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 Pre-hlstoric phases or Introductory es 
 
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PRE-HISTORIC PHASES. 
 
PRE-HISTORIC PHASES; 
 
 INTEODUOTOEY ESSAYS 
 
 PRE-HISTOEIC AKCHiEOLOGY. 
 
 HODDER M. WESTEOPP. 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE " HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY." 
 
 WITB ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 LONDON: 
 BELL & DALDY, YOEK STEEET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 1872. 
 
K,\SS^'L% 
 
 lonbok: 
 printed by 'wilham clowes and sons, 
 
 STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROfiS. 
 
TO 
 
 SIE JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., 
 
 THESE PAGES 
 
 ABE BESPECTFULLY 
 
 DEDICATED. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The chapters on Pre-historic Archaeology, which 
 form this volume, are chiefly republications, with 
 some additions, of papers read at the Anthropological 
 and Ethnological Societies. I have been induced to 
 publish them in a separate form, as short introductory 
 essays on those subjects, which have lately excited 
 much attention in Pre-historic Archeology. To 
 Mr. Norgate I am indebted for a good many of the 
 illustrative woodcuts. My thanks are due to Mr. 
 Murray for electros of the carvings at Lough Crew ; 
 and to Mr. Day for the woodcuts of his unique 
 example of an Irish bronze sword. Through the 
 kindness of Albert Way, Esq., I am able to insert 
 woodcuts of some examples of Italian celts in my 
 collection, and which have been engraved by the 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Archaeological Institute. The Royal Irish Academy 
 has allowed me only a very small portion of the 
 woodcuts in its catalogue. The Publishers have 
 kindly permitted me to introduce some of the wood- 
 cuts from Demmin's " Weapons of "War ;" also to 
 insert the lithograph of rock-carvings, from Mr. 
 Brett's " Guiana." 
 
 H. M. W. 
 
 Ventnor, 1872. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A NEW science has dawned upon us, lighting up the 
 earliest history of mankind. Pre-historic arehseology 
 is the latest to arrive of a series of luminaries that 
 have dispelled the mist of ages, and replaced time- 
 honoured traditions by scientific truths. The silent 
 past has been made to speak, and the sea of unre- 
 corded ages to render up its dead. Long buried 
 things have become witnesses of the deeds and modes 
 of life in the remotest times. Pre-historic archeology 
 has opened up a long vista through distant historic 
 periods, to the farthest and darkest ages. It has been 
 defined as the history of men, and things that have 
 no history. 
 
 All over the world are scattered vestiges and relics 
 of unknown races and times, of races which existed 
 in times before history commenced. As Dr. Wilson 
 observes^ "The investigation of the underlying 
 chronicles of Europe's most ancient human history, 
 has placed beyond question that its historic period 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 was preceded by an unhistoric one of long duration, 
 marked by a slow progression from arts of the rudest 
 kind, to others which involved the germs of all later 
 development." 
 
 The first appearance of man on the globe, hitherto 
 supposed to be of late date, has been thrown back 
 to a remote period. Until the last few years, the 
 earliest records of man lay hidden in the earth, and 
 the earliest witnesses of his labours, the works of his 
 own hands, were passed over unheeded. We have 
 now indisputable evidence that man has outlived vast 
 changes of climate, and has seen race after race of 
 animals disappear around him, the mammoth, the elk, 
 the reindeer, the gigantic bear. The late discoveries 
 in pre-historic archaeology confirm, in the most 
 unequivocal manner, the high antiquity of the 
 human race. In the remotest ages, which historic 
 traditions mention, we find that man had already 
 reached a certain stage of intellectual and moral 
 development, but, before attaining that point, he 
 passed during many ages through a series of inter- 
 mediate stages, between a mere animal existence, and 
 the first phase of civilization. History being silent 
 on this period, of which even approximately we 
 cannot calculate the immense duration, it is to pre- 
 historic archaeology we are indebted for revealing its 
 
INTBODUOTION. xi 
 
 secrets. Everything relative to the earliest dawn- 
 ings of human life demands the attention of every 
 one, who devotes his mind to the great problem of 
 our origin, and of the laws which govern the evolu- 
 tion of our race on the surface of the globe. 
 
 To sum up in the words of a late writer in the 
 " Edinburgh Review," " Pre-historic archaeology 
 tells us, that in Europe there has been a steady 
 progress in the usages and appliances of social life. 
 Man first appeared on the scene as a savage, living 
 by the chase. Then a race of shepherds and tillers 
 of the earth come before us, the introducers of 
 domestic animals into Europe ; then the knowledge of 
 bronze gradually crept northwards, and a commerce 
 by barter sprang up ; and lastly, a knowledge of iron, 
 and a commerce carried on by means of a coinage. 
 Thus we are conducted gradually from the remote 
 geological past, to the borders of history in north and 
 central Europe." 
 
 In the following chapters we have attempted to trace 
 the sequence of stages in the development of man, 
 during pre-historic times, and also of the works of his 
 hands from the earliest and rudest ages up to that 
 period when the progressive development of man 
 and his works, reached its maturity. A necessary 
 sequence in the phases of man's social development, 
 
INTRODUGTION. 
 
 and in the stages of the progressive improvement in 
 his works, appears to be an invariable law. 
 
 I have added chapters on Cromlechs and Rock 
 Carvings, as they belong to pre-historic times, and 
 may be considered as the result and products of 
 the rude development and semi-civilization of pre- 
 historic phases. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I. 
 
 On the Eaklibst Phases of Civilization 1 
 
 II. 
 
 On the Degraded Phase 37 
 
 III. 
 
 On the Sequence of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Implements. 40 
 
 IV. 
 
 On the Sequence op Phases op Civilization, and Con- 
 temporaneous Implements 99 
 
 V. 
 
 On the Analogous Forms op Implements among Early 
 
 AND Primitive Races 115 
 
 VI. 
 
 On the Tribal System . . . 127 
 
 VII. 
 Cromlechs 143 
 
 VIII. 
 EocK Carvings 176 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I. 
 
 Half-size. 
 
 flint aebow-hbads and speak-heads. 
 Englaot). 
 
 1. Mint arrow-head, barbed. Half -size. 
 2 & 3. Flint arrow-heads, leaf-shaped. In my collection. Half- 
 size. 
 Denmark. 
 
 4. Flint spear-head. One-third size. 
 
 5. Flint arrow-head, barbed. j 
 
 6. Flint arrow-head, triangular. In my col- [ Half-size. 
 
 lection. J 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 7. Flint arrow-head, leaf-shaped. v 
 
 8. Flint arrow-head, barbed. 
 
 9. Flint arrow-head, triangular. 
 
 14. Flint spear-head. In my collection. •' 
 Italy. 
 
 . * I Flint arrow-heads, stemmed. In my collection. Half- 
 
 12! ) *'■''• 
 
 13. Flint arrow-head. In Oastellani collection. Half-size. 
 France. 
 
 16. Flint arrow-head, barbed. Half-size. 
 
 15. ) 
 
 ' I Flint arrow-heads, stemmed. In my collection. Half- 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 19. 1 
 
 ■ \ Flint arrow-heads, stemmed. Half-size. 
 
 21. Arrow-head of crystal. From St. Anbin, Neufchatel. 
 Ill my collection. Half-size. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 North Amebioa. 
 
 22. 1 Flint arrow-heads, stemmed. In my collection. Half- 
 
 23. ) size. 
 Japan. 
 
 24. Arrow-head of grey chalcedony, triangular. 
 
 25. Arrow-head of jasper. 1 Stemmed. 
 
 26. Arrow-head. Christy Museum. I Half-size. 
 
 CHALD^iA, 
 
 27. Flint arrow-head. Berlin Museum. One-fifth size. 
 EaiPT. 
 
 28. Flint arrow-head. Berlin Museum. One-sixth size. 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 29. Arrow-head of quartzite, leaf-shaped. In my collection. 
 
 Half-size. 
 Pektt. 
 
 30. Arrow-head of quartzite, stemmed. 
 
 31. Arrow-head of quartzite. In the Museum of Queen's 
 
 College, Cert. Half-size. 
 Mexico. 
 
 32. ] Airow-heads of obsidian, stemmed. From Tyler's 
 
 33. I "Anahiiac." Half-size. 
 Gbeeniand. 
 
 34. Arrow-head of chert, stemmed. In Mr. Day's collection. 
 
 One-third size. 
 
 TiEREA DEL FUEGO. 
 
 35. Arrow-head of flint, stemmed. From Nilsson's " Stone 
 
 Age." Actual size. 
 Algiers. 
 
 36. Arrow-head of flint, stemmed. Christy Museum. One- 
 
 fourth size. 
 Easter Island. 
 
 37. Arrow-head of obsidian. Anthropological Institute. 
 
 One-fourth size. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PL4TES. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II. 
 
 STONE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 1. Egypt. — Celt of jade. In the Christy Museum. If inches. 
 
 2. Gebeoe. — Celt of diorite. In Mr. Finlay's collection. 
 
 6^ inches. 
 
 3. Italt. — Celt of diorite. In the Castellani collection. 5 inches. 
 
 4. Chald^a. — Celt of basalt. In the British Museum. 2 inches. 
 
 5. India. — Celt, from Bundelkund. In my collection. 4 inches. 
 
 6. Japan. — Celt of greenish stone. In the Christy Museum. 
 
 2f inches. 
 
 7. Pegu. — Celt of greenish stone. In Colonel Lane Eox's col- 
 
 lection. 
 
 8. China. — Celt of green jade. In the Christy Museum. 
 
 2 1 inches. 
 
 9. England. — Celt of flint. In my collection. 4^ inches. 
 
 10. Ibeland. — Celt of flint. In my collection. 4f inches. 
 
 11. Denmark. — Celt of flint. In my collection. 4^ inches. 
 
 12. Fkance. — From Chateau-Dun. In my collection. 5 inches. 
 
 13. Spain. — From Genista Cave, Gibraltar. In the Christy 
 
 Museum. 4|- inches. 
 
 14. Russia. — From Minsk. In the International Exhibition, Paris. 
 
 4^ inches. 
 
 15. Gbbmany. — Celt of flint. — In my collection. 5 inches. 
 
 16. Algeria. — Celt of flint. — In the Christy Museum. 2^ inches. 
 
 17. North America. — Celt of flint. In my collection. 4J inches. 
 
 18. Mexico.— From Dr. Wilson's " Pre-historic Man," 4^ inches. 
 
 19. Peru. — From Cuzco. In my collection. 3| inches. 
 
 20. Brazil. — Brought by Captain Burton. In the Anthropological 
 
 Institute. 6 inches. 
 
 21. New Zealand. — Celt of jade. In my collection. 7i inches. 
 
 22. New Caledonia. — Celt of jade. In my collection. 6t inches. 
 
 23. St. Domingo. — Carib celt of coarse jade, with carved face. In 
 
 my collection. 8 inches. 
 
 24. Australia. — Celt of basalt. In my collection. 6 inches. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 DESCEIPTION OF PLATE III. 
 
 BKONZB AEKOW-HEADS AND SPEAR-HEADS. 
 
 1. German arrow-head. Museum of Sigmaringen. Prom Dem- 
 
 min's " Weapons of War," p. 130. 
 
 2. Arrow-head, with tang. Pound in Mecklenburg. Schwerin 
 
 Museum. Prom " Horse Perales," pi. vi. 2t%- inches long. 
 ■3. Arrow, or javelin-head of leaf-shape. Pound in Mecklenburg. 
 Schwerin Museum. From " Horse Ferales," pi. vi. 4| inches 
 long. Both the above are evident copies of the flint arrow 
 or spear-heads, 
 
 4. Barbed arrow-head. Berlin Museum. From " Horaj Ferales," 
 
 p]. vi. This is also a copy of a flint barbed arrow-head. 
 1-f^ inches long. 
 
 5. German arrow-head. Museum of Sigmaringen. From Dem- 
 
 min's " Weapons of War," p. 130. 
 
 6. Egyptian arrow-head. Prom Sir G. WUkinson's "Ancient 
 
 Egyptians," vol. i. p. 353. 
 
 7. Arrow-head from Prance. Museum of the Louvre. Prom 
 
 Demmin's " Weapons of War," p. 135. 
 
 8. German arrow-head. Museum of Sigmaringen. From Dem- 
 
 min's " Weapons of War," p. 130. 
 
 9. German arrow-head. Museum of Sigmaringen. From Dem- 
 
 min's "Weapons of War," p. 130. 
 
 10. Arrow-head, from Prance. Louvre. From Demmin's 
 
 " Weapons of War," p. 135. 
 
 11. Greek spear-head. 
 
 12. Javelin-head. Hanover Museum. From "Horse Perales," 
 
 pi. vi. 4f inches long. 
 
 13. Javelin-head. Ireland. British Museum. From " Hor® Pe- 
 
 rales," pi. vi. 4|^ inches long. 
 
 14. Spear-head. Ireland. " Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish Academy," 
 
 p. 499. 
 
 15. Javelin-head. Ireland. British Museum. Prom "Horse 
 
 Perales," pi. vi. 4| inches long. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 16. JaveHn-head. Prance. Hotel de Cluny, Paris. Prom " Hor* 
 
 Perales," pi. vi. 4f inches long. 
 
 17. Spear-head. Probably Irish. British Museum. Prom " Horffi 
 
 Perales," pi. vi. lOJ inches long. 
 
 18. Spear-head. This fine weapon was found with a hoard of 
 
 bronzes, at Dowris, King's County, Ireland. There are 
 several spear-heads of this type in the Museum of the 
 Eoyal Irish Academy. See Sir W. Wilde's "Catalogue," 
 p. 499. British Museum. Prom " Horee Perales," pi. vi. 
 14 inches long. 
 
 19. Plain spear-head. Pound in the Thames. British Museum. 
 
 Prom " HorEB Perales," pi. vi. 13i inches long. 
 
 20. Leaf-shaped spear-head. Hanover Museum. Prom "Hors 
 
 Perales,'' pi. vi. 9i inches long. 
 
 DESOEIPTION OP PLATE IV. 
 
 1, 2, 3. Plat celts. In my collection. 
 4, 5, 6, 7. Palstaves. In my collection. 
 
 Showing the development of the palstave from the flat celt. 
 
 DESCEIPTION OP PLATE V. 
 
 STONE CIRCLES. 
 
 1. Single Stone Circle. Jewurgi. Prom Waring's "Stone 
 
 Monuments," pi. 63, fig. 6. 
 
 2. Double Stone Circle. Jewurgi. Waring's " Stone Monuments," 
 
 pi. 63, fig. 6. 
 
 3. Stone Circle. Algeria. Prom Flowers' " Pre-historic Sepul- 
 
 chres of Algeria.'' 
 
 4. Enclosure of Upright Stones. Dehayeh, Persia. Waring, 
 
 pi. 60, fig. 3. 
 
 5. Double Stone Circle. Abury. Waring, pi. 38, fig. 1. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 6. A Scandinavian tumulus, with a Single Stone Circle. Waring, 
 
 pi. 32, fig. 1. 
 
 7. Tumulus. Near Lough Oorrib, Ireland. With Double Stone 
 
 Circle. From Sir W. Wilde's " Lough Corrib." 
 
 8. Cromlech. Tarf, Algeria. With Stone Circle. From Flowers' 
 
 " Algeria." 
 
 9. Cromlech. Abury. With Stone Circle. Waring, pi, 38, fig. 1. 
 
 10. Great Stone Circle. Brogar, Orkney. Waring, pi. 48, fig. 8. 
 
 11. Stonehenge. Eestored. 
 
 DESCKIPTION OF PLATE VI. 
 
 Timehri, or carved rocks. On the Eiver Carentyn. From 
 Eev. W. H. Brett's " Indian Tribes of Guiana." 
 
DESCEIPTION OF THE WOODCUTS. 
 
 1. Eude flint implement. From the gravel drift at Hoxne. After 
 
 Frere. " Archseologia," 1800, pi. xv. From Sir Jolin 
 Lubbock's " Pre-tistoric Times," p. 337. One-half actual 
 size. 
 
 2. Another specimen. After Frere. "Archseologia," 1800, pi. xv. 
 
 From Sir John Lubbock's " Pre-historic Times," p. 386, 
 
 3. Stone implement. From Madras. From Sir John Lubbock's 
 
 " Pre-historic Times," p. 340. 
 
 4. Flint core, from which flakes have been struck off. Ireland. 
 
 " Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish Academy," p. 8. 
 
 5. Flint flake. Denmark. From Sir John Lubbock's " Pre-his- 
 
 toric Times/' p. 81. Acttml size. 
 
 6. Arrow-shaped flake. From Ireland. It is worked at the butt 
 
 end. " Catalogue of the Eoyal Lish Academy," p. 72. 
 
 7. Flint flake. Denmark. From Sir John Lubbock's " Pre- 
 
 historic Times," p. 80. 
 
 8. Australian flake. From Sir John Lubbock's "Pre-historic 
 
 Times," p. 84. One-half actual size. 
 
 9. Pressigny core. From Demmin's " Weapons of War," p. 78. 
 
 10. Triangular flint arrow-head. " Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish 
 
 Academy," p. 19. Actual size. 
 
 11. Indented flint arrow-head. " Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish 
 
 Academy," p. 20. Actual size. 
 
 12. Barbed flint arrow-head. " Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish 
 
 Academy," p. 22. Actual size. 
 
 13. Leaf-shaped flint arrow-head, showing the gradual passage 
 
 into the spear -head. " Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish 
 Academy. Actual size. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF WOODCUTS. 
 
 14. Flint axe. Denmark. Ground at the edge. Showing the 
 
 initial stage in celt making, From Sir John Lubbock's 
 " Pre-historio Times," p. 94. 
 
 15. Danish flint hatchet, chipped at edge. From Demmin's 
 
 " Weapons of War," p. 78. 
 
 16. Stone celt or hatchet. Ireland.- Ground all over. " Catalogue 
 
 of the Eoyal Irish Academy," p. 41. 5f inches long, and 2 
 hroad. 
 
 17. Stone celt, with a wooden handle. Monaghan, Ireland. 
 
 "Catalogue of-Iloyal Irish Academy," p. 46. 
 
 18. Stone celt, with wooden handle. Concise; from Desor. 
 
 From Sir John Lubbock's " Pre-historic Times," p. 89. 
 One-third actual size. 
 
 19. Copper arrow or spear-head, hammered into shape. Cincinnati. 
 
 Whittlesey, "Boston Society of Natural History," vol. i. 
 pi. 16, fig. 6. From Sir John Lubbock's "Pre-historic 
 Times," p. 245. One-third actual sine. 
 
 20. Copper celt, from Ireland, cast. " Catalogue of the Eoyal 
 
 Irish Academy," p. 363. One-half actual size. 
 
 21. Greek sword. Museum of Artillery, Paris. 32 inches long. 
 
 22. Boman sword. 26 inches long. 
 
 23. Eoman sword, 23 inches long. 
 
 24. DanisL sword. Copenhagen Museum. 37 inches long. 
 
 25. German sword. Museum of Cassel. 22 inches long. 
 
 26. Danish sword. Copenhagen Museum. 35 inches long. 
 
 27. British sword. Tower of London. 
 
 28. 1 Irish swords. Meyrick Collection. From Demmin's 
 
 29. 1 " Weapons of War." 
 
 30. Irish bronze sword, with bone handle. In the collection of 
 
 E. Day, Esq., F.S.A. 25 inches long. 
 
 31. 1 The three principal types of bronze celts, and the manner 
 
 32. \ in which they are supposed to have been handled. " Cat- 
 
 33. i alogue of the Eoyal Irish Academy," p. 367. 
 
 34. French bronze palstave. Found in the Seine. Museum of 
 
 Artillery, Paris. 
 
 35. Danish bronze palstave. Copenhagen Museum. 11 inches long. 
 
 36. German bronze palstave. Museum of Sigmaringen. 6 inches 
 
 long. 
 
DESOBIPTION OF WOODCUTS. 
 
 German bronze palstave. Museum of Hanover. The last from 
 woodcuts, from Demmin's " Weapons of War." 
 
 37. Socketed celt. Ireland. "Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish 
 
 Academy,'' p. 385. One-third actual size. 
 
 38. Socketed celt. Denmark. From Sir John Lubbock's " Pre- 
 
 historic Times," p. 26. 'One-third actual size. 
 
 39. Socketed celt. France. In my collection. 5 inches long. 
 
 40. Socketed celt. Switzerland. Museum of Geneva. The last 
 
 two from Demmin's " Weapons of War,'' p. 144. 
 
 41. Half of a celt mould. From Ireland.* It is of mica slate, 
 
 6J inches long, by 4 wide, and presents upon the surface the 
 apertures by the means of which it was adjusted by the 
 other half. " Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish Academy," p. 91. 
 
 42. Flat bronze celt. From the South of Italy. 
 
 43. Bronze palstave, or winged celt. From Perugia. 
 
 44. Bronze palstave, or winged celt. From South of Italy. 
 
 45. Bronze socketed celt. From the South of Italy. These four 
 
 Italian celts are in my collection. The woodcuts have been 
 lent by the Archfeologioal Institute, through Albert 
 Way, Esq. Half-size. 
 
 46. Six German arrow-heads, iron. Museum of Sigmaringen. 
 
 47. Palstave of iron. Collection of M. Az. Lintz. 
 
 Palstave of iron. National Museum of Munich. 7J inches 
 long. 
 
 48. Spear-head of iron. Found at Selzen, Hesse. 16 inches long. 
 Spear-head of iron. Found at Londinieres. Museum of 
 
 Artillery, Paris. From Demmin's "Weapons of War," 
 p. 154. 15 inches long. 
 
 49. German sword, the blade of iron, the hilt of bronze. From 
 
 Hallstadt. 16 J inches long. 
 
 50. German socketed celt, of iron. Cabinet of Antiquities, 
 
 Vienna. 15 inches long. 
 
 51. Stone Circle. Denmark. From Sir John Lubbock's "Pre- 
 
 historic Times," p. 105. 
 
 52. Kit's Coty House, near Maidstone. From Sir John Lubbock's 
 
 " Pre-historic Times,'' p. 107. 
 
 53. Indian Dolmen. After Colonel Meadows Taylor. From Sir 
 
 John Lubbock's " Pre-historic Times," p. 121. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF WOODCUTS. 
 
 54. Primitive Tomb. Acora, Peru. From Squier's "Primeval 
 
 Monuments of Peru," p. 5. 
 
 55. Intihuanas (Sun Circles) of SiUustani. Peru. Prom 
 
 Squier's " Primeval Monuments of Peru," p. 15. 
 
 56. Carved Stones, in Cairn. Lough Crew, Ireland. From Fer- 
 
 gusson's " Eude Stone Monuments," p. 216. 
 
 57. Sculptured rock. Forsyth County, Georgia, North America. 
 
 From New York " Anthropological Journal," No. 1. 
 
 58. Figure drawn on the wall by boys in Italy. From Hobhouse's 
 
 " Illustrations to the Fourth Canto of Childe Harold." 
 
 59. Ausam. Arab tribal tokens or signs. From Finn's " Byeways 
 
 of Palestine," p. 32. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE BINDER. 
 Plates. 
 
 FAGB 
 
 I. Flint Aeeow-heads 58 
 
 n. Stonit Celts 66 
 
 III. BnoNZB Arhow-heads '^^ 
 
 IV. Bronze Palstaves 
 
 86 
 
 V. Stone Cikoles 1^" 
 
 YI. Carved Rocks, Guiana 182 
 
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PBE-HISTOBIG PHASES. 
 
 ON THE EAELIEST PHASES OF CrVTLIZATIOISr. 
 
 As it is in the nature of the development of man, as 
 an individual and collectively, to be progressive, it 
 must of necessity follow that this development should 
 be from a lower to a higher stage, from the weak, 
 helpless state of infancy, to the maturity and power 
 of manhood ; from a rude and barbarous phase to a 
 more refined civilization. The idea itself of pro- 
 gression involves the belief in an ascent from lower 
 to higher. 
 
 The individual man begins life as a helpless infant, 
 then rises through the successive stages of childhood, 
 youth, till he reaches maturity in manhood. 
 
 The initial steps of man's social progress, are those 
 of a rude and barbarous savage, thence advancing 
 through successive phases, society attains a more 
 perfect and complete form. Adopting the words of 
 
ON TBE EARLIEST PEASES 
 
 Waitz, " We may start from the assumption that, 
 as in the life of individuals, so also in that of nations, 
 all cultivation is something secondary, resting upon a 
 gradual progress to a hetter state than was the 
 primitive or natural state of mankind. This natural 
 state, marked by the absence of all cultivation, we 
 must imagine to have been the original condition of 
 every race." 
 
 Man collectively is led by a natural instinct, 
 which is shared in common by all the higher races 
 of men, to follow out a similar sequence of phases 
 of civilization, as naturally as the growth of the 
 individual man proceeds in the same stages of de- 
 velopment. 
 
 This upward development is the necessary result 
 of the inherent and peculiar progressive power and 
 improvable nature of man, acting in obedience to the 
 dictates of a mental impulse, peculiar to the higher 
 racesj which compels him to, fill his destined course. 
 As Dr. Wilson observes, " Civilization is for man 
 development. It is self-originated ; it matures all 
 the faculties natural to him, and is progressive and 
 seemingly ineradicable." 
 
 It appears as if there were but one history for 
 every separate people, one uniform process of develop- 
 ment for every race, each passing through successive 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 phases, before attaining its highest social develop- 
 ment; for every race must pass through the necessary 
 transitional stages before it can arrive at a higher 
 development. 
 
 These successive phases are the rude and barbarous, 
 the hunting, the pastoral, and the agricultural, corre- 
 sponding with, and analogous to, the stages of in- 
 feincy, childhood, youth, manhood in the individual 
 man. This sequence is invariable in man, as an 
 individual and collectively. 
 
 Man in the earliest stage of his development, like 
 the helpless infant, was equally naked, both as to 
 body and mind. Like other animals, without speech, 
 without experience of the past, without knowledge of 
 the future, without any idea of a superior being, he 
 wandered through wilds and forests, guided and 
 governed solely by the instincts of his nature. His 
 earliest dwellings were mountain caves. In the words 
 of Horace, quoted by Sir Charles Lyell, and on which 
 he makes these remarks, " They who in later times 
 have embraced a similar theory, have been led to it 
 by no deference to the opinion of their pagan 
 predecessors, but rather in spite of very strong 
 prepossessions in favour of an opposite hypothesis." 
 " When animals, Horace says, first crept forth from 
 the newly-formed earth, a dumb and filthy herd, they 
 
 B 2 
 
ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 fought for acorns and lurking places with their nails 
 and fists, then with clubs, and at last with arms, 
 which, taught by experience, they had forged. . They 
 then invented names for things, and words to express 
 their thoughts, after which they begun to desist from 
 war, to fortify -cities, and enact laws." Sir Charles 
 Lyell further observes : " The opinion entertained 
 generally by the classical writers of G-reece and 
 Rome, that man in the first stage of his existence 
 was but just removed from the brutes, is faithfully 
 expressed by Horace in the above lines. The picture 
 of transmutation given in those verses, however 
 severe and contemptuous the strictures lavishly 
 bestowed on it by Christian commentators, accords 
 singularly with the train of thought which the 
 modern doctrine of progressive development has 
 encouraged." 
 
 As a recent ■ writer observes, however humiliating 
 it may be to our pride, we must acknowledge that, in 
 the earliest period of his existence, man was scarcely 
 distinguishable from the brute. The desire to supply 
 his wants absorbed his whole thoughts. All his 
 efforts tended to one single aim, to obtain his daily 
 food. 
 
 All evidence tends to prove the original barbarous 
 state of mankind ; but man, like an upstart, in the 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 pride of his matured intellect, in the pride of 
 his acquired position, ignores his low arid base 
 origin. 
 
 From the late discoveries in pre-historic archaeology, 
 primitive man, the cotemporary of the mammoth 
 and the cave bear, has been proved by his implements 
 and weapons, and by the traces of his mode of life, to 
 have been a savage of the lowest grade ; a dweller in 
 caves and rock shelters, and, like the Fuegian, when 
 first discovered, rather a beast than a man, tearing 
 human bodies to pieces and eating the flesh ra\r and 
 bloody. He fed on wild fruits, or devoured raw fish, 
 or fought with his fellow men, or with the brutes for 
 the carcases killed by them. Not content with the 
 flesh of the animals he had killed, he spUt up the 
 bones and sucked the marrow contained in them. 
 His weapons were of the rudest kind, large flint 
 hatchets, such as have been found in the gravel drift 
 of the valleys of the Somme, and the Ouse. His hfe 
 was a continual state of warfare. He fought for 
 everything, for food, for women. Among the 
 degraded aboriginal tribes of North America the men 
 fought for the possession of the women, like stags, or 
 the males of other wild beasts. Horace describes 
 primitive men in similar terms. " Venerem incertam 
 rapientes more ferarum ;" and from the analogies of 
 
ON TEE EABLIE8T PHASES 
 
 those degraded tribes of North America we have no 
 reason to question this description. 
 
 Some African tribes in a similar savage state, are 
 described by Sir Samuel Baker, as mere apes, trusting 
 entirely to the productions of nature for their subsis- 
 tence, and as far below the brutes. 
 
 Mr. Anderson (" Okovango," p. 1 3 1 ) makes a similar 
 remark in regard to some other African tribes. 
 " Human nature," he says, " seemed lower than that 
 of the brute creation, whilst at the same time almost 
 diabolical." 
 
 Of this earliest barbarous stage the Yeddahs, of 
 Ceylon, afford a further example ; they live more or 
 less by hunting, and the use of the bow ; they dwell 
 in caves, or under the shelter of overhanging rocks. 
 They subsist upon roots, grain, and fruit, when they 
 can procure them ; and upon birds, bats, crows, owls, 
 and kites, which they bring down with the bow. 
 They have no knowledge of a God, nor of a future 
 state ; no instinct of worship except some addiction 
 to ceremonies analogous to devil worship, so degraded 
 are they, that it has appeared doubtful in certain 
 cases, whether they possess any language whatever, 
 their communication with one another being made by 
 signs, grimaces, and guttural sounds, which have 
 little or no resemblance to distinct words or systematic 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 language * Such must have been the cave dwellers of 
 England and Belgium ; such the inmates of the caves 
 of Dordogne, -which establish evidence of man in an 
 analogous barbarous stage. 
 
 Humboldt, when remarking the savage and brutal 
 state of fhe Indians at Pararuma, on the Orinoco, is 
 obliged to admit that such was the primitive charac- 
 ter of our species. " The assemblage of Indians," he 
 says, " at Pararuma, again excited in us that interest, 
 which evej-ywhere attaches man in a cultivated state 
 to the study of man, in a savage condition. How 
 difficult to recognize in this infancy of society, in this 
 assemblage of dull, silent, inanimate Indians, the 
 primitive character of our species. Human nature does 
 not here manifest those features of artless simplicity, 
 of which poets in every language have drawn such 
 enchanting pictures. , The savage of the Orinoco 
 appeared to us as hideous as the savage of the 
 Mississippi." f 
 
 * See Sir Emerson Tennant's " Ceylon." 
 
 •f Much confusion arises from considering the terms "natural 
 state " and " state of nature '' as synonomous, a mistake made by 
 Lord Shaftesbury, and by Archbishop Whately. A state of nature 
 is when man is in a savage, uncivilized, barbarous, and primitive 
 state, before he has taken his initial steps towards civilization. 
 
 Man is in his natural state when endowed with the high 
 physical organization and progressive intellect given to him by 
 nature, and when placed in a position to which he is fitted by it. 
 
ON THE EABLIEBT PHASES 
 
 HUNTING PHASE. 
 
 Man, emerging slowly and gradually from the 
 primitive and barbarous stage, becomes a nomadic 
 hunter and fisher. Unacquainted with every art but 
 the imperfect one of fabricating, in a rude manner, 
 arms and implements for the chase, dependent on 
 chance alone, and the seasons for the means of 
 satisfying his wants. Living in a wild and unculti- 
 vated state, when his means of sustenance were too 
 few and too precarious, man became a hunter from 
 necessity, nomadic in his habits, and obliged to 
 dispute his life with men, who, like himself, were 
 scarcely less savage than the beasts of the forest. As 
 has been said, " Man is eminently a hunting animal, 
 but there is no prey which he follows with such zest 
 and perseverance as his fellow man." A hunter is a 
 
 The rude Australian typifies the first, the Apollo Belvedere the 
 latter. 
 
 A plant, uncultivated in the wilds of nature, is in a state of 
 nature ; the same plant, highly cultivated in a conservatory, is in 
 its natural state. 
 
 Man in a high state of civilization, is in a natural state, but 
 cannot be said to be in a state of nature. 
 
 We may therefore thus briefly distinguish, man in a state of 
 nature is man, minus civilization. Man in his natural state is 
 man, plus civilization. 
 
OF aiVILIZATION. 
 
 wild man, his food is wild game ; he lives as the 
 tiger lives, catching his prey by his superior cunning, 
 strength, and pluck. The flesh of that prey is his 
 food, the skin of that prey is his mantle. He is a 
 companion of wild beasts, and his only art is how to 
 seize and kill them. He may not build a house, 
 he may not till the ground ; he may not tarry in one 
 place, for the wild game which he procures is always 
 flying from his poisoned arrow and his plunging 
 knife ; and the law of his existence chains him to the 
 buffalo track. His hand is lifted against everything 
 that lives. Such is the prairie hunter. In this stage 
 the progress of man must have been extremely slow, 
 as we have evidence among the Anierican Indians. 
 Man's natural instincts predominating in this phase, 
 it was necessarily stationary and unprogressive. 
 His intellect was dormant, but once awakened, his 
 progress was onward and upward. 
 
 THE PASTORAL PHASE. 
 
