CORNELL UNIVERSITY. THE THE GIFT OF ROSWELL P. FLOWER FOR THE USE OF THE N. Y. 3TATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 1897 Cornell University Library TS 1975.085h Handbook of meat inspection 3 1924 000 295 059 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000295059 HANDBOOK OF MEAT INSPECTION BY Dk. ROBERT OSTERTAG PROFESSOR IN THE VETERINARY HIGH SCHOOL AT BERLIN WITH 260 ILLUSTEATIONS AND ONE COLOEED PLATE AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION BY EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, AM., Ph.D. VETEEINABT BDITOE EXPERIMENT STATION KECOED WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY JOHN R, MOHLER, A.M., V.M.D. CHIEF OP PATHOLOGICAL DIVISION UNITED STATES' BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY New York WILLIAM E. JENKINS veterinary publisher and bookseller 851-853 Sixth Avenue 1004 t r Copyright, 1904, by WnJiiM R. JeI^kins All rights reserved printed by the Peess op William R. Jenkins AUTHOR'S PREFACE. By the passage on June 3, 1900, of tlie Imperial Law concern- ing the inspection of meat and food animals, meat inspection is put upon a diflferent legal basis than has existed heretofore. The new law, which crowns with fruition the endeavors which for several decades have been made toward the introduction of general meat inspection in the German Empire, contains stringent provisions concerning the organization of meat inspection and general direc- tions concerning methods of procedure with various kinds of defective meat. Temporarily, however, the meat inspection law, except in two parts, has not yet gone into effect. And in working over the new edition of the book I was, therefore, able to restrict myself in the section on the legal foundation of meat inspection to the introduction of the new law, together with the commentaries from official sources, and in rendering judgment on meat anomalies I confined myself to the addition of the qualifications of the new law to the regulations which had previously been in force and which had been based upon the pure food law. Attention should be called to the fact that the conception of damaged meat which had become general before the decree of the pure food law, but which was rendered void by that law, has again acquired a qualified recognition by the meat inspection law of the German Empire. The material of meat inspection, the investigation of meat and rendering of judgment on meat will be discussed in the regulations for enforcing the law which at present rest with the Federal Council. In case an official publication of these regulations does not a"j>pear, I shall compile them as a supplement to my Handbook OF Meat Inspection and publish it separately. Moreover, the contents of the book have been enlarged and elaborated according to the resuKS" of the literature of the subject ill IV AUTHOB S PEEFACE up to October 1, 1901. Especial attention has been given to a review of the subject of infectious diseases of fish and crustaceans. The number of figures has been increased by illustrations on the recognition of age in sheep by the teeth, on the recognition of sex in crustaceans, on "the development of trichina, on myxosporidial diseases of fish and by an illustration of the refractometer. The^ latter is used in testing fat of di£ferent origin, and will, therefore, be adopted in laboratories of meat inspection. Despite the increase in the contents of the book, it has been possible by shortening less important parts to publish it in its previous size. In conclusion, I would state that I am now in a position to fulfil my previous promise to publish a bibliography of the litera- ture of meat inspection. This bibliography will appear in the near Suture. OSTEETAG. Berlin, February, 1903. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. Osteetag's " Handbuch der Fleischbeschau " is generally recognized as tlie most complete and authoritative treatise on meat inspection. No apology, therefore, is necessary for the present attempt to make this work more accessible to English-speaking meat inspectors and veterinarians. The translation was under- taken immediately after the appearance of the fourth German edi- tion, but has been somewhat delayed on account of the pressure of other work. A few footnotes have been added where it was deemed desir- able, especially in connection with the controversial discussion of the trichina question. Certain sections on the less important Ger- man laws have been omitted and a few discussions have been con- densed. Dr. John K. Mohler, Chief of the Pathological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, in addition to the labor involved in reading the whole manuscript and making numerous suggestions, 'prepared the Introduction, dealing chiefly with the history and present status of meat inspection in America. It was felt that American meat inspection was inadequately treated in the text, and Dr. Mohler speaks with recognized authority on this subject. Perhaps the most pleasant duty of the translator in connec- tion with this work is the acknowledgment of the unusually excel- lent condition in which the publishers have furnished the proofs, and of their uniformly prompt and courteous attention to all mat- ters which the translator has laid before them. E. V. WILCOX. Washington, D. C, April 7, 1904. TABLE OF CONTENTS. FAOa Introduction xv I. — General, Discussion op Meat Inspection 1 1. Nature and Problems of Meat Inspection 1 2. History 9 3. Tlie Present Status of Meat Inspection in Civilized Countries. ... 39 4. Practical Execution of Obligatory Meat Inspection 36 5. Technical Supervision of the Meat TraflBc 50 6. Municipal Ordinances Concerning the Hegulations of Meat Inspection 60 n. — Imperial Legal Foundation tor the Regulation of the Meat Traffic. 63 1. The Imperial Lavs^ Concerning the Inspection of Food Animals and Meat 63 3. The Imperial Law Concerning TraflBc in Food, Condiments and Manufactured Articles 95 8. The Imperial Law Concerning the Prevention and Suppression of Animal Plagues 117 4. The Imperial Law Concerning Measures Against Rinderpest 131 HI.— The Art of Butchering, Including the Inspection op Animals Before Slaughter 133 1. Food Animals 123 3. Inspection of Animals Before Slaughter 126 3. Methods of Slaughter l30 4. Order of Procedure in Commercial Slaughtering 145 IV. — Inspection op Slaughtered Animals 153 General Discussion , 153 Chief Points in Inspection 155 Stamping Inspected Animals 155 Condemnation 155 Inspection of Diseased Organs 156 Course of Inspection ; 156 Appendix. — Inspection of Imported Meat 160 Til Viii CONTENTS • PAGE Y,— Normal Appearance and Differentiation of Meat and Orqans of Different Animals (Fleischkunde) 166 1. Normal Appearance of the Different Parts of Food Animals. '. . . 166 (a) The Skin 166 (6) The blood 167 (c) The Most Important Internal Organs 168 (d) The Bones 176 (e) The Lymphatic Glands 177 (/) The Adipose Tissue 184 (gr) The Skeletal Musculature 193 3. Differentiation of the Meat of Various P'ood Animals 198 (a) Color, Consistency and Odor of the Meat of Different Food Animals 199 (6) Color and Consistency of the Adipose Tissue 802 (c) Character of the Skeleton 204 (d) Differentiation of Horse Meat and Beef, According to ■ . Niebel 310 Modification of Niebel's Method, According to Brautigan and Edelmann 314 Modification According to Courtoy and Coremans 216 (e) Demonstration of Horse Meat According to Hasterlik 219 Appendix. — Differentiation of German and American Bacon.. 220- 3. Recognition of the Age and Sex of Slaughtered Animals and the Classification of Food Animals 231 (a) Age 231 (6) Sex 228 (c) Classification of Food Animals 234 VI. — Abnormal Physiological Conditions Which Possess Sanitary Interest 237 1. Immaturity 237 2. Meat of Fetuses 341 8. Poorness 243 4. Emaciation 243 5. Abnormal Coloration of the Adipose Tissue 245 6. Abnormal Odor of Meat 245 Vll. — General Pathology op Food Animals From the Standpoint of Sanitary Police 250- 1. Malformations 250 2. Dissolutions of Continuity 251 3. Atrophy and Hypertrophy 251 (a) Atrophy , 251 (&) Hypertrophy 252 4. Deposition of Pigment and Lime 352 (a) Pigment Deposits 252 (6) Calcareous Deposits 254 5. Metaplasise 254 6. Degenerations 254 CONTENTS IX PAGE 7. Disturbances of the Circulation 258 ■ 8. Transudation 258 9. Hemorrhages 358 10. Necrosis 260 11. Inflammations 361 (a) Productive Inflammations 261 (6) Serous Inflammation 263 (c) Purulent Inflammation 263 (d) Croupous and Diphtheritic Inflammation 263 (e) Hemorrhagic Inflammation 264 (/) Inflammations with Putrid Exudations ■ 36C ' {g) Parenchymatous and Interstitial Inflammations 264 12. Tumors 265 (a) Benign Tumors 265 (b) Malignant Tumors , 365 13. Infectious Granulations 367 14. Animal Parasites. 267 "VIII. — Especially Noteworthy Organic Diseases 268 1. General Integument 368 (a) Cutis 268 (b) Subcutis 272 2. Digestive Apparatus 273 (a) Mucous Membrane of the Mouth and Tongue 273 (b) Pharynx. 278 (c) Esophagus 279 (cJ) Stomach and Intestine 279 (e) Peritoneum 285 (f) Liver T! 391 (g) Pancreas 300 3. TJrino-genital Apparatus 301 (a) Kidneys 301 (6) Bladder and Urethra 309 (c) Male Sexual Organs 310 (d) Female Sexual Organs 311 Uterus 311 Vagina 313 Udder 313 4. Respiratory Apparatus 318 (a) Na^al Cavity 318 (6) Larynx and Trachea 319 (c) Lungs 330 (d) Pleura 333 5. Circulatory Apparatus 336 (a) Heart 336 Pericardium and Epicardium 336 Endocardium 337 Myocardium 340 (b) Blood Vessels 341 6. Lymphatic Glands 343 7. Spleen , 346 X CONTENTS PAGE. 8.- Nervous System • ^^* (a) Central Nervous System (b) Peripheral Nerves ^^* 9. Skeleton 349^ (a) General Diseases • °°^' (b) Local Diseases °^^ 10. Skeletal Musculature - ^^^ IX. — Anomalies op the Blood ^^'^ 1. Oligemia, Anemia °"' 2. Hydremia ^"^ 3. Leukemia ^'^^ 4. Hemoglobinemia ^^'^ "Black Ischuria " (Azoturia) of the Horse 374 5. Cholemia (Icterus) 3i5 6. Uremia 37T X.— Poisoning (Intoxications), Effect of Odorific Drugs and So- OALLED Auto-Intoxications S'i'Q- 1. Poisoning (Intoxications) 379 2. The Effect of Odorific Drugs on Meat 384 3. So-called Auto-Intoxications 385 Parturient Paresis 386 ^I. — Animal Parasites (Invasion Diseases) 389 1. Parasites Which are not Transmissible to Man 390 3. Parasites Which may be Transmitted to Man by Eating Meat . . . 417 (a) Beef Bladder Worm {Cystieercus bovis) 419 (6) Hog Bladder Worm (O. cellulosce) 443 (c) Trichina {Trichina spiralis) 454 Trichina Inspection 483 3. Parasites Which a,re not Immediately Harmful to Man, but Which may Become so after a Preliminary Change of Host. . 499 (a) Echinocoooi 501 (6) Pentastomes 513 Appendix 520 t. Protozoa 520 (a) Coccidia 531 (b) Myxosporidia 525 (c) Sarcosporidia 527 (d) Hematosporidia 533 3. So-called Calcareous Concretions in the Musculature of the Hog. 539- (a) Calcified Miescher's Sacs ■ 540 (6) Calcified Trichinae 541 (e) Calcified Cysticerci 543 (a) Calcified Echinococci 544 3^11,— Plant Parasites (Infectious Diseases) 547 General Account . . .-. 547 1. Putrid Intoxication and Traumatic Infectious Diseases 552 (a) Putrid Intoxication (Sapremia) 552 PONTENTS XI PAGE (6) Pyemia (Generalization of Purulent Processes) 556 Special Forms of Pyemia and their Anatomical Characters 563 (c) Septicemia 566 Special Forms of Septicemia in Food Animals 570 (d) Malignant Edema 574 (e) Tetanus 576 Infectious Diseases which Occur in Man as well as in Domesti- cated Animals 577 (a) Anthrax 577 (b) Aphthous Fever , 586 (c) Pox 591 CowPox 591 Sheep Pox 592 (cJ) Rabies 593 (e) Glanders 594 (/) Tuberculosis 601 1. Nature and Occurrence 601 3. Bacteriology and Pathogenesis. 607 3. Clinical Symptoms 611 4. Pathological Anatomy 613 5. Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis 618 6. Local and Generalized Tuberculosis 630 7. Examination of Slaughtered Tuberculous Animals. . . 623 8. Sanitary Judgment on Tuberculosis 629 (a) Tuberculous Organs 629 (6) Judgment of the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 634 9. Experiments Concerning the Virulence of the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 635 10. Criteria Furnished by Experiments Concerning the Harmful or Harmless Character of the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 643 11. Boiling and Sterilization of Tuberculous Meat 644 12. Obligatory Declaration for the Meat of Tuberculous Animals Admitted for Food 645 13. Scientiiic Method of Procedure with the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 645 14. Legislative Regulations on the Method of Procedure ' with the Meat of Tuberculous Animals 64T Tuberculosis of Birds 651 (g) Pseudo Tuberculosis 652 (h) Actinomycosis , 654 (j) Botryomycosis 662 Infectious Diseases Which Occur Only in Animals and are not Communicable to Man in any Form 665 (a) Rindwpest 665 (6) Malignant Catarrhal Fever of Cattle 667 (c) Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle 668 (d) Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Wild Game and Cattle 671 (e) Bl?ick Leg 674 (/) Braxy 677 (flf) Diphtheria of Calves 679 Xll CONTENTS PAOB (h) Dysentery of Calves 681 (i) Swine Erysipelas 683 (Jc) Urticaria 691 (I) Swine Plague 694 (m) Hog Cholera 696 Appendix. — The most Important Infectious Diseases of Fowls 703 (a) Fowl Cholera 703 (6) Diphtheria of Fowls 705 Concluding Remarks on Diseases of Food Animals not Above Mentioned 709 XIII.— EMERaENCY Slaughter on Account op Serious Infectious Dis- eases AND Meat Poisoning — Accidents— Defective Bleed- ing-Natural Death 710 1. General Discussion of Emergency Slaughter on Account of Seri- ous Infectious Diseases 710 3. Meat Poisoning 712 3. Accidents 741 4. Defective Bleeding 742 5. Natural Death 743 XIV.— PosT-MoRTEM Alterations in Meat 745 1. Phosphorescent Meat ' 749 2. Decomposing Meat • 751 Appendix 758 1. Sausage Poisoning (Botulism, Allantiasis) 758 3. Poisoning from Mince Meat : 764 (a) Poisoning from Decomposing Fish and Crustacea 766 (6) Poisoning from Clams 767 (c) Poisoning from Oysters 768 XV.— TpE Addition of Flour to Sausages— Coloring and Inflation . of Meat 770 1. Addition of Flour to Sausages 770 Note. Other Adulterations with Inferior Material 783 2. Coloring 786 3. Inflation ; 793 XVI. — Preservation of Meat 798 1. Chemical Preservatives 800 (a) Salting and Pickling 800 (&) Smoking 807 (c) Preservation with Boric, Sulphurous and Salicylic Acids. . . 809 1. Boric Acid 809 2.- Sulphurous Acid 813 3. Salicylic Acid 819 2. Preservation by Heat 831 3. Preservation by Cold .' 824 (a) Refrigeration by Means of Ice 838 (6) Cold Storage Establishments with Mechanical Refrigerat- ing Apparatus 832 Cold Air Machines 834 CONTENTS Xlll PAGE Cold Vapor Machines 834 Appendix 836 1. Location and Structure of Cold Storage Plants 836 2. Necessity of Cold Storage Plants 839 XVII.— BoiuNG, Steam Sterilization and Harmless Disposal of Meat 841 1. Boiling 841 2. Steam Sterilization of Meat 847 3. Harmless Disposal of Meat Absolutely Excluded from Sale 854 (a) Simple Burning 856 (6) Chemical Treatment 856 (c) Steam Sterilization Under High Pressure 857 Concluding Bemark 865 Appendix. — Enforcement of Section 21 of the Imperial Meat Inspec- tion Law 865 Index 867 INTRODUCTION HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF MEAT INSPECTION IN THE UNITED STATES BY JOHN E. MOHLEE, V.M.D. The problem connected with the procurement and maintenance of a wholesome and hygienic food supply for the people is unques- tionably one of the most important subjects with which the sanita- rian has to deal. Public health demands the purity of animal food products. The vast quantity of meat consumed in the United States, where this food-stuff is plentiful and comparatively low iu price, renders it of essential importance that nothing but innocuous and nutritious meat products be placed upon the market. The amount of meat, per capita, used annually by various countries was^ computed by the British Government in 1890, when it was found that in the United States an average of 119.7 pounds was consumed by every inhabitant, a ratio surpassed only by Australia, where meats iare more abandant and cheaper in value. To satisfy this domestic demand and to supply the foreign orders for meat, there has rapidly developed in our midst a business the value of whose products in 1900 was estimated at over $811,000,000, and which, among our immense industries, ranks third as to the aggregate worth of yearly exports. These facts, together with our knowledge — authentically established — of the communicability to man of many animal dis- eases, compel us to recognize the urgent demand for a hygienic meat supply — a supply that is clean, wholesome and absolutely free from disease. The foreign sales of the meat packing industry at first included numerous varieties of meats and meat products, and by 1879 the export trade in American bacon alone, without mentioning other food-stuffs, had become well established, when the continental coun- tries became alarmed, seemiugly on account of the presence of xvi INTRODUCTION trichina in American hog products, and accordingly prohibitive measures against these meats were instituted. Italy was the first to promulgate these restrictions, and by 1881 Austria, Germany and France had likewise prohibited the importation of American pork or its products. American cattle met a similar rebuff at the instance of Great Britain in 1882, when regulations commonly called the "Slaughter Order" were instituted by the Order-in-Council of the Board of Agriculture, which compelled American cattle to be slaughtered at the port of entry. This prohibition of store cattle was caused, presumably, by the presence of contagious pleuro- pneumonia among the cattle in a few of the Eastern States and Illi- nois, but notwithstanding this disease was effectually eradicated from this country in 1892, and since that time not a single case has been found either in cattle imported into Great Britain from the United States or among our herds, the restrictive measures continue to be enforced and the stigma constituting the assumed reason for this embargo remains. While it is plainly evident to anyone who has given this subject the least consideration that these tvro alleged - sanitary procedures of foreign governments were directly pointed at the meat and live stock industry of this country, and although the vast falling-bff in the value of our exports in these lines was to those variously engaged therein a hardship which continued for a decade, nevertheless, these interdictions must be considered as the potent -and exciting factors in securing legislation for the scientific inspec- tion of meats for foreign and domestic use and incidentally in advancing the cause of veterinary science in the United States. The exclusion of American pork products finally became intolerable, and in order to relieve the situation and regain an ■export market for these food-stuffs, Congress passed the act of August 30, 1890, providing for the inspection of salted pork and bacon. It was but natural to presume that with the passage of such a law providing for the certification of the pure and healthful char- acter of American meats all restrictive measures against our export trade would be revoked. However, this initial act was not suffi- ciently comprehensive, referring chiefly to the manner in which the products were packed and their appearance immediately before shipment, without taking into consideration the condition at the time of slaughter of the animals producing these meats. For this reason the European countries failed to abolish their restrictions against American pork. The relief expected in consequence of this act was not, therefore, realized, and on March 3, 1891, Congress, recognizing the importance of protecting and fostering this export INTBODUCTION XVll industry, the value of which had reached the sum of $104,660,000 ill 1881, and of acquiring and maintaining a pure and wholesome meat supply for our own people, passed a more effective act. This legislation authorized the issuance of regulations providing for the ante and post mortem examination of all cattle, sheep and hogs intended for export and interstate commerce, especially providing for post-mortem inspection of cattle the meat of which is designed for export ; for a microscopic examination of all hogs for export in order that certificates could be issued setting forth their freedom from trichinosis ; the condemnation of all diseased animals ; the marking or stamping of all inspected carcasses and the labeling of food products made from such carcasses intended for export or inter- state traffic. The woik connected with the enforcement of this act was placed under the care of the Bureau of Animal Industry, which had been established in 1884 for the purpose of collecting information con- cprning the nature, cause, treatment and prevention of diseases of animals and the publication of the best measures for the prevention and eradication of such diseases. These increased duties rendered it desirable that the various lines of work be divided, and accord- ingly, on April 1, 1891, the Bureau was organized into several divisions, one of which, was designated the Meat Inspection Divi- sion, and, as its name implies, had, among other duties, special supervision of the inspection of meats for export and interstate commerce. Regulations were immediately adopted for the purpose of carrying into effect this act of Congress. A system of inspection was devised, a force of veterinarians and their assistants organized and the inspection of meats inaugurated within ten weeks from the passage of the act, or on May 12, 1891, at the abattoir of Eastman & Co., of New York City. Other abattoirs made application for inspection, and by the end of the first complete fiscal year, 1892, inspection had been granted to twenty-eight abattoirs in twelve different cities. It will thus be observed that federal meat inspection has only a very recent history, but one of which our people and our profes- sion can justly be proud. The microscopic examination of pork for trichina was first established in Chicago, June 22, 1891, and likewise started in other cities before the end of that year. At first there was some hesitancy and scepticism among the packers as to the practical application of this microscopic examination without seriously retarding the busi- ness of the firms and causing vexatious and unnecessary delays, but XVlll INTEODUCTION all doubts were shortly dispelled by the satisfactory performance of the work, and the problem was efficiently solved by the persistence and skill of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the growing perception and ripening knowledge of his assistants. As a direct result of these microscopic examinations of pork products which were subjected to the keenest scrutiny of the attaches of European countries and favorably reported upon by them, the decree of September 3, 1891, was made by the German government after the Saratoga Convention which readmitted American pork that was officially certified as having been microscopically examined before shipment from the United States. Subsequently similar interdic- tions were removed by Italy, France, Denmark and Austria, and in consequence of this reestablished c6nfidence relative to the health- fulness and purity of the pork products of this country the export trade began at once to show decided and gratifying increase and to gradually expand and regain its former importance and value. The beneficial and desirable results that, would necessarily accrue in consequence of having the supervision and inspection of the Government meat inspectors to certify to the purity and sound- ness of the products of their abattoirs, soon appealed to and was quickly acted upon not only by the packers who sought to compete in foreign markets, but those doing strictly a local and interstate business. The proprietors of those abattoirs desiring inspection for their meat products are required to make written application to the Secretary of Agriculture, stating the kind and number of animafs slaughtered and the destination of the products thereof, and to agree to such supervision of their business as may be demanded by the regulations of the Bureau. On conforming to such require- ments the packing house is given a serial number by which it and the products thereof are thereafter known, and an inspector is placed in charge of the plant and furnished with a sufficient num- ber of assistant inspectors, stock examiners or taggers to carry out the required inspection. The extension of the work caused by the enforcement of the act of Congress can not be fully apreciated or comprehended without a knowledge relative to the importance and magnitude of the sub- ject. The successful and speedy elaboration of many details which necessarily required much labor and consideration and the care and efficiency with which they were immediately enforced exceeded all expectations when the difficulties and obstacles— the inherent per- plexities of the question— were considered. Moreover, this inspection was an innovation in sanitation in this country and was INTEODUOrrOU XIK of necessity carried out principally by inexperienced men who were chosen chiefly on the strength of their political influence rather than by the breadth of their veterinary knowledge. The next epoch in the history of meat inspection is marked by the placing of all employees of the Bureau into the classifled service by Presidential order. This took effect July 1, 1894, since which time all appointments to the force have been made only after the applicant has passed a rigid and highly satisfactory examination. By this means only the intelligent, competent and superior candi- dates are chosen from the eligible list by certification from the U. S. Civil Service Commission. Now that the merit system is in vogue, not only the personnel of the Bureau has been improved, as would be expected, but the harmony and discipline resulting there- from is vastly better than is possible where political intrigue forms a basis of appointment, promotion and retention. The first requisite to be met by those aspiring to the position of meat inspec- tor is to be a graduate of a recognized and reputable veterinary col- lege and then to pass a rigid examination that destroys the ambi- tion of a large percentage of applicants. After successfully meeting these requirements and receiving an appointment, his future service depends entirely upon the personal equation and would include the ability, integrity and discretion with which his onerous and multiple duties are performed. Previous to 1894: the inspection consisted principally in the examination of beef for export and the microscopic examination of pork destined for continental Europe, but at this timCj owing to an increased demand for official inspection of meats, a similar ante and post mortem examination was extended to hogs as had already been in operation from the beginning with cattle. In the following year calves and sheep were likewise subjected to inspection both before and after slaughter. As the inspection gradually increased and covered a larger number of animals, it became more and more important to obtain sufficient authority from Congress to dispose of the condemned carcasses, as the original act failed to grant power for the proper disposal of such products. The danger of allowing condemned meats to remain undestroyed is palpable when taken into consideration with the limited authority of the Federal Govern- ment regarding the use of such carcasses within the State. That it is highly unsatisfactory to the Bureau, as well as to the health of our people, to permit the packer to have absolute control over the final disposition of unwholesome meats, was readily appreciated, especially in view df the dearth of state and municipal' sanitaty XX INTRODUCTION authorities vested with the "power for properly disposing of these products. Consequently, Congress, by the enactment of March 2, 1895, granted full power to the Secretary of Agriculture to adopt such rules and regulations as would be necessary to prevent the use of condemned carcasses for export or interstate traffic, making it a misdemeanor punishable by a fine notexceeding $1,000 or imprison- ment not exceeding one year, or by both fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. The work was rapidly advancing as the inspectors became more thoroughly trained and experienced. New problems and duties were taken up as fast as the previous ones had been elucidated and controlled, and the progress made was highly^ gratifying. In keeping with this policy of steady conservative progress, the service was extended in 1895 by new legislation to include the interstate cattle inspection, and by 1897 not only all the beef and the greater part of pork and other meat products exported to Europe, but a large amount of meat intended for inter- state commerce was inspected in accordance with the law. In the appropriation act of 1898 provision is made for the same ante and post mortem inspection of horses and their products as had been previously enacted in regard to cattle, hogs and sheep. It is specially stated that only horses may be slaughtered in such packing houses and their various products must be distinctly labeled as being from these animals. Inspection has been granted thus far to but one abattoir, the products of which are mainly, if not entirely, shipped to Norway and Sweden. * The demand for microscopically examined pork increased rap- idly, and in 1898, 120,272,590 pounds of this product were exported. A large number of skilled and competent microscopists were added to the inspection force, but the demand for microscopic examination was so great among the packers that the Bureau found difficulty in supplying the desired amount of microscopic inspection for hog products intended for export. The great increase in the demand for this inspection during 1898 and 1899 was ably and successfully met by the microscopic force, and they were rendering conscientious and efficient service when the country receiving the vast majority of our pork products instituted semi-prohibitive regulations which have diminished the exportation of this product in the last few years to a very large degree, until in 1903 it figured only 19,108,341 pounds. By perfecting the system of inspection and increasing the num- ber of inspectors, the work has been greatly extended and rendered more efficient each year, until to-day the scientific, systematic and rational system of meat inspection inaugurated throughout this INTRODUCTION XXI country by the Bureau of Animal Industry, after an existence of. only twelve years, compares favorably with the much older serviccv of Germany, France, Denmark and Belgium, and is pointed to willi commendation by many disinterested parties in foreign countries, and accepted as a model by our states and municipalities in pro- viding methods of local inspection. How this result was accom- plished has been ably expressed by a foreign scientist in speaking of the United States meat inspection service : "The history of this organization embodied in the labor of Dr. D. E. Salmon is one of the highest examples of the rare combina- tion of scientific methods with executive administration that has ever been witnessed." It may be added that among the many signal personal achievements of Dr. Salmon's administration as Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry since its inauguration, his work in connection with meat inspection stands among the foremost, as he, and he alone, crystallized and consolidated it into a definite sani- tary force. The initiative, the determination and the momentum itt all matters pertaining to the advancement and increased proficiency^ of this service were his, and it has now reached .such a stage of development and approach to uniformity of procedure' as to meet the demand of the most critical. Thus, commencing with a small force of inspectors in a few abattoirs, the service has gradually developed until at present there are 1,405 individuals eng9,ged in the ante and' post mortem, inspection of animals. Of this number 411 are meat inspectors and assistant meat inspectors, all of whom are qualified and competent yeterinarians ; 234 are stock examiners and 251 taggers, practical men connected with some branch of the live stock industry before receiving their appointments ; 233 are microscopists and assistant, microscopists ; and the remainder are clerks directly associated with the work of inspecting meats. These men are located in 156 abattoirs and stockyards in fifty different cities in the United States. It may be of interest to know how this large organization of men is systematically working in the accomplishment of so much, good for the country both from an economic and sanitary stand- point. A brief survey will be taken of the methods at the various abattoirs and stockyards of making the ante and post mortem examination of the food producing animals the products of which, are intended for export or interstate traffic. Ante-mortem examinations are made of all animals intended for slaughter in packing houses having federal inspection as well as of XXU INTBODUCTION those which pass through the stockyards that are under Govern- ment supervision. These inspections are highly important and a valuable safeguard to the health of the meat consumer, as there are certain diseases and conditions not attended by any macroscopic lesions in the carcass, albeit they are nocuous and repugnant. Direct proof of this is found in the literature of meat poisoning, the ■ great majority of vrhich cases could be directly traced to eating the meat of cattle slaughtered in emergency without any noticeable changes being observed in the tissues on post-morteni examination. The interests of the live stock industry also are protected by this examination, since none but healthy animals which have not been exposed to any disease are permitted to be shipped from stock yards to the farm as breeders and feeders or to abattoirs of other cities not having federal inspection. The rigorous character of this inspection before slaughter is indicated by the fact that ante-mortdm con- demnations average about twice as many as the post-mortem. In the larger packing centers this inspection is done in the yards, on the docks, though principally at the scales, where all diseased and suspected animals are tagged. A brief description of their condition is recorded and they are then held for final disposition ou post- mortem examination, with the exception of those animals that have been condemned for advanced pregnancy or recent parturition. These animals may be held until they have fully recovered from the parturient state (ten days) and then slaughtered, or in case they are not affected with or have not been exposed to any infectious disease they may be sold for stock purposes. Animals not inspected in the yards are subjected to an exami- nation in the pens of the packing houses, and those condemned are similarly disposed of as above with the permission and under the supervision of the inspector. Those that have been condemned on ante-mortem examination which fail on post-mortem to show suflScient lesions to warrant con- demnation are passed for food, while all carcasses not fit for con- sumption are tanked. However, there are a number of diseases in which the determination of the healthfulness of the meat must depend entirely on the post-mortem examination, and many animals are condemned at this stage that have passed ante-mortem inspec- tion. Thus the importance of these two associated methods of inspection is exemplified. The Bureau regulations which were devised to control the ante and post mortem inspection of animals and which have been subsequently supplemented as the needs of the service demanded, are clearly defined, thorough and most rigid INTRODUCTION XXIU and form a support- upon which the inspector may unflinchinffly stand in the performance of the duties of his office. To discrimi- nate with certainty between good and bad in the matter of meat supply is to the experienced inspector not a difficult task, when the carcass represented is an extreme, but for those cases on the border line, the rendering of a satisfactory and accurate conclusion is not so easy as at first sight appears, for it is extremely difficult at times to say what should be accepted and what rejected. To the German inspector it is not merely a question of yes or no, but with his " frei- bauk" and the permission to sell certain infected meat after cooking, or raw meat of a low nutritious value, the responsibilitiesTDecome divided into several possible actions and are thereby materially lessened. Owing to the impossibility of constructing rules cover- ing every case, and the difficulty of asserting at what stage in its development a process assumes loathsome or a disease noxious properties, the decision as to the disposition of a certain number of carcasses must be left to the discernment and individual judgment of the inspector. Moreover, the realization that all decisions based upon the literal or tolerant interpretation of the inspection rules and in sympathy with them will be approved arouses a pleasant and appreciative feeling and makes the thorough and particular knowl- edge of the regulations an integral factor in the proper and inde- pendent performance of the inspection. As there has been more or less discussion and adverse criticism regarding the large number of carcasses which the Federal inspec- tor examines each day in some of the larger packing houses, it might not be out of place to explain the American system of per- petual motion adopted in such abattoirs and the methods which make it possible for the inspector and his assistants to carefully and efficiently inspect the entire killing. The method of slaughter most frequently adopted is stunning with a pole-axe, followed by bleed- ing after a short interval has elapsed to permit of relaxation of the blood vessels and, consequently, a better outflow of blood. In the case of bulls, shooting is sometimes adopted, owing to their thick skulls. The Jewish method of shechtering is carried on in certain abattoirs on specified days. In the first instance the cattle are driven up to the killing pens at 6.30 A.M., and knocking begins immediately. The animal is then shackled, hauled through the sliding door onto the bed, hoisted on the rails of a suspended tram- way and, while hangiug, is bled by the " sticker " making at the bottom of the jugular furrow a longitudinal incision that severs the principal cervioal blood vessels. After the animal has bled suffi- xxiv INTEODUCTION ciently it is pushed along by power or by hand to the bed on whiclt it is to be further handled. While hanging here the " headers" skia the head and disarticulate it at the occipto-atloid articulation. The heads are numbered either by a paper tag or by marking on the occipital condyle with a blue pencil, in order to identify the various parts of the carcass, should cause for condemnation be found. The animal is now lowered aud pritched in position on its back. A con- stant string of attendants follows, one after another, in completing the work and turning out the dressed carcass. First the "leggers" take charge aud remove the hind legs at the hock and the fore legs at the knee. Immediately after this the floorsman or "sider" skins the animal down as far as he can work towards the floor. The "caul-puller" now comes along and makes an inci- sion from throat to anus and removes the caul fat from the abdomen, placing it in a box corresponding to the number of the bed upon which the animal is lying. Another butcher follows and "loosens up" the esophagus and trachea and saws through the sternum. The hooks of the spreader on the hoist are then placed in the ligaments back of the hocks and the animal draped into a semi-vertical position for skinning the buttocks and cutting off the tail. The latter is also retained and marked for recog- nition. After hoisting to a perpendicular position, the "backer" finishes skinning the animal. The " gutter," working simultaneously, eviscerates the carcass by starting with the rectum and following the sublumbar attachments down to the liver, pulling the paunch down and cutting all attachments with one circular sweep of the knife. The liver is next loosened by the hand and attachments cut by one stroke of the knife. Two circular incisions are made, start- ing from the superior and middle attachments of the diaphragm,, but in opposite directions, following the tendinous portion of the diaphragm to its lowest or suprasternal portion. This opens up the thoracic cavity. The lungs are now seized by their subdorsal border and one long stroke following the aorta removes the lungs aud heart, which, together with the other viscera, are now inspected. The rump sawyer next follows and divides the carcass from the coccyx to the lumbar vertebrae. The splitter with a large cleaver then continues splitting the animal in halves, ending at the base of the neck. The carcass is now hoisted on two rails with sliding pulley hooks and shoved over about twelve feet, where the neck man or hide dropper finishes cutting the hide from the neck, after which another helper splits the cervical vertebrae, thns completely sepa- rating the two halves. The latter are then pushed about ten feet INTRODUCTION XXV further, -where the trimmers cut off all ragged pieces of flesh or bruised parts, trim out the spinal cord and pump the blood out of the four quarters by moving the fore legs np and down rapidly and scraping the blood clots from the vessels with the hollow of the hand. The carcass is now turned over to the washers, who scrub and wash it with very hot water, and finish by wiping it dry with towels. In c;ise the inspection has not revealed any disease, the carcass is marked by placing a gelatinized label bearing the words "U. S. Inspected " and a serial number in indelible ink, which can not again m;ike an imprint, in the region of the rump, flank, plate and shoulder of each half of the carcass. This mark signifies that the meat has been carefully inspected according to law and passed. Exceptions to this method of labeling healthy meat are made with those carcasses that are intended for the cutting room or are used for canning purposes in the same abattoir, . Those car- casses to be shipped in sealed cars to another official abattoir for •canning or other purposes are likewise not labeled nor stamped. After hanging for fifteen minutes the meat is run into the coolers to be ripened for local use, interstate trade or for export. The head, tail and caul are then removed to other parts of the building, the livers are placed in special boxes and the remaining viscera are ■thrown into a carrier to be removed. To perform this work requires about 50 butchers and from 40 to 45 men who wash and trim carcasses and 60 helpers to clean floors, move wagons, carry away offal and perform other miscellaneous work. In the above described manner, this force of men in an abattoir in this country may kill and dress between six and seven rounds of cattle in an hour, which means an -average of 130 carcasses per hour on 18 or 20 beds. By the latter term is understood a portion of the killing floor opposite to each knocking pen on which the animal is bled, eviscerated and dressed. The 20 beds are arranged in a continuous series, the workmen starting on the first bed and going, down to No. 20, by which time the No. 1 carcass has been hung up and out of way for the next " run." In abattoirs where 28 beds are in use, two gangs of butchers and two sets of inspectors are used to perform the work. The inspector takes his stand with the gutter and passes down the line at his elbow, watching, feeling and examining all suspicious indica- tions. Surely such an inspection made by a man skilled in his line will enable him to find any lesion or condition which is sufficiently extensive or repulsive to warrant condemnation, and his ability to perform this task is no more remarkable nor startling than the accu- racy, deftness, familiarity and speed which we expect of any other XXvi INTRODUCTION skilful and experienced person in another vocation. When disease is observed in a carcass, a red tag bea;ring the words " Condemned meat" is immediately attached to it with a lead and wire seal. The head, tail and caul fat pertaining to it are secured and similarly marked with condemnation tags. After the carcass has been "halved," all portions of the body are placed in a special room of the building reserved for condemned meats to await a more leisurely and extensive examination by the inspector. The latter always has an assistant at hand, and while the one is away looking after the saving of the various parts of the diseased carcass, the other continues along with the gutter. Calves and sheep are inspected both ante and post mortem under the same conditions and in practically the same manner as the animals already mentioned. The principal conditions requiring condemnation are mentioned in the Bureau Regulations and include : Hog cholera, swine plague, anthrax, rabies, malignant epizootic catarrh, septicemia and pyemia, advanced form of scabies and actinomycosis, inflammation of the lungs, pleura, intestines or peritoneum, Texas fever, general- ized or extensive tuberculosis, advanced pregnancy or recent p&rturitibn, any disease or injury causing pyrexia or otherwise rendering the flesh unwholesome ; those organs or portions of carcasses which are badly bruised or affected with tuberculosis, actinomycosis, cancer, or other malignant tumors and abscesses^ ' suppurating sores and tapeworm cysts ; immature or unborn animals; those animals too emaciated and anemic to produce healthy meat ; distemper, glanders and farcy, and other malignant disorders, acute inflammatory lameness and extensive fistula. Other causes for condemnation occasionally met with are para- sitic ictero-hematuria and caseous lymphadenitis of sheep, Hodg- kin's disease or pseudo-leukemia, inflammation of the genito-urinary tract and hernias. Hogs affected with urticaria, tinea tonsurans, demodex folliculorum and erythema are usually passed after de- taching and tanking the rind. If an animal is found to be affected with any of the above con- ditions the carcass and organs belonging to it are tagged and removed as above mentioned to a room provided for this purpose, the key to which is only in possession of the inspector or his assistant. When these meats are to be destroyed they are placed, together with a certain amount of floor scrapings, intestinal con- tents and other filthy substances, in the offal or fertilizer tank, the top and bottom of which are sealed with copper wire and lead seals. INTRODUCTION XZYa .by a federal dnspector. Steam is immediately turned on and the meat is destroyed for food purposes under the supervision of this oflScer. If only isolated muscles or portions of the carcass are to be destroyed as a result of unhealthful properties or repulsive appear- ances, the carcass is usually removed to the cooljng room with the condemnation tag upon it, and when properly chilled the affected parts are detached and tanked while the condemnation tag on the remainder of the carcass is removed and the regular inspection label placed upon the various parts. This condemnation of meat for human food does not necessarily imply that the animal producing the meat was diseased. Such action may have been due to various causes, as fatigue, asphyxia- tion, immatm-ity, parasitism not transmissible to man and other repugnant conditions, which, although they may not prevent the consumption of the meat with impunity, still are loathsome to the American people, who desire to eat only palatable meat of known quality. This is attested by the various laboratories in the country occasionally receiving specimens of tainted or discolored meats with letters from parties requesting advice concerning their wholesome- ness. Such meat is always a source of serious apprehension to the American public, who do not care to eat meat, even if whole- some, should it present an offensive appearance, and chis senti- mental feeling is respected by the inspectors. In making a post-mortem examination of hogs two systems of inspection are enforced. One method is for the smaller abattoirs where the number of hogs killed per hoiir is comparatively small. One inspector can readily examine all ttese carcasses from the position he assumes on the bench beside the workman who eviscerates them. The second method in vogue is where the killing numbers 300 to 500 per hour and consists of the inspector stationed as above together with a colleague who is placed beside the scrap- ing bench for the purpose of examining the cervical lymph glands of every carcass after the header has cut behind the jaws. This inspection is principally to determine the presence of tubercular infection that might inadvertently pass by the second inspector on account of the lesions not being very prominent. Frequently it brings to light incipient cases which show the lesions only in the glands of this region. In case any alteration is observed or felt by the inspector, a previously devised mark, usually a cut on the right leg, is made, or a condemnation card attached by means of a hog ring and ringer, for the purpose of attracting the special attention of XXviii INTBODUCTION his colleagues on the bench to this particular carcass. By this system of examination a thoroughly satisfactory and efficient in- spection is obtained and readily accounts for the large number^ of hog carcasses per hour which it is possible to successfully examine in this country. Some inexperienced persons have thought this must be a superficial inspection, their misgivings being due merely to the fact that one or two inspectors could examine such a large number of carcasses per hour ; but such doubts have been quickly dispelled in those who have been sufficiently 'nterested to make personal observations. Unlike the old method of individual slaughter in vogue in many foreign abattoirs, where the inspector must go to each animal which is slaughtered, bled, eviscerated and dressed by one or two butchers, the method of handling the carcasses in this country is according to the combination or division of labor system, and unfamiliarity with these methods may probably account for the incorrect views held by some regarding this inspection. Their style of slaughter is not conducive to the performance of such a vast amount of work as in this couiitry, nor is their inspection force so well organized as in the United States. Thus at Mannheim, where one of the finest abattoirs in Germany exists, the method of killing a steer by the percussion mask requires more time than would be con- sumed in killing eight similar animals in one of our large abattoirs, and the number of cattle slaughtered there during the entire year of 1901 was 16,338, an amount which one of the larger abattoirs in this country will have to its credit within two weeks. In the Oerman abattoir the inspector usually has his own laboratory and much of his time is occupied in preparing tissues and in the microscopical diagnosis of lesions upon which he may desire infor- mation. In the United States the time of the inspector is wholly occupied by making gross examinations and thereby he is enabled to inspect a much larger number of carcasses than if it was neces- sary for him to spend a portion of his time over microscopical or bacteriological study of suspected tissues. In case such an exami- nation is necessary, the carcass is at once tagged and placed in the retaining room, specimens of the organs and affected tissues are expressed to the Chief of the Bureau for investigation, and if an exceptional case, the disposition of the carcass may be determined on obtaining the diagnosis. Lesions concerning which a confirma- tion of diagnosis is desired, or other information regarding their nature is requested, are likewise sent to Washington for exami- nation. INTRODUCTION XXIX In order to give an idea of how the slaughtering of swine is accomplished, it may be mentioned that the pigs having been driven to the killing pens, a chain is placed around the hind leg of one of the animals and attached to one of a series of constantly moving arms on a so-called Ferris wheel, which elevates the pig from the pen and places it on an inclined rail. The struggles of the animal carry it before the "sticker," who makes a small incision in the median line of the neck directed toward the thorax and severing the larger cervical blood vessels. When the animal dies, the body is placed in scalding water and then pulled through an automatic scraping machine where it is relieved of most of its hair. This scraping is completed by men along the scraping bench, after which the head is cut almost away from the body and the inspector «xamines the cervical lymph glands. The hog is then hung on the track of a suspended tramway by means of a pulley which is provided with a double hook and fastened to the gambrel stick. The carcass is here eviscerated and during this process carefully -examined by the inspector, who is placed at such a point on the killing floor that all the eviscerating goes on directly in front of him and so near the body that he can examine with his hand any lesion his eye might detect. His position also commands a view •of the run before reaching him and of the line after the carcasses have passed onward. Beside him is a table, upon which various organs are placed, and in those cases where lesions are apparent, these viscera are tagged and held, as are also the carcasses, for a more elaborate examination after the killing has ceased, when the proper disposition of those condemned is finally made. The healthy carcasses are then passed along the rail through the shower-bath and thence to the cooling room. All packages, cans, boxes, kegs, tierces and other vessels con- taining meat products from the inspected carcasses are required to ^3e labeled with the number of the official abattoii- whence they originated and with the declaration that they were inspected accord- ing to law. When the chief inspector is perfectly satisfied in this regard and also that they are pure and healthful, he has all pack- ages intended for shipment properly marked with the white meat inspection stamps bearing serial numbers. They are thereupon immediately cancelled and the product is ready for commerce. In addition to the regular ante and post mortem inspection of hogs a microscopic examination for trichina is made of all swine the products of which are exported to those countries that demand this inspection as a prerequisite for the admission of such meats. XXX INTBODUCTION After the hog has passed an ante and post mortem examination the carcass is moved to the cooling room, where three samples of muscle are taken by one of the government employees from the prescapular region, the pillar of the diaphragm and from the psoas muscle. Where the liver or tongue is to be exported a sample of this organ is likewise taken' for special . examination. The specimens are placed in a small tin box, which contains a duplicate tag to the one fastened upon the carcass from which the samples were taken. The boxes are then carried to the microscopic room, where they are care- fully examined by the microscopist and his assistants. Small por- tions of each of the three muscles are snipped off and prepared by mincing into three thin, evenly-distributed translucent mounts held together in a compressor. , Each preparation is then examined separately under low magnification by placing it in a frame on a mechanical stage of a microscope. By means of a specially con- structed stage this frame which holds the compressor is made to run up and down on two parallel grooves and by means of a saw- tooth arrangement at the bottom and top of the stage, the compres- sor is forced onward, with mechanical precision, so that each field overlaps another. Therefore, every portion of the preparation most necessarily be in the field at some time during the examination. No- microscopist is permitted to examine more than eighty slides per day and the work performed is always subject to the re-examinatiou of the one in charge of this work. ; In case living trichinae or non- disintegrated dead trichinse are found in the mounts, the sample is. marked "C" and the carcass is taken from the cooling room and rendered into lard at a temperature not lower than 150° F. or turned into prepared meats by boiling until the interior is completely cooked. Those preparations jn which degenerated or calcified trichinae or trichinae cysts or any substance which causes the least suspicion, owing to its similarity to the above, are marked "B," and the meat of the carcass as withheld from shipment to those countries that require microscopic inspection, although free to be used in other trade. When the microscopist has found an absence of trichina, trichina-like cysts or any suspicious bodies, the prepara- tions are marked "A," and the carcasses represented are used for filling the orders of those governments demanding trichina-free pork. Before this microscopically examined meat is taken out o! the cooler to be cut up, all the rejected carcasses must be withdrawn and placed by themselves to be treated as above mentionedi. All other meats in the cutting room are put away and the tables, chute^, blocks and oHviiers cleared of all pork previously handled. The INTBODUOTION XXXI cutting up of the meat is then btegun under the supervision of a government official, after which it is placed in a cellar to be cured and stored prior to shipment as trichina-free products. No other meats are allowed in this cellar, which is securely locked and the Ikey retained . by one of the government employees, who keeps an exact list of all meats coming into and going from the cellar. When the microscopically inspected poi-k has been cured, smoked or otherwise prepared, it is packed in barrels, boxes or other packages upon which purple ment inspection stamps are placed in grooved spaces and covered with tin, to preTerit them from being scrai)ed off. A purple certificate of inspection is then issued by the inspector iu charge, stating the name of the consignor, consignee, destination and description of the packages and the numbers of the purple stamps thereon. It will thus be observed that from the time when the samples of muscles are taken from the hogs for microscopic examination, until the meat is packed and stamped for export, the entire proceeding is under the active and vigilant supervision of a government employee. The following tables taken from the report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1903 show in a vivid and convenient form the development of federal meat inspection from its establish- ment to the present time and include the number of abattoirs and cities having inspection, the number of animals inspected, the amount of liicroscopically examined pork exported and the total' cost of each ante-mortem examination. Number of Establishments and Cities "Where Inspection was Conducted Fiscal Years 1891 to 1903 Fiscal Year Number OP Es- tablish- ments Number OF Cities Fiscal Year Number OF Es- tablish- ments Number ■ OF Cities 1891 9 28 37 46 59 103 128 6 13 16 17 19 36 33 1898 135 139 149 157 155 156 35 1893 1899 43 1893 . . 1900 46 1894 1901 53 1895 1903 50 1896 1903 50 1897 The following shows the exports of pork to countries requiring.' certificates of microscopic inspection from 1892 to 1903 : XXXIl INTKODUCTIOK Pounds 1893 23,035,698 1893 '. 8,059,758 1894 18,845,119 1895 39,355,230 1896 21,497,321 1897 43,570,537 Pounds 1898 130,110,356 1899 108,858,149 1900 53,809,636 1901 35,943,403 1903 33,681,339 1903 19,108,341 The following shows the cost of each ante-mortem inspection from 1893 to 1902, inclusive : 1893, 1894. 1893 , 1896 , 1897 , Cents 4.75 1898 1.75 1899 1.10 1900 .95 1901 .91 1903 Cents 0.80 .88 .95 1.01 1.08 Number of Animals Inspected at Slaughter for Abattoirs Havino Inspection Fiscal Years 1891 to 1903 PiSCAL VeAR Cattle Calves Sheep ■ Hogs Horses Total 1891 1893 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1903 1903 83,889 3,167,000 3.933,079 3,861,594 3,704,043 3,985,484 4,343,216 4,418,738 4,382,020 4,841,166 5,319,149 5,539,969 6,134,410 59,089 92,947 96,333 116,093 356.905 273,134 344,330 246,184 315,693 413,830 555,836 668,835 583,361 870,013 1,030,764 1,428,601 4,6S9,796 5,309,161 5,496,904 5,602,096 6,119,886 6,639,313 7,434,878 8,585,960 7,618,146 13,616,539 14,350,191 16,808,771 20,893,199 23,836,943 23,339,884 24,642,753 25,277,107 21,793,738 3,333 4,559 1,992 1,649 344 83,889 3,809,459 4,885,538 13,636,835 18,868,375 23,133,376 26,533,273 31,053,171 34.071,575 34,619,188 36,916,936 38,829,439 37,183,307 The subject of meat inspection thus far considered has dealt only with the Federal system, as this is freely conceded to be the highest type of rational inspection existing in the United States and the regulations controlling it are frequently drawn upon in inagur- ating local inspections. The other forms found in this country are the local or municipal inspection and the state inspection. Before the act creating a system of meat inspection under Federal super- vision was adopted, several states— as Indiana, Minnesota, Col- orado, etc.