sin Cornell University Library QK S3.R66 Outlines for field studies of some commo 3 1924 000 621 460 » OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES, OF SOME COMMON PLANTS. C. H. ROBISON. A. M. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MAYVILLE, N. D FORMERLY OF OAK PARK (ILL.) HIGH SCHOOL. SECOND EDITION, REVISED. Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000621460 OUTLINES FOR FlEIvD STUDIES OF SOME COMMON PLANTS. C. H. ROBISON. A. M. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MAYVILLE, IN D FORMERLY OF OAK PARK (ILL.) HIGH SCHOOL. SECOND EDITION, REVISED. PART I. COPYRIGHTED 1901, 1908, 1901, C. H. KOBISON. PREFATORY NOTE These "Outlines for Field Studies" are intended to di- rect the efforts of the pupil in the out-door study of com- mon plants. Instead of indulging in sweeping directions that applj' in a general way to a group of objects, with- out really fitting any specific one, they aim to tell the student exactly what to look at, and how to do it, with- out teHfng him what he is expected to see. Thus is laid a foundation of observation that may be used in the class room in drawing conclusions. They- have been written in plain Anglo-Saxon, with a minimum of botanical terms, with reference to the capacity of ninth grade pu- pils. Studies supplementary to the field work, taking up simple microscpic characters and easily demonstrated functions, have been added to several topics. Teachers having facilities for giving the experimental work the attention it merits will find the field well covered in the works by Atkinson, Barnes, Bergen, and Caldwell. To study the plant where, it grows will bring the pupil into contact with Nature at first hand as the more or less artificial laboratory method cannot do ; though much of the work here outlined can be done in the school room. The types chosen in most cases are plants to be found in the yards and vacant lots near home or school. Weeds are the succeesful competitors j)ar excellence among the hosts of plant rivals. Time spent in studying the adaptations that enable them to succeed is not wasted. These field studies are especially adapted to supply the illustrative material to accompany the first few chapters of Professor John M. Coulter's very excellent texts "Plant Relations" and "Plant Studies," (D. Appleton & Company), and are bound so as to lie open without the necessity of flattening open the book, which would be a great inconvenience when working in the field. The "Spring Flower Studies" constitutes Part II, and is bound separately for convenience It is an attempt to give by selected types an idea of the evolution in the plant kingdom which many have thought could be gain- ed only through the microscopic study of lower forms, as the algae. The principles determining the trend of tliese flower studies are those laid down in the chapter on Spermatophytes in Professor Coulter's text. C.H. R. HOW TO KEEP YOUR NOTE BOOKS. DRAWINGS. 1. Use a six H pencil, Dixon or Faber. As you will probably lose it in a few days, it will be well to cut off about two inches of it and tie the short piece to your cover with a string. You will find it handy in an emer- gency. 2. When you begin to use a fresh sheet, be sure the perforated margin is on the right hand side. This means, of course, draw on one side only. 3. Draw the first outlines of your drawings faintly, then go over them again, making the outlines firm and clear cut, and fill in the details. A sharp point is abso- lutely essential for good results. 4. Do not use shading unless you have a surplus of time. Except when used with judgment, shading is apt to obscure details and is often made to gloss over care- lessness of observation. 5. Ink drawings are more effective but take more time. If you choose to use ink, first trace the drawing lightly ; do not try to draw in ink free-hand. Use India ink and a "crow-quill" pen, as others are not finely enough pointed. 6. Label every page with the toj)ic and the name of the plant illustrating it. Label every drawing. Label every part of the drawing. Print all labels neatly, mak- ing sure that the letters are in a straight line. These are absolute requirements. 7. If the drawings be lettered, with the legend writ- ten in one corner, or on the ruled paper, you get the neatest effect. But if you print the labels neatly on the margin with "leaders" pointing to the proper place, the drawing can be more handily observed and studied. 8. Never mix subjects. Put on one sheet the draw- ings of only one topic or plant. NOTES. 1. Write all your notes in ink. 2. Begin your notes on a page with the perforations on the left hand side, so the written page will face the corresponding drawing, if there be any. Any excess of notes may be carried over to the other side of the same sheet. 3. Always write the name of a new topic on the first line, followed by the name of the plant or part illustrat- ing it. 4. Always write out good English sentences. Any exceptions in the way of tabulations will be mentioned at the proper time. 5. You will find it convenient to number your ob- servations to agree with the corresponding question of the "Outlines." 6. The notes accompanying a given set of drawings must be with the same, and must not be placed in differ- ent parts of the book. Place the new work in the front of the book, and keep the corrected work in regular or- der in the back. A stiff board leaf, or sheet of heavier paper should separate the new work from the other ma- terial. 7. When your book gets full and you take out part of the work, the leaves often get scattered. They should be held together with a brass fastener or a shoe-string. 8. Put your initials on an upper corner of each page so that when separate sheets are called in at any recita- tion they may be identified. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. FOLIAGE LEAVES. tEAF-MOVEMENTS. I. Day and night positions. Clover. 1. Examine the leaves of the common small white clover twice during the day (using the same leaf if possible) as follows : first, between 12 and 3 p. m. second, between 9 and 10 p. m. At each observation draw a side and a top view of the leaf to show the positions assumed by the parts of the leaf. A single leaf consists of three parts called leaflets. Also, at the last observation, make a front view of the little box like arrangement showing how the leaflets are folded together ; making five drawings altogether. 2 Question: When do these leaves begin to close ? Cause of Leaf Movement. — Many off-hand guesses are often offered to explain the phenomenon, as : (1) that the leaves close up on account of the dew, or as a protection against the dew; (2) on account of the with- drawal of the light at sunset; (3) on account of the dif- ference in temperature between day and night. The following experiments may not definitely establish the true reason, but may enable you to disprove some of them, and also give you an idea of the carefulness needed in any reasoning concerning scientific experiments : 1. Do the leaves close up on a "dry" evening, i. e., when there is no dew ? Do they close up in the daytime during a rain, or when sprinkled for an hour or more ? 2. Cover some clover for two or three hours in the middle of the day with a wooden box or other vessel that will entirely exclude the light, and allow the temperature inside to remain essentially the same as that of the out- side air. (Test with a thermometer if you have one). How does the behavior of the leaves inside compare with that of the leaves outside the box ? 8 OUTLINES FOR FIEtD STUDIES. 3. (fl) Cover the clover before evening with the same vessel used in (2), to prevent the ground from cooling. (J) If you have a thermometer, record the tempera- ture of the air at the ground level. (c) Observe the covered leaves between 9 and 10 P. M. How do they compare with those outside ? ((?) Test the temperature inside the box (' rnly with your hand); how does the temperature insiuo compare with that outside? Compare with the temperature re- corded when you first covered the plants (3, b). (e) You will find out more if, on a hot day, you cover some clover growing where it is exposed to- the sun all day with a small glazed crock or dish that really ab- sorbs heat. After two or three hours observe the condi- tion of the leaves and air both inside and outside the ves- sel. What do you notice ? Do you find moisture on the leaves ? Notes. — Write up your notes carefully, describing (a) the conditions of the experiment, (b) the observa- tions made, (c) after the class discussion write up the conclusions arrived at. Your notes will be improved by inserting at the mar- gin diagframs made of straight lines showing the angles formed by the leaflets under the different conditions. Tabulate below, ?'. e. , put down in columns, the differ- ent temperatures recorded, with the hour, and the condi- tion of sunlight or shade. Optional Work. — Many other plants behave differ- ently in the daytime and at night. Observe as many such as possible, or as may be required, and describe what changes you notice. Among others, the following are suggested: 1. Oxalis, known also as wood sorrel, or sour grass. How does it act differently from the clover? 2. Sweet clover, — position of the middle leaflet? 3. Purslane, or, as it is sometimes called, "pussley." 4. Any variety of pea or bean. 5. Locust. Do the leaflets bend down (back to back) or up (face to face) ? Make a drawing of each kind of leaf position during the day, and again about 9 p. m., showing the difference. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 9 n. Regular movements during the day- Mallows. — 1. Observe the position of the leaves of the Malva, or, as it is often called, "dwarf mallows," or "cheese mallows," first, in the morning before school, once or twice in the middle of the day, and late in the afternoon. 2. In what part of the leaf stem does the turning movement take place ? 3. (fl) About two inches from the top of the page, draw a horizontal line to represent the level of the ground, the right end being east, the center south, and the left end west. Make drawings of the leaf showing its position at the different times of day. Show by ar- rows the direction from which the sun-light comes. (5) Isabel the top of the remaining space north, the right side east, etc., as if it were a map of a piece of land, and draw straight lines showing the plane of the leaf as you look down upon it at the different times. Draw arrows as before. 4. Watch a free tip of a young bean or morning glory two or three times during three successive days, and notice in which direction it points each time (This can best be observed in the spring). III. Irregular movements. 1. In the middle of a very warm day notice in what different ways certain leaves close up. Compare as many as possible of the following, lilac, sweet and white clover, oxalis, locust or others ; grasses, especially, the broad leaved varieties, as, fox-tail grass. (a) Describe the appearance of the leaves. (5) Is this effect shown both in the shade and in the sunlight ? (c) If possible, state the temperature in both con- ditions. 2. Another non-periodic movement, though from a different cause, is the behavior of the tendrils of the wild cucumber. On a very warm day, if you can find tendrils which have not coiled, stroke the under side a dozen or more times slowly and evenly with your finger. If any change occurs in five or ten minutes record your obser- vation. 10 OUTLINES FOR FIEI.D STUDIES. IV. LigM movements becoming fixed positions. Compass Plants — 1 . Find a good sized clump of the "compass plant," or "rosin weed," whose leaves are very large and deeply lobed. The "prairie dock " whose leaves are not lobed, are much more common, but are not so reliable to make observations on. Be sure the plants you observe are exposed to the sun all day, and are not shaded by neighboring trees, fences, etc. 2. Stand on the south of the plants and then west, (tf) Do you see any regularity in their position, i. e., in the way the leaves face and in the direction of the edges. (6) Do you see any relation of any such position to the source and intensity of the light ? (c) Does any twisting of the leaf stem indicate whether the leaf started to grow in this position or whether the position was acquired later ? A few plants growing in the shade may help to answer these questions. 