior to the 
 eorlas and lethel, the original nobility of blood, 
 though superior to the ordinary landowners 
 or ceorls. ■ The meaning seems to be originally 
 equivalent to vir, miles ; the word does not 
 seem to be connected, as has been often sup- 
 posed, with dienen, to serve. But in the 
 earlier times the thegns were, in fact, a no- 
 bility of service, and it is scarcely possible 
 to distinguish them from the king's geaiths — 
 that is, the members of his " comitatus," or 
 personal following. Gradually, however, 
 this characteristic of the thegn is lost sight 
 of, and he is a landowner having a larger 
 ' quantity of land than the ceorl — that is, five 
 hides and upwards. From the end of the 
 ninth century we scarcely hear of the gesith. 
 
 The word thegn comes to include, on the one 
 hand, those who stand in ministerial relation 
 to the king ; and on the other, those who are 
 simply landowners, having the necessary 
 qualifications, whether they were connected 
 with the kLug or not. In fact, any ceorl who 
 acquired five hides of land became " thegn- 
 worthy." Among the thegns themselves 
 there were numerous gradations in rank. 
 The " king's thegn " is superior to the ordi- 
 nary territorial thegn; and it would seem 
 that the possession of forty hides of land en- 
 titled a thegn to the wergild and status of an 
 earl. The wergild of the ordinary thegn was' 
 six times that of the ceorl, namely, twelve 
 hundred shillings instead of two hundred. 
 The dignity of thegn was hereditary, and the 
 "thegn-bom" are a semi-noble class, con- 
 trasting with the " ceorl-born." " The name 
 of thegn," says Bishop Stubbs, " covers the 
 whole class which, after the Conquest, appears 
 under the name of knights," and thus it was 
 that many of the thegns pMsed easily and 
 naturally into the knightly order under the 
 Norman kings. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Htst. , ch. vi. j Kemble, Saxons 
 in England; Schmidt, Gesetze dev Angel-Sachsen. 
 
 Thelusson's Case (decided in 1858), 
 was of considerable importance, since it 
 settled the question whether testators could 
 dispose of their estates so that the income 
 should accumulate and form a large fortune, 
 which should be limited in favour of certain 
 descendants. The litigation arising out of 
 the will of Mr. Thelusson .lasted for nearly 
 fifty years, and eventually the House of 
 Lords decided that trusts for accumulation 
 were legal. However, by the Act 39 and 40 
 George III. c. 98 it was provided that incomes 
 should not be allowed to accumulate in this 
 way for more than twenty-one years. 
 
 Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (1139—1161), was Abbot of Bee, in Nor- 
 mandy, and in 1138 came over to England at 
 the invitation of King Stephen, by whose influ- 
 ence he was elected Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 His authority was, however, weakened by the 
 fact that there was a papal legate in England 
 at the time, and that subsequently Henry of 
 Blois, Bishop of Winchester, was invested 
 with legatine authority. In 1148 Theobald, 
 contrary to the commands of Stephen, attended 
 a papal council at Khoims, and joined in de- 
 posing "William, the king's nephew, from the 
 Archbishopric of York. In 1150 Theobald 
 was appointed legate by the Pope. Throughout 
 the troublous reign of Stephen, Theobald 
 remained loyal to the king, and strongly advo- 
 cated the compromise with Henry of Anjou 
 as the best means of putting an end to anarchy 
 and bloodshed. As- a patron of learning 
 Theobald occupies an interesting position, and 
 still more important is it that it was as 
 his secretary that Becket first came into pro- 
 minence. Theobald was not a man of marked 
 
The 
 
 ( 996 ) 
 
 Tho 
 
 ability, but lie was loyal, generous, and 
 earnest in striving to do his duty. 
 
 "William of Malmesbury ; Hook, Lives of ihe 
 Archhish(y^s, 
 
 Theodore of Tarsus (*■ 603, d. 690), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury (669—690), was 
 Greek by birth, whom Pope Vitalian selected 
 for the see of Canterbury on the death of the 
 archbishop-elect, Wighard, at Eome. Theo- 
 dore is an important personage in the history 
 of the English Church, for he it was who 
 organised the Church, developed the Epis- 
 copal system, and drew up the famous Peni- 
 tential, which was the recognised text-book 
 of confessors for many years. He did much 
 to encourage learning, and was the first to 
 introduce the study of Greek into England. 
 His work is well summed up by Dean Hook 
 in one sentence — "He converted what had 
 been a missionary station into an established 
 Church." He was the last of the Roman 
 bishops; henceforth they were English, 
 
 Bede, Eccles. Hist. ; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ; 
 Hook, Lives of ihe Archhishops. 
 
 Theological Controversy, The, held 
 in "Westminster Abbey, March, 1559, was the 
 name given to a discussion nominally intended 
 to settle certain questions of doctrine and 
 ritual ; but it had been determined beforehand 
 by the Protestant party that the discussion 
 should be in their favour, and that no decision 
 should be arrived at. The subjects of contro- 
 versy were : — 
 
 1. The use of prayer in a tongue unknown 
 to the people. 
 
 2. The right of local churches to change 
 their ceremonies if the edification of the 
 people required it. 
 
 3. The propitiatory sacrifice for the quick 
 and dead said to be offered in the mass. 
 
 The champions of Catholicism were Bishops 
 White, Baynes, Scot, and Watson, Archdeacon 
 Langdale, Chedsey, the chaplain of Bishop 
 Bonner, and Harpsfeld. The Protestants were 
 Scory, Grindal, Coxe, Whitehead, Aylmer, 
 Home, Guest, and Jewel. 
 
 Eumet, Reformation ; Hook, Lives of the Arch- 
 iishops. 
 
 Theow was the Anglo-Saxon nam« for a 
 slave. There were various kinds of slaves — 
 the bom slave, i.e., the child of slave parents ; 
 the captive, often a Briton; the voluntary 
 slave, who sold himself to avoid starvation ; 
 the man who was sold into slavery because 
 he could not pay his debts, or the fine for a 
 breach of the peace. Nominally the slaves 
 were the goods and chattels of their lords, 
 who had power of life and death over them ; 
 they had no legal rights, and no wergild. 
 But in practice the theow had recognised 
 rights. He was entitled to regular food and 
 holiday, and any ill-treatment of him by his 
 lord was punished by the Church. In addi- 
 tion to this he might purchase his own freedom 
 with his savings, or he might be manumitted 
 by his lord. After the Conquest the slave- 
 
 class ceases to exist, and is merged with 
 the lower ceorl into the general class of 
 villeins. 
 
 Kemble, The Saxons in ' England ; Stubbs, 
 Const. Hist. 
 
 Thirlby, Thomas {d. 1570), Bishop of 
 Westminster, Norwich, and Ely, one of the 
 commissioners at Gravelines in 1545, was sent 
 in 1553, in conjunction with Sir Philip 
 Hoby, to Brussels on a mission to the Emperor 
 Charles V. Under Mary he took an active 
 part in the persecution of the Eeformers in 
 1558 ; was sent, with two other commissioners, 
 to settle the preHminaries of peace with 
 France. He refused to take the oath of 
 supremacy to Elizabeth, and was deposed, 
 though he was treated with great kindness by 
 Archbishop Parker. 
 
 Thirty, The Battle of The (March 27, 
 1350), was the name given to an engagement 
 between the English partisans of Montfort 
 and the Breton followers of Charles of Blois. 
 It was fought at Ploermel in Britanny, and 
 by agreement the number of combatants was 
 limited to thirty on either side. The English 
 were defeated. 
 
 Thirty-Nine Articles. [Articles.] 
 Thistlewood,AiiTHUR(J._i770, d. 1820), 
 started in life originally with some for- 
 tune as a subaltern oificer, first in the 
 militia, and then in a regiment of the line, 
 stationed in the West Indies. After having 
 resigned his commission, and spent some time 
 in America, he passed into France, where he 
 arrived shortly after the fall of Robespierre. 
 There he formed revolutionary opinions. 
 He was deeply implicated in the scheme of 
 Dr. Watson, but was, like him, acquitted. 
 He then sent a challenge to Lord Sidmouth, 
 for which he was punished by fine and im- 
 prisonment. Upon his liberation (Aug., 
 1819), he found himself excluded from re- 
 spectable society, without resources or hopes. 
 The natural violence of his disposition was 
 stimulated by this, and aided by a number 
 of individuals equally desperate, he planned 
 the Cato Street Conspiracy (q.v.) for which 
 he was executed, glorying in his attempt and 
 regretting its failure. 
 
 Thorn was a hroken-down brewer who 
 had gone mad. In 1837 he appeared in Can- 
 terburj' and various parts of Kent, stj'ling 
 himself Sir William Courtenay, of Powder- 
 ham Castle, Knight of Malta, King of Jeru- 
 salem, and various other titles. He was con- 
 fined in a lunatic asylum, but was subsequently 
 released. When he came out he announced 
 himself as a second Messiah to the peasants, 
 and succeeded in impressing himself on their 
 excited imaginations by denouncing the new 
 Poor Law, which was then intensely hated and 
 feared. He asserted that he had come to 
 regenerate the whole world and save his 
 followers from the new Poor Law. He as- 
 
Tho 
 
 ( 997 ) 
 
 Tlir 
 
 seinbled a mob and led them against Canter- 
 bury. His followers proceeded to violence, 
 and he himself shot a policeman. Two com- 
 panies of soldiers came out from Canterbury 
 to disperse the rioters. Thom shot the officer, 
 aad his followers charged with such fury that 
 for a moment the troops gave way. Then 
 they recovered, and poured in a volley which 
 destroyed the insurrection and put an end to 
 Thorn's life, and those of many of his ad- 
 herents. Several of his followers were tried 
 and convicted of murder. But long after 
 his fall people in many parts of Kent believed 
 in Thorn's pretensions, and looked to his 
 future return on earth. 
 
 Thorough, was a phrase used by Strafford 
 and Laud in their correspondence, to describe 
 the spirit of their policy. It signified " the 
 resolute determination of going through with 
 it, as it might nowadays be expressed, of dis- 
 regarding and overriding the interested 
 delays and evasions of those who made the 
 public service an excuse for enriching them- 
 selves at the public expense, or the dry tech- 
 nical arguments of the lawyers, which would 
 hinder them in their schemes for the public 
 good" (Gardiner). ' "For the state, indeed," 
 writes Laud, " I am for thorough; but I see 
 that both thick and thin stays somebody, 
 
 where I conceive it should not I 
 
 am confident that the king being pleased to 
 set himself in the business, is able by his 
 wisdom and ministers, to carry any just and 
 honourable action, thorough all imaginary 
 opposition, for real there can be none." 
 "Thorough" and "through" are the same 
 word, and were, in the seventeenth century, 
 both spelt in the same way. 
 
 Grardiner, Hist. ofEn^., 1603—1642; Strafford 
 Papers. 
 
 Thorpe, Thomas {d. 1461), was made a 
 baron of the Exchequer about 1453, and iu 
 the same year was Speaker of the House of 
 Commons. In the next year he was im- 
 prisoned at the instance of the Duke of York, 
 who brought a suit against him. The Com- 
 mons thereupon claimed their privilege, and 
 appealed to the Lords, who referred the ques- 
 tion to the judges. 'The judges declared that 
 they were unable to decide on the privileges 
 of Parliament, but that it was usual that 
 persons should not be prevented by imprison- 
 ment from attending Parliament. But the 
 Duke of York was now iu the ascendant, and 
 the Lords decided that Thorpe should stay in 
 prison, the privilege of Parliament notwith- 
 standing. On the king's recovery he was 
 released, and restored to his office. In 1460 
 he was taken prisoner in the battle of North- 
 ampton, and was the next year beheaded by 
 the Yorkists. Thorpe's case is reported in 
 the history of Parliamentary privilege. 
 Hallam, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Three-cornered Constituencies, 
 
 are boroughs, counties, or county divisions. 
 
 which are represented by three members. In 
 these constituencies by an amendment pro- 
 posed by Lord Cairns ill the House of Lords, 
 and eventually incorporated in the Reform 
 Bill of 1867, no elector is allowed to vote for 
 more than two candidates. This clause was 
 intended to afford some representation to 
 minorities. It has been frequently defeated by 
 means of careful organisation which has en- 
 abled one party to carry all the three candi- 
 dates. 
 
 Throgmorton, Fbancis [d. 1583), the 
 sou of Sir John Throgmorton, and the nephew 
 of Sir Nicholas Throgmorton, was concerned 
 in the Spanish plots for the release of Mary 
 Queen of Scots. He was arrested (1583) on 
 the evidence of an intercepted letter written 
 to the Scottish Queen by Morgan, stating 
 that the Duke of Guise was ready to invade 
 England. He was racked three times without 
 effect, but on the fourth occasion made a con- 
 fession, implicating the Spanish ambassador, 
 Mendoza. v This confession he subsequently 
 declared to be false, but he was nevertheless 
 executed; and although the evidence at the 
 trial was insufficient, it is probable that he 
 was really guilty of treason. 
 
 Throgmorton, Sir Nicholas (i. 1513, 
 d. 1571), the son of Sir George Throgmorton, 
 who incurred the displeasure of Henry VIII. 
 by refusing to take the oath of supremacy, 
 first comes into notice during the Scotch 
 campaign of Somerset (1547), in which he 
 greatly distinguished himseU. In 1554 he 
 was implicated in the rebellion of Sir Thomas 
 Wyatt, but was acquitted on his trial as there 
 was barely sufficient evidence to convict him of 
 having been an active accomplice. His trial 
 is noticeable from the fact that the jurors 
 were imprisoned and heavily fined for their 
 verdict. After the accession of Elizabeth, 
 Throgmorton was restored to favour at court, 
 and in 1559 was sent to France as ambassador, 
 where he took an active part in the conspiracy 
 against the Guises. His alUance with the 
 Huguenot party, and his advice to them to 
 proceed to violent measures, caused his im- 
 prisonment by the Duke of Guise in the 
 Castle of St. Germain as " the author of all 
 our troubles." He was one of the strongest 
 opponents of the proposed marriage of Ehza- 
 beth with the Earl of Leicester. In 1561, in 
 his capacity of ambassador, he was employed 
 to demand the ratification of the treaty of 
 Edinburgh from Mary Stuart. In 1565 
 Throgmorton was sent to Scotland to protest 
 against the marriage of the Queen of 
 Scots with Lord Damley, and gave Mary 
 Stuart, whose cause he warmly espoused, 
 much advice as to the most politic course 
 of action to pursue. Two years later he 
 was again sent to Edinburgh to negotiate 
 with the rebel lords for the queen's release, 
 and is said by his representations to have 
 saved her Ufe at Lochleven. In 1569 he was 
 
Thu 
 
 ( 998 ) 
 
 Thu 
 
 arrested and sent to the Tower for teing im- 
 pKcated in the plot to bring about a marriage 
 between Mary Stuart, \f hose partisan he always 
 remained, and the Duke of Norfolk. He ob- 
 tained his release in a short time, but never 
 regained the queen's favour, and uied, as some 
 say, of poison administered by Leicester. 
 
 Lingard, Hist, of Bng. ; Froude, ifist. of Eng. ; 
 Bumetf Hist, of the Befm-mation. 
 
 Thugs, The, were an Indian fraternity of 
 hereditary assassins who subsisted on the plun- 
 der of the victims they strangled. They gene- 
 rally attached themselves, as if by accident, 
 to the travellers whom they met, and then at 
 a convenient spot strangled them and buried 
 the bodies in a pit hastily dug with a pickaxe 
 which had been consecrated by religious cere- 
 monies. They were bound to secrecy by 
 oath, and had pecuhar signs for recognising 
 one another, and a slang language of their 
 own. They considered themselves the espe- 
 cial favourites of Doorga the goddess of 
 thieves and murderers, and celebrated her 
 rites with the most scrupulous piety. The 
 gang was recruited by children kifinapped 
 for the purpose, and cautiously initiated into 
 the arcana of their society. Their victims 
 were counted by thousands annually, and ho 
 district was free from their ravages. Lord 
 William Bentinck determined to suppress these 
 ruflSans, and, in 1830, organised a regular de- 
 partment presided over by Major Sleeman. An 
 elaborate system was worked out. Every in- 
 ducement was offered to informers ; and in six 
 years more than 2,000 Thugs were arrested 
 and condemned to transportation or death. 
 The confederacy was eifectuUy broken up, 
 and traveUing in India ceased to be dangerous. 
 These efforts were crowned by the establish- 
 ment of a school at Jubbulpore for the Thugs 
 who had turned informers and the children 
 of convicted offenders. 
 
 Thurcytel, or Thukkell the Tall, 
 was one of the leaders of the Danish buc- 
 caneering community of lona. Thurkell, 
 when that community was broken up, came 
 with fifty ships of his pirate followers to 
 England at Lammas, 1009, in alliance with 
 Sweyn, and lay at Greenwich. After plun- 
 dering a great part of England in concert 
 with the Danish king (1010 and 1011), 
 and extorting large sums from the English, 
 Canterbury was betrayed to them by Elfinar. 
 They sacked the city and captured the 
 Archbishop Alphege (^Ifheah), who was 
 murdered by the drunken pirates at a moot 
 on Easter Saturday, 1012, for refusing to pay 
 ransom for himself. He now, with forty-five 
 ships and their crews, having received the 
 £8,000 agreed on with Ethelred, went over to 
 the English service, and helped to defend 
 London against Sweyn in 1013. When the 
 English resolved to forsake Ethelred, it was 
 in Thurkell's ships that the exiled king was 
 carried to Normandy. In 1014 hs seems to 
 
 have been stiU in Ethelred's pay; but he 
 joiued Canute against Edmund Ironside before 
 the battle of Assandun, where he is said to 
 have slain Wulfcytel, the alderman of East 
 England, thus revenging a brother whom 
 Wulfcytel had Irilled in battle some years 
 back. He was installed in WuHcytel's alder- 
 manship by Canute in 1017, was outlawed in 
 1021, reinstated in the king's favour in 1023, 
 and sent to act as regent in Denmark, where 
 he died not long afterwards. 
 
 Anglo-Soaon Chronicle; Court Poets of Canute 
 a/nd S. Olaf. 
 
 Thurlow, Edwabd, Baron Thdrlow 
 {b. 1732, d. 1806), was bom in Norfolk, the 
 son of the Eev. 'Thomas Thurlow. He was 
 educated at Caius College, Cambridge, from 
 which he was sent down in 1 75 1 without taking 
 a degree. He at once entered at the Inner 
 Temple. In 1758 he gained some repu- 
 tation by his spirited conduct towards Sir 
 Fletcher Norton, who was opposed to him 
 in a case. In 1761 he was retained in 
 the Douglas case, and thereby made the 
 acquaintance of Lord Bute, who in 1761 gave 
 him silk. From this time his practice in- 
 creased, till in 1768 he was returned to 
 Parliament in the Tory iaterest for Tam- 
 worth. He conducted the case of the plaintiff 
 in the Douglas cause with great success ; and 
 the next year, after fiercely denying the 
 legality of Wilkes's election for Middlesex, 
 was appointed Solicitor- General. In 1771 he 
 became Attorney- General, and urged the 
 co mmi ttal of Oliver and Crosby to the Tower 
 in the matter of Junius's letters. In this 
 affair he displayed a bitterness which was 
 stUl more conspicuous throughout the debates 
 on the American war. " Of all the orators 
 on the government side he was the most 
 violent and exasperating." In 1778 he was 
 appointed Lord Chancellor. " In this ofiSce," 
 says Lord Campbell, "he was above all taint 
 or suspicion of corruption, and in his general 
 rudeness he was very impartial ; but he was 
 not patient and painstaking, and he did little 
 in settling controverted questions or estab- 
 lishing general principles." In the meantime 
 he still warmly advocated the prosecution of 
 the American war ; and, being taunted by the 
 Duke of Grafton on the humbleness of his 
 origin, he made so crushing a retort that he 
 at once became supreme in the House of 
 Lords. The next year, perceiving that the 
 ministry could not last much longer, he began 
 to coquet with the opposition, and was re- 
 warded by being continued in the chancellor- 
 ship by the Marquis of Rockingham. Far, 
 however, from assisting the new government, 
 he acted as the leader of the " King's Friends," 
 and opposed all the government measures, 
 among others Burke's proposal for econo- 
 mical reform. In spite of his conduct. Lord 
 bhelbume, on succeeding Eockingham, stiU 
 retained him as chanceUor ; but on the for- 
 
Thn 
 
 ( 999 ) 
 
 TU 
 
 mation of the Coalition the Great Seal was 
 pat into commission. His deposition not- 
 withstanding, "he was still keeper of the 
 king's conscience," and did the king's pleasure 
 in bitterly opposing every government 
 measure. He was again rewarded by being 
 appointed Lord Chancellor by Pitt in 1784, 
 and now appeared as an advocate of a com- 
 mercial union with Ireland, which he had 
 formerly opposed. In 1787 he presided at 
 the trial of Warren Hastings. The next 
 year he opposed the bill for mitigating the 
 horrors of the Middle Passage. When the 
 king became ill. Lord Thurlow entered into 
 intrigues with Carlton House and the op- 
 position, in order to make his position se- 
 cure in case of a regency. But Pitt did 
 not fail to discover the manoeuvres of his 
 chancellor, and withdrew his confidence. 
 Already, in 1791, Lord Grenville had sup- 
 planted Thurlow as leader in the House of 
 Lords, and Pitt decided to dismiss him from 
 his office in May, 1792. For a few years he 
 retired to indulge his chagrin in seclusion ; 
 but in 1795 he opened negotiations with the 
 Whigs and the Prince of Wales, and posed as 
 a champion of the rights of the people in his 
 opposition: to the Treason and Sedition Bills. 
 Tired of this, he took up the cause of the 
 Princess of Wales, and intrigued to obtain 
 for her a separation from her husband. But 
 all his efforts failed of success; and in 1798, 
 seeing no chance of overthrowing Pitt, he 
 quitted public Jife, and remained in retire- 
 ment till the resignation of Pitt in 1801. Then 
 his hopes brightened again, but they were 
 doomed to be disappointed. His day was past, 
 and on Sept. 12, 1806, he died. His appearance 
 and manner in Parliament has been thus de- 
 scribed: he was " blunt, coarse, and vigorous, 
 hurled hard words and strong epithets at his 
 opponents in a tremendous voice, with a look 
 and tone of defiance." " Of statesmanship he 
 himself declared that he knew very little ; " 
 and, says Lord Stanhope, " It must be owned 
 that his private life by no means eminently 
 qualified him to stand forth as the champion 
 of any Church or creed." 
 
 Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors ; Trevelyan, 
 Early Life of C. J. Fox ; Jesse, Mem. of Beign 
 of George III. ; Stanhope, Life of Pitt ; Parlia- 
 mentary Hist. [W. E. S.] 
 
 Thnrot, Invasion op. Thurot, an Irish- 
 man; who had adopted a French name, and 
 ■ commanded in the French navy, became the 
 terror of English merchant ships during the 
 Seven Years' War. In 1760, with a small 
 armament, he appeared before Carrickfergus, 
 landed 1,000 men, and plundered the town. 
 On Feb. 28, 1760, however, he was overtaken 
 on his way back to France by Capt. EUiot 
 with three frigates, his ships were taken, and 
 he himself killed. 
 
 Thynne, Thomas (d. 1682), the "Issaohar" 
 of Drj'den's Absalom and Aehitophel, was one 
 
 of Charles II.'s favourites. He at first 
 attached himself to the Duke of York's party, 
 but subsequently joined Monmouth. In 1667 
 he was employed to negotiate peace with the 
 Dutch. In 1682 he was assassinated in the 
 streets of London by three ruffians hired for 
 the purpose by Count Konigsmark. 
 
 Tich1)0ume> Chidiook, one of the con. 
 spirators in the Babington Plot, and one of 
 the six specially told off to murder the queen. 
 He was executed at Tyburn (Sept., 1516). 
 
 Tierney, George (J. 1761, d. 1830), was 
 of Irish descent, but was born at Gibraltar, 
 where his father was a wealthy prize-agent. 
 He was sent to Eton and afterwards to Cam- 
 bridge. He entered Parliament for Col- 
 chester in 1796, and joined the opposition, 
 and very soon became one of Pitt's most for- 
 midable opponents. In May, 1798, he called 
 Pitt out for using language of an insulting 
 character about him; but nothing came of 
 the meeting, which took place on Putney 
 Heath. When Fox seceded from Parlia- 
 ment in 1798, Tierney became the leader of 
 the opposition under Addington. Tierney 
 became Treasurer of the Navy in 1803, and a 
 member of the Privy Council, but withdrew 
 on Pitt's resumption of office. In the Talents 
 Administration he became Irish Secretary. 
 He was the constant supporter of Whitbread 
 on the subject of the Continental War, and 
 forsook his party in 1814, when on the escape 
 of Napoleon from Elba, the Whigs, as a body, 
 sided with the ministry in thinking it neces- 
 sary to renew the war. On all questions of 
 finance he was a great authority, having 
 studied the question with zealous industry. 
 On Ponsonby's death, Tierney became the re- 
 cognised leader of the Whigs in the House of 
 Commons. He opposed, as was natural, the 
 proceedings against Queen Caroline, though 
 a just appreciation of both sides of the case 
 prevented him from being carried away into 
 any enthusiastic admiration of the queen. 
 On Canning's becoming Prime Slinister, Tier- 
 ney was made Master of the Mint. He re- 
 tired with Lord Goderich in Jan., 1828.. 
 
 Walpole, England from- 1815 ; Court and 
 Cabinets of the Regency ; Sidmouth's Life. 
 
 Tilbury, Gervase of {d. circa 1210), an 
 Englishman by birth, was a favourite of the 
 Emperor Otto IV., by whom he was made 
 marshal of the kingdom of Aries. Probably 
 at the request of the Emperor, he wrote a 
 work entitled OHa Imperialia, in which, 
 among much miscellaneous information, are 
 some interesting particulars relating to the 
 history of England, especially in the reign of 
 John. 
 
 Tilney, Charles, one of the conspirators 
 in the Babington Plot, was arrested in London. 
 He was accused by Savage of having been 
 one of the six selected to murder the queen, 
 and was executed at Tyburn (Sept., 1586). 
 
Tip 
 
 ( 1000 ;i 
 
 Tit 
 
 Tippoo Sultan (*• 1749, d, 1799), was 
 the son of Hyder Ali, founder of the Moham- 
 medan kingdom of Mysore. He acted under 
 his father during the tirst Mysore war, and 
 on the death of the latter carried it out suc- 
 cessfully, finally concluding the treaty of 
 Mangalore (1784) with the English. He de- 
 moted himself to converting his subjects to 
 Mohammedanism, reformed his army, and es- 
 tahhshed foundries for cannon and other arms 
 at Seringapatam. In 1786-7 he was engaged 
 in a war with the Mahrattas and the Nizam, 
 which originated in an aggression of his on 
 the district of Kurnool. In 1789, enraged hy 
 the agreement of Lord ComwaUis with the 
 Nizam, and at the same time inspired with 
 courage by the evident fear in which he was 
 held, in spite of the threats of the Enghsh, 
 he attacked the state of Travancore, an 
 English aUy. This conduct produced the 
 second Mysore war, the defeat of Tippoo at 
 Arikera (May, 1791), and his submission and 
 the limitation of his power and territory by 
 the treaty of Seringapatam. He now engaged 
 in a vast series of intrigues through India 
 and even Europe for the destruction of the 
 English, in which Scindia, the Peishwa, 
 Zemaun Shah of Afghanistan, the French 
 troops of the Nizam, and France were in- 
 cluded, and which was considerably facili- 
 tated by the policy of Sir John Shore, and 
 the defeat of the Nizam in the Kurdlah 
 campaign. The result of Tippoo's intrigues 
 was the issue of a proclamation (1T98) by 
 M. Malartie, French governor of the Mau- 
 ritius, which revealed the whole plot while it 
 was as yet incomplete. Lord WeUesley was 
 able therefore to complete his preparations, and 
 begin the war while Tippoo was unprepared. 
 The result was the capture of Seringapatam, 
 the death of the Sultan, and the extmotion 
 of the Mohammedan kingdom of Mysore by the 
 two treaties of Mysore (1799). 
 
 Wilks, Hist. 0/ T/Lysore; Mill, Hist, of India; 
 
 WeUesley Sespatohes ; Malcolm, Political Hist. 
 
 of India. 
 
 Tithes. Payment of tithes was first 
 made compulsory in England by decrees of 
 the legatine councils of 787, which were 
 attended by kings and secular magnates, and 
 so had the authority of witenagemots. The 
 Danes who settled in England were rendered 
 liable to tithe by the " laws of Edward and 
 Guthrum ; " and Athelstan issued a special 
 ordinance to the sheriif s for the payment of 
 tithe over the whole kingdom : the Donation 
 of Ethelwulf, often regarded as the founda- 
 tion of the tithe system, had nothing to do 
 with it. Though the bishop was recognised 
 as the proper receiver and distributor of 
 tithes, landowners were able to pay them to 
 whom they pleased ; and it was not till the 
 decretal of Innocent III. in 1200, that it 
 became the rule to -pay them to the parson of 
 the parish. Tithes were chiefly praedial — on 
 com, grass, hops, wood, or mixed — on wool, 
 
 milk, pigs. Archbishop Winchelsey and the 
 provincial councils of the thirteenth century 
 failed to bring about the general payment of 
 personal tithes (on the profits of handicrafts, 
 commerce, etc.), and these continued to be 
 very exceptional. Another division of tithes 
 is into greater on corn, hay, and wood, and 
 small, which were usually handed over to the 
 vicar when the benefice belonged to a monas- 
 tery. Tithes appropriated by monasteries 
 passed at the dissolution to lay impropriators. 
 The Long Parliament ordered the continu- 
 ance of tithes by ordinances of 1644 and 
 1647 ; and CromweU thought them necessary 
 for the maintenance of the ministry. By 
 the Tithe Commutation Act of 1836, tithes 
 were commuted into rent-charges, annually 
 adjusted to the average price of corn; and 
 they may be redeemed at not less than 
 twenty-five times their average amount. 
 
 Selden, Hist, of Tithes, 1618 (whereon Gardiner, 
 Hi.sf . of Eng., ill. , 253) ; Sohmid, Gesetze der Angel- 
 sachsen; Kemble, Sa.voTis, ii. ; Stublis Const. 
 Hist., 1, ch. viii. ; Carlyle, Cromwell: Stephen, 
 Commentaries : Phillimore, Eccl. Law. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Tithes in Ireland were not levied from 
 grassland, thus leaving only the small Catholic 
 tenants to bear the chief burden ; in Munster 
 especially great sums were extracted from the 
 wretched peasantry by the tithe proctors, and 
 the clergy itself received but little of it. The 
 Whiteboys in part rose in opposition to tithes, 
 and in 1787 two bills — the Insurrection Acts 
 (q.v.), which enabled the clergy to secure 
 tithes by a civil bill without a jury — ^had to be 
 passed. In 1823 the question of tithes again 
 became prominent. In 1824 an attempt was 
 made to do away with the obvious injustice 
 of tithes, and with some success ; by this Act 
 grasslands were no longer to be exempted. In 
 1830 great disorders amounting to what was 
 called the " tithe war " arose from the collec- 
 tion of tithe, and in 1832 the Lord Lieutenant 
 was authorised to advance £60,000 to the 
 starving clerg}'". The government now, with 
 the assistance of the military, tried to levy 
 the tithe itself, but could only coUect £12,000 
 out of £100,000 which were due. In 1833 
 the government gave up the attempt to 
 enforce tithes, and Parliament again granted 
 a million for the destitute clergy. An attempt 
 was now made to substitute a land-tax for the 
 tithe, but in 1833 and 1834 the government 
 failed in their effort, O'ConneU (q.v.) threaten- 
 ing the landlords with a crusade against rent ' 
 if the land-tax, or, in other words, the tithes, 
 formed part of it. The government then 
 agreed to accept O'Connell's own plan, in- 
 cluding a reduction of 40 per cent. ; the rest 
 was to be provided for by a redeemable land- 
 tax. On the question, however, of what was 
 to be done with the money thus accruing, a 
 contest took place between the Whigs and 
 the House of Lords, the former being in 
 favour of the appropriation of the Church 
 
Tit 
 
 ( 1001 ) 
 
 Tol 
 
 property to lay, uses, tte Iiords energetically 
 resisting this. It was in consequence of this 
 struggle that tithe commutation bills failed 
 to pass (1834, 1835, 1836). At last, in 1838, 
 the Lords remaining firm, and it being im- 
 possible to collect the tithes in Ireland, Lord 
 Melbourne's government gave way. Tithes 
 were commuted for a, permanent rent-charge 
 upon the land reduced by one fourth. But 
 the security of this new rent-charge was an 
 ample compensation to the clergy for their 
 loss ; as further compensation the loan of a 
 miUion adverted to above now became a gift. 
 
 Titles, EoYAL. Early royal titles in Eng- 
 land as in the other kingdoms of the west 
 were national and not territorial. Thus Eg- 
 bert was "King of the West Saxons," and 
 in one charter (of 828) '■ King of the English." 
 Alfred often used the title " King of the 
 Saxons." Edward the Elder commonly calls 
 himself " King of the Anglo-Saxons," a 
 term almost confined to this sovereign and to 
 Edwy. From the time of Athelstan " King 
 of the English," is the usual title; though in 
 one charter he is described as " Ongol-Saxna 
 cjTiing and Brytaenwalda ealles thyses ig- 
 landes," which is translated in the Latin 
 version * * Angul-Saxonum necnon et totius 
 Britanniae rex." By succeeding kings up to 
 the time of Canute, such titles as "Imperator," 
 " Caesar totius Britanniae," " Basileus," are 
 frequently used, expressing supremacy within 
 Britain, and independence of all other au- 
 thority. "King of the English" is the 
 official style of the Norman kings. Henry 
 II. retains this, but also frequently calls 
 himself " King of England, Duke of Nor- 
 mandy and Aquitaine, and Count of Anjou," 
 to which was added upon the conquest of 
 Ireland " Lord of Ireland," " following the 
 syllables," as Selden says, of the buU of 
 Adrian VI. , which ordered the Irish to obey 
 Henry " sicut dominum." Edward I. dropped 
 the title derived from Normandy, which had 
 been conquered by the King of France in 
 1204, and was crowned as " King of England, 
 Lord of Ireland, and Duke of Aquitaine ; " 
 and to this title Edward III., in 1339, added 
 that of " King of France," which was re- 
 tained far into the reign of George III. By 
 a bull dated Oct. 11, 1521, the title "De- 
 fender of the Faith," was conferred upon 
 Henry VIII., a title which has been retained 
 until the present. Twenty-one years later 
 Henry marked his rejection of the papal 
 authority by assuming the title King of 
 Ireland (for according to Mediaeval jurists 
 the regal title could only be conferred by 
 emperor or pope ; see Bryce, Holy Roman Em- 
 pire, p. 250). James I. was proclaimed " King 
 of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland," 
 and was wise enough to drop the title " King 
 of Great Britain," which he had assumed by 
 proclamation. After the union with Scot- 
 land (1707), Anne was styled "Queen of 
 HIST.-32* 
 
 Great Britain, France, and Ireland," which 
 was exchanged upon the Union with Ireland 
 (1809), for the style since used "of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land King."_ By the Royal Titles Bill of 
 1876, Victoria was empowered to add to her 
 style, and on Jan. 1, 1877, she was proclaimed 
 I' Empress of India," at Delhi, a title which 
 is now adjoined to those previously used. 
 
 Selden, Titles of Honour (1614) ; Freeman, 
 Jformau Conquest, Note B., "The Bretwaldadom 
 and the Imperial Titles." [W. J. A.] 
 
 Tippermnir, The Battle op (Sept. 1, 
 1644), was fought four miles west of Perth be- 
 tween the Cavaliers, under Montrose, and the 
 Covenanters, led by Lord Elcho. Montrose 
 gained a complete victory, and was enabled to 
 occupy Perth. 
 
 ToTiagO (Assumption Island), the most 
 southerly of the Windward Islands, was 
 discovered by Columbus in 1498. In 1608 
 the island was claimed by England ; and in 
 1625 some colonists from Barbadoes attempted 
 to form a settlement there, but were prevented 
 by the natives. In 1684 the neutrality of 
 Tobago was recognised, but in 1749 it was 
 taken by the French, from whom it was 
 wrested by the English in 1762, and kept by 
 them for twenty years. In 1770 a slave 
 rebellion broke out, but was speedily sup- 
 pressed; in 1781 the island was again occu- 
 pied by the French for two years, and was 
 surrendered to them by the treaty of Paris 
 (1802). The next year it was captured by 
 General Greenfield, and finally ceded to Eng- 
 land in 1815. The government is vested in a 
 lieutenant-governor, a legislative' council, and 
 a house of assembly, elected by the people. 
 
 Toleration Act, The (May 24, 1689), 
 was a measure due to the Earl of Nottingham. 
 It passed both Houses with but little difficulty, 
 and received the hearty consent of King 
 William. In order to be properly appre- 
 ciated it must be judged by the reKgious pre- 
 judices of a past age. It relaxed the stringent 
 conditions of the Act of Uniforrnity, the Five 
 Mile Act, and the Conventicle Act. " It 
 exempts," says Hallam, " from the penalties 
 of existing statutes against separate . con- 
 venticles, or absence from the established 
 worship, such as should take the oath of 
 allegiauce, and subscribe the declaration 
 against popery, and such ministers of separate 
 congregations as should subscribe the Thirty- 
 nine Articles of the Church of England except 
 three, and part of a fourth. It gives also an 
 indulgence to Quakers without this condition. 
 Meeting-houses are required to be registered, 
 and are prevented from insult by a penalty. 
 No part of this toleration extended to papists, 
 or to such as deny the Trinity. " The incon- 
 sistencies of the Act are that persecution con- 
 tinued to be the rule, toleration the excep- 
 tion; and that freedom of conscience was 
 granted in a most capricious manner. " The 
 
Too 
 
 ( 1002 ) 
 
 Eoj? 
 
 provisions," remarks Macaulay, " removed a 
 vast mass of evil -without shocking a vast 
 mass of prejudice ; they put an end at once, 
 and for ever, to a persecution -which had 
 raged during four generations. " 
 
 Macaulay, Bist. of Bng. ; Hallam, Const. 
 Hi^t. ; Par!. Hist. ; Stougiiton, Rdiqiom in 
 
 Tooke, John Hokne (J. 1736, d. 1812), 
 -was the son of John Home, and assumed the 
 title of Tooke after heing adopted hy William 
 Tooke, of Purley. His family persuaded him, 
 after taking his degree in 1758, to enter the 
 Church, but his o-wn inclination -was for the 
 la-w, and in 1779 he tried to obtain admission 
 to the bar, but his clerical profession pre- 
 vented him. Tooke had already become con- 
 spicuous as u democratic politician ; at first 
 as a friend of Wilkes, -with -whom, ho-w- 
 ever, he speedily quarrelled, and -was in 
 consequence attacked by Junius. In 1775 
 he -was sentenced to a year's imprisonment 
 and a fine, for saying that the Americans 
 -who fell at Lexington had been "murdered" 
 by the English soldiers. He plunged actively 
 into the political agitation -which foUo-wed the 
 French Revolution, and in 1794 he -was com- 
 mitted for trial on account of his connection 
 -with the supposed treason of the Corresponding 
 Society, but after an able and -witty defence 
 he -was acquitted. After contesting West- 
 minster t-wice -without success, he -was returned 
 for old Sarum in 1801, but a bill -was passed 
 in the next session rendering clerical persons 
 ineligible. His last days -were spent in easy 
 retirement. Tooke had a great social reputa- 
 tion ; his Diversions of Purley is an original, 
 though some-what primitive, -work on philology. 
 There are Lives of Tooke tiy J. A. Graham^ A. 
 Stephen, and "W. Hamilton. 
 
 Toolsye Bhye -was the favourite con- 
 cubine of Jeswunt Rao Holkar. During the 
 insanity of the latter she caa-ried on the 
 government in conjunction -with his chief 
 minister, Baharam Sett. On his death, in 
 1811, she adopted a son of his by another 
 concubine,, and conducted the government as 
 regent. The army, ho-wever, -was too large 
 and turbulent for the State, and the revenue' 
 -was totally unable to support them. They 
 -were therefore generally in a mutinous state, 
 and at last drove the Bhye to seek refuge in 
 Kotah, by the threat of actual -violence. Her 
 amours and crimes embroiled her with Gtufioor 
 Khan, the leader of the Patan horse, and in 
 the -warfare which followed she in person led 
 her Mahratta horse with the most undaunted 
 courage to the assault. Between these various 
 factions the government of the Holkar State 
 fell into complete anarchy, the administration 
 being vested in the Bhye nominally, and all 
 real power being in the hands of the military 
 leaders. On the outbreak of Bajee Rao, in 
 1817, the chiefs assembled their forces, and 
 determined to support the Peishwa, but 
 
 Toolsye Bhye opened negotiations with the 
 British government, ofllering to place the 
 young Holkar, and the Holkar State, under 
 their protection. These proceedings of hers 
 being suspected, the chiefs seized and im- 
 prisoned her ministers, and she herself was 
 put to death. 
 
 Tories, The. The name is derived from 
 an Irish word, meaning to pursue for the sake 
 of plunder. It was appHed to those Irish who 
 in 1654 preferred to remain as outlaws in 
 their o-wn lands to emigrating to Connaught. 
 The government offered prizes for their heads, 
 and a free pardon to any Tory who brought 
 in the head of a confederate. In 1693, after 
 the civil war had come to an end, they again 
 appear; they are described by the law as 
 "out of their keeping." A statute passed 
 (7 Wilham and Mary) put a reward of £20 on 
 the head of any Tory, and assessed the 
 Catholic inhabitants of a barony for any loss 
 caused by them. This statute was not re- 
 pealed till 1776. In English politics the word 
 appears to have been first used contemptuously 
 to designate the Court and Roman Catholic 
 party in the disputes between the Abhorrera 
 (q.v.) and Petitioners in 1679. In the debates 
 on the Exclusion Bill it was applied in- 
 sultingly to the partisans of James II. In 
 William III.'s reign the term was coming 
 into current use without an opprobrious 
 meaning, as the title of the party who 
 opposed the Whig interest in Church and 
 State ; and in the reign of Anne it was the 
 common designation of this party. On 
 account, however, of its suspicious connec- 
 tion -with Jacobitism, and the honourable 
 and respectable traditions attaching to the 
 name of Whig, because of the large share 
 borne by the Whigs in the Revolution, Tory 
 was not a, title which any party was anxious 
 to assume. To the younger Pitt was due the 
 re-vival of a great party in the state, resting 
 on popular support as well as on that of the 
 crown, and opposed to the Whigs, who had 
 become to some extent an aristocratic faction ; 
 and under his administration the name was 
 generally acknowledged by the party which 
 towards the closing period of his premiership 
 probably included the majority of the middle 
 and propertied classes, and vas especially 
 identified with the continuance of the war 
 -with Prance, and opposition to what were 
 assumed to be revolutionary and radical 
 changes in domestic affairs. Since that period 
 the word has held its own as the designation 
 of one of the two great parties in English 
 politics ; though in the present century that 
 of Conservative has been often preferred to it. 
 But this name has hardly supplanted the 
 older designation as that of Liberal has done 
 in the case of the rival party. A Tory 
 perhaps is understood to be a person less 
 indulgent towards the principles of his 
 opponents than a Conservative. But the two 
 
Tor 
 
 ( 1003 } 
 
 Tor 
 
 terms are used almost indiscriminately in 
 political phraseology. 
 
 Cooke, Hist, of Party. 
 
 Torres Vedras, The Lines op (1810— 
 1811), were thrown up by WeUing-ton, in 
 order that he might protect Lisbon and 
 the army during the winter, and thus baffle 
 the superior forces of Massena, in their 
 efEorts to driye the British out of Portugal. 
 "They consisted," says Napiet, "of three 
 distinct ranges of defence. The first, extend- 
 ing from Alhandra on the Tagus to the mouth 
 of the Zizandre on the sea-coast, was, follow- 
 ing the inflections of the hills, twenty-nine 
 miles long. The second, traced at a distance 
 varying from six to ten miles in the rear of 
 the first, stretched from QuinteUa on the 
 Tagus to the mouth of the St. Loreuza, being 
 twenty-four miles in length." The third 
 was intended to cover a forced embarkation, 
 and extended from Passo d' Arcos on the Tagus 
 to the coast. Massena soon perceived the im- 
 possibility of carrying the position at any point 
 or of turning it, except from the Tagus, 
 where a large flotilla of English gunboats 
 was moored. Throughout October Massena, 
 though harassed by sickness and increasing 
 scarcity of supplies, persisted in his oHorts to 
 turn the position by the Tagus ; but he was 
 as persistently foiled by Wellington's ma- 
 noeuvres . Towards the middle of the month, 
 Massena fell back on Santarem, but there 
 stood firm, and WeUington, who had thought 
 him in full retreat, had to abandon the idea 
 of attacking him, and drew back into his 
 lines. In November Massena again resumed 
 his plans on the Tagus, but without success. 
 During December and January the armies 
 remained quiet ; but the difficulty of obtain- 
 ing supplies and forage led the French into 
 horrible excesses and marauding expeditions, 
 which undermined the discipline of the army. 
 Had 'Wellington been vigorously reinforced 
 from England, he would have attacked 
 Massena's weakened forces; but without 
 them he was compelled to await Massena's 
 retreat. On March 2, 1811, the latter^ began 
 his retreat, which he executed with " infinite 
 ability." But for the lines of Torres Vedras 
 "WeUington could have hardly held his ground 
 against Massena's much krger force. 
 
 Napier, Peninsular War, Tak. xl, oo. 8 — 10. 
 
 Torrington, Arthur Herbert, Earl 
 OF, Lord High Admiral {d. 1716), became 
 Eear-Admiral in 1678. In 1682 he raised 
 the siege of Tangier. In 1684 he was 
 placed on the Admiralty commission, and 
 subsequently returned for Dover. He be- 
 came Vice-Admiral and Master of the Robes 
 (1685), but on refusing to consent to the 
 repeal of the Test Act was dismissed from 
 his offices. He thereupon entered- into 
 communication with Dykvelt, the envoy of 
 William of Orange, and was the bearer 
 
 of the invitation to that prince. He com- 
 manded the fieet with which William sailed 
 to England, with the title of Lieutenant 
 Admiral General. After the revolution he 
 was placed first on the Admiralty Commission. 
 In 1689 he engaged in a skirmish with the 
 French fleet in Bantry Bay, but without 
 much result. He was created Baron Herbert 
 and Viscount Torrington, and received the 
 thanks of Parliament. In this year he 
 commanded the English and Dutch ships 
 against the French, but retreated before 
 them up the Channel, and when he re- 
 ceived an order to engage ofl: Beachy Head, 
 sent the Dutch ships alone into action, and 
 when they were completely crushed, fled into 
 the Thames. He was tried by court-martial, 
 but acquitted and dismissed the service. 
 " There seems," says Macaulay, " to be no 
 sufficient grounds for charging Torrington 
 with disaffection, still less can it be suspected 
 that an officer, whose whole life had been 
 passed in confronting danger, and who had 
 always borne himself bravely, wanted that 
 personal courage which hundreds of sailors 
 on board every ship under his command pos- 
 sessed. But there is a higher courage of 
 which Torrington was wholly destitute. He 
 shrank from all responsibility, from the re- 
 sponsibility of fighting, and from the respon- 
 sibility of not fighting." 
 
 Burnet, His/, of His Ovm Time; Paris 
 
 Gazette ; Banke, Hist of Eng. ; Macaulay, Hist. 
 
 ofEng. 
 
 Torrin^on, Gteorge Bykg, Viscount 
 {b. 1663, d. 1733), volunteered for naval ser- 
 vice at the age of fifteen. In 1681 he left 
 the sea at the request of General Kirke, 
 Governor of Tangier, and became under him 
 ensign, and then lieutenant. He was em- 
 ployed to carry assurances of friendship from 
 the English malcontents to William of Orange, 
 to whom he was privately introduced by Ad- 
 miral Russell. In 1690 he was second in 
 command to Sir George Rooke, at the battle 
 of Beachy Head. During the next six years 
 he served under Admiral Russell. He was 
 present at the destruction of the Spanish 
 treasure ships at Vigo Bay., Next year he 
 was made rear-admiral, and served under Sir 
 Cloudesley Shovel. He commanded the 
 squadron who captured the citadel of Gib- 
 raltar, and was knighted for his bravery at 
 the battle of Malaga In 1 705 he was elected 
 member for Plymouth; In 1706 he helped 
 to relieve Barcelona, and commanded the 
 vessels detached for the reduction of Cartha- 
 gena and Alicant. In 1707 he served under 
 Shovel at the abortive siege of Toulon. He 
 frustrated the Pretender's expedition to Scot- 
 land. He was placed in command of an expedi- 
 tion fitted out for a descent on the French 
 coast, but owing to the fact that he was badly 
 supplied with provisions and information, 
 could effect little. In 1709 he was placed on 
 the Admiralty Commission, but was removed 
 
Tor 
 
 ( 1004 ) 
 
 Ton 
 
 shortly tefore the queen's death. In 1716 he 
 was made a baronet for his vigilance in watch- 
 ing the French coast. , In 1717, on the 
 outbreak of hostilities with the northern 
 powers, he shut the Swedish fleet up in the 
 Baltic. In the following year he was made 
 .admiral and commander-in-chief. He was 
 sent to counteract the designs of Alberoni 
 against the Italians. In order to relieve 
 Count Daun, who was besieged in Messina, 
 he attacked and utterly destroyed the Spanish 
 fleet ofi Cape Passaro, with the loss of only 
 one ship. On his return he was sworn of the 
 Privy Council, and made Rear-Admiral and 
 Treasurer of the Navy. In 1721 he was 
 raised to the peerage as Viscount Torrington. 
 In 1727 he became First Lord of the Admi- 
 ralty, a post Which he held until his death. 
 
 Burton, Reign of Queen Anne ; StELnhope, Hist. 
 ofJing. 
 
 Tory, [Tories.] 
 
 Tostig {d. 1066) was the third son of 
 Godwin. In 1051 he married Judith, sister 
 of Baldwin of Flanders, and in the same year 
 he shared his father's exile. In 1055 he was 
 created Earl of Northumbria, and was seem- 
 ingly a great personal favourite of King 
 Edward. In 1061, in company with Girth 
 and Archbishop Ealdred, he made a pil- 
 grimage to Eome, and during his absence 
 Northumbria was invaded and ravaged by 
 the Scots. In 1063 he joined Harold in his 
 Welsh campaign. In 1065 his earldom broke 
 out into revolt, his harsh and tyrannical 
 government being no longer bearable. The 
 Northumbrians held a meeting at York, 
 outlawed and deposed Tostig, and chose 
 Morkere as their earl; a massacre of Tos- 
 tig's followers ensued, and the insurgents 
 marched southwards to support their claims. 
 With the advice of Harold, the king yielded 
 to the demands of the insurgents, and Tostig 
 was deposed and banished. He took refuge 
 at Bruges, where he heard of Harold's elec- 
 tion to the throne ; having failed to induce 
 William to make an alliance with him, he got 
 together a fleet and ravaged the Isle of Wight 
 and the southern coast. Thence he went to 
 Lincolnshire, probably with the hope of re- 
 covering Northumbria, and failing in this, he 
 retired to Scotland, where in all probability 
 ne met Harold Hardrada, whom he induced 
 to join him in an invasion of England. At 
 first they were successful, and defeated Edwin 
 and Morkere at the battle of Fulf ord ; 
 but King Harold, hearing of the invasion, 
 marched northwards promptly, and met them 
 at Stamford Bridge (Sept. 25, 1066) where the 
 Norwegian force was totally defeated, and 
 Tostig and Harold Hardrada slain. Tostig 
 left two sons, Ketil and Skule, who settled in 
 Norway. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Odrore. ; Lives of Edward the Con- 
 fessor (EoUs SerieB); Freeman, Norman Con- 
 
 Totness, George Cabew, Eabl op, 
 (S. 1557, d. 1629), son of George Carew, Dean 
 of Exeter, served with credit in Ireland dur- 
 ing his youth, and was entrusted by Elizabeth 
 with a high command in the expedition to Cadiz 
 (1596). The following year he accompanied 
 Baleigh in his disastrous attempt on the 
 Azores, and on his return was made President 
 of Munster. His government in Ireland was 
 firm, and in 1601 he totally defeated a Spanish 
 force, which had landed at Kinsale. Two 
 years later Sir George became governor of 
 Guernsey, and in 1605 was made a peer by 
 James I., being subsequently appointed 
 Master of the Ordnance. He was created Earl 
 of Totness by Charles I. as a reward for his 
 military services. 
 
 Toulouse, The Battle of (AprillO, 1814), 
 was the last of the battles of the Peninsular 
 War. Soult had thrown himself into Tou- 
 louse, and was resolved to hold the place at 
 aU hazards. As Wellington approached he 
 took up a strong position in front of the town, 
 which was protected on the other side by the 
 Garonne, and outside that by the St. Cyprian 
 heights, strongly fortified. The battle began 
 early on the morning of the 10th. From six 
 o'clock till four in the afternoon it raged, and 
 in that time 4,600 men had fallen of the allies, 
 while the French lost 3,000. Finally the 
 French were defeated, and slowly retired from 
 all their position. The battle was — " a 
 lamentable spilling of blood, and a useless, 
 for before this period Napoleon had abdicated 
 the throne of France, and a provisional 
 government was constituted at Paris. " 
 
 Napier, Peninsular War; Clinton, Peninsular 
 War ; WeVingion Despatches. 
 
 Toulouse, The War of (1159), is the 
 name given to the campaign undertaken by 
 Henry II. in order to enforce his wife's claim 
 to the county of Toulouse. The expedition, 
 which lasted for some months, was eventually 
 unsuccessful, though Heni-y's troops per- 
 formed some brilliant exploits. This little 
 wax is important in English constitutional 
 history, since it may be taken as the point 
 at which the payment of scutage was accepted 
 as a commutation for personal service by 
 feudal tenants. The English knights had no 
 temptation to fight in a quarrel not their own 
 in the south of Prance, and wfllingly paid a 
 tax of two marks on the knight's fee, to 
 enable Henry to equip a mercenary force, 
 instead of following him to the war. 
 Sfcubbs, Const. Sist.^ chap. xii. 
 
 Towns, in England, were probably in their 
 origin only a development of the rural town- 
 ship or vicus, which Bishop Stubbs calls " the 
 unit of constitutional machinery, or local ad- 
 ministration." The tun means a quick- 
 set hedge, and in the same way burh, or 
 borough, " a more strictly organised form of 
 township," was the fortified house and court- 
 yard of the great noble. Both forms are in 
 
Tow 
 
 ( 1005 ) 
 
 Tow 
 
 turn developments of, or at all events, of 
 kindred origin, to the ma/rlt, or community 
 of free cultivators. Before the Conquest the 
 constitution of the towns was very simple. 
 Each had its iun-gemot, or assembly of free- 
 men, and its tun-gerefa, or chief administra- 
 tive officer, who, originally elective, was soon 
 appointed by the lord, or in free towns chosen 
 by the king. In its ecclesiastical form the 
 township was a, parish, or part of a parish, the 
 boundaries of the two communities usually 
 coinciding, and as such the free inhabitants 
 assembled at vestry meetings. It also had 
 exercised judicial powers, functions which 
 were afterwards usurped to a considerable 
 extent by the manor courts, and the larger 
 boroughs, which had the constitution of thl 
 hundred rather than of the townships, were 
 exempt from the jurisdiction of the hundred 
 courts. The townships, on the other hand, 
 were represented by the reeve and four men 
 at the courts of the hundred and of the shire. 
 As yet there is no approach to the modern 
 idea of a corporation with its legal person- 
 ality, its common seal, and its perpetual suc- 
 cession, and London under its port-reeve and 
 bishops was only an aggregate of communi- 
 ties, townships, and parishes. It is impos- 
 sible to describe with any minuteness the 
 various steps by which the towns acquired 
 their municipal privileges. From very early 
 times, they had, as we have seen, tribunals of 
 their own, from which by the time of Henry 
 in. the sheriff was excluded. Soon after 
 the Conquest they had in several instances 
 gained the right to compound for taxa- 
 tion, the collection of which was by degrees 
 taken out of the hands of the sheriffs and 
 assessed by the citizens themselves. This was 
 known as the Firma Burgi, or rent paid to 
 the crown from the borough. As the growth 
 of the town constitutions was never uniform, 
 but varied in each individual case, we must 
 be content with indicating their broad features. 
 In most of the commercial towns the gilds or 
 associations of merchants rapidly assumed 
 importance, and were granted by charter 
 the privileges of owning property, and of 
 making bye-laws, so that they became prac- 
 tically the governing bodies of the towns : 
 aU the more as their members would also be 
 the members of the township courts and 
 courts leet. Their chiefs were the alder- 
 men, and their chief functions were to re- 
 gulate trade. At the same time the communa 
 or corporation, probably of French origin, ap- 
 pears alongside of the gild, with the mayor 
 as its representative officer. The first mayor 
 of whom we have any historical knowledge 
 was Fitz-Alwyn, the Mayor of London in 
 the reign of Richard I., and in 1215 John 
 granted the citizens the right of electing 
 their mayor annually, which, after a severe 
 struggle with the royal power, they succeeded 
 in making good. The provincial towns, in 
 most cases, lagged behind the capital, and 
 
 we do not find a mayor in Leicester, for 
 instance, until 1246. By an obscure process 
 of amalgamation a municipality was evolved 
 out of the three elements of the borough, the 
 original township, representing the primitive 
 landowning community, the gild, or volun- 
 tary association of merchants, with its alder- 
 man, and the communa, with its mayor, 
 untU by the fifteenth century we have a 
 close corporation of mayor, aldermen, and 
 council, whose numbers and organisation are 
 defined by charter. These corporate officers 
 acquired under Richard II. the right of exer- 
 cising the functions of justices of the peace, 
 and the right of each chartered borough or 
 city to send members to Parliament, which 
 had been practically acquired during or before ■ 
 the reign of Edward III., was definitely re- 
 cognised by charter in the case of "Wenlock 
 in the reign of Edward IV. By this time, 
 too, the internal struggle for municipal privi- 
 leges, which had been going on in some cases 
 for nearly three centuries between the alder- 
 men, representing the old merchant gild, and 
 the newer craft gilds, or trading companies 
 which had sprung up in later times, was over. 
 The companies had established their own right 
 to form part of the municipal governing 
 oligarchy. Under the Tudors began the policy 
 of strengthening the power of the municipal 
 corporations at the expense of the inhabitants. 
 In the reign of Henry VII. a system of 
 close election and irresponsible government 
 was introduced, the mayor and councils being 
 in the first instance nominated by the crown, 
 and subsequently self-elected by co-optation. 
 It often happened also that the power of elect- 
 ing the borough members of Parliament was 
 made over to the corporation by charter, to the 
 material injury of the power of the burgesses. 
 Under Charles II. and James II. the last 
 remnants of popular representation, by the 
 exercise of which the towns still stoutly 
 opposed the personal power of the crown, 
 were vigorously attacked. In 1683 the cor- 
 poration of London was remodelled in a way 
 that made it the creature of the court, no 
 mayor or sheriff being admitted until approved 
 by the king, and quo warranto informations 
 were soon afterwards brought against other 
 towns by Judge Jeffreys, many of which 
 hastened to meet the government by a volun- 
 tary surrender. The corporations were then 
 remodelled on an oligarchical plan, by which 
 the king was reserved the right of appoint- 
 ing the first members. The object of this 
 aggression was, of course, to control the 
 return of members of Parliament, a course of 
 action which had already been inaugurated 
 under the Tudors by the profuse creation of 
 rotten boroughs. After the Restoration the 
 old charters of the remodelled corporations 
 were for the most part restored to them, and 
 they continued to exercise their narrow inde- 
 pendence. The Parliamentary side of the 
 question now came exclusively to the front, 
 
Tow 
 
 ( lOOC ) 
 
 Tow 
 
 and tlie incoaipetenoy of tlie close corpora- 
 tions for the purposes of local government 
 were forgotten, -while attention ■was turned 
 to the system hy -which pocket boroughs 
 flourished, and the franchise was limited to 
 small bodies of freemen. After this abuse 
 ■was remedied by the great Eeform Act of 
 1832, reformers began to probe the corruption 
 of municipal institutions. The report of the 
 royal commission appointed in 1832 revealed 
 an incredible amount of jobbery and corrup- 
 tion, municipal councils being for the most part 
 self-elective, and holding office for life, -while 
 the freemen, -who often formed a very small 
 fraction of the population, alone had any 
 share in the local administration. The result 
 of this state of affairs ■was that finance ■was 
 managed most negligently and dishonestly, 
 and that justice became a matter of political 
 partisanship. By the Municipal Corporations 
 Act of 1835, framed on the report of the 
 commission, these abuses ■were swept away, 
 and a uniform system of government estab- 
 lished in the 183 boroughs to which it applied. 
 The government was placed in the hands of 
 the mayor, aldermen, and councillors, form- 
 ing a councU. They were to be elected 
 by the burgesses, i.e., the resident rate- 
 payers, freemen as such ha^ving no rights 
 as burgesses, though they were entitled to 
 ParUamentary franchise. The qualification 
 for a vote at first, three years' payment of 
 rates, was afterwards reduced to one. Twenty 
 of the largest boroughs were to be divided 
 by the king in council into wards, and a 
 certain number of common councilmen were 
 attached to each ward. Separate committees 
 of burgesses were to manage the charity 
 estates, and in case the borough thought fit 
 to provide an adequate salary for a recorder, 
 who was to be a barrister of five years' stand- 
 ing. There was also a provision by which 
 new municipalities might be created by 
 charter on the petition of a certain unspeci- 
 fied number of resident householders, but 
 only sixty-three to^wns have since availed 
 themselves of it, partly because of the cumber- 
 some nature of the process, and partly because 
 of the opposition of the local authorities. The 
 Municipal Corporations Act has since been 
 frequently amended, and the whole legislation 
 bearing on the subject has been consolidated 
 by the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. 
 London was specially exempted from the Act 
 of 1835, and was allowed to retain its old 
 constitution. In Scotland, where the history 
 of the boroughs is closely akin to that of 
 England, the corporations were reformed 
 in 1833. Those of Ireland were regulated, 
 and many of them aboUshed, by the Irish 
 Corporations Act of 1840. 
 
 Madox, Firma Burgi; Brady, On Boroughs; 
 Gross, Gilda Mercatoria {Gottingen, 1883) ; 
 Maitland, Hist, of London; Thompson, Illus- 
 trations of Municipal Aniiquiiie.^ ; Stubbs, 
 Const. Hiftt. ; Hallam, Const. Hid. ■ Merewether 
 and Stephens, Hist, of Boi-oughs; Mr. Lud- 
 
 lo-w's article in the FortnigMly Review for Oct., 
 1869 ; Freeman, Norman Conquest, v. 460, ei seq. 
 See also Munitxpal Corporations Report, I83S, 
 5 & 6 Will. IV. 0. 76, and M. D. Chalmers, iocal 
 Government. [S. J. L.J 
 
 Townshend, Charles, Lord {b. 1676, d. 
 1738), entered public hfe as a Tory, but soon 
 joined the Whigs. He was one of the commis- 
 sioners for theUnion with Scotland. In 1 709 he 
 was sent with Marlborough as plenipotentiary 
 to the Hague. There he concluded the 
 ]Barrier Treaty, which Marlborough refused 
 to sign. He completed his connection ■with 
 the "Whigs by marrying Walpole's sister. 
 In 1712 he was severely censured by the 
 Tories as the author of the Barrier TVeaty. 
 George I., before his arrival in England, ap- 
 pointed him Secretary of State and Prime 
 Minister, passing over the old Whig Junto, 
 but he soon became distasteful to the Mng. 
 He was disliked by the Hanoverian courtiers. 
 He opposed George's schemes with regard to 
 Bremen and Verden. Perceiving that Charles 
 XII. of Sweden was threatening England, he 
 was anxious for peace with Russia. Urged 
 on by Sunderland, the king dismissed him 
 from office, offering in exchange the lord 
 lieutenancy of Ireland, which he accepted. 
 But he was soon dismissed also from that posi- 
 tion when, on the schism between Walpole 
 and Stanhope breaking out in the ministry, 
 his followers voted against a supply for 
 hostilities against Sweden. Finding opposi- 
 tion useless, he rejoined the ministry in 1719 
 as Lord President. On Walpole's becoming 
 Premier, he was made Secretary of State. 
 He soon quarrelled with the king's favourite, 
 Carteret, "with whose more ambitious views 
 of foreign policy he could not agree. The 
 contest came to an issue at the m.arriage 
 of Madame de Platen, sister of the king's 
 mistress, the Countess of Darlington, in Paris. 
 There 'Townshend sent Horace Walpole 
 as rival ambassador to Carteret ; and the 
 latter was forced by the king to withdraw to 
 the lord lieutenancy of Ireland. In 1725 
 To^wnshend concluded the Treaty of Hanover 
 between England, France, and Prussia. This 
 was to check the designs of Austria, Spain, 
 and the Duke of Bourbon, as formulated, in 
 the Treaty of Vienna (1725), namely, a 
 Stewart restoration and the surrender of 
 Gibraltar and Minorca. This treaty, which 
 Walpole considered was too precipitate, was 
 the cause of his quarrel with To^wnshend. 
 "The firm," he said, "should be Walpole 
 and Townshend, not Townshend and Wal- 
 pole." After a violent quarrel with Walpole, 
 To-wnshend retired from public hfe. He passed 
 the remainder of his life at Eeynham, re- 
 fusing to take further part in politics. To 
 him we owe the cultivation of the turnip, and 
 hence a proper rotation of crops. 
 
 Coxe, Memoirs of WalpoU ; Ealph, Ri.it. of 
 JSng. ; Horace 'Walpole, Memoirs ; Stanhope, 
 Hist, of Bnj. 
 
Tow 
 
 ( 1007 ) 
 
 Tra 
 
 Townshend, Chakles (i. 1725, rf. 1767), 
 was the second son of the third Viscount 
 Townshend. In 1747 he was returned to 
 Parliament for Yarmouth. On entering 
 Parhameut he joined the opposition, hut 
 without much warmth. In 1749 his large 
 family influence obtained for him a place at 
 the Board of Trade. The next year he was 
 nominated one of the commissioners for 
 executing the office of Lord High Admiral. 
 In 1756 he hecame a member of the Privy 
 Council In March, 1761, he hecame Secre- 
 tary at War. Here he fluctuated between 
 Pitt and Bute, at one time supporting one, 
 at another the other. In 1765 he accepted 
 the ofiice of Paymaster-General in the Kock- 
 ingham government, although he had no 
 faith in its strength, and called it "a mere 
 lute-string administration, pretty summer 
 wear." In the following year he became 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Chatham 
 ministry. But, as usual, Townshend was 
 not decided in his support of the cabinet, 
 of which he was now a member. As 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer he introduced a 
 budget, in which he pledged himseH to the 
 reduction of the land-tax at the end of a 
 year, but on a motion of the opposition that 
 the reduction should take place at once, the 
 government was defeated. With Chatham ill, 
 the members of the ministry broke away from 
 all control, and Charles Townshendin particular 
 gave vent to the wildest frolics of his genius. 
 In one of the most celebrated of his speeches he 
 said that the government " had become, what 
 he had often been called, a weather-cock." 
 The revenue which he failed to obtain 
 by the land-tax he now sought by taxing 
 with import duties many small commo- 
 dities sent to the American colonies. It 
 was a most fatal measure, the evil results of 
 which Townshend did not Uve to see, as he 
 died of a fever on Sept. 4, 1767. Walpole, 
 who was a friend of his, says that " Towns- 
 hend had every great talent, and very little 
 quality. His vanity exceeded even his abili- 
 ties, and his suspicions seemed to make him 
 doubt if he had any. With such a capacity 
 he must have been the greatest man of his 
 age, and, perhaps, inferior to no man of any 
 age, had his faults been only in moderate 
 proportion." 
 
 Siauhope, Sisl. ofEng.; GrmvUle Papers ; Chat- 
 ham Correspmdmce ; Walpole, Memoirs of George 
 III. 
 
 Townshend, Geokge, 1st Marotis op 
 
 (6. 1724, d. 1807), served in the army, and 
 concluded, after Wolfe's death, the capi- 
 tulation which gave Quebec to England. 
 In 1767 he hecame Viceroy of Ireland, and, 
 in accordance with George III.'s instructions, 
 tried to govern in defiance of the Ponsonbys 
 and Shannons; hut, defeated on the Army 
 Bill in 1768, had to abandon the attempt. 
 A new Parliament was no more docile than 
 
 the last, and corruption was now tried. By 
 means of the new oligarchy of crown pen- 
 sioners, the great families were defeated, and 
 in 1771 Townshend secured a favourable 
 ParHament. But by 1772 matters had so far 
 changed that complete defeat could only be 
 averted by making peace with Lord Shannon. 
 Disgusted with his office, the Lord Lieutenant 
 resigned and retired to England, leaving be- 
 hind him £300,000 of arrears. 
 
 Townshend Correspondence; Froude, English 
 in Ireland, 
 
 Towtou, The Battle op (Mar. 29, 1461), 
 was the most important engagement in the Wars 
 of the Eoses. After the second battle of St. 
 Alban's, Queen Margaret and the Lancastrians 
 had retired to the north, while Edward and 
 Warwick entered London, and the former was 
 proclaimed king. The Yorkists immediately 
 determined on marching northwards and 
 completing the defeat of the Lancastrians. 
 On March 12 the Yorkists were at Ponte- 
 fract, the Lancastrians at York. After a 
 skirmish at Ferrybridge, the two armies met 
 near the village of Towton, not far from 
 Tadcaster. The battle was fought on Palm 
 Sunday, March 29, and lasted ten hours, 
 ending in the complete victory of the Yorkists, 
 and the rout and dispersion of the Lancastrian 
 army. The Earl of Northumberland fell in 
 the battle, Devonshire and Wiltshire were 
 beheaded after it, and it is said that from 
 28,000 to 30,000 men were left dead on the 
 field. Henry and Margaret, with Somerset 
 and Exeter, fled into Scotland, while Edward 
 returned in triumph to London. 
 
 Trade, The Boaed op. Councils "of 
 Trade and Plantation" were created by 
 Charles II. after the Restoration, charged 
 with the concerns of the colonies and merchant 
 shipping. The two were united in 1672, and 
 abolished in 1675. The council was re- 
 appointed in 1696, and continued to exercise 
 a certain control over colonial and mercantile 
 matters for nearly a century afterwards. In 
 1782, having long been found inefficient, it was 
 abolished. In 1786 the Board of Trade with 
 substantially its present functions was estab- 
 lished by order in Council. Its functions 
 have been regulated by several Acts, notably 
 those of 1845, 1850, and 1867, and it has been 
 charged with the superintendence of Rail- 
 ways (1840) and Merchant Shipping (1854 
 and 1867). 
 
 Trade, Foheign, Legislation on. False 
 notions about political economy, combined 
 with frequent European wars and with the 
 conditions of early society, caused constant 
 legislation on the subject of our trade with 
 other nations. Restrictions were held to be 
 the beat means of increasing our own wealt} 
 and diminishing the prosperity of our rivals 
 wealth was considered to consist exclusively 
 of gold and silver ; and, when this opinion 
 
Tra 
 
 ( 1008 ) 
 
 Tra 
 
 ■was at last overthrown, it only gave place to 
 the idea that the progress of a country de- 
 pended on the excess in value of our ex- 
 ports over our imports. The extent to 
 which these ideas prevailed and the change 
 which has come over our poKoy will he best 
 understood hy noting some of the most re- 
 markable instances of legislation on this 
 subject. In 1261 the exportation of wool and 
 the importation of cloth were ahke forbidden. 
 As the power of the crown to tax home mer- 
 chandise was diminished, the king encouraged 
 foreign merchants, whom he could tax without 
 reference to Parliament, and in 1303 Edward 
 I. gave them licence to trade on payment of 
 special duties. The Statute of Staples [Staple] 
 in 1363, though restrictive, was not on the 
 whole injurious. By 28 JEdward III. u. 5 
 the exportation of iron was forbidden. In 
 1402 all importers were ordered to invest 
 their money in English goods, and the ex- 
 portation of gold and silver was forbidden. 
 Our craftsmen having in 1463 complained to 
 Parliament of the injury done to them by 
 the importation of goods of better quality 
 than were produced in England, the importa- 
 tion of a large number of articles was for- 
 bidden. Among these were ribands, sHk, 
 laces, saddlery, ironwork, and playing cards. 
 This prohibition was extended both as regards 
 time and the number of articles in 1484. In 
 the same year (1 Rich. III. c. 9) restrictions 
 were placed on the trade of Italian and 
 Catalan merchants, and foreigners were for- 
 bidden to exercise any craft in England 
 except as the servants of English masters, or 
 to have any share in the clothing trade. 
 The trade with the Netherlands was en- 
 couraged by a famous treaty called " Inter- 
 oursus Magnus," made in 1496 between 
 Henry VII. and the Archduke Philip. The 
 next year Parliament virtually established 
 the Society of Merchant Adventurers, by 
 controlling the exaction of fees demanded by 
 a fraternity of London merchants of all Eng- 
 lishmen not of their company trading in 
 Netherland ports. By 3 Hen. VIII. c. 1 the 
 exportation of coin, plate, &c., was forbidden 
 under the penalty of forfeiture of double the 
 value of the export. 
 
 By an Act regulating the Baltic trade in 
 1566, the Russia Company was forbidden to 
 export any EngKah commodity except in 
 English ships. This principle of fostering 
 our carrying trade by restriction was soon 
 carried further. The 'charter granted to the 
 East India Company in 1600 to trade with 
 Asia, Africa, and America, "beyond the Cape 
 of Good Hope to the Straits of Magellan," 
 brought us into rivalry with the Dutch. In 
 this rivalry we were at a disadvantage, be- 
 cause our high dues caused our merchants to 
 freight Dutch ships for importation. To 
 meet this the first Navigation Act was passed 
 in 1651, and this was afterwards extended by 
 12 Car. II. u. 18. By these acts the im- 
 
 portation of foreign commodities was restricted 
 to English ships or to the ships of the country 
 producing the import. The act of Charles II., 
 once held to be " the carta marUima of Eng- 
 land," had an injurious influence on our trade. 
 The navigation laws, however, remained in 
 force untU they feU before the enlightened 
 policy of Mr. Huskisson in 1825, the last 
 remains of them being repealed by 17 Vic. 
 c. 5. In 1663 more correct views having 
 prepared the way for the downfall of the 
 false notions about money, leave was given 
 to export gold and silver. In 1698 the East 
 India Company obtained a renewal of its ex- 
 clusive privileges of trade. 
 
 Restrictions were laid on the importation of 
 com by 22 Car. II. c. 3. High prices in 1766 
 led to a suspension of high duties, and con- 
 siderable liberty of importation was granted 
 in 1773. The complaints of the landholders, 
 however, caused the imposition of renewed 
 restriction in 1791. The success of the policy 
 of Mr. Huskisson, who in 1824, by lowering 
 duties, enormously stimulated the silk, wool, 
 and other trades, pointed to the wisdom of re- 
 moving commercial restrictions, and by 9 Geo. 
 IV. u. 60 a graduated scale of duties on corn 
 was established. This system, however, was 
 open to objection, because it introduced a 
 new element of uncertainty into the trade. 
 Carrying on the policy of Mr. Huskisson, Sir 
 Robert Peel in 1845 abolished the duties on 
 np less than 420 articles of trade. At last, 
 after a long struggle, he succeeded in 1846 in 
 carrying the bill for repealing the duties on 
 the importation of com. Since that date the 
 pressure of taxation has been removed from 
 many articles, and the work of Sir R. Peel 
 has been consummated by Mr. Gladstone, 
 who in 1860 succeeded in prevailing on 
 Parliament to approve a treaty with France, 
 by which a large number of duties and pro- 
 hibitions on our trade with that country were 
 swept away. 
 
 Macpherson, Hist, of British Commerce i 
 Adam Smith, Wealtli of Nations, ed. McCulloch; 
 Cimningliam, Ch-owth of English Indwitry and 
 Commerce, fW. H.I 
 
 Trades' Unions. The Act of Appren- 
 tices (5 Bliz.) made the mediaeval gild regu- 
 lations with regard to apprentices binding 
 upon all the trades in existence at the time, 
 and in addition ordered an annual assess- 
 ment of wages by the justices. But these 
 enactments gradually ceased to be observed, 
 and as early as 1725 temporary associations 
 were formed among workmen to secure the 
 carrying out of the Act. But these were 
 declared illegal by Act of Parliament, 
 although the attempts of the legislature to 
 revive the practice of fixing wages by 
 the justices proved resultless. In spite of 
 evils in particular industries, the relations of 
 the various classes engaged in manufacture 
 were fairly good during the earlier part 
 of the century. The introduction of 
 
Tra 
 
 ( 1009 ) 
 
 Tra 
 
 machinery, however, and with it of the factory 
 system, soon caused an industrial war ; jour- 
 neymen everywhere petitioned that the Act 5 
 Eliz. should be enforced, and hegan to form 
 societies and raise funds for the prosecution of 
 offending- masters. But while Parliament sus- 
 pended the Act for the benefit of employers 
 year after year, and repealed it for the woollen 
 manufacture in 1809, and generally in 1814, 
 associations of workmen were rendered penal 
 by Acts of 1799 and 1800. The unions either 
 assumed the guise of friendly provident 
 societies to evade the Acts, or else became 
 secret associations, with the usual evil results. 
 In 1824 Joseph Hume gained the appointment 
 of a Parliamentary committee, which reported 
 that the administration of the law had been 
 one-sided, that it had only touched workmen, 
 and not masters who had combined, adding also 
 that the law had, " in the opinion of many of 
 both parties, tended to produce mutual irrita- 
 tion and distrust, and to give a violent 
 character to the combinations." In accord- 
 ance with its advice, all the Acts against 
 combination were repealed in 1824 ; but so 
 numerous were the strikes that followed that 
 a most im.wise Amending Act was passed 
 next year, according to which, though persons 
 meeting to determine their own wages were 
 exempted from punishment, " all meetings or 
 agreements for the purpose of affecting the 
 wages or hours of work of persons not 
 present at the meeting, or parties to the 
 agreement, were conspiracies. So were all 
 agreements for controlling a master in the 
 management of his business. So were all 
 agreements not to work in the company of 
 any given person, or to persuade other per- 
 sons to leave their employment, or not to en- 
 gage themselves. In fact, there was scarcely 
 an act performed by any workman, as the 
 member of a trade-union, which was not 
 an act of conspiracy and a misdemeanour." 
 Besides, the general Acts against conspiracy 
 could still be employed against imionists, as 
 in 1834, when six Dorchester labourers were 
 sentenced to seven years' transportation for 
 " administering unlawful oaths" — i.e., admit- 
 ting members into a union. During the next 
 thirty years, in spite of these Acts, the 
 unionist movement spread with great rapidity; 
 in 1851 a combination of several associations 
 produced the Amalgamated Society of En- 
 gineers', which played a part in trade- 
 union struggles comparable to that of the 
 weavers among the mediaeval gilds. Public 
 attention was recalled to the unions by the 
 ShefEeld outrages (q.v.) of 1866, which le,d to 
 the appointment of a Royal Commission in 
 1867 to examine the whole matter. But it was 
 clearly proved that the large majority of 
 unions had nothing illegal in their working, 
 and in consequence the Trades Union Act of 
 1871 recognised their complete legality. 
 Finally, the last vestiges of the Combination 
 Acts were repealed in 1875 ; henceforward 
 
 the offences of unionists must be tried under 
 no special Acts, but under the ordinary 
 criminal law. About the same time unionism 
 was introduced into agricultural districts, and 
 the Agricultural Labourers' Union, founded 
 in 1872, now includes some 60,000 members. 
 The English trades unions, numbering pro- 
 bably a million and a quarter members, are 
 bound together in a loose confederation. In 
 each town there is a Trades Council, upon 
 which sit representatives of such unions as 
 care to join. Trade-union congi'esses have 
 met annually since 1868, and these have 
 yearly, since 1871, appointed a permanent 
 " Parliamentary Committee " to watch over 
 the interests of workmen. 
 
 George Howell, Cmijlicts of Labour and Ca]iHal 
 (1878), and Marshall, Economics of Industrii. 
 See also Brentano, Iniroductory Essay to Eng- 
 lish Gilds (Early Engl. Text Soc. ) (1870) ; and his 
 Arheitargilden der Gegenwart. Hanison, Good and 
 Evil of Trade-Unionism, EortnigTitly Bevieiv, ill. 33 
 (1865); Comte de Paris, Trades Unions of England 
 (1869) ; Annual Reports of Trade-Union Con- 
 gresses ; Held, Zwei BUcher zur Soc. Gesch. Eng. 
 (1881). For their economic function, see Toyn- 
 bee, The Industrial ijeuoliition (1£84), 170 sec. ; 
 "Walker, Polit. Econ. (1883), pt. 6, ch. 5. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Trafalgar, The Battle op (Oct. 21, 
 1805), was the last and most fatal blow in- 
 flicted on the naval power of France. On 
 the previous afternoon the combined French 
 and Spanish fleets had been descried sailing 
 out of the port of Cadiz, and during the 
 night Nelson had kept his fleet under all sail 
 to keep them in sight. At daybreak on the 
 21st they were seen in a close line about twelve 
 miles ahead. As the English fleet came up 
 with him, TULeneuve (the French admiral) 
 formed his fleet in a double line in close order. 
 Nelson had twenty-seven men-of-war and 
 four frigates, against the combined fleets of 
 thirty-three ships and seven frigates, and he 
 adopted the plan of attacking ia two lines, 
 CoUingwood leading the lee-hne of thirteen 
 ships, and Nelson the weather-line of fourteen. 
 Villeneuve made the most skilful prepara- 
 tions to meet the attack, but seems to have 
 perceived at once that Nelson's plan would 
 succeed. As the Victory, Nelson's ship, 
 neared the French fleet, she was raked by 
 a galling fire from the enemy, so that she had 
 lost fifty men before, returning a gun. At 
 noon she opened her fire, and ran on board 
 the Sedoubtable, with the intention of breaking 
 the enemy's line. That ship fired one broad- 
 side, and then, through fear of being boarded, 
 let down her lower ports, and contented her- 
 self for the rest of the battle with keeping 
 up a fire of musketry from her tops. The 
 Victory soon became busy with her, the 
 Thneraire, and the huge Santissima Trinidad, 
 and at a quarter past one Nelson was mortally 
 wounded by a ball from the marines in the 
 tops. Within twenty minutes the Redotihtable 
 struck. In the meantime the battle had 
 be'en raging with almost equal fury on 
 
Tra 
 
 ( 1010 ) 
 
 Tre 
 
 all sides ; and everywhere the stuhhom 
 courage of the British seamen wore out the 
 resistance of the enemy. Nelson lived just 
 long enough to know that he had gained his 
 last and greatest victory. Twenty of the 
 enemy had struck: seven of their ships 
 escaped from the battle, only to he all cap- 
 tured by Sir Richard Strachan off Eochefort. 
 The next evening a gale came on from the 
 south-west, which destroyed most of the 
 prizes. The English loss amounted to 1,587 
 men : the loss of the aUies was much greater, 
 and included the Spanish admiral, while 
 Villeneuve was taken prisoner. The Spaniards, 
 disgusted with the conduct of the French, at 
 once made peace, and treated our wounded 
 with the utmost attention. With the loss of 
 Villeneuve's fleet vanished all Napoleon's 
 hopes of invading England. 
 
 Southey, Life of Nelson ; James, Naval 3ist. ; 
 Alison, Hist, of Europe. 
 
 Trailbastou, Commissions of, were first 
 issued by Edward I. in 1292, and were con- 
 tinued down to the middle of Richard II.'s 
 reign. The object was to put down the 
 numerous bands of swashbucklers, or " trail- 
 bastons" {i.e., staff or bludgeon carriers) as 
 they were called. Commissions for the 
 purpose of quelhng the disturbances caused 
 by these ruffians were sent throughout the 
 country, inquiring, imprisoning, fining, and 
 even hanging summarily. 
 
 Train Bauds, or trained bands, insti- 
 tuted in the reign of James I., were bodies of 
 urban militia, which combined with the prin- 
 ciple of the " fyrd " a large volunteer element. 
 They proved, however, exceedingly turbulent, 
 especially in London, and, having espoused 
 the side of the Parhament during the Great 
 EebeUion, were abolished after the Restora- 
 tion. [Military System.] 
 
 Trac[Tiair, John Stewart, Eaul of 
 (i. 1599, d. 1659), son of John Stewart of 
 Gaverston, was a great favourite of Charles I., 
 who created him an earl in 1633, and the 
 following 5'ear made him Lord High Treasurer 
 of Scotland, and in 1639 High Commissioner. 
 In 1641 Traquair, who had made enemies, 
 was found guilty on a charge of treason, but 
 pardoned by Charles, who was convinced of 
 his loyalty. In 1648 he fought at the battle 
 of Preston, where he was taken prisoner, and 
 confined in Warwick Castle for four years by 
 command of the Parliament. His character 
 is thus described : "He was a man of great 
 learning, but of too much craft ; he was con- 
 sidered the most capable man for business, 
 and ' the best speaker, in the kingdom of 
 Scotland." 
 
 Travancore was a little principality at 
 the southern extremity of the Malabar coast. 
 The treaty of Mangalore placed it under 
 British protection. In consequence of this 
 Lord Corrwallis began the second Mj'sore War 
 (q.v.) to avenge on Tippoo the insult offered 
 
 to the British government by his unpro- 
 voked attack (1790) on the lines of Travan- 
 core (a Une of ramparts protected by a ditch 
 and hound hedge, extending along the northern 
 frontier from the Neilgherry hills to the sea). 
 In 1795 a subsidiary alliance was concluded 
 between the Rajah and the Company, by 
 which he agreed to assist them if necessary 
 with troops to the best of his ability. And 
 in 1805 a second treaty was concluded, by 
 which this duty was commuted for an annual 
 payment. Travancore was extremely badly 
 governed, and retrenchment and reform were 
 absolutely necessary. The last treaty with 
 the English had stipulated this. In 1808 
 an attempt to enforce this led to an attack 
 on the Residency, from which the Resident 
 barely escaped. English troops were marched 
 up, and order was after some trouble restored. 
 Travancore is still one of the protected 
 native States. 
 
 Treason, The Law of. High treason, 
 which means a transcendently dangerous kind 
 of betrayal, is theoretically a murderous blow 
 aimed at the State, but in fact is any mis- 
 chievous action or design against the person 
 of the sovereign, with whose particular life the 
 general welfare is supposed to be bound. It is 
 called " high " to distinguish it from simple 
 or petty treason, which was an outrageous or 
 unnatural betrayal of confidence, as that of a 
 child who attempts or designs the slaughter 
 of a parent. Feudalism is usually credited 
 wiih having shifted the mark of treason from 
 the State to the sovereign. Yet the idea of 
 the king's supreme lordship and consequent 
 importance in this connexion is first seen in 
 Alfred's law of treason: "If any one plot 
 against the king's life, of himself or by 
 harbouring of exiles, or of his men, let him 
 be liable in his life and in all that he has." 
 For such "treachery against a lord" Alfred 
 thought no reparation possible. After the 
 Conquest, therefore, while the penalty of 
 rebellion was, for a Norman, only forfeiture 
 and imprisonment, for an Englishman it was 
 death. In 1075 the Norman earl, Ralph 
 Guader, met with no worse doom than loss of 
 lands and perpetual captivity ; the English- 
 man Waltheof perished on the scaffold. The 
 crime did not assume its darker aspect, or 
 draw after it the more awful punishment 
 afterwards reserved for it, till many years 
 later. The Norman and early Plantagenet 
 kings seldom, if ever, had leaders of rebellion 
 executed on legal process ; their vengeance 
 was satisfied with the ordinary feudal con- 
 sequences. The idea of treason, however, 
 was well known. Glanville speaks of it 
 under the name of " lese majesty," thus show- 
 ing the influence of the Roman law on its 
 development. Edward I. gave expression, 
 perhaps for the first time, to the sterner con- 
 ception of the offence ; the proceedings 
 against David of Wales and William Wallace 
 
Tre 
 
 ( 1011 ) 
 
 Tre 
 
 first exhibited its merciless characteristics. 
 The constructive complexity of Bavid's guilt 
 set the precedent for the most appaUing 
 feature in our legal history. He was drawn 
 to the gallows, hanged, had his bowels burnt, 
 and his quarters dispersed over the kingdom, 
 respectively for the treachery to his lord, the 
 murder, the profanation of a holy season, and 
 the repeated formation of designs against his 
 king at various places, into which the judges 
 divided his crime. This case practically ruled 
 all that came after. The hurdle, the gallows, 
 the axe, and the quartering knife, were for 
 ages the instruments of the punishment of 
 treason, varied only bj' the stake and the faggot 
 if the convicted traitor were a woman. The 
 legal sentiment was now fostered that there 
 was a special heinousness in the offence. It 
 was deemed politic, perhaps, to frighten the 
 king's liegemen into a respect for their oaths 
 and impHed fealty. Any scheme that struck 
 at the king, his crown and dignity, or tended 
 to do mischief to his person or royal estate, 
 was asserted by legal writers to be treason, 
 not only in those who attempted it, but also 
 in those who advised it. But the crown had 
 the interest in keeping the offence indefinite 
 that the consequent frequency of forfeitures 
 gave; and the profitable vagueness was al- 
 lowed to hang over it for a time. Mortimer, 
 for instance, was in 1330 condemned for 
 merely " accroaching " or drawing towards 
 himself the royal power. In 1352, therefore, 
 the puzzled and distressed Lords and Com- 
 mons begged King Edward III. to declare 
 authoritatively the law on the subject. Ed- 
 ward complied, and the historic Statute of 
 Treasons was the result. Henceforward no 
 man was to be held guilty of treason who had 
 not compassed the death of the king, queen, 
 or their eldest son ; violated the queen, the 
 king's eldest daughter, if unmarried, or the 
 wife of his eldest son ; levied war against the 
 king in his kingdom, or adhered to his 
 enemies ; counterfeited the Great Seal, or 
 brought false money into the land ; or slain 
 his chancellor, treasurer, or judges " being in 
 their place doing their offices." And aU the 
 lands forfeited for any of these offences were 
 to go to the king, whether holden of him or 
 of others. The weightier clauses of this 
 statute are law stiU. But it often fell short 
 of the needs of an arbitrary king or an 
 unusually critical condition of affairs; and 
 such additions were made to it by the legis- 
 lature, and constructions placed upon it by 
 the judges, as the occasion seemed to de- 
 mand. In Eiohard II.'s heyday of power, in 
 Henry VI. 's growing weakness, new treasons 
 were created, but only to be brushed away 
 at the return of better or more settled times. 
 The reign most prolific of artificial treasons 
 was Henry VIII.' s; to deny the royal 
 supremacy, or even decline to admit it, to 
 deprive the king of any of his titles, 
 to keep back from him the knowledge of an 
 
 inunorality committed by the lady he pro- 
 posed to marry, and several other things 
 of little seeming importance at other times, 
 were exaggerated into treasons. These were 
 all swept away when Edward VI. succeeded ; 
 but many of them were re-enacted the year 
 before his death, while, as a feeble antidote to 
 this renewed severity, it was provided that no 
 treason should be established save on the 
 testimony of two witnesses. The restored 
 additions were cast out again in Mary's reign, 
 but the mitigatory provision was left un- 
 touched. The safety of Elizabeth called for 
 fresh accessions to the law — among other 
 enactments it was made treason to say that 
 the queen was a heretic, a schismatic, or a 
 usurper — but these were limited to the queen's 
 lifetime. After her death the law of Edward 
 III. continued the sole statutory basis of the 
 crime, and the law of Edward VI. its sole 
 judicial corrective. The nimble wits of law- 
 yers, however, had found in the former, by 
 help of the doctrine of constructive treason, 
 more than one implication of crime. Chief 
 among these was conspiracy to levy war 
 against the king, which though not asserted 
 to be itself treason, was accepted as a con- 
 vincing proof of treason. To this principle 
 Parliament also three times gave a lease of 
 the existing sovereign's life, in the reigns of 
 Elizabeth, Charles II., and George III. The 
 contemplated deposition of the sovereign, 
 or even the devisal of a plan for putting Mm 
 under restraint for any purpose whatever, 
 such as Essex designed in 1601, was discovered 
 in Edward III.'s statute. At last, in 1816, the 
 whole subject was comprehensively treated in 
 a statute of that year, which is now the 
 accepted standard of treason. By this measure 
 not only the overt act, but the mere enter- 
 tainment of a design to slay, wound, coerce, 
 or depose the king, or to deprive him of any 
 part of his dominions, or to levy war against 
 him with any view whatever, or to move an 
 invasion from abroad, and the publication of 
 an intention to do any of these things, were 
 declared to be high treason. The law was 
 thus definitively fixed. No legal process was 
 more shamelessly perverted to tjrraimical and 
 unjust ends than that of treason, as a hundred 
 cases, from Burdett's to Sidney's, testify. To 
 remedy the monstrous unfairness of trials on 
 this charge the notable law of 1696 was 
 passed. This insures to the accused the 
 assistance of counsel, the examination of his 
 witnesses on oath, a copy of his indictment 
 five (afterwards ten) daj-s, a list of the jury 
 panel two days, before his trial, and the cer- 
 tainty of having two direct witnesses pro- 
 duced against him; and limits prosecutions 
 to the term of three years, save for an attempt 
 to assassinate the king. The revolting horrors 
 of the punishment have since been removed — 
 the cutting down alive and disembowelling 'of 
 men, and the burning of women, in 1790 ; 
 the drawing, quartering, and beheading, ia 
 
Tre 
 
 ( 1012 ) 
 
 Tre 
 
 1870. But they had ceased to be carried out 
 much earlier. 
 
 Hallam, Const. Hist., Tol. iii. ; Stubbs, Const. 
 Hist. ; Revised Statutes, [J. K.J 
 
 Treasonable Practices Bill (1795) 
 
 was introduced into the House of Lords by- 
 Lord Grrenville in consequence of the excited 
 state of popular opinion, which at length dis- 
 played itself iu an attempt upon the life of the 
 king (George III.). The chief point in the BUI 
 was that it dispensed with proof of overt acts 
 of treason, and altogether widened the de6ni- 
 tion of treason, so as to include any writing 
 or speaking which should incite the people to 
 hatred or contempt of the king's majesty, or 
 the estabKshed government and constitution 
 of the realm. It thus formed a statutory 
 prohibition on the discussion of Parliamentary 
 reform, and was a most flagrant encroach- 
 ment upon freedom of opinion. The Bin was 
 supported in a narrow spirit, worthy of its 
 aims; but it also found seven opponents 
 among the Peers. In the House of Commons 
 it met with a vigorous resistance. Pox went 
 so far as to say that if this and the Seditious 
 Meetings Bill " should be put into force with 
 all their rigorous provisions, if his' opinion 
 were asked by the people as to their obedience, 
 he should tell them it was no longer a question 
 of moral obligation and duty, but of pru- 
 dence." He was supported by Sheridan, 
 Grey, and Whitbread, and others of the 
 extreme Liberals ; but the ministers openly 
 avowed their determination " to exert a 
 rigour beyond the law as exercised in ordinary 
 times and under ordinary circumstances." 
 They could do what they liked ; and in spite 
 of this brilliant opposition in the House, and 
 popular indignation outside, the Bill was 
 passed, to remain in force during the life of 
 the king, and tiU the end of the next session 
 after his death. 
 
 May, Const. Hist., vol. ii. cb. 9. 
 
 Treasurer, The Lord High, the oflGloe 
 of, was of Norman origin. It does not seem 
 at first to have been considered of great im- 
 portance, the duties of the king's treasm-er 
 consisting in keeping the royal treasure at 
 Winchester, and, as a member of the ex- 
 chequer at Westminster, in receiving the 
 accounts of the sheriffs. The ofiEoe was held 
 by several ecclesiastics, among whom were 
 Nigel of Ely and his son, Richard Fitz-Neal. 
 Under the Norman kings it had no separate 
 judicial powers, and it was not until after the 
 extinction of the office of justiciar that the 
 treasurer rapidly became one of the chief 
 functionaries of the crown. From the middle 
 of the reign of Henry III. we find the 
 treasurer, in conjunction with the newly- 
 created chancellor of the exchequer, taking 
 part in the equitable jurisdiction of the ex- 
 chequer. He was now the third great officer 
 of the crown ; and his duties, besides presiding 
 in the upper court of exchequer, consisted in 
 
 the custody of the king's treasure, and of the 
 records deposited there, and the appointment 
 of the commissioners and other officers em- 
 ployed in collecting the royal revenue. The 
 treasury appears to have been first put in 
 commission in 1635, and the last lord high 
 treasurer was the Earl of Rochester (1685—87). 
 The office of First Lord of the Treasury is 
 now held by the Prime Minister, and he is also 
 not unfrequently Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 as well. The Lord High Treasurer of Scot- 
 land was created by James I. on his return 
 from captivity in England. The office 
 was modelled on the parallel institution in 
 England, but it seems to have acquired more 
 relative importance, for in 1617 it was de-- 
 clared the first office of State. Commissioners 
 of the treasury were first appointed in Scot- 
 land in 1641, and its separate existence was 
 abolished at the Union. ,A similar step was 
 taken with regard to Ireland in 1816, where 
 lord treasurers seem to have been in existence 
 as early as the reign of Henry III. 
 
