F'. t) YK fyxmll Wimxmxi^ J yx\ivm^ SAGE BOUGHT WITH THB INCOME FROM THE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF BenrQ M, Sage 1891 A>//ai/ j//r//f9f arV19485 Hot water suppi Cornell University Library 3 1924 031 307 691 olln.anx The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031307691 HOT WATER SUPPLY. HOT WATEE SUPPLY A PRACTICAL TREATISE npoN THE FITTING OF HOT WATEE APPARATUS FOR DOMESTIC AND GENERAL PURPOSES By F. PYE HonDon E. & F. N. SPON, 125 STRAND ;peto |9orfe SPON & CHAMBBELAIN, 12 COETLANDT STEEET 1896 PEEFACE. The chief object and aim of this work is to provide information for those who are hut little acquainted with the subject, as well as for those who have some practical experience ; therefore, care has been exercised to treat the subject in as clear and as simple a manner as is con- sistent with a really practical explanation. It is, however, hoped that some of the information given will be found of service even to skilled men, as the writer has had experience with all classes of workmen and works. The want of such a work as the following has now been felt for a considerable time, and as hot water apparatus is now required in all clashes of property, small as well as large, it is anticipated that the information contained herein will be of service also to architects, builders, and others who have to prepare specifications, estimates, &o., needed in connection with such undertakings. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Boilers .. .. j CHAPTER II. Ctlindbbs and Tanks 9 CHAPTER III. Pipes 13 CHAPTER IV. Cocks 19 CHAPTER V. Circulation, Explanation and Cause 21 CHAPTER VI. General Description op Apparatus 23 Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. FAGB The High, ob Old Tank System 29 CHAPTER VIII. The Ctldtdeb System 32 CHAPTER IX. Impboted Systems, &c , 36 CHAPTER X. General Dikeotions, Position op Pipes, Chaesing and Testing, Discoloured Water, &o 40 CHAPTER XI. Expebuiental Glass Apparatus, Kesults Noted 43 CHAPTER XII. Inoeustation and Causes, Boilbb Cleaning, &c 47 CHAPTER XIII. Explosions and Causes ; Safety Valves ; Felting and Pack- ing Pipes, &c 51 CHAPTER XIV. Coils and Coil Services ; How to Convert the Tank System INTO THE Cylindek System ; How to Fit a H.P. Boileb to BE USED FOE LoW-PKESSUBB PURPOSES AT BIBST 59 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XV. Estimates and Estimating; Tools 67 CHAPTER XVI. Common Faults 74 CHAPTER XVII. ThB Scf FLY OB BALL-TALTE CiSTBBN ; LOW-FBESSUBE BoiLEBS .. 77 HOT WATER SUPPLY. CHAPTER I. EOILEBS. Boilers for the supply of hot water to baths, &e., through- out a building, are generally known by one of two names, viz., bath boilers or high pressure boilers. The latter term is certainly not a correct one (although it is most generally used of the two) as there is free escape for the steam, and there is no pressure exerted in th« boiler except that which naturally exists by the weight of water that is in the pipes connected to it. Iron boilers are most generally used, as they are the least costly; they are made of wrought plates welded (forged) at the seams. The plate varies in thickness from ^-inoh to ^-inch, according to quality. The thickness that is found to give the best results for durability and general good qualities is |-inch plate. Figs. 1 and 2 are the forms most generally adopted for use in kitchen ranges, the position they occupy being at the back of the fire ; this situation is the most economical as being a position in a range that cannot be well utilised for any other purpose. The great point to be obtained with these boilers is the greatest possible heating surface. Fig. 1 is heated by the fire that comes in contact with it in front, also by the flame and heat that can be directed through the HOT WATER SUPPLY. arched flue wHcli passes Tinder the whole of its length ; it therefore follows that the greater the length and width of this flue the better the results. These flues should not Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. ^^---^ ^..----^ ' 16." ...■«)_.., ,'--^'^"" Jft-3 exceed 2 J to 3 inches in height, as a high flue permits of too free an escape of the flame, &c., unless the boiler is unusually long. Fig. 3 will give the proportions to obtain the most effective results, this boiler being suitable for supplying about six draw- offs under ordinary circum- stances ; the height of the boiler is always governed by the height of the fire-box. Fig. 2 is commonly known as a " boot " - shaped boiler, and differs from Fig. 1 only in having the " leg " added at the back ; it will be under- stood that the object of this leg is to increase the heating surface and the efficiency of the boiler proportionately, but vertical heating surface will not give such good results as horizontal surface where the heat is applied underneath ; this can be ascertained by a very familiar illustration, which is to notice the diff'erence in heating a kettle of water by placing it either at the side or on top of the flre. The flue up the back of a boiler should be contracted somewhat so as to make the flame come in actual contact BOILEKS. 3 witli tlie metal, as flame may be said to heat lay contact only, and it may be mentioned that flame has a tendency to float between surfaces without touching them, wherever it is possible for it to do so ; and another reason why this up-flue may be smaller is, that it has no likelihood of being choked with cinders and ash as the lower flue has ; the effectiveness of this boiler can be increased by heightening the leg, but wherever possible it is decidedly better to increase the length and width of the boiler, for as before stated, bottom heating surface gives certainly the best results. Boilers for use in London and the South of England must be provided with manholes and lids for the purposes of removing the incrustation which is formed from the chalky waters in these districts (see Boiler Cleaning) ; these lids should be of good size, easy to remove and repack, and above all easily got at. It is very necessary that not more than one piece of the range has to be removed to get at the boiler manlid, and in most modern ranges it is only necessary to remove a small loose plate. The manhole should be about 4^ inches diameter to admit of operating freely without discomfort or injury to the wrist, and pre- ference is generally given to round lids, secured with the usual bridge with centre-pin and nut, as being more easy to pack ; oval lids are frequently very troublesome to secure. An improved manlid is now being made which is fitted wholly inside the boiler from which two set pins pass through the boiler top and are secured by nuts, this admits of a rubber collar being used (instead of lead and hemp packing), and this cannot become injured by the action of the fire ; it has the further important advantage that the higher the pressure put upon it the more secure the joint becomes, as the pressure it will be seen tends to press the lid more tightly against the inner top surface of the boiler; there is still another advantage in using a B 2 4 HOT WATER SaPPLY. rubber collar and that is if tbe boiler should accidentally become empty and tben become red-hot (this is, as is very well known, highly dangerous, see Explosions and Causes), the rubber would quickly fuse and loosen the lid and so provide an outlet for the steam when the critical moment arrived, but it would not be well to place any great reliance on this. The rubber collar being inside the boiler does not so quickly get perished and consequently does not want frequent renewing. There are many districts, chiefly in the north of England, where no material quantity of deposit occurs, and what is found is generally of a sandy or sometimes muddy nature. Boilers for these districts are not always provided with lids as they are not considered necessary ; a hole is drilled in the bottom of the boiler and a good sized pipe (say IJ-inch) is provided for flushing purposes, this flushing effectually removing all deposited matter. In such districts " coil " boilers are commonly used as giving very good results ; this consists of a coiled pipe (the same size and part of the circulating pipes) placed in the fire- box to serve the purpose of a boiler, but having the advantage of being all heating surface, its whole surface being in contact with the fire; this is a very efficient water-heater, more so than the ordinary boiler, as with the latter rarely more than half its surface can be exposed to the heat. A flushing pipe is taken from the bottom of the coil for cleaning purposes, and it will be understood that these coils are quite unsuited for water which has any perceptible quantity of lime in it, as the deposit from this adheres in a stone-like covering and would quickly fill the tube. There are numberless other forms of boilers, but those named are most generally used and have by far the greatest share of favour, and it would occupy considerable space to treat them all fully. BOILERS. 6 Copper Boilkrs. These are made of copper plates, varying in tMctness ; the same as with iron toilers, the plates being seamed and brazed at the joints instead of welded. Copper boilers are nearly always used in good works where cheapness in first cost is not the chief object, as they are to be recom- mended as possessing several advantages over iron boilers. They are much quicker heating, copper being a more rapid conductor of heat than iron ; they are much more easily cleaned, as the deposit adheres to the surface to a very small extent, this is caused by the great power of expansion and contraction in copper which causes the incrustation to shell or scale off as fast as it is deposited ; they do not discolour the water, they are far more lasting, and should the boiler get a thick internal coating of deposit the joints will not open as in welded iron boilers ; and lastly, when a copper boiler is worn-out it is then as valuable as a new iron boiler, whereas a worn- out iron boiler is quite valueless. The cost of copper boilers is about four times that of iron, but varies greatly with the fluctuations of the market. Copper boilers, when fixed in kitchen ranges, should have a shield plate of cast- iron about |- to 1-inoh thick placed in front of them for protection from the blows of the poker, the metal being softer than iron, or sometimes they are made with f-inoh fronts and f-inch bodies, or ^-inch fronts and ^-inch bodies. If an iron shield is used it should be arched to correspond with and give clear passage to the arched flue of the boiler. Twin Boilers. It is sometimes found necessary to use twin boilers, that is, two boilers similar to one another working side by side with one fire ; this is very rarely necessary and should be avoided wherever possible, although the old open ranges HOT WATER SUPPLY. were nearly always provided with two boilers, one for upstairs supply and tlie other for the kitchen rec[uire- xnents ; it has now been finally decided that one boiler is ample for all purposes, and the water drawn in the servants' offices will in no way interfere with the supply of hot water in other parts of the building, the only occasion when there is any real need for twin boilers is when the cold water supply cistern at the top of a house is insufficiently large for the requirements of the whole building, so that concluding there is another cold water cis- tern in some lower part of the house two distinct boilers and services can be used, one for upstairs and one for downstairs supply, but if it is at all possible it would be far preferable to put a new larger cistern or an auxiliary one at the top, and so use one boiler, for the following reasons : where two boilers are used in one range the work that one has to do is sure to be either more or less than the other, con- sequently they should not be of the same size ; it would take almost extraordinary judgment to arrange the size of the boilers so that they would work equally, and it may be said that in every prac- tical instance it is found that one of the boilers is over- doing or else failing in its work; another objection is that it necessitates a larger fire-box to accommodate two boilers, and there is a conse- quent loss of fuel unless the boilers are sectional, as at Fig. 4, and in any case it is much more costly in fitting up. Fig. 4. Independent Boilers. These are made in almost numberless shapes and forms much too numerous to mention here ; but one care should be taken, and that is to see that the boiler is provided BOILERS. 7 with a large manlid, easily removable, if it is to be used with hard (chalky) water ; manlids are not generally provided with these boilers, as they are commonly used for heating purposes only, in which case there is no appre- ciable deposit, as the same water is used over and over again. Independent boilers are found of use in assisting the range boiler if large quantities of water are wanted early morning, and assisting the range boiler in winter if it has coils to heat up quickly ; they are also found of con- venience if hot water is required when the range is undergoing repairs, or the periodical boiler cleaning, &c. Independent boilers are usually only found of necessity in large establishments, institutions, &c. The method of connecting two boilers with one service will be found described later on. There are various methods adopted in packing the manlids of range boilers, in fact, nearly every workman has some special feature of his own ; a common method is to take some hemp and cut or chop it up, and thoroughly mix it with a stiff mixture of red and white lead, sufficient to make a bedding round the manhole where the flange of the lid comes, about -/^ inch thick ; this, when the pressure is applied, is naturally made thinner, and part of it is squeezed out; before applying this packing the rim of the manhole and the flange of the lid must be painted with a mixture of red and white lead (to which is added boiled oil to make it liquid), as the first mixture will not readily adhere to the plain m^tal surfaces; if the man- hole is one that has a bolt coming up through the centre, a ring of hemp, which has been soaked in the above Kquid, must be slipped over the bolt before the nut is put on, to prevent leakage at this point. Gold size is sometimes used in place of the boiled oil for very quick drying, but this is not to be recommended, as it is somewhat brittle when dry, and will not give to the 8 HOT WATEE SUPPLT. least extent without cracking. Commonly the hemp is coiled round the lid, upon the lead, instead of chopping and mixing it. Another method, when hemp is not obtainable, is to get some soft loosely woven cord about -^ inch thick, and thoroughly soak this in a stiff mixture of white and red lead and boiled oil, after which coil it round flat on the flange of the manlid, and bed it on with a little red and white lead mixture (there is a special rope-like material made for this purpose called " gaskin "). These methods are very old, and are inferior to the asbestos millboard ; this is cut into collars or flanges the size of the manlid flange, it is soaked to soften it, and used without any further preparation, except to thickly paint the surface with a stiff mixture of red and white lead and boiled oil. Ordinary cardboard is sometimes used when asbestos is not obtainable ; it is used in the same manner, but must be well soaked. Indiarubber flanges are now much used, but care has to be exercised to see that the manlid is not in a position where much fire-heat is felt, as this might destroy the rubber, as with the majority of boilers it has to be used outside, and not inside the boiler; these flanges are used without any preparation whatever, and come quite as cheap as any other method, as so much time is saved. They cost from la. to Is. 6d. each, out to order. Boilers for the old pattern open ranges have been pur- posely omitted, as this style of range will soon be obsolete, and the space can be devoted to information of more value. Before closing this chapter, it would be as well to mention that in districts that have hard waters, boilers should not have narrow water-ways, but should be as roomy as possible, that no pai-t may become solid by incrustation. This subject of incrustation is an important one, as it can be said that in the south of England three- fourths of the range-hoiler failures are due to this cause. ( 9 ) CHAPTER II, CYLINDERS AND TANKS. To decide what strength of cylinder or tank is to be used, it is necessary to measure and ascertain what pressure it will be subjected to when in use and charged with water. The pressure of water in pipes is 1 lb. to every 2 feet 4 inches in height in a pipe which has an internal area equal to a square inch, or, in other words, if you could have a block or body of water 1 inch square and 2 feet 4 inches high, it would weigh 1 lb. ; it is only the per- pendicular or vertical height that has to be calculated, so that, supposing the cold-water cistern (from which the cold supply is taken) is 14 feet above the tank, there will be a pressure of 6 lbs. (6 times 2 feet 4 inches) exerted upon every square inch in the tank ; but it might be men- tioned that the common practice is to calculate J lb. for every foot, this being the most ready way of reckoning. The pressure or weight of water in the pipe is, as before stated, felt upon every square inch in the tank or cylinder, as water has the peculiar property of transmitting pressure equally in all directions, to the top, bottom, and sides of tank alike — consequently it requires but a very short pipe to cause an enormous strain to be exerted on the tank, and this pressure is exerted the same, whatever size of pipe the cold supply is, for the following reason : — If the cold supply pipe was 2 feet 4 inches high and had an internal area of 1 square inch, it would, when charged, cause a weight or pressure of 1 lb. to be felt on 10 HOT WATER SUPPLY. every square inch in the tank ; if the cold supply pipe was half of a square inch it would only cause a i lb. pressure, but this J lb. pressure would be felt on every half square inch in the tank, and consequently, as there must be just double the number of half square inches than there is whole square inches, the total pressure must be the same; or to illustrate it again, as the theory of equal pressure by any sized pipe is often disbelieved, let us suppose the cold supply pipe has an area equal to 2 square inches, this will cause a pressure of 2 lbs. to be felt, but not on every square inch in the tank; it will be a pressure of 2 lbs. upon every 2 square inches, and this it will he readily seen amounts to the same total pressure : so it may be relied upon that, if a tank is tested by the makers, and warranted to bear 5 lbs. pressure, it may be safely used where the cold cistern is 12 feet over the tank, whatever the cold supply is, or even a little higher, as it will be understood tanks and cylinders are never tested to the extreme pressure they are able to bear. Tanks are only suited for comparatively light pressures up to 8 or 10 lbs., unless specially thick and stayed, and it will be found desirable — in fact, necessary — to use cylinders wherever the pressure is higher than this, their shape being much better suited for high pressures. There is no objection to be made to using tanks wherever circumstances will admit of their being used, as their shape is in no way detrimental to the circulation of the water, as is sometimes supposed, and they are much cheaper than cylinders. Messrs. Braby's list is as follows : — Cylinders. Tanks. Average Average Tested to Thickness Tested to Thickness of Plate. of Plate. No. 1 40 lb. A. ia. 10 1b. about -fg in. Stocked „ 2 25 lb. full 1 „ 5 1b. J» "B " » 3 5 lb. bare i „ lib. ,, TVfuU CTLINDEES AND TANKS. 11 These are maniifactTired of wrouglit-iron plates, riveted at the angles with specially strengthened corners, and galvanised after manufacture. The sizes most snitahle for ordinary domestic require- ments may be roughly calculated as follows : — 2 taps, including bath .. ., say 30 gallons. 3 J) J> )> •• •• » ^^ » 4 » J) )) •• •• „ 50 „ 6 9> »» )) •• •• „ 50 or 60 gallons. 