— had so-called meat inspection laws, although they principally provided for an inspection of the living animals in the- INTRODUCTION XXXIU stockyards. Certain cities, such as Boston, Detroit, Washington, etc., likewise inaugurated more or less valuable laws pertaining to a pure meat supply, but it was not until after the enforcement of the Federal act on this subject that more comprehensive and efficient municipal and state inspection laws began to appear, and, what is better, were enforced, encouraged as they were by the intelligent and successful work performed by the Bureau of Animal Industry. Among the most estimable of these laws for municipalities will be found those governing the meat supply of New Orleans, La., and Montgomery, Ala., which provide for public slaughter under the supervision of meat inspectors connected with the Board of Health, and every piece of meat inspected and put on the market must bear the official inspection stamp.' Tlie recent law passed by the Mon- tana legislature must be considered as an excellent type of what each state should adopt and then honestly and efficiently enforce. By this broad and lucid law every city in the state having a popu- lation of 5,000 or over is required to have a system of meat inspection under the direction of a competent sanitary officer who must be a graduate of a recognized veterinary college. The necessity for state and municipal inspection may be appre- ciated when it is understood that the government has no power to inspect meats that do not leave the confines of the state. The facts, are, however, that in localities where abattoirs have federal inspec- tion, much of the meat used for city trade or for shipment within the state as well as the large majority of the products which enter the interstate commerce is inspected by the government. But meat inspected may become contaminated, be subjected to unsanitary conditions, or become putrid or repulsive from various causes after it has passed beyond the jurisdiction of the federal inspector. It is therefore important that municipal and state inspection laws be on the statutes to take cognizance of such unhygienic conditions or changes in the flesh and to require market inspection in addition to ante and post mortem examination. However, the great danger that menaces the public health arises not so much from meat con- taminated after inspection as from uninspected meat produced in the numerous unclean and ill-smelling private slaughterhouses so frequently found on the outskirts of a number of our cities. To control the latter and to control them efficiently it is essential that laws be enacted for the proper supervision of these establishments, which kill at all hours of the day and night as inclination dictates or necessity demands. The regulations thereof should insist that the viscera and their lymphatic glands must be retained after their xsxiv INTRODUCTION removal from the carcass until examined by the inspector and their connection with the carcass appropriately noted. Inspection that includes merely the dressed carcass is unworthy of the name and extremely delusive, as it gives a false impression of security to the consumer. These houses should also be compelled to kill only on certain days or hours in order to permit the inspector to be present. All the butchers should be licensed and likewise their abattoirs, which should come up to a certain prescribed standard. Afar better law, and one which would receive the endorsement of all sanitarians, would ordain the abolition of these small buildings and the establishment of a public slaughterhouse, as in Montgomery, Ala., remote from the center of the city and its business section and where a thorough inspection by a 'veterinarian could be made of all animals. Such an abattoir under rigid, though rational restric- tions, would be beneficial not only in facilitating the business but in promoting the sanitary interests of the city, as all the offal could be disposed of at once and all portions of the carcass not edible could be reduced to inoffensive articles of commerce. In some cities where the inspection is enforced by laymen, such as butchers, cattlemen, or men even more disconnected with the practical part of the work, the result is seriously handicapped on account of their inability to recognize lesions that at once would appeal to one trained in the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the domesticated animals and in the relationship existing between their diseases and human health. If an adequate reason for muni- cipal inspection exists, and no one of intelligence will deny it, this should possess equal strength for having the law intelligently and efficiently enforced by capable officers of the law, trained in the knowledge of sanitation and comparative medicine. The plea that such men are not available is becoming more untenable every day, as meat inspection has made such rapid progress and has now reached such an important position that all the leading veterinary colleges in this country have provided this chair and have filled it with experienced veterinarians who in many cases give practical abattoir demonstrations. It is only a question of time when every town and city of any size will arise from their sanitary lethargy. as a direct result of the education of public opinion along this line, and will have an organized and compulsory system of muni- cipal inspection supervised by one skilled in veterinary science. And the adoption as well as the success of such inspection will depend to a great extent upon the interest shown and the support given it by the people of the country, for whose health and INTBODUCTION XXXV 'well-being the conscientious inspector will give his constant sur- veillance. Perhaps of all parts of the field of veterinary publication in Eng- lish there is none so poorly supplied as that which pertains to prac- tical meat inspection. The English literature on this subject has been very sparse and not of a highly valuable character, making it all the more diflScult for an inspector without the knowledge of a foreign language to fully comprehend the nature of many of the uncommon pathological specimens with which he comes in contact cluring his inspection. Fortunate, indeed, -was the German-reading inspector who had access to the monthly meat-inspection journal published by Ostertag, as well as the latter's Handbook. In that journal many of the lesions which are little understood are discussed and it is not infrequent that by such articles the resemblance of such processes to our own observed lesions may become apparent. The issuance of the present publication on meat inspection, so ably translated from the masterpiece on this subject, will be of untold benefit, not only to the practical meat inspector and prac- tising veterinarian, but to the professor, student and layman as ■well. The need of such a book has long been felt by the English- reading inspectors and will readily be appreciated by them. The translation will perhaps be particularly welcome on account of the unusual interest at present manifested in meat inspection in this country and the consequent demand for well-trained meat inspec-, tors who can take charge of this work in various municipialities'' where meat inspection is being established. I. GENERAL BISCUSSION OF MEAT INSPECTION. 1.— Nature and Problems of Meat Inspection. Nature. — By the term meat inspection is understood the professional investigation and judgment on the entrails and meat of slaughtered animals with reference to their fitness as human food. In a broader sense, meat iuspection also includes the examination of living animals before slaughter, ■which examination is required for a more accurate judgment. on the fitness of the meat. for consumption. Furthermore, meat inspection embraces the supervision of public and private meat markets, as well as of all industries in wiiich meat is manufactured into sausages and other products. This control of the market and industrial occupations,, which in the older south German ordinances on meat inspection was characterized as extraordinary meat inspection, is a necessary supplement to true, or ordinary, meat inspection. For the meat of healthy animals which, in and of itself, is suitable for con- sumption, may, in consequence of improper preservation or other treatment, become subsequently unfit for consumption by man. Problems of Meat Inspection. — 1. The chief purpose of meat inspection is to protect man against the dangers which threaten him from eating meat. These dangers are of several sorts. The most serious consist in the possibility of the trans- mission of animal parasites (trichina and tape worms), as well as of infectious and toxic diseases (tuberculosis, glanders, anthrax, rabies, septicemia, pyemia, meat poisoning and botulism. The sanitary supervision of the traffic in meat is one of the most important parts of public hygiene, since meat forms the almost daily food of the greater portion of human beings, and 1 2 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON MEAT INSPECTION consumers in the majority of cases are not in a position to recog- nize the wholesome or dangerous character of the meat of which they partake as food. Meat may possess the freshest appearance, the red color, the firm consistency or fat content, and the peculiar odor — in short, all the characteristics of perfectly normal meat— and yet be un- wholesome. The dictum of the English statesman Disraeli, ^'sanitary education is better than sanitary legislation," dqes not apply to the consumption of meat by man. Eeliable criteria for the differentiation of wholesome and unwholesome meat are fur- nished only by the inspection of food animals before slaughter and the investigation of all parts of animals after slaughter, by meat inspectors. Thus it happens that there is no definite method of preparation by which all the unwholsomeness attaching to meat under certain circumstances may be removed. The consumer, therefore, can not protect himself sufficiently by private measures. Purthermore, experience has shown that the public, even in those cases in which it is possible, by observing certain precautions, to avoid the harmful effects of eating meat, is inclined to neglect these precautions. This is best illustrated by trichinosis. This is preventable by private measures, — thorough boiling or roasting of the meat. Nevertheless, the numerous epidemics of trichinosis to which hundreds of persons have fallen victims, have not sufficed to change the custom of eating raw and half-cooked pork. Gerlach justly observes that there is no more convincing proof of the •everlasting unreasonableness of man in certain things than that iurnished in trichinosis. For these reasons it is to be considered the plain duty of every community, through the organization of meat inspection, to with- hold from consumption all meat which is likely to injure the health of the consumer. Meat as Food Maierial for 3Ian. — Man is omnivorous. N"o human race is found which lives eschisively upon a vegetable diet. While in certain countries the meat of domesticated animals is not eaten, yet animal food is, nevertheless, consumed in the form of fish, amphibia, mollusks, etc.* The amount of meat which * In Japan, according to Janson, the consumption of the meat of domesticated animals was forbidden after the introduction of Buddhism in the seventh century a.d. The slaughter of animals was resumed after the admission of foreigners to the country. At first the latter alone ate meat. Gradually, however, the Japanese accustomed themselves to animal food, and in the beginning of the 80's it was introduced into the Japanese army. NATURE AND PROBLEMS 3 is eaten depends essentially upon the climate in which man lives. "While the inhabitants of the tropics live principally on a vegetable diet and those of the polar regions almost exclusively upon an .animal diet, the inhabitants of the temperate zone live upon a mixture of both food materials, as the most suitable nourishment. The vegetarian manner of life in our latitude must be characterized as founded on error. The case is not altered by the fact that certain individuals, in spite of abstaining from meat, are capable of exerting considerable energy. Meat is indispensable for the majority of human beings if they are to remain capable of a normal amount of work. According to Manfredi, the physical degeneration, lack of energy, and effeminate habits of the southern Italians are due to the fact that they eat so little meat. Furthermore, according to Alanus, the so-called atheromatous degeneration of the walls of the blood vessels is frequently observed in vegetarians. Consumption of Meat. — According to the reports of the German abbatoirs, the consumption of meat in cities amounts to from 50 to ^0 kg. per capita per annum, exclusive of game, fowls and fish. In country districts the use of meat is less extensive, so that the total consumption in cities and in rural districts averages consider- ably lower. In the Grand Duchy of Baden, which thus far has furnished the only reliable statistics on this point, the consumption of meat in 1890 amounted to 35.4 kg., and in 1894 to 42.1 kg. The consumption of meat varies with the market price. The Bureau of Statistics in England published a statement in 1890 on the consumption of meat in various civilized countries. According to this statement, the following amounts were consumed per capita per annum : Australia 111.6 kg. • United States.: 54;4 " Great Britain. 47.6 " Sweden and Norway 39.5 " France 33.6 " Germany 31.6 " Belgium and the Netherlands 31.3 " Austria-Hungary 39.0 " Russia 21.8 " Spain 23.3 " Italy 10.4 " Lichtenfelt compiled statistics for the year 1894 on the con- «umption of meat in Germany and the relative importance of the different kinds of meat in different parts of Germany : 4 GENERAL DISCUSSION OP MEAT INSPECTION PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF MEAT IN GERMANY. Regiox Cattlk Calves ' Sheep IIOQS Total ,-■■7' Kg.. 17 11.4 13.4 14.4 13.0 11.1 30 5 10 9 11 5 19.5 18.0 20.2 11 14 5 22 7 13.0 Kg. 1.2 2.3 30 1.7 3 3 .2.3 2.0 1.7 3.3 1.4 1.7 3.9 20 1 1 3.0 2.0 Kg. 2.0 2.3 43 3.4 09 1.4 1 8 1.3 0.4 1.3 5 1.0 0.9 00 5 1.3 1 5 ■Kg. 15.7 21.9 20.7 31.3 16.0 25.0 23.4 21 G 19.3 19.7 1G.8 24.5 17.3 23.3 30 8 15.9 Kg. 37.3 'Rrfl.Tififtnbure' 37.8 40.4 Posen. !,..'..: 39.7 Silesia. ' 33 8 Sa.xonv 30.8 Sfh-lpswif-Holstein. . 48.3 Hanover ...o 35 5 33.4 ,41.8 iiheinland . , 37.0 Kingdom of Saxony "Wurtemburg Baden 49.G 32.4 39 5 57.0 33.4 15.3 o o 20.9 33 More than the average amount of meat, therefore, is eaten in Pomerania, Schleswig-Holstein, Hesseu-Nassau, Bavaria and Baden. . Baden and Bavaria are especially conspicnous in this respect. The smallest q_uantity of meat is eaten in Silesia and the Kiugdom ol Saxony. Beef is constimed to the greatest extent in Baden, and least in Hanover ; veal, to the greatest extent in Bavaria and leasl in Wurtemburg. The inhabitants of Pomerania eat the mosi mutton, while those of Westphalia, Bhinelaud and Baden consume the least. The contrast with reference to the consumption of porl is quite striking, for, while the greatest quantity is eaten in Baden the neighboring inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine consume almost the smallest quantity of pork. Meat Eations in the German Army. — The small peace ration o the German soldier includes, in addition to bread, rice, legumes O] potatoes, and hulled barley, 150 giu. of meat ; the large peac( ration during the maneuvers, .250 gm.; small war ration, 375 gm. and the large war ration, 500 gm. 2. Another problem of meat inspection consists in protectioj consumers from financitd loss by I'rand. The inspection of mea must secure the proper conduct of the meat traffic. It protect; NATURE AND PBOBLEMS meat buyers against the likelihood of paying full price for inferior food stuflfs. As Schmidt-Miilheim rightly observes, no food material lends itself so readily to adulteration and fraudulent treatment as meat. Where meat inspection is not regulated, it is a well known •daily occurrence that meat of the lowest market value is offered for sale at full prices. It not only happens that unscrupulous dealers substitute horse meat for beef, but au extensive fraudulent traffic is ■carried on with the meat of diseased animals. Butchers obtain the meat of such animals at minimum prices and sell it to unsuspecting^ buyers at full market price. In so far as the meat of diseased animals is not dangerous to human health, its sale may be per- mitted, but it is no more than right that the consumer should be made acquainted with the facts, and that he should be able to take advantage of the lower market value due to the diseased condition •of the animal.* TliB Value of Bleat Inspection for Agriculture. — The profit which butchers make through the unrestricted sale of the meat of diseased animals is very considerable, since diseased animals are sold by farmers at ridiculous prices. Forty to fifty marks is a high price for a diseased beef animal, as appears from numerous legal pro- ceedings in cases of violation of the pure food law. For example, one butcher bought a diseased beef animal for 11 marks and testified that he had bought cattle at cheaper prices. Such methods of taking advantage of the rural population are -checked by active meat inspection. A certain proportion of ractically retained the properties of fresh meat, or which, through baitable treatment, can recover those properties, is not to be considered as prepared meat. Such meat comes under the pro- visions of number 1. MEAT INSPECTION LAW 67 After December 31, 1903, the conditions governing tlie importa- tion of meat are to be determined anew by law. If no new law is enacted by the time mentioned, the regulations established by Sec. 12, paragraph 2, shall remain in force until further measures are adopted. Sec. 13. Meat passing the customs line shall be subject, upon its importation, to an official inspection, made with the cooperation of the customs authorities. Such meat as is proved to have already been inspected, acoordiilg to regulations, in the inland, and meat intended for shipment in direct transit, is excepted herefrom. The importation of meat shall take place only via certain customs houses. The Federal Council shall determine these customs houses, and also the customs and revenue offices where the inspection of the meat may take place. Sec. 14. For game and fowls, and further, for meat carried for use on journeys, the provisions of Sees. 12 and 13 shall be applic- able only so far as the Federal Council orders. For meat imported in the minor frontier trade, as well as in the trade of the fairs and markets of frontie"r districts, exceptions to the regulations of Sees. 12 and 13 may be made by order of the federated governments. ■Sec. 15. The Federal Council is authorized to decree more sweeping prohibitions and restrictions of importation than are provided in Sees. 12 and 13. Sec. 16. The provisions of Sec. 8, paragraph 1, and of Sees. 9 to 11, apply also to meat imported inside of the customs line. Instead of the innocuous disposal or of the safeguarding measures ordered by the police, the re-exportation of the meat may, however, be permitted undei; corresponding precautionary measures, so far as hygienic considerations do not contraindicate. Sec. 17. Meat which is not intended as food for man, but Tvhich can be so used, may be imported without inspection, after it has been rendered unfit for human food. Sec. 18. The inspection (Sec. 1) of horses must be made by officially recognized veterinarians. Dealing in horse meat, as well as the importation of such meat inside of the customs line, shall take place only under a designa- tion, in the German language, which makes the meat recognizable as horse meat. Dealing in and the use of horse meat shall be permitted to meat dealers and hotel, saloon and restaurant keepers only with a license from the police authorities; the license shall be revocable 68 REGULATION OP TRAFFIC IN MEAT at any time. Horse meat may be delivered to the above-named tradespeople only so far as such a license has been granted to- them- In the business rooms of these persons it must be made especially evident,, by means of an intelligible sign in a conspicuous- place, that horse meat is dealt in or used. Meat dealers shall not offer for sale nor sell horse meat in the same roofns in which meat from other animals is offered for sale or sold. The Federal Council is authorized to order that the above ■regulations be applied to asses, mules, dogs and other animals- ■which are more rarely slaughtered. Sec. 19. The inspector shall clearly indicate upon the meat- the result of the inspection. Meat imported from abroad is, in addition, to be plainly stamped as imported meat. The Federal Council shall determine the kind of mark to be used.. Sec. 20. Meat which has been subjected within the German Empire to official inspection, according to Sees. 8 to 16, may be subject to an official reinspection only for the purpose of deter- mining whether it has spoiled in the meantime, or whether it has otherwise suffered any change in its condition, rendering it in- jurious to health. Enactments of the federated governments, according to which,, for communities with public slaughterhouses, the dealing in fresh meat" may be subjected to restrictions, especially to obligatory inspection within the community, shall remain unaffected, with the proviso that their applicability shall not be made dependent upon, the origin of the meat. Sec. 21. In the industrial preparation of meat no materials or processes shall be used which are capable x>i imparting to the wares a condition injurious to health. It is forbidden to import from abroad such prepared meat or to offer it for sale, to sell it, or otherwise to bring it into traffic. The Federal Council shall determine the materials and the processes to which these regulations shall be applied. The Federal Council shall order how far the regulations of paragraph 1 are applicable also to special materials and processes which are apt to conceal an unwholesome or inferior quality of the wares. Sec. 22. The Federal Council is authorized : 1. To issue regulations relative to determining whether persons possess sufficient knowledge to act as meat inspectors. 2. To establish general principles, according to which the. MEAT INSPECTION LAW 69 inspection of food animals and meat is to be carried out, and for the further treatment of food animals and of meat in case they are not passed. 3. To make the necessary arrangements for carrying out the provisions of Sec. 12 and for determining the fees for the inspection of meat brought inside the customs line. Sec. 23. The laws of the federated governments determine ■who has to bear the cost of the ofi&cial' inspection (Sec. 1). In all other matters, the necessary regulations for carrying out the Jaw shall be issued by the governments of the federated states, so far as the Federal Council has not been declared competent, or in so far as the Federal Council makes no use of the authority conferred upon it by Sec. 22. Sec. 24. Eegulations of the federated governments in regard to trichina inspection and the dealing in and use of meat which, although fit as food for man, is considerably diminished in its nutritive and food value; further, regulations of the federated government establishing more extensive obligations than does this law relative to : (1) The animals to be subjected to inspection, (2) the carrying out of inspections by officially recognized veterinarians, (3) the dealing in rejected moat, or in meat of animals desig- nate'd in Sec. 18, are permissible on the condition that their applicability shall not be made dependent upon the place of origin of the food animal or of the meat. Sec. 25. The Federal Council shall determine how far the provisions of this law apply to meat imported into that part of the Empire situated outside of the customs line. Sec. 26. Imprisonment in jail not exceeding six months and a fine not exceeding one thousand five hundred marks, or either of these penalties, shall be imposed upon : 1. Any person who knowingly acts in contravention of Sec. 9, paragraphs 2, 4 ; Sec. 10, paragraphs 2, 3 ; Sec. 12, paragraph 1 ; or Sec. 21, paragraphs 1, 2 ; or of a prohibition based upon Sec. 21, paragraph 3. 2. Any person who shall knowingly bring into traffic as food or condiment for man meat which has been imported contrary to the regulations of Sec. 12, paragraph 1, or meat which has been ren- -dered unfit for human food according to Sec. 17. 3. Any person who shall fraudulently affix or alter the marks provided for in Sec. 19, or who shall knowingly offer for sale or sell meat on which the marks have been fraudulently affixed, altered, or removed. 70 BEGULATION OP TEAPFIC IN MEAT Sec. 27. A fine not exceeding one hundred and fifty marks or imprisonment will be imposed upon : 1. Any person who through carelessness shall commit one of the acts designated in Sec. 26, numbers 1 and 2. 2. Any person who shall undertake to slaughter an animal before it has been subjected to the inspection prescribed in thia law, or ordered on authority of Sec. 1, paragraph 1, sentence 2; Sec. 3 ; Sec. 18, paragraph 5 ; or Sec. 24. 3. Any person who shall bring meat into traffic before it has ' been subjected to the inspection prescribed in this law, or ordered on authority of Sec. 1, paragraph 1, sentence 2 ; Sec. 3 ; Sec. 4, paragraph 1 ; Sec. 18, paragraph 5 ; or Sec. 24. 4. Any person who shall act in contravention of Sec, 2, para- graph 2; Sec. 7, paragraphs 2, 3 ; Sec. 8, paragraph 2; Sec. 11; Sec. 12, paragraph 2 ; Sec. 13, paragraph 2 ; Sec. 18, paragraph 2 to 4; also, any person who shall contravene orders issued in accord- ance with See. 15, or Sec. 18, paragraph 5 ; or the regulations of the federated governments concerning the dealing in and the use of meat, issued on authority of Sec. 24. Seo. 28. In the cases in Sec. 26, numbers 1 and 2, and in Sec. 27, number 1, the confiscation of the meat shall be ordered in addition to the penalty. In cases in Sec. 26, number 3, and Sec. 27, numbers 2 to 4, the seizure of the meat, or of the animal, may be ordered in addition to the penalty. In the case of confiscation, it is immaterial whether the object seized belongs to the condemned person or not. If the prosecution or the condemnation of. a given person is not possible, then the seizure may be ordered independently. Seo. 29. The provisions of the law of May 14, 1879 (page 145, Eeichsgesetzbl.), regarding the traffic in foods, condiments and articles of use, remain unchanged. The provisions of Sec. 16 of said law shall also be applicable to offences against the provisions of the present law. Sec. 30. Those provisions of this law which relate to the adoption of the arrangements necessary for carrying out the law for the inspection of food animals and of meat shall take effect on the day of the promulgation of this law. Furthermore, the time when the law goes into effect, either wholly or in part, shall be fixed by an imperial order with the assent of the Federal Council. MEAT INSPECTION LAW 71 I Eemarks Concerning Meat Inspection Law. (a) General. The enactment of the bill concerning the introduction of the inspection of food animals and meat in tlj« German Empire was not accomplished by a unanimous vote on the pa.rt of the Keichstag.' Strangely enough, according to a statement of the State Secretary, Count Posadowsky, certain persons were opposed to the law from whom such opposition was not to be expected. It seemed to have been forgotten that the new meat inspection law had in the first place a hygienic purpose — the protection of the public health. The State Secretary of the German Empire, in a noteworthy speech, characterized the high purpose of the meat inspection law and also the defects which were due to the resolutions of the majority of the Reichstag. The original draft of the law was not enacted in the hygienically complete form in which the Eeichs- regierung presented it to the Reichstag. The majority of the Reichstag, which remained deaf to the statements of experts, introduced regulations into the law which we must regret from a standpoint of hygiene. Nevertheless, the bill, which has now become a law, is a great hygienic fact, the effects of which will be beneficial to the consumer, producer and dealer in equal degree. From the standpoint of hygiene, we must consider that slaughtering for one's own household, according to the provisions of the law, is not subject to obligatory inspection, and we are of the opinion that this exception is not in accordance with the well- known interests of the farmer. It is to be hoped, however, that the facultative meat inspection in slaughtering for one's own house- hold, like facultative inspection for trichina in hogs slaughtered for home use, will pass over into obligatory inspection after the un- desirability of the exception has become apparent from practice. The majority in the Reichstag, furthermore, to the disadvantage of the farmer and consumer, struck out the obligatory provisions concerning the sale of inferior meat upon the freibank. Moreover, from a hygienic standpoint, the admission of separate pieces of meat from foreign countries is to be characterized as a defect in the law, since the inspection of such pieces for the purpose of determining their harmlessness is an impossibility. It must be admitted, on the other hand, that the Reichstag, contrary to the original draft of the law, introduced a prohibitive order against the introduction of manufactured articles, such as sausages and con- 72 EEGULATION OF TRAFFIC IN MEAT serves, the composition of which is entirely beyond control. More- over, it is possible that in the introduction of separate pieces of meat a change for the better may occur when it becomes possible, by the admission of animals from foreign countries in abattoirs on the border, to enforce strictly the requirement that only whole parts of animals in their natural connections with the internal organs shall be introduced. Finally, some objections may be raised against the wording of Sec. 20, which permits cities lo make a subsequent inspection of meat introduced from foreign countries only when it is in a fresh condition, as well as against the penalties which have created contradictions between the new law and the corresponding provisions of the food law and the criminal statutes for the German Empire. It will be the duty of the Federal Council and the governments of the various federated States to regulate this matter by the decree of ordinances for enforcing the law. The rationale of the law, together with technical commentaries on it, are found in Act 138 of the Eeichstag, 10th Legislative Period, First Session, 1898-1899. Furthermore, with regard to the iistory of the origin of the law. Act 639 of the Eeichstag, 10th legislative Period, First Session, 1898-1899, is important as con- taining the report of the 15th Session, which was entrusted with making the draft of the law, and, finally, the stenographic reports of the Eeichstag for the Sessions 67, 68, 162, 163, 164, 199, 200, and 201 of the above-mentioned legislative period. From these sources the following commentary is taken.* (b) Oommentaey on the Different Peovisions of the Meat Inspection Law. Section 1. Cattle, swine, sheep, goats, horses, and dogs, the meat of which is intended to he used as food for man, shall be subjected to an official inspection both before and after slaughter. By decision of the Federal Council, obligatory inspection may be extended to other food animals. In case of emergency slaughter, the ante-mortem inspection may be omitted The following are to be considered as eases of emergency: When there is reason to fear that the animal may die before the arrival of the proper local inspector or that the meat may become materially reduced in value owing to aggravation of the diseased condition, or when, in consequence of an accident, the animal must be killed immediately. * Compare also the Commentary of von Rohrscheidt, The Meat Inspection Law Empire. To the German customs inland belong also Luxemburg and the customs ports lying in the Austrian regions. The free harbor regions, on the contrary, do not belong to the customs inland. (c) Cooperation of the customs officials. The cooperation ov the customs officials is confined to making possible the immediate seizure of all meat introduced for sanitary inspection and to prevent the meat from being freely admitted to the market before a satis- factory decision on the inspection is reached. Hi^fLT INSPECTION LAW 87 Section 14. For game and fowls, and, further, for meat carried for use on journeys, the provisions of Sees. 12 and 13 shall be applicable only so far as the Federal Council orders. For meat imported in the minor frontier trade, as well as in the trade of the fairs and markets of frontier districts, exceptions to the regulations of Sees. 12 and 13 may be made by order of the federated governments. The exception from compvlsory inspection of wild game and fowls, as well as aU meat which is transported for use in travelling. The draft of the law states on this point that the necessity of a sanitary- control in general does not exist for wild game and the meat of fowls. Occasionally, to be sure, in outbreaks of epizootics among game and fowl in foreign countries, a method of control may be shown to be necessary. In the case of meat which is carried for use on journeys and also in the case of mfeat which is ordered from foreign countries by post, it appears that so long as no especially dangerous conditions exist the practice of an official inspection may be omitted. On the one hand, the quantities of meat which come into consideration in this connection are, as a rule, inconsiderable, and are not for subsequent sale, but for private use of the persons concerned. On the other hand, again, the inspection of these materials would be connected with great inconvenience on the part of the owners and recipients. The original "draft of the law, there- fore, gave authority to the Federal Council to determine according to requirements in how far an inspection of meat of these classes should be undertaken. Section 15. The Federal Council is authorized to decree more sweeping prohibitions and restrictions of importation than arefprovided in Sees. 13 and 13. Further prohibitions and restrictions concerning the introduc- tion of meat are provided in case of the possibility that in the future new meat preparations which can not be inspected might be introduced. Section 18. The inspection (Sec. 1) of horses must be made by officially recognized veterinarians. Dealing in horse meat, as well as the importation of such meat inside of the customs line, shall take place only under a designation in the German language which makes the meat recognizable as horse meat. Dealing in and the use of horse meat shall be permitted to meat dealers and hotel, saloon, and restaurant keepers only with a license from the police authorities; the license shall be revocable at any time. Horse meat may be delivered to the gg EEGULATION OF TRAFFIC IN MEAT above-named tradespeople only so far as such a license has been granted to them. In the business rooms of these persons it must be made especially evident, by means of an intelligible sign in a conspicuous place, that horse meat is dealt in or used. Meat dealers shall not offer for sale nor sell horse^meat in the same rooms in which meat from other animals is ofCered for sale or sold. I The Federal Council is authorized to order that the above regulations be applied to asses, mules, dogs, and other .animals which are more rarely slaughtered. (a) Exclusive competency of veterinarians for the inspection ofJiorses. The inspection of horses must be performed by approved veter- inarians, since the recognition of glanders and the formation of judgment on the fitness for food of horse meat requires a mass of technical information such as is usually not possessed by assistant inspectors. (b) The requirement of a declaration for horse meat is justified by the inferior market value which horse meat possesses as com- pared with beef and other kinds of meat and by the antipathy which many people feel against the consumption of horse meat. For similar reasons, declaration is indicated for the meat of other solipeds and dogs, as well as for the meat of goats and bufifaloes. Section 20. Meat which has been subjected within the Grerman Empire to the official' inspection according to Sees. 8 to 16, may be made subject to an official reinspeetion only for the purpose of determining whether it has spoiled in the meantime, or whether it has otherwise suffered any change in its condition, rendering it injurious to health. Enactments of the federated governments, according to which, for communities with public slaughterhouses, the dealing in fresh meat may be subjected to restrictions, especially to obligatory inspection within the community, shall 'remain unaflected, with the proviso that their applicability shall not be made dependent upon the origin of the meat. (a) Repeated official inspection. The text of the law declares that the previously customary repeated inspection of meat which has already been inspected inland has given rise to many complaints on account of the expenses and other inconveniences which are con- nected with it. Such a repeated inspection will be dispensed with for the future, for every inspection carried out according to the provisions of the Imperial law will be regarded as binding upon the entire Empire. This holds good especially for the inspection which is provided for foreign meat. The law proceeds, therefore, upon the principle that in general a single inspection is suflicient and must be binding upou the entire Empire. This principle, however, requires certain qualifications. In the first place, reinspeetion must be prompt in so far as it is a question of determining whether MEAT INSPECTION LAW 89 changes have occurred (since the performance of the inspection) ■which may make the meat unfit for use. The draft of the law, therefore, provided that in the latter case a re-inspection should be permitted. Moreover, it is apparent that the general control of food materials, which is based on the food law, shall not be abro- gated in the case of meat which is inspected according to the provisions of the law. The requirement in Sec. 29 leaves no doubt on this point. This control, moreover, is indispensable, since iDther- wise it can not be determined whether the meat which is brought to the market has ever been inspected and whether it bears the stamp required in Sec. 19 as evidence of inspection, as well as for the purpose of preventing the offering for sale of spoiled meat or meat which has subsequently become unfit for use in any other way ; for example, meat treated with injurious preserving re^agents. A general secondary inspection can no longer be ordered by the local authorities. On the other hand, the authority of the police to undertake subsequent official inspection remains unaffected in individual instances, especially in case of suspicion of violation of the provisions of meat inspection or of failure of the meat inspector to perform his duty, as well as from reasons of public sanitation. The same holds good for subsequent tests which may be required when in a particular case doubt may be entertained concerning th.e findings of the meat inspector and concerning decision regarding the fitness of the meat for food. (b) Especial provisions for communities with public abattoirs. According to the Prussian Slaughterhouse Law, it may be ordered, in communities which have erected a public slaughter? house, that no meat which is not slaughtered in a public abattoir can be offered for sale within the district until it is sub- jected to an inspection by expert inspectors for a fee which is returned to the communal treasury. This provision, which includes a secondary inspection of meat introduced from outside localities, removes to a certain extent the scruples which might be entertained with regard to provision of Sec. 20, paragraph 1. Considered from a purely theoretical standpoint, the latter provision is correct. From the practical aspects of the affair, however, the authority for repeated complete inspection should not be excluded. The annual reports of the municipal meat inspection at Berlin offer convincing proof that it is absolutely necessary to subject introduced meat to a complete subsequent inspection, even when it has been already inspected elsewhere, before it is admitted to the market at the point of introduction. In order to give a single example, trichinae are 90 BEGULATION OF TKA^TIO IN MEAT almost annually found in hogs whicli were inspected at the place of slaughter and were admitted to the market as apparently free from trichina. Exactly the same conditions prevail in other cities. On the basis of similar experiences it is provided in the Grand Duchy of Baden, which at the present time possesses the best organization of meat inspection inside of the German Empire, that all meat introduced from one part of Baden into another shall be again carefully inspected before it is offered for sale in the second locality and shall be certified by the meat inspector. -The repetition of the inspection of meat which is transported from one inspection district into another must be considered as absolutely necessary, since it furnishes the only effective means of preventing evasions of meat inspection, false stamping, and defective inspection. "Without special provisions in favor of communities with public abattoirs, the system of meat inspection hereby established would be com- pelled to take a step backward. The same undesirable conditions would be brought about which were fortunately obviated in the Kingdom of Prussia in the year 1887 by the amendment to the slaughterhouse law. Section 21. In the industrial preparation of meat no materials or processes shall be used which are capable of imparting to the wares a condition injurious to health. It is forbidden to import from abroad such prepared meat or to offer it for sale, to sell it, or otherwise to bring it into traffic. The Federal Council shall determine the materials and the processes to which, these regulations shall be applied. The Federal Council shall order how far the regulations of paragraph 1 are applicable also to special materials and processes which are apt to conceal an unwhole- some or inferior quality of the wares. Harmful preserving materials and stuffs which are calculated to conceal the dangerous or inferior character of the products. By meana of the prohibition of the use of the above mentioned materials, which is to be expected in regulations issued by the Federal Council, all uncertainty which had been caused by divergent opinions of experts concerning permission for the addition of boric, salicylic, and sulphurous acids, and coloring materials to meat and meat products, are removed. Section 22. The Federal Council is authorized : 1. To issue regulations relative to determining whether persons possess suIBcient knowledge to act as meat inspectors. 2. To establish general principles, according to which the inspection of food MEAT INSPECTION LAW Dl animals and of meat is to be carried out, and for the further treatment of food animals and of meat in case they are not passed. 3. To make the necessary arrangements for carrying out the provisions of Sec. 12 and for determining the fees for the inspection of meat brought inside the customs line. By the fact that the authority mentioned in Sec. 22 is reserved for the Federal Council, uniformity in the execution of meat inspection is assured. Section 23. The laws of the federated governments determine who has to bear the cost of the oflBcial inspection (Sec. 1). In all other matters, the necessary regulations for carry- ing out the law shall be issued by the governments of the federated States, so far as the Federal Council has not been declared competent or in so far as the Federal Council makes no use of the authority conferred upon it by Sec. 22. " The laws of the federated governments." According to the commentary of Bohrscheidt in the report of the commission, it is not necessary that'the. provisions in question should be embodied in a law. This ma;y be accomplished by means of ordinances. The particular federal State concerned decides whether a law is neces- sary or not. It is not prescribed in the Imperial law for the individual States which method of procedure they shall choose. Section 24. Regulations of the federated governments in regard to trichina inspection and the dealing in and use of meat which, although fit as food for man, is consider- ably diminished in its nutritive and food value ; further, regulations ot the federated governments establishing more extensive obligations than does this law relative to : (1) The animals to be subjected to inspection, (2) the carrying out of the inspections by of&cially recognized veterinarians, (3) the dealing in rejected meat or in meat of animals designated in Sec. 18, are permissible on the condition that their applicability shall not be made dependent upon the place of origin of the food animal or of the meat. (a) Provisions by decree of individual States concerning trichina inspection. Sec. 24 furnishes the means of introducing a general ti-ichina inspection and, therefore, also for hogs which are slaugh- tered for use in the household of the owner. (b) Meat of inferior value. Meat of inferior value requires the same trade restrictions as meat which was qualifiedly fit for use, but has been rendered utilizable as food for man. (Compare p. 81.) Through Sec. 24 it is made possible for the authorities of the individual States to regulate traffic in meat of inferior value by suitable provisions. (o) Further provisions with reference to the animals ivhich are to be subject to inspection and to the execution of meat inspection by approved 92 EEGULATION OP TBAFFIO IN MEAT vetermarians. In general the law must determine the minimum ^ requirements which must be fulfilled throughout the Empire with ' reference to the inspection of food animals and meat. While it remains within the province of the individual federal States to issue further more detailed regulations for their territory in so far as the necessity exists, it is plainly indicated, as in the interest of the most effective preservation of the uniformity of the law, to set certain limits in this connection to the legislation of the individual States. Por this purpose in Sec. 24 those points are separately brought out to which the authority of the federal States shall be limited. According to Sec. 1, the extension of compulsory inspection may be increased in two directions ; viz., by extension to other animals than those mentioned in Sec. 1 or declared by the Federal Council as sub- ject to inspection ; and again by removal or a restriction of the in- spection in favor of slaughtering for home use provided for in Sec. 2. According to Sec. 2, it is permissible to limit the appointment of laymen as meat inspectors arid to entrust the execution of inspection exclusively to approved veterinarians to a greater extent than the draft of Sec. 18, paragraphs 1 and 6, provided ; and this holds good for certalin kinds of animals or for animals suspected of being diseased or for meat which from its appearance avi^akens sanitary scruples. ' Section 25. The Federal Council shall determine how far the provisions of this law apply to meat imported into that part of the Empire situated outside of the customs line. Localities outside of the customs line. In localities outside the customs line, the regulations of the law do not apply immediately. The fact that particularly in the regions of the free ports we have- to do frequently with a mere exchange with foreign countries makes a considerable number of measures provided in the law appear inapplicable in such States, or at any rate unnecessary. The requirement of introduction of regulations of the law will differ in various regions outside of the customs line according to local conditions. The introduction of a regulation having regard to this point in the law would, however, meet with difficulties. The deter- mination, therefore, of how far the provisions of the law shall be binding for localities outside of the customs line is left to the authority of the Federal Council. Section 26. Iraprisomnent in jail not exceeding six months and a fine not exceeding one thousand five hundred marks, or either of these penalties, shall be imposed upon— MEAT INSPECTION LAW 93 1. Any person who knowingly acts in contravention of See. 9, paragraphs 3, 4; Sec. 10, paragraphs 3, 3; Sec. 13, paragraph 1; or Sec. 21, paragraphs 1, 2; or of a prohibition based upon Sec. 21, paragraph 3. 3. Any person who shall knowingly bring into traffic as food or condiment for man meat which has been imported contrary to the regulations of Sec. 13, paragraph 1, or meat which has been rendered unfit for human food according to Sec. 17. 3. Any person who shall fraudulently affix or alter the marks provided for in Sec. 19, or who shall knowingly offer for sale or sell meat on which the marks have been fraudulently affixed, altered, or removed. Section 27. A fine not exceeding one hundred and fifty marks or imprisonment will be imposed upon — 1. Any person who through carelessness shall commit one of the acts designated in Sec. 36, numbers 1 and 3. 3. Any person who shall undertake to slaughter an animal before it has been subjected to the inspection prescribed in this law, or ordered on authority of Sec. 1, paragraph 1, sentence 3; Sec. 3; Sec, 18, paragraph 5; or Sec. 24. 3. Any person who shall bring into traffic meat before it has been subjected to the inspection prescribed in this law, or ordered on authority of Sec. 1, paragraph 1, sentence 3; Sec. 3; Sec. 14, paragraph 1; Sec. 18, paragraph 5; or Sec. 24. Section 88. In the cases in Sec. 26, numbers 1 and 3, and in Sec. 37, number 1, the confisca- tion of the meat shall be ordered in addition to the penalty. In cases in Sec. 36, number 3, and Sec. 27, numbers 3 to 4, the seizure of the meat, or of the animal, may be ordered in addition to the penalty. In the case of ooufiscation, it is immaterial whether the object seized belongs to the condemned person or not. If the prosecution or the condemnation of a given person is not possible, then the seizure may be ordered independently. Penal provisions. With reference to the penalties provided in ■Sec. 26, paragraph 3 (the fraudulent use or fraudulent changing of the stamps of the kind mentioned in Sec. 19), the draft of the law states that the provisions of the criminal statutes are not sufficient to cover cases of the fraudulent use of these marks or the fraudulent changing of them as such, as well as the offering for sale or sale of meat from which the stamps have been removed. Moreover, cases of intentional offering for sale or sale of meat on which the stamp has been fraudulently placed or fraudently changed woukl, as a rule, be punished as forgery according to the general provisions of Sec. 270 or Sees. 267 and 268 of the criminal law. The application of these provisions, however, would lead to undoubted hardships on account of the severity of the punishments provided by these laws. It appeared to be proper, therefore, to establish a special penal provision in this case and to provide merely the punishment required for violations of the law for all cases which come into consideration in this connection, since in the first place they are 94 REGULATION OF TRAFFIC IN MEAT violations of purely police control measures. Otherwise, the pro- visions of the criminal law shall remain unaffected. The provision of Sec. 28, paragraph 1, according to which in cases mentioned in Sec. 26, paragraphs 1 and 2, and Sec. 27., paragraph 1, procedure shall be instituted for seizure, is justified by the especially dangerous character of the meat which is presupposed in these cases. In other cases the seizure of the meat is left to the discretion of the court. Section 29. The provisions of the law of May 14, 1879 (page 145, Eeichsgesetzbl.), regarding the traffic in foods, condiments and articles of use, remain unchanged. The pro- visions of Sec. 16 of said law shall also be applicable to offences against the provisions of the present law. Further validity of the food law. For the avoidance of uncer- tainty, it was expressly stated in the law that the regulations of the food law (see p. 95) should remain unaffected. The provision of Sec. 29 is made with reference to the favorable effects which, according to past experience, have been produced by the public annouucemeut of condemnations in the execution of the food law and its amendments. Those provisions of this law which relate to the adoption of the arrangements necessary for carrying out the law for the inspec- tion of food animals and of meat shall take effect on the day of the promulgation of this law. Section 30. Those provisions of this law which relate to the adoption of the arrangements necessary for carrying out the law for the inspection of food animals and of meat shall take effect on the day of the promulgation of this law. Furthermore, the time when the law goes into effect, either wholly or in part, shall be fixed by an imperial order with the assent of the Federal Council, Enforcement of the various provisions of the law. For the execu- tion of the general inspection of food animals and meat, as was provided for in the law, detailed administrative measures, especially the creation of the machinery for carrying out inspection and of a personnel of inspection competent to carry out their functions, are required. While, therefore, on the one hand, it appeared to be necessary that all those provisions of the law which had reference to the establishment of these institutions should at once become operative, consideration must be had in determining the time for putting into force the other provisions of the law to secure a suffi- cient period of time for these preparations. It was not desirable FOOD INSPECTION LAW 95 that this period should be determined in the law itself, since it could not be foreseen with certainty what length of time would be required for these preparations by the Imperial government and by the individual federal States. According to the precedent of other Imperial laws, the determination of the time for putting into force the requirements in question was reserved for an Imperial pro- clamation with the consent of the Federal Council. 2.— Imperial Law Concerning Traiflc in Food, Condiments, and Manufactured Articles, of May 14, 1879. Sec. 1. Traffic in food and condiments, as well as in playthings, tapestry, colors, eating, drinking, and cooking utensils, and in petroleum, is subject to inspection, according to the provisions of this law. Sec. 2. Police authorities are empowered to enter places in in which articles of the sort mentioned in Sec. 1 are offered for sale, during the usual business hours, or while the places are open for traffic. They are empowered to take samples at their discretion of articles of the sort mentioned in Sec. 1 which they find in the places in question or which are offered for sale in public places, and to give a receipt for the same, after which the articles are to be inspected. Upon request, a part of the sample may be officially closed, sealed, and left with the owner. A recompense at the rate of the usual selling price is to be made for the sample which is taken if the inspection shows that the material is utilizable. Sec. 3. The police authorities are empowered in case of per- sons who are condemned to confinement on the basis of Sees. 10, 12, and 13 of this law, to undertake inspection at such a time as is described in Sec. 2 in places in which articles of the sort mentioned in Sec. 1 are offered for sale or which serve for the preservation of preparation of such articles for sale. This authority begins at the time when judgment is pronounced and ends after the lapse of three years reckoned from the day on which the sentence was completed, shortened, or annulled. Sec. 4. The competency of the authorities and officials with regard to the measures described in Sees. 2 and 3 is determined in accordance with regulations made by the government concerned. State regulations which give the police further authority than is mentioned in Sees. 2 and 3 remain unaffected.* * This hoids true especially with regard to the unannounced inspection of store rooms and factories by meat inspectors in Southern Germany, which inspection is 96 BEGULATION' OP TRAFFIC IN MEAT Sec. 5. Eegulations may be made for the whole Empire by Imperial decree with the consent of the Federal Council for th& protection of health, prohibiting : 1. Certain methods of preservation and packing of food and condiments which are intended for sale. 2. The public sale or offering" for sale of food and condiments of a certain character or under claim of a quality which really does not belong to them. 3. The sale or offering for sale for the purpose of slaughter of animals which are suffering from certain diseases, as well as the sale or offering for sale of the meat of animals which were affected with certain diseases. 4. The utilization of certain materials and coloring matters for the preparation of clothing, playthings, tapestry, eating, drinking,, and cooking utensils, as well as the public sale or offering for sale of articles which were prepared in a manner contrary to this prohibition. 5. The public sale or offering for sale of petroleum of a certain character. Sec. 6. By means of an Imperial decree with the consent of the Federal Council, the preparation, sale, and offering for sale of ordered for all butchers. The meat inspectors of Southern Germany are required to perform not only the prescribed inspection of stock yards and slaughterhouses, but also the stalls and workrooms, as well as the rooms of the butchers, including their cellars, ice chests, sleeping rooms for the assistants, and also the sales rooms and store rooms of all persons engaged in meat traffic. This inspection takes place at least every two weeks, and inspection without notice is made, as a rule, each week of the premises of dealers in wild game, fowl, and iish, for the purpose of determining the cleanliness and other observations of the police regulations concerning the traiBc in meat, etc., and, in case conditions are not found to be in accordance with the law, the required procedure is to be taken without delay. Without such inspection smuggling in uninspected meat, the manufacture of sausages, and the cleanliness of the butcher's premises can not be controlled. Unannounced inspection of the sales room and work rooms of butchers make, there- fore, a necessary supplement to true meat inspection, i.e., the inspection of food animals before and after slaughter. The Imperial Government President in Kassel, with regard to Sees. 2 and 3 of the food law, ordered the district veterinarians of his district on December 27, 1893, to make use of the authority which belonged to them as oiRcials of the veterinary police, to undertake inspection of places open for traffic, and to take samples for inspection. The local police authorities are ordered immediately after notification by the court officials to communicate to the district veterinarians of the Kassel district the names of such persons as have been condemned to confinement on the basis of Sees. 10, 12, and 13 of the food law. According to the regulations concerning •industrial pursuits, entrance into the work rooms of butchers is at all times permitted to police offioialSi FOOD INSPECTION LAW 97 articles which are intended for the adulteration of food and con- diments may be forbidden or restricted within the limits of the Empire. Sec. 7. Imperial decrees issued on the basis of Sees. 5 and 6 are to be immediately laid before the Reichstag, if in session, other- wise at its next session. They may be annulled by order of the Beichstag. Sec. 8. All persons who violate decrees issued according to Sees. 5 and 6 are to be punished with a fine of 150 marks or by imprisonment. State regulations can not provide a more severe ; punishment. Sec. 9. All persons who, contrary to the provisions of Sees. 2 to 4, refuse permission to enter or to take samples or to make inspection are to be punished with a fine of from 50 to 100 marks or with imprisonment. Sec. 10. Imprisonment not exceeding six months and a fine not exceeding 1,500 marks, or either, is provided for (1) all persons who imitate or adulterate food and condiments for the purpose of deception, in business and traffic in them ; (2) all persons who knowingly sell food or condiments which are fraudulent imitations,. or adulterated, and without stating this fact, or who offer them for- sale under a deceptive label. If the kctions mentioned in Sec. 10,. number 2, are performed from carelessness, the punishment is a fine- not exceeding 150 marks or imprisonment. Sec. 12. Imprisonment, together with the possible loss of civil ■rights, is provided for (1) all persons who purposely prepare articles- which are intended to serve as food or condiment for others in such a manner that they may be injurious to human health, and for all persons who knowingly sell,, offer for sale, or otherwise traffic in as food or condiments articles the consumption of which would be, injurious to human health ; (2) all persons who purposely prepare- clothing materials, playthings, tapestry, eating, drinking and cooking utensils, or petroleum in such a manner that the intended or future use of these articles is likely to be injurious to human health ; and also all persons who knowingly sell, offer for sale, or otherwise have traffic in such articles. Attempted evasions are punishable. If on account of these forbidden actions a serious bodily injury or death of a human being is caused, the punishment is confinement, in the workhouse for five years. Sec. 13. If in cases mentioned in Sec. 12 the consumption or use of the article was likely to injure human health, and if this faci 98 EEGULATION OP TRAFFIC IN MEAT was known to the vendor, the punishment is confinement in the workhouse for ten years ; and if by the action in question the death of a human being is caused, confinement in the workhouse for not less than ten years or for life. In addition to the punishment, police supervision must be permitted. Sec. 14. If any one of the actions characterized in Sees. 12 or 13 are performed through carelessness, the punishment is a fine not exceeding 1,000 marks or imprisonment not exceeding six months; and if through the action in question an injury is caused to the health of a human being, the punishment is imprisonment for one year, or, if the death of a human being was caused, imprisonment for from one month to three years. Sec. 15. In the cases mentioned in Sees. 12 to 14, in addition to the punishment, those articles which were prepared, sold, offered for sale, or otherwise brought into trade in a manner contrary to the above mentioned regulations may be seized without regard to whether they belong to the condemned person or not. In the cases mentioned in Sees. 8, 10, and 11, the articles may. also be seized. If in cases mentioned in Sees. 12 to 14 the prosecution or conviction of a certain person is not possible, the articles may rightly be seized. Sec. 16. In rendering judgment or announcing punishment it may be ordered that the conviction shall be publicly announced at the expense of the guilty person. At the request of the acquitted defendant, the court must order the public announcement of the acquittal. The State Treasury bears the expenses in so far as they are not imposed upon the plaintiff. The manner of making the announcement is to be determined in the order. Sec. 17. If there exists in the locality where the deed was committed a public institution for the technical investigation of foods and condiments, the fines which are imposed on the basis of this law, in so far as they belong to the State, are to be returned to the Treasury, which bears the cost of the administration of the institution. Amendment to the Law Concekning Food, Condiments, and Manufactured Articles, of June 29, 1887. By the amendment of June 29, 1887, Sec. 16 of the law of May 14, 1879, receives the following additional provision : Whenever a legal conviction takes place in consequence of the police inspection of articles of the sort mentioned in Sec. 1, the costs of the police inspection must be borne by the convicted party. They are to be rOOD INSPECTION LAW 99 •determined at the same time with the costs of the legal procedure and to be collected. ' Notes on the Law of May 14, 1879. (a) Geneeal. Until the passage of the Imperial Meat Inspection Law, the food law was the only means for applying Imperial law to the control of meat traffic. It had become apparent, however, that the peculiar nature of meat rendered it impossible that the offering ^or sale and sale of meat could be regulated by the general pro- visions concerning the whole subject of traffic in food materials. It is necessary also to consider another fact which rendered impossible a thorough meat inspection on the basis of the food law, namely, the want of regulations for executing the Imperial law of May 14, 1879. Finally, in this law no account was taken of the experience which had been had in the practice of meat inspection in southern Oermany before the passage of the law. This is particularly apparent from the fact that the food law did not expressly provide for traffic in defective (spoiled) meat upon the freibank. This defect was disagreeably felt in the practice of meat inspection. The food law, the provisions of which are not abrogated by the Imperial Meat Inspection Law (see p. 94), has, since the enforce- ment of the latter law, the value of a supplementary law, and remains for the future the legal foundation for criminal procedure in traffic with "spoiled, imitated, adulterated, and injurious" meat. The sources which are drawn upon in explaining the provisions of the food law are the material elaborated in the Imperial. Health Office for a technical foundation of the food law, the report of the Eeichstag Commission, and the proceedings of the Reichstag in connection with the draft of the law.