 Stubbs, Select ChaHers, Dialogus tJe Scaccario^ 
 
 and Const. Hist., vol. i. cb. ii. and vol. iil. 
 
 ch. 18 ; Haydn, Booh of Dignities. 
 
 Tremasrne, Andrew {d. 1563), one of the 
 conspirators in Sir Henry Dudley's plot (1556), 
 had been suspected of being involved, together 
 with his brother Edward, in Wyatt's rebellion 
 (1554) (q.v.), but nothing was proved against 
 him. In 1560 Tremayne distinguished him- 
 self at the siege of Leith; he was killed at 
 Havre at the same time as his twin brother 
 Nicholas. Mr. Froude calls him " the most 
 gallant of the splendid band of youths who 
 had been driven into exile in Mary's time, 
 and had roved the seas as privateers." 
 
 Stow, Annals; Aikin, Memoirs of the Court of 
 miizabeth. 
 
 Trenchard, John (5. 1650, a. 1695), 
 first sat in the House of Commons in 1678, 
 as member for Taunton. He brought in 
 the first Exclusion Bill. He was imprisoned 
 for his share in the Rye House Con- 
 spiracy, and was a vigorous supporter of 
 the unfortunate invasion of Monmouth. He 
 escaped tb the Continent, and was expressly 
 excepted from the Bill of Pardon of 1686. 
 He returned with William III., and sat as a 
 member of the Convention. In 1693 he was 
 appointed Secretary of State. " Apparently," 
 says Macaulay, " he was not trusted with any 
 of the greater secrets of State, but was little 
 more than a superintendent of police." He 
 displayed great and perhaps excessive zeal in 
 the suppression of the Jacobites. A general 
 search for members of that political per- 
 suasion in Lancashire failed in its efiects, 
 owing to the betrayal of the design. Trenchard 
 was thereupon made the subject of bitter 
 pamphlet attacks. The prosecutions of the 
 arrested men were complete failures. These 
 proceedings were severely commented on by 
 the House. Trenchard's health gave way 
 and he died soon afterwards. 
 
Tre 
 
 ( 1013 ) 
 
 Tri 
 
 Treuchard, John, son of tlie foregoing 
 (i. 1669, d. 1723), is chiefly remarkable as a 
 political writer. In 1698 lie published a 
 pamphlet entitled The Sistory of Standing 
 Armies, in support of Whig doctrines on 
 that subject. He was one of the commissioners 
 appointed by Parliament to examine into the 
 Irish land grants, and issued a most violent 
 report on the subject. " He was," says Mac- 
 aulay, " by calling a pamphleteer, and seems 
 not to be aware that the sharpness of style 
 and temper which may he tolerated in a 
 pamphlet is inexcusable in a State paper." 
 He subsequently published a journal caEed 
 the Independent Whig, and also Data's Letters 
 (1720—23). 
 
 Trent, The Case of the, 1861. The 
 British mail steamer Trent left Havana. (Nov. 
 7, 1861) for St. Thomas with the mails for 
 England, under charge of a commander in the 
 navy, and with numerous passengers, including 
 Messrs. SlideU and Mason, commissioners for 
 the Confederate States. It was stopped (Nov. 
 8) at the entrance to the Bahama Channel, 
 and about nine miles from the island of Cuba, 
 by the American steamship of war San Jacinto, 
 Captain Wilkes. The Confederate Commis- 
 sioners and their secretaries were taken 
 from the mail steamer, which was allowed to 
 proceed on her voyage, and were carried to 
 the United States, wen they were imprisoned 
 in a military fortress. As soon as intelli- 
 gence of this occurrence reached London, 
 Earl Russell, in a despatch on Nov. 30, 1861, 
 assuming that the individuals named had 
 been taken from on board a British vessel, 
 the ship of a neutral power, while such vessel 
 was pursuing a lawful and innocent voyage, 
 instructed Lord Lyons to demand their re- 
 lease and a suitable apology. This note 
 was supported by communications from 
 France, . Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Italy, 
 sustaining the views of the British govern- 
 ment. Mr. Seward, the American Secretary 
 of State, justified the seizure on the 
 grounds that the commissioners were con- 
 traband of war, and that Captain Wilkes 
 was entitled to seize them as enemies or 
 rebels. He denied the immunity of the 
 Trent as a packet-boat, and declared that 
 Captain Wilkes had exercised the right of 
 search in a perfectly legal manner. He 
 conceded, however, that Wilkes was guilty 
 of an irregularity in not sending the vessel 
 into an American port to he tried by a 
 prize court, and finally based his acquiescence 
 in the British demand on considerations con- 
 nected with the complaiuts previously made 
 by the United States as to the impressment 
 of seamen from their vessels. The question 
 was thus settled. Lord Bussell, however, in 
 a despatch of Jan. 11, 1862, explicitly denied 
 that the commissioners could in any sense he 
 described as contraband of war. 
 
 The Times, 1861-2 ; Annual Segister, 1861. 
 
 Tresilian, Sir Eobeet {d. 1388), was 
 appointed Chief Justice of England in 1381. 
 His first act was to try the insurgents of Wat 
 Tyler's rebellion, and he performed his duty 
 with such cruelty that no parallel can be 
 found for his conduct till the campaign of 
 Judge Jeffreys. He attached himself to the 
 king and De Vere," and by his advice Richard 
 annulled the Commission of Regency which 
 had been appointed in 1 386, Tresilian inducing 
 the judges to join him in declaring that the 
 commission was derogatory to the royalty of 
 the king. When Parliament met in 1387, the 
 barons were determined on his punishment ; 
 he was deprived of his office and appealed of 
 treason. He sought refuge in flight, hut was 
 captured and hanged at Tyburn. 
 
 Trevor, Sir John (J. 1633, d. 1717), was, 
 says Macaulay, " bred half a pettifogger, and 
 half a gambler." He was called to the bar in 
 1661. He was a creature of Judge Jeffreys', 
 and as such was chosen Speaker in 1685. 
 Shortly afterwards he became Master of the 
 Rolls. After the Revolution he was sworn 
 of the Privy Council. He was employed by 
 Lord Caermarthen to buy the votes of the 
 House of Commons. He again became 
 Speaker in 1690, without opposition. We 
 find him attempting to reconcile the non- 
 juring bishops to the Church of England, but 
 without success. He was subsequently created 
 First Conimissioner of the Great Seal, which 
 duty he did not adequately perform owing to 
 the time he was ohHged to spend in the 
 House of Commons. In 1695 he was accused 
 of corruption, having received from the City 
 of LonUon £1,000 for expediting a local hill. 
 It was known that he pocketed £6,000 a year 
 beyond his official salary. In his place he 
 was forced to put the question and declare the 
 " ayes " had it. Next day he avoided putting 
 the vote for his expulsion by pleading illness. 
 He was, however, expelled the House. 
 
 Commons' Journals ; Burnet, Hist, of Sis Own 
 Time; Macaulay, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Triers, The Commission of, was es- 
 tablished by Cromwell (March, 1654). Crom- 
 well regulated the Church by means of two 
 ordinances, one of which established local 
 committees to eject unfit ministers, whilst the 
 other estahhshed a central committee to 
 examine ministers newly appointed. The 
 latter, or Cgmmission of Triers, consisted of 
 thirty-eight persons, of whom nine were 
 laymen and twenty-nine divines, to whom 
 four divines and one layman were afterwards 
 added. Their duty was to examine all future 
 presentees to livings and all who had been 
 appointed since April 1, 1653. Their certi- 
 ficate of fitness was to be regarded as qualify- 
 ing candidates to receive the ministerial 
 stipend, but it was expressly declared that it 
 was not to be regarded as "any solemn or 
 sacred setting apart for the oificB of the 
 ministry." Baxter, though a Presbyterian, 
 
Tri 
 
 ( 1014 
 
 Tri 
 
 says, " To give them their due, they did 
 abundance of good to the Church." " They 
 saved many a congregation from ignorant, 
 ungodly, drunken teachers." He goes on to 
 add that they were too partial to Independ- 
 ents and Separatists, " yet so great was the 
 benefit above the hurt which they brought to 
 the Church, that many thousands of souls 
 blessed God for the faithful ministers whom 
 they let in." 
 
 Masson, ii/e of Milton, 
 
 Trim, The Eemonstrance or (1643), was 
 a document drawn up by the Irish Catholics, 
 and transmitted to the king through Ormonde. 
 In it they complain of the penal laws and 
 disabilities they have been suffering under 
 since the 2nd Elizabeth, and also of the 
 conduct of the Lord Justices in 164], and of 
 the threats of the English Parliament ; they 
 conclude with an offer of 10,000 men to 
 defend the king's prerogative. The cessation 
 soon followed. 
 
 Trimbuc^ee Baiuglia was an un- 
 worthy favourite of the Peishwa Bajee Rao, 
 who had been originally a spy. In 1814 he 
 treacherously murdered Gungadhur Shastree. 
 He was in consequence demanded by and 
 surrendered after some delay to the English 
 government (1815). In 1816 he effected his 
 escape from the fort of Tannah. At the end 
 of the Mahratta and Pindarrie war he was 
 arrested, imprisoned, and died in the fortress 
 of Chunar. 
 
 Trimmers, The, were a party of politi- 
 cians who formed a third party in Parliament 
 in the reign of Charles II., about 1680, 
 between the Whigs and the Tories as they 
 came to be called. Their leader, Halifax, 
 was a Trimmer on principle, and looked upon 
 the title as one of honour. True to their 
 character, they voted in the Upper House 
 against the Exclusion BiU, although they 
 were known to be opposed to the Duke of 
 York. 
 
 Halifacs, Character of a Trimmer . 
 
 Trinidad, the most southerly of the 
 West India Islands, was discovered by 
 Columbus in 1498, and was for many years 
 used by the Spaniards as a victualling station 
 for their ships. In 1595 it was attacked by 
 Sir Walter Ealeigh, and in 1676 was ravaged 
 by the French. In 1783 a free grant of 
 lEind was promised by the King of Spain 
 to every Catholic settler, and the result was a 
 great immigration from other colonies, the bulk 
 of the new-comers being Frenchmen. In 1797 
 Trinidad was taken by a British force .under 
 Sir Ralph Abercrombie and Admiral Harvey, 
 and by the peace of 1802 England was con- 
 firmed in the possession of the' island. Imme- 
 diately after the occupation by the British, 
 numbers of settlers arrived from Scotland and 
 Ireland, and ever since that time the island 
 has been making rapid progress in productive- 
 
 ness. In 1834 negro emancipation was ac- 
 cepted without any of the disturbances which 
 proved so ruinous to Jamaica, and as a con- 
 sequence Trinidad, with only a fifth of the 
 population of Jamaica, exports about as much 
 sugar as that island. It is a crown colony, 
 the administration being vested in a governor, 
 an executive council, and a legislative council, 
 nominated by the crown. 
 
 Edwards, West Indies; B. M. Martin, British 
 Colonies ; Creasy, Britannia Empire. 
 
 Trinoda Necessitas, «.«-, the three- 
 fold necessity of repairing bridges (bricg-bot), 
 keeping up fortifications (burh-bot), and per- 
 forming military service (fyrd), was incumbent 
 on every holder of land in Anglo-Saxon 
 times, even if he were exempt from every 
 other service. The earliest mention of the 
 trinoda necessitas occurs in the beginning of 
 the eighth century. [Feudalism.] 
 
 Tripartite Chronicle, The, is the 
 title of a Latin poem by John Gower, in which 
 he describes the chief events of the reign of 
 liichard II. As the name implies, it is 
 divided into three parts. The first, entitled 
 " Opus Humanum," treats of the Wonderful 
 Parliament and the rule of Gloucester and 
 the barons ; the second part, " Opus Infemi," 
 relates the revenge taken by Richard on the 
 Appellants ; while the third, " Opus in 
 Christo," deals with the deposition of Richard 
 and the substitutiop. of Henry. It is written 
 throughout with a strong bias in favour of 
 the Lancastrians, but contains much interest- 
 ing information as to the state of England at 
 the end of the fourteenth century. 
 
 Triple Alliance, The (Jan. 23, 1668), 
 was made, chiefly by the exertions of Sir 
 WiDiam Temple and the Dutch statesman 
 De Witt, between England, Holland, and 
 Sweden. The three powers bound themselves 
 to assist one another against France, and 
 especially in checking the aggressions of 
 Louis XIV. in the Spanish Netherlands. 
 Finding himself threatened by this powerful 
 coalition, Louis was compelled in the same 
 year to make the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 (q.v.) with Spain, by which he, while re- 
 taining many of the border fortresses of the 
 Netherlands, gave up Franche-Comte, which 
 he had also conquered, and agreed to retire 
 from the Netherlands, while the Spaniards 
 ceded to him many important frontier towns. 
 The Triple Alliance, however, was of short 
 duration, and was reversed two years after- 
 wards by the Treaty of Dover, concluded 
 between England and France (1670), and 
 directed against Holland. 
 
 Banlce, Hist, of Eng., and Fransost'scJie Ge- 
 
 schichte ; Martin, Hist, de France ; Carlsson, 
 
 Geschichte von Schvieden, 
 
 Triple Alliance (India) (JiQy 4, 1790) 
 was concluded between the Company, under 
 Lord Comwallis' governorship, the Nizam and 
 the Peishwa. Its stipulations were that the 
 
Tri 
 
 ( 1015 ) 
 
 Tud 
 
 three powers should attack Tippoo's dominions, 
 both during and after the rains, and prosecute 
 the -war with vigour ; that the Mahrattas and 
 Nizam should join the EngKsh, if required, 
 with 10,000 horse, for which they were to he 
 fully reimbursed ; that a British contingent 
 should accompany their troops ; that aU con- 
 quests should be equally divided; and that 
 none should make peace without the rest. 
 
 CornwaUis, Despatches; Mill, Hist, of India, 
 Trivet, or Tkiveth, Nicholas (i. 1258, 
 d. ? 1358), was the son of Sir Thomas Trivet, 
 Chief Justice of the King's Bench. He 
 entered the Dominican order, and on his 
 death-bed attained the position of prior. His 
 Annates Sex Begum Angliie (1136 — 1307) 
 have passed through several editions, of 
 which the most accessible is that published 
 by the English Historical Society in 1845. 
 TTiey are also to be found in Luc d'Achery, 
 Spicilegium, torn. 3. The work is chiefly a 
 compilation from difEerent authorities, but 
 the latter part contains some interesting 
 original matter. Mr. Gtairdner says : " In 
 clearness of narrative and distinctness of 
 statement it exhibits a marked advance upon 
 the ordinary chronicles of the time. The 
 language, too, is polished and elegant." 
 
 TrokelO'we, John op W.fl343), was a 
 monk of Tynemouth, but in consequence of 
 an act of disobedience was, about 1295, re- 
 moved in chains to St. Albans, where he 
 was employed to continue the Chronicle of 
 Itishanger. His Annals extend from 1307 to 
 1323, and are valuable as contemporary 
 authorities. 
 
 Trotelow^'g Annals have fceen putlislied in 
 the Bolls Series. 
 
 Trollop, Sir Anixrew {d. 1461), served 
 in the French wars, and on the outbreak of 
 the Wars of the Eoses joined the Duke of 
 York. In 1459, after the battle of Blue 
 Heath, the combined forces of York, Salis- 
 bury, and Warwick assembled at Ludford, 
 close to Lndlow. Here they were confronted 
 by the king, and a battle was imminent, when 
 Trollop deserted with a considerable body of 
 men to Henry. His defection caused the 
 Yorkists to retreat in disorder. Trollop com- 
 manded the van of the Lancastrians at the 
 battle of Towton, where he was slain. 
 
 Trot of Turriff, The, was a name 
 given to a defeat of the Covenanters at 
 Turriff by the Gordon.^ (May, 1639). 
 
 Troyes, The Peace op (1564), was con- 
 cluded, after the surrender of Havre, between 
 IVance and England. By it the queen's 
 mother undertook to pay 120,000 crowns to 
 England, free trade was to be allowed, and the 
 French hostages were to be released. The 
 English agents were Sir Thomas Smith and 
 Sir Nicholas Throgmorton. 
 
 Troyes, The Treaty of (May 21, 1420), 
 was concluded between Henry V., Charles VI., 
 
 King of France, and the Burgundian party. 
 The Dauphin and the Armagnacs were still in 
 arms, and refused to recognise the treaty. 
 The terms agreed upon were that the English 
 king should cease to bear the title of King of 
 France ; Henry should have the title of 
 regent and heir of France ; Henry promised 
 to maintain the French Parliaments in their 
 privileges, and to preserve the privileges of all 
 individuals, and aU the laws and customs of 
 the realm of France. Henry promised to 
 restore to the French king all cities, castles, 
 &c., that had revolted from him, "being on 
 the side called that of the Dauphin and of 
 Armagnao ; " Normandy and aU parts and 
 cities conquered by King Henry were to be re- 
 stored to France as soon as Henry succeeded 
 to the throne of France ; Henry of England 
 was to succeed on the next vacancy to the 
 throne of France ; the two crowns were to be 
 for ever united ; each realm was to have its 
 own laws and government, and neither was 
 to be in any way subject to the other ; finally^ 
 Henry was forthwith to espouse Catherine, 
 daughter of the King of France. 
 
 Truro, Thomas Wilde, Lord (b. 1782, 
 d. 1855), was the son of an attorney; was 
 educated at St. Paul's School ; was called to 
 the bar at the Inner Temple (1817) ; and 
 rose steadily in his profession. In 1820 he 
 was engaged as one of the counsel for 
 Queen Caroline on her trial. He entered 
 the House of Commons for Newark (1831) ; 
 lost his seat in 1832 ; but was returned in 
 1835, 1837, 1839. In 1839 he became 
 Solicitor-General, and in 1841 he was ad- 
 vanced to the Attorney-Generalship, but re- 
 tired the same year with his party In 1846 
 he was. again Attorney-General, and in 1850 
 was made Lord Chancellor by Lord John 
 Russell, and created a peer. In 1852 he re- 
 tired with his party. As Lord Chancellor, he 
 appointed a commission to inquire into the 
 jurisdiction, pleading, and practice of the 
 Court of Chancery. Their report recom- 
 mended the abolition of the masters' offices, 
 a measure which Lord Truro succeeded in 
 passing though he had quitted office at the 
 time. Several other important reforms in the 
 procedure of the Chancery court and offices 
 were effected by him. 
 
 Tudor, The Family op, was of Welsh 
 origin, Tudor being probably a corruption of 
 Theodore. The first of the TudorS of whom we 
 have individual knowledge was Owen Tudor, 
 a gentleman who fought during the Wars 
 of the Koses on the Lancastrian side, and 
 who married Catherine of Valois, the widow 
 of Henry T. By her he had two sons, Ed- 
 mond and Jasper, whom Henry TI. created 
 Earls of Eichmond and Pembroke. The mar- 
 riage of the Earl of Eichmond with Margaret, 
 daughter of John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset, 
 who. was the heiress of the illegitimate branch 
 of the House of Lancaster, founded the for- 
 
Tud 
 
 { 1016 ) 
 
 Tud 
 
 tunes of tie race. As soon as the house of 
 York became unpopular, Henry, Earl of 
 Uichniond, the sou of Edmond, was adopted 
 by the party of the Eed Rose as the only 
 possible candidate for the thi'one. When his 
 second attempt to gain the throne was success- 
 ful, Henry became Henry VII., and was care- 
 ful to confirm his dubious claims by marry- 
 ing Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV., 
 and to rule by a 'quasi-Parliamentary title. 
 
 The character of Henry VII. is, to a con- 
 siderable extent, an enigma. He seems to 
 have been regarded by his contemporaries 
 with a mixture of hatred and admiration, 
 the former called forth chiefly by the exac- 
 tions of the last part of his reign. The cen- 
 tral fact of home policy is the systematic 
 repression of the old nobility, already almost 
 exterminated by the Wars of the Roses, and 
 his continuance of the regime of personal 
 goveromeut inaugurated by Edward IV. 
 Abroad he trusted rather to diplomacy than 
 to arms, and the cold mysterious course of 
 action which was adopted also by his contem- 
 poraries Louis XI. of France and Eerdinahd 
 the Catholic, of Spain, gained for them the 
 title of " the three Magi." The marriage of 
 his daughter Margaret with James IV. of 
 Scotland was an instance of singular foresight. 
 His other daughter, Mary, after marrying the 
 decrepit Louis XII. of Prance, was united 
 with her old love Charles Brandon, Duke of 
 Suffolk. One of her daughters was the 
 mother of Lady Jane Grey ; the heiresses of 
 the others married into the, great houses of 
 Seymour and Stanley. 
 
 Few kings have been more popular at the 
 time of their accession than the handsome 
 and accomplished Henry VIII. His title was 
 undisputed, and the able part which he soon 
 began to play in foreign aifairs still further 
 aroused the national enthusiasm. He showed 
 considerable ability in maintaining the balance 
 of power in Europe, and by the aid of Wolsey 
 was able to a great extent to play ofE Ger- 
 many against France, to the great advantage 
 of England. The divorce question, with its 
 momentous consequences, was the turning- 
 point of the reign. Henry, always swayed 
 by passion and impulse, was hurried, the nation 
 apparently silently approving, into a rupture 
 with the papacy, and sweeping measures of 
 ecclesiastical reform, including the Act of 
 Supremacy, and the destruction of the old 
 system of monasticism. The Church aris- 
 tocracy feU before him, as the landed aris- 
 tocracy had fallen before his father, and on 
 their ruins rose a new and subservient nobility. 
 All this time Henry was sincerely Catholic ; 
 [bis hatred of Lutheranism, and his vigorous 
 persecution of it when it appeared in Eng- 
 land, were quite consistent with the publi- 
 cation of the ten articles of religion. 
 During the latter part of his reign Henry 
 was disliked by his subjects, and was con- 
 scious of that dislike. The courage with 
 
 which he still confronted the formidable 
 coalition of the emperor and the pope was 
 not properly appreciated. Cromwell proved a 
 more violently autocratic instrument than 
 Wolsey had been; the king was Texed by 
 agrarian revolts, and troubled by the failure 
 of his marriage projects. During the last 
 years of his life he was occupied chiefly in 
 arranging the succession, and in alternately 
 persecuting and protecting the parties of re- 
 action and of reform. 
 
 The personality of young Edward, a sickly 
 and precocious hothouse plant, is of compara- 
 tively little moment in the history of the house 
 of Tudor. The brief reign divides itself into 
 two periods ; the first, during which the king- 
 dom was under the uncertain guidance of the 
 Protector Somerset, being marked by the 
 violent advance of the Reformation and ter- 
 minating in another agrarian revolt ; the 
 second being occupied by unprincipled in- 
 trigues for the management of the succession. 
 The courage of Mary and the loyalty of the 
 nation thwarted the schemes of Northum- 
 berland, and the Catholics of England, cer- 
 tainly a majority of the gentry, hailed with 
 delight the accession of a sovereign who 
 had suffered persecution and sorrow for the 
 cause. It should not be forgotten that Mary 
 did not begin by shedding blood. She spared 
 Lady Jane Grey as long as she could, 
 but her Tudor pride could brook no opposi- 
 tion, and the popular opposition to her 
 marriage with Philip of Spain only made her 
 the more bent on carrying out the project. 
 By that miserable arrangement she wrecked 
 her life. Her domestic life was utterly 
 blighted. She was embroiled in a disastrous 
 war with France, and finally she was induced 
 by her advisers to enter upon a covu'se of reli- 
 gious persecution, which has since unjustly 
 come to be regarded as the chief, and, perhaps, 
 only, feature of her reign. 
 
 It is impossible here to give more than the 
 merest general outUne of the character and 
 policy of Elizabeth. From the first her atti- 
 tude to Catholicism was perfectly consistent. 
 With little real religious conviction, she was 
 opposed to the papacy from purely political 
 motives, and the Acts of Supremacy and Uni- 
 formity were passed solely as a reply to the 
 denial by Paul IV. of her right to succeed. 
 From the same spirit she acted severely 
 towards the Nonconformists ; the pale of the 
 EngUsh Church was to be as wide as possible, 
 but no independence could be allowed outside 
 of it. In spite of her persecutions, Elizabeth 
 was really tolerant. The whole history of 
 her reign turns upon the religious question, 
 and the religious question in turn upon the 
 succession question. Mary of Scotland was 
 put forward by Catholic Europe as the legiti- 
 mist candidate for the throne, and Philip of 
 Spain, with the Guises at his back, posed as 
 her champion. Elizabeth was, therefore 
 forced, like her father, even though it was 
 
Tud 
 
 ( 1017 ) 
 
 Tun 
 
 against lier will, to abandon a trimming 
 foreign policy, and to become the chief of the 
 Protestant cause ; and yet in the very crisis of 
 the struggle we find her, partly from motives 
 of parsimony, partly from excess of caution, 
 and partly from Tudor reverence for royal 
 authority, acting in disregard of her minis- 
 ters, and starving the rebellions of the 
 Netherlands and of the Huguenots, no less 
 than her own army and navy. It cannot be 
 denied that in her struggle with the great 
 tide of events which was finally stemmed by 
 the Armada, she was favoured by good fortune 
 to an extraordinary degree. Her marriage 
 coquetries nearly wrecked the vessel of state 
 more than once, and her indecision in dealing 
 with Mary Stuart aggravated a very grave 
 crisis. Yet, with all her faults, Elizabeth 
 is among the very greatest of the sovereigns 
 of England. In her personal grace and cul- 
 ture of character, her patriotism, her des- ' 
 potic spirit, which yet understood so well the 
 temper and the needs of the nation, she ex- 
 emplifies the highest qualities of the family, 
 to which, on the whole, Englishmen of later 
 times owe a great debt of gratitude. 
 
 The historian of tlie greater part of the 
 "Tudor period is Mr. Proude, and though critics 
 may differ as to his conclusious, there can be 
 hut one opinion as to the graces of his style. 
 Dr. Lingard on this period requires to be read 
 with caution. Mr. Green is always suggestive. 
 Brewer's Henry VIII. is of great importance. 
 Materials for independent study are to be found 
 in Bacon, Hist of Henry VII. ; Gairdner, Memo- 
 rials of Henry VII.; State Paper.? during the Reign 
 of Henry VIII., and Proceedings of the Privy 
 Council (Eecord Commission), and Calendars 
 of State Papers (EoUs Series) ; Journol of Bd- 
 ■ward VI. (Burnet Collectanea) ; Chronicle of 
 Queen Jane ond Queen Mary (Camden Society) ; 
 Noailles, .^mbassades en Angleterre ; Harrington, 
 Nugos Antiqux ; Bwghley State Papers. 
 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 Tador, Jaspek {d. 1495), created Duke 
 of Bedford at Henry VII. 's coronation, was 
 the second son of Sir Owen Tudor, and 
 consequently an uncle of the founder of the 
 Tudor dynasty. In the Wars of the Hoses he 
 played an active part among the Lancastrian 
 leaders, and it was his defeat at Mortimer's 
 Cross by Edward IV., then known as the 
 Earl of March, that gave Edward the pos- 
 session of London and the crown of Eng- 
 land at the same time. During the Yorkist 
 supremacy Jasper Tudor was an exile. On 
 his nephew's overthrow of Richard III., he 
 was entrusted with the command of the royal 
 forces during the earlier troubles of Henrj-'s 
 reign, and illness alone prevented his taking 
 the leadership during the Cornish rising. 
 
 Tudor, Sib Owen {d. 1461), claimed 
 descent from Cadwaladyr, the last so-called 
 king of Britain, but his origin is very obscure. 
 He seems to have been the godson of Owen 
 Glyndwr, and he first appears in history as 
 one of the band of Welshmen who, under 
 David Gam, fought at Agincourt. Henry V. 
 made him one of the squires of his body, and 
 
 he held the same office to his successor. His 
 handsome person gained him the love of 
 Catherine, widow of Heni'y V., whom he 
 secretly married in 1428. On Catherine's 
 death he was imprisoned in Newgate, whence, 
 however, he escaped twice, and was subse- 
 quently received into favour by Henry VI. 
 He fought on the Lancastrian side in the 
 Wars of the Roses, and was taken prisoner in 
 the battle of Mortimer's Cross,, carried to 
 Hereford, and beheaded there. By his wife 
 he had two sons, Edmund, Earl of Richmond, 
 father of Henry VII., and Jasper, Earl of 
 Pembroke. 
 
 Tulchau Bishops, The, was a name 
 given to the creatures of the Regent Morton, 
 who were appointed to sees in accordance with 
 the enactments of the Leith Convention (Jan., 
 1572) and the Perth Assembly later in the 
 same year. The commissioners at Leith were 
 the mere dupes and tools of a rapacious court, 
 and a strange, heterogeneous compound of 
 popery, prelacy, and presbytery was author- 
 ised, by which the avaricious nobility 
 imagined they had secured' their long- 
 cherished design of obtaining for them- 
 selves the real possession of the wealth 
 of the Church. It was decided (though the 
 true nature of the transaction was veiled 
 as far as possible) that as much valuable 
 Church property could only be held by bishops, 
 prelacy should continue, and creatures of the 
 court should be appointed, who were to pay 
 for their promotion by making over large 
 portions of their temporalities to their patron, 
 whoever he might be, who had procured their 
 election. The new dignitaries quickly acquired 
 the name of "Tulchan" bishops (from tulchan, 
 a calf's skin, stiifEed with straw, which was 
 used in the Highlands to induce cows who 
 had lost their calves to give their milk 
 readily), for "the bishop had the title, but 
 my lord got the milk, or commoditie." " Everj"- 
 lord," says James Melville in his Diary, "got 
 a bishopric, and sought and presented to the 
 kirk such a man as would be content with 
 least, and get them most of tacks, feus, and 
 pensions." 
 
 Cunningham, Hist of the Cliurch of Scotland ; 
 Hetherington, Hist, oj the Church of Scotland. 
 
 Tunnage and Poundage, a duty 
 which, at first fluctuating, was eventually 
 fixed at 3s. on every tun of wine, and five 
 per cent, on all goods imported. It appears 
 to have been first voted by the Commons in 
 1308. The original intention was that it 
 should be applied to the protection of the 
 merchant navy ; and in Sir John Fortesoue's 
 scheme of reform we find that it was regarded 
 as dedicated to that purpose. Nevertheless, 
 the custom of voting the duty to the king for 
 life, which was begun in the reign of HenryV., 
 soon caused it to be looked upon as part of 
 the royal revenue. Accordingly some indig- 
 nation was not unreasonably excited in the 
 
Tun 
 
 ( 1018 ) 
 
 Tur 
 
 court when, on the accession of Charles I., the 
 Commons proceeded to vote it for one year 
 only. The House of Lords rejected the bill 
 on account of its innovatiug tendency, and 
 Charles proceeded to try and levy the tax hy 
 royal authority, but the London merchants 
 refused to pay it. A remonstrance was carried 
 against this conduct in 1629, and, though 
 Charles declared that tunnage and poundage 
 was what he would not give away, and pro- 
 rogued Parliament in order to avoid receiving 
 the remonstrance, he was compelled in the fol- 
 lowing year to consent to an Act renouncing 
 the power of levying- the tax without the 
 consent of Parliament. In 1641 the prero- 
 gative of levying customs on merchandise 
 was abolished by an Act which granted 
 tunnage and poundage for two months only. 
 After the Restoration, tunnage and poundage 
 was voted for life to Charles II. and James II., 
 but only for Hmited periods to William III. 
 In the reign of Anne it was made perpetual, 
 and applied to the diminution of the na- 
 tional debt. It was finally abolished by Pitt's 
 Customs Consolidation Act of 1787. 
 
 Tunstal, CuTmiERT (b. 1474, d. 1559), was 
 made Bishop of London (1522), and afterwards 
 of Durham (1524) by Hem-y VIII., who, 
 after having employed him on various diplo- 
 matic missions, also named him in his will as 
 one of the council of executors during the 
 minority of Edward VI. In 1547 he was 
 excluded from the council for his opposition 
 to the party of the Reformation, and was 
 shortly afterwards sent to the Tower for the 
 same reason, though the ostensible charge 
 against him was complicity in the schemes of 
 Somerset. In 1553 he was released by Mary, 
 and appointed a commissioner to inquire into 
 the condition of the Protestant bishops, though 
 he appears to have been a lenient inquisitor. 
 On the accession of Elizabeth, Tunstal was 
 deprived of his bishopric for refusing to take 
 the oath of supremacy. 
 
 rroude, Jlist. of Bng ; Sharon Turner, Hist, of 
 Eng. ; Burnet, Hist, of the Reformation. 
 
 Turkey, Relations with. The relations 
 between England and the earher Turkish king- 
 doms will be found under the head of Crusades. 
 The dealings between England and the Otto- 
 man Turks began with the reign of Elizabeth, 
 when not only did commercial relations of 
 some importance spring up, but the queen 
 sought their assistance against the Spaniards. 
 In 1579 three merchants (Harebone, EUis, 
 and Staple) visited Constantinople, and ob- 
 tained for English merchants equal privileges 
 to those of other countries. In 1583 Harebone 
 became English ambassador to the Porte, and 
 Elizabeth did not scruple in 1587 to invoke 
 the aid of the Turks against the " idolatrous 
 Spaniard and Pope." To these advances the 
 Turks seem to have made no answer. Their 
 State was already decaying, and Roe, James 
 I.'s envoy, in 1622, tells emphatically how it 
 
 had become " like an old body, crazed through 
 many vices." During the seventeenth cen- 
 tury a renewal of vigour gave the lie to R.oe's 
 prophecy of speedy dissolution, and Puritan 
 England, on the whole, looked with favour on 
 the power that checked the Catholic Austrians 
 on the Danube, and so saved Protestant 
 Germany. Louis XIV. 's alliance with Turkey, 
 however, turned things the other way. Yet 
 at the Congress of Garlovitz (1699) the Eng- 
 lish ambassador did his best to minimise the 
 cessions of Turkish territory, and Sultan 
 Achmet III. expressed his strong sense of 
 gratitude for the efforts made by the Enghsh 
 in their behalf. The general aUianee between 
 England and Russia during the early part of 
 the eighteenth century involved us in some 
 hostility to the Turks. The government of 
 George III. protected the Russian fleet, which 
 in 1768 sailed to the help of the revolted 
 Greeks, and its acquiescence in the partition 
 of Poland implied approval of the aggressions 
 against Turkey. During the Coalition Minis- 
 try Fox acquiesced in the annexation of the 
 Crimea. At last Pitt started the poliey of 
 opposition to Russian aggression, and of 
 consequent support to Turkey in its struggle 
 against Catherine and Joseph II. In 1807 
 Duckworth's disastrous expedition to Con- 
 stantinople was designed to punish the alliance 
 of Turkey and Napoleon. After the close of 
 the Napoleonic war, England's policy has con- 
 stantly tended to support Turkey as a neces- 
 sary bulwark against Russia, but the diifi- 
 culties created by Turkish misgovernment, 
 and the impossibility of cordially supporting 
 so effete a system, have largely modified the 
 general idea in practice, and Turkey, although 
 helped, has never been really treated as an 
 independent power. The Greek insurrection 
 nowhere excited more sympathy than in 
 England ; yet England, after Navarino, drew 
 back, and, while giving Greece her liberty, 
 limited her power, and narrowed her frontiers. 
 Similarly in 1832 it hesitated to help Sultan 
 Mahmoud against Mehemet Ali, and then, 
 after Russia had sent a force against the 
 rebellious Egyptian, joined with that power 
 and France in restraining his advances. In 
 1839 Enghsh support of Turkey, again at- 
 tacked by Mehemet and Ibrahim, was more 
 thorough and decisive. In 1840 England, 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia joined with 
 Turkey in a treat}- defining the terms of 
 their intervention. An English fleet under 
 Stopford and Napier bombarded Beyrout and 
 Acre, and drove Ibrahim out of Syria. In 
 1854 the English joined with France in the 
 Crimean War (q.v.) for the defence of Turkey ; 
 but the success of the allies could only post- 
 pone the decay of their protege. In 1858 
 England recognised the practical independ- 
 ence of Roumania; yet in 1860 it assisted in 
 maintaining order in Syria [Lebanon Ques- 
 tion], and in 1867 in subduing Crete. In 
 1877 the outbreak of Greek insurrections in 
 
Tnr 
 
 ( 1019 ) 
 
 Tyl 
 
 connection with a war between Turkey and 
 Russia, again brought forward the question 
 of the relation of England to the decaying 
 State. Ultimately the Treaty of Berlin main- 
 tained the European peace, while recognising 
 that the gradual reconstitution of the Turkish 
 peninsula into autonomous Christian States 
 is the only practical solution of the question. 
 Erom that time the alliance of England and 
 Turkey may be regarded as practically ended. 
 Creasy, Ottoman Turhs; Vou Haemmer, Ge- 
 schickte der Osmanen. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Turk's Islands and Caicos (or 
 
 Keys), which form part of the Bahamas, were 
 separated from the government of those islands 
 in 1848. They were in that year formed into 
 a presidency under the government of Jamaica, 
 and affairs were administered by a president 
 appointed by the crown, assisted by a council 
 composed of eight members, four of whom 
 wore elected, and four nominated by the 
 crown. In 1873 the Turk's Islands were 
 annexed to Jamaica, and the government was 
 locally vested in a commissioner, assisted by 
 a legislative council. 
 
 Tutburyt io- Staffordshire, twenty miles 
 from Stafford, was granted by WiUiam the 
 Conqueror to Henry de Ferrars, who built 
 the castle. In 1322 it was garrisoned against 
 Edward II. by Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, 
 but surrendered. In 1350 John of Gaunt re- 
 built the castle for his wife's residence. In 
 1568-9 Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned 
 there, under the charge of the Earl of Shrews- 
 bury, but after a few months was removed to 
 Wingfield. In 1585 she was again brought 
 back to Tutbury, in charge of Sir Amyas 
 Paulet, and remained there until her removal 
 to Chartley. Tutbury was frequently visited 
 by James I. and Charles I., for the latter of 
 whom it was garrisoned by Lord Lough- 
 borough in the Civil "War. It was taken and 
 dismantled by the Parliamentary troops under 
 Brereton (1646). 
 
 Twenge, Sm Robeet, a knight of York- 
 shire, organised a secret society in. the year 
 1231, the object of which was to prevent the 
 intrusion of foreigners into English benefices. 
 Under his leadership masked men went about 
 the country seizing the foreign ecclesiastics, 
 piUaging their bams, and giving the corn to 
 the poor. These doings were openly connived 
 at by many of the leading men in the kingdom, 
 and when Twenge went to Rome he took 
 with him letters from the chief men in the 
 realm remonstrating against the papal aggres- 
 sion. The pope was obliged to yield, and 
 promised never again to interfere with the 
 rights of patrons, but the promise was not 
 kept long, as soon afterwards we find ftrosse- 
 teste and others complaining of the number 
 of Italians holding benefices in England. 
 
 Tyler.WAT, Rebellion or (1381). Thisout- 
 break, the only spontaneous popular rising on a 
 
 grand scale that our history presents, was as 
 brief as it was fierce and general ; all its in- 
 cidents lie within three weeks of June, 1.381. 
 The Tylers' Rebellion would name it more ac- 
 curately, five at least of its leaders having been 
 of that surname and occupation, though AVat 
 of Maidstone alone has attained to historic 
 fame. It has several singular and one or two 
 inexplicable features ; many and varied causes 
 contributed to it ; many and varied interests 
 engaged in it ; a seemingly sudden and isolated 
 outburst kindled into flame a dozen of shires 
 with an approach to simultaneousness possible 
 only to concert and organisation ; and after 
 blazing furiously and in apparently irresist- 
 ible might for a week or two, it sank into 
 extinction as suddenly as it had risen. We 
 catch a glimpse of an actual organisation in 
 the celebrated letter of John Ball to the 
 Commons of Kent. The force that produced 
 the movement was made up of many simples, 
 some of them opposite to one another. The 
 exasperation of country artisans and unskilled 
 labourers at the Statute of Labourers and 
 with the too prosperous Flemings that had 
 been imported, of city mechanics disabled in 
 many directions by the gilds, of rustics at 
 the revival of claims on the services that they 
 had deemed obsolete, of the small farmers of 
 Kent with landlords and lawyers, of disbanded 
 soldiers at want of employment, formed a 
 social contribution; discontent stirred by 
 the leveUing doctrines of Lollard agents in 
 some places, clerical rage at alleged wrongs 
 in others, formed a religious ; the general 
 severity of taxation and the particular offen- 
 siveness of the lately imposed poU-tax, hatred 
 of John of Gaunt with some, faith in John 
 of Gaunt with others, formed a political. 
 These and other feelings condensed themselves 
 into a bitter sense of wrong almost universal 
 among the population that Hved by the work 
 of their hands. But the taxation and re- 
 vival of villenage grievances were the 
 strongest. The earliest rushes to arms were 
 made nearly on the same day in Kent and 
 Essex. Starting from Dartford on June 5, 
 the Kentish movement had in a week made 
 the circuit of the county, and drawn together 
 an enormous host from town and country. 
 On June 13 Wat Tyler led this host into 
 London, then entirely defenceless. The in- 
 stinct of destruction was powerful in these 
 men, and vented itself on everything con- 
 nected with what they most hated. They 
 wrecked John of Gaunt's palace of the Savoy 
 and the house of the Hospitallers at Clerken- 
 well, destroyed Temple Bar, killed every 
 lawyer and Fleming they could find, and 
 burnt every legal record they could lay their 
 hands on. Then they occupied Tower Hill. 
 On the same day the men of Essex, who had 
 first risen at Fobbing, and murdered the Chief 
 Justice and jurors, appeared at Mile End, 
 while the men of Hertfordshire took up their 
 position at Highbury. These were chiefly 
 
Tyn 
 
 ( 1020 ) 
 
 Tyr 
 
 rustics, indignant at present and prospective 
 treatment. Yet their conduct -was com- 
 paratively free from violence. They de- 
 manded (1) the aholition of vUlenage, (2) a 
 general pardon, (3) liberty to huy and sell 
 untoUed in all fairs and markets, and (4) the 
 fixing of the rent of their lands at fourpence 
 an acre. Next > day Richard left the Tower, 
 met them at Mile End, listened to the tale of 
 their grievances, promised them all they 
 asked, and persuaded them to go home. 
 During his absence the Kentish men burst 
 into the Tower, flooded its rooms, insulted 
 the king's mother, dragged out Simon of 
 Sudbury, Primate and Chancellor, Sir Robert 
 Hales, and Legge, the farmer of the poll-tax, 
 and had their heads struck ofE on Tower HUl. 
 The ensuing night Richard passed at the 
 "Wardrobe; and next morning (June 15) he 
 encountered the rebels in Smithfield. There, 
 whUe parleying with the king and wrangling 
 with Sir Robert Newton, Tyler was suddenly 
 smitten down by "Walworth, the mayor, and 
 slain by the king's followers. Richard's 
 coolness and tact disarmed the rebels of the 
 fury that rose within them at this deed ; he 
 put himself at their head, led them to 
 Islington, and by granting the required 
 liberating charter on the spot, induced them 
 to march away home. Meantime most of the 
 other southern and midland counties were in 
 arms, the nobility and clergy retiring into 
 their fortified houses and leaving the open 
 country to the mercy of the rebels ; and 
 murderous deeds were done in many places. 
 But the insm-gents of Norfolk, Cambridge, 
 and Huntingdon met a redoubtable antagonist 
 in Henry Spencer, Bishop of Norwich, who 
 saHied forth, and striking fiercely at their 
 roving bands, broke them in pieces one by 
 one, capturing, trying, and sending to the 
 gallows their most active leaders, notably the 
 formidable John Lytstere, whom men called 
 King of the Commons. Before these decisive 
 measures and the news of the doings in 
 London, the insurrection quickly subsided. 
 Then the work of vengeance began. The 
 charters were revoked — indeed, the king had 
 exceeded his prerogative in granting them — 
 and the courts of law passed the autumn in 
 handing over wretches to the hangman. 
 Though the worst excesses of the revolt had 
 been perpetrated by the political insurgents, 
 these were gratified with a change of ad- 
 ministration, while Parliament refused the 
 really aggrieved and well-behaved rustics the 
 redress they had sought. But their blood 
 had not been shed in vain ; the landlord class, 
 made wiser by the terrible lesson, desisted from 
 further prosecution of their claims, and allowed 
 free play to the liberating tendency of the age. 
 Liugard, Hist. ofEng. : Rogers, Hist, of Prices ; 
 Pauli, Geschiclite von JEnqland: Stubbs, Const. 
 Hist. • [J. K.] 
 
 Tyndall, William (b. U84, d. 1536), the 
 translator of the Bible, was a student both at 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge, and at the latter 
 University probably came under the influence 
 of Erasmus. "While tutor in the family of Sir 
 John "Walsh, in Gloucestershire, he translated 
 the Enchiridion of Erasmus, and for that, and 
 his known anti-clerical views, fell under the 
 displeasure of the bishop. In 1523 he went to 
 London and tried to obtain assistance for his 
 projected translation of the Bible. Failing to 
 do so, however, he sailed for Hamburg, and 
 there printed his first two gospels. During 
 the rest of his life he kept himseU f or the most 
 part in retirement, in company with his friend 
 Fryth, his headquarters being at Antwerp, 
 where he was befriended by English mer- 
 chants. In 1529 the printing of Lutheran 
 books was prohibited by a treaty between 
 Henry VIII. and the Governors of the 
 Netherlands. At length he was seized, at 
 the instigation of Henry, when he went 
 beyond the liberties of Antwerp, and was 
 burnt by the order of the Emperor. 
 The first part of the quarto edition of his 
 translation of the New Testament reached 
 England in 1525, the Pentateuch, in which 
 he was assisted by Miles Coverdale, in 1530, 
 and four editions of "His New Testament were 
 printed at Antwerp in 1534. About forty 
 editions were afterwards published. 
 
 Foxe, Acts and. Monuments ; Fry, Biographical 
 Description of the Editions of the JVeiy Testament. 
 
 Tyroonnel, Richaud Talbot, Earl of 
 {d. 1G91), was one of the most dissolute and 
 abandoned of the persons attached to Charles 
 II. 's court. In 1660 he took the lead in the 
 infamous plot to defame the character of 
 Anne Hyde. In 1677, after being engaged 
 in a long course of devious intrigues, he was 
 arrested as a Catholic conspirator, and ban- 
 ished. In 1685, however, he was restored to 
 favour, and created Earl of Tyrconnel, 
 and the following year sent to Ireland as 
 Commander-in-Chief, He now became the 
 champion of the Irish Catholics, and went 
 to England, and tried to persuade James 
 to repeal the Act of Settlement. He returned 
 to Ireland in Feb., 1687, as Lord Deputy. 
 The magistracy, the judicial bench, and the 
 corporations were at once filled with Catholics, 
 and the troops encouraged in all excesses 
 against Protestants. "When the news of 
 James' flight reached Tyrconnel in 1689, he 
 raised over 100,000 men, and in February 
 Londonderry and EnniskiUen alone held out 
 against him. At the Boyne he commanded 
 the Irish infantry. In 1690 he was for 
 abandoning Limerick, and left it to its fate as 
 far as he himself was concerned, and went to 
 France. In the spring of 1691 he returned 
 to Ireland, and was received with great 
 respect, though the Irish had asked for a more 
 energetic leader, and though it was known 
 that he hated Sarsfield and St. Ruth. The 
 fall of Athlone was attributed to his fa- 
 vouritism of Maxwell, and he had to leave 
 the camp and go to Limerick. After Aghrim 
 
Tyr 
 
 ( 1021 ) 
 
 Uls 
 
 he was in better favour, but died in August 
 1691. ' 
 
 Froude, JBmj. in Ireland; Maoaulay Hiat of 
 Eitg. ; Siory, Cordimuiiim,. 
 
 Tyrell, Sir James {d. 1502), was popularly 
 supposed to have been the murderer of the 
 young princes, Edward V. and Kichard, Duke 
 of York, when imprisoned by their uncle, 
 Eichard of Gloucester, in the Tower. The 
 charge, however, is insufficiently supported 
 by proof, and was not brought forward until 
 after Tyrell's execution in 1502 as a confede- 
 rate of the fugitive Earl of Suffolk. Tyrell 
 had been for some time employed by Henry in 
 the important position of Captain of Guisnos. 
 
 Tyrrel, or Tikel, Siii Walter, is gene- 
 rally credited with having accidentally slain 
 William Eufus in the New Forest. Tirol 
 himself denied the charge, but the facts that 
 his name appears as the murderer in almost 
 all the authorities for this period, and that he 
 immediately fled across sea, seem to point to 
 him as the actual homicide. 
 
 Uchtred of Galloway {d. circa 1178), the 
 son of Fergus, joined his brother Gilbert in 
 revolt against William the Lion (1174). A 
 few months later he was murdered by his 
 nephew Malcolm, at the instigation of Gilbert. 
 
 Udal, John (d. 1592), a Puritan minister, 
 was tried at Croj'don for the publication of a 
 work called JL Demonstration of HiscipUne, 
 which was alleged to be " a libel on the person 
 of the queen, because it inveighed against 
 the government of the Church established by 
 her authority." Udal was condemned to death, 
 but was spared at the intercession of Sir 
 Walter Baleigh. He died in prison after his 
 pardon had actually been made out. 
 
 Neal, Hist, of the Puritans j Burnet, Sist, of 
 the Reformation. 
 
 TJSa,, King of East Anglia, is said to have 
 been the son of Wehla, the founder of the 
 kingdom. From him the kings of the East 
 Angles were considered to derive their descent, 
 and for this reason were called tiffingas. 
 Bede, Sist. Eccles. 
 
 Uhtred, the son of Earl Waltheof, 
 defeated the Scotch towards the commence- 
 ment of the eleventh century, and thus saved 
 the City of Durham (1006). For this he was 
 rewarded with both the earldom of Deira and 
 Bernicia. In 1013 he submitted to King 
 Swegen, but in the course of the same year 
 joined Edmund, only, however, to submit 
 once more to Canute when that king gained 
 the upper hand. TJhtred was, however, now 
 murdered at the instigation of his old enemy 
 Thurbrand (1016). 
 
 Tllf, Bishop of Dorchester, succeeded 
 Eadnoth in the year 1049, much to the disgust 
 
 of the Englishmen, who considered him 
 utterly unfit for the office, and loathed him as 
 a Norman. When Godwin returned in 1052, 
 he fled, sword in hand, from London, and 
 crossed over to the Continent, and was de- 
 prived of his see. He is spoken of as the 
 bishop " who did nought bishop-like." 
 
 ITlf, Eakl {d. circa 1025), is generally 
 credited with having been instrumental in 
 securing the rise of Godwin, who married 
 his sister Gytta. His wife was Estrith, Canute's 
 sister, but notwithstanding this relationship, 
 he was put to death by this king somewhere 
 about the year 1025. 
 
 XTlfC3rtel, ealdorman of the East Angles, 
 led the men of his province against Swegen 
 in 1004. The same year he and his Witan 
 made peace with the invaders, but only so as 
 to gain time. Before long he fought a drawn 
 battle with the strangers. In 1010 he was 
 defeated at Eingmere, mainly owing to the 
 treachery of Thurcytel. Six years later he 
 was slain at the battle of Assandun (1016). 
 
 Ulster, The Kingdom and Pkovince or, 
 appears to have been first colonised, at an 
 unknown period, by Picts of Celtic origin. 
 The great race movements which culmin- 
 ated in the formation of the over-kingship 
 of Meath by Tuathal [Meath], affected the 
 south rather than the north of Ireland ; but 
 about 335 a.d. we find some of his descendants 
 invading Ulster from Meath with the counte- 
 nance of the ard-ri (over-king), and winningfor 
 themselves the land of Uriel. They were fol- 
 lowed, during the reign of Niall " of the nine 
 hostages " (379 — 405), by other cadets of the 
 reigning family, who became princes of Tyr- 
 connel and Tyrone. With the arrival of St. 
 Patrick (441), Ulster, which had lagged some- 
 what behind the rest of Ireland, 'received an 
 extraordinary impetus, and became a centre 
 whence large numbers of missionaries, chief 
 of whom was St. Columba, issued forth to 
 Britain and northern Europe. Ulster offered 
 a rather more vigorous resistance to the invad- 
 ing Fingalls and Danes than did the rest of 
 Ireland, and we fi'nd Murtogh O'Neill, about 
 950, making a triumphant circuit of Ireland. 
 During the anarchy which preceded the Anglo- 
 Norman invasion, the kings of Ulster were 
 engaged in a long and arduous struggle with 
 their Munster rivals, and Murtogh O'Lough- 
 lin, of the house of O'Neill, twice succeeded for 
 a brief period in making himself over-king of 
 Ireland (in 1148 and 1166). Ulster suffered 
 little from the first invasion, and though 
 Henry granted the province to De Courcy, 
 he only succeeded in gxasping a strip of land 
 near Downpatrick. John, however, resumed 
 the grant, and gave it to a younger member 
 of the De Lacy family, through whose 
 daughter and heiress it passed into the De 
 Burgh family. After the murder of William, 
 the third Earl of Ulster, in 1333, his heiress 
 married Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and the 
 
Uls 
 
 ( 1022 ) 
 
 Uls 
 
 earldom thus passed through, females to the 
 house of Mortimer, and to Richard, Earl of 
 Cambridge, the grandfather of Edward IV., 
 with whom it became vested in the crown. 
 In the thirteenth century Ulster was prac- 
 tically independent. The English posses- 
 sions were confined to the outskirts of 
 Down, Antrim, and Fermanagh, and a town 
 or two in Donegal. The invasion of the Bruces 
 in 1315 was followed by the loss of even 
 these paltry districts, and the O'Neills did 
 what they pleased in Ulster before the acces- 
 sion of the Tudors. Under Henry "VII. Tur- 
 lough O'Donnell and Conn O'Neill were dis- 
 posed to be friendly to the crown ; the descend- 
 ants of the latter chieftain became Earls of 
 Tyrconnel, while the former was made Earl 
 of Tyrone. When the first attempt to intro- 
 duce the reformed doctrines was made, the 
 primacy was transferred from Dublin to Ar- 
 magh, where the O'Neilla could protect it. 
 The power of that race, however, was soon to 
 be broken. The earldom of Tyrone was con- 
 ferred by the government on Conn's bastard 
 son Matthew, to the exclusion of his legiti- 
 mate son Shane. The latter was, however, 
 chosen chief by the tribe, and having mur- 
 dered his brother, maintained his rights 
 against the Lord- Lieutenant Sussex, partly 
 by arms and partly by intrigue. For a while 
 he was allowed to administer Ulster as " cap- 
 tain of Tyrone," and used the opportunity to 
 oppress the O'Donnells and the M'Donnells, 
 Scottish settlers in Antrim. These tribes 
 promptly espoused the side of the new lord 
 deputy. Sir Henry Sydney (1586), and Shane, 
 out-manceuvred, was defeated and put to 
 death by the M'Donnells. The • earldom was 
 granted to Matthew's son Hugh in 1587, and 
 he was soon afterwards placed in possession 
 of the territory. An able man, he formed a 
 coalition, which relied on Spanish aid, of all 
 the northern chiefs, together with the pre- 
 tender to the honours of Kildare, against the 
 English, and from 1595 to 1603 he waged a life 
 and death struggle with the crown, which ter- 
 minated in his submission on honourable terms. 
 The province was, however, utterly ruined, and 
 in the following reign he and his kinsman, the 
 Earl of Tyrconnel, fled from Ireland in fear of 
 the designs of the government. Six counties 
 were thereupon declared to be forfeited to the 
 crown, the minor chiefs' were driven out on 
 one pretence or another, and James set to 
 work on the plantation of Ulster (q.v.), which 
 was made with scientific precision, and was in 
 consequence a success. Wentworth oppressed 
 Ulster hardly less than the rest of Ireland, 
 and he was especially severe on the Scottish 
 Presbyterians. With the outbreak of the 
 rebellion of 1641, CathoHc Ulster at once 
 sprang to arms under the brutal Sir Phelim 
 O'Neill, who was afterwards superseded by 
 Owen Eoe O'Neill, a trained soldier. The 
 latter in 1645 gained a considerable victory 
 over Munroe, but the Irish parties began 
 
 quarrelling among themselves, and Cromwell's 
 work was easy. After the massacre of Dro- 
 gheda, the chief towns of Ulster surrendered 
 one after another, and the rebellion in that 
 district was rapidly stamped out by Coote, 
 the Protector's subordinate. By the Crom- 
 weUian settlement, the remaining Catholic 
 gentry were transplanted into Connaught, 
 or shipped to Barbadoes; the Presbyterians 
 also of Down and Antrim, who had shown 
 Eoyalist sympathies, were compelled to migrate 
 to Munster. Of the lands thus vacated Antrim, 
 Down, and Armagh were partitioned between 
 adventurers and soldiers, and the rest of 
 Ulster was colonised by the soldiers, who 
 were allowed to remain practically undis- 
 turbed after the Restoration, though the 
 Presbyterians suffered considerable persecu- 
 tion under the last of the Stuarts. Hence it 
 can hardly be wondered that after the Revolu- 
 tion the Protestants of Ireland should have 
 chosen Ulster as the spot on which to make a 
 stand, and that Londonderry and Enniskilleu 
 should have held out against James. From 
 that time forward Ulster remained distinct 
 in character from the rest of Ireland. It was 
 more prosperous, a valuable linen industry 
 having been founded there by' Huguenot 
 refugees under William III., which a narrow 
 mercantile policy was not able wholly to 
 destroy, and which revived when in 1779 the 
 Volunteers won free trade for Ireland. It was 
 also emphatically Protestant, in spite of the 
 persecution of the Presbyterians, who fled in 
 large numbers across the Atlantic. Lastly it 
 was emphatically loyal, 'though it was fre- 
 quently disturbed by turbulent associations 
 such as the Whiteboys, Peep-o'-day Boys, 
 Orangemen, and the like, and though the 
 United Irishmen of 1798, and the Fenians of 
 a later date, drew recruits from Belfast and 
 Londonderry almost as freely as from Cork or 
 from Limerick. Since the Union the condition 
 of Ulster has been on the whole peaceful and 
 prosperous ; but the Repeal agitation, and of 
 late years the Home Rule movement (in 
 which the Ulster Protestants have been on 
 the side of England and the English connec- 
 tion), have perpetuated the distinction between 
 it and the rest of Ireland. 
 
 Por authorities see articles ou Connauglit, 
 Leiuster, and Munster. Among those especially 
 coucernii]g Ulster may he mentioued Petty, 
 Hist. 0/ the Down Survey ; Preiidergast, Cvom- 
 wellian Settlement and To^'y War of Ulster: 
 Shirley, Hist, of Monaglmn ; and Beid, Hist, of 
 the Presbyterian Qhuroh in Ii'eland. 
 
 [L. C. S.] 
 
 ITlster, The Plantation op. The troubles 
 of the earlj' years of the seventeenth century, the 
 flight of lyrconnel and Tyrone, and other re- 
 bellions, had resulted in the forfeiture of a very 
 large part of Ulster to the crown. In 1608 
 a commission was appointed to consider what 
 should be done with these large estates and 
 proposed to colonise the whole district with 
 " retired civil and military servants," and 
 
Uls 
 
 ( 1023 ) 
 
 Uud 
 
 •with, colonists from England and Scotland. 
 Sir Arthur Chichester would have left the 
 Irish in. possession of their own territo- 
 ries, and only settled the new-comers here 
 and there hy agreement with them; but 
 the oommissionera recommended that large 
 tracts should he completely handed over 
 to the colonists, and taken away from the 
 old inhabitants. In 1609 the scheme was 
 ready. The escheated lands were divided 
 into portions consisting of 1,000, 1,500, and 
 2,000 acres, and each large proprietor was 
 bound to build a castle on his estate, and was 
 forbidden to alienate his lands to Irishmen. 
 Six counties were to be treated in this way 
 — Tyrone, Coleraine, Donegal, Fermanagh, 
 Cavan, and Armagh — and the natives were as 
 a rule to be confined to the parts assigned 
 to landholders of their own race, though in 
 some cases they were allowed to remain on 
 the grounds of the new-comers. Chichester, 
 who was entrusted with the carrying out of 
 these schemes, found himself in face of ter- 
 rible difficulties, and could not secure that 
 the natives should be treated with fairness 
 and consideration. In 1610 he visited Ulster 
 for the purpose of removing the Irish, and 
 had to leave double garrisons behind him on 
 his departure. In 1611 the work progressed 
 better. The City of London had founded 
 the colony of Derry, and everywhere things 
 began to look more prosperous. It was even 
 found possible to reduce the number a£ the 
 troops. According to the original scheme, 
 the division of the forfeited lands was to be 
 as foUows : — 150,000 acres were to go to the 
 English and Scotch Undertakers — who could 
 have no Irish tenants; 45,500 acres to the 
 servitors of the crown in Ireland, with per- 
 mission to have either Irish or English 
 tenants ; while 70,000 acres were to be left 
 in the hands of the natives. 
 
 S. E. Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., 1603—1642. 
 
 Ulster Massacre, The. The Irish 
 rebellion of 1641 began with a sudden attack 
 on the English settlers in Ulster, and their 
 violent expulsion from their holdings. Ac- 
 cording to the statement of Sir John Temple, 
 300,000 persons were destroyed between 1641 
 and the cessation of arms in 1643, of whom 
 150,000 perished in the first two months. 
 Clarendon states that 40,000 or 50,000 of the 
 English Protestants were "murdered before 
 they suspected themselves to be in any danger 
 or could provide for their defence." Other 
 contemporary authorities give equally high 
 figures. Mr. Lecky affirms that the figure 
 of 300,000 exceeds by nearly a third the 
 estimated number of" Protestants in the 
 whole island, and was computed to be more 
 than ten times the number of Protestants 
 that were living outside walled towns in 
 which no massacre took place. Mr. Gardiner, 
 while denying that there was any general 
 massacre, or that the English were put to the 
 
 sword in a body, considers that about 4,000 
 persons were put to death in cold blood, and 
 about twice that number perished in conse- 
 quence of the privation caused by their expul- 
 sion. 
 
 S. E. Gardiner, Hist, of Eng., vol. x. ; Lecky, 
 England in the Eighteenth Ceiitury, vol. li. ; 
 Prendergast, Cromwellian Settlement m Ireland ; 
 Eighth Bepo^-t of the Royal Commission on Hidori- 
 cat Manuscripts. Hickson, Ireland in the Seven- 
 teenth Centv/ry (1884). 
 
 TTmbeyla Campaign, The. A fanatic 
 conspiracy broke out in 1863 among the 
 Sittana and other Afighan hill tribes. General 
 Neville Chamberlain was unsuccessful against 
 them, and was badly wounded in a battle 
 near Umbeyla. Sir Hugh Eose then advanced 
 against them, and General Gamock success- 
 fully assaulted Umbeyla and captured Mulka. 
 On Christmas Day, 1863, the force retired, 
 and the war was at an end. 
 
 TJmritsir, The Treaty of (April 25, 
 1809), was concluded between the East India 
 Company and Eunjeet Singh. Its provisions 
 were ' that the British government should 
 have no concern with the territories and sub- 
 jects of the Eajah north of the Sutlej ; and 
 that the Eajah should not commit any en- 
 croachments, or suffer anj' to be committed, 
 on the possessions or rights of the chiefs 
 under British protection south of it. 
 
 TTnderh.ill, Edward {d. circa 1549), 
 known as the " Hot Gospellen," was a zealous 
 Puritan, and one of the leaders of the insur- 
 gents in the western rebellion of 1549. He 
 was imprisoned in Newgate by Queen Mary. 
 
 Undertakers, The, sometimes called 
 Adventurers, were English gentlemen, chiefly 
 from Devonshire, who undertook to keep pos- 
 session of the lands forfeited to the crown in 
 Ireland, or of lands which, though nominally 
 the property of Englishmen, had been allowed 
 to fall into Irish hands. The first attempt 
 was made by a natural son of Sir Thomas 
 Smith, in Ulster, about the year 1569 ; again 
 by the Earl of Essex in 1575 ; but the 
 result in both cases was failure. A similar 
 attempt made by Sir Peter Carew and St. 
 Leger in Munster, resulted in the outbreak of 
 the great Geraldine rebellion. , After its sup- 
 pression the attempt was renewed ; but this 
 time the government insisted on two condi- 
 tions, which were to be observed by the Adven- 
 turers ; of which the principal were, that 
 an English or Scottish family was to be 
 settled on every 240 acres, and that no 
 Irish tenants were to be admitted. But the 
 " Undertakers," among whom were Sir W. 
 Ealeigh and Edmund Spenser, observed 
 neither condition. Hence when O'Neill's 
 revolt broke out (1596), they had to fly. In 
 the beginning of James I.'s reign, however, 
 they came back again in greater numbers. 
 
 Undertakers or 1614. When, in 1614, 
 James I., crippled by a debt, which now 
 amounted to £680,000, had determined to 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 1024 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 call a fresh Parliament, Sir Henry Neville 
 and certain others offered to undertake that 
 the House of Commons then to be elected 
 would grant the king the large supplies of 
 which he stood so greatly in need. Others 
 engaged to secure the return of mem- 
 hers whose views were strongly in favour 
 of the royal prerogatives. The people by 
 whose means the votes of the House were to 
 be won over to meet the royal wishes were 
 called by the name of Undertakers, but appear 
 to have been men of little influence. James's 
 best counsellors — Bacon, for example — were 
 from the first distrustful of the scheme, and 
 the king himself, in his opening speech, dis- 
 owned his connection with the Undertakers. 
 Again, seven years later, he refers to them 
 as "a straflge kind of beasts, called Under- 
 takers — a name which in my nature I abhor." 
 S. K. Gardiner, Hisf. o/Buj., 1803—1642. 
 
 TTniforiuity, The First Act or, was 
 passed Jan. 15, 1549, in spite of the opposition 
 of some of the bishops. It ordered the use of 
 the Hook of Common Prayer by all ministers 
 on penalty of forfeiture of stipend, and six 
 months' imprisonment, with heavier p\inish- 
 ment for second and third offences. Learned 
 persons were, however, permitted to use Latin, 
 Greek, or even Hebrew for their own private 
 advantage; while university chapels might 
 hold all services (except the Communion) in 
 the same tongue "for the further encouraging 
 of learning." It was this Act that led in a 
 great measure to the rebellion in the West of 
 England in this year. 
 
 ITniforuiity, The Second Act op (1559), 
 " prohibited," says Mr. Hallam, " under 
 pain of forfeiting goods and chattels for the 
 first offence, of a year's imprisonment for 
 the second, and of imprisonment during life 
 for the third, the use by a minister, whether 
 beneficed or not, of any but the established 
 liturgy ; and imposed a fine of one shilling 
 on all who should absent themselves from 
 Church on Sundays and holydays." It also 
 confirmed the revised Book of Common Prayer, 
 established by Edward VI., 1552, and in- 
 flicted heavy penalties on all who should 
 make a mock of the new service, interrupt 
 the minister, or have any other form used 
 in Church. 
 
 Uniformity, The Third Act op, was 
 passed in 1662. This Act, after declaring that 
 a universal agreement in the matter of public 
 worship was conducive \o the peace of the 
 nation, bids all ministers in churches within 
 the realm of England and Wales, use the 
 Book of Common Prayer, and read the morning 
 and evening prayers therein. All parsons, &c., 
 holding any beue6ce, were publicly to read 
 and declare their assent to the same book by 
 St. Bartholomew's Day (1662), and if they 
 refused were to be deprived of their livings. 
 For the future all people presented to any 
 
 benefice are to make a similar declaration. 
 Every incumbent was to read the services 
 publicly at least once a month, under pain of 
 a fine of £5. Every dean, university reader, 
 parson, or schoolmaster or private tutor, was 
 to make declaration as to the unlawfulness 
 of bearing arms against the king on any 
 pretence whatever, and to deny the binding 
 force of the Solemn League and Covenant. 
 Schoolmasters and tutors were not to teach 
 before obtaining a licence from the bishop or 
 archbishop in whose diocese they were. No 
 one who had not been episcopally ordained was 
 to hold a benefice after St. Bartholomew's Day, 
 1662. Heads of colleges and lecturers were 
 to subscribe to the Thirty -nine Articles, and 
 declare their assent to the Book of Common 
 Prayer. In consequence of this Act more than 
 2,000 ministers resigned their preferments. 
 
 Union. [Poor Laws.J 
 
 Union of England and Ireland 
 
 (1800). After the suppression of the Rebellion 
 of 1798, the Union had come to be recognised, 
 not only in England, but also by many of the 
 Irish, as a necessary measure, if only in order 
 to save Ireland from itself. But the interests of 
 the country did not outweigh the interests of 
 individuals, and these latter were determined 
 not to allow their own interests tobe overlooked 
 in the general well-being of the countrj'. It 
 at once became clear that the opposition of 
 interested individuals would be fatal to the 
 scheme, unless they were bought off. The 
 English government accordingly set about 
 the gigantic scheme of purchasing the Irish 
 boroughs. Seats were paid for at the rate of 
 £750 each, nor did the total sum paid as 
 compensation for consent to the scheme 
 amount to less than one million and a quarter. 
 " Peers were further compensated for the 
 loss of their privilege in the national council 
 by profuse promises of English peerages, or 
 promotion in the peerage of Ireland. Com- 
 moners were conciliated by new honours, and 
 by the largesses of the British government. 
 Places were given or promised ; pensions 
 multiplied ; secret service money exhausted." 
 At length, by this wholesale system of political 
 jobbing, the consent of the Irish Parliament 
 was obtained, in spite of a few patriots, who 
 still protested against "the sale of the liberties 
 and free constitution of Ireland." The 
 settlement of the terms of the Union did not 
 occupy a long time. "Ireland was to be 
 represented in Parliament by four spiritual 
 lords sitting in rotation of sessions, by 
 twenty-eight temporal peers elected for life 
 by the Irish peerage, and by a hundred 
 members of the House of Commons." The 
 pledge to redress Catholic grievances, which 
 had silenced the opposition of that portion 
 of the community, had to wait thirty years 
 for fulfilment, owing chiefly to the 
 scruples of George III. But the restrictions 
 on Irish commerce were removed, and her 
 
TJni 
 
 ( 1025 
 
 Uni 
 
 laws were administered witli more justice and 
 impartiality. 
 
 May, Const. Hist. ; Stanhope, Life of Pitt ; 
 Froude, English in Ireland, 
 
 Union of England and Scotland. 
 
 For a century after the union of the crowns 
 the two countries continued entirely sepa^ 
 rate kingdoms, with separate Parliaments. 
 James I. and Bacon's attempt at legislative 
 unity had proved signally unsuccessful. 
 Under Cromwell the two nations had been 
 for a time united under one legislature, but 
 that union was severed at the Restoration, 
 and Scotland replaced on the same indepen- 
 dent footing as before. But after the Revo- 
 lution it was seen that this state of things 
 could not continue, and that as the two 
 countries were now one in interest and in 
 speech, they must also become one in law. 
 The wisdom of William showed him the 
 necessity of a complete amalgamation of 
 his two kingdoms, but his death cut short 
 his plans for carrying it out. Religious 
 and commercial jealousies were still fur- 
 ther impediments. The religious difficulty 
 was an internal obstacle in Scotland itself. 
 The hatred between the contending sects of 
 Episcopacy and Presbyterianism had been 
 fostered by the persecutions of the Resto- 
 ration, and now each sect wished to be in the 
 ascendant, and neither could brook the tole- 
 ration of the other. The commercial difficulty 
 lay between the two countries, and showed 
 that the old feeling of hostility between them 
 was not extinguished, and might on slight 
 provocation again burst into flame. The 
 English grudged the Scotch the advantages 
 of an equal share of the trade with the 
 colonies, and the Scotch refused to bear their 
 part of the national debt. The Scotch Act of 
 Security of 1703 showed only too plainly 
 the unsatisfactory state of public feeling. 
 From this Act the name of the Princess 
 Sophia, the acknowledged heiress of the 
 English throne, was omitted, and the proviso 
 was made that no sovereign of England 
 should be acknowledged in Scotland without 
 giving fuU security for the preservation of 
 the religious and trading liberties of that 
 country. Jealousy of their country's inde- 
 pendence led the WJiigs to make common 
 cause with the Jacol?ites, and in case of the 
 queen's death there was great danger of both 
 uniting in an effort for the restoration of the 
 Stuarts, It was plear that a union was the 
 only possible means of allaying the appre- 
 heiision of a civil war. That the union was 
 accomplished so successfully was due to the 
 management of Somers. The Scotch proposal 
 that the union sjiould be federal was set aside, 
 and it was resolved that as the two nations 
 had virtually become one people, united by 
 community of interests, so they should now 
 become one in point of law, and as they 
 already had one and the same sovereign, so 
 Hist,— 33 
 
 they should have one and the same legislature. 
 Commissioners from both kingdoms were 
 empowered to draw up the Articles of Union, 
 which were twenty-five in number. The 
 chief provisions of these articles were that 
 on May 1, 1707, England and Scotland 
 should be united in one kingdom, bearing the 
 name of Great Britain ; that the succession to 
 the crown of Scotland should be in all points 
 the same as had been settled for England ; 
 that the United Kingdom should be repre- 
 sented by one Parliament ; that thenceforward 
 there should be community of rights and 
 privileges between the two kingdoms, except 
 where otherwise agreed upon by the Parlia- 
 ment; that all standards of coin, weights, 
 and measures in Scotland should be assimi- 
 lated to those of England; that the laws of 
 trade, customs, and excise should be the same 
 in both countries ; that all other laws of 
 Scotland should remain unchanged, but with 
 the provision that they might be altered in 
 time to come at the discretion of the united 
 Parliament. To these articles was added an 
 Act of Security for the maintenance of the 
 Scottish Church and the four universities. 
 This Act required each sovereign on his or 
 her accession to take an oath to protect the 
 Presbyterian Church as the established Church 
 of Scotland, The whole judicial machinery 
 for the administration of the Scottish law 
 system remained untouched, but henceforward 
 there would be a possibility of appeal from 
 the decisions of the Court of Sessions to the 
 House of Lords. In tlie Parliament of Great 
 Britain Scotland was to be represented by 
 forty-five members sent up by the Commons, 
 and sixteen peers elected by their fellows as 
 representatives of the peerage of Scotland. 
 The Articles of Union received the royal as- 
 sent, and the first Parliament of Great Britain 
 met Oct. 23, 1707. A standard, on which 
 were blended the flags of both nations, the 
 crosses of St. Andrew and St. George, which 
 had been. first projected by James VI, under 
 the name of the Union Jack, was adopted as 
 the national flag of the United Kingdom, 
 Burton, Kist. of Scoflandf and Queen. Anns, 
 
 United Irishmen, The. The plan on 
 which this society was afterwards constituted 
 was sketched by Russel and "Wolfe Tone. Its 
 object was to be the establishment of the 
 "rights of man," and correspondence with 
 the Jacobin Club in Paris, and the English 
 Revolution Society. Reform and CathoHo 
 ' Emancipation were to be among its imme- 
 diate objects. On July 14, 1790, it was 
 organised, but its first actual meeting took 
 place at the Eagle in Dublin on Nov. 9. 
 Hamilton Eowan and Wolfe Tone were the 
 leaders ; Napper Tandy was secretary. After 
 the French victories in 1792, they began 
 openly to talk of rebellion, and raised a 
 national guard. The meeting of the Catholic 
 Committee was thought to be the signal of 
 
Vni 
 
 ( 1026 ) 
 
 HTni 
 
 war, but Fitz-Gibbou declaring the national 
 guard illegal, only three men assembled 
 in defiance of his proclamation. In the 
 north the societj' made much show in green 
 uniforms, but were disarmed in 1793. An 
 attempt at a representative assembly was 
 foiled by the Convention Bill. In 1794 
 they again began secretly to prepare for 
 revolt. Their organisation, now secret, con- 
 sisted of county committees, baronial com- 
 mittees, and elementary bodies, with an 
 executive directory of five members at their 
 head. The heads of these bodies were changed 
 every fortnight, and they only corresponded 
 with and knew of their superiors. They had 
 about a million members, but the very per- 
 fection of their organisation was its great 
 fault, as the seizure of a few leaders would 
 paralyse the whole body. One of their chief 
 Schemes was to debauch the fidelity of the 
 Dublin garrison, and though they were un- 
 successful in this, the militia were almost 
 entirely theirs. In 1796 Hoche, whom Lord 
 Edward Fitzgerald and O'Connor went 
 to see, promised them French help, and 
 they boasted at that time that they could 
 muster 200,000 men. The seizure of Keogh 
 in Dublin, and of others in Belfast, however, 
 paralysed them, and when the French were 
 at Bantry the country remained quiet. In 
 1797 they had reorganised themselves, but 
 General Lake, by disarming Ulster, again 
 disabled them. This last step was taken 
 in consequence of the report of a secret com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons ; and at the 
 same time a free pardon was promised to all 
 the United Irishmen who surrendered before 
 June 24. The Dublin men refused to rise 
 at once, and in consequence the men of Ulster 
 submitted. In 1798 the Catholics, with the 
 concurrence of the Dublin committee, pre- 
 pared to lise, but again the arrest of their 
 leaders disconcerted their plans. 
 
 Fronde, Eiig. in Ireland; Life of Grattan ; 
 Massey, Hist, of JSng. 
 
 ITnited Kingdom. The adoption by 
 James I. of the title " King of Great Britain " 
 instead of "of England and Scotland," was 
 part of his wider plan of bringing about com- 
 jilete imion between the two kingdoms. As 
 early as April, 1604, the English Parliament 
 was asked to consent to the change of style. 
 But fears were expressed lest the laws and 
 liberties of England might not hold good in 
 the new realm of Britain, and the Commons 
 urged that some agreement as to the terms of. 
 the union should pi-ecede the assumption of" 
 the title. James yielded to the advice of 
 Cecil, and deferred the change. Bacon, in 
 Considerations Touohing the Union, which he 
 laid before the king in the autumn, sug- 
 gested that it would be better to proceed by 
 proclamation; "the two difficulties are point 
 of honour and love to the former names, and 
 the doubt lest the alteration may induce and 
 involve an alteration in the laws and policies 
 
 of the kingdom. Both which, if your majesty 
 shall assume the style by proclamation and 
 not by Parliament, are satisfied ; for then the 
 usual names must needs remain in writs and 
 records, the forms whereof cannot be altered 
 but by Act of Parliament, and so the point of 
 honour satisfied. And, again, your proclama- 
 tion altereth no law, and so the scruple of a 
 tacit or implied alteration of laws likewise 
 satisfied." Accordingly on Oct. 20 James 
 issued a proclamation : "As an imperial 
 monarchy of these two great kingdoms doth 
 comprehend the whole island, so it shall keep 
 in all ensuing ages the united denomination 
 of the invincible monarchy of Great Britain, 
 and, therefore, by the force of our royal pre- 
 rogative we assume to ourselves the style 
 and title of King of Great Britain, France, 
 and Ireland . . . to be used in all procla- 
 mations, missives, treaties, leagues, dedica- 
 tions, &c. ; " and the inscription " J. D. G. 
 Mag. Brit. F. et H. E." was placed on the 
 coinage. James was, however, baulked in his 
 attempt to bring about union, and the title 
 did not receive Parliamentary sanction till it 
 was adopted for the United Kingdom of 
 England and Scotland in 1707. By the Act 
 of Union (with Ireland), 39 & 40 Geo. III., c. 67 
 (July, 1800), the kingdoms of Great Britain 
 and Ireland were constituted the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which 
 has been the ofiBcial designation since. 
 
 For the measures of James, see Gardiner's 
 Hist, of Eng., i. 177 ; Spedding, Leiters oild Life 
 of Bacon, ill. 255. r"\^_ J_ j^ 1 
 
 United States, IlELATioifs with. 
 [Amekican Colokies ; American War of 
 Independence; American War.] 
 
 Universities. The word imimrsitas is 
 in Roman Law the synonym of coUegiwm. In 
 the Middle Ages it was originally used of any 
 body of men when spoken of in their collec- 
 tive capacity ; but it gradually became ap- 
 propriated to those guilds or corporations 
 either of masters or of scholars, the earliest 
 of which originated in that great revival of 
 intellectual activity throughout Europe 
 which began at the end of the eleventh or 
 the beginning of the twelfth century. The 
 idea of a university may be said to have 
 originated at Bologna, where a university of 
 students was formed in the course of the 
 twelfth century. The schools of Paris date 
 their pre-eminent position from the teaching of 
 Abelard in the first half of the twelfth century ; 
 but there is no trace of the formation of an 
 organised society or university of masters tiU 
 towards the close of the twelfth century. 
 
 Oxford was the earliest of the universities 
 organised after the model of Paris, though 
 in the division of the faculty of arts into 
 Australes (South-countrymen) and Sorcales 
 ([ North-countrymen) , each under its ' ' Proctor " 
 (who at the daughter - university of Cam- 
 bridge long retained the name of "Rector") 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 1027 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 there seems a trace of an earlier organisation 
 on the model of the two universities, each 
 ■with its own rector, of Xlltramontani and 
 CUramontani at Bologna. The legend which 
 attributes the foundation of the University 
 of Oxford, and even of University College, to 
 AHred the Great, is supported only by docu- 
 ments now known to be forged or inter- 
 polated. There is no trace of any schools of 
 the smallest reputation at Oxford till about 
 the year 1232, when the Paris doctor of 
 theology, Robert Pullejni, is said to have 
 taught there. In about 1250 the Italian 
 jurist Vacarius introduced the study of Roman 
 Law. At the beginning of the following 
 century we find the universit5' fully organised 
 on the model of Paris, with some important 
 differences. At Paris the masters had to 
 obtain their licence to teach, or degree, from 
 the Chancellor of the Cathedral or of St. Gene- 
 vieve. At Oxford the chancellor was chosen 
 by the masters, but derived his authority 
 from the bishop of the distant see of Lincoln. 
 He, in fact, united the functions of the 
 chancellor and the rector at Paris, and 
 eventually became more powerful than 
 either. He was from the first an ecclesiastical 
 I'udgo in cases afilecting scholars. After the 
 great " Town " and " Gown " battle of 1209, 
 in which three scholars were hanged by the 
 townsmen, the university gained its first royal 
 charter of privilege, and its chancellor ob- 
 tained a civil and criminal, as well as an 
 ecclesiastical, jurisdiction. Each of those san- 
 guinary street-fights, with bow and arrow, or 
 sword and dagger, between clerks and towns- 
 folk, which make up the history of mediseval 
 Oxford, ended in the humiliation of the town 
 and some accession to the privileges of the 
 university. The chancellor eventually ac- 
 quired (subject to an appeal to the university) 
 cognisance of all cases in which a scholar was 
 one party, except in cases of homicide or 
 maim. 
 
 The students (who usually began their arts 
 course at thirteen or fifteen) at first lived 
 sometimes in lodgings with townsmen, hut 
 usually in "halls" or "inns," which were 
 boarding-houses kept by a master. In 1249, 
 "William of Durham left a legacy to provide 
 pensions for four Masters of Arts studying 
 theology, a foundation which developed into 
 " University College." Some time between 
 1263 and 1268, BaUiol College was founded 
 for poor students in arts, by John Balliol 
 and' Dervorgilla, his wife. It was, however, 
 the far larger foundation, in 1264, of Walter 
 de Merton, Bishop of Rochester, which reaUy 
 originated the English college system. The 
 foundation of Exeter followed in 1314, Oriel 
 (by Edward II.) in 1326, Queen's (named after 
 Queen Philippa by Robert Eglesfield her 
 chaplain) in 1340. William of Wykeham's 
 splendid foundation (1386), still known as 
 Kew College, introduces a new era in college- 
 building. After the foundation of Lincoln 
 
 in 1427 came All Souls' (1437), and Mag- 
 dalen in 1458, founded, the former by 
 Archbishop Chichele, the latter by WiUiam of 
 Waynflete, both Wykehamists, and imitators 
 of Wykeham. Brasenose was founded in 1509, 
 Corpus Chiisti — designed to foster the " New 
 Learning" — by Bishop Fox, in 1516. Christ 
 Church was begun under the name of 
 Cardinal College by Wolsey, and completed 
 by Henry VIII. in 1546. Trinity (1554), 
 which occupies the site of an earlier college 
 for Durham monks, and St. John's (1555) 
 are the offspring of the Marian reaction : 
 Jesus (1571), Wadham (1609), and Pembroke 
 (1624) of the Reformation. Worcester, on 
 the site of the haU once occupied by 
 Gloucester monks, dates from 1714. Keble, 
 founded in 1870, is the monument of the 
 " Oxford movement." The ancient Magdalen 
 Hall was endowed and incorporated as Hert- 
 ford College in 1874. 
 
 The colleges had originally been intended 
 only as a means of support for poor scholars ; 
 but their superior discipline led to the practice 
 of sending wealthier boys as " commoners," 
 or paying boarders, to them. The Re- 
 formation for a time nearly emptied the vim- 
 versity ; most of the halls disappeared, and 
 the code of statutes imposed upon the 
 university during the chancellorship of Laud, 
 completed its transformation into a mere 
 aggregate of colleges, by giving the " Heb- 
 domadal Council" of heads of houses the 
 sole initiative in university legislation. 
 
 From the time of the Restoration learning 
 decHned, and in the eighteenth century 
 Oxford gradually sank into a state of 
 intellectual torpor. The first sign of 
 reviving Ufe is the foundation of " Honour 
 Schools," in classics and mathematics in 
 1807. And the " Oxford movement " gave a 
 great impulse to the intellectual, as well as 
 the ecclesiastical, activity of the university. 
 The era of University Reform begins with the 
 appointment of a Royal Commission of 
 Inquiry in 1850. The Act of 1854 abolished 
 the subscription to the Articles hitherto re- 
 quired at matriculation and on admission to 
 the B.A. degree, and appointed an executive 
 commission which abolished the local restric- 
 tions of scholarships and fellowships. The 
 abolition of tests for the higher degi'ees was 
 delayed till 1871. The commission of 1877 
 founded or augmented professorships at the 
 expense of the colleges, limited the tenure of 
 " idle " fellowships, and almost completely 
 removed clerical restrictions. 
 
 The stories which attribute the foundation 
 of Cambkidge to Cantaber, a mythical Spanish 
 prince, or to Sigebert, King of the East 
 Angles in the seventh century, are among 
 the stupidest of historical fabrications. The 
 first authentic notice of Cambridge as a seat of 
 learning is in 1209, when some of the students 
 who left Oxford, in consequence of the dis- 
 turbances of that year, established themselves 
 
TTni 
 
 ( 1028 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 at Cambridge. In 1229 came an immigration 
 of students who had left Paris on account of 
 the great quarrel of that university with the 
 Friars. To this year belongs the first legal 
 recognition of the university and its chan- 
 cellor. It now appears to he organised after 
 the model of Oxford. 
 
 The history of mediaeval Cambridge is 
 marked by the same struggle for independence 
 against the bishop, and the same sanguinary 
 street-fights between " Town " and " Grown," 
 or North and South, as that of Oxford, and 
 the chancellor gradually acquired nearly the 
 same jurisdiction as at Oxford. The ex- 
 emption of the university from the juris- 
 diction of the bishop and of the metropolitan 
 was not, however, fully established till 1434. 
 The statutes by which the university has been 
 nominally governed down to the present cen- 
 tury were imposed upon it by royal authority 
 in 1570, chiefly through the influence of Whit- 
 gift, then Master of Trinity. They virtually 
 destroyed the democratic government of the 
 masters by the large powers which they 
 conferred upon the heads of colleges. 
 
 In mediaeval times Cambridge had never 
 enjoyed the European celebrity of Oxford; 
 but the English Reformation was a Cam- 
 bridge movement. From that time, but 
 still more conspicuously after the Restora- 
 tion, to the present century, the supe- 
 riority in intellectual activity was, as 
 Macaulay boasts, " on the side of the less 
 aucient and less splendid university." It 
 was, in the main, the impulse given to 
 mathematical study by Sir Isaac Newton, 
 long resident in the university as Fellow 
 of Trinity and Professor of Mathematics, 
 which saved Cambridge from the stag- 
 nation of eighteenth-century Oxford. The 
 lists of the Mathematical " Tripos " date from 
 1747. The Classical Tripos was founded in 
 1824. 
 
 The first college at Cambridge, Peterhouse, 
 was founded by Hugh Balsham, Bishop 
 of Ely, in the year 1284, upon the model of 
 Mertou College, Oxford, the rule of Merton 
 being constantly appealed to in the statutes. 
 Michaelhouse (now extinct) was founded in 
 1324, Glare in 1326, the King's Hall by 
 Edward III. in 1327, Pembroke in 1347, 
 Gonville (called Gonville and Caius since its 
 refoundation by Dr. Caius in 1558) in 1348, 
 Trinity HaU in 1350, Corpus Christi by the 
 Cambridge guilds of Corpus Chrieti and of 
 St. Mary in 1352. King's was founded in 
 1441 by Henry VI., out of the revenues of 
 the suppressed "alien Priories." Queens' 
 owes its origin (1448) to his consort, Mar- 
 garet of Anjou, being re-founded in 1465 
 by Elizabeth Widville, consort of Edward 
 IV. St. Catherine's was founded in 1473 ; 
 Jesus in 1496 ; Christ's (incorporating an 
 earlier college for training schoolmasters 
 called God's House) in 1505 ; St. John's, on 
 the' site of the suppressed Hospital of St. 
 
 John, in 1511 ; Magdalene in 1519. Trinity 
 College (from its foundation the leading 
 college in the University) was erected by 
 Henry VIII. in 1546, on the site of the 
 suppressed Michaelhouse and King's HaU. 
 Emmanuel was founded by a Puritan in 
 1584; Sidney Sussex dates from 1598, Down- 
 ing from 1800. Selwyn has recently been 
 added to the list of Cambridge colleges. The 
 legislation of 1850, 1856, 1871, and 1877, in 
 regard to Cambridge, has been similar to that 
 in regard to Oxford. 
 
 The first Scottish university was founded 
 at St. Aijdkews, in 1411, by Archbishop 
 Henry "Wardlaw. It owed its existence 
 in a measure to the schism in the papacy, in 
 which Scotland adhered to the French Popes 
 of Avignon, and England to the Roman hne. 
 Although exempted from the obligation of 
 acknowledging Clement VII., the schism 
 added to the unpopularity and consequent 
 ill-treatment to which Scottish students had 
 always been more or less exposed at Oxford. 
 At St. Andrews the bishop and his succes- 
 sors were appointed chancellors. The head 
 of the university, however, was (as in all 
 the Continental universities), the Lord 
 Rector, who was and still is elected by the 
 students. St. Salvator's College was founded 
 by Bishop Kennedy, in 1456, that of St. 
 Leonard by the boj' - Archbishop Stewart 
 and Prior Hepburn, in 1512. These two 
 colleges are now amalgamated. The founda- 
 tion of St. Mary's or "New College," was begun 
 by Archbishop James Beaton in 1537, and 
 completed by his two immediate successors. 
 
 The University of Glasgow was founded 
 in 1450 by Bishop Turnbull. The bishops 
 were constituted chancellors. As at Paris the 
 university was divided iuto four " nations," 
 whose "Proctors" elected the Rector. In the 
 sixteenth century the university fell into 
 complete decay. Its revival dates from the 
 appointment of the accomplished humanist, 
 Andrew Melville, to the principalship of the 
 " College of Glasgow," within the university, 
 endowed out of Church estates placed at 
 the disposal of the Town Council by Queen 
 Mary. Henceforth the university and col- 
 lege became practically identical. The prin- 
 cipalship of MelvOle marks the close of the 
 mediaeval or Aristotelian period in Scottish 
 education. By him the study of Greek and the 
 Logic of Ramus were first introduced into the 
 universities. Classical scholarship, and espe- 
 cially Greek, have, however, never flourished 
 in the Scottish universities. The prominence 
 stUl accorded to Moral Philosophy and Logic 
 in their curriculum, remains a witness to 
 their mediaeval origin. 
 
 The University of Aberdeen was founded in 
 1494 by Bishop Elphinston. The foundation of 
 Aberdeen was designed to be a means of civi- 
 lising the Highlands and educating its clergy. 
 A small college, subsequently called King's 
 College, was provided for by the founder. 
 
TTni 
 
 ( 1029 ) 
 
 Utr 
 
 Marischal College was founded in 1593. Its 
 assumed power of conferring degrees was 
 recognised hy Parliament in 16'21. 
 
 Wliat is now the University of Edinburgh 
 has grown out of the College of Edinburgh, 
 founded in 1582 by the Town Council on the 
 model of Calvin's "Academy" at Geneva. 
 The power of conferring degrees seems to 
 have been from the first assumed by the 
 college (unless it was conferred by some lost 
 charter), and was recognised by Act of the 
 Scottish Parliament in 1621. The College 
 eventually came to be called a " University." 
 It remained under the government of the 
 Town Council tOl the present century, but is 
 now organised like the other Scottish univer- 
 sities, the administration resting chiefly with 
 the professors. 
 
 The idea of founding a university at 
 Durham dates from the days of Oliver Crom- 
 well, who actually established a college there, 
 which would have been erected into a uni- 
 versity but for the opposition of the two old 
 universities. The present university was 
 founded by the Dean and Chapter of Durham 
 in 1831, incorporated by royal charter, and 
 liberally endowed with a portion of the 
 capitular estates. There are two colleges at 
 Durham, University College and Hatfield 
 HaU; and the Colleges of Medicine and 
 Physical Science at Newcastle-on-Tyne are 
 fully incorporated with the university. 
 
 The University of London differs from the 
 older English and Scottish universities, in 
 being a purely examining body, having no 
 resident students, and no teaching staff. It 
 examines and grants degrees in arts, science, 
 laws, and literature, to men and women 
 students alike. It was founded by Eoyal 
 Charters and Act of Parliament in 1826. 
 
 Victoria University, to consist of Owens 
 CoUege, Manchester, and other colleges in 
 the North of England, received a royal 
 charter in 1880. 
 
 The University Education Act (Ireland) 
 of 1879, provided for the dissolution of the 
 "Queen's University" (founded 1850), and 
 for the foundation of the Boyal University of 
 Ireland, which received its charter in 1880. 
 
 Huber, English Universities; Ingram, Memo- 
 rials of Oxford ; Anstey, Mwni-menta Acadmnica ; 
 Statutes 0/ flie Colleges of Oxford, ISgi; Repm-U 
 of the Royal Commissioiis of 1850 ami 1S77 ; 
 J B Mnllinger,Htstor!/o/Carnbrid9e; Documents 
 relating to the history of Cambridge ; Dean 
 Peacock, Observatitms on the Statutes of Cam- 
 bridge, ic. ; Lyons, Hist, of St. Andrews; Sir 
 A Grant, Stoi-ii of the University of Edmbwrgh. 
 
 [H. R.] 
 
 University Bill, The Imsh. The 
 
 essence of this measure as introduced by Mr. 
 Gladstone in 1873 was, that the exclusive 
 connection between Trinity CoUege, Dubhn, 
 and the University of DubUn, was to cease, 
 and that thai; college, as well as Sir Robert 
 Peel's Queen's Colleges, excepting that at 
 Galway— which was to be dissolved — and 
 
 also several Roman Catholic seminaries, were 
 to be placed in the same position regarding 
 the university as an Oxford or Cambridge 
 college. The bill, however, was soon opposed 
 on all sides, the Roman Catholic clergy and 
 the Dissenters being unfavourable to it, and 
 the second reading was lost by 287 to 284. 
 
 XTshaut, The Battle of, was fought on 
 July 27, 1778, between the Englisli and 
 French fleets. The former, under the com- 
 mand of Keppel, consisted of thirty vessels ; 
 the latter of thirty-two. After a fight which 
 lasted three hours, each fleet returned to its 
 own harbour, without having captured or 
 destroyed one of their opponent's ships. 
 There was a general outcry against so dis- 
 honourable an engagement, and Keppel at- 
 tempted to throw the blame of his ill-success 
 upon his subordinate, Palliser, who recrimi- 
 nated upon his chief. Finally Sir Hugh 
 Palliser brought definite charges against the 
 admiral, and a court-martial was held, which, 
 however, resulted in the acquittal of Keppel. 
 The dispute between the two naval ofScers, 
 of whom Keppel represented the Whig Op- 
 position and Palliser the court party, was 
 made an instrument of poKtical agitation, and 
 when Keppel was acquitted, London was 
 illuminated for two nights. 
 