8 J> or more, including 2 baths „ 70 or 80 „ It is rare that larger than 80 gallons is required, except in fairly large business establishments ; it wUl be noticed that the above calculations only apply to the requirements of a private residence. The packing of tank and cylinder manlids is carried out as with boiler manlids already described, but india- rubber flanges are still more strongly recommended for this purpose ; care should be used not to screw any one of the bolts up too quickly, that is to say, screw every one of the bolts up equally a little at the time, and when the lid is nearly bedded on, only give the bolts half a turn, or less, at the time. If this method is not adopted, the lid will be bedded on unevenly, and most probably will not be sound. In ordering tanks and cylinders, if time will admit, they should be ordered with the flanges on ready for con- nection (four flanges — one each for flow, return, cold supply, and expansion pipes), as it reduces labour and time in connection, and makes a stronger and more workmanlike job of it ; but the fixing of flanges to order necessitates making a tank as the galvanising should be done after the flanges are affixed ; this occupies about seven or eight days. With cylinders it is almost absolutely necessary to have flanges afSxed, as it is troublesome to make a sound 12 HOT WATER SUPPLY. joini on the rounded surface of the cylinder, and at the best is poor and unsatisfactory, in fact, it should be a firm rule never to connect to the side of a cj'linder -without flanges. It might be mentioned that, if the cylinder is a high one, flanges must be used, as it is impossible to put back-nuts on to the pipes inside near the bottom, the only opening being at the top of the cylinder (the dome top being made to take ofi"), unless a manlid is provided on the side, but this is not usual. In conclusion, care, should be taken to have the tank or cylinder quite strong enough for the pressure it has to bear, as, if too light, it will be a constant source of annoy- ance to the user and discredit to the fitter. Copper cylinders are sometimes used, but have not received much favour in London, even in the most high- class -works, as they are very costly, and need regular cleaning externally, other-wise their appearance becomes much -worse than galvanised iron ; they have the advan- tage of keeping the -water clean, but very little more so than the galvanised; these latter, however, deteriorate, and fail in time, but the copper are practically indestruc- tible -with ordinary -wear and tear. A copper cylinder has not so many good features to recommend it as a copper boiler has, the conditions under which they are used being so different. Copper is also a more rapid conductor or dissipator of heat than iron. ( 13 ) CHAPTEE III. PIPES. The most general arrangement is iron pipe for the hot water (circulation and draw-offs), and lead pipe for the cold supply, but a still hetter arrangement is iron pipe throughout, and for the little extra expense it is desirable to have the pipes galvanised inside and outside ; but it is contended that the pipe is somewhat injured by the pro- cess of galvanising, but this injury, if there is any, is certainly no't appreciable. The advantage gained by using galvanised pipes is that the water is not discoloured by rust, but in fitting up this pipe no part of it must be forged, or the galvanising will be destroyed at this point ; it is in the pipes where the greatest rust originates ; the boiler does not make any material quantity after it has become a little furred. The quality of pipe that should be used is that known as " steam tube," which, when galvanised, is known as " galvanised steam," and when not galvanised, as " red steam," on account of its reddish colour. Gas pipe (which is black in colour) is sometimes used in speculative and small property, but a firm of repute would not use it under any circumstances. It might be mentioned that when ordering " galvanised steam," care must be exercised to see that the right quality is sent, as it has several times come to the writer's experience that " galvanised gas" has been sent instead, as the former is not always stocked. 14 HOT WATER SUPPLY. Tte most suitable size of pipes is as follows : — For the flow and return from the boiler, IJ-inob pipes (internal diameter) ; for tbe service above tbe cylinder or tank, and for any other circulating service, l-inob pipes ; for the single pipe (branch) draw-off services, f-inch pipes, except to bath, which should be 1 inch, and to lavatory basins, which in most instances should be ^-inch ; and the cold supply, 1-inoh. There is an objection in having the draw-off services too large, as with the shortest single pipe there is always some cold water to draw oflf, and if any one had to empty the contents of a large pipe through a small lavatory cock, it would soon become an annoy- ance. Most existing services that have been fitted up a few years will be found to have 1-inch pipes from the boiler ; this size is now giving way to l|-inch, especially in dis- tricts where chalk exists in the water, and there are one or two firms in London strongly recommending 1^-inch pipes from the boiler, and 1^-inch above the cylinder. The advantages gained by having large pipes are, firstly, a freer circulation ; and, secondly and most im- important, their remaining in order a much longer period with hard water. An 1^-inch pipe h^s about one-third more internal surface than a 1-inch pipe, consequently it would take a third of the time longer to get a J-inch coating of incrusted deposit in it. When this deposit has accumulated, the 1-inch pipe requires renewing, whereas the l|^-inch pipe still has a f -inch bore, and is fit for more service ; it can therefore be taken that an 1-inch pipe vsdll fail in less than half the time that an l|-inch pipe would from this cause, f-inch circulating pipes are even to be found leading direct from the boiler, but nothing less than 1-inch should be used, even with the softest of waters. The cold supply is commonly run in |-inch pipe, but this has an objectionable feature, which is, that if two PIPES. 15 (or perhaps three) good sized taps are opened at once, they will not run very freely ; this would be especially notice- ahle if the taps were situated in the higher part of the building, where the pressure is less ; it is therefore best to use not less than 1-inch cold supply, unless the size of the apparatus and the requirements are very limited. Either wiped or blown joints are admissible in lead cold supply ; many architects, &c., will not pass a blown joint, but a good joint of this description will never fail; but this only applies to the cold supply between the cistern and the tank or cylinder. The method of jointing up iron pipes is as follows : — After cutting the required length and tapping the thread up it about 1 inch, paint the screwed part with a mixture of red and white lead and boiled oil, after which take a small quantity of hemp (say six or eight threads), and wind it round in the thread of the screw as evenly as possible ; but care must be taken to wind it the correct way, or in screwing up the hemp will be unwound. The hemp should be wound on commencing at the extreme end, and winding up the pipe; before inserting the pipe, paint the inside thread of the socket, or whatever the pipe is about to be screwed into. Make it an invariable rule to look through each pipe just before using it, to see it has no dirt or obstruction in it ; and when leaving work unfinished, stop the open ends of the pipes with a plug of hemp, or anything convenient, to prevent dirt, &c., getting in, but be sure and take out this plug before the next pipes are connected. The use of elbows in circulating pipes should be avoided wherever possible, as they tend to check circulation, and are apt to collect deposit. Bends should be always used, but if it is absolutely necessary to use an elbow, see that it is a round elbow, as they are made both round and square at the angles; elbows can be used in draw-off services or in 16 HOT WATEE SUPPLY. expansion pipes where they are single and the watel does not circulate in them. Lead Pipes. — In many parts of the north of England lead pipe is used for the whole of the system right down to the boiler, but it will be found to have disfavour in the whole of the south, including London. It is certainly much easier, and takes less time to run than iron pipe, but of course the material is more costly, and there are two most serious objections ; firstly, the ordinary plug- cock with a lever handle cannot be used, as the sudden shutting causes the pipe to swell and bulge into pro- tuberances by the sudden pressure (or, properly speaking, it is the concussion) brought to bear ; it is therefore necessary to use slow shutting (screw down) cocks, which are objectionable in many instances ; the second disadvantage is that the pipes are known to fail from the following causes : — If the water is run out for any reason while the fire is in, or directly after the fire is extinguished, the heat retained in the surrounding brickwork is some- times sufficient to melt the pipes ; again, if the pipes become at all furred, as they do in the south (and as they do not so much in the north), the water does not freely come in contact with the metal, consequently the heat will act prejudicially upon them in the vicinity of the fire, and they will probably melt. Care must also be taken to well hook the pipes up, as the least jarring or unusual pressure will cause them to stretch and sag down where not sup- ported, and this is particularly noticeable in vertical pipes which cannot be so strongly supported ; as an example, an instance like the following met the writer's notice : — The flow- pipe was]carried along the ceiling, and then directly up a casing to the highest part of the house. The vertical pipe was so baciljr supported, that its own weight would have been sufficient to stretch it, and the horizontal pipe was not sufficiently supported, also, consequently when it was PIPES. 1? first called attention to about eiglit months after fitting, it was similar to the illustration (Fig. 5.) It is unne- cessary to describe the awful results; such a flow-pipe could hardly be imagined. Still another and most serious jTio. 5. t=i3 /^ objection is that lead pipes cannot be used with soft waters, as most soft waters have a vigorous action upon lead, sufficient to render it unfit for drinking and general domestic purposes. It will be found quite as cheap, and far more satisfactory to all concerned, to use a good quality iron tube, either the "red" or the galvanised steam. It will be under- stood that it needs a plumber to carry out lead hot water services, as only metal or wiped joints should be made. There are, however, instances in which lead pipes are almost absolutely necessary, and that is in districts in which the water is such as to cause plain iron pipes to oxidise and perish very rapidly, but galvanising the iron pipe will overcome this difficulty to a great extent. Copper Pipes. — These are occasionally used, but do not possess sufficient advantages over galvanised iron to warrant the much greater expense; they are practically indestructible with ordinary care, and the same remarks as were applied to copper cylinders may be applied to copper tubes ; plumbers' wiped metal joints are necessary. 18 HOT WATER SUPPLY. as sockets and elbows, and the various fittings are not made in copper, except to order. Iron pipes treated by the Bower-Barff process are gaining favour. The result of this process is to coat the pipe with an oxide that will withstand the action of any water ; it is sometimes known as " rustless iron." ( 19 ) CHAPTER IV. COCKS. These are of a very varied design and make ; and although it would he impossible to treat them fully here, yet there are many desirahle features that should be mentioned. In the first place, let it be clearly understood that nothing will prove more annoying to the user and more disastrous to the fixer than a common quality tap. It is reasonable to infer that taps have not reached a state of perfection yet, for it would be difficult to guarantee any particular make of cock (|-inch) to withstand the wear it would be subjected to in the scullery of a large residence for more than twelve months without leaking. For moderately low-pressure work, the gland cock or the ordinary plug cock with a lever handle, of good quality, will be found satisfactory; for high-pressure work the same de- ''■ *"• scription of cock may be used, but they must be "checked," to reduce the flow of water. This is done by making the bore in the screwed tail much smaller, as Fig. 6. This obvi- ates any undue wear and tear, and it also prevents the violent outrush of water when the tap is opened, and the jar or concussion which follows if it is afterwards closed sharply. Screw down cocks are generally considered as best adapted for high-pressure work, as the opening and closing c 2 20 HOT WATER SUPPLY. of the cock is necessarily slo-wer than with plug cocks, but this slowness is the objectionable feature. This has been overcome by a more modern form of screw down cock, which has a quick or coarse thread. There are now several makes of these, which can be had to open or close with a quarter or half or one turn only; they should, however, be of reliable make, for as soon as the thread works at all loosely, the seating will lift by the pressure of water under it, and so cause a leakage. These cocks are, however, a step in the right direction, and undoubtedly have a good future. Bath cocks should always be of large size, at least 1 inch, as a slow filling bath is very objectionable. The waste (emptying) pipe of a bath should be of large size also, that it may be emptied rapidly. A good feature in a bath is to have the hot water inlet at or near the bottom, so that it may quickly become covered with water when the bath is being filled, and so prevent so much steam being discharged into the room, which in a room of limited size is a source of annoyance. Lavatory Cochs. — These should be of large size also, so that any stagnant (cold) water in the pipe may be drawn off quickly ; the waste pipe should be large also, as with baths. Lavatory basins with a flushing rim are a great improvement, as they discharge the water into the basin through the rim, which is of great convenience for wash- ing away the soapy sediment that is left round the basin after use. Great care must he used to see that the stop-cock in the cold supply has a full way ; that is to say, an 1-inch cock must have an 1-inoh clear way through it when open, otherwise ike results will he as had as having a small pipe throughout. ( 21 ) CHAPTER V. CIRCULATION, EXPLANATION AND CAUSE. To clearly explain this subject, it is necessary to briefly describe tbe composition of water. Water consists of an innumerable quantity of extremely minute particles, called molecules. These particles have the property of being able to glide over, under, and to or from each other almost entirely without resistance or friction. The action that takes place in a boiler is this : when the heat is applied, the particles nearest the heated surface become expanded or swollen, and are so rendered lighter (bulk for bulk) than their colder fellows, they are therefore compelled to rise to the highest point in the boiler ; finding an opening there (the flow-pipe), they travel up this also until the highest point in the circula- tion is reached. It will be understood that immediately the expanded particles left the heating surface, other cold particles immediately took their place ; these become heated in their turn and rise, following their predecessors, and so it continues. The circulation can be described as a stream of heated particles flowing up one pipe from the boiler, and a stream of cooler particles flowing down the other into the boiler ; or it might be defined as a means of automatically transporting heated water from the lower to the upper parts of a building, and providing a down flow of cold water to the boiler to be heated in its turn. From this description it will be seen that the flow-pipe should never start from the boiler in a horizontal direo- 22 HOT WATER SUPPLY. tion, as this will cause considerable delay and trouble in starting the circulation. This pipe should alieays start in. a vertical direction, even if it has to proceed horizon- tally within a few inches from the boiler. A few moments' reflection wiU show that the most perfect apparatus would be one that had the pipes carried in a direct vertical line between the boiler and the cylinder or tank ; this is never, or but very rarely, possible, but ingenuity should be exercised to carry the pipes as near this direction as possible. ( 23 ) CHAPTEE VI. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS. The circulation is carried out by means of two pipes, the one up wMcli the hot water ascends being called the flow- pipe, and the other by which the cooler or cold water descends being called the return pipe. When fixing a boiler in a kitchen range, it should be placed so that it is quite level or, what is better, a little higher at the back than at the front, as the pipes are always taken from the back, and it is absolutely necessary that the flow-pipe be taken from the highest point in the boiler. Taking the flow pipe first, this is carried from the highest point in the top of the boiler to about eight or ten inches up the side of the cylinder or tank ; if it is not convenient to take it through the side of the tank, it can be taken through the bottom with a stand-pipe about eight or ten inches high inside ; in carrying this pipe great care must be used to see that it does not descend or dip down anywhere in its course ; it can be carried horizontally wherever neces- sary but it should be given a rise wherever it ia at all possible to do so. Connectors (sometimes called long-screws, connecting pieces, &c.) should be used as freely as possible in all services, as at some future day it wiU. be necessary to dis- connect somewhere, and this provision will be found of great convenience, and probably save considerable damage and expense in cutting pipes, as the cut pipe must be renewed afterwards. Connectors should always be used 24 HOT WATEE SUPPLY. in attaching all pipes to the boiler, and to the tank or cylinder, and with every connector a back rnit should be used to tighten up the running socket, and the connectors in the boiler and tank should each have two back nuts, one at each end, as the plate of the boiler or tank is not thick enough to make a reliable joint into. This would be a favourable moment to explain why the flow pipe must not project through inside the boiler ; sup- posing this flow-pipe projected inside the boiler say J inch (•|th of an inch is enough to cause trouble) as at Fig. 7, when the apparatus was charged I'M- 7. it would be found impossible to drive out the air from between the top surface of the boiler and the level of the bottom of this pipe, and the boiler would only fill up to the point shown in the illustra- tion; this is all right while the water is cold, but when the fire has been lighted a little time, and steam is generated, this steam in- stantly rises and tries to displace the air, which in course of time it does, but not without a severe struggle which lasts a considerable time, and is not only heard, but frequently felt over the whole of the building. These remarks also apply in every sense to the pipe that is taken from the top of the cylinder or the tank (unless the tank is arranged not to fill quite full by means of a supply cistern). Sometimes boilers are met with which have the flow pipe taken from the side or back, the expedient adopted in these instances to get the boiler full is to leave the manlid sufficiently loose when charging to allow the air to be expelled by the incoming water, the fitter being ready to tighten up the lid as soon as water runs freely from it. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF, APPARATUS. 25 In speaking of the flow-pipe, it is generally mentioned as running from the boiler to the tank (or cylinder), and the return pipe as running from the tank to the boiler ; the return pipe is carried from the bottom, or from a low point in the side of the tank or cylinder (always from a lower point than the flow pipe) to about three or four inches down the boiler, either connecting it in the side or back of boiler, or passing it through the top and con- necting a three or four inch piece on inside ; this pipe generally follows the line of the flow-pipe, and to make a workmanlike job, it should be kept below it all the way ; the remarks as to running and connecting the flow-pipe apply also to this pipe, except at the two extremities, as has just been explained, and as will be seen from the illustration ; when there are any branch, flow, and return services, that from the boiler is known as the " primary " flow and return. As has been already explained, the circulating pipes should be carried as much in a vertical direction as can be arranged with as little horizontal work as is possible, but regard must be had for appearances, as the pipes are not sightly at any time, and it is desirable to keep them well in the house. Hot water pipes should, wherever it is possible, be kept away from outside walls, and they should never be allowed to come in contact with cold water pipes, or in other words, hot water pipes should be given the warmest position it is possible to give them, to prevent loss of heat by radiation and consequent loss of fuel, time, labour, &c. ; the felting of pipes and other devices to prevent the heat being dissipated, will be treated later on, this subject is an important one, as it is almost barbarous to expend fuel and time in generating heat in the boiler, and then dissipat- ing a good, and sometimes major portion of it where it is act needed-, and should the hot pipes be brought in contact 26 HOT WATER SUPPLY. with a soil (w.c.) pipe it is objectionable from another point of view, this is not an uncommon occurence, as it is frequently found necessary to run the pipes up the casing which contains the other service pipes of the house. If might be here mentioned that in most residences, especially those of considerable height, a casing vidll be found which contains the soil pipes from the different w.c.'s, the waste-pipe from baths and lavatories, and the main cold water services ; if there is room in this casing for the hot water pipes, and it is conveniently situated, it greatly simplifies the work, reduces the expense, and reduces the damage caused by cutting ceilings and walls, and it will be found that this casing is in almost every case carried close to where hot water is required, hut care should he taken to felt the hot water pipes (see Loss of Heat and Causes). We have thus far completed the apparatus from the boiler to the cylinder or tank ; from the top of the cylinder or tank a pipe is carried up to just above the level of the cold water cistern, as wiU be seen illustrated ; this pipe is known as the rising main or expansion pipe, and when the apparatus is charged, this pipe is full of water to about the level of the cold water in the cistern, the extremity of this pipe is either carried through a wall or roof, or turned over the cold water cistern, that the condensed water which sometimes drips from it may not do damage ; and should the water be allowed to boil furiously, either through carelessness of servants, or the boiler being too powerful for the work, boiling water may occasionally be ejected. The cold supply to the apparatus is brought by a direct service from the house cistern to the tank or cylinder ; it is sometimes (though very seldom) found convenient with the cylinder system to take a branch from some existing cold service instead of bringing a separate service from GENERAL DESCEIPTION OP APPARATUS. 