451 W41 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 073 36 859 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924073136859 Wisconsin geological and natural history purvey. B. A. BIRQB, Ph. D. Sc.D. Director. I — — ' ' — — — . — — BULLETIN NO. XL ECONOMIC SERIES NO. 7. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE Soils and Agricultural Conditions OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. BY SamueCi Weidman, Pbt. D. Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. MADISON, WIS. Published by the State. 1903. mieconsin ©eologfcal an& matural jbistocis Survey. BOARD OF ■ COMMISSIONERS. BOBEET M. LiAFoLLBTTE, Governor of the State. Chaelbs R. Van Hisb, President, President of the University of Wisconsin. Chaelbs p. Caet, Vice-President, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Calveet Spenslett, President of the Commissioners of Fisheries. John J. Davis, Secretary, President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, STAFF OF THE SURVEY. E. A. BiEGE, Director of the Survey. S. Weidman, Geologist. Survey of Central and Northern Wisconsin. U. S. Geant, Geolosrist. Survey of Southwestern Wisconsin. N. M. Fbnnbman, Geologist. Physical Geography of Lake Kegion. C. D. Maesh, Biologist. Biology of Lakes. L. S. Smith, Civil Engineer. Survey of Lakes and Rivers. W. D. Smith, Field Assistant. E. T. Hancock, Field Assistant. Consultlns Geolosrist. T. C. Chambeelin, Pleistocene Geology. £B TABLE OF CONTENTS. . Page Table op Contents iii Illusteations V Introduction vii Chapter I Location and General Topogbaphic and Geologic Features 1-12 Location and extent 1 Topography 1 Slope and general features 1 Hills 2 Elvers and valleys 2 Lakes and swamps 3 Geology 4 Crystalline rocks , 4 Potsdam sandstone 5 Glacial drift 5 Alluvial deposits 6 Absence of limestone 7 Rock and mineral supplies 7 Water supply 8 Ground water 8 Changes in ground water level 8 Character of the well water 8 Wells in the alluvial sand and gravel 9 Wells in the glacial drift 9 Wells in the Potsdam sandstone 9 Wells in the crystalline rock 9 Absence of artesian wells 11 Water powers 12 iv CONTENTS. Page, Chaptkk II. Gbneral Character and Origin of Soil and De- scriptions av THE Soil Formations 13-48 Origin of soil 13 Surface soil and subsoil 15 Basis of classification 15 Chemical composition of tie soil 16 Wisconsin River sandy soil 17-20 Bancroft gravelly sandy loam 20-22 Antigo gravelly loam 22-24 Amherst sandy loam 25-28 Chelsea clay loam 28-30 Cary sandy loam 30-32 Mentor loamy sand 32-33 Kennan clay loam 33-35 Harrison sandy gravelly soil 35-36 Colby loamy clay 36-39 Marathon loam 39-43 Mosinee gravelly soil 43-44 Ackley gravelly clay 44-45 Swamp and marsh soils 45-48 Chapter III. Climate and Precipitation, History and Agri- cultural Conditions 49-64 Climate and rainfall 49-56 Temperature 49 Rainfall 52 Killing frosts 55 History 56-58 First settlements 57 First railroads 57 Increase in population 57 Condition of agriculture 58-64 Proportion of cultivated and uncultivated lands 58 Farm buildings 59 Price of farm lands 60 Live stock and animal products 61 Crops 61 Transportation and communication 63 Local markets 63 Forest condition 64 Index 65-68 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE PASB I. Soil map of North Central Wisconsin. In pocket. II. Sketch map of Wisconsin showing location of area mapped. 2 III. Map of vicinity of Antigo 22 IV. Fig. 1. View of the surface of the Antigo gravelly loam. . . 24 Fig. 2. Vertical section of soil of the Antigo gravelly loam . V. Fig. 1. View of surface of Amherst sandy loam 26 Fig. 2. Vertical section of soil of the Chelsea clay loam . . . VI. Fig. 1. View of the Marathon loam 40 Fig. 2. Vertical section of soil of Marathon loam VII. Climatic map of Wisconsin for spring , 54 VIII. Climatic map of Wisconsin for summer 54 IX. Climatic map of Wisconsin for autumn 54 X. Climatic map of Wisconsin for winter 54 INTRODUCTION. The presemt very general and brief account of the soils and agricultural conditions of North Central Wisconsin, is pre- sented in answer to numerons requests for information con- cerning the soils of the northern part of the state. It is the outcome of a geological study of the district/ rather than a survey of the soils alone by a specialist trained in agricultural science. It is mainly based on a study of the surface forma- tions of the district, -which occur in considerable variety and include glacial drift formations of different ages, alluvial for- mations along the large streams and adjacent tO' extinct gla- ciers, and residual formations due to the weathering in place of the crystalline rocks and the sandstone of the district- Each of the surface formations has a characteristic soil and these are described with respect to area, general character and origin, surface features, gi'oundwater, the forest growth devel- oped upon them in the past, and the crops now grown upon them so far as they have been opened to agriculture. Chapter I, on the topographic and geologic features of the district, and Chapter II, on the soils, and the map of soils., are based almost entirely on the investigations of the writer, while Chapter III, on the climatic conditions, history and agricul- tural conditions is compiled from various sources as indicated. Large portions of the several counties, as described in the following pages, are covered with hardwood forests, possess ex- cellent soils, and are rich in agricultural possibilities. Por- ^See farthcoming report on the Geology of North Central Wisconsin. viii INTR OD UCTION. tions also are characterized by soils of inferior quality. It is the purpose of this general report to point out the varying character of the soil throughout the district and the climatic and other surrounding conditions of this part of the state, with the hope that the information given vrill be not only of value to home seekers, but also to those now engaged in agriculture in the district. It is also hoped that the present report and map will serve as a basis for a more detailed mlap of the soils of this district, as well as au incentive to a more thorough, study of the soils of other parts of our state by those specially trained for this purpose in agricultural science. The writer is indebted to Dr. E. A. Birge, Director of the Survey, for many kindnesses and courtesies shown in the prep- aration of this report; to Prof. 0. E. Van Hise, the Consult- ing Geologist, for suggestions ; to Prof. A. R. Whitson for sug- gestions and kindly criticism, and to Dr. J. 0. Elsom for the several photographic views presented. A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SOILS AND A(>EICULTUEAL CONDITIONS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. CHAPTER I. LOCATION AND GENERAL TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC FEATURES. LOCATION AHD EXTENT. The location, of the area described in the present very gen- eral report is shown by the shaded portionB) of Wisconsini on the adjoining map, Plate II. The area includes the ooimtiea of Portage, Wood, Clark, Marathoni, Taylor, and Lincoln, and adjoining portions of Langlade, Price, and Gates. The area con- tains 199 townships, with an approximate extent of 7,200 square miles, which is about o^ne-eighth the area of the state. The area is considerably larger than that of OonnectiGut, and a little less than that of il^ew Jersey. TOPOGEAPHY. Slope and General Features. The area is an undulating slope rising gradually from the south and southwest. Its southern border has an elevation of 900 to 1,100 feet above sea 2 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. level, and its northern border an elevation of 1,350 to 1,650 feet. Tlie surface is generally plain-like in southern Clark Co-unty, in the southern half of Wood, over a large part of southern and central Portage, and througho'ut a strip of variable width. in Marathon along the Wisconsin Eiver as far north as Wau- sa.u. A part of central and southwestern, Langlade is also' a plain. Outside the area of these plains the surface is a rolling country, with gentle slopes along the valleys and bcroad slopes over the uplands. Hills. Throughout the area but few hills reach an eleva- tion exceeding 300 feet above the valley bottoms. Notable ex- ceptions to the lower hills are several elevations a few mjiles southwest of Wausau, the most prominent of these being the ridge Imown as Eib Hill, rising 700 feet above its base and 1,942 feet above sea level. In central Wood Coiunty, near Ar- pin, is Powers' Bluff, having a broad basei and rising gradu- ally up to 300 or 400 feet above the surrounding lower land. In the plain of southern Wood and Portage and in the more undulating area of western Clark are isolated sandstone mounds that rise from 150 to 250 feet above their surround- ings. A prominfc,at feature of the topography is the belt of boul- dery ridges and drift hills, knoiwn tO' geologists as the terminal moraine, which trends north and northeast through central Portage and eastern Marathon co'Unties, whence it sweeps in a broad curve about Antigo and then turning to the west passes across northern Langlade and throiugh the middle portionsi of Lincoln and Taylor counties. This belt of biUowy hills and ridges is usually from 6 to 20 miles wide. The undulating hills and depressions constituting the belt generally have a re- lief of 50 to 100 feet above the surrounding land. In a few places, however, the hummooky hills are much higher, reach- ing 200 toi 300 feet above the adjacent lower land. Rivers and Valleys. The Wisconsin River flows south through the eastern part of the area. North of Wausau the vallev of the Wisconsin is narrow mth steep slopes rising from 200 to 300 feet above the river. South of Wausau the valley Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Suhvey. BuLi.ETiN No. XI, Plate II. SKETCH MAP OF WISCONSIN. Showing the location of tlie area mapped. TOPOaRAPHIG AND GEOLOGIC FEATURES. 3 bottom is broad, with gentle slopes reaching to the uplands above. These tipilajids along the Wisconsin drop lo-wer amd lower towards the south until they merge into the low lying plain of sotitheirn "Wood and Portage coimties. The principal rivers flo^mng intO' the Wisconsin from the east are the Plover in Portage, Eau Olaire and Ti-app in Mar- athon, and the Pine and Prairie in, Lineo'lii. Flowing from the west are Mill Creek in Wood, Littlei Eau Pleine, Big Eau Pleine and Big Eib rivers in Marathon, and the Copper, New- wood, Spirit, Somo, and Tbm'ahawk rivers in Lincoln. In western Wood is the Yellow River, flowing south and joining the '\Viseonsin in Juneaii Co'unty. On the east of the Wis- consin, Eiver the Plover and Prairie have insignificant valleys, while the Eaii Claire, Trapp and Pine for long distances from the Wisconsini have pronounced valleys with loing slopes lead- ing to the uplands above. On the west in a similar manner, Mill Creek in Wood and the rivers in Lincoln have shallow valleys, while the Little and Big Eau Pleine and Big Rib riv- ers in Marathon have deep valleys throughout the larger part of their coiiu-ses. In general, therefore, the valleys are deeper and the country more rolling in Marathon than in the coun- ties eitheT to the north or to the south. With very few excep- tions, however, are tlie valley or hill slopes toO' steeps for culti- vation. The Black River flows south fromi the southern part of Tay- lor through central Clark. Prom Medford to ISTeillsville it has a narrow valley generally from 100 to^ 200 feet below the surrounding uplands, and with slopes rarely too steep for cul- tivation. In northwestern Taylor and southern Price are the Yellow and Jump rivers flowing southwest to the Chippewa River. A great part of Clark Coimty, like Marathon, is more rolling tlian the country either to the south or to the north. LaJ^es and 8wmnps. The portion of the area containing lakes and swamps, as shown on the map', (Plate I, in pocket) is miainly confined to tlie eastern half of Portage and eastern Mara- thon, northern Langlade, and northeastern Lincoln counties, and in the vicinity of the termina] moraine of the northwestern, part 4 TSE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. of the area in Taylor County. The swamps associated -with; the lakes in the above designated parts of the area are generally smiall and lie in depressions surrounded by the bouldery hills of the vieinity. They are, or were formerly, stocked with tama- rack ajid cedar. A type of swamp quite different fromi the above occurs in southwestern Portage and southern Wood co'unties, which is not associated with any lakes or ponds. Here the swampy areas are broad marshy lands many square miles in extent, and were originally stocked with scattered tamarack. ' These marshy tracts are approximately at the samte level as the adjacent dryer and drained land along the rivers and streams flowing through themL GEOLOGT. The rock formations of the area may be grouped into four geologic divisions, as follows: 1. Crystalline Rocks. 2. Potsdami Sandstone. 3. Glacial Drift. 4. Alluvial or River Deposits. 1. Crystalline BocJcs. The first group includes a number of difPerent kinds of rock, principally firranite, quartz-syenite, rhyolite, greenstone or trap rock, mica-schipt, quartzdte, slat«, and conglomerate. The granites constitute about 75 per cent, of the crystalline formation. The greenstone, rhyolite, schist, slate, quartzite, and conglomerate have a relative abundance in the order named. These various rocks generally stand on edge and form irregular belts and areas throughout the regioiL This group of rocks lies near and at the surface in southern Lincoln, large portions of Marathon, and northern Portage and "Wood counties. Over the whole of the area, however, the crystalline rocks occur in isolated patches and along the river beds. The crys- talline rocks, with the exception of the quartzite, consist of an abundance of clay producing minerals and hence, where the TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC FEATURES. 5 crystalline rooks occur at the surface, soils of the loam or day type liave detveloped from and overlie themi 2. Potsdam Sandstone. The sandstone formation is an abimdant surface rock in Portage, Wood and southwestern part of Clark counties. It also lies beneath the drift in small areas in northeastern Clark, western Marathon and. southwestern Tay- lor. The sandstone lies in horizontal beds upon the crystal- line rock, which fact is readily seen in aU cases where the two formations crop out together or where wells penetrate botli. The sandstone is very generally a soft friable stone and there^ fore readily crumbles. In places it contains some clayey lay- ers. Where the sandstone forms the abundant surface rock light sandy soils prevail, but where it is overlain with glacial drift the soil assujnes the loamy character of the drift cover- ing. 3. Glacial Drift. The glacial drift is cofmposed of a het- erogeneous loose mass of ground-up rock containing varying proportions of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. The drift has a verv irregular thickness throughout the area and was depos- ited upon the older formations of crystalline rock and sand- stone by the several successive continental ice sheets which ex- tended over this area, and over the adjacent parts of the state and of northern United States. Between each of the succes- sive periods of glaciation long interglacial periods elapsed, and hemce there is a wide difference in the age of the several drift sheefe covering the area. In a striking manner, through the action of weathering processes such as freezing and thawing, the percolation of the rains and groundwater, and the chemi- cal alteration of minerals and rocks, the earlier drift forma- tions have become more compact and consolidated and contain a larger proportion of clay and fewer boulders than the later drift. Another important dissimilarity is in the surface feat- ures of the old and new drifts, brought about by the difference in erosion of the surface of the drift by streams and rains, whereby the older deposits, having been subjected to a long pe- riod of erosion, have oomie to have long gentle drainage slopes and prominent river valleys, whereas the newer drift sub- '6 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. jected to a shorter period of erosion is still oharacteirized by belts of steep drift hills, bouldery "hogsbaek" ridges, shallow vallerys, lakes, cedar swamps, and depressions. The soil con- ditions of the old and new drifts therefore essentially differ from one anoither and are classified accordingly. The old drift lies in western and northern Marathon and adjoining portions of Lincoln and Langlade, son them T'aylor, mlost of Olark and a large portion of northern Wood. The old drift generally varies in thickaess from' 5 to 50 feet. In cert.ain places between ISTeillsville and Marshfield it has a thickness of oiver 150 feet. Thenewdriftlies in the eastern half of Portage Ooxmty, in. the vicinity of and east of the Plover River in Marathon, in north- em Langlade, over a large part of Lincoln^ noorthern Taylor, northeastern Gates and southern Price. Outside the area of this map it extends over the whole of eastern and northern "Wisconsin. It has a much greater thickness in general than the old drift and usually varies from 50 to 200 feet in depth while in many places along the terminal moraine it probably exceeds 300 feet. 4. Alluvial Deposits. The deposits made by rivers in times of flood oo'nsist of gravel, sand, and clay. The alluvial depos- its are the low and nearly level lands lying along, many of the large rivers of the area. During the closing stages of the last glacial period when the great ice fields to the north and east were gradually melting, the rivers that issued from them were unusually swollen, and hence were able to carry and deposit large amounts of gravel and fine sediment along their courses. In this mjanner broad sandy and gravelly plains were built up along the Wisconsin River and some of its tributaries. These alluvial plains cover most of southern Wood County and south- western Portage and a broad belt along the Wisconsin River throngh central Portage and as far north as Wausau in Mara- thon. Deposits of alluviumi were also built up adjacent to certain portions of the margin^ of the ice by glacial streamis where no large rivers now exist. Such alluvial deposits occur along the TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOaiC FEATURES. fj terminal moraine in Portage County and in tike vicinity of Antigo in Langlade County. Absence of Limestone. No limestone rock occurs within. the area described. The nearest occurrence of the limestone formation is from- 10 to 20 miles southeast of Portage County and about the same distance southwest of Wood County. Eoch and Mineral Supplies. The various rock formations of the area furnish valuable deposits. The granite, a few miles north and norllieast of Wausau, furnishes first class stone for monuments and building purposes. The sandstone formia- tion in Portag^e, Wood and Clark counties supply building stone for all local uses. In the northe^m part of the area the local building stone is supplied in part by glacial boulders and in part fromi quarries in the granite and schist fonnations. Common brick clays are abundantly distributed throughout the area in the drift f oriaations and also in the weathered and de- eomtposed portion of the crystalline shales and schists. The quar- ries and brickyards are located iipon the map (Plate I, in pocket). Good road material is abundantly supplied by the boulders and gravel of the drift form'ation, and from the numerous outcrops of trap rocks, or greenstone, and other crystalline rock of the region. The medium, to coarse grained gr'anite is often disin- tegrated to deptlis varying fromi 3 to 10 feet, and this disinte- grated or "rotten" granite is often used for road making. The disintegrated granite consists of angular crystals of quartz and feldspar, which readily pack into a hard, compact mass well adapted to the wear of ordinary traffic. Marl occurs in sev- eral of the lake beds of eastern Portage County. Peat is fo-und in considerable abundance in the marshy portions of south- em Wood, and Portage cotmties and also in many of the swamps of the northern part of the area. The miarl and peat though not used at pi'esent will undoubtedly be of value in the future. 