 Tlssher, James, Archbishop of Armagh' 
 (8. 1580, d. 1656), was educated at Trinity 
 College, Dublin, and was ordained in 1601. 
 In 1615 he was employed in drawing up 
 articles for the Irish Church ; and five years 
 later was appointed Bishop of Meath, from 
 which post he was promoted in 1624 to be 
 Archbishop of Armagh. "When the Irish 
 Rebellion broke out he escaped to England, 
 and received the bishopric of Carlisle. He 
 was in attendance on Charles I. at Oxford, 
 and from 1646 to 1654 he was preacher at 
 Lincoln's Inn. He was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey. His chief historical work is entitled 
 Britannicarum £cclesiarum .' " 
 
 TTsury. [Interest.] 
 
 TTtrecht, The Peace of, was signed 
 March 31, 1713. Several times during the 
 War of the Spanish Succession negotiations 
 had been set on foot between England and 
 France. In 1706, after the battle of Ramil- 
 lies, Louis suggested a new partition treaty, 
 " by which he would consent to acknowledge 
 Queen Anne in England, to give the Dutch 
 the barrier they demanded, to grant great 
 commercial advantages to the maritime 
 powers, and to surrender Spain and the 
 Indies to the Archduke Charles, if only ho 
 could preserve for his grandson, Philip, a 
 kingdom in Italy consisting of Milan, Naples, 
 and Sicily." But the Emperor saw that the 
 Dutch barrier would be taken from the 
 Spanish dominions in the Netherlands, and 
 therefore from his son ; and Marlborough was 
 anxious to continue the war for his own sake. 
 
Uxb 
 
 ( 1030 ) 
 
 Vag 
 
 The Dutch, were therefore induced to reject the 
 demands. In 1709, after the battle of Ouden- 
 arde, the French king again tried to treat. The 
 allies now demanded the resignation of the 
 whole of the Spanish succession, together with 
 the restoration of Newfoundland to England. 
 Louis represented that his grandson would 
 refuse to be altogether crownless. Thereupon 
 the allies demanded that if Philip would not 
 resign Spain within two months, Louis was 
 to pledge himself to join the alhes in expelling 
 himthenoe. Next year the negotiations of the 
 previous year were resumed at G-ertruyden- 
 burg. In the interval the French had fought 
 and. lost the battle of Malplaquet. The 
 demands of the previous year were renewed, 
 but at length the English and Dutch waived 
 the point of the assistance of Louis in 
 ejecting his grandson. But the opposition of 
 Savoy and Austria rendered general negotia- 
 tions impossible. In Jan., 1711, for the first 
 time, proposals were made from the side of the 
 allies. In Jan., 1712, the congress of Utrecht 
 opened. By April, 1713, all the treaties were 
 signed except that between France and the 
 Empire and Emperor. 'In the course of 1714 
 they also were concluded at Eastadt and 
 Baden. The terms of the principal treaties 
 were : (1) Between England and France. 
 The Protestant succession, through the house 
 of Hanover, was secured ; the Pretender was 
 to be compelled to quit France ; a permanent 
 severance of the crowns of France and Spain 
 was solemnly promised; Newfoundland, 
 Acadia, and the Hudson's Bay Territory were 
 ceded to England. (2) The Dutch secured a 
 strong fortress barrier ; the Spanish Nether- 
 lands were handed over to them, and Lille was 
 given back to France. (3) The Duke of Savoy 
 secured Sicily and the title of king. (4) The 
 treaty between Spain and England, signed in 
 July, granted to England the possession of 
 Gibraltar and Minorca [Baruiek Treaty] ; 
 by the Assiento, a contract signed at Madrid, 
 the grant of slave trade was withdrawn from 
 France and given to England. 
 
 Dumont, Recueil de Traites ; Lecky, Hist, o/ 
 the Mghtesnfh Century^ 
 
 XJxTjridge, The Treaty op (Jan. and 
 Feb., lB4o), is the name given to the futile 
 attempts at an understanding made between 
 the commissioners of the king and the Par- 
 liament at the beginning of 1646. But it 
 w-as soon evident that the demands of the 
 Parliamentarian party were too exorbitant to 
 be granted, for they demanded not only the 
 abolition of episcopacy, but also the estab- 
 lishment of the Directory instead of the Book 
 of Common Prayer. To these requirements 
 they added the command of the army and 
 navy, and the renewal of hostilities in Ireland. 
 The king was by no means prepared to go such 
 lengths, and after some three weeks had been 
 wasted, it was once more seen that the final 
 appeal would have to be made to the sword. 
 
 Vacornagi, The, were an ancient British 
 tribe who possessed the country forming the 
 modern shires of Banff, Elgin, and Nairn, 
 with the east part of Inverness and Braemar 
 in Aberdeenshire. They are mentioned by 
 Ptolemy as Ijring between the Dumnonii and 
 the Moray Firth, and, according to Professor 
 Kh5)s, extended "from the Ness to the upper 
 courae of the Dee, and from the Moray Firth 
 into the heart of Perthshire." 
 Ell^s, Celtic BHtain. 
 
 Vagabonds, The Act against (1704), 
 empowered all justices of the peace to arrest 
 such able-bodied men as should be found 
 wandering about without any lawful calling 
 or visible means of subsistence, and hand 
 them over as recruits to her Majesty's officers. 
 It was strongly approved of by Marlborough, 
 who hoped thereby to recruit his armj', but 
 was bitterly opposed by Nottingham. It was 
 opposed in the House of Commons, chiefly, 
 however, because of the objection felt by the 
 Tories towards a standing army. In the 
 Upper House the bill was made the occasion 
 for attacking the mean conduct of Sir Nathan 
 Wright. 
 
 Vagrancy Acts. Enactments against 
 vagrancy began with the Statutes of Labourers 
 (the first in 1349), which aimed at securing 
 cheap labour, and treated the labourers who 
 wandered in search of better terms as crimi- 
 nals. By the Act of 1 388 — the origin of the 
 English poor law — the labourer was forbidden 
 to leave the hundred where he served without 
 a passport from his hundred declaring the 
 cause of his journey. In 1414 justices of the 
 peace were empowered to recover fugitive 
 labourers by writ in whatever part of the 
 country they might be, and were given sum- 
 mary jurisdiction over all offences committed 
 by them. Tudor legislation on the subject 
 is " written in blood," and marks the terroi; 
 felt in the break-up of mediaeval society at 
 the bands of vagrants wandering over the 
 country. The Act of 1530 empowered justices 
 and borough magistrates to cause able-bodied 
 vagrants "to be tied to the end of a cart 
 naked, and be beaten with whips throughout 
 the town till their bodies were bloody." Five 
 years later it was added that they were to be 
 set to labour ; " ruttelers," i.e., vagabonds 
 calling themselves serving men, were to have 
 their ears mutilated, and for the second offence 
 to be hanged. By the Act of 1547 the 
 vagrant was to be branded, and given as a 
 slave for two years to anyone who asked for 
 him, and if no one would take him he was to 
 be sent back to his birthplace, and set to work 
 on the highways, if necessary in chains. But 
 this was felt to be too severe, and in 1549 the 
 the statute was repealed, and the previous 
 Acts again came into force. The Act of 1597 
 
Val 
 
 ( 1031 ) 
 
 Van 
 
 ordering vagrants to be whipped, sent to 
 their place of settlement, and there placed in 
 the house of corrrection, and that of 1604, 
 adding the branding of incorrigible rogues, 
 remained in force till 1713. The present law 
 is based on the Act of 1744 and 1824, by 
 which the definitions of rogue and vagabond 
 have been widely extended, and attempts 
 made to distinguish between various classes 
 of offences. It is scarcely necessary to add 
 that imprisonment for short periods has taken 
 the place of whipping and branding. "It 
 may now be almost stated as a general propo- 
 sition that any person of bad character who 
 prowls about, apparently for an unlawful 
 purpose, is liable to be treated as a rogue and 
 a vagabond." 
 
 Stephen, Hist. Crim. Lavs, ill., oh. 32. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Valence, Aylmer de {d. 1260), son of 
 Hugh de Lusignan and Isabella, was in 1250 
 elected Bishop of Winchester. His unpopu- 
 larity was very great, both with the barons 
 and the clergy, and he was driven out of 
 England in 12.58. His quarrel with Boni- 
 face of Savoy in 1252 is one of the most 
 noteworthy incidents in his life. It was Slid 
 that at a parting banquet, j ust before leaving 
 England, in 1258, he attempted to poison some 
 of his chief opponents, but this assertion rests 
 on no very authentic basis. 
 
 Valence, Aylmer de, Eael op Pem- 
 BKOKE {d. 1324), was the son of William de 
 Valence (q.v.). ' He was placed by Edward I. 
 in command of the army against Robert 
 Bruce, and succeeded in surprising him at 
 Methven, but in 1307 he was defeated 
 by the Scots at Loudon HiU. Shortly after 
 the death of Edward I. he resigned his com- 
 mand in Scotland, and became one of the 
 royal ministers. He was one of the Ordainers 
 (1310), and was present at the battle of 
 Binnockburn (1314). He strongly opposed 
 Gaveston, and took him prisoner at Scar- 
 borough, but it was without his knowledge 
 that the favourite was seized by Warwick, 
 and beheaded without trial. This violent 
 conduct on the part of Warwick and Lan- 
 caster alienated Pembroke, who then endea- 
 voured to form a middle party between 
 Lancaster and the king, and from May, 1318, 
 to 1321 may be regarded as prime minister. 
 He opposed Lancaster in 1322, and was one 
 of the judges before whom he was tried. In 
 1324 he was sent over to France by the king, 
 where he died — murdered, it was said, by 
 the orders of Queen Isabella. 
 
 Valence, William de (d. 1296), was the 
 son of Hugh de Lusignan and Isabella, widow 
 of King John, and consequently half-brother 
 to Henry III., from whom he received the 
 earldom of Pembroke. He made himself 
 extremely unpopular in England, and in 1258 
 was expelled from the country. He subse- 
 quently returned, fought for the king, and 
 
 after the battle of Lewes had to -flee, while 
 his lands were confiscated. The defeat of the 
 barons restored him his possessions, and he 
 subsequently received large grants of land 
 from the crown. 
 
 Valentia, orViLENHANA, was the Eoman 
 name of the district between the Wall of 
 Beverus and that of Antoninus, and comprised 
 the Lowlands of Scotland, Northumberland, 
 and Cumberland. In 369 the country between 
 the two walls was won back from the Celtic 
 tribes by Theodosius, and given its new 
 name, Valentia, in honour of the Emperor 
 A'^alens. Mr. Skene is inclined to throw con- 
 siderable doubts upon the generally-accepted 
 proposition that Valentia lay between the 
 two waUs, and suggests that it was in rfeality 
 Wales. 
 
 Val-es-Dunes, The Battle op (1047), 
 was fought between Duke WiUiam of Nor- 
 mandy, aided by King Henry I. of France, 
 and the rebellious Norman barons. William's 
 victory was complete, and firmly established 
 his power. Val-es-Dunes, the scene of the 
 battle, is a broad plain not far from Caen. 
 
 Valetta, La, the capital of Malta (q.v.), 
 was besieged from Sept., 1798, to Sept., 1800, 
 by a force of Maltese and English, who were 
 anxious to drive the French out of the island. 
 After being reduced to the verge of starvation 
 the French garrison, commanded by General 
 VaubOis, were compelled to surrender to 
 General Pigot. 
 
 Vancouver's Island, on the west coast 
 
 of North America, was in 1849 granted to the 
 Hudson's Bay Company. In 1859 it became 
 a crown colony, and in 1866' was incorporated 
 with British Columbia (qv.), whilst five years 
 later the whole province became pan of the 
 Dominion of Canada (q.v.). Its provincial 
 government is similar to that of the other 
 provinces of the Dominion, and consists of a 
 lieutenant-governor, an executive council, and 
 a legislative assembly. The capital of the 
 island is Victoria, and the chief sources of its 
 wealth are gold and coal. The construction 
 of the Canada Pacific Railway will increase 
 its importance and favour its development in 
 no ordinary degree. 
 
 Van Siemen's Land. [Australia.] 
 Vane, Sir Henry, the Elder (4. 1589, d. 
 1654), was employed on diplomatic business 
 by Charles I., and subsequently became 
 treasurer of the royal household. In 1639 
 he was appointed Secretary of State, through 
 the queen's influence. He was a bitter op- 
 ponent of Strafiiord, and one of the chief 
 instruments in his conviction. He held his 
 secretaryship till Nov., 1641, though he de- 
 cideiily "inclined towards the Opposition in 
 Parliament, but retired into private life 
 after being deprived of his offices. Clarendon 
 says that he was the last of the king's coun- 
 sellors who stayed with Parliament, and that, 
 
Van 
 
 ( 1032 ) 
 
 Vas 
 
 " though he concurred in all the malicious 
 designs against the king, and against the 
 Church, he grew into the hatred and contempt 
 of those who had made most use of him, and 
 died in universal reproach." 
 
 Vane, Sm Henry {b. 1612, d. 1662), the son 
 of Sir Henry Vane, Comptroller of the King's 
 Household, was educated at Westminster 
 School and Magdalen Hall, Oxford. In 1635 
 he emigrated to Massachusetts, of which colony 
 he was elected governor, tut after a year's 
 tenure of the oiHce his advocacy of unlimited 
 religious liberty lost him his post, and he 
 returned to England in 1637. In the Long 
 Parliament he became one of the leaders of 
 the Eoot and Branch party, and his evidence 
 played an important part in Strafford's trial. 
 In July, 1643, Vane was appointed one of the 
 commissioners to negotiate the alliance with 
 Scotland, and it was by his skill that the clause 
 " according to the Word of God," was inserted 
 in the Solemn League and Covenant. In the 
 Parliament Vane was recognised throughout 
 as one of the ablest leaders of the Indepen- 
 dents, and sided with that party and with the 
 army against the Presbyterians in 1647. Vane 
 disapproved of the violation of the Parliament 
 by Pride's Purge, and took no part in the king's 
 trial.. He was chosen as a member of the 
 Council of State of the Kepublic, but refused 
 the prc^osed oath approving of the punishment 
 of the king. As head of the commission 
 governing the navy, and chairman of the 
 committee for drawing up the scheme for the 
 constitution of a new Parliament, he played a 
 very important part during this period ; but 
 his persistency in pressing forward the passing 
 of his measure, and refusing Cromwell's plan, 
 led the general to expel the Rump (le53). 
 In 1656 he wrote a tract entitled A Healing 
 Question Propoutided, proposing the calling of 
 a general convention to establish a free con- 
 stitution, for which he was summoned before 
 the Protector's council, and imprisoned at 
 Carisbrooke for three months. In Richard 
 Cromwell's Parliament, Vane represented 
 Whitchurch, and headed the opposition to the 
 new government. When the restored Rump 
 quarrelled with the army, Vane took part 
 with the army, and acted in the Council of 
 State established by it. On the second re- 
 storation of the Sump, Vane was punished 
 by being expelled from Parliament (Jan., 
 1660), and relegated to his estates in Durham. 
 On the return of the king he was arrested 
 (July, 1660), and wholly excepted from the 
 amnesty, though it was agreed that the two 
 Houses should petition Charles to spare his 
 life. After two years' imprisonment he was 
 tried (June, 1662), and sentenced to death, 
 the king thinking, as he wrote to Clarendon, 
 that he was too dangerous a man to live if he 
 could honestly be put out of the way. He 
 was executed on June 14, 1662. 
 
 Torster, Briiish States™ «l^ vol. iv. ; Clarendon, 
 Hist.ofthuRehellion. [C. H. F.] 
 
 Vansittart, Heney, was a Madras 
 civilian selected to succeed Clive in the 
 government of Bengal (1760). He deter- 
 mined to depose Meer Jaffier and place Meer 
 Cossim as ruler in his stead. In this plan, 
 however, he was opposed by several mem- 
 bers of his council. His attempts to force 
 revenue reforms on Meer Cossim ended in the 
 massacre of Patna (q.v.), and the restoration 
 of Meer Jaffier. Notwithstanding the ill- 
 success which attended his measures generally, 
 Mr. Vansittart seems to have been a man of 
 very good intentions. He attempted to check 
 the illegitimate trading which the Company's 
 servants carried on for their own benefit. In 
 1765 he returned to Europe, and in 1769 
 was appointed one of a company of three 
 " Supervisors " sent out to India by the Com- 
 pany for the purpose of investigation and re- 
 form. On their voyage to Hindostan the 
 frigate in which these gentlemen were em- 
 barked, disappeared in an unaccountable way, 
 nothing having ever been heard of its unfor- 
 tunate passengers from that day. 
 
 Varaville, The Battle of (1058), was 
 fought by William of Normandy against the 
 combined forces of France and Anjou. The 
 latter were completely routed, and shortly 
 afterwards peace was made. Varaville is on 
 the Dive, not far from Falaise. 
 
 Vassalage is a word signifying the con- 
 dition of feudal dependence. The term vassus 
 (from a, Celtic word originally meaning " a 
 growing youth ") appears first in Merovingian 
 chronicles and charters in. the sense of an un- 
 free person, while in the Carolingian period it 
 is used for a freeman who has commended him~ 
 self to some more powerful person or corpora- 
 tion. Commendation was symbolised by the 
 act of homage, whi(ih was accompanied by an 
 oath of fealty. But at first the relation was 
 a purely personal one, and implied no change 
 in the ownership of the land. It was only 
 when the beneficiary tie, that relation which 
 arose from the grant of a beneflc& with the 
 obKgation of service, was united to com- 
 mendation that the status known, in the 
 later Middle Ages as vassalage was perfected. 
 
 Frank feudalism arose then principally 
 from the union of the beneficial system and 
 commendation. Though commendation fre- 
 quently occurs in England, its part in the 
 creation of the English nobility by service, 
 and of the semi-feudal condition of things 
 immediately before the Conquest, is of com- 
 paratively small importance as compared with 
 that of the comitatiis and that of the English 
 judicial system. The word vassus, or vassalm, 
 is of very rare occurrence before the Conquest ; 
 though as early as Alfred the term is applied 
 by Asser to the thanes of Somerset. The 
 Conquest itself universalized a feudal tenure 
 of land of the Continental type, and with the 
 thing came the name. [Feudalism.] 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., i. § 65, 93, where an at- 
 count of Continental vassalage is given ■ 'Waitz 
 
Vav 
 
 ( 1033 
 
 Ver 
 
 Ilev.ische~Verfasswngs Geschichte ; and Sohm, Alt- 
 deutsehe Reichs-Verfassmigs. rw J A 1 
 
 Vavassour (Fr. Vmasmr) -was a small 
 landowner. The word has teen variously 
 explained as signifying a person next in dig- 
 nity to a baron, or merely a middle-class px-o- 
 prietor. Probably a vavassour is correctly 
 defined as " a sub-vassal holding a small 
 fief." The word is used in the prologue to 
 the Cantertwry Tales in reference to the 
 Franklin. 
 
 Vellore IHntiny, The (July, 1806). 
 Vellore, a fortress eighty-eight miles west of 
 Madras, had been selected as the residence of 
 the family of Tippoo (q.v.). Here they were 
 treated with great Uberallty by the English 
 government, and subjected to little personal 
 restraint ; but made use of their opportuni- 
 ties to foment a deep spirit of disaffection in 
 the native army — a design in which they 
 were greatly aided by various innovations 
 introduced by the adjutant-general into the 
 military code. The Sepoys, for instance, had 
 been forbidden to appear on parade with ear- 
 rings, or any distinctive marks of caste ; and 
 were also required to shave the chin and trim 
 the moustache after a particular model. 
 These unnecessary orders were particularly 
 vexatious, but it was a new form prescribed 
 for the turban which gave the greatest offence 
 because it was said to bear a resemblance to a 
 European hat. The intrigues of the Tippoo 
 family brought the affair to a head, and the 
 insurrection broke out early in July, 1806, by 
 the seizure of the powder magazine and the 
 assault of the European barracks. The Sepoys, 
 however, not daring to face the English sol- 
 diers at close quarters, kept up a murderous 
 fire from a distance tOl about 170 of the 
 English troops were wounded or kiUed. They 
 then fell upon the officers of the garrison, of 
 whom thirteen were slain. The surviving 
 English troops, however, managed to hold their 
 position tUl the arrival of Colonel GriUespie 
 with succour from Arcot. An investigation 
 was then opened, which succeeded in fixing 
 the greater guUt of the revolt on the Tippoo 
 family, who were accordingly removed to 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Venner, Thomas [d. 1661), a wine- 
 cooper by trade, was the leader of a band of 
 Fifth-Monarchy men, who appeared in arms 
 in London in Jan., 1661, demanding the estab- 
 lishment of the monarchy of Christ. Though 
 only a small number, the fanatics fought with 
 great bravery, and the rising was not sup- 
 pressed without some difficulty. Venner and 
 sixteen others were executed. 
 
 Vere, Sm Francis (b. 1554, d. 1608), 
 accompanied Sir Philip Sidney (q.v.) to the 
 Netherlands, and in 1587 was present at the 
 defence of Sluys and Bergen-op-Zoom, where 
 he greatly distinguished himself. Two years 
 later he defended the island of Voorn against 
 HIST.-33* 
 
 Mansf eldt, and whilst he continued to fight for 
 the States performed many brilUant actions. 
 In 1596 he took part in the expedition to 
 Cadiz, and in the following year accompanied 
 Essex in his unfortunate expedition to the 
 Azores. Towards the end of 1597 he returned 
 to the Low Countries as Governor of BiiD, 
 took part in several actions against the 
 Spaniards, and defended Ostend against an 
 overwhelming force. In 1604, on the con- 
 clusion of peace between England and Spain, 
 he returned to London, where he died. 
 
 Vere, Siu Horace [b. 1565, d. 1635), served 
 with his brother, Francis, in the Low 
 Countries, and was present at the capture of 
 Sluys. He succeeded his brother in the com- 
 mand of BriU tfll that town was restored to 
 the States of Holland in 1616. On the break- 
 ing out of the Thirty Years' War he was set , 
 at the head of the force destined by James L 
 for the preservation of the Palatinate, but on 
 this occasion was forced to surrender to Tilly 
 at Mannheim. He was created Lord Vere of 
 TUbury by Charles I. on his accession to the 
 crown, and was made Master of the Ordnance 
 in 1629. 
 
 Vere, Robert de, 9th Earl of Oxford, 
 1st Marquis of Dublin, and Duke of Ireland 
 [d. 1392), was one of Eichard XL's chief fa- 
 vourites and advisers. He married PhUippa, 
 daughter of Ingelram de Coucy, and grand- 
 daughter of Edward III., but subsequently, 
 having obtained a divorce from her, he married 
 a German lady, who had come over with 
 Anne of Bohemia (1387). De Vere quickly 
 acquired a great ascendency over the yoimg 
 king, by whom in 1385 he was created Marquis 
 of Dublin, receiving as an appanage the whole 
 territory and lordship of Ireland. In the 
 next year he received the title of Duke of 
 Ireland, and became practically the ruler of 
 England. His chief opponent was the Duke 
 of Gloucester, who was actuated more by 
 selfishness than any desire for good govern- 
 ment, and compelled the king to assent to the 
 appointment of a commission of regency. 
 After a feeble attempt at resistance, the king 
 had to give way, and the chief favourites were 
 appealed of treason. Among these was De 
 Vere, who raised a small body of troops, and 
 marched against Gloucester, but he was met 
 at Eadcot Bridge (1387) by the Earl of Derby, 
 and, finding himself outnumbered, fied to 
 Ireland. He was proclaimed a traitor by Par- 
 liament, but succeeded in making good his 
 escape to the Continent. In 1389 he succeeded 
 to the wealth of his fellow exile, the Earl of 
 Paris, but notwithstanding this he seems 
 to have died, if we may credit Walsingham's 
 authority, some three years later in great 
 • poverty at Louvain. [Richard II.] 
 
 Vemeuil, The Battle or (Aug. 16,1424), 
 was fought by the English, under the Duke of ' 
 Bedford, against the combined French and 
 
Ver 
 
 1034 ) 
 
 Ver 
 
 Sootchforce, commanded by Buchan, Constable 
 of France. The want of discipline in the French 
 army, and the misconduct of the Lombard 
 mercenaries, contributed in no small degree 
 to the victory of the English. The French 
 were completely routed, and out of a force of 
 18,000 left between 4,000 and 5,000 on the 
 field. Amongst those who fell were the Con- 
 stable, and the Earl of Douglas, while the 
 Duke of Alen(jon and other generals were 
 taken prisoners. This victory practically 
 ensured the supremacy of the English in the 
 north of France. Verneuil is one of the 
 frontier towns of Maine, and is not far from 
 Evreux. 
 
 Vernicomes (or Venicones), The, were 
 an ancient British tribe who inhabited part of 
 Perthshire, the whole of Angus, and a large 
 part of Kincardineshire. According to Pro- 
 fessor Rhys they occupied Meam, Angus, and 
 the east of Fife, having for their chief town 
 an unidentified place, Orrea. The same autho- 
 ' rity regards this tribe, who are mentioned by 
 Ptolemy, as being one with the later Meeatae, 
 and considers them to have been on the whole 
 neither Goidelic nor Brythonic, i.e., not 
 Celtic at all by race, but members of the 
 aboriginal Picts. 
 
 Eb^s, Celtic Britain, 
 
 Vernon, Edwakd, Admieai. (S. 1684, d. 
 1757), was the son of James Vernon (q.v.). 
 Entering the navy, he served in the Vigo 
 expedition, and was captain at twenty-one, 
 and rear-admiral at twenty-four. He was 
 member of Parliament for Penrhyn and 
 Portsmouth from 1727 to 1741, and in this 
 position was a strong opponent of "Walpole. 
 In 1739 he was despatched to the Antilles 
 with a fleet to destroy the Spanish establish- 
 ments there, but failed in his attempt to seize 
 Porto-Bello from an insufiiciency of force. 
 In 1741 he was associated with Wentworth 
 in the disastrous expedition against Cartha- 
 gena. But even this failure did not destroy 
 his popularity at home, where he was elected 
 for three boroughs at once, and continued to 
 take part in politics for some years afterwards. 
 Stiinhope, 3ist. of England. 
 
 Vernon, James (Jl. 1708), was a Whig 
 statesman in the reign of William III. In 
 Dec, 1697, on the sudden resignation of Sir 
 "William Truroball, he was elevated from the 
 post of Under-Secretary to that of Secretary 
 of State, through the influence of Shrews- 
 bury (q.v.). Soon afterwards, in conjunction 
 with Montague, he was elected for West- 
 minster. He attempted in vain to moderate 
 the violence of the House of Commons on the 
 Resumption Bill, proposing that WiDiam 
 should be allowed to retain a third of the Irish 
 grants. When the Partition Treaties were 
 discussed he carried a resolution that the 
 House would support the king, and even pro- 
 posed that William should be authorised to 
 conclude alliances. On the accession of Anne 
 
 he was dismissed from office. He was, says 
 Eanke, " a pliant Whig, of whom it was said 
 that he knew how to avoid making enemies 
 of those he was obliged to injure; one sees 
 from his letters that, on the other hand, he was 
 ever cautious, even in his warmest confidences 
 — a caution needful in one's lifetime, no 
 doubt, but useless to posterity. One would 
 gladly have seen plainer language in his Cor- 
 respondence." Vernon's Correspondence from 
 1696 to 1708 was edited by G. P. E. James, 
 in three volumes, and is of considerable im- 
 portance for the history of the years it covers. 
 Banke, Kist. of Eng. ; Macaulay, Kist. of Eng. 
 Verona, Congress of (1822). This con- 
 gress, which met in the year 1822, consisted 
 of the representatives of the five great powers 
 of Europe, viz., England, represented by the 
 Duke of Wellington and Lord Strangford; 
 Prance, represented by MM. de Mont- 
 morency and Chateaubriand ; Russia, by the 
 ■Emperor Alexander in person and Count 
 Nesselrode ; Austria, by Prince Mettemich ; 
 and Prussia, by Prince Hardenberg. The 
 chief topics for discussion were : (1) The in- 
 surrection in Greece and the relations between 
 Russia and Turkey ; (2) the evacuation of 
 Piedmont and Naples by the Austrian troops ; 
 (3) the slave trade, which, however, could not 
 be done away with because of the French 
 interests involved in that traffic ; (4) the 
 question of the independence of the revolted 
 South American States and the piracy of the 
 neighbouring seas ; (5) the question as to 
 active interference in Spain. On this last 
 subject England was isolated, all the other 
 powers declaring that they would foUow the 
 example of France in their diplomatic rela- 
 tions with Spain. 
 
 Versailles, The Treatt op (Sep- 
 tember, 1783), closed the war between Eng- 
 land and France, Spain, and the United 
 States. The principal terms of the Treaty 
 of Versailles were: The full recognition of 
 the independence of the United States on the 
 part of England, with the recognition of the 
 limits of that republic, which also kept the 
 right of fishing in the Newfoundland waters. 
 England returned to France St. Pierre and 
 Miquelon ; in the West Indies, St. Lucia and 
 Tobago ; in the East, Pondicherry, Chander- 
 nagore, together with right of free commerce. 
 France gave up the island of New Grenada, 
 St. Vincent, Dominica, St. Kitts, Nevis, Mont- 
 serrat, and others. In Africa England re- 
 nounced Senegal and its dependencies, and 
 restored Goree, but was guaranteed the posses- 
 sion of Fort St. James and the river Gambia, 
 with a right to share in the gum trade from 
 the mouth of the river St. Jean to Portendick. 
 Permission was also given to fortify Dunkirk. 
 As regards Spain, Minorca and the Floridas 
 were given up by the English, who were 
 however, to be allowed to cut log- wood within 
 certain limits, and who were to have Providence 
 
Ves 
 
 ( 1035 ) 
 
 Vie 
 
 and the Bahamas restored to them. Holland 
 yielded Negapatam, and promised not to 
 harass English navigation in the Eastern Seas. 
 
 Koch and Sohoell, Hist, des Traitis de Paix; 
 Martin, Hist, de France. 
 
 Vespasian was sent into Britain as 
 "legatus legionum" in the year 43 a.d. In 
 this capacity, according to Suetonius, he 
 fought thirty battles with the natives, took 
 twenty of their towns, and suhdued the Isle 
 of Wight. After attaining the Empire (70 
 A.D.) he continued to take some interest in 
 Britain, to which island he sent more than 
 one army for the purpose of conquest. 
 
 Vexin, The. This province, which lay 
 on the borderland of France and Normandy 
 had, according to the Norman writers, been 
 ceded by King Henry I. of France to Duke 
 Eobert of Normandy as the price of his assis- 
 tance in that sovereign's restoration. During 
 the years of William's childhood it had been 
 resumed by France, and the conquest of 
 Maine and England had occupied this duke's 
 time too fully to give him leisure to reclaim 
 the smaller province till towards the close of 
 his reign. At last, irritated by the French 
 king's jests, and the ravages committed on 
 Norman ground by th3 French commanders 
 in Mantes, he entered the Vexin in 1087. 
 Mantes was razed to the ground, and it was 
 among the burning embers of this town 
 that WiUiam met with the accident which 
 put an end to his life. 
 
 Vicar-G-eneral was the title given to 
 Thomas Cromwell in his capacity of exercising 
 " all the spiritual authority belonging to the 
 king as head of the Church, for the due ad- 
 ministration of justice in aU cases touching the 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and the godly re- 
 formation and redress of all errors, heresies, 
 and abuses in the same Church," in 1535. In 
 1539 Cromwell was, by Act of Parliament, 
 empowered to sit in this capacity "on the 
 right syde of the Parliament, and upon the 
 same fourme that the Archbishop of Canter- 
 burie sytteth on, and above the same Arch- 
 bishop and his successors." It was in his 
 capacity of Vicar- General that Cromwell 
 issued the commission for inquiry into the 
 religious houses throughout the kingdom. 
 
 Victoria Alexandrina, Queen (*. 
 1819, s. 1837), is the only child of the late 
 Duke of Kent (the son of George III.), 
 and the Princess Louisa Victoria of Saxe- 
 Coburg (relict of the hereditary Prince of 
 Leiningen). The Duke of Kent died 1820, 
 and the general education of the Princess was 
 directed, under her mother's care, by the 
 Duchess of Northumberland, wife of the 
 third duke. She succeeded to the throne 
 in 1837 ; was married, 1840, to his late High- 
 ness • Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, 
 who died Dec. 14, 1861. [For the chief 
 events of her Majesty's reign, see Crimean 
 
 War; Indian Mutiny; Corn Laws: Ire- 
 land ; Palmeeston ; Peel ; Gladstone ; 
 Beaoonspield, &c.] 
 
 Vienna, The Conoress oe (1814 — 15), 
 met to settle the affairs of Europe after the 
 defeat of Napoleon and the entry of the 
 alhes into Paris. The Congress was attended 
 by plenipotentiaries of all the great powers 
 and most of the smaller ones of Europe. 
 England was represented by Lord Castlereagh. 
 The proceedings of the congress were much 
 interfered with, first by the continual gaieties 
 indulged in by the princes and ambassadors in 
 Vienna ; and, secondly, by the divergence of 
 views that became manifest among the repre- 
 sentatives of the great powers. A dispute, 
 indeed, had arisen before the formal opening 
 of the congress. An attempt had been made 
 by Austria, Prussia, Russia, and England, to 
 get the entire management of the conference 
 into their hands, and to exclude France and 
 the smaller powers from the settlement of 
 Europe. This, however, failed through the 
 determination of Talleyrand, who asserted 
 the rights of France and the secondary states. 
 In the congress itself it was evident that an 
 arrangement had been made between Prussia 
 and Russia for the disposal of the territories 
 occupied by their troops; and this was so 
 unwelcome to the others that in Jan., 1815, 
 a secret convention was entered into between 
 England, France, and Austria, to compel the 
 adoption of the policy they advocated. This 
 attitude of the three powers compelled 
 Russia and Prussia to agree to a compromise, 
 and the settlement was hastened by the news 
 of Bonaparte's escape from Elba (Feb. 26, 
 1814). It was agreed that a large portion of 
 Saxony should be given to Prussia, Posen 
 should belong to Prussia, and Galicia to 
 Austria, while the rest of- Poland was secured 
 to Russia; Luxemburg was given to the 
 Netherlands, Switzerland was reorganised, the 
 Boui-bons were restored to Naples, the minor 
 German states were restored, and the congress 
 declared a universal disapprobation of the slave 
 trade. The congress closed June 9, 1815. 
 
 Koch and Schoell, Hist, des Trat^^s de Paix ; 
 Alison, Hist, of Europe; C. A. Fyffe, Hist, of 
 Europe. 
 
 Vienna, Conference op (1853). Towards 
 the end of July, 1853, a conference of the 
 four great powers was held at Vienna. This 
 conference adopted a certain note which had 
 been previouslj drawn up in France as the 
 embodiment of their views as to the Russo- 
 Turkish question. Russia at once acceded 
 to these terms, but the Porte refused its 
 consent, objecting to certain passages. These 
 objections the great powers subsequently 
 allowed to have been well-founded ; for, as 
 the Sultan said, he could not accept a doctrine 
 whose terms implied that the privileges of the 
 Greek Church in his domains were only main- 
 tained by the championship of Russia, and 
 
Vie 
 
 ( 1036 ) 
 
 vu 
 
 also threw doubts on the good faith of the 
 TarMah government as regards its fulfilment 
 of treaty obligations. The Porte declared 
 war on Oct. 5, upon which the congress in- 
 quired on what terms Turkey would treat for 
 lease. The reply was: Only on the immediate 
 and complete evacuation of Moldavia and 
 Wallachia, the renewal of the treaties, and 
 various other conditions which were recog- 
 nised by the congress as reasonable. The 
 congress accordingly drew up a protocol to 
 this efBect, and forwarded it to Russia, which 
 power, however, rejected the terms offered, 
 and proposed five new ones (Jan. 13, 1863). 
 These being found impossible of acceptance, 
 the conference dissolved. 
 
 Vienna, The Second Congress op, met 
 in March, 1855, and consisted of pleni- 
 potentiaries from England (Lord J. Eussell), 
 France, Austria, Turkey, and Eussia. On 
 March 26 it was adjourned, and only re- 
 opened towards the middle of April. Within 
 a few days Lord Russell left Vienna, the 
 Trench representative followed soon, and 
 though the congress lingered on tiU the early 
 days of June, it accomplished nothing. 
 KinglaJse, The Invasion of the Crimea. 
 
 Vienna, The Treaty of (March, 1731), 
 completed the settlement of Europe designed 
 by the Treaty of Seville. By that treaty 
 the Emperor had been isolated in Europe. 
 He seized the duchy of Parma, and it seemed 
 likely that England, in conjunction with 
 France and Spain, would be forced into a 
 war which would result in acquisitions by 
 France in the Austrian Netherlands which 
 would be dangerous to England. Accord- 
 ingly, Sir Robert Walpole, in conjunction 
 with Holland, opened negotiations with the 
 Emperor. England guaranteed the Pragmatic 
 Sanction, which secured the succession of the 
 Austrian dominions, while Austria "accepted 
 the terms proposed at Seville, agreed to 
 destroy the Ostend Company, to establish 
 Don Carlos in his duchies, and not again to 
 threaten the balance of European power." 
 The treaty was signed without the participa- 
 tion or assent of France. 
 
 Vigo Bay, The Expedition to, in the 
 War of the Spanish Succession, was despatched 
 in 1702 under the command of the Duke of 
 Ormonde, with Sir George Rooke at the head 
 of the fleet. It consisted of fifty vessels, of 
 which thirty were English and twenty Dutch. 
 On July 1 they sailed from St. Helen's, and on 
 Aug. 12 they anchored in the harbour of Cadiz. 
 Through disunion and jealousy, very little 
 was effected at this place besides the plunder 
 of a few ports. News, however, now arrived 
 from England of the arrival of the Spanish 
 galleons in the Bay of Vigo, and instructions 
 to take or destroy them were forwarded to 
 Sir George Rooke, who, however, had re- 
 ceived this information earlier. The Dutch 
 vessels were communicated with, and on Oct. 
 
 1 1 it was resolved to attempt to capture the 
 French and Spanish ships which were drawn 
 up at Vigo Bay, in a position defended by a 
 boom and a castle. Next day the Duke of 
 Ormonde landed some soldiers to effect a 
 diversion, and these soon made themselves 
 masters of the castle. Meanwhile the boom 
 was forced by the English ships, and the 
 French admiral, seeing destruction imminent, 
 gave orders to set fire to his own vessels. Of 
 the enemy's men-of-war eleven were burnt, 
 four were taken by the English and six by 
 the Dutch. Of the galleons six were taken 
 by the English and five by the Dutch, who, 
 however, sunk six others. Of the treasure 
 on board, valued at more than 40,000,000 
 "pieces of eight," much had been taken on 
 shore before our arrival, and booty to the 
 amount of about 11,000,000 "pieces of eight" 
 alone fell into the hands of the victors. 
 
 Villa Viciosa, The Battle of (1710), 
 in the War of the Spanish Succession, 
 was the sequel to the unfortunate defeat of 
 the aUies in Spain at Brihuega. That defeat 
 was mainly owing to the sluggishness of the 
 Imperial general, Staremberg, in the support 
 of General Stanhope. On coming within 
 sight of Brihuega at last, Staremberg found 
 that Stanhope had surrendered, and at once 
 attempted to retreat, but finding that step 
 impossible, he drew up his troops in order of 
 battle. He had but thirteen thousand op- 
 posed to twenty. The left wing of the allied 
 troops was completely irouted by the cavalry 
 of the enemy, amongst whom was Philip, the 
 French candidate for the crown. Instead, 
 however, of proceeding to attack the re- 
 mainder of our army, the victorious troops fell 
 to plundering the baggage, leaving Starem- 
 berg free to contend with the left wing, a 
 contest in which he was so far successful that 
 by nightfall he was left in possession of the 
 field, from which the Duke of Vend6me and 
 Philip had galloped in haste. The enemy's 
 cannon were taken and our own recaptured, 
 but the allied forces had suffered so much in 
 the action, that Staremberg deemed it ad- 
 visable to retreat to Saragossa. 
 
 J. H. Burtou, Eeign of Queen Anme ; MElholl, 
 Wav of the Succession m Spam. 
 
 Villenage, Villeins. These words 
 respectively denote the depressed condition, 
 and the class to which at one time the vast 
 bulk of the population that was in immediate 
 contact with the soil belonged. The viUein 
 class was the aggregate, formed by political 
 apd^ social influences, of several classes, some 
 similar and all distinguishable, which began 
 to be drawn closer to one another long before 
 the Norman Conquest, and reached their 
 common level years after that event. It is 
 a fair surmise that the mutual attraction 
 exercised on each other by the various kinds 
 of eeorls and i/ieows, the former sinking the 
 latter rising, till they met and blended ' had 
 
Vil 
 
 ( 1037 ) 
 
 Vil 
 
 been working from an early date. The villeins, 
 however, were originally those who had a 
 right to share in the common land of a vill. 
 When Domesday Booh was compiled, the 
 sections of the lahouring population that were 
 in a few generations to combine into the 
 general villein class were known as bordars, 
 cottars or cotsets, serfs, and villeins, the first 
 and last in enormous majority. These may 
 be assumed to have already come to differ in 
 degree only ; perhaps they were not far from 
 the substantial amalgamation which eventually 
 made a single class of them. "When the 
 coalescence and degradation were complete, 
 they bore many names. As tillers of the soil, 
 and of a status distinct from that of the 
 lower class in towns, they were called rustics ; 
 as being exclusively of English birth natives 
 or neifs ; villeins because they were bound to 
 live on the vills, which had now become the 
 property of feudal lords ; and serfs because 
 they had to serve another's wiU. The feature 
 in the condition that accompanied every one 
 of its varying stages and distinctions, and 
 doubtless fixed the fate of the different con- 
 stituents of the class, and may consequently 
 be taken for the most significant, was the 
 dependence of every member of it on a 
 superior, the existence of an intermediary 
 through whom alone they came under the 
 eye of the law, and by whom alone their 
 rights could be asserted. The moment this 
 is seen in the historic development of our 
 system — and it is clearly seen in the later 
 Anglo-Saxon rule, that no man could be lord- 
 less — at that moment we become aware of 
 a general set among the humbler dwellers in 
 the land towards villenage. The fresh im- 
 petus given to the feudal principle by the 
 Conquest, and the indifference of Norman 
 judges to the degrees of English dependence, 
 insured the completion of the process ; when 
 the twelfth century began, the men whose 
 labour raised the necessary food for all, were 
 in huge proportion "irremovable cultivators," 
 holding their cottages and patches of ground 
 at the wOl of others, barely capable of political 
 rights, and at the mercy of others for the 
 exercise of such social rights as the law doled 
 out to them ; in a word, dependent on those 
 who had lordship over them for everything 
 that made living possible, and life support- 
 able. The peculiar facts of their condition 
 were summed in the single fact, they had 
 a master. This master commanded their 
 services ; had nominally power to take from 
 them everything they possessed ; -could transfer 
 them in the lump with, the land they tilled; 
 they were — in some instances at least — 
 reckoned part of the stock of his estate; 
 against his will they were not at liberty to 
 withdraw from the conditions of their birth. 
 They could not buy their freedom from him 
 with their own money, because all they had 
 was in his power. If a villein ran away from 
 his lord, he not only lost the holding that 
 
 afforded him a livelihood, but was liable to be 
 dragged back to his former dependence. The 
 consent of his lord was neede(^ to his be- 
 coming a knight or clerk, or to hia educating 
 his children for the service of the Church. 
 Yet his lord's authority over him was not 
 unbounded ; for his cruelty or neglect the 
 viUein had a remedy in the king's court. 
 And from all oppressions but his lord's he 
 was absolutely safe ; the law redressed the 
 wrongs done to him by others as promptly as 
 those of the most law-worthy man in the 
 kingdom. He had, moreover, many comforts 
 and little responsibility. He was generally 
 left in undisturbed enjoyment of his small 
 farm and the gains of his industry, was 
 exempt from service in war, and often found 
 his lord an indulgent master. There was 
 more than one door to freedom that he might 
 contrive to open ; residence in a town as 
 member of a gild for a year and a day, 
 unclaimed by his lord, made a free man 
 of him; the Church was on his side, ever 
 raising her strong voice in favour of 
 emancipation. Nor was he always an utter 
 nonentity in politics, or overlooked in the 
 great securities of the national rights. His 
 oath was received in the great inquests ; he 
 was represented in the local gatherings; the 
 Great Charter guaranteed his wainage against 
 legal distraint. In course of time the villein's 
 position came to be something like this : he 
 owed his lord the customary services, whereby 
 his lord's demesne was cultivated; and to 
 render those his continual presence on his 
 lord's estates was required ; but his lord 
 could not refuse him his customary rights in 
 return, " his house and lands and rights of 
 wood and hay," and in relation to every one 
 but his lord, his capacity as a citizen was 
 unqualified — "he might inherit, purchase, 
 sue in the courts of law." His condition, too, 
 had a tendency to improve ; custom raised 
 his hold upon his house and land into a form 
 of tenure — that by viUeuage, which even- 
 tually developed into copyhold — he was al- 
 lowed to pay his rent in money instead of 
 service ; in many cases his lord's grasp upon 
 him gradually relaxed; the current of the 
 time ran in favour of enfranchisement. In 
 the middle of the fourteenth century a large 
 number of the villeins had become actually, a 
 large number virtually, free ; these were 
 " free to cultivate their land, to redeem their 
 children, to find the best market for their 
 labour." This beneficial movement was 
 checked by the Great Plague, when the 
 scarcity of labour gave the lords an interest 
 in recovering stray or half -liberated villeins, 
 and the steps they took to this end drove 
 the whole class to insurrection. The aboli- 
 tion of viUenage and substitution of rent for 
 its services were among the demands of the 
 insurgents of 1381. The check, however, 
 was but temporary ; disappointed of their 
 immediate object and cruelly punished as 
 
Vil 
 
 ( 1038 ) 
 
 Via 
 
 ttey were, the rustics benefited materially by 
 the outburst. " The landlords ceased the 
 practice of demanding base services; they 
 let their lands to leasehold tenants, and ac- 
 cepted money payments in lieu of labour ; 
 they ceased to recall the emancipated labourer 
 into serfdom, or to oppose his assertion of 
 right in the courts of the manor and the 
 county." It must be remembered, too, that 
 emancipation had long been common, that 
 the law was now making for freedom, throw- 
 ing the burden of proof on the claimant lord, 
 and construing doubtful points in favour of 
 the claimed — ruling, for instance, that no 
 bastard could be a villein. These causes 
 affected mainly the "villeins regardent," as 
 those whose bondage was dependent on land 
 and disabled them only towards their lords, 
 were called. It is suspected that there were 
 also in England " villeins in gross," whose 
 villenage was personal and absolute, whose 
 services at least could be sold in open market, 
 and who had not a trace of political status ; 
 but this is still a disputed point. " We may 
 conjecture that the villein regardent had 
 fallen into villenage by occupying some of 
 the demesne of the lord on servile conditions, 
 and "that the villein in gross was a chattel of 
 the lord whom he paid or maintained by a, 
 similar allotment of land." But even the 
 more debased form slowly gave way before 
 continuous charters of enfranchisement; by 
 this process the last isolated bondmen and 
 their families were, in Elizabeth's reign, 
 quietly absorbed in the general mass of free 
 citizens. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ; Hallam, Middle Ages ; 
 Eogers, Six Centuries of Work and Wages; See- 
 bohm, r/ie Eri.glish Village Gonvmmvity. 
 
 [J. R.] 
 
 Villiers, Elizabeth (d. 1720), was one of 
 the ladies-in-waiting to Princess (afterwards 
 Queen) Mary at the time of her marriage 
 with William of Orange. She became the 
 prince's mistress, for although "destitute of 
 personal attractions and disfigured by a 
 hideous squint," she was a woman of con- 
 siderable talents, and " to the end of her life 
 great politicians sought her advice." In 1693 
 William employed her in vain to try and induce 
 the Duke of Shrewsbury to accept office. She 
 married George Hamilton, afterwards Earl of 
 Orkney. William bestowed on her a grant 
 of part of the old crown property in Ireland 
 (estimated at £24,000, though really only 
 about £4,000 a year), and this gxant became 
 very impopular when grossly exaggerated in 
 value by the commission sent to inquire into 
 the Irish forfeitures (1699). It was against 
 Lady Orkney, Woodstock, and Keppel that 
 the Resumption Bill of 1700 was chiefly 
 directed. 
 
 Maoaulay, Hist, of Ung. 
 
 Vimiera, The Battle of (Aug. 21, 1808), 
 during the Peninsular War, was brought 
 
 on by an offensive movement of the Erenoh 
 army under Junot, four days after the 
 combat of Eorica. The village of Vimiera 
 stands in a small plain at the foot of hiUs, 
 near the river Maceira, and about nine 
 miles from Torres Vedras. Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley's object was to keep near the coast, 
 in order to protect the landing of British 
 troops ; but although holding the road to 
 Torres Vedras, he had been forestalled at that 
 place by Junot, who had coUeeted there the 
 scattered troops of Laborde and Loison. 
 Wellesley accordingly took up a defensive 
 position, occupying two ridges and some high 
 ground between them. On the high ground 
 to the south of the village, Wellesley placed 
 Fane and Anstruther with some infantry and 
 six guns, while the bulk of the troops occupied 
 the range west of the Maceira. On the heights 
 to the east and north few ti-oops were posted 
 owing to a want of water. Junot's plan was 
 to attack these heights, so thinly defended, 
 and so to outflank the British left; but 
 Wellesley, to meet this, withdrew large 
 bodies from the right. The French attack 
 on the centre, which was intended to be 
 supported by the troops who were told off to 
 outflank and destroy the English left, met 
 with some little success at first, but was 
 checked at the summit of the plateau by the 
 50th, who drove them back over the edge, 
 and a cavalry charge completed their rout. 
 In the meantime the French troops on the 
 right, having too late extricated themselves 
 from the ravines which had intercepted their 
 progress, attacked Ferguson on the extreme 
 left, but were vigorously repulsed. The 
 pursuit, which would have destroyed the 
 French army, routed as it was, was arrested 
 by Burrard, who had arrived, and now took 
 up the command. 
 
 Napier, Peninsular War. 
 
 Vincent, Henky, was one of the chief 
 leaders and orators of the Chartists. He was 
 arrested and imprisoned at Newport for the 
 violence of his language. A most determined 
 attack was made on the prison to release him, 
 but it was repelled by the energy of the 
 mayor, Mr. Phillips, and the troops stationed 
 at Newport (1839). 
 
 Vinegar Hill, The Battle op (1798), 
 during the Irish Rebellion, was fought near 
 Enniscorthy, in Wexford. The Irish rebels, 
 headed by Father Murphy, assembled here, es- 
 tablished a camp, and committed fearful cruel- 
 ties in the neighbourhood. From May 29 till 
 the time when the camp was stormed, the 
 massacre of Protestants was a matter of almost 
 daily occurrence. On June 26, the British 
 troops, under the command of General Lake, 
 advanced from five sides to attack the rebels 
 the road to Wexford being, however, perhaps 
 intentionally, left open. The camp was taken 
 without much fighting, only 400 out of 16 000 
 being killed. Thirteen guns, however, were 
 
Vir 
 
 ( 1039 ) 
 
 Vol 
 
 taken, and the rest of tke rebels fled in dis- 
 order to "Wexford. 
 
 Virgil, PoLYDORE {b. 1470 ? d. 1565 ?), 
 was bom at Urbino. Being sent by Alex- 
 ander VI. to England for the purpose of 
 collecting Peter's Pence, he so favour- 
 ably impressed Henry VII. as to make that 
 kiQg desirous of keeping him in his realm. 
 Being appointed Archdeacon of "WeUs, he 
 was induced by Fox, Bishop of Winchester, 
 to undertake to compile a history of England, 
 This work was completed after several years' 
 labour, and was published at Basle in 1534. 
 It consists of twenty-six books, and extends 
 to the end of Henry VII.'s reign. Though 
 of contemporary authority only for the latter 
 years of Henry VII., Polydore's production 
 merits great praise as being the first English 
 history which is critically compiled from the 
 annals of the older chronicles. About 1550 
 Polydore Virgil went abroad again, still, 
 however, enjoying the revenues of his English 
 preferments, and is generally said to have 
 died at Urbino about the year 1555. 
 
 Virgin Isles, The, are a coUeetion of 
 islands in the West Indies (belonging to 
 the Leeward group, and owned partly by 
 Denmark, partly by Spain, and partly by 
 Great Britain. They were discovered by 
 Columbus (1493), and visited by Drake in 
 1580 and by the Earl of Cumberland in 1596. 
 Tortola, and some other of the Virgin Islands, 
 were in 1666 acquired by the English after 
 they had driven out the Dutch buccaneers, 
 who had held them since about the year 1648, 
 and were in the course of the same reign an- 
 nexed to the Leeward Islands. 
 
 Viscount is a title of nobility between 
 those of earl and baron. As an hereditary 
 honour it was introduced into England in 
 Edward II.'s reign from France,. Henry de 
 Beaumont being the first man created Viscount. 
 The title has never been used to any great 
 extent in England, though in latter times it 
 has been the custom to confer it on prominent 
 cabinet ministers when they are raised to 
 the peerage. It must be remembered that 
 the Latin word vice-comes is always used to 
 translate the EngUsi sheriff; in this sense 
 the word seems to have been brought into 
 England from Normandy at the time of the 
 Conquest, and was used by the invaders for 
 the English shire-reeve because the Norman 
 vice-comes was the nearest equivalent. 
 
 Visitation, The Committee of, ap- 
 pointed by the Scottish Parliament, consisted 
 of Presbyterian clergymen, who were to 
 purify the Church by visitation. The result 
 was the expulsion of many Episcopalian 
 clergy on charges of immorality, which were 
 often the result of malice. 
 
 Vittoria, The Battle of (June 21, 1813), 
 was the first great battle of Wellington's 
 
 campaign of that year in the Peninsular 
 War. Vittoria stands on a small eminence 
 with the Zadora flowing through the plain 
 on its northern side. In the Vittoria 
 basin Joseph had collected all the baggage, 
 camp-followers, and plunder of the last 
 campaigns. On the 19th the allies came 
 up, and encountered the French in some 
 partial skirmishes. Joseph's plan was to 
 hold the bridges over the Zadora, and 
 Wellington determined to deliver three 
 attacks on the French position, which was 
 very widely extended. HUl, on the right, 
 was to force the bridge of the narrow pass 
 called La Puebla, and drive in the French 
 left. Wellington himself was to carry the 
 three chief bridges in the centre, while on the 
 extreme left Graham was to turn the French 
 right, and so enclose the whole army in the 
 Vittoria basin between the Zadora and the 
 Puebla range. On the morning of the 21st 
 HiU seized the village of La Puebla, and 
 while some of his men were detached to seize 
 the heights, he himself pushed on through the 
 pass, and carried the village of Subigana. 
 In the centre, and on the left, "Kemp and 
 Graham succeeded in driving back the enemy, 
 and before long all the Ens;hsh troops were 
 across the Zadora. The French began to 
 retreat, but were hotly assailed on all sides, 
 especially by Wellington from the hill of 
 Aimez, which he had seized by a sudden rush. 
 They nevertheless kept up a running fight 
 for five miles, until after being driven from 
 each successive position, they finally gave 
 themselves up to a headlong flight, leaving 
 women and children, baggage, and artillery 
 behind them as spoil for the pursuing troops. 
 Napier, Peninsular War. 
 
 Vixen, Seizure op the. In 1837 Mr. 
 Bell, an English merchant, infringed the 
 Russian blockade of the coast of Circassia, 
 but at the express advice and instigation of 
 Mr. Urquhart, the English minister at Con- 
 stantinople, who, it was believed, acted with 
 the express cognisance of Lord Pahnerston 
 (q.v.). Great excitement was created ; a 
 large party in the country urgently demanded 
 war to avenge this insult to the British 
 flag. A select committee on the subject was 
 moved for in the House of Commons, and 
 it was refused by only a small majority. 
 Arinual Segisterf 1857. 
 
 Volunteer Convention, The, at 
 
 Dublin (1783). In accordance with the 
 resolutions passed at the Dungannon Con- 
 vention [Volunteers, The Irish], 300 
 members assembled in the Rotunda on 
 Nov. 10, 1783, and under the presidency 
 of Lord Charlemont, passed a Reform Bill 
 excluding all Catholics. Hood brought it 
 before Parliament on Nov. 29, but was 
 beaten by two to one. On Dec. 1 the Con- 
 vention adjourned sine die, and thus came to 
 an end. 
 
Vol 
 
 ( 1040 ) 
 
 Vor 
 
 Volunteer Corps, Soon after the 
 outbreak of the Great War with France, 
 numerous Volunteer corps were raised in 
 England to defend the country in case of in- 
 vasion, and to overcome internal disorder if 
 necessary. These regiments were chiefly 
 raised from the gentry and the middle 
 classes, and were armed and equipped at their 
 own expense. Several of the corps consisted 
 of cavalry. In 1803, when the war broke out 
 again, the Volunteer movement received a 
 great impetus. A bill known as the Military 
 Service Bill was passed, authorising the en- 
 rolment as Volunteers of all able-bodied men. 
 Many new regiments were formed, and the 
 numbers of the Volunteers rose to over 
 300,000. Pitt put himself at the head of the 
 movement, and, as "Warden of the Cinque 
 Ports, raised a force of 3,000 Volunteers, of 
 which he was in command. Though not 
 called upon to repel invasion, these Volunteer 
 corps were frequently useful in suppressing 
 riots. In 1859 the intemperate language 
 used about England, in French newspapers 
 and pubhc meetings, roused the nation to its 
 defenceless condition. In consequence large 
 numbers of Rifle Volunteer Corps were 
 formed all over the country. The movement 
 spread and took firm root. In 1860 an Act 
 was passed to regulate the conditions of 
 service, and in 1862 amended. Several other 
 statutes have been passed in reference to the 
 Volunteers, and in 1870 an Act provided for 
 the resumption by the crown of direct au- 
 thority over the Volunteers. Thus the 
 Volunteers were closely incorporated with 
 the mihtary system of the country, and placed 
 under the direct control of the War OfSce. 
 In 1881 they were further affected by the 
 Regulations of the forces, and by administra- 
 tive changes ; the chief of which was that of 
 attaching the Volunteer corps as auxiliary 
 battalions of the line regiments. In recent 
 years the number of this valuable force has 
 generally been over 200,000, and has included 
 infantry, artillery, engineers, and a small 
 body of cavalry. 
 
 Volttnteers, The Irish. The move- 
 ment for establishing Volunteer corps began 
 about 1778, owing, on the one hand, to the 
 boldness of American privateers, and, on the 
 other, to want of money, which prevented the 
 Xiord- Lieutenant from establishing a militia. 
 It was part of the definite system of com- 
 pelling the English government ■ to grant 
 legislative and commercial independence to 
 Ireland by that country adopting the methods 
 of agitation which had been so successful in 
 America. In 1779 the first regular regiment, 
 under command of the Duke of Leinster, was 
 formed in Dublin, and though the Catholics 
 were persuaded to abstain, Protestant corps 
 were formed all over the country, commanded 
 by country gentlemen. They were now 40,000 
 strong. On Sept. 13, Parliameut passed a vote 
 
 of thanks to them, and the patriots, anxious 
 to imitate America, at once determined to use 
 them to extort concessions from England. In 
 this they had not miscalculated ; and the 
 government, being unable to spare troops for 
 Ireland, had to grant free trade in 1779. 
 Grattan had now begTin to attack the Union. 
 The Volunteers supported him, and elected 
 Lord Charlemont, their leader, in defiance of 
 the Castle. In the north they began to hold 
 reviews, their flag bearing the inscription 
 " Sibernia tandem libera." Soon after, they 
 passed resolutions declaring free trade in 
 danger and against the Perpetual Mutiny 
 Bin. The House of Commons at last took 
 the alarm, and in September, 1780, declared 
 their resolutions, " false, scandalous, libellous, 
 and tending to raise sedition." All through 
 1781 the Volunteers continued to increase 
 tin their numbers were estimated at 100,000. 
 Meanwhile their uselessness in case of invasion 
 had been shown by the fact that when Cork 
 was threatened, only 300 came forward to 
 defend it. In April, 1782, when Parliament 
 again met, the Volunteers poured into Dublin 
 in great numbers to give Grattan confidence. 
 The Irish demands were granted, and without 
 doubt the constitution of 1782 was due to the 
 inability of the government to oppose any 
 force to the Volunteers, who at this time 
 actually had 80,000 men under aims, and 
 130,000 on the rolls. It was owing to their 
 opposition that a projected increase of 'the 
 army had to be given up. The second Con- 
 vention at Dungannon declared in favour of 
 Reform, and with the Earl of Bristol (q.v.) as 
 a leader, the Volunteers became a real danger 
 to the State when they assembled again in 
 the " Volunteer Convention " (q.v.) of Nov. 
 10, 1783, at Dublin, under the presidency of 
 Lord Charlemont, and drew up a Reform Bill, 
 which excluded all Catholics. After this 
 the better classes retired from the movement, 
 and the ranks began to be largely filled with 
 Catholics. In 1 785 they were again the idols 
 of the mob, though a vote of thanks to them 
 was lost in the Commons. The failure of a 
 congress to be held under their auspices 
 through the firm action of the government, 
 and the suppression of the Whiteboys in 1787, 
 made them less formidable. Wolfe Tone tried 
 to revive them, but without success, and the 
 Arms BiU of 33 George III. finally put an 
 end to the movement. The carrying out of 
 the law being entrusted to the soldiery met 
 with opposition at Belfast alone. Many of 
 the arms of the Volunteers, however, had 
 before this passed into the hands of the 
 peasantry, and were used in 1798. 
 
 Fronde, Jlmgltsh in IreloniJ ; Life of Gfrattow. 
 
 Vortigern appears to have been a prince 
 of one of the British tribes (probably the 
 Demetse) in the middle of the fifth century. 
 Innumerable stories concerning him are re- 
 lated by Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth 
 
Vou 
 
 ( 1041 ) 
 
 Wag 
 
 none of whioli redound much to his credit. 
 He, perhaps, represented the national British 
 party as opposed to the Koman party led by 
 Ambrosius Aurelianus. He is said to have 
 invited the Saxons over to Britain to help him 
 against the Picts. But Hengest is said to 
 have very soon turned against him, and, after 
 several engagements, to have driven him out of 
 Kent. Of his subsequent history we have even 
 less trustworthy accounts. According to Neu- 
 nius he was burnt by fire from heaven, while 
 Geoffrey declares he was burnt in his castle 
 'by the orders of Ambrosius. The story of 
 his marriage with Rowena, the daughter of 
 Hengest, rests on very bad authority, but the 
 names of four of his sons, Vortimer (q.v.), Cate- 
 gim, Pascent, and Faustus, are preserved in 
 Nennius, who also says that St. Germanus 
 severely reprimanded Vortigem for marrying 
 his own daughter. He seems at first to have left 
 the conduct of the war against the Jutish in- 
 vaders to his eldest son, Vortimer, being him- 
 self at first friendly to the invaders. Nennius 
 is also the authority for Hengest's massacre 
 of the British, on which occasion, however, 
 the king's life is said to have been spared. 
 Such are the chief traditions which have been 
 preserved concerning the reign of Vortigem. 
 They belong to fable rather than to history. 
 Neimius (Eng. £[ist. Soc), c. 43, &c. 
 
 Vortimer (Gortimer) [d. circaiSO) was the 
 eldest son of Vortigem (q.v.), and appears to 
 have actively opposed Hengest and the Saxon 
 invaders. He is said by Nennius to have 
 valorously encountered them on four occasions, 
 but as his name does not occur either in 
 Gildas or Bede, any particulars about him 
 must be extremely doubtful. According to 
 Nennius's account, Vortimer at first suc- 
 ceeded in confining the Jutish invaders to 
 the isle of Thanet, defeated them in three 
 battles, and forced them to send over to 
 Germany for a fresh supply of warriors. 
 Three times after this he defeated the new- 
 comers. Shortly after this last victory he died, 
 with his last breath bidding his friends bury 
 him by the sea-side, and uttering a prophecy 
 that the strangers would not hold their con- 
 quests for ever. 
 
 Nennius, c. 43, 44, 47. 
 Vox Clamantis is the title of an im- 
 portant Latin poem by John Gower, in which, 
 under the guise of an allegorical dream, he 
 treats of the causes and incidents of the 
 Peasant Revolt of 1381. 
 
 w 
 
 Wace, RoBEBT (d. after 1183), was a 
 native of Jersey, and became a prebendary of 
 Baveux. He wrote two long historical poems, 
 Le" Roman de Brut (first printed 1836), which 
 is a paraphrase of the Eisiory of Geoffrey ot 
 Monmouth, and Ze Roman de Sou, a chronicle 
 
 of the Dukes of Normandy down to 1106. 
 The latter poem has been edited by Sir A. 
 Malet (1827), and translated by Mr. E. Taylor. 
 
 Wade, George, General (5. 1673, d. 
 1748), entered the army in 1690. He served 
 under the Duke of Marlborough during the 
 reign of Queen Anne. In 1707 he was raised 
 to the rank of major-general. Wade was 
 elected member forHindon in 1715. In 1725 
 he was sent to pacify the Highlands in pur- 
 suance of the " Act for Disarming the High- 
 landers." " General Wade," says Lord Stan- 
 hope, " who had been sent into Scotland with 
 very fuU powers, seems to have been a judi- 
 cious and concihatory man, insomuch that he 
 became personally popular, even whilst faith- 
 fully obeying most distasteful orders. He 
 employed himself more usefully in making 
 military roads across the Highlands." They 
 have been immortalised in the famous lines — 
 "If you hadbut seen these roads before they were 
 
 made, 
 You would hold up your hands and "bless General 
 
 Wade." 
 
 From 1722 to 1748 he sat as member for Bath. 
 In 1744 he commanded the British forces in 
 Flanders, but could accomplish nothing 
 against the superior skill of Marshal Saxe. 
 On the outbreak of the Jacobite Rebellion of 
 1 745 he collected what troops he could at 
 Newcastle. A false report that he was ad- 
 vancing to relieve Carlisle induced the Pre- 
 tender to relinquish for awhile the siege of 
 that city. However, he pursued the Pre- 
 tender through Yorkshire, but his inactivity 
 during the campaign was a general subject 
 of complaint, and he was in consequence 
 superseded in command by Hawley. 
 Stanhope, HM. of Eng. 
 
 Wade, Sir William, one of the diplo- 
 matists and statesmen of Oueen Elizabeth's 
 reign, was in 1584 sent to Madrid to explain 
 to Philip the causes of his ambassador's 
 (Mendoza) dismissal, but the long refused to 
 see him. The same year he was entrusted 
 with the task of explaining to the Queen of 
 Scots her hopeless position if she refused a 
 reconciliation with Elizabeth, and in 1585 
 vainly endeavoured to procure the extradition 
 of the Jesuit Morgan from Hem-y III. of 
 France. He subsequently took possession of 
 the Queen of Scots' papers at Ohartley after 
 the discovery of the Babington Conspiracy. 
 
 Wager of Battle, "A relic of old Teu- 
 tonic jurisprudence," was a Norman innova- 
 tion introduced into England by Wilham the 
 Conqueror. A man charged with an offence 
 by a private individual "had the right to 
 plead not guilty, and throw down his glove 
 and declare his readiness to defend his inno- 
 cence with his body." If the challenge was 
 accepted by the accuser, the two proceeded to 
 fight on an appointed day ; if the defendant 
 was defeated, or unable to continue the com- 
 bat all day, he was convicted and punished. 
 
Wai 
 
 ( 1042 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 ■while if he was victorious, or could protract 
 the fight till nightfall, he was acquitted, and 
 his adversary was fined sixty shillings and 
 declared infamous. " The parties were obliged 
 to fight in their own persons, except the 
 appellant were a woman, a priest, an infant, 
 sixty years old, lame, or blind, in any of 
 which cases he' might ' counterplead the battle,' 
 and compel the defendant to put himself upon 
 trial by his country. As a Norman innova- 
 tion Wager of Battle was much disliked in 
 England, and in borough charters we fre- 
 quently find amongst the privileges granted 
 to the burgesses, the one of exemption from 
 trial by battle, which was not, however, 
 legally abolished until 1819. In 1817 a 
 certain Abraham Thornton, on his trial for 
 alleged murder, demanded a " trial by battle," 
 and on the refusal of the prosecutor to ac- 
 cede, was discharged ; this led in 1819 to an 
 Act abolishing " appeals of murder, treason, 
 felony, or other offences, and Wager of 
 Battel, or joining issue, and trial by Battel in 
 Writs of Eight." [Ordeax.] 
 
 Waitangi, The Treaty of (Feb., 1840), 
 was made between Captain Hobson, represent- 
 ing the English government, and the Maori 
 chiefs. By it the sovereignty of New Zealand 
 was handed over to England, whilst Captain 
 Hobson promised protection to the natives 
 together with the rights of British subjects, 
 confirming also " to the chiefs and tribes of 
 New Zealand the full, exclusive, and un- 
 disturbed possession of their lands, estates, 
 forests, fisheries, and other properties which 
 they might collectively or individually 
 possess, so long as it might be their wish to 
 retain the same in their possession." 
 
 Wakefield, The Battle op (Dec. 3 1 , 1460) , 
 was an important Lancastrian victory during 
 the Wars of the Roses. The battle of North- 
 ampton had placed the supreme power in the 
 hands of York, who had been acknowledged 
 heir to the crown, but Queen Margaret, who 
 had fled to Scotland, refused to acknowledge 
 this arrangement, whereby her son was de- 
 prived of the succession, and, raising an army 
 in the north, advanced against the Yorkists. 
 The Duke of York marched against her, and 
 took up his position in his castle at Sandal, 
 near Wakefield. Margaret advanced from 
 York, and the Yorkists met them on Wake- 
 field Green, between the town and Sandal 
 Castle. The Yorkists, who were greatly in- 
 ferior in numbers, were defeated, the duke 
 was slain, his son, Rutland, was murdered by 
 ] >ord Clifford while escaping from the battle- 
 field, while the Earl of Salisbury and others 
 were sent to Pontefract, where they were 
 beheaded. 
 
 lEng. Chronicle (Camden See.) ; Arrival of 
 Edu-ard IV. (Camden Soo.) 
 
 Wakefield, Edwarb {d. 1862), was the 
 originator of a peculiar system of colonisation, 
 known as the " Wakefield sj'stem," which was 
 
 to " reproduce in Australia the strong distinc- 
 tion of classes which was found in England ; " 
 with this object the land was to be sold for a 
 high price to keep the agriculturists from 
 becoming landowners, the lowest limit being 
 fixed at a pound an acre. This system, which 
 was at first adopted in South Australia and 
 Victoria, as well as in New Zealand, ^as 
 strongly opposed by Sir Richard Bourke, 
 Governor of New South Wales, and, except 
 in South Australia, never had any hold. In 
 May, 1839, Mr. Wakefield became private 
 secretary to Lord Durham, whUe High Com- 
 missioner of Canada. 
 
 Mill, Polit. Hcon., bk. v., ch. xi., criticises 
 Wakefield's proposals. 
 
 Wakefield, Peter of, was a hermit 
 celebrated in the reign of King John for the 
 number and success of his prophecies. In 
 1213 John, who had paid little heed either to 
 interdict or excommunication, was terrified 
 into submission to the Pope by hearing that 
 Peter had predicted that on the next Ascension 
 Day John would not be a king. Strangely 
 enough the prophecy received a kind of ful- 
 filment from the fact that before the day 
 mentioned John had ceded his kingdom to 
 the Pope. 
 
 Wakeman, Sir George, was physician 
 to Queen Catherine, wife of (Dharles II. He 
 was accused of conspiring to poison the king 
 at the instance of the queen. The chief wit- 
 ness against him was Titus Gates, whose 
 evidence on this occasion was more than 
 usually contradictory, and Wakeman was 
 acquitted, but by the menace of a second trial 
 was so frightened that he left the kingdom. 
 
 Walcheren Expedition, The (1809), 
 was projected by the British government on 
 the renewal of the war between Erance and 
 Austria, in order to effect a diversion, and 
 assist .the latter power, by compelling the 
 French to withdraw part of their forces from 
 the Danube valley. The capture of the im- 
 mense arsenal which Bonaparte had fortified 
 and extended, expressly as a menace to Eng- 
 land, was also a gxeat object. The armament, 
 which was despatched late in July, was one 
 of the largest ever sent forth by England, 
 and consisted of sixty ships of the line and 
 frigates, and an enormous number of trans- 
 ports, conveying over 40,000 infantry and 
 cavalry ; in all. Sir A. AJison computes that 
 there must have been more than 100,000 
 men of all arms and both services. But 
 the results achieved by this great force were 
 miserably inadequate. Lord Chatham, the 
 brother of William Pitt, who was in command, 
 was destitute of decisive energy or military 
 capacity. On July 29 part of the English 
 force landed in the isle of Walcheren and 
 seized Middleburg, while other divisions cap- 
 tured the fortresses at the mouths of the 
 Scheldt. Antwerp might have been seized 
 by a coup-de-main ; but instead, time was lost 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 1043 ) 
 
 "Wal 
 
 in the siege of Flushing, whioli surrendered 
 August 16. By th.i time the English were 
 prejjared to begin the siege of Antwerp, that 
 city had been put into a thorough state of 
 defence, and the garrison had been very 
 largely reinforced. As it was now the begin- 
 ning of September, Lord Chatham, suspend- 
 ing operations, withdrew his troops to the 
 island of Walcheren, and kept fifteen thou- 
 sand of them there as a garrison, while the 
 remainder were sent back to England. But 
 the sanitary aiTangemeuts of the army were 
 extraordinarily bad, and the damp climate of 
 Walcheren told terribly on the soldiers. Be- 
 fore a month was over half the garrison was 
 in hospital. Orders were therefore given to 
 destroy Flushing, and abandon the island, 
 which was completely evacuated before the 
 end of the year. The failure of the expedi- 
 tion was made the occasion of violent attacks 
 in Parliament on the ministry, who were only 
 saved from a vote of censure by a narrow 
 majority. A violent quarrel broke out be- 
 tween Canning, who was Foreign Minister, 
 and Castlereagh, who was War Minister, and 
 was held to be largely responsible for the 
 mismanagement of the campaign, which re- 
 sulted in a duel, and the resignation of both 
 ministers. 
 
 Parliamentary Dehates, vol. xv., appendix i. ; 
 Annual Register, 1809 ; Alison, Sist of Europe, 
 ch. Is. 
 
 Waldegrave, Sir Edward (d. Sept., 
 1561), one of Mary's most trusted advisers, 
 used his utmost endeavours to prevent the 
 queen's marriage -with Philip. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1558 on a committee of ways and 
 means, but found no favour with Elizabeth, 
 by whom he was sent to the Tower for trans- 
 gressing the Act of Uniformity (1561). 
 
 Waldeu, Roger, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury {d. 1406), was employed on diplo- 
 matic errands by Richard II., and in 1395 
 was appointed Lord High Treasurer of 
 England. "When Archbishop Arundel was 
 driven into exile in 1397 the king obtained 
 the archbishopric from the Pope for Walden. 
 On the deposition of Richard II. Walden's 
 life was threatened, but he came to terms with 
 Arundel, and, resigning the see, retired into 
 private Hfe. In 1405 he was elected Bishop of 
 London by Arundel's influence, and held that 
 see till his death in the next year. 
 
 Wales is strictly the district inhabited by 
 the foreigners, for that is the literal meaning 
 of the term Welsh, applied by the English 
 to all the Britons alike. Its limits have 
 varied with the progress of the English arms. 
 In the sixth century it included an unbroken 
 stretch of country from the Clyde to the 
 English Channel, but the conquest of Chester 
 and the Severn Valley at the end of that 
 century cut up the land of the Welsh into 
 three distinct portions, of which the northern 
 
 part has been described under Cumbria, and 
 the southern under Dumnonia. It remains to 
 speak of the central portion, which we stiU 
 call Wales, but which was then called North 
 Wales, to distinguish it from the West Wales, 
 south of the Bristol Channel, and whose in- 
 habitants called themselves Cymry, and the 
 land Cymru. Before the end of the sixth 
 century the modern Wales was simply a frag- 
 ment of South Britain. It was originally 
 peopled by the primitive pre-Aryan savages, 
 who largely survived in the great tribe of the 
 Siliu-es ; then by Goidels of the earlier Celtic 
 migration, who long maintained their hold in 
 the west ; and then by Brythonic Celts, who 
 were in turn subdued by the Romans, whose 
 roads, towns, and mines showed the reality of 
 their power, but whose withdrawal in 410 led 
 to the breaking up of settled government, 
 the relapse of the Britons into the tribal 
 organisations so characteristic of the Celts, 
 the relaxation of the feeble bondswhichRoman 
 Christianity had cast over them, and an 
 anarchy which threatened speedy conquest by 
 the English. 
 
 During the sixth century, however, a re- 
 markable revival of energy seems to have 
 occurred in Celtic Britain, and not least in 
 Wales. The political revival, which set 
 bounds to the English conquest, and united 
 the Biitons, firstly under Gwledigau, or tem- 
 porary generals in war, such as the famous 
 Arthirr, and, at a later stage, under national 
 kings, such as Cadwallon, who held North- 
 umbria a whole year in servitude — the political 
 revival, perhaps, affected Strathclyde more 
 intimately than Wales. But even in Gildas 
 we read of great princes, like Maelgwm of 
 Gwynedd, and the tradition of the migration 
 of Cunedda from the region of the Wall to 
 North Wales, of the expulsion of the Goidel 
 by his descendants, and the story of Kenti- 
 gem's wanderings from Clyde to Clwyd show 
 that Wales, too, was affected by the move- 
 ment. The peculiar organisation of the Celtic 
 Church certainly originated in Wales, though 
 its highest development was worked out in. 
 Ireland and Scotland. 
 
 But the promise of national development 
 was never fulfilled. Enough was done to set 
 limits to the Saxon conquest, but no really 
 united state was formed. Despite the later 
 stories of Kings of aU Britain, and Kings of 
 all Wales, Wales was during nearly the whole 
 of its history split up into an infinity of tribal 
 states, over which very rarely some powerful 
 character or vigorous stock acquired a loose 
 overlordship that was never strong enough to 
 make itself permanent. In the north the 
 Kings of Gwynedd were, perhaps, the strongest 
 line in Wales, but their authority over much 
 of the wide district so named was probably 
 very slight. In the south we know of a very 
 large number of petty states. In the south- 
 west the kingdom of Demetia or Dyf ed was in 
 early times the most important. But to the 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 1044 
 
 Wal 
 
 north the aggressive state of Ceredigion grew 
 at the expense of the older kingdom. Gwent, 
 Morganwg, Breeheiniog, and, in the north- 
 east, Powis, weve other important divisions. 
 In short, Wales was a group of clan states, 
 with a few- greater sovereignties, claiming 
 indefinite suzerainty over the lesser ones and 
 each other. 
 
 The history of these petty states consists 
 primarily in endless and purposeless feuds 
 with each other, true " battles of kites and 
 crows," as no political development, no na- 
 tional state gradually evolved from the con- 
 flici. But fierce invaders from east and west 
 made it necessary for the petty kings to unite 
 sometimes for common defence. The English 
 from the east, the Irish Danes from the west, 
 constantly plundered and pillaged. Especially 
 terrihle were the ravages of the "hlack 
 pagans" from heyond sea. After a. long 
 period of predatory inciirsions, they perhaps 
 ultimately formed a permanent settlement in 
 Dyfed. On the west, the Mercian overlords 
 were formidable neighbours during the eighth 
 century. Offa conquered Pengwem and the 
 western portion of Powis, and built a dyke 
 from Dee to "Wye to mark off the limits of 
 his kingdom, and keep the Welsh marauders 
 in check. He probably co-operated with 
 Elvod, Bishop of Bangor, in forcing the 
 Catholic Easter on the unwilling Welsh. 
 
 During this period the meagre Welsh annals 
 give a bare catalogue of obscure kings. The 
 end of the Mercian overlordship left the way 
 clear for the development of the remarkable 
 power of EhodriMa'.vr (843 — 877), who seems 
 to have added to his patrimony of Gwynedd, 
 the kingdoms of Powis, Ceredigion, and Dyfed, 
 and to have thus been ruler of nearly all Wales. 
 It is said that on his death he divided his 
 dominions into three portions among his three 
 sons, and that the three chief states of later 
 Wales — Gwynedd with its capital Aberffiraw, 
 Powis, with Mathraval as the royal seat now 
 that Pengwem had become Shrewsbury, and 
 Ceredigion, including Dyfed, with the king's 
 residence at Dinevawr, near Llandilo. Under 
 Ehodri'a grandson, Howel Dha (q.v.) of 
 Dinevawr (907 — 948), another hope of national 
 unity arose. But the West Saxon monarchs 
 were too strong for such attempts. The 
 friendship of Asser had brought Alfred's 
 troops into the western wilderness of Demetia. 
 All the South Welsh kings acknowledged 
 Alfred a; their lord. South Welsh bishops 
 were consecrated at Canterbury, and a deadly 
 blow struck at the old wild freedom of the 
 Welsh episcopate where every bishop was, 
 so to say, archbishop as well as bishop of his 
 own see. Howel himself attended Edward's 
 and Athelstan's Witenagemots. The laws 
 that go by his name are a curious combina- 
 tion of old Welsh customs with those of the 
 English court. On Howel' s death, Wales 
 became more anarchic than ever. Its relation 
 to England checked its internal development, 
 
 but the English supremacy was too weak 
 to impose order and strong government from 
 without. 
 
 In 1015 Llewelyn ap Sitsyll conquered the 
 usurper Aedhan ap Blegywryd, and inspired 
 with new vigour the kingdom of Gwynedd. 
 His son Gruffydd became king oyer all 
 Welshmen, and, in close alliance with his 
 father-in-law, Elfgar, Earl of the Mercians, 
 played a really important part in the his- 
 tory of the time. At last the triumph of 
 the house of Godwin proved fatal to the 
 Welsh king. His great victories in Here- 
 fordshire, which far exceeded the measure of 
 the border forays which are the staple of 
 Welsh history, were punished by two bril- 
 liant English campaigns under Harold in 
 person. At last in 106.5, after Harold had 
 ravaged Wales from end to end, Gruffydd was 
 slain by the treachery of his own men. The 
 conqueror divided his dominions among his 
 kinsmen, Bleddyn and Ehiwallon, to be held 
 as dependencies of the English crown, and, 
 by pushing the English frontier still further 
 westward, prepared the way for the new 
 period of Saxon aggression, which made the 
 Norman Conquest an event more important 
 in Welsh than even in English history. 
 
 The foundation of the great border Pala- 
 tinates by William I. was the first result of 
 the Conquest on Wales. The earldoms of 
 Hugh of Chester and Roger of Shrewsbury, 
 proved an iron barrier which effectually set 
 limits on Welsh forays for the future. Their 
 military organisation made them equally 
 capable of becoming centres of offensive war- 
 fare. In the true spirit of their race, a swarm 
 of Norman knights and adventurers poured 
 over the borders into Wales. The earldom 
 of Chester soon extended 'ts bounds to the 
 Conwy, and its vassal Robert of Rhuddlan, 
 governed the vale of Clwyd. The modem 
 county of Montgomery roughly marks the 
 district now added to the Shrewsbury earl- 
 dom. Earl Robert of Belesme was the 
 terror of all Welshmen. His brother Amulf 
 conquered Ceredigion and Dyfed. Bernard 
 of Neufmarche, founded the lordship of 
 Brecon in the old district of Breeheiniog. 
 Robert Eitz-Hamon conquered the vale of 
 Glamorgan. Gower, Kidwely, Tstradtowy, 
 were similarly appropriated, tlnable to with- 
 stand the Normans in the field, the Welsh 
 withdrew to their mountain fastnesses, and, 
 in sudden forays, revenged themselves on 
 their oppressors. Revolt after revolt of the 
 conquered peasantry confined the Norman 
 lords to their castle walls. To guard against 
 the repetition of such events, English, or 
 Low German, colonists were planted in 
 southern Dyfed, in Gower, and perhaps in parts 
 of Glamorgan, and the ola inhabitants ruth- 
 lessly driven out. Commerce came in the 
 invaders' train, and towns sprang up in a 
 community hitherto unacquainted with urban 
 life. Norman priests and bishops followed the 
 
Wal 
 
 { 1045 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 soldiers and merchants. The Welsh sees were 
 finally subjected to Canterbury. The southern 
 bishoprics were permanently bestowed on 
 Normans. By the time of Henry I. the 
 Normans had conquered all southern and 
 western Wales worth having. After the fall 
 of Rhys ap Tewdwr (1090), the native princes 
 lay aside even the title of king. In Gwj'nedd 
 alone, whose monarchs now begin to be called 
 Princes or Kings of Wales, was a really strong 
 Celtic power left. There the disastrous fate 
 of Norman interlopers into the see of Bangor 
 showed that the native spirit was still un- 
 subdued. The territories thus conquered 
 ■ became known as the Lordship Marches. 
 Conquered by independent adventurers, they 
 possessed all the rights of a Palatine earldom. 
 [Palatine Counties.] Their lords were 
 practically kings on their own estates, and 
 were hound to the English monarch by no 
 other tie than simple allegiance. For all 
 practical purposes they were as free as the 
 lords of Aberfiraw. After a generation or 
 two, many begin to amalgamate with the 
 conquered race, or at least to intermarry with 
 them and get mixed up in their quarrels. 
 The succession of great English barons to 
 some of these lordships — for example, the 
 union of Gloucester and Glamorgan — ^had an 
 important reflex influence on Enghsh politics. 
 Yet the Welsh race was still far from being 
 subdued. The return of Gruffydd ap Cynan 
 from his Irish exile (1100) marks a new de- 
 velopment of culture and literature among 
 the Cymry. The Welsh bards renew their 
 songs. The Welsh chroniclers become more 
 copious. The old laws were re-edited. Even 
 politically they were only reduced ^o a 
 certain extent. The Marcher lords were 
 as much divided as the Welsh chieftains. 
 English help was far off, and often ineffec- 
 tual. Physical difficulties always imposed 
 obstacles on feudal armies among the moun- 
 tains of Gwynedd. Henry II. 's three expe- 
 ditions into Wales (1156, 1163, and 1165) 
 were disastrous failures, and were followed 
 with none of those indirect successes which 
 had attended similar invasions of Eufus. 
 Owen Gwynedd (d. 1169) was a prince of 
 vigour, activity, and power. The expansive 
 energy of the Normans was diverted into 
 other channels, with the departure of Strong- 
 bow to Ireland. The Celtic sympathies of 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth, the strangely 
 chequered career of Giraldus Cambrensis show 
 the approximation of the two races. Arch- 
 bishop Baldwin's crusading tcur throughout 
 all Wales in 1188 marks the comparative 
 peace that now reigned. The alliance of 
 Llewelyn ap lorwerth, who became Prince of 
 Gwynedd in 1194, with the baronial opposi- 
 tion to John, shows that, despite differences 
 of race, all feudal dependents of the Angevin 
 monarchs had a common interest in setting 
 limits to the arbitrary power of their impe- 
 rious overlord. Llewelyn's occupation of 
 
 Shrewsbury helped the success of the move- 
 ment that won Magna Charta, and the re- 
 gard shown to his rights in that famous in- 
 strument suggests that the barons were not 
 ungrateful for his aid. Llewelyn's marriage 
 with John's bastard daughter, kept him in 
 peace with Henry III. for some time. But 
 in 1228 Henry sent an expedition against 
 him that signaUy failed, and exacted nothing 
 but barren homage from the powerful chief- 
 tain. Up to his death in 1240, Llewelyn 
 waged constant and not unsuccessful war 
 on the Lords Marchers, and succeeded in ex- 
 tending his power in some of those southern 
 districts where their power was slight. Be- 
 tTeen 1240 and 1246, David, son of Llewelyn 
 by his BngHsh wife, governed the princi- 
 pality ; but in 1246 Llewelyn, son of Gruffydd, 
 son of Llewelyn by a Welsh mother, suc- 
 ceeded him, at first jointly with his brothers, 
 but afterwards alone. The national revival, 
 which had been marked under Llewelyn ap 
 lorwerth, reached its culminatiug point in 
 Llewelyn ap Gruffydd. The energy of the 
 Welsh became greater, their literary activity 
 bore greater results. 
 
 In 1255 — 57 the young prince Edward 
 failed in his attempts to curb LleweljTi's power. 
 In alliance with Simon de Montfort, Llewelyn 
 took an active part against the king during 
 the Barons' Wars. His projected marriage 
 with Eleanor, Earl Simon's daughter, involved 
 his alliance with the French crown and the 
 remnants of the disaffected party in England. 
 In 1275 Edward I. seized the bride on her 
 way to Wales. A fierce attack of the injured 
 prince upon the Marchers was followed in 
 1277 by an expedition of Edward that exacted 
 his submission, and in 1278 he was allowed to 
 marry Eleanor. But in 1282 his treacherous 
 brother David iiicited him to a fresh revolt. 
 Edward resolved to settle the Welsh question 
 once for all. He made a great effort, syste- 
 matically conquered the country, and, on 
 Llewelyn's death in battle, declared his 
 dominions forfeited to the crown. Thus 
 Edward I. subdued the only native Welsh 
 State of any importance. The Statute of 
 Wales (12 Ed. I.) finally annexed the Prin- 
 cipality (i.e., the dominions of Llewelyn) to 
 the crown, introduced the English law, 
 with a special judicial system under the 
 Justice of Snowdon, and established six sheriff- 
 doms of Anglesea, Cai'narvon, Merioneth, Flint, 
 Carmarthen, and Cardigan, with organisation 
 analogous to those of the EngHsh shires. But 
 the Principality, though united to the crown, 
 was not absorbed in it. It was not a part of 
 England, but a conquered country. It be- 
 came the custom to invest with the dignity 
 of Prince of Wales the eldest son of the 
 sovereign. Edward's campaigns and- legisla- 
 tion affected the Principahty only. The 
 hundred and forty Lordship Marchers went 
 on as before, except that an Act of 1354 (28 
 Ed. III., c. 2) declared them dependent not on 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 1046 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 the Principality but on tlie English, crown. 
 Their wUd freedom, with its private wars and 
 constant outrages, still continued. 
 
 Several revolts showed the nnwilKngness 
 of Gwynedd to acquiesce in the English 
 conquest. The strong line of Edwardian 
 castles alone kept the country suhdued. 
 David's luckless rising in 1283, the revolts of 
 Ehys ap Maredudd in 1287 and 1292, that of 
 Madoc, Mailgwn, and Morgan, in 1294, show 
 the difficulty involved in establishing the 
 Edwardian system. After it had slept for 
 nearly a century, "Welsh national feeling was 
 again aroused by the revolt of Owen Glen- 
 dower (1400), whose private feud with his 
 neighbour. Lord Grey of Ruthin, became the 
 germ of a determined effort to throw off the 
 English yoke. In conjunction with the Per- 
 cies, the Mortimers, and the Scots, afterwards 
 with French support, Owen managed to 
 defeat expedition after expedition sent against 
 him by Henry IV. From one end of the 
 country to the other he made his power felt, 
 and managed to maintain his independence 
 tin his death (about 1415). But the English 
 re-conquest was ultimately effected, and a 
 series of harsh penal statutes was passed to 
 check further revolts. The establishment at 
 Ludlow of the Court of the President and 
 Council of Wales (1478), was Edward IV.'s 
 contribution to the establishment of a stronger 
 system of government. The disorders of the 
 period of revolt gradually disappeared. The 
 conquerors and the conquered began to ap- 
 proximate towards each other. The Queen 
 Dowager of England, and the last represen- 
 tative of the line of John of Gaunt, both 
 married into the same "Welsh family. Henry 
 Tudor became King of England. His son 
 passed a series of statutes which incorporated 
 the Principality with England, restrained the 
 powers of the Lords Marchers, made all 
 Wales shire-ground, and introduced, with 
 English laws, English local self-government 
 and parliamentary representation (27 Hen. 
 VIII., c. 26, and 34 & 35 Hen. VIII., c. 26). 
 The only difference between Wales and Eng- 
 land now, besides the still existing, though 
 diminished, powers of the Marchers and the 
 Court of the Council of Wales at Ludlow, 
 was the fact that instead of being united to 
 any English circuit, a special court of justice, 
 called the " King's Great Sessions in "Wales," 
 was to be held twice a year under special 
 justices; an arrangement which continued 
 until 1830, when Wales and Cheshire were 
 formed into new English circuits. 
 
 These great measures of justice formed a 
 new epoch in Welsh history. The peaceful, 
 if slow, acceptance of the Reformation, the 
 literary and educational revival that began 
 under Elizabeth, illustrate the beneficial 
 results of the change. During the Civil War 
 Wales was, as a whole, strongly Royalist. 
 Some North Welsh castles were the last 
 places to hold out for Charles I. Soon after 
 
 the Revolution of 1688 the Court of Ludlow, 
 and the remnants of the Marcher jurisdiction, 
 were abolished. During the eighteenth cen- 
 tury the Methodist movement profoundly 
 influenced the character of Wales. While 
 introducing a new religious fervour, a higher 
 tone of morality, and a greater amount of 
 energy, its Puritanism made much havoc 
 with the more harmless features of old Welsh 
 life. The movement began with Griffith 
 Jones, vicar of Llanddowror, whose system 
 of "circulating schools," established in 1730, 
 was the only important step made in that age 
 towards popular education. In 1736 Howell 
 Harris began to preach. His connection with' 
 Whitefield determined the theology of Welsh 
 Methodism. The suspension of the famous 
 preacher, Daniel Rowland of Llangeitho, 
 first turned the Welsh Methodists in the 
 direction of Nonconformity. In 1811 the 
 formal separation from the Church took place. 
 By that time the great bulk of the people 
 had become Dissenters. Hardly until the 
 present century did the industrial revolu- 
 tion affect Wales. The development of the 
 coal and iron trades in the south has enor- 
 mously increased its population and resources. 
 [See also Celts ; Celtic Church ; Counties, 
 The Welsh ; Methodism.] 
 
 For early "Welsh history, Gildas, perllaps 
 parts of Nennius, the Annales Cambrwc, and 
 Brut y Tywtjsogiony badly edited in the Rolls 
 Series, and the less authentic Gwerdmn Brut, 
 published by the Cambrian Archseoloeical 
 Society, are, with the so-called Laws of Howel 
 Dha in Owen's Ancient Laws and Institutes of 
 Wales, and the scattered references in the 
 English chronicles and charters, the chief 
 authorities. Geoffrey of Monmouth, most of 
 the Triads, and other literary sources, must be 
 entirely disregarded. The " Four Bards " in 
 IVEr. Skene's Four Ancient Boohs of Wales are too 
 obscure and doubtful to give much help to the 
 historian. The works of Giraldus Cambrensis, 
 esi^ecially his Itinerariti'm, Cainbrice, are, though 
 not implicitly trustworthy, of very great impor- 
 tance for the twelfth century. "With Edward I.'s 
 conciuest the native annals cease. The statutes 
 aiiecting "Wales become now an important source 
 of information, and the English chronicles be- 
 come fuller in their notice of the Edwardian 
 conquest, and the revolt of Glendower, while the 
 very extensive remains of "Welsh literature, con- 
 tain much of historical interest. Of modem 
 books covering the whole subject, "Warrington's 
 History of Wales, and Miss J. "Williams's History 
 of Wales are the best, although neither are very 
 critical. They are both largely based on a 
 sixteenth century compilation, Powel's History 
 of Cambria, that has obtained more credence 
 than it always deserves. F. "Walter, Das alte 
 Wales, though too careless in its choice of 
 authorities, is for coolness and impartiality the 
 most valuable modern work. Early "Welsh 
 history is best treated in Skene's Preface to the 
 Four- Ancient Boolis of Wales ; Jones, Vestiges of 
 the Gael in G^oynedd ; Jones and Freeman, 
 History of St. David's; Stephens, Literature of 
 the Cymry ; Elton, Ortains of English History, 
 and Ehys, Celtic Britain. Freeman's Norman 
 Conquest and William Rufus are exhaustive 
 for the conquest of South "Wales. Stephen, 
 History of CHminnl Law ; Reeve, Hit-lory of 
 English Law, give the legal history of the 
 incorijoj-ation of England and "Wales. A large 
 number of particular points are well worked 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 1047 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 up ill the ArohcBologia Cambrensia. A good 
 short accouut of Welsh Methodism is in 
 Lecky's Hist, of Eng. Fuller accounts in 
 Howell Hari-is's Autobiography^ Lady Hunting- 
 don's Memoirs, Middleton's JSiographia Evaa- 
 gelica, and Dr. Bees's History of Nonconformity 
 in Wales. [X. F. T.] 
 