27 the top to the hase of house, but this existing service must be of good size, and it must be from the highest cistern (if there is more than one), as you cannot expect to get hot water at a higher point than where the cold supply- starts from, and it wiU be understood that a branch must not be taken from the water company's main unless a separate cold water supply cistern is going to be used. There is a serious disadvantage in taking a branch service for cold supply, in the fact that there may be two or three taps in connection with this existing cold service and when the hot water apparatus is put in connection with it, there will be at least two to four taps more ; if the existing cold service is only, say f-inch, it will be seen what annoyance will result if two or perhaps three taps are opened at once as they must necessarily run very slow, and this is particularly noticeable at the bath, where the two taps (hot and cold) are opened at once in nearly every instance, and in fact the hot and the cold taps wherever situated, are nearly always opened together to get the water at a moderate temperature. Just before the cold supply pipe enters the tank or cylinder it must be dipped, or what is commonly called " syphoned," as shown in the illustrations ; the object of this dip in the pipe is to prevent the water boiling back up the cold supply, which of course would be objectionable for several reasons ; the dip should be about 12 to 18 inches deep. As it may not be known to all why this dip prevents boiling back, it may be explained that hot water being one-twentieth lighter than cold water, it cannot descend while the cold pipe remains charged with cold water ; the specific gravity of freezing water, as compared to water at boiling point is as 20 to 21, but in domestic use the cold water averages about 50°, and the hot water about 160°, consequently the specific gravity is about as 40 to 41 or in other words, if the cold water cistern was 40 feet 28 HOT WATER SUPPLY. above the cylinder, the rising main would be full of water to about a foot above the level of the cold water when the apparatus was in proper working order, and charged with hot water. A stop-cock should be provided in the cold supply, whatever system is adopted, that the water supply may be shut off when the apparatus requires to be emptied for cleaning purposes or repairs, and a stop-cock does away with the unbusiness-like practice of plugging the outlet in the cold water cistern. In the cylinder system it will be noticed that a special emptying cock has to be provided ; this and all stop-cocks should have loose keys, and these keys should he placed in charge of a responsible verson, that they may not be used except for the purposes for which they are intended. As before stated the stop-oook in the cold supply must have a full way, otherwise it will check the supply of water the same as if the cold supply pipe was smaller. The following may appear a little stupid to many, but for those who have had no experience in water works it may be explained, that as before stated, hot water cannot be obtained at a higher point than where the cold supply originates, which is generally the house cistern at, or near, the top of the building ; it is such a common thing to hear inexperienced people suggest that hot water can be drawn from a higher point if necessary, as it is some- what commonly believed that the high pressure boiler forces the water up to any desired height, irrespective of the height of the cold supply. ( 29 ) CHAPTER VII. THE HIGH OR OLD TANK SYSTEM. In this system a tank is invariably used, as only light pressures can exist ; the tank, in nearly every instance, heing situated ahove the highest draw-off. Fig. (8) shows the general arrangement with this system. It will he noticed that the flow and return ser- vices are carried between boiler and tank. From the top of tank the expansion-pipe is carried some 4 or 5 feet above the level of the cold water in cistern, and the cold supply is brought into the bottom of the tank. All draw-offs are taken from the flow-pipe, and on the right side of illustra- tion is shown a " returned " draw-off service. The advan- tage of returning a long draw-off service is that it permits the water to circulate through the pipe, and the annoyance of having to draw a quantity of cold water before the hot is obtained is overcome. It might be here mentioned that long single pipes are very objectionable, as if entails annoyance, as just explained, also waste of water (of material importance when it has to be pumped), also loss of heat, as, after drawing, the pipe is left full of hot water, sometimes some gallons or more, which cools before the next person uses the tap, and this occurs every time the tap is opened. A returned service is not of such great importance to a bath, as a certain quantity of cold water has to be drawn, consequently the quantity of cold water that would come from the hot tap with, say, a 30-feet single pipe ser- vice, could not be objected to ; but the bath is the only £ O O ,,. a ^V 5 gs ca ^o r t ■ ■ ■■ - 11 1 >- K wH tr = ^ ul < ^ -1 a. < K X 3 CD jl . OD lf_ ii:i > * ul O < 03 to ' ^ - a. L ^r^-fct-^l \\ 1' o a % \ Vi ' X ft V^ (? #^ < (0 _ _i ll w vJof^ ■ ^"^ 1- u 1- 5 A/i 1 \\^ W 3 m ^ _ w o \ \ o! q Ui l£ o u \ VJ o \\ 1 V ^ UJ \ \\\ 1 => 1 \\) 1 e 1 ^ i w \ THE HIGH OE OLD TANK SYSTEM. 31 place where it cannot be considered an annoyance and waste. The " returned " portion of the draw-off service need not he so large as the draw-off service itself, as the only ohjeot aimed at is to keep the water moving. To do the work shown in the illustration a flued boot boiler would be necessary, the fire not less than 11 inches wide, and the tank about 60 to 70 gallons. 32 HOT WATER SUPPLY. CHAPTEE VIII. THE CYLINDER SYSTEM. In this system a cylinder should be always used, as in a small apparatus the pressure is rarely less than 20 feet. The cylinder should be placed at the nearest convenient position to the boiler. Between the boiler and the cylinder is carried a flow and return, as shown at Fig. 9. From the top of the cylinder is carried the rising main to above the level of the cold water. If this rising main is not very long a single pip6 is used only, but where the pipe is of good length, and other circumstances make it desirable, it is " returned," as shown. The rising main and its return is then known as the " secondary flow and return." Where the rising main is attached to the top of the cylinder a flange must be provided for the first piece of the rising main to be screwed into, as the pipe must not on any account be screwed through the top to project in- side, otherwise an air chamber will be formed, and ill results will be experienced, the same as if the flow-pipe projected through inside the boiler, as has been explained. The same remarks apply to the expansion-pipe from the top of a tank. Draw-off services are all taken from the secondary flow (rising main), and any draw-off service can be returned, as explained in the high or old system. There are many who advocate the rising main being returned into the bottom of the cylinder, or into the bottom of the boiler, or into the primary return, but it will be found that the best 34 HOT WATER SOTPLY. results are attained by returning it into about tbe middle of the cylinder a little bigber than sbown in illustration. Tbe secondary return need not be more tban half tbe size of tbe secondary flow, as tbe only object of returning this pipe is to keep tbe water just circulating, and so pre- vent its becoming stagnant and cold, and no advantage is gained by tbe water circulating rapidly in this upper ser- vice ; in fact it is a disadvantage, as there is a greater loss of heat by radiation. This also applies to returned draw-off services, tbe re- turn portion of which need never be more tban a J-inob pipe. This, however, does not apply to the priwiary return. A stop-cock should be fitted in the secondary return (as shown in illustration) to prevent the water circulating at night. This keeps the hot water stored in the cylinder, whereas, if it is allowed to circulate all night, tbe heat will be nearly or quite all dissipated. The cold supply is brought into tbe bottom of tbe cylinder with " syphon " and stop-cock. This system, which is of American origin, is more modern tban the preceding one, and is certainly preferable, having tbe following advantages : — Should tbe water-supply fail, tbe cylinder cannot be emptied, as all draw-offs are taken from above the cylinder. A body or quantity of hot w^ater is obtained in less time, and the cylinder is in a warm 2»sition, 80 reducing loss of beat by radiation. Tbe cylinder, however, should be cased and packed or felted, as it tends to raise tbe temperature of the kitchen, which might prove objectionable during bot weather ; and in favour of tbe high system it must be said that hot water is obtainable very soon after lighting the fire, though only in small quantities. It must be borne in mind that tbe chief of tbe failures are not due to tbe want of hot water for kitchen require- ments during tbe day, but for want of hot water in quau- THE CYLINDEll SYSTEM. 36 titles the first thing in the morning for hathing purposes. A great assistance in obtaining this result is packing or felting the tank or cylinder and the pipes, and so keeping water warm over night ; and there will be found an ex- cellent combination of these two last-named systems that is also very successful. When an apparatus is properly fitted and finished it should give a warm bath in from thirty to forty minutes after first lighting the fire in the morning, and under favourable circumstances this time has been reduced to twenty minutes, with the tank and pipes well covered. A special cock must be provided in the cylinder system for emptying purposes when cleaning or repairing (see illustration) this cock must have a loose key, as it should not be used except for the purpose for which it is provided, otherwise the chief advantage, the inability to empty the cylinder is lost. A fined boot-boiler would be necessary for the work illustrated, and the fire should not be less than 11 inches wide, the cylinder about 60 to 70 gallons. 86 HOT WATER SUPPLY. CHAPTER IX. IMPROVED SYSTEMS, ETC. An improved method in connecting up the cylinder system is to carry a separate pipe direct from the primary flow to the secondary flow, as Fig. 10. This pipe should be of the same size as the secondary flow ; the results are as follows: — When the water starts circulating it will be found to partly circulate di- Fia- 10. ,, f .1. J. ., ■ reotly up by the way of this connecting pipe, and to partly circulate into and through the cylinder, about half each way ; the advantage gained is a more rapid circulation of Itii:::^ hot water to the upper part of the building than is obtained with the ordinary cylinder system, while at the same time the store of hot water in the cylinder is being added to. The writer has practically tested this method, and considers that it is undoubtedly the best arrangement at present known. It is an adaptation of a portion of Dyer's system. A very good arrangement, but which, however, is just a little more expensive (?) is to have both a cylinder and a tank, as Fig. 11, thus fully combining the advantages of both systems without the disadvantages ; both the cylinder and the tank should be smaller in this case, say 20 to 30 gallons each. All draw-offs should be taken off the secondary flow, and the cold water IMPROVED SYSTEMS, ETC. 37 in this instance may be taken into the bottom of the tank or into the secondary return, thus avoiding the long cold supply pipe necessary in the cylinder system. FlQ. 11. The secondary flow should be taken up to within, say eight inches, from the top of the tank, and whenever a tank is used the flow-pipe should be carried up a moderate 38 HOT WATER SUPPLY. height, as it will now be understood that in a tank (or cylinder, or boiler) the hottest water will always be found nearest the top. In some instances where a cylinder and tank are both Fio. 12. tfR\ Sfi^ ^ eO= :^=S^ i^ used, the flow-pipe is not connected to the cylinder at all, but goes direct from the boiler to the tank, this ensures hot water being obtained in the upper part of the building rapidly, but in actual practice it will be found preferable to connect to the cylinder, as last illustrated. IMPROVED SYSTEMS, ETC. 39 There are other methods that will be met with, but those treated will be found reliable, and will give excel- lent results, equal to any yet introduced. Dyer's system, Fig. 12, will acquaint the reader with the principles of this system ; it will be noticed that the cylinder is connected up in the manner recommended in the beginning of this chapter, in addition to which the return is carried down below the level of the boiler, and then up into the bottom ; the object of this dip is to prevent water boiling back up the cold supply, as it will be seen that the cold supply is connected direct into the return pipe, close to the boiler, without the usual syphon ; the results are exactly similar to those explained at the beginning of this chapter. It will be understood that it is not necessary, neither is it usual, to bring the secondary return back by side of the secondary flow ; this secondary service is most commonly returned by another route with the object of distributing the hot water taps throughout the building wherever needed, Fig. 12 will illustrate this ; but in such an instance this secondary service should be of the same size throughout unless the draw-offs on the return portion are unimportant, in which case the return is run in smaller pipe, as explained in Chapter VIII. 40 HOT WATER S0PPLT. CHAPTER X. GENERAL DIRECTIONS; POSITION OF PIPES; CHARGING AND TESTING ; DISCOLOURED WATER, ETC. It has already been explained that the circulating pipes should not be allowed to come in contact with any cold pipes, or waste or soil pipes ; if it is desirable or con- venient to make use of the casing which contains these pipes, the two sets of pipes must be kept separated, either by wooden wedges, .or better still, by felting the hot water pipes, as this prevents loss of heat, &c. The pipes should, wherever possible, be carried up the inner walls, that is to say, not up the walls that form the outside of the building, as a severe frost might act prejudicially upon them, and it should be made a firm rule that pipes never he carried out- side a house, even though they are afterwards well cased and packed, as should the range be out of use for, say 24 to 30 hours in frosty weather, all heat will in that time be out of the water, and the pipes will be found frozen solid, which is highly dangerous, and this has been known to occur in as short a space of time as one night only, although the pipes were most carefully covered. Another practice that should be most carefully avoided is that of running pipes on to the brickwork in new build- ings, and the plasterer afterwards covering them with his work ; this is a too common practice when new buildings are being erected, and the results to the decorative wurk are most disastrous should a small leakage occur or any alteration be needed ; it has sometimes been necessary to GENEEAI, DIRECTIONS ; POSITION OF PIPES, ETC. 41 seriously injure, if not actually destroy, most costly wall decorations on this account. When an apparatus is completed, the next duty is to charge it with water, and to carefully inspect every joint, both in pipes and manlids, to see that all are sound, and afterwards to light the fire in the range or furnace, and see that satisfactory results are obtainable. Should a leak- age be discovered it must be made good, however slight, and not he left to pick up (i.e., rust up) ; and as leaks cannot generally be rectified without disconnecting the pipe, the utility and convenience of connectors will be discovered. It might be here mentioned that none but inferior work- men leave leaks to pick up ; it is a most unworkmanlike practice, and nearly always ends in the workman having to return to remedy some or all of these defective joints. When charging the apparatus with water, all the cooks should be first opened to allow of the free escape of air as the water enters. If this precaution is not taken, there will be an accumulation of air at some point that will seriously interfere with the circulation, besides causing other unpleasantness. As the apparatus fills, and as each cock begins to run freely, it can be closed, and when the apparatus is fully charged the fire should be lighted. When the fire has been burning for some time, and the apparatus has become hot, the joints must all be inspected again, as the heat will often cause a somewhat imperfect joint to leak. A good plan, when the fire has been burn- ing, say fifteen minutes, is to open a cock for half a minute — not the lowest one, but one on the first or second floor ; this cock being in connection with the flow-pipe, its being opened will give a good start or impetus to the circulation in case it should be sluggish. When an apparatus is first tested or used it takes consider- ably longer to get hot water than with an apparatus that has constant daily use, as everything in connection with 42 HOT WATER SUPPLY. it and surrounding it is cold, and tends to retard the cir- culation. It can be taken that a quite new apparatus will take about 50 per cent, longer to beat the water to, say 150 degrees, than it will after it has bad eight or ten days' use, as after it has got into proper working order every- thing surrounding it has become warmed, and the fire is never out for a sufficient length of time for the water to become actually cold. If the work has been carried out in a proper manner a fairly good supply of hot water should be obtained after from J to Ij hour firing when first testing. When the apparatus has had a few days' use this time should be re- duced one-third, or even more, if the pipes and tank, &c., are in warm situations or felted, as the water is then kept moderately warm over night. The user of an apparatus will sometimes complain that the water is discoloured. This is generally caused by rust, and the discolouration will disappear after a few dajs' use. Of course it will not occur at all if galvanised pipes and a galvanised or copper boiler is used ; but in the most aggravated case the rust will stop as soon as a little fur is deposited on the different surfaces. Sometimes this dis- colouration proceeds from quite a different cause, it being a common occurrence in country residences where the water is supplied from ponds, lakes, &c. There is com- monly in such cases a certain amount of sedimentary matter in the house water, however well it is supposed to be filtered. This sediment finds its way into the apparatus, and settles in the horizontal pipes and at the bottom of the boiler, tank, &c. The first time the water is allowed to boil, this sediment is agitated, and the water is rendered cloudy, if not absolutely dirty. This also occurs in many districts where the deposited matter from the water is of a sandy, muddy nature, and does not become incrusted as with chalky waters. ( 43 ) CHAPTER XL EXPEE7.MENTAL GLASS APPARATUS ; RESULTS NOTED. To those interested in ttis branch of mechanics the time and small outlay is well devoted to the construction of a small experimental apparatus in glass, &o. ; the glass tube for the circulating pipe is very inexpensive, costing about a halfpenny per foot, and |- to ^-inch glass tube can be easily bent in any direction by the heat of a gas flame or spirit lamp ; the tee pieces can be made in zinc or copper, and reliable joints can be made with short pieces of india- rubber tubing a size smaller than the glass tube. The boiler can be made in glass by a glass-blower, at a small cost, or it can be made in zinc or copper ; the cylinder can be easily provided either by a glass blower or by obtaining a short lamp glass about 4x2^ inches, like those used for small candle lamps, and making a metal cap to fit each end, and the cold water cistern can be made wholly in zinc. A difficulty that would present itself is how to make the water visible ; this is overcome by putting a solid material (powdered) into it which has the same specific gravity, or weight, as water, and will neither float nor sink, but only move as the water moves, this material is amber ; a portion of a pipe stem, filed or ground to a powder and stirred into the water, will be found to suffice admirably. An apparatus of this description will be found a most interesting study, the heat is applied to the boiler by means of a spirit lamp, or by a small paraffin lamp, and by putting a blackened surface behind the pipes the results can be most accurately noted. 