 As man advances, becoming conscious of the suste- 
 nance afforded by the animals he has tamed, and 
 which he has learned to preserve, domesticate, and 
 multiply : he becomes a shepherd, a herdsman, but to 
 a certain extent continues a nomad, wandering with 
 
10 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 his flocks and herds wherever pasture or security 
 invites. " A herdsman is a tame man, his food is 
 milk and cheese, the flesh of goats and of calves. He 
 has to provide for his wants by knowledge, care, and 
 kindness. The cow yields him milk, and the goat 
 yields him cloth ; yet he wins these requisites from 
 them, not by murderous cunning, but by tender love. 
 He surrounds himself with a world of helpless 
 creatures, goats and horses, sheep and cattle ; 
 creatures for whom he has to think by night, and 
 watch by day. When the hunter sharpens his blade, 
 the herdsman has to sharpen his wits, if he would 
 thrive in his acts and increase his flocks. Such a 
 man is the Bedouin Arab." A slow transitional 
 mode of life becomes necessary to pass from the 
 irregular and changeable activity of the hunting, to 
 the uniform industry of the agricultural phase. 
 
 The first step from savage towards civil life among 
 all races, is the division into tribes, of either the 
 family, or of the clan. The tribal system is the first 
 stage into which human society is moulded, or, ta 
 use Mr. Dixon's words,* the oldest form in which men 
 were organized into societies was division into tribes. 
 It arises from the condition and necessities of the 
 earliest wanderers. It is the prevailing system 
 * "New America." 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. H 
 
 among pastoral nations. Most nations may be traced 
 back to tbis primitive form. The tribe system is 
 a development of tbe family. The first wanderer 
 from tbe original seat of bis people, strays fortb into 
 foreign lands at tbe bead of bis family ; tbe fatber is 
 at once tbe priest, tbe judge, and tbe king. He 
 rules bis children, as tbe ablest and tbe wisest; 
 round tbe original family gather their slaves and 
 dependents, all tbe members of tbe original family 
 and their followers form a single political unit. No 
 individual has an existence, except as a member of 
 this body. Their flocks and herds form a common 
 property. They possess no clear idea of individual 
 ownership. This state of things among pastoral 
 nations is vividly brought before us in tbe Scriptural 
 accounts of Lot and Abraham. This system pre- 
 vailed in many countries, it is found in Media and 
 India, in Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Scythia, among 
 all wandering and pastoral nations. It is found in 
 America, and has existed in Ireland in tbe early 
 periods. Mr. Eichey justly observes : " So essentially 
 similar are tbe ideas of all nations on this early state 
 of society, that tbe difficulties in understanding the 
 Irish tribal system, are often cleared up by an 
 examination of the village laws of India, or tbe 
 village communities of Russia." 
 
12 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 AaRICULTUEAL PHASE. 
 
 In the further progress of his development, keep- 
 ing pace with the progress of his mental powers and 
 capacities ; when no longer content with the fruit 
 and plants which chance throws in his way, man 
 learns to form a stock of them, to collect them around 
 him, to sow, to plant them, to favour their reproduc- 
 tion by the labour of culture, he becomes stationary 
 and devotes himself to agriculture.* " A genial 
 climate, an easily cultivated soil, bountiful in indi- 
 genous fruits, would enable him not only to make 
 his permanent abode, but to devote a portion of his 
 time to the improvement of his superior nature. He 
 tires of hie wandering life, he builds sheds for his cattle, 
 and lays up stores of fodder in bams ; he burns a tract 
 
 * We must however admit what Mr. Baring Gould very justly 
 observes. " These divisions are not however absolute, for, perhaps, 
 there never was a time when people did not make some rude 
 attempts at tillage, and domestication of animals. Among the 
 refuse of lacvstrine villages, which belong to a remote period, the 
 discovery of grain and bones gnawed by dogs, proves that, as far 
 back as man can be traced, there are indications of his having 
 attempted both. 
 
 So also agricultural races have indulged occasionally in the 
 pursuit of game, or have set apart a caste to hunt and fish, and 
 fight, whilst the bulk of the people tilled the soil. — Origin and 
 Development of Beligious Belief, vol. i. p. 190. 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 13 
 
 of forest land, and sows corn in the ashes. His first 
 field is a place where the trees are felled, a clearing 
 in the forest, and his first plough a hoe. Thus the 
 nomad becomes an agriculturist, and takes a more 
 stable position. The movable tent gives place to a 
 permanently fixed dwelling ; the tilled corn fields 
 yield a richer harvest the more they are cultivated ; 
 the- forests surrounding his home give him fuel and 
 building materials ; the fields provide him with grass 
 and winter fodder for his cattle, and even the waters 
 yield him tribute. The owner cultivates and guards 
 his territory, he has devoted all his care and labour to 
 it, it is his ovm, he tmll and ought to possess it for 
 himself, and for his descendants. Other agriculturists 
 settle in his neighbourhood; each builds his own 
 dwelling house, tills his own ground, and appropriates 
 to himself the territory which he requires ; territories 
 are laid out, landmarks between properties are set up ; 
 the right of possession becomes more defined, and com- 
 prises also the landed territory. The patriarchal life 
 ceases, every landowner ' becomes a man for himself." '* 
 Agriculture may be considered as the most 
 important step in the development of civilization, it 
 is indeed the basis of all civilization. An agri- 
 cultural public offers greater facihties for civilization 
 * Nilsson's " Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia." 
 
U ON TEE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 than hunting and pastoral tribes. We may quote 
 the following passage from Sir Gardner Wilkinson, 
 which shows how agriculture gives an impetus to the 
 progress of a people, and renders it superior to all 
 others. " The state of the hunter and the shepherd 
 differ widely from the agriculturist. In the former 
 the wants of each member of society depend entirely 
 upon his individual exertions ; and since no time can 
 be spared for industrious employment at home, 
 civilization can make little or no progress, and arts 
 remain totally unknown. The shepherd indeed 
 possesses some advantages over the hunter, but still 
 he has neither the means nor the inclination to 
 arise from that primitive state which contents itself 
 with merely satisfying the common wants of man ; 
 and if he attempts a predatory warfare against a 
 neighbouring tribe, his conquests are confined to the 
 pillage or desolation of the invaded territory. But 
 when agriculture enables man to produce an abun- 
 dant supply of the necessaries of life, always keeping 
 pace in a favourable soil, with the increase of popula- 
 tion, property becomes established and defined, 
 emulation succeeds, and arts and civilization are 
 rapidly introduced. The labours of the few, besides 
 satisfying their own wants, are found sufficient to 
 maintain those members of society who are employed 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 15 
 
 in other occupations ; and hence arises that distinc- 
 tion of agricultural and other classes, which were at 
 so early a period introduced into the fertile regions of 
 Egypt and India."* 
 
 The succeeding stage of his development is when, 
 having acquired property in flocks, and in land which 
 he has cleared and cultivated, and being anxious to 
 secure quiet possession of what he had gained by his 
 labour, conventions, tacit or expressed, were introduced, 
 and became the rule of the actions of individuals, the 
 measure of their claims, and the law of their 
 reciprocal relations, thus, an organized society was 
 evolved. "Labour was divided among its various 
 members. Different professions (sometimes ranks so 
 called) arose. Some men occupied themselves in 
 tilling the ground, working the mines, managing the 
 flocks, &c., others sold superfluities, and procured 
 what is wanting by means of barter, or trade with 
 other communities and districts ; others again defend 
 the property of the community against foreign and 
 domestic foes; and lastly, others promote intelli- 
 
 * Sir Gardner Wilkinson's " Topography of Thebes," p. ix. 
 We must remark that these phases are not always synchronous 
 in all countries. Nations are often found side by side in' different 
 phases of civilization. The Hebrews, a pastoral people, rich in 
 flocks and herds, were frequently compelled by want to seek corn 
 in Egypt, a nation then far advanced in a high state of civilization. 
 
16 ON TEE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 gence, education, and the cultivation of mind, and a 
 governor or chief is elected to watch over the whole, 
 and to secure and guarantee the right of all."* Law 
 and government were thus gradually evolved ; these 
 once established, the progress of the development of 
 man increased rapidly towards that highest stage, 
 when it reached that mature state and highest degree 
 of culture, which culminated in the periods of high 
 civilization in Egypt, Babylon, Nineveh, India, 
 and at later periods in Grreece, Rome, and lately 
 in the more perfect refinement of England and 
 France. 
 
 We shall now adduce some evidences of the 
 different races of men in their several phases of 
 civilization, or stages of development. 
 
 Of the lowest, rude, and barbarous stage, travellers 
 have given us frequent proofs in their description of 
 races which they have found in the most degraded 
 state, and which may be considered as representative 
 types of man in his earliest phase. 
 
 Of the existence of this barbarous phase in the 
 initial period of man's development, we have the 
 following evidence. 
 
 The rude implements discovered in the valley of 
 * Nilsson's " Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia." 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 17 
 
 tlie Somme, in France, at Hoxne, Santon Downham, 
 Thetford, in England, in conjunction with elephant 
 remains, and those of other extinct animals, raises a 
 presumption that the men who made them were 
 themselves rude and barbarous. 
 
 From the discoveries in the valley of the Somme, 
 Sir John Lubbock draws the following conclusion : 
 " Along the banks of the rivers ranged a savage race, 
 and in the forests wandeired the mammoth, the two- 
 horned woolly rhinoceros, a species of lion, the musk 
 ox, the reindeer, and the urus." 
 
 The flint implements .of the gravel drift at Ponte 
 Mammolo, and the Ponte MoUe near Eome, are 
 witnesses of a very early and rude population in 
 Italy. 
 
 Numerous caves in England, in Belgium, in central 
 and southern France, in Italy, in Sicily, in Malta, 
 and elsewhere have yielded almost exactly the same 
 kind of evidence with regard to the existence of 
 men associated with remains of the mammoth, the 
 reindeer, gigantic extinct bear, a large hygena, and 
 other animals now called cavern animals. 
 
 The condition of these dwellers in caves implies a 
 very low and degraded mode of existence. The 
 bones of the reindeer, and other animals, split open 
 for the marrow, and the rude implements in connec- 
 
 c 
 
18 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 tion with them, testify to this. From the presence of 
 the stone hammers and mortars^ it has been suspected 
 that, like some of the savage tribes of Africa, not 
 conteiit with the flesh of the animals which they 
 killed, they pounded up also the bones in mortars, and 
 then sucked out the animal juices contained in them. 
 
 Mr. Boyd Dawkins discovered in the Woky hole 
 hygena den, implements of flint and chert, of the 
 rudest workmanship, associated with bones of the 
 rhinoceros tichorinus, and hyaena spelsea, from which 
 he inferred that man in one of the earliest, if not the 
 earliest stages of his being, dwelt in this cave, as 
 some of the most degraded of our race do at present. 
 
 Evidences have been also discovered which lead 
 to a strong suspicion of cannibalism among this 
 earliest race of men. 
 
 Dr. Falconer has come to the conclusion (from the 
 human implements and fossil remains of extinct 
 animals discovered by him in the Grotto di Maccag- 
 none in the basin of Palermo) that there is a strong 
 presumptive proof " that the date of man's occupa- 
 tion, in the savage state, of Sicily, went back to a 
 period extremely remote, as compared with the 
 accepted chronology, biblical or profane, when the 
 Mediterranean was bridged over by land connecting 
 Sicily with Africa, as a promontory of that continent." 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 19 
 
 A grotto has been lately discovered by Professor 
 Capellini, in the island of Palmeria, near Spezzia, 
 where in excavations were found numerous flint and 
 stone implements, the workmanship of the earliest 
 period of the stone age, and the bones of animals 
 mingled with bones of human beings. The condition 
 of the latter bones, Professor Capellini says, denotes 
 that the grotto had been inhabited by anthropophagi, 
 and that the Italians of that epoch were cannibals, 
 like their contemporaries in Belgium, France, and 
 Denmark. 
 
 In the opinion of Mr. Boyd Dawkins, it seems 
 probable that the cave of Oasa da Mourra in Portugal 
 was inhabited by a race of cannibals. The condition 
 of the human bones found there, indicated that the 
 men to whom they belonged had been eaten for 
 
 food. 
 
 The rude inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, who feed 
 principally on shell-fish, probably present analogous 
 features to those who lived on the Danish shores in 
 the earliest period, traces of which they have left in 
 the kitchen-middens or shell heaps; and Darwin 
 describes the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego as 
 living chiefly on shell-fish, and obliged constantly to 
 change their place of residence, but returning at 
 intervals to the same spots, as is evident from the 
 
 c 2 
 
20 ON Tim EARLIE8T PHASES 
 
 pile of old shells. They are stunted in their growth, 
 their hideous faces hedaubed with white paint, their 
 skins filthy and greasy, their gestures violent and 
 without dignity. Viewing such men, one can hardly 
 make oneself believe they are fellow-creatures, and 
 inhabitants of the same world." 
 
 Mr. Tristam adduces proofs of an early rude phase 
 also in Syria. He has discovered in a cave near 
 Beyrout, that the hard limestone of the rock was a 
 mass of bone breccia, with fragments of flint chips 
 mingled in {he stalagmite. The bones, he says, are 
 all in fragments, the remains, in all probability, of 
 the feasts of the makers of the rude implements. 
 From the existence of this hard limestone, he adds, 
 we may conclude that when Rameses or his Roman 
 successors constructed their military road, the stone 
 was as compact and crystalline as it is to-day, and 
 many ages must have intervened between the time 
 of the tablets on the rocks, and the days when some 
 rude savage fabricated his weapons on the soft floor 
 of the cavern. 
 
 India, too, has yielded her witnesses of the high 
 antiquity of man, and of the degraded condition of 
 the earliest stage of his existence in the rude quartz- 
 ite implements discovered in the laterite formation at 
 Madras, presenting analogous forms to those of Amiens 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 2] 
 
 and Abbeville. They compel a belief that the men 
 who made these implements must have been in 
 similar circumstances, and in a similar condition to 
 the savages who fabricated similar implements on 
 the banks of the Somme and the Ouse, and that they 
 must have occupied the same level of intelligence and 
 skill. 
 
 Mr. Page remarks that the occurrence of imple- 
 ments of quartzite in Southern India similar to the 
 flint tools of Western Europe demonstrate the same 
 simple beginnings, and imply a long upward ascent 
 from workers in stone to workers in metal, and thus 
 be it observed, at a period ages before man had found 
 his way westward to the caves and river valleys of 
 France and Belgium* 
 
 America, too, has not been backward in bearing her 
 testimony to the antiquity of the human race, and of 
 its earliest barbarous phase. Dr. Koch gives an account 
 of a mastodon found in Gasconade county, Missouri, 
 which had apparently been stoned to death by the 
 Indians, and then partially consumed by fire. 
 
 Dr. Lund has discovered in certain limestone 
 caverns in the Brazils, closely resembling the ossifer- 
 ous caves of Europe, relics of human skeletons which, 
 from their condition, and the circumstances in which 
 * " Man, where, whence, and wMther," p. 133. 
 
22 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 they were discovered, he was led to conclude belonged 
 to a tribe coeval with some of the extinct mammalia. 
 Lastly, we are told that, before the arrival of the 
 children of the sun, Peru was divided among several, 
 wandering and fixed, rude and ferocious, races, igno- 
 rant of all industry and culture, more resembling 
 brutes than the human race. 
 
 Of the higher phases in the ascending scale, we 
 find frequent evidence among different nations. 
 
 Egypt, being the earliest civilized nation, and 
 where civilization earliest reached its height, any 
 traces of its early phases must be very remote. 
 Evidences of a rude early stage have been lately dis- 
 covered on the elevated plateau which divides the 
 celebrated valley of Biban el Molouk from the escarp- 
 ments, which overlook the Pharaonic edifices of Deir- 
 el-Bahari, where has been ascertained the presence 
 of a number of wrought flints, lying on the ground. 
 These wrought flints, which are of the well known 
 type designated arrow-heads, lance-heads, scrapers, &c., 
 evidently belong to a pre-historic age, as they exactly 
 resemble those known in England under the denomina- 
 tion of Neolithic. In Herodotus we find a record of a 
 pastoral stage in Egypt, who relates that the Egyptians 
 commonly called the pyramids after Philition, a shep- 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 23 
 
 herd wlao liad fed his flocks about the place at a period 
 before they were built.* This tradition of a shepherd 
 grazing his flocks where the pyramids now stand, 
 must therefore point to a very remote period, when 
 we consider that the pyramids themselves are over 
 4000 years old. 
 
 An agricultural phase was developed at an early 
 period in Egypt. Sir Grardner Wilkinson tells us 
 that the Egyptians were thought to have had the 
 best opportunities of obtaining an accurate knowledge 
 on all subjects connected with husbandry, and as 
 Diodorus observes, " being from infancy brought up 
 to agricultural pursuits, they far excelled the husband- 
 men of other countries, and had become acquainted 
 with the capabilities ofthe land, the mode of irriga- 
 tion, the exact season for sowing and reaping, as well 
 as all the most useful secrets connected with harvest, 
 which they had derived from their ancestors, and had 
 improved by their own experience." Paintings on 
 the tomb of Beni-Hassan, representing all the pro- 
 cesses of agriculture, date from the reign of Osirtasen I., 
 2000 years B.C. 
 
 In Western Asia we have also evidences tending 
 to similar conclusions with regard to a sequence of 
 phases. Of the hunting phase we have a traditional 
 * " Herodotus," book ii. 128. 
 
24 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES • 
 
 record in Nimrod, who was a mighty hunter. Among 
 the early Chaldeans, Nergal was the god of war and 
 the chase, and Mr. Rawlinson tells that the wild 
 boar was eaten by the primitive people of that 
 country. 
 
 The age of Abraham exhibits a pastoral phase. 
 Like an Arab sheikh, " Abraham was rich in cattle," 
 " and Lot also, which went with Abraham, had flocks 
 and herds and tents." The Chaldeans, from whom 
 Abraham derived his origin, were essentially a pas- 
 toral people. 
 
 " ChaldaBan shepherds, ranging trackless fields 
 Beneath the concave of unclouded skies, 
 Spread like a sea." 
 
 WOBDSWOKTH. 
 
 Professor Rawlinson thus notices the agricultural 
 phase : " A large, probably the largest, portion of the 
 people must have been engaged in the occupations of 
 agriculture. Babylonia was before all things a grain 
 producing country, noted for a fertility unexampled 
 elsewhere, and to moderns almost incredible. , The 
 soil was a deep and rich alluvium ; and was cultivated 
 with the utmost care. It grew chiefly wheat, barley, 
 millet, and sesame, which flourished with wonderful 
 luxuriance." 
 
 According to Dodwell, the earliest inhabitants of 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 25 
 
 G-reece, the Dryopes, Caucones, Aones, Leleges, were 
 uncultivated savages, who made a casual and tempo- 
 rary residence wherever they were attracted by the 
 fertility of the soil, the abundance of water, or by 
 considerations of weal, security, and protection. 
 These were evidently the Grreeks in their early 
 hunting phase, of which Mr. Finlay has discovered 
 such important proofs in the number of obsidian 
 arrow heads found everywhere in the country. It is 
 admitted by all writers. Sir John Stoddart observes, 
 that the original inhabitants of Grreece were mere 
 savages, feeding on acorns, living in caves, and 
 clothing themselves in skins of beasts. Of a pastoral 
 stage we have a record in Arcadia, while the Pelasgi, 
 who were an agricultural people, and had attained 
 some skill in metallurgy, were the Greeks in an 
 agricultural phase. 
 
 Italy affords evidence of a similar sequence of 
 phases, for we have good grounds for believing that 
 the Osci were the early inhabitants in a rude, hunting 
 stage, while we know with historical certainty that 
 the Siculi were a pastoral people, and that the Pelasgi 
 were in the agricultural phase. Of this we have 
 certain evidence, as the Latin words such as bos, 
 aratrum, and others connected with agriculture, are 
 known to be of Pelasgic origin. 
 
26 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 The earliest known inhabitants of Italy are called 
 by Oato, and other writers, aborigines, a term which, 
 as Micali observes, must not be understood to signify 
 a distinct race, native or foreign, but to apply as a 
 generic title to the tribes of Italy, who were in that 
 rude and barbarous state of society, which constitutes 
 the first steps of human civilization. 
 
 In Ireland we find an analogy to this giving the 
 names of distinct peoples to the different phases of 
 civilization of the same people. The so-called three 
 races, the Milesians, the Firbolgians, and the Tuath 
 de Danaans were evidently the primitive indigenous 
 inhabitants in their different phases of civilization. 
 The Milesians, the early Irish, in the hunting phase ; 
 the Firbolgians, in the pastoral ; and the Tuath de 
 Danaans in the agricultural. "We have some evidence 
 in favour of this view. Smith, in his history of Cork, 
 says that Milvyr, in the old Irish and British tongue, 
 signifies an inhabitant of the woods, and from hence 
 they call huntsmen, " Milgi ;" and Baxter thinks that 
 the derivation probably of the Irish race, called 
 Miledgh or Milesian, was from this word Milgi, i.e. 
 hunters. Sir W. Wilde characterizes the Firbolgians as 
 a simple pastoral people, who professed little knowledge 
 of art, science, and war, and the Tuath de Danaans 
 as promoters of agriculture and metal workers. Sir 
 
OF GIVILIZATION. 27 
 
 W. Wilde gives also an interesting fact, which would 
 tend to show that in reality there was, in ancient 
 times, but one race in Ireland. His words are, "It 
 is a fact curious, but generally overlooked by Irish 
 historians, who bring hither colonies of different 
 nations, that there are but the remains of one lan- 
 guage, known in manuscript or spoken amongst us." 
 
 In England we meet traces of the same phases in 
 the ascending scale. Long before the arrival of the 
 Romans, the Britons had attained but a low degree 
 of civilization, they lived principally by the chase, 
 and had no habitations better than rude wigwams. 
 In the time of Osesar, they were in a pastoral stage. 
 From Cesar's description we learn they did not 
 .cultivate the earth, but lived on flesh or milk. The 
 greater part of the island was given up to pasture. 
 Agriculture is said to have been introduced by the 
 Belgae, later settlers. 
 
 We need not enter at length on the evidence of a 
 similar upward progress in France, in describing its 
 rude hunting phase in the epoch of the reindeer, its 
 pastoral phase, and its agricultural phase among the 
 Celts. 
 
 In Switzerland we trace the same sequence. The 
 discovery near Friedrickshafeuj on the lake of 
 Constance, of a number of flint knives and other 
 
28 ON TEE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 implements of silex, in conjunction with the hones 
 of the reindeer, of hears of large size, affords evi- 
 dence of an early race who lived hy the chase. The 
 pastoral and agricultural phases we trace in the lake 
 dwellings of Mooseedorf and Wauwyl, and of Morges 
 and Nidau, from the presence of the remains of 
 sheep, cows, horses, and other animals indicative of a 
 pastoral life in the former two, and from the evidences 
 of tillage in the presence of cereals, and the great 
 number of corn-crushers in those of Morges and 
 Nidau. In the opinion of Mr. Rochet and Professor 
 Rutimej'er, the inhabitants of all these lake dwellings 
 were the same indigenous population (autocthones) in 
 their different stages of gradual improvement. 
 
 In the presence of the numberless flint arrow-heads 
 and spear-heads, found in so many parts of Denmark, 
 we have unquestionable proofs of the existence of a 
 hunting phase amongst the people of that country. 
 Hunting and fishing, as Worsaae says, formed their 
 chief sources of subsistence. For catching fish in 
 rivers, and in the sea, they used hooks, harpoons, and 
 lances of flint, and they possessed boats formed of 
 stems of trees which had been hollowed out for the 
 purpose. When hunting they were armed not only 
 with bows and arrows, but also with lances and 
 hunting knives, the more easily to slay the large 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 29 
 
 animals, whose skins served for garments. Passing 
 through the intermediate pastoral stage, agriculture 
 commenced. Bronze tools gradually supplanted the 
 implements of stone. The forests in the interior of 
 the country were cleared by degrees in proportion as 
 agriculture was more widely extended, and the popu- 
 lation increased. 
 
 Both Caesar and Tacitus describe the Grermans in 
 their earliest phase as devoted to hunting and war. 
 Like the American savages of the same phase, they 
 hunted during a few months of the year, and then 
 gave up all their time to the sports of the chase. The 
 rest of the year was loitered away in sleep and wine. 
 Tacitus notices their pastoral phase in the following 
 words: "The pride of the German consists in the 
 number of his flocks and herds ; they are his only 
 riches, and in them he places his chief delight." 
 
 Of their initial steps in agriculture, he observes, 
 " In cultivating the soil, they do not settle on one 
 spot, but shift from place to place. The state or 
 community takes possession of a certain tract pro- 
 portioned to its number of hands, allotments are 
 afterwards made to individuals according to their 
 rank and dignity. In so extensive a country, where 
 there is no want of land, the partition is easily made. 
 The ground ■ tilled in one year, lies fallow the next, 
 
30 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 and a sufficient quantity always remains, the labour 
 of the people being by no means adequate to the 
 extent or goodness of the soil." 
 
 The aborigines of India are said to have been 
 foresters and mountaineers, leading a wild and law- 
 less life. This must have been at a very remote 
 period, for there is abundance of proof that an 
 advanced state of civilization prevailed previous to 
 the time of the Greek notices of India. Their mode 
 of life must have been somewhat like that of the 
 hill tribes of the extreme south of the Peninsula at 
 the present day, who have only very primitive 
 weapons, and subsist on jungle produce, berries, wild 
 honey, and such like. 
 
 Some of the archaic Sanscrit words indicate, by 
 their hoary antiquity, the pastoral employment and 
 character of this people at a very remote date ; the 
 special term, for example (the " pasu," of the old 
 Sanscrit or Zend), which signified " private " property 
 among that ancient race, and which we now use 
 under the English modifications, " peculiar," and 
 "pecuniary," primarily meant "flocks," or posses- 
 sion of flocks ; the Sanscrit word for protector, and 
 ultimately for the king himself, " go-pa " is the 
 old word for cowherd, and consecutively for chief 
 herdsman, while the endearing name of " daughter " 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 31 
 
 (the duMtar of the Sanscrit) is derived from a verb 
 which shows the original signification of the appella- 
 tion to have been the " milker " of cows. According 
 to Professor Muller, all the Sanscrit words, composed 
 with " go," cattle, prove that the people who formed 
 them must have led a half nomadic and pastoral 
 life. 
 
 At a later period we have a record of an agri- 
 cultural phase. The Aryans, the so-called progenitors 
 of the Hindoos, are said to have been an agricultural 
 people, deriving their name from the root " ar," to 
 plough. At the present day the Hindoo pursues 
 identically the same rude system of agriculture as was 
 followed by his ancestors in the earliest ages. 
 
 Herodotus describes the Scythians in their different 
 phases. As a rude and barbarous people ; as a hunt- 
 ing people, who employed much of their time in the 
 chase, and who were famous for their management of 
 the bow ; as a pastoral people who did not cultivate 
 the ground, but led a pastoral life. Gibbon remarks, 
 " In every age, the immense plains of Seythia or 
 Tartary have been inhabited by vagrant tribes of 
 hunters and shepherds, whose indolence refuses to 
 cultivate the earth, and whose restless spirit disdains 
 the confinement of a sedentary life." 
 
 In America we find the hunting phase widely 
 
32 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 prevailing from the north to the south. The savage 
 tribes of America were essentially a hunting people. 
 
 The absence of a pastoral stage in America has 
 been remarked. If however we find no traces of 
 a strictly pastoral life in the new world, there are at 
 least evidences of an intermediate phase, a transitional 
 stage, a period of stationary existence, a cessation of 
 the wild life of the chase, which prepared a people of 
 huntsmen for the agricultural phase. 
 
 The following is a description of the American 
 Indians in a more advanced stage, by one who care- 
 fully studied them. " The red men whom our 
 fathers met on the Atlantic seaboard, were of chivalric, 
 though savage race ; who showed noble qualities ; 
 who were brave, hospitable, magnanimous. They 
 kept their plighted faith, they respected the chastity 
 of women. They made a great advance from the 
 savage state, for they ceased to live by the chase 
 only ; they had learnt some part of the herdsman's 
 duty, and the husbandman's craft." 
 
 Prescott also bears testimony to a more advanced 
 stage, one beyond the savage hunting phase. He 
 says, " Husbandry to a very limited extent, indeed, 
 was practised by most of the rude tribes of North 
 America. Wherever a natural opening in the forest 
 or a rich strip of interval met their eyes, or a green 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. S3 
 
 slope was formed along the rivers, they planted it 
 with beans and Indian corn. The cultivation was 
 slovenly in the extreme, and could not secure the 
 improvident natives from the frequent recurrence of 
 desolating famines. Still that they tilled the soil at 
 all was a peculiarity which honourably distinguished 
 them from other tribes of hunters, and raised them 
 one degree higher in the scale of civilization." 
 
 Sir John Lubbock also shows that the tribes who 
 raised the more southern enclosures, appear to have 
 been more civilized than those of the north, since 
 they were agricultural in tlieir habits, lived in 
 considerable towns, and had a systematized religion, 
 so that, in fact, they must have occupied a position 
 intermediate, as well economically, as geographically, 
 between the powerful monarchies of Central America, 
 and the hunting tribes of the north * 
 
 This affords an important proof of self-develop- 
 ment, and of spontaneous and independent civiliza- 
 tion in America, for, as Sir John Lubbock observes, 
 
 * Mr. Fergusson seems, however, inclined to think that the 
 moTind-builders were a pastoral people. He says, " Eude Stone 
 Monuments," p. 517 : " The red men who occupied North America 
 have never risen beyond the condition of hunters, and have no 
 settled place of abode, and possess no works of art. The mound- 
 builders, on the contrary, were a settled people, certainly pastoral, 
 probably to some extent even agricultural." 
 
 D 
 
34 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES 
 
 " American agriculture resulted from the gradual 
 development of American semi-civilization." This is 
 proved by the fact that the grains of the old world 
 were entirely absent, and that American agriculture 
 was founded on the maize, an American plant. 
 
 The only two nations in America, who emerged 
 from this phase, and advanced to a higher civilization, 
 were the Mexicans and Peruvians. In these two 
 nations, we have a further proof of two races, 
 emerging independently and spontaneously from a 
 state of barbarism, and attaining a high point in 
 the scale of civilization. They thus present the 
 important evidence of self-developed civilization. 
 
 The Mexicans after a series of wanderings, shifting 
 their quarters to different parts, enduring all the 
 casualties and hardships of a migratory life, in which 
 they must have passed through the many phases of a 
 people struggling to emerge from a state of barbarism, 
 and to attain a higher stage, settled at last on the 
 borders of the Lake of Tezcuco, where they advanced 
 to a comparatively high state of civilization. The 
 legend of Quetzalcoatl, a divinity who, during his 
 residence on earth, instructed the nations in the use of 
 metals, in agriculture, and in the arts of governing, is 
 a record of the development of the agricultural phase. 
 With regard to the earlier phase in Peru, Mr. 
 
OF CIVILIZATION. 35 
 
 Prescott tells us, that the time was, when the ancient 
 races were plunged in deplorable barbarism, when 
 they worshipped nearly every object in nature indis- 
 criminately ; made war their pastime, and feasted on 
 the flesh of the slaughtered captives. Like other 
 savages in the same phase, they lived on the wild 
 game of the forest and the mountain, which they 
 hunted down. 
 
 The flocks of Llama (the Peruvian sheep), wander- 
 ing with their shepherds over the broad wastes on 
 the crests of the Sierra, bears testimony to the exist- 
 ence of a pastoral stage among the early inhabitants 
 of Peru. The number of the flocks at a later period, we 
 are told, was immense ; they were scattered over the 
 different provinces, under the care of experienced 
 shepherds, who conducted them to different pastures, 
 according to the change of season. In the employ- 
 ment of domestic animals the Peruvians were dis- 
 tinguished from the other races of the new world. 
 
 The fiction of Manco Capac teaching agriculture, is 
 only the mythical account of the agricultural phase, 
 which reached a high state of perfection under the 
 Incas. These civilizers, such as Quetzalcoatl, Manco 
 Capac, and other analogous mythic personages in 
 other countries, are only the personifications of a step 
 in the progress of civilization. 
 
 D 2 
 
30 ON THE EARLIEST PHASES OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 This closes our chapter on the earliest phases of man, 
 and we think sufficient evidence has been adduced to 
 prove the progressive development of man from a 
 rude and barbarous stage, through successive phases,' 
 up to a higher state of civilization, and that an 
 invariable law of upward progress is followed among 
 all higher races. Further, this progressive develop- 
 ment presents a strong presumption in favour of the 
 belief in the existence of an invariable sequence in all 
 things, that they pass through certain fixed phases 
 and stages of development in the ascending scale from 
 a lower to a higher. 
 
( 37 ) 
 
 ON THE DEGEADED PHASE. 
 
 ^-An objection has been made to the view, that races 
 in a savage and barbarous phase are in their original 
 state ; that they are in reaUty in a degraded and 
 degenerate stage, having previously been civilized. 
 
 On carefully examining these phases, we shall find 
 that they can be easily distinguished, as they are 
 distinct, and belong to different epochs of civilization. 
 
 It is unquestionable that many races and nations 
 have retrograded and relapsed "into barbarism, and, 
 in some instances, have returned to their primitive 
 savage state. 
 
 The degeneration of race is the necessary result of 
 the law of the cycle of development ; all things run 
 through their cyclical course. They have their rise, 
 maturity, decline, and decay ; the races which are 
 now degenerated and degraded had once attained the 
 height of civihzation, passing through all the suc- 
 cessive phases of civilization in the ascending scale. 
 
38 ON TEE DEQBADED PHASE. 
 
 On reaching the culminating point of civilization, it 
 is the destiny of all nations and races to decline, decay, 
 and return to their original barbarous state. Nations, 
 like individuals in their extreme old age, return to 
 the early condition of childhood. The savage and 
 barbarous stage is the first phase, the degraded, the 
 last phase in the cycle of development of nations and 
 races. 
 