3. Make drawings to show the difference of appear- ance of the group as seen from the two points of view. Prickly Lettuce — Pick out for observation a plant that is exposed all day to the bright sunlight. View it from different sides as you did the previous plants, and also by looking directly down upon it from above. (fl) Do you find in the arrangement of the leaves on this plant, a tendency to point in any particular direction? (6) In what way do the edges point ? (c) These leaves seem to have started in what direc- tion ? Did they change after starting ? {d) Why is the "compass idea" more evident in the top leaves than in those lower down ? 2. Make a side view drawing of the plant observed ; and a drawing of the plant as seen from above, using ar- rows to indicate the points of the compass. 3. If you can find a wild lettuce plant growing where it is shaded most of the day, apply the same questions just asked. How does this plant differ from the one growing in the sun ? Note. — A somewhat similar phenomen is shown in the leaves of the golden rod, whose leaves have a marked spiral twist, bringing their outer half to occupy a verti- cal plane. The gum- weed of the northwest could be used for study in place of the compa.ss plant. OUTUNES FOR FIEI,D STUDIES. 11 LEAF ARRANGEMENT AND LIGHT RELATION. I. On simple erect stems, scattered. Pick out plants that are growing more or less alone and are not crowded by other plants, and so not apt to be lopsided or unnatural. Milkweed — LooJc down on the plant from above. 1. How many vertical rows of leaves do you find ? 2. Are the leaves directly above one another? 3. Make a sketch of the plant as seen from above. Aim to make this and the drawing called for under 7 be- low occupy one full page of your note book. Draw a dotted circle just touching the tips of the leaves. How does the space between the leaves compare with the area of the leaves themselves ? 4. What is the proportion of breadth to length ? 5. Do the leaves overlap, and so shade those below ; or do the leaves become narrow and stalk-like toward the plant-stem so as to avoid shading ? View the plant sidewise. 1. What is the proportion of the length of the leaf to the distance between the leaves of the same row ? 2. Do the leaves lengthen out beyond those above, or do they seem to get sufficient light without doing so ? 3. Do the lower leaves seem as thrifty as those above? 4. Do the lower leaves grow out from the stem at the same angle, or do some slant up more on one part of the stem ? Do they droop on another part ? 5. Do the leaves grow flat, or do they tilt somewhat edgewise ? 6. Compare a plant growing in the shade with one growing in the sunlight. Is there any difference in the distance between the leaves in a vertical row ? 7. Make a sketch of the plant the height of the draw- ing paper, illustrating the above points. Draw a dotted line circumscribing the leaf-tips. Is the outline that of a cylinder, oval, cone, or inverted cone ? What advantages to the plant are in this kind of a leaf arrangement ? Surface of Vertical and Horizontal Leaves. Are the two sides of the vertical leaves of the plants .studied similar or different? How do they compare with horizontally growing leaves of other weeds? Compare also the cotton-wood leaf with maple and elm leaves. 12 OUTIvINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. Comparative Work. — Other Simple Weeds. Compare with the milkweed just studied some plant with many rows of narrow leaves, as a narrow-leaved milkweed, horseweed, blazing star, and certain kinds of goldenrod. If you use goldenrod, notice how the rows are spirally twisted. Use the outline given for the milk- weed, omitting paragraph 6. Suggestive Question. — Could this plant probably make use of leaves that were any broader ? What about the amount and intensity of sunlight re- ceived by the milkweed if the leaves were narrower and not directly one over the other ? What advantages to the plant result from its present leaf arrangement ? Branching Weeds. — Examine herbs, such as ragweed, that having branching leaves, or the sweet clover with a branching stem. Do they assume the tapering form or a spreading shape like that of an inverted cone ? II. On simple stems crowded in a rosette. Pigweed. — Erect ends of the prostrate iranches. A common weed about waste places is the little amar- anth, or pigweed, (A. blitoides). The turned up ends ot the sprawling branches display leaves arranged in ro- settes. The live-for-ever, or balloon plant, if available is a better stud}". Look down on one of these clusters of leaves. 1. Are the leaves directh- above one another as in the large milkweed, or do they fit in between one another? 2. What about the distance on the stem between the leaves ? 3. You can easih- see how the light would have been shut out from most of the milkweed leaves if they had been crowded as in this plant. (Be prepared to explain how). How is an}' such disadvantage overcome, or re- duced in importance by {a) the position of the leaf? (5) the shape of the leaf ? (c) the size of the leaf ? {d) the length of the petiole? (e) the angle of the leaf ? 4. Make sketch of the part of the plant showing the rosette arrangement of the leaves ; also a side view sketch showing the crowded arrangement on the stem. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 13 CoMPARATivB Work, Catnip — Make observations and drawings in the same manner as in case of the pig- weed, using the same questions on the plant showing the above points. Consider only the top or crowded part of a plant without blossoms, and notice how the leaves tend to grow to the same level. Optionai, Work — or may ie used for pigweed. The plantain and dandelion show the rosette habit well, also the mullein and curled dock in the spring or late fall ; and all grow rather close to the ground - 1. Observe the different length of the leaves of these. 2. Notice the channel on the plantain petiole. What effect would it have on the rain striking the plant ? 3. Dig up the plant. Are the small roots spreading out toward the leaf-tips or are they near the central stalk ? So where should the water go to reach the roots? 4. Draw top and side views showing roots. 5. If used instead of pigweed, apply also questions 1, 2, and 3, of pigweed to this plant and discuss. III. On horizontal stems, i. e-, exposed on one side only. Spotted Spurge — 1. Notice how, instead of the leaves radiating, as in the rosette plants, the branches bearing the small leaves show this radiating habit. 2. The upright stems had the leaves arranged with their flat surface at right angles with the stem. («) How are these arranged? (5) Do the leaves all start out of the two sides from which they seem to grow, or from all sides ? 3. Make full page drawing of top view. A Wall Vioe. — This illustrates the same habit as the preceding, but on a vertical surface Any vine lying close to a vertical wall will answer as well. 1. Observe how the leaves are arranged. Do they overlap to any considerable extent ? (Choose a place where the leaves are close to the wall). 2. Though the leaves all face one way, do you find that all the petioles start from the sides of the stem next the leaves, or sometimes from the side next the wall ? («) How are the leaves able to assume their final po- sition, and how does the petiole help in this ? (&) Does the way the petiole starts from the stem sug- gest any other arrangement ? 14 OUTWNES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 3. Make sketches of about one square foot of the plant to illustrate its growth: (fl) Front view of plant to show mosaic ; (5) Side view of stem to show origin of the petioles ; and give name of the vine used. Young Elm Shoots — Woody tranches with leaves turned one way, and away from any surface, 1. These shoots grew vertically or horizontally. Can you determine by the leaf arrangement which side of the stem was turned toward the light ? 2. How does the position of these leaves, as well as their manner of growth correspond with the leaf habits of the two preceding plants? 3. What is the shape of the leaf ? If it were more tapering at either end, would the space be so econom- ically used ? 4. Make a sketch of a single horizontal branch. A Mosaic — A geranium that has stood in a window several weeks without being turned, will furnish an ex- cellent example of a mosaic, as will the large leaved varieties of begonia. A suitable plant should be sketched to show the mosaic leaf arrangement. THE IXDIVIDUAI, I.EAF. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. I. Kinds of veining. {a) Leaves maj- have a central midrib with veins branching from it like a feather. (Lat. — pinna) ; such leaves are said to be pinnately veined. (J) The veins maj' radiate like the fingers of the hand ; these are called palmately veined. (c) If all the veins are parallel, the leaf is parallel veined, and the veins converge at the tip of the leaf. II. Form and outline. 1. If the leaf is not too deeply indented its form will probably be one of the following common tvpes : (ff) Bound, or nearly so. (6) Elliptical, when broadest in the middle and at least a third as broad as long, as milkweed. (c) Oval shaped, when the broadest part is toward the base, as the apple. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 15 {d) Lance shaped, when it is narrowly oval, as the willow. (e) Linear, when it is very narrow like a grass blade. (/) Sometimes the broadest part is beyond the mid- dle like a paddle, as the pigweed or purslane. ((7) Sometimes the base is peculiar, as it may be heart shaped, or arrow shaped, etc. Sometimes the apex is very pointed, or blunt, or notched. 2. If the outline be irregular, the irregularity is apt to be governed almost entirely by the kind of veining. (fl) The outline may be unbroken, except for slight indentations, see margin. (5) It may be in more or less deep curves, i. e. loibed. (c) It may be cut into angularly; i. e., cleft. (d) The outlines may closely follow the veins, mak- ing the leaf dissected, (e) The parts of the leaf belonging to the different principal veins may be completely separated from each other, and seem like small leaves. A leaf so divided is said to be compound, the parts are '"leaflets." (/) Leaves may be pinnately or palmately lobed, cleft, etc., according to the venation. They may also be pin- nately or palmately compound, and are called pinnate or palmate leaves. Sometimes leaves are doubly or thrice compound, i. e., divided twice or three times. (^) Since the veins of parallel veined leaves are all parallel, and converge rather than diverge, there is no chance for space between the ends of the veins, and they are seldom uneven. III. Margin of the leaf. (a) The margin may be entire, i. e., perfectly ez^ra, or perhaps wavy. (J)) The margin may be toothed, like a saw, either finely toothed, coarsely toothed, or even the teeth may be toothed, i. e., the edge is doubly toothed. IV. Distinction between simple and compound leaves. (a) lycaves may be arranged on the stem oppositely or alternately. If alternate, they may occur one-half, one-third, two-fifths, three eights, etc., of the way 16 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. around the stem, as there may be two, three, five or eight vertical rows. Leaflets, instead of having any such arrangement on the midrib, lie in the same plane with it. (5) Many leaves, as the apple and rose, have a pair of leaf-like structures called stipules growing on the lower end of the leaf stalk; leaflets seldom have these. (c) In the summer and fall, small branch buds nearly always appear in the leaf axils Branches always grow in such a position. Buds never appear at the base of the leaflets. (d) Many compound leaves have a leaflet at the end of the stalk instead of a bud, as would be the case if the structure were a twig with simple leaves. THE INDIVIDUAL LEAF. SUPPLEMENTARY LABORATORY STUDIES. I. General structure. A number of leaves of plants specified on the board are placed on the tables. Pick out all the pinnately veined leaves you can find, and arrange them in a series from the simplest entire leaf through the intermediate stages to the compound forms Do the same for the palmately and parallel veined leaves Make a series of drawings (without shading) showing accurately the out- line, margin, veins, and petiole. Make each of your drawings about two inches the longest way. Give one or more pages to the drawings of the pinnate- ly veined leaves and pinnate leaves (See II /), placing the proper heading at the top of the page. Print the name under each leaf. On the ruled page opposite, tabulate the characters of each leaf; such as, margin, lobing, base, or other characters that are prominent enough to be noted. Arrange the drawings of the other leaves in like manner, but do not draw differently veined leaves on the same page. Further descriptions of the different forms of leaves may be found on pages 49-59 of Gray's L,essons in Botany; for arrangement of leaves on the stem, see iMd , pages 67-71; Bailey, pages 46-49, and 91-95. A possible advantage of this variety of forms is hinted at in sec- tions 17-23 of Coulter's Plant Studies. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 17 Questions, — 1. What influence did you find the veining to have on the outline of these leaves ? 2. What leaves, if any, were thicker than the aver- age, i. e., fleshy or leathery? 3. Which had waxy, hairy, or wooly coverings ? 4. Did such leaves grow on "sun plants" or on "shade plants"? PROTECTIVE COVERING OF THE LEAF. Qoosefoot. — With a magnifying glass, examine the sur- face of a leaf from the top of a goosefoot plant, or lamb's quarters, as the weed is often called Describe the ap- pearance of the white surface. Scrape the surface with a knife blade, or rub it with the finger. What happens? The mealy covering is often called the "bloom" of the leaf, and is not to be confounded with the mildew of lilac and other leaves, which is a fungus growth. Velvet Leaf — JVith hairy covering. This plant, known also as "Indian mallows," and certain other hairy plants, as the everlasting, show well with the magnifier. Mullein, — W'ith "wooly" covering. Examine with the magnifier. After picking off a few hairs, draw one as it appears enlarged. Thistle leaves have a dense coat underneath, but the hairs are less striking. Silver Berry. — 1. Examine the leaf and small stems, noticing the two kinds of scales and how their fringed margins interlock. The buffalo berry while not so strik- ing, is a good example. NOTE. — If possible repeat these observations under low power. The silver berry scales, under the micro- scope, are among the most beautiful objects in nature. The author will gladly mail a small sample on application. II. Minute structure — microscopic. Epidermis. — Many have difficulty in peeling the epidermis from a leaf. The following hints will be found helpful. One way is to make a scratch across the epidermis with a knife to start it, then grasp the edge of the membrane thus lifted, with the fine forceps. An- other way is to tear a leaf with a sort of oblique twist which will, in the case of the geranium, usually loosen such a long strip that it is only necessary to cut off small bits with the scissors. 18 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. Onioa Bulb. — Preliminary cell study. 1. Remove several layers. These are really modified leaves. Strip off, by the first method indicated, a small piece of the outer epidermis of the next layer, lay it on a clean slide, place on a drop of water and then a cover glass. These epidermis specimens are apt to have small air bubbles caught under the cover which will interfere with the observation. Remove by lifting the edge of the cover glass two or three times with a needle. 2. Observe under low power, noticing the general ap pearance and draw a dozen cells the size they seem to be. Be sure your specimen is not folded, as that will make a confused appearance. Note. — Never squint one eye when looking through a microscope. It causes headaches and blood-shot eyes, and is wholly unnecessary. Both eyes should be kept wide open, though it may take a couple of days to get used to this. It is merely a matter of will power ; and, when the trick is once learned, one eye will see the ob- ject while the other will see the drawing paper in such a way that approximate measurements of the microscopic image can be made by dots on the paper. To have the size more accurate, the paper should be on a level with the stage of the microscope. Beginners often have difii- culty in not turning the mirror so as to get the greatest amount of illumination and in getting small drops of water on the objective. 2. Observe under the high power and notice the fol- lowing : (a) the cell wall — before drawing think whether its thickness should be represented by a single line or by parallel lines ; (5) the nucleus, a round body in the center or near the middle of one side, having a sort of ground glass appearance, and usually with a much smaller circle, the nucleolus, inside ; (c) the re- mainder of the cell, which is usually clear. 4. Make a drawing of two or three adjoining cells, each the actual size of the image or at least two inches in length. If the cells are so large that only one is seen, draw everything seen in the circular field. 5. Iodine solution on the specimen will stain the protoplasm and often show its finely granular struc- ture, and will cause the protoplasm to be drawn from the cell wall by a process that need not be discussed here. ODTI,INES FOR PIEr.D STUDIES. 19 Lily. — 1. Strip a ^tnall piece of epidermis from the leaf or green stem of almost any bulbous plant, and mount as directed before. 2. Observe first under low power, and then under the high power. The oval structures seen at intervals among the long cells are the stomata, composed of two guard-cells enclosing a more or less narrow opening. This is not a hole in the middle, but a slit extending to the outer ends of the guard-cells, — so represent it thus in your drawings. 3. The green dots are the bodies in the protoplasm containing the chlorophyll. Do you find them in all the epidermal calls, or only in certain ones ? 4. Draw two or three stomata, making each half an inch lung, with the epidermal cells that lie between. Geranium. — 1. Mount a small piece of epidermis from the lower side, best obtained by the second method. 2. Notice the irregular outlines of the cells, and the hairs starting from many of them, and the stomata. 3. Examine the upper epidermis. How does it differ from the lower ? 4. Make drawing in the same manner as before. Comparative Study of Cross Sections. Geranium — 1. With a camel's hair bru.sh, transfer from the stock dish a freshly cut cross-section of a piece of geranium leaf to your slide and examine it under low power. Between the upper and lower epidermis, identify the palisade cells and the spongy tis(sue. 2. Pick out a very thin part of the section and ex- amine it under low power. (fl) What tissue is most abundantly supplied with chlorophyll ? Show in your drawing how it is dis- tributed. (d) Notice the air space in the spongy tissue. With some assistance, stomata that have been cut across may be identified, leading into the air spaces. 3. Make drawing, allowing at least an inch between the upper and lower epidermis, and including six or seven palisade cells. Cottonwood. — The aspen, Chinese lily, or almost any vertical leaf will do for study. Draw as before and state diilerences noted. 20 ODTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. III. — Leaf Functions — experimental. Observations on Transpiration in the Leaf. 1. Cut two pieces of card-board large enouge to cover a glass tumbler, and make in each a hole just large enough to admit the petiole of a geranium leaf. Through one piece pass a leaf petiole and snip off the lower end under water so that it will not have been exposed to the air. Cover the leaf with another tumbler. 2. Arrange two other tumblers in the same way with the card board between, with a piece of match stuck through instead of a leaf, and with the same amount of water as in the other tumbler. Result. After exposing to the sun, do j-ou find mois- ture in either upper glass? (An hour's time is enough on a warm September daj', or in a warm, sunn}- room.) If so, did it probably pass through the leaf or the card- board ? If the leaf wilts, place it in a refrigerator, and see if it revives. Describe the experiment, state conclu- sions, and give reasons. 3. Place a leaf under a tumbler on a plate. Does it give off moisture ? Does it wilt ? If so place under water, except the petiole. Does it revive ? Alternatives. Record observations made on a leafy twig shut in a fruit jar a few hours and on one left out. Demonstration. Some two inch grain seedlings covered with a tumbler will show in an interesting way the excess of water thrown off over the amount taken up b}' the air. Observations on Influence of Light on Direction. I. Notice the direction of the leaves on a geranium that has stood in a window two or three weeks without turning. Turn the plant all thewa}' around. How long before the leaves begin to seek the light ? How long till they are turned as much as before ? A small potted plant, as oxalis, set in a box having an opening, two or three inches square, will show this effect of sunlight well, especially of diffused light if the open- ing be turned from the sun or if it face a north window. Demonstration.. The grain seedlings, mentioned above when put in such a box show this effect ad- mirably. OUTWNES FOR FIBI,D STUDIES. 21 STEMS PROCUMBENT TYPE. Many plants, instead of having erect or climbing stems, spread out on the ground. The pigweed, door- weed, or spotted spurge, are good example of this; also the purslane or "pussley." I. Procumbent stems with only a central root at- tached. 1 . Describe the manner of the branching. In how many directions do the branches extend. 2. How are the leaves arranged differently from those you have -observed on erect stems ? 3. Make full page sketch showing the above points. II. A procumbent stem with runners that striJce root. Strawberry — This outline may be used without change for the running varieties of Potentilla. 1 . Look carefully for slender branches which are connected with smaller plants. Pull them up. How do you think the smaller plants started ? 2. Do you ever find more than one plant on a branch, or "runner" as it is called, in one direction ? 3. How many such runners do you find ? 4. In what direction do they go ? Is their general habit like that of the plants mentioned under I ? 5. Do you ever find leaves or scales, which are rudi- ments of leaves, on the runners between the plants ? 6. a. Is there a main stem bearing the leaves ? b. Though the leaves have long petioles, their ar- rangement suggests what type that we have studied ? 7. Make a side view sketch showing the parent plant with the young plant on the runners. Show the roots wherever you notice them. Note. — The creeping plants, as ground ivy, money- wort, myrtle, etc., which send out roots from the fre- quent nodes of the leafy stem, would make more typical studies of a simple procumbent stem. The strawberry is introduced for the sake of the runner idea. 22 OUTLINES FOR FlBLD STUDIES. FLOATING TYPE. Many simple plants with the floating habit do not have any part which could be called a stem any more than it could a leaf, the plant not being divided into those defi- nite parts. But many interesting observations can be made on the life relations of those beautiful forms of plant life that go under the uncomplimentary name of green "slimes" and "scums." The next two topics are for schoolroom exercises. A Sample Alga. — Make your observations on the mater- ial in the small jars. 1. (fl) What is its general appearance ? (5) When rubbed between the fingers, does it feel rough or smooth ? (c) Does it have a coarse or fine appearance? 