44 HOT WATUlt SUPPLY. It should have been mentioned that draw-off services (say two) must be provided, and the only little difficulty or expense in connection with the whole undertaking is to obtain cooks of a proportionate size. What induced the writer to make such an apparatus was that he once wanted a solution to the following problem, and although he asked far and wide, both good authorities and bad, he could not get one decided opinion, everyone "thought" but none were decided, and strange to say, only an extreme minority were right. The problem was as follows : — " When a tap is opened and water flows, from which direction does that w^ater proceed, does it come up the flow-pipe from the boiler, or down the flow-pipe from the tank ? " This was alluding to the old or high system ; with the cylinder system, the question, of course, was worded a little differently, but to the same effect ; it was found that the water proceeded about half each way, that is to say, when the tap was opened the water was seen to be flowing rapidly up the flow-pipe from the boiler, also down the flow-pipe from the tank at about equal speed. The reader will at once say, that the flow or current of water reversed itself in the flow-pipe between the tank and the draw-off service ; it was so, but directly the tap was closed, the direction of the water immediately righted itself, and could be seen travelling placidly up the flow-pipe as it did before the tap was opened. Another rather important result noted was that if the heat was not applied to the centre of the boiler (when first applying it and the water was cold) the water would commence circulating up whichever pipe the heat was applied nearest to, for instance, if the lamp was placed near or under the return pipe, the water without the least hesitation would commence to flosv up this pipe, and the flow-pipe could be seen acting as the return; at first, EXPERIMENTAL GLASS APPARATUS: RESULTS NOTED. 45 Fig. 13. this was attributed to some accidental circumstance, but after repeated trials, each time starting with cold water, it was found that it happened the same on every occasion, it can therefore be inferred that if a workman was ta bring his return pipe much nearer to the boiler flue than he did his flow-pipe, there would be every probability that a failure in the apparatus would result. Another peculiar result noted quite confounds an usually accepted theory; it is commonly believed that in the cylinder system as at Fig 9, the water circulates between the boiler and the cylinder for a certain period before it commences to circulate in the upper or secondary flow ; it is very commonly said that hot water cannot be expected in the secondary flow until a fair quantity of hot water is in the cylinder. This, however, is quite wrong, as a moment's considera- tion will show ; it was found that immediately the water became heated it travelled up the flow- pipe from the boiler, thence into and through the cylinder up the secondary flow. There could be seen a distinct stream of water coming from the primary flow (in the cylinder), and this stream passed in a direct line to the out- let at top, as at Fig. 13. Very little, in fact, scarcely more than one-fourth of the heated water was i-etained in the cylinder, but there is no doubt that this stream of heated water passing through a body of cold water was robbed of a material quantity of its heat. Of course this does not lake place when the rising main is not returned. 46 HOT -WATER SUPPLY. An experiment was also made to see if water would circulate horizontally from the toiler, as at Fig. 14, the object being to see if a small tank, say 10 or 15 gallons, could be placed at the side of a low-pressure range boiler to Fig. 14. TANK t BOILER k k — i—t iH bTT if ti — 2LJ 4j increase the supply of hot water, as with many modem ranges the low-pressure or open-top side boilers are not sufficiently large ; but it is to be regretted this experiment resulted in a failure, as although the water could be got to circulate, it was so slow and unsatisfactory as to be practically useless. By giving the pipes a little rise all went well, but with open-top boilers, of course, the pipes cannot be arranged so, as the water containers must be about level. There are numberless, in fact, endless, pecularities to be noticed, but the above are a few of special importance, as being results which workmen are not generally conversant with. ( 47 ) CHAPTER XII. INCRUSTATION AND CAUSES; BOILER CLEANING, ETC. In all waters, especially in the south of England, there ia a smaller or greater percentage of bicarbonate of lime. Bicarbonate of lime is lime charged with a double propor- tion of carbonic acid gas, that is to say, it has just double the quantity of carbonic acid to what carbonate of lime has ; this renders it soluble in water to a very great extent, considerably more so than carbonate of lime is ; water that issues from chalk strata is nearly always highly charged with this material and is commonly called "hard " water (although hardness in water proceeds from other causes than this). This water generally has a beauti- ful crystal-like clearness, and it will always be noticed that when the hardness proceeds from this cause, it is somewhat difficult to make soap lather in it. When this water is heated to boiling point, the excess carbonic acid gas is driven off and the lime is precipitated, and the heat and pressure cause it to adhere to the inner surface of the boiler in a hard stone-like covering, which is practi- cally limestone. This incrustation has more than one ill effect; firstly, it being a poor conductor of heat it materially interferes with the water heating as rapidly as it should do, and what is more serious, wljen it attains a certain thickness (varying with the porosity of the deposit) it prevents the water coming in contact with the iron, and consequently the iron perishes by the action of the fire, the same as an empty boiler would become destroyed. It can be said 48 HOT WATEU SUPPLY. without exaggeration, that seven-eighths of the boiler failures in London are solely due to this, and it is the cause of much misunderstanding between manufacturers and their clients. There are now several preparations be to obtained for softening water by precipitating the lime in solution. These preparations necessitate the use of a separate cistern, as it will be understood that the deposited lime must not be allowed to pass into the house service pipes. There is a somewhat common idea that filtering water will remove the lime, but this idea is wrong, as the lime is in solution, and passes through the filtering medium as freely as the water does ; if soft water is not used, the only other means of saving the boiler is to have it cleaned out at regular periods ; the period varies very greatly, depend- ing upon different circumstances ; it varies with the nature of the water, also with the power of the boiler, whether it causes the water to boil much or little, and it also varies ac- cording to the quantity of water used, as a certain quantity of water only yields a certain quantity of deposit, and the oftener the water is changed (drawn-off and replaced with cold) the greater the quantity of deposit. With London water it is found a desirable plan to clean out boilers every six months, this will keep the boiler in good order whether it has much work or little, but horn or cheek boilers, or any boilers with narrow water ways should be cleaned oftener, say every three or four months regularly. Different circumstances govern the quantity of deposit, and it will be found to vary greatly even in two adjoining houses. A reliable plan is to let a boiler have, say four or six months ordinary daily use, and when it is opened after this period the thickness of the incrustation will determine whether the period of cleaning should be oftener or less often. The reader will understand that this only applies to INCRUSTATION AND. CAUSES; BOILER CLEANING, ETC. 49 boilers for hot water supply. Boilers that are used for heating purposes only are not provided with lids, as no appreciable incrustation takes place, the same water being used over and over again. Country residences that have their water supply pumped from lakes, ponds, &c., rarely suffer with inorusted deposit, the deposit taking the form of earthy or sandy sediment ; and where filtration is not carried out rigorously, small particles of leaves and organic matter find their way into the pipe system of the house ; this is removed by periodical flushing of the pipes, tank or cylinder, and boiler, a good sized pipe being provided at the lowest point of the apparatus (bottom of boiler) for the purpose. The deposited matter is seldom found to be alike in any two waters (there is even a noticeable difference in the London Water Companies' waters) ; but the deposit is practi- cally of only two descriptions, viz. that which adheres or incrusts, and that which remains loose, and the method of disposing of these has now been explained. The incrusted deposit is decidedly the worst to deal with, as not only is the boiler affected but the pipes also, and to rid the pipes of this matter they have to be taken down and heated and hammered, and this is nearly as costly as renewing the service ; it however can be taken that the pipes will keep themselves in moderately good order, provided the boiler is cleaned at regular and frequent periods. The reader will now see the great im- portance of having good sized pipes with these waters, especially the pijoes in proximity to the boiler. It has already been explained that the incrusted deposit acts prejudicially in keeping the heat from the water ; there is another ill result when the pipes become furred (in- crusted), and that is, retarded circulation, and if neglected the pipes have frequently been known to become quite stopped (see Explosions and Causes.) 50 HOT WATER SUPPLY. When cleaning a boiler of the incrusted deposit it will be found necessary to chip it with a chisel, held and worked by the hand ; it is a laborious and tedious process, occupy- ing from one to three hours after the boiler is opened, as it is most necessary to clear it all off the surface of the metal, especially where the heat is felt most, also in the angles, as this is where the seams of the boiler are, and in the majority of instances the fracture will be found to be aa opened seam, this being the weakest point in the boiler. ( 61 ) CHAPTER XIII. EXPLOSIONS AND CAUSES ; SAFETY VALVES ; FELTING AND PACKING PIPES, ETC. The causes of explosions at present known are — 1. Failure in water supply. 2. Frost. 3. Stop-cocks. 4. Incrustation. No. 1 happens as follows : either from leakage, or some other cause, the supply of water in the house fails, perhaps during the night, and when the fire is lighted in the morning the holler quickly empties itself by evaporation ; when empty, it becomes red hot, and should the cold water then flow in an explosion must ensue, as steam is generated so very rapidly and in such volume, 'that the pipes are not nearly sufficient outlet for its free escape. This of course cannot occur with the cylinder system, as the contents of the cylinder cannot be drawn oif, and of course it is at any time a rare occurrence, as shortness of water is nearly always noticed quickly ; but an explosion from this cause once came under the writer's notice. 2. This cause, perhaps, should have been treated first, as it is the most usual source of such accidents. In both the cylinder system and the tank system the expansion pipes, which are provided for the free escape of steam, are generally situated in extremely cold positions, either in draughty roofs or outside ; these pipes are more or less charged with water, and should this water freeze trouble E 2 52 HOT WATER STTPPLY. ensues ; but the boiler would not explode unless the cold supply-pipe was frozen also, as when a moderate pressure of steam was developed it would force its way up this pipe if the expansion or rising main was closed ; but if both pipes were closed an explosion in nearly every case takes place, as the steam is generated in the boiler faster than the ice will melt in the pipes. In the tank system the danger lies in the flow and return pipe being frozen if on an outside wall or much exposed ; if one pipe was clear there would be no danger, although some very unpleasant noises would be heard. If the cold supply alone freezes there would be danger in the latter system, as the ■ apparatus might possibly be emptied. 3. This was the cause of a serious disaster a very short time since, by which the practical man (a plumber) lost his life. In this instance stop-cocks had been put in both the primary flow and return, so as to be able to stop off all connection between the boiler and the cylinder when desired ; the advantage gained in this is that when the boiler needs attention and opening, it is not necessary to draw the water out of the cylinder and apparatus generally ; hut the principle of fuiting stop-cocks in these pipes is a terribly had one. A stop-cock in one of these pipes can sometimes be tolerated, but only when absolutely neces- sary. In the instance just referred to, the man had done his work and, as is usual, lighted the fire to see all was in order, but he unknowingly had left the stop-cocks closed, and the boiler (having no safety valve), of course exploded when the steam had generated sufficient power to effect this. 4. This is a rare cause of explosion, although it would be a very common one but for the fact that before any actual danger is to be feared there is the most alarming EXPLOSIONS AND CAUSES, ETC. 53 noises and symptoms brought about by the steam in its endeavours to get away up the choked and narrow passages. There, however, comes to mind an instance in which a lady complained that most unpleasant noises had been heard in her range boiler for some time, and her further complaint was that now the safety valve (which was fortunately provided) was nearly always leaking. Upon investigation it was found that the flow-pipe was quite solid with incrustation, and the return pipe nearly so. The boiler had been in use about seven years without cleaning, and the reason that it was not burnt or cracked was that, although the quantity of deposit was very great, it was of a porous or spongy nature, which allowed of the water coming in contact with the metal sufficiently to protect it from the effects of the fire. The reason that accidents of this description are so disastrous is, that before an explosion can take place there has to be sufficient steam power generated to burst the boiler, which is constructed of ^-in. plates at the least, and a moment's consideration will show that, compared to this, the human body is a very frail object indeed, and suffers accordingly. It is to be regretted that there are no regulations governing the safety of range boilers, and it is to be wondered at, that accidents are of not more frequent occurrence, as the manner in which cheap works are carried out, often by inexperienced people, is to be highly censured. The most reliable remedy or safeguard against such accidents is a good quality safety valve properly fitted. There are many makes of these useful devices, all tolerably reliable, and considering that accidents can arise from such common-place causes, it is a good plan to advocate the use of them in every instance, as the cost is very low. There is a dissention as to the best position for the safety 64 HOT WATER SUPPLY. valve, but as the accident always happens from the boiler, this certainly is the place for the valve, viz. at the seat of danger. Why people should advocate putting the valve in the tank or cylinder cannot be comprehended, but no doubt they have a reason, which reason, however, has never been satisfactorily explained to the writer. Safety valves are practically of two kinds, viz. those that have the seating held down by a spring and those that have a weight or weights. They about equally share favour. The spring valve is the most compact, but, as every one knows, a spring does not last for ever ; but, however the spring wears or deteriorates, it does not impair the safety of the valve, and it can be renewed at a very small cost. As before stated, the correct place for a safety valve is directly in the boiler, but this can but seldom be put into practice as the valve should always be situated where it will be in sight and easily accessible for testing, &c. The most usual practice is to connect the valve with the boiler by a separate pipe, and this pipe should be of good size, 80 that it may not become furred up, and the workman, when cleaning out the boiler, should be instructed to see that the valve pipe is clear. An excellent method is being adopted by one firm, and that is to put the safety valve in the manlid, the valve being one that nearly wholly projects inside the boiler, it is then bound to have attention whenever the boiler is cleaned, and when the valve acts it obviates all further risk, as the water, &c., that escapes extinguishes the fire. There is no little annoyance that sometimes occurs as follows : if a draw-off service is taken directly from the boiler (which should not be done), and this service has one of the ordinary sudden closing plug cocks, if this cock is closed sharply, the sudden stopping of the flow of water wiU in many instances cause the valve seating to lift EXPLOSIONS AND CAUSES, ETC. 55 and a email quantity of water will escape each time. This can he remedied hy putting a slow closing (screw down) cock in place of the quick closing one, hut it is wrong to take any draw-off services direct from a high-pressure hoiler, for other reasons that will he explained. To set the Safety Valve. — After the apparatus is charged, the cap which regulates the tension of the spring should he unscrewed until it leaks, then tighten it up [until the leakage ceases, after which give the cap one more turn to allow for any little extra pressure that may be developed when the fire is applied. A deadweight valve is set by the taking off or putting on the weights. Fig. 16. FiQ. 15. li 3 Fig. 17. ^TV! rig. 15 is a spring safety valve. Kg. 16 is a dead- weight safety valve. Fig. 17 is a safety valve with a lever arm. Felting and Packing Pipes. This is a most important subject, but one of the most neglected ; if fifty apparatus were examined about forty would be found having the pipes either exposed, or placed in wooden casings without anything covering them to 66 HOT WATER StrPPLY. prevent heat being radiated ; the desirability of insulating the pipes can be impressed upon the reader by asking a simple question. Why should a proportion of the heat generated in the boiler be radiated or thrown away from the pipes? There is no reason whatever, as the object for which labour and fuel, &o. is expended upon the boiler is to provide hot water whenever desired, and not to diffuse a portion of the heat where it is not needed and not of the least service. In a well and carefully fitted apparatus, unless the pipes are insulated, at least one-sixth of the heat will be practically lost, and it is not an unusual thing to meet with an apparatus where the loss is much greater than this. There are two usual methods of insulating pipes, the first is to cover them with felt by cutting sheet felt into strips, and winding it round spirally, afterwards binding it with string or wire ; this felt is specially prepared for this sort of work, and being made chiefly of hair, it is a natural non-condnctor of heat and answers the purpose admirably, one thickness will be sufficient in ordinary protected situations, but in exposed places it should be doubled, so that when the apparatus is in full working order scarcely any heat will be felt if the hand is applied ; in addition to felting the pipes, the tank or cylinder must be covered also, as