 The races in the degraded phase can be easily, 
 distinguished from the races in their state of bar- 
 barism. "We know the history of the degenerate 
 races, we have evidences of their having once 
 attained a state of civilization ; we have proofs of it 
 in the remains of the architecture, sculpture, of these 
 races, and in their historical records. 
 
 One of the most important examples of a degenerate 
 race, are the Fellahs of Egypt, This degraded, 
 ignorant, filthy class of Mohammedan Fellahs, are 
 the most direct descendants of the ancient Egyptian 
 people, who conquered Ethiopia, and overran Asia, 
 and whose learning was a light even to Grecian 
 philosophers ; but we know, with every certainty, that 
 the Egyptians being a self-developed people, arose 
 from a barbarous state, and gradually passing through 
 successive phases, reached the highest civilization, 
 and fulfilling the laws of their cycle of development, 
 
ON THE DECmADED PEASE. 39 
 
 they declined, decayed, and -ultimately became the 
 degenerate race we now see in the Fellahs. 
 
 The modern Peruvians and Mexicans are thus in 
 a similar degraded phase. The present degraded 
 Aztecs and Peruvians, are the same people whom the 
 Spaniards found, only some three hundred years ago, 
 dwelling in splendid palaces, and worshipping their 
 unknown gods in golden temples, through the medium 
 of a sacred tongue. 
 
 With regard to races in their original barbarous 
 and savage state, and which, as yet, have never made 
 an onward step towards a higher phase, we have 
 indubitable evidence. The Australians, the Anda- 
 man Islanders, the Veddahs, the Patagonians, the 
 Fuegians, and many other races which travellers 
 frequently mention, are in that stage ; and further, 
 we have the strongest presumption, amounting to 
 certainty, that the earliest inhabitants of England, 
 France, Denmark, indeed of all Europe, and also of 
 India, were once in a similar state. 
 
( 40 ) 
 
 ON THE SEQUENCE OP FLINT, STONE, COPPEK, 
 
 AND BKONZE IMPLEMENTS IN ALL 
 
 COUNTEIES. 
 
 My object in this cPiapter is to bring briefly and 
 more prominently into notice the sequence of flint, 
 stone, and bronze implements in nearly all countries, 
 during their pre-historic ages, by describing, and by 
 giving illustrative examples of those implements, 
 which form a complete sequence from the earliest 
 rude handiwork of man, up to the more elaborately 
 worked and finished specimens of stone and bronze. 
 These examples show the various stages in the pro- 
 gress of the implements, as well as the improvement 
 in the art of their fabrication. They exhibit forms 
 which aie determined by a process of development, 
 that is to say, by gradual modifications of rude and 
 early types. They are witnesses of a gradual de- 
 velopment of human ingenuity, as applied to 
 purposes of the chase, of warfare, and of domestic 
 
ON THE SEQUENCE OF ELINT, STONE, ETC. 41 
 
 life. As Dr. Wilson observes, " Man was created 
 with a tool-using instinct, and with faculties capable 
 of developing it into all the mechanical triumphs 
 which command such wonder and admiration at the 
 present day, but he was also created with a necessity 
 for such. Half the industrial arts are the result of 
 our being born without clothes, the other half, of our 
 being born without tools." 
 
 1st stage. — IMPLEMENTS OP THE GRAVEL DRIFT. 
 
 The presence of implements of this type in gravel 
 drifts, which geological evidence assigns to a very 
 remote period, and in conjunction with bones of extinct 
 animals, argue a very remote antiquity for their manu- 
 facture, and a very early date for the men who fabri- 
 cated them. The extreme rudeness of the implements 
 bespeak a corresponding rudeness and barbarous con- 
 dition of the men who made them, and induce a belief 
 in the inferiority of this primitive race. 
 
 These implements were evidently roughly knocked 
 into shape. Those found in the gravel drifts of 
 England and France are always roxigh ; and among 
 the many thousands which have been discovered, not 
 one has been met with which shows a trace of polish- 
 ing and grinding. They are almost always made of 
 
42 ON TEH SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE. COPPER, 
 
 flint. Their forms are also peculiar, some oval, 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 FLINT IMPLEMENT FISOM HOXNE — HALF-SIZE. 
 
 chipped up to an edge all round, and from two to 
 eight or nine inches in lengll]. A second type is ak:o 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 43 
 
 oval, but somewhat pointed at one end (Fig. 2)— this 
 type has been styled in France en amande. Others 
 again have a more or less heavy butt at one end, and 
 are pointed at the other (Fig. 1) —the workmen in 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 
 '!5»A'-|^ 
 
 FLINT IMPLEMENT FEOM HOXNE — HALF-SIZE. 
 
 the valley of the Somme have named these langues de 
 chat. Mr. Evans seems to regard them as having 
 served as spears or lance-heads. He treats as a mere 
 variety of this type, those implements in which the 
 cuttino: end is rounded off, but not pointed. Some 
 
44 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, GOPPEJR, 
 
 of these were evidently intended to' be held in the 
 hand, as . the Australians use their rude stone hat- 
 chets at the present day.* 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 ^-^^^ 
 
 STONE IMPLEMENT FSOM MADRAS. 
 
 They vary greatly in size. They are generally 
 
 about six inches long, by about three inches broad, 
 
 * A friend, Mr. Charles Seymour, tells me he has seen Australians 
 hold their stone hatchets in their hands, and with them cut out 
 boomerangs, etu., adopting a kind of circular blow. 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 but much, longer ones are sometimes met with. One 
 found at St. Acheul, and exhibited at the Paris Exhi- 
 bition^ 1867, was eleven and a half inches long, by 
 about five broad. 
 
 Implements of this earliest and rudest type have 
 been discovered in many countries. They have been 
 found not only in the gravel drift of England, France, 
 and Spain, but also in the laterite formation near 
 Madras, in India. 
 
 Doubts have been thrown on these implements 
 being of human workmanship, but on carefully 
 examining them, the greatest sceptic must admit they 
 bear unmistakably the indications of having been 
 shaped by the skill of man. 
 
 These implements, therefore, have a deep claim on 
 our interest, as they make known to us the earliest 
 productions of the hand of man, as they mark the fii'st 
 step in human industry, and as they show, in the 
 most unequivocal manner, " the length of time which 
 must have elapsed since the first appearance of man 
 in "Western Europe." 
 
 2nd stage. FLINT FLAKES. 
 
 In this stage we have flint flakes of the simplest 
 form, such as were frequently struck off, for the 
 purpose of being used as arrow-heads, lances, rude 
 
46 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COFFEE, 
 
 knives, &c. One side being smooth, and slightly 
 convex, owing to the conchoidal fracture of the flint, 
 the other generally exhibiting two or three faces. 
 The two side ones having a sharp edge. Flint 
 appears, as Sir J. Lubbock observes, " to have been 
 the stone naost often used in Europe, and it has had a 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 ^tma 
 
 FLINT COKE— IRELAND. 
 
 «! 
 
 m 
 ill 
 
 Jj 
 
 PUNT TLAKE — DENMAEK. 
 
 much more important influence on our civilization 
 than is generally supposed. Savages value it on 
 account of its hardness and mode of fracture. A good 
 sound block can be chipped into almost any form that 
 may be required." 
 
 If an ordinary oblong flint nodule be broken 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 47 
 
 across in the middle, the fracture is conchoidal, or 
 shell-shaped, and if one of the portions of that flint 
 were set on end, the artist could chop off with a 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 AEEOW SHAPED FLINT FLAKE — lEELAND. FLINT FLAKE — DENMARK. 
 
 hammer, or with a chisel and mallet, a number of fine 
 flakes, running the length of the sides of the mass ; 
 more or less thin and long, or broad and thick, 
 
48 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 according to the natural purity of the flint, and 
 perhaps the dexterity of the worker. Each scale or 
 flake, no matter what its outer shape or outline, will 
 always present the conchoidal fracture. The outside 
 flakes, bearing the usual rough silicate of lime in- 
 vestiture, were generally valueless, and consequently 
 cast aside. In striking off these flakes, the tool used 
 must have been a stone or flint ; but of what precise 
 nature we have as yet no definite information. In 
 chipping or scaling a mass of flint, the artist appears 
 to have struck it on the end, and as he passed round 
 the block, striking in the centre of the angle made by ' 
 the junction of any two chips, the scale must always 
 have presented more or less of an obtusely triangular 
 figure in its section ; and owing to the tapering 
 nature of the flint mass, a leaf-like outline, which, 
 from the peculiar fracture or cleavage of all flint, it 
 was curved in the longitudinal direction, and also 
 slightly convex from side to side upon the under sur- 
 face.* This under surface is invariably smooth, and, to 
 a certain degree, polished ; but, from the deficiency of 
 lines upon it, and its invariable curvature, it can 
 easily be distinguished from the smoothing and 
 
 * At tte base of the flat side of this flake thus struck ofi', there 
 is always what is called the bulb of percussion, which is a slight 
 bulb-like swelling where it has been struck off by a blow from the 
 flint nodule. 
 
AND BBONZE IMPLEMENTS, 49 
 
 polishing produced by art. The edges of nearly all 
 these flakes are sharp, and generally meet at a point 
 at the extremity, while the butt, or portion to which 
 the tool was applied, is usually chipped and broken, 
 as if it required repeated blows to get it off. Each 
 surface in the convex aspect is smooth, though 
 occasionally presenting the wave-like appearance of 
 broken glass. This was the first attempt at a 
 weapon or tool of stone. The artist, it would appear, 
 chipped off as many scales or flakes as the mass would 
 afford, and then threw aside the core or spud, when 
 it ceased to be any longer useful.* These flint flakes 
 generally vary in size from half an inch to four and 
 a half inches in length, and from three-eighths of an 
 inch to three inches across at the broadest part."t 
 
 It is said that flakes are struck off more readily 
 from the flint when fresh from the chalk, and that 
 the edges are much sharper, than when struck off 
 from a flint which has been for some time exposed to, 
 and hardened by, the air. 
 
 In the case of obsidian, the flakes were made, not 
 
 * In the above examples, the development is marked. No. 5, is 
 a simple flake. No. 6, is a flake chipped at the base. No. 7, is a flake 
 chipped over on one side. These flakes present almost identical 
 forms in any country where the primitive inhabitants could obtain 
 flint or obsidian. 
 
 ■f Sir W. Wilde's " Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish Academy," p. 7. 
 
 E 
 
50 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 by blows, bxit by strong pressure, as was done by the 
 Mexicans, and as tbe Esquimaux of the present do 
 with their chert implements. Sir E. Belcher thus 
 describes their mode of operating. " Selecting " he 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN TLAKE. 
 
 says, " a log of wood, in which a spoon-shaped cavity 
 was cut, they placed the splinter to be worked over 
 it, and by pressing gently along the margin vertically, 
 
AND BBONZE IMPLEMENTS. 51 
 
 first on one side, then the other, as one would set a 
 saw, they splintered off alternate fragments, until the 
 object, thus properly outlined, presented the spear or 
 arrow-head form, with two cutting serrated sides. 
 
 To enumerate all the different parts of the world 
 in which flakes, either of flint, obsidian, chert, &c., 
 showing almost identical forms, have been discovered, 
 would fill pages, and would include nearly the entire 
 surface of the globe. The manufacture of these 
 flakes as weapons, from the above substances, seems 
 to have been suggested independently and spontane- 
 ously among many races. The presence also of 
 cores,* which have had flakes knocked off from them, 
 in Denmark, England, Ireland, India, Mexico, Grreece, 
 &c,, show further the independent and indigenous 
 origin of these flint flakes in these countries. Several 
 places have been discovered which may be considered 
 as the manufactories of these flint flakes, where, from 
 the countless numbers met with, they must have been 
 
 * (See Fig. 4.) The chert cores found in India, in the bed of the 
 river Indus, in Upper Scinde, are remarkable for the beautiful regu- 
 larity of their form, showing the facets from which the last flakes 
 dislodged have been struck off, with the bulbs of percussion dis- 
 tinctly marked. The author possesses three of these cores, kindly 
 presented by Major-General Twemlow. The obsidian cores from 
 Mexico also exhibit the same regularity of form. Mr. Finlay tells 
 me that a large number of obsidian cores have been lately dis- 
 covered in Greece, at Salagora, near Arta. 
 
 ]<] 2 
 
52 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, OOPPEB, 
 
 largely manufactured ; the flint used being close at 
 hand. One of the most remarkable of these manu- 
 factories is that discovered by Dr. Leveill^, at 
 Pressigny le Grrand, in France, about half way 
 between Tours and Poitiers. Here there is an 
 abundance of good flint, of a honey colour, and even 
 though coarse texture. This flint was largely used 
 in ancient times. The fields are covered with nuclei, 
 flakes, &c. ; and implements made here, and easily 
 recognizable by the peculiar colour, have been found 
 
 FLINT coBE FROM I'BEssiGNY, Ten inches long. Demmin's 
 " Weapons of War." ' 
 
 in various parts of France. Another of these manu- 
 factories has been lately discovered in Egypt. On the 
 elevated plateau which divides the celebrated valley 
 of Biban-el-Molouk, from the escarpments which 
 overlook the Pharaonic edifices of Deir-el-Bihan, the 
 presence of an enormous quantity of wrought flints, 
 lying on the surface of the ground, to the extent of 
 upwards of a hundred square yards, has been ascer- 
 tained by Messrs. Hamy and Le Normant. These 
 wrought flints evidently constitute the remains of 
 an ancient manufactory. 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 53 
 
 3rd stage. 
 
 We now approach a more advanced stage in 
 handicraft and design, in which the flint flakes were 
 carefully chipped into shape, apparently by a suc- 
 cession of slight taps, or gentle but well directed 
 blows with some sharp-pointed tool. At first but 
 one side (the ordinary convex one) was chipped, and 
 then, in the more perfect imjDlement, both sides were 
 thus manufactured, long practice leading to their 
 being formed of a symmetrical shape and elegant 
 proportion. The chief object in the careful manu- 
 facture of the arrow-head, was that they might fly 
 well. In illustration we shall quote Catlin's descrip- 
 tion* of the mode in which modern American 
 Indians manufacture their arrow-heads. "Their 
 mode of manufacturing arrow-heads is very simple, 
 and evidently the only mode by which those peculiar 
 shapes, and delicacy of fracture, can possibly be pro- 
 duced ; for civilized artizans have tried in various 
 parts of the world, and with the best of tools, without 
 success in copying them. 
 
 " Every tribe has its factory, in which their arrow- 
 heads are made, and in those, only certain adepts are 
 * " Last Rambles among the Indians," p. 187. 
 
54 ON TEE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 able or allowed to make them, for the use of the 
 tribe. Erratic boulders of flint are collected (and 
 sometimes brought an immense distance), and broken 
 with a sort of sledge hammer made of a rounded 
 pebble of horn-stone set in a twisted withe, holding 
 the stone, and forming a handle. 
 
 " The flint, at the indiscriminate blows of the sledge, 
 is broken into a hundred pieces, and such flakes 
 selected as, from the angles of their fracture and 
 thickness, will answer as the basis of an arrow-head ; 
 and in the hands of the artizan they are shaped into 
 the beautiful forms and proportions which they 
 desire, and which are to be seen in most of our 
 museums. 
 
 " The master workman, seated on the ground, lays 
 one of these flakes on the palm of his left hand, 
 holding it firmly down with two or more fingers of 
 the same hand, and with his right hand between the 
 thumb and two fore-fingers, places his chisel (or 
 punch) on the point that is to be broken off; and a 
 co-operator (a striker), sitting in front of him, with a 
 mallet of very hard wood, strikes the chisel (or 
 punch) on the upper end, flaking the flint off on the 
 under side, below each projecting point that is 
 struck. The flint is then turned and chipped in the 
 same manner from the opposite side, and so turned 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 55 
 
 and chipped until the required shape and dimensions 
 are obtained, all the fractures being made on the 
 palm of the hand. 
 
 " In selecting a flake for the arrow-head, a sure 
 judgment must be used, or the attempt will fail ; 
 a flake with two opposite parallels, or nearly parallel 
 planes, is found, and of the thickness required for the 
 centre of the arrow point. The first chipping reaches 
 near to the centre of these planes, but without quite 
 breaking it away, and each chipping is shorter and 
 shorter, until the shape and the edge of the arrow- 
 head are formed. 
 
 " The yielding elasticity of the palm of the hand, 
 enables the chip to come off without breaking the 
 body of the flint, which would be the case, if they 
 were broken on a hard substance. These people 
 have no metallic instruments to work with, and the 
 instrument (punch) which they use, I was told, was a 
 piece of bone ; but on examining it, I found it to be a 
 substance much harder, made of the tooth (incisor) of 
 the sperm whale, or sea lion, which are often stranded 
 on the coast of the Pacific. This punch is about six 
 or seven inches in length, and one inch in diameter, 
 with one rounded side, and two plane sides ; therefore 
 presenting one acute and two obtuse angles, to suit 
 the points to be broken. 
 
56 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, OOPPEB, 
 
 " This operation is very curious, both the holder and 
 the striker singing, and the strokes of the mallet 
 given exactly in time with the music, and with a 
 sharp rebounding blow, in which, the Indians tell us, 
 is the great medicine (or mystery) of the operation." 
 
 The various sizes of these implements may be 
 generally attributed to the nature of the game which 
 the natives hunted. For example, a large spear-head 
 may have been used as a war instrument, or for 
 killing large animals, while the smaller ones — arrow- 
 heads, were used for the destruction of small animals 
 and birds. 
 
 Sir William Wilde classes the different shapes of 
 arrow-heads of flint under five varieties, which 
 exhibit a series of development from the rudest 
 form. First is the triangular (No. 10), or the simplest 
 form, which frequently had a notch on each side, to 
 receive the string which attached it to the shaft, a 
 variety common at the present day among the 
 American Indians. It was then hollowed out at the 
 base to such an extent that in process of time it 
 assumed the indented (No. 11), or second variety of 
 this series. The third is the stemmed * arrow-head, 
 having a tang or projection for sticking into the 
 shaft, and the wings on either side of which gradually 
 * See Plate I., Figures 10, 11, 22. 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 57 
 
 bend into the " broad arrow " shape. By prolonging 
 the wings until they extended as low as the central 
 stem, the fourth variety was attained, or what may be 
 denominated the true barbed arrow (No. 12). The 
 fifth variety is the leaf shaped (No. 13), generally 
 very thin, and chipped all over with great care. It 
 is much more simple in shape than any of the fore- 
 No. 13. 
 
 No. 10. 
 
 No. 11. 
 
 going, but it has been placed at the end of the series, 
 because it leads to the final and more perfect flint 
 manufacture of the weapon-class, that of the spear. 
 The spear-head is thus only a larger and longer 
 development of the arrow-head.* Spear-heads are 
 very variable in size and form. Some of them are 
 scarcely distinguished from large arrow-heads, others 
 
 * See Plate I., Nos. 4, 14. 
 
58 ON TEE SE QUENCH OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 are much larger and longer. Some Danish spear- 
 heads, of most beautiful workmanship, are twelve 
 inches in length. 
 
 Some of the Danish arrow-heads, lance-heads, and 
 daggers of flint belonging to this stage, exhibit a 
 beauty and delicacy of finish which are marvellous, 
 and far beyond the skill of workmen of the present day.. 
 
 The Japanese and Peruvian arrow-heads of quartz- 
 ite are also of exquisite workmanship, and exhibit 
 identical forms to those of Europe. 
 
 The Mexican arrow-heads of obsidian are remark- 
 able for their wonderful finish, far exceeding that 
 of the chipped flints of Scandinavia. Mr. Tylor 
 challenges an ingenious artist in England, who makes 
 arrow-heads for the benefit of English antiquaries, to 
 imitate their ribbed, obsidian spear-heads. 
 
 Arrow-heads, spear-heads carefully chipped, be- 
 longing to this more advanced stage, of flint, agate, 
 obsidian, quartzite, and of other substances, of almost 
 identical shape and form, and for similar purposes, 
 have been discovered nearly all over the world. 
 Examples of these which have been used by the most 
 ancient races in the earliest times, occur not only in 
 Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, Chaldaea, Italy, Grreece, Eng- 
 land, Ireland, Denmark, France, and Switzerland, but 
 also in India, Japan, Peru, Mexico, North and South 
 
PI, 
 
 ER l3LAilD 
 
 r.r.' i F ['llAI-jp 
 
 !,M, WnrjlroppjUel 
 
 F L I IJ T 
 ARR-OW HEADS AND SPEAR HEADS 
 
 J Jc/bblJ13 
 
AND BBONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 59 
 
 America, and North and South Africa.* Similar 
 weapons are also met with among all the savage tribes 
 of the present day. 
 
 No. 14. 
 
 DANISH AXE GBOUND AT THE EDGE. 
 
 No. 15. 
 
 i>AinsH FLINT HATCHET. From Demmin's " Weapons of War." 
 
 * Plate I. BhowB the great similarity of arrow-heads, whether of 
 flint, oTosidian, or quartzite, in countries the most widely apart. In 
 this plate are two arrow-heads which look so exactly alike that 
 they might have been made by the same hand and on the same 
 day- Yet one comes from Scandinavia, and is at least two thou- 
 sand years old, the other from Tierra del Fuego, and was manu- 
 factured not more than twenty years ago. 
 
60 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COP FEB, 
 
 4th stage. 
 Between the stage of chipped flint, and that of 
 polished and ground implements,* there was a 
 transitional stage, or a passage from the one to the 
 other, in which a new process shows itself, when the 
 workman was no longer content to get his point or 
 edge by mere chipping of stone against stone. He 
 began to rub and grind the edge, in order to obtain a 
 more cutting implement. Of this stage we have 
 evidence among the flint and stone implements of 
 England, Ireland, Denmark, France, America, Aus- 
 tralia, and New Zealand, in which we find the cutting 
 edge ground and polished, while the rest of the stone 
 is left rude, and roughly chipped, thus exhibiting 
 evidence of a progressive workmanship. (See 
 
 Fig. 14.) 
 
 5th stage. 
 
 We now enter upon a stage when man adopted 
 flint and stone implements, carefully ground and 
 polished into shape, exhibiting a most obvious ad- 
 vance in form and finish. The flint was first, in most 
 cases chipped into form, of which examples discovered 
 in Denmark (presenting the rough outline of a ground 
 
 * There was an earlier stage tlian this, which was the first step 
 in celt making, when the cutting edge of the flint celt was made 
 by chipping. Examples of this kind occur in Denmark and in 
 Ireland. (See Fig. 15). 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 61 
 
 celt) afford us evidence ; it was then rubbed down, 
 ground, and polished all over. 
 
 Sir W. Wilde * thus describes the mode and process 
 of the manufacture of stone implements : " The stone 
 
 No. 16. 
 
 STONE AXE — IBELAKD. Ground all over. 
 
 having been determined on, it was roughly hewn 
 
 into shape, approaching the required form. The 
 
 next stage appears to have been that of giving it the 
 
 * Catalogue of the Eoyal Irish Academy, p. 46. 
 
62 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COP FEB, 
 
 sharp cutting edge, so as to test the suitabiHty of the 
 material, its toughness, hardness, susceptibility of 
 polish and sharpness, before further time was expended 
 upon it, or perhaps to render it immediately available. 
 In some instances, however, it would appear that the 
 final grinding or setting of the edge was not effected 
 until after the instrument was polished. The third 
 step in the manufacture consisted in smoothing it 
 longitudinally, by rubbing it upon a flat curved stone. 
 The effect of this part of the process was to give it 
 the appearance of being planed into a number of 
 faces, or surfaces meeting at obtuse angles. The 
 fourth stage of the process appears to have consisted 
 in rubbing the celt obliquely with another stone, so 
 as to take off the angles or arrases formed by the 
 foregoing, and giving it the appearance of having 
 been rasped. The fifth, or final stage, consisted in 
 polishing the entire surface. 
 
 The stone celt generally assumed a wedge-like 
 shape, with a sharp cutting edge, sometimes present- 
 ing the most perfect precision and symmetry of form. 
 
 The Irish celts exhibit a variety of forms. Some are 
 of the most elegant form, and highly polished, others 
 are rude slate stones, having the general characters 
 of a triangular shape, with a rounded point and a 
 sharp cutting edge. In most the edge is rounded, 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 63 
 
 hut in some it is also bevelled, or cut off obliquely ; 
 in others, again, it is nearly square. Some are round, 
 or almost round ; others oval, and many, particularly 
 
 No. 18. 
 
 No. 17. 
 
 IBISH CELT IN HANDLE. 
 
 SWISS STONE AXE IN HANDLE. 
 
 those of slate, are quite flat. In a few the form 
 resembles that of a canine tooth, and in others it 
 partakes of the broad-bladed axe, while several were 
 apparently constructed to act as wedges. When it is 
 
64 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COP FEB, 
 
 stated that they vary in length from twenty two 
 inches to very little more than one inch in length, 
 some idea may be formed of the range through which 
 this series of implements extended,* 
 
 The celt was the principal tool and weapon, serving 
 the purpose of chisel, punch, wedge, plane, hatchet, 
 and battle-axe among the early Celtic inhabitants of 
 Ireland. 
 
 These stone implements were evidently used for 
 handicraft purposes, for cutting and sphtting timber, 
 in building houses, for cutting down trees, and on 
 some occasions as weapons. 
 
 For the most part, they were fixed in wooden 
 handles. We give illustrations of the modes of 
 hafting stone-hatchets among the Irish and Swiss 
 (Figs. 17, 18), which will give some idea of the various 
 modes better than any description. 
 
 Some were evidently held in the hand, as by the 
 Australians of the present day, who thus hold their 
 stone hatchets when cutting notches in trees, when 
 ascending them, and when shaping out their boome- 
 rangs. 
 
 The distinctions are so marked between the dif- 
 
 * Mr. Finlay has kindly sent me from Greece the smallest 
 stone celt I have ever seen, it is exactly one inch long, and one 
 and one-eighth in breadth. 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 65 
 
 ferent stages of the flint and stone age, that they may 
 be divided into three, corresponding with the phases 
 of civilization visible in man. 
 
 1st. The flint implements of the gravel drift, 
 and of the cave period, evidently used by man in 
 his lowest and most barbarous grade. 
 
 2. The flint implements (the flint flakes, and 
 the chipped flints) found on the surface in 
 England, Ireland, Denmark, and other countries, 
 which belonged to a people who lived by the chase. 
 
 3. Ground and polished stone implements 
 which mark a more advanced stage, and which 
 are found associated with traces of a pastoral age. 
 
 The chipped flint implements and the polished 
 and ground implements were evidently made for 
 distinct purposes. The chipped flints were obviously 
 fabricated for the purpose of the chase, for killing 
 game of all kinds, and also for warfare ; while the 
 ground implements were for handicraft purposes, for 
 cutting down trees, hollowing out canoes, splitting 
 timber, &c. The first were weapons, the latter tools. 
 
 The following terms may therefore be used to 
 distinguish the three different stages. The first or 
 l»alaeolithic, the second or Mesolithic, and the third or 
 Neolithic. 
 
66 
 
 ON TEE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, 810NE, COPPER, 
 
 Every nation, even fhoee most anciently civilized, 
 has had its stone age. Stone celts, as Mr. Franks 
 ohserves,* have been discovered nearly all over 
 the world, most districts of Europe, and also Asia 
 Minor, Egypt, Assyria, India, China, Java, and Japan, 
 have furnished specimens, as have likewise North and 
 South America, North and South Africa, the "West 
 Indies, New Caledonia, New Zealand, and Australia. 
 In some of the latter countries they are still in use. 
 The same general type pervades all those countries, 
 though, with some practice, an archaeologist will 
 generally be able to determine the locality from which 
 a specimen has been derived, guided by minute 
 differences in form and material. For instance, Irish 
 celts are generally unsymmetrical, and not as highly 
 polished as English specimens, and moreover they are 
 rarely made of flint, the common material for such 
 implements in the south of England. Those from 
 Scandinavia, though made of flint, are of a more 
 opaque kind, and squarer edges, and more uniform 
 thickness than those found in the British Isles. 
 
 The material used by the rude and primitive races for 
 
 their implements, almost always depended on the stone 
 
 found nearest at hand for that purpose, the hardest 
 
 and toughest stones being generally selected. The 
 
 * " Horre Ferales," p. 134. 
 
<- R E t 
 
 E >i b- ' L N I A 
 
 A I. ij t R I A 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 I. F. A CA l_ F. D N I A 
 
 IT :,T TTtittijiJg P/el. 
 
 STONE 1 MP LK MINTS, 
 
 ^ Jcbbins 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 67 
 
 early rude inhabitants of Denmark, Sweden, England, 
 Ireland, and France, generally used flint, and at a 
 later period, green stone (Diorite), serpentine and 
 aptanite. 
 
 In regard to the material of Irish celts, Sir 
 W. Wilde remarks : "In material the stone celts afford 
 examples of nearly every description of rock found in 
 Ireland suited for the purpose, by its hardness, tough- 
 ness, absence of brittleness, and susceptibility of 
 polish ; from the hard, sharp silex, the metallic basalt, 
 the highly-polished porphyry, the splintery felstone, 
 the rare syenite, and the compact green stone, to the 
 smooth clay slate or shale, the brittle sandstone grit, 
 the soft whetstone, or even th^ micaceous schist, with 
 all their different varieties and combinations." 
 
 In the Swiss lake dwellings, the implements dis- 
 covered, were made of materials found in their neigh- 
 bourhood. At Wangen the rolled stones of the 
 neighbourhood, originally derived from the Ehsetian 
 Alps, formed the material of the greater portion of 
 the implements. At Mooseedorf the material appears 
 to have come from the Swiss Jura (chalk), some 
 from the Alps. At Nussdorf, they were made of the 
 rolled stones found in the lake close by. Some also 
 are made of nephrite.* 
 
 * The presence of implements of jade in Switzerland lias giveu 
 
 F 2 
 
68 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, OOP FEB, 
 
 Mr. Finlay tells us that many of the implements 
 found in G-reece were evidently worked out of the 
 rolled pebbles found in different parts of the country, 
 which were selected from experience of the tough- 
 ness that was combined with their hardness, and 
 from their natural form requiring the least possible 
 labour to give them the desired shape. Eed jaspery, 
 iron clay, and brown argillaceous iron stone are found 
 as rough pebbles in the glens of Eubaea, and celts 
 fiishioned from them are not uncommon in the island. 
 
 The American Indians used the red stone of the 
 prairies for their arrow-heads. 
 
 rise to some wild theories of commtmication with the east, upon 
 which M. Desors makes the following sensible remarks. "We 
 cannot share the opinion which attributes extensive commercial 
 relations to the tribes of the age of stone. In support of this 
 opinion are cited the hatchets of nephrite, of which numbers are 
 found at Concise and other stations of that epoch ; and as this stone 
 now comes to us from the East, it has been inferred that the tribes 
 of the remote period in question trafEicked with Asia. But it 
 should be remembered that the greater part of the hatchets which 
 are assumed to be nephrite, may very well be only varieties of 
 indigenous rocks, proceeding from siliceous veins in the serpentine, 
 and whose depository might be found, according to M. de Mortillet, 
 in the higher Maurienne. It seems to us very difficult to admit 
 that so distant a commerce should have been restricted to the 
 exchange of certain stones which, after all, are not very superior 
 to common silex, while the East might have furnished objects of 
 far greater utility, particularly metals." — Desor's Palafittes, South- 
 sonian Beport, p. 363. 
 
And bronze implements. 69 
 
 Quartzite was tHe material generally adopted by 
 the Japanese and the Peruvians. 
 
 Arrow-heads of crystal have been found in Switzer 
 land, crystal being abundant there. Lance-heads of 
 crystal have been also found at Gruayaquil, in South 
 America. 
 
 In Mexico and Tenerife, obsidian has been found 
 in great quantities. Its presence has suggested its 
 use for similar purposes. The Mexicans used obsidian 
 for their arrow-heads. It was also employed for 
 knives, razors, &c. In like manner the Guanches 
 (the ancient inhabitants of Tenerife) fixed splinters of 
 that mineral to the end of their lances. In both 
 countries this variety of lava was employed as an 
 object of ornament. 
 
 ■ Among the natives of New Zealand, jade, being 
 found in that island, was largely used for their meris, 
 hatchets, and other implements, and ornaments. 
 Obsidian, jade, and Lydian stone are, Humboldt 
 remarks, three minerals, which nations, ignorant of 
 the use of copper or iron, have, in all ages, employed 
 for making keen-edged weapons. 
 
 We must here remark an error, which often leads 
 to confusion, in the assignment of stone implements 
 to a certain fixed period. It is generally assumed 
 that the stone age has been synchronous in all 
 
70 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 countries, and among all tribes; whereas, as Mr. 
 Franks observes, in each country, and even in each 
 tribe, the change from stone to metal may have taken 
 place at very different times. It is important, ho 
 adds, to remember this, as it may account sometimes 
 for apparent anomalies, such as the discovery together 
 of implements of the two materials, due, perhaps, to 
 some encounter between tribes differently armed. 
 
 The use of stone implements will be always ac- 
 cording to the stage of civilization of the nation or 
 country in which they are found, and not at any 
 fixed or definite period of time. Their presence is 
 thus not always an evidence of high antiquity, but of 
 a rude and barbarous state, for stone hatchets are 
 found in common use at the present day among the 
 South Sea islanders. Some tribes of Indians have 
 been recently met with, near the sources of the Purus 
 river, in South America, still using their primitive 
 stone hatchets. In New Zealand, and Australia also, 
 they are still in use. The remoteness of the stone 
 age of any country must therefore be inferred from 
 the relative antiquity of the country in which they 
 are found. Thus the flint and stone implements 
 found in Egypt, or India, will belong to a remoter 
 period than those found in Denmark, England, or 
 France, while the latter will be witnesses of an earlier 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 71 
 
 age than those which are met with in New Zealand 
 and Australia. 
 
 6th stage. 
 