* Meyer and Finkelnburg called attention to the fact that in explaining the food Liw we must consider not only the decisions of the courts, but especially those of the Imperial Court which have reference to the punishments provided in Sees. 10 to 16 of the law and which are of great value in making a commentary on them. "For although a complete retrial of the facts established in the trial court in a particular case may not be indicated for the Imperial Court by the nature of the legal procedure under revision, it nevertheless has an opportunity, in making a review for the purpose of determining to what extent * Compare Meyer and Finkelnburg, Commentaries upon the Law of May 14, 1879. 100 BEGULATION OF TRAFPIO IN MEAT actual error appears to have been committed, to express an opinioi*' concerning the meaning of the provisions of the law, and to indicate- clearly their application." The decisions of the Imperial Court have given an explanation of special provisions of the law, especially the concept " spoiled," which differ essentially from those contained in the materials for the technical foundation of the law.* (b) Special Notes on Secs. 10 to 14 op the Food Law, Fartly according to the commentaries of Meyer and Finkelnhurg and] partly according to later decisions of tJie Imperial Court concern- ing the application of the paragrapJis cited from the Law of May 14, 1879. Section 10. Imprisonment not exceeding six months and a fine not exceeding 1,500 marks, or either, is provided for (1) all persons who imitate or adulterate food and condiments- for the purpose of deception in business and traflBc in them; (3) all persons who knowingly sell food or condiments which are fraudulent, imitations, or adulterated, and without stating this fact, or who offer them for sale under a deceptive label. If the actions mentioned in Sec. 10, number 3, are performed from carelessness, the punishment is a fine not exceeding 150 marks or imprisonment. (ii) " For the purpose of deception" " ivithout mentioning the fact," and " under a deceptive label." The actual status of the misdemeanor for which punishment is provided in Sec. 10 differs from that of Deception (Sec. 263 of the Criminal Law Statute) in that for its ful- filment neither the "intention of obtaining illegitimate profit for one's self or for a third person," nor the creation of an erroneous impression " by the representation of false conditions or by the suppression or covering up of true conditions" need be present. The violation of Sec. 10, however, may be a case of deception. According to Sec. 10, it is only necessary that the act be calculated to deceive others or that it be done with the knowledge * The Royal Prussian Ministers for Traffic, Industries, Interior, etc., explained to the representatives of several trades in the decree of September 14, 1883, that the explanation of Sec. 10 could not be based exclusively on the "materials" of the law, which proceeded upon quite different views from those of traffic and industry. It was further stated that the government presidents should instruct the police oflftcials under them that they should have regard in all doubtful cases to the interests of trade and traffic in preparing a legal prosecution for adulterations of food and condi- ments. It was held, however, that it was not the purpose of the law to limit the legal, and police prosecution to actually dangerous adulterations. The judical officers'were- given similar instructions by the Minister of Justice. FOOD INSPECTION LAW 101 ■fchat it ia calculated to deceive. According to the intention of the law the vendor must do all within his power to make clear to intending purchasers the true character of the wares. If the dealer knows that the wares are spoiled, imitations, or adulterated, he must state this expressly or must otherwise make it apparent. Erom this text it is plain that the law of May 14, 1879, was not intended to prohibit absolutely the sale of adulterated or spoiled food materials or imitations, but, as already indicated by Schmidt- Miilheim, it was intended simply to introduce a compulsory declara- tion for such food materials. In case of an effected sale, it is sufficient that silence was main- tained concerning the special character of the wares. In offering for sale it is not impossible that the vendor may make a truthful statement to the intending purchaser. On this account punishment is provided expressly for offering for sale " under a deceptive label," "but not for offering for sale in general. " The determining factor is, however, deception concerning the character of the materials, not concerning their value ; both will occur simultaneously in most cases, but not necessarily." (von Schwarze.) By the term " offering for sale " is to be understood the inten- tion of selling a thing in general and the making known of this intention, even if but one person is present. It is erroneous to assume that the article in being offered for sale must be made a;Ccessible to the public for purchase (opinion of the Imperial Court, IV, Criminal Senate, July 7, 1887). The mere opening of a store before the beginning of business hours does not constitute an offering for sale of the meat which is contained in the store (Decision III, of January li, 1886). Silence concerning the spoiled condition of meat which has been sold does not presuppose a suppression of the true conditions (compare Deception). On the other hand, the spoiled condition, ■when known to both vendor and vendee, must not be concealed {Decision IV, of October 1, 1886). In harmony with this statement the Imperial Court handed down a decision September 29, 1894, " if, on the other hand, the defendant knew that the purchaser recognized the wares as spoiled when she bought them, calling attention expressly to this defect would have been a useless formality which could not have had any inflaence either upon the knowledge or the intention of the purchaser." (b) Imitations. Under imitations is understood "the prepara- tion of a food material purposely in a way so that it appears to be different from what it is in reality " (Decision I, of May 15, 1882). 102 BEGULATION OF TBAFFIO IN MEAT In the case which served as a basis for the opinion just cited^ so-called schwartenmagen, contrary to the custom of the locality where the case was tried, was not prepared from blood, chopped meat, bacon rind, and bacon of hogs, but was made of two-thirds, sinews and tripe and one-third blood, with a little fat. The preparation of tongue sausage without tongue must also be characterized as an imitation of food material ; similarly, the pre- paration of sausage from dog meat, since the making of sausage from this meat, which does not pass in ordinary traffic as a food materia], gives the product the appearance of a food material which is suitable for inan. (Decision II, of May 5, 1891.) (c) Adulteration. According to Meyer and Finkelnburg, the attempt to make a legal definition for the concept " adulteration " was abandoned by the Reichstag and the explanation of the term was left to legal practice and science. Since, however, the essential part of a violation of Sec. 10 consists in the act of deception, the question of adulteration can only be answered on the basis of the normal methods of preparation and manufacture. These differ, as is well known, in different regions. Thus, for example, the addition of a small quantity of wheat flour to Rostbratwurst (10 to 12 pounds of flour to 5 kg. of meat) is no adulteration, if to the people in the region in question such art addition is " in no way an unknown or unexpected admixture ; " for, on the contrary, " flour belongs to a savory bratwurst according to popular opinion." (Decision III, December 21, 1882.) Under adulterated food materials, we understand such as do not possess those qualities which are to be expected in actual traffic. The adulteration of a food material may be accomplished in twa ways : (1) By substantial deterioration ; (2) by furnishing a material with the appearance of a better quality. The addition of a dough made of potato starch and water to sausages, contrary to the usual method of preparing sausages in a given place, according to which only pure meat sausages were understood as passing under the label in question, is an adultera- tion. (Decision I, of October 4, 1883.) Coloring the gills of fish by means of a red stain, so as to give them the appearance of fresh fish, is an adulteration (Decision II, of December 2, 1881). Likewise the coloring of sausages with dye stuff in order to preserve the color of fresh material for a period during which without this manipulation they would have shown by the alteration of the )iatural color that they were not fresh, is aa adulteration (Decision III, of February 18, 1882). FOOD INSPECTION LAW 103 An undoubted case of adulteration is the coloring of old meat in order to lend it the appearance of fresh meat, and finally, the coloring of a sausage, consisting for the most part of paste, in order to give it the appearance of a meat sausage, is a double adulteration. The existence of an adulteration is not excluded by the fact that the person concerned intended to give the food or condiment the appearance of a better quality for the purpose of deception, but actually brought about only a deterioration of the product. (Decision I, of February 28, 1887.) (d) Food condiments which are "spoiled." The punishments which are provided for trafficking in " spoiled " food materials were, until the passage of the Imperial Meat Inspection Law, the most impor- tant basis for the regulation of traffic in meat which was not dangerous to health but which showed certain defects. This much- discussed term still possesses practical significance, since "spoiled" meat is declared to be meat of an inferior value, concerning the traffic in which regulations were unfortunately not included in the Imperial Meat Inspection Law. The definition of the term " spoiled " has been the subject of a large number of decisions by the Imperial Court. At first, after the passage of the law of May 14, 1879, these opinions were based on quite other points of view than the later opinions. The Imperial Court at first declared food materials or condiments to be spoiled when they were not in a normal condition or when they varied from a normal condition to such a degree that they were not suitable for human food according to popular opinion. This definition corres- ponds to that of the term " spoiled in the sense of Sec. 367' of the Criminal Law Statute," which forbade the sale of "spoiled" meat in general and was, therefore, based on the assumption that such meat was not fit for human food. Sec. 10, paragraph 2, of the food law, however, differs in one important point from Sec. 367' of the Criminal Law Statute, since the former does not prohibit the sale or offering for sale absolutely, but only when these transactions are made without stating the real character of the food material or with the practice of deception concerning the same. Logically, therefore, the sale of meat which the food law characterizes as "spoiled" must be permitted without punishment if the sale takes place under a statement of the particular character of the article. By far the greater number of the decisions of the Imperial Court has con- sidered as spoiled food materials those which vary from the normal condition and which are less suitable and utilizable for a giveu purpose, and also such as in and of themselves are not fit to serve L04 EEGULATION OP TBAFEIC W MEAT IS food materials, but wMch, in consiequence of peculiar properties, ivere either not to be sold at all, if the true character was known, jr, at least, would not bring the price which is asked for material of I normal origin. Accordingly, the concept " spoiled " may be iefined as follows : In the sense of the food law all meat is spoiled ;vhich, without being dangerous to health, shows considerable ilterations of its substance, or comes from animals which were iffected with serious diseases. In this explanation I believe I have provided a positive basis 'or the determination of meat which — and this is the main point in :[uestion — must be excluded from free traffic, but which can he idmitted to restricted sale on the freibank. The' word " may" is to 36 emphasized, since the spoiled condition may reach such a degree ;hat the meat loses its character as a food material, becomes meat ' unfit " for use, in the sense of the Imperial Meat Inspection Law, md is, therefore, to be excluded even from restricted sale. The joncept spoiled meat is synonymous with that of inferior meat, since all meat which can be sold as spoiled is rendered of inferioif rsilne on account of the necessity of its express characterization as juch. Declared meat can find purchasers only when sold at a lower price. Against my definition of the concept " spoiled " objection may jerhaps be made that the expression "serious disease," of which I nake use, is too poorly defined to furnish assurances of a uniform Lction. This objection, however, does not apply. The expert meat nspector must, by reason of his scientific training, be able to judge vhat, from the standpoint of sanitary police (not from a therapeutic itandpoint), must be considered as a serious disease. For example, ve may characterize as serious diseases of food animals, all acute md part of the chronic infectious diseases. In the majority of them he meat is not dangerous to health, but only " spoiled in the sense )f the food law," as, for example, in pleuro-pneumonia, hemorrhagic lepticemia, swine erysipelas, swine plague, and hog cholera. The :onditions are similar in the case of other diseases which frequently ;ive occasion for emergency slaughter (for example, parturient )aralysis, traumatic pericarditis, etc.) In all these cases, in addition o the origin of the meat from animals which were seriously diseased, ve must also consider that the meat differs objectively from normal aeat which is accepted in ordinary business traffic, in so far as, in ionsequence of incomplete bleeding, it possesses poor keeping [ualities and an associated inferior value. Such meat is suitable leither for preservation nor for the manufacture of sausages, but FOOD INSPECTION LAW 105 must be eaten soon or it will begin to decompose. For this reason, in the sale of such meat, it is desirable that the special character of the wares should be made known to the purchaser.* Since pathological processes in the animal body do not take place in a schematic manuer, it is evident that there must be cases upon the boundary line between " serious " and " not serious." These cases must be loft to the discretion of the expert inspector. They may be confidently intrusted to such persons, since they are rare and since the chief problem consists in separating the decidedly '" serious" from the decidedly "not serious," and this, according to past experience, is not a difficult matter. Noteworthy Decisions of the Imperial Court Concerning "Spoiled" in the Sense of Section 10" of the Food Law. According to a decision of the First Criminal Senate of the imperial Court, of October 5; 1881, the variation from the normal is the decisive point in spoiled food materials in the sense of the law of May 14, 1879 ; and, in determining the normal, the common condition which is looked for by the purchasers or the public with xeference to the character of the wares is decisive. An internati chemical decomposition is not necessary to the concept " spoiled." The deterioration may consist in a quantitative change of the constituents, as is the case, for example, in meat which is infested "with harmless parasites, or such as have been rendered harmless. (Decision III, of October 5, 1881.) A food material is spoiled also if it is checked in its normal development. The normal condition in such cases has never existed, but it was expected to occur, as, for example, in the meat of unborn calves. (Decision II, of January 3, 1882.) The meat of diseased, or dead, as well as of emaciated animals is spoiled if the anomalous character of the meat was due to a disease which brought about a serious alteration of its constituents with reference to the fitness of the meat for human food. (Decisions I, of January 12, 1882, and III, of July 9, 1883.) An article is spoiled when its consumption creates disgust, not in the case of this or that individual person, according to their * The previous connection of meat witli diseased parts is not sufficient in itself to fulfil the conception of spoiled meat. (Compare decision of the First Criminal Senate of the Imperial Court, page 113, and Strose, Ztsohr. f. Milch and Fleiscli Hyg. vol. 4). In harmony with this decision are the opinions contained in the more recent decrees concerning tuberculosis, that the meat of animals affected with localized tuberculosis may be admitted for sale without restriction, after the removal of the diseased parts. 106 EEGULATION OF TRAFFIC IN MEAT . particular taste, but according to tlie general opinion, or according to the opinion of that class of the population to which the intending purchasers belong. From this point of view it is not considered legally erroneous to look upon the fat of a measly hog as spoiled,, even if it is not established that cysticerci have existed in the manipu- lated portions of the fat. In such cases we proceed on the theory that such fat, even if in and of itself it is not fit for food, is, never- theless, in consequence of the antipathy or disgust experienced witL regard to such material by the public, either never bought with a knowledge of its true condition or at least does not bring a price which would be offered for meat of a normal origin (Decision II,. of March 25, 1884). Disgust which exists merely in the imagination of the con- sumers without any objective foundation deserves no consideration. Only the quality of a food material which occasions objective disgust is sufficient to fulfil the conception of a spoiled condition. The previous connection, of meat with disgusting parts does not in itself constitute the required objective foundation. " Some account is to be taken of the views of the public. The Court of Justice^ however, was of the opinion that in a concrete case, dealing with persons who obtain their meat from the knackers, the assumption of disgust on the part of these buyers, who could not expect to receive a perfect quality of meat, is not justified. It is, therefore, not justifiable, in cases where mere previous connection of the meat with disgusting meat has been sufficiently considered accord- ing to the facts in the case, to look upon the parts which have lately been separated and sold as disgusting or even as spoiled" (Decision I, 1894). The simple opinion of the public that a food material is of inferior value or less fit for food, while it remains possible that such material in reality possesses the same food value and the same fitness for food as normal meat, is not sufficient for the assumption of a "spoiled" quality. So far as the opinion of the public is to be considered at all, it may be decided only in connection with the objective quality of the food material, whereby an effect is actually produced which is calculated to influence badly its utili- zation as food (Decision III., of September 28, 1885). The same decision contained also the opinion that it is neces- sary for satisfying the required conditions that the spoiled character be present at the time of the sale. A spoiled character of meat in the sense of Section 10^ of the law of May 14, 1879, is also to be assumed when the variations fiom the normal character are due ta FOOD INSPECTION LAW '107 a disease which was present before slaughter and which was associated with the diminution of the value of the meat and the production of the feeling of disgust in the general public (Decision IV, of November 2, 1886). This was a case of the sale of a cow which had been slaughtered while diseased. The internal organs and interior surface of the ribs, but not the meat, were found to be full of tubercles. It was sold as wholesome, non-spoiled meat, after the removal of the " disgusting ulcers ". A decision of the Imperial Court of October 5, 1889, held that the positive factor in determining the spoiled condition consists in an alteration of the original or normal condition of the food or condiment to an inferior and consequently less fit condition for utilization for a certain purpose. Finally, it should be remembered that only an actual violation of Sec. 10 is punishable. The attempt at violation is not punish- able. Furthermore, the utilization of spoiled meat in one's own household and its donation to others is not subject to legal restrictions. Section 12. Imprisonment, together with the possible loss of civil rights, is p-ovided for (1> all persons who purposely prepare articles which are intended to serve as food or condiment for others in such a manner that they maj be injurious to human health, and all persons who knowingly sell, offer for sale, or otherwise traffic in as food or condiment, articles the consumption of which would be injurious to human health; (2) all persons who purposely prepare clothing materials, playthings, tapestry, eating, drinking, and cooking utensils, or petroleum in such a manner that the intended or future use of these articles is likely to be injurious to human health; and also all persons who knowingly sell, offer for sale, or otherwise have traffic in such articles. Attempted evasions are punishable. If on account of these forbidden actions a serious bodily injury or death of a human being is caused, the punishment is confinement in the workhouse for five years. Section 13. If in eases mentioned in Sec. 13 the consumption or use of the article was likely to injure human health, and if this fact was known to the vendor, the punish- ment is confinement in the workhouse for ten years; and if by the action in question the death of a human being is caused, confinement in the workhouse for not less than ten years or for life. In addition to the punishment, police supervision must bfr permitted. The law of May 14, 1879, makes a fundamental difference between spoiled and dangerous or injurious food materials. Every case of the sale of injurious food materials, or even the attempt ta 108 BEGULATION OF TBAPFIO IN MEAT sell tliem, is punishable. If carelessness is not shown and at the same time harm is done to human health (Sec, 14), the punishment consists of imprisonment at least, but may involve confinement in the workhouse in the case of the death of a human beinpj. The penalty for the violation of Sec. 12 can not be paid by a money fine. In legal cai?es the wording of Sec. 12 must be observed, for, according to this section, it is not necessary for fulfilling the ' requirements of Sec. 12 that the food material should always produce an injurious effect. It is sufficient that the consumption of the food material should be, as a rule, calculated to injure human health (compare p. 110). On the other hand, according to a -decision of Criminal Senate No. 2 of the Imperial Court, May 5, 1882, "the dangerousness is an objective quality which must attach to the article." Furthermore, the dangerousness must be present at the moment of sale or offering for sale. The bare possibility that meat may rapidly pass into decomposition and may thereby become dangerous is not sufficient (Decision II, of May 5, 1882). Likewise, the actual conditions of Sec. 12 do not exist in -cases where the dangerousness of the food material was removed at the time of sale by the method of preparation, as, for example, by cooking (Decision I, of January 8, 1883). Neither is a person punishable for selling dangerous meat, not as a food material, but for some other purpose (Decision II, of March 11, 1881) ; nor is he punishable if, before selling the article which loses its dangerous character by cooking (for example, measly meat), he expressly declares that it can be eaten only in a cooked condition (Decisions IV, of August 11, 1884, and I, of January 15, 1885). The attempt to offer for sale is also punishable according to Sec 12. Decrees of the Imperial Court as a Commentary on Sees. 12 and 13. A public sale, offering for sale, or bringing into traffic is not required ; bringing into traffic signifies making the article acces- sible as food for another person. The sale of meat to middlemen, therefore, and the gratuitous disposal of the meat are also to be considered as bringing into traffic in the sense of Sec. 12 (Decisions I, of December 13, 1880, and III, of February 10, 1887) ; similarly, for the utilization of the material in one's private household, or giving it to wife, children, servants, associates, etc. (Decision II., of October 27, 1882). Intentional bringing into traffic of injurious food materials presupposes: (1) that the dangerous character of the material is known to the 'vendor, and (2) that he understands that the persoii FOOD INSPECTION LAW 109 to whom the injurious article is given will eat it himself or give it to others as a food material (Decision IV, of March 21, 1888). An attempt to offer for sale was found in a case in which a butcher obtained injurious meat with full knowledge of its quality, biought it to his store, and there had it rinsed with water in order to remove the disagreeable odor (Decision III, of February 15, 1882). An attempt at sale was also found ia another case, in consequence of preparing the meat for sale (cutting it into small pieces) (Decision I, of November 1, 1881), in sending the cut meat to another butcher shop (Decision II, of May 2, 1884) ; in trans- porting meat which was cut up and given gratis by a country butcher to a city inspection office (Decision of May 26, 1898) ; and, finally, in a case in which a beginning had been made in the use of the meat in material which had already been ordered (Decision 11,^ of May 6, 1890). The mere possession of injurious wares is, on the other hand, no attempt to offer for sale (Decision III, of November 10, 1884). Laying the injurious meat out for the purpose of selling it is offering it for sale in the sense of Sec. 12 of the food law (Decision II., of December 23, 1887). The attempt to sell presupposes that a beginning has been made in performing at least one of the actions which belong to the fact of an intended sale. The attempt to offer for sale exists if a beginning has been made "in preparing the wares for sale to the public (Decision of June 5, 1890). An actual bringing into traffic can not be found in the transportation of food material, in and of itself, to a selling point (Decision of November 1, 1888). Farther Findiugs of the Imperial Conrt with Reference to Sections 12 and 13. If a purchaser returns injurious food material to the vendor, the former may, according to Sec. 12, paragraph 1, of the food law, become guilty of a punishable bringing into traffic (Decision of September 27, 1887). Schmidt-Miilheim remarked in this connec- tion that the consumer would do well, after he had become convinced of the injurious character of the meat he has bought, to destroy it or to call for the assistance of the sanitary police. The permission for the removal of a dangerous article for the purpose of utilization as food material (the case was one of trichinous meat which required boiling in a kettle) may also be considered as bringing into traffic in the sense of Sec. 12 of the food law (Decision of June 7, 1887). Sec. 12 of the law of May 14, 1879, does not require that the consumption of the article in question (in this case it was measly 110 BEQULATION OF TBAFFIC IN MEAT meat) shall in every case and under all conditions injure human health ; or that for fulfilling the condition of fact an injury to health shall already have occurred. It is sufficient that the injury to health may occur under ordinary conditions and that, as a rule, it will occur (Decision IV, of September 29, 1885). Injury to health takes place when by the action of a food material upon the body of the human being the organismjsuffers at least a partial disturbance of the ordinary vital functions. The health may also be injured by the aggravation of a disease (Decision III, of February 6, 1890). The production of illness without an actual outbreak of disease is an injury to health in the sense of the food law. The imperial Court has handed down an opinion that not everything which is disgusting must necessarily be regarded as injurious to health. It was held, however, that it is legally unthinkable that a pathogenic influence upon the health could be found in a corporeal condition which in ordinary life is characterized as illness and which consists in an anomalous tendency toward the outbreak of disease. It follows therefrom that when a food material, according to its objec- tive character is calculated to produce illness and disease in the person who eats it, it may also be considered as calculated to injure health (Decision IV, of December 8, 1893). An injury to health is to be carefully distinguished from a disturbance of the health. According to Meyer and Finkelnburg, the technical criterion of an injury to health is to be found in the fact that it is transitory, without serious or permanent disturbance of the bodily or mental functions, while we may ascribe the pro- perty of disturbing health to an article when the consumption of it may lead to death or to such other consequences as are mentioned in Sec. 224 of the Criminal Law Statutes, which characterizes certain cases of bodily injury as " serious" when the injured person loses an important member of the body, sight in one or both eyes, hearing, speech, or reproductive power, or when these members or functions are permanently injured to a serious extent ; or in cases where long illness, paralysis, or mental disease results. Under the term lingering illness is understood any chronic disease which by attacking the organism produces a serious effect upon the general condition, even if the possibility of recovery exists {Decision II, of April 9, 1885). The express declaration of the vendor that meat which loses its injurious character in cooking can be eaten only in a cooked con- dition protects him from punishment (Decision IV, of July 11, 1884). FOOD INSPECTION LAW IH The mere statement of the injurious character by the vendor to the purchaser does not entirely free the former from punishment, for the dangerousness of the transaction is not thereby removed (Decisions of January 15 and September 29, 1885). Disposing of food materials the injurious character of which may be removed by special treatment is non-punishable only in cases in which the vendor has made the necessary provisions for preventing its use in a dangerous condition (Decision lY, of March 21, 1888). The subjective incrimination of the vendor according to Sec. 12 of the food law also disappears if he is convinced that the purchaser will remove the dangerous quality of the food material by suitable processes before it is eaten (Decision IV, of September 29, 1885). Section 14. If any one of the actions characterized in Sees. 13 or 13 are performed through carelessness, the punishment is a fine not exceeding 1,000 marks or imprisonment not exceeding six months; and if through the action in question an injury is caused to the health of a human being, the punishment is imprisonment for one year, or, if the death of a human being was caused, imprisonment for from one month to three years. Meyer and Finkelnburg state that carelessness in the majority of instances is to be found in case the property of endangering or disturbing health was not known to the defendant and in case this was due to not giving it the attention which was required of him by the facts in the case. The degree of attention which must be given in this regard is considered purely a question of fact. The Imperial Court (Decision III, of February 15, 1882) handed down the opinion that to establish carelessness it was immatferial whether a transaction was ordered by law or by regulation. The flecision in question concerned the omission of trichina inspection in a locality in which trichina inspection had not been introduced by police ordinance. It is the duty of the butcher to convince himself before selling the meat that it is not of a dangerous character (Decision IV, of June 1, 1886). The case was one of trafficking in measly meat. The Imperial Court rightly decided that the defendant had acted in a careless manner, inasmuch as he had neglected to exercise the necessary care and attention in the sale of the meat. It was held that if he had exercised care, even to the slightest extent, the injurious character of the meat could not haye escaped his attention. In conclusion, it should be remembered that living animals are also reckoned among food materials and condiments in the sense of Sec. 12 of the law of May. 14, 1879, if the vendor knows that the 112 BEGULATION OP TEAPPIO IN MEAT animals are to be used as human food (Decision III, of Deicember 2, 1886, and Decision I, of October 6, 1892). This decision is applicable to cases of animals manifestly ailected with an infectious disease (for example, tuberculous animals, hogs with tongu& bladder-worms, etc.) Decision III, of April 16, 1888, stated furthermore that the sal& of aidiseased animal with knowledge of the fact that it was to be killed immediately and eaten by human beings was punishable according to Sees. 10 and 11 of the law of May 14, 1879, if it was established that the meat of the animal at the time of sale and at the slaughter which followed immediately after, was spoiled in the sense of the law of May 14, 1879. (c) Scientific Definition op the Tebm "Injurious to Health. "^ (Section 12 of the Food Law.) From a legal standpoint, meat must be considered as injurious to health if it has been shown that it has already injured the health of consumers or if there is a scientific basis for the suspicion that such may be the result. Such meat, according to the text and intent of Sec. 12 of the food law, is " calculated to injure human health." In practice, however, the term " injurious to health " must be given a broader interpretation. According to the prin- ciples which determine the action of the sanitary police, in case of doubt it is necessary to make the more unfavorable assumption and to consider that meat is injurious to health if its harmless character is not established. Samples of meat known by experience to be injurious to health, are meat of animals sufifering from septic and pyemic diseases (meat poisoning), meat containing trichina and cysticerci, meat of animals affected with anthrax and glanders, as well as decaying and otherwise decomposed meat (sausage and mince-meat poisoning). Samples of meat which, on the basis of scientific demonstration, must be regarded as injurious to health, are tuberculous organs and the meat of animals which are affected with certain forms of tuberculosis. Concerning the connection between injury to health and the consumption of the meat of diseased animals, the materials worked over in the Imperial Health Office for the technical foundation of the draft of the food law contain the following considerations : Conclusive proof that certain diseases in man are caused by the consumption of the meat of animals slaughtered while in a certain diseased condition is often very difficult to procure. On the FOOD INSPECTION LAW 113 one hand, the diseases do not appear immediately after eating -the meat. At times, in fact, they may appear only' after the lapse of a considerable time after the persons concerned have eaten the meat of various other animals. Moreover, meat dealers, especially the so-called " cold butchers," understand, as a rule, how to arrange the slaughtering of diseased animals and the sale of the meat so that the causal connection between possible diseases in man and the slaughter of diseased animals performed by the butchers is obscured as miich as possible. This purpose is well served by the method of secretly transporting the affected animals to a distant locality and slaughtering them there as quickly as possible, or by bringing the meat of diseased animals which were slaughtered in one place to another distant locality, commonly to a larger city. Not infrequently the diseased meat is first disposed of to middle- men, or it is sold with the meat of other animals slaughtered in a demonstrably healthy condition and under the pretence of coming from the latter. Frequentlj', diseased meat is utilized in the manufacture of sausages in order to prevent the discovery that it is pathologically altered. The frequency of this experience is ap- parent from the fact that meat dealers who slaughter diseased meat in a wholesale manner are in many regions called sausage butchers^ With regard to the method of determining the injurious- character of food materials, we are subject to a serious limifcationv Only in a few instances are we in a position by exact, unexception- able experiments on man to answer the question whether the meat possesses harmful properties or not. Previously, experiments of.' this sort with measly meat and with the milk of aphthous animals have been made by self-sacrificing investigators (Perroncito and Hertwig), on themselves and partly on criminals condemned to death (Kiicheumeister's experiments with measly pork). Quite, heroic experiments were made by the General Veterinarian of the, French army, Decroix, upon himself with the meat of animals which had been affected with, various diseases and part of which had died in consequence. Decroix ventured to eat the meat even from cases of acute glanders, rabies, trichinosis, pyemia, and perforated peri- tonitis, and, fortunately, did not suffer any injury to his health.* In the majority of cases we are limited to experiments upon animals and to ordinary experience. Experiments upon animals, serve only to give a basis to the suspicion that the conditions are similar in man to those in the experimental animals, and this has * Decroix, " Eeoherches Experimen tales sur la Viande de Cheval et sur les, Viandes Insalubres." Paris, 1885. X14 EEGULATION OF TRAFHC IN MEAT reference only to such diseases of domesticated animals as are generally known to occur in man (for example, tuberculosis, glanders and anthrax). The transmissibility of a disease of a domesticated animal to an experimental animal proves nothing in itself regarding the possibility of transmission to man, for there are many diseases of domesticated animals which are transmissible to experimental animals but which, according to experience, are not transmissible to man; as, for example, hemorrhagic septicemia, black leg, swine erysipelas, etc. In applying to man the results which are obtained with animals, the manner of transferring the virus must also be considered. Intraperitoneal or subcutaneous inoculation is no proof of injurious action in the case of introduction into the alimentary tract. In the latter case the harmful efifect of the digestive juices upon the bacteria and also the unfavorable conditions for anaerobic bacteria in the stomach and alimentary tract enter into the problem. Anthrax bacilli, for example, in the majority of warm-blooded animals, produce anthrax after a sub- cutaneous injection, while after feeding, on , the contrary, infection does not take place in a number of animals including man. With regard to tuberculous sputum, Bollinger demonstrated that it would produce an infection in case of subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injection when diluted to the extent of 1:100,000, while it lost its virulence in case of administration through the alimentary tract •even in a dilution of 1:8. Nocard injected the muscle serum of 21 <50ws into guinea pigs. In these experiments it was shown that the muscle serum of a cow was virulent. The meat of the same cow, however, was eaten in considerable quantities (about 500 grams) by four cats without any injurious effects. Finally, Sormani demon- strated that a 10,000 times greater quantity of tetanus virus was endured in the alimentary canal than in the subcutaneous connec- tive tissue. With regard to the majority of the diseases of domesticated animals, we know by experience that they are not communicable to man. This fact of experience is both of a negative and of a positive character; negative in so far as it has been shown by clinical observation and numerous post mortem examinations of man that diseases which are common in domesticated animals do not occur in man ; of a positive nature, on the other hand, in so far as the meat of diseased animals has been eaten in innumerable cases without harm. For example, this has been proved by hundreds and thousands of experiences with the meat of animals which were affected with rinderpest, pleuro- pneumonia, or swine erysipelas. EOOD INSPECTION LAW ' 115 J'eeding experiments with the meat of such animals have been on a Tery large scale in, man, and it requires no further proof that, as Against this tremendous mass of experience, one isolated contra- dictory observation has no weight, especially if the latter can not be considered entirely unexceptionable. I emphasize this point with regard to the isolated observations contained in the literature of the subject concerning the alleged injurious character of meat contain- ing psorosperms, the meat of hogs affected with swine plague, of cattle suffering from rinderpest, and of chickens affected with fowl cholera, observations which thus far have not been substantiated by other authors and which are much more easily explained by the assumption of the development of a cadaveric injurious property. (d) Differentiation op Meat and of Meat Pboducts, According TO THE EeGDLATIONS OP THE I'OOD LaW., According to the law of May 14, 1879, we must distinguish in the practice of meat inspection, and jpro/oro, the following classes ; 1. Good products, or those which are fit to eat and which may be freely admitted to the market. 2. Meat which is to be considered "spoiled in the sense of the food law." * This meat corresponds ^o the inferior meat of the meat inspection law ("meat which is really fit for consumption by man but which is considerably depreciated in its nutritive and condimental value "). Such meat can be offered for sale and sold only under declaration and upon the freiba,nk. The Imperial Prussian Administrative Court declared (Decision I, of February 20, 1900) that a police ordinance according to which " spoiled " or inferior meat was ordered upon the freibank was binding. It was held that the police had the right to take action against the criminal sale or offering for sale of " spoiled " or inferior meat and that the transfer of this meat to the fjreibank protected the producer against violation of the criminal law. Other methods of bringing into traffic (use in one's own house- hold and the giving gratia to others) are not subject to legal restrictions. In the older ordinances, spoiled meat was charac- terized as non-marketable. 3. Unconditionally dangerous or injurious meat, in the case of which any method of trafficking in as human food material, its use in one's own household, giving gratis to others, permission for its * In the following discussion, for the sake of brevity, this will be referred to simply as spoiled. 116 BEGULATION OP TKAFFIC IN MEAT removal, etc., is forbidden (see pages 108, 109). With this meat, which constitutes a part of the meat unfit for food in the sense of the meat inspection law, procedure should take place according to- Sec. 9 of the meat inspection law. 4 Conditionally injurious meat which can be made fit for food by proper measures, such as cooking, roasting, steaming, pickling, or preservation in cold storage. The conditionally injurious meat forms a part of the meat which is conditionally fit for food in the sense of the meat inspec- tion law. The other part of the meat which is conditionally fit for food is that which for veterinary police reasons must be rendered Titilizable before it is admitted to the market (compare page 83). Such meat after the required conditions have been fulfilled is to be treated as spoiled meat in the sense of the food law and to be admitted to market only after declaration (Sec. 11 of the meat .inspection law). 5. Finally, we have to distinguish meat which is spoiled in a high degree and which, without being injurious to health, has lost the quality of human food material on account of extensive, substan- tial deterioration ; for example, watery and ill-smelling meat, meat and organs which are extensively infested with harmless or dead parasites, etc.). This meat is unfit for food in the sense of the meat inspection law and is subject to the regulations of Sec. 9 of the meat inspection law in the same manner as that mentioned above under paragraph 3. Among meat products we distinguish, moreover, imitations and adulterations. It should be remembered that the expert meat inspector should use the word "spoiled" only in the sense of the law and not as indicating meat in process of decomposition ; for decomposing meat is an injurious food material. The meaning of "unclean" meat. Attention has already been called (page 40) to the fact that in one part of the Kingdom of • Prussia privileged knackers, according to the decree of April 29, 1772, received the rejected animals which were found unclean at the time of slaughter, in their immediate neighborhood (sheep excepted). The concept "rejected " was explained by a ministerial decree of May 11, 1887, to the Kurmark Chamber of War and Public Domains with the statement that by this term was to be understood "all animals which .are unfit for further use by man". An official interpretation of the meaning of "unclean" does not exist. The term in question is a relic of the oldest German ...... ^^-.OKUMSG ANIMAL PLAGUES 117 ordinances concerning meat inspection, in which it was incorporated through the medium of the Christian Church from the food laws of the Jews and Egyptians. Dieckerhoff suggests, as an explanation of this historical term, that it is to be understood as including injurious meat, an explanation which agrees closely with legal decisions. Thus, the Official Court at Eberwalde, in an opinion handed down August 11, 1890, declared that for the determination of the concept "unclean" the same characterization must be considered, decisive as is mentioned in the ministerial decree of May 11, 1787, with regard to the term rejected. It was held that animals are to be considered as unclean if the meat can not be eaten, on account of its diseased condition, or if it should not be eaten, on account of being dangerous to health. In this sense the term unclean may be applied also to tuber- <5ulosis of cattle, in spite of the fact that by the decree of July 26, 1785, it was declared with reference to the " French disease," that butchers would no longer, under any circumstances, be permitted to declare slaughtered animals as unclean and infected with this disease, for this decree is not a general regulation, but an instruc- tion based upon the opinion of the chief sanitary officer, and one which, therefore, may lose its foundation by the alteration of the views of the sanitary veterinarians on this point (decision of the <3-overnment Court at Stolp, February 22, 1892). 3.— Imperial Law Concerning the Pr.evention and Suppression of Animal Plagues of June 23, 1880, and May 1, 1894. According to Sec. 17 of this law, public abattoirs are subject to the inspection of official veterinarians, aad the same measures may be adopted with reference to private slaughterhouses. Section 17 reads, " all stock and horse markets, as well as all public abattoirs, shall be inspected by official veterinarians. These regulations may also be extended so as to apply to herds of stock brought together in public or private quarters for the purpose of public sale, male animals used for breeding purposes in a public manner, public stock shows and collections of horses and herds of stock brought together by regulation of the authorities, as well as feeding stalls, private slaughterhouses, and the stalls of stock dealers. The veterinarian is required to make known immediately to the police authority all cases of infectious plagues or all symptoms which arouse suspicion of disease which are observed in the market or among the above mentioned herds of horses and cattle. He shall 118 EEGULATION OP TBAFFIO IN MEAT make an immediate investigation of the case and enforce the^ required police protective regulations. If there is danger of the spreading of the disease, the veterinarian is authorized, before- police interference, to order the isolation and observation of the diseased and suspected animals." For the execution of Sec. 17 of the Imperial law concerning- animal plagues, the. following orders of the Imperial Government President at Merseburg are worthy of notice as model regulations : I.— Police Regulation ' Concerning the Supervision of Private Slaughter Houses, etc, February 29, 1896. On the basis of Sec. 17 of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues, according to an interpretation of May 1, 1894, and also on the, basis of Sec. 7 of the Prussian enacting clause of March 12, 1881, I prescribe the following regulations for the territory of the governnient district of Merseburg : Sec, 1.' Herds of animals brought together by dealers in public or private places for the purpose of public sale, public animal shows, private slaughterhouses, together with the apartments which belong to them, as well as the stalls of cattle dealers, whether used for private purposes or rented, are to be inspected by the local official, veterinarians! , Sec. 3. The term "herds of animals," in the sense of this regulation, is to be understood as including horses, cattle, sheep and hogs, irrespective of number or age. Sec. ,3. Access to. the places characterized in Sec. 1 is to be at all times per- mitted to official veterinarians for the purpose of making inspections. Sec. 4. The costs of this supervision, according to Sec. 7 of the Prussian deci'ee of enforcement of June 18, 1894, and Sec. 34 of the above mentioned enacting clause, must be borne by the dealers, and in case an agreement can not be reached concerning- them, they will be fixed by me. If the costs are not paid punctually, legal prosecu- tion will be begun. Sec. 5. This regulation becomes operative on the day of its promulgation. From this day the governmental police regulation of August 15, 1895, concerning the inspection of slaughterhouses, etc., is repealed. II. — State Police Regulation Concerning the Supervision of Public Slaughterhouses, February 39, 1896. In connection with the state police regulation decreed by me to-day and pro- mulgated in the Official Circular concerning the inspection of herds of animals brought together for the purpose of public sale, public animal shows, etc., by official veterinarians, as well as for the purpose of amendment and extension of my circular letter of August 15, of the previous year, I hereby decree as follows : 1. The veterinary police supervision of public slaughterhouses prescribed in Sec. 17 of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues in the interpretation of May 1, 1894, shall be carried out in Halle by the department veterinarian at least once per month, and in other localities of this district by the local district veterinarians with the frequency which has already been ordered in the above mentioned circular letter. Inspection shall be unannounced and thorough. 2. The district veterinarians shall perform this veterinary police inspection in such a manner that they direct their attention entirely to the field of action which concerns the veterinary police. Thus they shall have regard to all regulations decreed LAW CONCEKNING ANIMAL PLAGUES 11& concerning the prevention and suppression of animal diseases and shall also give attention to the detection of animal plagues and the prevention of the dissemination- of such plagues. The department veterinarian, on the other hand, shall direct his supervisory activity to the organization and the management of the slaughterhouses as a whole, to the technical work of the slaughterhouse experts, especially to the manner of the' inspection of animals before slaughter, the procedure in slaughter, the management of meat inspection, including trichina inspection, keeping the books containing records of inspection, the cleansing of slaughtering rooms and other communicating rooms, cold storage, lard rendering stalls, platforms for animals, utensils, etc., as well as to the disposition of meat unfit for human food, the treatment and sale of inferior meat, and the treatment and removal of manure, etc. 3. In the same manner the department veterinarian shall make a thorough- inspection, at least once during each calendar year, of the other public slaughter- houses within his district. This may be done incidentally upon his official trips. 4. In case improper conduct or violations of existing regulations are discovered during these inspection tours, the director of the slaughterhouse shall have his atten- tion immediately called to the same and an announcement shall be made to the police officials or to the proper magistrate. I£ such abuses are not quickly corrected, or if the discoveries and observations are of special iinportance, a report shall be rendered to me without delay. 5. The directors of slaughterhouses are instructed to further the execution of this supervision so far as they are able and upon request to furnish all possible information concerning the organization, management, etc. , of the slaughterhouses subject to their inspection. 6. The costs of the veterinary police supervision, according to Sec. 7 of the Prussian decree of enforcement of June 18, 1894, and See. 34 of the Prussian decree of enforcement of March 13, 1881, with reference to the above mentioned Imperial , law concerning animal plagues, shall be borne by the dealers, and, in case no agree- ment is reached, shall be determined by me. On the other hand, the expenses of other inspections are to be borne by the State Treasurer. In calculating the fees for the prescribed services, the provisions of the law of March 9, 1873, concerning the fees of medical officials, shall be authoritative. Imperial Government President, Merseburg, February 39, 1896. Graf zu Stolberg. In addition to compulsory notification for all plagues men- tioned in the Imperial law concerning animal plagues of May 1,. 1894 (especially ajithiax, rabies, glanders, foot-and-mouth disease^ pleuro-pneumonia, sheep pox, mange of horses and sheep), the following provisions concerning the procedure with meat of animala suffering from an infectious disease should be considered :* * On the basis of Sec. 10, sentence 3, of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues, swine erysipelas, swine plague, and hog cholera, as well as fowl cholera, are subject to compulsory notification. Moreover, in the Prussian Province of Saxony and in the Kingdom of Saxony, this requirement extends to the so-called Borna horse disease, and in the Province of East Prussia to horse distemper and pneumonia of horses. 120 BEGULATION OP TBAFFIC IN MEAT' Sec. 31. "No animals which are affected or suspected of being affected with anthrax shall be slaughtered." Sec. 33. " The cai-r^ casses of dead or slaughtered animals affected or suspected of being affected with anthrax must be immediately destroyed. The removal of the hide of such animals is forbidden." Sec. 36. " The slaughter of rabid animals or those suspected of rabies, and all sale or use of individual parts, milk, or other products of the same are forbidden." Sec. 39. " The carcasses of slaughtered rabid animals or animals suspected of rabies must be immediately destroyed. The removal of the hide is forbidden." Sec. 43. " The carcasses of dead or slaughtered glanderous, animals must be immediately destroyed. The removal of the hide of the same is forbidden." Sees. 53 to 56 contain special provisions concerning the pro- cedure in the reduction of plagues in stock yards and public slaughterhouses ; Sec. 53. "The aforementioned regulations of this law, with such alterations as appear in the following special provisions, are applicable to stock yards and public abattoirs which are subject' to a regular veterinary police control, and to the food animals which are brought to such places." Sec. 54. " If, among the food animals brought to such places, the outbreak of an infectious disease is discovered, or if symptoms- appear which, according to the opinion of the official veterinarian, justify the fear of an outbreak of such a plague, the diseased and all suspected animals are to be immediately taken under police supervision and prevented from coming into contact with other animals." Sec. 55. " So far as the nature of the disease permits (compare Sees. 31, 36 and 43), the owner, or the representative of the owner, of the diseased or suspected food animal may be required to slaughter the animal immediately under the supervision of the official veterinarian and in the rooms intended for. that purpose." "This regulation may in urgent cases be extended to include . all other animals which are susceptible to the disease and which are in the place in question." Sec. 56. " After the discovery of an outbreak of a plague, and as long as there is danger from the plague, the stock yards or public slaughterhouses may be closed to prevent the removal of animals which are susceptible to the plague. More stringent quarantine measures may be applied only in urgent cases." LA.W OONOERNING ANIMAL PLAGUES 121 From the instruction of the Federal Council of June 27, 1895, ■with reference to the execution of Sees. 19 to 29 of the Imperial law concerning animal plagues, the following paragraphs are of import- ance for meat inspection : Oeneral. — Sec. 2. " To stock yards, public slaughterhouses, and food animals brought to such places, subject to a regulated veterinary police control, the provisions of these instructions are applicable only in so far as they are in harmony with the regula- tions of Sees. 53 to 56 of the law (see above). In particular, the provisions of these instructions concerning public notification of an outbreak of a plague and concerning restrictions in traffic with reference to the animals and persons which come in contact with them are not applicable to the institutions mentioned above." Foot-and-mouth disease. — Sec. 62. " Hides of dead or slaughtered diseased animals may be removed from quarantine only in a completely dried condition, except in case they are delivered directly to the tannery." Pleuro-pneumonia. — Sec. 89. " Lungs of animals slaughtered on account of pleuro-pneumonia or dead of this disease must be buried at least one meter deep in order to render them harmless. The meat of such animals shall not be removed froni the premises in question iintil it has been thoroughly frozen. The skins of animals dead of pleuro-pneumonia shall not be removed from the premises in question or from the slaughterhouse unless in a com- pletely dried condition, except in case they are delivered imme- diately to the tanner." Sheep pox. — Sec. 97^°. "Skins of dead. or slaughtered sheep affected with sheep pox shall be removed from quarantine only in a completely dried condition, except in case they are delivered directly to the tanner." Mange. — In case of mange in horses and sheep the skins are subject to the same restrictions in traffic as in the case of foot- and-mouth disease and sheep pox." 4.