they present a very large radiating surface ; the best method for these is to encase them, and pack the space between the tank and casing with cow-hair (plasterer's hair), but provision must be made for access to the manlid ; with the cylinder the insulation answers another good purpose, in keeping the kitchen at a lower temperature. The other method of insulating the pipes is to encase them, and pack the space between the pipes and the casing with hair ; this has the best appearance, but is a little more costly. EXPLOSIONS AND CADSES, ETC. 67 Tliere is a most serious mistake often made ■when casing pipes, and that is, failing to fill the intervening space with hair or any other non-conducting material; this is especially noticeable with a vertical casing, and is not an uncommon cause of the utter failure of an apparatus. It will he readily understood that if the casing is not packed, and has badly fitted or open ends, this casing will become a flue immediately the water heats, as the air in contact with the pipes will be heated, and will rise, and cold air will flow in and it will be found that a con- tinuous stream of cold air is passing into the lower ends of the casing, and the reader wOl at once see what an ill result this will produce. It is imperative that casings con- taining hot water pipes be packed, otherwise the apparatus will do better without them. Hair is the best material to use for this purpose, as it is a natural non-conductor, but there are other materials suited, such as slag-wool, sawdust, &c., &o. There are many advantages gained by covering hot water pipes ; for instance, you get hot water quicker, you may be assured that the boiler is giving its best results, it is decidedly economical, it has often been known to con- vert a badly working apparatus into a good one, and what is often considered of greatest importance, it will keep the water warm, and sometimes hot, over night ; a carefully covered apparatus will give a warm bath before the fire is lighted in the morning. Where the benefit of insulation is most felt is in instances where pipes are carried along stone passages, in cold roofs, &c., and when the tank is situated in the roof, &c. This would be a favourable moment to mention that if anyone desires to leave a fire alight in the kitchen range the last thing at night, with the view of providing hot or warm water for the early morning, care must be used not to leave the damper of the boiler flue out ; if it is left out 58 HOT WATER SUPPLY. the water will continue heating for a time, but so soon as the fire burns low or goes out, the water will cool rapidly, as a swift current of cold air will be drawn under the boiler, and the water will be found quite cold in the morn- ing. When a fire is left at night, the boiler damper should be closed. It will be found extremely convenient, if the range has a means of making an open fire, as an open fire will remain alight a considerable time, and when burnt out the flow of air into the chimney does not act prejudicially on the water. As has already been mentioned the upper or secondary circulating service in the cylinder system, should be stopped (by means of the stop-cook provided for the purpose in the return) at night as the water in circu- lating around the house loses more or less of its heat, and the stopping of the circulation keeps a store of hot water in the cylinder. No danger can arise from the misuse of this cock, and should it be left closed, in the morning the first person who draws water will have to empty the pipes of the stagnant water, and this will immediately show that the cock has not been opened. ( 59 ) CHAPTER XIV. COILS AND COIL SERVICES ; HOW TO CONVERT THE TAJTK SYSTEM INTO THE CYLINDER SYSTEM ; HOW TO FIT A HIGH-PRESSURE BOILER TO BE USED FOR LOW-PRESSURE PDRPOSES AT FIRST. Coils are of two sorts ; those made lip of cast-iron pipes, and those made up by the hot-water fitter with his wrought- iron tuhe. The latter are only adapted for small purposes, such as for linen closets, towel airers, &c. ; of course they could be made of any size, but where space is no object the cast-iron coils should be used, as they radiate the heat more freely. Wrought-iron tube coils are of great convenience when awkward positions have to be contended with ; they can be used successfully for warming the air that passes through inlet ventilators and for many other purposes where their small size and the endless shapes that they can be made in is found of great advantage. Cast-iron coils are now generally made up of two cast- iron box ends with rows of cast-iron pipes between them, as at Fig. 18. The pipes are jointed to the box ends by an indiarubber joint supplied by the makers. These are very expeditiously fitted, as there is no lead or hemp packing, &o., and the method is much superior {for upright coili) to the old style of making up the coil with cast pipes, bends, &c. The subject of coils cannot be treated fully here, as they are really not desirable adjuncts to an apparatus for hot water supply, as the chief object of a coil is to dissipate 60 HOT WATER SUPPLY. the heat, whereas with a hot water supply apparatus the heat should be retained in the water as much as possible. Sometimes it is desired to heat a coil or row of pipes in a conservatory from a kitchen boiler. This can be done il Fig. 18. ff^ — • — u r" U ( I ( ' y^ J \^ a sufficiently powerful boiler is provided for the work ; but it must be borne in mind that at the time at tohich the heat is most wanted in the conservatory the Ttitchen fire is out — that is, at night. The subject of heating and the most suitable sized coils for certain areas and under certain conditions cannot be given here ; it can be found treated most exhaustively by Hood, Box, and other eminent writers ; it, however, can be roughly calculated that a small coil, such as illustrated, would require boiler power equal to supplying two extra draw-off services. Coils can be successfully worked in connection with a hot-water supply apparatus, provided the coils are only brought into use when hot water is not particularly needed, and provided heat is not required from the coils at night; as an instance, the writer once fitted coils in several bedrooms of a gentleman's summer residence, the object of the coils being to keep the rooms aired during COILS AND COIL SERVICES, ETC. 61 his absence in winter ; hot water for draw-off purposes was little needed when the coils were working, as during his absence there were but two or three servants left in charge. Of course coils can be, and are, worked from hot water H5M Fig. 19. A Fia. 20. A A ^ Fig. 21. supply services at all times, but the general results are not altogether satisfactory, for, as just explained, the boiler must be increased in power considerably to compen- sate for the loss of heat, and in summer, or whenever the coils are not in use, annoyance is experienced by the boiler overdoing its work, &c., and the practice of working them off a supply service cannot be recommended as being good, unless the coil is a small one for some convenient purpose. rig. 19 shows a simple method when the service pipes are vertical, and Fig. 20 a method when the pipes are horizontal. Fig. 21 is another method, by which the flow 62 HOT WATER SUPPLY. can be wholly diverted through the coil ; but this cannot be recommended unless the coil is not required until after the water is heated in the morning, say 10 a.m. Whenever it is at all possible, it is preferable to take a direct and distinct service from the boiler for coils and hot water pipes ; this can either be done by taking a flow and return, or by taking a flow pipe only and making use of the supply return, as may be most convenient ; a stop- cock would be necessary in the coil flow for the purjiose of shutting off the circulation when not needed, and there should be a stop-cook in the coil service where it joins the supply return, as by means of these two cocks the coil service can be shut off entirely, and by providing a small draw-off cook at a low point, the service can be emptied of water, and so prevent rusting when not in use during the summer months. Air cocks are needed at the highest points in coils, &c., to permit of the free escape of air when charging. When any material amount of heating is required, it is much better to use an independent boiler, as by regu- lation a fire can be made to burn many hours without attention, so keeping up an even temperature during the night, &c. ; these boilers are economical in use, and, as they burn coke fuel, there is no sweeping of flues, &c., needed. In many instances it is convenient to have a stop-cock upon each branch coil service, so that one or more of the coils can be rendered inoperative when desired. and yet not interfere with those from which heat is needed. There is a modern form of coil now coming into favour and general use, called radiators ; they consist of a series of ornamental cast pipes, either vertical or horizontal, and being of good design they can be exposed anywhere, whereas the general form of coil needs encasing if it is prominently situated. The Conversion of the Tank System into the Cylinder System COILS AND COIL SERVICES, ETC. 63 is generally a simple and inexpensive matter. The most simple method of all is to disconnect the flow and return at a near point to the boiler, and insert the cylinder, con- necting it up, as at Fig. 11 ; this increases the body of water in the apparatus, but this method should not be adopted if the boiler is only just powerful enough for the apparatus as it originally existed, as with the cylinder added the work is slightly increased. Another method, when the apparatus is a small one, and the rising main from the top of cylinder need only be a single pipe, is to fit the cylinder in the method last explained ; the portion of the flow-pipe above the cylinder can be utilised for the single rising main, and the remain- ing portion of the return pipe can be utilised as the cold supply to the cylinder. The flow-pipe must be discon- nected at the tank and carried up to above the level of the cold water. The return pipe need not of necessity be disconnected from the tank, if it is left, the tank acts as an auxiliary cold water cistern, but if it is desired to remove it the return must be joined to what was the cold supply to the tank. A third method is to insert and connect up the cylinder as before, remove the tank, carry the flow up above the level of the cold water, and connect the return to the flow just above the highest draw-off service ; this will then con- stitute a cylinder system with a primary and a secondary flow and return (the draw-offs remaining as they were). This apparatus will not be complete as there is no cold supply to the cylinder ; this must be brought down by continuing what was the cold supply to the tank ; this makes the conversion more expensive than the two methods before explained. If the boiler will admit of the little extra work, the first method will give just as good results without needing scarcely any extra pipe. 64 HOT WATER SUPPLY. A client will often ast if he can have a high-pressure or circulating boiler (in a new range he intends purchas- ing), yet not use it for circulation for, say six months, as it is not convenient to have the service pipes instated until that time ; this of course can be easily done, but it should be done in a manner that will admit of the service pipes being afterwards connected without pulling the range to pieces and creating unnecessary w^ork and ex- pense. The most perfect arrangement to obtain this end is to induce the customer to have the portion of the ap- paratus that is situated in the kitchen iitted up at once, viz. the primary flow and return, and the cylinder ; this will not necessitate any cutting away, or pipe running out of the kitchen, and it will very greatly simplify the completion of the apparatus, as when the time arrives for connecting up, the fire will hardly need to be extinguished ; this will also get over a difficulty experienced in using a high-pressure boiler for low-pressure purposes, first, and that is the smallness of the boiler (unless a boot boiler is used) and the consequent limited supply of hot water, and which limited supply boils most furiously. If the apparatus is completed from the boiler to the cylinder, the cylinder can be fed by a small supply or feed cistern (with ball valve) placed at its side and con- nected with the nearest cold water service by a piece of half-inch light lead pipe, a steam escape pipe can be taken from the top of the cylinder, and carried to any convenient point, or turned over the feed cistern at the side ; and this steam pipe if provided of the right size, can be afterwards utilised as the commencement ci the rising main or secondary flow, a draw-off service can be taken off the flow from a near point of the boiler, and this draw-off can be afterw ards used as the special emptying service by providing it with a loose-keyed cock, or with a cock that can afterwards have the key easily removed COIi.S AND COIu SERVICES, ETC. 65 This is the most complete and economical method, as when the conversion takes place only the temporary cold supply has to be disposed of, and the range has not to ho interfered with in any way whatever. Another cheaper method, but which entails more excess work when converting, is to fit the boiler and construct the flue to it (the same as if it was to be used for high-pressure purposes) and connect and carry the flow and return from the boiler to just outside the chimney jamb and there cap them off, as Pig. 22. From the first bend in the flow a steam pipe must be carried up, say six or eight feet, or even higher ; the cold water must be brought in the side as with low-pressure boilers, and the draw-off taken from the side also, as shown in the illustration. p 66 HOT WATER SUPPLT. The flue from the boiler should he made in readiness for high-pressure purposes, but until the conversion takes place it must be stopped ; this is best done by cutting a piece of fire brick to the shape of the flue under the boiler and cementing it in, it can then be easily removed when desired, leaving the flue clear and ready for use. Should the boiler be small and the water boil furiously it may be found necessary to place a piece of thick cast plate, or fire brick, in front of it to check its heating somewhat. The steam escape pipe should be carried to a good height, as with such rapid boiling, water may be ejected, more especially if the boiler fills nearly full. To prevent water being ejected from the steam pipe, the boiler should not be filled to the top by four inches, or at the least three inches, but this can only he done with hoot-boilers, as it would not he wise to leave three or four inches of the boiler empty where it comes in contact with the fire, therefore, if a square boiler is used, as shown in the illustration, a crank or set must be made in the steam pipe, the boiler can then be filled within, say half an inch, as any water shot up the steam pipe will strike the crank and go no further. (It is often desirable to put this crank in the expansion pipe from a tank.) When the conversion takes place it is necessary to un- stop the boiler flue ; take the caps off the flow and return, and connect up ; take out or cap off the steam escape pipe ; and take out or cap ofi" the cold supply; the draw-off service will fulfil the part of the special emptying service. This service should have a loose-keyed cock. ( 67 ) CHAPTER XT. ESTIMATES AND ESTIMATING; T00L3. There is no branch of meclianics in which, estimates are BO much required, and giTen, as in hot water fitting, therefore it is very desirahle, in fact necessary, to have a good knowledge of general details for approximating the time that will be occupied. It is comparatively an easy matter to get at the correct quantities and value of materials that will be needed, but there are many sundry expenses that are apt to be overlooked, especially if the work is in the country, and be as careful as you may, it is very desirable to put down a sum for incidentals. The writer much regrets that he cannot give any fixed rule or data for judging the time that should be occupied on any particular job, as it does not follow that a sma 1 apparatus will necessarily occupy but a short time or vice versa, ; it depends upon the number of joints that have to be made, the number of turns, and directions in which the pipe has to be run, the quantity of cutting away, &c., &c. An example of a very ordinary estimate is here given, and it will be seen that this is a most simple method of arriving at the cost, with the advantage of showing the exact quantities to provide when the order is secured ; it also has the further advantage of showing clearly if every- thing is included, if any one draw-off service was omitted it would be noticed instantly; the system of showing every service separately is decidedly better than calculating F 2 68 HOT WATER Sl/fPLT. all the services of one Bize together, as with the latter method a slip of the memory cannot he afterwards noticed, and in these days of keen competition it is very essential that nothing be forgotten. The prices in the following estimate are net cost. A list of tubes and fittings will be found further on in this chapter ; this list is adhered to by all makers, and at the present moment is subject to 62J per cent, discount for red steam tube, and 30 per cent, for galvanised steam in small quantities. It will be noticed that the items here shown are only those in connection with the hot water apparatus, and do not include the time and expenses in connection with fixing a range, nor adapting a boiler to an existing range, as this portion of the work varies so greatly. When ordering pipes, order " some short lengths from 2 feet to 6 feet," as the cost is the same, and it will frequently save a cut and save buying sockets ; the manufacturers nearly always send all long lengths unless ordered other- wise. Estimate: Net Cost. £ s. d. Boiler. 1 boiler, say 1 15 Cylinder. 1 ■50-gallon galvanised cylinder, ^ in. plate, fitted with flanges 2 10 Primary 8 ft. IJ-in. red steam tube at 5J(i. 3 8 flow and 4 IJ-in. connectors at TJii 2 6 return. 8 ij-iu. baokunts at 3c?. 2 2 IJ-in. bends at 10|(i. 19 Secondary 55 ft. 1-in. red steam at 4Jd 19 6 flow. 4 1-in. connectors at 6rf. 2 4 1-in backnuts at 2(f. 8 8 1-in. bends at 7§rf. 5 2 1-in. round elbows at 8rf. 14 Secondary 45 ft. J-in. red steam at 2 Jrf. 9 5 return. 4 J-in. connectors and nuts at 5|(?. 1 10 6 |-in. bends at 4d. 2 2 i-in. elbows at 4Jd 9 1 1-in. X J-in. tee 8 1 J-in. stop-cock (loose key) 2 9 Carried forward £7 10 ESTIMATES AND ESTIMATING, TOOLS. 69 Cold supply. Scullery sink draw- off. Butler's pantry. Housemaid's sink. Lavatory. Emptying service. Bath service, Time. £ «. d. Brought forward 7 10 54 ft. 1-in. red steam at 4|CDCO!MCOO 1-1 T-l 1-1 M rH r-« CO(NrHCOt^(MCO.-.lOCD rH f-l rH ri (N (N Hid I-4H •« CD O 00 (M O i-H OS OOOSCOCDfMiOCOOCDCDCDOOOOOOOOOOO ccH< »H I— 1 I— 1 69 Ol-lO rH OO O 0)-«i-(OOi-IOOrH'^tiOOSi-IO-* OS CD t-CO r> t*0 CM Tti O CO CN QOOS CO CD O p l> O CD O K oo o oooo O O r-t O O O oo O IM tH CO O 1-t O O (N CO •8 cqiOCO I>iOX O CD CO O I— CO OS CO (M l> CO « O CO «e o o o o o o o OOfHOOOOOOM 0(MN r*] '^ -IM •8 (N -* (N »0 ■* O rH CO CD O 1-1 00 (M I-l l> CO CD t-l * ■• 60 o o o o oo O OOOO oooocq o .^ ^ iEr:;SRSCEKEKER::' « o : : ::::::::0:::'^:::::ma: ^ .2 . 2 S ^.2 i i 2 to 14 ft. long, pe 12 to 23i in. long 3 to llj „ rews 12 to 23J in. 3 to Hi , , not socketed . . Fittings. ught-iron .. sockets .. Plugs" '.'. s, 21 Nipples ws, wrcught-i ooks .. brass plugs iron cocks brass plugs ers, wrought-] able cast-iron es, 1 quart 3 „ aat round elbo n, 11 Pipe un B .. .. s Elbows, wro Tees Crosses jflnin sooke Diminished Flanges .. 18 Caps, 19 20 Baeknut Bound elbo Iron main c Ditto, with Bound way Ditto, with Coek spann Ditto, mallf Syphon box Ditto Ditto Ditto Malleable c Socket unio Union bend ■g s s s s EHpH h4 PQcq 72 HOT WATER SUPPLY. disconnecting old pipes, as the grip is more secure and the labour is reduced. 1 pair of large gas plyers for close small work. 1 12 in. strong shifting spanner for hacknuts, &c., &c. 3 or 4 stout brick chisels from 8 in. to 12 in. 1 24 in. steel chisel bar. 1 30 in. stout iron crowbar, for range work, &o. 1 engineer's hammer. 1 heavy hand hammer. 1 trowel each 7 in. and 1 1 in. 1 14 in. flat bastard file and handle. 1 10 in. half-round ditto. 1 small saw. 1 wood chisel. 1 large screwdriver. 1 soldering-iron. 1 blowpipe. 2 tool bags, paint brush, &o. The tools enumerated are what maybe termed necessaries for a man's proper outfit, but there are several sundry tools that a workman collects, and for repairs to the range if any small part is broken in transit. Handbrace, drills, and taps will be needed. In addition to this list must be added^ Eatchet brace. Cramp and brace. Drills from |- in. to 1 J in. for boiler drilling, &c., but these are tools that are generally kept at headquarters, as one set will suffice for three or four pairs of hands. This also applies to the large taps, and it is not usual to have more than one set of taps (I in. to 1^ in.) for, say, four sets of stocks and dies. Such tools as shovel, pail, broom, &c., are generally loaned by the customer, as they are required but little ; but sometimes the loan is objected to, and in new build- ESTIMATES AND ESTIMATING, TOOLS. 