 Between the stone and bronze ages, there was an 
 intermediate or transitional stage, in which native 
 copper was used for implements, and was hammered 
 cold into shape. Copper being one of the most 
 abundant of metals, its frequent occurrence in its 
 native state, its possessing great malleability, and 
 consequently its readily taking the form desired, 
 makes it probable that the presence of this metal 
 suggested its use for the same purposes, for which 
 stone had been hitherto employed. Native copper was 
 thus rather used as a stone than a metal ; advantage 
 being taken of its extreme malleability, it was ham- 
 mered into form without the assistance of heat. 
 Implements of native copper, hammered into shape, 
 are thus found as the earliest applications of the 
 metal. 
 
 . Of this stage we have certain evidence in North 
 America. Such implements marking the passage 
 from stone to bronze have been largely used by the 
 race known as the mound builders. Copper occurs 
 frequently in the tumuli raised by them, wrought 
 and unwrought. "All the copper found in the 
 
72 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 mounds appeared to have been worked in a cold state ; 
 and although the axes and other instruments appear 
 to be harder than the copper of commerce, they have 
 been found upon analysis to be destitute of alloy. 
 The superior hardness which they possess over the 
 unworked metal, is doubtless due to the liammering to 
 which they have been subjected." — Squiers Antiquities 
 of New York, 
 
 These mound builders do not seem, as Mr. Tylor 
 observes, to have understood the art of melting 
 copper, or even of forging it hot, but to have treated 
 it as a kind of malleable stone, which they got in 
 pieces out of the ground, or knocked off from the 
 great natural blocks, and hammered into knives, 
 chisels, axes, and ornaments. Professor Dana observes 
 further, that they may in one sense to have been in an 
 age of stone, since they used the copper not as metal, 
 but as a stone. 
 
 Evidence of the use of copper in its native state 
 we also find in Ireland. In my collection is a rude 
 hatchet of pure copper, hammered into shape. Ex- 
 amples are, however, exceedingly rare, as the hatchets 
 of pure copper were doubtless all melted down and 
 worked into bronze. 
 
 Copper implements were formed on the model of 
 the stone ones. As Sir J. Lubbock observes, " It is 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 73 
 
 interesting to observe that the copper arrow or spear- 
 heads resemble the American type of stone arrow- 
 heads." Thus showing how strictly the sequence is 
 followed in the series of flint, stone, copper, and 
 bronze implements. 
 
 The next step in this transtional stage was when 
 
 No. 19. 
 
 No. 20. 
 
 A.MEBICAN COPPEK ABBOW-HEAD, HAMMEEED. 
 
 COPPER CELT CAST — ^IRELAND. 
 
 the copper was melted and moulded into the shape of 
 the implement ; an initial stage in metallurgy. 
 
 In this progressive step we still find the celt, made 
 of pure copper, melted and moulded into form, 
 keeping the shape of the stone implement. As Sir 
 W. "Wilde observes, " The metal celt is but the stone 
 
74 ON TEE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 implement reproduced in another form ; and having 
 once obtained a better material, the people who 
 acquired this knowledge repeated the form they were 
 best acquainted with, but economised the metal, and 
 lessened the bulk, by flattening the sides." In proof 
 of this repetition in metal of the ancient form of the 
 stone celt, may be adduced the fact of a copper celt 
 of the precise outline, both in shape and thickness, of 
 one of our ordinary stone implements having been 
 found in an Etruscan tomb, and now preserved in the 
 museum in Berlin, In Ireland, also, copper celts occur 
 not unfrequently, having a great similarity to their 
 stone predecessors of the rudest description. 
 
 The use of copper for the earliest metal implements 
 is proved by the discovery of implements of that 
 metal, in its pure state, in many countries. A large 
 battleaxe of pure copper was found in Eatho bog, 
 near Edinburgh, Sir W. Wilde, in his " Catalogue of 
 the Royal Irish Academy," says, that upon careful 
 examination, it has been found that thirty of the 
 rudest, and apparently the very oldest celts, are of 
 red, almost unalloyed, copper. Axes of copper, 
 according to Professor Nilsson, are occasionally found 
 in Scania, They have been also found in Switzerland. 
 The one found at Sipplingen is thus described by 
 Br. Keller : " One single celt was met with of copper. 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 75 
 
 of very simple form, like that of the stone celts." 
 Dr. Keller mentions another found at Meurach. 
 Axes of copper have been also discovered in Italy 
 (Peschiera), and in Hungary. 
 
 They occur also in G-reece. Mr. Finlay notices a 
 small axe of pure copper found in Eubsea, which, as 
 he justly observes, appears to belong to the transi- 
 tion period, when the use of metal was discovered, 
 but the form of the stone celt retained. 
 
 In Asia numerous implements and weapons of 
 copper have been discovered in a particular class of 
 graves ; and in some of the old and long abandoned 
 mines in that country, workman's tools have been 
 discovered, made of copper, and of very remote 
 antiquity. 
 
 Chisels and tools of pure copper have been also 
 discovered in Egypt. The copper mines of Wadi 
 Maghara, in the peninsula of Sinai, were worked 
 more than three thousand years before our era, by a 
 colony of labourers from Egypt. 
 
 We find evidence of this intermediate stage also in 
 Mexico and Peru. Prescott tells us that the arrows 
 and spears of the Peruvians were tipped with copper, 
 and that the tools used were mostly of that metal. 
 Mr. Squier, in his history of New York, gives a 
 sketch of an ancient spear-head of copper found in 
 
76 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 a Peruvian huaca or tumulus, near Lima. The 
 Spaniards, we are told, mistook the bright copper 
 axes of the Mexicans for gold. 
 
 We must add a remark that the copper period, or 
 age of unalloyed metals, appears to have been of a 
 very brief and transitory character in Europe. 
 
 7th stage. 
 
 We now pass into a more advanced stage of civili- 
 zation, into what is termed essentially the bronze 
 age. 
 
 Finding by experience that an admixture of tin, 
 or an alloy of that metal in certain proportions was 
 necessary to harden the copper, and make it more 
 and more fusible, bronze, or copper, with an alloy of 
 tin, came into general use for implements and 
 weapons among the men of the pre-bistoric age. On 
 the discovery of the increase of hardness acquired by 
 copper on its admixture witb tin, the pure copper 
 implements were doubtless returned to the melting- 
 pot, and reproduced in the more perfect and useful 
 condition of tbe bronze alloy. 
 
 The adoption of bronze could not have been either 
 sudden or universal. The transition from the first 
 rude instrument of flint or stone to the more valuable 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 77 
 
 metal, must have been very gradual, and possibly 
 
 extended over centuries. 
 
 The line of demarcation, however, between the 
 
 stone and bronze ages was not divided and marked ; 
 
 they frequently overlap and intermingle. In some 
 
 countries flint and stone implements were retained 
 
 far into the bronze age. 
 
 Human nature, as it has been said, is too conser- 
 vative to allow an old contrivance to be readily 
 vanquished by a new invention. Bows and arrows 
 were in vogue long after the discovery of gun- 
 powder, and so stone and bronze implements were 
 in use during the age of iron. And as we do not 
 know when these transitional stages of human pro- 
 gress began, so neither can we say when they 
 respectively terminated. In fact, there are savage 
 tribes, such as the Andaman islanders, who are still 
 in the stone age. There is, however, every certainty 
 now that these progressive stages were passed 
 through in almost every country, which exhibited 
 progress and developnaent, but at what time and at 
 what age is uncertain. 
 
 In the bronze arrow-heads and spear-heads of this 
 age, the sequence of development is strictly carried 
 out. The earliest forms are copies of the flint arrow- 
 head ; thence rising progressively in various transi- 
 
78 ON TEE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, GOPPEB, 
 
 tional forms, until they culminate in the spear-heads 
 of exquisite shape and proportions. They vary in 
 length, from an inch to two feet and a half. Bronze 
 arrow-heads, though Occasionally found in Ireland, 
 are almost unknown in England ; in Grermany they 
 are more plentiful ; but the East seems to have been 
 the part of the world in which they were principally 
 used. They are not very common in northern 
 Europe, as Sir J, Lubbock remarks, probably because 
 flint was so much cheaper, and almost as effective. 
 
 Arrow-heads with small tangs, in imitation of the 
 flint-stemmed arrow-head, are occasionally found, as 
 well as others, with sockets. Flat spear-heads of 
 bronze, obvious copies of the flint leaf-shaped spear- 
 heads, occur in many countries. Mr. Franks divides 
 those with sockets into two principal classes, viz., 
 those with rivet holes and those without. Where 
 there are no rivet holes we frequently find loops, 
 sometimes placed close to the blade, and forming part 
 of it, sometimes near the lower end of the sockets. 
 These side loops seem to be peculiar to the British 
 Isles, and are rather more common in Ireland than 
 in England. 
 
 The swords of the bronze age assume more or less 
 a leaf-like shape, and are evidently further develop- 
 ments of the flint daggers of the stone age. A com^ 
 
K M Westro-gp, lie 
 
 13 li N Z E 
 
 ARROW HEADS AMD SPEAR HEADS 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 GERMAN. DANrSH, 
 
 FROM "dEMMIN'S WKAP0N3 OF -WAR." 
 
80 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COP PES, 
 
 plete sequence of development can also be trace 
 from the bronze dagger, formed on the model of the 
 flint dagger, with many intermediate forms, up to 
 the fully developed leaf-shaped sword. They were 
 evidently intended for stabbing and thrusting rather 
 than for cutting. 
 
 Bronze swords, remarkable for their elegance of 
 form and workmanship, are found in most parts of 
 Europe. Everywhere, as Mr. Franks observes, they 
 exhibit a great similarity of form, as though the 
 weapons of one race ; but in each country minute 
 differences may be detected, which serve to show 
 that they were not made in one place only, and 
 exported to other lands.* 
 
 One chief difference between British and continental 
 specimens is the general absence of the outer portions 
 of the handle in one, and their presence in the other, 
 owing to the more perishable material of which the 
 former were made. The specimens found in Ireland 
 are generally smaller than those from England. 
 The largest sword in the Museum of the Royal Irish 
 Academy measures twenty-nine and three-quarter 
 inches in length ; one from the Thames, of exactly 
 the same type, is in the British Museum, and measures 
 twenty-eight and six-tenths of an inch, but the 
 * " Horse Ferales," p. 159. 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 81 
 
 No. 30. 
 
 BRONZE LEAF-SHAPED SWORD WITH BONE HANDLE— IRELAND. 
 
 G 
 
82 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPEB, 
 
 largest sword in the national collection is one from 
 Battle, in Sussex, wliicli measures twenty-nine and a 
 half inches. Swords with complete bronze handles 
 are rarely found in this country. In foreign ex- 
 amples, a bronze handle is of not unfrequent occur- 
 rence. In England and Ireland they had usually 
 handles of wood or bone.* 
 
 The French examples are not unlike the English. 
 In Denmark some of the swords closely rgsemble 
 those from the British Isles. The generality of 
 specimens, however, have elaborately ornamented 
 handles ; the largest of these swords seems to have 
 been fully thirty-five inches in length. These types 
 are likewise to be found in northern Germany. In 
 Switzerland, the handles are generally more simple. 
 The largest sword from Germany is thirty-six and 
 three-quarter inches long. The ancient Greek and 
 Roman bronze swords present the identical leaf-like 
 shape of the British and Danish examples. 
 
 The ancient bronze implements and tools appear 
 to be mere copies of the stone ones. 
 
 * Through the kindness of Mr. Day, I give a woodcut of a 
 bronze leaf-shaped sword of beautiful form and proportions, which 
 still retains a portion of the original bone handle. It is twenty- 
 five inches long. It was found in Lisletrim bog, parish of 
 Muckno, town land of Tullycoora, and barony of Cremome, 
 county Monaghan. It is now in the collection of Mr. Eobert 
 Day, F.S.A., Cork. 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 83 
 
 As Sir W. Wilde remarks, " In no other class of 
 implements is the progress of development more 
 truly represented, than in the gradual transition of 
 the metal celt and palstave, from the rudest and 
 simplest to the most perfect form." 
 
 We shall now follow Sir W. Wilde, and give the 
 complete sequence of those bronze implements from 
 the rudest and simplest form of the celt, which was 
 evidently modelled on the type of the stone hatchet 
 to the most perfect socketed form, and trace their 
 process of development in the gradual transition of 
 forms. 
 
 The term celt, from celtis, chisel, is quite conven- 
 tional, but as it has been adopted more than a century 
 ago to designate those weapon-tools in the shape 
 of axes, hatchets, adzes and chisels, and preserved by 
 authors since, it would be attended with much incon- 
 venience to alter it now. 
 
 For the sake of arrangement, celts, although pre- 
 senting more than a dozen varieties of form, may all 
 be classed under three different heads : first, the 
 plane hatchet-shaped piece of metal which passed 
 into and probably through its wooden handle — this 
 was denominated the simple flat celt ; secondly, the 
 winged celt or palstave, which mutually received, 
 and was received into the handle ; and thirdly, the 
 
 G 2 
 
84 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COFFEE, 
 
 socketed celt, in which the handle was inserted. 
 These three varieties pass insensibly into each other. 
 As this classification is founded on the mode of fixing 
 these implements in their handles, he gives the 
 following conjectural modes of hafting and using the 
 metal celts. 
 
 Figure 31 represents a simple, flat, wedge-shaped 
 celt, which passed through a wooden handle, and was 
 
 No. 31. 
 
 No. 32. 
 
 No. 33. 
 
 secured by a ligature possibly of hide or gut. By use, 
 however, as a tool or weapon, it must in process of 
 time have either split the handle or passed through it, 
 A new plan was therefore adopted, that of making the 
 metal and wood pass one into the other, and thus 
 arose the winged celt or palstave. Here a curved 
 piece of wood, like a hook, or ordinary crooked walk- 
 ing stick, was split or cut so as to receive the metal 
 weapon, which had a slight wing or flange raised 
 
AND BRONZE^ IMPLEMENTS. 85 
 
 upon the lower iedges of the narrow portion, to pre- 
 vent its joggling or slipping up and down ; and the 
 parts thus adjusted must have been bound round 
 after the fashion shown, by No. 32.* That the 
 winged celt had, however, originally no stop, is 
 known by several examples discovered. Still a hard 
 blow with this implement was apt to split the 
 wooden handle, and so man's ingenuity devised a 
 larger stop or elevated ridge, near the middle, at the 
 junction between the axe blade, or cutting portion, 
 and the parts which passed into and received the 
 sides of the handle, against which they abutted. 
 Nevertheless, the implement was imperfect, and still 
 liable, to split, and so, in process of time, the third 
 great step in celt manufacture was achieved — that of 
 making the metal the sole recipient of the wooden 
 handle, by developing the wiugs, enlarging and 
 bringing up the stop, and gradually removing the 
 septum that divided the blade of the handle, until 
 the implement became what is called a socketed celt, 
 of which an example is given in the illustration. 
 No. 33. This was a great step in advance, yet the 
 implement was imperfect, because, as every person 
 
 * Mr. Kemble's description ("Horse Ferales," p. 77) of the 
 manner in which iron palstaves are hafted in Siberia, at the 
 present day, would suggest a different mode of fixing them with a 
 handle. See note at end of this chapter. 
 
86 OH THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 acquainted with tlie working of such tools is aware, 
 it was apt to kick, the blade or cutting edge turning 
 upwards at each repeated blow, until it finally flew 
 off the handle, as any badly fitted hammer, hatchet, 
 or adze would do. To obviate this defect, a loop was 
 added to the lower edge, on both winged and socketed 
 varieties, and to this was attached a stay either of 
 metal or cordage, which occupied the angle between 
 the celt and its handle where it was fastened ; thus 
 the most perfect form of the implement was finally 
 attained. 
 
 "We shall now give a description of the various 
 forms of the celts themselves, according to their pro- 
 gress of development. 
 
 The simplest form of celt is a cuneiform or wedge- 
 shaped piece of metal, evidently formed on the type 
 of the large stone celt ; longer than it is broad, 
 curved on its sharp-cutting, hatchet face, and square 
 or rounded on the ojoposite narrow and- blunted 
 extremity. In length, this weapon varies from one 
 inch long to upwards of twelve inches. 
 
 The winged celt or palstave presents the greatest 
 variety of forms, showing most prominently the suc- 
 cessive stages of its development. The first is a simple, 
 narrow, chisel-edged celt (see Plate III., No. 4), in 
 which the side edges project into flanges, so as to form 
 
PI VI. 
 
 I IV- ^f-^ „M "i'' 
 
 TIMEHRI OR CARVJiiD KOCKS ON THE RIVER CORENTYM. 
 (Sketotierl by Cap^ Allen) 
 
 WHB-reU. del 
 
 M tlTH.<.n.ha.tt li-O-t 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 87 
 
 grooves for the reception of the cleft handle. The 
 second form exhibits the wings, with the addition 
 
 No. 35. 
 
 No. 36. 
 
 PBANCE. DENMARK. GERMANY. 
 
 PALSTAVES. From DemminB " Weapons of War." 
 
 of a stop or elevated ridge near the middle (No. 5). 
 In the third form (No. 6), the flange and stop were 
 joined together, and thus assume the character of a 
 socket with a septum or division, or rather two small 
 side sockets, into which the wood passed ; in this form 
 -we find a fourth variety (No. 7), where a loop was' 
 added, in order to secure the celt by a ligature to the 
 
 haft. 
 
 By bringing up the stop a little more between the 
 wings, in order to close the open of the latter, and 
 at the same time removing the septum, the socketed 
 or recipient celt, the final and complete form in the 
 development of this implement was at once attained. 
 
 The cutting edge of the celts presents a great 
 
88 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 diversity, from a very slightly curved line to that of 
 the segment of a circle, the centre of which would be 
 about the junction of the lower and middle thirds of 
 
 No. 37. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 No. 39. 
 
 No. '10. 
 
 FRANCE. SWITZERLAND. 
 
 SOCKETED CELTS. From Demmiu's " Weapons of War." 
 
 the length of the instrument. In the simple axe- 
 shaped celts, and also in the socketed variety, it is 
 seldom mdch curved, and in some of the latter is 
 almost straight. But in the palstave, or flanged celt, 
 we find three well-marked varieties. The saddler's 
 knife shape, in which the blade spreads out, some- 
 times to three times the width of the shaft: the 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 89 
 
 lunette or semi-lunar form, the extremities some- 
 times forming hooked terminations; and the fan- 
 shaped. 
 
 To secure the celt to the handle more effectually, 
 a loop or eye was added in J" the casting to the 
 inferior edge of both the winged and socketed celt, 
 the object being evidently to provide against the 
 flying off of the head, by securing it to the shaft by 
 a stay between points where the greatest stress would 
 come, when a heavy blow was given with the instru- 
 ment, as already explained. In the palstave celt the 
 loop is usually placed beneath the stop, and in the 
 socketed one is always close to the top. 
 
 In the previous description may be traced the 
 successive and uninterrupted development of the 
 third and final variety of celt, from the simple, flat, 
 wedge-shaped piece of metal, to the hollow implement 
 formed to receive the end of the straight or crooked 
 handle. As the stop became developed in the 
 palstave variety, the enlarged wings merged into it, 
 so as to form a socket on each side. From this there 
 was but one step more, that of bringing up the stop 
 between the sides of the wings, and removing the 
 thin and gradually decreased septum, when the true 
 socketed celt was achieved. 
 
 In external shape the socket presents several 
 
90 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, OOP PEE, 
 
 varieties,— such as the circular, compressed or 
 flattened, quadrangular, hexagon, and octagon. 
 Some are long, narrow, square, chisel-edged, a type 
 not uncommon in France. 
 
 The cutting edge in the socketed celt is generally 
 semi-lunar, although in some instances nearly straight, 
 or chisel-shaped. 
 
 The top of the socket is generally ornamented, 
 and very frequently surrounded by one or more 
 raised bands or fillets. 
 
 In size the socketed celt runs from about one inch 
 in length to five inches and one-eighth long. The 
 smallest celt of any description, and possibly the 
 least ever found in the British Isles, is in the Royal 
 Irish Academy : it is six-eighths of an inch in length. 
 
 Bronze implements, showing a complete sequence 
 of form, from the simple flat axe, to the socketed celt, 
 have been discovered in many countries — in England, 
 Ireland, Denmark, France, Italy,* Switzerland, and 
 Germany — varying however somewhat in shape, 
 form, and ornamentation, according to tlie country in 
 which they were -manufactured. A practical archajo- 
 
 * The figures of some Italian bronze celts, in my collection, on 
 page 92, presenting examples of the three types, the flat, the 
 winged, and the socketed, afford an interesting proof of the 
 sequence of development of thos^ bronze implements being inde- 
 pendently carried out in Italy. 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 91 
 
 legist will readily distinguish the different peculiari- 
 ties connected with each country. 
 
 That these bronze implements were the production 
 and manufacture of the countries in which they are 
 found, is proved by the moulds for casting them 
 (Fig. 41), together with imperfectly cast specimens, 
 being found in different countries — in England, 
 Ireland, Denmark, Switzerland (Merges), France 
 (Quetelot in Normandy), Hungar^^ Italy (near 
 
 No. 41. 
 
 CELT MOULD — IKELAND. 
 
 Eeggio). Moreover, as Mr. Franks observes, "Some 
 minute variety of type or ornamentation is to be 
 observed, which seems to demonstrate that the supply 
 of such objects did not generally proceed from a 
 common centre." 
 
 Implements and tools of bronze occur in Egypt, 
 Ohaldsea, and India, 
 
92 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 No. 42. 
 
 No. 44. 
 
 No. 43, 
 
 No. 45. 
 
 ITALIAN BKONZB CELTS, (lialf-size). 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 93 
 
 Bronze tools were also used by the Mexicans, and 
 
 by the Peruvians, an important fact, as it attests the 
 
 independent invention of that metal by these nations. 
 
 '•It is worthy of remark," Mr. Prescott says, "that 
 
 the Egyptians, the Mexicans, and the Peruvians, in 
 
 their progress towards civilization, should never 
 
 have detected the use of iron, which lay around 
 
 them in abundance, and that they should each, 
 
 without any knowledge of one another, have found a 
 
 substitute for it in such a curious composition of 
 
 metals as gave to their tools almost the temper of 
 
 steel." Nearly the same proportions result from the 
 
 analysis of the bronze weapons found in the sepulchral 
 
 barrows of Europe, of the instruments contained in 
 
 the tombs of ancient Egypt, and of the tools of the 
 
 Mexicans and Peruvians. 
 
 Humboldt brought back with him to Europe one 
 of these metallic tools, a chisel found in a silver mine 
 opened by the Incas, not far from Cuzco. On an 
 analysis, it was found to contain 0*94 of copper, and 
 0-OGoftin. 
 
 The Mexicans derived their tin from the mines of 
 Tasco, and their copper from the mountains of 
 Zacatallan. The mountains of Peru abound in copper 
 
 and tin. 
 
 The implements and weapons of the bronze age 
 
94 ON TEE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPER, 
 
 are all cast. Those belonging to the more advanced 
 stage of development show very considerable skill in 
 metallurgy. 
 
 It has presented itself as a difficulty to many, how 
 the ancients could have given sufficient hardness to 
 comparatively so soft a metal as bronze, so as to carve 
 and shape the hardest stones, a secret, it is said, that 
 has been lost, or, to speak more correctly, has never 
 been discovered by the civilized European. The 
 following passage from Mr. Tylor's " Anahuac," may 
 solve much of the' difficulty. " When the subject of- 
 the use of bronze in stone cutting is discussed, as it 
 is so often with special reference to Egypt, one may 
 doubt whether people have not underrated its capa- 
 bilities, when the proportion of tin is accurately 
 adjusted to give the maximum hardness, and especially 
 when a minute portion of iron enters into composition. 
 Sir Gardner Wilkinson relates that he tried the edge 
 of one of the Egyptian mason's chisels upon the very 
 stone it had evidently been once used to cut, and 
 found that its edge was turned directly ; and there- 
 fore he wonders that such a tool could have been used 
 for the purpose, of course supposing that the tool as 
 he found it was just as the mason left it. This, 
 however, is not quite certain. If we bury a brass 
 tool in a damp place for a few weeks, it will be found 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 95 
 
 to have undergone a curions molecular change, and 
 to have become quite soft and weak, or, as workmen 
 call it, dead. "We ought to be quite sure whether 
 lying for centuries under ground may not have made 
 some similar change in bronze." 
 
 We have thus traced the gradual and progressive 
 development of flint, stone, copper, and bronze 
 implements in their transitional stages, and in their 
 sequence of forms from the very rudest shape up to 
 the most perfect socketed bronze type. This sequence 
 affords an interesting and important proof of progress 
 in the earliest phases of civilization, evinced in the 
 ingenuity and skill, and in the adaptation of form to 
 practical purposes displayed in those implements, by 
 man in all countries in those early ages. 
 
 Addendum. 
 
 We can carry the sequence further into the iron 
 age, when implements of iron were made in imitation 
 of those of bronze. A remarkable discovery at 
 Hallstadt, in Austria, has brought to light a tran- 
 sitional period, or a passage from the bronze to the 
 iron age, when bronze tools were slowly dying out 
 before the use of iron. The implements of iron found 
 at Hallstadt, were actually copied from their pre- 
 
96 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, 810NE, COPPER, 
 
 decessors in bronze. Bronze celts, faced witli iron 
 edges, were also found. 
 
 No. 46. 
 
 IRON AEUOW-HEADS. IKON PALSTAVES FROM HALL6TADT. 
 
 No. 48. No. 49. 
 
 No. 50. 
 
 IRON SPKAR-HEADS. IRON SWORD. — IHE HILT OF' BRONZE. IKON SOCKETED CELT 
 
 PROM HALLSTADT. 
 
 From Demmin's " Weapons of War.' 
 
 The implements found at Marin, lake of Neufchatel, 
 
AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 97. 
 
 show the iron implements following in strict sequence 
 those of bronze. The specimens found there consist 
 of weapons, of agricultural and domestic implements, 
 and ornaments, and they exhibit to our view, made of 
 iron, whatever, in older lake dwellings, was made of 
 stone, or bone, or bronze. 
 
 The objects discovered in the lake dwelling of 
 Marin, bring before us in the most prominent manner 
 the iron age. It has been termed by antiquaries as 
 pre-eminently the settlement of the iron age, when 
 we reach the strictly historical period, and a more 
 advanced phase of civilization. 
 
 Implements of iron carrying out the sequence of 
 stone, bronze, and iron, have been also discovered in 
 Denmark, England, France, and G-ermany,* 
 
 * Mr. Kemble in " Horse Ferales," p. 77, in order to call attention 
 to the importance of consulting the habits of those tribes, which 
 are now in a similar state to that of our forefathers at the period 
 when those weapons were in use, tells us, " Along the whole of 
 the upper tract of Siberia the Mongol tribes are ia the habit of 
 carrying a weapon formed in every respect like our celts, both in 
 the shape which we call socket, and that which, in imitation of our 
 Danish friends, we have named palstave. The mode of fixing this 
 with a handle is simple, but effective. A piece of bent wood, for 
 which ash or blackthorn is admirably adapted, is fastened ia the 
 lower groove of the palstave ; another piece of flat wood is placed 
 within the upper groove ; and the whole is then carefully wound 
 round with the sinew of some animal ; and thus is formed an imple- 
 ment, which, from personal experience, he can assure us, is capable 
 
 H 
 
98 ON THE SEQUENCE OF FLINT, STONE, COPPEB, ETC. 
 
 of dealing a most deadly blow. But> similar kind of the socket 
 celt itself is found amongst the Gallo and Betuan tribes of 
 Africa, differing in no conceivable point from the celt of our own 
 forefathers, save in the material of which the implement is com- 
 posed. In Africa, as in Siberia, it is of iron. 
 
( 99 ) 
 
 ON THE SEQUENCE OF THE PHASES OE CIVILIZA- 
 TION, AND CONTEMPOEANEOUS 
 IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 It is familiar knowledge to us, that man in his 
 progress through life, passes through the stages of 
 infancy, childhood, youth, and manhood. There is 
 evidence that man collectively passes through an ana- 
 logous sequence in the stages of his development, the 
 primitive barbarous, the hunting, pastoral, and agri- 
 cultural phases. The last alone may be termed 
 historic, as we frequently find a record of this phase 
 in history, the other stages are pre-historic. On these, 
 history is silent. The late wonderful discoveries in 
 pre-historic archaeology have opened up distinct 
 vistas of the earliest pre-historic phases, the pastoral, 
 the hunting, the rude and barbarous stages of 
 separate races. 
 
 It appears as if there were but one history for 
 
 H 2 
 
100 SEQUENCE OF THE JP EASES OF CIVILIZATION, 
 
 separate people, each passing through successive 
 phases. As Figuier observes, "The development 
 of man must have been doubtless the same in all 
 parts of the earth, so that in whatever country we 
 may consider him, man must have passed through the 
 same phases, in order to arrive at his present state ! 
 He must have had everywhere his age of stone, his 
 epoch of bronze, and his epoch of iron, in orderly 
 succession." 
 
 The object of this chapter is not only to trace the 
 sequence of these stages, in the development of man, 
 but also to point out the various implements and 
 weapons, which are contemporaneous and coincident 
 with each phase. Of this view I shall now adduce a 
 few proofs. In the first place, it must be admitted 
 that the existence of these phases of civilization in 
 each separate race, is undoiibted, for all that has 
 growth and progress advances by stages of develop- 
 ment to a culminating point ; and as it is impossible 
 that they could be contemporaneous among the same 
 people, they must have been successive, and in 
 sequence, each phase ascending in progress from a 
 ruder stage to a higher and more advanced one; 
 analogous to the growth of the individual man, who 
 cannot be an infant and youth, and a man at the 
 same time, for these stages of his development are in 
 
AND CONTEMPORANEOUS IMPLEMENTS. 101 
 
 hira successive. The transition, however, from one 
 phase to another was neither marked nor sudden, 
 but a slow and gradual operation. There was thus an 
 intermediate period, partaking of the lower and 
 higher phases, and a blending of the two. 
 
 This law of sequence is evidently a prevailing law, 
 not only in man, but in nature, Mr. Page thus expresses 
 himself with regard to its observance in geology : — 
 " The geological record is a thing of mere sequence, 
 an inconceivable amount of unexpressed time, during 
 which certain events follow each other in definite 
 order." 
 
 In France, England, Italy, Sicily, Palestine, India, 
 evidences have been discovered, of an early primitive 
 barbarous phase, when man was contemporaneous 
 with the mammoth and the woolly-haired rhinoceros, 
 and used those large rude, flint implements, found in 
 conjunction with the remains of those animals. The 
 implements and weapons of this phase prove the man 
 of that period to have been a savage of the lowest 
 grade, unacquainted vv-ith the use of pottery, and 
 even ignorant of the art of polishing or ornamenting 
 the splinters of bone, or the rough flint that he used. 
 Sir John Lubbock thus concludes on the evidence 
 before him : " We may regard it as well-established, 
 that the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros 
 
102 SEQUENCE OF TEE PEASES OF CIVILIZATION, 
 
 co-existed with the savages who used the rude ' drift- 
 hatchets,' at the time when the gravels of the Somme 
 were being deposited." 
 
 Of the hunting stage of man's development, or 
 that phase when flint arrow-heads and flint weapons 
 were generally adopted, the North- American Indians, 
 and the weapons used by them, afford proof that 
 they lived by the chase, depending mainly on the 
 animal kingdom for their subsistence. They were 
 essentially hunters and fishermen ; the bufiklo, the 
 deer, and the salmon supplying them with their 
 principal articles of food ; they exhibited an extraordi- 
 nary amount of skill in the manufacture of their bows 
 and arrows, and among several of the tribes, arrow 
 making was a distinct profession. The arrow-heads, 
 lance, spear-heads, such implements as would be used 
 by a hunting people were, for the most part, of flint ; 
 in other countries, when flint was not available, they 
 were manufactured of quartzite or obsidian. These 
 implements were almost always chipped into shape. 
 Distinct traces of this hunting stage, and the imple- 
 ments connected with it, have been discovered in 
 France, England, Ireland, Denmark, Switzerland, 
 America, and several other countries. 
 
 The sum of the evidence, from the discoveries of Mr. 
 Lartet and Christy, proves that man, in a hunting state. 
 
AND CONTEMPORANEOUS IMPLEMENTS. 103 
 
 lived in the south of France. On the floors of the caves 
 discovered by them, fragments of the bones of the 
 red deer, the chamois, the bouquetin, and more 
 particularly the reindeer, have been found mixed up 
 pell-mell with worked flints of different forms and 
 sizes. 
 
 The Danish Kjokken-moddings were of this age. 
 In those shell mounds, rude flint implements, sling 
 stones, fragments of bone have been found. The 
 primitive population of this period lived on the shore, 
 and fed principally on shell-fish, but partly also on 
 the proceeds of the chase. 
 
 A writer in the " Quarterly Review " makes the 
 following observations on the grave mounds of the 
 Yorkshire "Wolds, which have yielded such a numer- 
 ous crop of flint implements, and also some polished 
 stone implements. " These grave mounds, the many 
 foundations of huts that are found gathered into 
 villages on the Cleveland moors, and elsewhere, and 
 the remarkable dykes, and entrenchments that scar 
 the sides of the wolds, and of the hills on the opposite 
 side of the Vale of Pickering, are sufficient evidence 
 that a somewhat numerous population of hunters, and 
 perhaps of shepherds, dwelt on these high grounds 
 for long ages before, and probably during the 
 Roman occupation." 
 
104 SEQUENCE OF THE PEASES OF CIVILIZATION, 
 
 In Ireland, several hundreds of flint and chert 
 implements, comprising arrow-heads of highly finished 
 workmanship, scrapers, and other articles, together 
 with bones, and a boar's tusk, have lately been found 
 on a peninsula of Lake Bally hoe ; and the inference 
 has been drawn, that red deer (their antlers are 
 found in the lake), boars, and other wild animals, 
 having been driven into this thickly wooded peninsula, 
 were slain with these weapons on its shores by the 
 ancient inhabitants who were hunters. 
 