— Imperial Law Concerning Measures Against Rinderpest, April 7, 1869. This law, which originally was operative only for the region of the North German Federation, but which in 1870 and 1871 was also introduced into Baden, Hessen, Bavaria, Wiirtemburg and Alsace- Lorraine, prescribes incineration of animals slaughtered on account of infection from rinderpest or dead of this disease. III. THE ART OF BUTCHERING, INCLUDING THE INSPEC- TION OF ANIMALS BEFORE SLAUGHTERING. 1.— Food Animals. To tlie food animals belong, in the first place, cattle, sheep, and hogs, then goats and horses ; moreover, in southern and southeastern European countries, the buffalo is slaughtered, and, in a portion of the Scandinavian countries, the reindeer.* Lately dogs have also been slaughtered for use as human food (Italy and Saxony). Of the domestic food animals just mentioned, the hog, at least so far as Germany is concerned, furnishes the greatest amount of meat for human food. With us pork is the most important food material of the people, and this is the case for the reason that it may be prepared without the addition of any other fat, and can be preserved, by pickling and smoking, to a greater extent than any other kind of meat, without losing its food value. The annual consumption of meat in the year 1896-7 in Madgeburg amounted toi 60.52 kg. per capita. This amount was distributed as follows : 29 kg. of pork, 25 kg. of beef, 3.8 kg. of veal, 2.5 kg. of mutton, and 1.4 kg^ of horse meat. In Konigsberg, in Prussia, the excess of pork in the year 1895-$ was still greater. Of the 40.66 kg. of meat consumed per capita during that year, 23.32 kg. was pork, 11.65 beef, 2.85 veal, 2.2Q mutton, and 0.65 horse meat. Similar conditions prevail throughout the German Empire (compare page 4). In southern Germany, beef in former years- occupied the first place as an animal food material. During the last ten years, however, the consumption of pork has increased considerably, while the amount of beef eaten has simultaneously decreased. As a mere curiosity, it may be mentioned that in * In Irlemarken, in eastern Norway, a company is engaged in breeding reindeer ior slaughter. The company expects to be able to slaughter 1,000 reindeer a year, the meat of which is to be exported. 1^2 FOOD ANIMALS ' 12&- southern France, Italy, and Spain regulations exist, according ta- which the slaughtering of hogs is forbidden during the summer months. The reason for this prohibition is found in the wide-spread assumption among the common people that pork is unwholesome during the hot season. Apparently we have here a case of a- blindly- accepted tradition, the beginning of which is to be referred to the prohibition of the use of pork in Oriental food laws. Hippophagy. — The broken bones of horses in all the historical' caves of Europe leave no doubt, according to William Boyd Dawkins, that horse meat was in use as a food material in ancient times. The Christian Church issued a prohibitive decree against it for the reason that horse meat was sacrificed and eaten by the Germans ia honor of Odin and Freya. The present prejudice against the con- sumption of horse meat is a remarkable example of the* change of taste brought about by a church" order against a belief which has-' been forgotten. Among the nOmadic people, for example, t^e Tartars, Kirghis, and Kalmucks, hippophagy has continued to the - present day without interruption. Likewise in China the consump- tion of horse meat is an old custom. For many centuries in that country a special" fat horse" has been bred for this particular- purpose, a breed which is characterized by delicate bone structure,, savory meat, and great fattening powers. The fifst of the civilized peoples to return to the consumption of horse meat were the Danes. The Danish government, during the siege of Copenhagen, in 1807, permitted the sale of horse meat, and from Denmark hippophagy gradually spread to its present extents In Germany during the years of high prices, 1816-17, much horse meat was eaten. Horses, however, were for the most part slaughtered surreptitiously. It was the hard times of 18i7 that induced Prof. Spinola, then connected with the Berlin Veterinary School, and Blume, the Court opera singer, to establish a slaughter-- house for horses in Berlin. As a result, after a year's time, eleven such establishments had been erected in Berlin, in which a total number of 3,000 horses were slaughtered. Morot presents figures to- show that the consumption of horse meat dur^'ng the last thirty' years has considerably increased in nearly all countries. In France there exists a "Comite de la viande de Oheval," which deserves- great credit for the extension of the consumption of horse meat. The first slaughterhouse for horses was opened in Paris under the management of the army veterinarian, Decroix, July 9, 1866. During: the following half-year 902 horses were slaughtered. The number- Q4:: THE ART OP BUTCHERING if horses slaughtered increased, hbwever, in 1869 to 2,758 ; in 1872 o 5,732 ; and reached, in 1887, the large number of 16,446. During, he siege and regime of the Commune in Paris, not less thau 65,000 lorses were eaten. Morot emphatically recommends a further ixtension of hippophagy and lays stress upon the fact that thereby m immense sum which at present is partly expended for American )eef would remain in the country. In 1894j 23,186 horses, 383 bsses, and 83 mules were slaughtered, which together yielded 1,129,530 kg. of meat. More than 100,000 of the 600,000 to 700,000 amilies in Paris eat horse meat, " la bidoche " (from bidet, a mare), I.S it is technically called. Moreover, horse meat in Paris, as with is, has more secret buyers than open admirers. At any rate. Villain lays that two-thirds of all the solipeds slaughtered are utilized in he manufacture of sausage. The number of horses which were slaughtered in public ibattoirs and in the several horse abattoirs of Prussia in the year .899 amounted to 63,801. The number of horse abattoirs was 365 md the great number of horses, 10,037, were slaughtered in Berlin, ^ore than 5,000 were slaughtered in the governmental districts, 3reslau and Diisseldorf ; more than 3,000 in the governmental listricts, Liegnitz, Magdeburg, Merseburg, Schleswig, and Arnsberg, , >r in the more thickly populated districts.; while in the less thickly )opulated eastern provinces only a few horses were utilized as food ; )y the people. A strikingly small number of horses were slaughtered n the governmental districts of Ppsen and Bromberg.* In 1890-91, he number of horses slaughtered in Prussia was 53,281 ; in 1893-4, , 18,306. In the Kingdom of Saxony in 1885, 3,313 horses were ilaughtered ; in 1890, 4,249 ; in 1896, 5,091 ; and in 1899, 5,187. In: Jeipsio the number of horses slaughtered in 1895 was 961 and in. .900, 1,839. In Dresden during the year ].899, 1,478 horses were ;laughtered; in Munich the consumption of horses was doubled luring the 80's. Neverthele,ss, the number of horses slaughtered in .890 was only 1,728. In Yienua, during 1892, 18,209 horses were ;laughtered. During the exclusive consumption of horse meat, as shown by he recent experience of beleaguered cities in China and the Trans- vaal, cases of diarrhea may appear. This was observed also in jousequence of eating dogs. According to Pfliiger, a substance soluble in alcohol is contained in horse meat and passes over into. he meat broth. This substance may produce diarrhea. It consists . * This is due to the unconquerable antipathy of the Polish population againsf he consumption of horse meat. POOD ANIMALS 125 of three-fourths lecithin and one-fourth neutral fat and cholesterin. The injurious effect of horse meat is not produced if it is prepared with beef or mutton tallow or if the meat broth is poured off. The slaughter of dogs appears, according to an official document of a magistrate in Munich, to have become so extensive that the authorities wish to establish measures which will regulate the traffic ill dog meat and protect the owners of dogs from the thieving tendencies of commercial dog butchers. A portion of the dogs which were slaughtered were shown to have been stolen. It is believed that dog meat is not only used for the adulteration of sausage, but is also eaten as a delicacy by the thousands of Italian workmen in Munich. Dogs are regularly slaughtered in certain abattoirs in Saxony. Thus, . in 1889, 233 dogs were slaughtered in Chemnitz, 102 in Leipsic and Zittau; while in 1890, 312 were slaughtered in Chemnitz and 103 in Leipsic. In the latter city the number of (logs has considerably increased and in 1900 amounted to only 15. In the whole Kingdom of Saxony in 1899 there were 468 dogs slaughtered. According to Villain, the dog is a highly esteemed food animal among the Chinese as well as among the Tartars and the inhabitants of Kamchatka. In Senegal also and in the Society Islands, dog meat is readily consumed and is even preferred to pork. For a long time experiments have been made in Germany to introduce the consump- tion of rabbit meat, which in England, Prance and Italy furnishes a. favorite article of food. These efforts, however, have been without result. According to Boutel, the daily consumption of rabbits in •Paris amounts to 10,000 and in London to 75,000. In Prance as a whole, 100,000,000 rabbits are raised annually and have a value of 300,000,000 francs. The rabbit is the most productive of the domestic animals. Por example, one female weighing 4^ kg. may, in the course of a year, produce 50 young, which at the age of four months furnish 150 kg. of meat. In addition to the mammals already mentioned, fowls also belong to domestic food animals. There is no system of meat inspection for fowls or for rabbits slaughtered for home consump- tion. In the case of fowls and rabbits there is simply a supervision of the offering for sale and sale, a control of the market, like that exercised in the. case of game, fish, crustaceans and mollusks intended for human food. (Compare Drechsler, "■Selection, Pur- chase and Judgment of our Animal Pood, Together with Pood Materials of Animal Origin." Munich, 1897.) 126 THE AET OF BUTCHEBINQ The last named animals, rabbits, fowls, game, fish, Crustacea and moUusks, will be considered only so far as they show an anomalous condition. Moreover, in judging of the meat of domestic fowl and game, the same principles should apply as for the more important domestic food animals, cattle, sheep, hogs and horses. "With regard to goats, the same statement, in general, may be made as for sheep. 2.— Inspection of Animals Before Slaughter. Purpose. — The inspection of animals before slaughter may be omitted only in cases in which there is danger of natural death by postponing the slaughter (in urgent cases of emergency slaughter).* In all other cases inspection must be made, and for the following reasons : 1. For the purpose of the immediate detection and isolation of animals suffering from an infectious disease.t 2. In order to prevent the infection of the employees of slaughterhouses with diseases which are communicable to man; for example, glanders, anthrax and rabies. 3. For the purpose of the certain detection of intoxications and septic diseases, in which the internal organs and meat may show only slight alterations. ' Finally, in localities where a system of insurance of food animals exists, the inspection of animals before slaughter is made in the interest of this insurance, since thereby animals which are evidently or presumably diseased are excluded from insurance. Practice. — In this place we may omit a description of the pathological symptoms to which attention should be given in the inspection of living food animals, for the reason that these must be perfectly familiar to every veterinary expert. Only the following points need be emphasized : The transportation of animals may produce symptoms which could be interpreted as the expression of a disease. In this con- nection we should mention especially the exhaustion of animals which in consequence of continual confinement in stalls are unused * In such cases, however, the meat can not be admitted for utilization as a human food material unless the conditions found upon slaughter leave no doubt as to its harmlessness. (See under "Emergency Slaughter.") f For this purpose a so-called police or sanitary slaughterhouse must be estab- lished in connection with every abattoir. INSPECTION OF ANIMALS BEFOBE SLAUGHTER 127 to all exercise "(bulls, milch cows, fat hogs). Eefusal pffood and dulness of the sensorium may occur ; these symptoms, however, usually disappear after several hours' rest. Furthermore, we may observe, in consequence of long transportation, lameness as a result of injuries to the hoof (confusion with foot-and-mouth disease), bruises and injuries of the skin, especially in cattle and sheep, and consequent hemorrhages and accumulations of air under the skin (confusion with anthrax and black leg). Transportation and period of ' rest before slaughter. — ^It is the general practice not to permit the immediate slaughter of animals which are exhausted by a long journey, .but only after a period of rest. The meat inspection regulation in Dessau provides, for example, that food animals shall be allowed a resting period before slaughter, eight hours in winter after being driven on the hoof, and four hours after transportation by rail ; in summer, on the other hand, twelve and six hours respectively. This provision is in accordance with the fact that exhausted animals bleed imperfectly, and the meat consequently shows a poorer keeping quality than that of rested animals. The meat naturally begins to decompose more rapidly, but, if properly treated immediately after slaughter, undergoes a chemical decomposition which among butchers goes by the name " smothering." Provisions concerning the ttmm^fsrtaiion of food animals hy rail. — In consequence of the impsrc^r loading of -food animals in cars, quite frequency serious injuries and even death may be occasioned. , Fat hogs during the summer are most subject to these accidents. As is the case in forced driving on the hoof, they may die of suffocation in railroad cars if they are loaded too closely in poorly ventilated cars. Even cattle may die in crowded cars if the latter are so overloaded that animals which fall down during transporta- tion are unable to get up. Cattle frequently die during transporta- tion from suffocation or in consequence of trampling by animals which stand next to them. The Agricultural Union at Braunsberg, for the purpose of preventing such accidents during transportation by rail, made a request for the introduction of ventilating devices in the roofs of cars and in the doors so that a space for one beef animal or one medium sized horse of 1.5 square meters, or for three calves or two hogs of 100 kg. weight, or for nine young pigs, or three sheep, one square meter of floor surface be provided. In Bussia, special animal transportation cars are used, which are 128 THE AKT OF BUTOHEKING provided with arrangements for ventilation, suitable heating, feed 'racks, pipes for introducing water, trap doors for the removal of the feces, and suitable quarters for the attendants. " Bailroad disease " of cattle. — Ebder frequently observed cattle which were affected with a peculiar condition characterized by cattle dealers as " railroad disease ". After being unloaded the animals exhibited a wavering gait and passed into a condition which resembled parturient paresis. The pulse was accelerated to 100 without an elevation of temperature. Kespiration was spasmodic ; appetite and rumination were suspended and the attack terminated unfavorably. Horses must in every individual ca|^ be examined for glanders (nasal cavity, larynx, general integument, etc.). In other domesti- cated animals the inspection in general may be a cursory one and may be confined to an observation of the general appearance and the more important vegetative and sensory functions. The best time for inspecting animals is during feeding. Animals which are lying down should be made to get up. Lame animals are to be driven back and forth, and animals which are evidently exhausted should be again examined after a period of rest. Animals which are suspected of being diseased must be subject to inspection lege artis. \ The most important diseases. — The chief interest in the inspection before slaughter attaches to the typical infectious diseases, the Fi&. 1. Nasal septum of horse with glanderous ulcers and a cicatrix, intoxications and septic diseases of food animals. The infectious diseases most frequently observed in stock-yards are glanders in the horse, foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and hogs, anthrax in cattle and sheep, swine erysipelas and urticaria in hogs. The latter disease is the only one in which treatment is indicated (laxatives), and slaughter should be postponed until recovery takes place, since the INSPECTIOSE OP ANIMALS BEFORE SLAUGHTER 129. as a rule, runs a favorable course, but the meat after recovery shows only unimportant alterations, as compared with those which are present at the crisis of the disease. By far the most frequent disease in stock-yards and abattoirs is- aphtha. With reference to this disease, since it frequently happens, especially in the case of hogs, that veterinarians first become well acquainted with it in abattoirs, it should be remembered that in hogs, as a rule, the hoofs are affected and rarely the mouth, and that the first form of the disease is made apparent, when the Fm. 3. ~h & Aphtha. Tip of beef tongue; as, aphtha; 5, epithelial erosion after bursting of the aphtha. animals are driven out of the stalls, by lameness and by the aphthous patches or slightly bleeding surfaces on the hoofs. Among septic diseases, especial attention should be given to the so-called lameness and dysenterial looseness of the bowels in calves, to sepsis in connection with retention of the after-birth and septic mastitis in cows, to septic enteritis in cattle in general, and, finally, to septic diseases as a result of wounds in all animals. Furthermore, it is desirable in inspecting animals whidh are intended for slaughter to give close attention to alterations of the. 130 THE ART OF BUTOHEBING skin (parasitic eruptions, especially scabies in horses and sheep, actinomycotic tumors in horses and cattle), to discharges from the nose, rustling sounds in inspiration, disturbances of the brain functions, dulness of the sensorium, involuntary movements, and to motor disturbances (lameness and paralysis). In this way the expert simplifies, to a considerable extent, inspection after slaughter. It is then not necessary to make an inspection of the skin of the slaughtered animals, which, with the exception of hogs, is more diflScult in all food animals after death than during life. It is also unnecessary to make a special inspection of the nasal cavities, brain and motor apparatus in cases of complete integrity of the upper respiratory passages and the absence of cerebral motor disturbances. The expert inspector saves himself the anatomical investigation of the hoofs, bones, and joints, by an inspection of animals before slaughter. These parts are to be subjected to a more detailed examination after slaughter in cases in which pathological processes during life caused a suspicion of alterations in then;. Before we proceed to discuss the inspection of the internal organs and the meat of slaughtered animals, it appears desirable to give a brief account of the most important methods of slaughter and the order of procedure in practical slaughtering. 3.— Methods of Slaughter. In slaughtering, death must be brought about quickly and with the ' avoidance of unnecessary pain.* The methods of slaughter in common use with us serve also the purpose of securing the greatest possible keeping quality for the meat. This purpose is fulfilled by opening the large cervical vessels or anterior thoracic vessels of the animals and removing as much blood as possible. Blood passes very quickly into decomposition. Only one method, the so-called English patent method, is operated without bleeding. By this method the animals are suffocated (compression of the lungs by forcing in air by means of a bellows and a sharp canula inserted into the pleural cavity). Meat obtained by this method possesses a higher food value in consequence of its containing all of the blood, but for the same , reason has a diminished keeping property and does not exhibit the * Sec. 360" of the Criminal Law Statute of the Grerman Empire provides a line of 150 rtiarks or imprisonment for any person who publicly or in anger causes severe paia to animals, or grossly maltreats them. METHODS OP SLAUGHTER 131 TDeantiful bright-red appetizing appearance of the meat of completely bled animals. Quantity of hlood and hleeding. — The total quantity of blood of animals amounts on an average to one-thirteenth of the body weight. This quantity, however, is not completely removed even by those methods of slaughter in which bleeding is most thorough. For all of the blood is removed only when the animals are not merely allowed to bleed, but when the individual parts of the body are deprived of the residual quantity of blood present in them, by the use of alkalies. The residual blood remains in the organs and in the flesh after ordinary commercial slaughter. This quantity, however, is so small that it is difficult on section through the organs or the musculature to obtain blood, even in drops, by pressure on the cut surfaces. Only occasionally it is possible to press out blood from the smaller veins. In cases of incomplete bleeding, such as occurs after previously mutilating the medulla oblongata, this is more easily accomplished. With reference to the quantity of blood obtained in slaughtering, Heissler found quite considerable variations. Age was without any special influence. Male animals, on the other hand,. yielded some- what more blood than females. Furthermore, a fat condition, especially in hogs, was associated with a striking diminution in the quantity of blood. In horses the blood amounted to from 3.93 to 9 per cent, of the body weight; in cows, from 4.2 to 5.75 per cent.; in calves, from 4.4 to 6.67 per cent.; in sheep, from 4.37 to 5.56 per cent.; and in hogs, from 1.45 per cent., in the case of Hungarian hogs, to 5.75 per cent, in a yearling boar. In the abattoir at Bremen, the average weights of blood rwere found as follows: In the horse, 25 kg.; in cattle, 17.5; in colts, 7 ; in hogs, 3.5 ; in calves, 4.5 ; in sheep, 3 ; and in goats, 3 kg. The average dressed weight of slaughtered animals was 288.6 kg. in horses, 254 in cattle, 100 in colts, 60 in calves, 77 in hogs, 21 in sheep, and 12.5 in goats. All animals, with the exception of those which are slaughtered according to Jewish rites, are rendered unconscious before the blood is drawn. The number of animals slaughtered according to Jewish custom is, however, very small. In contrast to the meat of animals which have been bled, that of animals which have died is characterized by the high blood content which appears in the darker coloration of all parts, espe- 132 THE ART OF BUTCHERING cially, however, by the distended veins of the internal organs (particularly the liver) and of the subcutis. By the term " cold butchering " is understood the subsequent sticking of dead animals. This manipulation, in which, in favorable cases, the non-coagulated contents of the severed vascular trunks are removed, is merely a deceptive operation, calculated to make a dead animal appear as if slaughtered in the ordinary manner. Incomplete bleeding occurs during agony in case of diseased animals, if, in consequence of the weakened cardiac power, the blood pressure is already greatly lowered. The organs and meat of such animals are more or less rich in blood, according to the degree of bleeding. The greatest content of blood is usually found in the liver and subcutis. In animals exhausted by transportation bleeding is also incomplete. The most important mefJiods of slaughter. — The methods of slaughter in common use with us may be classified into three groups : 1. Simple bleeding by sticking in the thorax or cutting the throat. To this group belongs the Jewish method of slaughter. , 2. Bleeding after previous mutilation of the medulla oblongata by pithing or by a blow. 3. Bleeding after previous stunning by means of a blow with a club, the so-called killing ax, killing mask, and shooting mask. The procedures mentioned under 2 and 3 are frequently com- bined in stunning with a killing ax. Practice of the Diflferent Methods of Slaughter. 1. — Simple Bleeding by Sticking in the Chest or Cutting the Throat. Thoracic bleeding is performed in such a manner that, without any preliminary operation, the larger vascular trunks (carotids and jugulars) at the entrance of the thorax are opened or severed by n)eaus of a sharp-pointed knife. Thoracic bleeding finds application with calves, sheep, and the larger domesticated animals in which, in consequence of certain diseases, an incipient paralysis of the brain is present (for example, parturient paresis). Cervical bleeding, or schachten, is the common method of killing food animals among the Jews and Mohammedans. For practicing this method, the animals must be secured and thrown. This may be accomplished by the ordinary methods of throwing or by means^ METHODS OF SLAUGHTER 133 •of windlasses fastened to the walls and ceiling of the room. The lead is placed so that it lies upon the horns and nose. Hereupon, in ritual schdchfen, the neck is cut through to the spinal column by three rapidly-executed strokes with a long, exceedingly-sharp, nick- less knife. Israelites consider themselves bound by their religious laws to slaughter in this manner, or to abstain from the use of meat. A governmental prohibition of slaughter by the Jewish method would Tje an attack on the rights of the free practice of religion granted by tolerant governments.* A blow on the head is declared by the Israelites as not permissible, for the reason that " perforation of the membranes of the brain " belongs to the eight mutilations which, according to the Mischna of the Talmud, render the meat terepha (unfit for food). Meat which is fit to eat is called hosclier (in order, proper). "Let it be blest through me, O God, King of the world, who strengtheneth us in holiness by Thy commands and who hast made schachten a ■duty," murmurs the schdchter (schoehet), while he straps his knife before the operation or runs the hands over it to test it. If during "the operation of cutting the throat the knife receives any nick, however small, the "schechita" is not coriectly performed. The animal is condemned (nebelah) and its use as food is not permitted. Likewise, it is forbidden to eat the meat of animals which exhibit no movement during the process of slaughter or afterwards. Animals which lie quiet and can not be made to get up by striking with a stick must not be slaughtered, according to the Jews. *A rabbinical expert, in consequence of the prosecution of schachten in the governmental district of Danzig, in which this method of slaughter was temporarily- prohibited, testified in court that this method of slaughter was a religious observance tased upon tradition and Biblical commandment (Moses, Book III and Book V, -chapter 12, verse 31). In the Mosaic food laws, however, there are no provisions x;oncerning sehdehten. The first provision concerning the schechita and the subsequent inspection (B'dikoh) are found in the Fifth Book of Mischna, Chapters 1 to 6. The six books of Mischna wore edited on the basis of oral and written tradition by Jehuda Ha Nassi. The commentaries to the Mischna, published later And collected in the fifth century A. D., together with the Mischna, constitute the Talmud. The Mischna declares that "if the organs (lungs, trachea, stomach, heart, ■etc.) are permeated with holes, or have any defect, the use of the animal as food is not permitted." The Gamara of the Talmud prescribes, "if tumoi-s or vesicles are found in the lungs, filled with air or with pure water, or with a material dry or even as hard as a stone, the use of the animal as food is permitted. If, however, there is a stinking substance, or a stinking, cloudy fluid therein, the use of the meat of these -animals is forbidden. Defects and perforative openings render the consumption of the meat un permissible under all circumstances." 134 the art op butchering 2.— Bleeding after Previous Mutilation op the Medulla Oblongata by Pithing or by a Blow. Pithing.— In practicing this method, a dagger-like knife is- violently driven into the space between the occipital bone and th& atlas, and thereby the medulla oblongata, the seat of the more important vital functions, especially the respiratory center and th& center of the inhibitory nerves of the heart, is destroyed. The same result is obtained by breaking the neck, either by means of the hand in small animals (rabbits) or with a killing ax in the case of larger animals. On account of its more certain effect, the latter method is almost exclusively used in London in the case of wild range steers imported from America. 3. — Bleeding after Previous Stunning with a Hammer, Slaughter- Ax, Slaughter Mask, and Shooting Mask. The blow with the hammer is administered with great violence upon the middle of the roof of the cranium for the purpose of producing not only a concussion of the brain, but also a fracture of the cranium. In this, as in the following niethod, as a result of pressure or direct injury, a rapid paralysis of the sensory and motor centres of the brain is brought about. Fick, in Wiirzburg, calls attention to the fact that it has been shown by extensive experience in the case of man that an immediate paralyzing concussion of the brain is accompanied with absolute unconsciousness. In place of a small hammer, the following special apparatus may be used for stunuing : (a) The killing ax, which consists of a wooden handle and a wrought iron striking apparatus fastened at right angles to the handle. One half of the latter consists of an iron cylinder about 10 cm. long and 1 cm. in diameter, the end of which forms a gouge. The other half of the striking portion is curved in order to embrace the horns of the animal to be stunned. The gouge-like end of the striking portion is driven into the middle of the roof of the cranium by a strong blow, whereupon the animal falls. In order to prevent the animal from getting up again, it is customary to introduce a rod into the opening in the cranium and to destroy the brain and medulla oblongata. (b) The slaughter mask consists of a shield-like iron portion with an opening in the middle and with a leather attachment ou either side. Furthermore, there are three thongs attached to ther METHODS OF SLAUGHTER 135 slaughter mask lor fastening it to the head. The opening in the shield-shaped iron portion comes to lie upon the middle of the roof Fig. 3. Slaughtermask as used in the Stuttgart Abattoir, a, mask ; i, striking bolt. of the cranium, while the lateral leather portion covers the eyes of the animal. As in the case of the iron cjlinder of the killing ax, furnished with a gouge, a striking bolt, which is inserted into the opening of the iron portion, is driven through the roof of the cranium bj a wooden hammer. In the practice of this method also, a subsequent destruction of the brain, such as occurs in the use of the killing ax, is customary, (c) The shooting mask (Sieg- mund).^In this apparatus, in place of the striking bolt, a short pistol barrel is used, which is screwed into the opening of the shield-like iron portion of the slaughter mask. In the posterior Staehl's shooting apparatus. 186 THE ABT OF BUTCHBBINQ part of the pistol barrel, a ball cartridge is placed, and is dis- charged by a light blow with a wooden or iron hammer. Subse- quent destruction of the brain is not required in using tho shooting mask. . ■■ • .1 An alteration of Siegmund's shooting mask is found m the shooting apparatus according to Staehl (system of "noiseless shooting "), which is shown in Fig. 4. Pig Kleinsohmidt's spring bolt apparatus for killing hogs (half natural size). (d) In using Kleinschmidt's springbolt apparatus for killing hogs (Fig. 5), death is produced in a manner similar to that with the use of the slaughter mask. A cylindrical iron bolt is driven into the roof of the cranium with the blow of a hammer. After the blow has been delivered, the bolt is thrown back into its previous position by a spring, which does not occur in the case of the slaughter mask. Kogler, in Chemnitz, modified Kleinschmidt's springbolt apparatus in that he left out the spring and made use of a consider- ably shorter cylinder. The cylinder possesses a groove into which a small set screw projects. According to Kogler, the spring of •Kleinschmidt's apparatus has the disadvantage that its use requires . METHODS OF SLAUGHTWl 1^ a mueh more powerful blow, while the length of the cylinder (19S cm.) renders difficult the firm attachment of the apparatus to thfe head. Kogler's apparatus is without protection for the bolt and without its automatic rebound. Both these features, however, a is of no consequence. Skilled butchers kill an animal by a hammer blow as quickly and as certainly as by means of a killing ax, slaughter mask, or by any other stunning instrument. The use of the hammer, especially in the case of hogs, is simpler than that of slaughter apparatus. In Berlin, for example, cattle and hogs are killed exclusively with a hammer or with the head of an ax. With leas experienced persons, the slaughter mask or the apparatus of Klein- schmidt and Kogler render the blow more certain than that with a hammer. The use of this apparatus requires, however, more time and an assistant in the slaughter of hogs, which is not necessary in using the hammer. These facts are to be considered in slaughter- . ing on a large scale. The killing ax requires for its exclusive use considerable skill. The slaughtering mask is frequently unsatisfactory for killing bulls. The animals either do not fall at all or plunge, and spring up again and struggle. The use of the shooting mask, moreover, is not without danger. Thus, a few years ago a butcher's apprentice was. injured in an accident with a shooting mask of the old kind, and another accident happened in the abbatoir of Erfurt in the use of Staehl's shooting apparatus. The ball passed outward under the left ear of the animal and shattered the femur of the assistant who was standing by the head of the animal. Moreover, the bleeding of the animals may be incomplete in case the bullet injures the medulla, oblongata, and, finally, the meat is injured if the bullet penetrates the cervical musculature. All these accidents, however, may be avoided by the skilful use of the apparatus, as is contended by Mittermaier, one of the most enthusiastic advocates of the intro- duction of the shooting apparatus for killing animals, from observa- tions made in Heidelburg and Swiss abbatoirs, in which all of the larger food animals and, in receut times, also hogs, are shot. In some abbatoirs, as in that at Potsdam, the shooting is done by an employee of the abbatoir (hall master), whereby accidents have thus far been avoided. The methods which require a previous stunning, when properly practiced, satisfy completely humanitarian sentiments in so far as the first violent assault is followed by a paralysis of the sensory centres of the nervous system. Moreover, they serve the interests of meat hygiene, since, in consequence of the integrity of the medulla oblongata, a thorough bleeding is not prevented. Only when, after ORDER OP PROCEDURE IN COMMERCIAL SLAUGHTEEISG 145 the use of the killing ax or slaughter mask, not only the cerebrum but also the medulla oblongata are destroyed by the introduction of a rod, is bleeding checked in a manner like that which occurs in pithing aiid breaking the neck. This may also occur, as already mentioned, in shooting animals* The slaughtering methods in which bleeding follows stunning, in spite of their advantages, are not much in vogue. In a large proportion of the abbatoirs in various parts of Germany, it is allowable to kill sheep and calves by thoracic bleeding or cutting the throat without previous stunning. It is difficult to understand why these animals should not be allowed the benefit of a previous stunning in slaughter. The procedure of communities which make obligatory the stunning of all food animals, including those from , which man has nothing to fear, deserves all recognition. Two notable regulations (Duchy of Meiningen, of May 23, 1891,. and the Kingdom of Saxony, on March 21, 1892) prescribe that, ia the slaughtering of all animals, stunning must precede the removal of the blood. The only exception is in the case of fowls. The Saxon regulation, which, as shown on page 142, does not accept the Jewish method of slaughter, prescribes as follows concerning the act of stunning : In the case of cattle, stunning shall be accom- plished by the use of the slaughtering mask, except in young ani- mals where the incomplete development of the skull renders it unnecessary. With reference to the stunniug of hogs, calves and sheep by a blow upon the head or neck, the choice of a stunning apparatus is left to the discretion of the butchers, although the wooden hammer is recommended for calves, the bolt apparatus for hogs, and the striking bolt' hammer or a blunt ax for sheep. 4. — Order of Procedure in Commercial Slaughtering. After the death of the animal, skinning takes place in the case^ of horses, cattle and sheep, and scaldiug and singeingf in the case' of hogs, while calves are immediately hung up for exenteration. J * According to Siegmund, it is desirable to bleed animals which have been shot, not immediately, but after a lapse of from one to three minutes, since then bleeding will be thorough and rather more so than in slaughtering by the Jewish method, in which the trunks of the carotid arteries often become closed very quickly. f The meat of singed hogs is said to keep better than that of scalded hogs. Singeing, however, renders the inspection of the skin more difficult. X Calves, especially young and poor specimens, are preferably sold in the skin, in order to prevent the drying of the meat, whereby it becomes of a lighter color and of a less desirable appearance. __ 146 THE ART OP BUTCHEBING Thereupon, after making a cut along the middle of the inferior- abdominal wall, the exenteration of the body cavity takes place in such a manner that first the intestines and then the stomach are separated from their natural connections. The intestines are all removed, together with the mesentery. The spleen, in the case of ■ cattle, is left in connection with the stomach ; in hogs, with the mes- entery ; while in calves and sheep the spleen remains in the body. The liver in horses and cattle is removed separately. In all other ■ kinds of food animals it is taken out in its natural connection with the lungs and heart (the so-called sling), or is removed from the body cavity without splitting the sternum, or after a previous open- ing of the thorax. The latter process is required in the interest of ' an accurate inspection. ' In hogs, after the above described operations, the separation of'" the retro-peritoneal fat tissue occurs, and with it that of the kidneys. This separation is necessary in order that a thorough inspection of the abdominal musculature for cysticerci, calcareous concretions, hemorrhages, etc., may take place. While horses, cattle, calves and sheep are being skinned, the lower portions of the extremities are also separated from their connections below the carpal and tarsal joint. As a rule, the exenteration of the bladder, uterus and rectum takes place immediately after the removal of the intestines. With the exenteration of the abdominal, pelvic and thoracic ■ cavities are connected the removal of the brain from the cranial ■cavity, and the separation of the tongue from its muscular connec- tions with the lower jaw, so that the cranial cavity and the mouth and pharyngeal cavities are laid open. Finally, in the case of ' horses, cattle and hogs, the trunk is divided into two halves by splitting the spinal column. Further procedure in dissection, according to ordinary methods of butchering, is different in different food animals. In cattle, after a previous quartering,* the more valuable cuts of meat are sold separately. As the more valuable parts, we have the purely muscular portions of the body, which contain only small quantities of bone and sinew. As less valuable parts, on the other hand, we have the portions which are poor in muscle, but strongly infiltrated with fat tissue (tallow), and which contain a large propor-?,. tion of bone and sinew. This distinction finds expression in the * Quartering is not practiced in a uniform manner. In Northern Germany the fore quarter is usually separated from the hind quarter between the ninth and tenth ribs, 'thus leaving three ribs on the hind quarter; while in Southern Germany the separation takes place before the next to the last rib. OBDEB OF PROGEDUEE IN COMMEEOIAL SLAUGHTERING 147 different prices. The so-called fillet universally brings a iighet- price than the other muscular parts; in London and Paris, for example, three to four times as much as the thin abdominal meat. Fig. 11. Classification of beef in Berlin. I. Quality: 1, Kinderbraten ; 3, Blume; 3, Bokscliwanzstiick ; 4, Mittelsohwanz- stiiok; 5, Kugel; 6, Obersoliale. II Quality: 7, Unterschwanzstuek; 8, Bug"; 9, Mittelbrust. Ill Quality: 10, Pehlrippe; 11, Kamm; 12, Querrippe; 13, Brustkern. IV. Quality: 14, Quernierensttick; 15, Hessen; 16, Dunnung. Fig. 13. Classification of beef in Vienna. I. Quality: Lungenbraten (nicht eingezeichnet) ; 1, Beiried; 3, Hied (Rostbraten); 3, Hufersohwanzl; 4, Gschnattes Sohwanzl; 5, Ortschwanzl; 3, Kieddeckei; 7,' Zwerchried; 8, Schlemmried (Eiedhufel). . . II. Quality: 9, Schulter; 10, Dicker Spitz; 11, Kruspelspitz ; 13, Mageres Meisl;. 13 und 14, Fettes Meisl; 15, Kamm; 16, Brustkern; 17,, Dickes Kugel; 18 MittleresKiigel; 19, Dunnes Ktigel; 30, Tiistl; 21, Bauohfleisch. III. Quality: 22, Zapfen;-33, Wadschinken; 24, Stich; 25, Barken. 148 THE ART OF BUTCHEKING Otherwise, fhe purely muscular parts exhibit no noteworthy differ- ences in the protein content. While, therefore, in ordinary traffift various prices customarily prevail for these parts, this must be explained, not by the higher nutritive value of particular parts of the meat— as a rule, the consumer does not inquire at all concern- ing the nutritive value— but by the better flavor which is due to. the tender character of the fibers and the content of extractives (see page 196). According to Ignatiev, the valuation of the meat corresponds ta the unequal distribution of two albuminoid substances in the mus- culature, myosin and myostromin (the essential components of th& Fig. 13. \ 2 3 \ i 9 s R ) - / \ ^"/ 13 \ ,0 a /* ^^^^" ;jp^ Classification of beef in London. I. Quality: 1, loin; 2. aitchbone; 3 and 4, silverside; 5, fore rib. II. Quality: 0, topside; 7, leg; 8, street; 9, midrib; 10,- shoulder. III. Quality: 11, thin flank; 12, chuck; 13, fore quarter flank. IV. Quality: 14, brisket; 15, clod and sticking; 16 and 17, shank; 18, cheek. muscle mass, according to Danilewski). The more work which th& muscle has performed, the poorer it is in the former and the richer in the latter. The relative quantity of both substances, according to Ignatiev's investigations, is so distributed according to the regiou of the body that the myosin decreases from the head toward the tail, while the myostromin increases. The latter exists in large pro- portions in the parts below the vertebral column. GhssificaUon of beef. —The most expensive cuts of meat are : The lumbar muscles, iliopsoas, quadratus lumborum and diaphragmatic columns (" lungenbraten," " lummel," fillet), the dorsal muscles with their bony foundation, sacro-lumbalis and longissimus dorsi (roast. ORDER OF PROCEDURE IN OOMJIEKCIAL SLAUGHTERING 149 sirloin, porterliouse), the muscles of the croup and thigh (rump, hip, leg), the musculature of the scapula, together with the humerus .^nd , forearm (shoulder), the musculature above and below the shoulder on either side of the withers (spare ribs), the thicker parts of the abdomiaal muscles (cross ribs), and the sternum with the connected soft parts ("beef breast"). The cheapest cuts of meat are the thinner portions of the abdominal muscles (flank), the cer- -vical and cephalic muscles, and also the muscles of the elbow and hock. The remaining groups of muscles receive different valuations in different regions. Everywhere, however, the hind quarters are more highly prized and bi'ing a higher price than the fore quarters. Fig. 14. Classification of beef in Paris. I. Quality; 1 and 3, semelle; 5, oulotte; 4, tehde de tranche sous la semelle; 5, aloyau ; 6, filet (not shown). II. Quality: 7, plats de cotes decou verts sous I'epaule; 8, entre-cotes et cotes; 9, talon de collier; 10, bavette d'aloyau; 11, plats de cotes converts. ^11. Quality: 13, collier; 13, pis; 14, gites. IV Quality: 16, surlonges; 17, plats de Joues. The latter serve especially in the preparation of meat broths and sausages, and are, therefore, characterized as "soup meat" and '' sausage meat." The Israelites are required by their food laws to eat only the fore quarters of food animals, and are allowed to eat the hind quarters only after they are "geporcht," that is, when the large vascular trunks are removed. (According to Goltz, this cus- tom is based on the 32nd chapter of the first Book of Moses, in which the struggle of Jacob with the angel is described. The angel ■dislocated Jacob's hip, " Therefore, the children of Israel eat no sinews in the hip joint to the present day, since the sinews in the iip joint of Jacob were touched.") 150 THE ABT OP BUTOHEKING Classification in Berlin.— Aitev the removal of the fillet and the tongue, the remainder of the muscular trunk, together with the extremities, is cut up according to four principal qualities and sixteen sorts (Fig. 11): I.— (1) Roast, (2) prime, (3) corner rump, (4) middle rump, (5) round, (6) upper round. II.— (7) Lower rump, (8) shoulder, (9) middle breast. III.— (10) Spare rib, (11) neck, (12) short ribs, (13) fore breast. IV._(14) Cross kidney, (15) Hessian (knee joint), (16) flank. Classification of veal. I. Quality: 1, leg; 3, loin roast. II. Quality: 3, back; 4, withers; 5, shoulder. III. Quality: 6, neck; 7, breast; 8, flank. IV. Quality: 7, head; 10, feet. Classification in Vienna. — According to a private communication of Toscano, three chief qualities and twenty-four sorts are distin- guished in Vienna : I. — (1) Lungenbraten, (2) side roast, (3) roast, (4) hiiferschwanzl, (5) gschnattes schwanzl, (6) ortschwanzl, (7) rieddeckel, (8) zwer- ehried, (9) schlemmried (riedhtifel). II. — (10) Shoulder, (11) thick point, (12) crust point, (13) poor cut, (14) fat cut, (15) neck, (16) fore breast, (17) thick round, (19) ■thin round, (20) tristl, (21) flank. III.— (22) Plug, (23) hock joint, (24) stick piece, (25^ cheeks.* * In Vienna, an especially high value is placed by certain admirers of the mus- cular part of the diaphragm upon the s»-called crow or crown meat. The crown meat is much prized also in Southern Germany, especially in Bavaria. In Munich there is a special crown meat establishment in which this meat is prepared, as a kind of deli- cacy, by boiling. OEDEE OP PROOEDUEE IN COMMEECIAL SLAUGHTEEINO 151 The (ila'ssifications of meat in London and Paris are apparent from the accompanying illustrations. Calves are cut up as required. Classification of veal. — In the calf, the greatest value is placed upon the muscle mass of the hind quarter (leg), of the bacls (loin roast, back, cutlet), the withers (corresponding to the "spare rib" of cattle), while the shoulder, neck, breast and flank produce a smaller value. On the market the thymus of calves (sweetbread) is reckoned as meat, and is sold at a comparatively high price. The thymus of calves is a food which is readily digested, on account of the lactic acid which it contains. It possesses also considerable nutriment in Fm. 16. Classification of mutton. I. Quality: 1, back; 3, leg. II. Quality: 3, shoulder. III. Quality: 4, breast and flank ; 5, neck; 6, head. ' xhe form of albumen and fibrin. Milk calves furnish an especially large and valuable thymus, while that in calves which are reared artificially are less valuable. The weight of a thymus varies between 200 and 2,000 gm. The thymus of adult cattle is worthless. It possesses a leathery consistency, and is often sandy in consequence of a deposit of carbonate and phosphate of lime in the glandular substance. In preparing a sheep carcass for sale, a transverse cut is made in such a manner that the fore quarters with the neck, thorax and abdominal muscles form one part, while the juicy back with the legs form another part. No further classification occurs in cutting up the sheep. (Fig. 16.) Hogs are first separated into two lateral halves by a dividing plane extending from the head to the tail. Thereupon the legs or 152 THE ART or BUTOHEBING hams (the most valuable part of the hog) are separated, and then the separation of the halves of the head (cheeks) and the lower portions takes place. The remaining part of the halved trunk, •together with the anterior extremities, is divided into an upper and lower portion by a cut extending backward and upward from the shoulder joint. Thereby the abdominal musculature is left on the lower portion. The upper part furnishes the hog back (carr6), or the "carbonade meat," the meat of the roast ribs (cutlets), the so-called spare rib and the withers, while the under portion fur- nishes the shoulder, the breast piece and the flank (" sides, smoked meat "). Fig. 17. rr 2 f 6 3 _,,SI?;;;w;:!:-— 5!:J /g=-A Classification of pork. ' I. 'Quality: 1, ham; 2, loin; 3, cutlet. II. Quality: 4, withers; 5, shoulder and breast. III. Quality: 6, flank. IV. Quality: 7, head with cheeks; 8, feet. Zsohokke, in a very noteworthy work, condemns, as an evil ■practice, the habit of butchers in cutting into various kinds of pathological tissue, especially tuberculous areas ; also the habit of holding the knife between the lips or teeth. In this connection it should not be forgotten that butchers represent a considerable con- tingent to the number of human beings who die of tuberculosis. The practice of artificial respiration, during which the assistant stands upon the slaughtered animal and stamps upon the abdomen and thorax, is to be characterized as a bad habit and should be for- bidden, since the stomach contents may thus be forced through the pharyngeal cavity into the trachea and bronchi. Likewise, washing the lungs in impure water, washing the meat, and, finally, "drawing out the blood" in cases of incomplete bleeding, which is really only an extraction of blood coloring matter by allowing the meat to lie in water, should be forbidden as highly improper. IT. INSPECTION OF SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS.* General Discussion. — It is desirable that the expert be present in person at the slaughter, in order to make it impossible from the beginning for the tradesmen to attempt any removal of pathological products, or the presentation of healthy organs in the place of ■diseased ones; A supervision of slaughter is also desirable, for the reason that exudations and transudations into the body cavity flow out during the process of slaughter, and thus escape the notice of the expert inspector if he does not begin inspection until after the slaughter is complete. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that butchers understand very well how to conceal certain alterations. Thus, one may observe in abattoirs how, by careful washing, butchers remove the ichorous contents of the peritoneal cavity in cases of perforative peritonitis of calves, and how they remove the fibrinous deposit by pulling or' scraping it off, and in this manner render the real condition, which was quite striking, very difficult to recognize. The same may be said in cases of pleuritis, pericarditis and metritis. The practice, which has become especially prev.gieotj: of remov- ing abscesses and certain parasites (echinocpcci) in ian^,fBpl?n organs, tuberculous masses on the serous membranes, exterior surface of organs and in the lymph glands, should be checked .by severe pun- ishment. Fortunately, we are in a position to demonstrate easily such attempts to obscure the actual condition in diseased animals. The removal of masses of material from different organs is evidenced by loss of substance. Thus, the frequently practiced removal of the plenra on account of tuberculosis or inflammatory alterations, espe- cially in meat which is introduced from foreign countries, is to be recognized by the fact that the ribs and intercostal muscles come to be exposed and are not covered by a glistening membrane. In the place of the smooth, glistening, transparent pleura, there appears a * Ii; this chapter only macroscopic meat inspection will be considered. Micro- scopic inspection for trichina is discussed in connection with the account of trichina. 153 154 INSPECTION OP SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS more or less conspicuous sub-pleural connective tissue, which has- become cloudy and opaque on account of the introduction of air (artificial emphysema). The nature of the pathological process in the removed pleura is, under these conditions, still recognizable from thefact that the lymph glands, which lie in the entrance to the thorax and are surrounded by fat tissue, exhibit alterations. Quite frequently also the uteri of cows filled with well devel- oped fetuses are laid aside in order to make us6 of the meat of so-called unborn animals as a human food material. To prevent this underhand dealing, all inspected uteri are to be cut up and condemned. In this way the removal of pregnant uteri becomes impossible, since for each slaughtered cow an intact uterus must be presented. If the inspector can not be present at the slaughter of all ani- mals (as, for instance, in small slaughterhouses where no expert inspector is present, or in very large slaughterhouses with extensive operations), it should be required that all organs should remain in the slaughtered animal as nearly as possible in their natural condi- tion. At any rate, the spleen, kidneys,iiver, lungs, heart and udder, as well as the skin (the latter on account of description for legal purposes) should not be separated. In so far as exenteration can- not be avoided, the organs must be left in their natural connection with one another. In case several animals are slaughtered at the same time, the «xenterated organs should be hung up near the animal body to which they belong, in such a manner that no inter-^ change is possible. Furthermore, no organs should be removed before thp inspection is completed. It should also be forbidden that any sort, of alteration, such as scalding the stomach, mesen- tery, hides, feet, etc., be undertaken in any of the separated parts of the animal before they have been subjected to expert in- spection. Finally, meat inspection should be performed, so far as possible, by daylight, since by artificial illumination finer alterations may escape the notice of the inspector. Moreover, in illumination by gas even the acute stages of icterus are usually overlooked. The government president at Posen, in view of the fact that an accurate judgment of slaughtered animals is, as a rule, possible only in day- light, decreed on Juae 15, 1896, that in future the inspection of animals slaughtered in public slaughterhouses of the governmental district of Posen should be performed only by daylight. Excep- tions from this decree are allowed only in case the abattoir is lighted by electricity or by some other artificial source of light CHIEF POINTS IN INSPECTION 155 •vTrhich, in the judgment of the official veterinarian, is of equal intensity. The official veterinarians are instructed in making their regular inspection of public abattoirs to give special attention to this decree. Chief Points in Inspection. — The most important characters of the normal or pathological condition of organs are size, color, sheen, conspicuousness or inconspicuousness, as well as uniformity or lack of uniformity in the macroscopic structure, blood content of the cut surface and consistency. Attention should be given to these characteristics in each organ. All organs are to be carefully in- spected and palpated. Certain parts, as, for example, the lymphatic glands at the points of introduction of tuberculous infection, are always to be examined by means of an incision, but other parts, on the contrary, only in case of the suspicion of an alteration. Stamping Inspected Aniix^als, — All organs as well as the meat are to be marked after, inspection is completed with an indelible stamp, in order to exclude the possibility of presenting^ organs which have already been inspected in the place of fresh diseased organs. Moreover, the stamping of inspected organs and cuts of meat render it possible for consumers to buy only inspected imeat, and offers the sanitary police a means of demonstrating ! evasions of meat inspection. For stamping fresh meat, non- ' poisonous, quickly-drying and adhesive colors are to be used. Pickled and smoked meat should be marked with a branding^ stamp. Condemnation. — Diseased animals and parts, or those which are suspected of being diseased, should be condemned preliminarily by a formal act. In Berlin this is done by pasting on a label with the inscription, " Preliminarily rejected and condemned. Dr. , Municipal Veterinarian." In case of final condemnation and exclusion from consumption, the animals or parts in question must be removed to an official inclosure (sanitary slaughterhouse) and there be disinfected under official control. If, however, the animals or parts which were preliminarily condemned may be sold under declaration as spoiled food material, in the sense of the food law, this quality is to be characterized by a special stamp, "spoiled, non-marketable, or inferior value, freibank meat." The sale of the .last named meat must take place under official supervision. (Com- pare page 48.) 156 INSPECTION OP SLAUGHTEEED ANIMALS Illegal Removal. — According to Sec. 137 of the Criminal Law "Statutes, imprisonment not to exceed one year is prescribed for intentional concealment, destruction, or complete or partial removal •of meat whicli has been condemned by the competent authorities or officials. The Imperial Court (Decision II, Criminal Senates, May 30, 1884) decided that the city veterinarians in Berlin, according to the text of Sees. 16 and 3i of the local regulations for the enforce- «f condemnation, were competent in the sense of Sec. 137 of the Criminal Statutes. According to the meat inspection law, condem- nations are reserved for the police authorities. (See page 84.) Inspection of Diseased Organs. — With regard to the prac- "tice of the inspection of diseased organs, the statement of Zschokke entastomes, tuberculosis.) 11. Omentum. (Hemorrhages, tuberculosis.) 12. Testicle or uterus. Catting open the latter. (Inflammations, uberoulosis.) 13. Urinary bladder. Inspection, and press out the contents, n order not to destroy the value of the bladders unnecessarily, they hould be cut only in cases where disease is suspected. (Erythrism, iloudy contents, thickening.) Hereupon follows : 14. Inspection of the four quarters. (a) External aspect. (Blood content, hemorrhages, edema, tumors, parasites [cysticerci]). All hemorrhages observed upon the surface should be examined to determine whether they extend deeply into the meat. Bone fractures are often' characterized by only slight suggillations on the surface of the skinned carcass. In female animals the udder is to be; examined while inspecting the hind quarters, the supra- mammary lymph glands should be incised. (Tuberculosis,: actinomycosis, abscesses.) (b) Inner aspect, peritoneum, pleura. (Blood content, inflam-i mation, tumors, tuberculosis.) The diaphragm should be lifted, since otherwise in the hanging animals the altera-, tions which are found underneath the diaphragm might be easily overlooked. (c) Spinal column, pelvis and sternum. (Discolorations, fractures, osteo-myelitis, tuberculosis.) Finally, in case cerebral or motor disturbances were observed a inspecting the animals before slaughter, the brain or the ex- remities (hoofs, bones, tendons, joints) are to be subjected to a aref ul inspection. * The kidneys are best separated from the fatty capsule immediately after laughter, before it has set, and, until inspected, should be left in their natural con- ection with the hind quarters by means of the urethra. aOCBSE OF INSPECTION 159 (b) Calves. — In calves, inspection takes place in the same manner as with cattle, with the exception that the inspection of the liver for flukes is omitted. Especial attention in calves should be given to the condition : 1. Of the stomach (ulcus pepticum.) 2. Of the small intestine (hemorrhagic enteritis, dysentery). 3. Of the mesenteric and portal glands (congenital and incipient tuberculosis). 4. Of the navel (omphalo-phlebitis). 