8 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. WATER STJPPI.Y. Tte numeT'ous streams of the area afford abundant supplies of water for stock. For most domestic purposes, however, wells are the main reliance. The Ground Water. Well water is found at various depths below the surface, depending upon the slope of the land sur- face and the rock formations beneath. At certain depths be- low the surface all the pores and fissures of the rock forma- tions are filled with ground water and it is into this water-filled portion of the ground that wells must be sunk in oTder to ob- tain an abundant and constant supply. The upper surface of the ground water,^ generally called the ground water level, is usually very near the level of the streams and lakes of the vicinity. The level of the ground water is not horizontal, but is undulating, the undulations approaching, in a general way, the contours of the land surface, standing at greater depths below thei surface in the hills than in the valleys. Changes m the Level of the Ground Water. The position of the ground water level changes from.! season to' season, stand- ing lower in the winter, when precipitation is slight, and higher' in summer, when the rainfall is miore abundant. It gradually sinks also fromi year to: year, as the lands have conae under cultivation, Somie parts of the area show a much greater change in the ground water level than other parts of the area. In the rolling lands of Marathon County where the crystalline rock is at and near the surface but little if any change has taken place. In the area where the wells are in the thick drift, as in Clark County, the ground water has sunk from 10 to 15 feet. In the porous alluvial subsoil of the Ban- croft gravelly loam about Almond in southeastern Portage County the water table has sunk froim 20 to 40 feet. Character of the Well Water. The well water throughout the area is that kind known in domestic economjy as "soft water." This is due to the absen,oe of limestone in the area. Abundant well water is obtained in each of the four groups of geological formations, and will be only briefly discussed here TOPOGRAPHW AND GEOLOOIC VEATURES. 9 as the conditions of the soil water and gro'Und water are more ftdly described for each of the soil formations. Wells in the Alluvial Band and Gravel. The securing of well water in the alluvial formation bordering the Wisconsin River, over a large part of southern Wood, in southwestern Portage, and the vicinity of Antigo in Langlade, is a very sim- ple matter, for this formation consisting of mnch gravel and sand, is very porous and the level of gronnd water is generally ]0 to 20 feet from the surface, and very often even less than 10 feet. As a rule, however, in order to secure good pure water wells should obtain their supply at least more than 20 feet below the surface and where the ground water is higher than this either "drive wells" or drilled wells shoiuld be made. In tiie vicinity of Almond and farther north in Portage County many of the wells are from 60 to 100 feet deep. Wells in the Glacial Drift. Water is found at various depths in the sand and gravel of the glacial drift. In the re- gion of the thick terminal moraines where the drift forms ridges the wells generally penetrate nearly to the level of the surrounding lower lands. Where the drift is less than 50 feet thick, unless the land is very gently sloping, the supply of water is usually obtained at the junction with, or a few feet into, the underlying formation, which may be either the crys- talline rock or the sandstone. It is very comjnon to find an, abundant supply at the junction of the drift with the under- lying crystalline formation. However, if water is not struck: at the junction it is only necessary to go down into the formja- tion beneath, whether it be the sandstone or tbe crystalline for- mation, to find a sufficient supply. Wells in the Potsdam Sandstone. Wherever the sandstone has a depth of 10 to 20 feet and tSe land is gently sloping it usually furnishes an ample supply of water. T!he wells in the sandstone ridges xisually reach near to! the level of the sur- rounding lower lands. The wells in the sandstone are almost entirely in Portage, Wood and Clark counties. Wells in the Crystalline Rock. Wells bottomed in the hard crystalline form'ation and receiving the whole or a large part 10 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. of their water supply from the various crystalline rocks are found in all portions of this area. They are especially abun- dant in the rolling uplands of southern Lincoln, in Marathon, and in northern Portage and Wood counties. The wells gen- erally vary in depth from 20 to 40 feet, depending much as to their location in the hills or in the valleys. The level of the ground water in the crystalline formation seems to closely fol- lo^v the contours of the land surface, standing high in the hills and neur the surface in the valleys. In the crystalline rocks the water passages axe confined to the fracttires, seamis' or fissures v/hich are, as a rule, abundant near the surface in the crystal- line formations of this state. The statement has been made that it is generally useless to attempt to get a sufficient flow of vrell water from the crystalline rock, but this statement was based on the erroneous belief that the crystalline formation was generally a massive solid formation and not mlach frac- tured or fissured. The crystalline rooks are everywhere quite generally fractured within 50 to 100 feet of the surface and contain an abundance of water and it is only necessary, there- fore, to go doiwn into this formation below the level of ground water and open up a num.ber of seams and fissures. The re- quired depth to obtain a sufiicient supply of water in the crys- talline rock is generally from 20 to 40 feet, as above stated, and only in rare cases is a greater depth than 50 feet neces- sary. In the thickly settled rolling area about Wausau where the ciystalline rock is within, a few feeb of the surface it is believed that more than one-half the wells are less than 30 feet deep. The much fractured and fissured condition of the crystalline formation holds equally well for those portions of the area covered with the glacial drift and the sandstone, for the fracturing was quite general and took place long before either the glacial drift or the sandstone was deposited. In drilling wells in the hard crystalline rock, like granite, the combined weight of bit and stem shiould equal 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. The light weight drills usually mialce slow progress. The possible clogging of the water passages in the process of drilling crystalline rock should be taken into account In the TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLO&W FEATURES. H area where tlie granite and other crystalline rocks are near the surface, however, most of the wells are dug wells and wisely so for such wells being of large diameter opcin up a cor- respondingly greater numher of the large, generally nearly vertical, fissures ramifying throughout the formation. The dug wells being of larger diameter have a larger storage capac- ity and on this account, need not to be so deep' as the drilled wells. Absence of Artesian Wells. The question is often asked as to the possibility of finding artesian wells in this part of the state. In answer to this it may b© stated with a considerable degree of certainty that there is very slight possibility of ob- taining flowing wells in this area, because the necessary geo- logical conditions are wanting. The widespread occurrence of the granite and other crystalline rocks usually very near to the surface, and generally within striking distance by wells has already been pointed out. It is a well known fact that the crystalline group of rocks does not furnish artesian, conditions and no flowing wells have evei' been struck in tliis formation in this state though repeatedly attempted. The structure of the crystalline gToup, the character of its water passages and source of water is such as to entirely preclude the possibility of obtaining a flowing well from it, no matter how deep the well is sunk. The sandstone formation lying on top of the crystalline for- mation, is a principal source of flowing wells in other portio'us of the state. But where it is the soiurce of flow it lies at a con- siderable depth below the surface and beneath other thick formations of limestone associated with impervio'us shales; whereas in this area it either lies at the surface or beneath a variable covering of loose peirvious drift. The sandstone of this area, on account of its nearness to the surface, serves as a catchment basin and fountain head for the lower portions of the state, and consequently there is an entire absence of con- ditions here of fountain flow. The alluvial formation along the Wisconsin Eiver is porous throughout, and the other conditions for the securing of foun- 12 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. tains are wanting. There is a sligkt possibility of finding an occasional smjall flow in tlie tilly portions of the thick drift, but so far as known none such occur in this area. It may be stated, therefore, with considerable certainty, that the probabilities of securing artesian wells in this area are so small as to make the search for them; wholly unjustifiable. The conditions controlling the distribution of the artesian wells in this state are fully and clearly described by Prof. Chamberlin in Chaptjer VI., Vol. II, Geology of Wisconsin. Water Powers. The water powers are a prominent and val- uable natural resource of the area. ISTo careful and systematic measurement of the water powers of the area has been made, but several estimates have been furnished. Along the Wiscon- ' sin River from Tomahawk to Nekoosa no less than fifteen rap- ids occur, having a fall of from 5 or 10 feet up toi 60 fee*. Among the noiore prominent of these, several of which are en- tirely undeveloped, may be mentioned Tomahawk, Grand- mother Falls, Grandfather Tails, Merrill, Brokaw, Wausau, Rothchilds, Mosinee, Stevens Point, Oonants, Biron's Mill, Grand Rapids, South Centralia, Port Edwards, and Nekoosa. The amount of available water power in this stretch of river probably exceeds 76,000 horse power, less than one-half of which is at present used. The water powers of the branches of the Wisconsin and other rivers of the area prob- ably exceeds 25,000 horse power. Throughout the area the water powers are readily accessible by rail. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 13 CHAPTER IL GENERAL CHARACTER AND ORIGIN OF SOIL AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. The soils of the area though widely variable in oomposition and texture readily fall into several well dedfined classes. In the 7,200 square miles of the area, fourteen kinds or phases of soils were recognized and the area occupied by each shown on the map (Plate I, in pocket) by different colors. It should be borne in mdnd that these kinds of soils often grade into one another. Between cefrtain soils, however, like the sandy river bottoms and the clayey uplands, the boundary linesi are very sharp. Some of the soils are very uniform' in character over broad areas while others are quite variable. The gradations and abrupt cl^anges in the soils are pointed out in subsequent pages as each of the various soils is taken up and discussed. Origin of Soil. It is impossible to adequately disctiss the nature of any particular soil without describing the history of its origin and development. If it be understood once for all that all the soils were not made and finished at the same moment in some remote period but tbat each had a slow de- velopment which began at -widely different times, and that soils are now actually being formed fromi day to day, season to season, and year to year, the method of soil growth or its origin is seen at once to be important and a knowledge of it valuable to the agriculturist. Briefly stated, the soils consist of mineral and organic mate- rial. T!he mineral portions of soils originate through the 'dia- 14 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. integi'ation and weathering of the stony material and. rocks forming the surface of the land and the organic portions through the decay of anim.al and vegetable matter living upon and within the soil. Tlie aa;ents m.ost effective in this process of rock weather- ing which produces the mineral portion of the soil are water in its various forms, change of temperature, and the air. These agents are not only effective at the surface, but they pene^ trate deeply into the reeks and loose earth. Water in the form of rain acts chemically uipon rocks by dissolving them, and. me- chanically by v\'-ashing and wearing away the loose material. In temperate clim'p.tes such as ours the alternate freezing and thawing of the water included in rook pores and crevices, in autumn and spring, tend to loosen and split apart the rocks. Burrowing aiiimi.als, such as earthworm^ an.d tbe fur bearing animals, aid materially in making soil. The growth of roots of the forest trees and even of the smiallest plants split apart the rock particles and assist in soil formiation. As the rocks are being powdered and softened intoi loose material there is a constant process of wash, by rains of this loose soil material from the higher levels on tbe hill sides to the valley bottoms, and thence by stream's to still lower levels on their way to the sea. If the rains axe gentle but little loose miateirial is washed away. However, if rains are copious they may transport in a few hours eoormlous amounts of sand and mud to lower levels. Besides the work of rains and streams in transporting tbe weathered rocks and soils, wind is also an effective agent in carrying soil particles from place to place. But perhaps tlie most important soil transporters in Wiscon- sin, so far as agriculture is concerned, thougb now no longer active, were the glaciers of the Great Ice Age. While these ancient glaciers were transporting soil and rock debris, they were also very effective in making tlie rook and soil partioles finer and finer by rubbing and grinding them' against one an- other, and thus Avere soil builders as well as soil carriers. As the soils owe their origin to the slow weathering and DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 15 deeomposiiton of the rock form.ations, some of the soil forma- tions are derived froin tlie \\'eathering ef the glacial drift, otli- ers by the decay and modification of the various crystalline rocks, of the sandstone, and of the river gravels and sands. Surface Soil and Subsoil. The surface portion of the soil formation containing more or less dark colored organic mate- rial brought to it by the decay of plants is generally from four to eight inches tliiok. The stibsoil liee immediately below the darker surface soil and is the medium in which, much of th.e soil moisture and nitrogen are stored and held available for plant life. If the subsoil texture is such as. to hold too little or too maicli water the fertility of the soil is greatly decreased. It has beeoi shoiwn by Professor King that soil moisture may ]ye obtained through capillary movememt at depths of 12 feet below the surface and in some cases at depths of 16 feet. The roots of com in search of moisture mjay penetrate the soil to a depth of four feet and the roots of clover often go down 18 inches. Hence it is important for the agriculturist to know the character of the soil for a considerable depth below the surface as well as of that portion which is turned by the plow and the cultivator. Basis of Classification. Soils are classified in various ways. A grouping of the soils according to the native gTowth of tim- ber is often used and according to this method the area could be divided into hardwood lands, white pine lamds, jack pine lands, and cedar or tam'ai'ack lands. A classification accord- ing to tbe kind of crops best grown is often applied and in such cases, potato soils, grass soils, wheat soils, and tobacco soils is used. We also have limestone soils and