 We find from Camden that the river Bann, on 
 leaving Lough Neagh at Toom Castle, where at the 
 present day flint flakes and flint arrow-heads are 
 found in countless numbers, was beset and shadowed 
 along the sides with woods, which were places of 
 shelter for the wild Irish, who lived solely by the 
 chase, and by fishing. 
 
 in a late excavation made by Dr. F. Keller, 
 between Friedrickshafen, on the lake of Constance, 
 and Ulm, the following objects were found : a number 
 of small flint knives, and other implements of silex, 
 in conjunction with the bones of the reindeer, of 
 bears of large size, of the wolf, the ox, and also bones 
 of birds, all evidences of a people who lived by the 
 chase, and used those flint implements. 
 
 Implements of polished stone bear witness to a 
 
AND CONTEMPORANEOUS IMPLEMENTS. 105 
 
 more advanced stage of civilization, when man 
 abandoning the more precarious mode of subsistence 
 derived from the chase, learned to domesticate his 
 prey, and reduce the wild animals around to his rule. 
 He thus becomes a shepherd. Leading a more settled 
 life, he builds for himself a dwelling, and learns 
 to form implements more suited to his wants; he 
 improves on the former rude shapes, grinds, polishes, 
 and sharpens the stone implements which he will 
 require for cutting timber, and for other purposes 
 contiibuting to his need. The men of this stage 
 possessed many useful arts ; they invented the use of 
 pottery, and were not ignorant of spinning ; they 
 dwelt in huts, the bottoms of which are now known 
 as hut circles, sunk in the earth, or in dwellings 
 raised on piles driven into shallow lakes. In Ireland 
 the. people of this age lived in raths or circular 
 enclosures, which are generally met with in extensive 
 pasture countries. The tumuli of G-aul, Germany, 
 Britain, and Scandinavia, indicate their belief in 
 a future state, and their reverence for the dead. 
 They ground and polished their stone implements. 
 Universally they had pressed the dog into their 
 service. They were essentially a pastoral people, but 
 lived also on the produce of the chase — the urus 
 and the red deer, as well as upon their domestic 
 
106 SEQUENCE OF THE PHASES OF CIVILIZATION, 
 
 animals, the horse, pig, sheep, goat, and short- 
 horned ox. 
 
 Of the existence of this stage^ and of the imple- 
 ments contemporaneous with it, there are proofs all 
 over the world. Examples of ground and polished 
 stone implements, almost identical in shape and form, 
 have been found in different countries, and are 
 witnesses of a similar phase of civilization, wherever 
 found. That they were independently invented 
 among these different peoples cannot admit of doubt. 
 
 The use of metal among any race makes an 
 important era, and argues a more advanced stage of 
 civilization. The introduction of more cutting 
 instruments of metal must have led the men of that 
 age to cut down forests, clear and till the ground, 
 cultivate the soil, and consequently bring about a 
 system of agriculture. The introduction of agriculture 
 and metallurgy are generally announced as contem- 
 poraneous in ancient records. In Mexico and Peru, 
 Quetzalcoatl and Manco Capac are said to have been 
 the first who taught agriculture and metallurgy. 
 The Pelasgi in Grreece, who were an agricultural 
 people, are said to have possessed a considerable 
 knowledge of metallurgy. In Irish annals, the 
 Tuath de Danaans are recorded as promoters of 
 agriculture, and skilful metal workers. Late studies 
 
AJ^D CONTEMPORANEOUS IMPLEMENTS. 107 
 
 in the Vedas, show a bronze age among the Aryans, 
 who were an agricultural people. The adoption of 
 metal, however, was neither sudden nor universal, as 
 the transition from the stone age to the bronze was 
 slow and gradual. The earliest and simplest bronze 
 celts were, as Sir W. Wilde remarks, " evidently 
 formed on the type of the old stone celts ;" these, 
 however, were improved on until they assumed the 
 more advanced forms, commonly termed the winged 
 and socketed celts. 
 
 With regard to the connection of these bronze 
 implements with the more advanced or agricultural 
 stage, Sir John Lubbock comes to this conclusion : — 
 " The evidence appears to show that the use of bronze 
 weapons is characteristic of a particular phase in the 
 history of civilization, and one which was anterior to 
 the discovery, or at least to the general use, of iron," 
 and, we may add, which was subsequent to the stone 
 age. This phase was evidently the agricultural. 
 Mr. Worsaae thus establishes the coincidence of bronze 
 implements with an agricultural stage in Denmark, 
 " The population, becoming possessed of useful me- 
 tallic implements, began to till the earth. Having 
 extirpated the forests in the interior of the country, 
 partly by fire, partly by the axe, the inhabitants spread 
 themselves over the whole land, and at the same time 
 
108 SEQUENCE OF THE PHASES OF CIVILIZATION, 
 
 laid the foundation for an agriculture, which, up to 
 the present day, is one of the principal industrial 
 resources of Denmark." In Ireland the great anti- 
 quity of corn has been generally acknowledged, and 
 sickles of bronze have been frequently obtained 
 there. 
 
 At Oamenz and G-rossenhain, in Saxony, a number 
 of bronze implements have been discovered, but the 
 most important feature in the finds at both these 
 places, is the number of bronze sickles they con- 
 tained, proving an extensive cultivation of cereals, 
 and consequently an evidence of an agricultural phase. 
 
 In regard to "that part of Upper Italy, the Emilia, 
 where there are traces of settlements of pfe-Eoman 
 inhabitants, and where stone and bronze implements 
 are found, Gastaldi remarks that these remains are 
 proofs of various settlements which continued for a 
 greater or less period of time. The nation was 
 partly nomadic, such as shepherds and hunters, 
 and partly stationary, such as fishermen and agri- 
 culturists. 
 
 Among the lake dwellings of Switzerland, some 
 have been referred to the stone age, others to the 
 bronze, as they exhibit a marked distinction in the 
 implements found in them, and also in their fauna. 
 The fauna of the former testifies to a pastoral 
 
AND CONTEMPORANEOUS IMPLEMENTS. 109 
 
 people, the fauna of the latter to an agricultural 
 people. Sir John Lubbock adduces evidences of the 
 different phases of civilization, and their contempora- 
 neous implements in the lake dwellings. Among 
 those of the stone period, the list of objects found 
 comprises seventeen axes, twenty whetstones, and 
 ninety-seven arrow-heads, and flint flakes, while objects 
 of metal are altogether absent, and but one doubtful 
 case of a corn-crusher ; on the other hand, in those of 
 the bronze period, the large number of corn-crushers, 
 and the presence of spinning weights are significant, 
 and the total absence of stone axes is remarkable. 
 
 Bronze was used not for articles of luxury only, 
 but also for the ordinary implements of daily life. 
 The pottery tells the same tale. There is no evidence 
 that the potter's wheel was known to men of the 
 stone age, and the materials of which the stone age 
 pottery is composed are very rough, containing large 
 grains of quartz, while that of the bronze age is more 
 carefully prepared. The ornaments of the two 
 periods show also a great contrast. " Thus, then, we 
 see," continues Sir John Lubbock, " that the distinction 
 between the ages of stone and bronze is by no means 
 confined to the mere presence of metal. The manu- 
 facture of pottery, the presence of the potter's wheel, 
 the greater variety of acquirements, evidenced by the 
 
110 SEQUENCE OF TEE PHASES OF CIVILIZATION 
 
 greater variety of implements, the indications of more 
 advanced husbandry, the diminution of wild animals, 
 and the increase of tame ones, all indicate a higher 
 civilization for the inhabitants of Merges and Nidau 
 (of the bronze age), than for those of Mooseedorf and 
 Wauwyl (of the stone age). 
 
 Further Sir Charles Lyell confirms this view in his 
 late work, " The Elements of Geology," p. 125 ; his 
 words are : " The relative antiquity of the pile 
 dwellings which belong respectively to the ages of 
 stone and bronze, is clearly illustrated by the associ- 
 ations of the tools with certain groups of animal 
 remains. Where the tools are of stone^ the castaway 
 bones which served for the food of the ancient people 
 are those of the deer, the wild boar, and wild ox, 
 which abounded when society was in the hunter 
 state. But the bones of the later or bronze epoch 
 were chiefly those of the domestic ox, goat, and pig, 
 indicating progress in civilization." 
 
 A remarkable discovery at Hallstadt, in Austria, 
 has brought to light a transitional period, or a passage 
 from the bronze to the iron age, where bronze tools 
 were slowly dying out before the use of iron. The 
 arms of iron found at Hallstadt were actually copied 
 from their predecessors in bronze. Bronze celts, 
 faced with iron edges, were also found. 
 
AND CONTEMPORANEOUS IMPLEMENTS. IH 
 
 We have evidence of an iron age in connection 
 with a more advanced phase of civilization on the 
 borders of history. Proofs of this age are found 
 throughout all Northern Europe. The lake dwelling 
 of Marin, lake of Neufchatel, brings before us in a 
 most prominent manner the iron age. It has been 
 termed by antiquaries as pre-eminently the settlement 
 of the iron age. The specimens found there consist 
 of weapons of agricultural and domestic implements, 
 and ornaments, and they exhibit to our view, made 
 of iron, whatever in the older lake dwellings was 
 made of stone, or bone, or bronze. 
 
 Everything in this age evinces a higher culture. 
 Tacitus and Diodorus Siculus mention the Scots, 
 and the Celts of Gaul, of their times, as using iron 
 swordsj and iron-headed spears. 
 
 In the iron age we thus reach a strictly historical 
 period, and a more advanced stage of civilization. 
 
 To sum up, we may now conclude that there is 
 evidence of a sequence of phases of civilization, and of 
 contemporaneous implements among each separate 
 race. A writer in a late number of the " Saturday 
 Eeview " terminates his article in these words : — " In 
 the scale of the former occupants of Western Europe 
 we have, first, the flint folk of the geologist, then the 
 reindeer folk in a hunter state, then the polished- 
 
112 SEQUENCE OF THE PHASES OF CIVILIZATION, 
 
 Stone-using folk (or pastoral), then the Celts, and 
 lastly the Teutons." Sir John Lubbock at the end 
 of his chapter on the Swiss Lake dwellings, and their 
 inhabitants, observes : — " We have traced them 
 through the ages of stone and bronze, down to the 
 iron period. We have seen evidences of a gradual 
 progress in civilization, and improvement in the arts, 
 an increase in the number of domestic animals, and 
 proofs at last of the existence of an extended commerce. 
 We found the country inhabited only by savages, and 
 we leave it the seat of a powerful nation." But of all 
 countries, Denmark presents us with the most distinct 
 evidences of a country passing through the flint, 
 stone, and bronze ages in sequence, and the successive 
 phases of civilization in connection with them, 
 England, Ireland, and France also exhibit similar 
 analogies in the developement of these successive 
 periods. 
 
 This sequence of phases of civilization, it must be 
 admitted, can be considered to exist alone among 
 the races who have exhibited progress. Among the 
 unprogressive races, such as the Negro, the New 
 Zealander, the Australian, a blending, and sometimes 
 a contemporaneousness of the same phases and imple- 
 ments, is visible ; nor, indeed, was it always strictly 
 followed out among the higher races, for, as Sir 
 
AND CONTEMPORANEOUS IMPLEMENTS. 113 
 
 Jolin Lubbock acknowledges, "many stone imple- 
 ments belong to a metallic period." The presence, 
 however, of stone implements, wherever found, 
 bespeaks a want of civilization, and generally an 
 ignorance of metals. In some remote and uncivilized 
 parts, they have been retained even up to a late date. 
 The Australians, and the South Sea islanders, at the 
 time of their discovery, were still in the stone age, and 
 evinced no signs of further progress. These races 
 afford evidence of arrested development in their 
 inability to advance beyond the stone age. 
 
 While admitting that the sequence of these phases 
 is not always strictly followed out, it must not be 
 imagined that there is any uncertainty with regard 
 to the existence of this law of sequence ; the few 
 proofs we have given amply testify to it. It must be 
 further kept in view, that the successive stages of 
 civilization are not always contemporaneous in dif- 
 ferent countries. The period in time of any particu- 
 lar phase will depend entirely on the relative 
 antiquity of the country in which these phases are 
 evolved. 
 
 In conclusion, I may add that this view of the 
 sequence of the phases of civilization among separate 
 races, and the analogy in the forms of the implements 
 used contemporaneously with them, may be considered 
 
114 SEQUENCE OF TEE PHASES OF CIVILIZATION, ETC. 
 
 as tending to prove an uniformity in the process of 
 the development of man, and an analogy in the evo- 
 lution of his natural instincts, and of the suggestive 
 principle among all races ; and further, as an emphatic 
 proof of that orderly sequence which universally 
 prevails in man and nature. 
 
( U5 
 
 ON THE ANALOGOUS FOEMS OF IMPLEMENTS 
 AMONG EAELY AND PRIMITIVE EACES. 
 
 The most remarkable feature in the early periods of 
 man's history, is the almost identity — for it is more than 
 a striking analogy' — in. the forms of the implements of 
 warfare, and tools used in countries the most widely 
 apart.* Man, in all ages, and in all stages of his 
 development, is a tool-making animal. His instincts 
 and necessities lead him to fashion implements and 
 tools suited to his requirements. However diflferent 
 in race, and dwelling however remotely apart, we 
 find in him the same wants and necessities ; the same 
 natural instincts and spontaneous powers of sugges- 
 tion, contributing their aid in ministering to the 
 needs of his nature, which he shares in common with 
 
 * This view when put forward some years ago in a paper read at 
 the Anthropological Society was pooh-poohed as a wild specula- 
 tion. It is now generally adopted, and has received the sanction 
 of Professor Nilsson, Dr. Wilson, Mr. John Evans, and Mr. 
 Darwin. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 ANALOGOUS FORMS OF IMPLEMENTS AMONG 
 
 the whole human family. The same universal 
 processes of mind and instinct will lead the Australian, 
 the New Zealander, the Peruvian, the North Ameri- 
 can, the Scandinavian, and the ancient Briton to 
 fashion and shape a stone weapon to supply his 
 necessities and requirements. 
 
 A state of warfare was evidently the state of man 
 in his earliest and barbarous stage. Combativeness 
 appears to be the predominant instinct in man in his 
 rude and savage state. Strifes and contests have 
 grown up with human nature. Hatreds, jealousies, 
 and rivalries have given rise to them in all ages. 
 The present savage races are almost always at war. 
 The New Zealanders were perpetually at war during 
 life, and hoped to continue so after death. To form 
 instruments of destruction to indulge his combative 
 propensities, seems to have tasked the earliest powers 
 of suggestion in man. Hunger and cold led him 
 also to invent implements for the purposes of the 
 chase, in order to supply himself with food, and a 
 covering for his body, from the skins of animals. 
 
 The weapons and implements devised and fashioned 
 by man in each stage of his development, are almost 
 identical in all countries; for it does not admit of 
 doubt, that men in a similar stage of civilization will 
 devise and invent similar and identical objects. As 
 
EARLY AND PRIMITIVE RACES. 117 
 
 Dr. Keller remarks, " A similar state of civilization 
 always calls for similar wants, and then again for 
 similar means to. supply them, and consequently 
 similar implements, for the different purposes of life."* 
 This similarity affords strong evidence of the uni- 
 formity of the operations of instinct, and the sug- 
 gestive principle in the mind of man, among all 
 races, and in all ages. 
 
 These warlike and useful implements present 
 identical forms according as we consider them under 
 the different epochs of flint, stone, hronze, or iron ; 
 and this sequence in the forms of the implements 
 adopted during these successive periods, which are 
 evidently worked out independently among different 
 races, is obviously the result consequent on the 
 progress or the development of man, which proceeds 
 uniformly among all races. For there is evidence 
 that all nations, in these earlier times, have pro- 
 ceeded in an invariable sequence through the periods 
 of flint, stone, and bronze, ages before they arrived at 
 the more advanced iron age. 
 
 * Mr. John Evans also adopts this view. His words are : " This 
 parallelism of type seems to afford most remarkable proof that the 
 same wants, with the same means at command for fulfilling them, 
 result, so far as tools are concerned, in the production of similar 
 forms, no matter where or when the men live who make them." — 
 Review of the Transactions of the International Congress of Pre- 
 historic Archceology in " Nature." 
 
118 ANALOGOUS FORMS OF IMPLEMENTS AMONG 
 
 The earliest known foi-ms of weapons used either 
 for purposes of warfare, or the chase, are the imple- 
 ments found in the gravel drift. . It has been re- 
 marked, that the characteristic of these worked flints 
 is their striking resemblance to each other, in almost 
 every coimtry where they have been found. They 
 present identical forms, obviously the result of 
 identical intention. The flint implements of the 
 gravel drift found in England, exhibit the same 
 distinctive features peculiar to those found at 
 Abbeville, and St. Acheul, in France. Implements 
 of the same type, and of identical forms, have been 
 found in Spain, Assyria, and in India.* They are of 
 the rudest nature, as if formed by a people in the 
 most degraded state of barbarism. According to Mr. 
 Evans, " the flint weapons found in conjunction with 
 elephant remains, imbedded in gravel, overlaid by 
 sand and brick-earth, present no analogy to the well- 
 known implements of the so-called Celtic or stone 
 
 * Mr. Bruce Foote remarks witli regard to the quartzite 
 implementB of palsBolithic type, from the laterite formation of the 
 east coast of southern India. " I have since the beginning of this 
 year had the opportunity of seeing several of the best collections 
 of flint implements from the drift, including those of Mr. John 
 Evans, the Blackmore Museum, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. J. W. Flower, 
 and Mr. James Wyatt ; and I think I may safely say that I could, 
 from among the hundreds of quartzite implements that I have 
 collected and studied, find a close match for nearly every form in 
 those rich collections." 
 
EAELT AND PRIMITIVE BAOES. 119 
 
 period. They have appearances of having heei\ fabrica- 
 ted by another race of men, and on a much larger 
 scale, as well of ruder workmanship," They are thus 
 evidences of a very early, perhaps the earliest, stage 
 of development, and of an age of ruder strength and 
 still more infantine skill ; perhaps, too, of an earlier 
 species of human-like race, the companion and con- 
 temporary of the extinct bear, the extinct rhinoceros, 
 the mammoth, and other larger animals, no longer in 
 existence. 
 
 The next period is the stone age. Flint and stone 
 implements are found in all countries, and are thus 
 witnesses of a period of early and imperfect civiliza- 
 tion. They are the most simple implements, such as 
 would be suggested to man in his primitive and 
 barbarous state, either as destructive instruments for 
 supplying himself with food by the chase, and for 
 warfare or defence; or as useful implements for 
 cutting timber, for constructing habitations, or form- 
 ing boats or rafts. Flint and stone implements are 
 found among all primitive nations throughout the 
 world, whose maintenance chiefly depended on their 
 energy and ingenuity while unacquainted with the 
 harder metals. The men who adopted flint imple- 
 ments were evidently a hunting people, who lived 
 solely by the proceeds of the chase, and consequently 
 
120 ANALOGOUS FOBMS OF IMPLEMENTS AMONG 
 
 in one of the earliest stages of the human race, as is 
 shown by the partly devoured bones cf the urus, the 
 deer, the megaceros, the roe, found in connection with 
 them. The desire to attack his enemies from a 
 greater distance, and to engage in the chase, has 
 suggested to man, in this early age, the use of the 
 arrow. Hence, arrow-heads of flint or stone are 
 found in all countries where a hunting phase of 
 civiHzation prevailed ; and this we may add was nearly 
 all over the world.* Their striking resemblance is 
 also very remarkable : the arrow-heads of flint found 
 in America, are scarcely distinguishable from those 
 found in Ireland. We take the following passage 
 from Captain Mayne Eeid, which confirms our view 
 that a natural instinct will lead men to the inde- 
 pendent invention of bows and arrows, as well as to 
 the adoption of identical forms of arrow-heads, in 
 countries the most widely apart. " The use of the 
 bow among savage nations all over the earth, and the 
 great similarity of its form and construction every- 
 where, may be regarded as one of the most curious 
 facts in the history of our race. Tribes and nations 
 that appear to have been isolated beyond all possible 
 communication with the rest of the world, are found 
 in possession of this universal weapon, constructed on 
 * See Plate I. 
 
EARL7 AND PRIMITIVE RACES. 121 
 
 the same principle, and only differing slightly in 
 detail, these details usually having reference to sur- 
 rounding circumstances. "When all else between two 
 tribes or nations of savages may differ, both will be 
 found carrying a common instrument of destruction 
 • — the bow and arrow. Can it be mere coincidence 
 like necessities in different parts of the world, pro- 
 ducing like results ?"* 
 
 The stone implements of countries the widest apart 
 present also analogous forms.f The stone axe of the 
 South Sea islanders of the eighteenth century presents 
 a close resemblance to that of British or Gaulish 
 fabrication of the earliest centuries. In form there 
 is little to distinguish the stone celts found in India 
 from those which are so frequently found in Europe. 
 Many Asiatic celts might be matched with specimens 
 found in Ireland .J 
 
 * An extraordinary similarity is also found in the way in which 
 the bow and arrow is used in widely apart countries. A Fan bow- 
 man, in Africa, as described by Du ChaiUu, and a Caboclo archer, 
 as figured in Messrs. Kidder and Fletcher's " Travels in Brazil," 
 in regions so remote as to preclude all idea of intercommunication, 
 shoot in exactly the same manner, by applying both feet to the 
 middle of the bow, which they pull with all strength on the string 
 to bend it back. 
 
 f See Plate II. 
 
 X One of the most extraordinary coincidences is, that the same 
 term is applied to these stone celts by the ignorant peasantry of 
 the different countries in which they are found. In Brittany, they 
 
122 ANALOGOUS FORMS OF IMPLEMENTS AMONG 
 
 A mass of evidence proves that a stone age pre- 
 vailed in every great district of the inhabited world. 
 Stone implements are found in countries the most 
 widely apart, and are not peculiar to any race, but 
 are naturally suggested to any race of men in a rude 
 and imperfect stage, and are peculiar to that stage 
 alone. They are found in Scandinavia, Britain, 
 Ireland, France, Italy, Greece, Spain, Asia, America, 
 Africa, Japan, Tenerife, New Zealand, Australia, and 
 the South Sea Islands ; all, whether modern or thou- 
 sands of years old, presenting a marked uniformity. 
 As Professor Worsaae remarks, " The weapons and 
 instruments of stone which are found in the north of 
 Europe, in Japan, in America, the South Sea Islands, 
 and elsewhere, have, for the most part, such an 
 extraordinary resemblance to one another in point of 
 form, that one might almost suppose the whole of 
 them to have been the production of the same maker. 
 The reason of this is very obvious, namely, that their 
 form is that which first and most naturally suggests 
 itself to the human mind," 
 
 In the next age, the manufacture of bronze weapons 
 
 are styled " pierres de tonnere." In Italy, " pietre di fulmine." 
 In Germany, " Donnerkeile." In Greece, « aorpoTreXma." In 
 China, « Hghtning-stones." In Japan, « thunderbolts, Eai fu-seki," 
 In India they are supposed to have fallen from heaven. 
 
EARLY AND PBIMITIVE RACES. 123 
 
 may be considered as a further improvement on the 
 fabrication of stone implements, consequent on the 
 knowledge of the harder metals, the improvement 
 corresponding with the grade attained to in civiliza- 
 tion. Adopting the words of Professor Wilson, we 
 may say that " the same rational instinct which 
 prompted man in his first efforts at tool-making, 
 guided him in a discriminating choice of materials, 
 and to this, the discovery of metals, and the conse- 
 quent first steps in metallurgy, and the arts may be 
 traced." The adoption of metal, however, was neither 
 sudden nor universal. The transition from the rude 
 implements of stone, to those of bronze, must have 
 been very gradual, and possibly extended over many 
 centuries. The bronze implements and weapons 
 peculiar to this epoch, found in Egypt, Denmark, 
 England, Ireland, Italy, France, Spain, and America, 
 also bear distinct analogies in form to one another. 
 As Sir William Wilde observes, " Like its predecessors 
 in stone, the metal celt had a very wide distribution, 
 and has been found in every country in Europe, 
 from the river Tiber to the Malar Lake, but differing 
 slightly in shape and ornamentation from those found 
 in the British Isles." Like the stone implements, 
 they are not peculiar to any race, but are suggested 
 to any primitive nation, as a necessary result of an 
 
124 ANALOGOUS FORMS. OF IMPLEMENTS AMONG 
 
 invariable sequence in its progressive development. 
 We may add, adopting Professor Worsaae's words, 
 " The antiquities belonging to the bronze period, 
 which are found in the countries of Europe, can 
 neither be attributed exclusively to the Celts, nor to 
 the G-reeks, Eomans, Phcenicians, Scandinavians, 
 nor to the Teutonic tribes. They do not belong 
 exclusively to any people, but have been used by the 
 most different nations at the same stage of civiliza- 
 tion." "We must remark, that, however like in form 
 these implements seem to common observers, still 
 there are distinctive characteristics, however sHght, 
 of each race in each type of implement, easily dis- 
 tinguished by the practised eye. 
 
 Further, besides remarking the obvious analogy 
 of form in their bronze implements in different 
 countries, it is also remarkable that nearly the same 
 proportions (ten or twelve per cent of tin), result 
 from the analysis of the bronze weapons found in the 
 sepulchral barrows of Europe, of the nails which 
 fastened the plates with which the treasury of Atreus 
 at Mycene was covered, of the instruments contained in , 
 the tombs of ancient Egypt, and of the tools of the 
 Mexicans and Peruvians, the same powers of sugges- 
 tion in man, operating alike in all countries, and 
 leading him not only to the discovery and fabrication 
 
EABLY AND PRIMITIVE SAGES. 125 
 
 of like forms of weapons, biit also to the invention 
 and use of similar materials. 
 
 The simplest form of bronze implement is a cunei- 
 form or wedge-shaped piece of metal, evidently modelled 
 on the type of the large stone implements ; at a later 
 period it assumes a more ornamental form, or a shape 
 better suited for being attached to the wooden handle 
 with which it was used, as in the so-called " winged 
 celts, or " palstaves " in Ireland or Denmark. Ttie 
 earlier form of implement was merely inserted in the 
 handle, and sometimes tied to it. Palstaves of 
 almost identical forms — or those bronze implements 
 in which the side edges project into flanges so as to 
 form grooves for the reception of the cleft handle — 
 are found in many countries, in Denmark, England, 
 Ireland, France, Switzerland, Germany, Hungary, 
 Etruria, and Magna Grsecia, each of these countries 
 exhibiting evidences of a sequence of flint, stone, and 
 bronze period. The period of the similarity of the 
 weapons or implements in these countries, in their 
 stone and bronze ages, being always according to the 
 stage of development of the race or country in which 
 they are found, and not always according to any 
 fixed or certain period of time. We thus find con- 
 firmed the inference that man's inventive and sug- 
 gestive faculties, operating alike in each stage of his 
 
126 ANALAGOUS FORMS OF IMPLEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 development and in all races of men, will lead him, 
 independently and without connection, to fashion and 
 invent, under similar circumstances and according to 
 that stage, almost similar weapons and implements 
 to supply his wants and necessities, each style of 
 implement being peculiar to, and belonging exclu- 
 sively to, each separate period or phase of civili- 
 zation. 
 
 In a later age, when iron was known and generally 
 adopted, the earlier forms of instruments were still 
 retained for some time, until the rapid progress of 
 civilization and refinement caused them to be thrown 
 aside. In Denmark, at Marin in Switzerland, and 
 at Hallstadt in Austria, iron implements have been 
 found, exact copies of their predecessors in bronze. 
 Iron, however, once known, advancement was rapid. 
 We need not speak further of the iron age, as it is not 
 peculiar to early and primitive nations, but is evidence 
 of an advanced and more perfect state of civilization, 
 and a progress towards the culminating period of 
 man's development, when higher suggestive and 
 inventive faculties were brought into play. 
 
( 127 ) 
 
 ON THE TRIBAL SYSTEM AND LAND-TENUEE IN 
 IRELAND, UNDER THE BEEHON LAWS. 
 
 In order to illustrate the tribal system which gene- 
 rally prevailed during the pastoral phase, I here 
 give a view of the system as it obtained in Ireland 
 during the pastoral stage in that country, drawing 
 largely from Mr. Riehey, and an article on the Brehon 
 Laws -in the " Penny Cyclopaedia." 
 
 The social condition of the early Irish people was 
 patriarchal and pastoral. The Brehon laws, which 
 enable us to realize that society in its pre-historic state, 
 and the frequent number of the raths, or homesteads, 
 enclosed by a ditch and rampart for the protection of 
 flocks and herds in the wide pasture grounds, amply 
 testify to this. 
 
 Prior to the Anglo-Saxon invasion, Ireland was 
 solely governed by the Brehon law, so-called from 
 being expounded by judges named in the Irish language, 
 Breitheamhuin or Brehons. Feinachas, however, and 
 
128 TRIBAL SYSTEM AND LAND TENURE IN 
 
 Breitha-neimeadth, words signifying respectively an- 
 cient laws and sacred ordinations, are terms commonly 
 applied to the collection of the ancient laws of the 
 Irish by the native writers. There is abundant evi- 
 dence to prove that some of the collections of the 
 Breitha-neimeadth are of equal antiquity with the 
 oldest manuscripts of Irish history, whether civil or 
 ecclesiastical, — an antiquity which carries us safely 
 back to the earlier ages of the Christian era. The 
 language in which they were written has become ob- 
 solete ; and two successive commentaries remain, writ- 
 ten themselves in two successive antiquated dialects. 
 They evince, it is true, a very primitive state of 
 society, but still they are, for the greater part, the work 
 of Brehons, conformable to Brehon Jaw, and afford in- 
 disputable evidence that the native Irish not only 
 possessed a fixed and written code by which to regulate 
 the judgments of their Brehons, but also that these 
 functionaries duly committed their judgments, such 
 as they were, to writing. Archbishop Usher speaks 
 of the Brehon laws as being in his day contained " in 
 large volumes, still extant in their own [the Irish] 
 language." A collection, which now fills two large 
 quarto volumes, is deposited in the library of the 
 Royal Irish Academy. They are now in course of 
 publication by the Grovernment. 
 
IRELAND, UNDER THE BREHON LAWS. 129 
 
 The following is a brief notice of the social system 
 and land-tenure of the old Irish under the Brehon 
 laws, such as their available fragments, compared 
 with the general history of the country, would point 
 out to the reader of the various accessible authorities 
 on the subject. 
 
 , It is well known that Irish society was formed 
 upon the tribal system. The tribe system is the 
 primitive state of society, the first shape into which 
 human society is moulded, and the first step towards 
 the agglomeration of nations. It arises from the 
 condition and necessities of the earliest wanderers : 
 " The tribe may be defined as the intermediate degree 
 in the social scale between the family and the nation. 
 When a family extends itself beyond the limits of 
 consanguinity, embracing a relatively wider sphere, 
 it is naturally transformed into a tribe. The ties of 
 affection and habit which cement union between the 
 members of the same family get weakened with the 
 extension of the family circle, and are then replaced 
 by the ties of tradition, of worship, and of common 
 interests. Then the numerous members of the widely 
 spread family form a mass which receives the denomi- 
 nation of tribe."* 
 
 Most nations may be traced back to this primitive 
 
 * Major Millengen. " Wild Life among the Koords," p. 282. 
 
 K 
 
130 TRIBAL SYSTEM AND LAND-TENUBE IN 
 
 form, and it still subsists over a large portion of the 
 world. The tribe-system is the development of the 
 family. The first wanderer from the original seat of 
 the people strays forth into foreign lands at the head 
 of his family : the father is at once the priest, the 
 judge, and the king. He rules his children, as the 
 ablest and the wisest ; round the original familr. 
 gather their slaves and dependants. All the mem- 
 bers of the original family and their followers form 
 a single unit. No individual has an existence 
 except as a member of this body ; their flocks and 
 herds form a common property. They possess no 
 clear idea of individual ownership. The tribe exists 
 upon the assumption of common descent. 
 
 Suppose a tribe of this nature to abandon its 
 wandering life, and conquer for itself a district in 
 some foreign country ; the principles upon which the 
 land would be occupied flow from the ideas on which 
 the tribe is constituted. The tribe is an undivided 
 whole. The land would be conquered by all for the 
 benefit of all, and would belong to all in common. 
 For the convenience of cultivation, separate lots 
 might be appropriated to individuals, but none would 
 gain an absolute ownership in his allotted portion. 
 His occupancy would be subject to resumption by the 
 tribe ; and the arable land might be from time to 
 
IRELAND, UNDER THE BREIION LAWS. 131 
 
 time divided, as would suit the convenience of all. 
 The pasture-lands would remain open for the cattle 
 of the tribe, subject to such rules as from time to time 
 might be thought necessary. 
 
 Most of this system we find developed in Irish 
 tribal history. The districts occupied by an Irish 
 tribe generally amounted to about the area of a 
 modern barony, and belonged, as a rule, to the tribe. 
 This common land seems to have been divided into 
 common pasture-land, common tillage-land, private 
 demesne-land, and demesne-land of the tribe ; each 
 man of the tribe had a right to pasture as many cattle 
 as he possessed on the common grazing-land ; and in 
 proportion to the number of cattle thus pastured by 
 each, was the share of the common tillage-land 
 assigned to him upon the annual partition. The 
 private demesne-lands were the distinct property of 
 individuals, who were entitled to acquire and transmit 
 by certain qualifications not very clearly explained. 
 The demesne-lands of the tribe weire set apart for the 
 maintenance of the chief elect or tanist, the bard, the 
 doctor, and Brehon ; the four offices of the chief, bard, 
 doctor, and Brehon were descendable in distinct 
 families, but not necessarily from father to son, rather 
 the contrary. Upon his demesne-lands the chief 
 established his tenants, many of them not members of 
 
 K 2 
 
132 TRIBAL SYSTEM AND LAND-TENURE IN 
 
 tlie tribe ; he thus provided for his military followers, 
 whom he also had a right of quartering from time to 
 time on the members of the tribe itself. 
 