 Wales, Prince op, is the title usually 
 borne by the "heir apparent of the EngUsh 
 sovereign. After the death of Llewelyn, 
 the last native Prince of Wales, Edward I. in 
 1301 created his son Prince of Wales. It is 
 noticeable that, whereas the heir apparent is 
 bom Duke of Cornwall, it is only by creation 
 that he becomes Prince of Wales. The follow- 
 ing is a, list of all the EngUah princes who 
 have borne the title ; — 
 
 Edward, son of Edward I. (afterwards Edward U.) 
 Edward, son of Edward III. (the Black Prince). 
 Bichard, son of the Black Prince (afterwards 
 
 Eichard II.) 
 Henry, son of Henry IV. (afterwards Henry V.) 
 Edward, son of Henry "VI. 
 Edward, son of Edward IT. (afterwards Edward 
 
 T.) 
 Edward, son of Bichard HI. 
 Arthur, sou of Henry VII. 
 Henry, son of Henry VTI. (afterwards Henry 
 
 vin.)' ^^ 
 
 Edward, son of Henry VJLLi. (afterwards Edward 
 
 VI.) 
 Henry, son of James I. 
 
 Charles, son of James I. (afterwards Charles I.) 
 Charles, sou of Charles I. (afterwards Charles IL) 
 James, son of James II. (the Old Pretender). 
 Geoi*ge_, son of George I. (afterwards George II.) 
 iFrederick, son of George II. 
 George, son of Frederick (afterwards George III.) 
 George, son of George III. (afterwards George 
 
 IV.) 
 Albert Edward, son of Queen Victoria. 
 
 Wales, The Statcte of (1284), was passed 
 by Edward I. immediately after the conquest 
 of Wales. Many English laws and regulations 
 were introduced, such as the appointment of 
 sheriffs, and the English law of succession ; 
 while, on the other hand, Welsh local customs, 
 as far as they were comparatively unimportant, 
 were retained. 
 
 Walker, George (d. July 1, 1690), was 
 rector of the parish of Monaghan. He took 
 refuge in Londonderry before the siege of that 
 town, and was active in rousing the inhabitants 
 to resist James's troops. On April 17, 1689, he 
 was elected one of the governors of the city, 
 an ofiSce he continued to hold till August, 
 when he yielded up his authority to Colonel 
 Kirke. There is still a Walker Club in the 
 town, and his statue surmounts the pillar 
 erected on one of the bastions in memory of 
 the siege. When he arrived in London, soon 
 after the delivery of Londonderry from the 
 Irish, the House of Commons passed a vote of 
 thanks to him, and the king gave him £5,000. 
 In June, 1690, the bishopric of Derry fell 
 vacant, and William at once bestowed it on 
 him. He had, however, contracted a passion 
 for war, and much shocked William by ap- 
 pearing at the head of the men of London- 
 derry in the campaign of 1690. He fell at 
 
 the head of his men in resisting the Irish 
 cavalry at the battle of the Boyne. 
 Macaulay, Hist ofE^ig. 
 
 Walhinsha'w, Clementina, was a mis- 
 tress of Charles Edward Stuart, the Young 
 Pretender. He first became acquainted with 
 her on his expedition to Scotland in 1745. 
 He sent for her after his return from that 
 country, and soon she acquired complete 
 dominion over him. It was believed that she 
 was in the pay of the Enghsh ministers ; 
 accordingly, in 1748, the English Jacobites 
 sent an agent named Macnamara to request 
 that the lady should, for a time at least, retire 
 to a convent. Charles, however, obstinately 
 refused to agree to this. He had a daughter 
 by her about 1760, who died in 1789. 
 
 Vernon Lee, The Countess of Albany ; Ewald, 
 Life of jPrinc£ Charles Edward. 
 
 Wallace, William, the younger son of 
 Wallace of Elderslie, in Eenfrewshire, was 
 outlawed for slaying an Englishman who had 
 insulted him at Lanark. This circumstance, 
 and the indignation with which he viewed 
 the usurpation of Edward I., induced him in 
 May, 1297, to make an attack on the English 
 quarters at Lanark, whore he .killed Hazel- 
 rigg, the governor. He was soon joined by 
 Sir William Douglas and a considerable 
 body of Scots. The murder of his uncle, 
 Sir Eeginald Crawford, at Ayr, still further 
 incensed him, and he utterly refused to join 
 some of his supporters in makiag their sub- 
 mission to the Enghsh. On Sept. 11, 1297, 
 Wallace thoroughly defeated the English 
 at Stirling, following up his victory by a 
 raid into England. The following year he 
 was chosen governor of the kingdom, and as 
 a consequence increased the jealousy of many 
 of the Scottish barons. Meantime Edward 
 had returned from Flanders and hurried to 
 Scotland, where he defeated Wallace at 
 Falkirk (q.v.) (July 22, 1298). At this time 
 Wallace disappears from public life, and is 
 said to have visited France and Rome. It is 
 more probable that he remained in the wilds 
 of his native country with a few followers. 
 In 1 305 he was betrayed into the hands of the 
 English at Glasgow by hia friend, Sir John 
 Menteith, carried to London, and tried at 
 Westminster. He was condemned as a rebel 
 and traitor to the English king, and executed 
 (Aug. 23, 1305). In spite of the want of 
 authority which characterises most of the 
 stories told about Sir William Wallace, it is 
 apparent that he was a man of great capa- 
 cit}', and a military genius of -i very high 
 order. 
 
 Burton, Hist, o/ Scotland; Eishanger, Chronicle 
 
 (Enlls Series) ; Palgrave, Documents and Records 
 
 Illustrating the Hibt. of Scotland. 
 
 Waller, Edmund (S. 1605, d. 1687), poet, 
 was a relation of John Hampden. He was 
 educated at Cambridge, and in 1623 topic his 
 seat in Parliament as member for AAersham, 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 1048 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 The story of Ms unsuccessful courtship of 
 Lady Dorothy Sydney, the daughter of the 
 Earl of Leicester, appears to be well authen- 
 ticated. A zealous member of the Long Par- 
 liament, Waller -was appointed in 1643 one 
 of the commissioners who negotiated with 
 Charles at Oxford. There he was won over 
 by the court, and played a decidedly equi- 
 vocal part, agreeing on his return to London- 
 to publish a commission of array, and so 
 having collected troops to seize the city by a 
 coup-de-main. The plot, however, miscarried, 
 and he was heavily fined and condemned to 
 banishment, after an abject submission to 
 the House of Commons. Li 1651 he was 
 allowed to return to England, and attempted 
 to curry favour with the Protector by his 
 " Panegyric on Cromwell," which he followed 
 up by an ode to Charles II. after the Restora- 
 tion. " Poets, sire, " he wittily remarked to 
 the king, "'succeed better in fiction than in 
 truth." In spite. of his time-serving dispo- 
 sition. Waller was popular in the House of 
 Commons, of which he was a member until 
 1683. His poems — dainty, but uninspired 
 productions — have been frequently published. 
 A fairly complete edition appeared in 1694. 
 Jo}insou,.Xiu6s ofihe Poets. 
 
 Waller, Sm William (5. 1597, d. 1668), 
 was a cousin of the foregoing. His military 
 education was acquired in Germany during 
 the Thirty Years' War. In 1640 he was 
 returned to the Long Parliament as member 
 for Andover. On the outbreak of the Civil 
 War he was sent into the west of England, 
 and at first gained such success as to acquire 
 for himself the title of " William the Con- 
 queror," but in July, 1643, he was severely 
 beaten both at Bath and Devizes. Parliament 
 nevertheless thanked him for his exertions. 
 In the following year he fell out with Essex, 
 the commander-in-chief, and in consequence 
 Charles managed to make a sortie from Ox- 
 ford, and to defeat him at Cropredy Bridge. 
 Waller again returned unsuccessful to London. 
 In 1645 he was removed from his command 
 by the Self-denying Ordinance, but soon 
 resumed his appointment, and under Crom- 
 well was successful in the west in the first 
 campaign of the New Model army. In 
 1637 he was one of the leaders of the Presby- 
 terian party who attempted in vain to oppose 
 the advance of the army on the capital, and 
 was one of the eleven members against whom 
 its resentment was especially directed. In 
 1660, during the troubled time which pre- 
 ceded the Restoration, he was a member of 
 the Council of State. 
 
 Yindicatim of Sir William Waller by Himself. 
 
 Wallingford, John op, was the author 
 or transcriber of a chronicle extending from 
 the year 449 to 1035. Of this chronicle Sir 
 T. Hardy says :—" The author seems fre- 
 quently desirous of examining and comparing 
 authorities, and yet the result is only error 
 
 and absurdity, as he confounds persons and 
 places, and sets chronology at defiance." It 
 is doubtful who the author was, but he pro- 
 bably lived about the beginning or middle of 
 the thirteenth century, and was an inmate of 
 the abbey of St. Albans. 
 
 WaUingford, William_ op {d. 1488), a 
 monk of St. Albans^ was appointed archdeacon 
 and prior of the abbey in 1465, and held 
 several subordinate oflfLces. Charges of perjury 
 and theft are made against him in the register 
 known as that of John Whethamstede, but 
 they are evidently written with considerable 
 animus. He became abbot in 1476 on the 
 death of William Albon. Of his tenure of 
 office we have a very full account, but, though 
 it gives an idea of somewhat fussy activity, 
 it presents no feature of interest. His register, 
 which he compiled in imitation of his prede- 
 cessors, covers the period from 1476 to 1488, 
 though the entries for the last two years are 
 not numerous. It gives a powerful picture 
 of the corruption of the monastic system. It 
 has been edited by Mr. Riley in the EoUs 
 Series together with the register of Walling- 
 ford' s predecessors, John Whethamstede and 
 WiUiam Albon. 
 
 Wallingford, The Tkeaty of (1153), is 
 the name usually given to the peace made be- 
 tween Stephen and Prince Henry, though only 
 the preliminary negotiations took place at 
 Wallingford, the treaty itself being signed at 
 Westminster. By this treaty Stephen was to 
 retain the kingdom during his lifetime, but 
 Henry was to succeed him, the rights of 
 Stephen's children to the private dominions 
 of their parent being guaranteed. At the same 
 time a scheme of administrative reform was 
 decided upon; which was intended to restore 
 things as far as possible to the state iir which 
 they had been left by Henry I. 
 
 Walpole, HoKACE, Lord {b. 1678, d. 1757), 
 the elder brother of Sir Robert, first appears 
 as secretary to G-eneral Stanhope in Spain 
 (1706). In 1707 he was appointed secretary 
 to Henry Boyle, Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer. In 1708 he was sent as secretary to 
 an embassy to the Emperor, and was after- 
 wards in the same position at the negotiations 
 at Gertruydenberg. In 1716 he was sent 
 as envoy to the Hague. He subsequently 
 appeared at Hanover, and remonstrated 
 with Stanhope for the suspicions he enter- 
 tained of Townshend, and was sent home 
 with letters calculated to heal the breach in 
 the ministry. In 1720 he was appointed 
 secretary to the Duke of Grafton, Lord- Lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland. In 1723 he was despatched 
 to Paris to counteract Sir Luke Schaub. 
 He ardently attached himselE to Cardinal 
 Fleury. He remained in France until 1727. 
 In 1728 he was one of the plenipotentiaries to 
 the congress at Soissons. In 1733 Walpole 
 was sent as envoy to the States-General In 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 1049 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 1739 he was sent to Holland to receive the 
 auxiliary troops stipulated in case of hostili- 
 ties. In 1741 he was made Secretary to the 
 Exchequer, and in 1756 was raised to the 
 peerage. "He was," says Stanhope, "a man 
 who through life played a considerahle part, 
 but chiefly because he was the brother of Sir 
 Robert." According to his nephew, " he 
 knew something af everything, but how to 
 hold his tongue, or how to apply his know- 
 ledge." 
 
 Horace Walpole, Memoirs; Coxe, WalpoU; 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 Walpole, Sir Robert, Barju of Orford 
 (J. 1676, d. 1745), was the son of a Norfolk 
 gentleman, and was educated at Eton and 
 at King's College, Cambridge. In 1702 he 
 entered Parliament as member for Castle 
 Rising. He soon attracted the attention of 
 the Whig leaders. In 1705 he; was placed on 
 the council of Prince George of Denmark 
 as Lord High Admiral, and in 1708 succeeded 
 St. John as, Secretary at War. In 1710 he 
 was one of the managers of Sacheverell's 
 trial, of which he secretly disapproved ; and 
 when the Whig ministry was driven from 
 office he peisisted in resigning in spite of 
 Harley's solicitations to tivrn that he should 
 retain his, place. He now became with 
 Somers a leader of the Whig opposition, and 
 being charged with peculations as Secretary 
 at War, he was expelled the House and sent 
 to the Tower, where he remained tiU the pro- 
 rogation. His defence was, however, quit© 
 complete, and he was re-elected for East 
 Lynn. He wrote at this time two. able pam- 
 phlets in support of the late ministiy. The 
 Debts of the Nation Stated and Considered, 
 and The Thirty-Jive Millions Aeeounted For. 
 On the accession of George I. Walpole was 
 chosen chairman of the committee of inquiry 
 into the conduct of the last ministrj'. He 
 became First Lord of the Treasury and Chan- 
 cellor- of the Exchequer. But he was disliked 
 by the king, and angry at the dismissal of 
 Townshend, so he resigned in 1717. In this 
 year he had established the first sinking fund. 
 Immediately he passed into unscrupulous 
 opposition, and spoke against the Mutiny 
 Act, the Quadruple AUianee, the Peer- 
 age BiU, and the repeal of the Schism Act. 
 Finding opposition hopeless, he rejoined the 
 ministry as Paynxaster of the Forces in 1720. 
 On the fall of the South Sea Company it was 
 felt that he alone could deal with the matter, 
 and his measures, though severe, were felt to, 
 be just. On the death of Stanhope he was 
 left without a rival, and became Chancellor of 
 the- Exchequer and Prime Minister (April, 
 1721). His history is now the history of 
 England. He crushed Atterbury's plot, and 
 placed a tax to the amount of £100,000 on 
 the nonjurors. Already his jealousy of 
 rivals, the great fault in his character as a 
 minister, had become apparent ; and he and 
 
 Townshend drove Carteret from office. Mean- 
 while the situation abroad had become com- 
 plicated ; the alliance, between Austria, Spain, 
 and the Duke of Bourbon's party in France, 
 was checked by the Treaty of Hanover 
 between England and France. On the death 
 of George I., Walpole, disliked by the new 
 king, found himself in danger of being super- 
 seded by Sir Spencer Compton. Owing to 
 the representations, of Queen Caroline, he 
 remained in power. The Opposition con- 
 sisted of discontented Whigs, led by Pulteney, • 
 and the remnant of the Tories under Boling- 
 broke. In 1730 Walpole quarrelled with 
 Townshend, who retired from pohtical life ; 
 and in 1733 with Chesterfield. His sup- 
 porters consisted of such second-rate men as 
 Newcastle, Stanhope, Compton, and Harring- 
 ton. He had, however, at his back a majority 
 secured by the most unscrupulous, bribery. 
 In 1729 the Treaty of SevOle preserved the 
 peace of Europe for a time. In 1733 Walpole 
 brought forward his celebrated excise sqheine, 
 a measure thoroughly sound and justifiable ; 
 but such was the, success of Pulteney in 
 rousing public feeling against it that he had 
 to abandon it. In 1734 he was much blamed 
 for keeping aloof from the war waged by the 
 Emperor against France and Spain. In this 
 year the Opposition joined to attack the 
 Septennial Act, They failed ; and Bolingbroke 
 withdrawing to France, the leadership of the 
 party fell on the Prince of Wales, whom 
 Walpole had offended by resisting the increase 
 oi his income. In 1737 Queen Caroline's 
 death deprived him of a staunch and faithful 
 friend. The Opposition, now reinforced by 
 Pitt, continued to attack his pacific policy ; 
 Newcastle began to; intrigue against him, and 
 favoured the king's desire for war. Never- 
 theless, Walpole concluded a convention with 
 Spain; and the Opposition wishing to drive 
 matters to a crisis, seceded from the House. 
 It had become obvious that he must declare 
 war or resign. He chose the former course 
 (1739). The war was disastrous. [George 
 II.] In Feb., 1741, Mr. Sandys proposed 
 that he should be removed from the king's 
 councils. The motion was thrown out ; but 
 in the following year Walpole, taking his 
 defeat on the Chippenham election petition 
 (Feb. 2, 1746) as a test, resigned. He was 
 created Lord Orf ord. In . March a secret 
 committee of inquiry against him was chosen ; 
 but in spite of its animosity it failed to bring 
 any but the most trivial charges against the 
 ex-minister. He seldom spoke in the Lords, 
 having, as he remarked to his brother Horace, 
 " left his tongue in the Commons." In 1745 
 he died, having retained his influence with 
 the king to the last. Walpole's character was 
 exposed to the most violent misrepresentation 
 from his contemporaries. His jealousy of 
 power made almost every eminent man of 
 the age his enemy ; while the corruption 
 by which he maintained his position and 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 1050 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 debauched the House of Commons is indis- 
 putable. But to him are due the completion of 
 the Revolution settlement, and the preserva-. 
 tion of paace at a time when peace was most 
 required hy England. " He understood," 
 says Lord Stanhope, ' ' the true interest of his 
 country hetter than any of his contem- 
 poraries." " The prudence, steadiness, and 
 vigilance of that man," says Burke {Appeal 
 from the New Whigs, &c.), "preserved the 
 crown to this royal family, and with it their 
 laws and liberty to this country." 
 
 Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole ; Ealph, 
 Critical History of Loi-dWalyole' s Administration ; 
 Horace Walpole, ReminisGencej ; Stanliope, Hist, 
 of Eng, ; Lecky, Hist, of Eng, in the Eighteenth 
 Century ; Macaulay, Essay on Horace Walpole j 
 Ewald, Sir iJobert Walpole. [S. J. L.] 
 
 Walpole, Horace, Eakl of Okfoed 
 [b. 1717, d. 1797), was the third son of Sir 
 Hobert "Walpole, and the nephew of Lord 
 "Walpole. In 1741 he entered Parliament 
 for.Callington, hut he never took a prominent 
 part in debate. In 1757 he exerted himself 
 in favour of Admiral Byng. He remained in 
 Parliament tUl 1768. In 1791 he succeeded 
 his nephew in the family title and estates;' 
 but never took his seat in the House of Lords. 
 So far as he had any political feeling at all, 
 he was inclined to a speculative Republican- 
 ism. As a man of letters, virtuoso, novelist, 
 critic, and retailer of public and private 
 gossip, Horace Walpole is one of the most 
 characteristic figures of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. His Memoirs of the last ten years of 
 George II.'s reign; though inaccurate and pre- 
 j udiced, contain a good deal of information, 
 and his letters (which are among the most en- 
 tertaining in the language) are very valuable 
 for the insight they give into the social his-, 
 tory of the century. "Walpole's work. Historic 
 Doubts on the Life and JReign of Richard III., 
 is curious and acute. 
 
 ' Walpole, Works, 1792, and Correspondence, 
 
 1810 ; Lord Dover, JAfe, prefixed to the Letters 
 to Sir H. Mann ; IVEacaulay, Essays ; Scott, Lives 
 of the Novelists ; L. B. Seeley, H. Walpole and 
 Tiis World. 
 
 Walsinghaui, Sm Francis (5. 1536, 
 d. 1590), "the most penetrating statesman 
 of his time," was born at Chislehurst, in 
 Kent, and passed most of his youth abroad. 
 On his return to England, after the accession 
 of Queen Elizabeth, his abilities and accom- 
 plishments recommended him to the notice 
 of Lord Burleigh, who sent him to the 
 court of France as ambassador, in which 
 capacity he showed great " fidelity, diligence, 
 and caution." In 1573 Sir Francis was re- 
 called, sworn of the Privy Council, and made 
 one of the principal secretaries of state, 
 devoting himself especially from this date to 
 the unravelling of the numerous plots against 
 the queen and her government. His system 
 of espionage was most elaborate, and his spies 
 were active, faithful, and ubiquitous. In 1581 
 he was employed to negotiate the proposed 
 
 marriage between Elizabeth and the Duke of 
 Anjou, but failed to bring the matter to a 
 successful issue, through the caprice of the 
 queen herself. Two years later Walsingham 
 was sent on a mission to Scotland, and sub- 
 sequently had the satisfaction of detecting 
 Babington's conspiracy and of implicating 
 in it the Queen of Scots. That Sir Francis 
 was her enemy there is no doubt, but it 
 is unhkely that he forged any of the letters 
 produced in evidence, as Mary declared, and. 
 his reputed letter to Sir Amyas Paulet, 
 urging him " to find out some way to shorten 
 the Kfe of the Scots queen " is most probably 
 a forgery. He was subsequently the means 
 of preventing a breach between Elizabeth and 
 •James VI. Sir Francis, who was a staunch 
 Protestant, and a thoroughly religious man, 
 did his best to procure toleration for the 
 Puritans ; he " has the honour of having 
 sustained and cemented the Protestant cause 
 in times of its greatest peril, and of having 
 effectually ruined the interests of popery by 
 detecting and bafiiing all its plots." The 
 'integrity of his character was such that with 
 every facility for amassing wealth in an age of 
 corruption, he died so poor as to leave barely 
 enough to defray the expenses of his burial. 
 A biographer of the next century (Lloj'd) 
 says of him, " His head was so strong that 
 he could look into the depths of men and 
 business, and dive into the whirlpools of state. 
 Dexterous he was in finding a secret; close in 
 keeping it. His conversation was insinuating 
 and reserved; he saw every man, and none 
 saw him." 
 
 Strype, Eccles. Memorials; Wahingham (Cor- 
 respondence; JS'aj:es, Memoirs of BurteigJi; 
 Proade, Hist, of Eng. ) Aikin, Memoirs of the 
 Court 0/ Elizabeth i Lloyd, States 'neu and Fa- 
 DOtirite.s of England, 1665. [S. J. L.l 
 
 Walsingham, Thomas op (jl. 1440), 
 a monk of St. Albans, and for some time. 
 Prior of "Wymondham, wrote two most valu- 
 able historical works, Sistoria Brevis, a his- 
 tory of England from 1272 to 1422, and 
 Ypodigma Neustriw, a history of Normandy 
 from liolf to Henry V. He is very import- 
 ant for the reigns of Richard II. and 
 Henry IV. and V., and gives us valuable 
 accounts of "Wycliflle and the Lollards, the 
 Peasant Revolt, and the French wars of 
 Henry V.'s reign. 
 
 Both "Walslngham'a works have been pub- 
 lished in the Rolls Series. 
 
 Walter, Hubert, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (1193—1205), and justiciar (1194— 
 1198), was a nephew of Ranulf Glanvill (q.v.), 
 and first came into prominence during King 
 Richard's captivity. He had accompanied 
 the king on his crusade, and on his way 
 homewards, hearing that Richard had been 
 taken prisoner, he visited him. The kin? 
 sent him over to England to act as vicegerent 
 in his absence, to counteract the intrigues of 
 John, and raise the ransom, while at tlie same 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 1051 
 
 Waa 
 
 time he used his influence to obtain Hubert's 
 election to the archbishopric. In 1194 he was 
 appointed justiciar, and held that office for 
 four years, governing well and vigorously, 
 his most important work being the repres- 
 sion of the insurrection of William Fitz- 
 Osbert. His expedition against the Welsh 
 called down a reprimand from the Pope, a 
 fact which shows that the age of fighting 
 bishops was almost over. On the death of 
 Richard, Hubert supported the claims of 
 John to the throne, and was by him appointed 
 chancellor. Hubert Walter is a favourable 
 specimen of the statesman-ecclesiastic of the 
 ndddle ages, and it is in the former light 
 that he more frequently appears. " He was 
 a strong minister," says Dr. Stubbs, "and 
 although as a good Englishman he made the 
 pressure of his master's hand lie as light as he 
 could upon the people, as a good servant he 
 tried to get out of the people as much treasure 
 as he could for his master. In the raising of 
 the money and in the administration of justice 
 lie tried and did much to train the people to 
 habits of self-government. He taught them 
 how to assess their taxes by jury, to elect the 
 grand jury for the assizes of the judges, to 
 choose representative knights to transact 
 legal and judicial work — such representative 
 knights as at a later time made convenient 
 precedents for Parliamentary representation. 
 The whole working of elective and represen- 
 tative institutions gained greatly under his 
 management. He educated the people against 
 the better time to come." 
 
 Hook, lAven of the Archhishops ; E. Hoveden 
 (Bolls Ssries). 
 
 Walter, Sib John {d. 1630), was attorney- 
 general to Prince Charles in 1619, but refused 
 to conduct the prosecution against Sir E. 
 Ccke. Notwithstanding this, he was made 
 Chief Baron -of the Exchequer by Charles 
 I. in 1625. He showed considerable inde- 
 pendence and spirit in the exercise of his 
 j udicial functions, and in 1629 gave his opinion 
 against Holies, and other members of Par- 
 liament, being prosecuted for acts done in the 
 House of Commons. For this the king pro- 
 hibited his taking his seat on the bench, 
 though he nominally held his office till his 
 death. 
 
 Walters, Lucy (<?. 1683), was the daughter 
 of g, Welsh gentleman, and in 1648 became 
 the mistress of Charles II., by whom she was 
 the mother of James, Duke of Monmouth. 
 She lived with Charles in Holland. In 1656 
 she came over to England, where she was im- 
 prisoned in the Tower, but shortly afterwards 
 released. After this little or nothing is known 
 of her. When Monmouth put forward his 
 claims to the throne it was contended by his 
 adherents that his mother had been secretly 
 married to Charles II., but of this asser- 
 tion no proof was forthcoming, and Mon- 
 mouth himself subsequently retracted it. 
 
 Waltheof {d. 1076) was a powerful noble- 
 man, the son of Siward. After the battle of 
 Hastings he submitted to William the Con- 
 queror, and was allowed to retain his earl- 
 dom of Northampton. Subsequently he re- 
 belled, hut was forgiven, retained in his 
 earldom, and married to the Conqueror's 
 niece, Judith. In 1075, he joined in the 
 conspiracy of the Earls of Hereford and Nor- 
 folk, with the intention of restoring the state 
 of things which had existed in Edward the 
 Confessor's time. What Waltheof's share in 
 this plot was is ver)' doubtful; probably it 
 was no more than a tacit acquiescence. When 
 the rebellion broke out he betrayed the plot 
 to Lanfranc, and was for the moment par- 
 doned, but shortly afterwards he was executed 
 at Winchester, it is said at the instigation of 
 his wife. His body was removed to Croy- 
 land, where miracles were said to be worked 
 at his tomb. The Enghsh looked upon Wal- 
 theof as a martyr, and the later troubles of 
 William's reign were considered by them to be 
 judgments on him for the murder of the earl. 
 Ordericus Vitalis ; Anglo-Saxon Ckvonicle^ 
 Freeman, Norman Conquest, 
 
 Walworth, Sm William, a citizen of 
 London, was appointed with John Philipot in 
 1377 by Parliament to regulate the finances. 
 In 1381 he was Lord Mayor of London, and 
 attended the young king at his conference 
 with Wat Tyler and the other insurgents. 
 Fearing that Tyler was about to attack 
 Richard, Walworth slew the rebel leader, for 
 which feat he received the honour of knight- 
 hood. 
 
 Wansborougb. (Wodnesbeoeh), on the 
 Wiltshire Downs, near Swindon, was the 
 scene of two important battles in Anglo- 
 Saxon history — one in 591, in which Ceaw- 
 lin of Wessex was defeated by his brother 
 Ceol ; the other in 715, when Ine repulsed 
 the Mercians. 
 
 Waudewash, The Battle op (Jan. 22, 
 1760), was fought during the Seven Years' 
 War between the French and English in 
 India. The two armies of LaUy and 
 Coote encountered each other near Wande- 
 wash. The English had 1,900 Europeans 
 and 2,100 native infantry, with'1,260 native 
 cavalry, and 16 field pieces; the French 2,250 
 native cavalry, and 1,300 sepoys, besides 
 their Mahratta horse, with twenty field pieces. 
 The forces were therefore pretty equal. 
 After a brilliant combat, the French, who 
 had suffered very severely, retreated. If the 
 English native horse had done their duty, 
 the defeat might have been even more deci- 
 sive. 
 
 • Wanton, Valentine {d. 1661), married 
 a sister of Oliver Cromwell, and joined the 
 Parliamentary cause in the Civil War. In 
 1646 he was made a colonel, and in 1648 was 
 appointed one of the members of the High 
 
"Wap 
 
 ( 1052 ) 
 
 War 
 
 Court of Justice to try the king. He was 
 present at all the sittings, and signed the 
 death warrant. In 1649 he was made one of 
 the Council of State, but his stern Republican 
 views did not recommend him to Cromwell, 
 and after the dissolution of the Long Parlia- 
 ment he retired into private life till Eichard 
 Cromwell's deposition, when he declared for 
 the Parliament against the army, and joined 
 Monk. Perceiving that the Eestoration was 
 inevitable, he withdrew to the Continent, 
 where he remained in disguise tiU his death. 
 
 Wapentake is a name of Danish origin, 
 and is only found in the districts occupied by 
 the Danes, where it answers to the Hundred 
 (q.v.) of other parts of the kingdom. 
 Stubbs, Const. Eist, i. § 45. 
 
 Warbeck, Perkin {a. 149,9), was the 
 name of one of the most celebrated impos- 
 tors in history, who, for several years during 
 the reign of Henry VII., succeeded in per- 
 suading many persons that he was Richard, 
 Duke of York, the younger of the two princes 
 generally supposed to have been murdered in 
 the Tower under Richard III. According to 
 the story of the writers under the Tudors, 
 he was in reality the son of a, Jew of Tour- 
 nay, who settled in Loudon in the reign of 
 Edward IV., and afterwards returned to 
 Tournay. The lad after his father's death 
 went to Antwerp, and came into communica- 
 tion with agents of the Duchess Margaret of 
 Burgundy, who, struck by his noble de- 
 meanour and resemblance to the Yorkist 
 family, conceived the design of bringing him 
 up as a pretender to the English throne. 
 This story is borne out by Warbeck's own 
 Confession, and by a letter of Henry VII. to 
 Sir G-ilbert Talbot as early as 1593. Some 
 writers, however, are still inclined to beKeve 
 the very plausible hypothesis that he was a 
 natural son of Edward IV. The mystery can 
 hardly b)e completely solved. The history of 
 Warbeck's proceedings is briefly this. In 1492 
 he made his appearance in Cork as Richard 
 Plantagenet, Duke of York, and obtained 
 a reception so encouraging to his hopes of 
 success, that Charles VIII. of Prance thought 
 it well to specially invite him to take up his 
 residence at Paris. He did not, however, 
 have any long enjoyment of the French 
 king's protection and hospitality, for Henry 
 made it a special article of the treaty con- 
 cluded at Estaples in the autumn of 1492 
 that no further shelter or assistance should 
 be given to "Warbeck. Flanders, was the pre- 
 tender's next refuge, and here he received a 
 most cordial welcome from Margaret, Duchess 
 of Bui-gundy, who acknowledged him at once 
 as her nephew, honouring him on aU occa- 
 sions with the title of the "White Rose of 
 England." Warbeck's arrival in Flanders 
 was the signal for the commencement of a 
 vast system of conspiracy in England against 
 
 Henry's life and authority ; but the king's 
 resolute caution, and the zealous activity of 
 his spies, conspicuous among whom was Sir 
 Robert Clifford, proved more than a match 
 for the efforts of his enemies. Sir William 
 Stanley, Lord Fitzwalter, Sir Simon Mont- 
 fort, all prominent adherents of Warbeck, 
 were brought to the block ; and the pretended 
 Duke of York, forced by these occurrences 
 into a display of decided action, made in 
 July, 1495, a hurried descent upon the coast 
 of Kent. This, however, was a miserable 
 failure, ending in the capture on Deal beach 
 of a portion of his troops by the people of 
 Sandwich. This experience of the feehng of 
 the country for his cause drove Warbeck 
 in despair to Flanders ; but the commer- 
 cial treaty concluded in Feb., 1496, between 
 Henry and Philip, Duke of Burgundy, ex- 
 pressly stipulating for his expulsion, the im- 
 postor, after an unsuccessful attempt to make 
 a settlement in Ireland, crossed over thence 
 to Scotland. Here his fortunes began for a 
 time to look somewhat brighter : the Scot- 
 tish monarch received him as Richard IV., 
 the lawful King of England, and, as a very 
 practical proof the sincerity of his belief in 
 his pretensions, bestowed upon him in mar- 
 riage a kinswoman of his own, the Lady 
 Catherine Gordon. Two fruitless invasions 
 of England, and probably, too, the influence 
 of Ferdinand of Spain, tended to greatly cool 
 James IV.'s affection for Warbeck's cause, 
 and in July, 1497, he requested him to leave 
 the country. Thus once again abandoned by 
 his frien<&, Warbeck found a temporary 
 refuge in the wilds and fastnesses of Ireland, 
 which, however, he left on receiving an invi- 
 tation from the people of Devon and Corn- 
 wall to make another attempt in England. 
 He landed accordingly at ^Tiitsaud, near 
 Penzance, Sept. 27, 1497, and, after capturing 
 St. Michael's Mount, laid active siege to 
 Exeter. On the approach, however, of the 
 royal forces under Lord Dauheny, Warbeck 
 retired to Taunton, whence, in despair of 
 success, he withdrew secretly to the sanctuary 
 of Beauheu, in the New Forest. Here, on 
 promise of his life being spared, he surren- 
 dered himself, Oct. 5, to Lord Daubeny, by 
 whom he was despatched a prisoner to Lon- 
 don. For a time Warbeck was treated with 
 marked leniency, but on his attempting to 
 escape in June, 1498, he was at once pUced 
 in close confinement in the Tower; and 
 towards the end of the following year, in 
 Nov., 1499, he was executed, in company 
 with his fellow-prisoner, the young Earl of 
 Warwick, on a charge of again attempting to 
 escape, and of having conspired with War- 
 wick and others, as a part of his plan, to get 
 forcible possession of the Tower. 
 
 Bacon, Life o/ Henry Til. ; Rey Bssais Sis- 
 ionques et Criiiqufis sur Richardlll, (Paris 18181 ■ 
 GaAr6.neT, Life and Reign of liichavd III 
 
 [F. S. p.] 
 
War 
 
 ( 1053 ) 
 
 War 
 
 Wards, The Court of, was a court of 
 record founded by 32 Hen. VIIT., c. 46, for 
 the survey and management of the rights of 
 the crown over itB wards. Being joined to 
 the Court of Liveries hy 33 Hen. VIII., ch. 
 22, it was called the Court of Wards and 
 Liveries. The seal of the Court was kept by 
 its chief officer, the Master of Wards. Its 
 province was to see that the king had the full 
 profits of tenure, arising from the custody of 
 the heirs of his tenants being infants or idiots, 
 from, the licences and fines for the marriage 
 of the kings' widows, and from the sums paid 
 for livery of seisin by the heir on entering 
 on his estate. A Court of Wards estab- 
 lished in Ireland by James I. compelled all 
 heirs in the king's custody to be educated 
 as Protestants, and enforced the oath of 
 supremacy as a condition of livery of 
 seisia. The jurisdiction of the Court of 
 Wards was unduly extended, and became 
 very oppressive under the first two Stuart 
 kings. On Feb. 24, 1645, the House of Com- 
 mons " passed a vote that the Court of Wards 
 itself, and all wardships, tenures, licences for 
 alienation, &c., should be taken away ;" and 
 the lords concurred therein. The Court 
 was finally abolished by the statute, 12 Car. 
 ii., ch. 24, which destroyed military tenures. 
 Beeves, Sist. of the English Law, iii. ; White- 
 locke. Memorials; Stephen, Commentaries, ii., 
 ch. 2. [W. H.] 
 
 Wardship ranked as one of the Feudal 
 Incidents, and consisted ia the right of the 
 lord, if the heir were under age on the death 
 of the ancestor, to the custody of the land and 
 the person. This right, which was obviously 
 capable of great abuse, was carefully limited 
 by Magna Cbiarta. [Feudalism.] 
 
 Warham, William, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury {d. 1532), was highly distin- 
 guished among the many prelates who 
 favoured the spread of the new learning in 
 England. Among his proteges was Erasmus, 
 who speaks of him in terms of great regard. 
 Warham was made Keeper of the Great Seal 
 (1502), and Lord Chancellor (1503), an oifice 
 in which he was continued by Henry VIII. 
 In the following year he became successively 
 Bishop of London and Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury. The chief event of his primacy was 
 an inquiry into the condition of the mon- 
 asteries with a view to their reform. In 1515 
 he resigned the chancellorship on account of 
 some difference O'ith Wolsey, then Archbishop 
 of York. We subsequently find him com- 
 menting adversely on the cardinal's severe 
 taxation. The growing opposition to Eome 
 greatly alarmed him ; and when the clergy 
 took the grave step of acknowledging that 
 they could not legislate without the consent 
 of Parliament, he resigned office, and not long 
 afterwards died. 
 
 Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterlwry. 
 
 Warrenne, William de (d. 1087), a Nor- 
 
 man baron, distantly related to the Con- 
 queror, was one of the commanders at the 
 battle of Hastings, and in 1073 was appointed 
 regent of the kingdom in William's absence. 
 He assisted William Ruf us against Robert, and 
 died shortly after the coronation of the former. 
 
 Warrenne, John, Earl op {d. 1304), was 
 an adherent of the king in the early part 
 of the Barons' War, and fought on the 
 Royalist side at Lewes. Subsequently he 
 quarrelled with the king, and assaulted the 
 royal justiciary in Westminster Hall in 1268. 
 He retired to his estates in Surrey, and 
 fortified his castle of Eeigate against Prince 
 Edward in 1268, but was compelled to sur- 
 render. He did not, however, entirely forfeit 
 Edward's favour. He bore a conspicuous 
 part in the Scottish wars, and was appointed 
 Guardian of Scotland in 1296. In 1297 he 
 was in command of the army which was de- 
 feated by Wallace at Stirling." He sided with 
 the baronial party in the disputes which led 
 to the confirmation of the charters, and in the 
 Parliament of Lincoln (1301). 
 
 Warrenne, John, Earl {d. 1347), a 
 powerful member of the old aristocracy, 
 maintained an independent attitude dur- 
 ing the troubles of Edward II.'s reign. 
 He did not oppose Gaveston at first, and 
 although he subsequently joined in the 
 attack on the Despeneers, he was faithful to 
 the king at Boroughbridge, as well as after 
 the landing of Mortimer and Isabella. He was 
 subsequently appointed one of the Council of 
 Regency during Edward III.'s minority. 
 
 Warrington, The Town of, near Liver- 
 pool, was an object of contention more than 
 once by the rival parties in the Great Re- 
 bellion. In the summer of 1643 it was be- 
 sieged and taken by the Parliamentarians, 
 and in 1648 the Scots were defeated there by 
 General Lambert after a severe tussle. Again, 
 in 1651, it was the scene of a partial success 
 gained by Charles II. over the forces of the 
 Commonwealth. An attempt was made to 
 check the Young Pretender's army there in 
 1745, but it was foiled by the activity of the 
 rebels. 
 
 Warwick was probably one of the 
 capitals of the Mercian kings. Destroyed by 
 the Danes, it was rebuilt by Ethelfleda, the 
 " Lady of the Mercians," who built a fortress 
 there in 913. It appeaa-s as a borough in 
 Domesday. The castle was repaired and en- 
 larged under William the Conqueror. _ It 
 sent members to Parliament from the reign 
 of Edward I. onwards, but was not regularly 
 incorporated till the reign of Philip and Mary. 
 
 Warwick, Peerage of. The Earldom 
 of Warwick appears to have been first con- 
 ferred on Roger de Bellomonte, who received 
 the title from William the Conqueror, and 
 died in 1123. In the thirteenth century the 
 dignity passed by marriage into the family 
 
War 
 
 ( 1054 ) 
 
 War 
 
 of the Marischals, Earls of Pembroke, and 
 subsequently by William de Mauduit, from 
 whom it descended in 1267 to William de 
 Beauchamp. In 1449 Richard Neville, eldest 
 son of Richard, Earl of Salisbury, married 
 Anne, the heiress of the Beauchamp estates, 
 and was created Earl of Warwick. In 1471, 
 on the attainder of the Earl after the battle 
 of Bamet, the dignity was conferred on the 
 Duke of Clarence, who had married his 
 daughter Isabella. His son bore the title, 
 but it became extinct on his execution in 
 1499. In 1.547 it was revived for John 
 Dudley, afterwards Duke of Northumberland, 
 and was also borne by his son Ambrose 
 Dudley, on whose death in 1589, it became 
 extinct. It was revived in 1618, and con- 
 ferred on Robert, Lord Rich. It became 
 extinct in this family in 1 759. It was revived 
 the same year for Francis Greville, Earl 
 Brooke, whose descendants have since borne 
 the titles of Brooke and Warwick. 
 
 Warwick, Ambrose Dudley, Bam. of 
 {d. 1590), son of the Duke of Northumberland, 
 was brought to trial, and condemned (1553) 
 for his participation in his father's plot, but 
 was -not executed. In 1563 he was in com- 
 mand of the English garrison at Havre when 
 it was forced to surrender ; and after his 
 return to England was proposed by Elizabeth 
 as a husband for the Queen of Scots. In the 
 rebellion of 1569, he was in command of 
 some of the royal forces, and aided materially 
 in crushing the insurrection. "He appears," 
 says Mies Aikin, " to have preserved through 
 life the character of a man of honour, and a 
 brave soldier." 
 
 Aikin, Court of Queeu Elizabeth. 
 
 Warwick, Edward Plaxtagenet, Eae,l 
 OP {d. 1499), was the son of George, 
 Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV., 
 by Anne, sister of the Earl of Warwick, 
 known as the Kingmaker. After the exe- 
 cution of his father, in 1478 the young 
 earl was kept in honourable confinement at 
 the castle of Sherifi-Hutton, in Yorkshire until 
 Henry's accession to the throne in 1485, when 
 the earl's Yorkist blood, and the strong claims 
 it gave him^ to the crown of England, made it 
 1 very obvious necessity on the new king's 
 part to have him placed in the more secure 
 prison of the Tower of Loudon. From this 
 prison he never again emerged except on two 
 occasions, viz., in 1487, when he was paraded 
 through the principal streets of London to 
 disprove the imposture of Lambert Simnel, 
 and in 1499, when he was beheaded on a 
 charge of being concerned with Perkin War- 
 beck (q.v,), then also a prisoner in the Tower, 
 in a conspiracy to get forcible possession of 
 the Tower, and effect the overthrow of Henry's 
 government. 
 
 Warwick, Gut, Eabl op (d. 1315), dis- 
 tinguished himself in the Scottish wars in 
 Edward I. 'a time. In the next reign he took 
 
 a prominent part in the opposition to Gaveston, 
 and was one of the ordainers appointed in 
 1310. In 1312 he seized Gaveston, who had 
 given him mortal insult by nicknaming him 
 "The Black Dog of Arden," as he was 
 being conducted to London by Pembroke, and 
 had him beheaded without trial. Warvrick 
 died shortly afterwards — according to one 
 account, by poison. 
 
 Warwick, Richard Beauchamp, Eaul 
 OF (5. 1381, a. 1439), son of Thomas Beau- 
 champ, Earl of Warwick, fought on the 
 Royalist side in the battle of Shrewsbury, and 
 distinguished himself in the Welsh wars. He 
 was appointed governor of Henry VI. during 
 his childhood, and held the oflSce of regent of 
 Prance from 1437 to 1439. 
 
 Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl op 
 (J. 1428, d. 1471), was the son of Richard, Earl 
 of Salisbury, and married Anne, daughter and 
 heiress of the Earl of Warwick, with whom 
 he received the title as well as the estates of 
 the Beauchamp family. He thus became the 
 owner of enormous wealth and landed pro- 
 perty, and by his liberality and profuse 
 hospitality he became a great favourite with 
 the people. He espoused the cause of the 
 Duke of York, with whom he fought at the 
 first battle of St. Albans in 1455. In the 
 same year he was made Captain of Calais. A 
 quarrel which took place between Warwick's 
 retainers and some of the king's servants in 
 1459 led to a renewal of the Civil War. After 
 the affair at Ludford he fied to Calais, and 
 afterwards joined York in Ireland, where they 
 arranged a plan of action, and returning to 
 England in 1460 defeated the Lancastrians at 
 Northampton, and took the king prisoner. 
 After the battle of Wakefield, Warwick 
 attempted to intercept Margaret's march to 
 London, but was defeated at St. Albans. 
 Retreating with a considerable force, he 
 effected a junction with Edward at Chipping- 
 Norton, and returned to London, when 
 Edward IV. was proclaimed king. Warwick 
 took part in the battle of 'Towton, and 
 was richly rewarded by Edward, receiving 
 the captaincy of Dover, the wardenship of 
 the Scottish marches, the offices of Lord 
 Chamberlain and Steward, with large grants 
 of forfeited lands. Warwick's policy was to 
 strengthen the new dynasty by a strict and 
 cordial alliance with the French king, and for 
 this purpose he set on foot , negotiations for 
 marrying Edward to Bona of Savoy, sister of 
 Louis XI. ' But the king preferred the 
 alliance of Burgundy, and his marriage with 
 Elizabeth Woodville entirely upset Warwick's 
 plans. The ascendancy of the Queen's kins- 
 folk completed Warwick's estrangement and 
 he intrigued with Clarence, who in 'l469 
 married his eldest daughter without the king's 
 knowledge. An insurrection in Yorkshire 
 now induced the king to apply for help to 
 Warwick, who returned from Calais but for 
 
War 
 
 ( 1055 ) 
 
 Was 
 
 the purpose of destroying the power of the 
 Woodvilles. The king was taken prisoner. 
 Elvers and Sir John Woodville were beheaded, 
 and for a time the government was completely 
 in Warwick's hands. But in 1470 the king 
 escaped, and the defeat of the insurgents at 
 Loosecoat Field obliged Warwick once more 
 to seek refuge at Calais. By the influence of 
 Louis XI. a reconciliation was made between 
 Warwick and Queen Margaret, in accordance 
 with which Warwick invaded England. He 
 was joined by his brother, Montague, and 
 others, while Edward fled to Burgundy. 
 Henry was released from the Tower, and 
 Warwick was once more supreme. But in the 
 next year (1471) Edward returned, was joined 
 by Clarence, and entered London. Warwick 
 was encamped at Bamet, and here, after 
 a hard-fought battle, he was defeated and 
 slain. The character of the " last of the 
 barons," or the " Kingmaker," as Warwick 
 has been called, was in some respects an ex- 
 aggeration of the ordinary baronial type. 
 But as a politician he had sagacity and fore- 
 sight ; and he was a skilful warrior and mili- 
 tary leader, rather of the modem than of the 
 raediseval kind. He left two daughters, 
 Isabella, who was married to the Duke of 
 Clarence ; and Anne, married first to Edward, 
 son of Henry VI., and secondly to Richard, 
 Duke of Gloucester. [Wars of the Roses.] 
 
 Continuator of tlie Croyland Chronicle ; 
 Warkworth, .Chronicle; Paston LcUpvs, with 
 Gairdner's Introd. ; Arrival of Edward IV. 
 (Camden Soc.) ; Brougham, Eng. under the 
 Souse of Lancaster. 
 
 Warwick, Thomas Beauchamp, Earl op 
 (d. 1401), was appointed Governor to Rich- 
 ard II. during his minority. In 1386 he 
 joined Gloucester, and was one of the lords 
 who appealed De Vere, and the other royal 
 ministers, of treason. In 1397 he was ac- 
 cused of conspiring with Gloucester against 
 the king, and condemned to death. But 
 having confessed his guilt, his sentence was 
 commuted to exile, and he was banished to 
 the Isle of Man. On the deposition of Richard 
 II. he wEis released. 
 
 Washington, founded in 1790 as the 
 Federal capital of the United States, was 
 attacked by the English during the American 
 War (1812—14). A body of troops under 
 General Ross was landed on the Chesapeake, 
 while a fleet under Admiral Cockbum assisted 
 in the operations. The Americans were able 
 to offer little resistance to the veterans of the 
 Peninsula, who had been sent straight off 
 from Bordeaux for this service. The town 
 was occupied by the British, and though there 
 was Httle loss of life, the Capitol, and all the 
 public buildings and offices, were destroyed ; 
 an act which caused great indignation both in 
 America and Europe. [American AVar.] 
 
 Washington, The' Treaty op (May 8, 
 1871), was concluded between England and the 
 
 United States. Its provisions were that a 
 mixed court of arbitrators should meet to adjust 
 the Alabama claims at Geneva, and that by 
 this award the two nations should be bound, 
 prescribing also the rules in accordance with 
 which the arbitrators should decide on their 
 verdict ; that the inhabitants of the United 
 States should have the liberty to take fish of 
 every kind, except shell-fish, on the sea-coasts 
 and shores and in the bays, harbours, and 
 creeks of Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick, and the colony of Prince Edward's 
 Island, and of the various islands adjacent, 
 with permission to land for the purpose of 
 drying their nets or curing their fish ; that 
 this liberty should only extend to sea-fishing ; 
 that the subjects of Great Britain should have 
 similar rights of fishing and landing on the 
 eastern sea coasts and shores of the United 
 States north of the 39th parallel ; that the 
 navigation of the River St. Lawrence, its 
 tributaries, and canals, should be open to 
 the subjects of the United States ; that in 
 return the Lake Michigan, and the canals 
 between it and the Atlantic, should be open to 
 British subjects. That the San Juan ques- 
 tion should be decided by arbitration. That 
 this treaty should last for ten years,and should 
 not expire after that time until two years 
 hare elapsed from the date when notice of 
 withdrawal is given by either party. In ac- 
 cordance with this treaty the Geneva Com- 
 mission of Arbitrators met to decide the 
 Alabama claims, and the San Juan question 
 was arbitrated by the German Emperor WU- 
 ham, 1872. [Geneva Award.] 
 
 Washington, George (b. 1732, d. 1799), 
 distinguished himself at the age of nineteen, 
 on the outbreak of hostilities between Eng- 
 land and France, and was aide-de-camp to 
 General Braddock in his unsuccessful ex- 
 pedition against Fort Duquesne, taking part 
 also in its capture in 1758. Together with 
 Patrick Henry, he represented Virginia at 
 the General Congress at Virginia in 1774, 
 and expressed moderate views by no means 
 favourable to secession. On the outbreak of 
 the war he was chosen commander-in-chief. 
 This is the place for the very briefest account 
 only of his military operations. His first 
 great success was in compelling the English 
 to evacuate Boston in March, 1776, but he 
 was defeated at Long Island by General 
 Howe, and compelled to retreat west of the 
 Delaware. A succession -of defeats, notably 
 one at Brandywine in Sept., 1777, followed 
 two slight successes at Trenton and Prince- 
 town, but they were more than compensated 
 by the victory of Gates at Saratoga (Oct., 
 1777). In June, 1778, he fought an indecisive 
 battle at Monmouth Court House. During 
 the greater part of 1779 and 1780 he remained 
 inactive, owing to ths weakness of his army ; 
 but in 1781, having been appointed to the 
 command of the army of the South, ho was 
 
"Wat 
 
 ( 1036 ) 
 
 Wat 
 
 enabled to direct the important operations oif 
 Green and Morgan, which resulted in the 
 collapse of the British attack, and the sur- 
 render of Lord CornwaDis. On the conclusion 
 of peace, Washington resigned his commission 
 to Congress, and retired to his farm. He 
 was, however, in 1787, elected President of the 
 National Convention at Philadelphia, which 
 remodelled the constitution. Two years later 
 he was elected President of the United States, 
 and again in 1792. Perhaps th« most dis- 
 tinguishing feature in his tenure of office 
 was the skill wiUi which he kept America 
 clear of tiie complications created hy the 
 French Involution. In 1794 hostilities 
 seemed imminent with England, hut Wash- 
 ington averted them hy sending John Jay to 
 London on a special mission, and two years 
 later negotiated a, commercial treaty. He 
 dechned to he nominated for the presidency 
 a third time. Just before his death, when 
 war with France seemed at hand, he was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief. 
 
 Sparks, Ijife and Writings qf Washingtt/n, 12 
 vols., and jyi'plonnatic History of the AryiBrican, Re- 
 volution; Bancroft, Rist, of America; Guizot, 
 Washington; Washington Irving, JAfe of 
 jton. 
 
 Waterloo, The Battle of (June 18, 
 1815), was one of the decisive battles in history, 
 since it closed the great European war against 
 France, and it decided the fate of Napoleon 
 and of Eiirope. In June, 1815, Napoleon 
 crossed the Belgian frontier. Wellington's 
 army was drawn up so as to cover Brussels, in 
 a long line from Charleroi to Antwerp. The 
 Prussians, under Blucher, extended eastward 
 from Charleroi to Lifege. Napoleon attempted 
 to push between the two armies, and to crush 
 them in detail. On the 15th he attacked the 
 Prussians at Charleroi, and drove them back. 
 On the 16th his right attacked the Prussians 
 at Ligny, and, after a hard battle, forced them 
 to retreat. Ney, with the French left, at the 
 same time attacked the English at Quatre 
 Bras. After fighting all day, they fell back. 
 The English slowly retired towards Brussels 
 on the 17th. Wellington, relying on assistance 
 from Blucher, who was slowly retreating to- 
 wards Wavre, determined to fight at Waterloo. 
 The field of battle consisted of two low lines 
 of hills, running parallel to one another, east 
 and west, and separated by a valley about 
 half a mile in breadth. Wellington took up a 
 position on the northern ridge, about twelve 
 miles south of Brussels, with the Forest of 
 Soignies in his rear, the centre of the position 
 being the hamlet of Mont St. Jean. His army 
 was drawn up in two lines. On the extreme 
 left of the front line were light cavalry, next to 
 them were the fifth and fourth Hanoverian 
 brigades. On the right of these was Bylandt's 
 Dutch and Belgian infantry, with Pack and 
 Kcmp'sbrigades ontheirright. Ontheirright, 
 and garrisoning the farm-buildings of La 
 Haye Sainte, stood the Third Division, under 
 
 Alten, consistingof the King's German legion, 
 and a Hanoverian brigade. To their right again 
 was Halkett's brigade, and the two brigades 
 of the Guards, under Maitland and Byng, who 
 held the farm of Hougoumont. The second 
 line was composed entirely of cavalry, the 
 greatest strength being concentrated behind 
 the centre, resting on the Charleroi road ; Lord 
 Uxbridge being in command of the whole. The 
 French on the opposite ridge were drawn up in 
 two lines, with the entire Imperial Guard, 
 cavalry, and infantry, in rear of the centre 
 as a reserve. The battle began at half-past 
 eleven by a fierce attack on Hougoumont 
 under Jerome : but though the French won 
 the gardens and orchards, they could not drive 
 the Guards from the buildings themselves. 
 As this attack failed in its main object. Napo- 
 leon directed a grand attack on the left-centre 
 of the allied position. As the columns ap- 
 proached, the Dutch and Belgian troops fled 
 in panic ; but Picton, with the 3,000 men who 
 formed the brigades of Pack and Kemp, 
 seized ihe moment when the French halted on 
 the brow of the hill. His men fired a volley 
 at thirty yards' distance, and then, charging, 
 drove the columns back over the hill. Slean- 
 while Kellermamn's cuirassiers, who had ridden 
 up the Charleroi road in support of Key's at- 
 tack, had been charged by Lord Uxbridge, at 
 the head of the Household Brigade, and had 
 been driven back in headlong confusion. It 
 was about half-past three when Napoleon 
 found that his grand attack had failed, and 
 that, far from making any way, he had very 
 much weakened his right wing, while, at the 
 same time, there were sure signs of the 
 approach of the Prussians. He directed all 
 his splendid cavalry to attack the centre and 
 right, while fresh assaults were made upon 
 Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte. But the 
 cuirassiers could make no impression on the 
 impenetrable squares of British infantry, and 
 the artillery played upon them as they retired, 
 so that they were almost wholly destroyed. 
 In the meantime the attacks on La Haye Sainte 
 had been carried on with determined vigour ; 
 and between six and seven o'clock the French 
 took the place. The Prussians were pressing 
 on, and were already carrying on a fierce con- 
 test for the possession of Planoenoit, which 
 lay in the rear of the French right, and which 
 the Young Guard had been detached to hold. 
 Napoleon ordered the Old Guard, who had as 
 yet taken no part in the struggle, to advance. 
 The two columns advanced between La Haye 
 Sainte and Hougoumont. They were suddenly 
 encountered on the top of the ascent by 
 Maitland's Guards, who were lying down. 
 When the French arrived at the top, the 
 Guards suddenly rose up, at a distance of fifty 
 yards, and while the French attempted to de- 
 ploy into line, showered voUey after volley 
 into their ranks, till they became disordered. 
 Then the Guards charged, and drove the 
 French column headlong down the hill 
 
Wat 
 
 ( 1057 ) 
 
 Wed 
 
 returning to their position, however, in time 
 to take part in the destruction of the second 
 column, which hore on, undismayed, slightly 
 towards the left. The column broke, and 
 fled iu disorder. Napoleon, meanwhile, was 
 rallying the remains of the first oolunm of the 
 Old Guard round La Belle Alliance; hut 
 ■Wellington now took the offensive. Soon 
 after eight o'clock he gave the word for a 
 general advance along the whole Une. The 
 British troops rushed down from the ridge, 
 and up the opposite slope. The Old Guard 
 hravely rallied, and attempted to stem the 
 current. But it was iu vain. The British 
 swept away all resistance in their impetuous 
 rush ; and the French army gave itself up to 
 flight iu hopeless confusion, every one seek- 
 ing only his own safety. Wellington, riding 
 hack, met Blucher at La Belle Alliance, and 
 entrusted to him the pursuit with the Prus- 
 sians, who were comparatively fresh. The 
 allies, under Wellington, had lost 15,000 men 
 killed and wounded in the hattle ; the Prus- 
 sians 7,000; hut the French army_ was annihi- 
 lated. It lost from 23,000 to 30,000, and the 
 survivors were a mere scattered mob. "Wel- 
 lington's army had numbered about 68,000 at 
 the beginning of the battle, Napoleon's about 
 70,000. 
 
 Sibome, Waterloo; Chesney, Waterloo Lec- 
 tures; Alison, Hist, of E\t/r(ype; Creasy, Decisive 
 Battles of the World ; Thiers, Hist, of the Con- 
 svXate and Empire ; Jomini, Military Hist, of 
 Napoleon. [W. K. S.] 
 
 Watliug Street was one of the great 
 Eoman roads through Britain. Starting from 
 Eichborough, it passed by Canterburj', whence, 
 leaving Rochester to the right, it ran to 
 London, which it passed through, thence to 
 Verulam, Dunstable, Towcaster, "Weedon, 
 Dovebridge, High Cross, Fazeley, and Wel- 
 lington, to Wroxeter. It then crossed the 
 Severn, £ind continued by Eowton and Bala 
 to Tommen-y-Mawr, where it divided into 
 two branches. One ran by Beddgelert to 
 Caernarvon and Anglesea; the other by 
 Dolwyddelan to the Menai Straits, where one 
 branch went to Holyhead, and the other 
 through Aber to Chester, thence by North 
 wich, Manchester, Hkley, Masham, and New- 
 ton, to Catterick. Crossing the Tees, it ran 
 by Binchester, Ebchester, and Corbridge, into 
 Scotland, thence by Jedburgh to the interior 
 of Scotland, probably as -far as the Forth. 
 Other authorities regard the road between 
 London and "Wroxeter as alone properly the 
 WatUng Street. But the name seems popu- 
 larly to have been used to denote several lines 
 of Eoman highways. [Eoman Eoads.] 
 
 Watson, EiOHAKD, Bishopf- of Llandaff 
 {i, 1737, d. 1816), was educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, of which he was elected 
 a Fellow in 1760. He became Professor of 
 Chemistry in 1764, and in 1771 Eegiua Pro- 
 fessor of Divinity. He wrote largely both on 
 scientific subjects and on theology, and had 
 Hist.— 34 
 
 also written some pamphlets to defend and 
 explain "Whig principles, when, in July, 1782, 
 he was made Bishop of Lhmdaff by Lord 
 Shelburne. He sided with the "Whigs in the 
 House of Lords, and supported the claims of 
 the Prince of Wales on the Eegency question. 
 In 1792, in his charge to the clergy, he 
 vehemently eulogised the French Eevolution. 
 Subsequently he changed his views on this 
 subject, and wrote in 1798 an Address to the 
 Peoph of Great Britain, which was an energetic 
 appeal in favour of the war against France, 
 and excited immense public attention. In 
 1803 he wrote another pamphlet on the same 
 subject. His best-known work is perhaps his 
 Apology for the Bible against the attacks of 
 Thomas Paine. 
 
 Waurin, John be (d. circa 1471), was a 
 French knight, who fought in the battle of 
 Agincourt, but subsequently joined the 
 English, and attached himseU to Sir John 
 Fastolf. He wrote a chronicle of England 
 from the earliest times to the year 1471, 
 which has been published in the EoUs Series. 
 
 Waverley, The Annals of, is one of 
 the monastic chronicles — written in the Cis- 
 tercian Abbey of that name in Surrey — which 
 extends from the Incarnation to the year 
 1291. From 1277 to the end the work appears 
 to be contemporary, and is of great value. 
 It has been published in the EoUs Series. 
 
 Wasrnflete, "V\'"illiam {d. i486), was 
 master of Winchester School from about 1432 
 to 1443, when he was made first provost of 
 Eton. In 1447 he was elected Bishop of 
 Winchester, and in 1456 became Chancellor. 
 In 1460 he resigned the Great Seal, and, 
 though he had been an attached friend to 
 Henry "VI., he lived unmolested by Edward 
 I"V. In 1448 "Waynflete commenced the foun- 
 dation of Magdalen College in Oxford, which 
 was completed in 1456. He also founded a 
 school in his native town of Waynflete, in 
 Lincolnshire. 
 
 Ways and Means, The Committee of, 
 is a Committee of the whole House of Com- 
 mons appointed to determine how the money 
 is to be raised which has been voted to the 
 Crown after the resolutions framed by the 
 Committee of Supply have been agreed to. 
 Its principal duty is to receive the budget or 
 financial statement of the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer. Resolutions for new ways of 
 raising revenue are often submitted to it 
 previous to being embodied in bills. 
 
 Wedderburn, Alexanber, Lord Lough- 
 EOKOUGH and Eaul of Eosslyn (b. 1733, d. 
 1805\ was the son of a Scotch advocate and 
 judge. He was caDed to the Scotch bar, but 
 his short career in Scotland came to an abrupt 
 conclusion in 1757, and he came to London, 
 and was called to the English bar. In 1762, 
 through the interest of Lord Bute, he was 
 returned to Parliament for the Rothesay and 
 
Wed 
 
 ( 1058 ) 
 
 Wei 
 
 Inverary Burgha. In 1769 he spoke in sup- 
 port of the legality of Wilkes's election, which 
 earned him a congratulatory banquet at the 
 hands of the Opposition. In 1771, however, 
 he left his party, and hecame Solicitor-Gen- 
 eral to Lord North. In his new office he is 
 described as "elegant, subtle, and insinuat- 
 ing," but he had no great opportunity of 
 displaying his powers tiU, in 1773, he defended 
 Lord CKve against General Burgoj-ne's "reso- 
 lution. During the following years he de- 
 fended the policy of the ministry on the 
 American war. ti 1778 he refused the office 
 of Chief Baron, and continued in Parliament 
 to urge the prosecution of the war. Next 
 year he became Attorney-General, and de- 
 livered his last great speech in the Lower 
 House in favour of a firm policy of repression 
 towards Ireland. In 1780 he became Chief 
 Justice of the Common Pleas, with the title 
 of Lord Loughborough. When the Coalition 
 ministry was formed (1783) the Great Seal 
 was put into commission, and Lord Lough- 
 borough was appointed one of the commisr 
 sioners, but in 1784 the chancellorship was 
 given to Lord Thurlow. In his disgust. Lord 
 Loughborough became a complete Foxite. 
 He now took all pains to cultivate favour 
 with the Prince of Wales, and advocated his 
 claims in the debates on the Regency Bill. 
 In 1791 he made a vigorous attack on Pitt's 
 Russian policy, and became so strong a Whig 
 that he advocated measures for Catholic relief, 
 "although it is now certain that when he 
 became keeper of the king's conscience, he 
 poisoned the royal mind by scruples about 
 the coronation oath, and that he obstructed 
 the policy which he at this time advocated." 
 He now opened negotiations with Pitt, who, in 
 return for his services in securing the ad- 
 herence of the Duke of Portland to the Pitt 
 ministry, obtained for him the Great Seal 
 (Jan., 1793). In 1794 he advised the State 
 prosecutions for sedition, and, while he cooled 
 towards the Prince of Wales, tried to win 
 favour with George III. In 1800 he opposed 
 all measures for Catholic emancipation con- 
 nected with the Union, and became somewhat 
 estranged from Pitt., The next year he 
 betrayed the Prime Minister's private corre- 
 spondence to the king, and thereby obtained 
 the dismissal of Pitt. Addington, succeeding 
 to the vacant place, got rid of Lord Lough- 
 borough by the bribe of an elevation to an 
 earldom, with the title of Earl of Rosslyn. 
 Henceforth his Parliamentary career was 
 unimportant. At his death George III. is 
 reported to have said, "He has not left a 
 greater knave behind him in my dominions." 
 Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors; Jesse, Me- 
 mm>K of the Reign of George III. ; Parliamentary 
 Hist.; Trevelyan, Early lAfe of C. J. Fox; 
 Letters of Junius, 
 
 Wedmore, The Peace op (879), is the 
 name frequently given to the treaty be- 
 tween Alfred and Guthrum, though the 
 
 treaty was certainly concluded at Chip- 
 penham. The village of Wedmore lies near 
 Athelney, between Bridgewater and Yeovil. 
 The treaty is of, great importance, as assign- 
 ing a definite district to the Danes, and estab- 
 lishing a modus Vivendi between them and 
 the English. The boundaries here agreed 
 upon were — "Up on the Thames, and then 
 up on the Lea, and along the Lea to its source, 
 then right to Bedford ; then up on the Quae 
 unto Watling Street." Thus the Danes were 
 to leave Wessex, but keep- East Anglia and 
 the north-eastern part of Mereia, but the 
 south-western part of Mereia was ijnited to 
 the kingdom of Wessex. " Speaking roughly," 
 says Mr. Freeman, "Alfred recovered that 
 part of Mereia which had been originally 
 West Saxon, and which had been conquered 
 by the Angles in the seventh and eighth 
 centuries. . . . The Danes got much the 
 largest part of England; still Alfred con- 
 trived to keep London." [Alfred ; Dames ; 
 Mercia.] 
 
 Freeman, "Norraan Conquest, vol. i., and Old, 
 Eng. Hist. ; Stubbs, Select Charters, 63. 
 
 Welles, Leo, Lokd [d. 1461), was a dis- 
 tinguished commander in the French wars, 
 and in 1438 was made Lieutenant of Ireland, 
 which office he held tiQ 1443. He fought oil 
 the Lancastrian side in the Wars of the Roses, 
 and fell in the battle of Towton. 
 
 Welles, Richard, Lord {d. 1470), son of 
 the above, was allowed to receive his father's 
 goods and estates by Edward IV., though he 
 had been attainted, and in 1468 he was restored 
 to all his honours. In 1470 his son raised a 
 rebellion in Lincolnshire, and Lord Welles, 
 being unable to induce him to submit, was 
 put to death by Edward, contrary to a promise 
 he had made. 
 
 Welles, Sir Robert {d. 1470), was the son 
 of Richard, Lord Welles. In 1470, probably at 
 the instigation of the Earl of Warwick, he 
 raised a rebellion in Lincolnshire. Although 
 the cry of "King Henry!" was raised, and 
 many Lancastrians joined his standard, it 
 would seem that his real object was to set 
 Clarenceon the throne. Before assistance could 
 arrive from Warwick or Clarence, he was 
 attacked by the king, and totally defeated in 
 the battle of Loosecoat Field, near Stamford. 
 He was captured, and beheaded the day after 
 the battle, having made a fuU confession of 
 his designs. 
 
 Wellesley, Richard Colley, MAnacESS 
 OF (J. 1760, d. 1842), was the eldest son of thn 
 first Earl of Momington, and elder brother of 
 the Duke of Wellington. He took his seat 
 in the Irish House of Lords as soon as he 
 became of age, and also entered the English 
 House of Commons as member for Beeral- 
 ston in 1786, and afterwards for Windsor. 
 He took the Tory side in the debates on 
 the Regency of 1789, and greatly distin- 
 guished himself. In 1797, having previously 
 
Wei 
 
 ( 1059 ) 
 
 Wei 
 
 occupied a, seat on. the Board of Control, he 
 received a British peerage (as Baron Mom- 
 ington), and was nominated to succeed Lord 
 Cornwallis as Governor- General of India. 
 In 1799 he became Marquess WeUesley iii 
 the Irish peerage. His governor-generalship 
 in India was an eventful period. On first 
 landing he found the English power exposed 
 to great dangers, owing to the existence of a 
 formidable body of disciplined troops in the 
 service of the Nizam. By great firmness 
 and skill Lord Mornington prevailed on the 
 Nizam to disband his army, and to enter into 
 a subsidiary alliance with England. He next 
 determined to crush the power of Tippoo 
 Sultaun (q.v.), who was then deeply engaged 
 in intrigues with France. Owing to the 
 firmness and energy of the viceroy, the troops 
 were speedily put into a state of efl5ciency. 
 In 1799 war was declared on Tippoo, and 
 three armies advanced on Seringapatam. 
 The Bombay army won a victory at Sudasere, 
 and that of Madras at MalaveUy and Arikera. 
 Seringapatam was invested and captured, and 
 Tippoo slaia in the assault. Mysore was 
 partitioned, and the Mohammedan dynasty 
 driven out. In 1801 Lord WeUesley organised 
 the Eed Sea expedition (q.v.), and despatched 
 a large force into Egypt to assist in the 
 operations against the French. He then 
 proceeded to intervene in the affairs of the 
 Mahratta States. He forced the treaty of 
 Bassein upon the Peishwa Bajee Eao. 
 Thereupon a combination of Scindiah, Holkar, 
 and the Eajah of Berar was formed against 
 the English, and the result was the hardly 
 contested campaigns in which the British, 
 under Colonel WeUesley and Lake, were 
 completely successful The siege of A1i. 
 gurh, . the battles of Delhi and Laswaree, 
 soon reduced Scindiah's French battalions 
 in Hindostan ; the battles of Assye and 
 Argaom were foUowed by the treaties of 
 Deogaom and Surgee Anjengaom, which em- 
 bodied the submission, of Scindiah and the 
 Bhonslah. 
 
 Meanwhile Lord WeUesley had paid much 
 attention to the commercial development of 
 India. He gave great offence to the Court of 
 Directors partly by the magnitude and ex- 
 pense of his military exploits, partly by 
 allowing private English vessels to trade in 
 India, contrary to the Company's monopoly. 
 In 1805 Lord WeUesley was recaUed. At- 
 tempts were unsuccessfuUy made in Parlia- 
 ment to accuse him of high crimes and 
 misdemeanours, and the Court of Proprietors 
 passed a vote of censure on him by a large 
 majority. But after thirty years the feeling 
 changed, and the directors, taking advantage 
 of the publication of his despatches, voted 
 him a grant of £20,000, and ordered his statue 
 to be placed in the India House. His policy 
 in India was to estabHsh EngUsh influence ; 
 to obbge the native rulers to enter into 
 permanent treaties with him ; to place the 
 
 political management of their provinces in 
 the hands of a British Resident ; to pay for 
 the support of an army largely oflicered by 
 Europeans ; while the native princes at the 
 same time retained the domestic government 
 in their own hands. " The administration of 
 Lord WeUesley may be regarded as the third 
 great epoch in the formation of the British 
 Indian empire. . . Lord WeUesley was 
 the first to perceive that in India a political 
 equilibrium was impossible; that peace was 
 only to be insured by establishing the pre- 
 ponderance of British power; and that the 
 task of breaking down the Mahratta con- 
 federacy was as practicable as, sooner or 
 later, it must have been necessary, to be 
 undertaken." 
 
 In 1808 Lord WeUesley was appointed 
 ambassador in Spain. From 1809 to Jan., 
 1812, he was Secretary for Foreign Affairs in 
 Mr. Perceval's cabinet, but resigned in con- 
 sequence of a difference with his coUeagues 
 on the Eoman Catholic claims in Ireland. In 
 May, 1812, he unsuccessfuUy attempted to 
 form a coalition government. Under Lord 
 Liverpool's ministry he was the champion of 
 the rights of the Eoman Catholics in Ireland. 
 In 1815 he loudly censured some of the pro- 
 visions of the peace with France. From 1821 
 to 1828 he was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 
 but when his, brother, the Duke of WeUing- 
 ton, took ofiSce, and declared against the 
 Catholic claims, the Lord-Lieutenant resigned. 
 In 1831 he was appointed Lord Steward, 
 under the Grey Ministry, and in 1833 again 
 became Lord-Lieutenant, but resigned in 1 834. 
 Bes^atches of the Marquess WeUesley, ed. by E. 
 Montgomery Maitin, 1836—1838; Pearce, Life 
 of WeUesley. [B. g.] 
 
 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke 
 OP (J. 1769, a. 1852), was the fourth son of 
 the first Earl of Mornington. He was educated 
 at Eton, and afterwards at the military coUege 
 at Angers, where he studied under the cele- 
 brated Pignerol. He entered the army in 
 Mar., 1787. His career in the field com- 
 menced in Holland (1794), under the Duke of 
 York. He shared the hardships of this 
 campaign, occupying the post of honour, the 
 rearguard. He received a colonelcy in 1796. 
 His next service was in India, where he 
 passed through the whole of the Mysore War, 
 and the Siege of Seringapatam, being at- 
 tached to the Nieam's contingent of horse. 
 In July, 1799, he was nominated Governor of 
 Seringapatam and Mysore, and the command 
 in chief of the army of occupation was en- 
 trusted to him. He exercised the great 
 powers conferred upon him in such a way as 
 to deserve and obtain the gratitude and respect 
 of the natives, and to display his own extra- 
 ordinary talents for organisation and command. 
 WHle thus employed he found it necessary to 
 take the field against the marauder Dhoondiah 
 Waugh, whom he routed and slew. In 1803 
 he was raised to the rank of major-general, 
 
Wei 
 
 ( 1060 ) 
 
 Wei 
 
 and shortly afterwards the Mahratta War 
 broke out. Major- General Wellesley was 
 appointed to the command of the force 
 destined to restore the Peishwa to his throne 
 after the conclusion of the Treaty of BEissein, 
 as well as to act against the Mahratta chiefs. 
 Operations in the Beccan were quickly opened, 
 and concluded by "WeUesley's brilliant victory 
 at Assye (Sept. 23, 1803), and Argaum (Nov. 
 19), which effectually subdued the opposition 
 of Scindiah and the Rajah of Berar. Shortly 
 after the close of the Mahratta War, General 
 Wellesley quitted India, and after an absence 
 of Ave years landed once more in England. 
 In 1807 he was appointed Chief Secretary 
 to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. In 
 the following August he was nominated to a 
 command in the expedition to Copenha,gen, 
 and rendered important services, for which he 
 received the special thanks of Parliament. 
 On July 12' the same year he started, with a 
 command of 10,000 men, for Portugal, the 
 Portland ministry having sent these troops at 
 the request of the Portuguese government, 
 who feared the ambitious designs of Napoleon. 
 He landed successfully at Mondego, marched 
 on Lisbon, and defeated the French at Eolica. 
 Sir Harry Burrard, who had been appointed 
 over WeUesley's head, now arrived and took 
 the command, and countermanded all WeUes- 
 ley's dispositions for the attack on Junot at 
 Corres Vedras. The French therefore assailed 
 the English at Vimiera, and again Sir Harry 
 Burrard prevented the Enghsh success being 
 decisive by forbidding Wellesley to pursue 
 and cut off the French retreat to Torres 
 Vedras. The Convention of Cintra roused 
 the general indignation in England against 
 the expedition and its commanders, and 
 especially, but most unwarrantably, against 
 Wellesley. He returned to England and 
 resumed his Irish duties and his seat in 
 ParHameut. In 1809, when the French had 
 entirely occupied the Peninsula, Wellesley 
 was sent out again with 24,000 men. He 
 landed at Lisbon (April 22), marched against 
 Soult, who was strongly posted at Oporto, 
 and drove him into GaUcia. The state of 
 his commissariat rendered it impossible to 
 pursue and march on. Madrid as he had in- 
 tended ; while the obstinacy and imbecility of 
 the Spanish generals rendered co-operation 
 impossible. In spite, therefore, of the crush- 
 ing victory of Talavera (q.v.), he was obliged 
 to retreat. The next year was occupied with 
 the inroad of Napoleon, the victory of Busaco, 
 and the successful defence of the lines of Torres 
 Vedras. At last, in 1812, after the capture of 
 Badajos and Ciudad Eodrigo, Wellington 
 began his march across Spain by defeating 
 the French at Salamanca ; opened the road 
 to Madrid; and marched from thence to 
 Burgos. He was, however, compelled to retire 
 once more to the Portuguese frontier. In 
 1813 he marched straight to Vittoria, and 
 .from victory to victory tiU Soult was finally 
 
 routed at Orthez, and the abdication of 
 Napoleon ended the great Peninsular War 
 (q.v.). At the close of the campaign he 
 was for his services created Marquis of 
 Douro and Duke of Wellington ; the House 
 of Commons voted him an annuity of 
 £10,000, which was afterwards commuted 
 for the sum of £400,000, and on July 1 
 the thanks of the House were conveyed to 
 him by the Speaker. The highest honours 
 were conferred on him by the alhes, and 
 he was made a field-marshal in each of 
 the principal armies of Europe. In August 
 he proceeded to Paris to represent the British 
 government at the court of the Tuileries. 
 He remained five months, and bore a prin- 
 cipal share in the negotiations of this year. In 
 Jan., 1815, the duke was accredited to Vienna 
 as one of the representatives of Britain 
 at the Congress of the European Powers, 
 and imited with Austria and France in re- 
 sisting the demands of Russia and Prussia. 
 In February Napoleon broke loose from Elba, 
 and Wellington was appointed Commander- 
 in-Chief against him. The Hundred Days 
 ended at Waterloo (q.v.), and the allied 
 armies marched on Paris, where Wellington 
 had the greatest difficulty in restraining 
 the Prussian desire for vengeance ; and 
 it was in consequence of his advice that 
 the army of occupation, which was to have 
 remained for five years, evacuated Prance at 
 the end of three. The military career of the 
 duke thus came to an end. In Oct., 1818, 
 while attending the Congress of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, he was offered and accepted the 
 office of Master-General of the Ordnance, with 
 a seat in the Cabinet. He took no prominent 
 part, however, in the administration of home 
 affairs, though he shared the odium which 
 accrued to the government from its coercive 
 policy. He represented Great Britain at the 
 Congress of Verona in 1822, and protested 
 against the armed intervention of the French 
 court in the affairs .of Spain. In 1826, he 
 was sent on a special mission to St. Petersburg 
 for the purpose of promoting a peaceable 
 settlement of the Greek question. In the 
 following year he refused to serve under Mr. 
 Ca nn i n g, and resigned the post of Commander- 
 in-Chief which had naturally come to him on 
 the death of the Duke of York. In 1828, he 
 himself became Prime Minister of England. 
 The Canningites were allowed to retain their 
 seats for a short time, but very soon dissen- 
 sions arose, and they were either driven out 
 or resigned spontaneously. The great question 
 of Roman Catholic Emancipation had now for 
 a quarter of a century occupied the attention 
 of the legislature, and had become not so 
 much a question of abstract principle and 
 policy as of national peace and security. 
 The continued anarchy of Ireland, the inter- 
 minable division of cabinets, the distraction 
 of imperial councils, and the utter impossi- 
 bility of maintaining such a state of things 
 
Wei 
 
 ( 1061 ) 
 
 Wen 
 
 at last satisfied the duke and Sir Robert Peel 
 that the time had come when the clamorous 
 demand of the Eoman Catholics should be 
 conceded. The premier had a clear per- 
 ception oi the difficulties to be encountered, 
 and the sacrifices which must be made in thus 
 surrendering the citadel of Protestant as- 
 cendancy, but having made up his mind that 
 this measure was necessary, he carried it 
 through resolutely and characteristically. 
 His policy was announced in the speech from 
 the throne (Feb. 5th, 1829), and so vigorously 
 was the measure pressed, that in spite of the 
 most determined opposition, the Eelief Bill 
 passed both Houses by a large majority, and 
 in little more than a month became law. The 
 ministry of the duke was greatly weakened 
 by his victory over the principles and preju- 
 dices of his party. His opponents were not 
 conciliated, while many of his old supporters 
 had become furious in their indignation. 
 The duke failed to read the signs of the times, 
 and his obstinate opposition to Parliamentary 
 Beform caused the downfall of his ministry, 
 the accession of Earl Grey (1831), and the 
 passing of the Reform BiU (q.v.). At the 
 final crisis of the Bill, Wellmgton, at the 
 request of the king, left the House of Lords, 
 followed by about a hundred peers, to allow 
 the Bill to pass. All through this period the 
 tide of popular feeling ran strongly against 
 the duke, who found it necessary to protect his 
 windows from the mob by casings of iron. 
 When the excitement of the Reform agitation 
 had subsided, popular feeling towards him 
 gradually changed ; and during the rest of his 
 Kfe he retained a firm hold on the affections 
 of the English people. In 1834 the king 
 announced his intention to recall the duke to 
 his councils, but the latter insisted that Sir 
 Robert Peel was the proper person to be 
 placed at the head of the government, and 
 himself accepted the post of Foreign Secretary. 
 In 1835, he retired with his leader, and never 
 again took charge of any of the great civil 
 departments of state. In 1841, on the return 
 of his party to power, he accepted a seat in 
 the Cabinet, but without office; though he 
 took an active part in the business of the 
 country. In 1842, he again became Com- 
 mander-in-Chief, and was confirmed in the 
 office for life by patent under the Great Seal. 
 When the Irish famine brought the Anti- 
 Com-law agitation to a crisis, he changed with 
 Peel, and gave that minister the warmest 
 and most consistent support in his new com- 
 mercial policy. It was in fact mainly through 
 the duke's influence that the opposition of the 
 great territorial magnates was withdrawn. 
 On the complete break-up of the Conservative 
 party, in 1846, the duke formally intimated 
 his final retirement from political life, and 
 never again took any part in the debates in 
 the House of Lords except on military 
 matters. But he continued to take the warmest 
 "interest in the welfare of the army, the 
 
 country, and the sovereign, and was regarded 
 by the queen as a friendly and intimate 
 adviser. With the nation the populaiity of 
 " the duke " during his later years was 
 extraordinary and almost unique. Wherever 
 he appeared he was received with enthusiasm 
 and affection. On Sept. 14, 1852, he 
 died at Walmer Castle, where he resided as 
 Warden of the Cinque Ports. Of Wellington's 
 eminence as a general there is no question. 
 In an age of great commanders he was one 
 of the greatest ; inferior to few of his con- 
 temporaries, save the great opponent whose 
 designs he so often defeated. The integrity, 
 honesty, and disinterested simplicity of his 
 private character are equally little open to 
 doubt. His position as a statesman admits 
 of more dispute. That he did not altogether 
 comprehend the spirit of the age in which he 
 lived, and that he offered an imbendiug front 
 to reforms which in the end he was obliged to 
 accept, can scarcely be denied. 
 
 Wellington Despatches, 1852, 1860-6, and 
 1867; Brialmont, Life of WelHngion; Alisou. 
 Hist, of Europe ; Vou Sybel, Frenc/i Revolu- 
 tion; Thiers, Hist, of the Consulate arid Empire; 
 Napier, Peninsular War ; Greville, Metnoirs ; 
 Walpole, Hist, of Hug. from 1815; Stapleton, 
 George Canning and, his Tivies; Pauli, Englische 
 Gesctiichte seit 1815 ; Molesworth, Rist. of the 
 Reform BiU ; Peel, Memoirs. [S, J. L.] 
 
 Welsh. Judicature, Abolition of (11 
 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV.). In 1820 a select 
 committee was appointed to inquire into the 
 Welsh judicature, which had existed for cen- 
 turies, in spite of proposals to remove it. The 
 Common Laws Commissioners of 1822 de- 
 cided that its continuance was indefensible. 
 Peel, therefore, introduced (1830) a bill for 
 its abolition, and for adding an additional 
 judge to each of the three superior courts at 
 Westminster. The biU became law in 
 1830. The Special Sessions in Wales were 
 abolished, and that country, with Cheshire, 
 erected into new circuits, served by the ordi- 
 nary judges. 
 
 Wendover, Roger of {d. 1236), was a 
 monk of St. Albans, and for a few years Prior 
 of Belvoir. The great work usually though 
 not universally attributed to him, Flores Histo- 
 riarmn, extends from the Creation to the year 
 1235, and for the last thirty-five is a most 
 valuable authority. "It is from him," says 
 Mr. Gairdner, " we derive most of the in- 
 formation we possess about the reign of King 
 John ; and the straightforward simplicity with 
 which he tells the tale, denouncing wicked- 
 ness and injustice where necessary, without 
 invective or high-colouring of any kind, is 
 admirable." His work was continued from 
 1235 by Matthew Paris. 
 
 There is an edition of the Flores in the Eoll( 
 
 Series, and a translation in Bohn's Antiquarian 
 
 Library. 
 
 Wenlock, Loud {d. 1471), was originally 
 a supporter of the Lancastrian party, and 
 
Wen 
 
 ( 1062 ) 
 
 Wes 
 
 fought in the first battle of St. Albans. 
 Subsequently be went over to the Yorkists, 
 and was attainted in 1459. He commanded 
 the rear of the Yorkist army in the battle of 
 Towton, and many honours and rewards were 
 given him by Edward IV. He afterwards 
 joined "Warwick and the malcontents, and 
 fought on the Lancastrian side in the battle . 
 of Tewkesbury, where he was slain, it is said 
 by Somerset, who suspected him of treachery. 
 
 Wensleydale's Case, Lord (1856). 
 
 Sir James Parke, judge of the Court of Ex- 
 chequer, was raised to the peerage by the 
 title of Baron Wensleydale ; but the patent 
 which conferred the title on him. contained 
 the unusual recital that his barony was to 
 be held "for the term of his natural Ufe." 
 This creation was an attempt to revive a right 
 which had lain in abeyance since the reign of 
 Richard II. There was a very strong feeling 
 in the House of Lords against this, and Lord 
 LjTidhurst acted as its exponent. Three 
 great legal authorities who seldom united on 
 any point, were agreed in strenuous opposition 
 to this change — Lords Lyndhurst, Brougham, 
 and Campbell. The Lord Chancellor, on the 
 other hand, supported it, and was probably 
 the author of the proposal. After some discus- 
 sion, and the proposal of a great number of 
 resolutions, the government yielded, and con- 
 ferred on Sir James Parke a patent of peerage 
 drawn up in the ordinary form. 
 
 Wentworth, Petek, was member forTre- 
 gony, in Cornwall, and a man of courage 
 and independence. During the session of 
 1576 he made a speech reflecting on the un- 
 due influence of the queen on the Parliament, 
 and defending the privileges of the House. 
 For this he was sequestered, and a committee 
 of all the privy councillors in the House was 
 appointed to examine him. He was sent to 
 the Tower, but released at the queen's re- 
 quest in a month, being reprimanded on his 
 knees by the Speaker. In 1588 he was again 
 committed to the Tower through the instru- 
 mentality of the Speaker, Serjeant Puckering 
 (afterwards Lord Keeper), for some questions 
 which he proposed to put in favour of liberty 
 of speech. In 1693 he was again imprisoned 
 for presenting a petition to the Lord Keeper, 
 desiring " the Lords of the Upper House to 
 join with those of the Lower in imploring her 
 majesty to entail the succession of the crown, 
 for which they had already prepared a bill." 
 
 Hallam, Const. Hist. ; Aiken, Memoirs of the 
 Court of Elizaheth. 
 
 Wer-gild, in Anglo-Saxon times, was 
 the money value of each man's life, and the 
 sum which, in case of his death by violence, 
 had to be paid by the murderer, either to his 
 kinsmen or gild-brethren, or, in the case of a 
 serf, to his master. The amount of the wer- 
 gild depended entirely on the rank of the per- 
 son slain, and was carefully graduated. Thus 
 
 the wer of the king was 7,200 shillings, that 
 of an ealdorman 2,400 shillings, while a king's 
 thegn was valued at 1,200 shillings, an ordi- 
 nary thegn at 600 shillings, and a ceorl at 
 200. [BoT.J 
 
 Bobertson, Hist, Essays ; Stubba, Cmist. Sist. 
 
 Wesley, John {i. 1703,(?. 1791)was the son 
 of Samuel Wesley, Rector of Epworth. He 
 was educated at the University of Oxford, and 
 took orders. In 1726 he was elected to a fellow- 
 ship at Lincoln. At the University, he and his 
 brother in 1729 formed a society to promote 
 religious study and conversation. They soon 
 became known (from the regularity of their be- 
 haviour) as the "Methodists." (q.v.). In 1735 
 the two brothers went to Georgia to convert 
 the Indians. Their mission was unfruitful, 
 and they returned in 1738. On their return 
 they proclaimed themselves advocates of the 
 doctrine of justification by faith alone. In 
 May, 1738, the Wesleys began to form 
 Methodist congregations in London. For 
 the next few years "Wesley, with his brother, 
 George Whitfield, and a few other coadjutors, 
 was engaged in preaching in London and 
 other parts of England to immense and grow- 
 ing congregations. In spite of much oppo- 
 sition, frequently manifested in the form of 
 riot and violence, the movement rapidly gained 
 ground. John Wesley lived till 1791, by 
 which time the Methodists bad established 
 societies in every important town in England, 
 and had a flourishing church in America. 
 
 Wessex, The Kingdom of. This state, 
 which eventually expanded into the kingdom of 
 the English, but when separate covered at one 
 time seven modem counties, was founded by 
 the West Saxons in 519. These settlers seem 
 to have been at first called Gewissas, which 
 word also is supposed to mean men of the west, 
 and had been already spreading over and 
 planting themselves in the Itcben valley for 
 twenty-four years. Some inquirers believe 
 that during this time the work of conquest 
 and occupation was carried on "by indepen- 
 dent bands of settlers," who had not yet felt 
 the need of a common leader, but who, in 
 519, were brought to a union under the king- 
 ship of Cerdic and his son, Cynric. Indeed, to 
 these " aldermen," as it calls them, the Anglo- 
 Saxon Chronicle gives all the distinction from 
 the first, informing us that they came to Britain 
 in 495 with five ships, and had a fight with 
 the Welsh on the very day of their arrival ; 
 were, in 501, followed by Port; slew, in 508, 
 5,000 Britons, and their King Natanleod; 
 were, in 514, joined by Stuf and Wihtgar, 
 leading a third invading force ; " laid their 
 grasp on the kingship " in 519, thus esta- 
 blishing the kingdom that has since swelled 
 iuto the British empire. Their battle at Mons 
 Badonicus, in 620, with "the king, in whom 
 some have recognised the majestic figure of 
 Ambrosius" (Elton), some the mysterious 
 Arthur, some both, is reported from the other 
 
Wes 
 
 ( 1063 ) 
 
 Wes 
 
 side. Cerdic lived, fought, and slew — routing 
 the Britons at Cerdicslea in 527, and over- 
 running "Wight in 530 — till 534, when he died, 
 leaving his task to be carried on by Cynrio. 
 The exact extent of Cynrio's kingdom is un- 
 known, but it had certainly spread beyond 
 Hampshire. It was reserved for his son, 
 Ceawlin, to make the West Saxon a large and 
 powerful state. Beginning in 560, Ceawlin 
 reigned for thirty-one years. Aided by his 
 brother, Cuthwulf, he overthrew Ethelbert of 
 Kent, vanquished the Britons at Bedford in 
 571, vanquished them again at Derham in 
 Grloucestershire in 577, and took into his 
 kingdom Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, 
 northern Wiltshire, and the Severn Valley. 
 In 584 he fought, and lost his brother, in the 
 battle of Fethaniea, a place that Dr. Guest 
 identifies with Faddiley, regarding the cam- 
 paign as a conquering march as far as Cheshire, 
 but others conjecture to have been Prethern. 
 In either case the West Saxons had extended 
 their conquests far beyond the line of the 
 Thames and the Somersetshire Avon, to which 
 they had been at first restricted. But Ceawlin 
 would seem to have gone too fast ; disaster 
 overtook his arms in the end. Beaten at 
 Wodensburg by his own subjects, he fled, 
 and died iu exile. Alter this rebuff the 
 advance of the West Saxons was held in 
 check for more than two hundred years. They 
 lost to Mercia the conquests they had made 
 beyond the Thames, and they even lay under 
 the Mercian yoke for nineteen years (733 — 
 752). But they had compensations. About 
 635 they were converted to Christianitj' by 
 Birinus; under Kenwalch (Cenwealh) they 
 pushed their western frontier from the Axe 
 to the Parret; then, under Ina, beyond the 
 Parret ; from the same Ina they obtaiaed the 
 first English code of laws ; and, led by Cuth- 
 red, they broke the Mercian yoke from off 
 their necks by a great victory over Ethelbald 
 at Burford in 752. At the same time they 
 gave two examples that have not been lost 
 on their posterity — in 672 they took a 
 woman for their ruler, Sexburh, Kenwalch's 
 widow, and in 755 they dethroned Cuthred's 
 successor, Sigebert, after he had reigned 
 a year. Ina, too, added to the bishopric 
 of Winchester, founded by Kenwalch, that 
 of Sherborne, of which the see was later 
 on shifted to Salisbury. This stage of 
 West Saxon history closed with 800, when 
 Egbert came to the throne. Feared by his 
 predecessor, Brihtric, he had passed several 
 years in exile near Charlemagne, and is 
 thought to have profited greatly thereby. It 
 was his fate not only to extend the kingdom, 
 and bring it once more to the front, but also 
 to raise it to the lordship of the other king- 
 doms and states. In his days Wessex reached 
 the Tamar, the invading Mercians were over- 
 thrown at EUandun in 823, and their sceptre 
 was wrested from them, while the aggressive 
 Danes and the ComiBhinen were beaten in a. 
 
 great battle at Hengestdown in 835. Between 
 823 and 828 every other people south of the 
 Tweed had been annexed to or made depend- 
 ent on the West Saxons. The Danish wars 
 gave a new turn to the growth of Wessex. 
 Under Alfred she was virtually stripped of 
 her external supremacy, but her immediate 
 territory was much increased. The impulse 
 thus gained conticiued under Alfred's son and 
 grandsons, till Wessex far outgrew its name, 
 and lost itself in the English kingdom, but 
 her distinguishing legal customs, the West- 
 seaxnalage, survived till Henry II. reduced 
 English law to a uniform system. 
 
 Tha Anglo-Saxon ChronicU; Elton, Origins of 
 
 English History ; Green, The Making of England ; 
 
 Lappenberg, AnglO'Saxvfi, Kings ; Freeman, Hor- 
 
 man Conquest. 
 
 [J. E.] 
 
 Cerdic 
 Cynric 
 Ceawlin 
 / Ceolric 
 CeolwaU . 
 CynegUs . 
 Cenwealh . 
 Sexburh (Queen) 
 .ffiscwine . 
 Centwine . 
 Ceadwalla . 
 Ine 
 
 BthelhaTa . 
 Cutbred . 
 Sigebert . 
 Cynewulf , 
 Bertric 
 Egbert 
 Etbel?niU . 
 Btbelbald . 
 Etbelbert . 
 Etbelred . 
 Alfred 
 Edward tbe Elder 
 
 Kings or Wessex. 
 
 519—534 
 534-560 
 560-591 
 591—597 
 597—611 
 611—643 
 643—672 
 672—673 
 674-676 
 676— 6a> 
 685—688 
 688—726 
 726—741 
 741—754 
 754—755 
 755—784 
 784—800 
 800-836 
 836-858 
 858—860 
 860-866 
 866—871 
 871-901 
 901—925 
 
 West African Colonies and Settle- 
 ments, The, consist of those on the Gambia, 
 the Gold Coast, Lagos, and Sierra Leone. 
 They are all crown colonies — that is, the crown 
 has entire control over the administration. 
 (1) The Gambia was first colonised after 
 1618 ; a patent having been granted to some 
 Exeter merchants by Elizabeth to trade in 
 the district. Its trade chiefly consisted in 
 slaves, and its white population has greatly 
 decreased since the abolition of slavery. 
 Until 1843, when it became an independent 
 colony, it was subject to Sierra Leone. It 
 became a portion of the government of West 
 Africa settlements by charter in 1843. (2) 
 Sierra Leone was at first settled solely with 
 negroes. It became a British colony in 1787, 
 and has since been maintained for the sup- 
 pression of the slave-trade. (3) The Gold 
 Coast was flrst visited by Englishmen in 1591. 
 It became the possession of the African 
 Company of merchants in 1750, and they 
 ceded it to the crown in 1820. Several times 
 during this century the English protectorate 
 over the tribes of the interior has caused us 
 to come into collision with the Ashantees, the 
 last occasion being in 1872—73, when Coo- 
 massie, their capital, was burnt. In 1872 the 
 
Wes 
 
 ( 1064 ) 
 
 Wes 
 
 Dutch siuTondered all their settlements on 
 the Gold Coast to England in return for 
 compensation elsewhere. The Gold Coast' 
 became an independent colony in 1874. (4) 
 Lagos, originally belonging to the King of 
 Dahomey, was captured by the British in 
 1851, and the slave-trade suppressed. It was 
 formally ceded by the king in 1861. 
 