sandstone soils, a classification based upon the nature of the rock from which the soil is derived. The classification which seems best fitted to answer all pur- poses is one based on the texture of the soil, mlainly due to the relative proportion of sand and clay present. Tliere is no sharp limit in soils between what is called sand and wbat is called clay, but these grade insensibly into one another thrO'UgJi intermediate grains. If there is naore than 95 per cent, of 16 THE SOILS OF UOliTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. either sand or clay present the surface is best referred to, not as soil, but as sand or clay. Soils are sandy if fro^mi 40 to 65 per cent, of their weight is made up of particles so smlall that from 1,000 to 400,000 of them m^ust be placed in line to span a linear inch, while the balance may be so' large that only 20 to lOO of the particles are needed to stretch across the same distance. The heaviest clay soils, on the other hand, may have 80 to 95 per cent, of the small sized particles named above and fromj 5 to 20 per cent, of the larger grains. Loam soils are intermediate in grain between the sandy soils and the heavy clay soils ; while between this medium loami soil and the coarser sandy soil are sandy loams and loamy sands, and be- tween the loam and the clay soils are loamy clays and clayey loams, there being of course, in all cases, a gradual change between the various kinds. If there is present a considerable amount of stone or gravel the soil is called stony or gravelly. Besides these soils there are the muck, peat or 'humus soils, con- taining a high percentage of decaying organic matter or humtis and occurring in the undrained areas of the swamps and m,'arshes. Chemical Composition of the Soil. As already pointed out, the kinds of soil and their classification depend upon the texture of the soil rather than the chemical composition. Cheanical analyses of soils as usually made, while important, do not usually furnish the information' desired to rightly estimate the character of the soil with respect to fertility or its adapta- tion to certain crops. In general, most soils contain the neces- sary constituents for the growth of crops; and hence if soils are infertile it is usually because favorable physical conditions are wanting for the development of rich soils, snch as the proper conditions of the soil texture, soil moisture, drainage, temperature, rainfall, etc. The various important chemical elements occurring in soil are oxygen, silicon, carbon, sulphur, hydrogen, chlorine, phos- phorous, nitrogen, fluorine, boron, aluminum, calcium, magna- siumi, potassium, sodium', iron, and manganese. The oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, chlorine, and nitrogen get into the soil from' t)E80RIPTI0NS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 17 the atmosphere and the rains assisted by vegetation. The other elements are found in abundance in the crystalline rocks of the area as well as in the glacial drift and alluvium made up of crystalline rock debris and in the soils formed by the weathering of these form]ations. It is believed that the soils of this area contain all the chemical elements necessary for the growth of crops, and that the varying degree of fertility of the different soils is probably due tO! their texture and the physical conditions surrounding them. The names adopted for the various soil formations of the area are local and have beem selected from the names of rivera or townships where the soils occur. WISCONSIN niVEB SANDT SOIL. Area. This sandy loam formation forms the generally level valley bottom of the Wisconsin River and some of its tributa- ries. Between Wausau and Merrill, as shown by the map, the area of this soil is but a narrow strip along the Wisconsin. South of Wausau the formation spreads out to an average width of six or eight miles and reaching for some distance along the Eau Olaire River on the east and the Big Rib on the west. In Portage and Wood counties this soil area is very broad and with the associated marsh lands and peaty soils covers a large portion of southwestern Portage and southern Wood and the adjoining portions of the adjacent counties to the south. Surface Features. The surface of this soil formation is a nearly level plain, sloping downward to the south along the Wisconsin River. Here and there it is slightly undulating, but usually it is flat with an elevation of 20 to 40 feet above the level of the river. Where the side rivers join with the Wisconsin, lower bottoms or terraces have been formed, reach- ing for some distance back along these branches. These lower terraces or "benches" are separated from the upper terraces by a steep slope from 10 to 20 feet in height. General Gharacted and Origin. As might be expected from the distribution of this soil formation along the rivers, it owes 2 18 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. its origin to the accumulation; of successive layers of gravel, sand, and silt deposited by the river floods during the glacial period. At tihat time the streams leading from, the miargin of the melting ice, a short distance to the east and toi the no^rtih, were of mlich greater volume than at present, and hence were able to carry and deposit much coarser sediment than the floods of today. Tliis alluvial formation is generally from! 5 to 40 feet thick. The surface soil consists of 5 to 10 per cent, of clay and silt, 5 per cent, of gravel, and the reimlainder coarse and fine sand. The subsoil consists of alternating layers of gravel and sand, with a very little clay. The mean diameter^ of the soil grains of the second foot of soil at Nekoosa is .0520 mm. ; at Stevens Point, is .0935 mm. and .0920 mini. The mean diameter of two truck subsoils of Maryland, ISTos. 471* and 563,^ are respectively .1119 and .0756 mnu. In texture and size of grain, this soil is very similar to the Maryland truck soils and tO' other truck soils of New Jersey and Long Island. Ground Water. The upper surface of the ground water in this gravelly and sandy subsoil is gener'ally from 5 to 20 feet below the surface. This formation being very porous, the ground water is abundant. At the same time its porous char- acter allows a rapid downward percolation of the rainfall, and hence the soil above the level of ground water readily dries out. Over a large part of this soil formation, however, the level of the ground water is within 2 to 5 feet of the surface, and where this is true, sufficient moisture is generally contrib- uted to the surface soil for the growth of the long rooted crops by means of upward capillary movement. T[he dug^ wells in this foimation are generally too shallow to supply good water. Where tihe ground water stands' within 20 feet of the surface, drilled wells or drive wells shooold be m|ade which should penetrate to depths of 25 or 30 feet. By obtaining the supply from greater' depths it will not be so likely to be contaminated with sui-face water. ^F. H. King, Northern Wisconsin Handbook, p. 44. = Bulletin 21, Maryland E'xp. Station, p. 40. »Yearbool£, 1894, Dept. of Agricniture, p. 139. IfESORIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 19 Forest Growth. Tiie forest trees of this formatioii have been almiost "wholly reraoved. This is mainly because they were pine, both ISTorway and white pine, being abundant. Ther.9 was also a scattering of jack pine in places in the south- ern part of the area. In the lower benches of river bottom lands along the Wisconsin and other rivers where fine sediment and clay have be«ai deposited, the hardwoods formed an abun- dant growth. Crops. This sandy soil is coarse and porous and, as already stated, the rainfall readily sinks into it. It is only in those portions of it, therefore, where the soil contains more than the usual amount of clav. which serves to retain the moisture, or where the ground water stands within 2 to 5 feet of the surface that they can ever become very productive. In gen- eral, however, one or the other of these conditio^ns hold for large parts of the area of this soil. The clayey uplands bor- dering the Wisconsin river in the area north of Portage county furnish more or Iciss clayey wash to this formiation. Tbe level of the ground water is never very far from the surface, which, combined with abundant rainfall, tisually fumishe© sufficient moisture for the growth of special crops. The prevailing crops groAva upon this soil are potatoes, corn, hay, rye, and oats. But little wheat and barley are grown. Potatoes and rye are the principal export crops, thie corn, hay, and oats being used for the feed of stock. The camamon gar- den vegetables are also grown. As urged by Professor King,^ these light lands are not well suited toi general farming and should be turned to use along special rather than general lines. Clover and peas should be frequently grown' in order to fur- nish a store of nitrogen to the soil. Sufficieiit live stock should be kept to maintain the proper fertility. Tliese sandy soils are naturally not very rich and any abuse of the tillage will be quickly shown in the crop returns. With proper care and when farmed along special lines as indicated, these sandy 1 Northern Wisconsin, A Handhook for the Homeseekcr, pp. 44-47. 20 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRA!, WISCONSIN. lands, readily cleared and tilled, can produce certain crops of excellent quality and in paying quantities. BANCROFT GRAVELLY SANDY LOAM. Area. Th.& area of this soil formation ^is wholly within Portage County (sec map) and forms a belt of variable width lying west of and adjacent to the promiuent ridge of terminal moraine running north and soiith across the county. This type of soil is well illustrated in the vicinity of Bancroft, Stock- ton, and Ellis post office. Surface Features. The surface of this formation is a prai- rie-like plain, similar to the surface of the Wiscoosin River sandy soils and the Antigo gravelly loami. General Character and Origin. The surface soil is a sandy loam', containing a variable mount of gravel and small pebbles. The subsoil is generally of great thickness. The well section at the depot at Bancroft, on the line of the Chicago & ITorth- westem Railway, shows the following formation: Gravelly loaml , ,. . . 3 feet Sand 9 feet Hard pan (gravel and clay) ,. . . . 3 feet Sand . .;. , 1 12 feet Gravel, with pebbles 4 to 6 inches thick .... 3 feet Sand and fine gravel i 68 feeit Total depth of well ., 98 feet This formation is an overwash alluvial plain built tip in front of the great ice sheet whose edge lay along the easter-n. border of this toil where the ridge of hilly terminal r- .ue is located. It was built up by the wash of streams issuing fro-ml the melt- ing icti sheet during the Glacial Period. In northern ex- tension of this soil formation in the vicinity of Hull and EUis post offices, a greater content of clay is to' be noted in the suf- fac8 soils, which is probably to be attributed tO' the greater abundance of crystalline rock in that portion of the county. This soil formation grades imperceptibly into the Wisconsin DDSCRIPTI0N8 OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 21 River sandy soil whick lies adjoining it on the west and no sharp line can be drawn separating their areas. With! respect to lightness Oif the stirface soil and its content of sand, the Bancroft soil stands half way between the light sandy soils along the Wisconsin Eiver and the gravelly loam of the Antigp formjation described in the following pages. Ground Water. The level of ground water is at variable depth in this formlation. About Bancroft the farm] wetUs are from 12 to 20 feet deep. For that portion of this soil lying west of the front ridge of terminal moraine the level of ground water is generally from 8 to 20 feet belo^y the surface. That portion of this formation lying north of Almond, betweien Almlond and Arnott, and between the ridges of bouldery drift hills is at a higher elevation than the area about Bancroft, and hence the level of ground water is farther below the: surface, the wells usually having a depth of 60 to 80 feet and in a few instances over 100 feet. The level of ground water in this soil formation in the vicinity of Ahniond, as previously noted, has sunk from 20 to 40 feet since cultivation of the land began. This lowering of the water level has greatly afEected the lakes and ponds of the region, for all of them have shrunk considerably and many have entirely disappeared. The surface soil, as already stated, contains a variable amount of clay and when the soil is properly manured and tilled it holds siifficient moisture for the growth of mjost of the common crops. Forest Growth. The northern extension of this soil foirma- tion about Ellis post office, where the soil is not soi light, de- veloped a good growth of itiorway and white pine and some hardwoods. The lighter soil of the area about Bancroft and Almond developed only a growth of scrub oak and jack pine, with some ISTorway and w*hite pine. Crops. The prevailing sandy loamls of this formation are warm and readily tilled, and are well adapted to the growr ing of potatoes, vegetables, corn, rye, oats, and clover. Pota- toes and rye are the principal export crops. Dairy products and live stock are also leading sources of f armi income. Clover 22 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. is widely grown far the double purpose of fertilizing the soil and for hay. This soil is in every riespect well adapted to potato culture, for it is well drained, does not harden on dry- ing, is readily seeded to clover when desired, and responds quickly to manures. The potato is not, nor should it be, made the only farmi crop. The wise potato grower should have a part of his land in clover, a part in grain, a part in pasture, and a part in potatoes ; in this manner of practicing a rotation of crops the fertility of the farm can be kept at a high stand- ard. About Almond, Bancroft, and Stockton the principal export crop is potatoes. Farther north, where the soil is heavier, the grasses, clover, and grain are raised to good advan- tage and dairying ranks with potato raising. A'XTIGO GHAVELLy LOAM. Area. The area of this soil fonmation, as showm on tha map, is in the vicinity of Antigo, the south westetm part of Langlade County. It lies immediately in front, that is, to tlie west, of the prominent ridge of terminal mioraine, which makes a large bend to the east in this vicinity. It is thus bounded on the south, east, and northeast by the ridge of terminal mioraine while on its western border is the area of wet land of the western half of the town of Ackley. Because of the eastward extension of this formation beyond the boundaries of tiie large map, a small map is made on the same scale as the larger map (Plate III) to shoiw the area in full of this formation. This soil formation, occurs to a small extent in the vicinity of the terminal moraine in Lincoln and Taylor counties. Surface Features. The surface of this formation' is a prairie-like plain, as shown in Fig. 1, PI. IV, sloping gently to the south and southwest. Along the Eau Claire Kiver and its branches are shallow valleys and bottoms abont 15 to 20 feet below the general surface of the adjacent land and usiially one- eighth to one-half a mile wide. General Character and Origin. This soil consists of clayey and giavelly loam at the surface, underlaid by a subsoil con- sisting of sand and gravel. The thickness of this soil formlation Wtsconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Suevet, Bulletin No. XI, Plate III. ff.//£r. ff. /Z&. ff.U£r. /f./Z£. IT^rPVy^ ^sye//am/- sai/a7$r^i/e iyrai/e//tf \s/^V'J\ MZ/tf /one/ ly/A sa/ue SMamps one/ I "-"^" / ' I /cam. nrssf/fsss of i/e/yss Ago/ I V '^'■''1 /:'oni^s .■ to// a ciji/ Jcam cron':ii//7''W SOIL MAP OF VICINITY OF ANTIGO. Shows the location of the terminal moraine and the area of a portion of Antigo gravelly loam and the Chelsea clay loam. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 23 is considerable, averaging perhaps from. 30 to 60 fe©t for the ■whole area. At Antigo the thickness is 58 feet to granite, as f ollo-\YS : Gravelly clay loam , 4 feet Sand and fine gravel, with thin layers of coarse gravel 54 feet Total 58 feet The Eau Claire "River and its branches, as already mentioned, have cut valleys into this formation from- 15 to 30 feet below the general surface, but in only a few places do the valley bottoms reach the rock. This formation generally grows thicker as the ridge of terminal moraine is approached. While the underlying portion of this formation is sand and gravel, the surface soil and the upper part of the subsoil to a dep'tih of 12 to 36 inches contains sufBcient clay toi give it the prop- erties of a loam', varying from a clayey to a sandy loam, and very generally containing a variable quantity of gravel. The usual size of the largest pebbles range from three to' four inches in diameter. A view of this soil formation showing the layers of gi-avel, sand, and clay is shown, in the photograph, Fig. 2, PL IV. The formation is an ovc'rwash plain, built up during the last glacial period, and owes its origin to the wash of glacial streams issuing from the edge of the melting ice field, the ice edge being stationed where the ridge of terminal moraine is located. The streams issuing from: the gla,cier were heavily laden with detritus, and flowing out beyond the ice deposited their loads of gravel, sand, silt, and clay. As the ice sheet gradually melted away and grew smaller, the streams issuing from it also grew smaller and weaker and hence a lesser pro- portion of coarse detritus and a greater proportion of finer and lighter sediment such as clay and silt formjs the topmost layer of the formation. The upper portion contains small patches of fine clays, suitable for making brick. Several such clay beds are worked into brick about Antigo. At each of the clay banks the surface soil of 6 or 1 2 inches has a dark color and 24 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAZ WISCONSIN. contains much humiis, and belo-w' this there is one and one-half to three feet of clay overlying a considerable thickness of gravel and sand. The gravel of this formation is quite generally of granite and other crystalline rook. Ground Water. Over a large part of this soil formation the level of ground water generally stands vnthin 8 to 20 feet of the surface. As the hilly land towards the east is ap- proached and the elevation rises, the level of the ground water is at a correspondingly greater distance below the surface. Farmers usually m.ake their wells by driving the common well tubing into the soil and gravel to a depth of 12 to 20 feet. In Antigo the level of ground water is about 16 feet below the surface. Because of the loamy character of the upper three feet of surface and subsoil, a sniEcient amount of soil moisture is maintained for the growth of all crops. Forest Growth. This soil formation has grown an abundant stand of hardwoods, hemlock and white pine, the hardwoods and hemlock prevailing. The hardwoods are elm, maple, bass- wood, birch, and ash, with some oak. Most of the pine has been cut. The standing hardwoods and hemlock show a dense and healthy growth. Crops. The soil of this formation is very productive, as at- tested by the numerous thriving farms established upon it dur- ing the short period of the past fifteen or twenty years since the vicinity of Antigo was first settled and farming began. Most of the abundant rainfall of the growing season sinks slowly into the ground to the level of the ground water, which is usually never so far below the surface but what moisture mjay be readily brought back to the surface by capillarity, as needed. Being of a loamy character, therefore, it does iiot harden, on drying and is well suited to the growth of all farm crops. It is well adapted to the growing of grasses and clover for dairy and stock purposes, of potatoes, barley, oats, rye, peas, com, rape, and garden vegetables. On the lighter phases of the soil potatoes are an excellent crop, and clover is grown everywhere. Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sukvbi. Bulletin No. XI, Plate IV. Fig. 1. VIEW ACROSS THE ANTIGO GRAVELLY LOAM. TYPE OF ALLUVIAL SOIL. View taken five miles northeast of Antigo, Langlade Comnty, shows the nearly- level surface characterizing the alluvial soil formations. Pig. 2. SECTION OF ANTIGO GRAVELLY LOAM. TYPE OP ALLUVIAL SOIL. Deerbrook, Langlade County. Upper four feet is clay, saud and gravel, lower two feet is sand and gravel. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 25 AMHERST SANDY LOAM. Area. Tliis soil formation occurs in the two eastern tiers of townships of Portage County, covering the whole or parts of the towns of Almond, Belmont, Buena Vista, Lanark, Am- herst, Stockton, Sharon, and 'R&w Hope. Surface Features. The characteristic feature of the surface of thi.s formiation is that of a generally uneven and rolling coTintry thi'oughout. The hills are generally from 50 to 150 feet above the lower lying lands. The country is easily travers- ible in all directions by wagon roads and railroads. It may be noted that there are narrow belts of this formation, as shown on the m;ap, in the eastern parts of the towns of Almond and western Buena Vista^ forming ridges trending north and south. The continuous area of this formation farther east ex- tends for some distance into Waupaca county. This formation, consisting' of low steep hills and ridges, constitutes the terminal moraine of the latest drift sheet concerning which a number of references have already been made. This belt of terminal moraine besides being characterized by rather steep ridges and hills also contains numerous basin-like depressions, sometimes having dry bottoms and sometimes containing lakes, ponds, or swamps. Boulders of widely variable size are also a promi- nent feature of this soil formation. Along the eastern border of Portage Ooimty, noirth and south. of Amherst, steep and abrupt ridges and Ixills are less com- mon than farther west and in this vicinity are stretches of gently sloping or nearly level land. Over the gently sloping lands the boulders are not abundant. Throiug'h.out the area of this formation, however, lakes and swamps abound, which vary f r'ooni a few acres to over a hundred acres in extent. Among the more prominent lakes may be mentioned Claud's Lake, Lake Emily, and Pickerel Lake. General Character and Origin. The surfaoe soil of this formation is a sandy loam, vaiying considerably in the relative amounts of sand and clay. It is a somewhat heavier soil than the Bancroft sandy loami adjoining it, and appreciably lighter 26 THE SOILS OF NORTH GENTRATj WISCONSIN. tkan the clayey loaiTis of the morainic and hilly coimtry far- ther north in eastern Marathon County. In general, it is a sandy loani containing a variahle amount of rounded) stone and boulders, which vary in size from a few inches to five or six feet in diamieter. This soil fomijation has its origin in the accumulation of glacial debris upon a generally soft, friable sandstone. Hence the subsoil is the product of ground-up and disintegrated sand- stone of the underlying Potsdam formation, with which is combined a plentiful admixture of clay and crystalline boulders carried by the glaciers from the region farther away to the north and northeast. The surface soils generally consist of four to ten inches of light loam, enriched by a variable amount of organic ma,tei- rial. Below this usually lies from one to five feet of brown- ish clay, mixed with boulders and pebbles. Below the bouldery clay are alternating beds of more or less stratified gravel, sand, and clay, mixed with boulders. The thickness of this forma- tion is very considerable, probably varying between 50 and 200 or 300 feet. About Amherst numerous wells are 50 feet deep without striking rock, and on the sum'mits of the ridges and hills of the terminal moraine wells are often from; 100 to 150 feet deep and wholly within this formation. In the vicinity of Alban and Kosholt post offices in the town of Alban are a few wells from 80 to 100 feet deep, striking the granite at bofaom. More or less wash has also taken place in this rolling coun- try, and clayey loams are often found in the bottoms. Bould- ers are in general not so abundant over the gentle slopes as upon the hills and ridges. Hence the soil throughout varies more or less with the surface features. Ground Water. As an unvarying rule the surface stratumj of clay and boulders immediately underlying the surface soil, known to geologists as "boulder till," is of such thickness and texture as to retain sufficient moisture under the usual condi- tions of rainfall, for the growth of crops. Water for donofestic use, however, is obtained from' wells which penetrate this Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Suhvey. Bulletin No. XI, Plate V. Fig. 1. VIEW OF AMHERST SANDY LOAM. TYPE OF GLACIAL SOIL. One mile east o( Arnott, Portage County. View sliows rolling snrface with. depressions characterizing the terminal moraines. Pig. 2. SECTION OF CHELSEA CLAY LOAM. TYPE OP GLACIAL BOIL. Four miles east of Antigo, Langlade County. Shows fifteen feet of surface and subsoil consisting of sandy clay mixed with boulders. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL F0KMATI0N8. 27 IjO'ulder till, either to the general level of the groimd water of the region, or to clayey layers which lie above the general water table but beneath water bearing sand and gravel beds which often abonnd at varying depths in this drift formiation. Under the latter conditions wells imniediately adjacent tO' one another vary considerably in depth. In general, however', the level of ground water must be reached, which is approximately the level of the streams and lakes of the vicinity, in order to obtain a sufficient supply of water. In the higher hills of the belt of terminal moraine wells are often 100 to 150 feet deep, and in the geutly sloping lands about 50 feet deep. Forest Gro'wth. Upon most of this soil formation grows a generally dense growth of scrub oak and scanty poplar, with little or no other hard woods or pine. Only in the northern pail; of this soil area where the soil becomes heavier does a heavier growth of hard woods and pine prevail. In the north- em, parts: of tovraiiships 24, ranges 9 and 10, the red oak be- comies appreciably larger and some white oak and pine begin to appear. Upon the clay soil adjacent to the boundary of Portage and Marathon counties along the branches of the Little Wolf Eiver the scnili oak is entirely replaced by a heavy stand of hard woods and hemlock through which was originally sprinkled much pine. But south of the head streams of the Little Wolf where the land is mapped as the Amherst sandy loam, the forest growth, with little exception, as^ already stated, was a thick growth of scrub oak. Crops. The sandy loam is good, strong land and capable when properly farmed of being made very productive. Being sandy, it is warm and readily tilled. It is well adapted to the growth of potatoes, corn, oats, rye, grasses, and clovers. The potato is the most important crop. Potatoes and dairy products and stock are the principal exports from the farms. The Amherst loam and the Bancroft sandy soils are prenemi- nently the potato soils of Wisconsin, and potatoes grown in them yield a fair average crop per acre and in quality are equal to the best in the country. By a wise rotation in crops of potatoes, com,, small grains, grasses and clover for pas,tur- 28 THE SOILS OF NORTB CENTRAL WISCONSIN. ing stock, thriving farmiS have been developed. Garden veg^ tables and smialL fruits do well, and upon suitable sites in the well drained hilly portions of the area, the hardier varieties of the apple can be grown. CHELSEA CLAY LOAM. Area. This soil formation as outlined upon the niap lies in the southeastern part of Marathon, northern part of Lang- lade, and over a large part of Lincoln, northern Taylor, and southern Price counties. This formation, as here defined, also extends over a large portion of the northern part of the state, outside the area of this map. Surface Features. The surface of this formation is very similar to that of the Amierst sandy loam. A large part of this soil formation is characterized by belts of ridges and bil- lowy hills, and associated with basin-like depressions, swamps, and small lakes or ponds. The belt of hilly land which con- stitutes the terminal moraine of the latest drift sheet extends across the northern part of the area, whence it sweeps to the eastward about Antigo, thence southwest, and being continu- ous with the belt of terminal moraine along the western bor- der of the Amherst sandy loam in Portage Cbunty. The ter- minal moraine is a prominent feature of the landscape. The billowy hills and ridges constituting it generally have steep slopes and often rise from 100 to 200 feet above the surround- ing lower land. Unusually high portions of it lie a few miles east of Ogema in soiitheastern Price County, and southeast of Tomahawk in Lincoln Count}-, and in northwestern Langlade Oouni-y. South of this prominent belt of hills in southeastern Taylor, southern Lincoln, and western Langlade, are narrower belts of similarly shaped hills and ridges, which resemible the billowy and hummocky features of the large moraine, but are very much smaller. These latter hills and ridgra are generally within 30 to 50 feet in height, and they mark the border of some of the earlier drift fortaations. These smaller moraines like the larger one, are associated with depressions, swamps, and pondtf, and are plentifully covered with boulders of all sizes. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 29 Outside tihe areas of terminal moraine, tKe surface of tliis formation is gently rolling land, with, long gentle slopes and shal- low river valleys. A broad area of gently sloping land is in that portion of Lincoln County lying west of the Wisconsin Eiver and nortli of the IsTew Wood Riyer. A similar bro^ad area of gemtly sloping land without hills liesi north of the ter- minal moraine in southern Price and northwestern Taylor counties. On the other hand the northeastern part of Lincoln County lying north of the Prairie Eiver and east of the Wis- consin Eiver, and also the northern part pf Langlade County, is mostly occupied by the hilly terminal moraine and is char- acterized by numerous lakes and swamps. Character and Origin. The surface soils of this formation are clay loams varying to lighter loams. The surface soils are the result of the weathering of glacial debris which consists of a heterogeneous mass of crystalline rock, boulders, gravel, sand, and clay. The upper 5 or 6 feet of the subsoil consists generally of boulder clay, that is, a mixture of clay and boul- ders, with a variable amount of sand. Beneath the boulder clay is a succession of irregular beds of gravel, sand, and clay, mixed with boulders, having a depth generally varying from 50 to 200 feet. This soil formjation is much younger than the Colby loamy clay described in following pages. Its later origin is shown not only by the surface features, such as the undrained lakes and swamips, but also by the presence of num- erous disintergrated boulders in the surface soils and by the much less decomposition of the clay producing minerals con- tained in it. Hence this soil is lighter and more porous than' the Colby loiam.y clay. In the region of the terminal moraines this soil might well be termed a stony or bouldery loam. This soil formation is generally more stony than any other soil of this area. Over large portions of the area, however, where the lands are gently sloping, boulders are , often almlost entirely absent. The amount of stones is usually not enough to interfere per- manently with cultivation, for they can be remjoved or so placed that the fields can be plowed without difficulty. 30 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. Ground Water. The boulder clay forming the upper sior- face of tliis formation is everywhere thick enough tO' retain sufScient moisture from the rainfall for the growth of all farm crops. Well water must be obtained by penetrating to vari- able depths through the upper clayey portion of this formation to the tmderlying sandy aud gravelly portion of the loose drift. The depth of the wells vary with their locations on the hills or in tlie valleys. Wells in this formation are more variable in depth than in any other soil formation of the area. Forest Qrowih. The forest growth of this soil was origin- ally very dense and consisted principally of hard woods and hemlock, with scattering white pine. The hard woods are mainly birch and basswood, with much smaller amounts of elm, oak and maple. The amoimt of hemlock was generally equal to or greater than that of the combined hard woods. The pine has been cut, but large and undisturbed tracts of hemlock stiU remain. The swamps are stocked with spruce, cedar, and tamarack. Crops. In all sections where farms have been cleared on the clayey loam of this formation the soil shows itself capable of producing good grain and grasses as well as com and pota- toes. This soil is in general somewhat coarser and more po- rous than the Colby loamy clays and hencci is better suited to com and potatoes, though not so strong a grass and dover land as the latter. ^Nevertheless it maintains with ease an ex- cellent dairy and stock industry. A clover rotation with small grains and other crops should be maintained upon it and by a wise selection of farm crops built about a dairy and 'stock in- dustry, steady income will be insured to the farming commun- ities. Garden truck and small fruits can be grown in abun- dance, and on the well drained slopes of the hilly belts the hardier fruit trees can be grown Avith some success. CABY SANDY LOAM. Area. This soil, as shown on the map, forms a belt extend- ing east and west across the south-central part of Wood County,, and northwest across the southwestern part of Clark County. DESCRIPTIONS OF THIi} SOIL FORMATIONS. 31 It covers the whole, or poiiions of the towns of Sigel, Seneca, Hansen, Wood, Dextev, Hiles, Carj' and Rock in Wood Coiunty and Shenvood FoTesf-, Lynn, Washburn, Levis, Pine Valley, Hewitt, Seif, Eaton and Mead in Clark Coxmty. Surface Features. The surface of the area included under this soil formation is gently sloping and rolling throughout. Sandstone hills and mounds are common and here and there "are a few low ridges and knobs of granite. Most of the land, however, is not far above the level of the streams, though hav- ing in general a sufficient unevenness of surface for good drain- age. General Character and Origin. The surface soil of this area is generally a sandy lo'am.. It, however, is not at all uni- foiin and contains areas of sandy soils and also areas of clayey soils. This soil is appreciably lighter than the Colby loamy clay adjoining it on the nortli and in turn it is heavier than the light sandy soil prevailing throughout the town of Mentor, Clark County, and the sandy soil along the Wisconsin Kiver. This soil has its origin in a thin glacial drift covering, in some places, the sandstone and in other places the crystalline rock, or its decomposed equivalent of clay. The drift cover- ing is so thin and irregular that the soil changes rapidly with the changing character of the rock beneath and hence the soil varies from' a sandy loam over ike sandstone to clayey loams and clay over the crystalline rocks. An accurate detailed map of this sandy loam, here mapped as a single soil formation, would show irregular areas of clayey and sandy soils inter- spersed throughout a predomlinating sandy loami formiation. The clayey loams prevail over the low lying land while the sandy loams are distributed over the higher slopes where the sandstone outcrops are abundant. Ground Water. The clayey content of this soil is generally sufficiently abundant to retain the required amount of moist- are for the growth of crops. It is only where the soil is very sandy that there is liable to be a lack of sufficient moisture. Wells in this formiation generally find water at depth of 10 to 25 feet in the lower areas, and at a correspondingly greater 32 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAI: WISCONSIN. distance on the higher land. Wells on the higher elevations of sandstone generally strike water at the contact with, or very near to, the underlying formation of clay or crystalline rock. Forest Growth. The forest growth of this soil was origin- ally abundant and consisted of pine and hardwoods. The pine has been, wholly cut. The prevailing hardwoods are oak, basswood, maplo and elm. Over a large portion of the area the pine and hardwoods were about equally distributed. Over the san,dy soils, however, Norway and white pine gener- ally prevailed. Crops. The prevailing crops are hay, oats, rye, potatoes and com. The soil, being generally sandy, is warim and read- ily tilled. Potatoes, dairy products and live stock are the principal exports from' the farms. MENTOR LOAMY SAND. Area. The area of this formation is in southwestern and southern Clark County, and in irregular patches through the central part of Wood County. This soil formation has a wide- spread distribution over part of Juneau, Monroe, Jackson, Eau Claire, and Trempealeau counties. Surface Features. The surface of this formation is gently sloping dotted with mounds of sandstone, some of which are mere swells in the plain-like area, while others are rugged pin- nacles or castellated peaks, rising abruptly fromi 100 to 150 feet above the general surface. Outside the area of this map some of these mounds rise from 200 to 300 feet above their surrounding area. The abrupt peaks are not very numerous, the main surface being occupied by low swells or nearly level stretches of sandy lands. Character and Oriqin. The soils of this formation are sandy, containing a variable amount of clay and hence grad- ing into loams. The formjation has its origin in the disinte- gration and weathering of the sandstone with which is mixed a variable but generally very thin covering of glacial drift. The drift consists of loose sand mixed with clay and 'Tiard heads" or boulders. In some instances the drift forms low dE8griptio:ns of the soil formations. 