 "With regard to the nature of the property enjoyed 
 in these several estates, the tribe at large possessed 
 what is called the allodial or original indefeasible 
 property in all the lands, and could not be ejected out 
 of them in consequence of any arrears of tribute, inas- 
 much as the superior lord claimed only a proportion 
 of the increase of stock upon the pastures, and was 
 bound to take the same away at certain seasons ; this 
 rent was precisely a lay-tithe, being one-tenth of 
 the increase. As to the common tillage-lands, every 
 member of the tribe possessed a life-interest in them, 
 proportioned to his stock in cattle. In the private 
 demesne-lands individuals had a permanent inheri- 
 table interest. In his separate portion of the demesne- 
 lands of the tribe, the chief had a life-interest, of 
 which the reversion lay with the tanist, i.e. the 
 second-man, or chief-elect; and in like manner the 
 tanist, bard, &c., possessed life-interest in their several 
 portions. 
 
 The distinctions of the tribe, corresponding to the 
 above territorial divisions, were, so far as can be 
 gathered from the confused authorities on this head, 
 the In-finnh, holders in common, and the Dathaig-finne, 
 
IRELAND, UNDER THE BREEON LAWS. 133 
 
 those individuals alluded to above who were entitled 
 to separate inheritable possessions. The In-finne, or 
 commonalty of this pastoral corporation, appear to 
 have been of one rank ; but the Dathaigh-Jinne were 
 divided into several classes, of which the three most 
 intelligible were, the Deirbh-finne, or class, as the 
 commentators explain it, nearest to succession, who 
 had the right to inherit the whole patrimony of their 
 kin without deduction ; the Gall-Jinne, who inherited 
 three-fourths of their patrimonial estates ; and Sar- 
 finne, whose right of inheritance extended to only 
 one-fourth of the property left by their relations. 
 These privileged classes were, in every tribe, limited 
 in number ; but it does not exactly appear what was 
 the qualification for admission, or the rule of exclu- 
 sion, or whether the Deirbh-finne, for instance, became 
 disqualified on the election of a tanist less nearly 
 related to them than to others ; although it is evident 
 that a man might rise from the condition of a tenant 
 of common tillage to that of a freeholder, or, vice 
 versd, descend from the higher class to the lower. 
 As to the chief himself, he was usually elected before 
 the death of his predecessor, and the rule seems to 
 have been invariably that the eldest of the candidates, 
 if not incapacitated by age or infirmity, should have 
 the preference, the brother being commonly chosen 
 
134 TRIBAL SrST£!M AND LAND-TENURE IN 
 
 instead of the son, and the son rather than the 
 nephew. His revenue arose, as has been said, from 
 the tenths of the increase of cattle, and from the 
 revenues of his demesne-lands. In addition, he had 
 certain claims of entertainment for himself and house- 
 hold, at stated times, in the houses of his tenants, in 
 the same manner as his superiors, at certain seasons, 
 quartered themselves or their soldiers upon him. 
 These claims were sometimes compromised by both 
 for an equivalent in tribute. 
 
 So far of the Finne, or original members of the 
 kindred, who constituted the great majority of the 
 tribe. But in every tribe there was another class, 
 less numerous and generally less honourable, but 
 in many respects peculiarly interesting and important, 
 particularly as regards the origin of the feudal law. 
 The subject of feudal tenures has occupied the atten- 
 tion of the most distinguished English lawyers and 
 historians. The origin of the system has been in all 
 cases referred more or less to the necessities of military 
 conquest, and its genius has been invariably con- 
 sidered as quite distinct from that of any pastoral 
 constitution. The remains of the Brehon law, how- 
 ever, would go far to show that the feudal and 
 pastoral systems, if not to some extent identical, have 
 been in their origin closely and necessarily connected. 
 
IRELAND, UNDER THE BREEON LAWS. 135 
 
 The system laid down above is so far calculated for 
 the government of a society composed of tribes, each 
 tribe possessing the allodium of its own district, and 
 the mass of its members holding in common. But 
 coexistent with the first practical development of 
 such a system, if not actually contemplated in its 
 very rudiments, arises the necessity of providing 
 for those members of the community who, either by 
 chance, or choice, or compulsion, have been separated 
 from their particular kindreds, and have thus no 
 proper Finnh with whom to claim a share. Such 
 individuals could not expect to participate in the 
 rights of blood enjoyed by those tribes among which 
 they might be dispersed, neither could they be 
 received by the commonalty of those tribes as tenants 
 on their fluctuating possessions. To provide for them, 
 it was necessary that a certain portion of the land 
 should be set apart for the reception of strangers. 
 To prevent the confusion of many lordlords, the profits 
 of these tenements were allotted to the chief, who 
 could thus afford to exact a higher tribute from the 
 Finne of his tribe. To induce the better sort of 
 strangers to settle among thorn, the chief was em- 
 powered to grant some of these tenements in perpe- 
 tuity ; but the greater portion was usually let at will. 
 As for tliose who had only their labour to offer in lieu 
 
136 TRIBAL SYSTEM AND LAND-TENURE IN 
 
 of the chiefs protection, they were received on his 
 private demesne-lands and became his serfs. Admis- 
 sion to the upper class depended on the stranger's 
 ability to pay the entrance-fee on one or more of the 
 disposable tenements. These tenements consisted of 
 a homestead, with a certain extent of ground annexed : 
 the homestead was denominated a Rath : to constitute 
 a legitimate rath, five things were requisite, viz., a 
 dwelling-house, an ox-stall, a hog-sty, a sheep-pen, 
 and a calf-house ; these buildings were generally 
 surrounded by a ditch and rampart, and formed, if 
 necessary, a place of defence as well as residence.* 
 
 * A similar phase of civilization has led to the formation of 
 a similar mode of dwelling among the Todas, a wild aboriginal 
 tribe of the Nilgiri Hills in India. Colonel W. Eoss King thus 
 describes the dwellings of the Todas : " The roof is made of reedp, 
 and thatched with common grass. The whole structure is very 
 substantially and neatly built, but there is no chimney, and the 
 smoke from the fire pours out at the door, and exudes from every 
 crevice. The entrance is an opening just sufScient to admit a 
 full-grown person on hands and knees, and is made to close from 
 within. There is in front of the dwellings, partly enclosed by 
 a low wall of loose stones, an open grassy space or court, which, 
 owing to the nomadic habits of the Todas, is always of a fresh 
 green. The huts are built closfi together on some naturally 
 smooth knoll, in clusters of three or four only, and not in 
 villages ; these family groups are called munds. Each mund has 
 an enclosure, or pen, called a tooel, in which the buffaloes are 
 confined at night ; it is generally circular in form, and consists 
 of a low wall of loose stones sui'rounding a sunk area within. 
 
IRELAND, UNDER THE.BREHON LAWS. 137 
 
 There is one very prevalent error with regard to 
 raths in Ireland, viz., that they were Danish erec- 
 tions, and designed solely for military occupation. 
 The term " Danish rath "is altogether a misnomer. 
 The original titles of raths, according -to the classifi- 
 cation of the Brehon law, were drawn solely from the 
 circumstance of their erection and occupation by the 
 natives themselves, — as, for example, among many 
 others, the Finne-rath, a homestead occupied by the 
 
 Tliere is always one hut set apart for the reception of milk, and 
 this placed a little to one side of the other huts, which in 
 construction it precisely resembles. The munds are situated at 
 considerable distances apart, and their inhabitants migrate periodi- 
 cally from one to another for change of pasture. 
 
 A similar mode of life peculiar to the pastoral phase has been 
 obsei-ved among the Guachos, an imcivilized tribe of Indians. 
 They are thus described : " These native Guachos are possessed 
 of vast herds of wild cattle, and roam over the country in a 
 state of semi-savage independence. Their dwellings are con- 
 structed of wicker-work, with a hole in the roof for the escape 
 of smoke. An enclosure for cattle adjoins the hut, and the whole 
 is surrounded by a fence of impenetrable cactus." 
 
 The earth enclosures in North America would also seem to 
 bespeak a similar phase of civilization. 
 
 From Caesar we learn that what the Britons call a town, is 
 a tract of woody country, surrounded by a vallum and a ditch 
 for the security of themselves and their cattle against the incur- 
 sions of their enemies. Analogous enclosures which served as 
 homesteads are found among other races. Among the Ovambos, 
 an African tribe, their houses are placed in an enclosure, the 
 best being for the master and his immediate family, and the others 
 
138 TRIBAL SYSTEM AND LAND-TENVRE IN 
 
 original kindred ; a Mer-rath, one rented by stranger 
 tenants for the first time ; a Sar-rath, one occupied 
 hy stranger serfs on the chief's demesne-lands. The 
 entrance-fine of such a tenement was denominated 
 fal, and, for the legitimate rath, amounted to fifty 
 head of cattle. As distinguished from the Finne, or 
 original clansmen, the stranger-tenant was called 
 Fuidhir, and his tenure Fuidh. These terms are 
 pronounced respectively Feuer and Feu. 
 
 Thus, then, it would appear, that the country was 
 
 for the servants. There are besides grain stores, houses for 
 cattle, fowl-houses, and even sties for pigs, one or two of these 
 animals being generally kept in each homestead, though the 
 herds are rigidly excluded. Within the same enclosure are often 
 to be seen a number of ordinary Brogei-men huts. These belong 
 to members of that strange tribe, many of whom have taken up 
 their residence with the Ovambos, and live in a kind of relation- 
 ship with them, partly considered as vassals, partly as servants, 
 and partly as kinsfolk. 
 
 The Kaffir kraal, a circular enclosure, bears also a close analogy 
 to these same homesteads. 
 
 Mr. B. H. Palmer (Desert of the Exodus, p. 321), describes 
 similar enclosures among an Arab pastoral tribe : — " When a 
 camping ground has been selected, the cattle, as the rpost precious 
 possession of the tribe, are collected together in one place, and 
 the huts or tents are pitched iu a circle roimd thom ; the whole is 
 then fenced in with a low wall of stones, in which are inserted 
 thick bundles of acacia. These arc called Dowdrs, and there can 
 be but little doubt that they are the same with the Hazeroth or 
 ' fenced enclosures ' used by pastoral tribes mentioned in the Bible." 
 
IRELAND, UNDER THE BREHON LAWS. 139 
 
 occupied by kindreds called Finnk, holding for the 
 most part in common, and by JFeuers, who were 
 either tenants by rent and service, or vassals of the 
 chief. The tributes of chief to superior chief, up to 
 the supreme king of the whole island, were regulated 
 by established precedents. The collection of these 
 rules for the kingdom of Munster is entitled " The 
 Book of Rights," and is still extant. 
 
 It has been seen above that in proportion to the 
 number of cattle possessed by each member of the 
 tribe was his share of the common tillage-lands. 
 Thus cattle were not only the standard of value, but 
 the qualification for, and a necessary concomitant of 
 property. The land was thus, by a sort of legal 
 fiction, an appurtenance of the stock ; so that to say 
 of a person under this system, that he possessed a 
 hundred cows, implied not only that his herds 
 amounted to so many head of cattle, but that in 
 addition, and as a necessary appurtenance of his 
 estate in them, he also possessed the grazing of a 
 hundred cows, and the share proportioned to a 
 hundred cows in the common tillage-lands of his 
 tribe. Every addition to the number of a man's 
 cattle was therefore a virtual accession of land and 
 produce, and vice versa ; and thus a mulct of cattle 
 fell as heavily on the granary, as on the larder or 
 
140 TRIBAL SYSTEM AND LAND-TEN CTRE IN 
 
 dairy of the fined individual ; for these proportionate 
 partitions of the land took place at stated periods, 
 and each man's harvest fluctuated with his herds, as 
 they bore a greater or less ratio to the aggregate of 
 all the cattle of the rest. The division of the ground 
 into portions so uncertain, precluded the use of 
 permanent fences on those arable commons, which 
 were probably separated from the pasture by only 
 one exterior circumvallation, while each man knew 
 the portion that was to fall to his reaping-hook 
 within. The adjustment of these portions must have 
 been a matter of some difficulty. It would appear 
 that the plan usually formed was this : — The land 
 was divided into equal shares, in the proportion, each 
 to tbe whole, of the herd of the least proprietor to 
 the whole creaght, or common stock of all their cattle. 
 These shares were drawn by lot, in order to give to 
 all an equal chance of getting the worse or better 
 land. He thus, it is supposed, whose herds were 
 thrice as numerous as those of the least proprietor, 
 drew three such aliquot parts ; he possessing ten 
 times as many, ten such, and so on, the shares being 
 taken here and there, as they turned up, and every 
 man cropping his own portion as he thought fit. 
 The system is still remembered in some parts of the 
 country, and a mode of expressing the extent of land 
 
IRELAND, UNDER THE BREHON LAWS. 141 
 
 among the Munster peasantry is still to say " so much 
 
 as follows so many cows ;" hence in all likelihood, 
 
 the term Bally-hoe, e.i., "cow-land," a term which 
 
 has perplexed many writers, in consequence of the 
 
 varying extent represented by it at different times 
 
 and in different districts.* 
 
 Such, so far as can be collected from the present 
 
 ill-arranged and defective materials, would appear to 
 
 * Tlie pastoral phase appears to have been of long continuance 
 in Ireland, and to have prevailed even to a late period. We give 
 the tsvo following illustrative extracts. "At the same time 
 (a.d. 806), the mass of the Irish population was little advanced 
 beyond the nomad state, a condition of society which in some 
 districts of Ireland was maintained for many succeeding centiiries. 
 When Ulster, south and west of Lough Neagh came to be finally 
 subdued by Queen Elizabeth's forces under Lord Mountjoy in 
 1603, and James I. resolved to effect the plantation of it with 
 colonists from Scotland and England; one of the greatest 
 difficulties met with was, how to render amenable to law and 
 order the pastoral population, which from early ages had been 
 accustomed to wander without any fixed habitations after their 
 herds of cattle, living almost solely on white meats, as the produce 
 of their cows was called. At this period there was not one fixed 
 village in all the country, a circumstance we learn incidentally 
 from Sir John Davis' letter to the Earl of Salisbury, written during 
 the first circuit ever held in Fermanagh, when he mentions that 
 " the fixing a site for a jail and session house had been delayed 
 until my lord deputy had resolved on a fit place for a market and 
 corporate town," for, he adds, " the habitations of this people are 
 so wild and transitory, as there is not one fixed village in all this 
 country." Their dwellings are described as made of wattles or 
 boughs of trees, covered with long turves or sods of grass, which 
 
142 TRIBAL SYSTEM AND LAND-TENURE, ETO. 
 
 have been the old tribal system and land-tenure which 
 prevailed in Ireland prior to the invasion of the 
 Anglo-Normans in the twelfth century, .The Brehon 
 law, however, prevailed in every part of Ireland not 
 immediately subject to the English power until the 
 reign of James I., when the ancient Irish laws were 
 abolished. 
 
 they could easily remove and put up as they wandered from place 
 to place in search of pasture. The aggregate of families that in 
 one body followed a herd was called a "creaght." — The Ulster 
 Creaghis, by J. Prendergasi, " Kilkenny Journal." 
 
 Giraldns Cambrensis observes that in his time " the Irish nation 
 lives on the produce of their cattle, and leads a life but little 
 superior to them, nor have they emerged from the pastoral state. 
 As the progress of human society is to advance from woods to 
 open fields, and from the latter to towns, this nation despising agri- 
 culture, inattentive to civil wealth, and regardless of law, spend 
 their lives in woods and pastures." 
 
( 143 ) 
 
 ON CKOMLECHS AND MEGALITHIO STEUCTUEES. 
 
 It is now a generally accepted canon that there are 
 common instincts implanted by nature on all the 
 varieties of the human race, which lead mankind in 
 certain climates, and at a certain stage of civilization, 
 to do the same thing in the same way, or nearly so, 
 even without teaching, or previous communication 
 with those who have done so before. This has been 
 remarkably confirmed in the analogous and almost 
 identical forms of flint and stone implements all over 
 the world ; and also in the identity of ornamentation, 
 such as the zigzag, guilloche, etc., designed indepen- 
 dently by races the most widely apart. 
 
 A further confirmation of this, are the analogous 
 modes of burial, almost identical in their forms in 
 different parts of the world. 
 
 Man, in his early and rude stage, will adopt the 
 simplest mode of burial suggested to him. The 
 
144 0R0MLE0I18 AND MEOALITEIO STRVOTUBES. 
 
 tumulus or mound of earth, the simplest and earliest 
 form, is therefore found wide spread among all 
 peoples. As Sir John Lubbock says : — " In onr island 
 they may be seen in almost every town. In the 
 Orkneys alone, it is estimated that more than two 
 thousand still remain ; they are found all over 
 Europe, from the shores of the Atlantic to the Ural 
 mountains ; in Asia, they are scattered over the great 
 steppes, from the borders of Russia to the Pacific 
 Ocean, and from the plains of Siberia to those of 
 Hindostan ; in America, we are told that they are to 
 be numbered by thousands and tens of thousands. Nor 
 are they wanting in Africa, where the pyramids them- 
 selves exhibit the most magnificent development of 
 the same idea : so that the whole world is studded 
 with burial places of the dead." 
 
 A further improvement on the simple mound we 
 find among the Etruscans, who surrounded the base 
 with a podium or supporting wall of masonry. Of 
 this kind of tumulus, or conical mound, examples occur 
 in immense numbers in every necropolis of Etruria. 
 We find the same form in the tumulus of Tantalus 
 near Smyrna, in the tomb of Alyattes at Sardis, in 
 the Buddhist topes of India, and in Chinese tombs, 
 which bear an extraordinary resemblance to the 
 Etruscan. The transition, as the author of "Eothen " 
 
CROMLEOEB AND MEOALITEIG STIiUOTURES. 145 
 
 remarks, from this simple form to that of the square, 
 angular pyramid M'as easy and natural ; and the 
 gradations through which the style passed from 
 infancy to its mature enormity can be plainly traced 
 at Sakkara, near Cairo.* 
 
 In man's endeavours to make a tomb in a more 
 lasting and permanent form, a monument of large 
 and massive stones suggests itself. Examples of such 
 sepulchral structures composed of gigantic blocks of 
 stone, so as to last through countless ages, and of 
 almost identical forms, have been discovered in many 
 countries, so remotely apart as to preclude all idea of 
 intercommunication . 
 
 Cromlechs f and such megalithic structures have 
 almost as wide a range as tumuli. We need not 
 mention those of our own islands as well known. 
 The dolmens of Brittany present gigantic proportions. 
 They are also found in the southern and western 
 departments of France, in Aveiron, Cantal, Tarn, 
 Tarn et Garonne. In Denmark and Sweden they 
 
 * Mr. Fergusson also observes that the pyramid must be the 
 lineal descendant of a rude-chambered tumulus or cairn, with 
 external access to the chambers. 
 
 f We have adopted the word " cromlech " as more generally in 
 use, though the word "dolmen" is more applicable. Cromlech 
 means in Celtic " crooked stone," from crom, crooked or curved ; 
 and lech a stone. Dolmen is derived from the Celtic word Daul a 
 table, and men or maen, a stone. 
 
 L 
 
146 VROMLEOHS AND MEGALITHIG STBUOTUBES. 
 
 frequently occur. M. de Saussure is reported to have 
 found four in Switzerland, and M, de Mortillet has 
 observed a stone circle near Sesto Calende, in 
 Lombardy, Mr. Dennis thus notices those he met at 
 Saturnia, in Etruria. "In the three upright slabs, 
 with their shelving, overlapping lid, we have the 
 exact counterpart of Kit's Coty House, and other like 
 familiar antiquities of Britain, and the resemblances 
 are not only in the form and in the unhewn masses. 
 
 No. 51. 
 
 SErULCHKAL STONE CIKCLE — DENMARK. 
 
 but even in the dimensions of the structures." There 
 are notices of them in Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, and 
 the Balearic Islands. They occur also in the islands 
 of Malta and Gozo, and in the Canary Islands. 
 
 They are found in several parts of India. In the 
 central part of India, in the centre of an immense 
 tract of uncultivated waste, called the Neermul 
 Jungle, where no European ever penetrated, numbers 
 of cromlechs have been found. Dr. Forbes Watson 
 
OROMLEGm AND MEQALITHIO STRUCTURES. 147 
 
 informs us that in the single collectorate of Bellary, 
 there are no fewer than 2,129 cromlechs, kistvaens, &c., 
 and other remains of the so-called pre-historic class, 
 not produced by the aborigines of the country, but by 
 Aryans. 
 
 The coast of Malabar also offers an example. Dr. 
 Hooker has called attention to those among the 
 
 No. 52. 
 
 KITS COTT HOUSE. 
 
 Khasia people : " Rude stones, he says, of gigantic 
 
 proportions are erected as monuments, singly, and in 
 
 rows, circles, or supporting one another like those of 
 
 Stonehenge, which they resemble in dimensions and 
 
 appearance." Some have been discovered in the 
 
 principality of Sorapoor, by Colonel Meadows Taylor, 
 
 and others have been described by Mr. O'Hara, near 
 
 Vellore, in the Madras Presidency.* 
 
 * According to Colonel Meadows Taylor, the Indian dolmens 
 
 L 2 
 
148 CR0MLEGS8 AND MEGALITHIC 8TBWTURE8. 
 
 Captain Newbold states, that near Chittore, in 
 North Arcot, he saw a square mile of ground covered 
 with such monuments. In them were found sarco- 
 
 No. 53. 
 
 INDIAN DOLMEN. 
 
 phagi, with the bones of the dead, and pottery of 
 black ware. 
 
 are of two kinds — those consisting of four stones, that is to say, 
 three supporting stones and one cap-stone— thus leaving one side 
 open — and those in which the chamher is closed by a fourth stone ; 
 in the latter case, this fourth stone has invariably a circular opening 
 in it. This is said to be for the spirit to pass in and out, or to 
 supply food to the departed spirit. As this idea is peculiar to a very 
 low phase of belief, which is still found among some of the lowest 
 African tribes, it shows that the dolmens belong to a very rude and 
 early stage of civilization. Mr. Tylor tells us (" Primitive Cul- 
 ture," p. 409), that the Iroquois also, in old times, used to leave 
 an opening in the grave for the lingering soul to visit its body. 
 
 Similar holed stones in cromlechs, evidently for the same 
 purpose, are found in Circassia, in France, and in Gomwall. This 
 is obviously the result of an analogous rude belief common to 
 a low phase of civilization. 
 
OBOMLECHS AND MEQALITHIO STEUCTUBKS. 149 
 
 Lieut.-Col. W. Ross King mentions the presence 
 on the Nilgiri hills of Druidical circles, cromlechs, 
 kistvaens, and tumuli, precisely similar to those so 
 well known in our own country. 
 
 Sir Walter Elliot records their occurrence all over 
 Southern India, from the NerBudda to Cape Comorin, 
 and probably in Upper India also. Mr, Bruce Foote 
 announces that the Laterite deposits of Madras which 
 he had explored, and in which he had discovered a 
 number of quartzite implements of the drift type, was 
 surmounted in many places by a superficial deposit, 
 containing polished or ground stone implements, and 
 with which were associated stone monuments of the 
 class now under consideration. Colonel Forbes Leslie 
 mentions that stone circles occur in Ceylon surround- 
 ing the grave hills. 
 
 Lieutenant Oliver has pointed out the resemblance 
 between the niegalithic monuments in the Channel 
 Islands, and those in Madagascar, erected at the 
 present day by the hill tribes of Hovas. 
 
 In Africa we find evidence of their existence also. 
 Dr. Madden has given a notice of thirteen cromlechs 
 which exist half way between Algiers and Sidi 
 Ferruch, in all important respects identical with our 
 Irish .monuments of that name. 
 
 Mr. Henry Christy discovered an extensive range 
 
150 CBOMLEOHS AND MEGALITEIO STRUCTURES. 
 
 of similar monuments near the sources of the Bournar- 
 mook, near Oonstantine, " Within an area of more 
 than nine miles, on the mountains as well as on the 
 plains, the whole country around their sources is 
 covered with monuments of the so-called Celtic form, 
 such as dolmens, demi-dolmens, cromlechs, menhirs, 
 alleys, and tumuli ; in a word, there exist there almost 
 all the types known in Europe." Mr. Catherwood has 
 also met with them in the regency of Tunis. The three 
 sites on which we found them were — Sidi Boosi, to 
 the north-east of Hydrah, Welled Agar, and Lhuys. 
 At the first place they were particularly numerous. 
 
 Mr. Flower has described cromlechs at Am Gueber 
 El Kalaa Tarf, in his paper on the " Pre-historic 
 Sepulchres of Algeria." 
 
 Barth discovered megalithic monuments resembling 
 Stonehenge in character, in the neighbourhood of 
 Tripoli ; he also discovered stone circles as low down 
 as the neighbourhood of Mourzouk. 
 
 Dr. Bell gives a drawing of some among the moun- 
 tains of the Caucasus. 
 
 At Darab, to the eastward of the province of Ears, 
 in Persia, stone circles have been discovered. To the 
 south of the Caspian sea, between Tauris and Casbin, 
 Chardin also noticed large stone circles in 1672. 
 
 On the banks of the Jordan, Captains Irby and 
 
CROMLECHS AND MEOALITHIG STRUCTURES. 151 
 
 Mangles observed some very singular interesting, and 
 certainly very ancient, tombs, composed of rough 
 stones, resembling what is called Kit's Coty House ; 
 and many have been lately, discovered in Palestine, 
 by the Exploration Committee. In Moab, De Saulcy 
 observed rude stone avenues and other monuments, 
 which he compares to Celtic dolmens ; and Dr, 
 Stanley saw, a few miles to the north of Tyre, a 
 circle of rough upright stones. 
 
 Captain "Wilson records the existence of circles, 
 similar to our " Druid's circle," being decidedly sepul- 
 chral in character, in the peninsula of Sinai. 
 
 In the central part of Arabia, in Kaseem, Mr. 
 Palgrave met with similar structures. He says : — 
 " We saw before us several huge stones, like enormous 
 boulders, placed endways perpendicularly on the soil, 
 while some of them yet upheld similar masses laid 
 transversely over the summit ; they were arranged in 
 a curve, and forming part, it would appear, of a large 
 circle, and many other fragments lay rolled on the 
 ground at a moderate distance, — the number of those 
 still upright, was, to speak by memory, eight or nine. 
 Two, at about ten or twelve feet apart one from the 
 other, and resembling huge gate-posts, yet bore their 
 horizontal lintel, a long block laid across them. 
 Pointing towards Eass, our companions affirmed that 
 
152 OBOMLEOHS AND MJEGALITHIC STRUCTURES. 
 
 a second and similar stone circle, also of gigantic 
 dimensions, existed there." Mr. Palgrave remarks 
 •"that there was little difference between the stone 
 wonder of Kaseem, and that of Somersetshire, except 
 the one is in Arabia, and the other, though the more 
 perfect, in England." Koben, a Jewish missionary, 
 is said to have discovered recently three stone circles 
 in Arabia, near Khabb, in the district of Kaseem, 
 evidently the same noticed by Mr. Palgrave, and 
 which are described as being extremely like Stone- 
 henge, and consisting of very lofty triliths. 
 
 Mr. Lamont, in his " Wild Life among the Pacific 
 Islanders," describes a stone circle in one of the 
 Penrhyn Islands. " He reached," he says, *' an open 
 space of some hundred yards square. It was encircled 
 by tall flat stones, some six feet in height, though 
 generally much lower, but not more than a few inches 
 in thickness — a sort of Stonehenge in a small way. 
 Through the open spaces he could observe several 
 more stones of the same kind, some lying horizontally, 
 supported by others, not unlike the cromlechs of 
 Ireland, but more regular in form, and evidently 
 intended for tombs." 
 
 Stone circles have been also noticed by T. H. Hood, 
 in his notes of a cruise in H.M.S. Fawn, in Strong's 
 Island, Paadsen, Easter Island, and Waihu. 
 
CItOMLEGHS AND MEGALITUIO STRUCTURES. 153 
 
 : ' The Eev. J. Wood * describes a megalithic tomb 
 in one of the Tonga Islands. " All great families 
 bury their dead in a solid vault, about eight feet long 
 by six wide, and eight deep. It is made of five 
 enormous stones, the upper one, which forms the 
 cover, being necessarily larger than the others." At 
 a burial he describes, it took nearly two hundred men 
 to raise the stone cover. 
 
 Even in Australia stone circles are said to occur. 
 Mr. Ormond, in a letter to Sir J. V. Simpson, says 
 that he has seen many near the Mount Elephant 
 Plains, in Victoria. They are " from 10 to 100 feet 
 in diameter, and sometimes there is an inner circle. 
 The stones composing these circles, or circular areas, 
 viary in size and shape. Human bones have been dug 
 out of mounds near these circles. The aborigines have 
 no traditions respecting them. When asked about 
 them, they invariably deny knowledge of their origin." 
 
 Mr. J. Wood, in his " Natural History of Man,"t 
 notices also their occurrence in Australia. "The blacks," 
 he says, " of Clarence river, place a number of stones 
 in a circle, and in the centre they erect an upright 
 slab of stone. They give no reason for this custom, 
 but only say that ' black fella make it so,' or ' it 
 belong to black fella.' The former reply signifies 
 * « Natural History of Man," p. 334. f Page 88. 
 
154 CROMLECHS AND MECALITHIG STEU0TUBE8. 
 
 that the custom has always prevailed among the 
 nations, and the second that the tomb shows that a 
 native is buried beneath the upright stone." 
 
 The most important discovery of these megalithic 
 monuments has been made in Peru, by Mr. Squier. 
 He thus describes them : " There is a class of stone 
 structures in Peru belonging to what is regarded 
 through the world as the earliest monumental period, 
 coincident in style and character with the cromlechs, 
 dolmens, and ' Sun ' or ' Druidical ' circles, so called 
 of Scandinavia, the British Islands, France, and 
 Northern and Central Asia. The first and simplest 
 form of the burial monument, and which I shall 
 assume, for the present, to be the oldest, consists of 
 fiat, unhewn stones of varying lengths, set firmly in 
 the ground, projecting above it from one to two feet, 
 so as to form a circle, more or less regular, about 
 three feet in diameter. The body was buried within 
 this circle, in a sitting or crouching posture, and with 
 a vase of pottery or some other utensil, or implement 
 at its feet. Sometimes a few flat stones were laid 
 across the upright ones, so as to form a kind of roof; 
 and, in a few instances, these rude tombs were placed 
 side by side in long rows, and stones afterwards 
 heaped over them, so as to give them the appearance 
 of lines of ruined walls. 
 
GR0MLE0H8 AND MEGALITHIO STSUCTUMJES. 155 
 
 " Another rude but more advanced and impressive 
 form of the tomb, consists of large slabs of stone, 
 projecting from four to six feet above the ground, and 
 also set in the form of a circle or square, of from six 
 to sixteen feet in diameter ; these uprights support 
 blocks of stone, which lap over each other inwardly, 
 until they touch, and brace against each other, thus 
 forming a kind of rude arch. A doorway or opening 
 is often found leading into the vault, formed by 
 
 No. 54. 
 
 PKIMITIVE TOMB— ACOllA, PERL'. — rKOM SQUIEK. 
 
 omitting one of the upright stones. The arid plain 
 to the south of the town of Acora, near the shores of 
 Lake Titicaca, and twelve miles distant from the 
 ancient town of Chucuito, is covered with remains of 
 this kind, of which Fig. 54 is an example." 
 
 "The celebrated ruins," he says, "of Tiahuanaco, 
 in Bolivia, which may be called the Stonehenge or 
 Carnac of the new world, afford a striking example of 
 
156 GBOMLECHS AND MEOALITHIO 8TEUCTURE8. 
 
 the artificial arrangement of rough as well as upright 
 stones, in the form of squares and rectangles, and on 
 parallel lines. The megalithic remains of Tiahuanaco 
 rank second in interest to none in the world." 
 
 Mr. Squier also notices the stone circles found in 
 Peru. " In many places," he says, " we discover circles 
 defined by rude, upright stones, and surrounding 
 
 "So. 55. 
 ■""X.;- 
 
 
 
 r *-»(.**- '..^- , ^.rtl" 
 
 INTIHUANAS (suN OlBCLEs) OF SILLUSTANI, PERU. — FROM SQUIBB. 
 
 one or more larger upright stones, placed sometimes 
 in the centre of the circle, but oftener at one-third of 
 the diameter of the circle apart, and on a line at right 
 angles to another line that might be drawn through 
 the centre of the gateway, or entrance on the east. 
 Some of these circles are more elaborate than others, 
 as shown in the engraving (Fig. 55), from which it 
 
GROMLEGHS AND MEOALITHIC STliUOTUEES.- 157 
 
 will be seen that while the one nearest the spectator 
 is constructed of simple upright stones, set in the 
 ground ; the second one is surrounded by a platform 
 of stones more or less hewn and fitted together.* The 
 first circle is about ninety feet in diameter ; the 
 second about one hundred and fifty feet, and has a 
 single erect stone standing in the relative position he 
 had already indicated. A remarkable feature in the 
 larger circle is a groove cut in the platform around 
 it, deep enough to receive a ship's cable." He 
 concludes his description by again remarking " the 
 close resemblance, if not absolute identity, of the 
 primitive monuments of the great Andean plateau, 
 elevated thirteen thousand feet above the sea, and 
 fenced in with high mountains and frigid deserts, with 
 those of the other continent." 
 