 Westbury, Eichakd Bethell, Lord 
 (i. 1800, d. 1873), was the son of a physician 
 at Bristol ; he was educated at Wadham Col- 
 lege, Oxford. He was called to the bar (1823), 
 and soon acquired an extensive practice. 
 He obtained distinguished success as advocate 
 for Brasenose College in a suit which brought 
 him a continually increasing practice, and in 
 1840 he became a Queen's Counsel. In 1847 
 he unsuccessfully contested Shaftesbury in 
 the Liberal interest. In 1851 he was more 
 successful, and was returned for Aylesbury 
 as a " Liberal, favourable to the ballot and 
 the abolition of Church rates." In 1859 he 
 was dected for Wolverhampton, which he 
 continued to represent till he was called to 
 the Upper House. In Dec, 1852, he became 
 Solicitor- General under the Coalition govern- 
 ment of Lord Aberdeen. His services at 
 this time were of much use to Mr. Gladstone 
 in carrying the Succession Duty Bill, many 
 of the points in which were so intricate and 
 so strictly technical, that no one but an equity 
 lawyer could have explained them properly to 
 the House. The success in fact was in the main 
 due to Sir Richard BetheU, who also took an 
 active part about the same time in carrying 
 the bills for reforming the University of 
 Oxford, and for abolishing the Ecclesiastical 
 Courts. In the winter of 1856 — 7 Sir 
 Richard became Attorney-General. It be- 
 came hia duty to introduce and carry through 
 the House . the Probate and Administration 
 Act and the Divorce Act, and this duty he 
 discharged effectually and successfully. When 
 the new Court of Probate and Matrimonial 
 Causes was formed, the judgeship was first 
 offered by Lord Palmerston to Sir Richard 
 BetheU, who, however, refused it. In 1857 he 
 carried successfully through the House of 
 Commons another important measure, the 
 Fraudulent Trustees Bill. He had a large 
 share in the preparation of the Conspiracy to 
 Murder BiH of 1858, which caused the re- 
 tirement of Lord Pahnerston's Cabinet from 
 office. In 1861, on the death of Lord Camp- 
 bell, the Great Seal was offered to Sir Richard, 
 and he took hia seat in the House of Lords as 
 Lord Westbury, having previously carried 
 the Bankruptcy BiU of 1861 through the 
 Lower House. In the summer of 1865 some 
 scandalous proceedings which it was thought 
 he ought to have detected and checked, were 
 bi-ought to light in connection with the Leeds 
 Bankruptcy Court, and in consequence of 
 these, and of an adverse motion in the House 
 of Commons, he resigned the Great Seal in i 
 
 the July of that year. From that date down 
 to hia death. Lord Westbury constantly 
 took part in the decision of Appeals brought 
 before the House of Lords, and as Arbitrator 
 in delicate and important commercial cases. 
 
 Westminster Abbejr was commenced 
 by Edward the Confessor in 1049, and con- 
 secrated in Dec, 1065. The rebuilding was 
 commenced by Henry III. in 1220, and the 
 chapter house begun in 1250. In 1256 Par- 
 liament first met in the chapter house at 
 Westminster, and their last sitting in this 
 building was in Jan., 1547. The sanctuary 
 rights of the abbey were abolished in 1602. 
 In 1739 the Western Tower was finished, and 
 in 1808 — 22 the abbey was repaired and 
 partly reconstructed. The restoration of the 
 chapter house was began in 1866 and finished 
 in 1871. The altar screen was restored in 
 1867. 
 
 Westminster Assembly, The, was 
 convoked by order of the Long Parliament 
 in the summer of 1643, to consider the con- 
 dition of the Church, as "many things in its 
 liturgy, discipline, and government required 
 further and more perfect reformation." It 
 met on July 1, and, after a sermon from Dr. 
 Twiss, the Prolocutor, began its sessions in 
 Henry VII. 's chapel, whence it afterwards 
 removed to the Jerusalem Chamber. The 
 assembly consisted of both lay and clerical 
 members, and was never very numerous — 
 about sixty attending its ordinary sittings. 
 The great majority of the assembly were 
 inclined to Presbyterianism, and many of 
 them profoundly convinced of its Divine 
 Right. ■ This party was further strengthened 
 when political necessities involved a close 
 alliance with the Scots, and compelled the 
 assembly to accept the Solemn League and 
 Covenant, and to add to its numbers Hender- 
 son, BaiUie, and other commissioners of the 
 General Assembly of the Scottish Church. 
 Their predominance was further assured 
 when the moderate Episcopalians, the ad- 
 vocates of " Ussher's model," including the 
 archbishop himself, either refused to sit or 
 withdrew from the assembly. But a small 
 though extremely energetic and intelligent 
 opposition, consisting partly of " Erastians," 
 like the lawyers Selden, St. John, and White- 
 locke ; and the divines, Coleman, and, to some 
 extent, Lightfoot ; and partly of Independents, 
 like the "dissenting brethren," Vane, Nye, 
 Goodwin, Bridge, Burroughs, and Simpson! 
 Burgess, Calamy, Marshall, and Ash, were, 
 with the Scots, the most famous of the 
 Presbyterian party. After 1645 Charles 
 Herle was its Prolocutor. The debates of 
 the assembly extended over nearly all possible 
 subjects of theology. From July, 1643, to 
 the summer of 1647 it pursued its way un- 
 interrupted. It spent much time on the 
 revision of the Articles, which involved 
 endless theological discussion. It superseded 
 
"Wes 
 
 ( ,1065 
 
 Wes 
 
 the Prayer Book by the Db-eotory of Public 
 Wbrskip. It did its best to establish a rigid 
 Presbyterial organisation, sKghtly modified 
 by a few insiguiacant concessions to the In- 
 dependents, and, pending its establishment, 
 it took upon itself the function of ordaining 
 ministers. It drew up the celebrated West- 
 minster Confession of Faith with the Longer 
 and Shorter Catechisms, which have since 
 remained the authoritative expositions of 
 British Presbyterianism. Possessing no direct 
 power, it was necessaiily somewhat depen- 
 dent on the Parliament to which it owed 
 its existence ; though this did not prevent 
 the active section exalting the spiritual 
 power so highly as to call down upon 
 the assembly the threat of an action for 
 pramunire. After the summer of 1647, the 
 retirement of the Scots marked the ending of 
 the main business of the Assembly. But up 
 to the spring in 1652 a small number of its 
 divines continued to meet for the purpose of 
 examining candidates for ordination, until 
 Cromwell's dissolution of the Rump led to 
 their silent disappearance without formal dis- 
 missal. Despite their narrowness and bigotry, 
 the members of the Westminster Assembly 
 had shown much learning and zeal, and some 
 moderation, in a critical and arduous diity. 
 
 Hetherington, Kistory of the Westminster 
 Assembly; Eushwortli, CoUections; Lightfoot, 
 Jounia' ; Baillie, Letters ; Neal, History of the 
 Puritans; Stoughton, Beli^ion in England. 
 
 [T. F. T.] 
 Westminster, Matthew of (Jl. circa 
 1325), was a Benedictine monk. His Flores 
 Sistoriarum begins with the creation of the 
 ■world, and ends with the year 1307. The 
 first part, an abridgment of the Bible and a 
 sketch of Roman history, is of no worth, 
 and his description of the beginnings of 
 English history shows a strong inclination to 
 the marvellous. His account of the Norman 
 kings, chiefly based on Roger of Weudover, 
 is, however, very careful, but the most valu- 
 able part of his chronicle is that dealing with 
 the reigns of John, Henry III., and Edward I. 
 He seems throughout to have been an accurate 
 and painstaking writer. Matthew of West- 
 minster, more sinned against than sirminsf, 
 was the source of numerous compilations in 
 the following century. An edition of the 
 Flores Sistoriarum was published in 1870, 
 and there is an English translation of them 
 by 0. D. Yonge in Bohn's Antiquarian 
 Library. 
 
 Westminster, The Eikst Statute of 
 (1275), was one of the earliest of Edward I.'s 
 great legal measures, and was a measure 
 of reform and consolidation. It contains 
 fifty-one clauses, and covers the whole ground 
 of legislation, so that, as Dr. Stubbs says, it 
 is "almost a code in itself." Its language 
 now recalls that of Canute or Alfred, now 
 anticipates that of our own day : on the one 
 hand common right is to be done to all, as 
 HIST.— 34* 
 
 well poor as rich, without respect of persons ; 
 on the other, elections are to-be free, and no 
 man is by force, malice, or menace to disturb 
 them. The spirit of the Great Charter is 
 not less discernible ; excessive amercements, 
 abuses of wardship, irregular demands for 
 feudal aids, are forbidden in the same words, 
 or by amending enactments. The inquiry 
 system of Henry II., the law of wreck, and 
 the mstitution of coroner's measures of Richard 
 and his ministers, come under review, as well 
 as the Provisions of Oxford, and the Statute 
 of Marlborough. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hii,t. and Sdect Charters. 
 
 Westminster, The Second Statute 
 OF (1285), like the preceding, is rather a code 
 than a simple statute. It contains the famous 
 article J)e Donis Conditionalibus, alters and 
 improves the laws relating to manorial juris- 
 dictions, trial of criminals, the rights of com- 
 monage, dower, and advowsons. 
 
 Westminster, The Provisions op 
 (1259), were drawn up in accordance with the 
 plan prescribed by the Provisions of Oxford 
 fq.v.). They were republished by Henry III. 
 in 1262, and again in 1264, during his cap- 
 tivity. They were subsequently embodied in 
 the Statute of Marlborough (1267). They pro- 
 vide for the orderly inheritance of property, 
 forbid the disparaging marriage of wards, and 
 the granting -of lands, &c., to aliens ; the 
 offices of state and the fortresses are to be put 
 into the hands of Englishmen only ; eccle- 
 siastics shall not acquire any land without the 
 sanction of the immediate lord, and benefit of 
 clergy is limited. 
 
 Westminster Hall was built by 
 William Rufus in 1097—99. It was used for 
 sittings of the courts of law in 1224. Richard 
 II. had the hall rebuilt in 1397. The law 
 courts, which had been attached to the out- 
 side walls of the hall, were taken down in 
 1884 after the completion of the Royal Courfa 
 of Justice in the Strand. 
 
 Westmoreland, Charles Neville, 
 Eael op (d. 1584), one of the most power- 
 ful Catholic nobles of Elizabeth's reign, 
 though a man devoid of talent, was a leader 
 in the Northern Rebellion of 1569, and 
 achieved the only success in the insurrection 
 by the capture of Barnard Castle from Sir 
 George Bowes. On the collapse of the move- 
 ment he made his escape to the border, and 
 in spite of many attempts to seize him, 
 managed, with better fortune than the Earl 
 of Northumberland, to find an asylum with 
 the Duke of Alva in the Netherlands, where he 
 dragged out a tedious existence in poverty 
 and obscurity, barely supplied with the ne- 
 cessaries of life by a slender pension from the 
 King of Spain. 
 
 Westmoreland, Ralph Neville, Earl 
 OP (d. 1425), was the son of John, Lord 
 Neville. In 1386 he was made Guardian of 
 
Wet 
 
 (1066 ) 
 
 "Wha 
 
 the West Marches, and in 1399 Earl of West- 
 moreland. He joined Bolingbroke on his 
 landing in England, and was by him created 
 Earl Marshal. He fought for Henry IV. 
 against the Percies ; prevented the Earl of 
 Northumberland from joining his son Hot- 
 spur ; checked the incursions of the Scots, and 
 by gross treachery got Archbishop Scrope, 
 the Earl of Nottingham, and other partisans 
 of the Percies into his hands. He married 
 first Margaret, daughter of the Earl of Staf- 
 ford ; and secondly, Joan Beaufort, daughter 
 of John of Gaunt. 
 
 Wetherell, Sib Charles (J. 1770, d. 
 1846), was the son of the Very Rev. Nathan 
 Wetherell, Dean of Hereford. He was edu- 
 cated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was 
 called to the bar (1794). His friendship with 
 Lord Eldon, who received the Great Seal in 
 1801, stood him in good stead. His practice in- 
 creased continually, and in 1816 he was made 
 king's counsel. In 1817 he undertook the 
 defence of Watson after the Spa Fields Riots, 
 but this proceeding did not further his 
 chances of promotion. In 1818 he was 
 elected M.P. for Shaftesbury, but never 
 acquired any great influence with the House. 
 From 1820 to 1826 he represented the city of 
 Oxford. From 1826 to 1830 he sat for 
 Plympton; and in 1830 he was elected for 
 Boroughbridge, which was disfranchised by 
 the Reform Bill. He then retired from Par- 
 liament. In 1824 he was appointed Solicitor- 
 General by the Earl of Liverpool ; and in 
 1826 he succeeded to the Attorney-General- 
 ship, an office which he did not, however, hold 
 longer than till April 30 the following year. In 
 1828 he again became Attorney-General under 
 the Duke of Wellington, but resigned when 
 ihe government accepted the Catholic Relief 
 Aet. He opposed Lord Grey's Reform BiU 
 with the greatest ability and perseverance, and 
 in consequence became extremely unpopular 
 in the country. In 1831, therefore, when he 
 proceeded to Bristol to hold the October 
 Sessions as Recorder of the town, his carriage 
 was surrounded by an infuriated mob, and he 
 and the other corporate authorities were 
 pelted with stones. Sir Charles retained his 
 office, however, in spite of this, till his death, 
 which was due to an accident when out 
 driving. 
 
 Wexford was frequently the scene of 
 conflict in Irish wars and rebellions. It was 
 taken by Fitzgerald and Fitzstaple in 1169. 
 In 1462 it was seized by Sir John Butler, and 
 recovered by the Earl of Ormonde. In the 
 autumn of 1641 it was captured by the Irish 
 rebels. Cromwell appeared before Wexford 
 after the capture of Drogheda in 1650, and he 
 refused to grant the terms demanded by the 
 governor, and demanded an unconditional 
 surrender, giving only an hour for reflection. 
 The gates were not opened at the end of the 
 hour granted, and the town was at once 
 
 stormed. Some 3,000 or 4,000 people were 
 massacred (Oct. 9, 16.50). It was m Wexford 
 that the rebeUion of 1798 assumed its most 
 dangerous form. It broke out on May 26, 
 and the troops were defeated in rapid suc- 
 cession at Oulast, Enniscorthy, and at the 
 Three Rocks. In consequence of this last 
 defeat. General Fawcett, who had been ad- 
 vancing to support Maxwell, who commanded 
 in Wexford, retreated, and on the 31st Max- 
 well himself had to follow his example, his 
 men refusing to fight. The Protestant in- 
 habitants and fugitives had fled to the ships 
 in the harbour, but were brought back and 
 thrown into prison. After the rebel defeat 
 at New Ross the Protestants were given a 
 choice between conversion to Catholicism 
 and death. On June 20 ninety-seven Pro- 
 testants were murdered after a mock trial. 
 The nominal leader of the rebels was Bagenal 
 Harvey, but the real leader a priest named 
 Murphy. Lake's victory at Vinegar HiU 
 (June 21, 1798) crushed the Wexford re- 
 bellion, and the insurgents evacuated the 
 town the same day. 
 
 Whalley, Edward {d. circa 1679), was a 
 member of an ancientNottinghamshire family, 
 and a first cousin of Oliver Cromwell. He 
 joined the Parliamentary army, and distin- 
 guished himself by his bravery at Naseby, 
 for which he was made a colonel of horse. 
 During Charles I.'s imprisonment at Hampton 
 Court he was placed in Whalley's charge. 
 In 1665 he was made one of the major-generals, 
 and subsequently one of the " lords " of Crom- 
 well's Upper House. He took a prominent 
 part in the trial of the king, and was one of 
 those who signed the death warrant. When 
 the Restoration was inevitable he fled to 
 America, where he led a life of danger, having 
 continually to hide in the woods and among 
 Puritan friends, who protected him from the 
 warrant which had been issued against him. 
 
 Whalley, Richard, one of the most un- 
 Bcrupulous adherents of Protector Somerset, 
 was receiver-general in Yorkshire, where he 
 managed to appropriate a good deal of the 
 public money. In 1551 he was accused of 
 having formed a plot for the restoration of 
 the Protector. 
 
 Wharncliffe, James Stuart Wortley 
 Mackenzie, Baron (i. 1776, d. 1845), was 
 the grandson of the third Earl of Bute. He 
 was educated at the Charterhouse, entered 
 the army in 1791, and quitted it in 1801, after 
 having obtained the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel. In 1797 he was elected to Par- 
 liament for the borough of Bossin6y in Corn- 
 wall. In 1812, after the failure of many 
 ministerial negotiations, he was chosen to 
 move an address to the IPrince Regent, pray- 
 ing that he would form a strong and efficient 
 ministry. In 1818 he succeeded to his large 
 inheritance, and was elected for Yorkshire, 
 which he represented tiU 1826, when, having 
 
Wlia 
 
 ( 1067 •) 
 
 Wha 
 
 •offended his constituents by his opinions on 
 the Catholic question, he was not re-elected. 
 He was, however, elevated to the peerage. 
 He strenuously opposed the Reform BiU in 
 1831, but w.as reconciled to it later by Earl 
 Grey. He opposed the Whigs as long as 
 they were in power, but when Sir R. Peel 
 was recalled from Italy (Nov., 1834) to form 
 a Conservative government, he took office as 
 Lord Privy Seal, which he held till April, 
 1835. In 1841, on the return of Peel to power. 
 Lord Whamoliffe became President of the 
 Council. 
 
 Wharton, Philip, Duke op (4. 1699, d. 
 1731), son of Thomas, Marquis of Wharton, 
 early displayed extraordinaiy talents, com- 
 bined with an utterly dissolute and unprin- 
 cipled character. In 1716 he went abroad 
 and had interviews with the Pretender and 
 queen-dowager, and offered them his ser- 
 vices. He sat in the Irish Parliament as 
 a Whig, but on coming to England he passed 
 into Opposition. His talents were employed in 
 publishing an Opposition paper, known as the 
 True Briton. In 1720 his violent attack on 
 Lord Stanhope and the ministry, when the 
 South Sea Company was under discussion, so 
 enraged that statesman as to cause a rush of 
 blood to his head, which proved fatal. [Stan- 
 hope.] Wharton made a fine speech in 1722 
 in defence of Atterbury. Shortly afterwards 
 his debts compelled him to leave England. He 
 went to Spain, where he openly attached him- 
 self to the Pretender's cause, and was created 
 by him Duke of Northumberland. He became 
 a pretended convert to Roman Catholicism. 
 At this time the schemes of Ripperda, the 
 Spanish minister, had resulted in a close 
 alliance between Spain and Austria, while by 
 a secret treaty these powers pledged themselves 
 to assist the restoration of the Stuarts. But 
 the imprudence of Wharton and Ripperda 
 ruined the plan. Wharton had so far cast 
 aside his nationality as to become a volunteer 
 in the siege of Gibraltar. In 1728 he tried 
 to be reconciled with the English court, but 
 they, through Horace Walpole, refused to 
 remit the indictment for high treason which 
 had been preferred against him. His character 
 has been drawn in Pope's lines : — 
 " Wtarton, the scorn and wonder of our days, 
 "Whose ruling passion was the lust of praise. 
 
 4 * • • * « 
 
 A fool, with more of wit than half mankind; 
 Too rash for thought — for action too refin'd j 
 A tyrant to the wife liis heart approved ; 
 A rehel to the very king he loves." 
 
 Wharton, Thomas, MARauis op (i. 1640, 
 <?. 1 7 1 5) , was the son of Philip, Lord Wharton, 
 who had fought on the side of the Parlia- 
 ment in the Civil War. He was educated 
 in the strictest Calvinism, but neverthe- 
 less became one of the most dissolute of the 
 Cavaliers at the Restoration. He was, how- 
 ever, throughout his life a firm adherent of 
 the Whig party. In 1685 he was elected for 
 
 Buckinghamshire, where his political influence 
 was very great. It is said that in this and 
 other counties he sent thirty members to 
 Parliament. He was one of the boldest op- 
 ponents of James II. When James repri- 
 manded the Commons on the subject of the 
 Test Act, Wharton proposed that a time should 
 be appointed for taking the king's answer 
 into consideration. By his song "Lilli- 
 buUero" (q.v.), a. satire on Tyrconnel's ad- 
 ministration, Wharton afterwards boasted that 
 he had sung a king out of three kingdoms. 
 On the arrival of William in England Wharton 
 joined him at Exeter. When the throne was 
 declared vacant, Wharton was the first to 
 propose that it should be occupied by WiUiam 
 and Mary. In 1695 he conducted an attack 
 on the Tory ministry. A committee was ap- 
 pointed to examine the books of the city of 
 London and the East India Company. He 
 was placed in the chair; and the result of 
 the inquiry moved the impeachment of the 
 Duke of Leeds. In 1696 he supported the 
 bill for Fenwick's attainder, which caused the 
 Whigs to triumph completely. He was made 
 Chief Justice in Eyre, retaining his place of 
 Comptroller of the Household. In 1697 he 
 hoped to be made Secretary of State ; but 
 William refused to grant the request, for fear 
 of alienating the Tories. Next year a Tory 
 reaction set in, and Wharton's candidates 
 were defeated throughout England. In 1700 
 he proposed amendments in the bill for the 
 resumption of Irish land grants. A struggle 
 took place between the Lords and Commons ; 
 but the former yielded, and Wharton retired 
 from London. In 1701 he regained all his 
 influence in Buckinghamshire. On the acces- 
 sion of Anne he was removed from his em- 
 ployments. In 1705 he proposed a Regency- 
 Bill in the case of the queen's demise. In 
 1708, after the Junto had joined Godolphin's 
 ministry, he was made Lord- Lieutenant of 
 Ireland. There he showed great hostihty to 
 the Catholics, but was disposed to conciliate 
 the Dissenters. He was superseded by Ormonde 
 in 1710. His administration was bitterly at- 
 tacked by Swift, whose Short Character of the 
 JSarl of Wharton is a satire of the most savage 
 character. During the last session of Anne's 
 Parliament he displayed great zeal for the 
 Protestant Succession. He opposed Boling. 
 broke's Schism Act ; he proposed that the 
 Duke of Lorraine should be compelled to expel 
 the Pretender from his dominions ; he advo- 
 cated the issuing of a proclamation offering a 
 reward for the apprehension of the Pretender, 
 whether dead or alive. On the accession of 
 George he was made Lord Privy Seal, and 
 created a marquis. In the next year he died. 
 Wharton's private character was irredeemably 
 bad. He was notorious as the greatest profli- 
 gate in England, and his effrontery and men- 
 dacity had no bounds. He was the most 
 thorough-going and unscrupulous of all the 
 Whig party men of the age. . " The falsest of 
 
Whe 
 
 ( 1068 ) 
 
 WM 
 
 mankmd in all relations tut one : he was the 
 truest of Whigs," says Macaulay. 
 
 Bumet, Hid. o/his Own Time; Siriffs Works, 
 vol. V. ; Macaulay, Rist. of Eng. 
 
 Whethamstede, John of {d. 1464), was 
 Abbot of St. Albans, and wrote a chronicle 
 or register of events from 1441 to 1460. 
 Though a very meagre record, owing to the 
 dearth of contemporary writers at this period, 
 this chronicle is of considerable importance, 
 and is published in the KoUs Series. 
 
 Whiff. This famous party name was first 
 used to denote the stern Covenanters of south- 
 western Scotland, who struggled against the 
 Koyalist and Episcopal Restoration of 1660, 
 and freq^uently rose in fruitless revolt against 
 the government of Charles II. About 1679, 
 during the height of the Popish Plot agitation, 
 the name was applied to the .champions of the 
 Exclusion Bill, at first in derision, but before 
 long as their accepted name. The Whig party 
 had, however, existed in fact long before it 
 existed in name. It sprang from the old 
 Country party, which had begun the contest 
 with Charles I., and had, with varying for- 
 tunes, continued to struggle against his son. 
 In this sense the germ of the Whig party is 
 almost as old as the end of the reign of 
 Elizabeth. Proscribed after the failure of the 
 Exclusion Bill, the Whig party found their 
 principles accepted by nearly the whole nation 
 in 1688. The accession of the house of 
 Hanover completed a triumph which lasted 
 until the accession of George III. During 
 this long period of power the Whigs became 
 conservative. Those who had been zealous 
 for the old liberties of the nation, for Magna 
 Carta, the Habeas Corpus Act, and the " Social 
 Contract," now regarded the ■ Revolution, the 
 Toleration Act, and the BUI of Rights as in- 
 cluding all the most important of their prin- 
 ciples. AU now needed was to preserve the 
 admirable constitution which the Revolution 
 had given us, and to govern the country in 
 its spirit. The opposition to the crown had 
 always been led by the aristocracy. The 
 triumph of the opposition made the English 
 government a "Venetian oligarchy," while 
 reducing the sovereign to the position of the 
 doge. Of this party in its earliest stage, Locke 
 was the great teacher ; Somers and Walpole, 
 perhaps, the greatest practical statesmen. 
 But the long tenure of power demoralised the 
 party, so that from being stationary it be- 
 came almost reactionary, while most corrupt 
 in its administration. 'Attacked both from 
 the popular and royalist sides by Chatham 
 and George III., the want of agreement 
 between the two elements of opposition, and 
 the narrowly personal character of George 
 III.'s policy, postponed for a time its final 
 defeat. At last Chatham's son repudiated 
 the name of Whig, and, in alliance with the 
 crown, dealt a death-blow to the Whig aristo- 
 .cracy. The writings of Burke enshrine in its 
 
 most perfect form the Whig theory of govern- 
 ment. But with the French Revolution new 
 pohtical factors came into play, which revo- 
 lutionised again the Whig party. The mean- 
 ing of the term changed. "Revolution 
 Whigs," like Burke, became practically Tories. 
 The more active section of the party became 
 Liberal, if not Radical. Fox was the founder 
 of the New Whigs, whose first principle was 
 admiration of the French Revolution, and 
 who were the progenitors of the modem 
 Liberal party. Their principles triumphed in 
 the Reform Bill of 1832 ; but once in power 
 the aristocratic and conservative element 
 which still remained in the Whig party began 
 to show itself again to the disgust of the more 
 advanced section of the Reformers. Gradually 
 the word Whig became so discredited that 
 Whig progressists preferred to borrow from 
 Continental politics the term Liberal as a better 
 designation of their party. The development 
 of new party principles by the changes involved 
 in the Reform Act completed the change. Ulti- 
 mately the term Whig has become almost a 
 term of reproach in the great party which 
 has inherited its traditions, and is popularly 
 used to denote a timid and rather old-fashioned 
 type of aristocratic politician. 
 
 Cooke, Hist, of Party; Hallam, Const. Hist.; 
 May, Const. Hist. [T. F. T.] 
 
 Whiggamores' Kaid, The, is the name 
 given to the proceedings of a body of Cove- 
 nanters (1648) who assembled at Mauchline in 
 Ayrshire, under Lord EgUnton, and marched 
 to Edinburgh. 
 
 WMfbread, Samuel (i. 17S8, d. 1815), 
 was the son of a London brewer, his mother 
 being a daughter of Lord Comwallis, and 
 was educated at Eton, and St. John's College, 
 Oxford. In 1790 he was returned to Parlia- 
 ment for Bedford, and first signalised him- 
 self by a powerful speech in opposition to the 
 proposal of the ministry for a Russian arma- 
 ment. In the following year (1793) he 
 opposed the project of a war with France. 
 Throughout the long sway of Pitt, Whit- 
 bread was one of the foremost men among the 
 Opposition. When in 1805 the Opposition 
 decided to bring Lord Melville to account, 
 Whitbread was selected to move the resolu- 
 tions. Consistent in his view of the war 
 policy throughout, he never ceased to inveigh 
 against the rupture of the Peace of Amiens, 
 and broke with a large section of his own 
 party, who were at last convinced of the 
 insincerity of Napoleon's professions. In 
 1809 he took a prominent and fearless part in 
 the inquiry into the Duke of York's conduct. 
 On Napoleon's escape from Elba, Whitbread 
 again raised his voice against any attempt 
 to impose a ruler on France and to interfere 
 with the choice of the nation. Unfortunately 
 he only lived just long enough to see the end 
 of a war which he so violently detested. He 
 incurred much odium in his attempts to 
 
Whi 
 
 ( 1069 ) 
 
 Wlii 
 
 put down the jobbery which had prevented 
 Drury Lane Theatre from occupying the 
 national position which it ought to have held. 
 The strain thus entailed on him, combined 
 with his Parliamentary labours, were too 
 much for him. His mind gave way, and on 
 July 6, 1815, he died by his own hand. 
 
 Lord Holland, Mem. of the W%ig Party; 
 Bomilly, Life; Life and Opvnions of Earl, Grey, 
 
 White, John, Bishop of Lincoln and 
 afterwards of Winchester (4. 1511, d. 1560), 
 was a strong opponent of the Eeformation, 
 and was imprisoned in the Tower by Edward 
 VL Under Mary he obtained high favour at 
 court, and was one of the commissioners ap- 
 pointed to try Cranmer for heresy (1555). 
 On the accession of Elizabeth he was again 
 sent to the Tower for preaching a violent 
 sermon against the queen. 
 Strype, M&moriais. 
 
 White Bands, The Parliament op 
 (1321), was the name given to the Parliament 
 which banished the Despencers, from the 
 ■white favours which were worn l)y the ad- 
 herents of the barons. 
 
 Whitehoys, The. The increased demand 
 for salt beef and salt butter in the middle of 
 the eighteenth century, gave a great impetus 
 to the change from tillage to pasture in 
 Ireland. Tithes aggravated the sufferings 
 of the tenants which necessarily followed this 
 change. The Whiteboy movement was the 
 result ; it was formidable chiefly in Tipperary 
 and Limerick. In the spring of 1760 troops 
 had to be sent there together with a special 
 commission to try the numerous offenders, 
 but few were convicted. The leader of the 
 Whiteboys called himself Captain Danger, 
 and from 1762 to 1765 his commands were 
 better obeyed and enforced than the law. At 
 last the gentry formed bodies of Volunteers, 
 and this, together with the execution of a 
 certain Father Sheehy, repressed the outrages 
 for a time. In 1786, however, the White- 
 boys reappeared in Muister ; they mustered 
 in opposition to the payment of tithes, and 
 forced the people to swear to obey the Cap- 
 tain's right. They disarmed all Protestants, 
 and committed terrible outrages, especially on 
 curates and clergymen of the Established 
 Church. In 1786 they were bold enough to 
 attack a detachment of the 20th Eegiment ; 
 they were driven ofE with some difficulty, as 
 ' they had managed to arm themselves with 
 the arms of the Volunteers. In the same 
 year a special bill for the "Protection of 
 the Clergy" had to be passed. General 
 LuttreU was now sent down with troops, 
 and he and Lord Tyrone stopped the move- 
 ment for the moment. But soon after, the 
 High Sheriff had to fly for his life from the 
 Whiteboys, and now at last the gentry were 
 roused, and headed by Lord Kenmare, a 
 CathoHc, hunted them down without mercy. 
 
 while shiploads were sent off to Botany Bay. 
 After the Eebellion of 1798, nothing was 
 heard of them for some time, but in 1821 
 they again appeared in Munster. The In- 
 surrection Act checked them, tat in 1823 
 they were worse than ever. After that, how- 
 ever, these bands of plunderers assumed a 
 different name. 
 
 Whitelocke, Bulstkode (4. 1606, d. 
 1676), son of Judge Sir James Whitelocke, 
 became a student at the Middle Temple, and 
 was elected member for Marlow in Nov., 1640. 
 At the trial of the Earl of Strafford, White- 
 locke had the charge of the last seven ar- 
 ticles of the impeachment. At the outbreak 
 of the war he raised troops, and occupied Ox- 
 ford for the Parliament (Aug., 1642), but was 
 forced to abandon it immediately. He acted 
 as one of the Commissioners for the Parlia- 
 ment during the negotiations at Oxford and 
 TJxbridge, and was also a member of the West- 
 minster Assembly. In May, 1647, he voted 
 against the disbanding of the army, and in 
 March, 1648, was appointed one of the Com- 
 missioners of the Great Seal. Whitelocke 
 refused to take part in the preparation of the 
 king's trial, but continued to hold his place 
 under the Commonwealth, and received a 
 seat in the Council of State. Although he 
 disapproved of the violent dissolution of the 
 Parliament, he accepted from Cromwell the 
 post of ambassador to Sweden (Nov., 1653). 
 After concluding a treaty of amity with 
 Queen Christina, he retiuned to England, 
 and resumed his duties as Commissioner for 
 the custody of the Great Seal. From this 
 office he was dismissed (June, 1655), for 
 opposing Cromwell's ordinance for the reform 
 of Chancery. He was nominated as a member 
 of Cromwell's House of Lords, but refused to 
 accept the title of viscount which the Protector 
 . wished to confer on him. Richard appointed 
 him Keeper of the Great Seal, but he never- 
 theless became a member of the Council of 
 State of the restored Rump, and when the 
 army and Parliament quarrelled, sided with 
 the army, and attempted to raise a regiment 
 to oppose Monk. He remained in retirement 
 from the close of 1659 to the final dissolution 
 of the Long Parliament, and did not offer 
 himself for election to the Convention. The 
 House of Commons by 175 to 134 votes de- 
 cided that Whitelo,cke should have the benefit 
 of the Act of Indemnity, and he escaped all 
 punishment. 
 
 A book called Whiielocke's Memorials was 
 published in 1682. Mr. Sanford, in Ms StuAifB 
 of the Great EcbelKoti, calls this work "a com- 
 pilation which is manifestly a booksellers 
 speculation, founded on some rough notes of 
 Whitelocke's, eked out by scraps from the news- 
 papers, and other much more doubtful sources 
 of informations and edited by some Eoyahst 
 who had little personal knowledge of the gene- 
 ral events of the Civil War, and who has not 
 only made sad confusion in dates, but has also 
 introduced certain passages which may be safely 
 pronounced to be absolute forgeries. Anthony 
 
Whi 
 
 ( 1070 ) 
 
 Will 
 
 Wood says, that the anonymous editor was 
 Arthur, Earl of Annesley. 
 
 "Whitelocke, Journal fifths Embassy to Bvieden, 
 editedbyH. Reeve, 1855; Memoirs of Bulstrode 
 WUtelocke, by JES. H. Whitelocke, I860; Wood, 
 Athenas Oxonienses. [C. H. F.l 
 
 WMtgiffc, John (i. 1530, d. 1604), Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, was bom at Great 
 Grimsby, and educated at Cambridge, and 
 became Master of Trinity in 1567. Having 
 early become a zealous advocate of the 
 Keformed doctrines, he would have been 
 compelled to quit England during the Marian 
 persecution, had he not been protected by 
 his friend Dr. Perne. After the accession of 
 Elizabeth, Whitgift soon acquired greaX 
 reputation as a preacher, and in 1573 was 
 nmde Dean of Lincoln, subsequently obtain- 
 ing the see of Worcester in 1576. In 1583 
 he accepted the primacy of England in suc- 
 cession to Archbishop Grindal, and at once 
 set himself to remedy the abuses caused by 
 his predecessor's leniency. He issued articles 
 for the regulation of the Church of extreme 
 severity, and took active measures against the 
 Puritans whom he had formerly attacked 
 in his answer to Cartwright's Admonition 
 (q.v.). On the death of Sir Thomas Bromley 
 in 1587, the post of Lord High Chan- 
 cellor was offered to the archbishop, but 
 refused by him to his great honour. In 1595 
 he drew up the famous Lambeth Articles, and 
 on the death of the queen endeavoured to 
 win the favour of her successor, an attempt 
 in which he succeeded admirably, owing to 
 his politic flattery of James. Though nomi- 
 nally president of the Hampton Court Con- 
 ference in 1604, he delegated most of his 
 duties to Bishop Bancroft, owing to his 
 old age, and died shortly afterwards of a 
 paralytic stroke. Mosheim says of him, 
 " He was disinterested, consistent, single- 
 minded, liberal, and discerning above most 
 men. His great natural blemish was hasti- 
 ness of temper. This, however, he corrected 
 by a spirit so thoroughly considerate and for- 
 giving that his friends rather apprehended 
 from him undue lenity. "When principle was 
 at stake he would make no compromise. In 
 secular politics he did not interfere, usually 
 retiring from the councU board when it was 
 unoccupied by ecclesiastical affairs." 
 
 Strype, Memorials and Life of Whitgift ; Cam- 
 den ; Hook, Lives of the Archiishops ; deal's 
 Puritans, Mosheim, Ecclesiast. Hist. , 
 
 Whitheru (or Candida Casa) was the 
 capital of the district subsequently known as 
 Galloway, and is said to have been the see of 
 St. Ninian, who in 397 built a church there, 
 which he dedicated to St. Martin of Tours. 
 A.bout 730 the Northumbrians founded a 
 bishopric here under Pecthelm, but the line 
 of Anglic bishops came to an end with 
 Beadulf in 803. 
 
 Widdrington, Sra Thomas {d. 1664), was 
 a member of an ancient Northumberland 
 
 family, and was elected member for Berwick 
 in 1640. He took a prominent part on the 
 Presbyterian side against the bishops, but 
 finding subsequently that the Independent;) 
 were the rising party, he joined them, and iu 
 1648 was made one of the Commissioners ot 
 the Great Seal. He refused to take any, 
 part in the king's trial, but in 1651 was 
 made one of the Council of State. He was 
 in favour of making the young Duke of 
 Gloucester king under restrictions, but this 
 advice was not relished either by the Crom- 
 wellian or Eepubhcan factions. Cromwell 
 reappointed him to his commissionership, 
 but on his refusing to assent to the proposed 
 reforms in Chancery, he was removed from 
 office in 1655. He was chosen Speaker of 
 the Parliament of 1656, in which capacity he 
 presented the Humble Petition and Advice 
 to Cromwell, and ■ stronglj- advocated his 
 assuming the royal title. In 1658 he was 
 made Chief Baron of the Exchequer, and in 
 1660 Commissioner of the Great Seal, which, 
 office he held till the Eestoration. He owed 
 his rise in great measure to his having 
 married a sister of Lord Fairfax. 
 
 Wight, The Isle op (called by the Eomans 
 Vectis, and in Domesday Book Wicx and 
 "Wiht), was conquered by Claudius in a.d. 43, 
 and subsequently had to submit to raids from 
 Cerdic the Saxon and the Danes. Earl Godwin, 
 after his banishment by Edward the Confessor, 
 made a descent on the island in 1052. After 
 the Conquest William allotted the island to 
 William Fitz-Osbem, who was created Lord 
 of the Isle of Wight. Fitz-Osbern built the 
 greater part of Carisbrooke Castle. The island 
 was temporarily held by the French just after 
 the accession of Eichardll., and was frequently 
 plundered by them down to the reign of, 
 Eichard III. In the reign of Henry VI. it was 
 allotted to the Earl of Warwick, who received 
 the title of King of the Isle of Wight, and on 
 the accession of Edward IV. it passed to Earl 
 Elvers, whose successors, the WoodvUles, 
 were Captains of the Isle of Wight for several 
 generations. The first governor of the island 
 was the Earl of Pembroke, appointed by the 
 Long Parliament. He was succeeded by 
 Colonel Hammond, to whom Charles I. re- 
 paired after his escape from Hampton Court. 
 During the imprisonment of the king at 
 Carisbrooke, and subsequently at Hurst Castle, 
 the complicated negotiations and intrigues 
 between the king and Parliament were carried 
 on chiefly at Newport. 
 
 Worsley, IKstery of the Isle of TTight. 
 
 Wiglaf, King of Mercia (825—837), suc- 
 ceeded Ludecan. In the early part of his 
 reign he was conquered by Egbert, and com- 
 pelled to pay tribute to Wessex. 
 Florence ot Worcester. 
 
 • "^.*^H^. ^^- ^*^'') ^^ "^^ of the 
 invaders of Wessex (614), and is said to have 
 
Wih 
 
 (1071 ) 
 
 Wil 
 
 teen a nephew of Cerdic. Together with 
 his brother Stuf, he assisted Cerdic and 
 Cynrio against the Britons, and they received 
 the Isle of Wight in 534 as a tributary 
 kingdom. From him Carisbrooke (Wihtgares- 
 byrig) is supposed to derive its name. 
 
 Wihtred, King of Kent (692—725), was 
 son of Egbert and brother of Edric. After 
 the death of the latter in 687 (?) there seems 
 to have been an interregnum till 692, when 
 Wihtred, having purchased peace from 
 Wessex, was chosen king. His reign was 
 successful, and he is spoken of as "an 
 admirable ruler, an invincible warrior, and a 
 pious Christian." 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 
 
 "Wilberforce, William (J. 1759, d. 1833), 
 a member of an old Yorkshire family, was 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 where he formed a close friendship with Pitt. 
 On leaving Cambridge, he was returned to 
 Parliament for HuU, his native town. He at 
 once opposed North, especially in regard to the 
 American War. But on Pitt becoming Prime 
 Minister, he exerted aU his powers in support 
 of the struggling government; and at the 
 general election in 1784, he was identified with 
 the Tories, and chosen to represent his native 
 county against aU the influence of the Whig 
 families. In Parliament he strongly sup- 
 ported Pitt's measures for Parliamentary 
 Reform. In 1787 he first mentioned in Par- 
 liament the subject of the slave trade, with 
 which his name is most familiarly associated, 
 and in the next year proposed a resolution 
 pledging the House to take the subject into 
 consideration. After a long series of pre- 
 liminary struggles, Wilbsrforce, in 1791, 
 proposed to prevent the further importation 
 of African negroes into the colonies. The 
 bill was rejected by a majority of seventy- 
 five votes. The next year he proposed a 
 measure for gradually educating the negroes, 
 so that they might at length be fit to be 
 emancipated. This was passed; and from 
 that time forward WUberforce persevered in 
 order to obtain the total abolition of the 
 trade. His efforts were at length crowned 
 with success. What his friend Pitt had 
 found impossible to achieve, the Whig ad- 
 ministration of 1807 accomplished with little 
 difiiculty, with only sixteen dissentient voices, 
 a triumphant result, which was no doubt in 
 some measure due to the opportune appearance 
 of a 'book by Wilberforce on the subject. 
 Already in 1797 he had acquired considerable 
 celebrity as an author by a book discussing 
 the contrast between the practice and profes- 
 sion of English Christianity, especially among 
 the upper classes. After the abolition of the 
 English slave trade, he was not satisfied at 
 the result of his exertions, but still strove for 
 its universal extinction by all countries. But 
 his efforts were not entirely confined in this 
 particular channel. He took an active part 
 
 in miscellaneous questions, and gained a very 
 conspicuous place in Parhament, both by his 
 own genius and singularly captivating oratory, 
 and by his entire independence of party. 
 An instance of this may be seen in his 
 conduct with regard to Lord MelviDe, whose 
 refusal to render an account of public moneys 
 he criticised sharply, in spite of his friend- 
 ship for Melville's patron, Pitt. In 1812 he 
 retired, on account of ill-health, from the 
 representation of Yorkshire, which had at six 
 successive elections triumphantly returned 
 him, and in 1825 he retired altogether from 
 Parliament. He lived on in broken health 
 for eight years more, and died in 1833. 
 " Few persons," said Lord Brougham, " have 
 ever either reached a higher and more en- 
 viable place in the esteem of their fellow- 
 creatures, or have better deserved the place 
 than Wilberforce, whose genius was elevated 
 by his virtues, and exalted by his piety." 
 
 Life of Wilber/oive ; Stanhope, Life of Pitt : 
 Lord Eussell, Life of Fox; Life and Opinions cf 
 Earl Grey; Lord Brougham, Statesmen of fjie 
 Bmgn of George IIL 
 
 Wilfred (or Wilprith), St. (i. 630 ? d. 
 709), was educated at the court of Northumbria 
 and, taking holy orders, went to Rome in thb 
 year 654, and on his return became tutor 
 to the son of Oswiu, King of Northumbria, 
 from whom he received the monastery of 
 Eipon. At the Synod «f Whitby he power- 
 fully supported the Roman views, and was 
 appointed to the archbishopric of York. He 
 then passed over into Gaul, to .Slgilbert, 
 Bishop of Paris, but during his absence Chad 
 was appointed to York, and Wilfred, when he 
 returned, found himself obliged to retire to 
 Ripon. In 669, however, Chad resigned York 
 to him, and Wilfrid held it till 678. He, 
 however, again quarrelled with the North- 
 umbrian king, and was driven out, his vast 
 diocese, which comprised the whole North- 
 umbrian kingdom, being divided into the 
 bishoprics of York, Ijndisfarne, and Hexham. 
 Wilfrid, after spending some time among the 
 heathens of Priesland, went to Rome to 
 appeal to the Pope. He obtained a papal 
 decree in his favour, but it was disregarded. 
 Unable to obtain restitution of his see, he 
 visited the heathen South Saxons, and con- 
 verted them. At length, in 687, a portion of 
 his diocese was restored, and he was estab- 
 lished at Hexham, but was again driven 
 out in 691, and spent several years in 
 Mercia. In 702 or 703 he made another 
 journey to Rome, obtained another decree in 
 his favour in 705, and passed the remaining 
 years of his life as Bishop of Hexham. He 
 died at Oundle in 709. He was buried in the 
 monastery of Ripon. 
 
 Eddiu8, Vita Wilfridi in Grale, Sci-ipfores, i. 40 ; 
 
 Bede, Hist. Ecclee, ; Wright, Biograph. Brit. 
 
 Liter. 
 Wilkes, John (J. 1727, d. 1797), the son 
 of Israel Wilkes, a rich distiller, was born on 
 
wu 
 
 ( 1072 ) 
 
 WU 
 
 Oct. 17, 1727. Early in life he was persuaded 
 to marry a rich heiress, whom he treated with 
 much cruelty and neglect. In the gayest and 
 most vicious society of a gay and vieiou8_ age, 
 he soon hecame conspicuous by the brilliance 
 of his wit, and his reckless debauchery. In 
 1757, after being previously rejected at Ber- 
 wick, he bought himseU a seat at Aylesbury. 
 In June, 1762, with Churchill's help, he started 
 a periodical, known as the North Briton. In 
 it he cleverly managed to suit the popular sen- 
 timents of the time, and especially pandered 
 to the general indignation against Bute, and 
 the animosity felt towards the Scotch nation. 
 On April 23, 1763, appeared "Number 45," 
 which attacked the royal speech at the close 
 of the late session. GrenviUe signalised his 
 entrance into office by arresting Wilkes 
 under a general warrant. After being 
 examined before Lords Halifax and Egremont, 
 the Secretaries of State, he was sent to the 
 Tower, from which he was soon released in 
 virtue of his prerogative as a member of 
 Parliament. He then retired to Paris. On the 
 meeting of Parliament in November, a resolu- 
 tion was passed, declaring No. 45 to be " a 
 false, scandalous, and malicious libel ; " and it 
 was also resolved that privilege of Parliament 
 does not extend to the case of writing and 
 publishing seditious libels. Being prevented 
 from obej'ing an order of the House to attend 
 in his place, he was expelled in his absence. 
 The peers went further ; and, on the informa- 
 tion of Lord Sandwich, who had himself been 
 a partner in nearly all "Wilkes's vices, ordered 
 prosecution to be instituted against him on 
 account of a work entitled An Bssay on 
 Woman, of which thirteen copies only had 
 been printed, and those for private cir- 
 culation. "Wilkes knew that the Court of 
 King's Bench, under the presidency of Lord 
 Mansfield, would decide against him, and 
 preferred to be condemned in his absence. 
 The sentence passed on him was outlawry, 
 and for four years he remained abroad. In 
 Feb., 1768, he ventured again to appear in 
 London, and in the conspicuous position of 
 candidate for the City. He was defeated in 
 the City, but at once announced himself as a 
 candidate for Middlesex. He was welcomed 
 with acclamations by the electors, and carried 
 by an overwhelming majority. The outlawry 
 was at length reversed ; but on the original 
 charge Wilkes was ordered to piiy a fine of 
 £1,000, and sentenced to imprisonment for 
 twenty-two calendar months. In Nov., 1768, 
 "Wilkes addressed a petition to the House, in 
 which he claimed his privilege against further 
 imprisonment. This was disallowed. In the 
 February following, his expulsion was voted, 
 and a new writ was issued for Middlesex. 
 The electors, however, again elected him. The 
 Commons replied by a decision that "Wilkes 
 having been expelled was incapable of being 
 returned to the same Parliament, and that his 
 election was null and void ; but the electors 
 
 of Middlesex again returned him by a majority 
 of 800 over the court candidate, Colonel Lut- 
 trell. The House now decided that Lnttrell 
 ought to have been elected. A petition against 
 his election was lodged ; but the House was 
 not to be convinced by the arguments of Gren- 
 ville, "Wedderbum, and Burke, and confirmed 
 his election. In January, 1770, Dowdeswell 
 twice attacked the resolution of the Commons 
 in a substantive motion, and the protest 
 was annually renewed by Sir George Savile, 
 only to meet with a contemptuous rejection. 
 At length, in 1774, the Parliament was dis- 
 solved ; and "Wilkes was returned again for 
 Middlesex, while he held the office of Lord 
 Mayor. The contest was not re-opened, 
 "Wilkes was allowed to take his seat, and he 
 now bent all his efforts to have the resolution 
 which had declared his incapacity expunged 
 from the journals of the House " as sub- 
 versive of the rights of the whole body of 
 electors." Year after year he proposed his 
 motion, but it was not till May, 1782, when 
 the Rockingham government was in power, 
 that all the declarations, orders, and resolu- 
 tions on the Middlesex election were expunged 
 from the journals. Thus at length, by his 
 firm conduct, "Wilkes had obtained from 
 Parliament a clear recognition of the right 
 of every constituency to return the member 
 of its choice. But in the meantime he had 
 been waging another contest with the same 
 body. The right of reporting the debates of 
 the House had been always denied by Parlia- 
 ment, and had been watched with cautious 
 jealousy, and the printers who issued reports 
 of debates were prosecuted. Wilkes took up 
 their cause, and was backed by all the strength 
 of the City authorities, and the contest finally 
 took the form of a struggle between Parlia- 
 ment and the City, in the course of which 
 the Lord Mayor Crosby, and Alderman 
 Oliver, both members of the House, were in 
 March, 1771, cotpmitted to the Tower. The 
 House, however, shrank from a new contest 
 with "Wilkes, who was the chief offender. 
 The imprisoned members were released on the 
 prorogation of Parliament, and the contest 
 thus ended in the defeat of Parliament. As 
 a Parliamentary speaker Wilkes was an utter 
 failure, and never carried any weight in the 
 House. The electors of Middlesex stiU stood 
 by him as long as he chose to ask for their 
 suffrages. His cheerful disposition was not 
 affected by the change in his position, and 
 he was never happier than in the society of 
 his dearly loved daughter. At length, " recon- 
 ciled to every reputable opponent, from the 
 king downwards," he died at the close of 
 1799. 
 
 Almon, Memoirs of WiOtes ; Gi-enmlle PopBrs ; 
 Stanllope, Hist, of Eng. ; Trevelyau, Earhi Life 
 of C. J. Foi:; Porliameittofy Histo)-!/; .Aiimuol 
 
 ■William 1., King of the English (Dec 
 25, 1066 — Sept. 9, 1087). This, the most 
 
"Wil 
 
 ( 1073 ) 
 
 wa 
 
 masterly spirit of the most masterly race of 
 his time, was a grandson, alike of Eichard the 
 Good, Duke of Normandy, and of Fulk, the 
 tanner of Falaise, and was born at Falaisein 
 1027 or 1028. The tanner's daughter, Har- 
 lotta, or Herleva, ia said to have caught the 
 eye of the duke's son as she was washing 
 Imen; an irregular union followed, which 
 lasted through the remainder of Eohert's life 
 and brief tenure of the duchy (1028—1035). 
 Of this union WiUiam, famous as the Bastard, 
 and a daughter, Adelaide, afterwards Countess 
 of Ponthieu, were the issue. After her lover's 
 death, Herleva wedded a noble Norman, 
 Herlwin of Conteville, and bore him two 
 children, Odo and Robert, who were both to 
 share in the greatness of their half-brother. 
 Odo became Bishop of Bayeux and Earl of 
 Kent ; Robert, Earl of Mor'tain and of Corn- 
 wall. 'William was barely eight years old 
 when his life entered the domain of history. 
 In 1033 his father died at Nicaea, as he was 
 returning from Jerusalem. Before leaving 
 Normandy, Duke Robert had persuaded his 
 chief nobles to swear allegiance to the lad as 
 heir to the duchy, and they now nominally 
 kept their word. William became Duke of 
 Normandy, but his first twelve years of- rule 
 were such as few princes have been called on 
 to face, as only a rarely-gifted boy could live 
 through. The Norman nobles threw off all 
 governance ; despising the child-duke and his 
 guardians, they did what was right in their 
 own eyes ; they waged private war, and plotted 
 against and killed one another as if no central 
 authority existed. The other members of 
 the ducal family, resenting the preference of 
 a bastard to one of themselves, made their 
 young kinsman the constant mark of mur- 
 derous designs, and WiUiam had more than 
 one miraculous deliverance out of their 
 hands. His friends were few and weak ; 
 even the French king, Henry, who owed his 
 crown to William's father, turned against 
 him, and robbed him of an important frontier 
 fortress, TilHeres. His boyhood was one of un- 
 ceasing mortifications, anxieties, treacheries, 
 perils, and alarms, but redeemed by one re- 
 assuring experience, the touching fidelity of his 
 guardians and humble friends. Two of these 
 were poisoned, and one laid down his life to 
 save his young master's. This was Osbem, 
 who held the door of William's sleeping-room 
 in the castle of Vaudreuil against a sudden 
 inburst of armed men seeking his life, and, 
 before falling dead, had won him the time 
 needed for his escape. Then his maternal uncle, 
 Walter, took up the task of self-devotion, 
 patiently keeping watch over his steps, and 
 sheltering him from harm, till his character 
 had begun to show its natural strength, and 
 Ralph Waoey, an honourable kinsman, had 
 accepted the post of guardian. The ground 
 was now somewhat firmer under William's 
 feet ; at fifteen he was able to give his earliest 
 proof of a capacity for bridling anarchy by 
 
 wresting Falaise Castle fromarebellious vassal. 
 His independent career began in 1047 in a 
 very striking manner. The lawless spirits of 
 the Cotentiu, where the Danish blood and 
 temper still abounded, had risen in rebellion, 
 surprised the castle of Valognes, where 
 William was lying, and forced him to flee for 
 his life through the darkness of the night. 
 Not long afterwards he met them with the 
 most loyal of his vassals and his reconciled 
 lord, the French king, at Val-fes-dunes, near 
 Caen, and beat them utterly, crushing the 
 revolt at a single blow. Then, as generally 
 through his life, he treated his vanquished 
 rebels with singular clemency. Thus firmly 
 fixed in his ducal seat, he proceeded to achieve- 
 ments that gained him a European fame before 
 he ever drew sword ia England. He estab- 
 lished law and order throughout his duchy, 
 adding such correctives to the prevalent feudal- 
 ism as might make a strong central government 
 possible. His measures met with a stubborn 
 resistance, and over and over again he reduced 
 to submission the ungovernable among his 
 subjects. With the hereditary foe of his 
 house, Geoffrey Martel of Anjou, he reso- 
 lutely grappled, and in 1049 recoveredAlen9on, 
 and snatched Domfrout from him, departing 
 at the former place from his accustomed lenity 
 by striking off the hands and feet of thirty- 
 two of its defenders, who had beaten hides 
 over their walls in scornful reference to his 
 origin. He took the first step towards his 
 conquest of England by visiting King Edward, 
 his childless kinsman, in 1052, and receiving 
 from him the assurances, necessarily vague, 
 that he afterwards gave out to have been a 
 promise of the succession to the kingdom. In 
 the next year he took to wife, despite Pope 
 Leo's inhibition, his cousin, Matilda of Flan- 
 ders, Count Baldwin's daughter, whom he had 
 loved for four years. The papal ban under 
 which he then fell was not removed till 1 060 ; 
 and religious and charitable foundations were 
 erected by him and his wife as the prescribed 
 atonement for their defiance of the Church. 
 His growing greatness then gave offence to 
 his suzerain, King Henry, who twice led an 
 army into Normandy to chp the wings of his 
 power. On the first occasion (1054) one of his 
 two invading columns was surprised and routed 
 by Robert of Eu at Mortemer, whereupon the 
 other made all haste to get home again. On 
 the second (1060), just when his force had 
 been halved by the rising tide of the Dive, 
 near Varaville, William came down upon the 
 hinder half thus isolated, and cut it in pieces, 
 scaring Henry not only into a swift retreat, 
 but also into the making of a peace that 
 restored TiUiferes, and proved lasting. By 
 this time the duchy had increased considerably 
 at the expense of its neighbours, especially 
 of Anjou, and in the wisdom of its rule and 
 general prosperity outdistanced most other 
 states. In 1063 William made his great Con- 
 tinental acquisition in the conquest of Maine, 
 
wn 
 
 ( 1074 ) 
 
 Wil 
 
 upon which a compact with its last count, 
 Herbert Wakedog, gave him a claim, but 
 which the resistance of a part of the people 
 obliged bJTn to reduce by force of arms. Next 
 year he made war on Conan of Britanny 
 with complete success. This was probably the 
 expedition on which Harold of England, an 
 impressed guest, was his companion, and 
 after which Harold took the oath that Nor- 
 man writers declare to have pledged him to 
 uphold the duke's claim to the Engliah throne: 
 for the greatest crisis of William's life, and 
 one of the greatest in European history, was 
 approaching. 
 
 Early in 1066 it came. Edward of England 
 died on Jan. 6, and the vacant throne was at- 
 once filled by Harold. "William felt himself 
 overreached, and lost no time in making him- 
 self even with his ready rival, and vindicating 
 his position as a candidate for the English 
 crown. He proceeded to seek material and 
 moral support from every quarter that could 
 supply either, won over the Pope, won over 
 his unwilling subjects, drew to his banner 
 swarms of volunteers from surrounding lands, 
 and thus gath&ed round his cause not merely 
 a noble host of fighting men, but the general 
 sympathy of Europe. On Sept. 28 he landed 
 at Pevensey, marched to Hastings, and on 
 Oct. 14 decided Harold's fate, his own, and 
 England's, at the terrible fight of Senlao. It 
 was his battle in every sense ; above all 
 earthly forces, it was his own skill, ready 
 resource, and prowess that gave him the 
 victory. His subsequent movements made 
 him master of the south-eastern counties ; at 
 Berkhampstead he was offered, and accepted, 
 the kingdom, and on Christmas Day he was 
 crowned at Westminster. Thus he became a 
 conqueror. But the task of completing and 
 securing his conquest still lay before him, and 
 it cost him four years of rarely exampled 
 vigilance, toil, and endurance. After a long 
 visit -to Normandy in 1067, he was recalled 
 thence to deal with risings of his new sub- 
 jects. He won Exeter, and subdued the 
 western counties ; marched to Warwick, and 
 brought the Earls Edwin and Morcar, who 
 had rebelled against him, to their knees, 
 entered York, and subdued the northern 
 counties. Next year (1069) he had to con- 
 front a general outburst of the west, midlands, 
 and north, and a great Danish invasion, but 
 by wise management and indomitable valour 
 he overcame both insurgents and invaders. 
 He found arguments that persuaded the Danes 
 to withdraw, scattered the rebels, or drove 
 them before him, stormed York, while the 
 men of the west sank under the blows of his 
 captains. _ On the authority of later writers 
 he is said to have utterly laid waste, and 
 practically depopulated all northern England, 
 but this seems to me a heightened way of 
 describing a thing that, in its broader features 
 at least, is not above question. A winter 
 march upon Chester, across a country im- 
 
 passable to an army less resolutely led, finished 
 the work of conquest (1070). But other work 
 remained. The Church was more firmly 
 linked to the centre of western Christendom ; 
 its administration was separated from the 
 general, of which it had hitherto been a part ; 
 the ranks of the clergy were strengthened by 
 the preferment to high place among them of 
 foreign genius and learning, such as was 
 Lanfranc of Pavia and Bee, and an impulse 
 given to the building of churches after a 
 grander type. Eules of law, not inequitably 
 fitted to the wants of a mixed populatioii, 
 were franxed and established ; a strict execu- 
 tion of justice was everywhere enforced, and 
 trading in slaves was forbidden. Edgar the 
 Atheling was conciliated, and became one of 
 William's most favoured courtiers. The stub- 
 born mind "of Hereward was overcome ; he is 
 thought to have even taken service under Wil- 
 liam. Conqueror as he was, WiUiam strove 
 hard to prevent the Norman j'oke being excfes- 
 sively gaUing to the conquered. But he had 
 still much fighting to do, both abroad and in 
 Britain. Abroad he had, in 1073, to recover 
 rebellious Maine, with a force that was in 
 a large measure English, to suppress a rising 
 of his son Robert against him, to counteract 
 the enmity of Phihp of Prance and Fulk of 
 Anjou. At home he saw reason to invade 
 Scotland in 1071 ; and, marching as far as 
 Abemethy, made a peace there with King 
 Malcolm, and in 1075, during one of his 
 absences, the Earls of Hereford and Norfolk, 
 whose feudal instincts he had curbed, rebelled, 
 but were defeated by Lanfranc. For his part 
 in this affair Waltheof died on the scaffold. 
 William's greatest deed was his last, the 
 compilation of Domesday Book, accomplished 
 in 1086. Sorrows came upon him in later 
 life ; his son Richard was killed in the New 
 Forest ; in 1083 his wife, Matilda, died ; his 
 brother, Odo, entered into intrigues that 
 forced William to throw him into prison. On 
 Sept. 9, 1087, his own busy and brilliant 
 career came to a close. Philip of France had 
 once more picked a quarrel with him ; this 
 exploded in war, in the course of which 
 Mantes was burnt, and William received a 
 mortal injury by a fall from his horse. Borne 
 to the priory of St. Gervais, near fiouen, he 
 there died. He was buried in his own foun- 
 dation of St. Stephen's in Caen. William was 
 a man of extraordinary power and of many 
 virtues, intellectual and moral, a certain great- 
 ness of soul being the chief. To Englishmen 
 his value has been principally this — he was 
 the founder of strong government in England. 
 "We must bear in mind that his best known 
 title is now misleading ; " conqueror " in his 
 days meant merely "acquirer," a gainer of 
 possessions in any other way than by regular 
 process, such as inheritance. Strictly speak- 
 ing, William III. was also a conqueror. 
 
 Prcemon, Norman Congucst. All other worts 
 on William the Conqueror have been superseded 
 
Wil 
 
 ( 1075 ) 
 
 wu 
 
 by Professor Freeman's elaliorate and exhaus- 
 tive history. The Norman Conquest of Mngland, 
 
 [/. E.] 
 
 William II., Kmo (5. 1060, «. Sept. 
 26, 1087, d. Aug. 2, 1100). William the 
 Eed (Rufus) was the third son of the Con- 
 queror and Matilda of Flanders. He was 
 the Conqueror's favom-ite son; for he had 
 never swerved from his filial ohligatious, and 
 had shown his father a seemingly sincere af- 
 fection. He was, moreover, a young man of 
 good parts and steadfastness — knovring well, 
 and always acting upon, the distinction he- 
 tween suhstance and shadow. Nor did his 
 vices develop early. It is nothing surprising, 
 then, to be told that when the elder WiUiam 
 lay upon his dying bed, he expressed a wish 
 that this most dutiful of sous should have 
 England after his death ; he is said to have 
 even given Eufus a letter to Lanfranc, re- 
 commending his cause to the influential 
 primate's support. With this, WOliam at once 
 hastened to England. There was much in 
 the situation to discourage him. Most of the 
 barons would have preferred his eldest brother, 
 Robert, and Lanfranc himself was undecided 
 at first. The primate's indecision, however, 
 soon gave way ; he may have concluded that 
 the strong-tempered WiUiam, despite his 
 faults, would probably be a more effective 
 king than the easy-natured Robert, when 
 feudal anarchy was the most menacing evil; 
 at any rate he secured the crown for WiUiam. 
 But he made conditions. These were, that 
 Williani should swear to maintain justice and 
 mercy throughout the kingdom, to defend, 
 against all, the peace, freedom, and security of 
 all churches, and to comply with his instruc- 
 tions and counsels in and through aU things. 
 WiUiam took the prescribed oaths with the 
 utmost readiness; and seventeen days after 
 the father's death, and possibly after observing 
 some form of election, Lanfranc crowned the 
 son. A few months later a powerful section of 
 the nobles, discontented at the separation of 
 the kingdom from the duchy (of whom Odo, 
 now released and restored to his earldom of 
 Kent, Roger, Earl of Shrewsbury, WUham of 
 St. Carileph, Bishop of Durham, were the 
 chief), took up arms with the design of re- 
 uniting the two countries by making Robert 
 king ; and a force sent by Robert crossedto 
 Pevensey to their aid. By Lanfrano's advice 
 WiUiam threw himself on the support of the 
 native English, solemnly promising them 
 better laws, lighter taxation, and other good 
 things ; and the English, urged on by expec- 
 tation and St. Wulfstan, crowded to his 
 standard. Their success was complete. The 
 invaders were driven back from Pevensey 
 over the sea ; Rochester was taken after a 
 dogged siege ; and when Odo perfidiously 
 renewed the strife, William once more called 
 the natives to his help, commanding aU those 
 who did not wish to be branded as nithing to 
 join him. They joined him in flocks; and 
 
 Odo was chased with ignominy from the land. 
 But WilUam soon forgot his promises. And 
 the death of Lanfranc, in 1089, left him un- 
 controUed. His subsequent career was marked 
 by selfishness and wanton tyranny, mode- 
 rated only by occasional fits of sickness. The 
 Church in particular felt his grasping hand. 
 The revenues of vacant sees and abbeys were 
 seized, and, to further enrich the crown, the 
 vacancies were deliberately prolonged. It 
 was his poUcy to deal with clerical exactly 
 as with lay fees, to get the entire Church or- 
 ganisation into his power, and make it a per- 
 petual feeder of his own revenues. In Anselm, 
 however, whom he had nominated to the see 
 of Canterbury in 1093, after four years' 
 vacancy, when he was prostrated at Gloucester 
 by a dangerous illness, he found an uncompro- 
 mising adversary. The meek primate stoutly 
 withstood aU William's efEorts to enslave the 
 Church and degrade the clergy ; he carefuUy 
 avoided every trap that William laid in his 
 path to surprise him into an admission of an 
 authority over the Church, or doing anything 
 that had the appearance of simony; a pro- 
 longed quarrel ensued ; the Council of Rock- 
 ingham failed to reconcUe the two ; and 
 Anselm went into exile for a time. Then 
 WiUiam had his unrestrained will. His con- 
 fidential adviser and instrument was the 
 notorious Eanulf FJambard, the Justiciar, who 
 earned much infamy in his service by the 
 zeal and caUousness with which he executed 
 his purposes. The Danegeld was revived ; 
 in 1094 t\iefyrd of the kingdom was marched 
 down to Hastings, and dismissed on payment 
 of ten shillings a man ; not a pretence that 
 ingenuity could suggest for extorting money 
 was overlooked; the forest law was mercilessly 
 enforced. The nobility of the Conquest also 
 suffered grievously ; gaps were made in their 
 ranks, and forfeitures were frequent. , No 
 class escaped William's oppression. The 
 actual events in his reign were few and unim- 
 portant. In 1090 he carried the war against 
 Robert into Normandy, then combined with 
 him to despoU Henry, and succeeded in doing 
 so. He took Cumberland from the King of 
 Scots in 1091, settled a southern colony there, 
 and refounded Carhsle. In 1095 he took 
 advantage of Robert's eagerness to get away 
 on the first Crusade to make a keen bargain 
 with him for the administration of Normandy 
 and Maine. He afterwards suppressed with 
 astonishing promptitude a rebellion in Maine. 
 On Aug. 2, 1100, he was accidentally kUled 
 in the New Forest by an arrow that was 
 originaUy despatched by his own or some un- 
 known hand. WiUiam Rufus was the most 
 graceless of aU our early kings, was irreli- 
 gious, greedy, and utterly devoid of prin- 
 ciple. He was, however, a man of exceUent 
 mental gifts; and was a sayer of sharp 
 sayings, chiefly cynical. 
 
 Freeman, Beigu of William Rufus. [J. R.] 
 William III., King of England and 
 
Wil 
 
 ( 1076 ) 
 
 Wil 
 
 Prince of Orange (*. Nov. 4, 1660, ». Feb. 13, 
 1689, d,. Mar. 8, 1702), was the son of 
 "William II., Prince of Orange, and Mary, 
 daughter of King Charles I. of England. 
 He was bom a few days after his father's 
 death, and his youth was passed under the 
 jealous guardianship of the aristocratic party 
 in the Netherlands, headed by John de Witt. 
 His exclusion from the Stadtholderate was 
 suggested by Cromwell, and agreed to by the 
 States (1654). WiUiam received but little 
 education, but early showed great interest 
 in political and military questions, and in the 
 doctrines of Calvinism. From a child he was 
 weak and sickly. His chief and almost only 
 amusement was the chase. At the age of 
 fifteen he was deprived of his personal at- 
 tendants by the jealous government. He took 
 a part in the Councils of State at eighteen. 
 The French invasion changed this state of 
 affairs. The De Witts were murdered by 
 the populace ; and William, who neglected 
 to punish the murderers, became the head of 
 the government. In 1672 he took command 
 of the army, recovered Naerden, and took 
 Bonn. Louis XIV. thereupon confiscated his 
 principalities and gave them to the Count of 
 Anvergne. During the next four years he 
 fought the French without much success. 
 He was defeated by Conde at Senef (1674), 
 and failed in his attempts to take Oudenarde 
 and Maestricht (1676); he was driven back 
 at Gassel, and compelled to raise the siege of 
 Charleroi. Nevertheless the Dutch hasl 
 already elected him Stadtholder, Captain- 
 General and Admiral-General, and extended 
 the offices to his descendants (Feb., 1674). 
 Charles II. of England determined thereupon 
 to marry him to his niece Mary, daughter of 
 James, Duke of York. After some delibera- 
 tion on the part of William, the marriage 
 took place (Nov., 1677), and a scheme was 
 formed for an alliance with England which 
 the States-General declined to ratify. Aided 
 by the English he attacked Marshal Luxem- 
 burg near Mons with some success, but the 
 news of the conclusion of the Treaty of Nime- 
 guen caused him to suspend operations (1678). 
 We next find him planning a great European 
 combination against Louis XIV. A scheme 
 was on foot for making him the future Pro- 
 tector of England (1681). He attempted to 
 mediate between Charles II. and his Parlia- 
 ment, and proposed a congress for the settle- 
 ment of all questions at issue in Europe 
 (1683). On the accession of James II. the 
 Prince of Orange drew nearer to him, al- 
 though steadily opposing his Romanising 
 schemes. He opposed .Monmouth's rash 
 attempt on the crown, advising him to go and 
 fight the Turks ; and although the blunders 
 of the States-General permitted his departure 
 for England, William sent back the English 
 regiments which were in the Dutch service. 
 His attention was now entirely absorbed by 
 his design of uniting the nations of Europe in 
 
 resistance to Louis XIV., and he rejected all 
 ideas of an invasion of England to which he 
 was urged by Mordaunt. He saw that his 
 claims would clash with those of his wife. 
 Still the Komanising schemes of James II. 
 gradually made him the head of the English 
 Opposition. He wrote to the king strongly 
 recommending the withdrawal of the Decla- 
 ration of Indulgence. In 1686 he sent his 
 envoy Dykvelt to England to confer with the 
 leading statesmen. He was now completely 
 estranged frota James II., who was much 
 annoyed by the publication at this time of 
 William's views concerning the Indulgence. 
 On the birth of the young Prince of Wales 
 William sent his congratulations to James. 
 In May, 1688, Edward Russell went oyer to 
 Holland to sound the prince, but received a 
 guarded reply. In August he received an 
 invitation to England, signed by seven 
 leading men, which he accepted. Great diffi- 
 culties lay before him. He was afraid of the 
 veto of the States-General, and of the aliena- 
 tion of the Catholic powers. James's treatment 
 of the clergy, and importation of Irish troops 
 to England, removed his difficulties there. 
 Having completed his preparations William 
 issued a declaration, in which he declared his 
 intention of going to England with an armed 
 force as husband of the heiress of England. 
 After being driven back by the winds, he 
 landed at Torbay (Nov. 6). At Exeter he 
 was joined by many influential personages, 
 and James was deserted by the army at 
 Salisbury. William advanced towards London, 
 and negotiations were opened between him 
 and the king. James, however, resolved to 
 fly, but was stopped by some fishermen and 
 returned to London. William's position was 
 now extremely difficult, but he was greatly 
 relieved by the final escape of James to 
 France. The Convention, which met on 
 Jan. 22, 1689, declared the throne vacant, and 
 after passing the Declaration of Rights (q-v.). 
 Caused William and Mary to be proclaimed 
 King and Queen of England (Feb. 13, 1689). 
 The reign may be said to be roughly divided 
 into two parts by the Treaty of Eyswick ( 1697), 
 during the first of which WiUiam was engaged 
 in active resistance of Louis XIV., while the 
 second is modified by the Spanish Succession 
 question. William's first ministry was of a 
 mixed character. War was declared against 
 France in May. In Ireland the native race 
 showed every inclination to hold out for King 
 James, who betook himself thither. London- 
 derry was besieged, but relieved by Kirke, and 
 the battle of Newton Butler gave William the 
 advantage for the time being. Meanwhile in 
 Scotland the crown was offered to WUliam 
 (April 11). Dundee, however, raised the 
 Highlanders in favour of James, and won a 
 battle, but lost his life at Killiecrankie. 
 Mackay, by his victories at St. Johnstone's 
 and Dunkeld, concluded the war. At home 
 party quarrels reached a great height, but 
 
Wil 
 
 1077 ) 
 
 Wil 
 
 Parliament passed the Bill of Eights. Next 
 year William determined to go to Ireland 
 and relieve Sohomherg. He won the battle 
 of the Boyne (July 1), hut was compelled to 
 raise the siege of Limerick and return home. 
 The English fleet had been disgracefully 
 beaten at Beachy Head. In 1691 GinkeU. 
 concluded the Irish war by taking Athlone, 
 winning the battle of Aghrim, and besieging 
 Limerick. The Pacification of Limerick 
 settled the Irish question for a time. At 
 home Preston's Plot was discovered and 
 thwarted. Abroad, though unsuccessful in 
 the field, William greatly strengthened his 
 great coalition by the Congress at the Hague. 
 Jiarly in 1692 Marlborough's intrigues with 
 the Jacobites in France were discovered, and 
 he was dismissed from his offices, and in con- 
 sequence the Princess Anne quarrelled with 
 the queen. The massacre of Glencoe (Feb. 1 3) 
 must ever remain a stain on the memory of 
 William III. The projected invasion of 
 England was thwarted by Russell's great 
 victory off La Hogue (May 19). William 
 was defeated by Marshal Luxemburg at 
 Steinkirk in August. In Parliament Mon- 
 tague's financial ability re-established the 
 Land Tax, and started a loan which proved 
 the origin of the national debt. Military and 
 naval affairs were unfortunate in their results 
 in 1693. The loss of the Smyrna fleet was 
 followed by the defeat at Landen in July. 
 William, disgusted with party quarrels, deter- 
 mined to form a united Whig ministry. The 
 year 1694 is important from a financial point 
 of view. The Bank of England was estab- 
 lished, and the East India Company's charter 
 renewed. The disclosure of the venality in 
 connection with the East India Company 
 compelled the Tories, Sir John Trevor and 
 Carmarthen, to retire from office. The naval 
 events of the year are unimportant, although 
 Marlborough's treachery had resulted in the 
 destruction of the expedition against Brest. 
 The Tiiennial Act, which had previously 
 been vetoed by William, passed in December. 
 In the same month Queen Mary died of 
 small-pox, and WiUiam was almost heart- 
 broken at her loss. In the next year William 
 was successful in his operations against Namur, 
 which surrendered in August. The year 1796 
 opened successfully with the re-establishment 
 of the currency. The Tory Land Bank, how- 
 ever, proved a" failure, and the money required 
 by the king was furnished by the Bank of 
 England. The discovery of Berwick's Plot, 
 and the infamous Assassination Plot, created 
 great enthusiasm, and an association was 
 formed for the protection of the king. The 
 chief business of the session was the trial and 
 attainder of Sir John Fenwick, who was 
 executed in the following January. The 
 ministry was now completely Whig. The 
 war with France was concluded by the 
 Treaty of Kyswick (Sept., 1697). William 
 was deeply mortified by the successful intro- 
 
 duction of the hill for the .reduction of the 
 standing army. The Irish Parliament of this 
 year passed several statutes of a highly penal 
 nature. In 1 698' Montague formed a General 
 East India Company as a rival to that ah'eady 
 existing, but the scheme was eventually a 
 failure. An attempt to settle the Spanish 
 Succession question resolved itself into the 
 First Partition Treaty (Oct. 11). The Tory 
 party, now very strong, succeeded in carrying 
 a bill which necessitated the dismissal of the 
 Dutch guards. The king, deeply mortified, 
 formed the intention of abandoning England, 
 and was only dissuaded by the prayers of 
 Somers. The majority in the Commons 
 severely attacked the measures of the late 
 ministry, their favourite objects being Mon- 
 tague and Russell. They also "tacked" to 
 the Land Tax BiU a clause empowering 
 commissioners to inquire into the disposal of 
 forfeited lands in Ireland. William in anger 
 prorogued Parliament (May 4, 1698). Dis- 
 content in Scotland reached a high pitch 
 when certain news arrived of the utter 
 failure of the great Darien scheme. The 
 Resumption Bill was passed in April, 1700, 
 greatly to the annoyance of William and at 
 the risk of a permanent breach between the 
 two Houses. Meanwhile the diplomacy of 
 William had brought about the Second Parti- 
 tion Treaty. It was not well received in 
 England. William now dismissed his old 
 ministry, and relied on an entirely Tory 
 administration, which passed the Act of Suc- 
 cession necessitated by the death of the young 
 Duke of Gloucester, the heir to the throne. 
 The Commonshurriedonimpeachments against 
 the late ministry on account of their share in 
 the Partition Treaties, which, however, proved 
 abortive. The Kentish Petition and the Legion 
 Memorial proved at the same time that popular 
 feeling was on the king's aide. He ventured, 
 therefore, to prorogue Parliament (June, 1701). 
 He went to Holland, and there consolidated 
 the grand alliance between England, Holland, 
 and the Emperor, directed against the evident 
 intention of Louis XIV. to seize the Spanish 
 throne for his grandson. Soon afterwards 
 James II. died and the French king acknow- 
 ledged the Pretender as King of England 
 (Sept. 6). This thoroughly roused English 
 patriotism, and loyal addresses poured in on 
 all sides. William, who had returned in ill- 
 health in November, accordingly seized the 
 opportunity to summon a new Parliament. 
 It was of a far more Whig temper than its 
 predecessor. The "pretended Prince of 
 Wales" was attainted of high treason, and 
 an abjuration oath made necessary for every 
 employment in Church and State. But 
 WiUiam's days were numbered. On Feb. 20 
 he tell from his horse and broke his collar- 
 bone. He gave his assent to the Succession 
 Act and surrounded by his old friends breathed 
 his last on March 8 (1702). "Wherein," 
 eays Ranke, " lay his greatness ? It lay in the 
 
■Wil 
 
 ( 1078 ) 
 
 wu 
 
 position he took up and steadily maintained ; 
 in the world-wide historic results, some of 
 which he himself achieved in his lifetime, 
 while of others he only laid the foundations, 
 or advanced them a stage. . . . The most 
 important question of the day, and that of 
 the highest importance for the future of 
 mankind in Europe, was the rise of the 
 French monarchy to universal preponderance, 
 which threatened the independence of every 
 country and every race. The living impulse, 
 then, which determined King William's 
 career, sprang out of his opposition to this 
 already domineering and over-grasping power. 
 If this was to he carried through, no political 
 or theological party attitude was to be 
 thought of. To have brought a coalition of 
 heterogeneous elements into existence, and 
 to have successfully opposed it to the over- 
 whelming .might of France — this is the 
 historic achievement of William III. No 
 one was ever cleverer at building up con- 
 federations and holding them together, or in 
 commanding armies of the most various com- 
 position without arousing national antipathies ; 
 no one knew better how in contests at home 
 to await the right moment, to give way, and 
 yet to hold fast." 
 
 Clarendon, Correspondence, 1689 — 1660'; 
 Echard, Hist, of the Revolution; Burnet, Hist, 
 of his Own Time ; Luttrell, Relation of Stale 
 Afairs ; Kenuet, Hist, of Eng, ; Macpherson, 
 State Papers; Ealph, Bist of Eng. The standard 
 modern account is Maeaulay's did. of Enc]., of 
 whicli William HI. is tbe hero. The biilliant 
 pages of the "Whig historian may be usefully 
 supplemented, by a reference to Eanke's 
 learned and impartial Hist, of Eng. in the 
 Seventeenth Century, to Hallam's sober and 
 judicious Const. Hist., and to Martin's Hist, de 
 I'rance. |-g. J. L.] 
 
 WiUiam IV., King (S. Aug. 21, 1765, 
 «. .rune 26, 1830, d: June 20, 1837), was 
 the third son of George III. At the age 
 of thirteen he was entered as a midship- 
 man on board the Prince George, a ninety- 
 eight gun ship. In 1779 he saw active service 
 under Rodney, and served his time as a mid- 
 shipman in cruising vessels on the West 
 Indies, and oif the coasts of ]Sfova Scotia and 
 Canada. He served under Lord Keith on the 
 North American station, under Lord Hood ofE 
 the Delaware River, and under Nelson upon 
 the Leeward Island station. Between the 
 latter commander and himself a strong and 
 lasting friendship grew up. In 1785 he re- 
 ceived his lieutenant's commission. In 1786 
 he was appointed captain of the Pegasus. In 
 1787 he sailed for the West Indies as com- 
 mander of the Andromeda frigate. In 1790 
 he was made rear-admiral of the blue by 
 order in council. On May 19, 1789, ho was 
 created Duke of Clarence and St. Andrews 
 and Earl of Munster, and on June 8 following 
 took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1811 
 he was made admiral of the fleet, and in 
 1814 hoisted his flag to convoy Louis XVIII. 
 
 of France to his kingdom. During the earlier 
 part of the same year he was present as an 
 amateur before Antwerp, and distinguished 
 himself by his coolness and courage. A mar- 
 riage was negotiated for him with the Princess 
 Adelaide Louisa, daughter of the Duke of 
 Saxe-Coburg Meiningen. They were married 
 at Kew, 1818, and shortly after proceeded to 
 reside in Hanover, Parliament having gTanted 
 on the occasion an accession of only £6,000 
 to the duke's income. The duchess had two 
 daughters, who both died almost immediately. 
 At the prosecution of Queen Caroline (1820) 
 the Duke of Clarence supported the biU of 
 pains and penalties. On the death of Earl 
 St. Vincent (1823) he was promoted to the 
 rank of general of marines. On the death 
 of his brother, the Duke of York, he became 
 heir presumptive to the crown, and received 
 an accession to his income, which raised it 
 to £40,000 a year. On April 17, the same 
 year, he was appointed Lord High Admiral. 
 The Duke of Wellington, however, then 
 premier, having some objections to the ex- 
 pense of his highness's progresses, he resigned 
 the oifice (1828). At the death of George IV. 
 the Duke of Clarence succeeded to the throne 
 (June 26, 1830). In the presence of the Privy 
 Council assembled on that day, according to 
 custom, the new king, with marked emphasis, 
 expressed to the Duke of Wellington his 
 entire approval of the way in which his grace 
 had carried on the government hitherto. This 
 was a distinct declaration in favour of the old 
 system, and against Reform. The king in 
 fact had strong personal objections to the 
 Reform Bill, and in the crisis of May, 1832, 
 when the Lords were preparing to reject the 
 bill a third time, he would not consent 
 to create new peers, and allowed the Grey 
 ministry to resign. But the failure of Wel- 
 lington to form a ministry convinced him that 
 the feeling of the nation was emphatically in 
 favour of the bill. He used his personal in- 
 tercession with the peers to induce them to pass 
 the bill, and was even prepared to "swamp "tho 
 House of Lords with new peers if the advice 
 was rejected. The bill, however, was carried, 
 and followed by the other reforming statutes 
 which have made William IV.'s short reign 
 an eventful period in modern English history. 
 The king liked neither the Whig minister's 
 nor their policy, and in 1834 (Nov. 15) he 
 exercised his prerogative, and suddenly dis- 
 missed Lord Melbourne and his colleagues. 
 But the Peel ministry was hopelessly weak, 
 and in 1835 (April) the king found it expe- 
 dient to recall Lord Melbourne to his councils. 
 William IV., though not greatly distin- 
 guished for talent and character, was a kindly 
 and good-natured man, with the courage and 
 firmness of his race, if also with its hereditary 
 obstinacy. " He would have passed," says 
 Mr. Walpole, " in private life for a good- 
 natured sailor." 
 
 ■VTalpole, Hist, of Eng. from 181S ; Greville, 
 
Wil 
 
 ( 1079 ) 
 
 Wil 
 
 Memoirs; Moleswortli, Hist, of the Ee/orm Bill ; 
 Hansard, Debates. 
 
 Williams, Johk, Arohtiahop of York 
 (i. 1582, d. 1650), was a member of an old 
 Welsh family, and, after a brilliant university- 
 career, received many valuable preferments in 
 the Church, being at length made Dean of 
 Westminster in 1620. He was also one of 
 the royal chaplains, and high in favour both 
 with James I. and Buckingham. In 1621 he 
 was made Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal, in 
 which office his great ability and industry 
 supplied the place of early legal training, and 
 in the same year was appointed Bishop of 
 Lincoln. But Buckingham's favour did not 
 last long, and by his influence Charles I. re- 
 moved Williams from his office in 1625. Laud 
 also was a great antagonist of his, and through 
 his influence Williams was condemned in 1637 
 to pay a heavy fine, be imprisoned, and sus- 
 pended from his ecclesiastical functions on 
 the charge of having revealed the king's 
 secrets, and tampered with witnesses. In 1640 
 he was released, and soon regained the king's 
 favour by supporting the cause of the prero- 
 gative and episcopacy, and in 1641 was 
 advanced to the archbishopric of York. Soon 
 after this he was insulted by the mob, and on 
 protesting with the other bishops against 
 their being thus excluded from Parliament, 
 he was sent to the Tower. After the out- 
 break of the Civil War he zealously assisted 
 the king, both with money and advice, and is 
 said to have mourned sincerely for his death. 
 His character is very unfavourably painted 
 by Clarendon. He is said by this writer to 
 have been " of a proud, restless, and over- 
 weening spirit, a very imperious and fiery 
 temper, and a very corrupt nature." On the 
 other hand, Mr. Foss, summing up his 
 character, comes to the conclusion tlmt he 
 was "though too much of a temporiser, 
 honest and sincere, and generally wise in the 
 advice which he offered, and to the monarchs 
 whom he served he was faithful and true." 
 
 Hacket, Life of Williams ; Foss, Judges ofEng. ; 
 Masson, lAfe of Milton. 
 
 William Clito {d. 1128) was the eldest 
 son of Robert of Normandy. After the 
 battle of Tenchebrai he was placed under 
 the care of Helie de St. Saen, who guarded 
 lim most loyally against Henry's attempts to 
 seize him. His claims were supported by 
 the French king and Fulk V. of Anjou, the 
 latter of whom affianced his daughter Sibyl 
 to him. The victory of Henry at Brenneville 
 (1124) destroyed his hopes, and he had to 
 content himself with claiming the country of 
 Flanders, to which he had succeeded by the 
 failure of the male line. He had almost 
 succeeded in making himself master of the 
 country when he was pierced by a lance while 
 besieging the town of Alost, and died in 1128. 
 
 William, the JLion, King of Scotland 
 (1165—1214), son of Prince Henry and Ada de 
 
 Warenne, succeeded his brother, Malcolm IV., 
 as King of Scotland (1165). Having failed in 
 obtaining the restoration of Northumberland 
 from the English king, he listened eagerly to 
 the proposals of Prince Henry of England, 
 and in 1173 hurried to the north of England, 
 whence, however, he was driven back by 
 Richard, de Lucy and Humphrey de Bohun. 
 The following year he again invaded Eng- 
 land, took several castles, and laid waste the 
 country. He was taken prisoner at Alnwick 
 (July 13), and thence hurried with every 
 symptom of indignity before Henry at North- 
 ampton. The English king sent his royal 
 prisoner to Falaise in Normandy, where, in 
 December, 1174, a treaty was concluded ac- 
 knowledging the supremacy of England over 
 Scotland, and making all Scotchmen the 
 vassals of the English king. This subjection 
 lasted until Richard I. restored Scottish inde- 
 pendence fo* the sum of 10,000 marks in 
 1189. On William's release after the Treaty 
 of Falaise, he found himself compelled to 
 quell an insurrection in Galloway, and to 
 subdue Ross a few years later (1179). In 
 1181 a fresh insurrection, due partly to dis- 
 satisfaction at the Treaty of Falaise, broke 
 out in the north in favour of Donald Bane 
 MacWilliam, and lasted six years, during 
 which time WilUam was also at variance 
 with the people of Galloway. In 1188 an 
 abortive conference was held at Brigham 
 between the King of Scotland and the Bishop 
 of Durham as the representative of Henry II. 
 In 1196 William took Caithness from the 
 Norwegian Earl Harold, but restored it to 
 him on payment of a sum of money (1202). 
 The suppression of another insurrection under 
 Godfrey MacWilliam, in Ross (1211), was the 
 closing act of William's domestic troubles. 
 William in the early part of his reign had 
 quaiTelled with Pope- Alexander III., who 
 placed his kingdom under an interdict, which 
 was, however, removed by Lucius III. in 1182 ; 
 in 1203 he expressed his satisfaction at the 
 interdict laid by Innocent III. on England, 
 owing to the unsatisfactory nature of an 
 interview he had -with John at Lincoln in 
 Nov., 1200. From this time for twelve years 
 England and Scotland were frequently on 
 the point of coming to blows owing to John's 
 persistence in attempting to build a castle at 
 Tweedmouth to overlook Berwick. In 1212, 
 however, a close alliance was made between 
 the two kings at Durham. In Dec, 1214, 
 William died at Stirling, leaving behind him 
 a reputation for energy of character and 
 impetuosity. It was his constant endeavour 
 to carry out the policy of his grandfather 
 Da-vid. He left Scotland in a far more ad- 
 vanced state of feudalism than, his predecessor 
 had done. William married Ermengarde de 
 Bellomonte. 
 
 Williams, Sib Rogek {d. 1595), one of 
 the bravest soldiers of Elizabeth's reign^ 
 
■Wil 
 
 ( 1080 ) 
 
 Wil 
 
 served in the Netherlands under Sir John 
 Norris and the Earl of Leicester, the latter of 
 whom treated him exceedingly hadly from 
 jealousy of one who had so distinguished 
 himself. In 1587 the Prince of Parma in vain 
 endeavoured to induce Sir Roger to quit his 
 allegiance, and enter the Spanish service. 
 
 WilloTlghby of Paeham, William, Lord 
 ((?. 1666), was for some time connected with 
 the Parliamentary party. After the execu- 
 tion of Charles I. he joined the Eoyalists, and 
 in 1650 went out to Barbadoes, where in 
 the following year he defeated an expedition 
 under Admiral Ayscue, who had heen sent 
 out by Cromwell to punish the Eoyalist pro- 
 clivities of the Barbadians. He was soon 
 afterwards compelled to return to England, 
 where, after the Eestoration, he obtained 
 substantial marks of favour from Charles II. 
 In 1663 he returned to Barbadoes as governor, 
 and in the following year took St. Lucia. 
 Two years later he perished in an expedition 
 against Guadaloupe. 
 
 Willoughby, Eobekt, Lord, was a dis- 
 tinguished military commander of the fifteenth 
 century. In 1415 he was present with Henry 
 V. at the siege of Harfleur, and the battle of 
 Agincourt. In 1418 he was at the siege of 
 Eouen, and in 1424 at Verneuil. The follow- 
 ing year, in company with Sir John Fastolfe, 
 he defeated the French and relieved Alen(;on. 
 In 1428 he accompanied Cardinal Beaufort 
 in his expedition to Bohemia. Eeturning, he 
 again took part in the French war, assisted 
 at the capture of St. Denis and Pontoise in 
 1435, and was charged with the defence of 
 Paris in this year. He was obliged to sur- 
 render the capital in April, 1436. One of his 
 last exploits was the defeat of the French at 
 Amiens, in 1441. The date of his death is 
 uncertain. 
 
 Willough.'by op Brook, Eobert, Lord 
 {d. 1508), was a zealous adherent of the house 
 of Lancaster. As a distinguishing mark of 
 Henry's gratitude for his past services. Sir 
 Eobert Willoughby was raised to the peerage 
 during the sitting of Henry's first Parliament 
 in 1485, under the title of Lord Willoughby 
 of Brook. In 1488 he was given the com- 
 mand of the English force sent to the aid of 
 the Duke of Britanny in 1488, and in 1497 
 relieved Exeter when besieged by the Cornish 
 rebels. 
 
 Will's, The Statute or (1540), was ex- 
 plained and re-enacted in 1543. Its object 
 was to remove the restrictions imposed under 
 the Plantagenets, on the testamentary power 
 over freehold land. It provided, therefore, 
 that any one being seized in fee simple and 
 being a person capable of making a will, 
 might devise to any other person, except to 
 bodies corporate, two-thirds of their lands 
 and tenements held in chivalry, and the 
 
 whole of those held in socage. On the 
 abolition of chivalry after the Eestoration, 
 this practically included all landed property 
 except copyhold tenements. 
 
 32 Henry VIII., cap. 1, and 34 & 35 Henry 
 Vm., cap. 5. 
 
 Wilmington, Spenoeb Compton, Lord 
 (d. 1743), a son of the Earl of Northampton, 
 was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons 
 in 1715. He was a favourite of George 11. 
 while Prince of Wales ; and on the prince's 
 accession he was commissioned to form a 
 ministry. Walpole, however, gained over the 
 king by proposing to increase the civil list ; 
 and Queen Caroline's influence was employed 
 in his favour. Compton could not even draw 
 up the speech from the throne, and had to 
 apply to his rival for assistance. He saw 
 that his power was gone, and soon accepted 
 the position of President of the CouncU, with 
 a peerage as Lord Wilmington. He gave a 
 lukewarm support to Walpole, and remained 
 neutral when, in 1741, Mr. Sandys' motion 
 that he should be removed from the king's 
 council was brought forward. On the fall of 
 Walpole in January, 1742, Pulteney, who 
 refused the premiership, proposed Wilming- 
 ton as First Lord of the Treasury and nominal 
 head of the government. He retained most 
 of the old ministers. The only incident in 
 his brief administration was the committee of 
 inquiry against Walpole [Walpole]. " He 
 was," says Stanhope, "respectable in his 
 public, regular in his private, character . . . 
 but the seals of office were too heavy for 
 his hands." 
 
 Stanhope, Hist, of Eng. ; Coxe, WaVpoU. 
 
 Wilson, Sir Aeohdale (i. 1803, d. 1874), 
 entered the Bengal army 1819, served at the 
 siege of Bhurtpore (1825 — 26); commanded 
 the artillery as lieutenant-colonel in the Jul- 
 lundhur Doab in 1848 — 49, and rose through 
 various grades to brigadier-commander of the 
 Bengal artillery at Meerut (1857). Here the 
 Indian Mutiny (q.v.) first broke out, and here 
 Wilson gained the first victory over them. 
 On June 7 he joined Sir H. Barnard at AU- 
 pore, and on the latter's death succeeded to the 
 command of the army besieging Delhi. On 
 the 20th Delhi surrendered to him. Wilson 
 subsequently commanded the artillery at the 
 siege of Lucknow. For these services he was 
 thanked by both Houses, made in succession 
 a Companion, Knight-Commander, and Grand 
 Cross of the Bath, granted a pension of 
 £1,000 a year by the Company, and created a 
 baronet. 
 