2 (fl) Does any part seem to be leaf, stem or root? (5) Is there any branching ? (c) Where is the chlorophyll found ? 3. Gently separate a small bit (a few threads one-half inch long) and examine in a small dish under the magni- fier, and verify the observations made in 2. 4 (fl) Is the mass of threads floating near the sur- face or resting near the bottom ? If the latter, lift it to the surface with a pair of forceps. Does it sink or not ? (S) If the plant has been exposed to a good light for some hours you may notice many small bubbles, which are of oxygen, caught in the meshes. With the end of a pencil drive out all the bubbles. Does the alga still float? (c) Pour off water and refill the ve.ssel under the tap with a pressure strong enough to drive a lot of air into the water. Notice that many of the bubbles are caught in me.shes of the alga. Do you find that the plant floats or not ? (The instructor should find out whether the ex- periment will work on his material before permitting the class to try it. Many algae do not "ride" on the water naturally, and are too coarse to retain the air bubbles. 5. Write up your conclusions as to (i) the light rela- tions, (ii) the buoyancy of the plant. 6. If you have an opportunity to examine any alga as it grows in a pond, ditch, or river, write up such ob- servations as you make. OUTUNES FOR FIEI,D STUDIES 33 Duckweed— This is one of the smallest of the flowering plants. Notice that some are oval, and some look like two leaves grown together, a large and a smaller one. The smaller one is budding from the larger (parent) plant, and will soon be a separate individual. It usually reproduces in this way instead of setting seed. 1. Notice how close together thev can get. Is there any tendency for them to overlap ? Shove them under the water with your finger and observe these points. 2. {a) Is it possible to turn them upside down? Try to do this with a pencil. Lift them over with a pair of forceps; will they stay turned ? (6) See if you can "amputate" them so as to destroy this equilibrium (c) What seems to hold them right side up? 3. (ff) Which surface is the greenest, /. g, on which is the chlorophyll ? (b) Does the water stay on this surface when it is once on, or does it "creep" off immediately? (Many leaf surfaces act in the same way . ) (c) Is the top perfectly flat ? 4. Do vou find any distinction of leaf, stem or root ? 5. Discuss the light relation of the plant, and the effect on ihis relation of the manner of the exposure, position of chlorophyll, buoyancy and ability to keep right side up. 6. Draw top and side view sketches showing leaves and roots. Floating Stems — Many plants with stems bearing leaves belong to this type; as hornwort, waterweed, and the numerous "pondweeds." On any one of these observe the following points: 1 . (a: ) Is the stem strong enough to support the plant upright in the air ? (5) Is it more or less upright in the water ? How would you explain this ? 2. Do you notice air spaces in the stem ? To see these it is necessary to cut across or to split the stem, and examine with your magnifier. 3. Make a sketch of the plant showing its position in the aquarium or jar of water. 4. Write up any observations you have been able to make on these plants growing in their natural conditions. 24 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES CLIMBING TYPB. I. Twiners- The morning-glory, false buckwheat, hop, bean, cle- matis, nasturtium, and the cultivated moon flower are herbaceous twiners. The last three are much aided by their twisted petioles; while the hop clings to its sup- port by little hooks, which can be felt by passing the hand up the stem and which are easily observed with a magni- fier. The wild moon-seed is a woody twiner. Morning-glory — With the plant growing or held upright before you, observe the following points: 1. Does the stem turn to the right, i. e., does it come toward you from the left side of the support, pass in front, and retreat from you, as it goes up, on the right side of the support ? Or does it go in the reverse direc- tion, i. e., to the left? Note. If you lay down a watch face up beside the plant as it grows in front of you, the hands will be seen to turn in the same direction about the standard as a vine twining about its support to the left. Botanists apply the term dextrorse to twiners turning to the right, and sinistrorse to those turning to the left, or clockwise. 2. Does the stem ever reverse itself and go the other way ? 3. Look at several plants of the same kind. Do they all turn the same way, or do they seem not to be gov- erned by any law in this respect ? 4. If possible, observe plants of different kinds to see if they turn the same or different ways. 5. Is the stem twining about another of the same kind, about a rigid stem, or about an artificial support ? 6. If you find a free, unsupported end — especially of a morning-glory, see if it is rotating about an imaginary axis. Is the .stem merely turned, or is it also twisted ? Observe whether the petiole acts as a holding organ. 7. Illustrate by sketches the points observed. Be sure that the stem is plainly drawn, showing the way it twines. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. S5 II. Tendril climbers. Tendrils may be modified leaves, leaflets, stipules, or branches. Good examples are the wild cucumber, garden and sweet peas, and several species of smilax (wild), all of which are herbaceous; the grape and greenbrier are woody. Note. If a structure, as a tendril or spine, represents a leaf, («) it should occupy the same position on the stem as the other leaves, see description of leaves IV a, bottom of page 1 5; (5) it might show divisions similar to the vein- ing of the leaf; (c) there should be in the axil, or angle made by the leaf with the stem, a foliage or floral branch, or bud — sometimes more than one. If it represents a leaflet, it should correspond in posi- tion to one, and be a part of a compound leaf. If stipules, the structures should grow in the cone- sponding positions. Consult Gray's Lessons; pp. 66-67. If a branch, it should itself be in the axil of a leaf, and may possibly divide like a branch. Wild Cucumber. — 4. Where do the tendrils start ? 2. What modified structures do you think they rep- resent, and why ? 3. Does the tendril twist the same direction its entire length, or does it reverse? This helps the plant how ? 4. Are the coils tight or spread out ? 5. Make full page sketch illustrating these points. Sweet Pea. — 1. Are the leaves of this plant simple or compound, and why do you think so ? 2. The tendril corresponds to what part of the plant ? 3. Make a natural size drawing of a part of the stem with the leaf and tendril. Qreenbrier. — The carrion flower, an herbaceous species of the same family (smilax) will answer. 1. («) How many tendrils do you find at a place? (5) Where do they start from ? (c) What structures do they represent ? Why ? 2. Draw part ot the stem showing leaf and tendrils. Grape Compare with the Virginia creeper, or wood- bine, as it is often called, which shows the same arrange- ment. Only when a thorough study of purely curling tendrils, as well as those with sucker-disks, the grape need be used for comparison, or by certain members of the class. 26 OUTLINES FOR FIE1,D STUDIES. III. Climhers with hold-fasts. These hold-fasts may be (a) tendrils with suckers at the tips, or (J) roots coming from the part of the stem which is in the air, called aerial roots. Virginia Creeper — The Boston Ivy which is much simi- lar will answer as well. They should be observed on trees and fences, or on brick or stone walls, and not on trellises, as such tendrils merely coil. 1. Tendrils on some plants are long, others short. The effect of this on holding the plant to its support, and on the size of its leaves is what ? 2. Does the tendril divide according to the plan of the leaf-veins or more as a branch ? To which do you think the tendril corresponds ? This point can best be deter mined by examining young end shoots and by comparing them with young grape shoots. Notice the relation of what seems to be the leading tendril to the little scale at its base. 3. Examine the sucker with your lens. Can you make out how it holds ? Which holds most easily, wood, brick, stone, or the bark of trees? 4. How can you distinguish between tendrils and roots ? (Examine a specimen taken from a forest tree.) 5. Do the roots come out at any special place ? Are they branched ? Are they ever found in the cultivated plants on houses, etc ? 6. Sketch part of plant to show above points. Make an enlarged drawing of a cluster of the suckers. Poison Ivy — Observe the specimen in the sealed jar and do not touch- 1. Do you find .suckers or tendrils ? 2. Are the roots arranged any more definitely than in the Virginia creeper ? 3. Do the roots of these two plants show any differ- ence in "texture" ? 4. Observe leaves sealed between the glass plates, and make a note of the differences between them and the leaves of the Virginia creeper. 5. If you did not see the leaves, how could you tell the stems of the two plants apart ? 6. Sketch two or three inches of the stem to show the aerial roots, and one of the leaves. ODTi,iNES SOR fie;i,d studies. 27 Thorns. — 1. Thorns show, as did the tendrils, a sim- ilar correspondence in position to (fl) leaves, as when they are below a bud or branch, (&) stipules, as when they occur in pairs, attached to a leaf stalk, (c) branch- es, as when they occur in the angle above the leaf. Many thorns grow without regularity of position, on any part of the stem. These are regarded as modified hairs, or outgrowths from the skin (epidermis). 2. Examine a branch of hawthorne, wild plum, honey locust, or osage orange, noticing carefully buds, leaves, or leaf scars. Young shoots may have fresh thorns bearing leaves, thus showing their true nature. (a) The thorns correspond to what structure ? State your reasons for thinking so. (5) Make a natural size sketch of the branch, show- ing all points. 3. In like manner examine shoots of a gooseberry bush to determine the relation between the spines and the buds, or leafy branches Choose specimens showing more than one thorn at a place. (fl) Examine the leaves, if any are on the bush. Do you find stipules ? How are the leaves veined ? (S) How many thorns or divisions of thorns do you find associated with the buds or branches ? (c) Sketch a part of the stem, showing the above points. 4. Sketch a leaf of the common locust, showing the thorns at its base. They represent what ? ERECT STEMS. Introductory note. — When the central or terminal bud of the plant grows most vigorously there is a central axis extending to the top. This is the excurrent type. When the lateral buds grow more vigorously than the terminal bud, there is no main trunk which can be dis- tinguished as such the whole length of the tree. This is the deliquescent type. Pick out four trees of shapes as different as possible. Make observations on each according to the following suggestions, and make a careful sketch of each showing accurately the manner of growth of the trunk, branches, and the tree's outline. 28 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. I. The tree as a whole. 1. Name of tree and its type, whether excurrent or deliquescent. 2. The tree shows which tendency, (a) to decrease gradually to the top like a cone; (6) to increase a ways, then decrease, as an egg on end; (c) to increase toward the top, like an inverted cone; or ((?) to be round or el- liptical, broadest in the middle ? II. Limbs and branches. 1. Do they all slope up, or go straight out, or droop ? 