33 ridges and kaoUs in Avhich, the drift is from 10 to 20 feet thick. Over a large part of the area, however, sandy subsoils or the sand rock is within a few inches of the surface. The clay con- tent of the drift makes the surface soils appreciably better and hence where the boulders are abundant usually a beffcter soil is present. Clayey loams occur in the low marshy places, prob- ably due to wasli of clay from the higher lands. Ground Water. The open texture of this sandy soil is gen- erally too porous to retain much moisture. Where clay is abundant in the sui^face soils, better conditions for retaining soil moisture prevail. Over a large portion of the area the level of ground water is from 20 to 40 feet below the surface, and approximately at the level of the streams of the area. Forest Growth. The forest trees of this soil were mainly pine. The hard woods of merchantable value were scarce. The pine has long since been cut away. Much of this area presents an uninviting aspect of waste lands, here and there showing growths of jack pine and scrub oaks and an abun- dance of "sweet fern" or "sweet gale," Merica asplenifolia. Crops. In those clayey portions where liie glacial drift is several feet in thickness or the lands are low and day has been washed in, certain crops like corn and potatoes can be grown with success. In general, however, the soils are too light and ix>r0'us and the ground water too far from the surface to be very productive. Potatoes, com, rye, buckwheat, beans, gar- den truck, and small fruits are best adapted to' this soil. Clo- ver and peas can be grown in many fields, and where this can be done the land cani be made more productive foT other crops. KJSNNAN CLAY LOAM. Areo). The area of this loam fortnjation, as shown on the map, is located in southeastern Gates, southern Price and northwestern Lincoln counties. Surface Features. The surface of this formation is gently sloping and rolling with here and there broad nearly level stretches. It contains a few swamps, though entirely free 3 34 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. from lakes. Tlie gently sloping surface of this formation is in miarked contrast with the hilly land of the Chelsea clay loam adjoining it on the south. General Character and Origin. The soils of this formation are clay loams varying to lighter loams. Like the Chelsea clay loaxa the soil is the result of the weathering of glacial de- bris consisting of a mixture of crystalline rock, gravel, sand, and clay. A variable amount of boulders is often scattered throughout the surface soil though generally not to such an ex- tent as to interfere permanently with cultivation. Over large stretches of the area boulders are almiost entirely absent. Geo logically considered, this soil formation includes a part of the area of the gro^und moraine of the latest drift series. As comr pared with the Chelsea clay loam, it contains much fewer boul- ders and also differs from the latter in its surface features as above indicated. The general character of this soil resembles very closely the Colby clay loam though in general the latter is a finer grained soil and contains fewer boulders. Ground Water. The bouldery clay forming the upper por- tion of this formation is everywhere thick enough to retain sufficient moisture for the growth of all farm crops under or- dinary conditions of rainfall. Where the land is very gently sloping, the soil is likely to remain wet for soooae time after heavy rains, but as adjoining lands are cleared and comle un- der cultivation a more rapid surface drainage will be acquired. Wells in the area of this formation are generally wholly vsathin glacial drift, are from 20 to 40 feet deep and supply an abun- dance of good water. Forest Orowth. The forest growth of this soil was origin- ally very dense and still remains so over mjost of the area. The trees were mainly hardwoods and hemlock with scattering white pine. Most of the pine has been cut. The hardwooda are mainly birch and maple, with smialler amounts of elm^ basswood and oak. In the wet and swampy portions mixed hardwoods and tamarack abound. Crops. But a small portion of the area of iMs soil has passed under cultivation. In all sections where farms have jmSORIPTIONS OF THE SOIL, FORMATIONS. 35 been cleared, the soil shows itself capable of produciiig good crops of grain and grasses as well as com and potatoes. The soil is well adapted to the growth of grass and clover and it should maintain, with ease, an excellent dairy and live stock industry. Garden truck and small fruits can be grown in abundance. HAEEISON SANDY GRAVELLY SOIL. , Area. This coarse sandy soil is distributed over the north- ern part of the towns of Harrison, King and Tomlahawk in Lincoln County. The area of this soil formation and thei boundary between it and the heavier clayey soils lying imtme- diately south are merely estimiated, as only a few roads traverse this entire region. This soil formation is meant to include the light pinery land of northemi Lincoln County, which broadens out to the north and covers a large part of Oneida and the adjoining counties. Surface Features. The surface of this area is uneven with bouldery drift hills alternating rapidly with nearly level stretches of sandy plains. This area contains numerouB swamps and lakes. General Character and Origin. This soil is quite generally very sandy and gravelly, containing a variable though gener- ally small amount of day. The lower and mlore level lands are generally uniformly sandy soils, while the hilly lands are bouldery and gravelly mixed with some clay. Ground Water. This light sandy and gravelly soil is gen- erally too porous to retain much water near the surface, and hence the coarse gravelly soils on the hill sides are generally too dry to be fertile. The lower sandy lands where the level of ground water stands nearer to the surface, are likely to be the most productiva Forest Growth. The forest trees grown upon this soil were mainly Norway and white pine, most of which has been cut away. In scattered patches over this area, however, pine is still abundant. Scanty growth of hardwoods are scattered over large portions of the area, and here and there, where the 36 THE SOILS OF NORTH GENTRAZ WISCONSIN. soil oontaiiis an abundance of clay, dense liaxd-wioods may be found. Crops. But a small portion of this sandy land h.as been opeaied to cultivation. Northeast of Tomahawk, north of the Wisconsin Eaver, where the sandy soil contains a somewhat larger proportion of clay than elsewhere, good farms have been opened and potatoes, oats, rye and grasses are staple crops. Most of this soil formation, however, is too coarse and porous to be considered fertile. It seems best adapted to light farmr ing and grazing. COLBY LOAMY CLAY. Area. This soil formation has a greater extent than any otiier soil foTraation within the area of the map. It covers the western and northern portions of Mar'athon and adjoining portions of Lincoln and Langlade, southern Taylor, most of Clark and the northern half of Wood counties. Outside the area of this map it extends westward across the state, covering large portions of southern Chippewa, Eaii Claire, Ihinn, St. Croix and Pierce counties. Surface Features. The surface of this formation is gently rolling. In general the surface is similar to that of the Mara- thon loam, a view of which is presented in Fig.l, Plate VI, oppo- site page 40. In northeastern Clark County is a broad upland area with low slopes. Throughout central Wood County, also, the land is gently sloping vf ith here and there a hill rising above this Jower surface. Everywhere there are good surface drainage .•slopes. Swamps, lakes, or ponds are nowhere found in the area • of this soil. In only rare instances are the slopes too steep for cultivation, such conditions .being confined to tbe vicinity of the river rapids or on the side of some of the hills of sandstone iand granite in Wood and Clark counties. Character and Origin. The surface soils of this formation are clays and clayey loams quite uniform in texture and com- position. In general it is the heaviest soil of the area. It is the weathered product of the mass of ground-up rock left upon DESGRIPTIOlfS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 37 the surface of this part of the state during the early periods of the Great Ice Age^ This glacial debris varies in thickness fromi less than a foot to upward of 150 feet This great dif- ference inSJhickness is due in part to' the uneivemaess of the land before the glaciers advanced over it; in part to the tmr equal distribution of the drift during the forward movement of the glacier's; and in part to the fact that ceirtain portions of the area have been covered by more than one of the earlier drift sheets. This soil formation being of glacial origin, a few boulders or 'Tiard heads" are found in the surface loamls. However, boulders in the soils of the old drifts are strikingly less abun- dant than in the newer drift soils further north and east. The general absence of boulders in the old drift soils is in part at least due to their disintegration and breaking up into soils through the processes of rook weathering during the long pe- riod which has elapsed since these old drift fonuations were deposited. For a similar reason, there are no lakes, basins, or swamps in the area of this soil formation. The drift has been exposed to the erosion and wash by streams and rains for such a long period that the depressions have either beem drained by streams or have been filled by the wash of rains from the ad- joining hill sides. The depth at which the drift has weathered to appropriate material for soils varies from one or two feet up to 10 or 15 feet. The surface 6 to 10 inches is enriched with abun- dant decayed organic material. The portion below this is grayish clay mixed with quartz. Where the drift is less than 10 or 15 feet thick the crystalline rock, which is the usual for- mation lying beneath, is weathered into day and quartz, in character similar to the subsoil of the Marathon loamj. The deep weathering of these old drift fonnlations forming the Colby clay soils makes them of especial value to agrionl- ture. Similar soil conditions prevail here as upon the old drift formations which constitute the richest agricultural re- gions of southern Iowa, northern Missouri, and northeastern Kansas. 38 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTHAZ WISCONSIN. Ground Water. While the surface is generally roUing and a large portion of the precipitation flows off from the surface, yet the flue texture of these soils is strongly conducive to the retention of sufficient rainfall as it sinks into the. ground to supply the necessary moisture and food for plant growth. In those smaller' areas where the slope of the surface is slight the soil is likely to remain wet and cold during the rainy seasons, but as the lands about become cleared better surface drainage will be established and the fertility of these cold soils will gradually be increased, as in all older settled countries, until they even surpass in richness the more readily drained fields. The nearly level areas of the formation in the central portion of Wood County usually lie upon the sandstone and they also have a greater content of sand in their composition and hence have a better under drainage and are slightly warmer than those soils of the thicker drift overlying the crystalline rook farther north. In order to obtain abundant well water in the area of this formation it is usually necessary to penetrate the drift forma- tion, to the imderlying rock beneath. This is partly explained at least by the fact that the streams of the area of this soil are bottomed in bed rock. This soil formation overlies the gran- ite and other crystalline rock in Marathon and the adjoining portions of Taylor, Lincoln, and Langlade counties. In east- em Clark and northern Wood, both the sandstone and crystal- line formations form the underlying rock, the sandstone be- coming nrore abundant to the southwest and almost entirely replacing the crystallines in southern Wood and southern and western Clark. But whether the bed rock is the crystalline or sandstone formation, if the drift is about 15 feet or mora in thickness, abundant water is usually found at the contact or a short distance below. Where the drift is thin the under- lying rock mlust be penetrated to a variable but not great depth, depending much upon the slope of the land and elevar tion above the stream beds. A noteworthy example showing the truth of the above general statemients concerning wells in the thick drift is illustrated by the well data collected along DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 39 the broad ridge of thickly settled country extending from Marshfield through Lynn to Neillsville, where the drift for- mation is from 60 to over 160 feet deep, and notably thicker than elsewhere, and into which the wells penetrate, with few exceptions, to the underlying rock beneath, which is generally sandstone. Forest Growth. The forest trees of this soil formed a good growth, mainly of hard woods and hemlock, with which was sprinkled a plentiful growth of large white pine along the streams. The pine, with few exceptions, has been wholly out away. Hemlock is an abundant and thrifty growth in north- ern Wood, northeastera Clark counties and farther to tlie east and north. The hard woods are birch, basswood, elm;, maple, ash, and oak, the latter being more abundant in Wood and Clark counties. Crops. The clay soils of this formation constitute through- out good strong land, very productive and durable. Because of ita good drainage, every acre of it can be utilized for farm- crops, and it gives every promise of being equal to the beat and idchest agricultural portions of the state or of the northwest. All farm crops succeed well. Grass and clover is an abundant crop, and dairying and stock-raising is wisely becoming the chief source of the farm; income. The small grains, corn, and potatoes can readily be grown and should be raised in rotation with the feeding crops for dairy stock, sheep, and swine. SmaU fruits and garden truck are easily grown, and upon well selected sites the hardier fruit trees can be grovm with some success. MABATHO?? LOAM. Area. The area of the Marathon loam is within the south central portion of Marathon County and the adjoining por- tion of Portage County. As shown by the map, it includes the whole or portions of the towns of Wausau, Easton, Weston, Kronenwetter, Knowlton, Maine, Stettin, Eib Falls, Cassel, Marathon, Enaanett, Bergen in Marathon County, and the 40 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. principal portions of Eau Pleine and Stevens Point in Port- age County. Surface Features. The surface is characterized by rolling country, in sharp contrast with the level sandy bottom lands along the Wisconsin River. The uplands rise to approxi- mately the sajne elevation and most of them have broad, nearly level tops. The valleys are numerous and have gently slop- ing sides and in only rare cases ar'e they too steep for cultiva- tion (me Fig. 1, Plate VI). Rib Hill and the other white quartzite hills a few miles soiithwest of Wausau have ridge-like and pointed tops and rise above the level of the gently sloping and flat topped hills. Character and Origin. The surface of the Marathon loam is a clayey loam, mixed with a variable amount of small rock fragments. The subsoil is usually a reddish more tenacious clay also containing many minute fragments like the surface portion as well as larger angular fragments of the country rook. The soil and subsoil is generally from one to five feet deep and rests upon the hard crystalline rock of the region. The surface soil is not so heavy or so sticky as the clay soils of the old drift, such as the Colby loamy clay, and hence moro readily allows the permeation of air and water. The soil is a type of residual soil, being derived almost entirely from the decomposition of the granite, greenstone, and other crystalline rock lying beneath. These rocks being fine grained to mle- dium in texture, tlieir weathering has produced a day and loam. The relation of the soil and subsoil to the underlying rock is shown in the photograph, Fig. 2, Plate VI. In places the surface of this soil is covered with a small amount of gravel and scattered boulders, but over mpst of the area foreign material is entirely absent or so thin that the number of transported pebbles and rock fragmients can readily be counted asi one drives along the highway. Because of the wash by rains and the slow downhill movement of the soil, by grav- ity, the soil is deeper on the lower slopes of the valley sides and upon the nearly flat lying summits of the uplands than upon the narrow crests or along the sides of the hills. In Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. BullSti.x No. XI, Plate VI. Fig. 1. VIEW OF MARATHON LOAM. TYPE OF RKSIDDAL SOIL. Nine miles nortliwest of Wausnu, Miuathon Count.v. View shows sloping sur- face characterizing this soil formatiou overlying the er.vstalliue rocks. Fig. 2. SECTION OF MARATHON LOAM. TYPE OF RESIDUAL SOIL. Six miles northwest of Wausau. View shows five to eight inches of surface soil overlying three feet of subsoil consisting of clay and rock fragments grading into the crystalline rock. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 41 general, however, tlie country is so gently rolling that the wash- ing away of this surface soil by rain is slight. The plentiful scattering of rock fragmienta throughout the soil furnishes a very important protection against the wash by rain. It should be borne in mind, however, by those who reside within the area of this residual loam that the washing away of the soil from this rolling country does take place slowly and incessantly, year after year, and that every precaution should be observed to restrain this natural process of soil reanoval, or at least not to assist in the process by shaping conditions favorable to it. This loami formed during centuries of weathering of the crys- talline rock is one of the most fertile soils of this area, or of the state. It is also the one of generally least thickness, as may readily be seen by anyone riding along the highways of the ai'ea and noting in many places the protruding rock in the bottom of the ditches on either side of the graded road bed. Theo-e will be some wash even upon the most gentle slopes. But on the steeper valley slopes special care to prevent wash should be observed. The loam was sufficiently protected so long as the forests and native vegetation grew upon it, but since the land has been exposed to plowing and agriculture, the tend- ency for soil erosion has been greatly increased. Ground Water. The ground water available for wells in this formation is not in the soil formation itself as a rule but in the oracles and fissures of the underlying crystalline rock. Much of the rain that falls upon this formation flows off from the surface, but much of it is also taken in by the soil and al- lowed to slowly percolate to the rocks beneath. The condition of the ground water in this residual soil area is well illus- trated in the vicinity of northwest comer of section 27 in the tovm of Stettin. In this vicinity where the land surface is 200 feet above the valley bottoms of the Big Eib Eiver two miles to the south and the Little Rib River two and one^half miles to the northeast the wells are from 22 to 40 feet deep. A mile farther west in the vicinity of Stettin postoffice where the land is at the same elevation, there are several wells with abundant water the year around which are less than 20 feet 42 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. in depth. The depths of wells in this formation range gen- erally from 15 to. 40 feet, most of them! being from; 20 to 30 feet deep. Springs are common along the sides and bot- toms of the valleys. The depth at which the ground water completely fills the openings in the crystalline rock is thus never far below the surface and sufficient well water is easily obtained. Drilled wells must be made mtich deeper than dug wells because fewer fractures and crevices are opened, and a slower percolation of water into the wells takes place. From what could be leamc-d the level of ground water in this forma- tion has changed but little, if any, since cultivation began. As the surface soil and subsoil contains an abundance of clay the rainfall percolates slowly and a sufficient quantity of moisture is retained for the growth of crops. Not only is the soil of such character as to retain the moisture but the rocks beneath also hold up the level of the ground water within reach of the surface soil by means of capillary movement. Hence while the land surface of this soil formation is rolling and hilly the texture of the soil and the nearness and abundance of ground Avater furnish excellent conditions for supplying moisture for the growth of crops. Forest Growth. The forest trees that grew upon this forma- tion were dense growths of hardwoods and hemlock, with scat- tered large white pine. The pine is nearly all cut. Much of the hardwoods still remain and consist of birch, basswood and elia, with smaller amounts of oak and maple. Crops. The clay loam overlying the crystalline rocks is one of the most fertile soils of the region, and can compare with any of the soils of the Mississippi Valley. It is adapted to the successful growth of all the farm crops of Wisconsin or the ls"orthwest. On account of the climate and rainfall it seems best adapted to dairying and stock raising. Grasses and clover have a thrifty growth and are well protected during the winter months by a sufficient snowfall. Oats, barley, com and potatoes can readily be grown in rotation with the grasses and clover. The thrifty condition of dairying is well shown by the numerous creameries and cheese factories fotmd through- ni:scBiPTioys of the soil formations. 43 out the area. Garden vegetables and small frtiits have an ex- cellent growth. This formation, on account of its good drain- age and soil, is also one of the best in this region for the growth of fruit trees. By selecting appropriate sites on the summits of the uplands 01* upon the north or northeast slopes, the hardier varieties of the apple, cherry and plumi can be successfully grown for home use if proper care is observed. MOSINEE GRA^TSLLi' SOIL. Area. This gravelly soil formation is very small compared with the other soil formations of the area. The area includes a portion of the town of Mosinee, and adjoining portions of the towns of Marathon and Weston, of Marathon County. A small area, covering several square miles, lies in the town of Harrison, in the northeast comer of the county. Surface Features. The surface of this formation is uneven and gently sloping and Y&ry similar to the surface of the Mara- thon loam area. Character and Origin. This soil consists generally of a thin layer of sandy loam, containing considerable organic material overlying disintegrated or "rotten" granite and grading down within 5 or 10 feet into the hard, coarse granite. The sur- face soil is often not more than one or two inches in thickness, and is immediately underlain by the loose and coarse crystals of quartz and feldspar formed by the disintegration of the coarse granite. The soil formation, being formed from the disintegration of the underlying hard rock, has an origin ex- actly similar to that of the Marathon loam. However, there is a marked difference in the character of the rocks underlying the two soil formations. The crystalline rocks underlying the Marathon loam are fine grained and well adapted to holding water, so that progressive weathering and soil development can readily take place. The coarse granite underlying the Mosinee soil disintegrates into loose, coarse crystals of quartz and feldspar which are generally from one-fourth to one-half inch in diametei'. It appears that the granite of this formation is too coarse to produce a good soil. Wherever these coarse 44 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. granites occur, therefore, only a thin surface soil overlying sev- eral feet of coarse rotten granite has been developed. In small patches "within the area of this formation, however, vfhere the fine grained crystallines occur or in bottoms "wiiere soil has been washed in, a good rich soil has been formed. Ground Water. The ground water is of very uncertain quantity in this formiation. On account of the proximity of the hard granite to the surface and its usual massive and solid character, water veins are not very abundant in it. The rain readily sinks throngh the thin surface soil and gravelly sub- soil and on account of the sloping character of the land read- ily finds its way beneath the surface to the adjoining streams. Forest Growth. Despite the coarseness of this soil forma- tion, a dense growth of hardwoods, hemlock and white pine has thriven upon it. The pine has been wholly cut away. Much of the the hardwoods, consisting m'ainly of birch and maple, and the hemlock, still covers a very large portion of the formation. The abundant growth of hardwoods upon this peculiarly coarse formation is due to the long and penetrating roots of the trees which axe able to reach out for long distances in all directions for the purpose of obtaining moisture. Crops. This soil is generally too coarse and open in texture to produce most farm crops successfully. In certain parts of the area where the underlying rock is not tiie coarse granite, a good, rich soil like the Marathon loam is fo'und, and where this occurs the usual crops of the latter formation can be grown. Where the clayey portion of the soil overlying the coarse formation is from 5 to 12 inches thick, or more, potatoes and com can readily be grown; but where the surface soil is but a few inches thick it is better not plowed or disturbed at all, but left to the growth of grass and clover for pasture land. ACKLEY GKAVELLY CLAY. In the western half of the toAvn of Ackley, Langlade County, and adjoining portions of the town of Hewitt and Harrison of Marathon County, is a broad, nearly flat lying area here re- ferred to as the Ackley gravelly clay. This area has a soil DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 45 differing in many important respects from; that of the region immediately surrounding. Ttis areaj is ontlined only in a general way on account of the lack of roads through it, and other difficulties of traversing it. The area is nearly flat lying though sloping gently to the southwest. The soil is a gravelly clay, generally called "hard pan," grading quicldy down into disintegrated granite, which is the prevailing rock, at and near the surface. The original forest growth in this area was sparse. Ground water generally stands near the surface and surface drainage is slow. IsTo farms have heen opened in this area^ SWAMP AND MAKSH SOIL. Area. The distribution of swamp and marsh lands is mainly confined to the northern part of the area, and in the south- eastern and southern part. A large part of Marathon and Clark counties and northern Wood is wholly free from swamp and marsh lands. The area of the swamps and marshes is, with very few exception,?, confined to the area of the latest drift formation and to the area of the outwash plains connected with the latest drift along and adjacent to the Wisconsin River and som© of its tributaries. While wet lands were originally present where the old drifts and residual soils occur, these were generally stocked with hardwood and had a slow natural sur- face drainage and hence have readily passed under cultivation as the woods were cleared and the lands adjacent opened up for settlement. In the area of the newer drift sheets, how- ever, where ponds, lakes, and depressions occur, natural sxir- face drainage is wanting and swamps occur which under natural conditions and without artificial drainage will remain wet for a long time. Surface Features. The surface of the swamps and marshes, of course, is approximately flat and level. Indeed, it is prin- cipally this flatness, causing a lack of surface drainage, which keeps them in the wet and marshy condition. Oeneral Character and Origin. In a general way two lands of swamps may be distinguished in the area, one kind being 46 THE SOILS OF NORTB CEHTRAL WISCONSIN. the generally small swamp associated with, lakes and depres- sions in the hilly drift of the northern and eastern' part of the area whiah is generally stocked with tamarack and cedar; and the other, the large marsliy tracts in southern Wood and Port- age counties which never possessed a heavy stock of timlaer but was quite generally covered with scattered tamarack, marsh grass, sedge and cranberry. While some of the swamps in the nortbem part of the area are also often witbout tim- ber and are covered vvith a growtb of moss and cranberry and the marsbes of Portage and Wood in places are covered with a sparse growth of tamarack, yet the prevailing type associated with the hilly drift is the vrooded swamp, and that of the allu- vial plains in Wood and Portage is the open marsh. The surface soils of all the swamps are quite generally a miixture of clay and humus, often called muck and peat. The peat has been formed from' the growth and accumulations of sphagnum moss and other plants and generally varies from a few inches to 10 or 15 feet in thickness. Because of repeated fires but little of the peat in some of tbe swamps is left. The subsoils of the swamps in the northern part of the area consist of a mixture of clay, sand and boulders and gravel like the material of the adjacent wooded lands of the Chelsea soil formation. The subsoil of the large open marshes in Portage and Wood counties is a variable thickness of loosely stratified gravel and sand like that of the Bancroft soil. Ground Water. The water standing in tbe swamps and marshes is somietimes above and sometimes at the level of ths ground water of the surrounding land. All marshes and swamps, without exception, are bottomed with layers of clay or peat or other impervious material which holds tbe water up and prevents downward percolation. Water loving plants like the moss and sedge then spring up and prevent evaporation and hinder' the run off of' the rainfall. It very often happeais that the burning of the impervious peat beds througb repeated forest fires allows the water to percolate to lower levels and thus removes the cause of the swampy condition. Somietimes, aa above stated, the marsh waters are approximlately on a level DESCRIPTIONS-OF THE SOIL FORMATIONS. 47 with the underground water of tlie surrounding higher lands. Examples of this were the large cranberry marshes in south- ern Portage and Wood counties under conditions existing twenty or thirty years ago. But at present the ground water of the adjacent higher land has been lowered from ten to twenty feet by cultivation and the cranberry marshes now require much more irrigation than drainage. Forest Growth. The forest and herbaceous growth devel- oped upon the swamp and marsh soils has already been gen- erally referred to. The swamp timber is generally tamarack and cedar, with lesser amounts of spruce and some white ash. The herbaceous growths commion over the large marshes in Portage and Wood county are the marsh grasses and sedges, various mjoeses, and the cranberry. Crops. The swamp lands of northern Wisconsin are in gen- eral much dryer than they were when the country was first opened to agriculture. This change has been brought about by a combination of causes due to cultivation and the conse- quent gradual lowering of the level of the gi'ound water and to forest fires. The drying of the swamp lands can be greatly increased by removing tbe forest covering of the swamps, clear- ing the surface of accumulated debris, and digging drainage ditches. As the swamp lands become sufficiently dry and the humus or peat is not too abundant, the ordinary crops of the area can be grovrai upon them. In the undrained and wet condition, the marshes of Portage and Wood counties are mainly used for the production of wild hay, and to a considerable extent in Wood County for the culture of the cranberry. The best condition for the growth of the cranberry crop in this vicinity appears to be an impervious bot- tom bed of peat, for holding a layer of water in which the cran- berry grows. Other necessary conditions are facilities for com- plete control so that the marsh can be readily drained or irri- gated as needed. In 1899, according to the United States Cen- sus, 1,766 acres were devoted to cranberry culture in Wood County with a production of 34,176 bushels. In the production 48 THE SOILS OF NORTH GENTBH, WISCONSIN. of cranberries Wisconsin ranks third among the states of the Union, and Wood Connty the sixth among the counties of the Union. In recent years some of the marsh lands west of Bab- cock in southern Wood County have been devoted to the raising of coarse native grass and sedge, called "wire grass" which is used largely in manufacturing mats and furniture. CLIMATIC AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 49 CHAPTER III. CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION, HISTORY AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. CLIMATE AWD EAINFALL. The weatlier conditions of the area are m,odified appreciably by the two great lakes, Superior and Michigan, within 75 milea to the north, and east. ISTeither of these lakw freezes over in the winter, and because of their large area, 32,000 and 22,400 square miles, it is evident that whenever wintei' winds coma fromi their direction, both their temperature and humidity axe increased. In like manner during the sumimer months, the lakes tend to make the air cooler whemever the winds oomje frofloa the lakeB, foir the body of Lake Superior very ranely reaches a temperature miuch greater than 46° F., and much the same conditions liold for Lake Michigan. While it is true that the prevailing winds are from a westerly quarter, yet changes due to the location of storm: centers to the west and soiuthwest cause the air to flow in from the lakes' and thus appreciably temper the winds. Tem.perature. For the purpose of showing the temiperatune conditions of the area two tables (Tables I. and II.) have been arranged. One table includes the months of April to Sep'tem- ber, the growing season of the year, and the other table the months of the non-groAving season. The period, covered is the past ten years, from 1892 to 1901, inclusive, so far as possible, and the data is compiled from the published and unpublished work of the U. S. Weather Bureau. Koepenick, Langlade County, is located 15 miles north of Antigo, just outside the area of this report. 