73 ings, of course, pails, &c., do not exist unless the builders are at work on the premises. Tools should be kept scru- pulously clean, and care should be exercised to keep them in safety when at work on new buildings, &c. Chisels should be kept sharp, and the lower jaws of tongs should be forged and squared immediately needed, as poor grip- ping tongs cause great annoyance and loss of time. . HOT WATER SUPPLY. CHAPTER XVr. COMMON FAULTS. It is not, by far, an uncommon thing to hear complaints made against hot water apparatus ; either the water does not heat or it heats too much, or noises are heard in the pipes, and many other annoyances more or less serious. This must proceed, in the majority of cases from a want of still on the fitter's part, and it is therefore sincerely hoped this work may he the means of providing a better general knowledge of the subject, which is certainly much needed, as has been experienced by everyone who has advertised for " experienced fitters," and seen the host of practically incapable men that apply. There are very many forms of complaints ; but they practically consist of the three following :— 1. Want of hot water. 2. Unpleasant noises. 3. Miscellaneous faults. These may arise from many various causes, and taking No. 1 first, this may be caused by — 1. Boiler insufficiently powerful for the work. 2. Loss of heat by radiation (common cause). 3. Draw-off services taken from the wrong pipe. 4. Both pipes taken off top of boiler without the dip- pipe, causing imperfect circulation. 5. Retarded circulation caused by " dips " in the flow- pipe ; it becomes air locked. 6. Cold supply not being syphoned, so permitting hot COMMON FAULTS. 75 water to travel up it ; this is an annoyance in another sense also. 7. Bringing the cold supply into the boiler immediately under the flow. 8. Crossing the pipes so that the pipe that starts from the boiler as the flow is connected to the tank as the return, and vice versa. 9. Ketarded circulation caused by an obstacle or stop- page in pipe. 10. Ketarded circulation by reason of the flow-pipe starting horizontally from side or back of boiler. 11. Incrustation in boiler or in pipes. 12. Waste of water by long draw-off services ; instances are somewhat commonly met with where a tank exists in a- high part of the building (as usual), and a draw-off service is taken from above the tank. This service is carried down and branched to the various sinks, &c., and no draw-offs are taken from the flow-pipe below the tank. The object aimed at is, without doubt, to attain the safety of the cylinder system in being unable to exhaust the store of water should the supply fail ; but the waste of water and heat that ensues is tremendous, as every time a tap is opened this pipe is charged with hot water, which quickly becomes cold, as has already been ex- plained. 13. Eetarded circulation by a fall or collection of fur at an angle. This is of common occurrence after workmen have been operating on old pipes, causing the fur to be loosened (if the pipes are furred at all), in such cases the loose fur will often settle down behind the cocks, causing them to become partially or wholly stopped. Complaint No. 2 may be from the following : — 1. Flow-pipe projecting through top surface of boiler. 2. Expansion projecting through top surface of tank or cylinder, causing air-chambers to be formed. 76 HOT WATER SUPPLY. 3. Descending flow-pipe, causing circulation to become air-bound. 4. Boiler being higher in front than at back where pipes are connected, forming air-chamber. 5. Incrustation of pipes. 6. Boiler being too powerful for the work, causing furious boiling, and making more steam than can escape noiselessly. Miscellaneous faults — 1. Long single draw-off services, causing a quantity ol cold water to be drawn before hot is obtained. 2. Draw-off services (cold water) being taken from the cold supply pipe, causing both hot and cold taps to run very slowly when opened together. 3. Taking a draw-off for cold water from the cold supply pipe close to the syphon; result, warm water obtained. 4. Stop-cocks in the primary flow and return ; highly dangerous. 5. Putting the stop-cock in the cold supply close to the cistern, instead of down by the cylinder; result, workman have to traverse house two or three times to open and shut the cock. This list is certainly not complete, but the faults enumerated may be said to embrace all those at all com- mon. The list of uncommon ones would be extremely long, as nearly every complaint brings something novel to light. ( 77 ) CHAPTER XYII. THE SUPPLY OR BALL VALVE CISTERN ; LOW-PRESSURE BOILERS. The use of the small cast-iron supply or feed cistern, to ■foe commonly met with in connection with hot-water apparatus, has not been dwelt upon, as it is not now considered a desirable adjunct ; and it certainly is not, from the one fact that it involves the use of a ball valve. Although numberless ball valves have been designed, yet there is not a thoroughly reliable one made to with- stand a high pressure, with an arm short enough to go into an ordinary size supply cistern. It was commonly the practice to put a supply cistern at the side of the tank in the old system, but the practice has been abolished, as it is found to be quite as cheap and much more satisfactory to carry the expansion above the level of the cold water, and so admit of a direct cold supply. If hot water is not required above the ground or first floor, then it is advisable to use a feed cistern, and so save an unnecessary long length of expansion pipe ; but if this is done be sure and have a good sized feed cistern that win admit of a ^-inch ball valve with ordinary length arm being used, as a short armed ball valve will not with- stand any but light pressures satisfactorily. In districts that have the " constant supply," house cisterns are not generally used, and when a hot water apparatus is fitted a cistern for the cold supply has to be 78 HOT WATER SUPPLY. provided. Let this cistern he of good size (say a 10 to 20 gallon galvanized cistern), whatever system is adopted, and see that a thoroughly reliable ball valve with a long arm is used, otherwise trouble will ensue (in speaking of the arm of a ball valve, the rod which has the ball at the end is alluded to; by lengthening the arm a greater leverage is obtained, and a greater pressure can be with- stood). Whenever a supply cistern is used it must be fitted with an overflow pipe in the event of the valve leaking (as it will do) or the ball sticking dovrn ; this overflow should not be in less than |-inch pipe, and it is unnecessary to add that it must be carried to a sink or through an outer wall, or to some other convenient position where the overflow of water will be quickly noticed, yet not do damage. Never run an overflow into a rain water, or pipe of any sort, as the pipe may be directly connected with the drains, and furthermore no water company will allow it. Low-pressure Boilers. — Boilers that are fitted either at the back or at the side of the kitchen range, and which do not supply water above their own level, are known as low-pressure boilers (no-pressure would be a more correct term). These are as various in shape and form as high - pressure boilers, but those most commonly used in modem ranges are either boot-shaped, which go at the back of the fire (the same as high-pressure boot boilers, but without flues) ; or are square with an open top, very much like a large, supply cistern. These latter are generally situated at the side of the fire opposite to the oven. The boot boilers are heated by the fire coming in contact with the front of the toe. This is found to give quite sufficient heat, and provides abundance of hot water. BALL VALVE CISTERN ; LOW-PEESSUEE BOILERS. 79 When fitting these boilers the supply cistern should he arranged so that the hoiler does not fill by some 3 to 4 inches from the top of the leg, as at Fig. 23, otherwise the furious boiling and the quantity of steam generated will cause water to be ejected from the steam pipe ; the steam pipe should be fitted as explained in Chapter XIV. Fics. 23. The other form of boiler should be filled as nearly as possible quite full, say within one inch of the top ; this will leave quite sufficient space for expansion and boiling. There is a common notion that side boilers should not be filled more than three-fourths fuU. This leaves some 80 HOT WATER SUPPLY. 4 inches empty space at the top, which is a grave error, as it is at the top of the boiler where the greatest heat is Fis. 24. Fig. 25. felt as the flame leaves the fire, and consequently the top of the boiler will in time become burnt and destroyed. It BALL VALVE CISTERN; LOW-PRESSURE BOILERS. 81 is sometimes argued that this amount of space is req[uired for expansion and boiling, but this is wrong, as one inch or an inch and a quarter will be found ample, and the large space is objectionable also, as it lessens the supply of water. The taps of side boilers are always situated near the bottom of the boiler, and this has a seriously ill effect when the boiler is attached to a self-filling apparatus, as the cold supply is brought into the bottom, and con- sequently, when the tap is opened and water drawn the cold water immediately flows in, across the bottom of the boiler and out at the tap, and it will be found that although the boiler is full of hot water, yet not more than a third of it can be drawn, as the cold water flowing in keeps the hot water at the top of the boiler by its greater specific gravity. This trouble is overcome in a boot boiler by connecting the draw-off pipe well up the boiler ; and in side boilers there are two means of overcoming the difficulty ; firstly, by having the tap hole put in a higher position when ordering a new range ; and secondly, in an existing range, by putting an elbow and short piece of pipe on the tap inside the boiler, so as to draw from the top of the water, as at Fig. 24. This piece of pipe must not be carried up too high, as it must be remembered that the ball valve is probably only f-ia., whereas the tap may be |-in. Therefore allowance must be made for the outflow being greater than the supply. If the upright piece of pipe is made to come up to about four inches below the water level it will work very satisfactorily. The method of connecting a self-filling apparatus to a side boiler is shown at Fig. 25. All pipes in connection with boot boilers should not be of less than 1 in. internal diameter, as these boilers cause the water to boil very furiously, and a considerable quantity of fur is deposited with hard water which quickly stop» 82 HOT WATER SUPPLY. ^-in. pipes. Pipes that are carried behind ranges should never be lead, always iron. In conclusion, it should be said that hot water work of any and every description should be executed carefully and well, and should not on any account be carried out hurriedly, as any little omissiou is apt to ruin the whole undertaking. tOFDON; PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIM1TFI\ STAMFORD STREET AKD CHARING CROSS, 1896. BOOKS RELATING TO Applied Science PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. LONDON: 12s STRAND. NEW YORK : 12 CORTLANDT STREET. Algebra, — Algebra Self-Taught By W. P. Higgs, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., Assoc. Inst C.E., Author of * A Handbook of the Differential Calculus,' etc. Second edition, crown 8vo, cloth, zs. 6d. 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With 177 illustrations drawn to scale, crown 8vo, cloth, y. 6d. Electric Bells. — A Practical Treatise on the fitting up and maintenance of Electric Bells and all the necessary apparatus. By F. C. Allsop, Author of ' Telephones, their Construction and Fitting. ' Second edition, revised, nearly 150 illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, 3^. td. Electric Currents. — Polyphase Electric Currents and Alternate Ctirrent Motors. By SiLVANUS P. THOMPSON, B.A., D.Sc, M. Inst. E.E., F.K.S. Numerous cu's and plates, demy 8vo, cloth, izs. 6d. CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Electric Lighting. — Wrinkles in Electric Lighting. By Vincent Stephen. With illustrations. i8mo, cloth, 2s. td. CONTENTS ! I. The Electric Current and its production by Chemical means — 2. Production of Electric Currents by Mechanical means — 3, Dynamo-Electric Machines — 4. Electric Lamps — 5 Lead — 6. Ship Lighting. Electric Telegraph. — Telegraphic Connections, embracing recent methods in Quadruplex Telegraphy. By CHARLES Thom and Willis H. Jone.s. With illustrations. Oblong 8vo, cloth, Is. dd. Electric Testing. — A Guide for the Electric Test- ing of Telegraph Cables. By Col. V. HoSKiCER, Royal Danish Engineers. Third edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 4^. td. Electric Toys. — Electric Toys. Electric Toy- Making, Dynamo Building and Electric Motor Construction for Amateurs. By T. O'Conor Sloane, Ph.D. With cuts, crown 8vo, cloth, 4J-. dd. Electrical Notes. — Practical Electrical Notes and Definitions for the use of Engineering Students and Practical Men, By W. Perren Maycock, Assoc. M. Inst. E.E., Instructor in Electrical Engineering at the Pitlake Institute, Croydon, together with the Rules and Regulations to be observed in Electrical Installation Work. Second edition. Royal 32mo, cloth, red edges, 2s. Electrical Tables. — Electrical Tables and Memo- randa. By SiLVANUs P. Thompson, D.Sc, B.A., F.R.S., and Eustace Thomas. In waistcoat-pocket size (2\ in. by if in.), French morocco, gilt edges, with mtmerotis illustrations, Is. Electrical Testing. — A Handbook of Electrical Testing. By H. R. Kempe, M.I.E.E. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged, 8vo, cloth, lis. Electrical Testing. — A Practical Guide to the Testing of htsulated Wires and Cables. By Herbert Laws Webb, Member of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, and of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London. Crown 8vo, cloth, /[s. 6d. Electricity. — The Arithmetic of Electricity: a Manual of Electrical Calculations by Electrical Methods. By T. O'Conor Sloane. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4j. dd. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N, SPON. !E^lectricity. — Short Lectures to Electrical Artisans, being a Course of Experimental Lectures delivered to a, practical audience. By J. A. Fleming, M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), Professor of Elec- trical Technology in University College, London. With diagrams, fourth edition, crown 8vo, cloth, i^. Electricity. — Electricity, its Theory, Sources, and Applications. By John T. Sprague, M.Inst. E.E. Third edition, thoroughly revised and extended, with numerous illustrations and tables, crown 8vo, cloth, 15^. Electricity. — Transformers : their Theory, Con- struction, and Application Simplified. By C. D. Haskins, Assoc. Mem. American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Illustrated, crown 8vo, cloth, 4r. (>d. Electricity in the House. — Domestic Electricity for Amateurs. Translated from the French of E. Hospitalier, Editor of 'L'Electricien,' by C. J. Wharton, M. Inst. E.E. Numerous illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth, ds. CONTENTS : I. Production of the Electric Current— 2. Electric Bells — 3. Automatic Alarms — 4. Domestic Telephones — 5. Electric Clocks — 6. Electric Lighters — 7. Domestic Electric Lighting — 8. Domestic Application of the Electric Light — 9. Electric Motors— 10. Electrical Locomo- tion — II. Electrotyping, Plating, and Gilding — 12. Electric Recreations — 13. Various appli- cations — ^Workshop of the Electrician. Electro-Magnet.- The Electro- Magnet and Electro- magnetic Mechanism. By Silvanus P. Thompson, D.Sc, F.R.S. With 213 illustrations. Second edition, 8vo, cloth, \^s. Electro-Motors. — Notes on design of Small Dy namo. By Geo. Halliday, Whitworth Scholar, Professor of Engineer- ing at the Hartley Institute, Southampton. Plates, 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. Electro-Motors. — The practical management of Dynamos and Motors. By Francis B. Crocker, Professor of Electrical Engineering, Columbia College, New York, and Schuyler S. Wheeler, D.Sc. Cuts, crown 8vo, cloth, 4J-. dd. Engineering Drawing. — Practical Geometry, Perspective and Engineering Drawing ; a Course of Descriptive Geometry adapted to the Requirements of the Engineering Draughtsman, including the determination of cast shadows and Isometric Projection, each chapter being followed by numerous examples ; to which are added rules for Shading, Shade-lining, etc., together with practical instructions as to the Lining, Colouring, Printing, and general treatment of Engineering Draw- ings, with a chapter on drawing Instruments. By George S. Clarke, Capt. R.E. Second edition, with 21 plates. 2 vols., cloth, \os. dd. CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Engineers' Tables. — A Pocket-Book of Useful Formula anri Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers, By Sir Guilford L. Molesworth, Mem. Inst. C.E., and R. B. Molesworth. With numerous illustrations, 782 pp. Twenty-third edition, 32mo, roan, bs. synopsis of contents: Surveying, Levelling, etc. — Strength and Weight of Materials — Earthwork, Brickwork, Masonry, Arches, etc. — Struts, Columns, Beams, and Trusses — Flooring, Roofing, and Roof Trusses — Girders, Bridges, etc. — Railways and Roads — Hydraulic Formulae — Canals, Sewers, Waterworks, Docks — Irrigation and Breakwaters — Gas, Ventilation, and Warming — Heat, Light, Colour, and Sound — Gravity ; Centres, Forces, and Powers — Millwork, Teeth of Wheels, Shafting, etc. — Workshop Recipes — Sundry Machinery — Animal Power — Steam and the Steam Engine — Water-power, Water-wheels, Turbines, etc. — Wind and Windmills — Steam Navigation, Ship Building, Tonnage, etc. — Gunnery, Projectiles, etc. — Weights, Measures, and Money — Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and Curves — ^Telegraphy — Mensura- tion—Tables of Areas and Circumference, and Arcs of Circle.s — Logarithms, Square and Cube Roots, Powers — Reciprocals, etc. — Useful Numbers — DifferentiaJ and Integral Calcu- lus — Algebraic Signs — Telegraphic Construction and Formulae. Engineers' Tables.' — Spans Tables and Memo- randa for Engineers. By J. T. Hurst, C.E. Twelfth edition, revised and considerably enlarged, in waistcoat-pocket size (2| in. by 2 in.), -roan, gilt edges, \s. Experimental Science. — Experimental Science: Elementary, Practical, and Experimental Physics. By Geo. M. Hopkins. Illustrated by 890 engravings. 840 pp., 8vo, cloth, liis. Factories. — Our Factories, Workshops, and Ware- houses: their Sanitary and Fire-Resisting Arrangements. By B. H. Thwaite, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E. With 183 wood engravings, crown 8vo, cloth, gj. Fermentation. — Practical Studies in Fermentation, being contributions to the Life History of Micro-Organisms. By Emil Ch. Hansen, Ph.D. Translated by Alex. K. Miller, Ph.D., Manchester, and revised by the Author. With mimerovs illustrations, 8vo, cloth, I2J-. (>d. Foundations. — Notes on Cylinder Bridge Piers and the Well System of Foundations. By John Newman, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 8vo, cloth, ds. Founding. — A Practical Treatise on Casting and Founding, including descriptions of the modern machinery employed in the art. By N. E. Spretson, Engineer. Fifth edition, with 82 plates drawn to scale, 412 pp., demy 8vo, cloth, i8j. French Polishing. — The French - Polisher s Manual. By a French-Polisher; containing Timber Staining, Washing, Matching, Improving, Painting, Imitations, Directions for Staining, Sizing, Embodying, Smoothing, Spirit Varnishing, French-Polishing, Directions for Repolishing. Third edition, royal 32mo, sewed, dd. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. Furnaces. — Practical Hints on the Working and Construction of Rfgenerator Furnaces, being an Explanatory Treatise on the System of Gaseous Firing applicable to Retort Settings in Gas Works. By Maurice Graham, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E. Cuts, 8vo, cloth, 3^. Gas Analysis. — The Gas Engineers' Laboratory Handbook. By John Hornby, F.I.C, Honours Medallist in Gas Manipulation, City and Guilds of London Institute. Numerous illus- trations, crown 8vo, cloth, 6j. CONTENTS : The Balance — ^Weights and Weighing — Sampling— Mechanical Division — Drying and Desiccation — Sohition and Evaporation — Precipitation — Filtration and Treatment ot Precipitates — Simple Gravimetric Estimations — Volumetric Analyses — Special Analyses required by Gas World. contents : Steam Boilers — Prime Movers— Wind Motors and Ar Engines— Water Motors — Transmission of Power — Hoisting Machinery— Transport — Machine and Hand Tools- Wood Machinery — Pipe Worlc — Presses — Printing — Repairing Shops and Tools — Laundries. Magneto Hand Telephone. — The Magneto Hand Telephone. Its construction, fitting-up, and adaptability to every- day use. By Norman Hughes. Cuts, i2mo, cloth, 3j-. td. Mechanical Engineering. — Handbook for Me- chanical Engineers. By Henry Adams, Professor of Engineering at the City of London College, Mem. Inst. C.E., Mem. Inst. M.E., &c. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth, ds. contents : Fundamental Principles of Mechanics — Varieties and Properties of Materials — Strength of Materials and Structures — Pattern Making — Moulding and Founding— Forging, Welding and Riveting — Workshop Tools and General Machinery — Transmission of Power, Friction and Lubrication — Thermodynamics and Steam — Steam Boilers — The Steam Engine — Hy- draulic Machinery — Electrical Engineering — Sundry Notes and Tables. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 13 Mechanical Engineering. — The Mechanician : a Treatise on the Construction and Manipulation of Tools, for the use and instniction of Young Engineers and Scientific Amateurs, comprising the Arts of Blacksmithing and Forging ; the Construction and Manufacture of Hand Tools, and the various Methods of Using and Grinding them ; description of Hand and Machine Processes ; Turning and Screw Cutting. By Cameron Knight, Engineer. Containing 1147 illustrations, and 397 pages of letter-press. Fourth edition, 4to, cloth, l&f. Mechanical Movements.— Z'-^g Engineers S ketch- Book of Mechanical Movements, Devices, Appliances, Contrivances, Details employed in the Design and Construction of Machinery for ervery purpose. Collected from numerous Sources and from Actual Work. Classified and Arranged for Reference. Nearly 2000 Illustrations. By T. W. Barber, Engineer. Second edition, 8vo, cloth, ^s. 6d. Metal Plate Work.— ^^/a/ Plaie Work: its Patterns and their Geometry. Also Notes on Metals and Rules in Men- suration for the use of Tin, Iron, and Zinc Plate-workers, Coppersmiths, Boiler-makers and Plumbers. By C. T. MILLIS, M.I.M.E. Second edition, considerably enlarged. With numerous illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth, 9J. Metrical Tables.— Ifg^nW Tables. By Sir G. L. MoLESWORTH, M.I.C.E. 32mo, cloth, is. 6d. Mill-Gearing. — A Practical Treatise on Mill- Gear- ing, Wheels, Shafts, Riggers, etc. ; for the use of Engineers. By Thomas Box. Third edition, with 11 plates. Crown 8vo, cloth, ^s. 6d. Mill - Gearing. — The Practical Millwright and Engineer'' s Ready Reckoner; or Tables for finding the diameter and power of cog-wheels, diameter, weight, and power of shafts, diameter and strength of bolts, etc. By Thomas Dixon. Fourth edition, i2mo, cloth, 3/. Miners' Pocket-Book. — Miners' Pocket-Book ; a Reference Book for Miners, Mine Surveyors, Geologists, Mineralogists, Millmen, Assayers, Metallurgists, and Metal Merchants all over the world. ' By C. G. Warnford Lock, author of ' Practical Gold Mining,' ' Mining and Ore-Dressing Machinery,' &c. Second edition, fcap. 8vo, roan, gilt edges, \2s. 6d. contents : Motive Power — Dams and Reservoirs — Transmitting Power — Weiglits and Measures — Prospecting — Boring — Drilling— Blasting — Explosives — Shaft Sinking — Pumping— Venti- lating— Lighting— Coal Cutting — Hauling and Hoisting — Water Softening — Stamp Batteries —Crushing Rolls— Jordan's Centrifugal Process— River Mining— Ore Dressing— Gold, Silver, Copper Smelting— Treatment of Ores— Coal Cleaning — Mine Surveying — British Rocks — Geological Maps — Mineral Veins — Mining Methods — Coal Seams — Minerals — Precious; Stones— Metals and Metallic Ores— Metalliferous Minerals— Assaying— Glossary— List oi Useful Books— Index, &c., &c., &c. 14 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Mining and Ore-Dressing Machinery. — By C. G. Warnford Lock, Author of ' Practical Gold Mining.' Numei-ous illustrations, super-royal 4to, cloth, 25^-. Mining. — Economic Mining; a Practical Hand- book for the Miner, the Metallurgist, and the Merchant. By C. G. Warnford Lock, Mem. Inst, of Mining and Metallurgy, Author of 'Practical Gold Mining.' With ilhistralions, 8vo, cloth, 2\s, Municipal Engineering. — The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's Handbook. By H. Percy Boulnois, Mem. Inst. C.E., Borough Engineer, Portsmouth. With numerous illitstrations. Second edition, demy 8vo, cloth, ijj. contents : The Appointment and Duties of the Town Surveyor — Traffic — Macadamised Roadways-^ Steam Rolling— Road Metal and Breaking — Pitched Pavements — Asphalte — Wood Pavements — Footpaths — Kerbs and Gutters— Street Naming and Numbering— Street Lighting — Sewer- age—Ventilation of Sewers — Disposal of Sewage — House Drainage — Disinfection — Gas and Water Companies, etc., Breaking up Streets — Improvement of Private Streets — Borrowing Powers^Artizans' and Labourers' Dwellings — Public Conveniences — Scavenging, including Street Cleansing — Watering and the Removing of Snow — Planting Street Trees — Deposit of Plans — Dangerous Buildings — Hoardings — Obstructions — Improving Street Lines — Cellar Openings — Public Pleasure Grounds — Cemeteries — Mortuaries — Cattle and Ordinary Markets —Public Slaughter-houses, etc. — Giving numerous Forms of Notices, Specifications,, and General Information upon these and other subjects of great importance to Municipal Engi- neers and others engaged in Sanitary Work. Paints. — Pigments, Paint and Painting. A Practical Book for Practical Men. By George Terry. With illus- trations, crown 8vo, cloth, 'js. 6d. Paper Manufacture. — A Text-Book of Paper- Making. By C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan. With engravings, crown 8vo, cioth, I2J-. (id. Perfumery. — Perfumes and their Preparation, containing complete directions for making Handkerchief Perfumes, Smelling Salts, Sachets, Fumigating Pastils, Preparations for the care of the Skin, the Mouth, the Hair, and other Toilet articles, with a detailed description of aromatic substances, their nature, tests of purity, and wholesale manufacture. By G. W. Askinson, Dr. Chem. With 32 engra'o'ings, 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d. Perspective. — Perspective, Explained and Illus- trated. By G. S. Clarke, Capt. R.E. With illustrations, Svo, cloth, 3J-. 6d. Phonograph. — The Phonograph, and How to Con- struct it. With a Chapter on Sound. By W. GiLLETT. With engravings and full working drawings, crown Svo, cloth, 5.f. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 15 Popular Engineering. — Popular Engineering, bdng interesting and instructive examples in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Chemical, Mining, Military and Naval Engineering, graphically and plainly described, and specially written for those about to enter the Engineering Profession and the Scientific Amateur, with chapters on Perpetual Motion and Engineering Schools and Colleges. By F. Dye. Wiih 700 illustrations, crown 4to, cloth, ']s. 6d, Plumbing. — Plumbing, Drainage, Water Supply and Hot Water Fitting. By John Smeaton, C.E., M.S. A., R.P., Examiner to the Worshipful Plumbers' Company. Numerous engravings, 8vo, cloth, "js. 6d. Pumping Engines. — Practical Handbook on Direct-acting Pumping Engine and Steam Pump Construction, By Philip R. Bjorling. With 20 plates, crown 8vo, cloth, ^s. Pumps. — A Practical Handbook on Pump Con- struction. By Philip R. Bjorling. Plates, crown 8vo, cloth, 5^. CONTENTS : Principle of the action of a Pump — Classification of Pumps — Description of various classes of Pumps — Remarks on designing Pumps— Materials Pumps should be made of for different kinds of Liquids — Description of various classes of Pump-valves — Materials Pump- valves should be made of for different kinds of Liquids — Various Classes of Pump-buckets — On designing Pump-buckets — Various Classes of Pump-pistons — Cup-leathers — Air-vessels — Rules and Formulas, &c., &c. Pumps. — Pump Details. With 278 illustrations. By Philip R. Bjorling, author of a Practical Handbook on Pump Construction. Crown Svo, cloth, 7^. td. CONTENTS : Windbores — Foot- valves and Strainers — Clack-pieces, Bucket-door-pieces, and H -pieces Working-barrels and Plunger-cases — Plungers or Rams — Piston and Plunger, Bucket and Plunger, Buckets and Valves — Pump-rods and Spears, Spear-rod Guides, &c. — Valve-swords, Spindles, and Draw-hooks — Set-offs or Oif-sets — Pipes, Pipe-joints, and Pipe-stays— Pump- slings— Guide-rods and Guides, Kites, Yokes, and Connecting-rods— L Bobs, T Bobs, -Angle or V Bobs, and Balance-beams, Rock-arms, and Fend-off Beams, Cisterns, and Tanks — Minor Details. Pumps. — Pumps and Pumping Machinery. By F. CoLYER, Mem. Inst. C.E., Mem. Inst. M.E. Part I., second edition, revised and enlarged, with 50 plates, Svo, cloth, I/. 8j. CONTENTS : Three-throw Lift and Well Pumps— Tonkin's Patent "Cornish" Steam Pump — Thome- will and Warham's Steam Pump— Water Valves — Water Meters— Centrifugal Pumping Machinery — Airy and Anderson's Spiral Pumps — Blowing Engines — ^Air Compressors — Horizontal High-pressure Engines — Horizontal Compound Ermines — Reidler Engine — Ver- tical Cofnpound Pumping Engines — Compound Beam Pumping Engines — Shonheyder's Patent Regulator— Cornish Beam Engines— Worthington High-duty Pumping Engine- Davy's Patent Differential Pumping Engine— Tonkin's Patent Pumping Engine— Lancashire Boiler— Babcock and Wilcox Water-tube Boilers. 1 6 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Pumps. — Pumps, Historically, Theoretically, and Practically Considered. By P. R. BjoRLlNG. With 156 illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7j. dd. Quantities. — A Complete Set of Contract Documents for a Country Lodge, comprising Drawings, Specifications, Dimensions (for quantities), Abstracts, Bill of Quantities, Form of Tender and Con- tract, with Notes by J. Leaning, printed in facsimile of the original documents, on single sheets fcap., in linen case, 5j-. Quantity Surveying. — Qtcantity Surveying, By J. Leaning. With 42 illustrations. Second edition, revised, crown 8vo, cloth, 9^. CONTENTS : Schedule of Prices. Form of Schedule of Prices. Analysis of Schedule of Prices. Adjustment of Accounts. A complete Explanation of the London Practice. General Instructions. Order of Taking Off. Modes of Measurement of the various Trades. 1 Form of a Bill of Variations. Use and Waste. ' Remarks on Specifications. Ventilation and Warming. " ' Credits, with various Examples of Treatment. Abbreviations. Squaring the Dimensions. Abstracting, with Examples in illustration of each Trade. Billing. Examples of Preambles to each Trade. Form for a Bill of Quantities. Do. Bill of Credits. Do. Bill for Alternative Estimate. Restorations and Repairs, and Form of Bill. Variations before Acceptance of Tender. Errors in a Builder's Estimate. Prices and Valuation of Work, with Examples and Remarks upon each Trade. The Law as it affects Quantity Surveyors, with Law Reports. Taking Off after the Old Method. Northern Practice. The General Statement of the Methods recommended by the Manchester Society of Architects for taking Quantities. Examples of Collections. Examples of " Taking Off" in each Trade. Remarks on the Past and Present Methods of Estimating. Railway Curves. — Tables for Setting out Curves for Railways, Canals, Roads, etc., varying from a radius of five chains to three miles. By A. Kennedy and R. W. Hackwood. Illustrated, 32mo, cloth, 2S. (>d. Roads. — The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads. By T. CODRINGTON, M.I.C.E., F.G.S., General Superintendent of County Roads for South Wales. Second edition, 8vo, cloth, 'js. 6d. Scamping Tricks. — Scamping Tricks and Odd Knowledge occasionally practised upon Public Works, chronicled from the confessions of some old Practitioners. By John Newman, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., author of ' Earthwork Slips and Subsidences upon Public Works,' ' Notes on Concrete,' &c. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2j. 6d. Screw Cutting. — Turners Handbook on Screw Cutting, Coning, etc., etc., with Tables, Examples, Gauges, and Formula. By Walter Price. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, is. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 17 Screw Cutting. — Screw Cutting Tables for En- gineers and Machinists, giving the values of the different trains of Wheels required to produce Screws of any pitch, calculated by Lord Lindsay. Oblong, cloth, 2J-. Screw Cutting. — Screw Cutting Tables, for the use of Mechanical Engineers, showing the proper arrangement of Wheels for cutting the Threads of Screws of any required pitch, with a Table for making the Universal Gas-pipe Threads and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. Second edition, oblong, cloth, is. Slide Valve. — A Treatise on a Practical Method of Designing Slide- Valve Gears by Simple Geometrical Construction, based upon the principles enunciated in Euclid's Elements, and comprising the various forms of Plain Slide-Valve and Expansion Gearing ; together with Stephenson's, Gooch's, and Allan's Link-Motions, as applied either to reversing or to variable expansion combinations. By Edward J. Cow- ling Welch, Mem. Inst. M.E. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6j. Soap. — A Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap and Candles, Lubricants and Glycerine. By W. Lant Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc. With illustrations, new edition, revised, crown 8vo, iz's. (>d. Stair Building. — Practical Stair Building and Handrailing by the Square Section and Falling Line System. By W. H. Wood. Folding plates, post 410, cloth, los. bd. Steam Boilers. — Steam Boilers, their Manage- ment and Working on land and sea. By James Peattie. With illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, t,s. Steam Engine. — A Practical Treatise on the steam Engine, containing Plans and Arrangements of Details for Fixed Steam Engines, with Essays on the Principles involved in Design and Construction. By Arthur Rigg, Engineer, Member of the Society of Engineers and of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Demy 4to, copiously illustrated with woodcuts and 103 plates, in one Volume. Second edition, cloth, 25X. This work is not, in any sense, an elementary treatise, or history of the steam engine, but is intended to describe examples of Fixed Steam Engines without entering mto the wide domain of locomotive or marine practice. To this end illustrations will be given of the most recent arrangements of Horizontal, Vertical, Beam, Pumpmg, Wmding, Portable, Semi- portable Corliss Allen, Compound, and other similar Engines, by the most eminent Firms m Great Britain and America. The laws relating to the action and precautions to be observed in the construction of the various details, such as Cylinders, Pistons, Piston-rods, Connecting- rods, Cross-heads, Motion-blocks, Eccentrics, Simple, Expansion, Balanced, and Equilibrium Slide-valves, and Valve-gearing will be minutely dealt with. In this connection will be found articles upon the Velocity of Reciprocating Parts and the Mode of Ai)plying the Indicator, Heat and Expansion of Steam Governors, and the like. It is the wnter s desire to draw illustrations from every possible source, and give only those rules that present practice deems correct. B i8 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Steam Engine. — The Steam Engine considered as a Thermodynamic Machine, a treatise on the Thermodynamic efficiency of Steam Engines, illustrated by Tables, Diagrams, and Examples from Practice. By Jas. H. Cotterill, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechaiiics in the Royal Naval College. Third edition, revised and enlarged, 8vo, cloth, 15J. Steam Engine. — Steam Engine Management ; a Treatise on the Working and Management of Steam Boilers. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., Mem. Inst. M.E. New edition, i8mo, cloth, 3J. dd. Steam Engine. — A Treatise on Modern Steam Engines and Boilers, including Land, Locomotive and Marine Engines and Boilers, for the use of Students. By Frederick Colyer, M. Inst. C.E., Mem. Inst. M.E. With ■^d plates. 4to, cloth, \2s. 6d. contents : 1. Introduction — 2. Original Engines — 3. Boilers — 4. High-Pressure Beam Engines — 5. Cornish Beam Engines — 6. Horizontal Engines — 7. Oscillating Engines— 8. Vertical High- Pressure Edgines — 9. Special Engines — 10. Portable Engines — 11. Locomotive Engines^ 12. Marine Engines. Sugar. — A Handbook for Planters and Refiners ; being a comprehensive Treatise on the Culture of Sugar-yielding Plants, and on the Manufacture, Refining, and Analysis of Cane, Palm, Maple, Melon, Beet, Sorghum, Milk, and Starch Sugars ; with copious Statistics of their Production and Commerce, and a chapter on the Distillation of Rum. By C. G. Warnford Lock, F.L.S., &c. ; B. E. R. Newlands, F.C.S., F.I.C, Mem. Council Soc. Chemical Industry; and J. A. R. Newlands, F.C.S., F.I.C. Upwards 0/200 illustrations and many plates, 8vo, cloth, i/. 10s. Surveying. — A Practical Treatise on the Science of Land and Engineering Surveying, Levelling, Estimating Quantities, etc., with a general description of the several Instruments required for Sur- veying, Levelling, Plotting, etc. By H. S. Merrett. Fourth edition, revised by G. W. UsiLL, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E. 41 plates, with illus- trations and tables, royal 8vo, cloth, \2s. 6d, Surveying and Levelling. — Surveying and Levelling Instruments theoretically and practically described, for construc- tion, qualities, selection, preservation, adjustments, and uses, with other apparatus and appliances used by Civil Engineers and Surveyors. By W. F, Stanley, Second edition. 350 cuts, crown 8vo, cloth, is. 6d, PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 19 Tables of Logarithms. — A B C Five-Figure Logarithms for general use. By C. J. Woodward, B.Sc. Containing Mantissae of numbers to 10,000. Log. Sines, Tangents, Cotangents, and Cosines to 10" of Arc. Together with full explanations and simple exercises showing use of the tables. 4^. Tables of Squares. — Barlows Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals of all Integer Numbers up to 10,000. Post 8vo, cloth, ds. Telephones. — Telephones, their Construction ana Fitting. By F. C. Allsop. Second edition, revised and enlarged. With 210 illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth, 5j. Tobacco Cultivation. — Tobacco Growing, Curing, and Manufacturing ; a Handbook for Planters in all parts of the world. Edited by C. G. Warnford Lock, F.L.S. With illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth, Is. 6d. Tropical Agriculture. — Tropical Agriculture: a Treatise on the Culture, Preparation, Commerce and Consumption of the principal Products of the Vegetable Kingdom. By P. L. SiMMONDS, F.L.S., F.R.C.I. New edition, revised and enlarged, 8vo, cloth, 21s. Turning. — The Practice of Hand Turning in Wood, Ivory, Shell, etc., with Instructions for Turning such "Work in Metal as may be required in the Practice of Turning in Wood, Ivory, etc. ; also an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. (A book for beginners.) By Francis Campin. Third edition, with wood engravings, crown 8vo, cloth, y. td. Valve Gears. — Treatise on Valve-Gears, with special consideration of the Link-Motions of Locomotive Engines. By Dr. Gustav Zeuner, Professor of Applied Mechanics at the Confede- rated Polytechnikum of Zurich. Translated from the Fourth German Edition, by Professor J. F. Klein, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth, \2s. 6d. Varnish. — The practical Polish and Varnish-Maker ; a Treatise containing 750 practical Receipts and Formulae for the Manu- facture of Polishes, Lacquers, Varnishes, and Japans of all kinds, for workers in Wood and Metal, and directions for using same. By H. C. Standage (Practical Chemist), author of 'The Artist's Manual of Pigments.' Crown 8vo, cloth, 6j. CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Ventilation. — Health and Comfort in House Build- ing; or, Ventilation with Warm Air by Self-acting Suction Power. With Review of the Mode of Calculating the Draught in Hot-air Flues, and with some Actual Experiments by J. Drysdale, M.D., and J. W. Hayward, M.D. With plates and woodcuts. Third edition, with some New Sections, and the whole carefully revised, 8vo, cloth, "Js. 6d. Warming and Ventilating. — A Practical Treatise upon Warming Buildings by Hot Water, and upon Heat and Heating Appliances in general ; with an inquiry respecting Ventilation, the cause and action of Draughts in Chimneys and Flues, and the laws relating to Combustion. By Charles Hood, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., &c. Re-written by Frederick Dye. 8vo, cloth, i5j-. Watchwork. — Treatise on Watchwork, Past and Present. By the Rev. H. L. Nelthropp, M.A., F.S.A. With 32 illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, 6j. 6^. CONTENTS : Definitions of Words and Terms used in Watchwork — Tools — Time — Historical Sum- mary — On Calculations of the Numbers for Wheels and Pinions : their Proportional Sizes, Trains, etc.