5. Of the joints (septic and suppurative polyarthritis). (c) Sheep. — In sheep the spleen must be carefully inspected in «very case (anthrax) ; also the brain ( Coenurus cerebralis). Moreover, in sheep, attention should be given to the frequently occurring lung and stomach worms, as well as to sarcosporidia in the esophagus and skeletal musculature. (d) Hogs. — The internal organs, spinal column, pelvis and sternum are in general inspected in the same manner as in cattle. The liver, lungs, heart, trachea and tongue of hogs are to remain in their natural connection. The following variations from the above described course of inspection requires consideration in the case of hogs : 1. Careful inspection of the tongue and heart as well as the abdominal muscles, free from retroperitoneal fatty tissue ; diaphragm ; intercostal, cervical, masticatory and laryngeal muscles for the pres- ence of cysticerci.* 2. An incision into the base of the lungs on account of the fre- quent occurrence of Strongylus paradoxus. 3. Inspection of the skin. (Erythrism, granular eruptions, sclerosis in boars.) 4. Inspection of the udder (actinomycosis). 5. Inspection of the hoofs (foot-and-mouth disease). 6. Inspection of all visible skeletal muscles (hemorrhages, cys- ticerci, calcareous concretions). Inspection may proceed in this way in ordinary cases. If pathological alterations are found, the findings of inspection are to * In order that the cervical muscles may be inspected for cysticerci, it is desir- able that all hogs should be split before inspection ; that is, separated into two lateral halves by a longitudinal splitting of the spinal column and the associated soft parts. 160 INSPECTION OF SLAUGHTEEED ANIMALS be supplemented according to requirements by determining the condition of other organs and, if necessary, by microscopic, bacteri- ological and chemical tests. The extent to which this is indicated will be especially discussed in connection with the various diseases. Appendix.— Inspection of Imported Meat. The inspection of meat which is introduced in a slaughtered condition from any locality inland or from a foreign country is always uncertain, for it must be done by the inspector without a knowledge of the condition of the animal before slaughter, and, therefore, can not include all of the internal organs. Certain organs, as, for instance, the stomach and intestines, can not be introduced in connection with the carcasses, since they rapidly pass into decom- position and cause an extension of this process to other parts of the body. Often, however, there are pathological processes in the stomach and intestines which may render the meat injurious to health (septic inflammation of the stomach and intestines, dysen- tery). It is easy to understand, therefore, why Hartenstein proposed that imported meat should be offered for sale only in separate booths, as required by the Prussian slaughterhouse law, and that labels should be attached to these sales booths with the inscription, "Introduced from outside countries. No responsibility can be assumed for the harmlessness of the meat." The same purpose is served by a special stamping of introduced meat, so as to make it apparent that the meat is introduced. Naturally, the inspection of meat introduced from foreign coun- tries is not entirely without value, as is shown by the findings of trichinae in pork introduced from America, and which had been already inspected in the export country. Beside trichinae, macro- scopically-visible injurious parasites (beef and pork measle worms) may be demonstrated if those parts which serve as a favorite loca- tion for these parasites are introduced in their natural connection with the animal bodies. For the detection of the beef measle worm, the head is of prime importance, and for the demonstration of the pork measle worm, the heart and tongue. It is absolutely neces- sary to have the head with the lower jaw, together with the masti- catory muscles, along with the imported meat, since more than 90 per cent, of all findings of beef measle worms are possible only INSPECTION OF IMPORTED MEAT 161 through an inspection of the masticatory muscles. For inspection for glanders, the head and skin are indispensable. For the diagnosis of tuberculosis, pleuro-pneumonia, cattle plague and swine plague, the lungs should be imported along with the meat, and for the deter- mination of anthrax and Texas fever the spleen should be presented. For the detection of septic and pyemic diseases and generalized tuberculosis, the introduction of the heart, liver and kidneys should be required. In female animals, in view of the importance of septic diseases of the udder and uterus informing a judgment of the meat, the introduction of these organs is desirable. If the introduction of the uterus must be abandoned on account of the difficulty of trans- porting it when filled by a fetus, the instructions for inspection of introduced meat are to be so worded that all carcasses of female animals in which an inflammation of the lymph glands, which corre- spond to the uterus, is demonstrated shall be excluded from the market. It is, moreover, self-evident that individual parts of bodies and organs to be imported shall not be removed before inspection is completed, and that individual pieces, sausage, canned meat, and other mixtures of minced meat which can not be subjected to an inspection, shall be absolutely excluded from introduction. (Com- pare Sec. 12 of the Meat Inspection Law.) Since expert inspection and the proper utilization of the findings in the case of meat introduced from outside countries belong to the most difficult functions of meat inspection, this part of the inspec- tion should be reserved for veterinarians. Furthermore, in casea where a diseased condition is suspected, all means are to be ex- hausted in making a more accurate inspection (histological, bacteri- ological and chemical methods of testing), in order that, so far as possible, only unexceptionable and actually marketable meat shall leave the inspection stations for introduced meat. The quite generally practiced market control of introduced! meat in the inland, and the thorough secondary inspection of fresh, meat introduced from other localities- which have been reserved for cities with public slaughterhouses, do not possess as much signifi- 1 cance since the meat inspection law has come in force as before, but. - they are, however, a very important means of controlling govern- mental meat inspection, as is shown by the experience of the Grand Duchy of Baden. (Compare page 89.) -162 INSPECTION OF SLA.UGHTEEED ANIMALS General Review of the Traffic of Germany in Living Animals, Fresh and Prepared Meat, Sausages, Lard and Similar Fats in the Tear 1897. Kind of Pkoduot Imports Exports Excess of Imports Excess op Exports Living Animais — Cows Bulls Steers Young animals up to 3J yrs. Calves under 6 weeks . . Swine, young pigs excepted Young pigs Sheep . Lambs .,...,. (a) Fresh Meat — 1. Beef 3. Pork .' 3. Mutton 4. Other kinds of meat . . i(b) Prepared Meat — 1. Beef I -3. Pork 3. Ham 4. Bacon 5. Other meat 6. Sausage , 7. Meat in cans and other- wise hermetically seal'd Meat extract Bladders Intestines Stomachs Lard and Similar Pats — 1. Oleomargarine . . . 3. Lard i 8. Tallow . 4. Animal and refuse fats Number 73,788 5,977 51,382 71,928 14,597 89,836 3,054 1,988 431 4,449,000 11,213,300 66,500 8,200 3,170,500 4,349,900 8,316,600 17,010,400 146,300 185,900 3,454,400 1,095,500 17,179,200 30,106,100 97,280,900 16,669,300 5,447,400 Number 3,838 875 8,951 4,966 455 4,592 3,298 199,395 17,651 Kg. 1,119,400 75,400 159,000 11,000 92,000 1,314,000 139,300 13,400 737,300 88,100 71,900 1,719,800 700 43,600 1,304,700 7,445,600 Number 70,950 5,602 47,381 66,957 14,142 85,334 Kg. 3,829,600 11,187,900 3,170,500 4,157,900 2,003,600 16,871,100 133,900 1,113,600 3,386,300 1,033,600 15,459,400 30,105,400 97,337,300 15,464,600 Number 344 197,307 17,320 Kg. 92,500 3,800 1,998,200 INSPECTION OF IMPOBTED MEAT 163 Frontier abattoirs.— The most satisfactory manner in which we may make use of the meat of our neighboring countries, and all trans-Atlantic countries which are abundantly supplied with animals, consists in the erection of frontier abattoirs. In these the food animals coming from foreign countries are slaughtered, and are thereupon sent in refrigerator cars to the thickly-populated inland districts where food animals are scarce. We possess such abattoirs on the Eussian boundary in Myslowitz, Kattowitz, Tarlowitz, Beu- then ; on the sea coast, in the abattoirs at Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, Kiel, Rostock, Stralsund and Stettin. The introduction of living food animals through frontier abat- toirs makes it possible to subject improper slaughterhouse wares to a careful sanitary police control. Moreover, the introduction of living animals in such slaughterhouses may take place under such regulations that there need be no fear of introducing animal plagues into the country. Prohibitive Decrees Issued by the German Empire and the Federal States Begrarding: Imports, According to the Status of the Question on November 1, 1900.* 1. Against Eussia the following is prohibited : The importation •of cattle, sheep, goats, other ruminants, hogs, all parts of ruminants in a fresh condition, with the exception of butter, milk and cheese ; fresh pork and all preparations of pork, pickled meat, salted meat, hams, other smoked products, sausage, meat in brine (with the exception of cooked pork and rendered lardf). Restricted : The importation of horses, animal parts and pro- ducts in a thoroughly dried or salted condition. 2. Against Austria-Hungary, a prohibition exists against the importation of sheep and hogs, and the importation of horses, asses, mules, hinnies, cattlej and goats is restricted. * Annual Report on the Distribution of Animal Plagues in the German Empire for the year 1900. Berlin, 1901. f The inhabitants of frontier districts are permitted to import pork in quantities of not more than 3 kg. in a raw condition, or in any condition other than cooked, free of duty. In the governmental district of Konigsberg, the importation of thoroughly- pickled pork is permitted. X The importation of cattle is restricted to such animals as come from regions free from pleuro-pneumonia, and which are brought to slaughterhouses under veteri- nary police supervision for immediate slaughter. Moreover, breeding and work ani- mals may be imported in the frontier regions. 164 INSPECTION- OP SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 3. Against the countries beyond Austria-Hungary (Eoumania, Bulgaria, Servia), the importation of cattle,' sheep, goats and hogs,, fresh meat and other fresh parts of ruminants, fresh meat of hogs,. as well as all preparations of pork, with the exception of cooked pork and rendered lard, is prohibited. 4. Against Italy, the importation of cattle, sheep, goats and hogs is prohibited, and the importation of horses, mules and assea is restricted. 5. Against Switzerland, the importation of sheep and hogs is- prohibited, and the importation of horses, mules, asses, cattle and goats is restricted. 6. Against France, the importation of cattle,* sheep, goats and hogs is prohibited, and the importation of horses, mules and asses is restricted. 7. Against Luxemburg, the importation of horses, asses, mules,- hinnies, ruminants and hogs is restricted. 8. Against Belgium, the importation of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs and all fresh beef is prohibited, and the importation of horses, asses, mules and hinnies is restricted. 9. Against the Netherlands, the importation of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, and raw animal material in a fresh condition, as well as fresh and recently salted skins from horses and cows, is prohibited ;. and the importation of horses, asses, mules and hinnies is re- stricted. 10. Against Denmark, the irnportation of ruminants and hogs from the boundary line between Schleswig and Jutlandf, hogs and fresh ■ pork by land or sea, raw animal materials in a fresh condition by land or sea (with the exception of the transporta- tion through the Empire of fresh and salted pelts and skins), is prohibited, and the importation of horses and ruminants by sea is restricted. 11. Against Sweden and Norway, the importation of ruminants, hogs and fresh pork is prohibited, and the importation of horses is restricted. 12. Against Great Britain and Ireland, the importation of * Exceptionally, cattle may be admitted for immediate slaughter in the abat- toirs of the frontier localities of Hayingen, Gross-Moyoeuvre Altmiinsterol, Saales and Markirch to supply the demand of these communities, and in the fortified towns of Metz and Diedenhofen in the interest of provisionmg these localities. ■)■ During the periods from October 1 to December 31, an(J from April 1 to- May 31, of each year, poor animals may be imported into the quarantine station at Hvidding. INSPECTION OF IMPORTED MEAT 165 xuminants and hogs is prohibited, and the importation of horses is lestrioted. 13. Against America, the importation of cattle and fresh beef is prohibited, and the importation of horses, goats, sheep and hogs, as well as pork and sausage,* is restricted. 14. Against foreign countries in general, the importation of horses, ruminants and hogs by sea, and of frozen meat from foreign •countries, is restricted. (Proclamation of the Governmental District ■of Konigsberg, January 29, 1895.) * Animal products must be provided with an official certifloate stating that the meat was inspected in the export country according to regulations existing in that •country, and was found to be free from dangerous properties. (Imperial Decree of September 3, 1891.) V. NORMAL APPEARANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION 01 MEAT AND ORGANS OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS. This subject, in the strict and ordinary sense,* includes a sti of the normal condition of individual parts, the differential di nosis of the meat of different animals, and the recognition^of age and sex of slaughtered animals. In addition, the subj includes the utilization of meat and other parts of slaughte: animals. The latter phase of the question will be treated, in far aa seems desirable, as an appendix to the description of normal condition of the different parts. 1. — Normal Appearance of Different Parts of Food Animi (a) The Skin. In the majority of- animals which are slaughtered for m (beef, calves, sheep, goats and horses), the skin is not used human food. A knowledge of the normal condition of the skin these animals possesses, therefore, chiefly a clinical significa (see "Inspection of Animals Before Slaughter"). Only ceri parts of the skin of the calf and beef (the head and under parti the face and lower extremities) are used for human food. In case of hogs, on the other hand, the whole skin is considered •' meat." The skin of slaughtered hogs is characterized by its pure a' Half of beef, seen from the outside. a, popliteal glands; i, kneefold glands; c, prescapular glands. Half of beef, seen from the inside, a, super- ficial inguinal glands ; 6, deep ingunial glands (of variable size and not always pre- sent) ; c, internal iliac glands; d, lumbar glands; e, renal glands; /, lymphatic glands of the inferior thoracic wall ; g, glands of the superior thoracic wall; h, lower cervical glands. brachiocephalic muscle. They receive the lymph vessels from the superficial lymph glands of the neck, shoulder, arm and fore arm. There may be some difficulty in finding the prescapular glands- in very fat hogs. To expose them, it is recommended that a deep,, transverse incision be made through the skin from the inferior NORMAL APPEARANCE 181 Tjorder of the neck to the nape, immediately in front of the shoulder joint. The prescapular glands then appear nearly in the middle of the incision (Loho£f). I 8. Precrural or external suhiliac glands, in the cutaneous maximus of the abdominal musculature (Figs. 19, d; 20, b), at the anterior ' border of the tensor fasciae latse. Lymph vessels from the anterior part of the thigh and from the outer abdominal wall. The efferent i vessels pass to the lumbar glands. In slaughtered hogs, the precrural glands are most easily found if the incision is made into the abdominal wall in front of the femoro- tibial joint, perpendicularly toward the spinal column (Fig. 19, d). 9. Beep inguinal glands in the femoral canal, covering the femoral ■vessels. Afferent vessels from the popliteal glands, from the penis, as well as from the thigh. The efferent vessels pass to the lumbar .glands, and in part directly into the thoracic duct. In the horse, the deep inguinal glands, as stated by Harten- . stein, are always easily found ; not so, . however, in other food animals. According to Rieck, they are not wanting in other ani- mals, but, as a rule, are very small. Their position, according to the statement of Kieck, is at the point at which the external pudic artery arises at right angles from the femoral artery. 10. The superficial inguinal glands in the male are placed at the neck of the scrotum, at the side of the penis (Figs. 19, c ; 21, a); in iemale animals they lie behind and above the udder (supramam- j mary lymph glands). Afferent vessels from the outer external ■ sexual organ, inferior abdominal wall, median femoral surface. 1 Efferent vessels to the deep inguinal glands and immediately into -the receptaculum chyli (beginning of the thoracic duct). ' 11. Popliteal glands (Figs. 19, h; 20, a) lie deep between the ; inner and outer sacroischiac muscles, immediately above the point ^ of bifurcation of the heads of the gastrocnemius muscle. These * glands alw9,ys become apparent by the dissection of the joint. All , of the external lymph vessels of the posterior extremity empty into them. The efferent vessels pass to the deep inguinal and pelvic glands. In hogs, besides the popliteal glands, there are other glands varying in size from a pea to a hazel nut, in the panniculus adipo- sus of this region, but about a hand's breadth above the tuberosity of the calcaneum (Hartenstein). These lymph glands (Fig 19, a) are easily discovered only when they are inflamed or tuberculous. 182 APPEABANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEATS AND ORGANS (B) The lymph Glands of the Thoracic, Abdominal and Pelvic Carities.. (a) THORACIC CAVITY. 1. The lymph glands of the upper thoracic wall (Fig. 21, g), small and. numerous; lie partly at the side of the vertebrae, partly in the intercostal spaces. Afferent vessels from the dorsal verte- brae, the exterior muscles of the back, the intercostal muscles, and partly from the peritoneum and dia- Fig. 23. phragm. Efferent vessels to the thor- acic duct. 2. Lymph glands of the inferior thoracic wall between the articulations of the costal cartilages near the ster- num, small and few in number, follow^ ing the course of the internal thoracic veins (Fig. 21,/). Afferent vessels from the rectus abdominis, the anterior sur- face of the diaphrngm, and from the intercostal muscles.* The efferent ves- sels pass in part to the anterior media- stinal glands, in part directly into the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic trunk. 3. Anterior mediastinal glands (Fig. 22, b). — These lie between the folds of the anterior mediastinal membrane. They receive lymph from the heart, pericardium and diaphragm. Eflferent vessels into the thoracic duct and right lymphatic trunk. 4. Posterior mediastinal glands (Fig. 22, b). — Lying under the aortic arch. Receive lymph vessels from the peri- cardium, the mediastinal membrane, esophagus, pleura, diaphragm, the anterior abdominal region, and from the anterior surface of the liver. Efferent vessels empty in part into the bronchial glands, in part into the anterior mediastinal glands, in part directly into the thoracic duct. * The intercostal muscles can not be infected by translocation of tuberculous; lymph from the pleura. Furthermore, the lymph yessels take their origin in the. intercostal muscles, and pass thence toward the pleura or mediastinal spaces. Calf "sling." o and a', bronchial glands ; b, anterior and posterior media- stinal glands ; c, portal glands. NORMAL APPEARANCE 183 5. Bronchial glands (Figs, 22, a, a')-— Lying on both sides of the trachea, at its point of bifurcation, are covered by the aorta, and, in fat animals, also by fat tissue. They may be exposed by a deep incision from above and outward to the point of bifurcation. Affer- ent vessels from the lungs and posterior mediastinal glands. Effer- ent vessels to the anterior mediastinal glands and thoracic duct. (b) abdominal and pelvic cavities. 1. Lumbar glands (Fig. 21, d).— These lie near the lumbar ver- tebrae, in part covered by the lumbar muscles. Two groups of them. Fig. 23. Beef mesentery with tuberculous lymphatic glands. ■which lie on either side in the angle between the external iliac artery and the deep, circumflex iliac artery, as well as in the angle of both hypogastric arteries, are especially designated as the internal iliac glands (Figs'. 19, e,/; 21, c). Afferent vessels from the pelvic organs, lumbar muscles and upper parts of the abdominal wall; also efferent vessels of the external iliac glands. The vessels of the lumbar glands empty into the thoracic duct. 2. The external iliac glands are located near the lateral iliac angle, at the point of bifurcation of the deep, circumflex iliac artery. Afferent vessels come from the lateral and inferior abdominal wall and the lateral surfaces of the femoral region, as well as from the 184 APPEARANCE AKD DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS external subiliac glands. The efferent vessels of the external iliao glands pass to the lumbar glands. 3. The sacral glands on the inferior wall of the sacrum, near its lateral borders. Lymph from the superior pelvic wall, and in part from the rectum. Efferent vessels to the lumbar glands. 4. The ischiatio glands in ruminants lie on the exterior portion of the ischiatic notch, outside of the pelvic cavity. Afferent vessels chiefly from the popliteal glands, and from the muscles of the sacro- coccygeal region. Efferent vessels empty into the sacral and lumbar glands. 5. The portal glands of the liver (Fig. 22, c) lie in the porta hepatis, where they are concealed in fattened animals by adipose tissue. 6. The lymph glands of the spleen are distinguished by their small i size. They lie in the hilus of the spleen, in the gastrosplenic liga- ment, and, when the spleen is removed, usually remain upon the stomach. 7. The lymph glands of the kidneys (Fig. 21, e) lie in the hilus. 8. The mesenteric glands (Fig. 23) lie between the folds of the i mesentery on the concave arch of the intestines, and are in part small and round, and in part larger and somewhat elongated.. In ruminants and hogs a very long mesenteric gland is found on the small intestine. Besides this, there is in hogs still another group of small, round lymph glands on the peritoneal attachments of the mesentery. (f) The Adipose Tissue. General discussion. — Adipose tissue is not a special tissue, but represents a modification of other tissues (connective tissue, bone marrow, muscle fibers) into adipose tissue. This modification plays a very important role in food animals. It is a result which is striven for in fattening, and the degree of its development indicates in most animals (cattle, sheep and hogs) the so-called slaughter maturity. The absence or disappearance of adipose tissue is, under certain conditions, an important criterion for the sanitary decision con- cerning existing pathological conditions. Adipose tissue develops in the majority of fattened animals, as also in man, especially in certain locations (fat depositories). The fat depositories include the fatty capsule of the kidney, the mesenteries, omentum, sub- cutaneous, retroperitoneal and intermuscular tissues, liver and bone marrow. NORMAL APPEARANCE 185 Adipose tissue and fattened condition. — According to tlie extent and development of adipose tissue, distinction is made between poor, fattening, partly fattened and completely fattened animals. Poor animals show the presence of fat only in the renal cap- sules, and between the layers of the mesentery and omentum. In fattening animals, adipose tissue is also found in the subcutis, up to the dorsal surface, from the shoulder girdle to the rump, and in the superior third of the thorax. In bulls there is usually a deposit of fat in the scrotum, and in young cows in front of the udder (so-called fore udder). In partly fattened animals, a greater quantity of adipose tissue is manifested in superficial area, as well as in thickness, in those • parts of the body which have just been mentioned. In completely fattened animals, the renal capsule is distended with fat, the adipose tissue attaining a thickness of several centi- meters. Layers of the mesentery are forced apart by a strong development of adipose tissue which conceals the mesenteric glands from view. Adipose tissue is found under the peritoneal covering of the stomach and alimentary tract. The omentum, like the peri- cardium, is no longer a thin transparent membrane, but an opaque membrane of considerable thickness. The liver loses its glistening, Ted-brown appearance, and becomes cloudy in spots or over its entire surface, while an increase in size is perceptible in the whole organ and especially on the borders. The subcutis throughout the body and the upper portion of the extremities is filled with fat. The development of fat is especially noticeable on both sides of the spinal column. The prominent parts of bones are no longer to be seen or felt, while all hollows and depressed areas are filled out with adipose tissue. In the interfibrillar connective tissue of the musculature fat cells are arranged in linear series. Probably these are the cells which furnish the delicate taste of the meat of fattened animals. In the highest grade of fattening, besides being apparent in the locations already mentioned, fat also occurs in the connective tissue under the pulmonary pleura, in the kidneys (convoluted uri- nary tubules), and even in the muscle fibers in the anatomical con- dition of fatty metamorphosis. Concerning histological changes during fattening, Grawitz com- municated some very interesting facts. Fattening produces in nor- mal adipose tissue an active cell proliferation. For the fat cell, according to Grawitz, is not simply a large cell, but a " cell colony," consisting of a considerable number of flattened, round, or spindle- shaped cells which become united with the membrane of the growing 186 APPEAEANCE AND DIPFEEENTIATION OF MEAT AND ANIMALS fat cell. The bone marrow is likewise transformed during fattening^ into the status adiposus. " In the muscles, an invasion of fat between the muscle fibers takes place, whereby the muscle fibers disappear ;. but the fat of red meat is really muscle tissue which has lost its contractility, and, like connective tissue and bone marrow, has become modified into the form and appearance of ordinary adipose tissue." In several diffarent conditions, in which the muscles were not used, Grawitz observed that individual strands of -spindle-shaped cells from muscle fibers were disintegrated, and that from these fat cells colonies arose in the same manner as from the cells of connec- tive tissue and bone marrow. Means of judging the degree of fatness. — In judging the degree of fatness of food animals, butchers habitually feel of certain parts. These manipulations are known as "feeling." In cattle, butchers preferably test the development of adipose tissue by the "upper feeling" in the ischiac region, the outer angles of the ilium, false ribs, behind the scapular groove on the back, in the orbital groove, and also by the "under feeling" on the shoulder joint, in the kneefold, on the scrotum, on the scrotal raphe in cas- trated animals, and on the so-called fore udder in cows. In calves, the butcher investigates the fold between the external ear and the processus mastoideus for the purpose of determining the development of adipose tissue. In older animals attention is given to the scrotum and udder. In hogs, the trachea, larynx, back, the so-called shield, under surface of the abdomen, external angles of the ilium, and the root of the tail are inspected. In sheep, the fold between the base of the tail and the ischiatie tuberosity is used in judging the development of adipose tissue. Anatomy and physiolagy.—'For the peculiarities of fat of various origin, compare the section on the differentiation of meat of differ- ent domestic animals. lu this connection only the general charac- teristics of normal adipose tissue will be given. Normally, adipose tissue is opaque, white, or yellow, poor in blood, and of an acinous structure on cross-section. The consistency varies according to the melting point of the different fats, and according to the surrounding temperature. For instance, both beef and mutton tallow harden even in summer. Adipose tissue, which has become pathologically changed, loses its original color, and especially its acinous, structure. NOBMAL APPEARANCE tST The adipose tissue of calves and of old animals shows varia- tions from the normal condition just described. Calves have fat only around the kidneys. The fat of young calves, up to two weeks of age, is characterized by a light grayish-red color. The adipose tissue of fasting calves disappears very readily, and is replaced by a gelatinous tissue. Pare white, hard fat appears in the renal cap- sules of calves in a fat condition at the age of four to six weeks. Later, after from five to six mouths, the fat in calves disappears again. In old animals, especially old cows, only the remnants of adipose tissue are found in the locations where fat is ordinarily deposited, and more frequently a serous, infiltrated, yellow, gelatin- ous connective tissue takes its place. Ivfluence of feed on /af.— The formation of fat, in the first place, is dependent upon the nutrition of food animals. Liberal quantities of protein, properlybalanced with fats and carbohydrates, greatly favor the process of fattening. It is worthy of notice that the for- mation of fat depends to a great extent upon the method of feeding, provided we overlook certain racial peculiarities ; for example, those of Hungarian hogs. The adipose tissue of pasture-fattened cattle is decidedly yellow-^so-called yellow feed-coloring. In hogs, also, a slight coloration of the fat is occasionally observed, and is attributed to liberal dieting on maize. Furthermore, it is a well-known fact that in hogs the firmness of the adipose tissue varies according to the kind of feed which the animals receive. Milk, potatoes and barley produce the best bacon. It is thick, firm, marbled and palatable. Maize can be used for fattening hogs without any- injurious effects. As soon, however, as the animals attain the weight of 120 pounds, feeding with maize should cease, because, otherwise, the bacon becomes soft (results of Danish investigations). A defect in the taste of bacon is noticed in hogs vrhich have been fed oats and beans to excess; in the first, a slightly oily, and in the second, a slightly bitter taste, is noticeable. The fat of hogs which have been fattened on beech nuts acquires an oily character and a slight taste of beech nuts. In fattening with rice-meal, or distillery refuse of corn, the bacon becomes soft, is easily separated, and of a disagreeable taste. Hogs raised on swill develop a very bad quality of bacon. It is soft, oleaceous, and of a flat, disagreeable taste. Swill contains a large quantity of rancid fat. Hogs which are fed with herring or smelt develop a rank-smelling, gray-colored adipose tissue which hardens but slightly. The same modifications may occur in the meat of cows fed on herring cakes. According to all 188 APPEARANCE AND DIPPEEENTIATION OP MEAT AND 0EGAN8 experience, it is the excess of a particular kind of fat in the feed ■which exercises the above described injurious influence upon the quality of adipose tissue. The experiments of Lebedeff are in agreement with this state- ment. This author allowed a dog to fast for a month, or until it Lad completely lost all its body fat, and then fed it for three weeks on meat, which was almost free from fat, and linseed oil. From the tissues of the dog more than 1 kg. of a volatile, fatty oil was obtained which did not become hard at a temperature of 0° 0. In its chemi- cal properties it closely resembled linseed oil. From the muscula- ture and adipose tissue of another dog, which had been fed on mutton tallow, Lebedeff succeeded in obtaining a fat which was almost identical with mutton tallow. Lehmann demonstrated that even from the feeding of small quantities of fat a partial deposition of the food fat took place without change, provided a certain kind of fat was fed for several months. Lehmann fed two hogs from July 10 to February 3 on the same basal ration, the second hog receiving in addition a quaritity of olive oil not exceeding the fat content of a normal feeding stuff, such as corn. In all, hog No. 2 received 15.36 tg. olive oil, together with 394.6 kg. barley, 18.4 kg. meat meal and 12.8 kg. clover. While the iodin number of the fat of hog No. 1 Taried in diffei-ent parts of the body between 52.9 and 58, the iodin number of hog No. 2, varied from 58.1 to 62.5. From these results Ijehmabn computed that in all 7.37 kg. of olive oil, the iodin number of which was 82.65, passed over into the fat of hog No. 2. Commerdnl significance of fat in slaughtered animals. — Fat animals l)ring better prices than poor ones for two reasons : First, because of a better, closer relation between the dressed weight* and live ■weight than in poor animals, and, secondly, because the meat of fat animals possesses a better flavor than that of poor animals. Thus, in cattle, the difference between tbe live and dressed weight varies, according to the condition of the animal, between 40 and 65 per cent.; i'n fat and poor sheep, between 45 and 65 per cent.; and in fattened and fattening hogs, between 15 and 25 per cent. Thus, Lawes and Gilbert found that, on an average, the dressed ■weight constituted the following percentages of the live weight: Fat steers, 59.8 ; fat calves, 63.1 ; poor sheep, 53.4 ; very fat sheep, €4; fat hogs, 82.6. * By dressed weight in cattle is understood the weight of the four quarters. From the live weight there is subtracted the weight of the blood, 'skin, head, feet and «ntrails, with the exception of the kidneys. (Compare page 190.) NORMAL APPEABANCE 18^ Hengst calculated the average dressed -weight, from statistics obtained in the cattle yards of Leipsic during a period of three years (1889-1891), as follows : Steers, 53.4 ; heifers, 55.9 ; cows, 48.4 ; bulls, 54.3. In the year 1898 : Steers, 53.6 ; heifers, 51.3 ; cows, 50.8 : calves, 69 ; sheep, 53 ; hogs, 86.5 per cent. In weighings of eighty-eight well-fattened cattle, made by the German Agricultural Society in the army meat conserve factories at Mainz and Haselhorst, the highest dressed weight was 63.3 per- cent, of the live weight. Incidentally, the animal which showed this high dressed weight was affected with generalized tuberculosis. In the meat markets of Berlin, it is customary to deduct 20 per cent, of the live weight, where hogs are sold according to dressed weight. Average Absolute Dbessed Weights. By taking the average of dressed weights during the three years, 1889-1891^ Hengst determined the following absolute dressed weights : Kilograms. Steers 365 Bulls 354.1 Cows 376.3 Heifers 263.6 Calves 38 . 8 Sheep 37.6 Hogs 88 . 8 In 1898 : 8,984 steers 379 . 10 915 heifers 351 .38 6,868 cows 384. 13 3,237 bulls 374.58 511 cilves 43.06 2,528 sheep. 38.43 14,991 hogs 90. 73 The average live weight in Leipsic in 1898 was : 983 steers 705.04' 104 heifers.; 489.53 485 cows 559.43 530 bulls 645.78 786 calves 61 . 35 481 sheep 53 . 88 490 hogs 104 . 5& Kleinschmidt, in Erfurt, calculates dressed weight as follows : Steers and bulls 350 r Cows and cattle 375 Calves 38 Sheep and goats - 35 Hogs 85 Horses 20O 190 APPEABANCE AND DIFFEBENTIATION OP MEAT AND OBGANS €oltz, in Halle, as follows : Kilograms Steers and bulls 404 Cows and heifers 310 Calves 33 Sheep and goats • 28 Hogs 115 Horses 305 Eieok, in Zwickau, as follows : Steers 336 . 9 Heifers 394 . 7 Cows 311.4 Bulls 375.5 Farm hogs 89.9 ^ Bacon hogs 98.9 Calves 34 . 8 Sheep 26.4 Euser, in Kiel, as follows : Cattle 340 Calves 35 Sheep 21 Hogs 85 Horses 230 Bulesfor the determination of dressed weight. — For a simple means of estimating the value of animals at slaughterhouses, the conference of delegates of German Slaughterhouses and representatives of the German Agricultural X^ommission, as well as representatives of meat and cattle dealers, in session in Berlin, November 6th and 7th, 1895, decided, essentially in accordance with the suggestions of Hengst, to establish, as a basis, a dressed weight estimated according to fixed principles. The calculations of the dressed weight shall be made in the following manner : Sec. 1. Before the calculation of the weight, the following parts of animals are to be excluded : I. — In cattle : (a) The skin, but in such a manner that no meat or fat remains upon it. The tail is to be removed, but the so-called caudal fat must not be taken away. (b) The head, between the occipital bone and the first cervical vertebra, per. pendicularly to the vertebral column. (c) The feet. In the first (lower joint of the carpus and tarsus), above the so-called shin bone. whicli are in any way used as food in commerce should be included, while tlie term, "raw animal materials," should be understood to mean only such substances of animal origin as are worked over for industrial or technical purposes, but which are not used for food. Histology. — The histological components of skeletal musculature •are the striated muscle fibers, which consist of sarcolemma and the contractile contents, and also the inter and intramuscular connect- ive tissue. In the contractile content of the muscle fiber highly characteristic phenomena are observed after death, which distinctly separate muscle tissue in its physical and chemical relations from the other tissues of the animal body. Physical characters of striated musculature. — The muscles of freshly slaughtered animals exhibit active contractions. The color is dark- red (hemoglobin). There are, however, pale muscles.* The consist- ency is firm, but yielding. Fresh muscles, which are still capable of reacting, are characterized by a glistening appearance. This condition does not persist very long. After a short time certain groups of muscles, the head and neck muscles, become stiff (muscle rigor). Other muscles follow these, until finally the whole musculature and the joints become inflexible, stiff and firm {rigor TTtortis). At the same time, the muscles become turbid and opaque. All these phenomena are produced by the coagulation of the myosin, in consequence of the formation of lactic acid in the muscles. The coagulation of the myosin causes what was not observable before, namely, the appearance of muscle serum on sections of the muscles. The beginning and duration of rigor mortis are subject to con- siderable variations. Very strong muscle contraction before death (for example, in cases of tetanus, strychnine poisoning, etc.) causes a rapid and intensive rigor (Landois). Wild animals, hunted to death, pass into rigor mortis within a few minutes. Among drugs, veratrin, alcohol, ether and the etherial oils favor the early appear- ance of rigor mortis. In general, the time for the appearance (A rigor mortis varies from ten to fifteen minutes to several hours * Pale muscles are well developed in mammals, especially in the rabbit and hog. The calf has white meat up to the sixth month. In grown cattle, the skin (superficial) muscles are partly pale. Furthermore, pale muscles are often found in connection with red muscles in flsh and birds. The fibers of pale muscles, according to Ranvier, are thinner and more closely striated; but the longitudinal striations are less distinct than in red muscle fibers. According to Grutzner, there are pale fibers in nearly every muscle. NORMAL APPEABANGE 195 «,fter death. Du Bois-Beymond demonstrated tliat boiled muscles gray (disintegration of hemoglobin, which takes place at 60°-70° C.).. (b) Color and Consistency of Adipose Tissue. The consistency of fat tissue, and of the fat content in the tissue, is dependent upon its content of stearin and olein. A high stearin content gives fat a firm consistency and a high melting point. The character of the fat depends on the species of animal, and is also influenced by the kind of food material chiefly used. For this reason, the figures which are presented possess a qualified reliability. Horse.— The fat of the horse is light golden-yellow (subcu- taneous fat and kidney fat) or brownish-yellow (mesenteric fat)» soft and oleaceous (a high content of olein). It begins to melt at a DIFFERENTIATION OP MEAT OF FOOD ANIMALS 20S teiflperature of 30° C. Rendered horse grease is white, and begin* to melt at 32° C. (96 per cent, olein). The fat of the bone marrow is waxy yellow ; hardens in the air, and takes on a greenish sheen. It melts at 65* C. In fattened and so-called mine horses, the whole- adipose tissue may become of a pure white color. Cattle. — The adipose tissue of young, fattened cattle is distin- guished by its white color and rather firm consistency after setting. Beef tallow sets very quickly, and is always solid at ordinary tem- peratures. It contains approximately one part of liquid to three parts of solid fat, and melts, according to Schulze and Eeinecke, at from 41°-50° C. A yellow color is observed in the fat of young- cattle when fattened exclusively on grass ; also in old animals, especially in old cows. In the latter the consistency of the fab becomes softer at the same time. Beef tallow may be recognized by a slight, peculiar, but unmistakable odor. Calf fat is at first reddish yellow- white, but later becomes pure white. It is much softer than beef fat. ' The fat tissue of the buffalo is of a striking white color, posses- ses a musk-like odor, and, when rubbed between the fingers, feels dry and somewhat sticky. The fingers do not become oily iu tubbing, however, as is the case in beef tallow. The kidn§y fat in tlie buffalo is usually but little developed, has a dull color, and shrinks very quickly on cooling (Puntigam and Halusa). SflEEP. — The sheep possesses a beautiful white fat, with a melting point at from 31°-52° C. (content of solid f it variable ; on an average about 70 per cent.). Mutton fat is almost completely odorless. Goat. — Goat fat is similar in character to that of sheep. Hogs. — The fat tissue is white ; exceptionally, it is yellow (in feorn-fed animals), or .gray (fattened on fish). The consistency varies according to the food material (page 187), and according to the race of hogs. The Chinese and Hungarian fat hogs (so-called Bakony, Szalonta and MangalicZa hogs) possess an oily fat which Sets with difficulty, while the pure English hogs and improved breeds of native hogs possess a firmer fat ; that of the latter breeds melts at from 4:2.50°-4:8° C. (62 per cent, liquid fat). Dog. — Dog fat is characterized by its white color, oily consist- ency, and a pronounced specific odor. It melts at 22.5° 0. 204 APPEABANOE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS It is only in the natural state, and before rendering, that the peculiarities of fat offer really practical means for the determination ■of its origin. In the rendered condition, the color and melting point may be changed at will by , mixture with the fat of other ai»imals>* "■ In conclusion, it should be noted that the varying consistency of fat iA cattle, sheep, hogs and horses is dependent upon the part of the body in which it is deposited. Thus, for example, the scrotal fat of oxen melts at 43.5° ; kidney fat, on the other hand, at 50° 0. According to analyses by Schulze and Eeinecke, the subcuta- neous fat possesses regularly a lower melting point than that of the mesenteries, omentum and renal capsules. Thus, for example, the melting point of fat in a well-fattened Southdown-Merino wether -was found to be 44.5^ in the panniculus adiposus; 48.5° in the mesentery; 49° in the omentum; 51.5° in the kidneys; in a well- fattened ox, 41° in the panniculus, 48° in the omentum, and 50° in the kidney fat. Similar differences were observed in the hog : pan- Biculus, 46.5° ; kidneys, 47° ; intestin^, 48°. (c) Character of tlie Skeleton. 6. r ; i'JEoHeexning the differential ch;ar;acters of tjbe bony skeleton of the different animals which come up for consideration in^s^stitu- tious, we have the comprehensive work of Mfirtin (Zeit^ f.,-Eleigch-u. Jttilchhyg., I), as well as Sussdorf's Lehrbuch der Anatomie, which jjives especial attention to these points. For details, refeissiice is liere -made 'to these works. From the first-named work we select the following essential points with reference to the more important Ijones. Horses and Cattle. — In the first cervical vertebra of cattle the posterior foramen alarium is wanting ; cervical vertebrae, 3 to 7, inclusive, are easily recognized in cattle by their shortness. The spinous processes of the anterior dorsal vertebrae of the horse are «hort in comparison with those of cattle, and are furnished with sstixjugly developed summits. The spinous processes of the lumbar ■vertebrsB of cattle stand perpendicularly, and are separated from one another ; in the horse they are directed forward, and almost touch one another. The transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae in cattle are directed forward, and are never connected as the posterior * On the identification of rendered fat by the help of tiie iodin and refraction numbers, see page 319. DIPFEBENTIATION OF MEAT OF FOOD ANIMALS 20S ones are in the horse. The sacrum in cattle is more decidedly arched than in the horse. The coccygeal vertebrse are shorter than those of cattle, and in cattle the spinal canal is closed in the first five ; in the horse, only in the first three. In cattle the ribs ara flatter and broader in the middle and lower third than in the horse- In cattle the sternum is broad and flattened, while in the horse tha anterior portion is keel-shaped. The scapula in cattle is decidedly triangular, the neck being thinner than in the horse. The humems in cattle possesses two trochanters, in contrast with three in the horse. The external tuberosity, which is strong in the horse, forms, merely a ridge in cattle. The radius in cattle is shorter and straighter than in the horse. The ulna in cattle is a distinct bone, while in tb» hoi'se the body has almost entirely disappeared. The pelvis ia cattle is narrower and longer in its posterior portion than in tba- horse. Furthermore, the ischiac tuberosity has three prominences^^ while in the horse it has two. The neck of the femur in cattle is more constricted than in the horse. The trochanter major in cattle has grown together with the middle trochanter, while the trochanter minor is entirely wanting. In cattle, the head of the fibula is pres- ent as a small hook process on the tibia. In the horse, on the contrary, it is separate from the condyle. The trochlea of the astragalus stands straight in cattle ; in the horse it is turned obliquely outward. The bones of the buffalo are smaller and more easily brokea than those of cattle. The tubular bones are shorter, their compact substance being thin and very brittle; the ribs are considerably broader and less curved than those of cattle. Consequently, tl»e intercostal spaces appear strikingly narrow. On cross-section of the lower part of the ribs, the lateral costal surfaces in cattle appear biconcave, while in the buffalo they are more parallel to one another. While in cattle the lower surface of the ischiopubic symphysis is convex, and the upper surface correspondingly concave,. so that oa cross-section it has the form of an arch, the upper and lower surface in the buffalo are plane, and the cross-section of corresponding fomi. The superior flat portion of the ilium is considerably broader, the exterior iliac spines are strongly directed outward, and, therefore, the pelvis appears to be much broader. The body of the ilium in the buffalo cow is much more strongly curved than in tte domestic cow. The entrance to the pelvis, therefore, has more nearly the form of a circle, while in the cow it is elliptical and comparatively narrow. 206 APPEABANCE AND DIFTBRENTIATJON OF M^AT 4NI) OBGANS Sheep and Goats. — According to Martin, the bones of goats arp distinguislied from those of sheep by their slender form. Further- more, in the goat the majority of the processes are longer and wit^ sharper angles than in sheep. In the goat, the first eight spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae are bent backward rather decidedly. In the goat the twelfth vertebra is the diaphragmatic vertebra, and in sheep, the eleventh. The scapula in sheep is short as compared -with its width ; the border of the spina scapulae. is slightly curved backward into an arch in its middle, while in the goat it is straight. The pelvis in sheep is more compressed than that of goats. With reference to the difference between the skeletons of sheep and goats, attention should also be called to the careful work of Biitzler (" Contribution to Comparative Osteology of Sheep and Goat." Inaug. Diss.: Leipsic, 1896), in which attention is called to the fact that the lachrymal fossae, which are characteristic of sheep, are entirely wanting in the goat. The atlas in the goat is longer and narrower than in the sheep, the anterior tubercle being liigher and more pronounced. Similarly, the alse are considerably longer than in sheep. The axis is narrower and more slender, and its spiual ridge is developed anteriorly and posteriorly over the bodies of the vertebrae. The vertebrarterial foramen is wanting ; on the other hand, the intervertebral foramen is one-half larger than in sheep. The spinous processes of the remaining cervical Tertebrae are long, pointed and provided with sharp edges in the goat ; while in sheep, on the other hand, they are broad and blunt. TThe transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae of goats are thin and delicate. Similarly, the dorsal vertebrae of the goat are narrower than those of the sheep. Furthermore, the lumbar vertebrae possess a considerably longer and more slender form than in sheep. The spinous processes form a thickened, cushion-like ridge on the upper «nd. The number of sacral vertebrae in the goat is at least four, never three, as sometimes happens in the sheep. Furthermore, the lateral borders of the ankylosed sacral vertebras are thin and sharp, -while in the sheep they are thickened like a cushion. ' The lower surface of the sternum in the goat is concave, while in the sheep it is flat and even. All of the pelvic bones of the goat are considerably slenderer and thinner. The pelvis itself is narrow and long ; con- sequently the pelvic opening is much narrower than in the sheep. Important differences are also observed in the scapula : that of the sheep is broad and short ; the spine is strongly developed, and bears a cushion-like thickening in the middle, which is directed backward in the form of a bow. In the goat the spine is flat, straight and DUTEKENTIATION OP MEAT OP POOD AMMALS 207 oonsiderably lower. The neck of the scapula is well developed. The bones of the extremities of goats, with the exception of the metacarpus and metatarsus, which are shorter than in the sheep, are slenderer and thinner. The muscle processes and articular pro- cesses are slenderer and less strongly developed. The posterior surface of the fibula is concave. The tibia is decidedly twisted in a spiral manner. A general comparison of the skeletons of both these species of animal shows that the bones of the goat are characterized by a slenderer form and smaller joints. In contrast with these condi- tions, the bones of the sheep are shorter, more compact and massive, and the articular connections are larger. Lohoff draws attention to the fact that the bones of the goat are harder and more brittle than those of the sheep, and that ' the former break like glass. Sheep, Goats and Deee. — Martin asserts that it is easier to distinguish between deer, sheep and goats than between sheep and goats. Especially in the comparison with sheep, the deer is at once distinguished by its graceful, slender bones. The cervical vertebrae of the deer, in proportion to their thickness, are even longer than in the goat ; the spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae, from the third to the twelfth, are bent forward. On the lumbar vertebrae in deer, the spinous processes are drawn out into a sharp hook, pointing forward. This structure is decidedly smaller in sheep and goats. The angle of the spine of the scapula in the deer is prolonged downward into a sharp point, which is either wanting in sheep and goats, or is much less strongly developed. The radius, ulna and humerus of the deer are characterized by their slender form. The radio-ulnar arch in sheep and goats is an oval space ; in the deer, it is very long. The pelvis of the deer is small, very narrow, and its posterior portion is very long. In the deer, the body of the femur, in proportion to its extremities, is much slenderer than in the sheep and goat. Hog and Dog. — On a careful examination, these animals present many differences in the skeleton. The first cervical vertebra in the hog possesses on its upper surface a prominent tuberosity, which is flattened in the dog. The second, as well as the third, cervical vertebrae in the hog are short as compared with those of the dog. The dorsal ridge of the second vertebra in the hog is drawn out into a process directed backward, while in the dog this process is 208 APPEABANOE AND DIFFEBENTIATION OP MEAT AND ORGANS directed forward. The odontoid process, in the hog is short and blunt, while in the dog it is long and pointed. The third cervical vertebra of the hog possesses a long spinous- process, which in the dog is only a slight ridge. The dorsal vertebrae of the hog are distinguished by their enormous blade-like spinous processes. In the dog they are much smaller, rougher and thicker. Furthermore, the vertebral bodies in the hog are relatively broader than in the dog. In the lumbar vertebrae it is to be noted that the spinous processes, with the exception of the last one, become broader above, while in the dog all of them become narrower ; the spinous processes- in the hog stand almost perpendicularly to the vertebral bodies, while in the dog they are directed forward and downward. The sacrum of the hog consists of four ankylosed vertebrae ; that of the dog, of three. The spinous processes in the hog are rudimentary and bifurcated, while in the dog they are ankylosed into a sharp ridge. The ribs of the dog are more strongly curved and rounder than those of the hog. The sternum of the hog is flat and broad posteriorly, while that of the, dog is long and narrow. It is to be noted that the neck of the scapula in the hog is considerably longer than in the dog. Furthermore, the spina scapulae is directed back- ward in the hog in the middle third of its length ; in the dog, in its inferior third. The humerus of the hog is distinguished by its extraordinarily strong lateral muscle prominences, as well as by its hook-shaped lateral trochanter, which is bent inwardly. Further- xaore, both condyles in the dog run in a nearly parallel direction, while in the hog the lateral condyle is curved in a slightly spiral manner outwardly. The fore, arm of the hog is shorter, aud bent forward more decidedly than in the dog. The elbow of the hog is characterized by its length and strong development. The pelvis of ,the dog is distinguished from the very long hog pelvis by its short- ness. The ischium of the dog is short and broad, while in the hog it is greatly elongated. The femur of the dog is stronger than that of the hog. The tibia in the dog is slenderer than in the hog, and slightly bent in the form of an S. The fibula in the hog is distin- guished by its stronger development, and by a groove-like fossa on its exterior surface. Haee AND Cat.— On the first cervical vertebra of the hare, the wings project further laterally than in the cat. The dorsal ridge of the axis in the cat is drawn out into a hook-shaped process posteri- orly and blunt in front. In the hare these conditions are exactly reversed. The dorsal vertebrae of the hare exhibit spinous processes DIFFEKENTIATION OF MEAT OF FOOD ANIMALS 20^ ■which are directed forward, while the spinous processes in the cat, on the other hand, as far as the twelfth vertebra, are slightly curved in a backward direction. Martin calls attention to the striking differences in the lumbar vertebrae. In the hare it is observed that the large transverse processes, which are directed forwards, are prolonged into anterior and posterior lobes. In the cat the narrow transverse processes end in a point. Furthermore, in the hare the ventral ridge of the vertebral body is prolonged into a sharp spine, which is wanting in the cat. The ribs of the hare are broad and flat ; those of the eat more nearly round. The scapula of the hai-e is distinguished by the fact that the angle of the spine is prolonged into a long point which is bent backwards at right angles. The lower end of the humerus in the cat is almost twice as wide as in the hare. The fossa olecrani in the hare forms a broad opening, while in the cat it is not broken through. The pelvis of the hare is stronger than that of the cat. In the hare there is a strong trochanter minor below the trochanter major of the femur, while the trochanter minor is wanting in the cat. The tibia of the hare is longer, and the spiral twist is less strongly developed than in the cat. Haee and Rabbit. — Martin found differences between the hara and rabbit in the dorsal vertebrae, the spinous processes of the- rabbit all being bent slightly backwards. The hook-shaped, anteri- orly-projecting protuberances are also wanting. In the middle^ lumbar vertebrae, the backward-directed accessory processes are- considerably longer, not spinous, as they are in the cat, but lobedi. The ventral spine, or hook-shaped point, is similar to that of the hare. The ends of the transverse processes, however, are not so plainly bilobed in the rabbit as in the hare. The spinous processes, of the sacrum are ankylosed into a ridge. The lateral portions are- more sharply marked off from the wings. The ribs are similar to, those of the hare, and the same may be said of the scapula, humerus, and radius. The ulna, ou the contrary, is relatively stronger, espe- cially in the lower third. Furthermore, in the cat the olecranon process is bent more decidedly forward, so that the posterior border of the bone forms a more sinuous line than in the hare. Martin was unable to establish any essential differences in the pelvis, femur and tibia. .210 APPEARANCE AND DIPFEKENTIATION OF MEAT AND OBGAlIS The DiflFerentiation of Horse Meat and Beef According to Niebel. The diflferentiation of horse meat from beef possesses the greatest practical significance, since the substitution of the former for the latter is very frequent. For this reason, meat inspectors for a long time sought to secure reliable criteria for the demon- stration of horse meat. The peculiarities of horse meat already described are not sufficient to furnish proof regularly, or even in the majority of cases, for those bones which alone can furnish reliable distinctions are removed before the meat is offered for sale. The demonstration of horse meat in sausage has hitherto been absolutely impossible, because other meat, and especially other fats (hog fat), have commonly been added to the sausage. It was thought possible to discover peculiarities in the fibers of horse meat through micro- scopic inspection. Some authors believed they had found an important criterion in the crystals of hemin. The investigations which were undertaken in this direction were, however, without result. Limpricht claimed to have demonstrated dextrin in large quantities in horse meat. This demonstration, however, was not confirmed by subsequent investigation. More noteworthy is the discovery of Niebel, that through the demonstration of glycogen we are in a position to recognize horse meat even in mixtures, sausages, etc. Niebel observed the peculiar sticky character of horse meat, and was at first inclined to refer it to the dextrin content. Dextrin, however, was found to be wholly wanting ; but Niebel found large quantities of glycogen in horse meat, and from his investigations drew the following conclusions : " That in horse meat, as compared with other kinds of meat, glycogen is found in large quantities ; in such quantities, in fact, that, without reference to the age of the meat, the smallest amounts found in horse meat exceed the greatest amounts found in other kinds of meat." The conditions of the occurrence of glycogen in the meat of various food animals are illustrated in the following table, the quality of the meat at the time of the examination being good in -all cases : Per cent. Kind of Meat Age of Meat Glycogen content Horse 3 hours 0.700 Horse 3 hours 1.026 ' Horse 1 day .373 Horse 3 clays .603 DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT OF FOOD ANIMALS 211 Kind of Meat Horse Horse Horse Horse Beef Beef Beef Beet Beef Pork Pork Mutton Age of Meat 3 days 4 days 5 days 5 days 4 hours 1 day 3 days ■J- hour 5 days 4 hours 2 days Per cent. Glycogen content .533 .534 1.073 .460 .304 .000 .000 trace .076 .000 .000 .000 For the demonstration of glycogen, Niebel made use of the ^iilz method. The meat to be studied (50 grams), together with from 3 to 4 per cent, of caustic potash and four times its volume of water, is heated on a water bath for from six to eight hours, until it is completely disintegrated. After the fluid has been evaporated to half its volume, and then cooled, the nitrogenous substances are precipitated by the alternate addition of hydrochloric acid and mercuric iodid — iodid of potash solution (Briicke's reagent). Then the precipitate is placed in a filter, and the filtrate is again tested by the addition of hydrochloric acid and mercuric iodid — iodid of pota.sh solution — to determine whether all the nitrogenous constitu- •ents have been precipitated. The residue is rubbed up in a mortar to which hydrochloric acid, mercuric iodid — iodid of potash solu- tion — and water are added, and again filtered. This operation is repeated until the filtrate shows no cloudiness on the addition of -alcohol. The filtrate then forms ordinarily a clear fluid which is opalescent in the presence of glycogen. At times, especially in summer, the fluid appears to be somewhat cloudy. In order to avoid this, if the fluid does not become clear after the addition of ■hydrochloric acid and mercuric iodid — iodid of potash solution — sodium hydrate is added until the mixture is still of a faint acid reaction, and then again acidified with hydrochloric acid and filtered. The filtrate is then always clear. For the separation of glycogen, the filtrate is diluted with two and one-half times its volume of 90 per cent, alcohol, and the mix- ture stirred. After the glycogen is separated it is filtered. The glycogen is then washed with 60 per cent, alcohol, then with 90 per cent., and finally with absolute alcohol, ether, and again with abso- lute alcohol, and, after drying at a temperature of 110° C, is weighed. 