 Mr. Squier gives a notice of another stone circle in 
 New Grenada. In his " Antiquities of New York," 
 he introduces an account given in a letter from Signor 
 Velez, of the discovery of monuments, in the province 
 of Tunja, New Grenada, which, as he says, exhibit a 
 close relationship to the primitive stone circles, and 
 
 * Mr. rergusson is inclined to suppose that these are the foun- 
 dation courses of a circular building, the upper parts of which 
 have perished. The cromlech with stone circle at Tarf, Algeria 
 (see Plate V., fig. 8), presenting an analogous course of flat stones, 
 will suggest that there can be no foundation for this view. 
 
158 CROMLECHS AND MECALITHIC STRUCTURES. 
 
 other analogous structures of the old continent. The 
 following is an extract from Signor Velez's letter: 
 " After traversing the province of Leiva in different 
 directions, and after advancing as far as the neigh- 
 bourhood of Moniquiva, by following the route from 
 Gachantiva to this place, across a beautiful gently 
 sloping plain under cultivation, I discovered a large 
 stone, which, seen some distance off, did aot at first 
 appear as if wrought by the hand of man. On ap- 
 proaching it, I found it was a sort of column, 4^ 
 varas in length, by 3i in diameter. It seemed to me 
 that such stones, although rudely wrought, must have 
 served as columns. On examining the locality, I 
 found, scattered here and there, other stones similar 
 to the first, and at last thirteen stones, of the largest 
 size, ranged as in a circle, about fifty varas in 
 circumference.' ' 
 
 That all these megalithic structures were exclu- 
 sively sepulchral does not now admit of doubt. 
 Skeletons have been frequently found in the crom- 
 lechs of Brittany, the Channel Islands, and in 
 Denmark. Excavations made in those of other 
 countries have almost all yielded evidences of their 
 being places of sepulture. As Mr. Fergusson re- 
 marks in his recent work on "Eude Stone Monu- 
 ments," page 509, " Honour to the dead, and 
 
CROMLECHS AND MEGALITHIC STRUCTURES. 159 
 
 propitiation of the spirits of the departed, seem to 
 have been the two leading ideas that, both in the 
 East and West, gave rise to the erection of these 
 hitherto mysterious structures which are found nu- 
 merously scattered over the face- of the old world," 
 
 The author of an article in the " Edinburgh 
 Review," on non-historic times, suggests a very 
 reasonable classification of this class of sepulchral 
 monuments : " It may probably be assumed," he says, 
 " that the dolmen or cromlech was originally a stone 
 cist in the centre of a tumulus, meant to contain 
 either one or more bodies. This, afterwards, was 
 expanded into a chamber for the accommodation of 
 several. In the third stage it was furnished with a 
 passage or avenue of entrance, so as to be permanently 
 accessible. In the fourth stage, the covering tumulus 
 was dispensed with ; but the last form most probably 
 was when the cromlech was placed externally on the 
 top of the mound as a mere ornament or simulated 
 tomb ; as we find in France and Algiers.* 
 
 It can be also proved that stone circles were, too, 
 almost exclusively sepulchral, while, as the same writer 
 quoted remarks, " It is not difficult to trace their pro- 
 gressive development. They were first an enclosure 
 
 * The cromlecli at Tarf, in Algeria, has a sepulchral chamber 
 under it ; it must have been, therefore, a simulated tomb. 
 
160 OROMLEGHS AND MEOALITEIC STBUCTUEES. 
 
 or temenos around tTimuli * When dolmens or 
 cromlechs came to he external they are found sur- 
 roxmding them as they did the tumuli ; and lastly, 
 when the use of these two classes of monuments was 
 dying out, they came to be used as simple circles 
 without any visible enclosed object. In this last 
 form they are found principally in Great Britain and 
 the Danish Isles. There are not less than two 
 hundred circles of various sizes in these islands. 
 One hundred of these, at least, when examined have 
 yielded sepulchral deposits." Mr. John Stuart who is 
 certainly one of the best informed antiquaries living, 
 has come to the same conclusion with regard to those 
 of Scotland and England. He wiites : " The result of 
 vaiious systematic excavations of ' standing stones,' 
 both single and in groups, goes to establish that, in 
 almost every case, the stone circles, which have for a 
 time received the unfortunate name of 'Druidical 
 Temples ' are really places of sepulture."f 
 
 * With all due deference to the writer, I would suggest that 
 an enclosure round a single upright stone, under which the body 
 was buried, as we see at Jewurgi, in India, in Algeria, and in 
 Australia, was the first stage. In Plate V., I have traced the 
 sequence and progressive development of the stone circle from the 
 earliest rude circular enclosure of stones, round an upright one, 
 till it culminates in Stonehenge. 
 
 t Mr. John Stuart in his paper on "Stone Circles," in the 
 transactions of the International Congress of Pre-historic Arches- 
 
%<f-^ 
 
 -*?!tfi 
 
 
 4ru£^:--^-^ 
 
 ■'— i-*^i 
 
 
 .> ;-.4&- 
 
 JEWURGI NEAR FEROZflBAD, INDIA 
 
 \ 11. 
 
 ^i P. 
 
 1... 
 
 ufe. 
 
 ^> 
 
 ALGERIA. ii_X- _.;>»-'-'( S '^ V, ^(i 
 
 ff^iiti: "^i 
 
 
 r^^ 
 
 -^*\ 
 
 ^m^a^MMM^m;^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 (i»-- 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, 
 
 LOUGH CORRIB, IRELAND. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 :A^-^ 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 ■^#1 
 
 -*:J^.»jt,J_Ju^ 
 
 
 
 lARK ALGERIA 
 
 »«»" 
 
 ^til'i-l:^*'^ 
 
 _.,^^ ^— ' - '*^v-' ^'^ 
 
 
 ■y^#^ 
 
 STONEHENGE 
 
 BROGOR, ORKNEY 
 
 ■s ■[ iM K c J K ^: L >; s. 
 
CROMLEGHS AND MEQALITHIG STRUCTURES. 161 
 
 The alignments or avenues of upright stones form 
 another class of these megalithic monuments. When 
 attached to circles, as the same author suggests, it is 
 not difficult to see that they are only hypsethral 
 copies of the passages which lead to the sepulchral 
 chambers or tumuli. In this form they are found on 
 Dartmoor, in Cumberland ; and as Mr. Stuart remarks, 
 "If the cairns at New Grrange were removed, the 
 pillars would form another Callernish." 
 
 ology, gives the following propositions as deduced from facts and 
 authorities, contained in a memoir in the second volume of the 
 " Sculptured Stones of Scotland." 
 
 15. The theory which ascribes to stone circles the purpose of 
 temples or courts is modem, and unsupported by facts. 
 
 16. No early author speaks of circles as temples or courts. In 
 early records, they are frequently referred to as the " stanrling 
 stones " (Lapides stantes); or, as at Stennis, in Orkney, " the stones" 
 or at Stonehenge as the " Stone-henges." Some of them are re- 
 ferred to as monuments of the dead, and attimes as petrified dancers. 
 
 19. In the seventeenth century a theory was proposed by two 
 English writers, John Aubrey and William Stukely, which ascribed 
 the great circles of Stonehenge and Avebury to the Druids as 
 their temples; and since their day all stone circles have been 
 called " Druidieal circles." 
 
 20. This theory rests on no authority of facts, observation, or 
 analogy. 
 
 21. The Druids described by Csesar and other classical writers, 
 are never mentioned in connection with stone circles. 
 
 22. These Druids were local in their occurrence, while stone 
 circles are found throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia, and wo 
 may now add America. 
 
 M 
 
162 CROMLECHS AND MEGALITEIC STRUCTURES. 
 
 There is also another class of monuments which 
 have been named menhirs, tall or long stones, or 
 peulvens, as the French sometimes call them. They 
 have a very wide range. They seem to be of all 
 ages, and used for all purposes. The earliest mention 
 of them in writing is in the Bible, Genesis xxxi., and 
 in Exodus xxiv. 4, and in Joshua iv. 21, 22. In all 
 these instances they were memorial stones, but they 
 are also frequently found marking graves. They are 
 sometimes cat stones or memorials of battles, and 
 certainly were sometimes used as boundary stones. 
 
 The sepulchral circle of Stonehenge is only a 
 further development on a more extensive and grander 
 scale of the rude cromlech and circle, as the pyramid 
 is of the simple mound. In Stonehenge we find com- 
 bined the stone circle and the cromlech. We have 
 the circular plan of the original stone enclosure, 
 and the arrangement of the large stone of the 
 cromlech placed horizontally over the side stones 
 in the trilithon.* That Stonehenge was a place of 
 
 * This view is confirmed by the high authority of Mr. Fergusson. 
 His impression is ("Eude Stone Monuments," p. 100), that the 
 trilithon is only an improved dolmen, standing on two legs instead 
 of three or four. The trilithon seems to have been a sepulchral 
 form adopted also in many other countries. Olaus Magnus 
 describes the most honourable monuments of the great of his 
 country as erected with immense stones, and formed like great 
 gates or trilithons. Other trilithons occur also near St. Nazaire 
 
QROMLEGHS AND MEQALITHIC STRUCTURES. 163 
 
 burial and not a temple is proved by analogy, as the 
 large stone circles of Khasia, Algiers, as well as the 
 smaller ones of the British Isles, Denmark, the 
 Penrhyn Islands, and Australia, are all sepulchral. 
 Further it is admitted by antiquarians, that early 
 and primitive races never erected temples. It is 
 supposed they were, in many respects, like the 
 American Indians ; they recognised a great spirit, 
 but had no representations of him, and had no 
 temples. They seem to have had scarcely any 
 religious observances, still less any edifices for sacred 
 purposes. Temples argue an advanced civilization. , 
 The Jews had no temple until the time of Solomon. 
 To erect such a structure as Stonehenge for a temple 
 would argue a more advanced stage of civilization 
 than could have existed in England at the period in 
 which it was built, which was evidently at the close 
 of the stone age. To erect a temple, people should 
 
 in France, at Ksaea, and Elkeb in Tripoli, and in Arabia as 
 described by Mr. Palgrave. Lieut. Meade (" Eide througb New 
 Zealand," p. 300), describes a trilithon in Tongatabu, wbicb is 
 evidently sepulchral. " It consists," he says, " of two perpendicular 
 blocks of stone, about twenty-five or thirty feet high, supporting a 
 horizontal one about half as long again. In the centre of the 
 latter is a circular hollow or basin, which the natives call the gods, 
 or giants, ' Kava-bowl.' " 
 
 Mr. Fergusson (" Stone Monuments," p. 100), gives an illustration 
 of a trilithon, in Syria, of a Eoman period. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 CBOMLECES AND MEQALITEIO STRUCTUBES. 
 
 have some material object of worship, some visible 
 form ; and the ancient Britons who were in that rude 
 phase of civilization peculiar to the stone age, had none. 
 
 To further confirm our view, that Stonehenge was 
 solely a place of sepulture, we shall quote the high 
 authorities of Mr. John Stuart, Sir James Simpson, 
 and Mr. Fergusson, who have adduced the most con- 
 vincing reasons. Mr. John Stuart writes : " If we 
 must recognize the smaller stone circles to be ancient 
 sepulchres, I think it is reasonable that we should 
 regard the larger examples as of the same kind, but 
 of greater importance. Such structures as Stone- 
 henge and Stennis, may have resulted from some 
 great national effort to commemorate mighty chiefs. 
 The royal mausoleum of our day differs more in 
 character from the humble headstone, and the great 
 mound at Kertch from a common grave, than does 
 Stonehenge from the circle at Crichie, although 
 all have a common origin. The remains of most 
 ancient people attest that greater and more enduring 
 labour and art have been expended on the construc- 
 tion of tombs for the dead than in abodes for the 
 living." 
 
 Sir James Simpson gives it as his opinion, that 
 " We have not a particle of direct evidence for the 
 too common belief that our stone circles were temples 
 
CR0MLEGE8 AND MEOALITHIG STEUGTUUES. 165 
 
 which the Druids use for worship, or that our 
 cromlechs were their sacrificial altars." 
 
 Mr. Fergusson writes : " "We have in the British 
 Isles at least one hundred circles with or without 
 dolmens in the centre, similar in all essential respects 
 with the inner circles at Avebury, and all of which 
 on being dug into have proved to be sepulchral. On 
 the other hand, not one single circle has been proved 
 to have been ever erected for or used as a temple ; 
 and not one plausible suggestion has been made either 
 as to the deities to whom they were dedicated, or the 
 form of worship which could be performed in them. 
 In almost every other country of the world, savage 
 or civilized, the temples of the gods are improved, 
 enlarged, and beautified repetitions of dwellings or 
 halls of the living, erected at leisure, and ornamented 
 from time to time with all the best skill the nation 
 can afford, and are generally proportioned to the 
 wants of the community. It seems inconceivable 
 that a few shepherds scattered over the Wiltshire 
 downs could have required a temple five times the 
 area of St. Peter's at Eome." 
 
 A striking feature in the comparison of the various 
 accounts of these megalithic structures, wherever 
 met with over the world, is more than the analogy 
 between them, the almost identity of form among 
 
166 OBOMLEGHS AND MEQALITEIO 8TBUCTUBE8. 
 
 them all. There are, indeed, some small peculiarities 
 and differences in these raegalithic etructm-es in dif- 
 ferent countries, but the same principle, the same 
 simple form has been evolved and carried out inde- 
 pendently. 
 
 Another feature, which is very striking, is the 
 gigantic scale on which these structures were raised. 
 It would appear as if nations in their earliest periods 
 were more active, produced more wonderful works, 
 and executed structures which outvie in rude magni- 
 tude the boldest efforts of modern genius ; as instances, 
 we can mention the circle of Stonehenge, the stone 
 avenues of Carnac, and the Cyclopean galleries of 
 Tiryns. When we recollect that these were the 
 first efforts of the human race, made without pattern, 
 designed without exemplar, commenced and carried 
 out without experience, they cannot but give us a 
 high idea of the energy and skill of man in the 
 earlier stage of his development. As Dr. Wilson 
 observes, " There seems to be an epoch in the early 
 history of man, when what may be styled the mega- 
 lithic era of art developes itself under the utmost 
 variety of circumstances. It is one of the most 
 characteristic features pertaining to the development 
 of human thought in the earliest stages of construc- 
 tive ski]]." 
 
CROMLECHS AND MEGALITHIC STRUCTURES. 167 
 
 Judging from the various accounts of the state of 
 civilization in connection with the builders of these 
 megalithic structures, they were in a very rude and 
 barbarous phase. Dr, Hooker informs us that the 
 Khasias, among whom these cromlechs are built even 
 at the present day, are a barbarous and savage people. 
 He describes them as a race of a most bloodthirsty 
 disposition, and who fight with bows and arrows. 
 Human sacrifices and polyandry are said to be 
 frequent among them, and their orgies are detestable. 
 As among all rude races, some are tattooed. They 
 are superstitious, but have no religion. Their method 
 of removing the blocks for their dolmens and menhirs 
 is by cutting grooves, along which fires are lighted, 
 and into which, when heated, cold water is run, 
 which causes the rock to fissure along the groove. 
 The blocks are erected by dint of sheer brute force, 
 the lever being the only aid. 
 
 The hill tribes of Hovas, a rude people in Mada- 
 gascar, Lieutenant Oliver informs us, also erect 
 megalithic structures at the present day. 
 
 Now we may reasonably infer that the early 
 Britons, Danes, and Irish, who erected cromlechs, 
 were in a similar and analogous phase, and adopted 
 similar means for erecting their structures. We 
 have on historic record, that the Britons had attained 
 
168 CROMLECES AND MEGALITHJO BTRUCTURES. 
 
 a low degree of civilization at the time the Romans 
 became acquainted with them ; their clothing was 
 skins, and they were in the habit of staining and 
 tattooing their bodies. Caesar, in speaking of the 
 Britons of his age, says they stained themselves with 
 woad, which makes them of a blue tinge, and gives 
 them a more fearful appearance in battle. Every 
 ten or twelve of them had their wives in common. 
 They were much addicted to superstitious observ- 
 ances, and human sacrifices were frequent. The 
 Celts of Brittany, where cromlechs so frequently 
 occur, were in a similar rude and savage phase at the 
 time of Caesar. 
 
 The early Irish, according to Diodorus Siculus and 
 Strabo, were cannibals. From the numbers of rude 
 flint and stone implements, and the bones of wild 
 animals in connection with them, found wide-spread 
 all over Ireland, the natural inference is, that the 
 primitive Irish must have been in a very rude and 
 barbarous state, living entirely by the chase or by 
 fishing. 
 
 Professor Nilsson has shown that the sepulchres 
 of Denmark and Sweden, which were erected of large 
 stones collected together by main force, are of the 
 stone age, when the peoples of those countries were 
 in a rude and uncivilized state. " For," he says, " the 
 
CROMLECHS AND MEGALITHIC STRUCTURES. 169 
 
 earliest hunting implements of stone in every country 
 are synchronous with the first appearance of the 
 savage there, since he required at once the flesh of 
 wild animals for food and their skins for clothing." 
 
 That these cromlechs were raised during the stone 
 age receives additional confirmation from Sir John 
 Lubbock's observation, when noticing a pile of stone- 
 work in the island of Tahiti. " It is perhaps," he 
 says, " the most important monument which is 
 known to have been constructed with stone tools only, 
 and renders it the less unlikely that some of the 
 large tumuli and other ancient monuments of Europe 
 may belong to the stone age ;" and the Tahitians 
 of that age, it is well known, were in a very bar- 
 barous state. 
 
 In India there is a tradition with regard to the 
 cromlechs there, " that the stones were put up by a 
 people who lived in the country before Buddhism or 
 Brahminism was introduced." Mr. Capper, in his 
 work on India, says, " There seems to be little doubt 
 but that, at one period, the Deccan (the part of India 
 where most cromlechs are found) was peopled by 
 others than Hindoos. The aborigines are said to 
 have been foresters and mountaineers, leading a wild 
 and lawless life ; but this must have been at a very 
 remote period, for there is abundance of proof that 
 
170 CROMLEQHS AND MEGALITHIO STSUCTUEES. 
 
 an advanced state of civilization prevailed previous 
 to the time of the Greek notices of India." 
 
 Professor Huxley also confirms this, as he describes 
 the inhabitants of the Deccan as a primitive people, 
 speaking languages (termed Dra vidian) entirely dif- 
 ferent from those of the Aryan race, and differing 
 also in their customs, having no Brahmins or castes, 
 but eating flesh of all kinds, worshipping their 
 ancestors, permitting polyandry, and not burning 
 widows." He also observes, that in these non-Aryan 
 districts are found remarkable monuments ; raised 
 masses of stone, one perched on another, forming 
 chambers or tumuli, which contain human burnt 
 bones, spear-heads, and the remains of food ; and 
 thus very closely resembling the cromlechs or 
 dolmens found especially in Cornwall, Brittany, and 
 throughout Western Europe. He further remarks 
 the analogies existing between the Deccan people 
 and the Australian, whom he characterizes as savages 
 of the lowest condition. 
 
 Lieut.-Colonel "W. Eoss King tells us that the 
 TodaSj a wild and rude tribe of the Nilgiri moun- 
 tains, at the present day, invariably burn the remains 
 of their dead within a circle of stones, and afterwards 
 bury them there. 
 
 These megalithic monuments are not, however. 
 
CROMLECHS AND MEGALITHIO STRUCTURES. 171 
 
 confined solely to the non- Aryan races, for Mr. Forbes 
 "Watson tells us tliat the cromlechs in Bellari were 
 raised, not by the aborigines, but by Aryans. As 
 Mr. Charnock very justly remarks, " The so-called 
 Druidical remains in India, and elsewhere, might be 
 the work of any people." 
 
 In Australia, the Penrhyn Islands, and other islands 
 of the Pacific Ocean, a,nd also among the Hovas of 
 Madagascar, where stone circles and megalithic 
 structures occur, the people are in the lowest state of 
 barbarism. "We may, therefore, come to this conclu- 
 sion in regard to these megalithic structures, that 
 they are not peculiar to the Celtic, Scythian, or any 
 other people, but are the result of an endeavour to 
 secure a lasting and permanent place of sepulture 
 among a people in a rude and primitive phase of 
 civilization ; and that they were raised by men who 
 were led by a natural instinct to build them in the 
 simplest, and consequently the almost identical, form 
 in all countries.* 
 
 * The strongest proof of the style of these megalithic structures 
 not being derived from another country by migration, and of their 
 independent development, is the progressive stylo of these monu- 
 ments in each country where they are found. They exhibit in 
 England, Ireland, Denmark, Brittany, Algiers, and India, a sequence 
 and a progress, beginning from the simplest and rudest form up to 
 the most complete and perfected style. [Mr. 
 
172 CROMLECHS AND MEOALITEIC STRUCTURES. 
 
 We have shown that they occur in countries — 
 Syria, India, Africa, Peru, the Penrhyn Islands, 
 Madagascar, and Australia — where neither Celts nor 
 Scythians ever put their foot. 
 
 We shall now conclude by extracting the follow- 
 ing eloquent passage from Mr. Dennis' " Cemeteries of 
 Etruria." " This form of sepulchre (the cromlech) can 
 hardly be indicative of any race in particular. The 
 structure is so rude and simple that it might have 
 suggested itself to any people, and be naturally 
 adopted in an early state of civilization. It is the 
 very arrangement the child makes use of in building 
 his house of cards. This simplicity accounts for the 
 wide diffusion of such monuments over the old world, 
 for they are found in different climates and widely 
 
 Mr. LuMs remarks, with regard to the Dolmens in Brittany : 
 " Their forms are very varied ; and these forms indicate not merely 
 a long residence of their builders in this country, but, as I believe, 
 a progress in constructive science." 
 
 Mr. Squier is convinced when speaking of the megaUthic monu- 
 ments of Peru, " That there has been a gradual development 
 of these rude remains into elaborate and imposing monuments, 
 corresponding with them in their purpose and design, or a gradual 
 change from the rough burial chamber of uncut stones into the 
 symmetrical tower built of hewn blocks accurately fitted together, 
 and that we may reasonably infer that the latter were constructed 
 by the same people that built the first, and that, monumentally at 
 least, the civilization of Peru was indigenous, gradually developed, 
 and not intruded." 
 
CROMLEOES AND MEQALITHIO STRUCTURES. 173 
 
 distant countries, from the mountains of Wales and 
 Ireland to the deserts of Barbary, and from the 
 western shores of the Iberian peninsula to the steppes 
 of Tartary and the eastern coasts of Hindostan. 
 They are found on mountains and in plains, on 
 continents and in islands, on the sea coast and far 
 inland, by the river and in the desert, solitary and 
 grouped in multitudes. That, in certain instances, 
 they may be of the same people, in different countries, 
 is not to be gainsaid ; but there is no necessity to 
 seek for one particular race as the constructors of 
 these monuments, or even as the originators of the 
 type." 
 
 We may add also the words of Mr. Squier, who, in 
 his " Primeval Monuments of Peru," gives it as his 
 matured opinion " that there exist in Peru and Bolivia, 
 high up among the snowy Andes, the oldest forms of 
 monuments, sepulchral or otherwise, known to man- 
 kind, exact counterparts in character of those of the 
 ' old world,' having a common design illustrating 
 similar conceptions, and all of them the work of the 
 same peoples found in occupation of the country at 
 the time of the Conquest, and whose later monu- 
 ments are mainly, if not wholly, the developed forms 
 of those raised by their ancestors, and which seem to 
 have been the spontaneous productions of the primitive 
 
174 0R0MLE0H8 AND MEGALITEIO STRUCTURES. 
 
 man in all parts of the world, and not necessarily, nor 
 even probably derivatue.''* 
 
 * Mr. John Evans adopts the same view. His words are : " The 
 curious similarity observed among megalithic monuments in 
 different parts of the world may possibly be due to some analogous 
 development of thought and feeling, rather than to any intimate 
 connection between the races who erected them. The Dolmens of 
 Algeria, described by Mr. Flowers, those of Brittany by Mr. Lukis, 
 those of the Aveyron by Mr. CastaUhac, are all, more or less, 
 closely allied to the ancient sepulchres and Panderkulis of the 
 Nilgiri Mountains in Southern India, described by Sir Walter 
 Elliot." — BevieiB of the Transactions of the International Congress of 
 Pre-historic Archaeology in " Nature." 
 
 Note. — In further confirmation of the view taken in this chapter, 
 that under similar circumstances man will do the same thing in the 
 same way or nearly so, I can mention the lake dwellings discovered 
 in widely apart and unconnected countries. We have iu these 
 dwellings, instances of a people at an early period living in a state 
 of insecurity on the borders of a lake, when the thought was 
 naturally suggested to them that, by driving pUes, making an 
 island, or by erecting platforms, at a short distance from the shore, 
 they would obtain security from any sudden attack of their 
 enemies. Thus the same thought of adopting identical means, 
 or nearly so, suggested itself independently to the Irishman in 
 his loughs ; to the Swiss and Italian in his lakes ; to the Papuan 
 on his marshy shores ; and to the African in his lagoons. Indeed 
 the similarity has been so great, that in Sir Charles Lyell's 
 " Antiquity of Man," the restoration of the Swiss Lake Dwelling 
 is from a sketch of a similar habitation in New Guinea. In 
 Herodotus we find an historical record of these habitations at an 
 early period, in the mountain lake of Prasias, erected by the 
 Pasonians, and evidently in the same manner for purposes of 
 security ; and how justly they depended on them for security may 
 
CROMLECHS AND MEQALITHIC STRUCTURES. 175 
 
 be inferred from the fact that Megabyzus, the general of Darius, 
 was unable to subdue them. We find also another passage of 
 Herodotus, in which he states tliat Amysis, king of Egypt, in 
 order to escape from the Ethiopians who invaded his kingdom, 
 made himself an island by a mixture of earth and ashes (a crannog), 
 in a corner of the lake of Buto — now Lake Boorlos. (Herod. 
 ii. 140.) Thus we may see that similar circumstances will evolve 
 similar contrivances and expedients. 
 
 A similar inference may be drawn with regard to the Bhell 
 mounds, or kitchen-middens, which occur in various parts of the 
 world. These are refuse heaps of shells, the fish of which had 
 been eaten by the savage tribes living along the sea coast, and then 
 thrown away. Darwin thus describes this custom among the 
 inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego. " The inhabitants, living chiefly 
 upon shell-fish, are obliged constantly to change their place of 
 residence; but they return at intervals to the same spots, as is 
 evident from the pile of old shells, which must often amount to 
 some tons in weight." A like custom has given origin to similar 
 shell heaps in different countries. They are numerous in Denmark. 
 They occur on the Scotch, English, and Irish coasts. One of 
 these accumulations of shells has been found by Sir J. Lubbock 
 at the mouth of the Somme. They are found along the coast of 
 the United States, in East Florida, Georgia, and in Newfoimdland. 
 Examples are also met with in South America, at Guzzal, 
 Ecuador. Similar remains have been observed by travellers in 
 various parts of the world. In Australia, by Dampier ; in Tierra 
 del Fuego, by Darwin ; in the Malay peninsula, by Mr. Earie ; 
 and at Smyrna, by Mr. Hyde Clarke. 
 
( 176 ) 
 
 ON EOCK CAEYING8. 
 
 The presence of carvings of rude designs on rocks, 
 stones, monoliths, cromlechs, and other megalithic 
 structures in many countries, bearing a remarkable 
 analogy and likeness to one another, has justly 
 excited much wonder and speculation. They have 
 engaged the attention of many writers, who have 
 published illustrations of them, and have put forward 
 various theories with regard to their origin. 
 
 Sir James Simpson has published a very careful 
 and accurate account of the sculpturing of cups and 
 concentric rings on rocks, in various parts of Scotland, 
 accompanied by excellent illustrations. Mr. Tate has 
 published those discovered carved on rocks in North- 
 umberland. Mr. du Noyer has also written some 
 interesting papers on the rock carvings found in 
 Ireland, and Mr. Conwell has given notices of those 
 which occur on the stones at Lough Crew. 
 
ON ROCK CARVINGS. 
 
 177 
 
 We have also accounts of analogous carvings in 
 other parts of the world. In Brittany, the blocks 
 used in the construction of the gallery and chamber 
 of the sepulchral mound at Gavr Inis, in the Morbihan, 
 are densely covered with continuous circular, spiral, 
 zigzag, looped, and various other types of carving. 
 The stones of the tumuli and cromlech at Locmariaker 
 
 No. 56. 
 
 OAEVED STONES IN OAIBN — LODGH CBEW. 
 
 present figures of various military weapons and arms, 
 with some imperfect figures of animals. 
 
 Analogous carvings of circles, and very rude 
 sketches of canoes and rowers, have been found on 
 rocks and cromlechs in Scandinavia. 
 
 Rude representations of animals, with inscriptions, 
 occur on rocks near Mount Sinai, which have been 
 attributed to wandering pastoral tribes. 
 
178 ON BOCK CABVINQS. 
 
 In almost every part of North America, in the 
 most secluded and least populated districts, where 
 there are no other evidences that man ever existed, 
 rude sculptures on rocks and cliffs are found. The 
 sculptured rock in Forsyth Co. Greorgia, presents 
 concentric circles almost identical with those of 
 Northumberland,* and Lough Crew in Ireland. 
 
 Humboldt mentions " rocks covered with sculptured 
 figures " in several parts of South America. He thus 
 
 No. 57. 
 
 SOtHiPTUEED BOCK — ^POBSTTH CO. GBOKGIA. 
 
 notices some on the Orinoco : " We were shown, near 
 the rock Culimacasi, on the banks of the Cassiquiare, 
 and at the port of Caycara, in the lower Orinoco, 
 traces which were believed to be regular characters. 
 
 * Dr. Griffiths stated at the Machynlleth meeting that Queen 
 Emma of the Sandwich Islands, on being shown by him some of 
 these markings (on stones), stated that others existed, identically 
 the same in her own island, and of which the natives gave an 
 amusing and ingenious explanation.— .^i-cteofojia Ganibrensia, 3rd 
 series, 1. p. 156. 
 
ON ROCK CARVINGS. 179 
 
 They were, however, only misshapen figures repre- 
 senting the heavenly bodies, together with tigers, 
 crocodiles, boas, and instruments used for making the 
 flour of cassava. It was impossible to recognise on 
 these painted rocks (' piedras pintadas,' the name by 
 which the natives denote those masses loaded with 
 figures) any symmetrical arrangement, or characters 
 with regular spaces." 
 
 Mr. Squier has discovered carved rocks at Masaya, 
 in Nicaragua. " These carvings," he says, " covered 
 the face of the cliffs for more than a hundred yards, and 
 consisted chiefly of rude representations of animals 
 and men, with some ornamented, and perhaps arbi- 
 trary figures, the significance of which is unknown." 
 He adds that rocks, inscribed in very much the same 
 manner, are scattered all over the continent, from the 
 shores of New England to Patagonia. Most, if not 
 all of them, are the work of savage tribes. 
 
 Mr. BoUaert describes an engraved stone found at 
 Caldera, Western Veraguas, as a granite block, known 
 to the country people as the " piedra pintada," or 
 painted stone. It is fifteen feet high, nearly fifty 
 feet in circumference, and flat at the top. Every 
 part, especially the eastern side, is covered with 
 figures. One represents a radiant sun ; it is followed 
 by a series of heads, all with some variation, scorpions, 
 
 N 2 
 
180 ON BOOK CARVINOS. 
 
 and fantastic figures. The top and the other sides 
 have signs of a circular and oval form, crossed by 
 lines. The sculpture is ascribed to the Dorachos, 
 a numerous tribe, which formerly inhabited those 
 parts. Several other monuments, tombs of the same 
 tribe, are mentioned as being covered with fantastic 
 figures, or representations of natural objects. 
 
 Other rocks, or piedras pintadas, are mentioned by 
 the same author as representing figures of animals, 
 branches of flowers, and other strange characters of 
 various angles. One in particular is described, not 
 far from Quito : " In this solitary spot (the ravine of 
 the sun), shaded by luxuriant vegetation, rises an 
 insulated mass of sandstone. On the surface of the 
 rock are concentric circles, representing the image of 
 the sun." This rock is thus described by Humboldt : 
 " One of the surfaces of this small rock is remarkable 
 for its whiteness ; it is cut perpendicularly, as if it 
 had been worked by the hand of man. On this 
 smooth and white ground are concentric circles, 
 which represent the image of the sun, such as at the 
 commencement of civilization we see figured among 
 every nation of the earth. These circles are of a 
 blackish-brown, and, in the space they enclose, we 
 perceive some lines half effaced, which indicate two 
 eyes and a mouth. On a close examination of the 
 
ON BOOK CARVINQS: 181 
 
 rock, we discovered that the concentric circles were 
 small veins of brown iron ore, very common in every 
 formation of sandstone ; the lines which indicate the 
 eyes and the mouth are evidently traced by means of 
 some metallic tool."* 
 
 Others are described by Mr. BoUaert in the valley 
 of the Pintadas, at the foot of the Andes, consisting 
 
 • Basalt, also, when the decomposition of the rock has not been 
 considerable, exhibits a concentric arrangement of coats round 
 centres at variable distances from each other. The early men 
 being, like children, fond of imitation, may have copied these 
 concentric circles of natural formation. Sir James Simpson has 
 pointed out, that " All the cup-like excavations which we meet 
 with on megalithic circles, monoliths, &c., are not by any means 
 the work of man. Many of them are, on the contrary, the work of 
 nature ; or, in other words, the results of the weathering and dis- 
 integration of the stone from long exposure. Among the endless 
 vagaries of shape and form effected on rocks by weathering, cup- 
 like excavations occur frequently on the surfaces of primary 
 sandstone, and other softer rocks, like those of the Semdio stones 
 in Fife, and the Duddo circle in Northumberland. The surface of 
 the Carline Stone, near Dunmore House, presents a series of 
 smooth, cup-like excavations ; but they are all the result of round 
 included masses, having been weathered out of the amygdaloid 
 rock of which the stone is composed." Some of the concentric 
 circles figured on the stones in Northumberland may be the rude 
 representation of the circular labyrinth, which occurs on the 
 reverse of the coins of Gnossus in Crete, and may have been 
 introduced by the Greek missionaries, who spread over aU the 
 north of Europe in the early centuries of the church. Mr. Stuart 
 regards aU the cave sculptures in Scotland as the work of these 
 early missionaries. 
 