 Wiltshire, Thomas Boleyn, Earl op 
 [d. 1538), was the father of the ill-fated 
 Anne Boleyn. When first made aware of the 
 king's passion for his daughter, he does not 
 appear to have given Henry's wishes any sort 
 of encouragement. On the contrary, when 
 the Mng, after breaking off the courtship 
 
Wil 
 
 ( 1081 ) 
 
 Win 
 
 then going on between Anne Boleyn and Lord 
 Henry Percy, visited him suddenly at his 
 house at Herer, Sir Thomas Boleyn, though 
 fully aware of the real object of Henry's visit, 
 did not give him any opportunity of seeing 
 or conversing with his daughter. In course 
 of time, however, both he and his daughter 
 yielded to the king's perseverance, and Sir 
 Thomas, in view of his future greatness as 
 father-in-law of the king, was made succes- 
 sively Viscount Rochf ord and Earl of Wilt- 
 shire. [Anne Boleyn.] 
 
 Wiltshire, William le Sceope, Eakl 
 OF {d. 1399), was the son of Richard le Scrope, 
 ChanceUor of England. He was highly in 
 favour with Richard II., who made him his 
 treasurer, and created him Earl of Wiltshire 
 in 1395. He was one of the king's chief 
 advisers during the latter years of his reign, 
 and on the landing of Henry of Lancaster in 
 13P9, he was seized at Bristol and beheaded 
 ■without trial. 
 
 Wiltshire, James Butler, Eakl op (d. 
 1461), was the son of the Earl of Ormonde, 
 and was created Earl of Wiltshire by Henry 
 VL He was a staunch Lancastrian, and 
 fought for that party in the first battle of 
 St. Albans, at Wakefield, Mortimer's Cross, 
 find Towton. After this last engagement he 
 was captured by the Yorkists and beheaded 
 at Newcastle. 
 
 Wimbledon, Edwakd Cecil, Lord {d. 
 1638), an admiral who is chiefly known to 
 history as having in 1625 commanded a disas- 
 trous expedition against Cadiz, which was to 
 form part of a general attack on Spain, 
 planned by Charles I. and Buckingham. The 
 appointment, which was made on personal 
 grounds, proved very unfortunate. Lord 
 Wimbledon failed to destroy the shipping in 
 the harbour of Cadiz, and was soon com- 
 pelled to re-embark, owing to the disorderly 
 behaviour of his crews. Aiter having allowed 
 the Plate fleet from the West Indies to 
 escape him, he returned to England. It is 
 said that on the return voyage he carefully 
 distributed some men suffering from conta- 
 gious disease among the healthy crews. 
 
 Winchelsey, Robert (*. circa 1245), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury (1294—1313), was 
 born at Winchelsea, and after a most distin- 
 guished academical career, during which he 
 was successively Rector of the University of 
 Paris and Chancellor of Oxford, he was elected 
 to the archbishopric. Not long after his 
 appointment Boniface VIII. issued the famous 
 Bull Clericis Laicos, forbidding the pay- 
 ment of taxes to the king by the clergy 
 without the leave of the Pope ; Winchelsey 
 gladly availed himself of the excuse to decline 
 to allow any more great grants of Church 
 revenue to the king. The contest with 
 Edward I. was a protracted one, the clergy 
 
 refusing to pay were outlawed, and the pos- 
 sessions of the see of Canterbury seized, but 
 a compromise had to be made. The arch- 
 bishop showed that the papal prohibition did 
 not apply to money required for purposes of 
 national defence, and offered to do his best to 
 obtain a grant from the clergy if the king 
 would confirm the Charters. This was agreed 
 to, and in 1297 and 1300 the Charters were 
 confirmed, in the latter case certain im- 
 portant articles being added to them. In 1301 
 Winchelsey again quarrelled with the king. 
 The circumstances are doubtful, but it would 
 seem that the archbishop was accused of 
 treason, and of plotting to dethrone Edward 
 in favour of his son. In 1305 the archbishop 
 was formally accused and summoned to Rome, 
 nor did he return again till after the death 
 of Edward I. During Edward II. 's reign we 
 find him opposing Gaveston, and doing what 
 he could to restrain the excesses of the young 
 king. Winchelsey was eminent as a scholar 
 and a divine, and famous for his charity and 
 piety; but in public affairs he attempted to 
 play the part of Langton, for which he was 
 unsuited, and for which there was no neces- 
 sity. His policy was also complicated by the 
 foolish arrogance of Boniface, and by the 
 determination of Edward. By his want of 
 tact and steadiness, the archbishop alienated 
 both the king and the Pope. 
 
 Eishanger, Chronich ; Freeirian, EsRay on Ed- 
 ward I.; StuTabB, Const. Hist,, and The Early 
 Flantagenets ; Hook, Archbishops. 
 
 Winchester (the Gwent of the Celts, and 
 Venta Belgarum of the Romans) was pro- 
 bably an important town before the Roman 
 invasion. It was conquered by the Saxons 
 under Cerdic in 519, and became the capital 
 of the West Saxon kingdom in the seventh 
 century. In 662 it was made the seat of a 
 bishopric. In 860 it was taken by the Danes. 
 During the later West Saxon and Danish 
 period it was very frequently the centre of 
 government for England, and the place where 
 the Witenagemots was held. In 1141 it was 
 burnt during the war between Stephen and 
 the Empress Maud, and was the place where 
 the treaty between the two powers was con- 
 cluded (1153). In June, 1216, it was taken 
 by Louis the Dauphin. In 1265 it was sacked 
 by Simon de Montfort. In 1285 the im- 
 portant Statute of Winchester was passed here 
 by Edward I. The cathedral begun by 
 Cenwealh in 643, and completed in 984, was 
 rebuilt in the eleventh century, and recon- 
 structed by Bishops Wykeham, Beaufort, and 
 Waynflete in the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries. The college was founded by Wil- 
 liam of Wykeham in 1393. In March, 1644, 
 Waller inflicted a defeat on the Royalists at 
 Clinton Down near Winchester. On Oct. 6 
 of the following year it was captured by 
 Cromwell, and the castle was demolished ; on 
 the site of this fortress a palace was begun in 
 1683, but was left unfinished. 
 
Win 
 
 ( 1082 )■ 
 
 Win 
 
 Winchester, Sm William Patjlet, 
 Marquis of (S. 1476, d. 1572), Lord St. John 
 of Bassing (1539), Earl of Wiltshire (1556), 
 and Marquis of Winchester (1551), "the 
 crafty fox -with a fair countenance," was 
 Treasurer of the Household to Henry VIII., 
 and one of the judges at the trial of Anne 
 Boleyn. By the wiU of the king he was ap- 
 pointed one of the Council of Regency, and 
 became President of the Council. As a firm 
 supporter of the Protector Somerset, Paulet 
 succeeded Wriothesley as Lord Keeper 
 (March 7, 1547), but only held the office till 
 October, when, owing to his incompetence as 
 a judge, he was succeeded by Lord Chan- 
 cellor Rich. On Somerset's fall he joined 
 the party of the Earl of Warwick and ac- 
 tually presided as Lord High Steward at the 
 duke's trial in the year 1551, pronouncing 
 sentence of death upon his benefactor. For 
 some time he remained a supporter of War- 
 wick, but his leaning towards the Catholic 
 religion, together with the instinct of self- 
 interest, gi-adually enlisted his sympathies on 
 the side of the Princess Mary, though after 
 her accessioil he continued in opposition to 
 Gardiner and the persecuting party. At the 
 age of eighty-four, Lord Winchester obtained 
 the office of Lord High Treasurer to Queen 
 Elizabeth, an office which he held until his 
 death. 
 
 Froude, Hist, of Eng. ; Tytler, Reigns of 
 Edward YL and Mary ; Foss, Judges of England. 
 
 Winchester, The Statute of (1285), 
 was one of those enactments by which Ed- 
 ward I. sought to remodel and improve upon 
 the legislation of Henry II. This statute 
 was intended to place the military system on 
 a better footing, and reorganises the watch 
 and ward. It revived and developed the 
 military and police action of the hundred, the 
 hue and cry, the watch and ward, the fyrd or 
 militia of the counties. The Assize of Anns, 
 with its provisions that every man should 
 keep armour and weapons proper to Ms con- 
 dition, is re-enacted. The statute, in fact, 
 attempts to restore the ancient and popular 
 military system of the English, which had 
 lasted through the Conquest. " It is," says 
 Dr. Stubbs, " a monument of the persistence 
 of primitive institutions, working their way 
 through the superstratum of feudalism, and 
 gaining strength in the process." 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., ii. § 179; and Select 
 Charters. 
 
 Winchester, The Annals op the Mon- 
 astery OF, extend from a.d. 519 to a.d. 1277. 
 The first part is, as usual, meagre, and from 
 1066 to 1267 the compiler relies on fheAnfflo- 
 Saxon Chronicle, Matthew Paris, and other 
 obvious sources of information. The last 
 part is contemporary, but even then the inte- 
 rest is chiefly of a local nature. The annals 
 have been edited by Mr. Luard in the second 
 volume of the Annates Monastici in the Rolls 
 Series. 
 
 Windehank, Bib Francis {d. 1646), 
 son of Sir Thomas Windebank, was" edu- 
 cated at St. John's College, Oxford, where 
 he took the degree of B.A. in 1601. He 
 became Clerk of the Council, and was, by the 
 influence of his old friend, Laud, appointed 
 Secretary of State (June, 1632). He was the 
 king's agent in the secret negotiations with 
 Spain in 1634, the intermediary between 
 Charles and the papal agent, Panzani, and 
 one of the committee of eight entrusted with 
 Scotch affairs (1639). In May, 1640, he ap- 
 plied to the Pope's agent, Rossetti, for money 
 and arms to be employed against the Soots. 
 On the assembly of the Long Parliament he 
 was attached for non-execution of the penal 
 laws against the Catholics, and fled to France 
 (Dec. 10, 1640), where he died. 
 
 Windham, Wh-liam (*. 1750, d. 1810), 
 was educated at Eton and Oxford. His first 
 appearance in politics was at a meeting of 
 the county gentlemen of Norfolk in 1778, 
 where he spoke with much vigour against a 
 proposal to subscribe to aid the government 
 in carrying on the war against the American 
 Colonies. In 1782 he was returned to Par- 
 liament for Norwich, and very soon made 
 himself conspicuous, and he was in the fol- 
 lowing year appointed Chief Secretary to the 
 Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, which place he 
 resigned within four months, on finding that 
 it required the employment of acts which he 
 felt to be dishonourable. He became very 
 intimate with Burke and Dr. Johnson, and 
 although at first, like all the Whigs, he 
 hailed with joy the outbreak of the French 
 Revolution, yet in 1793, horrified by the 
 later outrages of the movement, he took 
 Burke's view of it, and was a warm advocate 
 of the policy which Burke wished to see 
 adopted towards the Revolutionary govern- 
 ment. In the following year he went on a 
 mission to the Duke of York, who was in com- 
 mand of an expedition in Flanders, and was in 
 the same year appointed Secretary at War, 
 with a seat in the cabinet. He followed Pitt 
 out of office in 1801, nor did he again take 
 office until, after Pitt's death, he became 
 Secretary at War and of the Colonies in the 
 administration of " AH the Talents." On 
 their dismissal, Windham too returned to 
 opposition, and remained in that position 
 until in Jan., 1810, he died of a tumour pro- 
 duced by his extraordinary endeavours to 
 rescue a great library from flames. "In him 
 were strangely mingled a zealous love of 
 Hterature, and an ardent passion for field 
 sports of every kind. And so genial were 
 his manners that in spite of his liberal views 
 he was almost as great a favourite with the 
 king as he was popular with the nation at 
 large." Of his position asaspeaker andastates- 
 man. Sir E. May says, "Superior to Sheridan in 
 education and attainments, and little inferior 
 in wit, he never achieved successes so dazzling ; 
 
Win 
 
 ( 1083 ) 
 
 Wit 
 
 yet lie maintained a higher place among the 
 debaters of his age. Though his pretensions 
 to the higher qualities of a statesman were 
 inconsiderable, and his want of discretion and 
 temper too often impaired his unquestionable 
 merits in debate, his numerous talents and 
 virtues graced a long and distinguished 
 public life.'' 
 
 Lord Cololiester, IHary ; Pellew, tife of Sid- 
 mouth ; Buokingham, Memoirs of the Court of 
 the Regency ; May, Const. Hist. 
 
 Window Tax, The, was first imposed in 
 1695 by the Act 6 & 7 Wm. III., c. 18, and 
 was frequently re-imposed, notwithstanding 
 its injurious effect in offering an obstacle to 
 good ventilation. It was repealed and the 
 house-tax substituted for it in 1851. 
 
 Windsor Castle appears to have been 
 first regularly used as a royal residence by 
 Henry I., although there seems to have been a 
 fortress there previous to the Conquest. To 
 Henry I.'s building, Henry III. made several 
 additions ; but it was in the reign of Edward 
 III., under the designing hand of William of 
 Wykeham, that the castle as we now know 
 it began to rise. St. George's Chapel was 
 rebuilt by Edward IV., its architects being 
 Richard Beauchamp, Bishop of Salisbury, and 
 after his death in 1481, Sir Reginald Bray, 
 architect of Henry VII. 's Chapel at West- 
 minster. Elizabeth formed the terraces, and 
 erected or altered the gate known by her 
 name. Charles II. erected the Star building, 
 which was afterwards Gothicised by James 
 Wyatt. Traces of Sir Christopher Wren are 
 to be found in the edifice, but his plan of re- 
 building the south side of the Upper Ward 
 was not carried out. St. George's Chapel, 
 which was much injured by the Puritans 
 in 1648, was re-decorated in 1787—90. Of 
 late years no alteration or improvements of 
 much importance have been made. 
 
 H. Ashton, lustrations of Windsor Castle; 
 "W, H. Dixon, Uoyal Windsor. 
 
 Wiugfield, SiK Anthony, Vice-Chamber- 
 lain to Henry VIII. (1547), was named in the 
 king's will one of the council who were to 
 govern during the minority of Edward VI. 
 He bore a leading part in the measures taken 
 , against Protector Somerset. 
 
 Winter, Sm William, Abmibal, was 
 in Dec, 1559, sent to the Firth of Forth by 
 Elizabeth to do any damage he could to the 
 French. The queen, as was her wont, com- 
 missioned him to act on his own responsi- 
 bility, being thus enabled to disavow his 
 actions in case of failure. On his arrival in 
 the Firth he managed to provoke the French 
 to attack him, and retaliated by seizing Burnt- 
 island, which had been occupied by the 
 enemy, and destroying some of their vessels. 
 Had his successes at sea been backed up by 
 energetic action on the part of the land 
 forces, Leith would have fallen at once. 
 In 1569 Winter commanded an expedition to 
 
 La RooheUe, which brought supplies to Conde, 
 and in 1580 did good service on the Irish 
 coast, being present at Smerwick. He is 
 credited with having originated the plan of 
 sending fire-ships amongst the Spanish 
 vessels, which proved so destructive to the 
 Armada. The mixture of caution and dash- 
 ing courage which he displayed, together 
 with his steadfast loyalty, made him one of 
 the most valued servants of Elizabeth, and he 
 well deserved Cecil's praise — " of Mr. Winter 
 all men speak so well, I need not mention 
 him." 
 
 Fronde, Bist. of Eng.i Barrow, Naval Wor- 
 thies, 
 
 Winton, Gregory op, was a monk of 
 St. Peter's, Gloucester. His Annates, which 
 extend from a.d. 681 to a.d. 1290, have never 
 been printed. 
 
 Wiutonn, Andrew or, a Scotch annalist, 
 lived about 1400. His Originah Oronykil of 
 Scotland, printed in 1795, is a valuable source 
 of information for early Scottish history. 
 
 Winwidfield, The Battle op (635), be- 
 tween Penda of Mercia and Oswy of North- 
 umbria, resulted in the defeat and death of 
 the former. The place is, probably, Win- 
 moor, near Leeds, the river Winwied being 
 identical with the Aire. 
 
 Wishart, George, was one of the Pro- 
 testant preachers who incurred the wrath of 
 Cardinal Beaton. He was tried at St. Andrews, 
 and burnt (1545). He is said to have entered 
 thoroughly into the plot for assassinating the 
 cardinal. 
 
 Wishart, Robert, Bishop of Glasgow, 
 was one of the Scotch commissioners (1289) 
 who tried to arrange for the marriage of the 
 Maid of Norway andPrinceEdward. He joined 
 WaDace's party in 1297, but a few months 
 later negotiated the treatyby whichmany of the 
 Scotch nobles made submission to Edward. In 
 1303 he was exiled for two years, but the 
 next year recovered Edward's favour. Ho 
 counselled the English king to hold a general 
 assembly of the Scotch nation at Perth in 
 1304, and to appoint commissioners to regulate 
 the government of Scotland. He was continu- 
 ally taking oaths of fealty to one side or 
 another, and breaking them. Having sided 
 with Robert Bruce in 1306, he was taken 
 prisoner in the same year at Cupar in Fife, 
 and imprisoned at Nottingham. 
 
 Witenagemot, The, means the meeting 
 or council of the wise men (Witan), and in 
 Anglo-Saxon times was the highest council in 
 the land. The theory that the Witenagemot 
 was an assembly to which every freeman had 
 a right to come (as he undoubtedly had to 
 the shire-mote) is scarcely tenable. We have 
 little evidence of any such right beyond the 
 fact that at certain national crises, as at the 
 exile of Godwin in 1051, or on sudden Danish 
 invasions, and even at the election of a new 
 
Wit 
 
 ( 1084 ) 
 
 Wol 
 
 king, a tumultuoua concourse of spectators at- 
 tended the meetings of the Witan, and shouted 
 applause or disapprobation of the proposals 
 made. But this right, if it existed, must have 
 teen purely th eoretical. Whatever claims the 
 Witenagemot has to the position of a national 
 council rest upon the fact that it contained 
 the official leaders of the nation, hoth in 
 Church and State. But it was primarily a royal 
 council. It consisted of " the king, sometimea 
 . accompanied hy his ■wife and sons ; the bishops 
 of the kingdom, the ealdormen of the shires or 
 provinces, and a number of the king's friends 
 and dependants. These last generally describe 
 themselves as ministri, or king's thegns, and 
 numbered amongst themselves no doubt the 
 chief officers of the household, and the most 
 eminent of the persons who, in the relation of 
 gestth or comes to the king, held portions of 
 f olkland or of royal demesne, and were bound 
 to him by the oath of fealty. Occasionally a 
 prcefectus or gerefa appears in the early 
 charters; he is probably the heah-gerefa or 
 high-steward of the household. . . . Under 
 the later kings a considerable number of 
 abbots attest the charters." Thus the "Witan 
 were a small body of men, of high position, 
 and all closely connected with the administra- 
 tion. The tendency was towards the increase 
 of the king's thegns, who at the end of the 
 "West Saxon period outnumber all the other 
 members of the council. Probably the 
 "Witenagem'ot met at regular intervals, and 
 at fixed places, but in the absence of 
 exact dates it is impossible to speak with 
 certainty about this. "With regard to the 
 functions of the "Witan Mr. Kemble has 
 laid down twelve canons on the subject as 
 follows : — (1) They possessed a consultative 
 voice, and a right to consider every public 
 act which could be authorised by the king. (2) 
 They deliberated upon the making of new laws 
 which were to be added to the existing folk- 
 right, and which were then promulgated by 
 their own and the king's authority. (3) They 
 had the power of making alliances and treaties 
 of peace, and of settling their terms. (4) They 
 had the power of electing the king. (5) They 
 had the power to depose the king if his 
 government was not conducted for the benefit 
 of his people. (6) They had the power with 
 the king of appointing prelates to vacant sees. 
 (7) The king and the "Witan had also power 
 to regulate ecclesiastical matters, appoint fasts 
 and festivals, and decide upon the levy and 
 expenditure of ecclesiastical revenues. (8) The 
 king and the "Witan had power to levy taxes 
 for the public service. (9) The king and his 
 "Witan had power to raise land and sea forces 
 when occasion demanded. (10) The Witan 
 possessed the power of recommending, as- 
 senting to, and guaranteeing grants of land, 
 and of permitting the conversion of f olkland 
 into bookland and vice versa. (11) The Witan 
 possessed the power of adjudging the lands of 
 ofEeuders and intestates to be forfeit to the 
 
 king. (12) The Witan acted as a supreme 
 court of justice both in civil and criminal 
 causes. Thus the Witenagemot was a supreme 
 council for deliberation, administration, and 
 assent, as well as for judicial and taxative 
 purposes. Its real power naturally varied 
 inversely with that of the king. " Under a 
 strong king," says Bishop Stubbs, " many of 
 these claims are futile ; the whole public laud 
 seems, by the eleventh century, to have been 
 regarded as at the king's disposal really if not 
 in name ; the sheriffs, ealdorman, and bishops^ 
 are named by the king ; if he be a pious one, 
 the bishops are chosen by him with respect to 
 the consent of the diocesan clergy ; if he be a 
 peremptory one, they are appointed by his 
 determined will. But the powers of legis- 
 lation and taxation are never lost, nor does 
 the king execute judgment without a court 
 which is in name and in reality perhaps a 
 portion of the Witenagemot." It may also 
 be added that the power of election tended 
 to become formal, and that the power of 
 deposition was very seldom exercised. After 
 the union of the kingdoms, the crown re- 
 mained in the West Saxon family, and 
 ordinarily went by hereditary descent, though 
 in all cases a formal election was made, and 
 though in several cases an uncle of full age 
 was preferred to the infant son of the deceased 
 sovereign. The elevation of Canute to the 
 throne is an exception, but his title rested 
 rather on conquest than on election, so 
 that the election of Harold II. remains 
 the sole instance of the Witan freely electing' 
 a king outside the royal house. Of deposi- 
 tion, there is likewise but a solitary instance 
 after Egbert, that of Ethelred II. in 1013. 
 The analogy seen by some histoi-ians of the 
 past and present centuries between the 
 Witenagemot and the House of Commons is 
 misleading. There is little resemblance be-, 
 tween an elective and representative chamber, 
 and a council of magnates and royal officers. 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., chap. vi. ; Gneist, 
 Yerwaltungsrecht ; Kemble, The Soicojis in Mng- 
 Zand ; Freeman, ilorvnan Conquest, vol. i., appen- 
 dix Q ; "Waltz, Deutsche- Ferfas-sungs Gesc/acftte ; 
 Sclunid, Gesetze detr Angelsachsen. 
 
 [S. J. L.] 
 
 Wolfe, G-ENEEAL James (S. 1726, d. 1759), 
 entered the army at the age of fourteen, 
 and was present at the battles of Dettingen 
 (1742), Fontenoy (1745), and Lawfeldt (1747). 
 He first attracted Pitt's notice in 1757, when 
 a combined military and naval expedition was 
 despatched against Eochefort under Admiral 
 Hawke and General Mordaunt. In 1768 he 
 served under General Amherst at the siege of 
 Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. In 1759 
 Pitt entrusted him with the attack on Quebec. 
 This was to be a combined movement, but the 
 combination failed, owing to the fact that the 
 plan was too extensive. Wolfe, with 8,000 men 
 embarked in Admiral Saunders's squadron and 
 reached the Isle of Orleans in the St. Lawrence 
 
Wol 
 
 ( 1085 ) 
 
 Wol 
 
 Repeated attempts were made to induce Mont- 
 calm, the French commander, to leave the 
 lines of Beaufort, hut without success. Find- 
 ing that nothing could he effected from the 
 Isle of Orleans, WoUe moved the army ahove 
 Quehec, but Montcalm refused to move, and 
 Wolfe was in despair. At length it occurred 
 to him to surprise the heights of Abraham. 
 Collecting boats, he crossed the river, climbed 
 the heights with great difficulty, and when 
 morning came was in position opposite the 
 French. Montcalm was forced to cross the 
 St. Charles, and offer battle. The Engheh 
 gained a complete victory. Wolfe fell, but 
 before he died he knew that he had won the 
 day. [Quebec] 
 
 "Wolsey, Thomas, Archbishop of York 
 (5. 1471, d. 1530), was the son of a wealthy 
 Ipswich butcher. Educated at Magdalen 
 College, he obtained his degree when barely 
 fifteen ; and, as a consequence, became fami- 
 liarlj' known among his university associates 
 as die "Boy Bachelor." In virtue of this 
 early proficiency Wolsey soon succeeded to a 
 Magdalen fellowship, and was shortly after- 
 wards appointed master of the school attached 
 to his college. Among his pupils at this 
 school were the sons of the Marquis of Dorset, 
 WHO presented Wolsey, in Oct., 1500, to the 
 living of Lymington, in Somersetshire. Here 
 Wolsey is said to have on one occasion played 
 so unbecoming a part in his parish revelries 
 as to bring upon himself the degradation of 
 the stocks, and to have been compelled to 
 abandon his living. By this time, however, 
 he had made many influential friends, and 
 through the interest of some of these he ob- 
 tained the "post of secretary and domestic 
 chaplain to Henry Deane, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, which he continued to hold tiU 
 the death of the primate in 1503, when he 
 secured an appointment in the chaplaincy at 
 Calais. The strong common sense Wolsey 
 displayed in the discharge of his duties caused 
 him to be appointed one of the chaplains to 
 the king. Wolsey soon secured the notice 
 and friendship of Bishop Fox, the Lord Privy 
 Seal, and of Sir Thomas Lovel, the Treasurer 
 of the Eoyal Household. He was thus speedily 
 selected for the transaction of Henry's aiore 
 confidential business ; and so highly appre- 
 ciated were iiis diplomatic services at the 
 courts of Germany and Scotland, that the 
 king, some two months before his death, con- 
 ferred upon him the deanery of Lincoln 
 (1509). While, however, Wolsey's tact and 
 energy were a strong recommendation of him 
 to a keen judge of men like Henry VII., his wit, 
 gay humour, and varied personal accomplish- 
 ments made him the indispensable companion 
 of that monarch's successor ; and his upward 
 progress under Henry VIII. was rapid and 
 briUiant. Soon occupying the position of 
 almoner to the king, and of a royal councillor, 
 Wolsey received in quick succession the 
 
 living of Torrington, in Devon, the registrar- 
 ship of the Order of the Garter, a Windsor 
 canonry, and the important deanery of York. 
 Accompanying Henry to France in 1513, he 
 was appointed by him to the see of Tournay, 
 which the fortune of war had temporarily 
 placed in EngKsh hands ; and as compensa- 
 tion for the purely nominal character of this 
 last preferment, Wolsey was promoted in Feb., 
 1514, to the bishopric of Lincoln, whence he 
 was translated, before the expiration of the 
 year, to the archbishopric of York. In the 
 foUowing year (1515) his English dignities 
 were crowned by the reception of a cardinal's 
 hat from Pope Leo X., with the title of St. 
 Cecilia, an honour which was quickly suc- 
 ceeded by a commission from the pontiff as 
 Legatus a latere. About this time, too, his 
 revenues from various sources were still 
 further increased by the gift from the king 
 of the administration of the see of Bath and 
 Wells, and the temporahties of the wealthy 
 abbey of St. Albans ; and by the enjoj'ment, 
 -one after the other, of the bishoprics of Dur- 
 ham and Winchester. Wolsey's position at 
 Henry's court was now not only one of 
 enormous emolument, but one that carried 
 with it a degree of power and influence 
 more extensive than had ever previously 
 been wielded by a minister of the crown. 
 For several years, indeed, he directed the 
 foreign policy of his country, lending the 
 Enghsh support to France and Germany 
 alternately, according as it seemed to suit the 
 varying necessities of his own personal 
 interests, while his supremacy in all that 
 related to the domestic government of the 
 kingdom was only nominally subordinate to 
 that of Henry himself. Difficult and dan- 
 gerous, however, as was the commanding 
 position to which he had attained with such 
 unexampled rapidity, Wolsey succeeded in 
 holding his place in the king's favour for some 
 considerable time, and his good fortune in 
 this respect was due not only to the watchful 
 tact with which he on all occasions conducted 
 himself in hiS dealings with Henry, but also 
 partly to the fact that the primary object of 
 his ambition, viz., the reformation and aggran- 
 disement of the English Church, was one for 
 which, in the early period of his reign at 
 least, the king had felt a considerable degree 
 of sympathy. While he impressed the popular 
 mind with the pre-eminent state and magni- 
 ficence of a Church dignitary, by the every- 
 day pomp of his household arrangements, and 
 by his gorgeous preparations for the reception 
 of his cardinal's hat, he endeavoured to 
 awaken a more permanent respect for the 
 clergy as a body by instituting a series of 
 greatly-needed ecclesiastical reforms. Con- 
 spicuous among his measures for purging the 
 Church of some of the more crying abuses 
 into which she had fallen latterly was the 
 suppression of several of the smaller monas- 
 teries, and the devotion of the funds thus 
 
Wol 
 
 ( 1086 ) 
 
 Woo 
 
 obtained to the establishment of Cardinal's 
 College (now Christ Chiu:ch) at Oxford, and 
 of a new grammar school at Ipswich, de- 
 signed to serve as a sort of preparatory 
 institution for the university. £i his en- 
 deavours to raise the social status of the 
 Church, and to make her ordained servants 
 an example to the country of sound learning 
 and morality of Uf e, "Wolsey was compelled to 
 make the utmost use of the power at his 
 command. It was his zeal in this matter 
 that led him to hazard a breach of the Statute 
 of Praemunire by accepting the appointment 
 of papal legate from Leo X., for experience 
 speedily taught him that the authority of 
 an ordinary English prelate was quite in- 
 sufficient to act with any effect against the 
 monasteries and other strongholds of eccle- 
 siastical corruption. 
 
 Rapid beyond all comparison as had been 
 Wolsey's rise to the position of the most 
 influential subject in Europe, his fall was 
 fuUy as sudden and conspicuous. By the 
 indecision he exhibited in the matter of 
 Henry's divorce, he not only lost the king's 
 confidence, bat excited against himself the 
 disappointed fury of Anne Boleyn. His 
 enemies, who were many and powerful, were 
 not slow to take advantage of his misfortunes, 
 and to revive popular indignation against him 
 on account of his oppressive taxation and his 
 arbitrary system of government. Prosecuted 
 in 1529 under the Statute of Prsemunire, he 
 had to resign the Great Seal and retire to his 
 see of Winchester. This evidence, however, 
 of his lost influence, was not sufficient to 
 satisfy the jealous vengeance of his pohtical 
 rivals ; and, though he received several kind 
 messages from the king, his troubles were 
 speedily augmented by his impeachment in 
 the House of Lords. The faithful devotion 
 of Wolsey's servant, Thomas Cromwell, and 
 some lingering remnant of regard in Henry's 
 heart for the once powerful cardinal, caused 
 the bill to be thrown out in the House of 
 Commons ; but the Statute of Praemunire was 
 allowed to have its full course, and all 
 Wolsey's property was declared forfeited to 
 the crown. The fallen minister was allowed 
 subsequently to withdraw to his diocese of 
 York; but as the popularity he had begun 
 to acquire there by his courtesy and hospi- 
 tality awakened the fears of his successors in 
 court favour, he was again arrested in 1530 
 on a charge of high treason. His health had 
 greatly suffered in the anxieties accompanying 
 his terrible reverse of fortune, and he was 
 allowed in consequence to travel towards 
 London by a succession of easy journeys. 
 After a fortnight's stay at the mansion of 
 the Earl of Shrewsbm-y, a violent dysentery 
 by which he was attacked so reduced his 
 strength that, when in the neighbourhood of 
 Leicester, he was compelled to accept the 
 hospitality offered him at the monastery 
 there. He reached the monastery on Nov. 
 
 26, 1530, and died within three days of his 
 arrival, on Nov. 29, 1530. He was buried in 
 the abbey precincts, but no monument covers 
 his remains there. [Henky VIII. ; Crom- 
 well ; Cranmek ; Anne Boleyn.] 
 
 The Slate Papers of Henry VIII., with Mr. 
 J. S. Brewer's invaluable Introductions, give 
 the fullest history of Wolsey's administration 
 and perhaps the fairest estimate of his charac- 
 ter. The historians of the sixteenth centiury. 
 Hall, Holinshed, and Grafton, are of little real 
 value for Wolsey. 
 
 Wood, Sir Andrew, of Largs, was the 
 first great naval officer Scotland possessed. 
 On the murder of James III. he declared 
 for his son against the council. In 1490 he 
 captured five English vessels with only two 
 of his own ; and subsequently took the three 
 ships which had been sent under the com- 
 mand of Stephen Ball to avenge the insult. 
 
 Wood, Anthony (*. 1632, d. 1695), was 
 an antiquarian of great research and industry. 
 He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, 
 and took his B.A. degree in 1652. In 1674 
 he published his History and Antiquities of 
 Oxford, the copyright of which was purchased 
 by the university, a work which was subse- 
 quently continued by Gutch in 1786. In 1691 
 appeared the Athents Oxonienses : an exact 
 Sistory of all the Writers and Bishops who 
 have had their Education in the Vniversity of 
 Oxford from 1500 to 1696, to which are added 
 the Fasti, or Annals of the said University. An 
 attack on Lord Clarendon, contained in this 
 work, procured for its author expulsion from 
 the university, and he was afterwards em- 
 broiled in disputes with Bishop Burnet. 
 
 E. Bawlinson, ii/e of Anthony Wood (Bliss's 
 edition of the Atlimxe is the best). 
 
 Woodfall, William, a printer, was tried 
 in 1770 for publishing Junius's " Letter to the 
 King." The right of the jury to judge of the 
 criminality of the libel having been denied 
 by Lord Mansfield, they found the prisoner 
 guilty of " printing and publishing only." 
 Lord Mansfield was severely taken to task 
 in the House of Lords for his arbitrary con- 
 duct, but the question was not settled until 
 twenty years after, by Fox's Libel Act. 
 State Trials, vol. xx. 
 
 Wood's Halfpence. There was no 
 mint in Ireland in 1722, and there being a 
 want of small coin, and a great deal of base 
 money dating from the times of Elizabeth 
 and James I., a patent for coining copper 
 money was granted to the royal mistress, the 
 Duchess of Kendal, and by her sold to Wood, 
 an English ironmonger. He was to be 
 allowed to coin £108,000 worth of halfpence 
 and farthings, a pound of copper to be coined 
 into thirty pence, for Ireland. In England 
 twenty-three pence only were coined from 
 one pound, but as the cost of transport and 
 an import duty had to be considered, the dif- 
 ference was not really unreasonable. The 
 gains Wood would make were calculated at 
 
■Woo 
 
 ( 1087 ) 
 
 Wor 
 
 £4,000, and no doubt the amount of copper to 
 be put in circulation was excessive, since 
 about £15,000 worth would have been enough. 
 The excitement in Ireland, however, was out 
 of all proportion to the real importance of 
 the matter. The Irish House of Commons 
 absurdly enough pretending that Ireland 
 would lose £150 on every 100 lbs. of copper 
 coined ; it was also intimated that the coin 
 as actually issued was debased. Sir Isaac 
 Newton, however, examined it and found it 
 fully as good as was required. In 1723 the 
 sum to be coined was reduced, but in 1724 
 Swift's Drapier's Letters appeared, and aU 
 Ireland, including even the Chancellor and 
 the Archbishop of Dublin, was unanimous in 
 refusing the new halfpence. Carteret came 
 over and attempted to prosecute the ' ' Drapier," 
 but the grand jury not only ignored the 
 indictment, but presented all persons who 
 had accepted the new coin. At last in 1725 
 Walpole gave in to the clamour raised in 
 Ireland, the patent was revoked, and the 
 Irish Parliament passed a vote of thanks to 
 the king. "Wood got 3,000 guineas for eight 
 years as compensation from the Irish Pension 
 List, but under a false name. 
 
 Swift, Drapier's Letters ; Lecky, Hist, of Eng,; 
 Leaders of Public Opinion, in Ireland; Coxe, Wal- 
 pole ; Crait, Life of Swift. 
 
 Woodstock, The Assize of (1184), was 
 the great code of regulations relating to the 
 royal forests, issued by Henry II. It was 
 subsequently considerably modified by Magna 
 Charta, and Henry III.'s Charter of the 
 Forest. The Assize of Woodstock is the 
 first formal Act relating to the forests that is 
 in existence. The Act was somewhat less 
 severe than the legislation on the subject 
 under William the Conqueror and Henry I. 
 But the punishment for breaches of this law 
 were heavy, and it was carried out with 
 burdensome rigour. "And this," says Dr. 
 Stubbs, "is altogether the part of his 
 [Henry's] legislation that savours most 
 strongly of tyranny." The Assize carefully 
 preserves the game and wood of the forest, 
 orders a jury of twelve men in each forest 
 county to be chosen for the custody of vert 
 and venison, and requires every person of 
 twelve years and upwards living within the 
 bounds of the forests to take the oath of 
 peace. Death was to be the penalty for a 
 third infraction of the forest laws. [Further in- 
 formation given under Assize of Woodstock.] 
 The Assize is given in Stubbs, Select Charters. 
 
 Woodville, Lobd Bdwabd, was a brother 
 of Edward IV.'s wife, and consequently uncle 
 to the queen of Henry VII. He obtained a 
 temporary notoriety in the reign of this latter 
 monarch by his expedition at the head of 400 
 men to aid the Duke of Britanny in 1488, 
 notwithstanding the king's positive orders 
 against the despatch from England of any 
 expedition with such an object. Besides ex- 
 
 citing considerable indignation in France, this 
 proceeding on the part of Lord Woodville had 
 the effect of forcing Henry to adopt a definite 
 position with regard to the dispute between . 
 France and Britanny. The news of the 
 French victory at St. Aubin (July 28, 1488), 
 and of the death of Lord Woodville, vrith 
 the almost total destruction of the small 
 English force which he commanded, raised 
 public feeling in England to an extent which 
 Henry could no longer afford to ignore ; and, 
 although there continued to be » secret 
 arrangement with Charles VIII. on the 
 subject, a supply of troops was at once sent 
 to the aid of Britanny. At the time of the 
 ill-starred expedition which ended in defeat 
 and slaughter at St. Aubin, Lord Woodville 
 was Governor of the Isle of Wight. 
 
 Woodville, Elizabeth. [Elizabeth 
 Woodville.] 
 
 Worcester, Florence of. [Florence 
 
 OF WORCESTEB..] 
 
 Worcester, John Tiptoft, Earl of 
 {d. 1470), was a strong Yorkist partisan. He 
 held the office of Treasurer in 1452, and early 
 in Edward IV.'s reign was made Constable, 
 and rendered himself odious by his cruelties. 
 He was Lieutenant of Ireland in 1467, and 
 held other important offices. In 1470, on the 
 restoration of Henry VI., he was captured, 
 and beheaded on Tower Hill. He was illus- 
 trious for his learning and his patronage of 
 learned men ; he translated many works into 
 English, and spent a great part of his life in 
 travel and study. 
 
 Worcester, Thomas Percy, Earl op 
 {d. 1403), was the younger brother of Henry 
 Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and served 
 with distinction in the French wars. He 
 afterwards become Steward of the Household 
 to Eichard II., who created him Earl of Wor- 
 cester. He joined Henry of Lancaster, but 
 in 1403 took part in his brother's rebeEion 
 against him. He fought in the battle of 
 Shrewsbury, where he was taken prisoner, 
 and beheaded two days after. 
 
 Worcester, William of {d. circa 1480), 
 a physician, wrote the Annals of England frmn 
 IS^ to liS8, which were subsequently con- 
 tinued by another hand to 1491. It has been 
 pubhshed by Heame. 
 
 Worcester, The Battle of (Sept. 3, 
 1651), was fought between the Scottish and 
 Parliamentarians during the unsuccessful 
 expedition of Charles II. to England previous 
 to the Restoration. After the battle of Dunbar 
 and the capture of Edinburgh by Cromwell, 
 Charles made a sudden movement southwards 
 in January, hoping to cut off a, portion of 
 the English army, which lay south of the 
 Forth. Cromwell thereupon moved north- 
 wards towards Perth, and so left open the 
 way to England. The king promptly hastened 
 across the frontier, and advanced rapidly to 
 
Wor 
 
 ( 1088 ) 
 
 Wri 
 
 "Worcester, -whiuli he entered oa Aug. 22. 
 There he lay inactively, and allowed Crom- 
 well to overtake him. The Parliamentary 
 army attacked in two divisions, connected by 
 a bridge of boats, Fleetwood on the west 
 bank of the Severn, Cromwell marching on 
 the east bank upon the town itself. Charles 
 first attacked Cromwell, but without success, 
 and he was driven back into the town, where 
 the two divisions of the enemy met, and drove 
 the Eoyalists through the streets. They 
 made no attempt to rally, and the war sooa 
 came to an end. 
 
 Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters. 
 
 Worcester, The City and Borough of, 
 has, perhaps, had a more disturbed history 
 than any town in England. From 894, when 
 it was almost entirely destroyed by the Danes, 
 its annals present a long series of sieges, 
 burnings, and captures. Eebuilt by Ethelred, 
 it was retaken by Hardioanute in 1041. In 
 1074 it was occupied by the barons of Here- 
 ford, and a conspiracy against William 
 crushed. The cathedral, founded by Bishop 
 Oswald in 983 on the ruins of a previous 
 building, was destroyed by fire. It was re- 
 built by Bishop Wulstau in 1084, but again 
 suffered twice from fire, and was repaired 
 and reconsecrated in 1280. During the 
 troubles of Stephen's reign "Worcester was 
 plundered by the Empress, and besieged by 
 the king, and again by his son, Eustace. 
 Hugh of Mortimer held the castle against 
 Henry II. in 1157. A council was held there 
 in 1240. In Henry III.'s reign it became a 
 stronghold of the baronial party, the king 
 being taken there after the battle of Lewes. 
 "Worcester was plundered in 1401 by Owen 
 Glendower, who held it until driven off by 
 Henry IV. In 1642 it was taken by Prince 
 Rupert, but was recovered by the Parliamen- 
 tarians under Colonel Fiennes in the same 
 year. Lastly, Charles II. was defeated there 
 in Sept., 1651. 
 
 Green, Antiquities of Worcester; Nash, Wor- 
 
 Worms, The Treaty op (Sept. 17, 1743), 
 was signed by England, Austria, and Sar- 
 dinia. After the battle of Dettingen in the 
 "War of the Austrian Succession, negotiations 
 for peace were set on foot, but were abruptly 
 broken off owing to the desire of England to 
 carry on the war with France. Accordingly 
 the treaty was signed at Worms on Sept. 13. 
 It was negotiated by Carteret without re- 
 ference to the ministers at home, and they 
 accordingly refused to ratify a separate and 
 secret convention by which Maria Theresa 
 was to be supplied with a subsidy of £300,000 
 a year as long as " the necessity of her affairs 
 shall require." The treaty agreed to assure 
 the Pragmatic Sanction and the European 
 balance ; the King of Sardinia was to have a 
 yearly subsidy of £200,000 from England, 
 the cession of the Vigevenese from Austria, 
 
 and the command of the allies in Italy, on 
 condition that he should hriag to the field 
 an army of 45,000, and renounce his preten- 
 sions to the Milanese. This aUiance was met 
 by the League of Frankfurt, of which the 
 most important members were France and 
 Prussia. 
 
 Kooh and Sohoell, Traiies de Paw; Ameth, 
 Maria Thevesia. 
 
 Wotton, Dr. Nicholas {b. 1497, d. 1566), 
 was employed by Thomas Cromwell (1537) to 
 arrange the marriage of Henry VIII. and 
 Anne of Cleves. Made Dean of Canterbury 
 and York by Henry, who had a high opinion 
 of his abilities, he was named one of the 
 council of executors appointed by the king's 
 wUl, and subsequently became a trusted ser- 
 vant of Mary, for "whom he discovered the 
 plot of Sir Henry Dudley (ISoO). In the 
 same year he laid bare a conspiracy to seize 
 Calais, and averted the danger for the moment. 
 In 1558 he was one of the English representa- 
 tives in the discussion of a proposed peace 
 with France, which took place at Cercamp, 
 and in the following year was present at the 
 negotiations at Cambray, while in 1665 he 
 was sent to Bruges to discuss the subject of 
 the suppression of English pirates who were 
 alleged to be doing great damage to the 
 Spanish shipping. Dr. Wotton was offered 
 the primacy in 1559 before the appointment 
 of Axchbishop Parker, but refused it, knowing 
 that he was no theologian, and that ' ' more 
 than administrative abihty and knowledge of 
 the world was at this time required in the 
 primate." 
 
 Lloyd, Worthies; Tytler, Bng. under Bd. YI. 
 and Mary. , 
 
 Wray, Sir Christopher {d. 1692), one of 
 the favourite judges of Queen Elizabeth, was 
 an active member of Parliament during the 
 reign of Mary, and up to 1571, when he was 
 chosen Speaker. In 1572 he was made a 
 judge, and two years later became Chief Jus- 
 tice of the Queen's Bench, in which capacity 
 he presided at the trial of Secretary Davison. 
 Sir Edward Coke calls him "a most reverend 
 judge, of profound and judicial knowledge, 
 accompanied with a ready and singular capa- 
 city, grave and sensible elocution, and con- 
 tinual and admirable patience." 
 roes, Judges of England. 
 
 Wright, Sir Nathan (b. 1663, d. 1721), 
 was called to the bar in 1677. He assisted at 
 the trial of the Seven Bishops. In 1697 he 
 was created King's Sergeant. On the dis- 
 missal of Somers, he was appointed Lord 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal. In 1702 we find 
 him addressing the commission which had 
 been appointed to frame the union with Scot- 
 land. He rendered himself objectionable by 
 his parti.sanship of the Church. He was 
 restricted to silence in the Upper House 
 where he performed the duties of a Speaker, 
 for want of a peerage. We find him accused 
 
Wri 
 
 ( 1089 ) 
 
 Wya 
 
 of leaving out, in his list of the Justices of 
 the Peace, all who were not of Tory pohtics. 
 He was removed in 1705. Mr. Wyon says 
 of him that " his legal acquirements were 
 below the requisite standard, and his cha- 
 racter for meanness emd avarice ill-qualifled 
 him to preside over the most august assembly 
 in the kingdom." [Somers ; Cowper.] 
 
 Burnet, Hist, of his Own Time ; Wyon, Beign 
 tff Qaeen. Anne. 
 
 Wright, William, a doctor of law, who 
 flourished in the reign of Henry VIII., and 
 is famous as being Henry's first envoy 
 to Kome respecting his projected divorce 
 from Catherine of Aragon. Wright's mis- 
 sion was entirely without any tangible 
 results, and the facts that (1) Clement VII. 
 was at that time a prisoner in the hands of 
 Charles V., and (2) that Henry's ideas on 
 the subject of the divorce had not reached the 
 decided stage they attained a little later, 
 naturally prevented Wright from doing much 
 more than preparing the papal mind for a 
 favourable reception of Henry's wishes. 
 
 Writs, Pabxiamentart, are addressed to 
 the sheriff of a county directing him to cause 
 to be elected a member or members to the 
 House of Commons in case of a general 
 election or vacancy. They issue upon 
 the warrant of the Lord Chancellor, or, 
 during the sitting of the House, upon the 
 warrant of the Speaker. The first in- 
 stance of a writ of summons in their later 
 form is in 1213, when the king directed that 
 four discreet men should be returned from 
 each shire ad loquendiim nobiscum de negotiis 
 regni nostri, and at the same date four men 
 and the reeve were summoned from the 
 township or demesne. It was not until the 
 end of the reign of Edward I. that Parlia- 
 ment assumed its final form, and that the 
 possibUity of the merchants and lawyers being 
 summoned as separate sub-estates ceased. 
 Of the o*!ier estates of the realm, writs of 
 summons' were addressed in the times of 
 Henry III. and Edward I. to a certain select 
 number of hereditary barons, who, in con- 
 junction with the prelates, formed, by the 
 middle of the fourteenth century, the House 
 of Lords. The form of the early Parlia^ 
 mentary writs illustrates very clearly the 
 different functions of the three estates. The 
 magnates are usually summoned ad trac- 
 tamdum ; the Commons, ad consulendum et 
 consentiendmn, that is, the latter body are 
 regarded as having inferior powers. Prelates 
 were summoned de fide et dilectione ; lords 
 temporal, de fide et homagio or de homagio 
 et ligeantia. Writs of summons to the Com- 
 mons are important in the qualifications 
 introduced, which vary from the formula " de 
 discretionibus et legalionobus" of 1275 to the 
 qualification that members should be " gladiis 
 unitos," or belted knights, introduced m 
 1340. Later changes depend upon the elec- 
 HisT.— 36 
 
 tion Acts in force at different periods, such 
 
 as those imposing a property qualification on 
 
 electors, and directing the methods of election. 
 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist., ebs. xv. aud xx. For 
 
 specimens of Parliamentary writs^ eee Stubbs, 
 
 Select Charters, and Palffrave, Parliamentary 
 
 Writs; see also May, Parliamentary Practice. 
 
 Wroth, Sir Thomas, was sent to Ireland 
 (1564) as a special commissioner, in- con- 
 junction with Sir Nicholas Arnold, to in- 
 quire into the complaints which had been 
 made against the English army. He had 
 previously been employed on diplomatic mis- 
 sions in Germany, and had been one of the 
 witnesses to Edward VI.'s " device " for 
 altering the succession in favour of Lady 
 Jane Grey. 
 
 Wrotham Heath,THE Battle of (Jan., 
 1554), resulted in the defeat of the Kentish 
 insurgents under Sir Henry Isley by Lord 
 Abergavenny. Wrotham is a small town 
 near Sevenoaks in Kent. 
 
 Wnlf helm, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (923—942), was translated from Wells. His 
 episcopate saw the commencement of the 
 movement in favour of monasticism and rigid 
 celibacy, which was to agitate the Church in 
 the reigns of his immediate successors. 
 
 "William of Malmesbury ; Hook, Archhisliops. 
 
 Wulfhere, King of Mercia (659— 675\ 
 was the son of Penda and brother of Peada. 
 On the death of the latter, Oswiu of North- 
 umbria assumed the government of Mercia, 
 but in 659 the Northumbrian yoke was 
 shaken off and Wulfhere proclaimed king. 
 He was successful in his wars against Wessex, 
 and having conquered the Isle of Wight, 
 granted it to Ethelwald of Sussex. He 
 carried on the work of conversion begun 
 by Peada, and founded the bishopric of 
 Lichfield. One of his daughters was St. 
 Werburgh. 
 
 Bede, Eccles. Hist. ; Hook, Archbishops. 
 
 Wulfred, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (805 — 832), was chosen on the death of Ethel- 
 hard. " He was," says Dean-Hook, " a good, 
 easy, prudent man ; equally intent on serving 
 his own family and on improving the property 
 and estates of the chapter and the see." And 
 this is all that can be said of him, for though 
 he held the archbishopric for more than 
 twenty-six years, he did nothing worthy of 
 record. 
 
 Florence of Worcester ; Hook, Archbishops. 
 
 Wyatt, Sir Thomas (<?. April 11, 1554), 
 was the son of Sir Thomas Wyatt the poet. 
 In Jan., 1554, he became one of the leaders 
 in the rebellion against Mary, though he 
 is said to have had nothing to do with the 
 origin of the plot. The insurrection which 
 was caused by national discontent at the con- 
 templated marriage of Mary with Philip of 
 Spain, had for its object the deposition of the 
 
Wye 
 
 ( 1030 ) 
 
 Wye 
 
 queen in favour of the Princess Elizabeth 
 and Courtenay, Earl of Devon. Sir Thomas 
 Wyatt was charged with the duty of rais- 
 ing Kent, and so well did he perform his 
 mission, that Kent was the only part of the 
 country where the rebellion assumed at all 
 formidable dimensions. " He excited," says 
 Mr. Lingard, "the applause of his very ad- 
 versaries by the secrecy and address with 
 which he organised the rising, and by the 
 spirit and perseverance with which he con- 
 ducted the enterprise." A delay, however, 
 in taking possession of London, proved fatal 
 to Wyatt' 3 success ; and after a sharp en- 
 gagement he found himself compelled to sur- 
 render at Temple Bar to Sir Maurice Burke- 
 ley. After his capture he impHoated Cour- 
 tenay by his confessions ; but though 
 every endeavour was ma4e to extort from 
 him a fuU revelation, he steadfastly re- 
 fused to buy his life at the price of an accu- 
 sation of the Princess Elizabeth, which was 
 what her enemies, with Bishop Gardiner at 
 ■their head, were labouring to obtain ; and at 
 the last moment retracted what he had said 
 concerning Courtenay's guilt. 
 
 Bto-w, Annals; 'Nosdlle", Amhassades en A'ngle- 
 
 toire ; Lingard, Hist, of Eng, ; Froude, Hint, of 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Wycliffe, John, was bom about the year 
 1320, or a little later. Leland, the antiquary, 
 names his birthplace as Ipreswel, or Hipa- 
 weU, near Richmond in Yorkshire, and states 
 that he derived' his origin from the family 
 which held the lordship of Wycliffe-on-Tees. 
 It was this connection plainly that drew him 
 to BaUiol College, Oxford, which had been 
 founded by John BalUol, of Barnard Castle, 
 on the borders of Durham, in the preceding 
 century. By an old mistake, WycliSe has 
 been described as first a commoner of Queen's 
 College, and a confusion (as it appears) with 
 a namesake, makes him fellow and seneschal 
 of Merton. In all probability, however, he 
 remained a member of Balliol until he was 
 chosen master of the college some time after 
 1356, but not later than 1360. In 1361 he 
 was instituted to the college living of Filling- 
 ham, near Lincoln, and shortly afterwards 
 resigned the mastership. He does not ap- 
 pear, however, to have given up his work as 
 a teacher in Oxford, for we find him renting 
 rooms at Queen's College, doubtless with this 
 object, at various dates between 1363 and 
 1380. But in this interval — if we are to ac- 
 cept a view now nearly universally credited, 
 which rests indeed upon abundant contem- 
 porary evidence, but which none the less may 
 have arisen from the confusion above referred 
 to with the other John "Wycliife, of Merton — 
 the future Reformer was nominated by Arch- 
 bishop Islip in 1365, warden of his founda- 
 tion of Canterbury Hall, the site of which 
 now forms a portion of Christchuioh, Oxford. 
 Wycliffe and three fellows, secular clergy- 
 men, were appointed in the place of thiee 
 
 monks whose position in the hall had been a 
 source of disturbance ; but in 1367 Islip's 
 successor. Archbishop Langham, himself a 
 monk, expelled Wycliffe and the fellows who 
 had entered with him, and substituted regular 
 /clergymen. Wycliffe appealed to Rome ; 
 judgment was given against him in 1369 and 
 published in 1370, and the sentence was en- 
 forced by royal writ in 1372. His living 
 of FiUingham he exchanged in 1368 for 
 LudgershaU, in Buckinghamshire, and in 1374 
 he was presented by the crown to the rectory 
 of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire, where he 
 remained until his death. 
 
 During these years Wycliffe had written 
 a variety of scholastic treatises ; then, 
 turning to theology, he had devoted himself 
 in particular to expanding and applying his 
 theory of. the divine government, known to 
 us as the doctrine of dominion. He erected 
 a sort of theocratic feudalism where each 
 man " held " of God, without the interposi- 
 tion of any mesne lord, and where " grace " 
 or " charity" was the sole indispensable con- 
 dition of tenure. When Wycliffe went on to 
 explain that the universal power claimed by 
 the Pope could only belong by right to the 
 " Lord-in-chief," who had never delegated 
 his authority in that sense to man, it 
 was evident that in the doctrinaire might 
 be found one able to do good service to 
 his country, especially at a time when Eng- 
 land was pressed by demands for tribute 
 to the Pope, and overrun by his emis- 
 saries. Accordingly we find that Wycliffe 
 was made chaplain to the king ; in 1366 he 
 wrote against the papal claim, and in 1374 
 acted as one of the royal commissioners at 
 the conference held at Bruges, with the object 
 of settling the disputed question of "provi- 
 sions." Wycliffe now appears as a hearty 
 co-operator with John of Gaunt, though it 
 should seem that the only point they had in 
 common was a desire to repress the over- 
 grown power of the endowed clergy. Through 
 this connection rather than from ai'y serious 
 charge of incorrect doctrine, Wycliffe was 
 cited by ' William Courtenay, Bishop of 
 London, a declared opponent of the Duke of 
 Lancaster, to appear before him at St. Paul's 
 in Feb., 1377 ; but the trial broke up in an 
 undignified quarrel between John, who ac- 
 companied Wycliffe, and' the bishop. Wy- 
 cKffe's teaching, however, with regard to the 
 rights of the Church, especially as to the 
 temporalities, had already reached Rome ; 
 and a few months later a series of buUs were 
 directed against him by Gregory XI. But 
 the king's death in June delayed their execu- 
 tion, and the attempted action of the Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury was thwarted for some 
 time by the independent attitude of the 
 University of Oxford. Meantime Wycliffe 
 published his answer to the papal accusation. 
 At length, in the spring of 1378, he had 
 to appear at Lambeth ; but here again the 
 
"Wye 
 
 ( 1091 ) 
 
 Wym 
 
 session was interrupted "by an uproar of the 
 people, who resented the intrusion of papal 
 bulls : and Wyclifie was simply forbidden to 
 lecture upon the subjects which had given 
 offence. The Great Schism, however, which 
 began in the same year, exasperated his 
 opposition to the papacy. He went further 
 than before, and ventured to dispute the doc- 
 trine of transubstantiation. He turned from 
 the clergy to the commonalty, and began to 
 address them in English tracts ; he denounced 
 the papacy, the monastic, and now particu- 
 larly the mendicant, orders. He planned 
 and mainly executed, with the help of John 
 Purvey ajid other friends, a translation of 
 the Bible into English, the first complete 
 version ever attempted, which was quickly 
 spread abroad in innumerable copies ; at least 
 165 manuscripts of it, in whole or in part, 
 have come down to ug, in spite of the 
 strong measures taken by the Church for its 
 suppression. He sent out his disciples, the 
 "poor priests," to preach his doctrines 
 throughout the country. But the hostility 
 among the leading churchmen aroused by 
 these movements was much more languid than 
 might have been anticipated. A vigorous 
 attack was made upon his principal ad- 
 herents in Oxford, Nicholas Hereford, Ee- 
 pyngdon, Ashton, and Bedeman, in 1382, 
 and they were induced to recant. But the 
 heresiarch himself was hardly at all molested, 
 though his doctrines were condemned by the 
 Chancellor of Oxford, and by a provincial 
 council held at the Blackfriars in London, in 
 May, 1382 : it is said also that he had to ap- 
 pear in person at another council at Oxford in 
 November of that year ; but no sentence was 
 passed upon him. He retired immolested to 
 Lutterworth and died there from a paralysis on 
 Dec. 31, 1384. "WycHffe was a strenuous and 
 conscientious, if in some respects injudicious, 
 advocate of Church reform. So far he was in 
 unison with perhaps a majority of the earnest 
 clergy of his day. "With the Franciscans he 
 found a chief cause of the corruption of the 
 Church in the excessive possession of temporal 
 goods by the clergy. He parted company with 
 them, as with all loyal Catholics, when he 
 sought to reform the doctrinal system, and 
 to destroy almost everything upon which the 
 sacerdotal principle was based. But by this 
 very course of teaching he attached the mul- 
 titude to him, weary as it was of the perfunc- 
 tory ministrations of a corrupt order. It is 
 in his English works, his short, robust tracts 
 and sermons— far more than in his Latin ones, 
 which, although of a high interest, are but 
 too plainly the products of a decUning and ar- 
 tificial period of scholasticism— that Wyclitte 
 shows his real genius ; and he may almost be 
 said to have invented English prose as a, 
 vehicle of literary exposition. His influence 
 was permanent, though not perhaps very 
 extensive ; but the fact which makes him a 
 true herald of the Protestant Eeformation 
 
 was his assertion of the rights of the in- 
 dividual conscience before God and against 
 any human intermediary whatsoever. 
 
 Biographies, by J. Lewis (2nd ed., Oxford, 
 1820), Professor G. V. Lechler (1873), and A. E. 
 Pennington (1884) ; also in Sliirley's introduc- 
 tion to the Fasciculi Zizaniorum (Bolls Series^ ; 
 and in F. D. Matthew's introduction to his 
 English Worlcs of Wyclif. The two last are of 
 special value. Wychile's English works have 
 been published by T. Arnold (3 volumes) and 
 Matthew (1 volume). His Latin works, of which 
 hitherto little more than the Trialogus has 
 Been the light (ed. Lechler), are now in course 
 of publication by the WyoUf Society. 
 
 [R. L. P.] 
 
 "Wykehani, "William or (S.1324, d. 1404), 
 was bom at "Wykeham in Hampshire. He 
 long served Edward III. in the capacity of 
 surveyor of works, and built for him many 
 noble edifices, "Windsor Castle among the 
 number. He became warden of the forests 
 south of the Trent, Keeper of the Privy Seal, 
 President of the Coimcil, Bishop of "Win- 
 chester, and at length Chancellor in 1367. In 
 1371 he was driven from court, and his 
 temporalities seized on charges of corruption, 
 which were subsequently proved to be un- 
 founded. On the accession of Richard II. he 
 was restored to favour, but took little further 
 part in public affairs till 1389, when he was 
 induced, much against his inclination, to 
 accept again the office of Chancellor. He held 
 the Great Seal for two years and a half, during 
 which period tranquiUity and good govern- 
 ment prevailed. In 1391 he retired from 
 public hfe, and devoted his energies to the 
 administration of his diocese, and the found- 
 ing and endowing of the noble establish- 
 ments of New College, Oxford, and St. 
 Mary, "Winchester. "Wykeham was a. man 
 of such a blameless life that one of his 
 contemporaries said that his enemies in 
 attacking him were trying to find a. knot in 
 a rush. 
 
 Wykes, Thomas, Canon of Osney {Jlor. 
 circa 1250), was the author of a chronicle 
 otherwise called Chronicon Salisburiensis Mon- 
 asterii. It begins with the Conquest and goes 
 down to 1289, after which it is continued by 
 an anonymous author to 1304. Only the 
 part dealing with the struggles between 
 Henry III. and the barons is of much value. 
 The chronicle has been published by Gale in 
 the second volume of Rerum Anglicarwn- 
 Scriptores, 1687- 
 
 Wymund, a monk of Fumess, was made 
 Bishop of Man (1134). As soon as he had 
 obtained this position he gave out that he 
 was a son of Angus, Earl of Moray, as- 
 sumed the name of Malcolm MacHeth, and, 
 supported by the Norwegian King of the 
 Isles, and by Somerlaed of Argyle, whose 
 daughter he had married, invaded Scotland, 
 causing great trouble to David, who, however. 
 
Wyn 
 
 ( 1092 ) 
 
 Yeo 
 
 at length took him prisoner (1137), and con- 
 fined him in the castle of Eoxburgh. He was 
 liberated, and made Earl of Eoss by Malcolm 
 IV. (1157). Mr. Robertson considers that 
 Wymund and Malcolm MacHeth were two 
 difierent people. 
 
 Wyudbam, Sm William (S. 1687, d. 
 "\740), sat for the county of Somerset (1710), 
 and in 1713 became Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer. He was a follower of Bolingbroke's, 
 and introduced in the House that Schism Act 
 which drove Oxford from office. In BoHng- 
 broke's projected ministry he was to have 
 been head of the commission of the Privy 
 Seal. Wyndham's Jacobitism had at any rate 
 the merit of sincerity. On the accession of 
 George I. he was dismissed from office. In 
 Opposition he vigorously opposed the procla- 
 mation for a new Parliament, for which he 
 was reprimanded by the Speaker, and defended 
 the fallen ministry. In 1715, on the out- 
 ■foreak of the Jacobite insurrection in the north, 
 he was promptly arrested, and committed to 
 the Tower. Bohngbroke informs us that he 
 and Lord Lansdowne were the only two men 
 who could possibly have organised an insur- 
 rection in the west of England, and there is 
 no doubt that he held the threads of the con- 
 spiracy. On his release he continued until 
 lus death a vigorous opponent of Walpole, his 
 eloquence, which was very great, being espe- 
 cially directed against that statesman. He 
 was the recognised leader of the Tory part 
 of the composite Opposition. His best 
 speech was made in 1734: against the 
 Septennial Act. In 1739 he announced 
 that he and his friends were going to secede 
 from the House, and solemnly took leave 
 of it for ever. But the manoeuvre was 
 not a success,' and the Opposition returned 
 to their places. It was generally believed 
 at the time that Wyndham wished to play 
 the part of a political martyr, and be sent to 
 the Tower. " As a statesman," says Lord 
 Stanhope, " he wanted only a better cause, 
 a longer life, and the lustre of official station 
 for perfect fame. His oratory, more official 
 and stately than Pulteney's, and, perhaps, 
 \ess ready, was not less effective." 
 
 Wynendaal, .Skirmish at (1708), was 
 one of the episodes of the siege of Lille 
 during the "War of the Spanish Succession. 
 On Sept. 27 a huge convoy departed from 
 Ostend for the English ai-my. Lamotte, 
 the officer in command of the French cavalry, 
 hastened to intercept it towards evening at 
 Wynendaal, near which the road passes 
 through a wood. He found the wood, how- 
 ever, occupied by an officer named Webb, 
 with 6,000 men, supported towards the end 
 of the action by Cadogan, with some squad- 
 rons of horse, who drove oif the enemy at aU 
 points. The convoy arrived safely at the 
 English camp. 
 
 Xiphilinus was a Greek monk who lived 
 in the eleventh century, and who has left us 
 an epitome of several of the lost works of Dio 
 Cassius, from which we get considerable 
 information concerning the early history of 
 Britain. 
 
 Taudaboo, Treaty of. [Burmese 
 War.] 
 
 Yarmouth, Sophia - be Walmoden, 
 Countess of [A. 1766), was a mistress of 
 George II. He had known her in Hanover, 
 and shortly after the death of Queen Caroline 
 she was brought to England, and created 
 Countess of Yarmouth — " the last instance," 
 says Stanhope, "in our annals of a British 
 peerage bestowed on a royal mistress. Her 
 character was quiet and inofiensive, and 
 though she did not at first possess, she gradu- 
 ally gained considerable influence over the 
 king." She was summoned when George was 
 found dead, and by a codicil to that king's 
 win was bequeathed £1 0,000. [George II.] 
 Hervey, Jlfcmoirs. 
 
 Yaxted, Erancis {d. 1565), one of the 
 household of Mary Queen of Scots, was em- 
 ployed by her in various confidential missions, 
 the details of which he invariably betrayed to 
 Elizabeth's minister. In 1565 he was sent 
 to Philip of Spain to obtain the aid of that 
 monarch against the English queen, and was 
 drowned on his way back in charge of a large 
 sum of money, which he was conveying as a 
 present from Spain to Mary. " Yaxted," says 
 Mr. Froude, " was a conspirator of the kind 
 most dangerous to his employers — vain, 
 loud, and confident, fond of boasting of hjs 
 acquaintance with kings and princes, and 
 ' promising to bring to a good end whatsoever 
 should be committed to him.' " 
 
 Yelverton, Sir Christopher (d. 1612), 
 who had on several occasions distinguished 
 himself by his Parliamentary speeches in 
 favour of the restriction of the royal prero- 
 gative within due limits, was in 1597 elected 
 Speaker of the House of Commons. By his 
 conduct while holding his office he managed to 
 regain the favour of the queen, which he had 
 forfeited by his previous speeches, and in 
 1602 was made a judge of the Queen's 
 Bench. His character is described as that of 
 " a gentleman, a learned man, and a lawyer ; 
 one that will deliver his mind with perspi- 
 cuous reason and great comeliness." 
 !Foss, Judges. 
 
 Yeomanry, The (England), was the 
 name given to a force of volunteer cavalry, 
 first raised in 1761, and embodied in 1797, 
 when numerous regiments were formed. In 
 
Teo 
 
 ( 1093 ) 
 
 Tor 
 
 1814, when the Volunteers -were dishanded, 
 many of the Yeomanry Cavalry were allowed 
 to exist, under regulations providing that 
 they should be called out for short periods of 
 exercise every year. In 1871 the command 
 of the Militia, Yeomanry, and Volunteers 
 ■was vested in the crown and the "War Office. 
 
 [VOLCNTEEKS.] 
 
 Yeomanry, The (Ireland), were em- 
 bodied in Sept., 1796, as the Militia could 
 not be trusted in so dangerous a time. The 
 government being afraid of a religious war, 
 had long refused the applications of the 
 gentry to be allowed to raise men at their 
 own expense, but could riot refuse any longer. 
 The Orangemen entered largely into these 
 corps, of which Dublin alone raised four 
 regiments of foot and four troops of horse. 
 Thirty thousand men were soon under arms, 
 nearly all of whom were Protestants. It was 
 the Yeomanry who effected the disarmament 
 of Ulster in 1797, and to them more than to 
 any other force was the suppression of the 
 rebellion of 1798 due. It cannot, however, 
 be denied that their free use of the lash, the 
 picket, and the pitchcap, both before and 
 during the revolt, may have prevented the 
 insurgents from layiog down their arms, and 
 led to many of the cruelties committed by the 
 peasantry. 
 
 Fronde, English in Irclancl. 
 
 Tonge, SiE "William (d. 1755), was the 
 eldest son and successor of Sir "Walter Yonge, 
 Bart. , of Culloden, near Honiton, in Devonshire. 
 He was elected member for Honiton at the 
 beginning of George I.'s reign, and succeeded 
 to his father's estates in 1731. In 1717 he 
 was appointed a commissioner for examining 
 the debts due to the army; in 1724 a Lord- 
 Commissioner to the Treasury. About 1730 
 he was made Secretary of War and a member 
 of the Privy Council. He was a strong sup- 
 porter of Walpole, who was accustomed to 
 say of him, "that nothing but Yonge's 
 character could keep down such parts, and 
 nothing but his parts could support his 
 character." In 1746 he was a member of the 
 committee for managing the impeachment of 
 Lord Lovat. 
 
 York (Latin, Moracum ; Old English, 
 Borforwic) was the capital of Roman Britain, 
 a fortress where the head-quarters of the 
 Sixth Legion, and for a time of the Ninth, 
 were situated, and the site of an important 
 colony. Its two rivers, the Ouse and the 
 Foss, strengthened its walls, and the former 
 made it an important commercial centre. Con- 
 stantius Chlorus died there, and Constantino 
 the Great was there hailed Emperor by his 
 troops (306 A.D.). It was also the seat of 
 one of the bishoprics of the Eomano-British 
 Church. Under the Anglian kings it pre- 
 served its position as a capital ; first of 
 Deira, afterwards of the greater kingdom 
 
 of Northumbria. In 627 Paulinus baptised 
 King Edwin in the hastily -built chapel 
 •where the cathedral afterwards rose. The 
 organisation of the English Church, effected 
 by Theodore, made York an archbishopric, 
 though quite dependent on Canterbury, until 
 Archbishop Egbert vindicated its claims to 
 metropolitan independence. In 867 it was 
 taken by the Danes, and its recovery by 
 Athelstan took place in 937. At the Con- 
 quest it contained about 10,000 people. It 
 submitted to "William, who built a castle 
 there in 1068. It was taken in Sept., 1069, 
 by an English revolt aided by a ' Danish 
 fleet, but retaken by "William without oppo- 
 sition at the end of the year. In the reign 
 of John, York had a merchant gild, and 
 possessed a mayor and aldermen. During the 
 long wars with Scotland it was very fre- 
 quently the meeting-place of Parliaments. 
 In 1298 Edward L ; in 1314, 1318, 1319, and 
 1322 Edward II. ; in 1328, 1332, 1333, 1334, 
 and 1335 Edward III. held sessions at York, 
 and again in 1 464 a Parliament was summoned 
 thither by Edward IV. Its commerce con- 
 tinued to flourish, although diminished by 
 the rise of Hull, and Edward III. for a time 
 freed the staple there. Richard II. made the 
 city a county, and Henry VI. extended its 
 jurisdiction over the "Wapentake of the 
 Ainsty. The Yorkist kings cultivated the 
 favour of the citizens, and Richard III. 
 counted them his trustiest supporters. York 
 suffered greatly at the Reformation from 
 the destruction of the hospitals, chapels, 
 and chantries which abounded there. It was 
 captured by the rebels during the Pilgrimage 
 of Grace (1536), and became the seat of the 
 Council of the North, which was erected 
 there during those disturbances. At York 
 also met the commission which commenced 
 the inquiry into the charges against Mary 
 Queen of Scots (1568). In the civil wars of 
 the next century the city played a still more 
 important part. There, in 1642, Charles I. 
 collected his partisans, and the surrender of 
 York in July, 1644, sealed the fate of the 
 north of England. Its occupation by Fairfax 
 in Jan., 1660, enabled Monk to advance into 
 England, and materially forwarded the Res- 
 toration. Like most other corporations Yprk 
 lost its charter in 1684, and had it restored in 
 Nov., 1688. In the same month Lord Danby 
 seized the city, then governed by Sir John 
 Reresby, and declared for a free Parliament 
 and the Protestant religion. At the time of the 
 Revolution of 1688, York probably contained 
 about 10,000 inhabitants. Though its trade 
 was fast diminishing, and its political weight 
 decreased as great manufacturing towns grew 
 up in the north of England, it still retained 
 its importance as a social centre. " "What 
 has been, and is, the chief support of the 
 city at present," wrote Drake in his History 
 of York (1737), " is the resort to and residence 
 of several country gentlemen with their 
 
Yor 
 
 ( 1094 ) 
 
 Yor 
 
 families in it." As the judicial and political 
 . centre of the largest of English counties, as 
 the ecclesiastical centre of a much wider 
 district, it continues to rank amongst the 
 great cities of England. 
 
 "Wellbeloved, Ehwfacura; Drake, Eboracum, 
 or the If LstoiT/ and Antiquities uf Y(yrk ; Davies, 
 York Records ; Barnes, Yoi'kshire, Past and 
 Present,' Eaine, Fasti JHhorac&nses. 
 
 York, Akchbishops op. [Archbishops.] 
 
 York, House op. The regal house of 
 York was the most short-hTed of our dynas- 
 ties. Beginning with the proclamation of 
 Edward IV. (March 4, 1461), it ended with 
 the faU of Edward' sj'oungest brother, Richard, 
 on the field of Bosworth (Aug. 22, 1485). It 
 sprang from a marriage, made early in the 
 hiteenth century, hetweeh Eichard, Earl of 
 Cambridge, and Anne Mortimer, his first 
 cousin twice removed. Eichard was the 
 younger son of the fifth son of Edward III. 
 (Edmund, Duke of York), and Anne was the 
 great grand-daughter of the third son (Lionel, 
 Duke of Clarence). Thus the designation of 
 the house came from a younger, its title to 
 the crown from an elder, son of Edward III. 
 Another Eichard, bom in 1410, was the issue 
 of this marriage, and as early as 1424 a suc- 
 cession of events had made this Eichard heir 
 general of Edward III. It came about in 
 this way. The Black Prince's line expired 
 with Eichard II. ; King Edward's second son 
 died in his infancy ; Lionel's sole child, 
 Philippa, and her husband, Edmund Mortimer, 
 Earl of March, had a son, • Eoger, whose 
 children, Edmund and Anne, were in Henry 
 V.'s reign the only descendants of Lionel, 
 Duke of Clarence. In 1424 Edmund died 
 childless. Consequently, just when the most 
 inefficient of the royal descendants of, John of 
 Gaunt, Edward's fourth son, was beginning 
 to reign, the undoubted representative of the 
 third was growing up into a manly vigour 
 and'a healthy robustness of character, which 
 promised a really competent ruler. Richard 
 had also become the only representative of 
 the family of York, for his father, having 
 conspired with others against Henry V., had 
 been beheaded in the summer of 1415, and a 
 few months afterwards his uncle, Edmund, 
 Duke of York, had fallen at Agiucourt, leaving 
 no issue. 
 
 Notwithstanding his father's treason, the 
 fuU favour of the court shone upon Eichard's 
 path from the first. He was carefully brought 
 up as his father's, mother's, and uncle's heir, 
 and was allowed to connect himself by 
 marriage with the wide-spread and influential 
 Neville family, whose head, Ealph, Earl of 
 "Westmoreland, had indeed been his guardian 
 for a time. He wedded Ealph's daughter. 
 Cicely, and thus, when the big moment arrived, 
 had linked to his aspirations and fortunes 
 such powerful nobles as his brothers-in-law, 
 Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, and 
 
 William, Lord Fauconberg, and Eichard's 
 sons, Richard, Earl of Warwick, and John, 
 Lord Montacute ; while the advisers of Henry 
 VI. took every pains to add to his greatness. 
 By giving him command in France and then 
 making him regent there, and appointing him 
 to the Irish lieutenancy, they threw oppor- 
 tunities in his way which he was able and 
 willing to turn to account. He was, there- 
 fore, between 1450 and 1460 the foremost 
 man in England. Yet his claim to the throne 
 was not put forward till the meeting of 
 ParKameut in Oct., 1460. Its soundness is 
 not indisputable. Succession to the crown did 
 not then follow the same rule as succession to 
 pri+ate property ; the transmission of a right 
 to the throne through an heiress, such as 
 Philippa of Clarence, had never been estab- 
 lished, and, even if it were admitted, its 
 virtue was destroyed by the sixty years' pre- 
 scription, the Acts of Parliament, and the oft- 
 repeated oaths of allegiance, that made for 
 Henry's right. The lords of Parliament 
 shrank from giving judgment, and Eichard 
 agreed not to press his claim on being de- 
 clared Henry's heir. Slain in the following 
 December with his second son, Edmund, after 
 the fight of Wakefield, he left his rights to 
 his eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, who 
 soon asserted them with a strong hand. Ed- 
 ward simply seized the crown on March 4, 
 1461. The victory of Towton, and the voice 
 of a Parliament that met in November, rati- 
 fied the act, and Edward IV. was recognised 
 as full king from the date of his proclamation. 
 Mismanagement, and the alienation of War- 
 wick, expelled him from the kingdom in 1470, 
 'but in 1471 he recovered his royalty, holding 
 it in security till his death in April, 1483. By 
 that time his second brother, George, Duke of 
 Clarence, was dead, despatched, on a condem- 
 nation for treason, in some unknown fashion ; 
 but Edward left two sons, Edward, called the 
 Fifth, and Eichard, and five daughters. His 
 youngest brother, however, Eichard, Duke of 
 Gloucester, cunningly supplanted and then 
 murdered the two sons, reigning as Eichard 
 III. for two years. Eichard's crimes estranged 
 from him several staunch Yorkists, who then 
 promoted a marriage between Edward IV.'s 
 eldest daughter, Elizabeth, and Henry Tudor. 
 Before the combination that ensued Richard 
 perished on Bosworth Field on Aug. 22, 1485. 
 Henry married Elizabeth, and thus the rival 
 houses coalesced. Another daughter of Ed- 
 ward IV.'s married the Earl of Devon, and 
 was the mother of the Marquis of Exeter, so 
 fortunate and unfortunate in Henry VIII.'s 
 reign. Clarence, who was married to the 
 Earl of Warwick's elder daughter, Isabella 
 left two children, Edward, Earl of Warwick' 
 who was kept in prison hy Henry VII. till i 
 complicity with a design of Perkin Warbeck's '. 
 led to his execution, and Margaret, created I 
 Countess of Salisbury, and executed by Henry 
 VIII. The chief historical distinction of the 
 
Tor 
 
 ( 1095 ) 
 
 Tor 
 
 house of York is, that it was the first to set 
 the fashion of constitutional despotism in 
 England. 
 
 Gairdner, Biehard III, ; Stubbe, Const. Hist., 
 vol. iii. [J. E.] 
 
 York, Edmund of Langley, Duke op 
 [h. 1341, d. 1402), was the fifth son of Ed- 
 ward III. In 1362 he was made Earl of 
 Cambridge, and on the accession of Eichard 
 II. was appointed one of the council of re- 
 gency. He did not take any prominent part 
 in the battles of his nephew's reign, hut in 
 1385 was made Duke of York, and ,in 1399, 
 during the king's absence in Ireland, was 
 appointed regent. On Boliughroke's landing, 
 York raised a force to oppose him, but finding 
 him more powerful than he had expected, he 
 was induced to make terms with him, and to 
 believe that Henry had no traitorous designs 
 against the kiag. Subsequently he proposed 
 to Richard to resign the crown, thereby pre- 
 serving a semblance of legality to what was 
 in reality a revolution. After this he retired 
 to his domain, where he spent the last years 
 of his life. He figures as a weak man, of 
 moderate views, and always ready by medi- 
 ation to prevent civil strife. His desertion 
 of Eichard, whose representative he was in 
 England, can scarcely be palliated, particularly 
 as, if he had made a firm stand on hearing of 
 Bolingbroke's landing, the barons would pro- 
 bably have submitted. Edmund was twice 
 married, first to Isabella, daughter of Pedro 
 the Cruel of Castile, and secondly to Joan, 
 daughter of Thomas Holand, Earl of Kent. 
 
 Tork, Edward, Duke of [d. 1415), was 
 the son of Edmund of Langley. In the life- 
 time of his father he was created Earl of 
 Rutland, and subsequently Duke of Albemarle 
 by Richard II. He accompanied the king 
 on his expedition to Ireland in the year 1399, 
 but, on learning of Bolingbroke's success, 
 deserted Richard. Henry deprived him of 
 his dukedom, but despite the fact that Lord 
 Eitzwalter and many other barons accused 
 him of abetting Richard in his tyrannical 
 acts, he received no other punishment. In 
 1400 he conspired with the Earl of Hunting- 
 don and others against Henry, but turned 
 . traitor, and revealed the plot to the kmg. He 
 accompanied Henry V. to France, and was 
 one of the commanders in the battle of Agin- 
 court, where he was slain. He married 
 Philippa, daughter of Lord Mohun, but left 
 no issue. 
 
 Tork Ebederiok Augustus, Duke of 
 (b 1763 ' d. 1827), was the second son of 
 George III., and, as early as his elder brother, 
 broke away from the rigid discipbne by which 
 their parents fondly hoped to P^serve them 
 from the evils of the worli At the age of 
 twenty-one he was created Duke of York and 
 Albany, and Earl of TJMer. But already m 
 his thi-d year he had been elevated by his 
 
 father to the half-secularised bishopric of 
 Osnabruck. In 1791 he married Charlotte, 
 eldest daughter of Frederick WiUiam, King 
 of Prussia, when his income was increased 
 by a vote of £30,000 per annum. In 
 1793 he was placed in command of an 
 expedition to the Netherlands, to act with 
 the Prince of Saxe-Cobui'g against France. 
 Though giving some proofs of personal 
 gallantry, he soon made it clear that his 
 royal birth was his only qualification for 
 command. Fortunately for England the 
 duke became disgusted at his want of 
 success, and retreated, leaving Abercromby 
 in command. As a reward for the military 
 ability displayed in this campaign, he was in 
 1795 appointed Commander-in-chief of the 
 Forces, and in 1799 was again entrusted with 
 the command of an expedition to the Low 
 Countries, in which, however, the only 
 successes gained were due to Abercromby. 
 The campaign finally ended in a disgraceful 
 convention with the French. The duke was 
 compelled to resign his office because of the 
 shameful disclosures as to the way in which 
 he allowed his mistress, Mrs. Clarke, to 
 influence the military appointments, but was 
 later restored to his old office under his 
 brother's regency. His last act in public life 
 was a most violent speech in the House of 
 Lords against Catholic Emancipation in 1826. 
 In the following January he died. 
 
 Tork, RiCHAKD, Duke of (J. eirca 1410, d. 
 1460), was the son of Richard, Earl of Cam- 
 bridge, by Anne, daughter of Roger, Earl of 
 March. In 1425 he was relieved from the 
 effects of his father's attainder, and succeeded 
 to the estates and titles of his uncles, Edward, 
 Duke of York, and Edmund, Earl of March. 
 In 1430 he was made Constable of England, 
 in 1432 he was appointed guardian of the 
 coast of Normandy, and in 1436 was made 
 regent of France, and advanced with an army 
 almost to the gates of Paris. In the next 
 year he was recalled, but in 1440 was ap- 
 pointed regent again, holding office tUl 1445. 
 In 1449 he was made Lieutenant of Ireland, 
 and governed that country with great wisdom 
 and moderation during the one year for 
 which he held this post. On his return to 
 England in 1450 he came prominently forward 
 as the opponent of the Duke of Somerset. He 
 was as popular as Somerset was odious, and 
 had powerful allies in the Nevilles, with whom 
 he was closely connected by his marriage with 
 Cecily, daughter of the Earl of Westmore- 
 land. In 1451 a proposal was made in 
 Parliament that York should be declared heir 
 to the crown, but this was not seriously enter- 
 tained, and the proposer was imprisoned. In 
 1452 York, declaring that his sole object was 
 to rid the king of Somerset and other evil 
 counsellors, raised a force, and marched to 
 London. Henry met him at Blackheath, and 
 York laid before him a bill of accusation 
 
Tor 
 
 ( 1096 ) 
 
 Tor 
 
 against Somerset, at the same time swearing 
 fealty to the king, and promising for the 
 future to sue for remedy in legal form. The 
 birth of an heir to Henry in 1453 deprived 
 York of aU hope of succeeding peacefully to 
 the throne, while the imbecility of the king 
 gave him the office of Protector, which he 
 held till Henry's recovery in 1455, Somerset 
 being in prison during this period. On the 
 king's restoration to health York was dis- 
 missed and Somerset reinstated. The first 
 battle of St. Albans followed, in which the 
 latter was slain, and the king shortly after- 
 wards becoming once more imbecile, York 
 was again appointed Protector. When in 
 Feb., 1456, Henry recovered, and York was 
 relieved of his office, two years of comparative 
 peace followed, and. in March, 1458, a great 
 pacification took place at St. Paul's. The 
 misgovernment and misfortunes of the 
 country, and the ahenation of the Nevilles 
 gave York another opportunity in 1459. The 
 Yorkists were marching south when Lord 
 Audley tried to stop them at Blare Heath, 
 but was defeated, and battle was imminent at 
 Ludlow when the defection of Trollop alarmed 
 the Yorkists, and they fled. The duke went 
 to Ireland, and in the Parliament held at 
 Coventry at the end of the year was attainted. 
 In 1460 the Yorkist lords planned a return to 
 England, and York issued a manifesto against 
 the royal ministers. The battle of North- 
 ampton placed the king at their mercy, and 
 the Parliament which met repealed the duke's 
 attainders. York now for the first time 
 asserted his claim to the throne, and after a 
 long discussion a compromise was effected, by 
 which Henry was to retain the crown during 
 his life-time, after which it was to revert to 
 York and his heirs. Meanwhile the duke 
 and his sons were not to molest the king, 
 any attempt on the duke's life was made 
 high treason, and the principality of Wales 
 was handed over to him. However, Margaret, 
 who refused to recognise this arrangement, 
 had been collecting an army in the north, 
 and against her the Duke of York marched. 
 The battle of Wakefield ensued on the last 
 day of the year, when York was slain. His 
 head was placed on the walls of York, gar- 
 nished with a paper crown, but was taken 
 down after the battle of Towton. By his 
 marriage with Cecily Neville the duke had 
 eight sons and four daughters, of whom four 
 sons and one daughter died in childhood. Of 
 the others, Edward and Kichard became 
 kings, Edmund was killed at Wakefield, and 
 George was created Duke of Clarence. His 
 daughters were Anne, who married the Duke 
 of Exeter, and secondly Sir J. St. Leger; 
 Elizabeth, who married John, Earl of Suffolk, 
 and Margaret, who married Charles the Bold, 
 Duke of Burgundy. 
 
 Brougham, Eug. under ihe Souse o/La-ncastcr; 
 Wars of the English in I^rance (Bolls Series) ; 
 Paston Letters, 
 
 Torke, Chaeles (S. 1723, d. 1770), was the 
 second son of the first Lord Hardwicke. 
 Called to the bar in 1743, he soon obtained a 
 large practice, and in the next year made his 
 reputation as a jurist by the publication of 
 Some Considerations on the iawa of Forfeiture 
 for Sigh Treason. In 1747 he was returned 
 to Parliament for Eeigate, and in Nov., 1756, 
 he was appointed Solicitor-G-eneral. In the 
 following July he was doomed to a bitter dis- 
 appointment when Pitt insisted on making 
 Pratt Attorney-General over his head. Eor 
 this slight he never quite forgave Pitt, and 
 on the accession of George III. attached 
 himself to Bute. On Pratt's appointment to 
 the Chief Justiceship of the Common Pleas 
 in Jan., 1762, he became Attorney-General. 
 Bute's administration, however, was short- 
 lived, and early in 1763, he made way for Sir 
 Fletcher Norton. Out of office Yorke's re- 
 putation in the House rose. He strongly 
 condemned the action of the government in 
 issuing general warrants. In 1765 he became 
 again Attorney-General during the Eocking- 
 ham administration, but resigned his office on 
 their falling in the following year, and con- 
 tinued in opposition until the last few days of 
 his life, but his activity was confined for the 
 most part to the courts, and was not employed 
 in any vigorous opposition to the govern- 
 ment. Towards the beginning of 1770, on 
 the resignation of Lord Camden, he was 
 offered the chancellorship — a post which he 
 accepted after having declined it twice. 
 Within a week of this date he died, suspected 
 of having put an end to his own life by 
 suicide. 
 
 Campbell, Xives of the Chancellors ; Trevelyau, 
 Early hife of Fox ; Jesse, Memoir of George III. ; 
 "Walpole, Memoir of George III.; Bockingllam, 
 Memoir ; Letters of Junius. 
 
 Torke, Sm Roland Ifl. 1587), was a " sol- 
 dier of fortune," who was the bitter enemy 
 of Leicester, and who is said to have been 
 instrumental in bringing about the treachery 
 of Sir William Stanley in delivering up 
 Deventer to the Spaniards (1587). At the 
 same time Yorke himself gave up the forts at 
 Zutphen, of which he was in command, and 
 went over to PhUip. 
 
 Torktown, The Surrender of (Oct. 19, 
 1781), is memorable as the last important 
 act of the American War of Independence. 
 Early in August ComwaUis had, in obedience 
 to orders from Clinton, withdrawn into York- 
 town, a place whose safety required a naval 
 superiority in its defenders, and at this 
 time that superiority had passed away to 
 the French, who had a large fleet under 
 De Grasse in those waters. Cornwallia was 
 aware of the danger of his position, espe- 
 cially so when, on Sept. 28, the combined 
 French and American armies appeared in 
 sight. On Oct. 1 the invctment was com- 
 
Ton 
 
 ( 1097 ) 
 
 You 
 
 pleted, and works were begun with, a view to 
 the bombardment of the English position. 
 After an ineffectual attempt to carry the in- 
 fantry across the strait into Gloucester, a small 
 town on the opposite headland, Comwallis 
 sent a flag of truce proposing to capitulate on 
 condition that the garrisons of Gloucester and 
 Yorktown should be sent home on their word 
 of honour not again to serve against America 
 or her allies. Washington would not accept 
 these terms, and finally Cornwallis sur- 
 rendered his public stores and artUlerj^ in the 
 two forts, as well as all the shipping in the 
 harbour, the ihen to remain prisoners of war 
 in America, the ships to become the property 
 of France. With the surrender at Yorktown 
 the war was virtually at an end. 
 
 Bancroft, History of United States; Kalion, 
 HiAtorij, 
 
 Tonng, Ahthub (J. 1741, d. 1820), was a 
 writer of numerous works on agriculture and 
 rural economy, to collect information on 
 which subjects he made numerous journeys 
 through the British Isles and on the Conti- 
 nent. In 1784 he published a periodical work 
 called the Annals of Agriculture. In 1789 he 
 ■was appointed Secretary to the Board of 
 Agriculture. Young's works, especially his 
 Political Arithmetic (1774) and his Travels 
 (1792), are of very great value for the Kght 
 they throw on the state of society, trade, and 
 agriculture in England, Ireland, and France. 
 Young's account of France, which he visited 
 on the eve of the Revolution, is of singular 
 interest. 
 
 Tonng, EoBERT {d. 1700), one of the 
 most disreputable informers of the seventeenth 
 century, was ordained a deacon in the Irish 
 Church, but was expelled from his first parish 
 for immorality, and from his third for bigamy. 
 In 1684 he was convicted of having forged 
 Sancroft's signature, and was sentenced to the 
 pillory and imprisonment. When Monmouth's 
 insurrection broke out he gave witness of a 
 pretended conspiracy in Suffolk against the 
 king, but his evidence was proved to be false. 
 After the Eevolution he determined to become 
 an accuser of the Jacobites, and concocted a 
 story of a, plot against William and Mary. In 
 1692, he forged a paper purporting to be an 
 association for the restoration of the banished 
 king, to which he appended the names of 
 Marlborough, Cornbury, Salisbury, Bancroft, 
 and Sprat, Bishop of Rochester. A sub- 
 ordinate agent named Blackhead dropped the 
 paper in one of Sprat's flower-pots. Young 
 thereupon laid information before the Privy 
 Council. Marlborough was committed to the 
 Tower, and Sprat taken into custody, but the 
 document could not be found. Blackhead 
 thereupon rescued it from its hiding-place, 
 and gave it to Young, who had it conveyed 
 to the Secretary of State. But when con- 
 fronted by Sprat, Blackhead lost his presence 
 of mind, and confessed all. Young, however, 
 HIST.-35* 
 
 with unblushing effrontery persisted in his 
 denial. Young was imprisoned and pilloried. 
 He was finally hanged for coining. 
 
 Tonng England Party, The, was the 
 
 name given to a group of 'rory politicians 
 during the Corn-Law struggles of 1842 — 46, 
 mostly young members of aristocratic families. 
 They came prominently before the public in 
 the autumn of 1844. It was the theory of the 
 Young England Party that what was sup- 
 posed to be the ancient relation between rich 
 and poor should be restored. The landowners 
 and wealthy classes were to be the benevolent 
 protectors and leaders, while the poor were to 
 be obedient and trustful dependants. iJvery 
 effort was to be made to improve the material 
 condition of the labouring classes, while at 
 the same time a firm resistance was to be 
 offered to the levelling spirit of the age, to 
 free-trade, and to the principles of the Libe- 
 rals generally. Combined with a good deal 
 of coxcombiy and conceit, there was an ele- 
 ment of usefulness in the Young Englanders. 
 " What the Tractarian priesthood were at 
 this time requiring of their flocks," says Miss 
 Martineau, " the Young England politicians 
 were stiiving for with the working classes ; 
 and the spectacle was seen of Sunday sports 
 encouraged, as in the old Catholic times ; and 
 popular festivals revived at which young 
 lords and members of Parliament pulled off 
 their coats to play cricket with the labourers, 
 or moved about among the crowd in the park 
 or on the green, in the stj'le of the feudal 
 superior of old." In Parliament the Young 
 England politicians, affecting to beHeve in 
 the "Old Tory principles " of the preceding 
 century, chiefly distinguished themselves by 
 their noisy opposition to the Whigs. Thej'- 
 opposed the repeal of the Com Laws, vio- 
 lently attacked Peel for his change of policy, 
 and declined to join the Peelites. Among 
 their most prominent members were Lord J. 
 Manners, and the Hon. G. Smythe, member 
 for Canterbury ; and Mr. Disraeli lent them 
 his support, and was looked upon in some sort 
 as their leader. 
 
 Martineau, Hist, o/f/ie Peace^ ii. 520. 
 
 Tonng Ireland Party. The group of 
 men known under this name, among whom 
 Gavan Duffy, Meagher, and Mitchell are the 
 best known, were at first followers of 
 O'Connell, and did much for the Irish cause 
 by writing papers, historical romances, and 
 national songs, and by publishing old ones. 
 In 1843 they separated from O'Connell after 
 his failure to repel force by force at Clontarf, 
 and began to be known as the Physical Force 
 Party. In 1848 Smith O'Brien became their 
 leader, and as a consequence of his futile 
 attempt at rebellion, many of them were 
 sentenced to transportation, or at least had to 
 leave Ireland. Some of them, like Gavan 
 Duffy, attained high distinction in the 
 colonies. 
 
Zem 
 
 ( 1098 ) 
 
 Zut 
 
 Z 
 
 Zemaun Shah (<^. 1802), the ruler of 
 Afghanistan, threatened to invade India 
 dviring the years 1795 — 98, and even entered 
 into negotiations with Tippoo Sultan. Lord 
 Wellesley, however, concluded an alliance 
 with Persia against him, and internal factions 
 prevented his intended invasion. He was 
 slain during the civil war in 1802. 
 
 Zemindars, The, are Indian revenue 
 officers to whom the right of collecting so much 
 revenue was originally fanned out by the 
 Mogul dynasty. These officers tended to be- 
 come hereditary, and thus to assume the posi- 
 tion of au aristocracy collecting tribute from 
 the land, a quota of which was paid into the 
 cofiers of the state. In Comwallis's settle- 
 ment of Bengal these tax-gatherers were 
 elevated into landed aristocracy, on the model 
 of the English. The term " zemindar " has 
 consequently become identified in meaning 
 with the expression " landed proprietor." 
 