212 APPEAB/VNCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND 0BGAN8 Glycogen exhibits the following characters : It is an amorphous- white powder, which with water forms a decidedly white, opalescent- solution, and, with the addition of iodin, gives a Burgundy-i-ed color. Fehling's solution, however, is not reduced by it. Niebel also demonstrated that the glycogen in horse meat possesses an extraordinary resistance, probably because horse meat withstands decomposition longer than other kinds of meat. In individual horses it is observed that, according to the nutritive condition, previous exercise and health of the animals, considerable fluctuations occur. Well-fed horses at rest show a higher content of glycogen than poorly fed, overworked or feverish animals. Overworked or feverish horses are not admitted for slaughter. In poorly nourished horses the amount of glycogen always consid- erably exceeds that of other food animals. After a time a portion of the glycogen in horse meat passes over, first, into a dextrin-like substance, then into maltose, and finally into grape sugar. For this reason, Niebel attempted to determine the quantity of sugar in old meat. This was accom- plished, according to a -special method, by means of Fehling's solution. In this connection, however, it should be remembered that, in addition to grape sugar, meat contains other reducing^ substances ; for example, creatinin. This substance is formed in different domestic animals in the same manner and in the same quantity from creatin. Niebel found also that horse meat, especially when not quite fresh, contains much reducing substance in addition to glycogen, while the meat of other animals slaughtered for human consumption is poor in glycogen and sugar. The total sugar content is determined by computing glycogen as grape sugar (162 parts of glycogen = 180 parts grape sugar). According to Niebel, the identification of horse meat may be considered as certain when the quantity of carbohydrates obtained (computed as grape sugar) exceeds the highest content of carbohy- drates thus far found in other kinds of meat ; viz., about 1 per cent, of the dry, fat-free substance. It is noteworthy that pickling, roasting and smoking destroy neither the glycogen nor the sugar of horse meat ; nor, on the other hand, does it increase the sugar content of beef, at least not to such an extent that it exceeds the maximum content of about 1 per cent. The identification of glycogen, and determination of the sugar content, can also be relied upon for the demonstration of horse meat in sausage. Niebel found no glycogen in sausages which were made- of beef and pork. Grape sugar was found in these sausages only im DIFFEEENTIATION OF MEAT. OF FOOD ANIMALS 213 iihe proportion of 0.7 per cent, of the dry, fat-free substance. The aiddition of cane sugar to.sausage, which is customary iu Berlin, did not interfere with this process. In horse-raeat sausage, the total quantity of carbohydrates exceeded the maximum content of tliese materials in ordinary sausage eleven-fold. With this statement, as Niebel says, public opinion is in entire accord, since it is commonly stated that horse-meat sausage is distinguished by its sweet taste. It is scarcely necessary to call attention to the fact that minute quantities of horse meat added to sausage can not be demonstrated by Niebel's excellent method. This consideration, however, does not in the least impair the great value of the method just de- scribed. Since, furthermore, the meat of fetuses and fasting calves pos- sesses a high glycogen content, it is well to note the color of the sausage in determining the question whether horse meat is contained in it. Sausage made of horse meat is dark-brown. On the other hand, sausage to which the meat of fetuses or veal is added in large quantities is light-gray. Moreover, the addition of the meat of fetuses or fasted veal to sausages (bratwurst) is a deception, or at least an adulteration. Trotter tested the method of Niebel, and found in horse meat two days after slaughter from 1.4 to 1.85 per cent, of glycogen ; after iour days, 1.45 per cent.; after eight days, 1.375 per cent., and after ten days, 0.9 per cent. In six samples of beef and in one sample of mutton, glycogen was not present. Of two samples of pork, one had no glycogen, and the other 0.26 per cent. Bujard obtained from fresh horse, meat from 0.174 to 1.366 per cent, of glycogen (= 0.64 to 4.62 per cent, of the dry substance) ; iu smoked horse meat, 0.108 (= 0.19) per cent.; in horse-meat sausage, Irom 0.034 to 1.762 (= 0.05 to 5.34) per cent. The high glycogen content was found in leberwurst ; the low, in fresh salami sausage. Iu old salami sausage, only mere traces of glycogen could be demonstrated. Beef gave from 0.018 to 0.206 per cent, of glycogen (= 0.073 to 0.74 per cent, of the dry substance). Veal gave from 0.066 to 0.346 (= 0.25 to 1.44) per cent., and pork gave either no glycogen or a mere trace. According to Kemmerich, South American beef extract contains a relatively large amount of glycogen — on an average from 1 to 1.5 per cent. Kemmerich ascribes this previously unknown occurrence of glycogen to the fact that South American beef is worked up iu such a fresh condition that decomposition of the glycogen is impossible. 21-i APPEABANCE AND DIFFEEENTIATION OP MEAT AND OKGANS In connection with Czerny, Euppert demonstrated that glycogen- constantly occurs in small quantities in blood and pus. The blood of dogs and sucking calves, according to the determinations of Euppert, contains a much larger amount of glycogen (1.56 and 1.33- mg., respectively, in 100 gm. of blood) than that of herbivorous animals (cattle, 0.77 ; horsey, ,38 to .72 mg.). In cases of continued, suppuration and persistent acute dyspnen, an increase in the glyco- gen content of the blood occurs up to 7.33 mg. in 100 gm. of blood. The glycogen content of blood, however, never reaches the percentage-: which Niebel demonstrated in the musculature of the horse. (a) Modiflcatioa of Niebel's Method, According to Brautigain and Edelmann. For the determination of glycogen, Brautigam and Edelmann, recommended the iodin reaction described by Claude Bernard, giving attention to the following method : 1. A small quantity (50 gm.) of the meat to be studied is minced as finely as possible, boiled for one hour with four times its volume of water, and the meat broth thus obtained treated in the manner described in Sees. 4 and 5 following. If the reaction therein described does not appear at all, or is doubtful, then 2. Caustic potash (3 per cent, of the volume of the meat),, dissolved in the same quantity of water, is added, and the whole is heated upon a water bath until the muscle fibers are entirely- disintegrated. 3. The meat decoction thus obtained is allowed to cool, evap- orated to a weight double that of the meat originally used, and filtered. 4. The solution thus obtained, after completely cooling, is carefully diluted with nitric acid, for the purpose of separating the majority of proteid bodies and to decolorize it, and again filtered. 5. This filtrate (the meat broth obtained according to Sec. 1,. and likewise acidified with dilute nitric acid and filtered) is treated with iodin water, which must be prepared hot and completely saturated. The iodin water is carefully poured upon the filtrate in the test tube, whereupon, at the point of contact of both fluids in the presence of horse meat, a Burgundy-red or violet ring is immediately formed, the extent, strength and intensity of which depend upon the quantity of horse meat present in the sample under investigation, or upoii the richness of the latter in glycogen. DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT OF FOOD ANIMALS 21^ This color reaction must certainly and unquestionably be present. The investigation, therefore, should be undertaken only in daylight. Before carrying out the iodin reaction, the material which is being studied must be tested for the presence of starcli- flour (dilution of a decoction with tincture of iodin or Lugol's solution). If starch is present, the method is to be modified in the following manner : 1. The sample to be studied, together with a suitable quantity of water, is heated in a porcelain vessel on a water bath for several hours for the purpose of extracting any glycogen which may be present.* 2. The filtered extract should then undergo evaporation on the water bath to one-third of the weight of the meat used in the test. 3. To this evaporated extract, which, according to circum- stances, contains much amylogen, concentrated acetic acid is added in double or treble its volume ; whereupon, after a half hour, flocculi appear in the cloudy fluid, which mass together more and more, and finally sink to the bottom as a starch precipitate. As a rule,, the fluid, after most careful filtration through a double filter, is iree from starch. One can become convinced of this fact by adding iodin to a small portion of the fluid ; otherwise one should make a further addition of acetic acid and wait a short time. 4. The fluid thus freed from starch can at once be treated with iodin water. Hereupon, a glycogen reaction always appears if the quantity of horse meat in the material under investigation is not exceedingly small. Glycogen can, of course, be extracted from this material, but its demonstration, in the excessive dilution which the fluid has undergone through the addition of acetic acid, can not be brought about with certainty by means of a simple film of iodin water upon the fluid. For this reason, Brautigam and Edelmann do not conclude their method in such cases with the addition of iodiu water, but usually prefer a precipitation of the presumptive glycogen. For this purpose, 5. The starch-free extract is diluted with from ten to twelve times its volume of alcohol, and the cloudy fluid is filtered through a very closely woven, small filter. The latter holds any traces of glycogen which may be present, and which 6. Is to be dissolved in a few drops of hot water, slightly * According to Brautigam and Edelmann, special importance is to be placed upon the thickening of the aqueous extraction on the water bath, for, in cooking over a flame, a part of the starch-flour may be transformed into dextrin, which gives a reaction similar to that of glycogen. 216 APPEABANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND OBQANS acidified witli acetic acid. These few drops of glycogen solution are best caught in a flat porcelain vessel, and a few drops of iodin water are allowed to run down from the edge of the vessel to the fluid. At the point of contact of the reagent with the fluid, the characteristic and unmistakable red color appears at once in the presence of the smallest quantities of glycogen. The preparation and- testing of fluids containing starch must follow in close succession, and must not, under any circumstances, -extend over several days ; for Brautigam and Edelmann observed that in solutions containing amylogen, when exposed to the air, «rythrodextrin is formed through the influence of ferments, micro- organisms, etc. This substance may give rise to false conclusions on account of its red-color reaction with iodin. The separation of dextrin from glycogen has thus far never been accomplished. With materials which, presumably, contain only small quantities of glycogen, Brautigam and Edelmann prefer boiling for several hours in water, rather than with caustic potash, for the reason that the latter substance may have the effect of decomposing the glycogen. The qualitative determination of glycogen by means of the iodin reaction, as recommended by Brautigam and Edelmann, and as tested with reference to its applicability to meat and meat preparations, puts us in position to make a rapid inspection of suspected meat, and to decide whether or not the more accurate quantitative determination, according to Niebel, is required in any particular case. The qualitative demonstration of glycogen is not sufficient to allow us to assume the presence of horse meat with the certainty necessary for legal purposes. For, as Niebel has shown, beef may also contain glycogen under certain circumstances. The quantitative determination of glycogen excludes the possibility of such an objec- tion, since it leaves no doubt as to whether or not the quantity of glycogen peculiar to horse meat is present.* (b) Modiflcatiou of Niebel's Method, According to Courtoy and Coremaus. Oourtoy and Coremans consider the precipitation of albumen as indispensable, and proceed in the following manner : * In his latest work (Zeit. f. Fleisoh-u. Milchhyg., V), Niebel considers the ■demonstration of horse meat in sausage as complete when the material in question is colored brown-red, huA permits the demonstration of glycogen according to the method described on j). 311. DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT OF FOOD ANIMALS 2].7 1. Fifty grams of the meat to be studied in a fresh coDdition, and, after mincing finely, is boiled with 200 grams of water for fifteen minutes. Meat preparations should be boiled for thirty minutes. 2. After the meat decoction is completely cooled, it should be filtered through paper which was previously moistened, in order to keep back any fat bodies which might be contained in the emulsion. In case of fluids which contain starch and are thick, it is best to use a fine linen filter. 3. To a small quantity of the filtrate in a test tube should be added a few drops of a fluid containing two parts of iodin, four of iodid of potash, and 100 of water. Three reactions may take place : (a) No dark-broT?n coloration of the filtrate appears, in which case no horse meat is present. (b) The fluid assumes a dark-brown color, which disappears on heating to a temperature of 80° C, and reappears on cooling. This indicates horse meat. (c) An intensive blue coloration of the preparation appears, which discloses the presence of starch and obscures the glycogen reaction. In this case, the starch is precipitated by the addition of from two to three times the quantity of concentrated acetic acid, and the filtered fluid is treated again with the iodin-potassic iodid solution for the pur- pose of securing another reaction. According to their method of investigation, Courtoy and Core- mans were unable to demonstrate in the meat of cattle, calves, hogs, dogs, cats and rabbits the reaction which is to be observed in tlie case of horse meat, or any similar reaction. On the other hand, the meat of the fetuses of horses, cattle, sheep and rabbits gave the same reaction as horse meat. The same investigators observed, further-, more, that the internal and external masticatory muscles of the horse, strange to say, do not give the glycogen reaction of the other muscles of this animal. Edelmann rightly observed, with reference to the method of Courtoy and Coremans, that the unstable nature of starch, and the similar behavior of its modification products to that of glycogen,- are not regarded in this method to an extent which could be considered as excluding all errors. (c) Method of Quantitative Determination of Glycogen, According to Lebbin. Lebbin demonstrated that glycogen may be precipitated from meat solutions by alcohol; whether the solution has an alkaline. 218 APPEARANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS neutral or acid reaction, while the precipitation of protein withs iodin ceases when the alkalinity of the latter reaches a certain degree. It is possible, therefore, to precipitate glycogen directly from protein solutions by means of alkaline alcohol. According to Lebbin, however, it is desirable to purify the crude glycogen, since small quantities of protein may be carried with it. The method is as follows : Muscle meat or sausage is to be minced with a small sausage machine. Liver may be cut up simply with a knife. Then, in the case of horse meat or liver, twenty grams ; in the case of other kinds of meat, containing less glycogen, a correspondingly larger quantity, is to be placed in a porcelain vessel containing 150 cc, together with 90 cc. of water and 10 cc. of a 15 per cent, potash lye, and the whole is to be heated until completely dissolved. Boiling for a short time does no harm. Muscle meat requires from one-half to one hour; liver, a shorter time. During this treatment the fluid is evaporated to from 30 to 35 cc. It is then poured into a graduated cylinder containing 50 or 100 cc, and the vessel is washed with water until a volume of 50 cc. is obtained. After vigorous shaking, the solution is poured through glass-silk. By means of a pipet, 25 cc. of the fluid is to be placed in a beaker and 50 cc. of alkaline alcohol added. This is obtained by mixing ninety parts of a 98 to 100 per cent, alcohol and ten parts of a 40 per cent, potash lye' The precipitated crude glycogen settles after from two to three hours. It is desirable, however, to cover the mixture and allow it to stand over night. The mixture is then filtered and washed with the alkaline alcohol. Thereupon the funnel.with the filter and precipitate, is to be placed upon a graduated cylinder of 100 cc. volume. The filter is to he punctured with a platinum needle, and the material of the filter ia ^ to be washed in the cylinder with hot water, 80 cc. being the maxi- mum quantity required. The mixture should then be vigorously shaken, in order that all the glycogen may dissolve, and is allowed to cool. Two or three drops of litmus tincture is added to the solution, and 10 per cent, hydrochloric acid is to be added in drops until the fluid becomes red, after which three or four more drops, should be added. Next, the mixture should be diluted with from 5 to 10 cc. of Briicke's reagent and water sujOScient to make 100 cc., after which it is again filtered. Of this filtrate, 50 cc. is withdrawn with a pipet and mixed with 75 cc. of 95 per cent, alcohol which has been carefully poured through cotton batting. The next morning it is filtered through a quantitative tared filter, washed with alcohol, then with ether, and finally weighed.- Finally, one may make a DIFPEEENTIATION OF MEAT OF FOOD ANIMALS 21&- determination of the asli and subtract the sum. Lebbin, however, always obtained a glycogen free from ash. The quantity of glycogert obtained, multiplied by twenty, corresponds to the same percentages in the meat which was tested. Demonstration of Horse Meat, According to Hasterlik. Horse fat is distinguished from the fats of other food animals by its high absorptive power for iodin and by its high iodin number, according to Hiibl. It possesses an iodin number of from 74 to 83, as contrasted with 40 to 44 of beef tallow and 60.6 of lard. Th& differences in the iodin number, according to the investigations of Hasterlik, extend also to the intramuscular fat. In the intramus- cular fat of beef, Hasterlik found the iodin number to be from 49.74 to 58.45 (an avei-age of 54.37); in horse fat,' on the other hand, from 79.71 to 85.57 (an average of 82.23). The fat of horse-meat sausage on the market, in consequence of the addition of lard, showed a somewhat lower iodin number, namely, from 68.46 to 79.71. These differences, according to Hasterlik, make possible a determination of the origin of meat, even when the coarser adipose tissue, which is distinguishable by the naked eye, has been removed ; as, for instance, in conserves. Hasterlik considers that the presence of horse meat is demonstrated when the iodin number reaches or exceeds 80. In order to obtain the intramuscular fat, meat which is entirely free from visible fat is finely minced, and a quantity of from 100 to 200 grams is dried for from twelve to eighteen hours at a tempera- ture of 100° C. The dry substance is then extracted with petroleum- ether on a reflux cooler for six hours, and then with the same solution, for the same length of time, in a Soxhlet extraction apparatus.* After mixing both extracts, namely, that obtained from the reflux cooler, and that from the Soxhlet extraction apparatus, the petro- leum-ether is distilled away, and the last traces of it are so completely removed by blasts of air into the extract that no smell of the petroleum-ether is to be detected. According to Bremer, the determination of the iodin number of the fluid-fatty acids of the intramuscular fat forms a suitable complement to the determination of the corresponding number of the fat. In horse-meat sausage, to which lard is added to the extent of 25 per cent., he found the iodin numbers of the intramus- * Bremer calls attention to the fact that the petroleum-ether extract from horse meat is colored red or dark-brown red in a characteristic manner. 220 APPEAEANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND ORGANS Fig. 24. cular fat to be 53.7, 74, 74.1 and 75.8, and the iodin numbers of the fluid-fatty acids of this fat to be ^2.4, 104.1, 102.1 and 108.8. Bremer considers that the presence of horse meat is certainly demonstrated when the preparation is colored reddish-brown, or gives a strongly reddish-brown colored petroleum-ether extract, or contains glycogen, or when the iodin number of the fat exceeds 65, and that of the fluid- fatty acids considerably exceeds 95.* Nussberger proposes a refractometric determina- tion of horse meat. He found the refractive index of horse fat in a Zeiss re- fractometer (Fig. 24) at a temperature of 40° C. to be 53.1 to 54.1 (on an average, 53.5), while the refraction number of beef tallow never exceeded 49, and that of lard never exceeded 51.9. The intramuscular fat of I horse meat showed an av- j' erage refraction number of 56.3 (55.2 to 59.8),while the intramuscular fat of beef showed 49.7 (48 to 50.5). Zeiss' refractometer. Appendix.— Inspection of German and American Bacon. Eelative to a suit at law in Koln on account of the smuggling of American bacon, the following opinion was handed down on the question at issue. Rehmet investigated thousands of the sides of bacon in question, and demonstrated that all possessed black hairs. They also possessed a characteristic odor, like the oil of tar, which was especially noticeable in cooking, and could be perceived for days * In accordance with this, Bremer considers as an evidence of horse fat or horse meat an iodin number lower than that required by Hasterlik. On this point Bremer agrees with Nussberger, who found the iodin number of the intraniuscular f at of horse meat to be on an average 71.9 (65 to 79), as contrasted with an average of 51 (50 to 58), in similar beef fat. In ordinary horse fat, Nussberger determined the iodin number to be from 80 to 94; in beef tallow, 35 to 44; and in lard, 59 to 63. BECOGNITION OF AGE AND SEX 221 on the fingers and receptacles. The bacon tasted rancid. Farther- more, it frothed strongly and shrank in cooking. None of thes& characteristics were observed in Dutch or German bacon. In fact, only a small percentage of Dutch and German hogs have black hair. According to Lubitz, the bristles in the rind of American bacon are not uniform, but stand in an irregular, brush-like manner. Further- more, the rind is thinner. Schmidt, of Aachen, found that more than three-fourths of the sides of bacon in question wore covered with black hairs. Schmidt also called attention to the fact that he had previously inspected American bacon for trichina, and had found from 5 to 10 per cent, trichinous. 3.— Recognition of the Age and Sex of Slaughtered Animals, and Classification of Food Animals. The determination of the age and sex of living animals, as a rule, offers no difficulties. In the meat of slaughtered animals it is quite otherwise. The necessity for determining the age and sex of slaughtered animals arises from several considerations. One consideration is the usual compilation, in meat markets, of statistics with regard to the age and kind of food animals in general, as well as on the relation between age and sex and certain diseases. Furthermore, an accurate determination of the age is necessary in legal cases, and for fixing the slaughter and insurance fees. Finally, a consideration of the age and sex are required in judging of certain pathological processes. (a) Age. Determination According to the Condition of the Teetli. The age of living animals, in the first place, is determined according to characters furnished by the development and changes in the incisor teeth. 1. The Horse. — The first two incisor teeth, at birth ; the middle incisors, four to six weeks after birth ; the corners, six to nine months after birth. The milk incisors are white, and furnished with an evident neck ; the shedding of the central incisors, two and one-half to three years ; of the middle incisors, three and one-half to four years ; of the corners, four and one-half to five years. The permanent teeth are yellowish, without a neck, and furnished with iurrows on the labial surface. The further determination of age in. ^22 APPEABANOE AND DIFPEEENTUTION OF MEAT AND ORGANS Lorses is made according to the degree of wear. • This is indicated until the ninth year in the incisors of the lower jaw, and until the twelfth year in those of the upper jaw, by the loss of the marks ; later, by the so-called round, triangular and inverted oval grinding surface oi the incisors (from twelve to eighteen years ; from eighteen to twenty-four years, and, lastly, from twenty-four years on). 2. jCattle. — Concerning the determination of the age of calves, more detailed data are given in the discussion of immaturity. As a rule, cattle retain the milk incisors for eighteen months. The milk incisors are considerably smaller than the permanent teeth in cattle. Fig. 25. Fm. 36. t-?f^ ..-tF"**' Incisor teeth of a beef animal one year old-. Incisor teeth of a beef animal one and one-half years old. The teeth of old animals, however, may come to resemble the milk incisors in point of size, and, in fact, this similarity lias already given , occasion in slaugliteihouses to errors iu juiiging the age of animals under one and one-half and over ten years. By makiug a careful examination, however, even of the teeth alone, and when the horns and the condition of the symphyses do not enter into consideration, such ^mistakes are, impossible. For the. teeth of such old cattle . project so far out of the alveoli that a large part of the root is visible. Furthermore, even if some doubt is still entertained, it is easy, by exposing the alveoli in the jaw of a slaughtered animal, to -convince one's self whether the permanent teeth, which have not jet broken through, are present together with the visible incisors. The German Agricultural Society has established the following rules for the determination of the age of German cattle : EECOGNITION OP AGE AND SEX 223 Pm, 27. c •^-i As a rule, tbe first change of teeth occurs at the age of one and one-half years. The central milk incisors fall out,, the permanent central incisors appear and attain their full height at the age of two years. At the age of two and one-half years, the inner middle incisors fall out. The correspond- ing permanent incisors grow to their full height toward the end of the third year, and come into wear. As a rule, from the age of three and one-quarter to three ^nd one-half years, the external middle incisors fall out, and the permanent incisors come into wear •during the fourth year. At the age of four and one-quarter to iour and one-half years, the milk corners fall out, and the corres- ponding permanent teeth come into wear during the end of the fifth year. At the completion of the change of teeth, good criteria for judging are obtained in the wear of the incisors and in the Incisor teeth of a beef animal three years old. Tig. 28. Fig. 29 Incisor teeth of a beef animal four years old. Incisor teeth of a beef animal four and one-half years old. gradual appearance of the neck. The neck of the central incisor te6th becomes noticeable at the age of six years; that of the inner jniddle incisors at seven years ; that of the outer middle incisors at 224 APPEABANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND OKGANS eight years, and that of the corners at nine years. In animals which are over ten years of age, all inner middle incisors are Pig. 30. Fig. 31. *&.!& 1 y Incisor teeth of a beef animal six years old. Incisor teeth of a beef animal eight years old. strongly worn, small, loose, project far out of the alveoli, and are separated from one another. After fifteen years, the incisors either fall out or are present in the form of stumps. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Incisor teeth of a yearling sheep. Incisor teeth of a four- year-old sheep. Incisor teeth of a six- year-old sheep. 3. Sheep.— The sheep is born with the central incisors. The inner middle inoisors appear at from eight to fourteen days, th^ RECOGNITION OP AGE AND SEX 225 external middle after two to three weeks, and the corners at from three to four weeks. The shedding of the teeth begins with the central incisors at the age of from twelve to eighteen months ; next follow the internal middle incisors at from one and One-half to two years ; the external middle incisors at two and one-quarter to two and three-quarters, and the corners at three to three and three-quarter years. The chief point iu the case of sheep is the differentiatio):! between the still uninjured milk dentition and the completely developed permanent dentition (Figs. 32 and 33). The dentq.1 conditions in older sheep possess little practical interest It ma,y simply be remarked that after six years the incisors show a notcji (Fig. 84), and fall out at from ten to twelve years of age. 4 Hog. — At birth the hog has the third incisors and the canine teeth. The first incisor appears at from two to four weeks, aiid the second at from two and one-half to three months. The third incisor is shed first at nine months (according to Nehring, at seven and one-half months). Then follows the first incisor at from twelve to fifteen months, and, finally, the second at from sixteen to eighteea months. 5. Eed Deer, Fallow Deer and Eoebuck. — According ta Nehring, the shedding of the teeth in these animals occurs in the following manner : Name of Teeth. Incisor 1 Incisor 3 Incisor 3 Incisor 4 Premolars Bed Deer. After 15 mos. After 17 mos. After 30 mos. After 22 mos. After 30 mos. Fallow Deer. After 9-10 mos. After 13-13 mos. After 15 mos. After 18 mos. After 24 mos. Roebuck. After 6-8 mos. After 10-11 mos. After 13 mos. After 13 mos. After 14-15 mos. Different opinions have prevailed on the question of what is ta be understood by the term calf, or fawn, in the case of ' red deer,, fallow deer and roebuck. According to Sec. 6 of the Hunting Law, of February 26, 1870, young game is considered as calves uritil the last day of December following their birth. For a long time police regulations followed the practice of admitting young game for .sale if it weighed not less than twenty-two pounds. On the other hand, Nehring handed, down the opinion that a twenty-two pound deer was suitable for sale, but that a deer which did not possess a complete set of molar teeth, and had less than six teeth, must be regarded as a calf. 226 APPEARANCE AND DIPPEBENTIATION OF MEAT AND ANIMALS Other Criteria for Judging Age. Besides judging according to the teeth, it is a -well-known custom to judge the age of cows according to the rings on the horn, adding two to their number. But this characteristic is at best only supplementary to the dental conditions, since it can not be consid- ered as possessing absolute reliability, for the rings on the horns are formed regularly only when the animals have been regularly pregnant. This, however, is by no means always the case. At the same time, irregular intervals between.the rings on the horns permit the conclusion that pregnancy has been irregular. Finally, particular parts of the skeleton furnish us certain criteria for the determination of age : (a) The cartilaginous pads, between the diaphyses and epiphy- ses, which disappear after the growth of the bones is complete. (b) The articular cartilages, which connect individual bones with each other, ossify with increasing age. The degree of ossifi- cation of the ischio-pubic symphysis furnishes an especially valuable criterion for determining whether one is dealing with the meat of an old or a young animal. This symphysis is always cut through in slaughtering. In young animals this can be readily done with a knife, while in older animals it is necessary to make use of a saw or an ax. The sternal cartilages ossify in the median line during the second year. (c) The supplementary and organic cartilages of the ribs, spinous processes, scapula, trachea, ear, etc., which in old age become calcareous and ossify. According to Bunge, the supple- mentary cartilages of the spinous processes in cattle are cartilagin- ous only during the first years of life. Later they ossify and become completely ankylosed with the spinous processes. Up to the end of the first year, the supplementary cartilages are very sharply marked off fiom the bones, which are rich in blood. During the second and third years, the cartilage shows larger and larger islands of bone substance, and the white color of the cartilage is consequently changed into a grayish-red. Toward the end of the sixth year, the larger part of the supplementary cartilage becomes modified into a compact bony tissue. A very sharp line of demarcation is still visible between both parts, and a cartilaginous border is observed on the former supplementary cartilage. At the end of the eighth year, no cartilage is demonstrable, as a rule, in a longitudinal section of the spinous process. KECOGNITION OF AGE AND SEX 227 (d) The tubular bones, in which, after birth, the marrow cavity Taecomes gradually larger, and fat marrow is formed. In old animals ^ serous, infiltrated, gelatinous tissue replaces the fat marrow. The difference in color of the musculature and fat tissue of young and old animals has already been mentioned (pp. 199-204). Age of Fowls. In handling fowls a distinction is made, as a rule, only between old and young birds. For this differentiation, the following rules are to be observed : Toung hens possess only the beginning of the so-called spurs. Furthermore, the scales on the feet are smooth and of a glistening, ,fresh color. The claws are delicate and sharp. The tarsus is soft, and the comb is thin and smooth. In old hens, the spais are hard and the scales on the feet rough. Furthermore, the lower half of the bill is so hard that it can not be bent with ihe fingers. Lastly, the comb is thick and rough. According to Cornevin, the young rooster, up to the age of four and one-half months, possesses only the indication of a spur in the form of a broad scale. From four and one-half to five months on, a small protuberance develops in the form of a spur, which at seven months is 3 mm., and at one year, 15 mm., long and straight. At two years the spur, which has become curved, is from 25 to 27 mm. long; at three years, from 36 to 38 ; at four years, from 50 to 54; at five years, from 62 to 65. The breeds with feathered legs have shorter spurs than those with naked legs. The hen commonly has no spurs. Castration of the rooster checks the growth of the spurs. Old hen turkeys also have rough scales on the feet, calluses on the soles of the feet, and long, strong claws. Young turkey cocks show exactly the opposite condition in all these points, and an old turkey cock with the feathers on possesses a long beard, which is entirely wanting in the young cock. "When turkey cocks have been picked, the roughness of the scales on the feet is a deciding factor in determining his age, and also the difference in the size of the wattles and the nose piece. Cornevin asserts that the red, fleshy wattles appear in the turkey cock at from two and one half to three months, and the brush of bristles on the breast at from seven to ■eight months of age. Furthermore, the feet are black up to the age of one year ; rose-red at from two to three years, and gray rose-red at from three to four years, becoming paler from that time on. An old goose is to be recognized by its rough feet, strength of ■wing and beak, and fineness of feathers. In picked geese, the 228 APPEAKANCE AND DIFFERENTIATION OF MEAT AND 0EGAN8 following may indicate the age: The condition of the feet, the^ delicacy of the skin under the wing and wing points, the beak,, and the thickness of the skin in general. r In ducks the age is determined in the same manner. It should also be remembered that the beak, in its relation to the width of the- head, is considerably longer in young ducks than in old ones. In pheasants (gold and silver), the plumage is dark up to thfr second year. This is not changed in the female even later, while in the male the gorgeous plumage and the long tail feathers are deveK oped at two years of age. Young pigeons are to be recognized by the paleness of their color, by the smooth, closed feet and long yellow down feathers,. which are found scattered among the plumage. Older pigeons, after leaving the nest, have red-colored feet, but no down feathers. If the latter recognition marks are present, the pigeon is considered by fastidious persons as already too old for the table. Up to six or eight months of age, the beak is soft, but becomes hard later, according to Cornevin. In young partridges, the beak is easily indented with the finger,. • but not in old biids. The feet of young partridges are yellowish,, while in old birds tbey are gray. According to Niebel,the condition of the wing feathers (extreme tip of the wing) offers in many species of birds a convenient means of judging age. The feather vane of the wing tip in the guinea hen,, turkey, wood grouse, black grouse, hazel hen, white grouse, partridge and heath hen is pointed in young birds and more or less rounded in old- birds. In the domestic fowl, turkey, wood grouse and pheasant,, the development of the spurs, according to Niebel, is to be consid- ered a good criterion for judging age. Furthermore, in all species of birds, the condition of certain bones (sternum, pubis, ischium) serves to indicate the age. The bones are flexible in young birds ; later, are easily broken, but are broken with greater difficulty as the age increases. Finally, in young pigeons, according to Niebel, the breast muscles show through the skin as white, while in older birds they appear bluish-red. (b) Recognition of the Sex of Slaughtered Animals. The recognition of the sex of slaughtered animals has a practical value in the case of cattle, sheep and hogs. 1. Cattle.— Bulls, steers and cows are slaughtered— spayed •cows but rarely. Besides this, one speaks of young cattle, one-halt EEOOGNITION OF AGE AND SEX 229 "to one year old ; heifers (young cows which never have never borne calves), and steers (young, unfattened oxen). The heifers and steers, in some parts of Germany, are sometimes included under the term " cattle," more correctly, young cattle. The bull is characterized by the massive development of his muscles, especially the neck and shoulder musculature (Fig. 35); also by the dark color of the musculature and the scarcity of fat tissue. Finally, the inguinal canal is open, for the reason that tha Fio. 35, Fig. Fore quarter of a bull. Fore quarter of a steer. testicles, with the spermatic cord, are removed > in slaughtering '''vTri B A, Beef tongue with typical actinomyootic affection (a); B, section tlirougli the primary locus (after Hensohel and Falk). which feels leathery, is sprinkled with minute yellow spots; the fungiform papillae are destroyed (Leutsch) ; and also by the fact that the destruction of the epithelium is not so sharply delimited from the erosions as in the case of broken aphthous pustules (compare Figs. 63, a, and 51, h). According to Henschel and Falk, the dorsal surface of the tongue at the transition point, between the body of the tongue and the tip, is the most frequent location of primary actinomycotic affections (Fig. 52, A, a). ^76 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DI&EA8ES Henschel and Fiilk called attention to the point that in manr cattle (90 out of 985 inspected, or 9.1 per cent.), epithelial lesion*, occur at the point above described. In the majority of cases these lesions represent an incipient actinomycotic infection (in the 985 animals above mentioned, this was the case in 71, or 7.2 per cent.). According to Breuer, the frequency of primary lingual actinomyco- sis at the transition point between the body and tip of the tongue varied in cases observed in Budapest between 16 per cent, in sum- mer and 33 per cent, in winter. Schwaimair observed this altera- tion in 26 per cent, of the Bavarian cattle which he examined. "When an incision is made in the spot where the epithelium is want- ing, one generally finds small tubercles or small abscesses which, contain actinomyces. Comparatively few of these foci are simple. Fig. 53. sjB";-,-^*'* Beef tongue with (a) actinomycotic erosions ; h, mushroom-shaped actinomycomata^ The tip of the tongue also exhibits the condition of wooden tongue. abscesses produced by pyogenic bacteria. In the foci in questioa. on the tongue, one frequently fiudti small foreign bodies, grains, which are strongly penetrated with actinomyces. Henschel and Falk ascribe the above-mentioned typical lingual affection of cattle to their peculiar mode of ingestion (retention of fungus- covered portioas of food at the boundary between the moveable and fixed portions of the tongue. Breuer, on the other hand, considers it probable that the disease is associated with a peculiarity of the structure of the tongue. Jn cattle a crescent-shaped atrophy of the mucous mem- brane occurs in front of the dorsal ridge of the tongue, with destruc- tion of the filiform papillae. The smooth portion of the mucous- membrane thereby becomes more easily injured than the other portions of the lingusvl mucous mejnbrane. In accordance with tbia. DIGESTIVE APPAEATUS 277 -explanation is the fact, established by Breuer, that the frequency of the disease in question increases with the age of the cattle. Tubercular actinomycomata may occur upon the mucous mem- brane of the whole anterior portion of the digestive apparatus of cattle, from the lips to the fourth stomach. The tongue and mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx are most frequently affected; more rarely that of the first three stomachs. Actinomy- comata ordinarily sit upon the mucous membrane like mushrooms or conical or flat proliferations. The colonies of actinomyces upon their surfaces are readily distinguished from the red ground color as yellow spots (Fig. 53, b). Johne has called attention to the ray fungus in the tonsils of hogs. Occasionally actinomycosis is also observed in the retro- pharyngeal lymphatic glands of cattle. Actinomycosis of the tongue is characterized by distinct ana- tomical forms. As already described, it may occur as a superficial process in the form of erosions. Furthermore, the disease may appear in two other forms : In the form of multiple tubercles of various sizes which lie scattered in the tissue of the tongue, and as -diffuse induration of the tongue (wooden tongue). The tubercles may be readily detected by touch, especially while the animal heat is still present. Moreover, upon microscopic inspection, they exhibit the typical structure of actinomycotic gran- ulations. Wooden tongue, which is very frequent in cattle and has been observed once in sheep (Berg) and hogs (Schilling), is distinguished lay its firm, UDyielding consistency. On cross section, one observes a vigorous proliferation of connective tissue and an atrophy of the musculature of the tongue. The connective tissue proliferations include . small and large colonies of the ray fungus. As a rule, wooden tongue is a partial alteration. A complete induration of the tongue rarely occurs, since animals affected with wooden tongue are soon slaughtered on account of the difficulty they experience in the prehension of food. Non-actinomycotic wooden tongue. — Pflug described several cases of non-actinomycotic wooden tongue. The tongues were hard, enlarged, white on cross section, and without a trace of muscular tissue (diffuse interstitial myositis). Later, Imminger reported sim- ilar cases. Furthermore, Kitt observed a fibroma of the tongue, which had likewise led to the formation of the so-called wooden tongue. 278 NOTEWOBTHY ORGANIC DISEASES Tuberculosis.— Tuberculosis is frequently met with as a pri- mary affection in the lymph glands of the head (retro-pharyngeal glands in cattle ; tracheal lymph glands in hogs). Simultaneously a tuberculous alteration of the tonsils may exist. Morot claims to have frequently observed tuberculosis of the- tongue. This assertion does not agree with observations in Ger-. man slaughter-houses. In Germany, tuberculosis of the tongue is^ an exceptionally rare occurrence. In Berlin, for example, only one case of tubercular disease' of the tongue was established during ten years. (b) Pharynx. Besides typical pharyngitis, the sanitary significance of whicb varies according to the degree of inflammation and the accompany- Fig. .'i4. Fig. 55. Bovine esophagus ■with oe'trus larvre. On the right a larva in naCLi'al size. Sheep esophagus with sarcosporidia. ing phenomena, specific changes occur in the mucous membrane of the pharynx in the form of hemorrhages, bloody serous and pure serous infiltrates, iu petechial fever, anthrax, hemorrhagic septi- cemia, and swine erysipelas. Furthermore, the larvae of Gastrophi- lus are frequently found in the pharynx of the horse. DIGESTIVE APPABATCS 279 In the pharynx of the stag the larvae of Pharyngomyla pida and Cephenomyia rufiharhis ; in the roebuck, the larvae of C. stimu- lator ; and in the reindeer, the larvae of C. trompe, are found. (c) Esophagus. In the mucous membrane of the esophagus of cattle one observes papillomata ; in cattle and sheep, the esophageal thread worm, Fila- aria scutata esophagea hovis ; and, finally, in the musculature of the esophagus of cattle, the larvae of Oestrus hovis (Fig. 54) ; and in the same location in sheep, goats and horses, one finds sarcosporidia (Fig. 55). (d) Stomach, and Intestine. The most important abnormal conditions of the stomach and intestines are inflammations and parasites. Inflammations. — Inflammatory alterations may bp of diff'erent sorts. All transition stages are observed from simple catarrh accom- panied simply with erythrism and swelling of the mucous mem- "brane, to diphtheritic inflammation ushered in with necrosis of the mucous membrane. The judgment On this process should vary accordingly, as already stated in the chapter on general pathology. One point, however, ought to be again emphasized in this place: Simple gastric catarrhs, as well as simple non-febrile enteric catarrhs, are without sanitary significance. It is necessary, how- ever, to differentiate between these harmless diseases and septic diseases of the intestines of calves and cows, ushered in with high fever and great depression (see under " Diarrhea," " Emergency Slaughter " and " Meat Poisoning"). Schwaimair, by a regular inspec- tion of the second stomach of slaughtered cattle, demonstrated that traumatic inflammation of this organ is much more fiequent than commonly supposed. Of 639 cattle inspected, 54, or 8.62 per cent., were affected with inflammation in consequence of injury by foreign bodies. The majority of the animals had exhibited no disturbance of health during life. Harms described a phlegmonous gastro-enteritis in cattle, which, as a rule, ran a fatal course. The mucous, muscular and serous coats were inflamed. A bloody content was occasionally found in the small intestines. Harms emphasized the fact that the meat of animals which were affected even with an advanced stage of phlegmonous gastro-enteritis did not show the slightest variation from the normal condition. In the case of cattle which were well 280 NOTEWOETHY OEGANIC DISEASES -nojirished and seasonably slaughtered, Harms accepted the raeat as fit for human food when it was necessary to assume a cold (?) as the cause of the disease. Torsion, invagination, and incarceration of the intestines may lead to inflammations which may become fatal in consequence of necrosis of the wall by perforative peritonitis. Croupous enteritis is observed in cattle either as an independent disease or as a symptomatic affection of malignant catarrhal fever and rinderpest. A hemorrhagic inflammation of the intestines is never absent in swine erysipelas. Croupous and diphtheritic inflammation of the mucous membrane of the posterior portion of the small intestine, as well as of the large intestine, is characteristic of hog cholera. According to Kitt, a diphtheritic intestinal inflam- mation may occur independently of hog cholera merely as a result of the necrosis bacillus. Finally, the intestines exhibit serious alterations in enteric anthrax. Swelling, erythrism and hemoi-rhages of the mucous membrane are observed, and, in severe cases, also hemorrhagic and sero-hemorrhagic infiltration of the mucosa and submucosa, so that the mucous membrane is forced into the lumen of the intestine in the form of flabby ridges, and sloughs off. The duodenum is com- monly affected most severely. Fig. 56. Ulcus Pepticum. — Peptic ulcer of the stom- ach is an affection which is observed in calves rather frequently at slaughter- houses. The author has called attention to the fact that round and elongated ulcers with sharp borders andwithout apparent cause may occur in the rennet of calves. Frequently death is brought about by per- forative peritonitis in con- sequence of the necrosis of the floor of the ulcer. Pep- tic ulcers may also occur in the duodenum. The frequency of the occur- rence of perforative peptic ulcer of the stomach in calves makes it Calf abnmasum with peptic tiloers of different sizes and depth. Largest ulcer is perforated. DIGESTIYE APPAEATUS 281 the duty of inspectors to observe carefully the peritoneal changes in these animals in evevy individual case. The inflammation is sero-fibrinous. The inflammatory erythrism of the peritoneum under the fibrinous deposit furnishes a certain means of diagnosis, even when the deposit is carelessly removed during the inspection. Judgment. — In perforative peritonitis, the meat must be con- sidered as an unwholesome food material (see "Sapremia"). If, on the other hand, peritonitis is absent and the floor of the ulcer shows a granular formation, the meat may be offered for sale as a market- able food material, provided the animal is in a good state of nutri- tion. Occasionally the perforation heals by a connective tissue union at the point of rupture between the omentum and the abdom- inal wall. Parasites. — The following parasites occur in the stomach and intestines : Gastrophilus equi (stomach of the horse) ; G. nasalis (pyloric portion of the stomach of the horse) ; G. pecorum and G. Jicemorrhoidalis (stomach and rectum of horses and cattle) ; Amphis- tomum conicum (rumen and omasum of ruminauts) ; Filaria micros- toma and F. megastoma (stomach of the horse) ; F. strongylina (stom- ach of the hog) ; Strongylus contortus and S. ostertagi (fourth stomach of cattle, sheep and goats) ; S. curticei (fourth stomach and small intestine of cattle and sheep) ; S. oncop/iorus (fourth stomach and small intestine of cattle) ; S. harkeri (fourth stomach of cattle) ; ;S'. retortwformis (fourth stomach and small intestine of cattle, sheep, goats, roebuck, hares and rabbits) ; 8. filicollis (small intestine of sheep, especially in America) ; Gnathostomum hispidum (stomach, of the hog) ; Strongylus armatus (cecum and colon of the horse) ; Ascaris megalocephcda (small intestine of the horse) ; A. lumbricoides (small intestine of the hog) ; AnoplocepJiala perfoKata, plicata, and mamillana (horse) ; Iloniezia expansa (cattle and sheep). Lastly, pentastomum larvae are found in the wall of the small intestine in cattle and sheep. Strongylus ostertagi, but more frequently S. contortus and Mon- iezia expansa, when present in large numbers, may cause serious nutritive disturbances (stomach-worm disease, caused by Strongylus contortus and S. ostertagi), and tape-worm disease of lambs (caused by Moniezia expansa). Ascaris lumbricoides occasionally wanders into the bile ducts and causes icterus by the sudden obstruction of the flow of bile. Casefying nematode tubercles in the wall of the intestine. — In the submucosa of the small intestine of cattle, Drechsler discovered a 282 NOTEWORTHY OKGANIC DISEASES nematode 1 to 1.5 mm. long, which was located in small, round tubercles with green-colored contents (Fig. 67). Saake confirmed this discovery soon afterward. The author has Tery frequently seen these tubercles ia cattle killed at Berlin slaughterhouses. According to Strose, the round worm which is found in the tubercles is a larva of Anchylostomum (J. bovis). According to the thorough investigation of Strose, the parasitic enteric tubercles of cattle are found exclusively in the small intes- FiG. 58. Pig. 57. Bovine small intestine with submucous nematode tubercles. Larva of Anchylostomum bovis from' a submucous tubercle of the bovine intestine (after Strose) X 25 diam. tine in varying numbers. The spherical, often somewhat flattened,, tubercles lie under the mucosa. They consist of a connective tissue wall and a green or yellowish-brown, caseous, crumbly content. The size of the tubercles varies from that of a pin head to that of a pea. The larger tubercles, even before the intestines are cleaned, maj be seen from the outside through the muscular and serous coats. The nematodes (Fig. 58) which were isolated from the tubercles, by Strose were 2.83 to 3.85 mm. long and 0.16 mm. wide. In the small intestine of American sheep and cattle, Curtice also demonstrated nematode tubercles. In tubercles 1 cm. in diam- DIGESTIVE APPABATUS 283 eter, Curtice found larvae and sexually-mature round worms to which he gave the name CEsopJmgostomum columbianum. Further investigations are required to determine whether the European and American intestinal parasites are identical. Von Ratz came to the conclusion that the tubercles observed in European cattle contained 0. ivflatum. It should be remarked in this connection that nema- tode tubercles are frequently found in bovine intestines imported from America in such numbers that they look as if sprinkled with them. In the intestinal wall of chickens, von Katz demonstrated grayish-yellow tubercles from the size of millet seed to that of hemp seed, which were due to penetration of the small tape worm {Davainea tetragona) into the intestinal wall. The parasites were located inside the tubercles. The chronic intestinal inflammation caused by tetragona may appear in an epizootic form and may cause the death of a large number of fowls, especially young ones. Judgment. — According to the present state of knowledge, it can not be assumed that the parasites contained in the intestinal tubercles can be transmitted to man. On the other hand, intestines which are infested to a high degree with verminous tubercles are highly unfit for food in so far as the manufacture of sausage is concerned. In case of slight infestation, the tubercles may be removed. Meat dealers must be made personally responsible for this removal, since the tubercles are not seen until the intestines have been prepared for market in the usual manner. Olt demonstrated another entozoic disease in the mucous mem- brane of the large intestine of hogs. In spring and summer a swelling and iilceration of a few or many follicles of the larg& intestine are observed in hogs. This infection occurs most fre- quently in the rectum and colon ; less frequently in the cecum and the parts anterior to it. In the caseous contents of the follicular tubercles, Olt discovered the larva of a round worm {Strongylus foUtcularis), 1.7 mm. long and 1 mm. in diameter. According to Xiiebe, this is not a new parasite, but a hitherto undescribed imma- ture»form of Strongylus dentatus. Finally, Liebe discovered in the mucosa, occasionally also under the serous coat of the cecum and colon of sheep, tubercles varying in size from that of a pin head to that of a pea, with yellowish or a yellow-green detritus. These tubercles likewise contained nematode larvae. According to Liebe, this is not identical with Drechsl-er's nematode or Anchyhstomum hovis. Judgment. — The statement already made with reference to judg- anent of the tubercles in bovine intestines holds good for the •284 NOTEWOKTHT OBGANIC DISEASES tubercles described by Liebe. On the other hand, the eutozoic follicular tubercles discovered by Olt in the hog intestines require no further consideration in practical meat inspection, since they are ' removed in cleaning the intestines (by stripping the mucous mem- brane). Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of nematode tubercles of the intestines. — The nematode tubercles in the wall of the intestines may be mistaken in superficial inspection for the products of tuberculosis. l^'They are distinguished, however, from the latter by the gray or Fio. 59. Intestinal tuberculosis of cattle, a and 6, lenticular ulcers: c, tuberculous infiltration; d, part of a tuberculous mesenteric gland. grayish-green color of the caseous material and by the integrity of the corresponding lymph glands. By crushing the caseous material with the addition of glycerin (Linstow) or dilute caustic potash, the round worms may be easily isolated. Other Alterations.