4 50 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTBAX WISCONSIN. s >« « >H »H *H s C> ^ Wt »> S rSf ♦H So T" sS .£ c ■* ^ Sj r^ s s ■S c !~ S ^ s S K . H to w o 1 ^ C ■3 o s s a R " ^ PM PM O t- i-l -■ PL| a p- h f3 U O (D a 23 » © ® o *^ a w CD cd S 9 m 3 a 2 <1^ 1 Tl ^ 1 a 0! ® 43 13 o ^■ £ m i -J" M •s £ B. -Il *-" S t-a ■S 43 M ■*3 m a ■2 n s > ■73 0) o o! CQ aw CLIMATIC AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. [51 s (T-j a >H S « fcii ^ Si 0<3 .« a s o ^ ■£ «1 s 6 fe ^^ ^ •^ B ^ s s s ^ 8 ^ ^ f? n A c^ nBBjn I r— lO c^ iH «" OO 1-1 T-i I ranuiTxBj^ I UBSpi I T-( OO «» nB9p[ I ■•* eD oa CO W rH nB9K I e^ (Ni c<] ranaiixBH nB9p[ Aiq^nojv I UB9pj j rauramijj nBgjij ranmtxBp]; | UE9JI I s nB9j^ oo C-* to o co' i nmcainipj nB9ji 1ft CO I 00 CO oq 1-' o cd' 1 fi ninraixBj^ nE9H to o o CD CI m /tfqinoM nB9p([ s OS 00 si lO S ^ lanniiatH UB9J^ CO tH i in ea o ranratxBj^ nB'9M oo Oi OS to OS 1 nB9j5 5 cc* CO CD in taTLOJTTlTJf UBejj o> so OS OS eo" o ninmTXByf nB"9ji s CO CO oo g2 o „ O ,r ® rt o J o t.xii-1 o W CO o B J o B "3 !5 't3 oj ■2 s a s 0) ■a g s 3 a as ^ w [;■ H -a o ai a ^ ra a l^-S ■200 I oJ j3 I I— I ^^ o Ai Mh u OS t> a ffi ^ Z M 52 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTR£L WISCONSIN. By a study of the temiperatures for the growing season of the year, valuable infonnatioii may be obtained concerning the possibility of auccessfuUy growing tobacco, com, pease and other crops njot at present grown extensively in the area. The table of temperatures for the non-growing season gives a oor- recit statement concerning what may be expected in the various portions of the area for the winter months of the year. Bmnfall. The table of monthly rainfall or precipitation (Table III.), shows the average monthly and annual rainfall in inches for the past ten years for each of the stations. Table III.' — Table of mean monthly prieipUation in inches for the period of ten years, from 189S to 1901. Month. January — February . March April May Jnne July August September October November December Annual, Amherst, 1.26 1.29 1.77 2.81 3.97 4.27 3.27 2.44 3.12 2.99 1.57 1.80 30.06 Stevens Point. 0.83 0.64 1.49 2.57 3.52 3.96 3 47 2.20 3.59 2.96 1.35 0.92 27.50 NeUlsviUe. 1.13 1.27 2.25 3.15 4.15 4.86 3.77 2.91 3.35 3.23 1.71 1.34 33.12 Medford. 1.08 1.09 1.38 2.13 4.03 5.20 4.04 2.86 3.41 3.75 1.29 1.03 31.28 Eoepenick 1.28 1.18 1.75 2.76 3.51 3.79 3.79 2.99 3.54 3.71 1.89 0.95 31 14 1 Compiled from reports of U. S. Weather Bureau. CLIMATIC AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 53 It -will be seen that for tt© area ITeillsville receives the largest average anntial amiaunt of rainfall, 33.12 inched, and Stevens Pioint the smallest aim0unt, 27.50 inches, and the other stations receive intermediate amounts. Fromi the table it may also be seen that the amonnt of rainfall for the growing season, April to Septembei', inclusive, for the several stations, is as follows : ATTi i bf rsit 19.88 incihieB' Stevens Point i- 19-31 inches ISTeiUsville . 22.19 inches Medford 21.60 inches Koepenick . . .' 20.38 inches Tbe amount of rainfall for the growing season is therefore equal to about two-thirds of the annual precipitation, ajid ap- proximately double the amiount for the non-growing season. Tlius the rainfall is exceptionally well distributed, tb© largest rainfall coming in those months when vegetation is greaites* in need of it, and during tlie\ autumn and winter mionths when crops are at rest the elimjat© is dry, healthy, and invigorating. Oomparing the rainfall conditions of Wisconsin with those of the adjoining stat-es, it may be seen, as shown by Professor F. H. King^ that the general averages stand about as foUows: Winter. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Mean. Wisconsin 4.7 in. 7.2 in. 4.0 in. 2.7 in. 7 in. 7,6in. 9.8 in. 8.6 in. 6.4 in. 7.8 in. 11.7 in. 11.4 in. 12.5 in. 11.2 in. 10.1 in. 8.3 in. 9.2 in. 7.9 in. 5.9 in. 9 2in. 32.3 in. 37.6 in. Iowa 33.0 in. 26 2 in. Southern Michigan 34.1 in. 'Northern Wisconsin, A Handbook for the Homeseeker, p. 38. 54 TBE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. ^ ■^ O C CO "i 3 (M M pb cq (M ~a ^ . 4i 43 4i M a P. S Q n » >. ^ ^ s t^ a «i IS ; : ea rH >rt C- CO & • rQ DJ iH rH i-I a • ^ 45 4^ 4i . . ~p : cu ft ft ft +? -i^ s o CD (D ® « J? J^ «Q - CO 02 02 CO 9 3 • N CO ess CO 0> • 1 '. *^ N Tl TH <0 P -^ ^ j^ 01 CO I> CO 1 4^ c^ 1- c^ CQ I-" i-< tH 3 +i f t 43 45 45 4^ . -a t 1. f: 1 " ft ft a ft -t? rO 3 C 5 a CD « © © 0) " ko a 1 1/ 1 CC CQ CQ tZl 02 £o ■s^ 5 u 3 tz » a IS . « 1 ^ £ S a c » ^8 cc CO a: CQ CO m cc OC to tr (M t- in C>4 oa PT c^ p ft CD a 1-3 ^ a a so »fl d; N ff Ifl :»^ ca M CJ (M ^ § ■" 4; 45 -P j^ 43 4:1 4i -9 s P < P K ft ft ft ft -e ■" E3 § 1-5 > 1^ i s Hi d es S ^ S s ^ ^ s S 3 II a Wisconsin Gbol. and Nat. Hist. Suevby. Bulletin No. XI, Plate VII. WISCONSIN CLIMATIC MAP OF WISCONSIN FOR SPRING. Mean temperature for May, and the mean precipitation for March, April and May, (Plates VII to X are after F. H. King in the Handbook of Northern Wisconsin.) Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Suevey. Bulletin No. XI, Plate VIII. wisc°6nsin CLIMATIC MAP OF WISCONSIN FOR SUMMER. Mean temperature for July, and the mean precipitation for June, July and August, Wisconsin Gbol and Nat. Hist. Sdevey. Bulletin No. XI, Plate IX. CLIMATIC MAP OF WISCONSIN FOE AUTDMN. Mean temperature for September, and the mean precipitation for September, October and November. OLIMATIO AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 55 From; this table it will be seen that Wiscsonsin, hasi more rain in the summier months, June, July, and August, when Oiropa are most in need of it, than either of the other states except Iowa. The total rainfall for the whole year ia considerably greater than that of Minnesota., almost equal to that of Iowa and southern Michigan, and appreciably lees than, that of Illi- nois. Killing Frosts. Killing frosts occur in this area as late as May and Jmie, but not to such an extent as tO' be at ajl dis- couraging to agriculture in most of its phases. In general, frosts are not earlier in the autumn, than for the southern por- tions of the state, northern Illinois, or lowa^ thoughi they are likely to occur later in the spring. The table of last and first frosts (Table IV.) shows what has occurred at the various sta- tions during the past decade, so'far as the records extend. The above tables of temperature and precipitation for the several stations furnish the latest information concerning these imiportant factors in agriculture for the area above described. In the charts of the state (Plates VII to X) showing the temper- ature and rainfall for eadi of the seasons during the period of twenty-five years from 1870 to 1895 the general condition for the whole state is graphically presented. It should be borne in mind by the reader that the condition of the soil ia. only one factor in the problem, of agriculture and that condi- tions of temperature and amount of rainfall especially for the growing season are also of great importanca These lait- ter named factors cannot be controlled by the farmer like titiat of the soil, aa exemplified in his choice of soil and hia miethiod of tillage and hence the kind of crop proposed tO' be raised lould be especially studied with respect to its cHmiatio' T&- quirements. Eesults in growing new crops are usually learned by the slow and often costly method of individual experimen- tation. A knowledge of the existing climiatic and soil condi- tions and comparison with the kno'wn conditions under whicih the same crop has been grown in other locailitiea should guide the farmer a long- way in his growing of new crops. 56 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTBAZ WISCONSIN. In the matter of a larger development along already well establi&hed lines of agriculture, such as dairying, climatic con- ditions are especially important. In the dairying industry a comparison of the climate of the northern ooiuinties with the southern poirtions of the state and with other dairying sections of the cofunitry shows the northern coiunties of the state to be especially favored. Throughout the growing season of the year, in the area here described, there is a sufficient fall of rain to cause a continuous growth of nutritive grass for grazing purposes, and the climate is sufficiently cool to produce the best flavored milk, a highly important factor in mlaking the best grade of butter and especially iraportant in the produc- tion of the beet flavored varieties of cheese. ITISTOET. This ar'ea., with the adjoining portions of northern Wiscomr sin, was originally covered with a dense growth of hardwoods and pinei, the latter being especially abundant and of large growth along the sandy lands of the river bottoms. It was the pine which first attracted settlers to northern Wisconsin, just as about a decade earlier the lead mines began to draw settlers to soTithem Wisconsin. The pioneer lumbeirmien came in from the south, foUowing up the natural highways of the Wisconsin and Black rivers. At first the pine was exported as logs by floating or driving them down the river in log rafts. Later as saw mills were erected at lie numerous river r'apids of the region the pine was sawed and driven down in lumber rafts. As the railroads penetrated the area river exportation gradually gave way to the more rapid shipment by rail. Wherever saw- mills were erected villages sprang up and, following the loca- tion of the permianent mill settlements, the clearing of farms began. For a number of years the principal interest of the people was in the lumber industry. Steadily and rapidly, how- ever, the change was wrought by which agriculture supplanted lumbering as the leading industry of the area. CLIMATIC AND AQRICVLTURAL CONDITIONS. 51 First Settlements. Tlie first permanent settlemient^ in Wood county, and also within this area, was miade at WMtney's Rap- ids, the present site of Nekoosa, in 1831-32, where a sawmill was erected. The first sawmill erected within the present site of Grand Rapids was in 1838, and thes first school was heorei es- tablished m 1842-3. Less than 30 people, it is recorded, were living in Portage county in 1840. Stevens Point was first settled ahout 1843, and the first farmi is said to have beeni cleared there in 1845. Wausau was fir's* settled ia 1845 and Merrill in 1847. The first settlement in Olaxk County is said to have been on the present site of JSTeiUsville, in 1845, and the first farm] laid out there in 1850. Taylor County appears to have received no perm'anent settlers until the Wisconsin Central Railroad reiached it in 18Y3. First Railroads. The Wisconsin Central Railroad reaxihed Stevens Point ini 18Y1, and Prentice, Price County, in 18Y3. T!he Wisoo'nsin Valley Railroad, now the Ohicagp, MilWaTikee & St. Paul, reached Gr'and Rapids in 1873, Wausau in 1874, and Merrill in 1881. The Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaba Railroad entered Neillsville in 1881. Increase of Population. The growth of population in the six whole counties of the area, since 1860 is shown, in the fol- lowing table: Table y.^— Population from 1860 to 1900. County. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 7,507 2,425 789 2,892 10.634 3,912 3,450 5,885 17,731 8,9S1 10,715 17,121 2,311 685 24,798 18,127 17,708 30,3e0 6,731 9,465 29, 483 Wood 25, 868 Clark 25, 845 43,256 Taylor 11,262 Lincoln , . . 12, 553 Total .13,613 23,881 67,644 107,198 148,267 ^Historical data compiled from "History of Northern Wisconsin," ISSl. " Compiled from Table 4, Vol. I, Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900. 58 THE S'OILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. CONDITION OF AGEICULTUEE. Certain poTtions of the area are -well settled, the first clear- ings dating back about 40 or 45 years. Other portions of the area, though having in general equally as good soils, are stili covered with dense hardwood and hemlock forests. As one passes over the area, therefore, rapid changes are often met with, from) towns dotted with well cleared farms, with large and well equipped farm buildings, toi bordering areas of pio- neer settlemjents and then to the unbroken forest. The map of the area s^hoiwing the roads and houses expresses clearly and accurately the distribution) of the settled and unsettled portions of the area. The map shows the central and isouthem parts of the area much more opened up to agriculture than the northern part, though large portions of the southern half also still remain unimproved. Proportion of Cultivated and Uncultivated Lands. The following table (Table VI.), gives the total area of land and also the lands under cultivation in thousands of acres, in 1895 and 1900, for the several whole counties of the area. Table VI. — Total land and cultivated land in 1895 and 1900. County. Total land area tin 1,000 acres). Cultivated land in 1895, in 1,000 acres. (State census.) Cultivated land in 1900, in 1,000 acres. (U. S. census.) Clark.... Lincoln. . Marathon Portage.. Taylor ... Wood . . . . 778 572 1,007 523 632 515 82 9 104 142 15 53 120 23 145 189 23 91 CLIMATIC AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 59 Tte following table gives the total uumjbeir of farruB in the six whole oounties of the aj-ea, also tke farms witli buildings, the total and improved acres in the farms, and the average size of faaltns: Tablb VII.i — Number of farms and acres in farms in 1900. Ndmbbb of Fabms. AcBES IN Fabms. Average Counties. Total. With buildings. Total. Improved. size. Clark 3,456 924 4,276 3,172 1,168 2,359 3,355 876 4,207 3,116 1,157 2,266 325,755 98,933 442,878 393,857 103,565 271,537 120,964 23,317 145,060 189,396 23,392 91,966 94.3 Lincoln 107.1 Marathon 103.6 124.0 Taylor 88.7 Wood 115.1 1 Compiled from Tables 10 and 19, Vol. V, Twelfth Census United States, 1900. The farms vary widely in size, but generally range between 20 acres and 200 acres. Farm Bidldings. jSTew set,tlers generally begin wisely by building their first houses and bams of logs. Latecf, as the farms are cleared, more pretentious buildings are constructed, which resemble those of all other portions of the northern states. The second bam is generally the typical stone-base- ment bam, the basement being wholly used for the stabling of stock, and the upper story built of wood, painted red, an,d having threshing floor and haymoiwB. The dwelling houses in the oilder sections are well built and comfortable and are usually frame structures, although a large and growing percentage of the newer houses are made of brick. Stone hocuses are rare or entirely wanting in the ajrea. Because of the nearness to the lumber mjarket, the cost of farmi buildings is relatively much less than in the prairie or older settled portions of the iN'orthwest. Price of Farm Lands. Dividing the values of the farm lands without buildings, shown in Table VIII, by the total acres 60 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTR£L WISCONSIN. in farms, shown in Table VII, for each of the counties the av- erage price per acre of farm lands can be obtained. Farm values, however, in central and northem Wisconsin, have ap- preciably increased in the last two years, since the last cen- sus was taken. Farm,' lands without imiprovemlents and with Table VIII.' — Table showinf/ value of farm property and live stock June 1, 1900, value of products not fed to live stock in 1899, value of all dairy products in 1899, and expenditures for fertilizers in 1899. COUNTT. Clark .... Lincoln . . Marathon Portage . . Taylor . . . Wood.... VALnB OF Faem Pkopeett, June 1, 1900. Land and im- prove- ments except buildi'gs $6,376,800 1,015,640 6,328,210 5, 305, ■100 1,1^7,050 3,909,710 Build- ings. $3,011,460 331,670 2,253,170 1,809,120 444,400 1,234,410 Imple- ments and machin- ery. $479,300 91,810 497,320 405, 700 105,860 273,210 'Live stock. iValue of [products in 1899 not fed to live stock. $1,463,104 252,311 1,609,238 1,056,931 305, 781 782,398 $1,304,210 398,298 1,713,541 1,450,132 305,056 795,164 Value of aU dairy prod- ucts, 1899. $305,484 63,393 282, 272 258,281 58,232 167,897 Expend- ed in 1899 for ferti- lizers. $1,510 660 10,120 4,690 220 940 I Compiled from Tables 19 and 44, Vol. V, Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900. little or no merchantable timj)er generally vary, at preseoat (1903), from $5 to $15 per acre, depending upon accessibility by rail and wagon road as well as upon fertility of soil. In the southern part of the area higher prices prevail than, in the northem part. Improved lands generally sell for $30 to $50 per acre, not considering value of farm buildings. CLIMATIC AND AOBICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 61 Table IX.^— Table showing acreage and production of the six cereals in 1899. Clark Lincoln Marathon .. Portage.... Taylor Wood Barley, < 1,923 385 4,797 421 401 1,754 3 4S,040 7,380 107,310 7,530 8,350 42,600 Buck- wheat. 718,10,350 780 3,200 9,270 270 8,920 20 Com. 6,141 170 2,671 17,289 91 4,763 193,690 6,790 89,690 388,100 2,990 105,070 Oats. 21,096 3,590 cq .Eye. 793,510 93,770 31,666 847,890 31,878 2,328 11,829 4,363 511 6,182 734,070 20,409 I 63,940 1,048 331,740 0,417 a n 81,200 8,880 97,460 217,780 20,070 72,830 Wheat. n 1 3 O m 3,608 60,020 553 8,125 6,373 309 2,! 