182 ON BOCK CARVINQS. 
 
 of representations of Indians, llamas, dogs, and other 
 forms, on the side of the desert ravine, some of the 
 figures being thirty feet or more in height j cut or rather 
 scraped out in the sandy soil, the lines being twelve 
 to eighteen inches broad, and six inches deep. 
 
 At one league from Macaya he observed a large 
 isolated block, twelve feet square, called the Piedra 
 del Leon, covered with very old Indian sculptures. 
 The centre group consists of a man wrestling with a 
 puma; also 'figures of llamas, guanacos, circles, 
 serpents, &c. These figures are not chiselled, but 
 picked out with some pointed instrument. He 
 supposes it to be a very ancient Aymara work. 
 Mr. BoUaert was informed that at Mani, to the south 
 of Peru, there were sculptured stones with the sun, 
 moon, and stars, Indians, and animals. 
 
 A granite rock, eight leagues north of Arequipa, 
 Peru, presents rude representations of the human 
 figure and of animals, with the usual circles enclosing 
 a cross. 
 
 Mr. Brett has discovered carved rocks presenting 
 some curious configurations on the river Corentyn, in 
 Guiana, drawings of which we give from Mr. Brett's 
 " Guiana." 
 
 In Australia, at the head of Sydney harbour, rude 
 and ancient figures of the kangaroo have been found 
 
'-«i«<Sk.JU^ '" 
 
 BRONZE 
 
 ll.MWestrnpp UbI 
 
 J, JoiJjins 
 
ON ROOK CARVINGS. 183 
 
 sculptured on the rocks. In a cave on the north- 
 eastern coast, Mr. Cunningham observed certain 
 " tolerable figures of sharks, porpoises, turtles, lizards, 
 trepang, starfish, clubs, canoes, water-gourds, and 
 some quadrupeds, which were probably intended to 
 represent kangaroos and dogs." The natives round 
 Sydney also frequently drew upon the rocks " various 
 figures of fish, clubs, swords, animals, and branches 
 of trees, not contemptibly represented." 
 
 The Eev. J. C. Wood, in his " Natural History of 
 Man," page 95, gives a description of many rock 
 carvings discovered in Australia by Mr. Angus. 
 " He found," Mr. Angus says, " all the most out of the 
 way and the least accessible headlands adorned with 
 carvings, and also that the whole of the subjects 
 represented indigenous objects, such as kangaroos, 
 opossums, sharks, the heileman, or shield, the 
 boomerang, and, above all, the human figure in the 
 attitudes of the Corroboree dances." He adds : " An 
 old writer on New South Wales, about the year 1803, 
 remarks, when referring to the natives ; ' they have 
 some taste for sculpture, most of their instruments 
 being carved with rude work, effected with pieces of 
 broken shell ; and on the rocks are frequently to be 
 seen various figures of fish, clubs, swords, animals, 
 &c., not contemptibly represented.' " 
 
184 ON SOCK OAEVJN&S. 
 
 At the Cape, the Bushmen, one of the rudest exist- 
 ing races of humanity, live much in caves, and 
 frequently paint on the walls of them the animals of 
 the neighbourhood, and sometimes battle and hunt- 
 ing scenes, always in profile. 
 
 Mr. Christy also mentions some Bushmen paintings 
 found in caverns, and on flat stone surfaces near some 
 of their permanent water supplies. One side of one 
 of the caverns was covered with outlines of animals, 
 only the upper part was distinguishable, and evidently 
 represented the wilde beest, or gnoo, the koodoo, 
 quagga, &c. 
 
 In the Fifeshire caves, sculptured representations 
 of the horse, the dog, the bear, the deer, fish, serpents, 
 also the comb and mirror, almost identical with those 
 found upon the sculptured stones in other parts of 
 Scotland, have been lately discovered. 
 
 Similar caves, with sculptured figures, occur in 
 St, Domingo. 
 
 Livingston^ discovered a large tribe in Rua, in 
 central Africa, living in underground houses. The 
 "writings" therein, he was told by some of the 
 people, were drawings of animals, not letters. 
 
 Even in the earliest and rudest ages, man, as Sir 
 James Simpson says, was a " sculpturing and painting 
 animal," and exhibited his love of imitation when 
 
ON ROOK OAE VINOS. 185 
 
 his artistic instinct was evolved. Amongst the relics 
 found in the Perigord caves, there have been dis- 
 covered sculpturings upon stone, bone, and ivory of 
 different animals, and lately, a rude sketch of a 
 mammoth. 
 
 Various have been the conjectures with regard to 
 the origin of these carvings and sculpturings, the age 
 at which they were carved, and the race of men who 
 carved them. 
 
 Professor Nilsson attributes those found in Scandi- 
 navia to a Phoenician origin, and considers the circles 
 as symbols of the sun and the other heavenly bodies 
 — a most untenable hypothesis, as there are no similar 
 carvings among Phoenician remains with which to 
 connect them. Besides this, analogous and identical 
 circles and carvings are found in America, where no 
 Phoenician influence could possibly have reached. 
 
 Others suggest that they are ^mbols or symbolic 
 enumerations of families and tribes, or some variety 
 of archaic writing or philosophical emblems.* But 
 
 * The following paragraph extracted from the "AthensBmn," 
 affords an instance of the absurdity of these learned theories. " The 
 philological world of Berlin has been much disturbed by rubbings 
 of inscriptions from that mysterious seat of colossal stone figures, 
 Easter Island. These inscriptions, set out in good straight lines, 
 look like the repetition of various alphabetical characters, bearing 
 some of them a striking likeness to later Hebrew, but, unhappily. 
 
186 ON BOCK OABVINGS. 
 
 from the rudeness of these rock sculpturings, it is 
 evident that the men who carved them miist have 
 been in a very low state of civilization, and conse- 
 quently could not have had any idea of symbolism. 
 Symbolism belongs to a more advanced age, and to 
 more reflective minds. Almost all of these carved 
 figures are evidently merely rude representations of 
 actual objects. 
 
 In the opinion of some authors they are designed 
 to commemorate events of greater or less importance, 
 but, as Mr. Squier remarks, of the rock carvings at 
 Macaya, they are for the most part far too rude to be 
 of much value. 
 
 We shall, I think, be led to a more just conclusion 
 as to their origin if we bring before our minds that 
 man, in his rude, early, and primitive age, bears a 
 great analogy in his thoughts and actions to a child. 
 The savage and the primitive man have the same 
 fondness for imitation, the same love of industrious 
 
 undecipherable. The important results to be obtained are, how- 
 ever, no longer in expectation, as Professor Huxley has solved the 
 inscriptions, which might long have puzzled the learned world. 
 He has recognized the rubbings as impressions from moulds used 
 by the Polynesians in printing the patterns on the tapa cloth, the 
 ancient dress of Tahiti and other islands. This accounts for tho 
 geometrical and regular reproduction of details, which are not 
 ideographs, hieroglyphs, or alphabetic symbols." 
 
ON ROCK CARVINGS. 187 
 
 idleness, as the child. A child will pass hours 
 whittling and paring a stick, building a diminutive 
 house or wall, and tracing forms oh the tiirf. The 
 savage will wear away years in carving his war 
 club, and polishing his stone adze. As the Eev J. C. 
 Wood observes : " All savages are idle. He may, 
 perhaps, condescend to carve the posts of his house 
 into some fantastical semblance of the human form, 
 or he may, perchance, employ himself in slowly 
 rubbing a stone club into shape, or in polishing or 
 adorning his weapon." These considerations lead me 
 to attribute these carvings and sculptures to the 
 industrious idleness of a pastoral people ; passing the 
 long and weary days in tending their flocks and 
 herds, they amused themselves by Carving and cutting 
 these various figures of the sun, the moon, or any 
 animals or objects in their neighbourhood, on the 
 rocks near them. 
 
 An interesting instance of this practice we have 
 in the story told of the celebrated painter, Griotto, 
 who was a lowly shepherd boy, and who, while his 
 flocks were feeding around, passed his time in 
 drawing on a smooth fragment of rock, with a 
 pointed stone, the figures of his sheep. This attracted 
 the attention of Oimabue the painter, as he was 
 riding by. 
 
188 ON SOCK OASVINaS. 
 
 The rude outlines of figures, faces, representations 
 of the sun, moon, and animals (according to the 
 country in which they are found; the mammoth 
 among the early and primitive races ; the horse, the 
 dog, the bear, in Europe ; the camel on the rocks 
 near Mount Sinai ; the llama in Peru ; the kangaroo 
 in Australia), by primitive men, like the rude 
 attempts at drawing by children, cannot but bear 
 a family resemblance to one another, their utter 
 absence of art being frequently their chief point of 
 relationship. v 
 
 This view may seem too simple, but it has the 
 sanction of a high authority. Humboldt, when 
 noticing the sculptured rocks in South America, con- 
 siders the figures represented, instead of being 
 symbolical, rather as the fruits of the idleness of hunt- 
 ing nations. As some are inclined to recognise 
 alphabetic characters in these carvings, he observes 
 (" Cordilleras," i. 154.) : " We cannot be too careful 
 not to confound what may be the effect of chance, or 
 idle amusement, with letters or syllabic characters. 
 Mr. Truter relates that, in the southern extremity of 
 Africa, among the Betjuanas, he saw idle children 
 busy in tracing on a rock, with some sharp instru- 
 ment, characters which bore the most perfect 
 resemblance with the P and the M of the Roman 
 
ON ROCK CAS VINGS. 189 
 
 alphabet ; notwithstanding which, these rude tribes 
 were perfectly ignorant of writing." An account in 
 the "Magasin Pittoresque," of 1864, of similar 
 carvings on the cromlechs lately discovered in the 
 north of Africa, near Constantino, affords further 
 confirmation of this view. " We thought at first to 
 have found designs or characters carved on these 
 stones; but, after a more careful examination, we 
 were convinced that they were lines traced by Arab 
 shepherds with the point of a knife or stone. These 
 capricious designs imitate in general the lines of a 
 draught-board, or of a child's game, called ' morel,' 
 and also those cabalistic signs forming triangles, 
 squares, or lozenges, which we see so frequently on 
 the amulets of the natives." 
 
 Sir James Simpson's note, at page 107 of his work, 
 also corroborates this view. " Three years ago my 
 friend. Dr. Arthur Mitchell, saw the herring fisher- 
 men, in a day of idleness, cutting circles with their 
 knives on the face of the rock, without the operators 
 being able to assign any reason for their work, except 
 that others had done it before them."* 
 
 * A friend tells me that when copying some of the rude rock 
 carvings in Scotland, a farmer happening to be near at the time, 
 he asked him if he knew anything about these Carvings. " Indeed, 
 I do," was his answer, " they were done by an idle herd-boy, with 
 a rusty nail." 
 
190 ON ROCK oARvmas. 
 
 Dodwell (" Travels in Greece ") remarked some rude 
 carvings of temples, and other designs on the rocks 
 in the quarries of Pentelicus, which he justly attri- 
 buted to the stone masons in their idle moments. 
 
 Mr. Hamilton ("Wanderings in North Africa") 
 takes a similar view of certain inscriptions on the 
 walls of Tolmeta : " On the stones are many inscrip- 
 tions, whose irregularity would lead one to the idea 
 that they are of very recent date, or even to fancy 
 them the work of industrious idlers bent upon thus 
 immortalizing their names." 
 
 In Italy boys often trace a complicated figure, the 
 
 No. 58.. 
 
 centre of which forms a cross, on the walls ;* when 
 asked why, they can give no reason, their only 
 purpose being evidently to kill time. 
 
 The Sinaitic inscriptions are now known to be only 
 the memorials of travellers writing their names, and 
 greeting the reader, and desiring to be remembered 
 by him who passes by — a practice adopted by the 
 
 * An almost identical figure may be seen traced on the walls 
 of a school-room, in a woodcut in Carleton's " Stories of Irish 
 Peasantry,'' vol. i. p. 324. It was evidently done by some idle 
 boys. 
 
ON ROCK OAR VINOS. 191 
 
 Smiths, Jones, and Robinsons, of the present day, 
 who wish to immortalize themselves. Lepsius re- 
 marks, with regard to the position in which these 
 inscriptions are found, "It is easy to perceive, that 
 it is those places, sheltered from the midday sun, 
 which invited passing travellers on the road to Firan, 
 to engrave their names and short mottoes in the soft 
 rock."* 
 
 The Count de Yogii^ tells us that '' the inscriptions 
 of Safa, situated in the desert, two days' journey east 
 of the Jebel Hauran, appear to contain, like the 
 inscriptions of Sinai, nothing but proper names, 
 accompanied by formula of souvenirs, or prayers, 
 gross representations of nomadic life, combats, lion 
 hunts, figures of camels, goats, and women." 
 
 According to Mr. Squier, the valley in which the 
 Masaya carvings are, is remarkable for its seclusion 
 and gloom, where the rays of the sun seldom reach. 
 
 * According to Mr. E. H. Palmer ("Desert of the Exodus," 
 p. 190) they are mere scratches on the rock, the work of idle loungers, 
 consisting, for the most part, of mere names, interspersed with rude 
 figures of men and animals. They generally occur, he says, when 
 there is some pleasant shade, or convenient camping-ground close 
 by. In such places they exist in a confused jumble, reminding 
 one forcibly of those spots which Tourist Cookneyism has marked 
 for its own. The instrument used appears to have been a sharp 
 stone, by whieh they were dotted in. He attributes them to a 
 commercial people, traders, carriers, and settlers in the land. 
 
192 ON ROOK OAR VINOS. 
 
 It thus appears that the valley was used as a retreat 
 by the rude races of that country, frcm the fervid 
 heat and fierce rays of the sun ; and that, in their 
 idle moments, they busied themselves in carving 
 those rude attempts at the representation of men and 
 animals. 
 
 Several of the walls of Pompeii, and of the guard- 
 room of the Prastorian cohort on the Palatine hill at 
 Rome, are covered with rude scratchings (graflfiti) 
 and writings ; and to the present day the same 
 fashion continues on public walls, and in more retired 
 places, all proceeding from the same spirit of idleness. 
 The love of twiddling and doing something in idle 
 moments is natural to man in all ages and climes. 
 This is as common a peculiarity of the Irishman, who 
 cuts and hacks his stick as he tramps along the road, 
 as of the savage Indian, who, when he retreats under 
 the shadow of a tree or a rock, in the heat of the day, 
 whiles away his time in carving fancied resemblances 
 of human beings, of animals, and of natural objects. 
 It is as common to the lover who, when waiting at 
 the trysting place, passes his time in carving his 
 own initials, or those of his lady-love, on a tree. To 
 repeat Sir James Simpson's observation, man is at all 
 times " a sculpturing and a painting animal." 
 
 Man, indeed, is the same in all climes, and is 
 
ON BOOK CARVINaS. 193 
 
 instinctively led to do the same thing in the same 
 way, under similar circumstances, in regions widely 
 apart. As Humboldt remarks : " Nations of very 
 difiFerent descent, when in a similar uncivilized state 
 having the same disposition to simplify and generalize 
 outlines, and being impelled, by inherent mental 
 disposition, may be led to produce similar signs and 
 symbols" Hence we find identical forms in the 
 carvings and sculpturings in countries the most 
 remote from one another. 
 
 Identical circles with crosses within them are found 
 carved on the cromlechs of Scandinavia, on the blocks 
 forming an interior chamber of a tumulus at Dowth, 
 in Ireland, on the rocks near Veraguas, Panama, 
 and on the granite rocks near Arequipa, in Peru. 
 
 Identical concentric circles occur on the rocks at 
 Lough Crew, in Ireland, and in Forsyth Co. Georgia, 
 North America, as shown above. 
 
 These rude carvings cannot be considered as orna- 
 mentation, as their total want of symmetrical arrange- 
 ment, and the absence of continuity in their repetition, 
 ipreclude this. 
 
 Some of these traced figures may, however, be like 
 the bomarke of the Scandinavians — private marks of 
 property. The Eed Indian had also his tote7n, the 
 mark of his nation, and of the individual, and the 
 
 
 
194 ON ROCK CARVINGS. 
 
 South Sea islander hie peculiar amoco, or tattooed 
 pattern. The mark discovered on a rock in the 
 island of Bressay, Zetland, by Dr, Hunt, is evidently 
 a Scandinavian bomarke. A mark on the rock of 
 Masaya, in Nicaragua, seems to bear an analogy to 
 this, and may be an Indian totem. 
 
 Catlin speaks, in his illustrations of the manners of 
 the North American Indians, of thousands of inscrip- 
 tions and paintings observed by him on the rocks 
 near the Mississippi, whence the Indians got their red 
 pipe stone. A Mandan Indian thus described their 
 origin to him, " Many were the pipes we brought 
 from thence, and we brought them in peace. We left 
 our totenis on the rocks, we cut them deep in the 
 stones, they are there now." 
 
 Mr. Finn, in his " Byeways of Palestine," mentions 
 that he observed upon various walls of dilapidated 
 edifices at AmmS,n, curious marks slightly scratched, 
 which almost resemble alphabetical characters, but 
 are not, and which have, wherever met with, and 
 wherever noticed, which is but seldom, puzzled 
 travellers, however learned, to decipher. He copied 
 the following : — (see p. 195). 
 
 These characters are tokens adopted by the Arabs 
 to distinguish one tribe from another, and commonly 
 used for branding the camels on the shoulders and 
 
ON BOCK OABVINGS. 195 
 
 haunches, by which means the animals may be 
 recovered, if straying and found by Arabs not hostile 
 to the owners. In common parlance they are called 
 the Ausam (plural of Wasam) of the several tribes. 
 He further remarks that the presence of these rudely 
 scratched Arab tribe-signs on edifices or tombs, show 
 that persons of such tribes had visited there. 
 
 No. 59. 
 
 AUSAM — ARAB TRIBAL TOKENS. 
 
 Of a similar kind are the Bedouin marks, mentioned 
 by Mr. Layard in his " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 309. 
 " On some fragments of basaltic rock projecting from 
 the summit of the cone (Kowkab) were numerous 
 rudely cut signs, which might have been taken for 
 ancient and unknown characters. They were the 
 devices of the Shamman, carved there on the visit of 
 different sheiks. Each tribe, and, indeed each sub- 
 
196 ON ROOK CARVINGS. 
 
 division and . family, has its peculiar mark, to be 
 placed upon their property, and burnt upon their 
 camels."* 
 
 Carving these in idle moments, as we have already 
 said, is as natural to the wild Arab, or the savage 
 Indian, as to the idler of the present day, who carves 
 his initials or monogram on a tree or bench. 
 
 Sir James Simpson has shown that most of these 
 carvings belong to the stone age, which was syn- 
 chronous with the pastoral phase of civilization. 
 Some of a ruder description, like those noticed by 
 Humboldt, in South America^ may belong to an 
 earlier age, or the hunting phase. 
 
 * M. De Saulcy, who noticed them in the neighbourhood of the 
 Dead Sea, calls them " Planetary Signs." According to Mr. E. H. 
 Palmer (" Desert of the Exodus," p. 355) — " These tribe-marks 
 consist in reality of distorted Himyaritic letters, generally the 
 initial letter of the name ; thus, the mark of the 'Anazeh tribe 
 is 0, a circle with a dot in the centre, the ancient Himyaritic 
 letter, 'Ain, with which the word 'Anazeh begins. The Arabs 
 themselves, being ignorant of writing, are of course unaware of this 
 fact ; they consequently designate their tribe-mark by the name of 
 the article it may chance to resemble ed dabbds, " the club,'' el hab, 
 " the door," and so on. 
 
ADDENDUM. 
 
 Note to page 31. Pickering (" Eaces of Man ") remaiks that it is a 
 mistake to suppose that the pastoral or nomadic life is a stage in the 
 progressive improvement of society. Pastoral life is as much a stage in 
 the development of man, as childhood is a stage in the development of 
 the individual man ; many individuals, however, remain in a state of 
 childhood aU their Ufe, but this is the result of an arrested development, 
 and of course is an abnormal state. In those widely extended regions, 
 Scythia and Tartary, which Pickering mentions, where cultivation 
 is impossible, all progress in development is necessarily checked. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abobiqinbs in Italy, 26 ; in India, 
 
 Acora, 155. [169. 
 
 Agricultural phase, 12 ; in Egypt, 
 23; in Western Asia, 24; in 
 Greece, 25; in Italy, 25; in 
 Ireland, 26; in England, 27; in 
 France, 27 ; in Switzerland, 28 ; 
 in Denmark, 28 ; in Germany, 29 ; 
 in India, 31; in Mexico, 34; in 
 Peru, 35. 
 
 Alignments, 161. 
 
 American Indians, 53, 68. 
 
 Amman, 194. 
 
 Amoco, 194. 
 
 Analysis of bronze in Europe, 
 Egypt, Mexico, Peru, gives nearly 
 the same proportions, 93, 124. 
 
 Anderson, 6. 
 
 Arrow-heads, of flint, 53, 56, 102 ; 
 of obsidian, 58, 69 ; of quartzite, 
 56, 69 ; of crystal, 69 ; of copper, 
 73; of bronze, 77; of iron, 96. 
 
 Aryans, 31, 107. 
 
 Australia, 153, 182. 
 
 Australians, 39, 44, 64, 70. 
 
 Ausam, Arab tribe-signs, 195. 
 
 Baker, Sir Samuel, 6. 
 Bally-boe, 141. 
 Baring Gould, 12. 
 
 Barbarous phase, 3, 10, 17, 101 ; in 
 England, 17; in France, 17; in 
 Italy, 17, 19; in Sicily, 18; in 
 Portugal, 19; in Denmark, 19; 
 in Syria, 20; in India, 20; in 
 America, 21; in Brazil, 21; in 
 Peru, 22. 
 
 Barbed arrow, 57. 
 
 Earth, 150. 
 
 Belcher, 50. 
 
 Bomarke, 193. 
 
 Brazil, 21. 
 
 Brehons, 127, 131. 
 
 Brehon law, 127. 
 
 Brett, 182. 
 
 Britons, 167. 
 
 Bronze age, 76, 106, 123. 
 
 Bronze, 76, 106; analysis of, 124; 
 arrow-heads, spear- heads, 77; 
 swords, 78. Greek, Eoman, 
 German, British, Irish swords, 
 79 ; implements, celts, 83. 
 
 Bulb of percussion, 48. 
 
 Camenz, 108. 
 
 Capper, 169. 
 
 Capellini, 19. 
 
 Carved stones. Lough Crew, 177; 
 
 carved rock, Forsyth Co. Georgia, 
 
 178. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 199 
 
 Catlin, 53, 194. 
 
 Cat stones, 162. 
 
 Caves, 17, 19, 20, 21, 183, 184. 
 
 Celt, derivation of, 83. 
 
 Celts, stone, 61 ; copper, 73 ; bronze, 
 
 Celt mould, 91. [83. 
 
 Chardin, 150. 
 
 Christy, 149, 184. 
 
 Circles, stone, 146, 151, 152, 153, 
 154; with crosses, 193; concen- 
 tric, 193. 
 
 Classification of sepulchral monu- 
 ments, 159; of flint and stone 
 implements, 65. 
 
 ConweU, 176. 
 
 Copper, implements, 72, 75; ham- 
 mered, 72 ; cast, 73. 
 
 Copper mines, 75. 
 
 Cores, 51. 
 
 Crajmog, 175. 
 
 Creaght, 140. 
 
 Cromlech, derivation of, 145. 
 
 Cromlechs, 145, 142; of the stone 
 age, 169. 
 
 Cycle of development, 37. 
 
 Darab, 150. 
 Darwin, 19, 175. 
 Dawkins, Boyd, 18, 19. 
 Degraded phase, 37. 
 Dennis, 146, 172. 
 De Saulcy, 151, 196. 
 Desor, 68. 
 Dixon, 10. 
 Dodwell, 24, 190. 
 Dolmen, derivation of, 145. 
 Dolmen, Indian, 148. 
 Dowars, 138. 
 Du Noyer, 176. 
 
 Egypt, 22, 23, 52, 75. 
 
 Elliot, Sir Walter, 149. 
 
 Emilia, 108. 
 
 En amande, 43. 
 
 Enclosures, 137, 138. 
 
 Esquimaux, 50. 
 
 Evans, J., 43, 117, 118, 174. 
 
 Falconer, 18. 
 
 FeUahs, 38. 
 
 Fergusson, J., 33, 157, 158, 162, 165. 
 
 Figuier, 100. 
 
 Finlay, G., 51, 68, 75. 
 
 Finn, 194. 
 
 Finne, 132. 
 
 Firbolgians, 26. 
 
 Flakes of flint, 45, 47, 51 ; of ob- 
 sidian, 49, 51 ; of chert, 50, 51. 
 
 Flat celts of bronze, 83. 
 
 Flint flakes, 45, 51, chipped into 
 shape, 53, 65. 
 
 Flint manufactories, 51, 52. 
 
 Flower, 150. 
 
 Foote, Bruce, 118. 
 
 Franks, A. W., 66, 78, 80, 91. 
 
 Friedriohschafen, 27, 104. 
 
 Qastaldi, 108. 
 Gibbon, 31. 
 Giotto, 187. 
 Greece, 25, 75. 
 Grossenhain, 108. 
 Guachos, 137. 
 Guiana, 182. 
 
 Hafting of stone hatchets, 63, 64; of 
 
 bronze celts, 84. 
 Hallstadt, 95, 110. 
 Hamilton, 190. 
 Hazeroth, 138. 
 
200 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 HerodotTis, 22, 174. 
 
 Holed stones, 148. 
 
 Hooker, Dr., 147, 167. 
 
 Horace, 3. 
 
 Hovas, 167. 
 
 Humboldt, 7, 93, 178, 188, 193. 
 
 Hunt, Dr., 194. 
 
 Hunting phase, 8, 102 ; in Western 
 Asia, 23 ; in Greece, 25 ; in Italy, 
 25 ; in Ireland, 26 ; in England, 
 27 ; in France, 27 ; in Switzerland, 
 28 ; in Denmark, 28 ; in Germany, 
 28 ; in India, 30 ; ia Scythia, 31 ; 
 in America, 31 ; Peru, 35. 
 
 Hut circles, of the pastoral age, 105. 
 
 Huxley, 170, 186. 
 
 Idleness of savages, 187. 
 Implements of the gravel drift, 41, 
 
 65, 118; stone, 60, 61, 104; 
 
 bronze, 82, 104, 123 ; iron, 96, 111. 
 India, 20, 21. 
 Indented arrow-head, 66. 
 Intihuanas, sim-circles, 156. 
 Ireland, 26. 
 
 Ireland tmder the Brehon laws, 127. 
 Irish, early, 26, 168. 
 Irish celts, 62, 66. 
 Irish tribal system, 129, 131. 
 Ii-on age, 59, 111. 
 
 Jade, 67, 69. 
 
 Kaseem, 151. 
 Keller, 74, 117. 
 Khasia, 147, 167. 
 Kitchen-middens, 103, 174. 
 Koch, 21. 
 
 Lake Ballyhoe, 104. 
 
 Lake dwellings, 174. 
 
 Lament, 152. 
 
 Land tenure in Ireland, 127. 
 
 Langues de chat, 41. 
 
 Law of sequence, 101. 
 
 Layard, 195. 
 
 Leaf-shaped arrow-head, 57. 
 
 Lepsius, 191. 
 
 Liviagstone, 184. 
 
 Lough Crew, 176. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, 17, 46, 101, 107, 
 
 109, 112, 144. 
 Lund, 21. 
 LuMs, 172. 
 Lyell, Sir Charles, 3, 4, 110, 174. 
 
 Madden, Dr., 149. 
 
 Manco Capac, 35, 106. 
 
 Materials used for stone implements, 
 
 Marin, 97, 111. [66. 
 
 Mayne Eeid, Capt., 120. 
 
 Meadows Taylor, Col., 147. 
 
 Megalitluc structures, 145, sepul- 
 chral, 158 ; not confined solely to 
 non-Aryan races, 171. 
 
 Megalithic tomb, 153. 
 
 Mesolithic, 65. 
 
 Metal, importance of, 106. 
 
 Menhirs, 162. 
 
 Mexico, 34. 
 
 Mexicans, 34, 39, 50, 93. 
 
 Micah, 26. 
 
 Milesians, 26. 
 
 MiUingen, 129. 
 
 MuUer, Max, 31. 
 
 Mund, 136. 
 
 Natui'al state, 7. 
 Neolithic, 65. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 201 
 
 Nephrite, 67, 68. 
 New Zealand, 69, 70. 
 Nilsson, 13, 16, 168, 185. 
 
 Obsidian, 49, 51, 58, 69. 
 Oliver, 149. 
 Osci, 25. 
 
 Page, 21, 101. 
 
 PalseoHthic, 65, 118. 
 
 PalgraTe, F., 151. 
 
 Palmer, E. H., 138, 191, 196. 
 
 Palstaves of bronze, 83, 86, 125 ; of 
 iron, 96. 
 
 Pastoral phase, 9, 105; in Egypt, 
 22; in Western Asia, 24; in 
 Greece, 25; in Italy, 25; in 
 Ireland, 26, 131, 141 ; in England, 
 27 ; in France, 27 ; in Switzerland, 
 28 ; in Germany, 29 ; in India, 30 ; 
 in Seythia, 31 ; in America, 32 ; 
 in Peru, 35. 
 
 Pelasgi, 25, 106. 
 
 Penrhyn Islands, 152. 
 
 Peru, 22, 85, 106, 154. 
 
 Peruvians, 34, 39, 75. 
 
 Peulvens, 162. 
 
 Phase, intermediate, 32 ; degraded, 
 37. 
 
 Phases, successive, in pre-historic 
 times, 3 ; of civilization, earliest, 
 1; of civilization and contem- 
 poraneous implements, 99. 
 
 Piedra pintada, 179. 
 
 Pierres de tonnerre, 122. 
 
 Pre-historic phases, 1; barbarous 
 phase, 5 ; hunting phase, 8 ; pas- 
 toral phase, 9 ; agricultural phase, 
 12. 
 
 Prescott, 32, 35, 93. 
 Pressigny, 52. 
 Primitive tomb, 155. 
 Progressive development of raega- 
 lithic structures, 171. 
 
 Quartzite, 58. 
 Quetzalcoatl, 34, 106. 
 
 Eaths, 136. 
 
 EawHnson, 24. 
 
 Eiehey, 11. 
 
 Eock carvings, 176 ; of the pastoral 
 
 age, 196. 
 Boss King, 13, 170. 
 
 Savage state — see barbarous phase. 
 Savage tribes, 5, 6, 7, 17, 19, 39. 
 Sequence of flint, stone, and bronze 
 
 implements, 40. 
 Sequence of phases of civilization, 
 
 3; of phases of civilization and 
 
 contemporaneous implements, 99. 
 SicuH, 25. 
 Simpson, Sir J., 164, 176, 184, 189, 
 
 196. 
 Sinaitic inscriptions, 190. 
 Smith, 26. 
 Socketed celts of bronze, 87, 88 ; 
 
 of iron, 96. 
 Spear-heads of flint, 57 ; of bronze, 
 
 77 ; of iron, 96. 
 Squier, 75, 154, 156, 157, 168, 173, 
 
 179, 186.' 
 Stage, transitional, copper, 71 ; from 
 
 bronze to iron, 95, 110. 
 State of warfare, 116. 
 State of nature, 7. 
 Stemmed arrow-head, 56. 
 
202 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Stoddart, Sir John, 25. 
 Stone age, 66, 119, 122. 
 Stone circles, 146, 149, 153, 154; 
 
 sepulchral, 159. 
 Stonehenge, 162; sepulchral^ not a 
 
 temple, 163. 
 Stone celts, 62. 
 Stone implements, 60, 61, 104; 
 
 ground at edge, 59, 60 ; ground 
 
 all over, 60, 61, 65. 
 Stuart, John, 160, 164. 
 Swords of bronze, 78 ; of iron, 96. 
 Symbolism, 186. 
 
 Tacitus, 29, 111. 
 
 Temples, 163. 
 
 Tennant, Sir E., 7. 
 
 Tenerife, 69. 
 
 Tiahuanaco, 155. 
 
 Tierra del Fuego, 19, 175. 
 
 Todas, 136, 170. 
 
 Tomb, 153, 155. 
 
 Toom Castle, 104. 
 
 Tooel, 136. 
 
 Totem, 193, 194. 
 
 Transition period, copper, 71 ; from 
 
 bronze to iron, 95, 110. ' 
 Triangular arrow-head, 56. 
 Tribe, 10, 129. 
 
 Tribal system, 10, 129 ; in Ireland, 
 
 131. 
 Tribal tokens or signs, 195. 
 Trilithon, 162. 
 Tristam, H., 20. 
 Tuath de Danaans, 26, 106. 
 Tumulus, 144. 
 Tunja, 157. 
 Tylor, E., 58, 72, 94, 148. 
 
 Usher, 128. 
 
 Veddahs, 6. 
 
 Vogue, Count de, 191. 
 
 Waitz, 1. 
 
 Whately, Arch., 7. 
 
 Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, 15, 23. 
 
 Wilson, Dr., 2, 41, 123, 166. 
 
 Wilson, Captain, 151. 
 
 wade. Sir W., 26, 27, 49, 56, 61, 
 
 67, 73, 74, 83, 123. 
 Winged celt, 84, 85, 86. 
 Woky hole, 18. 
 Wolds, Yorkshire, 103. 
 Worsaae, 28, 107, 122, 
 
 Yorkshire Wolds, 103. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 rRINTKD BY WILLIAM CLOWUS AND SONS, STAMFOBD STUHUT 
 AND CHARINQ CROSS. 
 
'''M>(-!?k '.'-UA iv>liiMM^i{&.