2. Do part slope one way and part another? If so, from what part of the tree do the longest boughs spring ? 3. Do the smallest branches at the outer sides of the tree point up or out ? 4. What eifect will 3 have on the shape of the tree? 5. What effect will 3 and 4 have on the relation of the leaves to sunlight ? III. Position of the leaves. If the trees have leaves on: 1. What part of the branch are they on? Bunched at the tip, or more or less evenly distributed along the twig ? 2. Do you see anything in their arrangement that enables all to get the benefit of the sunlight ? IV. Twigs and buds. Parts of erect foliage stems with scale leaves. Note. The horse-chestnut or ash will answer equally well for the first twig study. The lilac and maples grow according to the same plan, but do not show all the points called for below. Horse-chestnut — I. Examine a twig a foot or more in length, and notice («) end buds, (fi) side buds and pos- sibly side branches with end buds on them, (c) places where several incomplete r'ngs are crowded close to- gether, (_d) large triangular scars with dots, and (g) breathing pores, little pimple-like places in the bark. 2. Do you find one or two buds at the end? If two, does the twig seem to have been injured at the tip, or do you find a scar shaped like a lady-finger cake ? If the OUTLINES FOR FIEI,D STUDIES. 29 latter, you see the mark left where the stalk of a flower cluster fell off. 3. The circular rings mark the position of former bud scales. Since the.se scales fall off in the spring, the rings indicate the starting point of a year's growth. How many years are represented on your specimen ? 4. If your twig has what seem to be side branches, count the bud rings on each. (a) How many years are indicated on the side branch ? (6) Has it grown at the same rate as the main twig ? How might leaf exposure effect this ? (c) If the side branch is the same age as the longer part, look in the angle. Do you find a flower scar ? What might have caused the difference in length ? 5. (a) How are the leaf scars arranged? (Z>) How many rows of leaves were there ? (c) Is there any constant number of scars on each year's growth of the stem ? id) The dots of the leaf scar are the marks left by the fibers and vessels that passed from the twig into the leaf. Is there any prevailing number of these dots ? How are they arranged ? (e) What relation do you discover between the buds or branches and the nearest leaf scar ? Do you find some trace or rudiment of a bud in the same position for every leaf scar ? 6. Make a drawing of the twig, as large as your paper will permit, showing all the above points that can be made out. Draw a top view of a flower scar. Ash. — 1. Examine a twig a foot or two in length and notice, (a) a large end bud, (J) side buds and possibly branches, (e) rings around the twig, (^) prominently raised semi-circular scars with a semi-circle of dots close together (use magnifier), and (e) breathing pores, little pimple-like places in the bark. 2. The circular rings mark the position of former bud scales. Since these scales fall off in the spring, the rings indicate the starting point of a year' s growth. H ow many years are represented on your twig ? 3. If your specimen has side branches, how many has it at a joint ? How do their ages, as found by counting the bud rings, compare with that of the main stem, i. e., did they grow early in the life of the twig, or late? 30 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 4. Looking at the last year's growth, i. e., of the present 3'ear. (ff) What relation do you see between the position of the bnds and of the leaf scars ? (J)) How are the buds and leaves arranged ? (c) How many rows of leaves are there ? {d) The dots mentioned in 1 are the marks left by the fibres and vessels that passed from the stem into the leaf. 5. If you are able to observe a twig having fruit clus- ters, or stalks that once bore the wing-like fruits, notice whether the stalks correspond in position to the buds and branches. Where do they grow from ? 6. Make a drawing of the twig as large as possible. Basswood. — ^The elm will show the same arrangement of leaves and buds, but the buds are much smaller. 1. Note the position of the buds with reference to the leaves and to each other. Do the buds (and leaves) grow opposite each other in pairs, or how ? 2. Holding the twig towards you so as to look at it endwise, how many rows of leaves and buds do you find? If the leaves have fallen off, stick pins in the leaf scars perpendicularly to the twig and observe. 3. Wind a thread around the twig so as not to miss any buds To get from any given bud to the next one directly above it, how many turns does the thread make ? How many buds does it pass ? (Count the one you start with, but not the one above, as it begins a new turn.) 4. Draw the twig as large as possible, and try to make the buds look like those of a basswood and nothing else. Cottonwood — 1. Make the same observations as with the basswood. How are the buds and leaves arranged, oppositely or alternately ? 2. If the leaves are still on, cut off all but about an inch of the petiole, otherwise stick pins in the leaf scars. View the twig endwise, — how many rows are found ? 3. How many buds are there from one to the next directly above it ? How many turns does the thread make, and how many buds does it pass going from one to the other ? Be sure always to take buds or scars of the same year's growth and not to jump over any bud rings of former bud scales. 4. Sketch the twig natural size, and show accurately how the buds differ from those of the basswood. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 31 Osage Orange. — Here the thorns will guide you in de- termining the number of rows. 1. How are the leaves arranged ? 2. Looking at the twig endwise, how many rows of thorns do you see ? If this is obscure, put tbe pins in the leaf scars, as the thorns grow a little sideways. 3. Answer the same questions asked in 3 above. 4. Notice the relation of the thorn to the leaf scar What does it represent? Notice also the extra bud at the same place. 5. Make a drawing as nearly natural size as possible- Structure of thk Bud. — 1. Compare the buds of the three twigs first studied. What difference do you notice in the general appearance as regards (a) size, (5) shape, (c) character of the surface, {d) texture of the scales ? Use your magnifying glass for (c), and (_d). 2. Peel off the outer scales. In each case, how does the arrangement of the scales compare with the position of the leaves on the stem ? 3. How do the scales become different as you go in- side ? (This is difficult to observe in autumn, though horse-chestnut, hickory, and lilac will give fair results.) 4. («) Split a large basswood bud lengthwise and note the little central stem, or core, to which the scales are attached. Examine with your magnifier. Make an enlarged drawing of the section at least two inches long. (J)) Cut a cross-section of another basswood bud, and loosen the scales by pinching the bud slightly. Notice with the magnifier how the scales are arranged, and how they overlap. Make an enlarged drawing, at least one inch across. Fill in very carefully the details of both drawings. Cabbage. — 1. Split a cabbage down the middle and notice the attachment of the folded leaves to the central core, or "heart." How does the core end at the top? 2. How does the cabbage differ from any other bud ? 3. What is the arrangement of the "leaves" ? 4. Do you find any axillary buds ? 5. Endeavor to find out from some one what the cab- bage would do next year if not disturbed, but kept pro- tected over winter, and be prepared to report. 32 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. UNDERGROUND STBMS. I Bulb type — stems with scale leaves. Onion.— The onion consists of many leaves wrapped up bud fashion. They are thick and fleshy because of the large amount of food stored in them. 1. Cut one lengthwise. Do you find a central axis, like a stem, to which the scale-leaves are joined, or do they all spring apparently from the roots. 2. Unwrap a few scales of another onion. How far around do they extend ? 3. Where do the roots spring from ? (You may not be able to see this unless specimens are provided that have sprouted.) 4. Do you see any secondary buds or shoots ? If so, what relation do they bear to the scale-leaves? Also compare with the relation of twig buds to foliage leaves. 5. Cut across the second onion, and look for the cen- tral shoot, additional buds if there be any, and notice the circular arrangement of the scale-leaves. 6. Make natural size drawings of both vertical and cross-sections. II. EootstocJc type — with or without scale leaves. Note — A "root-stock is a stock from which roots grow, because it is underground, and which also bears leaves or leafy branches. The word does not mean that the structure is a thick or "stocky" root; besides, many are comparatively slender. The leaf and bud arrange- ment reveals its true character. Blue Violet. — Rootstock with foliage leaves. 1. Notice that one end of the stem is more or less cut off where the older part has died away, while at the oth- er end is a growing tip, or bud, with leaves growing be- hind it. 2. Along the stem are (fl) leaves, (5) scars of former leaves with dots made by the broken fibres, (c) roots coming from between the leaves or scars, {d) side buds or branches. 3. Does the stem seem slender, or thick and fleshy ? Of what use to the plant is this condition ? 4. Does the stem grow horizontally, vertically, or in a slanting direction ? OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 33 5. Are the leaves opposite or alternate? How did the former leaves (as shown by their scars) grow? 6. Draw a side view of the plant showing the under- ground stem, roots, leaves, scars, end bud and side buds, if present. If the stem branches, make a drawing of the plant as seen from above showing only the stem and its branches. Note. — Some violet plants will show, in summer or autumn, in addition to the thick stock, runners above ground similar in habit to the strawberry. Others have, as it were, slender underground runners, or branches, from the rootstock, each ending in a bud or young plant of several leaves. May Apple — This outline may be used without change for the root-stock of Solomon's seal, or of the false Solo- man's seal. 1. The root-stock has upright leafy parts, buds, roots, and scales. Would you consider the part above ground as one compound leaf, or as a branch bearing leaves ? State your reason. 2. Do you think the part bearing the buds grew this year, or before ? Does the leafy part ever grow at the end of the root-stalk ? 3. At certain intervals you will find large, round, flat scars, which mark the position of former aerial parts. Notice a ring representing the outside bark of the branch, also, many dots, the remains of fibres that carried sap through the underground stem at that point. 4. Wherever a scar is, notice the faint lines encircling the root-stock at that point; these are scars of scales that protected the bud there. Can you find any such scales about the new buds ? 5. Look for irregular lines encircling the under- ground stem at intervals, and notice that they are very short, circular scales. Which way do they point ? How are the buds and branches, both subterranean and aerial, related to them ? 6. Calculate how many years' growth is on your specimen. Be careful how you take account of your branches. 7. Drawings: Make a sketch of the entire plant; if necessary, run the figure across the book to a fresh sheet of paper on the opposite side. 34 OUTr.IXES FOR FIELD STUDIES. III. Tuber type. Potato — 1. Is there any regularity in the position of the eyes ? To answer this question stick pins in the eyes perpendicularly to the surface of the potato, as you did in the twigs, then hold one end of the potato toward you and look down on it as you did on the milkweed. Are they arranged in vertical or spiral rows ?If so, how many ? 