— Of Dial Wheels, or Motion Work — Length of Time of Going without Winding up — The Verge — The Horizontal — The Duplex — The Lever — The Chronometer — Repeating Watches— Keyless Watches — The Pendulum, or Spiral Spring — Compensation — Jewelling of Pivot Holes — Clerkenwell — Fallacies of the Trade — Incapacity of Workmen — How to Choose and Use a Watch, etc. "Waterworks. — The Principles of Waterworks Engineering. By J. H. TuDSBERY TURNER, B.Sc, Hunter Medallist of Glasgow University, M. Inst. C.E., and A. W. Brightmore, M.Sc, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E. With illustrations, medium 8vo, cloth, 25J. Well Sinking. — Well Sinking. The modern prac- tice of Sinking and Boring Wells, with geological considerations and examples of Wells. By Ernest Spon, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth, \os, 6d. Wiring. — Incandescent Wiring Hand-Book. By F. B. Badt, late ist Lieut. Royal Prussian Artillery. With 41 illustra- tions and 5 tables. l8mo, cloth, 4^. td. Wood-working Factories. — On the Arrange- ment, Care, and Operation of Wood-working Factories and Machinery, forming a complete Operator's Handbook. By J. Richard, Mechanical Engineer. Second edition, revised, woodcuts, crown 8vo, cloth, '^s. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 8P0N8' DICTIONARY OF ENGINEERING, CrVIL, MECHANICAL, MILITARY, & NAVAL, Technical Terms in French, German, Italian, and Spanish. In 97 numbers, Super-royal 8vo, containing 3132 printed pages and 74^4 engravings. Any number can be had separate : Nos. i to 95 IJ-. each, post free ; Nos. 96, 97, is., post free. Complete List of ALL THE Subjects : Nos. Nos. Abacus .. I Barrage 8 and 9 Adhesion .. .. I Battery . 9 and ID Agricultural Engines I and 2 Bell and Bell-hanging .. 10 Air-Chamber .. 2 Belts and Belting . . . 10 and 1 1 Air- Pump .. 2 Bismuth .. .. II Algebraic Signs . . .. 2 Blast Furnace . II and 12 Alloy .. 2 Blowing Machine .. 12 Aluminium .. 2 Body Plan . 12 and 13 Amalgamating Machine . . .. 2 Boilers ■ 13. 14. 15 Ambulance .. 2 Bond . IS and 16 Anchors .. 2 Bone Mill.. .. 16 Anemometer 2 and 3 Boot-making Machinery . .. 16 Angular Motion . . 3 and 4 Boring and Blasting . 16 to 19 Angle-iron . . ■ • 3 Brake . 1 9 and 20 Angle of Friction . . •• 3 Bread Machine .. 20 Animal Charcoal Machine .. 4 Brewing Apparatus . 20 and 21 Antimony, 4 ; Anvil .. 4 Brick-making Machines . .. 21 Aqueduct, 4 ; Arch .. 4 Bridges . 21 to 28 Archimedean Screw • • 4 Buffer , .. 28 Arming Press 4 and S Cables 28 and 29 Armour, 5 ; Arsenic • • S Cam, 29 ; Canal . . .. 29 Artesian Well .. 5 Candles . 29 and 30 Artillery, S and 6 ; Assaying .. 6 Cement, 30 ; Chimney .. 30 Atomic Weights .. 6 and 7 Coal Cutting and Washing Ma- Auger, 7 ; Axles . . .. 7 chinery . . .. 31 Balance, 7; Ballast .1 •■ 7 Coast Defence 31. 32 Bank Note Machinery . . • • 7 Compasses . . .. 32 Barn Machinery .. 7 and 8 Construction • 32 and 33 Barker's Mill .. 8 Cooler, 34 ; Copper •• 34 Barometer, 8; Barracks .. .. 8 Cork-cutting Machine .• 34 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Nos. Corrosion .. .. 34 and 35 Cotton Machinery • • 35 Damming .. ■ • 35*0 37 Details of Engines •• 37, 38 Displacement .. .. 38 Distilling Apparatus . . 38 and 39 Diving and Diving Bells . . 39 Docks . . . . .. 39 and 40 Drainage .. .. ..40 and 41 Drawbridge .. .. ..41 Dredging Machine .. ..41 Dynamometer .. .. 41 to 43 Electro-Metallurgy .. 43, 44 Engines, Varieties .. 44, 45 Engines, Agricultural . . i and 2 Engines, Marine .. .. 74, 75 Engines, Screw .. .. 89, 90 Engines, Stationary .. 91, 92 Escapement .. .. 45, 46 Fan .. .. .. .. 46 File-cutting Machine , . . . 46 Fire-arms ., .. .. 46, 47 Flax Machinery .. .. 47,48 Float Water-wheels . . . . 48 Forging .. .. .. ..48 Founding and Casting .. 48 to 50 Friction, 50 ; Friction, Angle of 3 Fuel, 50; Furnace .. 50, 51 Fuze, 51 ; Gas .. .. •• 5' Gearing 51, 52 Gearing Belt .. .. 10, 11 Geodesy .. .. ..52 and 53 Glass Machinery .. .. "53 Gold, 53, 54; Governor.. .. 54 Gravity, 54 ; Grindstone . . 54 Gun-carriage, 54 ; Gun Metal . . 54 Gunnery .. .. .. 541056 Gunpowder .. ., ^6 Gun Machinery . 56, 57 Hand Tools . .. 57,58 Hanger, 58; Harbour .. ..58 Haulage, 58, 59 ; Hinging .. 59 Hydraulics and Hydraulic Ma- chinery . . . . . . 59 to 63 Ice-making Machine .. ..63 India-rubber . . , . . . 63 Indicator . . . . ■ • 63 and 64 Injector .. .. . ..64 Iron 64 to 67 Iron Ship Building .. ..67 Irrigation ,. .. .. 67 and 68 Nos. Isomorphism, 68 ; Joints .. 68 Keels and Coal Shipping 68 and 69 Kiln, 69 ; Knitting Machine .. 69 Kyanising .. .. .. ..69 Lamp, Safety .. .. 69, 70 Lead 70 Lilts, Hoists .. .. 70, 71 Lights, Buoys, Beacons .. 71 and 72 Limes, Mortars, and Cements .. 72 Locks and Lock Gates . . 72, 73 Locomotive .. .. •■73 Machine Tools .. .. 73,74 Manganese .. .. ..74 Marine Engine . . . . 74 and 75 Materials of Construction 75 and 76 Measuring and Folding .. ..76 Mechanical Movements .. 76,77 Mercury, 77; Metallurgy .. 77 Meter 77,78 Metric System .. .. ,.78 Mills 78, 79 Molecule, 79 ; Oblique Arch .. 79 Ores, 79,80; Ovens .. ..80 Over-shot Water-wheel .. 80, 81 Paper Machinery . . .. ..81 Permanent Way .. .. 81,82 Piles and Pile-driving . . 82 and 83 Pipes 83, 84 Planimeter .. .. ..84 Pumps . . . . . . 84 and 85 Quarrying .. .. .. ..85 Railway Engineering .. 85 and 86 Retaining Walls . . . . . . 86 Rivers, 86, 87 ; Riveted Joint .. 87 Roads 87,88 Roofs 88, 89 Rope-making Machinery . . 89 Scaffolding .. .. ..89 Screw Engines ., .. 89, 90 Signals, 90; Silver .. 90, 91 Stationary Engine .. 91, 92 Stave-making & Cask Machinery 92 Steel, 92 ; Sugar Mill .. 92, 93 Surveying and Surveying Instru- ments 93. 94 Telegraphy .. .. 94, 95 Testing, 95 ; Turbine . . • • 95 Ventilation .. 95, 96, 97 Waterworks .. .. 96, 97 Wood-v/orking Machinery 96, 97 Zinc .. .. .. 96,97 PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 23 In super-royal 8vo, 1168 pp., wtik 2400 tUustrattonsy in 3 Divisions, cloth, price 13*. 6(/. each ; or 1 vol., cloth> a/. ; or half-morocco, a/. 8j. A SUPPLEMENT TO SPONS' DICTIONARY OF ENGINEERING. Edited by ERNEST SPON, Memb. Soc. Engineers. Abacus, Counters, Speed Indicators, and Slide Rule. Agricultural Implements and Machinery, Air Compressors. Animal Charcoal Ma- chinery. Antimony, Axles and Axle-boxes, Bam Machinery. Belts and Belting. Blasting. Boilers. Brakes. Brick Machinery, Bridges. Cages for Mines. Calculus, Differential and Integral. Canals. Carpentry, Cast Iron, Cement, Concrete, Limes, and Mortar, Chimney Shafts. Coal Cleansing and Washing. Coal Mining. Coal Cutting Machines. Coke Ovens. Copper. Docks. Drainage. Dredging Machinery. Dynamo - Electric and Magneto-Electric Ma- chines. Dynamometers. Electrical Engineering, Telegraphy, Electric Lighting and its prac- tical details,Telephones Engines, Varieties of. Explosives. Fans. Founding, Moulding and the practical work of the Foundry. Gas, Manufacture of. Hammers, Steam and other Powrer. Heat, Horse Power, Hydraulics. Hydro-geology. Indicators. Iron. Lifts, Hoists, and Eleva tors. Lighthouses, Buoys, and Beacons. Machine Tools. Materials of Construc- tion. Meters. Ores, Machinery and Processes employed to Dress. Piers. Pile Driving. Pneumatic Transmis- sion. Pumps. Pyrometers. Road Locomotives. Rock Drills. Rolling Stock. Sanitary Engineering. Shafting. Steel. Steam Navvy. Stone Mathinery. Tramways, WeU Sinking. 24 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. In demy 4to, handsomely bound in cloth, illustrated with ZZO full page plates. Price 15/. ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES IN BRICK, STONE, WOOD, AND IRON. A COMPLETE WOBK ON THE DETAILS AND ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN. By WILLIAM FULLERTON, Architect. Containing 220 Plates, with numerous Drawings selected from the Architecture of Former and Present Times. The Details and Designs are Drawn to Scale, ^", J", J", and Full size being chiefly used. The Plates are arranged in Two Parts. The First Part contains Details of Work in the four principal Building materials, the following being a few of the subjects in this Part : — Various forms of Doors and Windows, Wood and Iron Roofs, Half Timber Work, Porches, Towers, Spires, Belfries, Flying Buttresses, Groining, Carving, Church Fittings, Constructive and Ornamental Iron Work, Classic and Gothic Molds and Ornament, Foliation Natural and Conventional, Stained Glass, Coloured Decoration, a. Section to Scale of the Great Pyramid, Grecian and Roman Work, Continental and English Gothic, Pile Foundations, Chimney Shafts according to the regulations of the London County Council, Board Schools. The Second Part consists of Drawings of Plans and Elevations of Buildings, arranged under the following heads : — Workmen's Cottages and Dwellings, Cottage Resi- dences and Dwelling Houses, Shops, Factories, Warehouses, Schools, Churches and Chapels, Public Buildings, Hotels and Taverns, and Buildings of a general character. All the Plates are accompanied with particulars of the Work, with Explanatory Notes and Dimensions of the various part?. specimen Fages^ reduced from the originals. ArchniKrural Examblu— ArcfiiftcTunil ExoFD^ts — Window* 26 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS With nearly 1500 illustrations, in super-royal 8vo, in S Divisions, cloth. Divisions I to 4, 13^. td. each ; Division 5, l^s. 6d. ; or 2 vols., cloth, jf3 lOi. SPONS' ENCYCLOPEDIA INDUSTRIAL ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. Edited by C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S. Among the more important of the subjects treated of, are the following : — Acids, 207 pp. 220 figs. Alcohol, 23 pp. 16 figs. Alcoholic Liquors, 13 pp. Alkalies, 89 pp. 78 figs. Alloys. Alum. Asphalt. Assaying. Beverages, 89 pp. 29 figs. Blacks. Bleaching Powder, 1 5 pp. Bleaching, 5 1 pp. 48 figs. Candles, 18 pp. 9 figs. Carbon Bisulphide. Celluloid, 9 pp. Cements. Clay. Coal-tar Products, 44 pp. 14 figs. Cocoa, 8 pp. Coffee, 32 pp. 13 figs. Cork, 8 pp. 17 figs. Cotton Manufactures, 62 pp. 57 figs. Drugs, 38 pp. Dyeing and Calico Printing, 28 pp. 9 figs. Dyestuffs, 16 pp. Electro-Metallurgy, 13 pp. Explosives, 22 pp. 33 figs. Feathers. Fibrous Substances, 92 pp. 79 figs. Floor-cloth, 16 pp. 21 figs. Food Preservation, 8 pp. Fruit, 8 pp. Fur, S pp. Gas, Coal, 8 pp. Gems. Glass, 45 pp. 77 figs. Graphite, 7 PP- Hair, 7 PP- Hair Manufactures. Hats, 26 pp. 26 figs. Honey. Hops. Horn. Ice, ID pp. 14 figs. Indiarubber Manufac- tures, 23 pp. 17 figs. Ink, 17 pp. Ivory. Jute Manufactures, 1 1 pp., II figs. Knitted Fabrics — Hosiery, 15 pp. 13 figs. Lace, 13 pp. 9 figs. Leather, 28 pp. 31 figs. Linen Manufactures, 16 pp. 6 figs. Manures, 21 pp. 30 figs. Matches, 17 pp. 38 figs. Mordants, 13 pp. Narcotics, 47 pp. Nuts, 10 pp. Oils and Fatty Sub- stances, 125 pp. Paint. Paper, 26 pp. 23 figs. Paraffin, 8 pp. 6 figs. Pearl and Coral, 8 pp. Perfumes, 10 pp. Photography, 13 pp. 20 figs. Pigments, 9 pp. 6 figs. Pottery, 46 pp. 57 figs. Printing and Engraving, 20 pp. 8 figs. Rags. Resinous and Gummy Substances, 75 pp. 16 figs. Rope, 16 pp. 17 figs. Salt, 31 pp. 23 figs. Silk, 8 pp. Silk Manufactures, 9 pp. 1 1 figs. Skins, S pp. Small Wares, 4 pp. Soap and Glycerine, 39 pp. 45 figs. Spices, 16 pp. Sponge, S pp. Starch, 9 pp. 10 figs. Sugar, ISS pp. 134 figs- Sulphur. Tannin, 18 pp. Tea, 12 pp. Timber, 13 pp. Varnish, 15 pp. Vinegar, 5 pp. Wax, 5 pp. Wool, 2 pp. Woollen Manufactures, 58 pp. 39 figs. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 27 JUST PUBLISHED, SECOND EDITION. Crown Svo, cloth, with illustrations, Ss. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. FIRST SERIES. Synopsis of Contents. Freezing. Fulminates. Furniture Creams, Oils, Polishes, Lacquers, and Pastes. Gilding. Glass Cutting, Cleaning, Frosting, Drilling, Darkening, Bending, Staining, and Paint- ing. Glass Making. Glues. Gold. Graining. Gums. Gun Cotton. Gunpowder. Horn Working. Indiarubber. Japans, Japanning, and kindred processes. Lacquers. Lathing. Lubricants. Marble Working. Matches. Mortars. Nitro-Glycerine. Oils. Bookbinding. Bronzes and Bronzing. Candles. Cement. Cleaning. Colourwashing. Concretes. Dipping Acids. Drawing Office Details. Drying Oils. Dynamite. Electro - Metallurgy — (Cleaning, Dipping, Scratch-Srushing, Bat- teries, Baths, and Deposits of every description). Enamels. Engraving on Wood, Copper, Gold, Silver, Steel, and Stone. Etching and Aqua Tint. Firework Making — (Rockets, Stars, Rains, Gerbes, Jets, Tour- bUlons, Candles, Fires, LanceSjLights, Wheels, Fire-balloons, and minor Fireworks). Fluxes. Foundry Mixtures. Besides Receipts relating to the lesser Technological matters and processes, such as the manufacture and use of Stencil Plates, Blacking, Crayons, Paste, Putty, Wax, Size, Alloys, Catgut, Tunbridge Ware, Picture Frame and Architectural Mouldings, Compos, Cameos, and others too numerous to mention. Paper. Paper Hanging. Paintingin Oils, in Water Colours, as well as Fresco, House, Trans- parency, Sign, and Carriage Painting. Photography. Plastering. Polishes. Pottery — (Clays, Bodies, Glazes, Colours, Oils, Stains, Fluxes, Ena- mels, and Lustres). Scouring. Silvering. Soap. Solders. Tanning. Taxidermy. Tempering Metals. Treating Horn, Mother- o'-pearl, and like sub- stances. Varnishes, Manufacture and Use of. Veneering. Washing. Waterproofing. Welding. 28 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Crown 8vo, cloth, 485 pages, with illustrations, Jj. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. SECOND SERIES. Synopsis of Contents, Acidimetry and Alkali- metry. Albumen. Alcohol. Alkaloids. Baking-powders. Bitters. Bleaching. Boiler Incrustations. Cements and Lutes. Cleansing, Confectionery. Copying. Disinfectants. Dyeing, Staining, and Colouring. Essences. Extracts. Fireproofing. Gelatine, Glue, and Size. Glycerine. Gut. Hydrogen peroxide. Ink. Iodine. Iodoform. Isinglass. Ivory substitutes. Leather. Luminous bodies. Magnesia. Matches. Paper. Parchment. Perchloric acid. Potassium oxalate. Preserving. Pigments, Paint, and Painting : embracing the preparation of Pigments, including alumina lakes, blacks (animal, bone, Frankfort, ivory, lamp, sight, soot), blues (antimony, Antwerp, cobalt, cseruleum, Egyptian, manganate, Paris, Peligot, Prussian, smalt, ultramarine), browns (bistre, hinau, sepia, sienna, umber, Vandyke), greens (baryta, Brighton, Brunswick, chrome, cobalt, Douglas, emerald, manganese, mitis, mountain, Prussian, sap, Scheele's, Schweinfurth, titanium, verdigris, zinc), reds (Brazilwood lake, carminated lake, carmine, Cassius purple, cobalt pink, cochineal lake, colco- thar, Indian red, madder lake, red chalk, red lead, vermilion), whites (alum, baryta, Chinese, lead sulphate, white lead — by American, Dutch, French, German, Kremnitz, and Pattinson processes, precautions in making, and composition of commercial samples — whiting, Wilkinson's white, zinc white), yellows (chrome, gamboge, Naples, orpiment, realgar, yellow lakes) ; Faint (vehicles, testing oils, driers, grinding, storing, applying, priming, drying, filling, coats, brushes, surface, water-colours, removing smell, discoloration ; miscellaneous paints — cement paint for carton-pierre, copper paint, gold paint, iron paint, lime paints, silicated paints, steatite paint, transparent paints, tungsten paints, window paint, zinc paints) ; Painting (general instructions, proportions of ingredients, measuring paint work ; carriage painting — priming paint, best putty, finishing colour, cause of cracking, mixing the paints, oils, driers, and colours, varnishing, importance of washing vehicles, re-vamishing, how to dry paint ; woodwork painting). 29 PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. Crown 8vo, cloth, 480 pages, with 183 illustrations, S^. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. THIRD SERIES. Uniform -witli the First and Second Series. Synopsis of Contents. Alloys. Iridium. Rubidium. Aluminium. Iron and Steel. Ruthenium Antimony. Lacquers and Lacquering, Selenium. Barium. Lanthanum. Silver. Beryllium. Lead. Slag. Bismuth. Lithium. Sodium. Cadmium. Lubricants. Strontium. Caesium. Magnesium. Tantalum. Calcium. Manganese. Terbium. Cerium. Mercury. Thallium. Chromium. Mica. Thorium. Cobalt. Molybdenum. Tin. Copper. Nickel. Titanium. Didymium. Niobium. Tungsten. Enamels and Glazes. Osmium. Uraniumi Erbium. Palladium. Vanadium. Gallium. Platinum. Yttrium. Glass. Potassium. Zinc. Gold. Rhodium. Zirconium. Indium. Electrics. — Alarms, Bells, Batteries. Carbons, Coils, Dynamos, Micro- phoiles. Measuring, Phonographs, Telephones, &c., 130 pp., 112 illustrations. 30 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. FOURTH SERIES, DEVOTED MAINLY TO HANDICRAFTS & MECHANICAL SUBJECTS. 250 lUustrationB, with Complete Index, and a General Index to the Fonr Series, 5s, Waterproofing — rubber goods, cuprammonium processes, miscellaneous preparations. Packing and Storing articles of delicate odour or colour, of a deliquescent character, liable to ignition, apt to suffer from insects or damp, or easily broken. Embalming and Preserving anatomical specimens. Leather Polishes: Cooling Air and Water, producing low temperatures, making ice, cooling syrups and solutions, and separating salts from liquors by refrigeration. Pumps and Siphons, embracing every useful contrivance for raising and supolying water on a moderate scale, and moving corrosive, tenacious, and other liquids. Desiccating — air- and water-ovens, and other appliances for drying natural and artificial products. Distilling — water, tinctures, extracts, pharmaceutical preparations, essences, perfumes, and alcoholic liquids. Emulsifying as required by pharmacists and photographers. Evaporating — saline and other solutions, and liquids demanding special precautions. Filtering — water, and solutions of various kinds. Percolating and Macerating. Electrotyping. Stereotyping by both plaster and paper processes. Bookbinding in all its details. Straw Plaiting and the fabrication of baskets, matting, etc Musical Instruments — the preservation, tuning, and repair of pianos, harmoniums, musical boxes, etc. Clock and Watch Mending — adapted for intelligent amateurs. Photography — recent development in rapid processes, handy apparatus, numerous recipes for sensitizing and developing solutions, and applica- tions to modem illustrative purposes. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 31 Crown 8va, cloth, with 373 illustrations, price ^s. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, FIFTH SERIES. Containing many new Articles, as well as additions to Articles included in the previous Series, as follows, viz. : — Anemometers. Barometers, How to make. Boat Building, Camera Lucida, How to use. Cements and Lutes. Cooling. Copying. Corrosion and Protection of Metal Surfaces. Dendrometer, How to use. Desiccating. Diamond Cutting and Polishing. Elec- trics. New Chemical Batteries, Bells, Commutators, Galvanometers, Cost of Electric Lighting, Microphones, Simple Motors, Phonogram and Graphophone, Registering Appa- ratus, Regulators, Electric Welding and Apparatus, Transformers. Evaporating. Explosives. Filtering. Fireproofing, Buildings, Textile Fa- brics. Fire-extinguishing Compounds and Apparatus. Glass Manipulating. Drilling, Cut- ting, Breaking, Etching, Frpsting, Powdering, &c. Glass Manipulations for Laboratory Apparatus. Labels. Lacquers. Illuminating Agents. Inks. Writing, Copying, Invisible, Marking, Stamping. Magic Lanterns, their management and preparation of slides. Metal Work. Casting Ornamental Metal Work, Copper Welding, Enamels for Iron and other Metals, Gold Beating, Smiths' Work. Modelling and Plaster Casting. Netting. Packing and Storing. Acids, &c. Percolation. Preserving Books. Preserving Food, Plants, &c. Pumps and Syphons for various liquids. Repairing Books. Rope Tackle. Stereotyping. Taps, Various. Tobacco Pipe Manufacture. Tying and Splicing Ropes. Velocipedes, Repairing. Walking Sticks. ! Waterproofing. 32 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. In demy 8vo, cloth, 600 pages and 1420 illustrations, 6s. SPONS' MECHANICS' OWN BOOK; A MANUAL FOR HANDICRAFTSMEN AND AMATEURS. Contents. Mechanical Drawing — Casting and Founding in Iron, Brass, Bronze, and other Alloys — Forging and Finishing Iron — Sheetmetal Working — Soldering, Brazing, and Burning — Carpentry and Joinery, embracing descriptions of some 400 Woods, over 200 Illustrations of Tools and their uses. Explanations (with Diagrams) of 116 joints and hinges, and Details of Construction of Workshop appliances, rough furniture. Garden and Yard Erections, and House Building — Cabinet-Making and Veneering — Carving and Fretcutting — Upholstery — Painting, Graining, and Marbling — Staining Furniture, Woods, Floors, and Fittings — Gilding, dead and bright, on various grounds — Polishing Marble, Metals, and Wood — Varnishing — Mechanical movements, illustrating contrivances for transmitting motion — Turning in Wood and Metals — Masonry, embracing Stonework, Brickwork, Terracotta and Concrete — Roofing with Thatch, Tiles, Slates, Felt, Zinc, &c. — Glazing with and without putty, and lead glazing — Plastering and Whitewashing — Paper-hanging — Gas-fitting — Bell-hanging, ordinary and electric Systems — Lighting — Warming — Ventilating — Roads, Pavements, and Bridges — Hedges, Ditches, and Drains — Water Supply and Sanitation— Hints on House Construction suited to new countries. E. «& P. N. SPON, 125 Strand, London. New York : 12 Cortlandt Street. 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