 Zlllestein, William Henry Nassau 
 [d. 1702), was an illegitimate cousin-german 
 of William of Orange, afterwards William 
 III., and employed by him in the intrigues 
 with the English Opposition in 1687. "His 
 bearing was that of a gallant soldier ; a miU- 
 
 taxy man who had never appeared to trouble 
 himself about political affairs could, without 
 exciting any suspicion, hold with the English 
 aristocracy an intercourse which, if he had 
 been a noted master of statecraft, would have 
 been jealously watched." He was again sent 
 to congratulate King James on the hii'th of 
 the Prince of Wales. When William in- 
 vaded England, Ziilestein was sent to James 
 declining a proposed conference with the 
 Prince of Orange. On the accession of 
 William he was made Master of the Eobes. 
 In 1691 he accompanied WiUiam to Holland. 
 In 1695 Zulesteia was created Earl of Roch- 
 f ord, and received large grants of property in 
 Ireland, which were attacked by the Commons 
 in the Eesumption Bill. 
 
 Macaulay, Hist, of England. 
 Zutphen, The Battle op (Sept. 22, 
 1586), was fought in Guelderland between 
 the Spaniards under the Prince of Pai-ma and 
 the English forces, who were assisting the 
 Dutch, under the Earls of Leicester and 
 Essex and Lord Willoughby. The English 
 were besieging Zutphen, and attempted to 
 cut ofi a force which was bringing provisions 
 to the beleaguered garrison ; but were com- 
 pletely foiled. The battle is famous as the 
 one in which Sir Philip Sidney received his 
 death-wound. 
 
 Motley, Dutch Republic, 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Brewer, John Shekren (J. 1810, d. 1879);, 
 graduated at tlueen's College, Oxford in 
 1833. From 1841 till 1877 lie was Professor 
 of English. Literature and History at King's 
 College, London. He was appointed by the 
 Master of the Eolls to edit the Calendars of 
 State Fapers uelating to the reign of Henry 
 VIII., and wrote some masterly introductions 
 to them. Mr. Brewer's introductions and 
 prefaces to the Calendar have heen collected 
 under the title. The Seign of Henry VIII., and 
 form one of the most important historical works 
 produced in England during recent years. 
 
 Burton, John Hell (A. 1809, d. 1881), 
 studied at Marisohal College, Aberdeen, and 
 in 1831 became an advocate at the Scottish 
 bar. He was the author of numerous essays 
 and works on law, political economy, and 
 Scottish history. In 1846 he published The 
 Life and Correspondence of David Hume; in 
 1847, Lives of Simon, Lord Lovat, and Duncan 
 Forbes of Cutloden ; in 1852, Narratives from 
 the Criminal Trials in Scotland. His great 
 work, The History of Scotland from Agri- 
 cola's Invasion to the Mevolution of 1688, 
 shows much learning and critical power, 
 and is written in an easy and agreeable style. 
 In 1880 Mr. Burton published a useful 
 History of the Feign of Queen Anne. Mr. 
 Burton was Historiographer Royal for 
 Scotland. 
 
 Bailing and Bnlwer, Henry Lytton 
 Earle Btjlwer, Lord (i. 1804, d. 1872), was 
 the son of General Bulwer, and elder brother 
 of Lord Lytton. After sixteen years in the 
 diplomatic service, he was sent as minister to 
 Madrid in 1843, where he remained imtil in 
 1848 he was ordered to leave the kingdom 
 upon presenting to the queen-mother Lord 
 Palmerston'a recommendations to adopt » 
 more liberal policy. From 1849 to 1852 he 
 was minister at Washington (where he 
 negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty), and 
 from 1852 to 1855 at Florence. In 1857 he 
 succeeded Lord Stratford de Eedcliffe as 
 ambassador at Constantinople, and held this 
 post tin 1865. In 1871 he was created Baron 
 Dalling and Bulwer. 
 
 Bcclesiastical Commissioners, 
 
 The. In 1835 a commission was appointed 
 " to consider the state of the several dioceses 
 in England and "Wales with reference to the 
 amount of their revenues, and the more equal 
 -distribution of ejiscopal duties; to consider 
 
 also the state of cathedral and collegiate 
 churches with a view to the suggestion of 
 such measures as may render them more 
 conducive to the efficiency of the Established 
 Church; and to devise the best means of 
 providing for the cure of souls, with special 
 reference to the residence of the clergy on 
 their respective bene6ces." This commission 
 drew up several reports recommending a 
 fairer distribution of episcopal duties and 
 revenues, and the establishment of a fund to 
 provide for worship in poor districts by 
 the appropriation of part of the revenues of 
 cathedral and coUegiate churches, and of the 
 surplus revenues of certain bishoprics. For 
 this latter purpose a commission was created 
 by an Act of 1836 with all the powers of a 
 perpetual corporation. In 1850 the Queen was 
 empowered to nominate two " Church Estates 
 Commissioners" (one paid), and the arch- 
 bishop, one (paid). These were to be members 
 of the Ecclesiastical Commission, and to form 
 with two other members the " Church Estates' 
 Committee," which was to manage all the 
 property of the Commission. They were em- 
 powered by Acts of 1850 and 1860 to secure 
 fixed instead of their fluctuating incomes to 
 bishops, and to manage episcopal estates. 
 They make grants to or increase the endow- 
 ments of poor livings, and arrange for the 
 creation of new parishes; and their consent is 
 necessary for leases, exchange of advowsons, 
 &c. In 1856 they became also the Church 
 Building Commissioners (first created in 1818). 
 Annual Reports of the Ebcles. Commission ffi-it; 
 Phflllmore, Heel. Law, ii. 2090 ; Elliot, Tfce Slots 
 and the Ctiurch, in Etigl. Citizen Series. 
 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Blgiu, James Bruce, 8th Earl op (4. 
 1811, d. 1863), was the eldest son of Thomas, 
 seventh Earl of Elgin, and eleventh Earl of 
 Kincardine. He entered Parliament as 
 member for Southampton in the Conservative 
 interest in 1841. In 1842 he resigned his 
 seat in the Commons on' being appointed 
 Governor- General of Jamaica. In 1846 he 
 was sent to Canada to deal with the diffi- 
 culties which had arisen there. He carried 
 out the conciliatory policy Of his father-in- 
 law. Lord Durham ; preserved neutrality be- 
 tween the two parties ; developed the resources 
 of the country, agricultural and commercial ; 
 and did much to quell discontent and render 
 more secure the ties between Canada and the 
 mother country. In reward for these services 
 
EU 
 
 ( 1100 ) 
 
 Gil 
 
 he was raised to the English peerage with the 
 title of Baroa Elgin. JVom Canada he went 
 to China as special ambassador, and success- 
 fully negotiated the Peace of Tientsin after 
 the oaptiire of Canton and the rout of the 
 Celestials. In 1859 he entered Lord Pal- 
 merston's cabinet, with the office of Post- 
 master-General. In consequence, however, 
 of the refusal of the Chinese to receive his 
 brother, Mr. Bruce, as envoy, in accordance 
 with the treaty, which refusal was followed 
 by the disaster on the Peiho, he was sent 
 again to sustain English authority, and was 
 once more completely successful (1860). He 
 was shortly afterwards appointed to succeed 
 Lord Canning as Governor-General of India. 
 Dnder his judicious arrangements India 
 made considerable advances in financial and 
 commercial prosperity. He provoked no 
 contests, and attempted no acquisitions of 
 territory, but developed the internal and 
 material resources of the country. In the 
 autumn of 1863 Lord Elgin started on a tour 
 of inspection of the north of India with the 
 intention of visiting Cashmere. He was 
 seized with illness in the Himalayan Passes, 
 and died Nov., 1863. 
 
 Zillenborough, Edwakd Law, Eakl of 
 (}. 1790, d. 1871). He was the son of Lord 
 Chief Justice EUenborough ; was educated 
 at Eton and Cambridge; entered Parliament 
 in 1814; but was soon removed to the Upper 
 House on succeeding his father as Baron 
 EUenborough in 1818. He first took office 
 as Lord Privy Seal in the Duke of Wel- 
 lington's administration. In 1834 he was 
 appointed President of the Board of Control 
 in Sir Robert Peel's government ; and 
 occupied the same position in Sir Eobert's 
 second administration of 1841. Soon after, 
 he accepted the Governor-Generalship of 
 India, where he arrived early in 1842. Under 
 his administration in that country, was ac- 
 complished the expedition into Afghanistan, 
 under Generals Pollock and Kott, which 
 resulted in the recapture of Ghuzni and 
 Cabul, and the rescue of Lady Sale and 
 the other English prisoners. The conquest 
 of Scinde by Sir Charles Napier, in 1843, 
 was also undertaken by Lord EUenborough' s 
 government, but his poUey did not meet with 
 the approval of the Court of Directors, and 
 in 1844 he was recaUed by that body. The 
 Duke of Wellington, however, defended Lord 
 EUenborough' 8 poUcy in Parliament, and on 
 his return home he was created an earl. From 
 Jan. to July, 1846, he fiUed the post of the 
 First Lord of the Admiralty in Sir E. Peel's 
 administration, and in 1858 he undertook for 
 two months, under Lord Derby's administra- 
 tion, his old office of President of the Board 
 of Control. After this time he did not again 
 take office, though he continued to be a most 
 powerful and eloquent speaker in the House 
 of Lords. 
 
 Fuentes d'Onoro, The Battle of 
 (May 0, 18U), was one of the most hard fought 
 and critical battles of the Peninsular War. 
 Wellington's object was to cover the siege of 
 Almeida, while Massena was attempting to 
 reheve the place. WeUington accordingly 
 took up a position on strong ground to the 
 east of Almeida, between that place and 
 Ciudad Eodrigo. After a battle which lasted 
 aU day, the French withdrew to a position 
 which they maintained for two days without 
 making any demonstration of attack ; and on 
 the 10th, Massena withdrew across the Agueda. 
 " Both sides claimed the victor}', and Massena 
 had certainly gained great advantages at first. " 
 Nevertheless, Wellington had obtained his 
 object, while Massena had failed to relieve 
 Alineida. [Peninsulak Wab.] 
 Napier, Penmsular Waw 
 
 Gilds (probably from Anglo-Saxon gildan, 
 to pay). Associations of various kinds, for 
 mutual assistance, were of considerable anti- 
 quity in England. Among the Anglo-Saxons 
 three kinds of gilds may be distinguished — 
 religious and social gilds, " frithgilds," and 
 merchant gilds. Of the first of these, two weU- 
 known examples are the gilds of Abbotsbury 
 and of Exeter, of which the statutes, dating 
 from the earlier part of the eleventh century, 
 prescribe contributions towards feasts and for 
 reUgious purposes, and direct provision to be 
 made for the burial of members. The thegns' 
 gild at Cambridge, of the same period, did 
 more than provide for mutiial help of this 
 sort ; it exacted recompense from thieves who 
 robbed its members, and paid wergild for a 
 brother who slew a man righteously. Such 
 regulations imply that a certain authority 
 was recognised in the gUd officers, and the 
 gild itself may therefore be looked upon as 
 a rudimentary town corporation. 
 
 In the laws of Ini mention is made of the 
 gegildan, to whom the wergild of a stranger 
 was to be paid ; and those of Alfred fix the 
 share to be paid or received by the gegildan 
 of a man who is without relatives. Con- 
 cerning the meaning of these enactments a 
 long controversy has arisen, which has as yet 
 come to no definite result ; possibly they 
 merely refer to gilds of foreigners in the 
 seaport towns ; possibly they indicate a 
 system of gilds spread over the whole 
 country. In the latter case, we must suppose 
 that gilds grew up to take the place of the 
 family for the purposes of police, when the 
 family tie began to be loosened. We are on 
 surer ground when we come to the Judlcia 
 Civitatis Zondonim of the time of Athelbtan, 
 which describes itself as " ordained and con- 
 firmed by the bishops and reeves of London 
 among our frithgegildas (brethren of a peace 
 gild), as well eorlish as ceorUsh," to supple- 
 ment the decrees of recent Witenagemots. 
 It provides for common banquets, and the 
 singing of funeral psalms. But its chief 
 
6U 
 
 ( noi ) 
 
 Cror 
 
 object is the enforcement of mutual defence ; 
 payment is made towards a common insurance 
 and police fund ; directions are given for the 
 pursuit of thieves and the exaction of com- 
 pensation ; and the members are arranged in 
 bodies of tens and hundreds under headmen. 
 This ordinance may be interpreted either as 
 pointing to the creation de novo by the public 
 authorities of an organisation for the main- 
 tenance of order, or as merely the recognition 
 of institutions already existing. In any case, 
 such a system was probably peculiar to 
 London. While social and rehgious gilds 
 existed to the close of the Middle Ages, 
 there is no mention of frithgilds after "the 
 Conquest. 
 
 The merchant gild (gilda mercatoria, 
 ceapmanne gilde), or Hansa, probably arose in 
 several towns in the early part of the eleventh 
 century. As seen soon after the Con- 
 quest, it owns property, contains all the 
 traders of the town, and regulates its trade. 
 " In the reign of Henry II. the possession of 
 a merchant guild had become the sign and 
 token of municipal independence ; it was in 
 fact, if not in theory, the governing Ijody of the 
 town in which it was allowed to exist. It is 
 recognised by GlanviU as identical with the 
 communa of the privileged towns, the munici- 
 pal corporation of the later age." (Stubbs.) 
 [Towns.] 
 
 It is difficult to determine the relation 
 between the merchant gild and the trade or 
 craft gilds which first became prominent in 
 the reign of Henry II. These gradually 
 obtained royal sanction, and during the 
 fourteenth centuiy gained complete control of 
 industry. In most cases the merchant gild was 
 entirely merged in the corporation ; while the 
 trade gilds became completely self-govern- 
 ing, and imposed on their members minute 
 regulations as to trade processes and personal 
 morality. It was an industry of small shops 
 and of general equality ; for each master 
 employed only two or three workmen (who 
 earned at least haU! as much as he did, and 
 might fairly hope to become masters in their 
 turn), together with an apprentice or so. But 
 with the beginning of the fifteenth century, 
 it became in some crafts very difficult to rise 
 to the position of master, and there are traces 
 of the formation of separate yeomen's, i.e., 
 journeymen's, gilds. This part of gild history 
 has not yet been adequately examined, and the 
 stages of change are not clear. It is, how- 
 ever, evident that in spite of the Statute of 
 Apprentices by which Elizabeth extended the 
 gild regulations as to apprentices to all the 
 trades in existence at the time, the gilds 
 were already dying; the same Act en- 
 trusted the fixing of wages to the justices. 
 During the seventeenth century the small- 
 shop system gave way to the domestic 
 system, and that in the eighteenth to the 
 factory system ; and early in the present 
 century the last remnants of the gild re- 
 
 strictions were abolished by statute. [Teades' 
 Unions.] 
 
 It is to be added that the Act of Edward 
 VI. confiscating aU the gild endowments 
 (except _ those of the London Gilds or 
 Companies), on the pretence that they were 
 applied to superstitious uses, was one of the 
 chief causes of the pauperism which made the 
 Poor Law of Elizabeth necessary. 
 
 Toulmin Smith's English SmiWs (Early Eng. 
 Text SoG. ,1870) , Brentano' s Infroduction to wliiuli 
 on T/ie HistoTj/ OBtl DBUdopment 0/ ffiWs, is the 
 foundation of almost all that has been written 
 on the subject in England subsequently. 
 Many of his conclusions have been disputed 
 by Ochenkowski, .Engiands Wii-ascha/tsKcho 
 ^viwLckeXwnq im. Ausgange des Mittelalters, 1879, 
 and Gross, Gilda mercatoria (Gattingen, 1883). ' 
 Eor the earliest English gilds, see Stubbs, 
 Const. Hist., i. xi. ; "Waitz, heutsche-Verfassungs 
 Qeschichte, i. 461 seq. ; Eemble, Saxons, bk. i., 
 ch. ix. : Schmid, Ge8etzederAngelsacJis&n,Gloss&T. 
 s.v. Gegilda. For the craft gilds, Stubbs, 
 Const. Hist., iii., xxi. ; Cunningham, Growth 
 0/ Eng. Indmtry, bk. iii., oh. ii. ; and for their 
 final disappearance. Held, Zwei Bucher zur Soc. 
 Gesck. Englands. r\V. J. A.] 
 
 Gordon, Major - General Charles 
 George, son of Lieutenant- General Gordon, 
 was born in 1833. After serving through 
 the Crimean "War as lieutenant of Engineers, 
 he was engaged in the Chinese expedition 
 (1860), and was raised to the rank of major. 
 He then made a long journey in company 
 with a friend through parts of China hitherto 
 unvisited by Europeans, and soon after his 
 return to Shanghai was appointed, in Feb., 
 1863, to the command of a Chinese force for 
 the suppression of the Taeping rebellion. 
 " Chinese " Gordon, as he was henceforth 
 usually styled, did the work with skill and 
 bravery in fifteen months, and was rewarded 
 by the Chinese government with the highest 
 military rank, and by the English with a 
 lieutenant-colonelcy. From 1865 to 1871 
 he was Commanding Eoyal Engineer at 
 Gravesend, and from 1871 to 18/3 British 
 Commissioner on the Danube. In 1873 he 
 accepted the appointment of Governor of the 
 Equatorial Provinces of Egypt for the 
 Khedive, was created a Pasha, and in 1877 
 Governor of the Soudan. Here he remained 
 tiU 1879, doing much to give peace and good 
 government to that country, and to suppress 
 the slave trade. In 1880 he became private 
 secretary to the Viceroy of India, but re- 
 signed that post almost immediately. In 
 1881 he commanded the Engineers at Mau- 
 ritius for ten months, and became major- 
 general. Next year he was invited to the 
 Cape of Good Hope to take the command of 
 the Colonial forces, as a war was threatening 
 with the Basutos, but his advice was dis- 
 regarded and he resigned. He then visited 
 the Holy Land, and on his return was re- 
 quested by the British government to go to 
 Khartoum (1884) as High Commissioner and 
 Governor-General of the Soudan. He left 
 London on Jan. 18, and reached Khartoum on 
 
Gra 
 
 ( 1102 ) 
 
 Hig 
 
 I'e'b. 18. Assisted only by a single European 
 ofScer, and at the head of a cowardly and dis- 
 affected Egyptian garrison, he held the town 
 with extraordinary ability against the Sou- 
 danese. An expedition was (Sept. 1884) sent 
 up the Nile to relieye him. It did not 
 arrive, however, until the town had fallen and 
 Gordon had been killed. 
 
 G. Birkbeck Hill, Gordon in Central Africa 
 
 (1881) ; A. Wilson, The Ever-Victorious Army ; 
 
 A. Egmont Hake, Story of Chinese Gordon. 
 
 Grand AJUiance, The, was the name 
 given to the alliance between England, Hol- 
 land, and the Empire, concluded at the 
 Hague, Sept. 7, 1701. The treaty declared 
 the desirability of compensating the Emperor 
 for the loss of Spain, and of providing for the 
 security of England and Holland. As, how- 
 ever, William could not at the moment be 
 sm'e of energetic support in England, he 
 pledged himself, in case the overtures of the 
 allies were rejected bj' France, only to attempt 
 to conquer Milan for Austria, and the 
 barrier fortresses for Holland. The alliance 
 was afterwards joined by Prussia, Jan. 20, 
 1702; by Portugal, May 16, 1703; and by 
 Savoy, Oct. 25, 1703 ; and its object became 
 the conquest of all the Spanish Empire, 
 and especially of Spain itself. [Pabtition 
 Treaties ; Spanish Succession, Wars of.] 
 
 Green, John Richard (b. 1837, d. 1883), 
 was educated at Jesus College, Oxford. In 
 1860 he took orders, and was for some years 
 engaged in clerical work in the east of London. 
 He was appointed Lambeth librarian in suc- 
 cession to Professor Stubbs. Mr. Green was 
 an enthusiastic student of English history. 
 • Besides papers in various periodicals, he wrote 
 A Short Sistori/ of the English People, which had 
 an extraordinary and almost unprecedented 
 popularity. It was afterwards republished and 
 enlarged as A History of the English People. 
 
 High. Commission, The Coukt op, 
 was the name given to a judicial committee 
 instituted in the reign of Elizabeth to inves- 
 tigute ecclesiastical cases. Edward VI. 
 and Mary frequently had recourse to the 
 plan of exercising their jurisdiction in ec- 
 clesiastical matters through special commis- 
 sioners. General commissions were issued 
 by Edward in 1549 and 1551 to a number of 
 royal councillors, theologians, and lawyers, to 
 inquire into heresy and nonconformity, and 
 a somewhat similar commission appeared in 
 1557, though in this case it was restricted to 
 inquiry, and further action was left to the 
 bishops' courts. The statute (1 Eliz., c. 1) re- 
 storing the royal jurisdiction in matters eccle- 
 siastical, empowered the queen to nominate 
 commissioners to exercise this power ; ac- 
 cordingly two months later (July, 1559) a 
 commission was directed to Parker, Grindal, 
 and seventeen other persons, chiefly state 
 officials and lawyers, which followed in the 
 main the form of those of Mary. They were 
 
 to inquire, "as well by the oaths of twelve 
 good and lawful men, as also by witnesses, 
 and other ways and means ye can devise,^* into 
 offences against the acts of supremacy and 
 uniformity, heresy, adulteries, and other ec- 
 clesiastical crimes. The subsequent commis- 
 sions were drawn on the model of this one. 
 The commission of 1583, on which Hallam 
 has laid such stress, seems to differ little 
 from preceding ones. But Whitgift ap- 
 pears to have used the power of proceeding 
 b}' oath ex-officio more freely than his prede- 
 cessors, and drew up an elaborate list of 
 questions to be asked of the accused, a method 
 which Burleigh complained of as " too much 
 savouring of the Roman Inquisition." In the 
 case of Cawdrey, it was held by the 
 judges that the act did not abrogate the 
 older ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the so- 
 vereign, nor lessen her power of imposing 
 penalties. In the reign of James fre- 
 quent disputes arose with the common-law 
 courts as to the limits of the power of the 
 High Commission ; in 1611 Coke laid down 
 that it had no right to fine or imprison, 
 except in cases of heresy and schism, and, 
 with six other judges, nominated members of 
 the court by a new commission, refused to sit. 
 During the whole of its existence the court 
 busied itself in enforcing uniformity, and 
 little change in this respect was made by 
 Laud. The number of ministers touched by 
 the High Commission has been grossly ex- 
 aggerated; during two years of its greatest 
 activity only three persons were deprived and 
 seven suspended. Laud's hand is rather to 
 be seen in its increased vigilance in cases of 
 adultery, and in the impartiality with which 
 it punished offenders of rank. The court 
 was abolished by Act of the Long Parliament 
 (July, 1641). in 1609 a Court of High Com- 
 mission had been established by James in 
 each of the two archiepiscopal provinces of 
 Scotland : Charles was obHged to consent to 
 their abolition in Sept., 1638. 
 
 In spite of the Act of 1641, and that of 
 1661, confirming it, James II., in July, 1686, 
 created a new Court of Commission for eccle- 
 siastical causes. It consisted of seven mem- 
 bers — the Chancellor Jeffreys, Saucroft (who 
 refused to sit), the Bishops of Durham and 
 Rochester, the Lord Treasurer, the Lord 
 President, and Chief Justice. By this court 
 Compton was suspended from his episcopal 
 functions, the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge 
 deprived of his office, and Hough's election 
 as President of Magdalen quashed. It was 
 abolished by the BUI of Rights. 
 
 The main authority is Stubbs, in Eeport o} 
 Eccles. CouHs Commission (1883), p. 49. For 
 other commissions not there mentioned, see the 
 Calendars of Dompstic State Papers ; that for 1647 
 —1680. pp. 203, 388, 671 ; for 1581—1690, 194, 242 • 
 for 1601—1603, 510. Burnet, Eiai. Sef. (ed. 1681),' 
 p. 311; Neiil, Hist. ofPiiritans, p. 274; Gardiner* 
 if 'St. Eng., ii. 123 ; Macaulay, Kist. of Enij • 
 Eveljn, Dianj, July 14, 1686. [W. J. A.] * 
 
Hop 
 
 ( 1103 ) 
 
 Lau 
 
 Hopton, SibEalph (J. 1598, d. 1652), was 
 member for Wells in the Long Parliament, 
 and at first sided with, the popular party, but 
 from the end of 1641 with the Royalists. 
 In the summer of 1642 he was sent into the 
 West to assist in raising an army for the king. 
 In the following year the Cornish army, which 
 he commanded, defeated the Parliamentary 
 forces at Bradook Down (Jan. 19, 1643), 
 Stratton and Lansdown (July 5). At the last 
 of these battles he was severely wounded. 
 For his services he was created Baron Hopton 
 of Stratton, and appointed Governor of Bristol. 
 He was appointed to command the king's 
 troops in the West (Jan. 15, 1646), was de- 
 feated by Fairfax atTorrington (Feb. 16), and 
 laid down his arms a month later. He then 
 joined the Prince of Wales at ScUly, and died 
 at Bruges in 1652. 
 
 Clarendon, iTist. of the Rebellion ; Nugent, 
 IfeTmjriaU of Hampdeu ; Warburton, prince 
 Rupert ; Maxldiam, Fairfax. 
 
 Independents. As early as 1568 a 
 congregation of Separatists existed in London, 
 organised upon the principle that Christians 
 ought to be gathered together in strictly 
 voluntary and self-governing congregations 
 or churches. They numbered about two 
 hundred, all poor, and the majority women, 
 under the pastorate of a certain Eichard 
 Fitz. The first prominent teacher of this 
 theory, however, was Robert Browne, a 
 clergyman and graduate of Cambridge, whose 
 greatest activity was during the years from 
 1571 to 1581. Owing to the protection of 
 his powerful relative, Burleigh, Browne 
 escaped punishment, and finally conformed. 
 But his tracts formed the great storehouse 
 of argument for those who had accepted his 
 doctrine — especially numerous in the eastern 
 counties — and they were long known only 
 as Brownists. Several Separatist churches 
 were formed, especially in London, which met 
 in secret, and were often discovered and dis- 
 persed by the authorities; many of their 
 members were imprisoned and five executed. 
 Of these Henry Barrowe, a barrister of 
 Gray's Inn, executed in 1593 for the pubh- 
 cation of seditious books, i.e., pamphlets 
 against the Established Church, was the most 
 important, and for some time "Barrowist 
 was used as a synonym of Brownist. ihe 
 repressive measures of the government caused 
 the members of a Brownist church, which had 
 been formed in London about 1592, to flee to 
 Holland, and they finally settled a-t Amster- 
 dam Another and more successiul church 
 was that of Nottinghamshire men at Leyden 
 under John Eobinson, and this Leyden 
 «huroh is the true "parent of Independency 
 aHke in England and America. In IbiO 
 the first settlement was made in New England 
 by Independents coming from Holland in 
 the Mayflower; the New World became 
 the refuge of all who were attacked by the 
 ecclesiastical authorities at home, and in- 
 
 dependency became practically the established 
 religion in the New England colonies. 
 
 The example of New England was of the 
 greatest importance when, with the meeting 
 of the Long Parliament, the Independents 
 at last obtained freedom of speech in 
 England. It is not necessary here to show 
 how the growth of Independency accompanied 
 the victories of the New Model ; and how the 
 attempt to substitute the complete Presby- 
 terian system for that of Episcopacy was 
 defeated. Few of the early Independents 
 advocated entire voluntaryism, and many ac- 
 cepted benefices and received tithes under the 
 rule of Cromwell. But in such cases, while 
 the minister preached to all the parishioners 
 in the parish church, there was often 
 an attempt to create side by side with the 
 parochial organisation, a special Independent 
 Church. Difiiculties arose when the Inde- 
 pendent ministers refused to administer the 
 sacrament to persons outside this inner 
 church, and one at least of the justices on 
 assize advised aggrieved parishioijers to 
 withhold tithes. In 1658 a synod of Inde- 
 pendent Churches was held in London which 
 drew up the Savoy Deela/ratimi, following 
 in doctrine the Westminster Confession, but 
 adding their peculiar theory of Church govern- 
 ment. The Act of Uniformity drove Inde- 
 pendents with Presbyterians out of the 
 National Church, and the rigid penal code of 
 Charles II. prevented their meeting in wor- 
 ship. Later in the reign of Charles II., and 
 under James II., they again began to form 
 churches, and under William III. obtained 
 toleration. But their numbers were much 
 diminished, and it was not tiU the evan- 
 gelical movement of the latter half of the 
 eighteenth century that they began to recover 
 strength. As meanwhile the Presbyterian 
 body had declined in numbers, and had 
 largely become Unitarian, they became in the 
 nineteenth century one of the most important 
 of the Nonconformist bodies. During the 
 eighteenth century they had long received a 
 regium donum of £1,000 a year for the widows 
 of ministers; but in the nineteenth the 
 wrongfulness of endowment became one of 
 their main tenets. They are now more 
 usually known as Congregationalists, and are 
 united in a '■ Congregational Union of Eng- 
 land," with subordinate " County Unions." 
 
 The best accounts of the history of Inde- 
 pendency are— from the side of the Church of 
 England, that of Curteis, in Dissent in fts 
 Belation to the Chwrch of England, and from the 
 Congregationalist side that of Fairbairn, in his 
 article on Independents in the Encyclopaedia Brv- 
 formica ; see also Stoughton, SeKgion in Eng- 
 land ; Gardiner, Hist. Eng. ; Masson, L'/e and 
 Times of Millon ; Skeat, Hief orj of Free Cliurches. 
 [W. J. A.] 
 
 Land Tax, The, was first levied in 1690, 
 when it was 3s. in the pound. It was 
 originally an annual grant, and varied in 
 amonnt each year ; but in 1798 it was made 
 
Lau 
 
 ( llOi ) 
 
 Iiew 
 
 perpetual, and was fixed at 4s. in the pound 
 upon the valuation of 1692, provision being 
 made for its redemption by the payment of a 
 lump sum. This has been taken advantage 
 of by many landowners ; but at the present 
 time there is still a large quantity of land on 
 which the tax has not been redeemed and is 
 still levied. 
 
 ^atlgside, The Battle op (May 13, 
 1568), was fought near Glasgow between the 
 forces of Mary Queen of Scots, who had just 
 escaped from Lochleven Castle, and those of 
 the Regent Murray, who had with him Lord 
 Morton and Kirkcaldy of Grange. Mary, 
 in spite of the superior numbers of her army, 
 was defeated by the excellent generalship 
 shown by her opponents. 
 
 Largs, The Battle of (Oct. 2, 1263), was 
 fought between Hacon of Norway and the 
 army of Alexander III. on the coast of Ayr- 
 shire. A severe storm had shattered the 
 Norwegian fleet, and barely 1,200 men were 
 opposed to the Scottish force. The ground 
 was fiercely contested, and, though the Scots 
 claimed a victory, the battle really appears to 
 have been indecisive. 
 
 Xatlie was a division of the county of 
 Kent, answering to the Hiding of Yorkshire, 
 or possibly to the Rape of Sussex, and corre- 
 sponding, it is just possible, either to the 
 original counties of the Kentish folk, or to 
 the smaller sub-kingdoms, which were agglo- 
 merated to make up the kingdom. 
 
 Levellers was the name given to an im- 
 portant party during the period of the Com- 
 monwealth. Early in 1647 a considerable 
 ultra-Eepublican sect appeared in the New 
 Model Army, especially among the Adjuta- 
 tors. The rejection of the Army Proposals by 
 Charles, and the increasing hostility displayed 
 by the Commons towards the army, furthered 
 the spread of such opinions, and many of the 
 soldiers distrusted Cromwell himself on ac- 
 count of his too lenient treatment of the king, 
 and their distrust produced the mutiny of 
 Nov. 15. [Adjutators.] 
 
 A more formidable outbreak took place early 
 in 1649. Lilbume, and those who thought 
 with him, considered the existing republic 
 too aristocratic, and little better than the 
 monarchy to which it had succeeded. In two 
 pamphlets, England''s New Chains Discovered, 
 and The Munivng of the Foxes {i.e., the army 
 magmites) from Ne-wmarket to Whitehall by 
 Five Small Beagles, Lilburne demanded that 
 the Council of State should be dissolved and the 
 management of public affairs should be given 
 to Parliamentary Committees of short dura- 
 tion ; that greater liberty of conscience and 
 of the press should be permitted ; that a new 
 and reformed Parliament should speedilj' 
 come together, and the Self-denying Ordi- 
 nance revived. Lilbume and three other of the 
 next conspicuous Levellers — Overton, Wal- 
 
 wyn, and Prince — were arrested and brought 
 before the Council ; they were committed to 
 the Tower. On April 25 a mutiny broke 
 out among a troop quartered in Bishops- 
 gate, who refused to obey an order to leave 
 London. But Fairfax and Cromwell came 
 up quickly and crushed the rising : fifteen 
 mutineers were tried by court-martial, and 
 one, Lockyer, shot in St. Paul's Churchyard. 
 More formidable risings took place in various 
 parts of the country. A Captain Thompson 
 with two hundred troopers rose in revolt at 
 Banbury, issuing a manifesto, but he was 
 overpowered by his colonel. From Salisbury 
 a thousand insurgents marched toward Lon- 
 don ; they were surrounded by Cromwell at 
 Burford, and surrendered, and Comet Thomp- 
 son, a brother of the captain, and two cor- 
 porals were shot, and the very dangerous 
 military Levelling movement was over. 
 
 Before this, another and more harmless 
 Levelling movement had been defeated. 
 Some thirty men met on St. Margaret's Hill 
 and St. George's Hill, near Cobham in Surrey, 
 where they " digged the ground and sowed 
 it with roots and beans." They were dis- 
 persed, and their leaders brought before the 
 Council. There, one of them, Everard, de- 
 clared that " what they did was to renew 
 the ancient community of enjoying the 
 fruits of the earth, and to distribute the bene- 
 fit thereof to the poor and needy. But they 
 intend not to meddle with any mans property 
 nor to break down any pales or enclosures ; 
 but only to meddle with what was common 
 and untilled, and to make it fruitful for the 
 use of man ; that the time will suddenly be, 
 that all men shall willingly come in and sub- 
 mit to this community." 
 
 Cromwell's attitude towards the Levellers 
 appears in a speech of 1654, where he declares 
 his approval of " the Banks and Orders of 
 men whereby England hath been known for 
 hundreds of years. A nobleman, a gentle- 
 man, and a yeoman ; that is a good interest 
 of ttie nation. Did not that Levelling prin- 
 ciple tend to the reducing of all to an equality ? 
 What was the pm-port of it but to make the 
 tenant as liberal a fortune as the landlord ? " 
 
 WLitelocke, Memorials ; Masson, Milton anA 
 hU Time, iii. 526—529, 570, 582; iv. 43-51; 
 Cailyle, Cromwell. ["W". J. A.] 
 
 Lewis, Sir George Cornewall [b. 1806, 
 d. 1863), the eldestson of Sir Thomas Frank- 
 land Lewis, of Harpton Court, Eadnorshire, 
 was educated at Eton and Christ Church, and 
 called to the bar at the Middle Temple (1831). 
 In 1835 he was appointed one of the Com- 
 missioners of Inquiry for the Relief of the 
 Poor and into the state of the Church in 
 Ireland ; and in the following year was 
 placed on the Commission of Inquiry into the 
 Affairs of Malta ; and was a Poor-Law Com- 
 missioner from Jan., 1839, to July, 1847, 
 when he was first elected member for the 
 county of Hareford. He sat for that county 
 
Man 
 
 ( 1105 ) 
 
 Mit 
 
 until 1852, and from March, 1855, to liis 
 death represented the Eadnor district of 
 boroughs. He succeeded to the baronetcy on 
 the death of his father in 1855. Sir George 
 Lewis filled numerous important ofBces in 
 the government. He was appointed Secretary 
 to the Board of Control from Nov., 1847, 
 to May, 1848; Under Secretary for the 
 Home Department to July,. 1850; Financial 
 Secretary to the Treasury to Feb., 1852 ;' 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer from Msirch, 
 1855, to Feb., 1858 ; and was appointed 
 Secretary of State to the Home Department, 
 June, 1859. On the resignation of Lord 
 Herbert, 1861, Sir George was appointed by 
 Lord Palmerston Secretary for War, which 
 ofSce he held till his death. Sir G. C. Lewis 
 wrote numerous works on antiquities, history, 
 and political philosophy. His Influence of 
 Anthority in Matters of Opinion was pub- 
 lished in 1849, and Dialogue on the Best Form, 
 of Government, in 1863. 
 
 niaiinsrag') Robert, or Eoeert de 
 BurNNE (now Bourn) in Lincolnshire, was a 
 canon of the Gilbertine order, who lived for a 
 considerable time at Sempringham, and after- 
 wards at other GUbertine houses in Lincoln- 
 shire. About 1303 he translated a French 
 Manuel des Peehes under the title Handlyng 
 Synne ; and between 1327 and 1338 the French 
 Chronicle of Langtnft (down to the death of 
 Edward I.) into English rhyme, with addi- 
 tions which are occasionally of considerable 
 historical value. 
 
 The CTironicle was publisliecl by Hearne, Ox- 
 ford, 1725; and agaiu in 1810. 
 
 IKEasrnooth. College owes its origin to 
 a bill introduced by Pelham in 1795 for 
 founding a Catholic academy in Ireland. It 
 was at first intended for both priests and lay- 
 men, but afterwards for the former only. An 
 Act for its government was passed in 1800. 
 In 1845 Sir Robert Peel, with the support of 
 the Whigs and Irish members, carried a bill 
 through both Houses incorporating the col- 
 lege, raising the annual grant to £2,000, and 
 giving £30,000 towards the repairing of the 
 buildings ; 800 students were to be accommo- 
 dated there. In 1860 the college was again 
 enlarged. The Iiish Church Act of 1869, 
 however, determined that the annual grant 
 should cease (Jan., 1871), but compensation 
 was made to the college. 
 
 HXelbonrue, William Lamb, Viscount 
 (J. 1779, d. 1848), was the second son of 
 Peniston, first Viscount Melbourne. He was 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and 
 at Glasgow University. In 1805 he entered 
 the House of Commons as member for Leo- 
 minster, and joined the Opposition under Fox. 
 When Mr. Canning was commissioned to 
 form a cabinet. Lamb accepted the oflioe of 
 Chief Secretary for Ireland, and in that 
 country the Roman Catholic party hailed his 
 arrival " with a degree of triumph that was 
 
 almost absurd." He accepted office later 
 under Lord Goderich, and under the Duke of 
 Wellington, and during this period seems to 
 have been alienated from the extreme Whigs, 
 and to have drawn nearer to the Tories. When 
 the East Retford question, however, came 
 before the House Mr. Lamb supported the 
 Whigs, and this insubordination ended in his 
 being compelled once more to join the Oppo- 
 sition. In 1828 he succeeded his father in 
 the House of Lords. He took office under 
 Lord Grey, in 1830, as Home Secretary. 
 In 1834 the Irish Church difficulties caused 
 considerable secession from the cabinet, and 
 Lord Grey found his position untenable. 
 The king sent for Lord Melbourne, who 
 contrived to construct a cabinet, which 
 lasted till the end of the year. The death 
 of Earl Spencer, which took Lord Althorp 
 away from the Commons and the Ex- 
 chequer, caused the fall of the cabinet. The 
 king called upon Lord Melbourne to re- 
 tire, and, on the advice of the Duke of 
 Wellington, siimmoned Sir R. Peel from 
 Italy to assume the premiership. The new 
 government did not last over the year. A 
 new Parliament decided against them, and 
 Melbourne formed a mixed government, 
 which lasted from 1835 to Sept., 1841. 
 During the latter part of William IV.'s reign 
 Lord Melbourne had no special difficulties 
 to encounter. At the beginning of Queen 
 Victoria's reign the prime minister's posi- 
 tion was one that required address and tact, 
 and by universal acknowledgment Lord Mel- 
 bourne filled it with success, and in such a 
 way as to earn the gratitude of her Majesty. 
 The ministr}'', however, had been gradually 
 losing ground ever since its formation. It 
 had only maintained itself at all by yielding 
 to O'Connell, and earning the doubtful sup- 
 port of the Irish "tail." Several important 
 Acts were added to the statute book by it, 
 including the New Poor Law, the two Irish 
 Tithe Bills, and the Municipal Corporations 
 Act. The administration was attacked both 
 by the Tories and the discontented Whigs, 
 and in 1839 Lord Melbourne, after a practical 
 defeat on the Jamaica question, resigned. 
 Sir Robert Peel, however, declined to form a 
 ministry on account of the disputes about the 
 royal household, known as the " Bedchamber 
 Question," and Lord Melbourne returned. 
 The general election of 1841 resulted in a 
 Conservative majority, and the government 
 resigned, giving place to Sir R. Peel. After 
 his resignation Lord Melbourne, though he 
 continued the confidential friend and coun- 
 sellor of the Queen, took little active part in 
 public afiairs. 
 
 Greuillfl JJfemoirs ; Walpole, Hist, of Eng. iftncs 
 
 2815 ; Earl Bussell, Recollections and Sugt/es- 
 
 tions. 
 
 Mitchell, John [h. 1812, d. March 21, 
 1875), was one of the leaders of the Young 
 Ireland party in 1848, and in his journal, the 
 
Mon 
 
 ( 1106 ) 
 
 Mnr 
 
 United Irishman, supported open rebellion. 
 He was tried, but found not guilty. When 
 the Treason Felony Act was passed, however, 
 he was again arrested, and his newspaper 
 suppressed. He was finally sentenced to 
 fourteen years' transportation, and sent to 
 Bermuda. He escaped by breaking his parole, 
 and fled to the United States, where he 
 became an ardent partisan of the Confede- 
 rates. In 1874 he came to Ireland, and was 
 returned to Parliament unopposed for Tippe- 
 rary county. On Mr. Disraeli's motion, 
 however, he was declared incapable of sitting. 
 A new writ being issued, he was again elected, 
 but Captain Moore, a Conservative, who was 
 next on the poll, claimed the seat, and it was 
 adjudged to him by the Irish Court of Com- 
 mon Pleas. Mitchell now intended to stand 
 for every Irish county in turn, but died before 
 he could carry out his plan. 
 
 IVEontrose, James Graham, 5th Earl 
 OF {b. 1612, d. 1650), at first espoused the 
 cause of the Covenanters, whose troops he 
 commanded in the north of Scotland. Having 
 got possession of his enemy, Huntly, by 
 violating his safe-conduct (1639), Montrose 
 sent him to Edinburgh, and continued his 
 movements against the Gordons and other 
 EoyaUsts, whom he defeated at Stonehaven, 
 subsequently routing them again at the 
 Bridge of Dee. In 1641 Montrose, annoyed 
 at the Covenanters refusing him the supreme 
 command, went over to the side of the king, 
 who created him a. marquis in 1644. In his 
 Highland campaign (1644 — 45), Montrose was 
 most successful, defeating the Covenanters at 
 Tippermuir, Aberdeen, Auldearn, Alford, and 
 Kilsyth, though he was himself beaten at 
 Philiphaugh (Sept., 1645). He was for a time 
 Viceroy of Scotland, but Charles, during 
 his eight months' sojourn in the Scottish 
 camp, withdrew his commission, and he was 
 compelled to leave Scotland. After the death 
 of the king (1649), Montrose landed in the 
 Orkneys with about 2,000 men, and crossed 
 to the mainland, where he was defeated and 
 taken prisoner at Inverchurron in Eoss-shire. 
 He was hanged at Edinburgh with every 
 mark of indignity, May 25, 1650. 
 
 Murphy, Father John (d. June 26, 
 1798), was the son of a small farmer, and 
 educated for the priesthood at Seville. In 
 1794 he took the oath of allegiance, but was 
 the first to rise at the head of his parishioners 
 on May 26, 1798. He soon gathered some 
 5,000 men around him, and committed fearful 
 cruelties. He was victorious over the troops 
 at Enniscorthy and Oulast, and established a 
 camp at Vinegar Hill ; his forces increased 
 to 60,000 in consequence of his success, and 
 he plundered and murdered the Protestants 
 at his leisure. On the 29th he set out for 
 "Wexford, and after defeating an English 
 force at Three Rocks, and capturing their 
 guns, he occupied "Wexford on May 31. He 
 
 then determined to march on Dublin, and 
 defeated Colonel "Walpole at Ballymore. 
 He now, however, loitered, and when with 
 20,000 men he attacked Ai-klow on June 9, 
 he was driven back with heavy loss. On 
 June 21 he was again beaten at Vinegar 
 Hill. He fled to "Wexford, and from there 
 to Kilkenny, committing fearful outrages; 
 but his followers dispersed in the Wieklow 
 Mountains, and he was captured and hanged 
 on June 26. Murphy was by far the ablest 
 of the Irish rebel leaders, but also the most 
 inhuman and unscrupulous among them. 
 
 IXEurray, James Stuart, Earl or, was 
 the illegitimate son of James V., and the 
 half-brother of Jlary Queen of Scots. On 
 the return of his sister from France (1561), 
 Murray, up to that time Prior of St. An- 
 drews, took a chief share in the government, 
 proving himself a moderate and able states- 
 man. In 1562 he married a daughter of the 
 Earl Marischal, and was created Earl of Mar, 
 a title which he soon changed for that of 
 Murray. During the same year he accompa- 
 nied bjs sister in her royal progress to the 
 north, when the contest with Huntly took place. 
 Vehemently opposed to the marriage with 
 Darnley, he headed the combination of lords 
 against the queen and her wretched husband, 
 chiefly on the ground that the Protestant 
 rehgion, of which he was a strong supporter, 
 was in danger of annihilation. In 1567, 
 shortly after the murder of Darnley, he went 
 to France, only to be recalled by the tidings 
 that he had been appointed regent on the 
 abdication of his sister. After an interview 
 with the qneen in Lochleven Castle, Murray 
 set himself vigorously to the task of govern- 
 ing Scotland, his first act being to bring to 
 trial all the murderers of Darnley on whom he 
 could lay hands. On Mary's escape (1568)' 
 he hastUj' collected a body of troops, and de- 
 feated her at Langside, immediately after- 
 wards sending a special envoy to London to 
 watch Elizabeth's conduct with regard to the 
 Scottish queen. He was one of the Commis- 
 sioners for James VI. at York, and on the 
 close of the Commission at Hampton Court 
 (1567), was accused by Lesley, Bishop of 
 Ross, of having himself been a party to the 
 murder of Darnley. This charge needed no 
 refutation, and Murray returned to Scotland 
 with his hands much strengthened by the 
 support of England. His implacable enemies, 
 the Haniiltons, soon, however, found means 
 to gather a combination against him, and 
 measures were freely canvassed for bringing 
 back Mary and ousting the regent. Murray 
 seized the chief conspirators, amongst whom 
 were Lethington and Balfour, and was then 
 obliged to give his attention to quieting the 
 Border, where he took prisoner the Earl of 
 Northumberland. On Feb. 23, 1570, before 
 the regent had time to consummate his plans, 
 he was assassinated by James Hamilton of 
 
Fan 
 
 ( 1107 ) 
 
 Bob 
 
 Bothwellhaugh, one of his old enemies, at 
 Linlithgow. [Scotland ; Mahy, Queen of 
 Scots.] 
 
 Pauli, Eeinhold (J. 1823, d. 1882), was 
 the sou of a pastor of Berlin. After passing 
 the greater part of his boyhood at Bremen, 
 he entered upon the study of history under 
 Eanke at Berlin, and of classical philology 
 at Bonn. In 1847 he became tutor in a 
 Scottish family, but after a year gave himself 
 up entirely to the study of English history. 
 In 1849 he entered the house of Bunsen, the 
 Prussian ambassador, as private secretary. 
 His first work, a Life of Alfred the Groat, 
 appeared in 1850, and immediately gave him 
 a great reputation, so that Lappenberg en- 
 trusted to him the continuation of his own 
 History of Jingland, for the Heereu and Ukert 
 series. Of this the third (Pauli's first) volume, 
 beginning with Henry II., was published in 
 1853, the fourth in 1855, the fifth, concluding 
 with the death of Henry VII., in 1858. 
 In 1857 he became Professor of History at 
 Rostock, moving in 1859 to Tiibingen, where 
 he remained till 1867. In 1867 he passed to 
 a professorship at Marburg ; this he exchanged 
 for one at Gbttingen in 1870, and here he re- 
 mained till his death. Among his more impor- 
 tant works were ' his Pictures of Old England 
 (1860), Simon de Montfort, Creator of the Mouse 
 of Commons ( 1 8 6 7) , both of which, together with 
 his Alfred, have been translated, and his 
 Gesehichte von England aeitlSlS {1864 — 75), of 
 which the last volume reached to 1852. Few 
 modem historians have surpassed Dr. Pauli in 
 intimate knowledge of the original materials 
 for English history, and in sound critical 
 judgment in using them. His greatest work, 
 which has not been translated into English, 
 is by far the best general history of England 
 in the later Middle Ages. 
 
 FrensdorfF, EeinTwId Pattl-i; Bede gehalten in 
 
 der Offentlich; Sitzung der K". Gesellschaft der 
 
 Wissenschaftm, Gottingen (1882). 
 
 [W. J. A.J 
 
 ■ Peace Preservation Act (Ireland). 
 
 On March 17, 1870, this Act was introduced by 
 Mr. Chichester Eortescue, in order to prevent 
 outrages in Mayo, chiefly directed against 
 cattle. There was no opposition, and it 
 received the royal assent on Apiil 4. By 
 this Act the use of firearms without a 
 licence was forbidden, under heavy penalties, 
 in any proclaimed district. The grand jury 
 was also empowered to levy a cess on districts 
 where outrages had been committed, to com- 
 pensate the victims. Domiciliary visits were 
 authorised, and persons loitering about at 
 night might be seized by the police. In 1875 
 Sir Michael Hicks-Beach asked for a con- 
 tinuance of the Act, making it, however, 
 less stringent. The Irish members strenuously 
 but in vain opposed it. The Act was allowed 
 to expire by Mr. Gladstone's government in 
 1880. 
 
 Peel, Jonathan, General (b. 1799, d. 
 1879), was the son of the first Sir BobertPeel, 
 and younger brother of the Prime Minister. 
 He entered the army, and in 1826 became 
 member for Norwich. He joined the Tories. 
 In 1841 he was appointed Surveyor-General 
 of Ordnance by his brother, and held the post 
 tiU 1846. In 1858 he was Secretary of State 
 for War under Lord Derby, and in 1866 he 
 held the same office in Lord Derby's third 
 administration. He resigned his oiEce on 
 Mr. Disraeli's accession to the Premiership, 
 owing to a difflerence with that statesman on 
 the subject of parliamentary reform. 
 
 Peutland Hills, The Battle of the 
 (Nov. 28, 1666), was fought between the 
 royal troops and the Covenanters. The latter, 
 harassed by the heavy fines and cruel punish- 
 mients infiicted on them, rose and marched on 
 Edinburgh, which they hoped to surprise; 
 but finding the gates closed they were obliged 
 to retreat, and being met by a Eoyalist force 
 they were defeated on the Pentland Hills, a 
 large number of them being taken prisoners 
 and subsequently executed. 
 
 Petty, Siii William (*. 1623, d. 1687), 
 was educated abroad, and became a Fellow of 
 Brasenose College, Oxford. In 1652 he was 
 First Physician of the Irish Army, and after- 
 wards as Surveyor-General he surveyed the 
 forfeited estates in Ireland, and was secretary 
 to Henry Cromwell. By buying up the 
 claims of the soldiery to the forfeited lands 
 he acquired large estates. In 1661 he was 
 knighted by Charles II. He published several 
 works, among them his valuable Political 
 Arithmetic and a Political Survey of Ireland. 
 In 1688, iu the first year of her widowhood, 
 his wife was created Baroness Shelbume for 
 life, and his eldest son Baron Shelburne. 
 Finally both the estates and title passed to the 
 house of Lansdowne. 
 
 Fudsey (or Puisey), Hugh de {d. 1195), 
 was the son of a sister of King Stephen, 
 and in 1153 was consecrated Bishop of 
 Durham. He did not mix much in politics 
 tiU the beginning of Richard I.'s reign, when 
 he purchased from the needy king the 
 earldom of Northumberland and the office of 
 Justiciar, which he exercised with the Earl 
 of Essex, and after his death in 1190 with 
 Longchamp. Quarrels soon broke out, and 
 before long Hugh was ousted by his more 
 skilful rival, on pretence of treason, and put 
 in prison. His release speedily followed, 
 but he failed to get back his office. He was, 
 says Dr. Stubbs, " a great captain, a great 
 hunter, a most splendid builder ; not a very 
 clerical character, but altogether a grand figure 
 for nearly fifty years of English history." 
 
 Robertson, James Burton (i. 1800, d. 
 1877), was in 1855 appointed to the chair of 
 Modem History in the Catholic University 
 of Ireland. He was a voluminous writer on 
 historical and other subjects. Among his 
 
Rob 
 
 ( 1108 ) 
 
 Zul 
 
 works are Lectures on Burke (1868), Spain in 
 the ^Eighteenth Century^ Lectures on various sub- 
 jects in Ancient and Modern History (1858), 
 and a translation of Schlegel's Philosophy of 
 History. 
 
 Robertson, James Craigie [b. 1813, d. 
 1882), was Professor of Ecclesiastical History 
 at King's College, London. Among his works 
 are Lectures on the Growth of Papacy (1875), 
 Sketches of Church History (1855 — 78), and 
 A Biography of Thomas Becket (1859). He 
 edited the valuahle Chronicles and Memorials 
 of Thomas Becket for the Rolls Series. 
 
 Sandhurst, William Eose Mansfield, 
 Lord (S. 1819, d. 1876), entered the army in 
 1835. In 1845 he was in the Sutlej cam- 
 paign. In 1855 he became military attache 
 at Constantinople. In 1857 he went to India, 
 and was chief of the staff during the Mutiny, 
 and served throughout the operations. In 
 1865 he became commander-in-chief in India. 
 In 1871 he was raised to the peerage. 
 
 Soudan, The Expedition to the (1884). 
 At the close of 1883 the vast dominions of 
 Egypt in the Soudan were in a state of com- 
 plete revolt. An Egyptian army commanded 
 by an English officer. Colonel Hicks, had 
 been destroyed, 'and the Egyptian garrisons 
 on the Red Sea littoral, and in the interior, 
 were closely besieged. A body of Egyptian 
 police and gendarmerie sent out to eiiiect the 
 relief of the towns near the Red Sea, under 
 Baker Pasha, was almost annihilated at El 
 Teh, in the neighbourhood of Suakim. Eng- 
 land, having been in military occupation of 
 Egypt since the summer of 1882, felt called 
 upon to despatch a force to Suakim. About 
 4,000 English troops under General Graham 
 were sent, and engaged the natives at El Teb 
 (Feb. 29) and Tamanieb (March 13), defeating 
 them with great slaughter. Leaving Suakim 
 guarded by gun-boats and a small force, the 
 English army retired almost immediately 
 after these battles. With a view to assisting 
 the Egyptian garrisons who were besieged in 
 the interior of the Soudan, Major-General 
 Gordon was sent out (Jan. 1884), to effect 
 the withdrawal of the troops and inhabitants. 
 He penetrated to Khartoum, but was himself 
 hemmed in there, and in Sept. 1884, it became 
 necessary to despatch an English army, under 
 Lord Wolseley, to his assistance. After a 
 tedious voyage up the Nile, a portion of 
 Wolseley's force marched across the desert, 
 defeated the enemy at Abou Klea and Abou 
 ICru, and arrived within a short distance of 
 Khartoum. [Gordon, Appendix. ] A second 
 English army, under General Graham, which 
 included contingents from Australia and 
 India, was despatched to Suakim, and in- 
 flicted some severe defeats on the " rebels." 
 In the summer of 1885 the English armies 
 proceeded to evacuate the Soudan. 
 
 Stratford de Redcliffe, Strateord 
 
 Canning, Viscount (*. 1786, d. 1880), was the 
 cousin of Geoi-ge Canning. Having held 
 diplomatic appointments at Constantinople, 
 Switzerland, and Washington, he was sent 
 in 1831, after the conclusion of^ the 
 war with Turkey, on a special mission 
 to the Porte to settle the boundaries 
 of the new kingdom of Greece. For nine 
 years he held no diplomatic post, but entered 
 Parliament, and supported Sir Robert Peel. 
 In the year 1841 he was for the third time 
 sent as ambassador to Constantinople, where 
 he remained seventeen years. He resigned his 
 office in 1858, and never again held any public 
 post. He had been created a viscount in 1852. 
 
 Wolseley, General Garnet Joseph, 
 Lord, son of Major Wolseley, was born in 
 1833, served in the Burmese (1852—53) and 
 Crimean Wars, in the Indian Mutiny and the 
 Chinese War. In 1867, he was appointed to 
 the command of the Red River Expedition, 
 and in 1873, as major-general, commanded 
 the troops in the Ashantee War. Upon his 
 return. General Wolseley was thanked by 
 Parliament, and a grant conferred upon him. 
 In 1875 he was sent to administer Natal, and 
 in 1876 became a member of the Council of 
 India. In 1878 he was appointed High Com- 
 missioner in Cyprus, and in 1879 returned 
 to Natal as governor, and reduced Seco- 
 coeni to submission. In 1882 he commanded 
 the Egyptian expedition, won the victory of 
 Tel-el-Kebir, and was rewarded by a barony. 
 In Sept., 1884, he was appointed to lead the 
 expedition to Khartoum for the relief of 
 General Gordon. 
 
 Zululand. In January, 1879, a war 
 broke out between the British and the Zulu 
 king, Cetewayo, owing to the refusal of the 
 latter to make reparation for the raids by his 
 subjects upon Natal. A British force under 
 Lord Chelmsford crossed the frontier, but 
 was surprised and attacked at Isandhlwana 
 (Jan. 22, 1879), and defeated with the 
 slaughter of several hundred British troops.. 
 The war was continued, and on July 4, 1880, 
 Cetewaj'O was completely defeated at Ulundi, 
 was taken prisoner by the English, and was 
 sent to Capetown, Zululand was divided 
 into a number of small principalities under 
 the native chiefs, and a " Reserve " territory 
 on the borders of Natal, with a British 
 Resident to watch over the country, was in- 
 stituted. In 1883 Cetewayo was allowed to 
 visit England, and subsequently was replaced 
 (Jan. 26, 1883) in possession of a large part 
 of his dominions. The result, after some 
 months of continual fighting between Cete- 
 wayo and the most powerful of his rivals, 
 Usibepu, was that Cetewaj'O was driven 
 from his throne (July, 1883), and soon after- 
 wards died (Feb. 8, 1884). Zululand remained 
 in a state of considerable disorder, owing to 
 civil war among the chiefs, aided by adven- 
 turers from the Transvaal. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 [Tliis index refers to subjects on which, separate articles are not given, hut to which some allusion win he 
 found under the titles here printed in italics. In cases where the reader is in doubt as to the heading 
 under which an article he is in search of may be placed, he will find it useful to refer to this index. 
 For instance, there is no article on " Lord Bacon ; " but a glance at the index will show that Bacon is 
 treated under the title " St. Albans." The numbers in this index stand for the pages in the body of 
 the work on which the matter referred to is to be found, and the letters a and b signify the first and 
 second columns of the pages. Thus, the entry "Abeyance, Peerage, 807, h," indicates that reference is 
 made to Abeyance in the article Feebaoe, on the second column of page 807.] 
 
 Abbot, Charles, Colchester, Lord, 285, a 
 Abdur Rahman, KJieUit, 6*1, a 
 Abercromby, Baroness, Abercromby, 
 
 Sir Ralph, 3, b 
 Aberdeen, Peerage of, Gordon, Family 
 
 of, 510, a 
 Aberdeen UniTersity, Universities, 
 
 1028,6 
 Abeyance, Peerage, 807, 6 
 Abingdon, Abbot of. Abbot, 2, a 
 Aboyne, Lord, Frendraugfit, The Burn- 
 
 ing of, 4Sl, a 
 Aboyne, Peerage of, Gordon, lamily 
 
 of, 510, a 
 Absalom and Achitophel, Diyden. 
 
 John, 386, b 
 A.cha.icus lAuchy, 98, a 
 Ada de warenne, Henry, Prince of 
 
 Scotland, 5m, b 
 Adams, C. P., Geneva Convention, 
 
 490,6 
 Adams, J. Q., Adams, John, 7, 6 
 Address to the People, &c., Watson, 
 
 1057,6 
 Adelm, Adhelm^ 28, a 
 Adminms, Cymbeline, 349, a 
 Advocatus, Abbot, 1, o 
 iElfgar, Aluar, 32, 6 
 ^Lfgif 11, Elgiva, 425, a 
 ^laeah, Alphege, as, 6 
 ^lfred,A;Acd.30,Sl,3a^ ^^, ^^ , 
 .ffilfred the Etheling, -a^Aed the Mheir 
 
 ing, 32, 6 
 ^Ifric, Alfric, 32, 6 
 JEne,Mla,429,b 
 jEscwine, King, Wessex. 1063,6 
 ^thelbald, EtheWald, 4A0, 6 
 ^theihert. Etlielbert. 440, 6 
 .aithelflEEd. Ethelfieda, 440, 6 
 ^thelfrith, Ethelfrith, 441, a 
 ^thelhun, Ethelhun, 441, a 
 JEthelnoth. Ethelnoth, 441, a 
 ^chelrcd, Ethelred, 441, b, 442, a, 6 
 ^thelweard, Ethelioeard, 442, 6 
 ^thelwald. Ethelwald, 442, b 
 ^thelwuflng, Alfred, 30, 31, 32 
 ^thelwulf , Ethelvnilf, 442. 6 
 Aflflrmation Bill, Oaths, Parliamen- 
 tary, 775, 6 
 Agents-General, Colonies, 287, 6 
 Agistment, Forests, 468. 6 
 Agitators, Adjutatcn-s, 10 
 Aid pur faire fltz chevalier, Aid, ^, b 
 Aid pur flUe iiiarier. Aid, 20, 6 
 Aidan,.S'cota. 925, a „ ^ ^ „ 
 Aigulllon. Siege of, Hundred Tears' 
 
 War 583 a 
 Airchinnechs./riaft Church,6]2, a 
 Akbar Khan, Afghan Wars, 15, a 
 Albany, Countess of, AWany, Peerage 
 
 o/, 23, a J, .,u n 
 
 Albany, Duchess of, Albany, Pe&i-age 
 
 Albefemi, Spain, 959, a 
 
 Z. .Stanhope, 967, 6 
 
 ^ , .Stuart. 978, a 
 
 Alcester, Lord, Alexartdria, Bombard- 
 ment of, 30, a 
 
 Alcluyd, Cumbria, 345, a 
 
 , Dumbarton, 389, a 
 
 Alcswith, Alfred, 30, a 
 
 Aldbert of Wessex, Ine, King of 
 
 Wessex, 598, 6 
 Alderney, Channel Islands. 249, a 
 Aldgyth, wife of Harold, Elfgar, 
 
 425, a 
 Aldgyth, wife of Edmund Ironside, 
 
 EdmuTid Ironside, 405, b 
 Aldwulf , King, East Anglia, 397, 6 
 Ale-Conner, Ale^Taster, 28, a 
 Ale~Foun6.er, Ale-Taster, 28. a 
 Alexander I., Emperor of Russia, 
 
 Holy Alliance, 573, a 
 
 , Russia, 898. 6 
 
 Alexander IL, Pope, Papacy. 796, a 
 Alexander IIL, Pope, Papacy, 797, a 
 Alexander VI., Pope, Papacy, 798, 6 
 Alfonso X., Spain, 958, a 
 Alfred, Prince, Greece, Relations with, 
 
 515,(1 
 Alfwold, King of the Bast Angles, 
 
 EaM Anglia, 398, a 
 All Souls' College, Oxford, Univer- 
 sities, 1027, b 
 Allen, William, Killing no Murder, 
 
 645, a 
 Alraains, Lincoln, 685, 6 
 Almeric, Count of Angoulfime, Isa- 
 bella ofAngoulSme, 614, a 
 Alpin,Picts, 819,6 
 Alured of Beverley, A!/red (pfBever- 
 
 lep), 132, a 
 Alured. Matthew, Ahtredf John, 39, a 
 Ambrosius, Count, English Conquest, 
 
 433, a 
 Amy Bobsart, Leicester, 677, a 
 Andrewee. Bishop, Sigh Church, 
 
 565, a 
 Angels, Coinage, 283, a 
 Anglia Rediviva, Sprigge, 964, 6 
 Angoumois, Angoiu^me, S3, a 
 Angus, Fenella, Countess of, Kenneth 
 
 II., 640, a 
 Angus, Kingdom of, HighUinds, 567, a 
 Angus Mor, Fergus Mor, 434, a 
 Angus, Picts, 820, a 
 AnTou, Margaret of.Suffolk, 981, a. 
 Anna, King of the East Angles, East 
 
 Anglia, S97,b , „ ., , , 
 Annals of Scotland, Railes, Lord, 
 
 Annesley, Anglesey, Peerage of 48. 6 
 Annesley, Maurice, Annesley a Case, 
 
 59. a 
 Annual Register, Burke, Edmund, 
 
 205, a 
 Anti-Corn-Law League, Corn-Laws, 
 
 315, a 
 Antwerp. Siege of, Walcheren, 1043, a 
 Anwur-ud-Deen, Oamatic, 229, 6 
 Aodhfln, J.Mc/i]/, 98, a 
 Appropriation, CroiOTi, 241, 6 
 ApsJey» Sir John, Hutchinson, Lucy, 
 
 587, a 
 Arabi Pacha, Alexandria^ Bombardr 
 
 ment of, 29, 6 
 
 Archbishop's Commissary 'Court, Ec- 
 clesiastical Jurisdiction, 401^ 6 
 
 Archdeacon's Court, Ecclesiastical 
 Jurisdiction, 401, 6 
 
 Ardderyd, Battle of, Keniigern, St., 
 642, a 
 
 Ardri, Highlands, 567, a 
 
 Ard-n, Ireland, 604, 6 ^ 
 
 Areopagicica, Press, mberiy of the, 
 835,6 
 
 Argyle, Bishopric of, Alexander IL, 
 28, b 
 
 Array, Military System^SO, a, b 
 
 Artevelde, Flanders, Relations with, 
 463. b 
 
 Arthington, Hackett, William, 523, 6 
 
 Arthuret, Battle of, Cumbria, 345, a 
 
 Articles, Lords of the, Estates of Scut- 
 land, The, 439, a 
 
 Afihburton, Lord, Dunning, John, 
 39S, a 
 
 Assertio Septera Sacramentorura,i?e- 
 fender of the Faith, 361, 6 
 
 Assize, Justices of, Justice, 6,S6, a 
 
 Aston, Sir Arthur, Drogheda, 385, a 
 
 Atheists, Oath in Courts of Law, 776, a 
 
 Athenae Oxonienses, Wood, Anthony, 
 1086,6 
 
 Athole, Kingdom of, Highlands, The, 
 567, a 
 
 Atossa, Marlborough, Sarah, Duchess 
 of, 714, a 
 
 Atrebatii, Britons, 193, a 
 
 Attachment, Court of, Forests, 468, a 
 
 AtticuE, Addison, 9, a 
 
 Aubroche, Battle of. Hundred Years' 
 War, 583, a 
 
 Audience, Court of, Ecclesiastical Jvr- 
 risdiction, 401, b 
 
 Aumale^ Albemarle, 24, a 
 
 Authorised Version, Bible,158, b 
 
 Auvergne, J.7i5e7;i7i«, 46, a 
 
 Avignon, Popes at. Papacy, 797, 6 
 
 Avranches, Monastery of, Anselm, 60, 
 61 
 
 Ayub Khan, Afghan Wars, 16, a 
 
 Bacon. Lord, 8t. Albans, 903, a 
 Bacon's Rebellion, Colonies, TJie Ame^ 
 
 ricem, 288, a 
 Bacon, Robert, Aberdeen Doctors, 4, a 
 Badlesmere, Lord, Isabella, Wife of 
 
 EdiOard IL, 614, 6 
 BagnalJ, Sir SfHiryiBlackwater, Battle 
 
 of, 168, a 
 Bahadur Shah, Indian Mutiny, 
 
 597, a, b 
 Bailie, Aid£rmajn, 27, 6 
 Baird, General, Red Sea Expedition, 
 
 856, b 
 Baker, Major Henry, Londonder'^, 
 
 688, a 
 BcJtewell, Mx-tAgricuUvre, 20, a 
 
1110 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Balancing Letter, Somere, Lord John, 
 
 953, b 
 Balcanquall, Large Declaration^ 669, b 
 Baldwin, Coixnt of Flanders, Flan- 
 ders, Relations with, 463, a 
 Baldwin, King of Jeriiealem, Hos- 
 
 vitallerft, 576, a 
 Balawinsland, Flanders, Relaiiona 
 
 with, 463, a 
 BallioL College, Oxford, Univeisities, 
 
 827, a 
 Banda, Occupation of, Java, 625, a 
 Bangor, See of. Bishoprics, 163, a 
 Bank Charter Acts, Banking, 124, 6 
 Barcelona, Spanish Succession, 962, a 
 Bardolf, Lord, Bramham Mom; 182, a 
 Bardsey, Abbot of. Abbot, 2, a 
 Barnard, Sir Henry, Indian Mutiny, 
 
 697, a, b 
 Barons of the Exchequer, JUxcheguer, 
 
 444, a 
 Barry, Gerald de, Giraldus Cambrensis, 
 
 501,6 
 Basalut Jung, JTizam, 758,6 
 Baeel, Peace of, Prtisaia, 840, 6 
 , French Bevolution, 
 
 Warofthe,i7S,b 
 Basing, Battle at, Alfred, 30, 6 
 Bath, See of, BisJtopric, J63, a 
 Battle of the Books, Swift, yS6, a 
 Baiim, Colonel, Bennington, 152, a 
 Bawbee, Coinage, 284, a 
 Beaton's Mill, Janies III., King of 
 
 Scotland, 621, a 
 Beauchanip, William, Abergavenny, 
 
 Peerage of, 4, a 
 Bee, Monastery of, Anselm, 60, 61 
 Bedell, Beadle, ]39, b 
 Beggars, Poor Laws, 825, b 
 Begums of Oude, Sheridan, 904, a 
 Bell, Dr., Education in JSngtand, 407, b 
 Bellasis, Sir John, Selby, 930, a 
 Bellingham, Perceval, 815, a 
 Bell-the-Cat, Angus, 5th Marl of, 53, 6 
 Benen, St., Brehon, 184, a 
 Bennet, Henry, Arlington, 73, a 
 Beorhtric, JBairic, 155, a 
 Beornred, Of a, 779, b 
 Beortric, King of Wessex, Edburga, 
 
 403, a 
 Bercca, Queen, Sertha, Queen, 154, b 
 Bericus, Prince of the Iceni, Iceni, 
 
 688, a 
 Berkshire, Peerage of, Abiv^don, 
 
 Pea-age of, 4, b 
 Berlin Decree, Orders in Council, 
 
 784, a 
 , French Bevolution, 
 
 War of the, 4S0, a 
 Bernadotte, Sweden, 985, b 
 Bertha, Queen, Ethelbert, King of Kent, 
 
 440, b 
 Bertie, James, Abingdon, Peerage of, 
 
 5, a 
 Bertric, King, Wessex, 1063, 6 
 Bezants, Coinage, 383, a 
 Bhagerat, Bao Scindia, Scindia, 
 
 918, a 
 Big Beggarman, O'Connell, 777, b 
 Biscop, Benedict, Architecture, 68, a 
 Bishops' Bible, Bible, 158, a 
 Black Monday, DvhUn, 387, a 
 BlackaU, Bishop, Harley, Robert, 536, a 
 Blanche of Castile, Spain, 958, a 
 Blaney, Lord, Benburb. Battle of, 
 
 149, b 
 Bleddyn, Wales, 1044, & 
 Blockade, Neutrality, 753» b 
 Blois, Charles of, Hundred Years' War, 
 
 583, a 
 Blois, William of, Lancaster, Duchy 
 
 of, 660, a 
 Blondian, Itionde;^ 170, a 
 Blucher, Waterloo, 1056, a 
 Bo-aire, Ireland, 605, a 
 Bodenhara, Hundred of, Chiltern Hun- 
 dreds, 259, b 
 Boers, South African Colonies,. 955, h 
 Boetius, Boece, 171, a 
 Boleyn, Sir Thomas, Bolmin, Anne, 
 
 51, a 
 Bonaght, Coytie avd Livery, S32, a 
 Boniface Till., Pope, Winchelsefy, 
 
 1081, b 
 
 , Papacy, 797, a 
 
 Bonnet-piece, Coinage, 284, a 
 Book of Martyrs, Foxe.John, 473, a 
 Book of Rates, Bate's Case, 136, h 
 Bordars, Villenage., 1036, b 
 Border Laws, Borders, 174, 6 
 BororaeaiK Xein-ster, 678, a 
 Borough-Head, Head-Borough, 543, b 
 Borough Rates, Batei', 853, a 
 Borough-Reeve, Reeve, 857, a 
 Boroughs, TouHM, 1005, a 
 Boudicca, Boadicea, 170, b 
 
 Bourchier, Sir Robert, Edward ///., 
 
 415, a 
 Bowes, Marjory, Knox, John, 657, a 
 Boyd, Sir R., Arran, Peerage of, 77, a 
 Boyle, Henry, Carleton, Barmi, 228, b 
 Boyle, Mr., Arrah, Defence of, 76, b 
 Boyle, Richard, Cork, 1st Karl of, 
 
 313,6 
 Brackenbury, Sir R., Edward V., 
 
 417, b 
 Bradlaugh, Mr. C, Me^nbers of Parlia- 
 ^ mcnt, 726, b 
 , Oaths, Parliamen- 
 tary, 775, b 
 Brandenburg, Pnisefa, 840, a 
 Brasenose College, Oxford, Universi- 
 ties, 1027, b 
 Breakspeare, Nicholas, Adrian IV., 
 
 12, b 
 Brechin, Battle of, Huntly, Alexan- 
 der, 1st Earl of, 585, 6 
 Brereton, Colonel, Bristol Riots, 191, b 
 Brethom, Brehon, 183, 6 
 Breviary, Prayer Book. 833, 6 
 Brian Boru, Jlft(?isicr, 744, a 
 Briefs, Papal, Bulls, Papal, 201, a 
 Brig-bot, Pontage, 825, a 
 Briset, Jordan, Hospitallers, 576, a 
 Bristol, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 Brito, Richard, Becket, 144, a 
 Broad Bottom Administration, ffcorfire 
 
 //., 494, b 
 Broadhead, Sheffield Outrages, 940, a 
 Broads, Coinage, 283, b 
 Broc, Ranulf de, Becket, 144 a 
 Broglie, Due de, Minden, 732, 6 
 Brooke, Sir James, Lab.uan, 658, a 
 Brooke, William, C'obham, Lord, 281, a 
 Brown, Colonel, Delhi, Siege of (l^O-l), 
 
 364, a 
 Brown, Robert, Brownists, 195, 6 
 Brude MacBile, Orkney and Shetland, 
 785, a 
 
 , Picts, 819, 6 
 
 Brude, Son of Derili, Picts, 819, b 
 Brude, Son of Fergus, Picts, 820, a 
 Brude, Son of Mailcon, Picts, 819, b 
 Brude, Son of Wid, Picts,8l9, 6 
 Brueys, Admiral, Nile, Battle of the, 
 
 758. a 
 Brunswick, Electorate of, Hanover, 
 
 House of ,5'il^b 
 Brunswick, House of, Hanovej; House 
 
 of, 531, b 
 Brns, De, Bruce, Family of, 195, b 
 Brute, Brutv^,ld7, a 
 Brydges, Sir John, Chandos ofSudeley, 
 
 Lord, 249, a 
 Brydon, Dr., Afghan Wars, 15, 6 
 Buchan, Isabella, Countess of, Bu- 
 
 chan, John Comyn, Earl of, 197, 6 
 Buddig, Boadicea, 170, b 
 Buenos Ayres, Expedition against, 
 
 Seresford, Viscoinif, 153, 6 
 Bulgaria, Crimean War, SS5, a 
 Buller, Charles, A-i-ran, Peerage of 
 
 77, a 
 Burghley, Burleigh, 206, 6 
 Burghred,^i/jed, 30, 6 
 Burgo, Edward de, Ireland. 606, a 
 Burgo, William de, /reiaTid, 606, a 
 Burgundy, Charles the Bold, Duke of, 
 
 Burgundy, Relations with, 204, 6 
 Burgundy, John the Fearless, Duke 
 
 of, Henry V., King, 55S, a 
 Burgundy, Phihp the Good, Duke of, 
 
 Henry V., King, 553, a 
 Burials Act, Nonconformists, 761, a 
 Burke, Mr., Under-Secretary for Ire- 
 land, Ireland, 610, b 
 Burh, Town^, 1004, b 
 Burnes. Sir Alexander, Afghan Wars, 
 
 15, a 
 
 Burney, Frances, D'Arblay, Afadame, 
 
 356, a 
 Burr, Colonel, Khirkee, BaUle of, 
 
 643, a 
 Burrows, General, Afghan Wars, 
 
 16, a 
 
 Bushire, Persian War, 816, a 
 Butler, Lady Eleanor, Edward V~ 
 417,. ft 
 
 Cadogan, General, Wyn^ndaal^ 1092, a 
 Cadzow, Hamilton, 527, a 
 Caer Gloui, Gloucester, 504, 6 
 Cffisar, Romans in Britain, BOO, a 
 Csesar, Title of asf<umed by English 
 
 Kings, DuTistan, St., 393, h 
 Cahors, Bishopric of, Abbeville^ Treaty 
 
 of, 1, a - . - 
 
 Cairnech, St„ Brefton, 184, a 
 
 Cait, Son of Cinge. Caithness, 21?, 6 
 
 Caithness, Kingdom of. Highlands, 
 
 567, a ., „ . 
 
 Cains College, Cambridge, umver- 
 
 Calais, Council of. Councils, Civil, 
 
 321, 6 ^ Tr 
 
 Calenberg, Dukedom of, Hanover^ 
 
 House of, 531, b 
 Calixtus IL, Pope, Papacy, 796, b 
 Calvin, Reformatimi, 860 a 
 Calvinism, Lambeth A^-ticles, 660, a 
 Cauihrai, League of, Spain, 958, b 
 Cambridge University, Universities, 
 
 1027, b 
 Campaign, Addison, Joseph, 8, b 
 Campbell, Colin, Clyde, Lord, 279, 6 
 Canipt)ell, Sir Duncan of Lochow, 
 
 Argyle, Peerage of, 73, a 
 Camperdown, Viscount, Duiuian, 
 
 Adam, 390, a 
 Campo Pormio, Treaty of, Ionian Is' 
 
 Uinds, 604, a 
 „_„— ^ French Re- 
 volution. War of the, 479, a 
 Canon, Chapter, 250, a 
 Canter of Coltbrigg, Jacobites, 618, 6 
 Cape Colony, Soidh African Colonies, 
 
 955,6 
 Capel, Lord Arthur, Essex, Arthur 
 
 Capel, Earl of, 438, 6 
 Capellen, Admiral, Algiers, 33, a 
 Caraccioli, Admiral, Execution of, 
 
 Hamilton, Lady Emma. -527, 6 
 
 , Nelson, 752, a 
 
 Caractacus, Caradoc, 227, b 
 
 Carew, Sir Peter, Ghn Mature, Battle 
 
 of, 504. 6 
 Carleton, Sir Guy, American Inde- 
 pendence. War of, 42, 6 
 Carlisle, Bishopric ot, Henry I., King, 
 
 548,6 
 Carlisle, Peerage of, Howard, Family 
 
 of, 577, b 
 Carlisle, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 Carlisle, Siege of, Jacobites, 618, b 
 Carlowitz, Congress of, Turkey, 
 
 1018, 6 
 Carrick, Earldom lof, Butlei; Family 
 
 of, 211, 6 
 Cartwright, Thomas, Admonition to 
 
 Parliament, 12,6 
 Castlcmaine, Lady, Clevelandf Duchess 
 
 of, 277, a 
 Caswallon, Cassivellaunus, 232, b 
 Catherine II., Russia, 898, t 
 Catholic Rent, Catholic Association, 
 
 236^6 
 Catholic University, Education in 
 
 Ireland, 408, 6 
 Catuvellani, Gatytmchlani, 238, b 
 
 , BrUons, 193, a 
 
 Cavagnari, Sir L., Afghan Wars, 
 
 15, b 
 Cavendish, Charles, Grantham, The 
 
 Fight of, 613, 6 
 Cavendish, Lord Frederick, Ireland, 
 
 610, b 
 Ceadwalla,King, Wessex, ]063, 6 
 Ceawlin, iLvag, Wessex, 1063, a 
 Cecil, Lord William, Burleigh, 206, 6 
 Cfeile, /rela?id, 605, a 
 Cellier, Mrs., Meal-Tub Plot, 723, 6 
 Ceniniafj^i, The, Britons, 193, a 
 Cenred, King, Mercia, 728, b 
 Centenarii, Abbot,i, b 
 Centurion, The, Anson, 61; a 
 Centwine, King, Wessex, 1063, 6 
 Cenwealh, King, Wessex, 10C3, b 
 Cenwulf, King of Mercia, Mercia^ 
 
 728, b 
 Ceolred, King of Mercia, Mercia, 
 
 728, 6 
 Ceolric, King of Wessex, Weifsex, 
 
 1063.6 
 Ceolwulf, King of Wessex, Wessex, 
 
 1063, b 
 Ceolwulf, King of Mercia, Mercia, 
 
 728-, b 
 Ceorl, King, Mercia, 727, 6 
 Ceredigion, Wales, 1044, a 
 ChaJmer of Peace, Constable, 305, a 
 Chalmers, Dr., Fh-ee Church of Scot- 
 
 landf 477., b 
 Chancellor (ot a cathedral). Chapter. 
 
 250,. a 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 
 
 Lancaster, The Duchy of, 660, 6 
 Chancellor of the Exchequ.er, Ex- 
 chequer, 444, 6 
 Chancellor of the University of Ox- 
 ford, Universities, 1027, a 
 Chargfi-d'AfCaires, Ambassadors, 39, a 
 
 , Consuls, 306, b 
 
 Charlemont. Lord, Volunteers, 1040,6 
 
INDEX. 
 
 im 
 
 Ohai-les the Bold, Burgundy, Relations 
 
 WUh, 204, b 
 Charles u. of Spain, Partition Trea- 
 „ i(es, 804, a 
 
 Charles V., Emperor, Hem-y VIII., 
 ™ King 657,1} 
 
 Charles V". of Krance, Hundred Years' 
 „^ War, 583, a 
 Charles vi. of Austria, PaHition 
 
 Treaties, 804, 6 
 Charles VIL of France, Henry VI., 
 
 King^ 553, & 
 , Huiulred 
 
 Years' War, 583, 6 
 Oharles VIII. of France, Heiiry YIL, 
 
 King, 566, a 
 Charles IX. of Sweden, Sioeden, Rela- 
 tions ivith, 984, b 
 Charles X. of Sweden, Siveden, Rela- 
 tions with, 985, a 
 Charles XI. of Sweden, Sweden. 
 
 985,(1 
 Charles XII. of Sweden, Sweden, 
 
 985, a 
 Charmouth, Battle of, Ethelwulf, 
 
 443, a 
 Charter, The People's, Chartists, 254, & 
 Charterhouse, EducatUni in England, 
 
 407, a 
 Chatelherault, Duke of, A-i-ran, 2nd 
 
 Earl of, 77, a 
 Chofoo Convention, China, 260, & 
 Chelt, Battle of the. Gelt, Rattle of 
 
 the, 490, a 
 Chesapeake and Shannon, Action 
 
 lietween the, American War, 
 
 43, a 
 Chesapeake, Neutrality, 753, a 
 Chester, See of, Bishopiic, 163, a 
 Chevy Chase, Otterbour^ie, 789, 6 
 Chiminagiuni (.or Cart-tax), Forests, 
 
 468, b 
 Chimney Money, Hearth Money, 543. b 
 Chinese Wars, China, -'m, a, b 
 Cliouans, QHiftCT'oit, 849, a 
 Choute, Kurdlah, 657, 6 
 Christ Church, Oxford, Universities, 
 
 1027, b 
 Chi'iste's Kirk on the Green, JiriTiifis T., 
 
 King of Scotland, 620^ 6 
 Christian, Bishop of Lisiuore, Irish 
 
 Church, 612, 6 
 Clinstina of Spain, Spaiu, Relations 
 
 toitti, 959, a 
 Christina of Sweden, Sweden, Relat'-ons 
 
 with, 985, ft 
 Christ's Hospital, Education in Eng- 
 land, 407. a 
 Christ's College, Cambridge, Univer- 
 sities, 1028, ft 
 Cltronicles and Memorials of Great 
 
 Britain and Ireland, Rolls Series, 
 
 889, a 
 Church Discipline Act, Clergy, 276, 6 
 Church, Sir Richard, Greece, Relations 
 
 with, 515, a 
 Chutter Singh, Sikh Wars, 947, b 
 Circars, Nizojn, 758, 6 
 Cirencester, Abbot of. Abbot, 2, a 
 City Mouse and Country Mouse, 
 
 Prior, 836, 6 
 Civil Wars (,isth Century), Barons' 
 
 War, 132, a, b 
 Civil Wars (15th Century), Roses, 
 
 Wars of the, 892, h 
 Civil Wars (17th Century), Rebellion, 
 
 Great, 853, 6 
 Clanricarde, Marquis of, Burke, 
 
 Family of, 205, a 
 Clare College, Cambridge, Universir 
 
 ties, 1028, a 
 Clare, John Fitzgibbon, Earl of, Fit^ 
 
 g^bon, John, 459, b 
 Clare, Richard de, Fitz-Oilbert, 
 
 Richard de, 460, a 
 Clarence, Lionel, Duke of, York, 
 
 House (^, 1094, a 
 Clarence, William, Duke of, William 
 
 IV., 1079, 6 
 Clarke, Mrs., Yorh, 1095, & 
 Clarke, Sir Alured, India. 596, 6 
 Claudius, iZomfms in Britain, 890, a 
 Clausel, Peninsular War, 812, a 
 Claypole, John, Oi-omwell, Elizabeth, 
 
 336, « 
 Clement lit., Pope, Papacy, 798, & 
 Clerical Disabilities Act, Clergy, 
 
 276,6 
 Clifford, Sir Robert, Stanley, 968, a 
 Clito, William, Brenneville, 184, o 
 Clontarf, Battle of, Bnan Bom, 
 
 186, a 
 Cluseret, General, Fenian Conspiracy, 
 
 453,6 
 Coal and Iron Mines Act, Factoi-y 
 
 Iiegislaiien, 448, a 
 
 Coarb, ^66ot, 2, a 
 
 Cochrane, Mar, 711, 6 
 
 Cockt)urn, Admiral, American War, 
 
 43, ft 
 Cockijurn, Sir A,, Geneva Convention, 
 
 490.6 
 Cceur-de-Lion, Richard I., 874, 6 
 Colepepper, William, Kentish i^etition, 
 
 64:}, (1. 
 Collation, Benefice, 150, 6 
 Colleges, Universities^ 1026, 6 
 Comes BritanniiB, Britain, Count of. 
 
 191,6 
 Comes Litoris Saxonici, Bntain, 
 
 Count of, 191, 6 
 Commissioners, Poor Law, Poor 
 
 Laws, uTi, a 
 Coniniissions, Royal, Royal Com- 
 missions, 895, a 
 Committee of Estates, Alyth, 89, a 
 Committee of Safety, Council of 
 
 State, S22, a 
 Common Jury, Jury, 63"!, 6 
 Common Prayer, Book of. Prayer 
 
 Rook, 833, a 
 Compensation for Disturbance, La/nd 
 
 Legislation, 662, 6 
 Complaints, Lords Auditors of. Es- 
 tates of Scotland, 430, a 
 Coiupton, Dr. Henry, Anne, Queen, 
 
 55, a 
 Comyn of Badenoch, John, Claimants 
 
 of the Scottish Ciown in 1291, 
 
 271, ft 
 Conacre, Tenavt-Rifiht, 9»1, 6 
 Conadh Cerr, Eochd Bnrdhe, 434, 6 
 ConaU, King of the Picts, Constantine, 
 
 Son of Fergus, 305, b 
 ConaU, Picts, 820, a 
 Conan, Duke of Britanny, Cmistanceof 
 
 Britanny. 305, 6 
 Concilium Regis, House of Lords, 
 
 692. 6 
 Concord of Rules, Be^iedicUnes, The, 
 
 150. ft 
 Cond, King of Meath, Ireland, 604, a 
 Cand6, William III., 1077, ft 
 Conduce of the Allies, Swift, 986, a 
 Conn, King,JlfKmster, 743, b 
 Coniiueror, Title of, William I., 1075, a 
 Conry, Feai-feafa, Four Masters, The 
 
 Chronicle of the, 471, 6 
 Conry, Maurice, Four Masters, The 
 
 Chronicle of the, 471, 6 
 Conservatives, Tories, 1002, b 
 Consistory Court, Ecclesiastical Juris- 
 diction, 401, 6 
 Consolidated Fund, National Debt, 
 
 748, a 
 Constaltle of the Vill, Constable, 305, a 
 Constables of the Hundred, Constable, 
 
 304.6 
 Constables, Special, Constable, 305, a 
 Constantin, King of Alban, Alban, 
 
 23. a 
 Constantin, Picts, 820, a 
 Constantius Chlorus, Romans in Bri- 
 tain, 890, a 
 Constitutional Association, Bridge 
 
 Street Gang, 188, a 
 Consuls-General, Consuls,^^, 6 
 Contraband of War, Neutrality, 753, & 
 Convention Bill, Catholic Association, 
 
 236,6 
 Copijenger, 2roc/ceii, William, b2&,b 
 Coritavi^Bj-itoiSj 193 « 
 Coruiac, King of Erinn, Education in 
 
 Ireland, 408, a 
 Connac, MacCullinan, Munster, 744, a 
 Cornarii, Britons, 193, a 
 Comulii, Gornavii, 313, 6 
 Coroner's Jury, Jury, 633, 6 
 Corporation Act, Church of Erigland, 
 
 264, 6, 365, a 
 Corporations Aggregate, Corporations, 
 
 317, a 
 Corpus Christ! College, Cambridge, 
 
 Universities, 1028, a 
 Corpus Ohristi College, Oxford, Unir 
 
 vcraitiCb, 1027, 6 
 Corsned, Ordeal, 783, 6 
 Cottars, Villenaoe, I0S7, 6 
 Cottiers, 3fanor, 708, a 
 Cottier System, Tenant-Right, 994, a 
 Cotton, Stapleton, Combermere, Vis- 
 
 coiint, 290, a 
 Coucy, Ingebrand de.Isabella, Daugh- 
 ter of Edward III., 615, a 
 Council, Feudal, Councils, Civil, 319, 6 
 Council, Great, Councils, CiviLzlQ, a 
 Council, Royal, Councils, Civil, 320, a 
 Council of Omcers, Cromwell, Oliver, 
 
 338, ft 
 Councillors, Town, Towtis, 1006, a 
 Councils, Archidiaconal, Councils, 
 Ecclesiastical, 323, a 
 
 Councils^ Diocesan, Councils, Eccle- 
 siastical. 323, a 
 Councils, National, Councils, Civil. 
 
 318, 6 
 ; Councils, Eccle- 
 siastical, 322, 6 
 Councils^ Provincial, Councils, Eccle- 
 
 siubtical, Sa2, 6 
 Court, Customary, Matior, 708,6 
 Court of Excheijucr Chamber, Exche- 
 
 4"er, 444, b 
 Court of the Four Burghs, Estates of 
 
 Scotland, 4S&,b 
 Covenanters, Covenant, 329, 6 
 Coventry Act, Coventry, Sir John, 
 
 331, ft 
 Coventry, Prior of. Abbot, 2 a 
 Cozins, Dr., High Ohmch, 565, 6 
 Craft Gilds, Tumis, lo05, a 
 Craftsman, The, Amhurst, Nicholas. 
 
 44, a 
 , Bolingbroke, Vis- 
 count, 173, a 
 Crampton, Mr., Ci'ampton Queetimi, 
 
 332,6 
 Craniner of Ireland, The, Reformation 
 
 in Ireland, 861, a 
 Craufurd, Geueral, Buenos Ayrea, 
 
 201, a 
 Crayford, Battle of, Kent, Kingdom of, 
 
 640, 6 
 Orediton, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 Creoda, King, Mercia, 727, b 
 Crimes Xct, Meeting, 726. a 
 Croft, air James, Crofts, Sir Jamais, 
 
 335,6 
 Croiiiwell's Bible, Coverdale, Miles, 
 
 3;;i,a 
 Cronan, Grinan. 335, 6 
 Crook Hall, I/ingard, 684, a 
 Crouchback, Lancaster, Edmund 
 
 Crouchback, Earl of, 661, 6 
 
 , Lancaster, 660, a 
 
 Crowland Chronicle, Ingulphus, 340, 6 
 Crown Agents, Colonies, 287, 6 
 Crown Colonies, Colonies, 287, a 
 Croyland, Crowlaiid,3i0, b 
 Cuesta, General, Taiavera, 988, a 
 Cunobelin, Cymbeline, 349, a 
 Curthose, Robert, Duke of Normandy, 
 
 883,6 
 Curwen, Mr., M.P., Bribery, 187, b 
 Customs (Unwritten Laws), Common 
 
 Law, 295, a 
 Custos Maris, Admiral, The. Lord 
 
 High, 10, 6 
 Custos Pacis, Conservators of the 
 
 Peace, 303, 6 
 Outhbert, Bishop, Bishopric, The, 
 
 163,6 
 Cuthred, King, Wess^, 1063, 6 
 Cultack, Cession of, Drogai/m, Treai/u 
 
 of, 366, 6 
 Cymry, Celts, 240, a 
 Cymry, Wales, 1043, a 
 Cynegils, King, Wessex, 1063, 6 
 CynewuJf, King, Wessex, 1063,6 
 Cynric, King, Wessex, 1062, b 
 
 Dacre, Thomas, Battfeo/.SoiwftwJIfoss. 
 953, a 
 
 D'Aguila, Don Juan, Kinsale, The 
 Siege of, 655, a 
 
 Dairi, King, Brehon, 184, a 
 
 D'Albret, Agincomt, 16, a 
 
 D'AIbret, Charles, Constable of 
 France, Hewy'V., King, 553, a 
 
 Damnonia, Dumnonia, 389, a 
 
 Danelaw, Danelagh, 362, a 
 
 D'Arcy, Sir John, Kilkenny, The Con- 
 vention at, 644, 6 
 
 Davis, Bancroft, Geneva Convention 
 490,6 
 
 Dawes, Bishop Williimi, Hai ley, 
 Robert, 536, a 
 
 Dawston, Dmgsastan, 350, a 
 
 Debts of the Nation Stated, &c., 
 Walpole, 1049, a 
 
 Decani, Abbot, 1, 6 
 
 Decinus, Leet, 674, a, 6 
 
 De Coucy, Mary, Alexander II. 28, 6 
 
 De Grasse, Ym-1ctown, 1096, 6 
 
 Delegates, Court of. Ecclesiastical 
 Jurisdiction, 401, a 
 
 Delegates, Court of, Church if Eng- 
 land, 265, 6 
 
 Delegates, High Court of. Arch- 
 bishops, 97, a 
 
 Delintiucnts, The, Newport, 757, a 
 
 Demesne-land, JUanor, 7U8, a 
 
 Demy, Coinage, 284, a 
 
1112 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Jjenalagu, Danelagh, 352, a 
 
 Cenization, Aliens, 33, b 
 
 nennie, Colonel, Oiitizni, The Sieffe 
 
 of, 499, b 
 Dereliara, Deor?iam,366, b 
 Desbo rough, Himdred of, Chiltern 
 
 Hundreds, 251), b 
 De Situ TeniB Sanctae, Adaninan, 
 
 St., 7. a 
 Devereux, Walter, Essex, 1st Earl of, 
 
 437, a 
 De Witt, John, Wtlliam III., 1077, a 
 D\armid, Aliliot of lona, lona, 604, a 
 Dictum of Kcnilv/ovth, Bm una' War, 
 
 133, « 
 Digby, J ohn, Baron, Bristol, 1st Earl of, 
 
 190,6 
 nighton, John, Edward V., 417, & 
 Diocletian, iiomans in Britain, 
 
 891,0 
 Directory of Public Worship, West- 
 
 minster Assembly, 1065, a 
 Disariniag Act, Wade, 1041, b 
 Disarming Act, Fecial Code, 809, 6 
 Disinherited, The, Barons' War, 
 
 132, & 
 D'Israeli, Benjamin, Beticonsjield, 
 
 138,6 
 Dissenters' Marriage Bill, Marriage 
 
 Laws, 716, a 
 Dohuni, Britons, 193, a 
 Doctor Profundus, JBradwardine, 
 
 Thomas, 181, 6 
 Dogs, Taxes on, Taxation, 992, a 
 Dollar, Battle at, Constantine, Son of 
 
 Ketmeth, 305, b 
 Dominion, Doctrine of, WycUffe, 
 
 1090, if 
 Don Antonio, Portugal, 831, a 
 Donald Brec, King. Calathros, 218, a 
 Donald, King of Alban, Alban, 22, 6 
 Don Miguel, Portugal, 831, 6 
 Doodnputra, Bhawul-pore, 156, & 
 Dorchester, See of, Bishopric, 163, a 
 Dort, Synod of, Arminians, 75, a, 6 
 Dost Mahomed, Afghan Wars, 15, a 
 Dowlut Rao Scindia, Scindia, 918, a 
 Downing CoUege, Cambridge, Univer' 
 
 sities, 1028,6 
 Draper, Sir William, Junius, TJie 
 
 Letters of, 632, b 
 Drapier's Letters, iSw?/t,986, o 
 Drawbacks, Customs, 348, a 
 Drest, Picts, &zO, a 
 Drumalban, Picts, 819, a 
 Drumniossie Moor, Culloden, 343, & 
 Drust, Son of Derili, Picts, 819, 6 
 Drust, PictH, 820, a 
 Dubh, King of Alban, Atban.33,a 
 , Indulph, King 
 
 of Alban, 958,6 
 Dublin, Marquis ol. Marquis, 716, 6. 
 Dubois, Ab)je, Stanhoye, 967, 6 
 Du Casse, Benbow, Admiral, 149, a 
 Duddington, Lieutenant, Gaspee 
 
 Schooner, 489, a 
 Dufl, Sir James, Gibbet Butts, 499, 6 
 Du triicsclin, Navarrete, 748, 6 
 Dumnonii, Bumnonia, 389, a 
 
 , Britons, 193 a 
 
 Duncannon, Lord, Besborough, 4th 
 
 Eiirl of, 155, 6 
 Dundee, Viscount, Graham, John, of 
 
 Claverhouse, 513, a 
 Dunedin, Edinburgh, 404, 6 
 Dun Mother, Dunotter, 393, a 
 Diinwich, Bishopric of. East Anglia, 
 
 397,6 
 Duras, Louis, Favei'sham, Earl of, 
 
 456, a 
 Durban, Sir Benjamin, Kajnr Wars, 
 
 637,6 
 Durham University, Universities, 
 
 1029, a 
 Duroliges, Britons, 193, a 
 Durovernum, Canterbury, 225, a 
 DuxBritanniarum,jRoma7itiinJ?ri(am, 
 
 891, a 
 
 — , Britain, Count of. 
 