2. Notice which end has the stem, or the branch, of which the tuber is a continuation. Then the opposite end is the termination of the branch. Do you find a ter- minal bud at that place ? 3. The cross ridges are rudiments of leaves. Do the eyes have the same relation to these ridges that buds do to the leaves of trees ? Do not fail to keep in mind what you consider is the end of the branch producing these rudimentary leaves.) 4. Do you find rootlets coming from the tuber ? If possible, compare with a sweet potato as to this point and as to the existence of eyes. 5. Bearing in mind the above points, to what would you consider the potato eyes to be equivalent ? 6. Cut out a block one-half inch square containing an eye. Now cut a cross-section of the eye at right angles to the ridge and examine with your magnifier. Notice the two yellow lines diverging as they pass in from the eye toward the center of the potato. These mark the boundaries of that part of the bud below the surface, and will form the outer skin of the sprout. 7. Make sketches of the potato, side and end views, and an enlarged drawing of the cross- section. 8. (Microscopic.) Examine under low power a thin cross section, and note: (a) the epidermis, of thick walled cells; (J) small scales at the eye; (c) the "yellow line," of small cells making the future bud epidermis; {d) the large interior cells full of oval bodies. Remove the sur- plus water with a small blotter applied to the edge of the cover glass, and run a drop of iodine under the edge. What change occurs ? The tinted grains will usually show under high power the shell-like layers. Compare this color with that of some corn starch or laundry starch colored with iodine. Make a two inch drawing of the cross section. Draw a few of the grains. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 35 STBMS WITH FLORAL LEAVES. Introductory Note. — No attempt is to be made in the autumn work to take up the detailed study of flowers. An examination of simple flowers is necessary, how- ever, to understand the structure of the fruit, and to en- able one to distinguish more easily between seeds and dry fruits. Any fairly large, simple flower that can be found blooming in the fall will answer ; as the evening primrose, or cultivated geranium, if it is not double. The mustard will probably be abundant, and, while smaller, is quite simple. For the particular purpose of gaining an idea of the seed and the origin of the differ- ent parts of fruits, at least two flowers should be stud- ied, one with the ovary superior, free from the calyx, and one with the ovary inferior, or grown to it. 1. Look on the blossom from above ; (a) How many divisions has the corolla ? (5) Are they entirely distinct (petals), or are they separate above (lobes) , and united below into a tube ? (c) How many stamens or anthers are visible ? {d') How many divisions to the top of the pistil ? (e) Draw the top view twice the natural size. 2. Split the flower down the middle. (tf) Does the corolla start from the bottom of a calyx cup, i. e., on the receptacle, from the top of a calyx tube, or from the top of the ovary ? (S) Is the calyx entirely free from the enlarged part of the pistil (ovary) , containing the future seeds, except at the base ; or is it attached, or, as it were, grown fast to the ovary and left free only at its upper points ? (c) Do you find many ovules (which will become seeds) in the ovary ? Are they attached to the sides, center, or bottom of the ovary ? They will be the same way in the fruit. ((^) Make a drawing of the vertical section you cut, twice the natural size, and show where the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil are attached. (e) Cut a cross section of the ovary of another blos- som and examine with your magnifier. Is there one single compartment, a number of divisions, or several separate carpels ? Make an enlarged drawing of the cross-section . 36 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES FRUIT AND SEED. IxTRODUCTORY NOTE. WHAT THE FrUIT IS. — The final purpose of the flower is the production of seeds. Seeds are formed inside the ovules observed in the study of the flower, and grow as the result of the influence ex- erted on the ovule by the pollen grains of the stamens. All the parts of the flower that are enlarged or changed by this influence form the fruit, whether they they be ovary, calyx or receptacle. The fruit, then, is the resulting structure made up of all the parts of the flower that are changed or modified to contain the seed. Most fruits may be said to be (fl) fleshy, or (5) dry. The types given below, especially of dry fruits, are se- lected to illustrate in part the different factors of seed dispersal tabulated on pages 38 and 39. (Also see note under paragraph 7, page 39. ) I. Fleshy fruits. Apple — 1. Cut an apple in two lengthwise through the core, and identify the remains of these parts of the flower ; (fl) calyx teeth, (6) stamens, (c) compartments of the ovary, ((f) ovules, now become seeds, (e) flower stalk. 2. The rind and pulp are formed by the modification of what parts of the flower ? 3. Make a natural size drawing of the half of the ap- ple to show the above points. 4. Cut an apple crosswise through the middle. How many compartments were in the ovary ? How many ovules were in each compartment ? Where were they attached, i. e., to what edge? Lemon. — 1. Cut lengthwise a lemon that has the little five-pointed star at the stem end, and notice (a) the com- partments, (5) the thickness of the rind, and (c) the peaked tip. 2. What parts of the flower are represented by the tip, rind, and star on the end ? 3. Make a natural size drawing of the section. 4. Cut a cross-section. Answer the questions and make drawings called for under the study of the apple (see 4 above) . .OUTLINES FOR FIEXd STUDIES 37 II. Dry fruits. Bean — Examine the pod of any bean-like plant and notice "how it sphts along one side, as if it had been a leaf folded over with the edges stuck together. The line that might be likened to a midrib often splits also. 2. Where are the seeds joined to the pod? 3. Draw an unbroken pod and a split pod. Catalpa — 1. Notice that the pod is double and splits in two. What do you notice peculiar about the seeds ? 2. Make a drawing of a pod as near natural size as possible, and a drawing of a seed enlarged twice. Ash — 1. What appendages do you find ? How does the ash resemble the catalpa seed in this respect? 2. Is it a fruit or a seed ? If a seed, what sort of a fruit did it grow inside of ? 3. Make a drawing twice the natural size. Milkweed. — 1. How do the appendages of these seeds differ from the appendages you have noticed before ? 2. Sketch the outside view of a pod. Draw a seed with its appendages. Thistle. — If you can find any plants still in bloom, ex- amine with your magnifier and notice that the so-called blossom is really made up of a great many flowers. Pick out one and observe the ovary at the base of the little flower. 2. Examine some "thistledown" and notice the little grains, or specks, attached. Is this the seed or the fruit? If a seed, what sort of a fruit did it grow inside of? 3. When you compare this with the milkweed, what likeness and essential difference can you think of ? 4. Draw a ripe head, and one part with appendages. Porcupine Grass. — This grass of the western states, often known locally as needles grass, is a good illustration of a self propelling fruit. 1 . Notice the sharp, fuzzy tip. Throw one at your coat sleeve, and pull it out again. 2. Observe the twisted appendage. Rub it the wrong way. Soak it in water and watch the untwisting. Notice it twist as it dries. The plant is thus able to bury its seed in the ground as well as in animals. 3. Cut open the large part and look for the seed. 4. Describe and draw the whole structure. 38 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. Cockle^bur — 1. Examine the appendages with the magnifier. Are they all alike ? What peculiarities do you notice? 2. Cut open two or three burs. How many seeds do you find ? Is the husk thick or thin ? 3. Make an enlarged drawing of the outside of a bur. Hazel — 1. Observe the group of fruit with seed inside of each. What is the nature of the covering? What part is the "nut," a fruit or a seed ? 2. Sketch a fruit cluster and a single nut. Walnut. — 1. Examine walnuts covered with the tough rind. Study a cross-section. 2. If you were to compare a walnut with a peach or plum, what similarities of structure would you see ? 3. Draw the cross-section natural size. III. Seed dispersal. What a Sked Is. — 1. The seed is a young plant and the covering around it, together with food stored inside of the young plant or around it 'nside of the covering. The seed coats are formed by the outside of the ovules already noticed. 2. The young plant has partially developed on the parent plant, and then has temporarily stopped growing. The coverings protect it through a cold or a dry season until it may continue its growth under favorable con- ditions. 3. The plant-like nature of the seed can be readily understood by the following experiment : Soak a few Lima beans over night and then split apart the halves. The two large halves, if the bean had sprouted would have formed the first pair of leaves. A pair of very small well formed leaves can be seen, doubled up in one end of the seed, and attached to a small stem-like structure that is the beginning of both stem and root. After spreading out a soaked bean, sketch to show these points. Agencies and Means of Dispersal. — 1. It is ad- vantageous for a new plant to start some distance from the parent (can you assign a reason ?) and we find that plants have various ways of scattering their seed. 2. The seed may be carried by the aid of (a) animals, ih) wind, (c) water. The action of the last is rather difficult to observe just when you wish to. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 39 3. The part carried may be the (a) seed, (b) the whole fruit, (c) the entire plant. 4. Seeds are carried by the wind on account of (a) sails, or wing-like appendages on the seed or fruit, (b) feathery appendages on the seed or fruit, (c) the lightness of the seed, or {d) removal of the plant. 5. They are carried by animals because of (a) points or hooks (are they on the seed or fruit ?), (Z») being on muddy feet, as of birds, (c) being stored away for food, or (d) the indigestibility of the seeds of edible fruits. 6. Man is an important factor, but he carries seeds, when unintentionally, by reason of the same structures as do other animals, or in the operations of commerce. 7. Be prepared to discuss the methods of dispersal for the fruits already studied, telling which illustrate the above points and give instances of seeds carried through human agency. Note. — Directions for studying a series of fruits available in the spring, illustrating the means of disper- sal tabulated in 2, 3, 4, and 5, will be found at the close of the "Spring Flower Studies" in Part II, which is printed as a separate pamphlet. 8. Study also the plants mentioned in the list given below, or as many of them as you can find, and discuss them as indicated in the preceding paragraph. The fol- lowing points should be borne in mind, though of course each point will only apply to an occasional plant ; (a) Size. Is the seed small enough to be tossed about easily when the plant is swayed by the wind, or so heavy as to drop straight to the ground ? (5) Are the seed coats of fleshy fruits which are liable to be eaten by birds, hard so as to prevent the seed from being digested ? (c) Are they provided with the appendages already noticed, as sails, plumes, hooks, etc. ? id) Is it the whole plant, or part of one, that is trans- ported by the wind, carrying its seed with it ? In this case, where does it break loose from its fastenings? Make an extra effort to find a plant showing this char- acter, and make a general sketch of the plant. (e) If you have the opportunity, observe and describe the action of those pods that fly open suddenly and dis- charge the seeds. 