— Among the other alterations in the stomach and alimentary tract may be mentioned hemorrhages under the visceral peritoneum (in intoxications and infections) ; hemor- rhagic infarcts (in the horse by emboli from aneurism of the anterior mesenteric artery); necrosis of the mucous lining of the DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 285 anterior stomachs of cattle (caused by the necrosis bacillus); tumors, such as lipomata and sarcomata ; and, finally, actinomycotic and tubercular changes in all layers of the alimentary canal and on the intestinal peritoneum. Sarcomata may infiltrate the whole wall of the intestine for a considerable length, or may be deposited in it as tubercles. Primary tuberculosis of the intestine begins with the appearance of lenticular ulcers on the mucous membrane (Fig. 59, a and 6) with which tuberculous infiltrations of the mucosa and submucosa become connected later by the degeneration of the superficial tubercles (Fig. 59, c). Tuberculous ulcers and infiltra- tions are surrounded with a wall-like border. Furthermore, tha mesenteric glands regularly show a marked specific alteration (Figs. 23 and 59, d). Kitt describes " papilloma polyposum omasi (myxomatodes) " as a frequent condition in the stomach of cattle. Papilloma of the omasum is usually multiple in all transition stages from simple papillary hyperplasia and papillomatous rosettes of the size of the double fist. According to Kitt, they are best compared in a fresh condition "with the fruit of Muscatelle grapes." The berry-like structures possess a firm, elastic consistency, the color being partly milk white, partly of a reddish flesh tint. Edema from obstruction lends a myxoma-like character to the papilloma, (e) Peritoneum. The parietal fold of the peritoneum may exhibit the same alterations which have just been described as occurring in the vis- ceral layer and in the serous covering of the abdominal organs. This statement also holds good for the duplicatures of the peritoneum, omentum and mesenteries. Furthermore, there are certain processes which are- peculiar to the parietal layer of the peritoneum, or have a predilection for it. Multiple Calcification. — The peritoneum of cattle frequently exhibits an interesting calcification which may be confused with incipient tuberculosis. The calcification is distinguished by the appearance of a few or countless flat elevations varying in size from that of a pin head to that of a lentil (Fig. 60). The latter are of a white color and upon microscopic examination it becomes apparent that the normal tissue of the peritoneum is interrupted by cloudy spots. The cloudiness is due to acicular depositions in close contact, with one another. in the larger tubercles. According to their chem- ical behavior, these deposits must be considered aa lime salts. , ■286 NOTEWOBTHY ORGANIC DISEASES Multiple calcification of the peritoneum is distinguished from tuberculosis (Fig. 61) by the complete absence of caseation, as well as by the flat form and the absence of tubercles ; also by the -absence of an alteration in the corresponding lymph glands. Inflammations. — Peritoneal inflammations are closely connected ■with alterations of the alimentary canal. From an etiological ■ standpoint, inflammations of the urino-genital apparatus, especially of the uterus in female animals, and injuries of the abdominal walls are to be considered in this connection. All cases of peritonitis which I have seen in slaughtered animals were caused by injuries of the alimentary tract, of the urino-genital apparatus, or of the abdominal wall, or by primary inflammations of these parts. Fig. 60. Multiple calcification of the Serous tuberculosis of bovine pleura. cattle (pearl disease). Peritonitis of domestic animals is either purely fibrinous or «ero-fibrinous, more rarely purulent. In extensive inj uries of organs covered by the peritoneum, the exudation may decompose— ichorous inflammation of the peritoneum. Perforative peritonitis following injuries of the stomach and intestines is always of an ichorous character. This is the case also in so-called traumatic peritonitis of cattle, in which foreign bodies pass from the second or third stomachs into the body cavity. Inflammations of the peritoneum following rupture of the blad- der or in connection with necrotic cystitis are characterized by the intense urinous odor of the exudation. The odor clings to the DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 287 peritoneum even after washing out the abnormal contents with ■water; otherwise inflammatory phenomena in urinous peritonitis, as a rule, are only slightly pronounced. Finally, we should mention the proliferating inflammation of the serous covering of the alimentary tract which may lead to an adhesion of the individual folds of the intestines. Judgment. — With the exception of the last-named proliferating process and urinous peritonitis, peritoneal inflammations are of great sanitary importance. The proliferating processes are of no significance. They simply prevent the use of the affected portions of the alimentary tract for customary market purposes. Urinous peritonitis renders the meat highly unfit for food, but not dangerous. In exudative peritoneal inflammations, on the other hand, the con- ditions are favorable for the resorption of toxines and the origin of general diseases (intoxication or infection). Fibrinous and purulent peritonitis in cattle may heal on account of the unusual resistence of these animals to fibrinous and purulent inflammations. The former heals by resorption of the' exudation or a connective tissue adhesion of the affected parts ; the latter heals imperfectly by encapsulation of the pus. With regard to judgment on acute peritoneal inflammations and healed purulent peritonitis, see " Septicemia " and " Pyemia." Infectious pkuro-peritonitis of hogs. — According to the statistics of slaughterhouses, hogs are frequently attacked by a chronic inflammation of the pleura and peritoneum, in the course of which multiple, usually strongly encapsulated a.bscesses are formed. According to Grips, who investigated the disease, this is a specific infectious disease of hogs (see under " Infectious Diseases"). Biliary peritonitis. — Finally, mention may here be made of a so-called biliary peritonitis which sometimes occurs in sheep. This disease may arise when the liver or gall bladder is injured. In the cases which I have observed, an artificial communication had been formed between the bile duct and the body cavity by liver flukes which had left their customary habitat and had bored through the liver substance and liver capsule. In biliary peritonitis, one finds a thickening, especially of the lower parts of the parietal peritoneum. ' The thickened parts of the peritoneum possess a bluish-white sheen and are covered with a greenish, glistening, semi-fluid deposit. In one hog I demonstrated a similar alteration of the parietal and visceral peritoneum. In this case the cause was a rupture of the pregnant uterus from torsion. 288 NOTEWORTHY OBGANIO DISEASES Other Alterations.— Of the otlier pathological conditions in. the peritoneum, the following deserve mention : Melanin deposits in cattle, transudations and hemorrhages in rupture of the spleen and liver or in fresh perforation of the rectum and uterus, hemorrhagic infiltrations in anthrax, and sarcomata and carcinomata, as well as tuberculous granulations in the form of tubercles, pearl-lite prolif- erations, and supbrficial deposits (Fig. 61). Multiple fatty necrosis.— Multiple necrosis may appear in the adipose tissue under the parietal fold of the peritoneum, between the folds of the mesentery and in the omentum. Fischoder described such a case in a hog which was not carefully investigated by the author and was named iatty necrosis. Numerous yellowish- white opaque areas of lardaceous consistency were observed in the fat tissue. The size of the areas reached that of a five-pfennig piece. Olt and Steiiding subsequently reported several cases of fatty necrosis in domesticated animals. According to the investigations of Benda and.Stadelmann, multiple fatty necrosis is a sequela of diseases of the pancreas, tumors, lesions of the pancreatic duct, etc. The pancreas was also diseased in the case reported by Fischoder and in one of the cases described by Steuding. Jung produced local inflammation and fatty necrosis by the artificial introduction of trypsin and fresh pancreas into the body cavity of rabbits. He is of the opiiiion that the secretion of the pancreas, in consequence of a 'solution of the continuity of the latter, flows into the body cavity ■ and causes fatty necrosis. In rendering judgment on the meat of animals affected' with multiple fatty necrosis, the condition of the animals before slaughter and the general findings after slaughter should be determining factors. If the animal affected with fatty necrosis is healthy before slaughter and if, after slaughter, the necrotic areas are found only in the fat tissues, the disease is to be considered an insignificant local affection, so far as the meat is concerned. On account of the abnormal condition of the fat tissue, however, the meat is to be offered for sale under declaration, as unsuitable food material. Lipoma in adipose tisstm of the abdomen. — According to Tiircks, in food animals which have undergone a long course of fattening, adipose tissue tumors appear in the omentum and in the fat tissue of the intestines and kidneys in the form of hard, knotty thicken- ings which are called "fat stones " by butchers. Mesenterial emphysema of hogs. — Mesenterial emphysema of hogs is a very remarkable disease which formerly was given the name DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 289 multilocular air cysts (Motz) and " air bladder lueseutery " (pneu- matosis cystoides intestinorum, Maier). The first description of this interesting affection was by Maier in 1825. Recently it has been described by Eoth and Sohmutzer. However, mesenterial emphysema is well known to meat inspectors as a frequent and striking phenomenon. It is observed that the small intestine, especially that portion of it known as the jejunum, is fringed along the line of attachment of the mesentery with gra])e-like evaginations Fi(, 62. Mesenteric i;mpliy,=eina in hogs. and appendages of varying size which are ioi idiuI of cysts containing gas (Fig. 62). The appendages are tightly distended and do not communicate with one another. The wall of the cysts is trans- parent and only exceptionally of a red color from hemorrhage. In addition to the conglomerate groups, individual cysts appear, either , in the intestinal wall and between the folds of the mesentery, or pedunculate on those parts. Accumulations of gas occur also in the mesenteric glands, sometimes to such a degree that the latter resemble sponge structures. The accumulation of gas, however, appears not to extend beyond the limits of the mesenteric glands. In connection with the gaseous cysts, solid tubercular filiform ^9Q NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES formations are found on the peritoneum. Gas analyses, which the author undertook, with the contents of cysts obtained under quick- silver, indicate the presence of oxygen, together with a preponder- ating content of an inert gas, nitrogen. This had been previously established by Maier, Eoeckl, Zschokke, and Roth. Dryer found in the cysts a mixture of 2.1 per cent. 00„ 20.8 per cent. O, and 77.1 per cent. N. Krummacher, however, found, in addition to N, 10 to 16 per cent. O, while CO, and H were wanting or present only as a trace. With regard to the etiology of mesenterial emphysema, we are still entirely in the dark. The author made an extended investi- gation of the disease and in spite of abundant Fig. 63. and excellent material, for the most part still possessing the animal heat, only nega- tive results were obtained. The investiga- tions of Eoth were also without result on this point. He combats the idea of Eisenlohr ^ and Dupraz that the disease is due to a pathological organism demonstrable by pre- sent methods of research. It is undoubtedly a process of mycotic origin, and the author believes from the conditions in numerous \- I J microscopic preparations that it is necessary \ I iiy to consider yeast cells as the cause of this ■"^ _!i£.''''-' ' process, which is observed only in the patho- Cysticercus tenuicoUis logy of domestic animals. No success, how- teudecTrcoki'!"^ ^™' ever, was had in cultivating the organisms in question. Schmutzer, with Krummacher, considers as excluded the possibility that the formation of the gas is due to micro-organisms, and is of the opinion that we have* to do in this case with intestinal gases which have become changed in their composition, by diffusion. Motz ascertained that multilocular air cysts occurred most frequently in hogs which are fed upon the waste products of the dairy, and this observation was confirmed by others. Judgment. — Mesenterial ephysema is found quite incidentally in hogs in perfect health and in good condition. Accordingly, and in view of the further unobjectionable character of the other vital ■organs and of the meat, this affection is to be considered as insig- nificant and of a purely local character No special measures are required with reference to affected parts of the intestine, since in con- sequence of the emphysema they can not be used as sausage casings. I . , . . DIGESTIVE APPARATUS , , 291 Pabasites. — The retro-peritoneal tissue, omentam, and mesen- i;ery furnish favorable situations for Cysticercus tenuicollis, which occurs there in sizes varying from that of a pea to that of a potato. furthermore, echinococci and wandering liver flukes may occur Tinder the peritoneum. Finally, in horses, Fllaria papiUosa has "been observed free in the body cavity, as well as Strongylus armatus, which latter is also found under the parietal fold of the peritoneum ; •and occasionally Spiroptera reticulata attached to the peritoneum. (f) Liver. Malfoemations. — Occasionally lobulation is entirely absent in log livers, so that the liver appears like an amorphous mass (non- FiQ. 64. iiP f Beef liver with spotted eapillary angiomatosis. lobulated or clump liver). Furthermore, double livers (livers with accessory livers) and livers with a congenital cyst formation are observed. In cattle one observes rather frequently a peculiar formation of the liver, which is described by Sluys, Koorevaar, Saake and Kitt, and was called by the latter spotted capillary angiomatosis. Such livers of the normal size and form exhibit numerous blue-black spots which become violet-red after lying for a long time and which occupy a deeper position than the normal liver surface (Fig. 64). The spots are of the size of a 25-cent piece, soft, and show a net- like structure on cross section. Blood is found betwefen the meshes 292 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES of the 'net, which occasionally is very rich in leucocytes. The- meshes are furnished with an endothelium ; the lacunae are there'- fore to be considered as enlarged capillaries and the whole anomaly a formation dae to arrested development in consequence of the occasional failure of the liver cell cylinders to grow into the sup- porting substance. As a result, the capillary meshes are not suffi- ciently constricted (Kitt). Saake the younger, in connection with the publication of hia father, investigated ten cases of hepatic angiomata and came to the conclusion that the disease in question is characterized by " mul- tiple bloody, infiltrated, blue-red areas varying in size from that of a millet seed to that of a cherry or even a walnut, and permeating the whole liver substance without changing the unaffected parts of the liver tissue." -Microscopically, these areas are to be considered partly as hemorrhages, partly as angiomatous sinuses. In many cases alterations were observed in the blood vessels in the form of thrombi (eight out of eleven cases), liver cell emboli (six cases), rupture of the blood vessel (one case), infiltrations of the vascular walls with eosiuophilous cells (five cases) ; also disintegration of the nuclei in the connective tissue cells of the walls into granular masses (two cases), transparent spherules in the blood masses and almost always proliferation phenomena in the connective tissue elements in the surrounding tissue. In these conditions, Saake sees- a similarity with the changes described by Schmorl in the liver of eclamptic women, and his supposition that the hepatic alterations in question in cattle are connected with the act of parturition, is con- firmed by the fact that the livers which he investigated came from cows. In four of the cases it was demonstrated that they had calved and the other was killed in consequence of parturient paresis. Saake, accordingly, does not agree with the« interpretation of Kitt that we are dealing with congenital angioma, and he is strengthened in his dissenting opinion by the fact that, according to the experi- ence of veterinarians engaged in meat inspection, the disease is not observed in virgin heifers. Finally, Stockniann is disposed to consider the hepatic altera- tions in question as the sequela of distomatous cirrhosis of the liver and as a simple enlargement of the hepatic capillaries. This view, however, is opposed to the fact that angioma of the liver is also observed without coexistent cirrhosis. Judgment.— Livers affected with the above described alterations must be considered unfit for food, whether the affection is of the. nature of angioma or hemorrhage. Special restrictions on the sale= DIGESTIVE APPAKATUS 293 -of these livers is not necessary, since their nature is declared by their striking variation from the normal condition. Ruptures of the liver arise from the effect of violent mechanical shocks in the anterior abdominal region. A necessary condition, liowever, is an unusual discerptibility which usually is brought about by a strong fatty infiltration, as, for example, in fattened -lambs. The animals die suddenly of hemorrhage. Upon post Pig. 65. ' . Fib. 66. Fatty infiltration of the liver. Patty metamorphosis of the liver. ^Qortem examination a bloody infiltrated rupture in the liver is observed, in addition to blood in the body cavity. Judgment. — The meat of animals dead of rupture of the liver is to be considered the equal of that of animals slaughtered in the ordinary way, if evisceration occurs immediately after death. Atkophy. — Atrophy of the liver in old animals (horses and cows) has been discussed in the description of the normal structure, of these organs. Furthermore, the so-called nutmeg liver occurs in food animals. This alteration is due to obstruction of the blood, in consequence of cardiac or pulmonary disturbances. The central veins of the acini of the liver become distended by the persistent obstruction, and bring about atrophy of the neighboring liver cells. The interior of the acini appears dark in color and the cortical zone is red-brown or yellow-brown. Simultaneously, a slight shrinking or enlargement of the liver occurs (atrophic and hypertrophic nut- meg liver). Judgment. — Nutmeg liver is decidedly abnormal and must be considered as unfit for food. PlGMENTATiON.^A yellow discoloration of the liver is a regular symptom of hepatogenous icterus. By the aid of the microscope, a deposit of bilirubin crystals is found as a cause of the discoloration. Jdelanosis of the liver is also observed in calves. 294 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES A peculiar form of pigmentation of the liver is observed int Texas fever. The eiilarged, superficially pale, on cross-section, brownish-yellow, liver exhibits a delicate yellow network which encloses the trabecule of the liver cells. This pigmentation is due to a pronounced distention of the smaller bile ducts with thickened, bile. In fresh preparations bile plugs of a Y form are cpnspicuous- DEGENERATiONS.^-The degenerative conditions of cloudy swell- ing and fatty metauiorphosis of the liver are of importance in meat inspection, since they are the first or, in premature slaughter, the only symptoms of serious infectious diseases and intoxications. With regard to the distinction between fatty metamorphosis and fatty infiltration, compare page 256. Rarely, amyloid degeneration of the liver is met with in food animals. The domestic hen has already been mentioned as the only exception. Livers affected with amyloid degeneration become enlarged, harder than normal, and of a dull gray color (spotted liver). In the horse, the firmness of the amyloid liver, according to Rabe, is about the same as that of wax while cooling, and later of the crumbling, soft consistency of half dried mortar. The livers of fowls affected with amyloid degeneration are friable, light yellowish red and to the touch are granular sandy (Kitt). Hemorrhages. — Hemorrhages occur in the liver in two different forms : As a symptom of the serious effects of an excess of carbon dioxid, infection, or intoxication ; and as a local affection in conse- quence of the destruction of the liver tissue by flukes which may have succeeded in boring through the bile duct and penetrating- into the parenchyma of the liver. Hemorrhages of the first named sort are located under the capsule of the liver, and are of only slight extent, while traumatic hemorrhages may occur throughout the liver and are sometimes quite extensive. Traumatic hemorrhages terminate, as a rule, after resorption of the blood, in atrophic cir- rhosis of the liver or in abscess of the liver, when pyogenic bacteria are carried into the liver tissue by the fluke worm. The flukes which cause traumatic hemorrhages are usually found only after considerable search, for the reason that they are constantly moving through the liver tissue by means of the peculiar arrangement of spines on their integument. Judgment on traumatic hemorrhages of the liver is the same as. that for capilliary angioma. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 295 Necrosis. — Multiple necrosis of the liver is met with in hog cholera. The necrotic areas appear cloudy and friable ; their struc- ture is obliterated ; otherwise the liver necrosis which occurs during the course of hog cholera is only of symptomatic value and Fig. 67. Necrosis of beef liver. Superficial foci. "without sanitary interest. Necrotic processes, however, may occur I in the liver as idiopathic local affections. Bang made known the fact that the necrosis bacillus (see under " Hog Cholera ") has the power of penetrating into the liver of cattle and of producing more Pig. 68. Necrosis of beef liver. Section through an affected liver. or less numerous necrotic areas, according to the extent of the emboli caused by its presence (bacterial necrosis of the liver). Occasionally the disease is associated with inflammation of the navel (the author). The necrotic areas which appear in bacterial ■296 NOTEWORTHY OKGANIO DISEASES necrosis of the liver are, as a rule, spherical, cloudy, firm, sharply delimited, and surrounded by a red zone. The necrosis bacilli dis- covered by Bang are found in the necrotic areas in clumps, especially on the borders between the healthy and necrotic tissues. The liver may become enlarged to five times its normal volume. The liver tissue lying between the necrotic foci is usually discolordd as ia icterus. Later the necrotic areas become delimited from the neigh- boring tissue by tough capsules of connective tissue, while at the same time the necrosed po/rtions soften and become modified into green, friable pus with an acid reaction. Judgment. — The necrosis bacillus has a decided tendency to localization It belongs to the anaerobic bacteria and loses its. ■vitality in blood. Bacterial necrosis of the liver is, therefore, to be considered from a sanitary standpoint as a local affection, and the meat of animals affected with this disease as harmless. Neverthe- less, the sale of this meat must take place under declaration if the animal was slaughtered during- the febrile stage of the disease, or if the icterus has developed in consequence of the necrosis. Inflammations. — The most frequent f orrn of inflammation of the liver is interstitial hepatitis. This represents a chronic productive inflammation of the interacinous tissue which may lead to a oonsi-d- erable increase in volume (hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver), or to ,a striking decrease in volume (atrophic cirrhosis of the liver). > In ,both cases there is an active proliferation of the connective tissue of the liver. In atrophic cirrhosis of the liver, however, a partial destruction of the hepatic parenchyma and consequently a shrink- ing of the whole organ may occur as a result of the cicatricial retrac- tion of the newly-formed connective tissue. Hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver is frequently observed in hogs to such a degree that the liver is eiilarged to twice or three times its normal size and can no longer be penetrated with the finger. In the horse, cirrhosis of the liver is symtomatically an important phenomenon which accom- panies the so-called Schweinsberger disease, a form of pernicious- anemia; in cattle, it is a result of distomatosis. In the origin of cir- rhosis of the liver in hogs, feeding alcoholic by-products appears to play an important role (Tschauner). Judgment on productive inflammatory processes has already been discussed on page 262. Livers with a moderate formation of connective tissue should be admitted for sale without restriction. Those with a pronounced formation of such tissue, on the other' hand, are unfit for food and should be sold under declaration ; whil0 DIGESTIVE APPABATU8 297 livers which have lost their normal consistency should be completely Tvithheld from sale. Hepatitis with abscess is a second form of inflammation of the liver. It may arise from pathogenic bacteria transported through the umbilical veins in new-born animals or more rarely through the portal vein in inflammatory processes in the intestine, or through the hepatic artery in pyemia. In cattle, abscess of the liver may be a sequela of hepatic necrosis (page 295). Hepatic abscesses are commonly sterile, which fact is ascribed by Teissier to the bacteri- cide action of the hepatic glycogen. I'or judgment on hepatitis with abscesses, see under " Pyemia." Inflammatitm of tlie bile ducts. — The bile ducts (as well as the liver tissue) may be altered by inflammatory processes. The most frequent forin of inflammation of the bile duct is distomatosis, char- acterized by a thickening of the .walls and occasional calcification. A chronic inflammatory process may secondarily involve the liver tissue through the larger bile ducts, and may cause a partial or total cirrhosis. A chronic inflammation of the walls of the bile duct is observed to a slight degree in consequence of obstruction of bile by the pres- ence of biliary calculi in the efferent duct. A clear, greenish-yelloW bile flows out of the thickened and distended bile ducts in such cases in contrast with the dirty, oleaceous substance which is dis- charged from bile ducts infested with liver flukes. Judgment on inflammations of the bile ducts will be determined according to the degree of sympathetic affection of the liver tissue. As a rule, it is sufficient to remove the affected bile ducts for the purpose of putting the liver into marketable condition. TuMOES. — The liver of food animals may be the seat of primary and secondary sarcoma and carcinoma. Furthermore, in hogs and calves, leukemic infiltration is observed as a symptom of leukemia and pseudo-leukemia. The liver in such cases is much enlarged, is light-gray or grayish-brown in color, and tough. A close examina- tion shows that the interacinous connective tissue is greatly distended in consequence of leukemic infiltration. For judgment, see under " Tumors " and " Leukemia." Multiple primary adenoma in the liver of the horse was traces of carbonate of magnesia, and an undetermined orgauic substance. Furthermore, tumors are observed in the pancreas and, in tropical countries, also a parasite {Distomum pan- creaticum) in sheep, cattle and buffalo. Marek called attention to a frequent necrosis of the adipose tissue of the pancreas in old, fat, Mangalicza hogs. In such cases, irregular, sharply-defined tubercles, varying in size from a poppy seed to a pea, are found in the interacinous tissue of the pancreas, which, as a rule, is strongly developed. The tubercles at first possess a slight sheen ; later they become dull and cloudy ; their color varies from a yellowish-white to a grayish-yellow. The pan- creas increases in volume and its consistency becomes firmer as the number and size of the tubercles increase. In the most severe cases of the disease, the pancreas may enlai'ge five times and may form a firm, hard, bilobed body. The glandular tissue remains completely UBINO-GENITAL APPABATUS ?Ql intact. This explains why the general condition of the animal is not disturbed in consequence of the disease, and especially why- diabetes does not occur. Marek demonstrated by inoculation and microscopic examination that the disease studied by him was neither of an infectious nor parasitic origin. Judgment. — Marek rightly maintains that, according to the nature of this disease, an injurious effect upon the character of the meat can. not be assumed to occur. In fact, the meat should be sold,, without restriction, if no changes have occured in other organs. 3. — Urino-Genital Apparatus. (a) Kidneys. Malfobmations. — The most frequent malformations of the kid- neys are unilateral congenital aplasia (with vicarious hypertrophy of the other kidney) ; unilateral or bilateral fissure of the kidneys, symphysis of both kidneys' (horse-shoe kidneys), and congenital cystic kidneys. Lime and Pigment Deposits. — Deposition of lime is occasionally found in sheep in the form of striae in the medullary layer of the kid- neys, and frequently in cattle in the form of concretions in the renal pelvis (nephro-lithiasis). As a rule, in the latter case there is at the same time a moderate chronic interstitial nephritis which leads ta partial shrinkage. Furthermore, hemoglobin and bilirubin may be deposited in the kidneys. Degenerations. — With regard to degenerations of the kidneys the same statements may be made as with reference to the liver. Attention should be called, however, to the fact that cloudy swelling and fatty metamorphosis of the kidneys indicate a more serious diseased condition of the whole organism. Furthermore, in order ito avoid errors in diagnosis, it should be noted that fatty infiltratiou occurs in the kidneys of fattened animals and causes a cloudiness, similar to that of fatty metamorphosis (compare page 175). Hemorrhages in the kidneys are of diagnostic interest, for they may be symptoms of acute and chronic unhealed purulent pro>- cesses ; for example, osteomyelitis. Furthermore, hemorrhages occur in the kidneys under the same conditions as in the liver. Infaects. — The formation of infarcts may appear in the kidneys, siuce they contain terminal arteries. Hemorrhagic infarcts are, 302 NOTEWOBTHT OEGANIC DISEASES conical, -witli the base outward. Their color is first red, then cloudy ' ■gray-yellow or yellowish-white. The issue in benign emboli is cicatrization ; in infectious cases, the formation of pus under certain /Conditions. Lustig described multiple formation of infarcts in the Mdneys of a horse which was due to bilateral verminous aneurism xjf the renal arteries. iNFLiMMATiONS. — Inflammations of the kidneys are due to various conditions and are therefore of varying importance for meat inspection. Acute parenchymatous nephritis may accompany intoxica- tions, as excretion nephritis (from cantharides), or acute infectious diseases (swine erysipelas), and pyemic and septicemic processes. In such cases the kidney is swollen. Purulent nephritis is a second important form of renal inflam- mation. This is characterized by the appearance of numerous> mostly small, abscesses surrounded by red zones in the cortical and medullary layers of the kidneys. It may arise from a partial acute nephritis (purulent areolar nephritis) ; also from emboli (embolic -purulent nephritis) ; and, finally, from a purulent process spreading from the urethra. and bladder (pyelo-nephritis). In both of the first cases, the abscesses lie almost exclusively in the cortical layer ; while in pyelo-nephritis, they are primarily in the medullary layer. The author frequently observed ascending purulent nephritis -associated with purulent cystitis in wethers, and once also in a calf in which a diphtheritic inflammation had extended from the Tirachus to the bladder and thence to the ureters and kidneys. Judgment. — In the last-mentioned cases, the meat had to be prohibited from sale, since the animals showed symptoms of acute pyemia. In purulent aerolar or embolic purulent nephritis, on the other hand, the animals may exhibit completely normal conditions in other respects. The meat of such animals is to be admitted ■to sale without restriction, if the primary foci are considered as iealed. • The third principal form of nephritis is chronic induration, ■so-called contracted kidneys, in which the surface becomes granu- lated and a symphysis arises b^ween the renal capsule and the surface of the kidneys. Judgment.— Contracted kidney in food animals, according to present knowledge, does not possess as much significance with ^reference to the general condition as in man. It is of interest to us UEraO-GENITAL APPARATUS 303 merely as a local affection wHich should be judged analogously to cirrhosis of the liver. We are indebted to Kitt* for a comparative account of the forms of nephritis which occur in domesticated animals. This author distinguishes the following forms : Parenchymatous nephritis. — Parenchymatous inflammation of the kidneys is characterized by a moderate or not demonstrable swelling or by a ready separability of the tunica propria, greater prominence of the glomeruli, cloudy coloration, especially on cross section, greater fluid content of the latter, and hyperemia of the medullary substance. Hemorrhagic parenchymatous nephritis is a special parenchymatous nephritis which is characterized by the presence of numerous minute red hemorrhagic spots and is observed in typical development in swine erysipelas. Kiti proposes the term acute, diffuse nephritis and hemorrhagic nephritis for those condi- tions in which true inflammatory alterations and other conspicuous symptoms are present in high degree. Purulent renal inflammations. — These are either embolic (meta- static) or ascending (urogenous). Furthermore, purulent processes appear, the causes of which can not be demonstrated anatomically. In purulent embolic nephritis (punctate, disseminate, diffuse, mixed), the whole organ, especially the whole cortical region, is invaded by abscesses which are surrounded with a bright-red zone and dark-red hemorrhages. The renal pelvis is unchanged, but may contain a bloody urine rich in leucocytes. Bacteria, especially groups of micrococci, are demonstrable in the purulent infiltrated ];egions. The process involves both kidneys. This form of nephritis appears to be more frequent in hogs, but is also observed in a perfectly typical development in the calf. Kitt applied the term mixed purulent nephritis to that form of inflammation which very frequently occurs in the calf and in which the hyperemic zone is smaller, while the whole cortex is discolored, dirty whitish gray, and oozes on section (combination of purulent degenerative inflam- mations and of those which lead to hyperplasia of the connective tissue). Ulcerative and vegetative endocarditis, pyemia, and pulmonary cavities are to be considered the causative factors of purulent -nephritis. In this connection Kitt calls attention to the experiments * Monatsh. fur Praktische TierheUk., IV, Nos. 11 and 13. 304 NOTEWOKTHY OEGANIO DISEASES of C. Frankel, who produced artificially a disseminate purulent nephritis by intravenous injection of Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus in rabbits (whitish areas of the size of a bean or extensive pyramidal infarcts). The larger encysted purulent areas in the kidneys are charac- terized by Kitt as apostematous nephritis (abscess or apostema of the kidney). Kitt distinguishes apostematous perinephritis and para- nephritis, perirenal abscess and pyonephrosis. Apostematous nephritis may be of embolic, urinous, and, perhaps, also, of traumatic origin. Kitt considers the comparatively frequent " white spot kidneys of calves " (nephritis fibro-plastica or nephritis maculosa alba, according to Kitt) as a transitional stage between acute and chronic inflammation. The macroscopic alterations in white spot kidney are sufficiently well known to all meat inspectors. We are indebted to Eieek for a detailed description of this condition. According to Kitt, fibro-plastic nephritis is " either from the very beginning a progressive process of induration,, perhaps caused by micro- organisms which are not pyogenic and which pass through the kidney ; or it is the second stage of a purulent nephritis * * * in which the slight exudative deposit in small quantities is resorbed or removed through the urinary canal, and productive inflammation becomes predominant." The regular affection of both kidneys^ the wedge shape, disseminate, or multiple arrangement of the white areas, and the frequent presence of red borders and hemorrhages are unmistakable signs of the embolic hematogenous character of the white spot kidney of calves. Kitt agrees entirely with Kieck, who, as is well known, described the disease in question as multiple embolic nephritis of calves. Fibro-plastic nephritis seems to disappear during the first years of life, but may, however, lead to multiple, diffuse sclerosis of the kidneys. Glomerulo-nephritis is another inflammatory disease of the kidneys which is a forerunner of diffuse nephritis. A diagnosis is to be reached only on the basis of a microscopic investigation. Kitt characterized as mixed nephritis those conditions in which interstitial inflammation and degenerative changes of the epithelium exist simultaneously. The kidneys are firmer than normal, cloudy, and red-yellow or gray spotted. The disease occurs from unknown causes in hogs. tnduratiiie ?iepAnfzs.— Inflammations of the kidney, in which the most important phenomena are connective tissue proliferation,. UBINO-GENITAL APPARATUS 305 sclerosis, or induratiou, are described by Kitt under the general name indurative nephritis (chronic fibrous nephritis). He distin- guishes multiple depositions and absorption of connective tissue, which are frequent in cattle, as sclerosis maculata sive virgata, and diffuse hyperplasia of the connective tissues or sclerosis totalis sive diffusa renum. In extreme cases, which are occasionally observed in cattle, the kidneys are abnormally large, unusually hard, some- times cut with difficulty, and grate on section (lime deposition). If the newly-formed connective tissue shrinks, a contracted kidney is formed, nephritis granulata (ren retractus). Nephritis fibro-vesiculosa represents a rare form of inflamma- tion. It is characterized by a cystoid degeneration of the urinary canal and by the formation of watery cysts which are thereby produced. The process is observed in a granular diathesis and also in simple induration of the kidneys. Finally, bacterial nephritis of cattle is to be distinguished as a special form of inflammation (see below). Among the renal inflammations mentioned above, fibro-plastic nephritis of the calf and bacterial pyelo-nephritis of old cattle possess considerable importance in meat inspection. Fibro-plastic nephritis. — According to Rieck, this is the most frequent disease of calves. Among 26,000 calves which were slaugh- tered in the abattoir of Leipsio during the first half of 1890, Keick found pathological processes which led to condemnation in only seventy-two cases, and of these twenty-four, or 33| per cent., were kidney diseases. Multiple embolic nephritis, for which, from reasons given above, Kitt chose the term nephritis fibro-plastica,, constituted the largest contingent of pathologically-altered kidneys. Etiology. — According to the very plausible assumption of Kitt, the cause of fibro-plastic nephritis is to be found in micro-organisms of a particular species or pyogenic bacteria which have lost their peptonizing power and, therefore, exercise merely a stimulating action upon the formation of connective tissue. Rieck found in one case in which the foci had the appearance of putrefactive degenera- tion, micro-organisms of various forms, and in another equally recent case, structures which resembled the mycelia of mold fungi. Kabitz demonstrated the presence of bacilli, streptococci, and staphylococci in the diseased foci. The point of origin of fibro- plastic nephritis — that is, the organ from which the micro-organisms of fibro-plastic 'nephritis pass into the blood circulation — can not, as & rule, be determined at slaughter. As Eeick indicated, the navel 306 NOTEWOBTHY OEGANIC DISEASES can not be assumed to be the point of origin. It is more probable that the disease in question arises from the excretions of infectious material through the kidneys, in connection with frequent intestinal inflammation in calves. Bieck states that he was unable to deter- mine any retarding influence of the disease upon the development of the animals. Vaerst considers spot disease of kidneys, not as products of pathological processes, but as the remains of incom- pletely-developed kidneys — blastem tubercles. Judgment. — Fibro-plastic nephritis in calves in the majority of cases represents the last phenomenon of a general disease which has run its course. In favor of this hypothesis we have the absence of a primary alteration and the good nutritive condition of the Fis. 71. White o^vyu ^1^*110^ (nephritis fibroplastica) of the calf. animals. In all these cases fibro-plastic renal inflammation has significance only as a local affection. The affected kidneys are to be prohibited from sale as highly unfit for food on account of their great deviation from the normal ; while no restriction should be placed upon the sale of the meat. Vaerst also favored the admission of altered kidneys after convincing himself of their harmlessness and good flavor after roasting. In extremely rare cases, in which, in addition to the kidney disease in question, acute alterations exist in other organs, it is necessary to proceed according to their special characters (see under " Pyemia "). Bacterial Pydo-nephritis of Cattk.—This disease of the kidneys is important on account of the frequency of its occurrence, and also UKINO-GENITAL APPARATUS 307 I for the reason that when the bilateral affection occtirs it may cause a serious disturbance of the general condition. In unilateral pyelo- nephritis, on the other hand, as a rule, such disturbances are not observed. Pathological Anatomy. — In an examination of the body cavity the inspector notices first an enlargement and thickening of one or both ureters. After removing the kidneys from their protective covering, one observes that the kidney fat tissue has undergone a serous infiltration and that the kidneys are enlarged and the surface is either completely gray or spotted with gray. The most important changes, however, appear only on sectioning the kidneys. The renal pelvis is greatly enlarged and fully distended with a gray, slimy, purulent secretion of an ammoniacal odor. Triple phosphate crystals are found in the secretion. The mucous membrane of the renal pelvis and the adjacent medullary layer show swelling .and diphtheritic ulcers. Cloudy streaks may be observed passing from the renal pelvis through the medullary layer to the cortical layer. Furthermore, small abscesses are found in the medullary and cortical layers. Etiology. — As the investigations of Bn- derlen and Hoflich have shown, pyelo- Fig. 73. nephritis of cattle is caused by the so-called ,^^ kidney bacillus (Bacillus bovis renalis, Bol- ^^^j;. ^^^t^c-" linger). It is 2 to 3 /^ long and 0.6 to .7 /< "~ ^'I^4, , ^''^'^ wide, sometimes slightly curved and rounded i-,* 5j^ at the ends (Fig. 72). The kidney bacillus is ^ ^^^^/ "^ non-motile and is easily distinguished from ^r related bacteria by the fact that it is *■ ^>^ c c strained by the Gram method. In a case of ..^^ pyelo-nephritis of cattle, Cadeac and Morot ' found a pure culture of Bacillus pyocyaneus. Bacillus bovis renalis. Judgment. — In an appendix- t-o the work of Enderlen, Bollinger called attention to the fact that the kidney bacillus of cattle is characterized by its strict localization in the !renal pelvis and tissue of the kidney. It shows no tendency to generalization. ' Unilateral pyelo-nephritis, as already mentioned, is frequently observed quite unexpectedly in well-nourished animals. In such cases the inspector should simply remove the affected kidney and ureter. If, however, both kidneys are involved and the disease has already led to extreme emaciation or to retention of the urine, the meat of affected animals is to be wholly excluded from human con- 308 NOTEWORTHY OKGANIO DISEASES fiumption as higbly unfit for food. In the latter case a urinous or^ ammoniacal odor develops during the cooking of the meat (see under- "Uremia"). TuMOES. — In the kidneys of food animals fibro-sarcoma and car- cinoma (adeno-carcinoma) are observed. Furthermore, in leukemia the kidneys are altered specifically (enlarged and grayish-white in consequence of leukemic infiltration). Sarcoma and carcinoma appear either as a primary affection in the kidneys or develop here metastatically during general sarcomatosis and carcinomatosis^ Primary carcinoma and sarcoma may attain considerable size. The author observed a case of renal carcinoma in a hog in which the affected kidney weighed 18 kg. Bieck described a case of adeno- sarcoma in the kidney of the hog in which the organ was changed into a spherical mass of 3.^ kg. weight. Tumors of metastatic origin were present in large numbers and sprinkled eveiywhere in the healthy tissue. Infectious Granulations. — Through hematogenous infection, the development of the tubercles of glanders or tuberculosis may- Pig. 73. 1, — m^^. Bovme kidney with tuberculosis in different stages in the individual rencuU. a, solitary young tubercle with incipient caseation; b, numerous tubercles of the same sort; c, older totally casefled tubercles; d, totally tuberculous renculus. occur in the kidneys, and rarely, in cattle, actinomycomata may- appear. URINO-GENITAL APPAEATCS 309 Tuberculosis of the kidneys first appears in the form of minute gray tubercles (Fig. 73, a and I) which remain scattered or ^orm larger groups by a local dissemination (Figs. 73 c and 74). In the latter case, individual renculi may be completely destroyed (Fig. "73 d), while the rest of the kidney remains intact. Eenal tubercu- losis is distinguished from other changes in the kidneys by the -presence of spherical tubercles with casefied centers (Fig. 73, a and h). PIG.-74. Section of a beef renculus with tubercles in the medullary and cortical layers. Pabasites are rare in the kidneys. They are the usual seat of Mustrangylus gigas. Moreover, Sderostomum equinum, cysticerci, and echinococci sometimes occur in the kidneys. Natterer found a nematode {Stephanurus dentatns, Diesing) ir the fat capsule of the kidney in a Chinese breed of hogs. Accord- ing to Leuckart, the parasite which he named Sderostomum, pingui- coIm, is occasionally found in our hogs in the fat capsule of the kidney. The male is from 20 to 26 mm. and the female from 30 to 36 mm. long. Raillet and Lucet demonstrated in emaciated geese white tubercles of the size of a, pin head, consisting of masses of oval structures resembling Cocddium oviforme {coccidiosis rencdis). (b) Bladder and Urethra. The changes to be considered in this connection may be briefly dismissed since serious diseases of the bladder and urethra, involv- ing the general condition, are rare in domestic animals. Only in. 310 NOTEWOBTHY OEGANIC DISEASES oxen and wethers are diseases of the efferent urinary passages frequent, since in these animals cystic calculi are frequently formed. When large, the calculi may stop in the S-shaped curvature of the urethra, and lead to a rupture of the bladder with urinary peritonitis as a result, or to necrosis of the adjacent portion of the urethra with a urinous infiltration of the tissue surrounding the urethra. These sequelEB have all been discussed (see pages. 273 and 286). Compared with these occurrences, the other alterations of the bladder and urethra possess but slight practical importance. With necrosis of the urethra from retained calculi a serious diphtheritic urocystitis may be associated (ascending infection of the contents of the bladder), and with this in turn a peritonitis may be associated (in partial necrosis of the wall of the bladder). In and of them- selves, cystic calculi cause only slight superficial changes of the mucous membrane, even when they are present in large num- bers. A cystic catarrh of greater or less severity is observed in cows after parturition; but, as a rule, it runs a purely local course. A specific uro-cystitis appears to be the cause of "bloody urine," or hematuria, enzootic in cattle in the Black Forest. Arnold considered coccidia to be the cause of the disease which, from a pathologico-anatomical standpoint, was characterized as a chronic productive cystitis with papillomatous and polypous neomorphs of the mucous m.embrane which showed a tendency to hemorrhage (Gmelin). Finally, an emphysema may occur in the mucous membrane of the bladder, caused by gas-producing bacteria. Bunge described a case of this sort in which the disease affected simultaneouslv the mucous membrane of the renal pelvis. Among the specific granulations, actinomycomata are observed in the urinary bladder (Ernst). (c) Male Sexual Organs. • Of the diseases of the male reproductive organs, mention is required only of tuberculosis of the testicles. This is quite often observed in bulls and boars (Johne, Lydtin, Hess, Kitt, Schmidt, Laurie, et al). Usually both testicles are completely casefied. The weight of a tuberculous testicle may reach 10 kg. Frequently tuberculous alterations are also met with on the surface of the testicles and sheath (Kitt and the author). UEINO-GENITAL APPARATUS 311 (d) Female Sexual Organs. The most important changes in the region of the female repro- ductive organs are iu the uterus, and the least important in the ovary. The diseases of the latter may be disregarded. Uterus. In the uterus the following phenomena are of importance : Abijoemal Contents. — The occurrence of mummified fetuses (lithotheria) or of dead fetuses undergoing maceration in the uterus should be mentioned only incidentally. The so-called foul fetuses alone possess significance (see under " Sapremia "). Lacebations frequently occur in difficult parturition. They are almost always dangerous lesions, for they may cause death immedi- ately through hemorrhage or gradually through infectious peritonitis. The ease described above (page 287), of laceration of the uterus during torsion, forms an exception ; likewise laceration during closure of the os uteri. In these cases bacteria are excluded ; when, however, torsion is accompanied with necrosis of the affected parts of the body of the uterus or of the vagina, a fatal infectious peritonitis occurs. Inflammations. — The inflammations of the uterus deserve the most serious attention of sanitary officers. For, as the history of cases of meat poisoning teaches, they may, under certain conditions; render meat highly injurious to health. In this connection the acute inflammations which are associated with gross lesions of the uterine wall in retention of placenta or with decomposition of the fetuses seem to be especially dangerous (inflammations with mal- odorous exudation). In no other organs are equally favorable conditions found for the resorption of harmful materials as in the uterus immediately after parturition. For further details of acute metritis, see under "Septicemia." Catabbh. — In contrast with the acute inflammations of the mucous membrane of the uterus, the superficial processes, chronic, slimy and slimy-purulent catarrh of the uterus play an unimportant role in meat inspection. They frequently develop pronounced • local affections in connection with infectious vaginal catarrh or infectious abortion and are frequently met with unexpectedly iu well-nourished animals. When of a more serious character, chronic 312 • NOTEWORTHY OBGANIO DISEASES uterine catarrh may be accompanied with emaciation. In such cases the meat is to be considered unfit for food. Injuries to health from eating the meat of animals which are affected with uterine catarrh have never been observed, although the meat of such animals is almost always used for food. Tumors of the uterus are quite often observed in cows. As a rule, they are fibromyomata (liomyomata). In several cases the author also observed diffuse sarcomatous infiltration of the whole wall of the uterus whereby it underwent an enormous enlargement. On sectioning a uterus altered in this way, the wall is found to be much thickened, white and firm ; the mucous membrane, on the contrary, is atrophied. Occasionally, moreover, carcinoma of the uterus is observed in food animals. Tuberculosis. — Tuberculous affection of the uterus may appear in three forms : (1) As primary uterine tuberculosis produced by coitus. This form is characterized by the formation of ulcers and an abnormal secretion of the mucous membrane. (2) A second form is embolic uterine , tuberculosis with eruption of tubercles under the mucosa. (3) The third and most frequent form is that which develops in chronic peritoneal tuberculosis by the spreading of the infection to the wall of the uterus. In the latter case a great increase in thickness may occur through tuberculous infiltration oi all the layers of the uterine wall. Through subsequent calcification the uterus may become a cavity inclosed with inflexible walls, in which a cloudy, slimy, purulent secretion is constantly present. A tuberculous affection oi the oviduct is usually associated with uterine tuberculosis. The oviducts alone may be affected in the same way as the uterus, in connection with peritoneal tuberculosis. Animal Parasites are not found in the uterus. Vagina. In the vagina we observe inflammatory conditions either of an independent nature (pustular eruption, purulent catarrh), or as symptoms of general diseases (rinderpest and malignant catarrhal fever). Pustular eruption and catarrh are without interest to meat inspectors, since they represent local alterations and the parts in ■question are not used as food. Furthermore, attention should be called to the fact that the vaginal lesions do not possess the same significance as lesions of the uterus, for, as a rule, the former occur URINO-GENITAL APPABATUS 313 in parts of the vagina which are without peritoneum and may, therefore, heal like simple wounds, without complications. Fatal hemorrhages have been observed in consequence of injuries received during copulation (Beisswanger). More frequently, however, urinous infiltrations occur in the connective tissue within the pelvic cavity in consequence of injuries to the urethra received during copulation. Finally, tuberculous alterations may appear in the mucous membrane of the vagina in the fonn of granules, tubercles, and ulcers. Moreover, in vaginal tuberculosis, Gartner's ducts are modified into firm strands which may be as thick as the, finger. Dieckerhoff described a contagious vaginal inflammation, sui generis, under the name " pernicious colpitis." This apparently rare disease forms an exception to the other diseases of the vagina, since it does not run a local course, but causes a fatal general disease. The meat is to be judged as in septicemia from wounds. Udder. Physiological Conditions; — Physiological hypertrophy is observed in the udder during laceration and atrophy after this period of activity in the gland. The udder during active milk secre- tion is enlarged and hangs flabbily on the abdominal' wall. An atrophic udder, on the other hand, is small and may be enclosed and jienetrated with fat to such an extent' that- apparently little remains of the mammary tissue. In heifers and young ewes in the condition of medium fatness, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the glandular tissue from the fat tissue. Black Pigmentation, as already mentioned (page 269), frequently ■occurs in the mammary region. The author observed a deposition of lime in the udder of a cow which was not of parasitic origin, but ^which occurred in an udder of normal size with perfect integrity of the supramammary lymph glands. Mammaky Edema. — In pregnant cows shortly before parturition, transudation occurs in the region of the udder in the form of so-called mammary edema. After the removal of the skin a clear amber- jellow serum, with slight admixture of corpuscular elements from blood, oozes out of the edematous udder. Inflanimatory phenomena are absent and mammary edema is thereby distinguished from mammary phlegmon. 314 NOTEWOETHT ORGANIC DISEASES Inflammations. — ^Inflammations of the udder are of the highest importance. No animal is so frequently affected with mammary- affections as the cow, stnd this fact is sufficiently explained by its intensive milk production. Favorable conditions for bacterial infec- tions are thus brought about. Distinction may be made between parenchymatous mastitis, in which the secreting glandular tissue is primarily affected, and phlegmonous mastitis, which riins its course in the connective tissue stroma of the udder. Parenchymatous mastitis may exhibit all degrees of inflamma- tion, including necrosis. As a rule, however, mammary inflammation is a benign affection which may terminate with the destruction of the glandular substance, but affects the general condition only slightly or temporarily. In phlegmonous mastitis one observes, in contrast to mammary edema, a diffuse redness and hemorrhages in the serous infiltrated tissue, and numerous white and red blood corpuscles in the exuda- tion. Judgment. — The common parenchymatous and phelgmonous inflammations of the cow's udder, which are so frequently called to the attention of veterinarians, possess only slight sanitary impor- tance, since they are local affections. Those mammary inflammations in the cow which are characterized by the formation of numerous abscesses and frequently occur as sequelae of aphtha and also septic mastitis in sheep, form the only exceptions to this statement. Judgment on the meat in the latter case should be governed as in septicemia. In mastitis with abscess formation, on the other hand, judgment should be rendered according to the principles observed in cases of suppuration and pyemia (see "Pyemia "). Individual cases of mammary inflammation in cows have occa- sionally attained significance from the fact that they produced meat poisoning (meat poisoning in the towns of Cotta, Wurzen and Eiesa). Johne and Gartner, who investigated the first mentioned case of meat poisoning, assumed that the case in question was caused by mastitis due to Bacillus enteritidis of Gartner. This case of msistitis, as well as those which have become known on account of cases of meat poisoning in Wurzen .and Eiesa, were distinguished from ordinary cases of inflammation of the udder by their serious effect upon the general health of the animal. The health was so affected that slaughter was necessary. Etiology of mastitis.— On the etiology of mammary inflammations we have the following investigations : Kitt, following the teachings UBINO-GENITAL APPARATUS 315 •of Ludwig Franck, that parenchymatous mastitis arises by infection, tested the effect of several bacteria by injection into the udder. In these experiments it was found that the organism of malignant edema, Oidium lactis. Micrococcus tetragenus, and cultures of soor could be injected into the milk cisterns without harm. Even StaphylococciLs pyogenes aureus produced only a temporary swelling of the udder. In the subcutaneous connective tissue, however, the bacilus of malignant edema produced an acute inflammatory edema. An injection of the bacilli of blue milk and of fowl cholera caused a catarrhal mastitis. The "bacteria of mastitis" isolated by Kitt from others spontaneously affected with mastitis, invariably pro- duced an acute indurative purulent mastitis. Kitt's mastitis bacteria must, therefore, be considered as the cause of the ordinary mammary inflammations. The disease can neither be transmitted to rabbits and mice subcutaneously, nor to hogs and guinea pigs by feeding. Bang succeeded in isolating specific streptococci as the cause of a chronic mammary inflammation and from other inflammed udders he made cultures of streptococci, diplocci, staphylococci and bacilli, which, when injected into the milk cisterns, produced an inflamma- tion of the udder. Bang demonstrated the same effect imt the streptococci of contagious coryza. Guillebeau found Staphylococcus mastitidis, also Oalactococcus versicolor, G.flavus, and G. alius to be the pathological organisms of mammary inflammations. Jonge suc- ceeded in causing an acute mastitis by injecting Bacillus enteritidts (Gartner) into the milk cisterns. In so-called " yellow going dry," which almost invariably leads to atrophy of the udder, Nocard, Mol- lereau, Hess, Borgeaud, and recently Zschokke, demonstrated long streptococci [Streptococcus mastitidis contagiosae) as the cause of the disease. The streptococcus is not pathogenic for mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs, or hogs. All the mastitis bacteria mentioned above are characterized by strict localization in the udder. This is not the case, however, with Micrococcus mastitidis gangrcenosce ovis, which Nocard isolated in gangrenous mastitis of sheep. This organism has the power to produce in the udder a septicemia which spreads and causes the death of the animal within a few days. Tumors in the udder are common in only one domestic animal — the dog. They occur as chondrofibroma, lipoma, osteoma, myxoma, sarcoma, and carcinoma. The latter may arise primarily in the udder and may cause the formition of metastases. Accord- 316 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES ing to Kitt, in the larger domestic animals, mixed tumors, usuall j adenofibromata, occur in the udd^r. Rabe also described a case oif hard cancer of the udder in a cow, with the formation of metastases in the lungs. It is well known that in white horses the udder is the most frequent seat of melano-sarcoma. i Finally, in cows we fre- quently observe papilloma upon the integumentary covering of the udder. Infectious Granulations. — The udder is frequently the seat of infectious granulations. In the horse botryomycoma is most comr mon, while in cattle tuberculous alterations and actinomycomata Fig. 75. Mammary tuberculosis. Afiection of both left qii.-ii-l.T.-, are most frequently developed. In the hog the mammary gland must be considered as the most common seat of actinomycotic affections. Botryomycosis of the udder is characterized by the presence of hard, firm, knotty swellings in the mammary parenchyma, by adhesion of the skin with the affected parts, and by the formation of fistulas with a slight discharge of pus mixed with minute structures resembling grains of sand. Tuberculosis of the udder occurs in from two to four per cent. of all tuberculous cows and may appear in two chief forms : Tuber- TJEINO-GENITAL APPARATUS 317 ctilar and diffuse mammary tuberculosis. In the first named form, tubercles up to the size of a man's fist may be found in the other- ■wise healthy mammary tissue. The tubercles are hard, firm, papillated on the surface, and exhibit caseation and calcification. Moreover, the tuberculous areas are readily distinguished from the pure white or yellowish-white mammary tissue by their pronounced Sray color. The diffuse affection, which was well described by Bang in his classical treatise on tuberculosis of the udder, leads ta enormous enlargement and induration of single quarters of the udder. The whole udder rarely appears to be involved in the ti.Tberculous processes. One or more quarters of the udder are usually healthy and in advanced stages of the disease hang like appendices upon the affected quarters. In the tubercular as well as diffuse form of mammary tubercu- losis, a pronounced specific change regularly occurs in the supra- mammary lymph glands, and this is especially well marked in diffuse mammary tuberculosis. Tuberculosis of the udder is distinguished from all other pathological conditions of this organ by the constant sympathetic affection of the supramammary lymph glands. Actinomycosis is of rare occurrence in the udder of cattle. Kasmussen observed four cases of actinomycosis in the udder of cows, either as firm, isolated tubercles or as diffuse, acute infiamma- tion.' In two of these cases the disease terminated with calcification of the fungus before the process had become greatly extended. Other cases of mammary actinomycosis have been described by Phail and Maxwell. In the mammary region of the hog, on the other hand, actino- mycosis is a comparatively frequent process. This is probably due to the greater vulnerability of the integument over the mammary region of the hog. The organisms of actinomycosis, carried on straw, thus effect an entrance more easily. For example, in the slaughterhouses of Copenhagen Rasmussen found fifty-two cases of mammary actinomycosis in hogs inside of three months. Mammary actinomycosis in the hog is characterized either by the appearance of tumors or occurs more rarely in the form of a tumor than as cold abscesses (mixed infection with pyogenic bacteria). Among Parasites, echinococoi have been demonstrated in the xidder. 