 191,6 
 Dyfed, Wales, \0\Z, a 
 Dymoke, Sir John, Champ, 
 
 land, 245, a 
 
 ion of Eng- 
 
 E 
 
 Eadberht Praen, King of Kent, Kent, 
 
 Kingdom of, 641, 6 
 Eadberh t, Edba-t, 403, a 
 Eadburh, ii:d6«r(/rf,, 403, a 
 Eadgar, Edgar, 403, a 
 Kadgar, King of Scotland, Edgar, 
 
 KiTig ofScotlandt 403, 6 
 
 Eadgifu, Daughter of Edward the 
 
 Elder, Edward the tilder, 410, 6 
 Badgyth, Edith, 405, a 
 Badhild, Daughter of Edward the 
 
 Eider, Edward the Elder, 410, 6 
 Eadmund, Edmund, 405, a, 6, 406, a 
 Eadred, Edred, 406, a 
 Eadric, Edric, 406, a 
 Eadward, £dwf(7'a, 410, a, 6 
 Eariwig, Edtoig, 4l'J, 6 
 Eadwine, Edwin, 419, a 
 Ealdfrith, Aldfnd, 27, p 
 Ealdorman, Aldei-man, 26, 6, 267, a, 6 
 Eardwulf , Ardwalf, 70, 6 
 Ealdwulf, King of the East AJigles, 
 
 East Anglia, 398, a 
 Ealhred, Aired, 38, 6 
 East London, South Africa/n Colonies, 
 
 955, 6 
 Eata, Abbot of Lindisfarne, Cuthb&i-t, 
 
 St., 348, 6 
 Eber, Munster, 743, 6 
 Elilana, Dublin,387, a 
 Ecclesiastical Polity, Hooker, Richard, 
 
 575, a 
 Ecgfrith, Egfred, 420, a 
 Eden, Sir Kobert, Auckland, 1st Lord, 
 
 98, a 
 Edinburgh Review, Jeffrey, F^-anci^, 
 
 Lord, 625, 6 
 Edinburgh'' University, Edinburgh, 
 
 405. a 
 , Universities, 
 
 1028,6 
 Bdington, Alfred, 31, a 
 Edwardes, Lieutenant, Moolraj, 740, a 
 Effingham, Peerage of, Howard, 
 
 Family of, 577, 6 
 Egbertstone, Alfred, 31, a 
 Egferth, King of Mercia, Mercia, 
 
 728. 6 
 Egmout, Count, Gi-avelines, The Battle 
 
 of, 514, 6 
 Egric, King of the East Angles, East 
 
 Anglia, 398, a 
 Egyptians, Gipsies, 501, a 
 Eikon Basilike, Ikon Basilike, 588, 6 
 Eikonoklastes, Jkon Basililce, 588, 6 
 El Dorado, Balcigh, 850, 6 
 Elchu, Lord, Adullamites, 13, a 
 Electors, Elections, Parliamentary, 
 
 423, a 
 Eleuthera, Bahanuis, 45, a 
 Eleven Articles, Articles of Religion, 
 
 80,6 
 Elfgiva, Agatha,\6, a 
 Elfrida, Edgar, King, 403, 6 
 Elfwin, Daughter ol Ethelfieda,^iftei- 
 
 fieda, 441, 6 
 Elgiva of Northampton, Harold I., 
 
 536,6 
 Ellandune, Battle of, Anglo-Saxon 
 
 Kingdoms, 52, 6 
 Elliot, Georjje Augustus, Heathfleld, 
 
 Baron, 544, a 
 Elmhain, See of, Bishopric, 163, a 
 
 —— — - — , East Anglia, 397, 6 
 
 Ely, Bishopric of, Henry /., King, 
 
 548,6 
 Emigration Commission, Emigration, 
 
 430, b 
 Emniamiel College, Cambridge, Uni- 
 versities, 1028, 6 
 Emperor of Britain, jE'mjnre, Relations 
 
 with, 431, 6 
 Empress of India, Titles, Royal, 
 
 1001,6 
 Engagers, Landerdale, 671, a 
 English Achilles, Shrewsbiii-y, 945, a 
 English Cicero, The, NoUmgham, 
 
 773, b 
 Engrossing, Corn Laws, 314. a 
 Enniskilleners, Newtown. Butler, 757, b 
 Entails, Land Tenure, 066, a 
 Envoys, Ambassadors, 39, a 
 Bocha, Auchy, 98, a 
 Bochaidh, King of Dalriada, Bungal, 
 
 392, a 
 Eoganan, Picts, 820, a 
 Eorpwald, King uf the East Angles, 
 
 East Anglia, 397, a 
 Epping Forest, Common Lands, 
 
 294, 6 
 Erastians, Westminster Assembly, 
 
 1064j 6 
 Ere, King of Dalriada, Fei-gv^ Mor, 
 
 454, a 
 Erfusia, Auchy, 98, a 
 Eric. Son of Harold Blaatand,i;drcd, 
 
 King, 406, a 
 Eric, King of Norway, Claimants of 
 
 the Scottish Crown in 1291, 271, a 
 Brigena, John Scotue, Armof/h, The 
 
 School of, 74, 6 
 Ei'nest Augustus, Duke of Hanover, 
 
 ManoveTt House of, 531, 6 
 
 Ernest, Duke of Brunswick, Hanover, 
 
 House of, 531. 6 
 Erskine, Sir Thomas, Gowrie Con- 
 
 spvracy,5\2, a 
 Escwine, King, Essex, Kingdom of, 
 
 436, b 
 Essay on Woman, Wilkes, 1072, 6 
 Essex, Barony of, Essex, Peerages of, 
 
 436,6 
 Essex, Earldom of, Essex, Peerages of, 
 
 430, b 
 Essex, Thomas Cromwell, Earl of, 
 
 Cromwell, Thomas, 33tt, a 
 Estovers, Rights of, Common Lands, 
 
 293, 6 
 Staples, Peace of, Henry VTT., Kinj, 
 
 556, a 
 EChelbald, King of Mercia, Mejxia, 
 
 728,6 ' 
 Ethelfleda, Wife of Edmund, ^dwiiMid, 
 
 405,6 
 Ethelfleda, Edgar, King, 403, 6 
 Ethelhard, King, Wesseo;, 1063, 6 
 Ethelhere, King of the East Angles, 
 
 East Anglia, 398, a 
 Ethelred, King of Mercia, Maria, 
 
 728,6 
 Ethelwold, King of the East Angles, 
 
 East Anglia, 398, a 
 Ethelwulf, Alderman of Wessex, 
 
 Ayred,30, 6 
 Eton College, Education in England^ 
 
 407,(1 
 Eugene, Prince, Spanish Succession, 
 
 960,6 
 Eugenius, Irish Cliurch, 612, 6 
 Eupatoria, iord Lyons, 696^ a 
 E\'ans, De Lacy, British Legion, 
 
 193, a 
 Evers, Sir Ralph, Jedburgh, 625, a 
 Evesham, Abbot of, ^66oi, 2, a 
 Examiner, Hunt, Leigh, 584, 6 
 Examiner, Swift, 986, a 
 Exanceaster, Exeter, 445, 6 
 Exeter, Bishopric ol, Exeter; 446, a 
 Exeter College, Oxford, Universities, 
 
 1027, a 
 Exeter, Dukedom of. Exeter, Peerage 
 
 of, 446, a 
 Exetex", Earldom of, Exeter, Peerage 
 
 of, 446, a 
 Exeter, Marquisate of, Exeter, Peei'age 
 
 of, 446, a 
 Extraordinary Aids, Aid, 21, a 
 Eylau, Battle of, French Revolution, 
 
 War 0/ the, 479, b 
 Eyre, Major Vincent, Arj-ah, Defence 
 
 of, 77, a 
 Byre, Mr., Governor of Jamaica, 
 
 Jamaica, 619, 6 
 
 Factory Acts, Factory Legislation, 
 
 447, 6, 448, a 
 Faculties, Court of. Ecclesiastical Ju- 
 risdiction, 401, 6 
 Faddiley, Fethanleag, 454, 6 
 Fair Rosamund. Rosamund, 892, 6 
 Paughard, Battle of, Ireland, 606, a 
 Fauconberg, Falconbridge, 449, a 
 Fauconberg, WiJliani Wevill, Lord, 
 
 Kent, Peerage of, 640, 6 
 Fawcett, Colonel, JJuelling, 388, 6 
 Pee, Fief, 456, a 
 Pelton, John, Buckingham, Buke of, 
 
 199,6 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick, Serew J'ears' 
 
 War, 935, 6 
 Ferghus, Brehon, 184, a 
 Perm, Shei-iff, 941, 6 
 Ferrers' Case, Commons, House of, 
 
 207, b 
 Ferrers, Robert de, Derby, Earldom 
 
 of, 367, 6 
 Feversham, Earl of, Sedgemaor, 928, 6 
 Fidei Defensor, Defender of the Faith, 
 
 361, 6 
 Fielding, Robert (Beaul, Cleveland, 
 
 Duchess of, 277, a 
 Fife, Kingdom of. Highland's, 567, a 
 Fifteenths, Taxation, 991, 6 
 Pine, Ireland, 605, a 
 FingallS, Ulster, 1021, 6 
 Finleikr, Highlands, 567, a 
 Firbolgs, Leinster, 678, a 
 
 , Celta,24i, 6 
 
 Firma Burgl, Farm, 451, a 
 Pinna Comitatus, Farm, 451, a 
 Pitzalan, Elizabeth, Howard, Family 
 
 of, 577, 6 
 Fitz-Alan, Walter, Stuart Family. 
 
 976, a 
 
1113 
 
 B'ltz-Hamon, Rotoert, Olmicester, Peer- 
 
 ageo/,50S,a 
 i'ltz- Harris's , Case, Impeachment, 
 - . 589, fa 
 Fitz-James, Duke of, Berwick, Duke 
 
 of, 155, 6 
 Pitz - Neal. Richard, Fitz - Nigel, 
 
 ^ichardjjieo, b 
 Fitzutlier, waiter, Kildare, Earls of, 
 
 643, b 
 Fitz-Ralph, Ricliard, Bishop of Ar- 
 
 _, niajjh, Friii7'8, 482, a 
 Fitz-Urse, Reginald, Socket, 144, a 
 Flaith, Ireland, 605, a 
 Plavia Caesariensis, JBritannia, 192, a 
 Fleet Prison, Prisons, 837, a 
 Fletcher, Bishop of London, Lambeth 
 
 Articles, 660, a 
 Flood, Wardeu, Flood, Henry, 465, 6 
 Florida, The, Geneva Conve}it;ian, 
 
 49r,a 
 Florins, Ooiwoffe, 283, a 
 Ploris v., Count of the Netherlands, 
 
 Holland, Relations with, 571, 6 
 Floyd, Colonel, Arikera, Battle of, 
 
 72, b 
 Floyd's Case, Commons, The House of, 
 
 297, b 
 Flushing, Capture of, Walche}-en, 
 
 1043,(1 
 FcEdera, Rymer, 899, & 
 Pi)lk-Moot, Comity Court, 327, 6 
 Polkiand, Lwnlantl, 658, & 
 Forbes, John, Aberdeen Doctors, 4, a 
 Porestallinfr, Com Laws, 314, a 
 Forest, Miles, Edward V., 417, 6 
 Forster, Mr., Jacobites, 618, a 
 Port More, Capture of, Albemarle^ 
 
 Georoe, 3rd Earl of, 25, a 
 Forth, Earl of, Brentford, Earl oA 
 
 184,6 
 Forties, The, O'Connell, 777. a 
 Forty-two Articles, Articles of Reli- 
 gion, 80, b 
 Fox, Greorge, Qitakers, (*44, 6 
 Fox, Henry, Holland, Heiiry Fox, 1st 
 
 Lord, 570, 6 
 Pi*ancis I., Emperor of Austria, Holy 
 
 Alliance, 573, a 
 Francis I., Kinpr of France, Heyiry 
 
 VIXL, King, 557, b 
 Pranciscanus, Buchanan, George, 
 
 198, a 
 Fraser, General, Deeg, Battle of, 
 
 361, a 
 Frederick I. of Prussia, Pntssia, 
 
 840, a 
 Frederick II., Eroi>eror, Isabella, 
 
 daughter ofJohn,6i5, a 
 Frederick II., Emperor, Montfort, 
 
 738,6 
 Frederick the Great, Prussia, 840, a 
 , Seven Tears' 
 
 War, 935, a 
 Frederick V„ Elector Palatine, James 
 
 I., Kinq_of England, 623, a 
 Frederick williaiu I., King of Prus- 
 sia, Holy Alliance, 57-3, a 
 
 -.Prussia, 840, a 
 
 Frederick William il. of Prussia, 
 
 Prussia, 840, 6 
 Free Tenants, Land Tenure, 665, a 
 Freeholder, Addison, 8, & 
 Friedland, Battle of, French Revolvr 
 
 tion, fya/r of the, 479, b 
 Frithhorh, Frankpledge, 476, b 
 Froude, Hurrell, High Church, 566, 6 
 Pulford,, Fight at, Harold Hardrada, 
 
 538, a „ 
 
 Fulk, Count of Anjou, Henry I., 
 
 King, 548, a 
 Fulk the Black, Angemna, 46, a 
 Fulk the Good, ATigevins, 46, a, b 
 Pulk, Rechin, Angevina, 46, a 
 Fulk the Red, AngevinSj 46, a 
 Pulk the Young, Angevms,46, a 
 Future Tenant, Land Legislation, 
 
 664, a 
 
 Gabran, King, Srude,m, a 
 Gaekwar, Gtacowar, 521, a 
 Gafol, Manor, 708, a . _ , 
 
 Gage General, American Indepen^ 
 
 ^drnce. War of, 41, a 
 Gainsl^ormigh, Gftinas, 485, 6 
 Gambia, West Afnca, 1063, 6 
 ZZ— Sierra Leone, 946, 6 
 Ganges'CanaI,rMdto,695, rt . ^ .. 
 Gaol Delivery, Justices of. Justice, 
 
 Gardner, Colonel, Almorah, 38, » 
 
 Gartnaid, Sou of Domnall, Picts, 819, b 
 Gartnaid, Son of Wl6.,Picts, 819, b 
 Gartuaidh, Son of Domelch, Picts, 
 
 819,6 
 Grates, Genei-al, ATneriean Indepen- 
 dence, War of, 42, a 
 
 , Saratoga, 913, a 
 
 Gaunt, John of, Lancaster, John, 
 
 Duke of, 662, a 
 Gavelling Act, Ireland, 608, 6 
 Geburs, Manm-s, 708, a 
 Geneats, Manor, 708, a 
 Qenexan Bible, Bible, 158, a 
 Gouialie, Duke of the Wascons, 
 
 Qascony, 488, 6 
 Geoffrey Martel, Angevins, The, 
 
 46, a 
 Georgia, Colonies, The American, 
 
 288^ a 
 Grermaino, Lord George, Sackville, 
 
 902, 6 
 Gersamma Reginse, Queen, 846, 6 
 Gervissas, Wessex, 1062, 6 
 Gesithcundman, Gesith, 499, a 
 Gesiths, Thegns,m5, b 
 Ghazui, Afghan Wars, 15, a, 6 
 Ghent, Treaty of, Namgatioji Laws, 
 
 749, a 
 Gibbs, James, Architecture, 70, a 
 Giflord, William, Anti-JacolHn, The, 
 
 62, a 
 Gill)ert, Sir Humphrey, Colonies, The 
 
 Amei-ican, 287, 6 
 Gillemartin, Gilroy, 501, a 
 Gladstone, Sir J., Gladstone, W. E., 
 
 502, a 
 Glasgow TTniversity, Universities, 
 
 1028,6 
 Glass, John, Glassites, SOS, a 
 Glen Mania, Battle of, Ireland, 604, 6 
 Gloucester, Abbot of. Abbot, 2, a 
 Gloucester, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 Glyndwr, Glendower, 504, a 
 Gli'ndyfrdwy, Glendower, 504, a 
 Godfrey, King of Jerusalem, Hos- 
 pitallers, Knights, 576, a 
 Godiva, Lady, Coventry, 330, a 
 
 , Leofric, 680, a 
 
 Grodred, King of the Dublin Danes, 
 
 HebHdes, 544, 6 
 Godwine, Godwin, 507, 6 
 Goidels, Wales, 1043, a 
 Gold Coast, West Africa, 1063, 6 
 Goiuarists, Arminians, 75, a 
 Good Duke Humphrey, Glmicester, 
 
 Humphrey, Duke oA506, 6 
 Gordon, Dukedom of, Gordon, Family 
 
 of, 510, a 
 Crordon, Lady Jane, Huntly, George 
 
 Gordon, bth Earl of, 58.), 6 
 Gordon, Lord George, Gordon Riots, 
 
 510, a 
 Gordon of Auchendoun, Glenlivet, 
 
 Battle of 504, b 
 Gordon, Robert, Frendraught, Burn- 
 ing of, 481, a 
 Gordon, Sir Adam, Gordon, Family of, 
 
 510, a 
 Gordon, Sir John, of Haddo, Aber- 
 
 deen^ Peerage of, 3, b 
 Gore, Sir Paul, Arran, Peerage of, ' 
 
 77, a 
 Goree, Capture of, Keppel, Augustus, 
 
 Viscount, 642, 6 
 Gough, Matthew, Cade's Rebellion, 
 
 215,6 
 Gough, William, GojgTe, William, 
 
 508, a 
 Gournay, Thomas de, Gumey, Thomas 
 
 de, 622, a 
 Government Annuities, Annuities, 
 
 59,6 
 Gower, Wales, 1044, 6 
 Graces, Aids, Voluntary, 22, a 
 Grafton, Richard, Hardyng, John, 
 
 535, b 
 Graham, Colonel, Kajfflr Wars, 637, 6 
 GrahamV To^vn, South African Colo- 
 nies, 9S5, 6 
 Grand Alliance, Spanish Succession, 
 
 960,6 
 Grand Jury, Jury, 633, 6, 634, 6 
 Grand Serjeanty, Serieanty, 932, a 
 Grant, Charles, Glenelg, Lord, 504, 6 
 Grantchester, Cambridge, 219, a 
 Grantham, Lord, De Grey, Earl, 
 
 362,6 
 Grantley, Lord, Norton, Sir Fletcher, 
 
 771,6 
 Granville Sharpj Sierra Leone, 946, 6 
 Gra,tian, Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction, 
 
 400, a 
 Graves, Brigadier, Delhi, Siege of 
 
 (18571,364,6 
 Gray, The Master of, Cray. Patrick, 
 
 514,6 
 
 Great Bible, Bible, 158, a 
 
 Great Contract, Purveyance, 843, 6 
 
 Greathed, General, Indian Mutiny, 
 
 597, 6 
 Gregory IX., Pope, Pa/pacy, 797. a 
 Gregory XL, Pope, Papacy, 7Drf, a 
 Greek Independence, War of, Turkey, 
 
 I0L8, 6 
 Green Mountain Boys, Allen, Ethav, 
 
 36,6 
 Greenwich, Earl of, Argyle, John, 
 
 Duke of. 72, a 
 Grenvillo Act, ElecHona, Parliamen- 
 tary, 422, 6 
 Grcsham, Sir Richard, Oresham, Sir 
 
 Thomas, 517, a 
 Grey, John de, Gray, John de, 514, b 
 Grey, Lady Elizabeth, Grey, Lord 
 
 Leonard, 519, a 
 Grey, Sir John, Elizabeth Woodville, 
 
 429, a 
 Grey, Walter de, Gray, John de, 
 
 614, 6 
 Grimbald, Alfred, 31, 6 
 Grith, Danes, 355, 6 
 Groat, Coinage, 282, 6 
 Ground Game Act, Game Laws, 
 
 487, 6 
 Gruffydd, Wales, 1044, 6 
 Gualo, Papacy, 797, a 
 Guardian of the Realm, George L, 
 
 493, a 
 Guastalla, Duchy of, Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 
 Treaty of, 22, 6 
 Guelfs, Hanover; House of, 631, a 
 Guernsey, Channel Islands, 249, a 
 Guienne, .d66euiMe, Treaty of, 1, a 
 Guizot, Spanish Marriages, 960, a 
 Gulliver's Travels, Svyift^ 986, a 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden. Sweden, 
 
 985, a 
 Gustavus Wasa, Sweden, 984, 6 
 Guthorm, Alfred, 31, 6 
 
 ■, Gitthrum, 522, a 
 
 Guy, Count of Flanders, Flanders, 
 
 Relations with, 463, a 
 Gwent, Wales, 1044, a 
 Gwlediff, Britain, Count of, 191, 6 
 Gwynedd, Wales, 104y, a 
 Gyrwas, Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, 51, 6 
 , Mercia, 727, 6 
 
 Haco, King of Norway, Alexander ir„ 
 28,6 
 
 , Alexander III., 
 
 2\i,a 
 Hadrian, Romans in Britain, 890, a 
 Halfdane, Northumbria, 771, a 
 Haliwerfolc, Bishopric, The, 163, 6 
 Hamilton, Lady Emma, Nelson, 751, 6 
 Hamilton, Peerage of, Hamilton, 
 
 Family of, 527, a 
 Hamilton, Sir Gilbert de, Hamilton, 
 
 Family of, 527, a 
 Hamilton, Sir Walter, Hamilton, 
 
 Family of, 527, a 
 Hampton Court Conference, Church 
 
 ofEnglaiid, 264, a 
 Hanover, Electorate of, Hantyver, 
 
 House of, 531, 6 
 Hansa, Hanseatic League, 533, a 
 Hardhead, Coinage, 284, a 
 Harding, Stephen, Cistercians, 269, 6 
 Hardy, Gathorne, Cranbrook, 1st Vis- 
 count, 332, 6 
 Harleston, Sir H., Channel Islands. 
 
 249, 6 
 Harley, Sir Edward, Harley, Robert. 
 
 535, b 
 Harlotta, William I., 1073, a 
 Harold Blaatand, Sioegen, 985, b 
 Harrow (School), Education in Eng- 
 land, 407, a 
 Harthacnut, Hardicanute, 534, a 
 Hastenbeck, Battle of, ClostG7--Seven, 
 279, 6 
 
 . George II., 
 
 495, a 
 
 , Seven Tears' 
 
 War, 935, 6 
 Hasting (the Dane), Alfred, 32, a 
 Hastings, George, Lord, Huntingdon, 
 
 Peerages of, 585, a 
 Hastings, John de, BalioL John, 
 
 119,6 
 Havannah, Capitulation ot, Albemarle, 
 
 George, Srrf Earl, 25, a 
 Havilgui-, Siege of, Argaum, Battle of, 
 
 71, a 
 Hawisa> Hadwisa, 524, a 
 
1114 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hawksmoor, Architecture, 60, 6 
 Hawkwood, Siv John, J^-ee Companies, 
 
 478, ft 
 Hawley, General, Jacobites, 618, & 
 Haynau, General, Attack on, ifuti^ 
 
 garian Befuaee Question, 584, a 
 Head- Pledge, Head-Borough, 543, 6 
 Healtli and Morals Act, Factory 
 
 Legislation, 447, 6 
 Hengestesdun, Battle of, Eghe^-t, 
 
 420, tE 
 
 , Hengest Dovm, 646, a 
 
 Henry, King of Jerusalem, Isabella, 
 
 Daughter of John, 615, a 
 Henry,King of the Gfiria9,ns, Isabella, 
 
 Daughter of John, Gl5, a 
 Henry of Oatlands, Gloucester, ffenry, 
 
 Duke of, 506, 6 
 Henry of Trastamare, Navan-ete, 
 
 748, b 
 , Po-tugal, 
 
 830, b 
 
 , Spain, 958, a 
 
 Henry the Lion, Sanovei', Mov^e of, 
 
 531, a 
 Henry the Proud, Hanover, House of, 
 
 531, a 
 Henry VI., Emperor, Richard I., 
 
 874, b 
 Herat, Sie^e of, Afghan Wars, 15, a, b 
 Herbert, Sidney, HerbeH ofLea,Lord, 
 
 561, a 
 Heretoga, Croton, 340, b 
 
 , Alde^'man, 27, a 
 
 Perm, Channel Islarids, 249, a 
 Herries, Sir Hugh, Qowrie Conspiracy, 
 
 512, a 
 Hertford College, Oxford, Universi- 
 ties, 1027, b 
 High Court of Appeal, Appellate Jv^ 
 
 risdiction, 63, 6 
 High-Reeve, Reeve, 857, a 
 High Treason, Treason, 1010, 6 
 Highway Rate, Rates, 852, a 
 Hii, lona. 604, a 
 Hind and the Panther, The, Dryden, 
 
 John, 387, a 
 Hingston Down. Hengest Down, 546, a 
 Historia Anglorum, Huntingdon, 
 
 Henry of, 585, a 
 Historia Britonum, Geoffrey of Mon- 
 mouth, 491, ft 
 Histriomastix, Pi"ynne, 840, 6 
 Hobhouse, John Cam, Broughton, 
 
 Lord, 195, a 
 Hodson, Captain, Delhi, Siege of (1857), 
 
 364, b 
 Hof kirchen. Seven Years' War, 935. b 
 Hohenlinden, F)'ench Revolution, War 
 
 of the, 479, a 
 Holroyd, Colonel, Gordon Riots, 510, a 
 Holy League, Papacy, 798, b 
 Holy Maid of Kent, Barton, Elizabeth, 
 
 135, a 
 Holyrood Palace, Holyrood Abbey, 
 
 573, a 
 Hononus, Roraans in Britain, 890, a 
 Horses, Taxes on, Taxation, 992, a 
 Horsman, Mr., Aaullamites, 13, a 
 Horstead, Village of, Horaa, 576, a 
 Hostings, Pale, 703, b 
 Hotspur, Percy, Henry, 815, b 
 Hougoumont, Waterloo, 1056, b 
 Howard de Walden, Peerage of, 
 
 Howard, Family of, 577, ft 
 Howard of Glossop, Peerage of, 
 
 Howard, Family of. 577, ft 
 Howard, Sir Robert, Howard, Family 
 
 of, 577, a 
 Howel, King of the West Welsh, 
 
 Dumnonia, 389, b 
 Howel the Good, llowel Dha, .579, b 
 Hudiliras, Butler, Samuel, 212, a 
 Hudson's Bay Company, Hudson's 
 
 Bay Territories, 580, a 
 Huguenots, Protestant Refugees, 
 
 839, a 
 Hui-Neills, Munster, 744, a 
 Humbert, General, Kulala, French 
 
 Attempt on, 644, ft, 645, a 
 Humble Petition and Advice, Petition 
 
 amd Advice, 817, ft 
 Hundred-mau, Hundred, 582, a 
 Hundred-moot, Hundred, 582, a 
 Hundreds-Ealdor, Hundred, 582, a 
 Huntley, Peerage of, Gordon, Family 
 
 of, 510, a 
 Hurry Punt, Kurdlah, 657, ft 
 Huscarls, Canute, 227, a 
 
 , Oesith, 499, a 
 
 ; , Military System, 730, a 
 
 Hwiccas, Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, 51, b 
 
 , Mercia, 727, b 
 
 Hyde, Abbot of. Abbot, 2, a 
 
 Hyde. Edward, Clarendon, Ist Earl of, 
 
 272,b 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha, Navarino, 748, 6 
 
 , T^irkey, 1018, b 
 
 Iceni, Britons, 193, a 
 
 Icknield Way, Iknield Way, 588, b 
 
 Iden, Sheriff of Kent, Cade's Rebel- 
 hon, 216, a 
 
 Imain-ud-deen, Golab Singh, 508, ft 
 
 Ina, King of Wessex, Ine, King of 
 Wessex, 598, ft 
 
 Indian Empire, Order of the. Knight- 
 hood, 656, a 
 
 Induction, Ben^e, 150, ft 
 
 Indulph, King of Alban, Alba/n, 23, a 
 
 Ine, King, Wessex, 1063, ft 
 
 Ingelger, Angevins, 46, a 
 
 Innocent III., Pope, Langton, Steplien, 
 
 —, Papacy, 797, c 
 
 Innocent IV,, Pope, Papacy, 797, a 
 
 Inquest of Sheriffs, SJm-iff, 941, ft 
 
 Institution,,5e»ie^cc, I'iO, ft 
 
 Intermarriage Act, Fecial Code, 809, 6 
 
 Inverdoret, Battle at, Constantme, 
 son of Kenneth, 305. ft 
 
 Invincibles, Ireland, 610,b 
 
 lona, 4ftbo(, 1, a 
 
 Ireland, Duke of, Dulce, 389, a 
 
 Iron-clad Ships, Navy^ 750. ft 
 
 Isabella, Queen of Spain, Spanish Mar- 
 riages, 959, ft 
 
 Isandblwana, South African Colonies, 
 956^ b 
 
 Isca, Exeter, 445, b 
 
 Isla, John ae, JohJi, Lord of the Isles, 
 631, ft 
 
 Isnam-ud-deen, Lawrevce, 672, a 
 
 Itajuba, Viscount d', Geneva Convene 
 tion, 490, ft 
 
 Ivan the Terrible, Russia, 898, a 
 
 Jackson, Mr., Indian Mutiny, 597, a 
 Jarl, Danes, 355, b 
 
 , Earl, 396, b 
 
 J eetpore. Siege of, Jeetgwh, Siege of, 
 
 625, a 
 Jefferson, 'Thomas, American Indepen- 
 dence, 40, b 
 Jeffreys of Wells, Baron, Jeffreys, 
 
 George, Lord, 626, a 
 Jekyll, Sir Joseph, Gin Act, 501, a, 
 Jena, Battle of, Prussia, 840, b 
 
 , French Revolution, 
 
 War of the, 479, b 
 Jermyn, Henry, Army Plot, 76, a 
 Jersey, Channel Islands, 'J40, a 
 Jesus College, Oxford, Universities, 
 
 1027, b 
 Jews, Attacks on the, Jews in Eng- 
 land, 628, a 
 Jews' Exchequer, Jews in England, 
 
 628, a 
 Jews, Expulsion of the, Jews in Eng- 
 land, 628, b 
 Joan of Kent, Bocher, Joan, 171, » 
 John of Islay, Hebrides, 545, a 
 John of Braganza, Portugal, 831, a 
 John Bull, Arbuthnot, Jo/w, 66, a 
 John, the Old Saxon, Alfred, 31, b 
 John, King of France, Poitiers, 824, a 
 John, King of Bohemia, Crecy, ,134, n 
 John, King of ,Castile, Lancaster^ 
 
 John, Duke of, 662, a 
 John XXIL, Pope, Papacy, 797, 6 
 John the Fearless, Murder of, H^m- 
 
 dred Years' War, 583, b 
 Joseph of Ariraatuea, Glastonbury, 
 
 503, a 
 Joseph Bonaparte, Peninsular War, 
 
 811, a 
 Joyce, Cornet, Adjutators, 10, a 
 Jubbulpore, Sack of, Ameer lOian, 40, ft 
 Julius II., Pope, Papacy, 798, b 
 Junot, Peninsular War, 810, ct 
 Junto, The Whig, Somera, 953, b 
 Justieiar, Justice, 63.o, b 
 Justitianus, Justice, 6H5, b 
 Justus, Bishop, Bishopric, 162, & 
 
 Kaffraria, ff'aplr Wars, 637, b 
 Kandahar, Afahan Wars, 15, 16 
 Kavanaghs, The, Ireland, GU6, b 
 Keble College, Oxford, Universities, 
 
 1027,6 
 Keble, John, High Church, 560, b 
 
 Kelat-i-Gbilzai, Afghan Wara,lo,b 
 Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells, Seven 
 
 Bishops, 93i, a 
 Kenmure, Lord, Jacobites, 618, a 
 Kenmure, Peerage of. Gordon, Family 
 
 of, 510, a , „ . J 
 
 Kennedy, Bishop of St. Andrews 
 
 James III., King of Scotland, 6au, ft 
 Kennedy, King of Munster, Brian 
 
 Boru, 186, a 
 Kenneth. Picts, 819, b 
 Kenneth, King of Alban. Alban, 23, a 
 Kenneth MacAipin, Picts, 820, a 
 Kent, William Neville. Earl of, Fal- 
 
 cojiherg. Lord, 449, a 
 Keogh, Mr. Justice, Oalway Election, 
 
 486, b 
 Kers of Perniehurst, The, Somerset, 
 
 955, a 
 Keys, douse of, Man, Isle of, 706, a 
 Khalsa, Panjaub, 841, b 
 Khursee Rao Bolkax, Holkar,Je8wunt 
 
 Rao, 570, a 
 Khyber Pass, Afghan Wars, 15, b 
 Kidd, Captain, Somen's, 953, ft 
 Kilmansegge. Charlotte Sophia, i)ar- 
 
 lington, Countess of, 357, a 
 Kinnoul, Lord, Invei-ness, John Say, 
 
 603, b 
 King of "the Isles, Hebrides, 545, a 
 King's College, Cambridge, Universi- 
 ties, 1028, a 
 Kingston, Council of, Ceolnoth, 242, b 
 Kingston-upon-Hull, Hull, 580, 6 
 King-Maker, Warvnck, 10t5, a 
 King Philip's War, Colonies, The 
 
 American, 289, a 
 King's Qubair, James I., King of 
 
 Scotland, 620, b 
 Kirkee, Battle of, Elphinstone, 
 
 Mountstuart, 4S0, a 
 Kirke's Laiubs, Kirke, Colonel Percy, 
 
 655, a 
 Knicht's Fee, Knighthood, 656, a 
 Knightley, Kitig, Edward, 653, a 
 Kolin, Seven Years' War, 935, ft 
 Kossuth, Hungarian Mefagee Ques- 
 tion, B84. ft 
 Krudener, Madame, Holy Alliance, 
 
 673, ft 
 Kunersdorf, SeueJi Years' TTtir, 935, b 
 Kyriel, Sir T., Fourmigni, Battle of, 
 
 472, a 
 
 La Belle Alliance, Waterloo, 1057, a 
 Lady, Title of, Queen, 846, a 
 Lacghaire, King, Brehon, 184, a 
 Lafayette, American Iiidependence, 
 
 War of, 42, b 
 La Haye Sainte, Waterloo, 1056, a 
 Lah, Danes, 355, b 
 Lake, Bishop of Chichester, Seven, 
 
 Bishops, 935, a 
 Lally, Wandewash, lOil, ft 
 Lambert, General, Ainerican War, 
 
 43, a 
 Lanibton, John George, Durham, 
 
 Earl of, 395, a 
 Lancaster, Dukedom of, Lancaster, 
 
 Henry, Earl and Duke of, 662, a 
 Lancaster, Earldom of, Lancaster, 
 
 Duchy of, 660, a 
 Lancaster, Joseph, Education in 
 
 England, 407, b 
 Land Acts, Land Legislation, Irish, 
 
 682, b 
 Land Bank, BanJcing, 124, a 
 Land Commission, Land Legislation, 
 
 Irish, 663, b 
 Land Tenants, Land Tenure, 665, a 
 Landed Estates Coui-t, Land Legis- 
 lation, Irish, 662, b 
 Landen, Spanish Succession, 96^ b 
 Laoigley, Edmund of, York, 1094, ft 
 Langon, General, Boyne, Battle of the, 
 
 180, ft 
 Lantore, Island of, East India Com/- 
 
 pany, 398, b 
 Last of the Barons, Warioick, 1055, a 
 Latimer, Lord, Good Parliameiiti 
 
 509, a 
 Lawrence, Major Henry, Golab Singh, 
 
 508, ft 
 Lay Abbots, Abbot, 2, a 
 Leda, Marquis of, Gilrraltar, 500, ft 
 Le Dcspencer, Baron, Dashwood, Sir 
 
 F, 358, ft 
 Lee, General, Americaji Indc2}endence, 
 
 wa/r of , 42, ft 
 Legge, William, Da/rtmouth, ist Earl 
 
 of, 357, b 
 
INDEX. 
 
 1115 
 
 Leinster, Countess of, Darlington, 
 
 . Countess of, 357, a 
 Leii, Counties, The Irish, 324, & 
 Le Marchaat, Channel Islands, The. 
 
 349, a ' 
 
 Lennox Lady Sarah, George III., 
 
 495, 6 
 Leopold of Austria, Richard I., 874, b 
 Leopold of Coburg, Prince, Geo^-ge 
 
 IV., 498, a 
 : , Spanish Mar- 
 
 riages^bd. b 
 Leopold, Prince, Albany, Peerage of, 
 
 23,6 J Jt 
 
 Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, Charlotte, 
 
 Princess, 253, b 
 Leprosy L^lpricKMMre, 19, a 
 Leslie, William, Aberdeen Doctors, 
 
 4, a 
 LeTiatlian, Hobbes, Tliomas, 569, a 
 LlaudaflE, See of, Bishoprics, 1G3, a 
 Llewelyn ap Gruffydd, Wales, 1045, b 
 Llewelyn ap lorwertli, Wales, 
 
 1045, a 
 Lloyd, Bishop of St. Asaph, Seve)t 
 
 Bishops, 935, a 
 Lloyd, Lord Kenyon, Kenyan, Lloyd. 
 
 1st iord, 64, a 
 Libel of English Policy, ^ain, 
 
 958, a 
 Liberals, WJm, 1068. 6 
 Liberator, O'ConneU, 777, 6 
 Liberty, Jfonour, 574, a 
 Liege Homage, Montage, 573, b 
 Lidge, (^pture of, Ann^, Queen, 
 
 55,6 
 Liegnitz, Seven 3'ears* TCar, 936, a 
 Life Peerages, Wensleydale's Case, 
 
 1062, a 
 Limerick, Treaty of, Ireland, 608, a 
 Limoges, Angevnis, 46, a 
 Limoues, Bishopric of, Abbeville, 
 
 Treaty of, I, a 
 Lincoln, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 Ijincoln College, Oxford, tPniversities, 
 
 1027, 6 
 Lindisfai-as, An^lo-Saxon Kingdoms, 
 
 51, a 
 Liria, Duke of, Bervnck, Duke of, 
 
 155, b 
 LitsCer, John, Kin^ of the Convmons, 
 
 60S, 6 
 Litteratus, Alfred, 31, b 
 Liverpool, See of, Bishopric, 163, 6 
 Livery Comiianies, Toirjw, 1005, 6 
 Liz, Slinon de, Fotheringay Castle, 
 
 47l,b 
 Loam Mor, Fergus Mor, 454, a 
 Lochlnvar, Peerage of, Gordon, 
 
 Family of, 510, a 
 London, University of, Universities, 
 
 1029, a 
 Long, Thomas, Bribery, 187, a 
 Long Island, Bahamas, U5, a 
 Longbeard, Fitz-Osbert, Wuliam;^l, a 
 Lopez, Ur. Roderigo, Jews in Eng- 
 land, 628, b 
 Lord Chief Justice, Justice, 636, a 
 Lord High Constable, ConMable, 
 
 Lord High Treasurer, Treasurer, 
 
 1012, a 
 Lord 01 the Isles, Hebrides, Mo, a 
 Lords Delegates of Appeal, Appellate 
 
 Jurisdiction, 63, b 
 Lome, Lord of, Argyle, Peerage of, 
 
 73, b 
 Lothaire, King of Kent, Kent, King- 
 dom of, 641, b 
 Lott Moga, Munster, 743. 6 
 Louis, Count of Flanders, Isabella, 
 
 daughter of Edward III., 615, a_ 
 Louis of Baden, Spanish Succession, 
 
 960, b . ^ 
 
 Louis of Bavaria, Alliance with, 
 
 Hundred Years' War, 583, a 
 Louis TI- of France, Henry I., King, 
 
 548, a 
 Louis XI. of France, James I., King 
 
 of Scotland, 620, a 
 Louis XIU King of Prance, Henry 
 
 VIII KinOipol, a 
 T nuis XlV. of Prance, La Hague, The 
 
 Battle of, 659, a 
 __Z---Z- partition Treaties, 8M, a 
 
 ' Byswick, 900, a 
 
 \ ; Spanish Succession, War 
 
 of the, Q&i^ « 
 
 "^ ' - Utrecht,\mo, a 
 
 Williani III., 1077, a 
 
 Louis Philippe, Spanish Man-iages, 
 
 TrmS^Maria of Stolberg-Gedern, 
 ^ Albany, Peerage of, 23, a 
 T ouisbourg. Siege of, &c.. Cape 
 Breton, 227, a, b 
 
 Low Church, High Church, 568, a 
 Lucayos, Bahamas, 115, a 
 Luguvallum, Carlisle, 228, b 
 Lundy, Colonel, Londonda-ry, 688, a 
 Lundy s Lane, Fort Ene, 470, 6 
 LUiieburg, Dukedom of, Hanover, 
 
 House of, 531, 6 
 Lunfiville, Treaty of, Amiens, Treaty 
 
 of, 44, b 
 Luneville, Peace of, Fi-ench Revolvr 
 
 tion. War of the, 479, a 
 Lusignan, Hugh of, Isabella ofAngou- 
 
 l&rae, 614, a 
 Luther, Befoi'niationj 859, a 
 Luttrell, Colonel, Me^nbars of Parlia- 
 ment, 726, 6 
 Lyons, Battle of, Albinus, 26, a 
 Lyons, Council of, Kilwardby, Arch- 
 bishop, 645, 6 
 
 ■ , Papacy, 797, a 
 
 Lyons, Richard, Good Parliament, 
 
 M 
 
 Macarius, Irish Church, 612. b 
 MacConnel, Chief of the Island Scots, 
 
 Island Scots, 615, a 
 Macdonnell, Alexander, Antrim, Earl 
 
 of, 62, a 
 Macdonnell, Ba.ndal, Antrim, Earl of, 
 
 62, b 
 Maclaii of Glencoe, Glencoe, Massacre 
 
 of, 503, 6 
 Macintagart of Ross, Gilroy, 501, a 
 Macintosh, Brigadier, Jacobites, 618, a 
 Mackerel, Dr., Lincolnshire Insun-ec- 
 
 tion, 684, a 
 McMillanites, Cameronian8,220,b 
 Macnaghten, Sir W., Afghan Wars, 
 
 15, a 
 Madoc, Wales, 1046, a 
 Madrid, Treaty of, Jam^aica, 619, 6 
 Maelgwn, Wales, 1043, a 
 Maes Gfarraon, Alleluia Victory, 36, 6 
 Magdala, Atryssinian Expedition, 6, 6 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, Univer- 
 sities, 1027, 6 
 Magdalene College, Cambridge, Uni- 
 versities, 1028, b 
 Magnus Barefoot, Oi'kney and 
 
 Shetland, 785, 6 
 Mahdajee Scindia, Scindia, 918, a 
 Mah6, Expedition against, Hyder Ali, 
 
 588, a 
 Mahratta Ditch, Calcutta, 218, a 
 Maine, Abbeville, Treaty of, 1, a 
 Malnprize, Bail, 115, b 
 Malacca, Straits Settlements, 974, 6 
 Malachi, King, Munster, 744, a 
 Malachy, St., Irish Church, 612, a 
 Malakofl, Sedan, 856, a 
 Malcolm, First King of Scotia, Alban, 
 
 23, ft 
 Malcolm, King of Alban, Alban, 
 
 23, a 
 Maldred, Oj-itwito, 335, b 
 Maletote, Customs, 347, a 
 Malmesburj', Abbot of, Abbot, 2, a 
 Malpedir MacLean, Duncan II., 391, a 
 Malplaquet, Spanish Succession, 961 , a 
 Malwa, Gwahor, 522, 6 
 Manann, Battle of, Aidan, King, 
 
 21, b 
 Manasseh-ben-Israel, Petition of, 
 
 Jews in England, 628, 6 
 Manchester, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 Manchester Massacre, Pcierloo, 817, a 
 Mandeville, Roger de, Claimants of 
 
 the Scottish Crown in 1291, 270, b 
 Mandubiutius, Cas8ivellaumt8,2Z2, b 
 Manners, Lady Catherine, Bucking- 
 ham, Duke of, 199, 6 
 Manny, Sir Walter, Aiguillon^2, a 
 Manson, Colard, Caxton, William, 
 
 239,0 
 Mar, Kingdom of, Highlands, 567, a 
 March, Patrick, Earl of, Claimants of 
 
 the Scottish Crovm in 1291, 270, b 
 Marengo, French Resolution, War of 
 
 the, 479, a 
 Margaret of Ss-Toy, Stile, 972, b 
 Margaret, wife of James III., James 
 
 Til, King of Scotland, 621, a 
 Maria of Portugal, PoHuhal, esi, 6 
 Maria Theresa, Seven Years' War, 
 
 935, a 
 Marianus Scotus, Florence of Wor- 
 cester, 465, b 
 Marion, General, American Indepen- 
 
 de7ice. War of, 42, a 
 Marisco, Adam de, Groateteste, Robert, 
 520, b 
 
 Marisco, Stephen de, Fitz-Stephen, 
 
 Robert, 461, b 
 Maritiuie Convention of St. Peters- 
 
 bui;g, Armed Neutrality, 75, a 
 Mark, Coinage, 282, b 
 Mai'kmoot, mark System, 713, a 
 Marlborough, Statute of. County 
 
 Court, 328, a 
 Marmion, Robert de. Champion of 
 
 England, 24:>, a 
 Manuont, Pentusular War, 811, b 
 Maroon wars, Jamaica, 61'J, b 
 Marriage Ace, Cuusuhir, Consuls, 
 
 306,6 
 Marshalsea Prison, Prisons, 837, a 
 Mai-sli, Adam, Fi'iars, 481, b 
 Martin, Mr., M.P., Animals, Cruelty 
 
 to, 54, a 
 Martinus Scriblerus, Arbuthnot, John, 
 
 66,0. 
 Mary of Gueldres, James II., King of 
 
 Scotland,Q20, 
 Maryland, Colonies, The American, 
 
 388, a 
 Master of the Rolls, Rolls, Master of 
 
 the, 888, 6 
 Massachusetts, Colonies, The Ameri- 
 can, 288, 6 
 Masseua, Pejiinsular War, 811, a 
 
 , Torres Vedras, 1003, a 
 
 Massue, Henri de, Galway, Earl of, 
 
 486, a 
 Matthew, Thomas, Bible, 158, a 
 Maxima Cssariensis, Britannia, 102, a 
 Maxwell, Colonel, Arikera, Battle of, 
 
 72, b 
 
 Maynooth College, Educatio'^. in Ire- 
 land, 409, a 
 
 Meanwaras, Anglo-SaxoJi Kingdoms, 
 51,6 
 
 Meata3, Piets, 819, a 
 
 Medina-Sidonia, Duke of. Armada, 
 
 73, b 
 
 Medmenham Abbey, Dashwood, Sir F., 
 
 358, a 
 Megasaetas, Mercia, 727, 6 
 Meheinet Ali, Acre, 6, b 
 Meidulf, Adhelm, 28, a 
 Melgund and Aboyne, Peerage of, 
 
 Gordon, Family of, 510, a 
 Mellifont, Council at, Irish Church, 
 
 612,6 
 Melville, Viscount, Dundas, Henry, 
 
 391,6 
 Merchant Gilds, Towns, 1005, a 
 Merchants, Statute of, Acton Bwiul, 
 
 l,a 
 Merton, Statute of. Common Lands, 
 
 294, a 
 Merton College, Oxford, Universities, 
 
 1027, a 
 Merton, Battle at, Alfred, 30, b 
 Mewar, Rajputana, 850, 6 
 Michaelhouse, Cambridge, Univer- 
 sities, 1028, a 
 Middle England, Mercia, 727, 6 
 Middleburg, Captiire of, Walcheren, 
 
 1042,6 
 Middle English, Mercia, "27, 6 
 Milan, Decree of, French R^olution, 
 
 War of the, 4S0, a 
 Miles of Hereford, Constable, S04, a 
 Milesians, Celts, 241, a 
 
 .Ireland, 604, a 
 
 Militia, Military System, 731, a 
 
 Million Act, Annuities, 59, 6 
 
 Mining Act, Factory Legislation, 
 
 448, a 
 Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ambassor 
 
 dors, 39, a 
 Minute Men, Ga^e, General Thomas, 
 
 485,a 
 Mirza Khan, Persian War, 816, a 
 Mitchell, Sir F., Monopolies, 7S7, 6 
 Mitred Abbots, ^66ot, 1, 6 
 Moira, Lord, Hastings, Francis, 1st 
 
 Ma/rquis of, 541, a 
 MompesBon, Sir Giles, Monopolies, 
 
 737,6 
 Mona, Agricola, 17, 6 
 
 , Anglesey, 48, a, 6 
 
 Monasticon Anglicanum, Dugdale, 
 
 Sir W., 388, 6 
 Monroe, General, Benburb, Battle of, 
 
 149,6 
 Montague, Charles, Halifax, Earl of, 
 
 525. a 
 Mont St. Jean, Waterloo, 1056, a 
 Montcalm, Quebec, 845, 6 
 Montfort, John of. Hundred Years' 
 
 War, 583, a 
 Montgomery, Lord, Benbwb, Battle 
 
 of, 149, 6 
 Monte, Robert de, Jumiiges, WHliam, 
 
 of^ 632, a 
 Mont]uich, Peterborough, 816, 6 
 
1116 
 
 IKDKX. 
 
 Moravians, Oaths, Parliamentary, 
 
 776, b 
 — -, Members of Parliament, 
 
 726, b 
 Moray, Kingdom of, Sighlands, 567, a 
 Morgan, Henry, Buccaneas, iy7, b 
 Murganwg, Wales, 1044, a 
 Mormaer, Higldands.mi, a 
 Mornington, Lord, Wellesley, Marquis, 
 
 1059, a 
 Morton's Fork, Benevolences, 151, u, 
 Morville. Hugli de, Becket, 144, a 
 Mount Norris, Baron, Anglesey, Peer- 
 age of, 48, 6 
 Mountain Men, Camei'onians, 220, & 
 Mountb, Picts, 819, & 
 MovaMes, Taxes on. Taxation, 991, 0; 
 MozufEer Jung, Nizam, 758, b 
 
 , Nazir Jung, 751, a 
 
 Mug, King, Munster, 743, b 
 MuKwanpore, Battle of, Goorkka War, 
 
 509,6 
 Mulgrave, Earl of, Buckinghamshire, 
 
 Duke of, 200, a 
 Mulbar Rao Holkar, Holkar, 570, a 
 Mungo, St., Ke^itiga-n,St., C41, b 
 Munster, Ducliess of, Kendal, Duchess 
 
 of, 639, b 
 Murray, Colonel, Gordon Riots, 510, a 
 Musgi*ave, John, Battle of Solway 
 
 Moss, 953, a 
 
 Nadir Sliali, Mogul, 734, a 
 Nankin, Treaty of, Hong-Kong, 574, a 
 Napoleon III., Paimerston, 795, a 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, France, 476, a 
 
 , Fi-ench Bevolu- 
 
 tion, War of, 479, b 
 
 -, Viffuna, Congress 
 
 of, 1035, b 
 
 , Waterloo, 1056, a 
 , Welliiigtoii, 1060, 
 
 Nasir Kban, Afahan Wars, 15, a 
 Natal, South African Colonies, 955, 6 
 Nativi, Villena/ie, 1037, a 
 "Nation of Sliopkeepers," Adams, 
 
 Samtiel, 7, b 
 Naturalisation, Aliens, S3, 6 
 Neck-verse, The, Benefit of Clergy, 
 
 150, ft 
 Nectan, Picts, 819, 6 
 
 , Seguise, 9S0, a 
 
 Nectansmere, Battle of, Egfred, 
 
 420. a 
 Neerwinden, Battle of, Landen, Bat- 
 tle of, 667, a 
 Neifs, Villenage, 1037, a 
 Weill, Bui, Ireland, 604, & 
 Nenndiann, Celts, 241, a 
 Nessclrode, Count, Polish Question, 
 
 825, a 
 Ne the elands, Holland, Relations with, 
 
 571, a 
 New College, Oxford. Univei'sities, 
 
 1027, b 
 New Hampshire, Colonies, The Am.eri- 
 
 can, 288, b 
 New Jersey, Colonies, The American, 
 
 288, b 
 New Lights, Irish Church, 613, & 
 New Providence, Bahamas. 45, a 
 New South Wales, Australia, 101, u. 
 New Zealand, Australia, 10:2, i* 
 Newcastle, See of, Bishopric, 163, & 
 Newcastle, Treaty of, Alexander III., 
 
 29, a 
 Newninn,John Henry, High Church, 
 
 566,6 
 Newspapers, Press, Lib&rty of the, 
 
 836, b 
 Ney, Qiiatre Bras, 845, a 
 
 . Waterloo, 1036, a 
 
 Nicholae, fiuiperor, Ritssia, 898, 6 
 NichoUs, Colonel, Almorah, 38, a 
 Nicholson, Brigadier, Delhi, Siege of 
 
 (1857), 364, b 
 Nicolas of Hereford, Bible, 157, b 
 Nisi Prius, Justices of, Justice, 
 
 636, a 
 No. 45^ TTiffces, 1072, & 
 Nobility, Peerage, 807, 6 
 Nobles, Coinage, 2&^, a 
 Nolan, Captain, Galway Election, 
 
 485, b 
 Nootka Sound, Spain, 950, a 
 Norfolk, King of, Ket, Robert, 
 
 643, a 
 Nonnanby, Lord, Spanish Man-iages, 
 
 Normanby, Marquis of, Buckingham- 
 shire, Duke of, 200, b 
 
 North, Francis, Jjord, Guilfoj-d, Loi-d, 
 
 5^1, b 
 North, Mr , Governor of Ceylon, 
 
 Kandy Wars, 638, a 
 Northmen, Danes, 353, a 
 Norwich, Bishopric of. East Anglia, 
 
 397,6 
 Nott, General, Afghan Wars, 15, b 
 Nuns, Nunneries, 774, 6 
 
 O'Brien, Goodman, Cardell, 508, 6 
 Ochterlouy, Colonel, Delhi, Siege of, 
 
 364, a 
 Ockley, Battle of, Ethelwulf, 44S, a 
 O'Olerighe, Michael, Four Masters, 
 
 The chronicle of the, 471, b 
 O'Clerighe, Cucolriglie, Four Mas- 
 ters, The Chro^iicle of the, 471, b 
 Octa, K.ing of Kent, Keiit, Kingdom 
 
 of, 641, 6 
 OfEa, King, Essex, Kingdom of, 436, b 
 OfEaley, Barony of, Fitzgerald, Family 
 
 of, 469, b 
 OfEaly, Counties, The Irish, 324, 6 
 Ogam Inscriptions, Inscriptiffos, 
 
 Celtic, 600, a 
 Old Guard, The, Waterloo, 1056, b 
 Old Whig, Addison, 8, b 
 Olnegmacht, Gonnaught, 302, a 
 Oodeypoor, Majputana, 850, b 
 Orange Free State, South African 
 
 Colonies, 955, b 
 Orator Hunt, Spa Fields Riots, 959, b 
 
 , Petei-loo, 817, a 
 
 Ordination, Benefice, 150, a 
 Ordovices, Britons, iu3, a 
 Oreto, Geneva Convention, 491, a 
 Oi-ford, Edward, Earl of, Russell, 
 
 897, a 
 Orford, Horace, Earl of, Walpole, 
 
 1050, a 
 Oi-ford, Robert, Earl of, Walpole, 
 
 1049, a 
 Oriel College, Oxford, Universities, 
 
 1027, a 
 Orleans, Charles, Duke ot, Henry V., 
 
 King, 553, a 
 Ormonde, Earldom &c., of, Battler, 
 
 Family o/, 211,6 
 OiTery, Eart of, Boyle, Lord, 180, 6 
 Orsini, Bernard's Case, 154, a 
 Osburgh, The Lady, Alfred, 30, a 
 Oslac, Alfred, 30, a 
 
 Osnaburg, Bishopric of, York, 1095, a 
 Ossory, Title of, Butler, Family of, 
 
 211 6 
 Ostend Company, Hanover,^ Treaty of, 
 
 .'J33, a 
 O&wald, King, Aidan, St., 21, b 
 Oswald, King, Wessex, 1063, b 
 Otto IV., Emperor, John, King, 
 
 631, a 
 Otto, Council of, Councils, Ecclesiasti- 
 cal, 322, b 
 Otto, Kin^ of Greece, Greece, Rela- 
 tions with, 515, a 
 Ottobon, Council of, Councils, Eccle- 
 siastical, Z22, b 
 Oudenarde, Spanish Siiccessioji, 961, a 
 Outdoor Relief, Poor Laws, 827, a 
 Overlord, Land Tenure, 665, a 
 Overseers, Poor Laws, 82G, a 
 Overton's Plot, Harrison, Thomas, 
 
 538, b 
 OwainapGruffydd, Glendower,5Qi, a 
 Owen Gwynedd, Wales, 1045, a 
 Owen Tudor, Tudors, 1015, b 
 Oxford, Earl of, Harley, Robert, 535, 6 
 Oxford, See of. Bishopric; ^&3, a 
 Oxford University, Universities,l027,b 
 Oyer and Terminer, Justices of, Jiis- 
 
 Pakenham, Sir E., American War, 
 
 43, a 
 Palmer Bank, Hastings, Francis, \st 
 
 Marquis of. Ml, b 
 Palmer, Sir Geoffrey, Bridgman, Sir 
 
 Orlando, 188, a 
 Palmer, William, High Church, 566, 6 
 Pannage, Forests, 468, b 
 Paperon , Cardinal J ohn, Irish Cfmrch , 
 
 612,6 
 Paramaribo, English Settlement at, 
 
 Guiana, 52\, a 
 Park, Colonel, Antigtia, 62, a 
 
 Parke, Sir J., We7isleydale's Case, 1062, a 
 Parliamentary Register, The, Almon, 
 
 37, b 
 Parma, Duchy of, Aix-la-Cliapelle, 
 
 'i'l-eaty of, 22, b „ ,_. 
 
 Parnell, Henry Brooke, Congleton, 
 
 Lm-d, 301, 6 
 Passaro, Cape, Spain, 959, d 
 Pasturage, Rights of. Common Lands, 
 
 2y3, b 
 Patay, Battle -of. Hundred lears 
 
 War, 583, 6 
 Paterson, Willituu, Banking, 123, 6 
 Patriarch of Jerusalem, Bek, Anthony, 
 
 147, b 
 Patron, Advowson, 14, a 
 Paul IV., Pope, Papacy, 798, b 
 Pavia, Battle of, Henry YJIL, King, 
 
 567, b 
 Peasant Revolt, Lollards, 685, b 
 
 , Tyle); Wat, 1019, a, 6 
 
 Pecsaetan, Mercia, 727, b 
 Pedro the Cruel, Navarrete, 748, b 
 Peel Towers, Castles, 233, 6 
 Peers, Privileges of. Peerage, 807, 6 
 Peers, Representative, Peei-age, SOS, a 
 Pembroke College, Oxford, Universi- 
 ties, 1027, b 
 Penal Servitude, Prisons, 837, b 
 Penang, Straits Settlements, 974, b 
 Penny, Coinage, 282, a 
 Pepys, Charles Christopher, Cotten- 
 
 hani, \st Earl of, 317, b 
 Perigueux, Bishopric of, Abbeville, 
 
 'JYeaty of, 1, a 
 Perkin Warl)eck, Warbeck, 1C52, a 
 Perrers, Alice, Edward III., 415, a 
 Pestilence, Black Death, 164, a 
 Peter de la Mare, Speaker, 962, b 
 Peter the Cruel, Portugal, 830, b 
 
 — _ — ^ Spain, 958, a 
 
 Peter the Great, Russia, 898, a 
 Peterborough, Abhot of, Abbot, 2, a 
 Peterborough, See of. Bishopric, 
 
 163, a 
 Peterhouse, Cambridge, Universities, 
 
 1028, a 
 Petit Sergeanty, Sergeanty, 932, a 
 Petitions, Receivers of, iiiis, PaW7«- 
 
 mentary, 160, a 
 Petitions, Triers of, Bills, Parliamen- 
 tary, ibO, a 
 Pett, Phineas, ^aw/, 750, b 
 Petty Jury, Jw?-]/, 633, 6, 634, 6 
 Phi lade [phi a. Capture of, American 
 
 Independence, War of, 41, b 
 Philip Augustus, King of Prance, 
 
 John, King, 630, b, 631, a 
 
 , Richard I., 874, b 
 
 Philip v., Utrecht, 1030, a 
 
 Philip, Count of Pia.n6.Qrs, Flanders, 
 
 Relations with, 463, a 
 Philippoteaux, Acre, 6, b 
 Piacenza, Duchy oi, Aix-la^Ghapelle, 
 
 Treaty of, 22, b 
 Pinkeney, Robert de, Claimants of 
 
 the Scottish Crovyti in '291, 270, b 
 Pittsbui^g, Fort Diiquesne, 470, 6 
 Placks, Coinage, 284, a 
 Plantagenets, Angevins, 46, a 
 Platen, Madame de, Darlington, 
 
 Countess of, S57, a 
 Plegmund, Alfred, 3i, b 
 Poaching, Game Daws, 487, a 
 Pointz, Colonel, Langdale, Sir Marma- 
 
 duke, 667, b 
 Police Rates, Rates, 853, ti 
 Poll Tax, Taxation, 991, b 
 
 , Tyler, Wat, 1019, b 
 
 Pollock, Genei-al, Afghan Wars, 15, b 
 Polychronicon, Higden, Ralph, 565, a 
 Pomare, Queen, Tahiti Question, 
 
 987, b 
 Poiubal, Poi-tugal, 831, b 
 Pondicherry, Vo-sa^Hcs, 1034, b 
 Poutigny, Roger of, Roger ofPontigny, 
 
 888, b 
 Poor Priests, Xo/Iards, 685, b 
 Poor Rates, Poor Laws, 827, a 
 Popham, Sir Home, Buenos Ayrcs, 
 
 2m, b 
 Porcupine, Peter, Cobbett, William, 
 
 280, a 
 PortarllngtOD, Baron, Galway, Earl 
 
 of, 486, a 
 Port Elizabeth, South African Colo- 
 nies, 955, b 
 Port-Reeve, Bailiff, 116, a 
 
 , Reeve, 857, a 
 
 Porte Ferrajo, Evacuation of, Amiens 
 
 Treaty of, 44, 6 ' 
 
 Port Mahon, Stanhope, 967, a 
 Posse Comltatus, Siieriff, 941, b 
 Pottlnger, Sir Edward, Herat, S60, 6 
 Pound, Coinage, 282, b 
 Powis, IToics, 1044, a 
 
INDEX. 
 
 1117 
 
 PvEBcentor, CJia/pter, 250, a 
 
 ^ranositus, Manor, 708, b 
 
 -rratt, GUarles, Camden, 1st Earl. 
 
 ^ aiu.b 
 
 Prebendary, Cliapter, 250, a 
 
 Precariie, Manor. 708, b 
 
 Prepositus, Bailiff; U6, a 
 
 Prerogative Court, EcclesiasHcal Jiv- 
 
 risdiction, 401, b 
 Presbiirg, Treaty of, French Bm)olit- 
 
 tion. War of the, 479, b 
 Present Tenants, Land Legislation. 
 
 663,6 
 Presentation, Benefice, 150, 6 
 Preston, Somers, Lord John, 953, 6 
 Priests in Ireland, Penal Code,S09, b 
 Prince Consort, Albert, Prince, 25, a, 6 
 Prince Rupert's Land, Hudson's Bay 
 
 Territories, 580, a 
 Princess Party, Anne, Queen, 55, & 
 Print-Works A.ct, Factory Legislation, 
 
 448, « ' 
 
 Prior, Abbot, 1, 6 
 Prisage, Customs, 347, a 
 Pritchard, Tahiti Question, 987, 6 
 Privilege ol Parliament, Parliament, 
 
 8ftS,T) 
 Prize Court, Admiralty, Court of, 
 
 12, a 
 Probate and Divorce, Court of, Hccle- 
 
 siastical Jurisdiction, 401, b 
 Propositus, Beadle, 139,6 
 Protestant Hero, Prussia, 840, a 
 Province Wellesley, Straits Settlement, 
 
 974,6 
 Provincial Courts, Archbishops, 67, a 
 Provisors, Statute of. Church of Eng~ 
 
 land, 263, a 
 Prussians at Waterloo, Waterloo, 
 
 1056,6 
 Public Worship Regulation Act, 
 
 Higji Church, 566, 6 
 ?unnins Inscription, Abel, Tltomas, 
 
 3.(1 
 Purvey, John, Bible, 157, 6 
 Pusey, Edward Bouverie, Sigh 
 
 Church, 566, 6 
 Futta, Biahop, Hereford, 561, 6 
 
 Q 
 
 Quartering Act, Colonies, The Ameri- 
 can, 289, 6 
 
 Quarterly Review, Jeffrey, Francis, 
 Lord, 625, b 
 
 Queens' College, Cambridge, Univer- 
 sities, 1028, a 
 
 Queen's College, Oxford, Universities, 
 1027, a 
 
 Queensland, Austrftiia, 102, a 
 
 Queen's University, Fducation in 
 Ireland, 408, 6 
 
 Ragonaut, Rao Ragoba, Hastings, 
 
 Warren, 540. b ■ „ , ^ 
 
 Balkes, Kobert,^diicati£m in England, 
 
 407, a 
 Rajputs, Rajputana, Ron. ft _ 
 Ramillicf^, Spanish {Succession, 960, 6 
 Ranimiggur, Sikh Wars, J4d, a 
 Rainiioor Gbaut, Treaty of, Ameer 
 
 Khan, 40, a 
 Ramsay, Sir John, Gowrie Conspiracy, 
 
 512, a 
 Ra-nsey, Abbot of. Abbot, 2, a 
 Ranke quoted, William III., 1070, a 
 Itmulf, Earl of Chester, Constance of 
 
 Br itanny, 305, b 
 Rawdou. Francis, Hastings, Francis, 
 
 1st Marquis of,J>A\ a 
 Ttpadinff Abbot of , A&oo^, 2, a 
 Read n| Battle at, Alfred, 3n. 6 
 Record Commission, Beccrrd Office, 
 
 835,6 
 
 '%SSi2^fB&Scots,m,a 
 Redve?" Margaret, Brcaut&, Falkes 
 
 Redwald!'King of the East Angles, 
 
 P'astAnglia, 397. a 
 RefSdV S"b-Pri<.r of Canterbury, 
 ^^angio^i, Stephen, 668. 6 
 
 nnimting, Omii-Laws, 314, a 
 Sefeuard, tJourt of. Forests, 468, a 
 limSi^e, Suffolk, QSl, a 
 
 Residents, Ambassadors, 39, a 
 Revised version of the flew Testa- 
 ment, Bible. 158, 6 
 Revenue Act, Colotiies, The American, 
 
 289,6 
 Rex Anglorura, Egbert, 420, a 
 Rhivallou, Wales, 1044, 6 
 Rhode Island, Colonies, TheAm^-ican, 
 
 288,6 
 Rhodn Mawr, Wales, 1044, a 
 Rhydderch Hael, Cit7n67T:a, 345, a 
 Rhys ap Maredudd, Wales, 1046, a 
 Rhys ap Tewdwr, Wales, 1046, a 
 Ri, Ireland, 605, a 
 — , Highlands, 567, a 
 Richard Simun, Simnel, Lambert, 
 
 948,6 
 Riders, Coinage, 284, a 
 Ridgeway, r/t-nicid Way, 588, 6 
 Ridsdale Judgment, Adoe^'tisements, 
 
 13,6 
 Riel, Bed Itivcr Expedition, 856, 6 
 Riot Act, Meeting, 725, a 
 Ripon, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 Bipperda, Baron, George I., 493, a, 6 
 , Hanovei; Tlie Treaty 
 
 of, 532. b 
 Ritualists, ffigJi Church, 566, 6 
 Roberts, Sir P., Afghan Wivrs, 15, 6, 
 
 16, a 
 Robinson Crusoe, Defoe, Daniel, 3Q2, 6 
 Rochford, Lady, Culpepper, Sir T., 
 
 344, a 
 Rogers, John, Bible, 158, a 
 Rogues and Vagabonds, Vagrancy, 
 
 1031, a 
 Rohillas, Bohilcund, 88", 6 
 Rokeby, Sir Thomas, Bramham Moor, 
 
 182, a 
 Rolle, Robert, Bible, 157, 6 
 Roman de Rou, Wace, 1041, a 
 Roneesvalles, Battle of, Gascony, 
 
 483,6 
 Booke, Admiral, La Hogue, The Battle 
 
 of, 659, 6 
 Bos, William de, Claim.ants of the 
 
 Scottish Crown i?i 1291, 270, 6 
 Rose, Sir Hugh, Indian Mutiny, 
 
 598,(1 
 Rose-Noble, Coinage, 283, a, b 
 Rose, Hugh Jaiues, High CJiurch, 
 
 566,6 
 Ross, General, Avie7'ican War, 43, a 
 Ross, Alexander, Aberdeen Doctors, 
 
 4, a 
 RoBsa, Brehon, 184, a 
 Rossa, O'Donovan, Fenian Conspiracy, 
 
 453, a 
 Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, Jews in 
 
 E-ngland, 629, a 
 Rotten Boroughs, Reform Bills, 862, 6 
 Royal Marriage Act, Marriage Laws, 
 
 717, a 
 Boyal University, EduccUion in Ire- 
 land, 409, a 
 Rump, Long Parliament, 690, b 
 Rureniond, Capture of, Amie, Queen, 
 
 55,6 
 Buthven. Lord, Gowrie, William, Eai-l 
 
 of, 511, b 
 Buthven, Alexander, Oowrie Coiv- 
 
 spiracy,5ll^ b 
 Ruthven, Patrick, Brentford, Earl of, 
 
 184, b 
 Ruttelers, Vagrancy, 1030, 6 
 Ruvigny, Marquis ue, Galway, Earl 
 
 of, 486, a 
 Ryals, Coinage, 283, a 
 Rydderch Hael, Kentigem, St, 642, a 
 Ryder, Dudley, Hairowby, Earl of, 
 
 538,6 
 
 S 
 
 Sadoolapore, Sikh Wars, 948, a 
 Siier-ceile^ Treland,605, a 
 Saer-fuidir, Ireland, 605, b 
 Safety, Committee of, Long Parlia- 
 ment, 689, 6 
 St. Albans, Charles Beauclerk, Duke 
 
 of, Owynn, Eleanor, 522, 6 
 St, Albans, See of. Bishopric. 163, 6 
 St. Andrews, Bishopric of, Alexander 
 
 I., 28, 6 
 St, Andrews University, Universv- 
 
 ties, 1028, 6 
 Bt. Arnaud, Raglan, 850, a 
 St. Asaph, See of, Bishopric, 163, a 
 St. Augustine's, Abbot of, Abbot, 
 
 2, a 
 St. Benedict of Hulme, Abbot of, 
 
 Abbot, "2,, a 
 St. Catherine's College, Cambridge, 
 
 Universities, 1028, B 
 
 St. David's, Archbishop of, Bishopric, 
 
 163, a 
 St. Ediuondsbury, Edm/wnd, St., 406, a 
 St. Edmund's, Abbot of, Abbot,'i, a 
 St. lago. Town of, Jamaica^ 619, a 
 St. John's at Jerusalem, Brethren of, 
 Hospitallers, The Knights. 576, a 
 
 St. John's College, Cambridge, Uni- 
 vei-8itie8,\028, a, 6 
 
 St. John's College, Oxford, Univer- 
 sities, 1027, 6 
 
 St. John, Henry, Bolinghrolce,Vi8COunt, 
 172, b 
 
 St. John, Henry, Sir, Bolingbroke, Vis- 
 count, 172, 6 
 
 St. John of Jerusalem, Prior of, Abbot, 
 2, a 
 
 St. Liz. Simon de, Huntingdon, 
 Peerages of, 584, 6 
 
 St. Mary's Clyst. Battle at, Bedford, 
 1st Earl, 146, a 
 
 St. Mary's, York, Abbot ol, j166o(, 
 2. a 
 
 St. Michael and St. George, Knight- 
 hood, Order of, 656, a 
 
 St. Quentin, Dudo of, Jumidges, 
 William of, 632, a 
 
 St. Ruth, Agnrim, Battle of, 16, a 
 
 St. Salvador, Bahamas, 115, a 
 
 Saladin, Richard I., 874, 6 
 
 Sale, General, Afghan Wars, 15, 6 
 
 Salines, Maniuis de, Gibraltar, 500, a 
 
 Salomons, Alderman, Jews in Eng- 
 land, 629, a 
 
 Salythly, Patrick, Claimants of the 
 Scottish Crown in 1291, 271, a 
 
 Sandemanians, Glassites, 503, a 
 
 Sanquhar Declaration, Cameron, 
 Richard,220, b 
 
 Saragossa, Stanhope, 967, a 
 
 Sark, Channel Islands, 249, a 
 
 Sauchieburn, Angus, 5th Earl of, 
 53,6 
 
 Saville, George, Halifax, Marquis of, 
 625, 6 
 
 Sawtre, William, Heresy^ 562, 6 
 
 Scarlett, General, Crimean War, 
 335, a 
 
 Sceathas, Coinage, 282, a 
 
 Schism Bill, Anne, Queen, 56, 6 
 
 School Rates, Rates, P53, a 
 
 Schulenberg, Ermengard von, ^ewdal, 
 DiLchess of, 639, 6 
 
 Sclopis, Count F., Geneva Convention, 
 49LI, 6 
 
 Scoticoronlcon, Fordun,John, 467, a 
 
 Scott, John, Eldon, ist Earl, 420, 6 
 
 Scrogie, Alexander, Aberdeen Doctors, 
 4,(1 
 
 Scurvy, Agriculture, 19, a 
 
 Sebiii, iCing, Essex, Kingdom of, 
 436, a 
 
 Seditious Meetings Bill, Meeting, 
 725, a 
 
 Selby, Abbot of. Abbot, 2, a 
 
 Selred, King, Essex, Kingdom of, 
 436, b 
 
 Selsey, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 
 Selwyn College, Cambridge, Universi- 
 ties, 1028. 6 
 
 Senchus Mnr, Brehon, 183, 6 
 
 Senef. William III., 1076, a 
 
 Separatists, Oaths, Parliamentary, 
 775, b 
 
 Sequestration, Clergy, 277, a 
 
 Serfs, Villenage, '036, 6 
 
 Servia. Crimean War, 335, a 
 
 Seton, Alexander de, Huntly, Alex- 
 ander, 1st Earl of, 585, 6 
 
 Settlement, Law of, Po(^ Laws, 
 826, a 
 
 Seward, King, Essex, Kingdom of, 
 435,6 
 
 Sexlmrh, Queen, Wessex, 1063, 6 
 
 Seymour, Sir William, Arabella 
 Stuart, 65, 6 
 
 Shah Jehan, Agra, 17, a 
 
 Sliaw, Dr., Edward v., 417, 6 
 
 Shenandoah, The, Geneva Convention, 
 491 , a 
 
 Sherborne, See of. Bishopric, 16S, a 
 
 Shere Ah Khan, Afghan Wars, 
 15,6 
 
 Shore Singh, Sikh Wars, 947, 6 
 
 Sheriff Depute, Sheriff, 9J2, a 
 
 Sherlock, Hester, ^nnesley's Case, 
 59, a 
 
 Shilling, Coinaqe, 282, 6 
 
 Shire-Moot, Couvty Court, 327, 6 
 
 Shirley, Sir Anthony, Jamaica, 819, a 
 
 Shirley's Case, Commons, Tiie HouH6 
 of, 297, 6 
 
 Short Character of the Ear] of Whar- 
 ton, Wharton, Thomas, Marquis 
 of, 1067, 6 
 
 Shrewsbury, Abbot of, Abbot, a, a 
 
1118 
 
 Sibbold, James, Aberdeen Doctors, 
 
 4, a 
 Sibthorpe, Dr. RoJjert, Abbot, George, 
 
 2,6 
 Sicily, Edmund, King of, Lancaster, 
 
 600, & 
 Sidney Sussex College, Camljridge, 
 
 Universities, 1028, & 
 ^\6.rQC,Enylefl.eld, Battle of, 432, & 
 Sien-a. Leone, West Africa, 106S, b 
 Sigebert, King of Essex, Essex, 
 
 Kingdom of, 436, & 
 Sigebert the Learned, East Anglia, 
 
 397, (t 
 Sigeheard, King, Essex, ICLngdom of, 
 
 436,6 
 Slgehere, King, Essex, Kingdom of, 
 
 436.6 
 Sigurd, Orkney and Siietland, 785, a 
 ■ , Earl of Orkney, Hebrides, 
 
 544,6 
 
 ■, Highlands, 567, a 
 Sihtric, King of Northumlieiiand, 
 
 Anlaf Ciiaran, 54, a 
 Silures.ifiriions, 193, a 
 Simony, Advowson, 14, 6 
 Sinclair, Bishop 'William, Inverkeitli- 
 
 ing, Battle of, 603, 6 
 Singapore, Straits Settlements, 974, 6 
 Single-Speech Hamilton, Hamilton, 
 
 Wilham Gerard, 529 a 
 Sinking Fund, National Debt, 748, a 
 Sleda, King, Essex, Kingdom of, 
 
 436,6 
 Slldell and Mason, Trent 1013, a 
 Smeathman, Dr., Sierra Leone, 946, 6 
 Smith, John, Slavery, 951, b 
 Smith, Sir Harry, KajfflT War, 
 
 637,6 
 Sobieski, Princess, Stuart, 978, 6 
 Sodor and Man, See of, Bishopric, 
 
 162, 6, 163, a 
 Solemn League and Covenant, Cove- 
 nant, 329, 6 
 Solomon of England, Henry VII., 
 
 King, 557, a 
 Somera Island, Bermudas.lBi, a 
 Somerset, Lord Charles, JCamr Wars, 
 
 637, b 
 Somcrville, John, Arden, Edward, 
 
 70,6 
 Sophia Dorothea of Zell, George I., 
 
 492,6 
 Soulis, Nicholas de. Claimants of 
 
 Scottish Crovm in 1291, 270, b 
 Soult, Nivelle, 758, 6 
 
 , Orthcs, 788, a 
 
 , Peninsular War, 811 , a 
 
 , Pyrenees, Battle of, 844, a 
 
 •, Toulouse, 1004, b 
 
 South Australia, ^?(s*7-ft;m, 102, a 
 South English, Mercia, 727, 6 
 Southwell, See of, Bishojrric, 163, & 
 Spa Fields Meeting, Spencean Ptiilaiv- 
 
 thropists, 963, 6 
 Special Jury, Jury, 633, 6 
 " Spectator,"^ Addison, 8, 6 
 Speenhamland Act, Poor Laws, 826 6 
 Bpelman, Sir Henry, Dugdale, Sir TT.. 
 
 388,6 ' 
 
 SporuB, Hervey, John, Lord, 564, a 
 Staempfli, Jacob, Geneva Convention, 
 
 490,6 
 Stanhope, "William, Harrington, 1st 
 
 Earl of, 538, a 
 Stanley, Sir Edward, Derby, Earldom 
 
 of, 367, 6 
 Stanley of Bickerstafle, Baron, Derby, 
 
 Edward, I3th Earl, 308, 6 
 Stannaries Court, Councils, Civil, 
 
 322, fl. 
 Star of India, Order of the, Knight- 
 hood, 656, a 
 Stareniberg, Spanish Succession, 962, a 
 Statute De Religiosis, Mortmiun^ 
 
 742, b 
 Statutes, Common Law, 295, a 
 Staunton, Captain, Korygaom, Battle 
 
 of, 657, 6 
 Stehhe, King, Essex, Kingdom of, 
 
 436,6 
 Stella, S«rf/f, 986, a 
 Stewart, Margaret, Knox, John, 
 
 657, a 
 Stewart. Sir D., Afghan Wars, 15, 6 
 StilJineton, Bishop, Alcock, John, 
 
 26,6 . ' 
 
 Stockdale v. Hansard, Camipbell, 
 
 John,l6t Lord, 221, 6 
 Stoke, Hundred of, Cfiiltern Hun- 
 dreds, 259, 6 
 Stopford, Admiral Sir R., Acre, 
 
 7, a 
 Strange, Lord, Derby, lat Earl of, 
 
 368,(1 
 Strathclyde, jrortftM7n6ria, 770, 6 
 
 Strathearne, Kingdom of. Highlands, 
 
 567, a 
 Strict Settlement, Land Tenure, 
 
 666, 6 
 Rtuf , Wessex, 1062, 6 
 Stycas, Co-inaye, 282, a 
 Submission, Act of, Convocation, 
 
 308,6 
 Suckling, Sir John, Army Plot, 76, a 
 Sudreys, Hebrides, 545, a 
 Sundridge, Baron, Argyle, Peerage 
 
 of, 72, 6 
 Supplication of Beggars, Fish, Simon, 
 
 458, a 
 Surge Anjengaom, Peace of, Agra, 
 
 17, a 
 Sutherland, Peerage of, Gordon, 
 
 Family of, 510, a 
 Suttee, India, 594, 6 
 Sutton, Charles Manners, Canterbury, 
 
 Viscount, 225, 6 
 Siichet, Peninsular War, 812, a 
 Swartz, Martin, Lincoln, 6-3, 6 
 
 , Simnel, 948, 6 
 
 Sweating Sickness, Agriculture, 19, a 
 Swrefred, King, Essex, Kingdom of, 
 
 436,6 
 
 Tahle Bay, South African Colonies, 
 
 956, a 
 Tajinalial, .4 ora, 17, a 
 Tale of a Tub, Swift, 986, a 
 Tallard, Marshal, Spanish Succession, 
 
 960,6 
 Taloi-gan, Picts, 819, 6, 820, a 
 Tarau, Ptcts, 819, 6 
 Tarleton, Colonel, Amej-ican Indopen' 
 
 dence. War of, 42, a 
 Tasmania, Australia, 102, 6 
 Tatler, Addison, 8, 6 
 Tea Act, Colonies, Tlie American, 
 
 289,6 
 Terai, Nana Sahib, 746, a 
 Ternate, Occupation of, Java, 625, a 
 Tcrouenne, Capture of, Henry VIII., 
 
 King, 557, a 
 , Siege of, Saiirs, Battle of, 
 
 964,6 
 Terras Filius, Amhurst, Nicholas, 
 
 44, a 
 Tesse, Marshal, Spanish Succession, 
 
 969, 6 
 Testoon, Coinage, 284, a 
 Tettenhall, Battle at, Edward the 
 
 Elder, 410, a 
 Teutonic Knights, Prussia, 839. 6 
 Thackwell, Sir Joseph, Chillian walla, 
 
 259,6 
 Thetford, Battle at, Alfred, 30, 6 
 Thetford, Bishopric of, East Anglia, 
 
 397,6 
 Thetford, See of. Bishopric, 163, a 
 Thingamen, fi'ojtsecaWs, 577, a 
 Thistlewood, Arthur, Cato Street Covr 
 
 spiracy, 238, a 
 Thomas of Galloway, Gilroy, 501, a 
 Thomond, Earl of, Kinsale, The Siege 
 
 of, 655, a 
 Thorflnn, Earl of Orkney, Burghhead. 
 
 Battle of, 203, a 
 — , Highlands, 
 
 567, a 
 Thorney, Abhot of. Abbot, 2, a 
 Thorpe, Speaker, Arrest, Freedom 
 
 from, 78, a 
 Threnodia Carolina, Herbert, Sir 
 
 Thomas, 561, a 
 Thurfrith, Earl of Northampton, 
 
 Guthrum II., 522, a 
 Tichborno, Sir H., Drogheda, 385, a 
 Tilsit, Peace of, French Mevohdion, 
 
 War of the, 460, a 
 , Ionian Islands, The, 
 
 604, a 
 Tindal, Dean of Ely, Lambeth Articles, 
 
 660, « 
 Tithing-Man, HeadrBorough, 543, 6 
 Tithings, F)-ank-Pledge, 476, 6 
 Titus, Silas, Killing no Murder, 
 
 645, a 
 Tolka, Battle of the, Ireland, 604, 6 
 Torgau, Seven Years War, 936, a 
 Torres, Count de la, Gibraltar, 500, a 
 Torwood, Battle of, Angus, 5th Earl 
 
 of, 5S,b , 
 Toiiralne, Abbeville, Treaty of, i, u. 
 Tourville. La Hoane, 659, a 
 Tdvi the Proud, Hardicanute, 534, a 
 Town Councils, Alderman, 27, 6 
 Tyiwn Councils, Toinns, 1006, a 
 Township, Manor, 707, 6 
 
 Tractarian Movement, High Church, 
 
 506, a 
 Tracts for the Times, High Church, 
 
 500,6 
 Tracy, "William de, Becicet, 144, a 
 Transvaal, South African Colonies, 
 
 956, 6 
 Trarbach, Spanish Succession, 960, 6 
 Travelled Thane, The, Aberdeen, Earl 
 
 of, 4, a 
 Trelawney of Bristol, Seven Bishops, 
 
 935, a 
 Tremouille, Charlotte de la. Isle of 
 
 Man, 706, a 
 Trench, Captain, Galway Election, 
 
 486, b 
 Tresilian, Scrove, 926, a 
 Treves, Spanish Succession, 960, 6 
 Treviss, John, Higden, lialpli, 565, a 
 Trinity College, Oambriilge, Univer~ 
 
 sities,W28, 6 
 Trinity College, Oxford, Universities, 
 
 1027, 6 
 
 Trinity College, Duhlii}, Dublin, 387, a 
 Trinity Hall, Cambridge, Univejsitiies, 
 
 1028, a 
 Trrno))antes,5ri(OT»s, 193, a 
 Triumvirate, Halifax, 5th Earl of, 
 
 526, a 
 True-born Englishman, Defoe, Daniel, 
 
 362, a 
 True Briton, Wharton, Philip, Duke> 
 
 of, 1007, a 
 Truro, Sec of, Bishopric, 163, 6 
 Tuath, Ireland, 605, a 
 Tuatl'a da Danann, Celts, 241, a 
 Tuathal, King of Meath, Ireland, 
 
 604, a 
 Tuathal, Connaught,302, a 
 Tuckagee Holkar, Holkar, 570, a 
 Tullibardine, Mar, 712, a 
 Tunbridge %c\iqq\. Education in Eng- 
 land, 407, a 
 Tun-gerefa, Reeve, 857, a 
 Turnl)ull, Bishop, Glasgow, 503, a 
 Turner oi Ely, Seven Bishops, 935, a 
 Turnpikes, Rates, 852, a 
 Tm-old, Abhot of Ely, Hereward, 
 
 563, ct 
 Tweeddale, Lord, Flying Squadrmi, 
 
 466, a 
 Tyrell, Sir James, Edioard V., 417, 6 
 Tytillus, King of the East Angles, 
 
 East Anglia, 398, a 
 
 "CTfflngs, East Anglia, 397, a 
 
 Ulm, Capitulation of, French Eevolvr 
 tion. War of the, 479, 6 
 
 "Ulster Custom, Tenant-Right, 994, a 
 
 Ultimogeniture, Borough - English, 
 176, a 
 
 TTlundi, South African Colonies, 956, a 
 
 Undertakers, Addled Parliament, The, 
 9, a 
 
 Unicorn, Coinage, 284, a 
 
 Uniformity, Act of. Church of Eng- 
 land, 263, 6 
 
 Union Jack, Utiion, 1025, 6 
 
 "United Provinces, Holland, Relations 
 withi571,a 
 
 University College, Oxford, Univer- 
 sities, 1027, a 
 
 Unlearned Parliament, Lach-leaming 
 Parliament, 658, a 
 
 Urban II., Pope, Papacy, 796, 6 
 
 "Urban "V., Pope, Papacy, 798, a 
 
 Uses, Statute of Chancery, 246, 6 
 
 VAsher'sM-oae], Westminster Assembly, 
 1064, 6 
 
 Utland, Loenland, 658, 6 
 
 Utoi>ia, More, 741, 6 
 
 Uxbridgc, Treaty of, Sheldon, 940, a 
 
 "V"acarius, Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction, 
 
 400, a 
 Valcntia, Britannia, 192, a 
 valentia, "Viscount, Anglesey, Peerage 
 
 of, 48, 6 
 Vanbrugh, Sir John, Architecture, 
 
 09, 6 
 Van Diemen'a Land, Australia, 102 6 
 vanna Levu, Isle of, Fi^i Islands. 
 
 457, a 
 Vascons, Gascojiy, 488, 6 
 "V'asKus, Vassalage, 1(B2 6 
 Vaughan, Bishop of Bangor, Lambeth 
 
 Articles, 660 a 
 
1119 
 
 Venahles, General, Ja/maica, 619 a 
 Voudome, Stanhope, S67 6 
 Venloo, Capture of, Anne, Queen, 55 b 
 Venner^s Plot, Hmfiaon, Thomas, 
 
 5S8,b 
 Venta Belgarura, Winchester, 1082, 6 
 VenusiuB, Carttsmimetiut, 231, b 
 
 , Srigantes, 189, a 
 
 Vonnont, State of. Allm, Ethan, 36, h 
 -, Colonies, American, 
 
 288, 6, 289, ft 
 Vesa, William de, ClaiTnants of ilie 
 
 Scottigh Grown in 1291, 270, & 
 VeHtries, Parish, 800, & 
 Veto Law, Free Church of Scotland, 
 
 477 b 
 Vicar Brltanniarum, Romans in Bri- 
 tain, 891, ft 
 Vice-A-dimnilty, Court of, Admiralty^ 
 
 Court of, 12, a 
 Vice-Chancellor of England, Clian- 
 
 cery, 347, b 
 Vice-Comee, Viscount, 1039, a 
 Victor, Marshal, Talavera, 988, ft 
 Yictoria,, Australia, lOl, 6 
 ViUars, Spanish Succession, 960, 6 
 Villeroi, MamilUes, 851, a 
 
 , Spanish Succession, 96^, b 
 
 Villette, Marquise de, Bolingbrokc, 
 
 ViscoiLnt, 173, a 
 Villiers, Sir George, Buckingham, 
 
 Duke of, 199, ft 
 Vindiciae Gkillicffi, Mackintosh, 698, 6 
 Virgilius, Irish Church, 612, b 
 Viti Levu, Isle of, Fiji Islands, 457, a 
 
 ■w 
 
 Wagrain, Battle of, French Bevolvr 
 
 tion, War of the, 480, a 
 Walkinshaw, Clementina, Albany, 
 
 Peerage of, 23, b 
 Waller, Sir Hardress, Carlow, 229, 6 
 Walloons, Protestant Refugees, 839, a 
 Warden of the Marches, Scrope, 926, a 
 Wardens' Courts, Borders, 175, b 
 Wark Castle, Siege of, Albany, John, 
 
 Duke of, 24, a 
 Warner, Sir Thomas, Antigua, 62, a 
 Wascona, Gascony, 488, & 
 Waverera, The, SaiTowby, Earl of, 
 
 538, b 
 Wehb, General, Wynendaal, 1092, a 
 
 Wedmore, Alfred, 31, b 
 
 Wednesfleld, Battle at, Edward t}ie 
 
 Elder, 410, a 
 Weekly Register, The, Cobbett, Wil- 
 liam, 280, a 
 Weok work. Manor, 708, a 
 Wells, See of, Bishopric, 163, a 
 Werfnth, Alfred. Si, b 
 Wesley, Noncoii/ormists, 760. b 
 Western Australia, Australia, 102, a 
 Westineath, Earl of, Delvin, Lord, 
 
 864, b 
 Westminster, See of, Bishopric, 163, a 
 Westphalia, Treaty of, Holland, dela- 
 tions with, 572, a 
 Wetherell, Sir Charles, Bristol Riots, 
 
 191 b 
 Whig Examiner, Addison, R, b 
 Wbithern, See of, Oalloway, 486, ft 
 Whitby, Synod of. Church of Eng- 
 land, 262, a 
 White, Bishop of Peterborough, 
 
 Seven Bishops, 935, a 
 White Rose of England, Warbeck, 
 1053,0 
 
 Whiteloeke, General, Buenos Ayres, 
 
 201, ft 
 White, Thomas, Dudley, Sir Henry, 
 
 888, a 
 White River, Battle of the, Kaffir 
 
 War, 637, b 
 WhiteHeld, Nmiconformists, 76', n 
 Whiting, Abbot of GlasiuuLtury, 
 
 Glastonbury, 503, b 
 Wibba, King, Mercia, 727, 6 
 Wihtgar, Wessex, 1062, b 
 Wikings, Danes, 353, a 
 William of Ypres, Flanders, Relations, 
 
 with, 463, a 
 William of Holstein, Prince, Greece, 
 
 Relations with, 515, a 
 William 1., Count of the Netherlands. 
 
 Holland, Relations with, 571, b 
 William IV., Stadtholder, Holland, 
 
 Relations with, 572, a 
 William V., Stadtholder, Holland, 
 
 Relations with, 572, a 
 Williams, Sir Penwick, Kara, Siege 
 
 of, 638, a 
 Willoughby, Sir Hugh, Commerce, 
 
 291, b 
 Williams, Isaac, High Church, 566, 6 
 Willingale, Common Lands, 294, 6 
 Wilmot, Percy, Army Plot, 76, a 
 Wilson, Archdale, Indian Mutiny, 
 
 697, ft, b 
 
 Wilson, James, India, 596, a 
 Wilton, battle of, Alfred, 31, a 
 Wimbledon, Battle of, Kent, Kingdom 
 
 of, 040, b 
 Winchcombo, Abbot of, Abbot, 2, a 
 Wlnchelsey, Archbishop, Glericis 
 
 Laicos, 277, a 
 Winchester College, Education in 
 
 England, 4.07, a 
 Windham, General, Indian Mutiny, 
 
 597, b 
 Wippedesfleot, Ebb^eet, 399, b 
 Witan, Witenagemot, 1083, b 
 Wolf of Badenoch, Afar, 711, b 
 Wolfe, Arthur, Kilwarden, Viscount, 
 
 645, b 
 Wood, Charles, Halifax, Viscount, 
 
 525, ft 
 Wood, William Page, Hatherley, lai 
 
 Lord, 511, b 
 Wondville, Catherine, Buckingham, 
 
 Henry, Duke of, 198, b 
 Woolfcls, Staples, 968, ft 
 Worcester College, Oxford, Univer- 
 sities, 1027, ft 
 Workhouses, Poor Laws, 826, a 
 Wrad, Picts, mm, a 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, Architecture, 
 
 60, b 
 Wrongouslmprisomiient Act,J?'ftbeas 
 
 Corpus, The Writ of, 523, h 
 Wulfhere, King, Mercia, 72«, b 
 Wulphere, King, East Anglia, 397, b 
 
 Takub Khan, Afghan Wars, 15, b 
 Yandaboo, Treaty of, Amherst, Earl 
 
 of, 44. a 
 Tartlland, Manor, 708, a 
 Yolande of Dreux, Alexander III, 
 
 29,6 
 Torick, King, Outhrum, ^22, a 
 Young, George, Armu Plot, 76, a 
 Young Guard, The, Waterloo, 1056, b 
 
 Zorndorf, Sctien- Tears' War, 935, b 
 Zwingli, Reformation. 859. b 
 
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