40 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. The List. — Beggar-tick, sand-bur, Spanish needle, also called devil's pitchfork, wild lettuce, Russian thistle, tumble-weed, tumble-grass, grape, canned small fruits, as strawberries, raspberries, blackberries and cherries, acorns, hickory-nuts, tree of heaven, box-elder. Other plants, illustrating the action of the scattering effect of wind and animals will answer equally well. For spring study the list would include the dandelion, willow, Cottonwood, elm and maple. Illustrate the contrivance used to help the plant get a foothold in a new place. IV. Seed survival and plant multiplication. The best plants to observe are those that cover the ground to the exclusion of others, rather than those that grow up between others; and at the same time those whose seeds it is possible to estimate. The following are recommended: burdock, plantain, thistle, mullein, and dandelion, if in seed. 1. Count the seeds. Thus, in the case of the burdock, count the seeds of four or five burs to find the average number per bur, then multiply the average by the num ber of burs in the plant. 2. Calculate the number of square feet or part of a square foot occupied by one plant. When one plant does not occupy much ground, as the thistle, half a dozen may occupy an appreciable area to the exclusion of everything else. By dividing the area by the number of plants in it, a working area may be obtained. 3. Calculate how many seeds would be produced next year if each of this year's seeds grew into a plant. 4. Calculate the number of square feet that would be covered by the descendants of the plant you are now studying. If the area is great enough, reduce to acres. 5. As a matter of common experience, do you think all these seeds succeed in becoming plants? How many such plants do you find along the street in one block (if you found it near the street) or in the lot where you found the plant ? Note — This discrepancy can be made more startling if the calculations be carried to the second year ; though the process is somewhat tedious. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 41 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE STEM. If deferred to the winter months, have corn-stalk joints preserved in formalin, as well as the stems of an- nuals, unless mounted sections are used. As far as pos- sible use fresh stems of potted plants. Of course the twigs can be obtained at any time. I. Monocotyledonous stems. The vascular bundles are usually scattered, or in a cir- cle where the center of the stem is hollow. Indian Corn. — ] . Examine with a magnifier a cross- section and observe, (a) the outer cortical layer made of cells with such thickened walls that but little cavity remains, (S) the central ^oi^;^, and {c^ the: fibro-vascu- lar bundles, the dots scattered through the pith. 2. Make a drawing just the size of your section. 3. Examine a single bundle under the low power and notice large woody cells on one side and the group of small bast cells on the other. 4. Since the stalk is too big to be cut easily into thin sections and to be seen all at once under low power, com- pare with it a section cut from a small stem, as the um- brella plant, flower stalk of a bulbous plant, etc. 5. Draw the outline of the small section two inches in diameter, and fill in one quarter of it. Draw one bundle an inch in diameter. II. Annual dicotyledonous stems- The vascular bundles of dicotyledons are usually ar- ranged in a ring. The examination of common weeds and garden flowers will show a surprising variety of ar- rangement. Those in buttercup runners are entirely sep- arate, almost so in clover and horseweed. Goldenrod, smartweed, velvet leaf, and best of all the moon seed, show the bundles in a continuous ring. The velvet leaf is cultivated in China for its bast fibers, easily separated from the peeled bark. The ragweed, geranium, and others show the intermediate form of a continuous cam- bium ring with woody cones at intervals. 1. Examine under low power a section of a stem having the bundles connected slightly if at all. (a) The epidermis is the outside row of cells. 42 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. (5) The cortex may be more or less uniform, well de- veloped only at intervals, opposite the bundles, or weakly developed; in which case, the cells near the epidermis are merely smaller than those of the pith. (c) The vascular bundles have a cone of larger woody cells pointing to the center, separated from the outer bast cells by the cambium layer, composed of very small cells arranged like bricks in a wall. 2. Draw (ff) a little circle to show the exact size of the section, (5) a two inch circle with one quarter filled in, (c) a vasctilar bundle one inch across showing the characters of the different cells as you can see them. 3. Examine sections having cambium ring, and hav- ing the bundles very close. In the latter, notice that the bundles may still be distinguished by the compressed pith forming boundary lines between them. This com- pression will be seen carried to a greater extreme in the woody stem, where the lines form the "rays". 4. Make drawings as in 2 (a) and (5). III. A perennial dicotyledonous woody stem — one year old. 1. Mount the section in water on a slide and cover. Make a circle, to show the natural size of the section. 2. Use low power and identify the following parts: (a) Pith, made of large, thin walled cells in the center. {b) Woody tissue, thick walled cells. A narrow row next the pith are small, then the succeeding large cells grow smaller toward the enclosing ring of cambium. (c) Cambium layer, a narrow streak of small cells. {d) Bast cells of various kinds merging into the bark. (e) Bark ; of three parts. It is often broken away or loosened from the bast, breaking at the point of the weakest cells, i. e., the (i) Inner layer of bark, composed of soft tissue, somewhat like pith. (ii) Middle layer of many light colored cells. (iii) Outer layer of thick cells called the corky tissue. (iv) Often a single layer of epidermal cells can be seen on young twigs. (/) Notice the medullary rays, lines radiating from the pith to the bark, representing pith cells compressed by the lateral growth of the bundles. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 13 3. Apply iodine. Woody cells color deep yellow; and also where the starch is stored becomes evident. Where do you find it ? Some stout fibers appear in the bast re- gion, showing in section as yellow cells with cavity al- most closed. 4 (a) Make a drawing two inches in diameter with the above regions indicated. No details are required. (6) Make a sector of a circle (wedge shaped part) three inches long, i. e., of a six inch circle, and from one-half to an inch wide at the top of the wedge. In this, show in detail the cellular structure as carefully as possible. An older twig, three or four years old. 1. Note the many woody rings; the inner cells of each which were formed in the spring, being larger, and the outer ones, formed later, being smaller. 2. Make the same drawings as before, numbering each year's growth of wood thus : 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. 3. Longitudinal section of older twig. With low power identify as nearly as possible the regions observed in the cross section. (fl) Pith in the middle. How does the length of the cell compare with the breadth ? Is the form of the cell the same as in the cross section ? (5) Xylem, woody cells. How does the length of the cells compare with that of the pith cells? (c) Cambium outside of the wood, a dark streak. id) Bast cells — cells and stringy fibers outside the cambium. When the bark is loosened, bast fibers color- ed yellow by iodine make the ragged edge. ifi) Bark, the narrow slivers. If loose, place it along side of the specimen. The middle layer is not easily seen. (/) The Medullary rays appear as brown cross bars in the wood Carefully indicate their position in the drawing. Make a drawing of one-half of the thickness of the twig, measuring three inches from the center to the bark to match the sector drawing of the old cross section and just under it, drawing dotted lines from the parts of one drawing to the corresponding parts of the other. 44 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. FUNCTIONS OF THE STEM. The functions of leaf display and mechanical support have been illustrated in previous studies. The following demonstrations and observations should be taken up as soon as the general topic is begun, else the necessary liv- ing plants, except expensive green-house material, will not be available late in the autumn . Demonstration. — To show that water can be forced through a stem. 1. Observe the apparatus set up by the instructor, and compare with your own results in the other experi- ments. The end of a stalk of tomato vine is pushed half way into a two-inch length of stiff rubber tubing, and securely wired. The tubing is pushed on a faucet till the faucet meets the stem, and is again securel}' wired. If the tubing is not strong enough, it may be protected from bursting by having splints wired on. Turn on as full pressure as the apparatus will stand. An old plant in the fall may require a longer time by fifteen or twenty minutes than a young plant. From what parts of the plant do you see the water coming ? 2. Note how a wilted plant thus prepared will freshen up over night. This illustrates the term "turgor." Individual Experiment. — To show that water is drawn up through the stem by evaporation from the surface of the leaves, and to show how fast the cur- rents travel. Provide a jar or tumbler of water colored with a little red ink or solution of eosin. Place in it two stalks, each about two feet long, of goldenrod or similar straight stemmed weed. Mark one with a string, or otherwise, and with shears cut off a bit of the end under water. At the end of fifteen minutes remove both stalks and scrape the skin, or cut notches into the stem to as- certain how far up the ink has gone into each stalk. The stalks with cut ends exposed to the air, contained some air in the vessels, which would hinder the rise of water. How do the two stalks compare in this respect ? The transparent clearweed is a good plant to use. The ascent can easily be timed by using long stemmed white carnations, noting the first appearance of the fluid in the petals. OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIF,S. 45 F1E1.D Experiment. — To show where the path of the transpiration currents is located. Preliminary. Examine dr}' under low power, a cross section of the stem in which red ink has ascended. No- tice the regions colored and indicate in a drawing. Next examine with the magniiier a cross section of a sun- flower stalk to learn the size and location of the bundles. At least five stalks are needed for the following exper- iments. They should not be less than three-fourths of an inch thick. A good plan is to have a number grow- ing along the back of the school yard. They are also excellent supports for different vines. If such plants are used, different sets of the class may take different parts of the experiment. If each part is duplicated, one result will be a check on the others. 1. Remove a ring of cortex (the rind) one-fourth of an inch wide from the stalk two feet above ground. Be careful not to cut any of the fibres under the skin. Wrap carefully with bicycle tire tape to prevent drying. 2 With a narrow knife blade, cut a one-half inch square window in the side of another stalk. Carefully dig out the pith, and wrap as above. Tie a couple wood- en strips to the stalk and tie the stalk in two or three places to a stout stake driven into the ground. 3. Girdle a third stalk, as in 1, and remove the pith as in 2, leaving only the vascular region. Wrap and sup- port as before. 