8,530 113,590 85,910 4,370 34,240 1 Tables IX and X compiled from Table .'iS, Vol. VI, Part II, Twelfth Census United States, 190O. Live Stock and Animal Products. The value of live stock and dairy prodixcts for each of the counties is showu in Tables VIII. The sale of live stock and dairy products is the principal source of farm revenue in all the counties with the possible exception of Portage in which the potatoi crop is a very important source. Wisconsin is one of the leading five states in the Union in the value and production of dairy prod- ucts and northern Wisconsin is especially well adapted to this industry. Dairying has 'been growing rapidly in the northern coointies during the past decade and wisely soi. The princi- pal sales of live stock are of neat cattle, sheep, and swine. Crops. In the appended tables X and I.X a sta,teiment of the common crops in the six whole counties of the area is given. In the statement concerning the hay crop only the hay made fromi olover and tumothy with other tamie grasses is given. All the important common cropsij as should be ex- pected, are grown in the area. Hay is the leading crop .with oats second in all the connties except Portage in which pota- toes is first and hay second. The crops of Portage county, where sandy loams prevail, are quite diflferent from those of the other counties' where olay loam& occur. Wheat and rye 62 THE SOILS OF NORTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN. are more important crops than com in Marathon, Lincoln, and Taylor, rye is more impoirtant than co>m in Portage and Wood, but in Clark com is more important than either rye or wheat. The sandy loamj prevailing throughout Portage County has caused much greater special farming in this county than in the other counties of the area. The especially important crop in Portage is the potato crop. Among the states Wisconsin ranks second in the pa-oduction of potatoes and Portage County first in Wisconsin and fourth among the counties of the Union. In the production of rye Wisconsin ranks first 'amiong the states and P'ortage County fifth among the counties of the state and twelfth among the counties of the Union. The pro- duction of pease in Marathon and Clark is probably now much less than in 1899 and the production of com has greatly in- creased. Table X. — Table showing acreage and production of tame ' hay potatoes, beans and peas in 1899. Clark.... Lincoln.. . Marathon Portage . . Taylor ... Wood.... Clovbe. 790 222 1,339 12,502 112 611 1,746 369 2,544 16,677 187 1,005 Timothy AND Othee Tahe Geasses. 39,356 8,814 47,746 16,113 10,157 20,620 81,605 11,006 65,904 18,193 14,295 28,072 ; Potatoes . 2,637 742 5,004 29,099 916 4,169 CO 3 267, 769 77,768 450,989 1,978,344 82,780 273,625 Beans. 152 11 92 43 19 158 1.: 147 1,202 379 242 1,110 Peas. 2,935 307 4,512 417 460 1,010 a 47,422 4,286 65,033 6,608 6,441 15,365 In addition to the crops already mentioned, all kinds of gar- den truck are grown and also the common small fruits, such as strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, currant and gooseberry. Each of these fruits is native throughout northern Wisconsin, which proves their adaptability to the soil and climate. The large fruits, such as apple, pear, plumi, and cherry are less sue- CLIMATIC AND AGRIOULTUBAL CONDITIONS. 63 cessful, but if a wise selection, of soil and site is made, the hardier varieties of the apple, pluin!, and oheny may be grown -with fair success. The cranberry is an, important crop in the irrigated peat soils of southern "Wood Ctounty. Transportation and Communication. Each of th© cnnatiea of the area is well supplied with railroads, aflFording ample mieans of transportation toi the Chicago and Milwaukee mlar- kets. Telephone lines reach every village and most coiuitiy stores, and rural mail routes are gradually being placed throughout the iarea. In the settled poirtions of the area good roads prevail, it being the general poilicy of the road authoov ities to construct graded roads to all new settlers as fast as pos- sible. In some of the older sections macadami and gravel roiads have been built. The toll system is nowhere in vogue in the area. Local Markets. The leading cities, with; their populatioii in 1900, are as follows: Wausau ,..,12,354 Stevens Point , 9,524 Merrill.. ,. ., 8,537 Marshfield 5,240 Antigo 5,145 Grand Rapids ,. ., 4,493 Tomiahawk 2,291 NeiUsville ., 2,104 Medford 1,758 Smaller cities and villages are well distributed throughout the area and afford ample means for trade. 64 THE SOILS OF NORTH-CENTBAL WISCONSIN. Forest Conditions. The standing timiber in millioes of feet, board measiire, in 1897, was estimated by F. Rotb of the TJ. S. Dept. of Agriculture to be as follows: County. Pine. Hemlock. Hardwood. Clark ZOO 20 200 250 200 100 30 50 1,600 1,000 1,600 40 650 100 1,500 1,000 Taylor 1,000 Wood 300 The pine is mbstly white pine, only a very small pesrcentagie being ISTorway. Much less than onfr-half the pine is in large bo:dies, the rest ocourring thinly scattered through the hard- woods and hemlock. The hardwoods consist of ash, basswood, birch, ehn, oak and maple. TIhe above estimlates were care- fully made in 1897, and it is probable that 50 to 75 per cent, of the pine, and 10 to 20 per cent, of the hardwoods and hemjlock have since been cut. INDEX. Ackley gravelly clay, described, 44-45. Ackley, town of, 22. 44. Acres in farms, 59. Agriculture, condition of, in North Central Wisconsin, 58. AlbaE, postoffice, town of, 26. Alluvial sand and gravel, wells in, 9. Almond, village of, 9, 21, 22. town of, 25. Amherst sandy loam, described, 25-28, Amherst, town of, 25. village of, monthly precipitation in, 52. maximum and minimum temperature in, 50-51. summer rainfall in, 53. killing frosts in, 54. Animal products, 61. Antigo, city of, 2, 7, 9, 28. population of, 63. Antigo gravelly loam, described, 22-24. Area, of Amherst sandy loam, 25. of Antigo gravelly loam, 22. of Bancroft gravelly sandy loam, 20. of Gary sandy loam, SO. of Chelsea clay loam, 28. of Colby loamy clay, 36. of Harrison sandy gravelly soil, 35. of Kennan clay loam, 33, of Marathon loam, 39. of Mentor loamy sand, 32. of Mosinee gravelly soil, 43. of North Central Wisconsin, 1 . of swamps and marsh soil, 45. of Wisconsin River sandy soil, 17. Araott, village of, 21. Arpin, village of, 2. Artesian wells, absence of, 11 . Babcock, village of, 48. Bancroft, village of, 20, 21, 22. Bancroft gravelly sandy loam, described, 20-22. Belmont, town of, 25. Bergen, town of, 39. Big Bau Pleine Eiver, 3. Big Bib Kiver, 41. Black River, 3, 56. Brick clays, 7. Buena Vista, town of, 25. Gary sandy loam, described, 30-32. Gary, town of, 31. Cassel, town of, 39 . Chamberlin, T. C, referred to, 12. Character and origin, of Amherst sandy loam, 25. of Antigo gravelly loam, 22. of Bancroft gravelly sandy loam, 20. of Gary sandy loam, 31. of Chelsea clay loam, 29. of Colby loamy clay, 36. of Harrison sandy gravelly soil, 35. of Kennan clay loam, 34. of Marathon loam, 40. of Mentor loamy sand, 32. of Mosinee gravelly soil, 43. of swamp and marsh soil, 45. of Wisconsin River sandylsoil, 17. Chelsea clay loam.'described, 28-30. Chemical composition of soil, 16. Chippewa River, 3. Claud's Lake, 25. Classification of soil, 15. Climate, 49. Colby loamy clay, described, 36-39. Composition of soil, chemical, 16. textural, 15. Condition of agriculture, 58. Condition of rainfall, 53. Copper River, 3. Crops, of Northern Central Wisconsin^ statistical tables of, 61-63 of Amherst sandy loam, 27. of Antigo gravelly loam, 24. of Bancroft gravelly sandy loam, 21. of Gary sandy loam, 31. of Chelsea clay loam, 30. of Colby loamy clay, 39. of Harrison sandy gravelly soil, 38. of Kennan clay loam, 34. of Marathon loam, 42. . of Mentor loamy sand,'83 I of Mosinee gravelly soil, 44. 66 INDEX Crops, of swamp and marsh soil, 47 . of Wisconsin River sandy soil, 19. Cranberry, culture of, 47. in Wood County, 63. Crystalline rocks, described, 4. wells in, 9. Dexter, town of, 31. Easton, town of, 39. Eaton, town of, 31. Eau Claire River, 3, 22. Eau Pleine, town of, 40. Elevation of North Central Wisconsin, 1. of Rib Hill, 2. of Power's Blufe, 2. EUis postofEce, 20, 21. Emmett, town of, 39. Expenditures for farm property, 60. Farm lands, 59. Farm property, 60, Farms, acres in, 59. average size of, 59. number of, 59. Farm buildings, 59. Fertilizers, 60. Forest condition, 64. Forest growth, of Amherst sandy loam, 27 . of Antigo gravelly loam, 24. of Bancroft gravelly sandy loam, 21 , of Cary sandy loam, 32. of Chelsea clay loam, 30. of Colby loamy clay, 39. of Harrison sandy gravelly soil, 35. of Kennan clay loam, 34. of Marathon loam, 42. of Mentor loamy sand, 33, of Mosinee gravelly soil, 44. of swamp and marsh soil, 47. of Wisconsin Eiver, sandy soil 19. Frosts, killing, table of, 55. Glacial drift, described, 5. wells in, 9. Grand Eapids, city of, first settled, 37. population of, 63. Granite, 7. Groundwater, changes in level of , 8. of Amherst sandy loam, 26. of Antigo gravelly loam, 24. of Bancroft gravelly sandy loam, 21. of Cary sandy loam, 31. of Chelsea clay loam, 30. of Colby loamy clay, 38. of Harrison sandy gravelly soil, 85. of Eennan clay loam, 34. Groundwater, of Marathon loam, 41. of Mentor loamy sand, 33. of Mosinee gravelly soil, 44. of swamp and marsh soil, 46. of Wisconsin River sandy soil, IS. Harrison sandy gravelly soil, described, 35- 36. Harrison, town of, in Lincoln county, 35. in Marathon county, 43, 44. Hansen, town of, 31 . Hiles, town of, 31. Hull, post office, 20. Jump River, 3. Kennan clay loam, described, 33-35. King, F. H., referred to, 15, 18, 19,. 63. King, town of, 35. Knowlton, town of , 39. •Koepeniok, village of, 49. monthly precipitation in, 52. summer rainfall in, 53. temperature in, 51-52. Kronen wetter, town of , 39. Lakes and swamps, 3. Lake Emily, 25 . Lanark, town of, 25. Lands, proportion of cultivated and un- cultivated, 58. Levis, town of, 31. Limestone, absence of, 7. Little Eau Pleine River, 3. Little Rib River, 41. Littie Wolf River, 27. Live stock, 61. table of value of, 60. Lynn town of, 31, vUlageof, 39. Maine, town of, 39. Marathon loan, described, 39-43, Marathon, town of, 39-43. Markets, 63. Marl, 7. Marshfleld, city of, 39. population of, 63. Mead, town of, 31. Medford, city of , 3. population of, 63. monthly precipitation in, 52> summer rainfall in, 53. temperature in, 50-51 . Mentor loamy sand, described, 32-33. Merrill, city of, first settled, 57. population of , 63. INDEX 67 MUl Creek, 3. Mosinee graTelly soil, described, iS-U. Mosinee, town of, 43. Neillsville, city of, referred to, 3, 89. first settled, 67. monthly precipitation in, B2. population of, 63, summer rainfall la, 53. temperature in, 60-51. Nekoosa, village of, 18, 57. New Hope, town of, 25. New Wood River, 3, 29. Origin of soil, 13, (See Character and origin of the soU formations.) Ogema, village of, 28. Peat, 7. Pickerel Lake, 25. Pine River, 3. Plover River, 3. Population, increase of, in the several counties, 58. in the leading cities, 63. Potsdam sandstone, 5. wells in, 9. Powers' Bluff, 2. Prairie River, 3, 29. Prentice, city of, 57. Railroads, first, 67. Rainfall, table of, 52. condition of. in Wisconsin, 53. Rib FaUs, town of, 39. Rib HUl, 2, 40. Rivers and valleys, described, 2, Road material, 7, Reck, town of, 31. Rock and mineral supplies, 7. Rock weathering, 14. Rosholt, poEtofBceof, 26. Self, town of, 31. Seneca, town of, 31. Settlements, first, 57. Sharon, town of, 25. Sherwood Forest, town of, 31. Sigel, town of, 31. Slope and general features, of North Cen- tral Wisconsin, 1. Soil, origin of, 13. classification of, 15. chemical composition of, 16. texture of, 16-16. Somo River, 3. Spirit River, 3. Stettin, town of, 39, 41. Stevens Point, city of, referred to, 18, 67, monthly precipitation in, 52. population of, "3. summer rainfall in, 63. temperature in, 50-51. town of, 40. Stockton, village of, 22. town of, 25. Surface features, of Amherst sandy Ioam,26. of Antigo gravelly loam, 22. of Bancroft gravelly sandy loam, 20. of Gary sandy loam, 31. of Chelsea clay loam, 28. of Colby loamy clay, 36. of Harrison sandy gravelly soil, 35. of Eennan clay loam, 33, of Marathon loam, 40. of Mentor loamy sand, 32. of Mosinee gravelly soil, 43. of swamp and marsh soil, 45. of Wisconsin River sandy soil, 17. Swamp and marsh soil, described, 45-48. Swamps. (See Lakes and swamps.) Table, of crops, 61, 63. of forest conditions, 64. of killing frosts, 66. of value of farm property, 60. of value of live stock, 60. Temperature, discussed, 49, tables of, 50, 61. Terminal moraine, 2. Tomahawk, city of, referred to, 28. population of, 63. town of, 35. Tomahawk River, 3. Topography, of North Central Wisconsin, described, 1, 4. (See Surface features.) Transportation and communication facili- ties, in North Central Wisconsin, 63. Trapp River, 3. Washburn, town of, 31. Water powers, 12. Water supply, 8. Wausau, city of, referred to, 2, 10. first settled, 67. population of, 63. town of, 39. Weathering of rocks into soil, 14. Well water, character of, 8. 68 INDEX Wells, artesian, absence of, 11. in alluvial sand and gravel, 9. in crystalline rock, 9. in glacial drift, 9. in Potsdam sandstone, 9. WestoD, town of, 39, 43. Wisconsin River, 2, 6, 11, 29 and 45. Wisconsin Kivor sandy soil, described, 17- 20. Wood, town of, 31 . Yellow River, 3. PUBLICATIONS OF THE Wisconsin Geological and Natural History SuiYcy. 1. Bulletins. The publications of the Survey are issued as bulletins, which are num- bered consecutively. Each bulletin is independently paged and indexed, no attempt being made to group them in volumes. The bulletins are issued in three series, A. Scientific Series. — The bulletins so designated consist of original contributions to the geology and natural history of the state, which are of scientific interest rather than of economic importance. B. Economic Series. — This series includes those bulletins whose in- terest is chiefly practical and economic. C. Educational Series. — The bulletins of this series are primarily designed for use by teachers and in the schools. The following bulletins have been issued: Bulletin No. I. Economic Series No. 1. On the Porestrjr Conditions of Northern Wisconsin. Filibert Roth, Special Agent, United States Department of Agriculture. 1898. Pp. vi., 78; 1 map. Sent on receipt of 10c. Bulletin No. II. Scientific Series No. 1. On the Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps. George W. Peck- ham and Elizabeth G. Peckham. 1898. Pp. iv., 241; U plates, of which 2 are colored; 2 figures in the text. Sold at the price of $1.50 in paper and $2.00 bound IJBulletin No. III. Scientifio Series No. ^. A Contribution to the Geology of the Pre-Cambrian Igneous Rocks of the Fox River Valley, Wisconsin. Samuel Weidman, Ph. D., Assistant Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. 1898. Pp. iv., 63; 10 plates; 13 figures in the text. Oat of print. Bulletin No. IV. Economic Series No. ^. On the Building and Ornamental Stones of Wisconsin. Ernest Robert- son Buckley, Ph. D., Assistant Geologist Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. 1898 (issued in 1899). Pp. xxvi., 544; 69 plates, of which 7 are colored, and 1 map; 4 figures in the text. Sent on receipt of 30c. Bulletin No. V. Educational Series No. 1. The Geography of the Region About Devil's Lake and the Dalles of the Wisconsin, with some notes on its surface geology. Kollin D. Salisbury, A. M., Professor of Geographic Geology, University of Chicago, and Wal- lace W. Atwood, B. S., Assistant in Geology, University of Chicago. 1900. Pp. X., 151; 38 plates; 47 figures in the text. Bent on receipt of 30c. Bulletin No. VI. Economic Series No. 3. Second Edition. Preliminary Report on the Copper- Bearing Rocks of Douglas county, and parts of Washbnrn and Bayfield Counties, Wisconsin. Ulysses Sher- man Grant, Ph. D., Professor of Geology, Northwestern University. 1901. Pp. vi., 83; 13 plates. Sent on receipt of 10c. Bulletin No. VII. Economic Series No. 4. The Clays and Clay Industries of Wisconsin. Part I. Ernest Robert- son Buckley, Ph. D., Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. In charge of Economic Geology. 1901. Pp. xii., 304; 55 plates. Sent on receipt of 20c. Bulletin No. VIII. Educational Series No. Z. The Lakes of Southeastern Wisconsin. N. M. Fenneman, Ph. D., Pro- fessor of General and Geographic Geology, University of Wisconsin. 1902. Pp. XV., 178; 36 plates, 38 figures in the text. Sent (bound) on receipt of 50 cents. Bulletin No. IX. Economic Series No. 5. Preliminary Report on the Lead and Zinc Deposits of Southwestern Wis- consin. Ulysses Sherman Grant, Ph D., Professor of Geology, North- western University. 190:?. Pp. viii, 103; 2 maps, 2 plates, 8 figures in the text. Sent on receipt of 10 cents. Bulletin No. X. Econom,ic Series No. 6. Highway Construction in Wisconsin. Ernpst Robertson Buckley, Ph. D., State Geologist of Missouri, formerly Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. 1903. Pp. xvi, 339; 106 plates, including 26 maps of cities. Sent on receipt of 30 cents. Bulletin No. XI. Economic Series No. 7. Preliminary Report on the Soils and Agricultural Conditions of North Central Wisconsin. Samuel Weidman, Ph. D.. Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. 1903. Pp. viii, 67; plales 10, including soil map. Sent, paper bound, without charge, cloth bound, on receipt of 20 cents. In Peess. Bulletin No. XII. Scientific Series No. S. The Plankton of Lake Winnebago and Green Lake. C. Dwight Marsh, A. M., Professor of Biology, Ripon College. Bulletin No. XIII. Economic Series No. g. The Baraboo Iron Bearing District. Samuel Weidman, Ph. D., Geolo- gist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. 2. Biennial Rbpoets. The Survey has published three biennial reports, which relate to admin- istrative affairs only and contain no scientific matter. First Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the Geological and Nat- ural History Survey. 1899. Pp. 31. Second Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the Geological and Natural History Survey. 1901. Pp. 44. Third Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the Geological and Nat- ural History Survey. 1903. Pp. 35. 3. Htdrogbaphic Maps. There have been prepared hydrographic maps of the principal lakes of southern and eastern Wisconsin. This work is in charge of L. S. Smith, Assistant Professor of Topographical Engineering, University of Wis- consin. The following maps are now ready: Size of Plate, Scale, Inches Contour In- Inches. per mile, terval, Feet. No. 1. LakeGeneTa 17.5x10.8 No. 2. ElkhartLake 15.5x13.1 No. 3. Lake Keulah 22.5x20.0 No. 4. OeoDomowoc-Waukesha Lakes 29.8x19.1 No. 5. The Chain of Lakes, Waupaca 21.7x20.6 No. 6. Delavao and Lauderdale Lakes 22. ."1x16. 8 No. 7. Green Lake 26 0x17.8 No. 8. Lake Mendota 23 7x19.5 No. 9. BisCedarLake 18.0x13.5 No. 10. Lake Monona 17.6x17.3 In all of these maps the depth of the lakes is indicated by contour lines, and by tints in all except No. 1. They are sent on receipt of 15 cents each except Nos. 4 and 8, for which 20 cents are required. They may be had either mounted in a manilla cover, or unmounted. All correspondence relating to the survey should be addressed to B. A. BiHGB, Director, Madison, Wis. 2 10 5 10 6 10 2 10 6 10 1 10 3.2 20 6 5 2.9 10 i 5