4. From a fourth stalk carefully cut both the cortex and ring of vascular bundles, leaving only the pith. Wrap and very carefully support. Result. — Which stalks show signs of wilting and how soon ? Which ones do not? Write up the experi- ments, describing each, and tell what region you think conducts the sap, and your reason. Make a drawing to show how each stalk was cut. Field Experiment. — To show whether the upward currents can also move sideways enough to keep the plant in a healthy condition. Make six cuts in a stalk alternate with each other and reaching to the center, ot the stalk in such a way that no current can go straight up from the roots to the leafy part of the plant. Report on the condition of the plant after four hours; after twenty-four hours. 46 OUTI,INES FOR FIEI.D STUDIES. ROOTS. ROOTS RELATED TO THE SOIL. Pigweed. — fP'ith tap-root. (Includes most annuals). 1. After pulling up the plant with its roots, notice the general habit, (a) Is there a main root, like the excurrent tree trunk ; or is it deliquescent? (5) Have the smaller rootlets a regular arrangement, as opposite, etc. , as branches have ? (c) Is the transition between stem and root sudden or gradual? (^d) What is the difference in appearance between a branched root and a branched stem without leaves ? 2. Draw a horizontal line to represent the ground level. Sketch the part above ground (omitting leaves) and the root system. Be careful that the roots do not look like the stems if turned upside down. Carrot.— JFith tap-root enlarged for food storage. See also turnips, beets, radishes, etc. 1. (fl) Do the small roots come out at "joints," or without regularity? (J)) How could you determine this to be a tuber (underground stem) or a root ? (See potato), (c) Where is the "stem" of the plant? 2. Make a drawing showing small rootlets, and leaves, or at least the petioles. Comparative Work.— Onion or Plantain Loosen the earth so as not to break the roots in pulling, (a) Where do the main roots come from ? (fi) Is there a main root ? Refer to your previous work on these plants. 2. Make a drawing showing roots and leaves. Root-Hairs. — 1. Examine with your magnifier a seedling of clover or sunflower, sprouted on blotting paper under a tumbler. Examine under water as the hairs wither quickly in dry air. 2. By using low power, determine the number of cells making up a root-hair. 3. Make an enlarged drawing ot the seedling. roots not related to the soil,. Chinese Lily. — With water roots. Examine the roots of this or some other bulbous plant grown in a dish of water, (fl) How do they compare in color and tough- ness with soil roots ? (J) Do they branch ? (c) Have they hairs ? Draw the plant with roots. OUTI,INES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 47 Indian Corn — With prop roots. 1 . The best observations can be made on stalks stand- ing in the field where it is easy to see what roots have started above ground, (a) W'here do they start from ? (6) How long do they grow before reaching the ground? 2. Draw the lower part of the stalk as it stands. 3. Pull up the stalk and shake off the loose dirt. Are the roots which grow entirely underground like the oth- ers, or are they different ? 4. Sketch showing the entire lower part of the plant. If a field is not available, study and sketch collected specimens. Qeranium. — Observe a slip which has been kept in a bottle of water a couple of weeks, and notice the roots coming out. Do they come from the skin or from the cut end? After examining with a magnifier, from what tissues do you think they spring ? Sketch the slip with its roots. Remark. Slender, bushy roots like these are called "fibrous" roots, and are the kind possessed by many grasses. Duckweed — Examine the roots with low power, and notice the sheath covering the end. A less prominent root-cap protects most small rootlets in the soil. Question. — Do you find root hairs on these water- roots? Compare also corn and other seedlings, some grown in moist air under a tumbler, some in excelsior or sphagnum moss, some in sand, and some with their roots in water. "^ Dodder — Avine with roots having parasitic habit. 1. Notice how the inner surface of the twining vine is provided with little knob-like roots holding it to the host, as the supporting stem is called. These are also on the leaves. Do you find roots on part of the dodder not touching the host ? 2. Draw part of the host stem with the dodder. 3. Examine a section of the host cur so as to show a lengthwise section of the dodder. Often the roots can be seen grasping the vascular bundles of the host Draw. The prop roots are often called "aerial" roots, as are also the clinging roots of vines. The latter, except dod- der, have only a mechanical function. 48 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. TREES IN AUTUMN. The study of autumn coloration requires patience, for the observation must be carried on during several weeks; it requires watchfulness, else the changes will not be noticed ; it requires accuracy, otherwise your conclusions will be valueless; and finally, to get the best results, the observation on one tree and in one locality should be checked up by observations on similar trees of the same neighborhood, and in different localities. It is also a good thing for two pupils living together lo make an in- dependent observation on the same tree, for one may miss observations the other one makes. The oaks and maples are probably the best of the com- mon trees to observe. The sumacs and Virginia creeper, though not trees, show excellent coloration. If you have the material to make them, sketches in colors, either with water colors, colored pencils or inks, will add gre.itly to the value of your notes. The notes should include a temperature record taken every morn- ing, preferably in your own locality ; otherwise use the record taken at the school building. Keep on the lookout for the first white frost, and the first killing frost (such as blackens cultivated plants). For it is often said that frosts cause the trees to change their color. Do you find this to be so ? The dates and temperature put on the margin of your notes will be handy for reference. Take Notice. — Keep a weekly record of observations, so that it may be handed in at the end of each week. Your observations are to be of three kinds, those on some particular tree, on the single leaf, and the general observations on a number of trees. THE INDIVIDUAL TREE. I. Observations on the stages of coloration. 1. Date when the coloring is first noticed. 2. What is the color ? Or do more colors than one appear at about the same time ? *These outlines on autumnal colors and the fall of leaves are in line with some Tery helpful suggestions made by Prof. J. M. Coulter.at a recent Round Table meeting of Northern Illinois superintendents and teachers. OUTLINES FOR F1EI,D STUDIES. 49 3. Where is the first color ; (a) At the top or on the lower branches ? (5) On the outside exposed leaves, or on those inside the tree? (c) On any particular side, as north, south, etc. ? {d) May the exposure of the tree be modified by near by trees, houses, etc. ? 4. If you find another color appearing later: (fl) What is the color ? (5) What is the date of its appearance? (c) Does it come to be the prevailing or the only color later on ? 5. Date when the tree is entirely colored, i. e , when there is no green worth mentioning ? II. Observations on the single leaf. 1. Where does the color first appear, at the margin or along the veins ? At the top or at the base of the leaf ? 2. Is the first color of this particular leaf a yellow or a red ? 3. Do you find a variation regarding 1 and 2 in other leaves on the tree ? If so, what is the difference ? (Be sure you are observing uninjured leaves). 4. If a second color appears later, does it start in the same manner as the first ? III. Observations on tJie fall of the leaf. 1. The falling of the leaves will overlap more or le.^s their time of coloring. So when you first begin your color observations, see if you can detect a little crease where the leaf is going to separate from the branch. This will be very close to the branch. With a sharp knife cut back of this little crease and get the leaf off. Be careful about jerking the leaf off, or it will break right at the crease. If the leaf is gotten off safely, cut off thin cross sections of the petoile till you come to the crease, and see how far in it has grown ; or better, split the petiole lengthwise and make the observation. 2. How many days later do you find that the crease or cut has grown in to the little woody threads passing from the branch into the leaf ? Do you find the leaves falling about this time ? 50 OUTLINES FOR FIELD STUDIES. 3. When the leaf falls off, does it leave at the place of separation a fresh, raw surface, or does it look as if it had healed, i. e., do the leaves break off or grow off? 4. Record the date when you first notice leaves fall- ing from the tree you are watching ? 5. Do the leaves fall first from any special part of the tree? If so, where? 6. Hqw long is it until all the leaves are practically off? 7. What branches hold their leaves the longest? 8. Do any of the leaves stay on, or at least show no signs of falling at the time of your last observation? (Date). 9. When the tree is about ready to shed its foliage, carefully tie small weights to several of its leaves till they are pulled off (not jerked off). How much weight was required to do it ? Try one or two different kinds of trees. Does^ it require the same weight to pull off their leaves ? 10. If possible, observe the way a sycamore leaf is joined to the twig. Where is the axillary bud? How does the leaf come off? TREES IN GENERAL. Notice the different varieties of trees in your neighbor- hood with reference to these points: 1. Do all the trees begin to change color at once? If not, which begins first and which last? 2. Which tree is the first to be entirely changed, i. e., when there is practically no green left ? 3. Do some trees take longer to change than others? If so, what ones ? 4. Is it the same color, as yellow or red, that first ap- pears on all the trees ? 5. Do you notice that the leaves of some trees either stay green, or simply wither up and drop off, instead of turning ? 6. What trees begin to shed first ? What trees hold on to their leaves the longest ? Trees suggested for observation are white and black oaks, hard and soft maples, box elder, elm, horse-chest- nut, poplars, cotton-wood, apple, cherry, sumac, ash, Virginia creeper, tamarack, pine, etc. OUTr.INES FOR FIELD .STUDIES. 51 TABULATION OF OBSERVATIONS. If a number of trees are observed, a tabulated tree record will be found to be very convenient. Some .such scheme as this must be used. Divide the page into a number of columns, one for each tree observed and set down the date of each ob.servation opposite it, to the left of the red line, with the temperature, thus: The table given below is a part of the observations made by a first year pupil in the fall of 1901. The tem- perature when given, was observed before breakfast. Hard Maple White Oak White Elm Sept. 30 Lower leaves tnrn Few leaves have Little yellow. {■r yellow. fallen. Oct. 2 (?)o frost Many leaves fall from lower branches. Many leaves have fallen. Oct. 3 480 frost Oct. 5 64" Red above. Many off lower limbs. All colored but top. Many leaves are yellow. Mostly yellow. Oct 7 Top half red, Very many (?)<> rest green and yellow. leaves off. Oct. 8 Turning brown Mostly brown. (?)»fr-st above. Tree-tops. — A very interesting study of trees in their winter condition, is the observation of the difference in the appearance of different tree-tops, by which charac- ters, as well as by the trunk, they can be recognized a long distance away. The top branches of some trees "fray out" into fine brush like twigs, others are coarse and stubby, etc. The difference can easily be represent- ed in sketches. Compare especially the elm, maple, ash, and horse-chestnut, as well as others. fill