318 NOTEWORTHY OEGANIO DISEASES 4.— Respiratory Apparatus. (a) Nasal Cavity. It is only in the liorse that alterations in the nasal cavity occur, of such importance that an examination must be made in the case of each slaughtered animal after splitting open the head. In other domestic animals, inspection of the nasal cavity may be restricted to such cases as present phenomena during life which indicate disease of the nasal cavity. The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity of the horse may exhibit the following alterations: Petechise, serous, slimy, slimy- purulent and simple purulent catarrh ; croupous inflammations, the so-called follicular inflammation; fibrous and sarcomatous neo- morphs, and, especially, glanderous processes. Pm. 76. Nasal septum of horse with glanderous ulcers and cicatrix. Petechise of the nasal mucous membrane constitute an impor- tant symptom of petechial fever (morbus maculosus). Purulent inflammation is the chief symptom of contagious coryza. Both diseases are infectious and will be discussed under that head along with glanders. In this connection merely the macroscopical difi'er- ence between the mechanical lesions of the nasal mucous membrane and glanderous alterations may be noted. Mechanical lesions of the mucous membrane are always found in the entrance to the nasal cavity and heal either without cicatrization (in superficial injuries) or with a smooth cicatrix (in deeper injuries). In glanders, on the other hand, one observes tubercles, ulcers with a lardaceous floor, eruption of tubercles in the peripheral parts, and also stellate cicatrices (Pig. 76). Croupous rhinitis may arise through chemical irritation or through a specific infection. Croupous rhinitis due to EESPIBATOBY APPARATUS 319 chemical irritation has no significance for the inspection of horse meat on account of its benign course as a local affection. The same may be said of so-called follicular inflammation in which tubercles, vescicles and rapidly healing ulcers appear, and may spread from the nasal mucous membrane upon the general iptegument. More- over, catarrh of the nasal and communicating cavities has no special significance in meat inspection. In cattle the nasal cavities are to be closely inspected in case of symptoms of malignant catarrhal fever ; in sheep, in so-called ovine glanders (malignant catarrhal fever of sheep), and in affections caused by the larvae of oestrus ; and in hogs, in so-called snuffles. The last-named disease is characterized during life by a wheez- ing respiration. This is caused by a contraction of the nasal passages and may be due to various processes. The most frequent cause, however, is a rachitic swelling of the upper jaw, from which snuffles derived its name. In a large number of cases the author observed only rachitis of the upper jaw as the cause of snuffles. Judgment should be the same as for rachitis. Schneider reported a form of snuffles caused by the rudimentary development and curvature of the turbinated ahd ethmoid bones. This may lead to a bloody purulent nasal discharge with emaciation and even death by cachexia or asphyxia. If such animals are emaciated, the meat is to be considered as unfit for food. Nothing is known concerning its possible harmfulness. Moreover, in cattle, tuberculosis and actinomycosis appear on the nasal mucous mem- branes ; and in dogs, Pentastomum taenioides in the nasal cavities and frontal sinuses. (b) Larynx and Trachea. The larynx and trachea are rarely the seat of independent dis- eases aside from catarrh. Attention should merely be called to the fact that croupous inflammation of these parts may be caused by chemical irritation (for example, pungent gases), or may be observed as a symptom of malignant catarrhal fever and rinderpest. Glanderous, actinomycotic and tuberculous alterations show a predilection for the larynx. The laryngeal actinomycomata which frequently appear as primary affections in cattle are located on the mucous membrane and are either pedunculate or with a broad base (Fig. 77). In the trachea of cattle tuberculous alterations occur on the mucous membrane and also in the submucosa of the posterior wall. 320 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES The statement concerning the trachea applies also to the larger hronchial tubes. As pathological curiosities, mention should be made of bronchiectases and peribronohitic processes which arise in connection with inflammation of the mucous membrane. In the trachea of fowls, Syngamus trachealis is found as a para- site. Eaillet described another species of Syngamus, S. laryngeus, as occurring frequently in the larynx and in the upper portions of the trachea of cattle in Anam (farther India.). Fig. 77. Bovine larynx with an aotinomycoma on the epiglottis. (C) liUUgS. Atelectasis. — Atelectasis is frequently observed in the lungs of food animals. As a rule, it is a congenital peculiarity and confined to small pulmonary areas. The parts of the lung thus affected are brownish-red, firm, and do not contain air. The bronchial tubes leading to the affected parts are, as a rule, in a catarrhal condition in older animals. Dissolution of Continuity. — In addition to gross dissolutions of continuity in the lungs (from stabs, shot wounds, broken ribs, etc.), a less extensive form should be mentioned ; namely, interlobular emphysema. This arises by rupture of -the alveoli. As a conse- quence of this rupture, air appears between the alveoli in vesicles varying in size from a millet seed to a pea. The air vesicles under the pleura are most sharply distinguished from the pulmonary RESPIKATOEY APPARATUS 321 tissue. In animals which exhibited acute dyspnea during life and "were, therefore, slaughtered, there may be accumulations of air in large cavities which are partly filled with blood. Furthermore, in violent respiration the air may be forced into the mediastinal spaces and thence under the parietal pleura as well as into the connective tissue surrounding the trachea and, finally, from these locations even under the general integument. Deposits of Pigment and Limb. — Partial or complete melanosis of the lungs frequently occurs in calves. Calcareous deposits, on the other hand, are exceedingly rare. In one such case observed by the author, the" lung had only partly collapsed. Numerous hard struc- tures of irregular, angular form could be felt. They could not be removed from the lungs except with the attached pulmonary tissue. After dissolving the lime salts by means of acetic acid, the pul- monary tissue appeared merely as an organic basis for the calcareous deposits. This true calcification of the lungs is essentially distinct from zooparasitic and phytoparasitic calcifications, which ara observed in the lungs in a variety of forms. Disturbances of the Cieculation. — Among the circulatory derangements which occur in the lungs, especial interest centers in hypostasis as a means of recognizing natural death and slaughter performed during the crisis of the disease. The pulmonary hypostasis which develops on the lowest portion of that side of the body upon which the animal lay while dying is not to be confused with so-called blood aspiration (see p. 331). A brown induration may appear in the lungs in consequence of a persistent increase in blood pressure in the right ventricle. This. is not infrequently observed in hogs (perhaps in connection with', the frequency of endocarditis in swine erysipelas, as shown by Bang).. The indurated lungs do not collapse ; they are brownish-red instead' of rose-red and feel firm. Judgment should be the same as in pro- liferating inflammations. Since the lungs are provided with terminal arteries, hemorrhagic- infarcts may occur in them as in the kidneys. In the lungs, however,, there is the possibility of the occurrence of extensive infarcts. The fate of pulmonary infarcts is not generally the same as that of renal infarcts. In the lungs, only infected infarcts with a tendency toward softening are of importance. Pulmonary edema is characterized by the appearance of a frothy fluid in the alveoli, bronchioles, and bronchi. This condition 322 KOTEWOBTHY ORGANIC DISEASES has no special pathognomonic significance, since it is a common phenomenon accompanying the decreasing cardiac powers immedi- ately preceding death. The animals do not die because they are affected with pulmonary edema, but pulmonary edema arises because the animals are approaching death (Cohnheim). Hemoebhages. — Pulmonary hemorrhages may be associated with lacerations of the pulmonary tissue, or by diabrosis as a conse- quence of pulmonary cavities. In the horse, wandering larvae of Strongylus armatus have occasionally given rise to pulmonary hem- orrhages. Subpleural hemorrhages are observed under the same patho- logical conditions as retro-peritoneal hemorrhages (see under " Intoxications and Affections "). ^ Inflammations. — Thickening of the pulmonary tissue in conse- quence of the filling of the alveoli with an exudation, so-called hepatization, is the anatomical criterion of pulmonary inflammation (pneumonia). The etiology of the different forms of pneumonia which occur in food animals is a varying one. Pulmonary inflammations arise from a spreading of inflammatory processes of the mucous mem- brane of the bronchial ramifications to the pulmonary tissue (broncho-pneumonia), or in consequence of certain toxic substances circulating in the blood (hematogenous pneumonia). Traumatic pneumonia, which is caused by foreign bodies, for example, pene- trating from the reticulum in cattle, plays only an unimportant, role. Hematogenous pulmonary inflammations are, without excep- tion, of bacterial nature. Broncho-pneumonia may be caused by mechanical irritation (inhalation of dust, parasites) and thermic and chemical inflammation (inflammation of smoke and irritating gases). Pathological micro-organisms (bacteria and mold fungi) constitute the chief causes of broncho-pneumonia. Aside from the forms of broncho-pneumonia caused by bacteria and mold fungi, verminous pneumonia alone possesses great importance. Finally, with regard to etiology, mention should be made of the organisms of infectious granulations (tubercle bacilli, glanders bacilli, actinomyces and botryomyces), which may obtain entrance into the lungs by inhala- tion or from a primary focus already existing in the body and may give rise there to their specific granulations accompanied by inflam- matory phenomena. Judgment on pulmonarty inflammations from a sanitary stand- EESPIBATOEY APPAEATUS 823 point will -vary (1) according to etiology ; (2) according to the degree of inflammation. With regard to pulmonary inflammations it may be said in general that, if we disregard the forms of inflammation caused by the organisms of infectious granulations (tuberculous, glanderous, actinomycotic, and botryomycotic), they do not render the meat harmful according to our present state of knowledge. This may be considered as demonstrated for pleuro-pneumonia of cattle as well as for the other typical pulmonary inflammations of domestic animals by the fact that the meat of these animals has been eaten in innumer- able cases without any ill effects. This fact has led to the passage of laws (Imperial Animal Plague Law) permitting the general con- sumption of the meat of animals affected with pneumonia. With regard to a number of other frequently occurring pulmonary inflammations which, from a bacteriological study, are known to be infectious diseases, as, for example, sWine plague, it is commonly believed that the meat of affected animals may have an injurious effect. This belief, however, finds no support in veterinary experi- ence. Swine plague was formerly regarded as a simple cold and this assumption brought it about that the meat of animals affected with this disease was sold in the market without any restriction. An extensive feeding experiment with the meat of animals affected with swine plague was thus instituted and no injurious effects were observed. In the literature of the subject, no unexceptionable case can be found of meat poisoning from eating the mea,t of animals which were affected with pulmonary inflammation. Infectious pul- monary inflammations behave in this regard exactly as other acute infectious diseases of domestic animals, such as rinderpest, black leg, and erysipelas of hogs, which are well known not to be trans- missible to man. The meat in cases of pneumonia may, however, become dangerous to health when, following upon pulmonary inflammations, processes develop which have the power of " poisoning " the blood (pyemia and septicemia). Pyemia may be associated with primary purulent pulmonary inflammations, as, for example, trauinatic pneumonia,' or with suppuration of specific pneumonic areas (complication of pneu-. monia of cattle and horses, and swine plague). Septicemia occurs, on the other hand, when septic organisms have opportunity to become located in the inflamed pulmonary tissue in association with the organism which caused the original inflammation. This appears to be possible only in cases of necrosing inflammations. Septicemia following pulmonary inflammations is rare. In hogs, at any rate. 324 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES pyemia is more frequeutly associated with the specific piipumonia of this animal (swine plague, compare " Septicemia " and " Pyemia"). The greater number of pulmonary inflammations will be discussed under " Infectious Diseases," since, as already indicated,, they are merely the chief symptom of specific infections (pneumonia, of horses and cattle ; infectious pneumonia of calves, sheep and goats ; hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle ; and swine plague). More- over, under the head of " Infectious Diseases," glanderous and tuberculous pneumonia will also be considered. In this connection we shall discuss merely those pulmonary inflammations which do not owe their origin to specific bacteria. To this group belong broncho-pneumonia in consequence of the- aspiration of foreign material, verminous pneumonia, mycoses, and traumatic inflammations of the lungs, which may arise in cattle from the penetration by foreign bodies from one of the anterior stomachs. Aspiration Pneummda. — In a broad sense, pneumonia of aspira- tion should include all forms of ' broncho- pneumonia which arise from inhalation of foreign material as well as those which are caused by inhaled microorganisms. In a stricter sense, pneumonia of aspiration includes only those inflammations which are caused by larger corporeal particles. The prototype of these forms is repre- sented by so-called pneumonia due to foreign bodies or to the passage of fluids down the trachea. The latter terminates, as a rule, in gangrene of the lungs, and in the horse, in which animal it is most frequently observed, in death from putrid intoxication (see this subject). While aseptic foreign bodies or such as are not contam- inated with pathogenic organisms become included in the lung tissiie in the healing processes, the pathogenic organisms which are carried into the lungs in fluids through the trachea cause primary necrosis and thereby offer an opportunity for the secondary localiza- tion and development of putrefactive bacteria. According ta observations made on slaughtered animals, the form of pneumonia due to the entrance of fluid through the trachea runs a more favor- able course in cattle and hogs and moie frequently heals by encapsulation than iu the horse. For judgment, see under " Sapremia" and " Septicemia." Verminous Pneumonia. — Lung worms, as a rule, are found in the- small bronchial tubes, in which they cause no serious alterations, except catarrh. In case of an extensive invasion, however, the> EESPIEATOBY APPARATUS 325 parasites may cause an inflammation of the lunp;s. This is most fre- quently the ctvse in infestations of sheep by Strongylus filaria and. of young cattle and deer by 8. micrurus. Moreover, in sheep, there is another special form of verminous pneumonia, the so-called pul- monary hair worm disease, due to 8. capillaris (Fig. 78). The pulmonary inflammations due to Strongylidse exhibit all "the symptoms of acute broncho-pneumonia. At first there is a marked bronchitis. Associated with this, and in consequence of the lesions produced by the wandering embryos, is an inflammation o£ the pulmonary tissue in the form of lobular areas. The Fio- '^8- pneumonic areas may degen- erate in case death does not occur from asphyxia or cach- exia. In pulmonary hair worm disease, there are also lobular inflammations which, however, as a rule, run a be- nign course and leave only an inconsiderable residue in the form of small tubercular neomorphs or larger areas of infiltration in the pulmonary' tissue; Judgment on verminous pneumonia, in so far as the meat is concerned, will de-- 3)end entirely on whether the inflammatory processess in the lungs have seriously dis- turbed the general condition and whether emaciation has begun at the time of slaugh- ter. In the latter case the meat is to be considered unfit for food ; while it is to be excluded from the market as highly unfit for food Tvhen, in consequence of pneumonia, hydremic cachexia has de- veloped with serous exudation in the body cavity. piliP Verminous pneumonia due to Strongylus capil- laris (after A. Miiller). a, embryos; J, parts of sexually mature specimens. The whole tis- sue is filled with embryos. As a result of des- quamative pneumonia, the alveoli contain no air. Mycosis of the Lungs Due to Mold Fungi. — It must be considered as demonstrated by numerous observations and by the experiments ■of Schiitz and List, that mold fungi may produce pulmonary diseases in animals. This is most frequently the case in birds ; occasionally 326 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES also, no doubt, cases of pnenmo-mycosis are observed in mammals. Ebckl, Martin, Lncet and Bournay described cases in horses and cattle ; and Mazzanti a case iu sheep. These cases are commonly due to infection by pathogenic species of aspergillus, A.fumigatus and A. niger. Aspergillosis of the lungs may be confused with tuberculosis, since it is ushered in with the formation of tubercles. However, protection against snch an error is afforded by an examination of the bronchial glands (they are intact in infection by mold fungi), and by a microscopic study. According to Bockl, a closely-matted Fig. 79. £^— 1 Pneumonomycosis of cattle (after Eockl). A, center of a pulmonary tubercle with fungous myoelia; B, isolated hyphae. mycelium is observed in the tubercles, caused by aspergillus. On the borders of the tubercles, however, relatively short hyphse are observed lying closely together like sheaves radially arranged. A very characteristic structure, not unlike an aster, is thus produced (Fig. 79). Aspergillosis may also be readily distinguished from pleuro-pneumonia, to which it has a great similarity, by microscopic investigation. In the case described by Eockl, the lungs were in part infested with tubercles of the size of hemp seed and in part exhibited the symptoms of extensive hepatization. The hepatized areas were BESPIRATOKY APPARATUS 327 conspicuous for their marbled appearance. Furthermore, ulcers ■were found on the bronchial mucous membrane and stratified thrombi in the region of the hepatized portion. The cases observed by Lucet ran a course with symptoms of septicemia, with hemorrhagic pneumonia, and ecchymoses in all organs. In the case described by Bournay, tubercles of the size of nuts were found with central cavities which were infected with fungi. Finally, in Mazzanti's case, the lungs were permeated with softened tubercles surrounded with red areas varying in size from that of poppy seed to that of hemp seed. The tubercles contained mycelia and spores. Diffuse hepatization is observed in birds ; and in the hepatized areas, which at first are colored red, are small gray, .poorly defined specks. In microscopical preparations it is observed that not only ■the bronchioles, alveolar branches, and alveoli are filled with a sep- tate and much-branched fungus mycelium, but that the interlobular tissue is also attacked by the indiscriminate proliferation of the fungus. Judgment. — Aspergillosis appears not to be capable of trans- mission to man by way of the alimentary tract. The mycotic organs, however, are to be excluded from sale as highly unfit for food, while no restriction should be placed on the meat, since aspergillosis of the lungs is a purely local disease. Traumatic Inflammations of Hie Lungs are of frequent occurrence in cattle. They are purulent inflammations which develop in the immediate vicinity of foreign bodies. Later the foreign bodies, as a rule, become encapsulated in tough connective tissue which lies about the foreign bodies in the form of a tube. These processes are especially noteworthy since an infiltration of the interlobular connective tissue, similar to that in pleuro-pneumonia, may develop in the first stages of traumatic pneumonia, beyond the purulent zone which surrounds the foreign bodies. TuMOKS AND Infectious Granulations. — Among the tumors which are observed in the lungs, mention should be made of adenoma, chondroma and metastatic sarcoma. Of the infectious granulations, we should mention the neomorphs of glanders (tubercles and lobular infiltration), tuberculosis (primary tubercu- lous broncho-pneumonia and embolic pulmonary tuberculosis), botryomycosis and actinomycosis. Pulmonary actinomycosis is not rare. As a rule, it develops secondarily in consequence of 328 NOTEWOETH¥ ORGANIC DISEASES aspiration of portions of disintegrated pharyngeal or laryngeal actinomycomata. In this case tubercles are found in the lungs varying in size from lentils to peas and sometimes of the size of a man's head. Moreover, actinomycotic cavities and tubercular actinomycomata are found on the mucous membrane of the bronchi. By transportation in the blood circulation, embolic pulmonary actiuomj'cosis may arise in the form of disseminated tubercles lying in the interstitial pulmonary tissue. Pflug observed a case of this sort which was apparently without primary alterations in any other organ. Occasionally, pearl-like actinomycomata are also found on the pulmonary pleura (Easmussen). Parasites, — The lungs of domesticated animals and wild game are parasitized more or less frequently by (1) different species of lung worms {Strongylus micrurus) in cattle, roebuck and fallow deer ; S-filaria in sheep and goats ; S. paradoxus in hogs ; 8. commutatus in. hare and rabbits, also in sheep and goats ; S. capillaris in sheep and goats ; (2) echinococci in the form of vesicles varying in size from a pea to the fist ; (3) wandering liver flukes {Distomum Jiepati- cuni) in cysts of the size of a hazel nut and larger, with tough, partly choudrified walls, and brown, oleaceous contents. The liver flukes which are found in the lungs are, as a rule, degenerated. In addition to these frequently occurring parasites we occasion- ally observe in the lungs the larvse of Pentastomum, Oysticercus tenuicoUis, C. bovis and G. celluhsae ; the latter, however, as a rule, only when large numbers of the parasites are present in the muscu- lature. Non-glanderous pulmonary tvherdes ("gray transparent," "cal- careous fibrous," pulmonary tubercles).— In the lungs of horses tubercles are frequently found of an undoubted embolic character, which have given rise to confusion with pulmonary glanders. These tubercles in their early stages possess a striking resemblance to frog eggs (Csokor). Later they show a firm wall of connective tissue and a casefied or calcified content. The size of the tubercles varies. Some are barely visible to the naked eye and from this size transition sizes are observed up to that of a pea. As a rule, how- ever, the tubercles which are found in any one lung, and which may be very numerous, are of the same size. The tubercles in question are distinguished macroscopically from glanderous tubercles by the absence of a red zone, by their tendency to calcify, and furthermore by the homogeneous character of the tubercles, the absence of small tubercles associated with. BESPIRATORY APPABATUS 329 ■ large ones, the absence of other glanderous alterations, and by the integrity of the bronchial glands. It should be noted, however, that the tubercles in question may appear in the lymph glands. The etiology of these non-glanderous pulmonary tubercles appears to be a variable one. Iq one case Martin .succeeded in demonstrating fungous mycelia in the tubercles. Willach claims to have observed distomes in the pathological foci. It was demon- strated by the systematic investigation of Olt, Grips, Schiitz and Kiinnemann, that the gray transparent and later calcareous fibrous pulmonary tubercles represent emboli or miliary chronic pneu- moniae which are produced by animal parasites, usually the larvae •of nematodes. Bntozoic pulmonary tubercles of a pneumonic iovm in the horse (after Olt). o, inflamed alveoli; 6, part of a nematode larva; c, connective tissue capsule of the parasitic focus, X 30 diameters. The parts of the worms are magnified 80 diameters. Olt found at the abattoir in Stettin that the non-glanderous pulmonary tubercles which were very frequent in that locality were caused by embolic invasion of echinococci which became prema- turely disintegrated in the lumen of the blood vessels. In Pomerania, a region in which the echinococcus disease is very prevalent in man ^and domestic animals, seventy per cent, of the slaughtered horses, according to Olt, were infested with the tubercles in question. In further investigations, Olt demonstrated that the tubercles usually contain nematodes (probably the larvse of Strongylus armatus). <]!oncerning the seat of these entozoio tubercles, Olt maintains that they lie under the sera or in the pulmonary parenchyma, but never -330 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES upon the surface of the respiratory mucous membrane. The color of the tubercles is commonly gray or light-gray. Occasionally they are furnished with a pure white or light-yellow capsule. The most recently formed tubercles possess a reddish zone. The older ones are sharply delimited from the neighboring tissues. The consistency varies according to age. Tubercles of more recent origin constitute a thickened mass inside the otherwise normal pulmonary tissue. Later the tubercles become uniformly tough and finally present stony, calcareous kernels inside of a stratified fibrous capsule which is sharply marked off from the surrounding tissue. Parasitic tubercles which develop in the meantime in the lymph glands are distinguished by the fact that they are likewise surrounded by nor- mal glandular tissue and never cause acute lymphadenitis, indura- tions, or ulcerative processes. Schiitz repeatedly inoculated the tubercles in question into rabbits and horses without producing glanderous infection in any case. Kiinnemann and Troster obtained the same negative results in inoculation experiments with guinea pigs and cats. Moreover, Schiitz made a microscopic examination of the gray transparent tubercles and pure cultures without finding any glanders bacilli. On the other hand, Kiinnemann, in accord with Olt, found that nematodes are occasionally present in the tubercles. For the microscopic differential diagnosis of entozoic and glanderous tubercles in the lungs of horses, see under " Glanders." Finally, attention should be called to other alterations which are caused by certain processes during the act of slaughter or dur- ing the death struggle ; viz., aspirations of stomach contents and so-called blood aspiration. Aspiration of the Stomach Contents. — During the act of slaughter, the contents of the stomach may pass into the pharynx and thence by violent inspiration may be drawn into the trachea, and bronchi. Aspiration of tke stomach contents is most frequently observed in the lungs of cattle. This fact depends upon the peculiar position and character of the esophagus, in consequence of which the stom- ach contents of recumbent animals must from mechanical reasons pass into the esophagus. The regurgitation of the stomach contents into the esophagus is increased by trampling upon the abdomen, as is practiced by butchers in accelerating the flow of blood. In slaughtering by the Jewish method, the stomach contents flow directly from the esophagus into the trachea, since both organs BESPI8AT0BY APPAEATUS 331 are severed simultaneously. A portiou of the stomach contents is therefore almost always found mixed with blood in the lungs of animals slaughtered in this manner. This result is brought about partly by the fact that after the throat is cut the inspirations per- sist for some time with undiminished force. The material which flows into the trachea is violently drawn into the ramifications of the trachea and may be so firmly wedged in the bronchial tubes that it can not be driven out again by expiration. The aspirated stom- ach contents may thus lead to agonal emphysema, in consequence of the obstruction of the air passages. Kecognition. — Aspiration of the stomach contents may be easily recognized by making a cross section of the lungs below the bifur- cation of the trachea. Judgment. — Lungs containing aspirated stomach contents are highly unfit for food and are to be excluded from sale if the abnor- mal contents are not confined simply to the trachea and larger bronchial tubes, so that the foreign material, ruay be entirely removed by cutting open these tubes. , . , On account of the frequency of the occurrence of aspirated stomach contents in bovine bronchi, meat dealers, by means of ^nobbed scissors, commonly open and clean these structures in the preparation of the lungs. AspiBATiON OF Blood. — So-called blood aspiration in the lungs occurs during slaughter in cases where the trachea and the blood vessels of the neck are severed. The blood may thus be drawn into the finest bronchial ramifications as long as the animal continues to breathe. Blood aspiration is observed most frequently in cattle and hoga killed by the Jewish method. To be sure, the latter animals are stunned before sticking and inspiration during bleeding is therefore less frequent. Nevertheless, as shown by W. Eber, a phenomenon analogous to blood aspiration is frequently observed in hogs, but this depends on the peculiar method of bleeding hogs. The blood of hogs is a valuable material ; so valuable, indeed, that the blood of cattle is falsely substituted and sold as hog blood. The blood of hogs, therefore, is carefully collected and the butcher closes the wound in the skin in order to prevent the loss of the blood when the vessel utilized for receiving it becomes full. By thus pressing the lips of the wound together the blood which flows from the sev- ered cervical vessels is forced toward the point of least resistance — being in this case the partly severed trachea— and may thus pass 332 NOTEWOBTHT OEGANIO DISEASES into the trachea and bronchi merely from gravity and without assist- ance from respiratory movements. The blood does not flow out again from the trachea, since the inter-annular bands are injured in cutting in such a manner that they open only inward, like valves. Recognition. — The aspiration of blood in cattle and the analo- gous phenomenon in hogs are characterized by the appearance of red-colored lobuli scattered everywhere throughout the pulmonary tissue ; but, as a rule, in such a manner that they are separated from one another by portions of the lung of a normal color. In this way blood aspiration is distinguished from hypostasis. Blood aspiration is easily distinguished from lobular pneumonia by the fact that in the former the red-colored lobuli do not project beyond the surface of the lung, and feel, not like hepatized areas, but almost like normal pulmonary tissue ; and, finally, by the fact that upon •section the bronchi and bronchioles appear to be filled with coagu- lated or non-coagulated blood, while the pulmonary tissue itself is still filled with air (presence of foam in stroking the cut surface). W. Eber found that in blood aspiration the blood in the lungs undergoes partial resorption. In aspiration of blood, a red colora- tion of the cortical zones of the bronchial glands is. frequently observed and is due to the accumulation of resorbed red blood corpuscles. Judgment^In moderate aspiration of blood, the lungs are not to 1)6 condemned, while in excessive aspiration they are to be consid- ered as unfit for food, particularly because they decompose more rapidly than normal luiigs. For the recognition of artificially inflated lungs, see Chap- ter XV. (d) Pleura. The pleura exhibits only a few independent alterations. The majority of these alterations depend upon abnormal conditions and processes in the lungs. This is especially true of inflammation of the pleura. Inflammations. — Only three forms of primary pleuritis are observed in food animals. One form is caused by foreign bodies which penetrate the thoracic cavity from the stomach ; a second form of primary pleuritis develops in consequence of fracture of the ribs. The third form is of infectious origin and occurs only in hogs ; it has a chronic character and is ushered in with multiple formation of abscesses (see " Infectious Pleuro-peritonitis of Hogs "). EESPIKATOBY APPAKATUS 333s All other pleural inflammations develop secondarily in associatioa with pneumonia. Primary inflammations of the pleura of food animals are, irt general, benign affections. They usually do not cause death or forced slaughter and are thereby essentially different from similar peritoneal inflammations. Traumatic inflammation of the pleura as , well as that caused by fracture of the ribs without complication heals in the majority of cases by proliferation of connective tissu& at the point of irritation after the formation of the fibrinous or sero- fibrinous exudation. In slaughtering animals we often unexpectedly , find evidences of such inflammation in connective tissue capsules. and adhesions extending from the folds of the pleura. Even the specific alterations of infectious pleuritis of hogs are, as a rule, dis- covered unexpectedly in animals which showed no symptoms of the disease during life. The secondary inflammations of the pleura in pneumonia of horses and cattle, hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle, and swine- plague, run exactly the same course as that of primary pneumoniae. It is only in case of necrosis of superficial portions of the lungs that, putrefactive and septic bacteria from the outside world may gain, entrance to the pleuritic exudation and thereby cause the complica- tion of sapremia and septicemia. In the majority of cases thef pleuritic process heals simultaneously with the pneumonia and leaves only such connective tissue adhesions as, for example, are so frequently observed in hogs after recovery from swine plague. In consequence of the connective tissue adhesions, pulmonary abscesses which extend to the surface may be prevented from opening into the pleural cavity and may be rendered harmless to the organism after complete encapsulation. The anatomical forms of pleuritis are the same as those of peri- tonitis. Judgment on them should be governed, therefore, by the same rules as judgment of peritonitis. Beside inflammations, the following alterations of the pleura, deserve consideration : Hypostasis. — In natural death and in slaughtering during the crisis of disease, hypostatic congestion appears on the low-lying^ parts of the pleura in the same manner as in the lungs. The red, coloration of the pleura, however, which may appear when the blood, passes into the pleural sac during bleeding, must be distinguished from hypostasis. In the former we find small and large blood clots . on the pleura and a diffuse red coloration of this structure. 334 NOTEWOETHX OKQANIC DISEASES Tumors. — In addition to sarcomata, false neuromata oi the intercostal nerves (myxo-fibromata) may occur quite frequently under the pleura of cattle. These neomorphic structures occupy a position corresponding to the course of the intercostal nerves in the intercostal spaces underneath the pleura. They are conspicuous, therefore, when they occur in large numbers, for their regular arrangement. False neuromata of the intercostal nerves in their early stages may be confused with tuberculosis and in their later stages with echinococci. At first they form gray, firm tubercles varying in size from a hemp seed to a pea and surrounding the nerve like a ring (Fig. 81). In the large tubercles — they sometimes reach the size of Fis. 81. False neuroma of the intercostal nerves in cattle. a potato— the myxomatous tissue is more conspicuous. In this manner structures arise which, to the naked eye, possess great resemblance to echinococci. Section, however, immediately demon- strates to the inspector the true nature of the alteration, for only a slight quantity of slime-like tissue and no fluid oozes from the spherical or elongated structures. Myxo-fibroma of the intercostal nerves is distinguished by the complete absence of caseation. False neuromata of the intercostal nerves are but rarely observed in slaughtered cattle. Moreover, they exercise no influ- ence over the character of the meat. It is necessary merely to remove them and this may be done in connection with the nerve strands. EESPIEATOEY APPAKATtS 335 Infectious Gbanulations. — In cattle, tuberculosis of tlie pleura is of unusually frequent occurrence. In hogs it is very rare. Pleural tuberculosis of cattle begins with proliferation of small red connec- tive tissue papillae and filaments which give the pleura a velvety appearance. Later, casefying and calcifying tubercles are observed in the larger connective tissue proliferations (Pig. 82). Pleural tuberculosis is also characterized in the advanced stages by the strongly developed connective tissue framework of the tubercle. Tuberculous neomorphs on the pleura may reach a considerable thickness (up to 20 cm. and over), and this without the subjacent parts, ribs, and intercostal muscles showing even the slightest trace of disease per continuilatem. This is of the greatest importance in rendering judgment on serous tuberculosis with reference to the neighboring musculature. Attention shoiald again be called to the fact that the corresponding lymph glands of the pleura are the retro-pleural, thoracic • ^^• and mediastinal, and not, as has been erroneously assumed, the lymph glands of the anterior extremity, axillary and pre- scapular glands. "We should not confuse incipient pleural tuberculosis with proliferating in- flammations of the pleura which develop from friction from echinococci, and which extend to the pleura. Besides tuberculosis, actinomycosis „ , . , . » ^x, •' Serous tuberculosis of cattle may exceptionally occur on the pleura oi (pearl disease). cattle. The infection arises either from the lung or, in pleura phrenica, from the liver. In the latter case actinomycotic tissue penetrates the diaphragm. When all other characters are disregarded, actinomycotic tubercles are distin- guished by the soft, myxoma-like oozing surface on section, showing numerous yellow granules, as well as by the strongly developed neomorphs of connective tissue in the neighborhood of all other similar alterations. In chickens and pheasants, the air sac mite (Gytodites nudus) is frequently found in the air sacs of the thorax, neck and abdomen. The mites are visible to the naked eye as yellowish or brownish points. They may cause inflammatory alterations of the membranes of the air sacs in the form of yellow gelatinous effusions or mem- Iwanous deposits (Kitt). In cases of extensive invasion of the lungs aad trachea, death may result from inflammation of these alir pas- 336 NOTEWOETHY OKGANIC DISEASES sages and from asphyxiation (Gerlacli, Zschokke, Megnin). Holzen- dorflf also found the mites in miliary abscesses of the liver, lungs, and kidneys of chickens. Parasites are only occasionally found in the sub-pleural tissue. In one instance the author found under the pleura of a hog an Uchinococcus multilocularis which presented the appearance of Fig. 83. a, Bchinococcus under the costal pleura in a hog. tuberculosis (Fig. 83). A similar case was recently observed by Benedictis in cattle. The dangerous cysticercus of cattle and hogs has a special predilection for the intercostal muscles which are covered by the pleura. 5.— Circulatory Apparatus. (a) Heart. In the heart the following parts require special discussion : The epicardum with the pericardum ; the inner lining of the heart (endo- cardium) ; the cardiac muscle (myocardium). Epicardinm and Pericardium. Hemoerhages.— The epicardium is frequently the seat of petechisB which appear as sympathetic symptoms of toxic, infectious, general diseases under the serous membranes. For example, in anthrax, Texas fever, and fowl cholera, the epicardium shows black • CIRCULATOKY APPARATUS 337 spots or petechisB in an almost pathognomonic manuer. Large quantities of blood are found in the pericardial cavity in rupture of the heart, or of the coronary arterj'. Inflammations of the pericardium arise primarily from wounds, furthermore, they may develop secondarily under the same condi- tions which cause secondary pleuritis. In the latter case, the inflammation of the pericardium represents merely a complication of primary pulmonary inflammations. Traumatic pericarditis is a typical disease of cattle. It will be discussed in greater detail under "Sapremia." It should be noted that occasionally in hogs a serous or sero-fibrinous pericarditis is observed as the only phe- nomenon of swine plague. More fieqiiently, however, a simultane- ous inflammation of the pleura and lungs is observed. Connective tissue proliferations of the epicardium and of the inner layer of the pericardium, sometimes leading to adhesions of these parts, are observed after recovery from acute pericarditis. This condition is most frequently observed in hogs after swine plague and in cattle after recovery from traumatic pericarditis. Connective tissue adhesions between the epicardium and the inner layer of the pericardium interfere with a careful inspection of the surface of the heart, especially for cysticerci. In inspecting the heart, it is therefore desirable to remove the pathologically altered epicardium with a knife. Tumors. — Tumors may project into the pericardial cavity either from the pericardium or from the epicardium. According to Kitt, fibromata and fibro-sarcomata occur most frequently. Infectious Granulations. — Among the specific neomorphic; formations, tuberculosis of the pericardium is of frequent occurrence) in cattle. The pericardium as well as the pleura and peritoneum: may apparently be affected with primary tuberculosis. Ordinarily,, however, tuberculosis of the pericardium is associated with pul- monary and pleural tuberculosis. "When the epicardium is affected, it is a striking fact which is sufficiently explained by the centripetal course of the lymphatic vessels that even the most serious cases of epicardial tuberculosis, begin with complete integrity of the myocardium. Eudocardiuni. The inner lining of the heart may exhibit petechias under the already frequently, noted conditions, and also insignificant cloudiness. 338 NOTEWOETHY ORGANIC DISEASES in consequence of partial fatty metamorphosis or proliferating inflam- mation. According to Glage, cysts varying in size from a pea to a bean and resembling cysticerci occur quite frequently on the auriculo- Tsntricular valves in hogs. Gibson also observed similar cysts in sheep. For the differential, diagnosis of endocardial petechiae, attention should again be called in this connection to the systolic hyperemia conditions of the myocardium and to the valvular hemorrhages in fasting calves (compare page 174). Inflammations. - Fig. 84. -Inflammations of the duplicatures of the endo- cardium or the so-called car- diac valves are not without importance for meat inspec- tion. Two forms are distin- guished: Verrucose and ulcer- ous valvular ' endocarditis. ■Verrucose valvular endocar- ditis may reach such a con- dition that the death of the animal is brought about by mechanical obstruction of the circulation. Furthermore, thrombi may be formed upon the greatly thickened cardiac valve so as to exercise the same influence upon them as strong connective tissue pro- liferations upon the valvular apparatus. With regard to the etiology of the verrucose form of valvular inflamma- tion, it may represent a simple proliferating iuflammation or an infectious process. Cocci and bacilli have been found in the proliferating valves. A special and frequent form of infectious verrucose valvular endocarditis is caused by the bacillus of swine erysipelas (Fig. 84). Ulcerous or diphtheritic valvular endocarditis begins with a desquamation of the superficial layers of the cardiac valves. Later the desquamating areas are modified into ulcers. Large thrombi arise in the ulcerous spots (Fig. 85). The loosening of the thrombi Heart of a hog with valvular verrucose endo- carditis as a sequela of swine erysipelas, a, warty thickenings. CIRCULATOEY APPARATUS 339 may give rise to hemorrhagic infarcts in the liver, lungs, spleen and kidnejs. Ulcerous inflammation of the cardiac valves is either of toxic or infectious origin. In the latter case pyogenic organisms are of special importance. For this reason ulcerous valvular endocarditis may serve as a starting point in pyemic processes (see under " Pyemia "). Fig. 85. — c Beef heart with -valvular ulcerous endocarditis, a, out surface of the thrombus on the ulcerous cardiac valve; b, base of the thrombus after artificial separatioa from the substratum • c, ulcerous part of the cardiac valve. Tumors. — Tumors of the character of fibromata and fibro- . sarcomata may aiise upon the endocardium as well as on the peri- cardium and epicardium. According to Kitt, the tumors take their origin from the sub-endocardial tissues, are commonly pedunculate, and connected with a trabecula, papillary muscle, or tendon. Tumors which project into the cardiac cavity may reach the size of the fist. 340 NOTEWORTHY OliGANIO DISEASES Myocardium. Dissolutions of Continuity in the myocardium cause deaths They are produced by injuries from the outside (stabs and shot I -wounds) and by spontaneous rupture. Spontaneous rupture is observed as a sequela of fatty metamorphosis of or infestation of the myocardium with parasites (echinococci). In old horses, atheromatosis of the auricles sometimes leads to rupture of th& heart. Death occurs from hemorrhage into the pericardium. Fig. 87. Pig. 86. Incipient fatty metamor- phosis of the cardiac muscle. Heart of a hog infected with Cysticercus cellulosae. Degenerations. — The most important alterations of the myo- cardium are cloudy swelling and fatty metamorphosis (grayish-red or grayish-yellow discoloration, cloudy and soft, friable consistency). Both forms of degeneration arise under the same conditions as^ those of the liver and kidneys. Circulatory Disturbances and Inflammations. — Embolic in- farcts are observed in the myocardium in malignant foot and mouth, disease of cattle (Johne). Miiller observed a case of the formation of multiple abscess in the myocardium of a cow which, one year CIRCULATORY APPARATUS 341 previously, suffered from an acute attack of foot-and-mouth disease. Metastatic abscesses may develop in the myocardium in association •with other processes which are ushered in with suppuration. This is quite frequent in cases of metritis and is occasionally observed also in consequence of contagious coryza and suppurative ompha- lophlebitis (Kitt). The abscesses may also arise from necrotic foci in the myocardium which are due to embolic transportation of the necrosis bacilli (Bang and the author). Infectious Granulations. — In rare cases tuberculosis of the myocardium develops in food animals. In the few cases which iave been seen by the author, the tuberculous areas exhibited the ■characteristic form of hemorrhagic infarcts. Parasites. — In the myocardium there is frequently observed injurious cysticerci, especially G. hovis in cattle and C. cdlulosoi in iogs and sheep. The parasites show a predilection for a position under the epicardium and endocardium. They may, however, pene- trate the whole musculature of the heart. Furthermore, echino- «occi are occasionally met with in the myocardium. They may occasion sudden death by rupture of the connective tissue capsule and the escape of the encysted worms into the ventricles. Large eehinoeocci, however, may, in and of themselves, and without rup- ture of their capsules, produce threatening symptoms and sudden ^eath from cardiac paralysis, especially when they have their seat in the septum of the heart. (b) Blood Vessels. As a noteworthy local disease, of the blood vessels, attention should be called to verminous aneurisms of the branches of the abdominal aorta, especially of the trunk of the anterior mesenteric artery in the horse. This verminous aneurism, which, as is well inown, is caused by Strongylus armatus, may reach quite considerable proportions without causing any disturbances in the health of the horse. Occasionally a fatal hemorrhage is observed in consequence -of the rupture of the wall of the aneurism. Calcification is sometimes observed in the aorta of cattle. The intima of the vessel, which is distinguished by its inflexibility, is permeated with cloudy-white, sharply-delimited, leaf-shaped deposits of lime, the middle portion of which is concave. Rough, sand-like deposits may exist at the same time (Kitt). For purulent inflamma- tions of the walls of the bloodvessels, see under " Pyemia." 342 NOTEWOKTHY OEGANIC DISEASES 6.— Lymphatic Glands. . The lymphatic glands have an important physiological r61e^ They act as a filtering apparatus and thereby purify the lymph stream from admixtures of foreign substances before it passes into , the blood circulation. The larger corpuscular elements are cer- tainly filtered out of the lymph. The filter is likewise effective even for bacteria, in different degrees in different animals. Thus, in cattle and hogs the lymph glands may for a long time restrict a tubercular process to the point of origin and prevent an infection of the blood. Pyogenic bacteria are also prevented from entering the blood circulation by the lymph glands of food animals. In the smaller animals — for instance, in the experimental animals of the ; laboratory — this protective function is much less effectively per- formed. Inelammations. — The lymph glands react very readily to irrita- tion. They are therefore regularly inflamed when inflammatory -processes occur in their tributary area. In ordinary inflammatory swelling, the lymphatic glauds are enlarged and on cross section more fluid exudes. In more advanced stages of lymphadenitis, hemorrhages into the tissue of the lymphatic glands are associated with the original process (hemorrhagic lymphadenitis). A swelling of all the lymphatic glands is observed in acute infectious diseases and in chronic diseases which have become acute ; for example, in sepsis, pyemia, and chronic tuberculosis after the entrance of the tubercle bacilli into the blood. Inflammations of the lymphatic glands usually disappear as rapidly as they arise. Yellow-colored spots may remain as evidence of the hemorrhages which sometimes accompany inflammations. Specific Alterations.— In contrast with simple adenitis as a sequela of ordinary inflammatory processes, all inflammations of other sorts are due to the effect of specific pathogenic micro- organisms. Thus, indurating lymphadenitis is produced by the glanders bacillus, lymphadenitis with abscesses by the streptococci of contagious coryza ; casefying lymphadenitis by the bacilli of tuberculosis, pseudo-tuberculosis, and hog cholera. The ray fungus {Actinomyces hovis) produces in domestic animals no true inflammation, but simply typical granulations in lymphatic glands. It is of special importance in making a. differential diagnosis to- LYMPHATIC GLANDS 343 know that purulent processes in domestic animals are not capable of producing suppurations in the lymphatic glands and that casea- tion of the lymph glands, the important criterion in tuberculous processes, occurs only in tuberculosis, pseudo-tuberculosis and hog cholera. In glanderous lymphadenitis, tubercles are found in the swollen lymphatic glands which disintegrate in the center and become case- fied but not calcified (Csoker, Kitt and Schiitz). Glanderous lymph glands, according to Schiitz, become enlarged at first and shiny on cross section, with a reddish or pale-gray color ; later they become somewhat dryer and of a more velvety or roughlsh feel upon cross section. The size of the swollen gland does not exceed that of a walnut or plum, as a rule. A whole cluster of lymph glands is rarely affected. As a rule, the glanderous alterations are restricted to a portion of the lymph glands. The lymphatic glands are pene- trated by callous-like, white, connective tissue strands which project inward from the thickened capsule. On cross section there appear indistinctly marked, small, grayish-yellow and yellow spots which lie very close to one another, or scattered in the glandular tissue. These spots in cases of fresh infection are often difficult to recognize. They present in such cases minute particles with a puriform disin- tegration. If the alterations ' are of longer standing, the spots become cloudy, white, dryish, caseous and mortar-like. Simulta- neously the induration and cicatricial contraction of the newly formed connective tissue proceeds in the lymphatic glands, and the cloudy deposits, which often possess an angular form, appear like foreign particles which have been inserted into the cicatricial mass. Total caseation of the lymphatic glands does not occur in glanders, according to Schiitz. Exceptionally, in consequence of glanderous infection, they may be modified into white, callous, bacon-like masses of the size of a goose egg, which inclose cavities containing an oily, fluid, gray pus (Kitt). In actinomycosis of the lymphatic glands, a macroscopically- visible, roughened, hard character of the lymphatic glands is observed. Under the microscope, on the other hand, a uniform accumulation of the epithelioid and giant cells is- observed around the mycelium of the ray fungus. Finally, in tuberculosis, which is the most important disease of the lymphatic glands in meat inspection, there is at first a simple swelling, enlargement and increase in the fluid content ; then minute tubercles, which are distinguished from the surrounding tissue by their gray color, are demonstrable. Later, larger, round tubercles 34A NOTEWOXITHY OEGANIC DISEASES are found, the centers of which appear to be cloudy in consequence of caseation. (Compare Fig. 76, a and b). And, lastly, a calcifica- . tion usually appears in the place of the caseation. The individual foci either remaiu separated or fused together. In the first plaeej isolated tubercles are observed in the lymphatic glands, and in the latter case a uniform replacement of the normal tissue of the. lymphatic glands by casefied or calcified masses. Calcification may progress so far that the lymphatic glands can no longer be cut with a knife. At the same time the lymphatic glands are enlarged to twenty or more times their original volume. Fig. 88. V A. ' transportation to the slaughterhouse is the first heavy muscular- work and the longer or forced diiving of the hogs is sufficient to- produce a rupture of the weakened muscular fibers. This assumed mode of origin of fibrillar muscle ruptures ia fattened hogs stands in complete harmony with the series of events.. Fig. 92. Diaphragm of a hog with fibrillar muscle ruptures and consecutive multiple hemorrhages. which are observed in connection with the attenuation of individual' muscles and muscle groups. For, even iu case of easy. transporta- tion, a certain degree of dyspnea appears in fattened animals- whereby an excessive strain is put upon the diaphragm and abdom- inal muscles which function in inspiration, while the muscles which are used in locomotion are only moderately exercised. The more frequent occurrence of affections of individual muscles of the- extremities by the alterations in question is partly explained by the more extensive deposition of fat granules in the fibrillse and partly, by their especial significance for locomotion. Ellinger observed the following sequence in muscles affected, ■with fibrillar ruptures : (1) Diaphragm, (2) obturator internus, {Sy SKELETAL MUSCCLATURE 357 lumbar muscles, and (4) gracilis and neighboring muscles. The other muscles (of the trunk, anterior extremities and neck) were also rarely affected in the cases observed by Ellinger, yiz.: in only ~3 to 5 per cent, of all hogs which were affected by fibrillar muscle Tuptures. The influence of defective exercise of hogs upon the occurrence •of fibrillar muscle ruptures is shown by the fact that in breeding animals, boars as well as breeding sows, which enjoy a iiatural mode of life and especially a freer movement than animals which are inttended for fattening, muscle hemorrhages are not observed. At least the author has never observed them in boars and breeding -sows. The fatty cloudiness of the striated muscle fibers maybe demonstrated, on the other hand, in many cases of breeding sows which are fattened late in life. Judgment of fibrillar muscle ruptures. — Multiple hemorrhages caused by fibrillar muscle ruptures lend the affected muscular parts <][uite an abnormal appeiirance. The muscles appear to be spotted with black. This is especially conspicuous after bpiling and roasts ing pieces of the meat. Such meat, therefore, in spite of its perfect harmlessness, can not be considered as a marketable food material. In slight cases in which we have to deal merely wiiji alterations of the diaphragm or other favorite locations of henjorrh^aiges caused by fibrillar muscle rupturesj the remainder of .tl|e meat xhaj be allowed upon the market withouti restriction after thefefmo vail of the affected part. In addition to' the above describe*!-, heoaoxrhages, due, to fibrillar muscle ruptures, there may also appear, in the musculature -of food animals, hemorrhages which are dg;e to toxip and bacterial < Hyaline degeneration of the musculature in the horse in ease of hemoglobinuria (after ZsehoKke). a, hyaline fragments; 6, cleavage and beginning of hyaline disin- tegration, X 100 diameters. Judgment. — Among the degenerations of the musculature, it is only the hyaline which possesses an independent significance. Meat altered by hyaline degeneration, on account of its abnormal appear- ance and poor keeping quality (Repiquet), is undoubtedly a spoiled (inferior) food material. According to Hiittner, beef affected by hyaline degeneration roasts and boils like veal and, according to the statements of consumers, is not of good flavor. Hiittner therefore favors the admission of the meat to the market under declaration. 360 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES This procedure, however, is justified only when during the inspec- tion of the slaughtered animals alterations other than hyaline muscle degeneration are not found and when the latter must be considered as an independent alteration incident to the death agony. Hyaline muscle degeneration in the hog. — A partial hyaline degen- eration of the musculature is frequently seen in hogs. Duncker first called attention to this fact. He considered the alteration as originally due to infection by the ray fungus. The assumption of Duncker, however, immediately met with vigorous opposition. Especially, Johne insists that the depositions in the musculature described by Duncker can not be identical with Actinomyces bovis, for the reason that they never exhibit the well-known, club-shaped end swellings of the radial hyphse. Furthermore, in the tissue surrounding the structures described by Duncker,ithe acute inflam- matory reaction which occurs in infection by Actinomyces bovis, immediately after penetration of its minute mycelia, is wanting. Ziirn went further and expressed a doubt whether the structures in. question were of a fungous nature at all. ; Olt deserves credit for having studied the 'muscular disease in question and for having demonstrated that the supposed fungous mycelia were nothing more than broken pieces of the specifically altered contractile content of the muscle fibers. They show a stronger affinity for stains than intact sarcoplasm.iaud in the prepar- ations which Duncker stained with cochineal may have been considered as deposits of foreign substance, i Macroscopically, the specifically degenerated musculature is conspicuous for its pale-red or grayish color, sprinkled with white, its softer consistency and high fluid content. The white sprinkling is in the form of minute points and follows the course of the muscle fibers. The consistency of ' the degenerated musculature is so reduced that a moderate pressure with the finger is sufficient to penetrate it. The abnormal fluid content in the favorite points for location of the degeneration (muscular part of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles) is so great. that one could speak of a regular muscle edema. This edema is of diagnostic value. It is, moreover, noteworthy that the fluid which permeates the altered muscle tissue after cooling of the meat is pressed out and appears in large quan- tities on the upper surface. This phenomenon is explained by the post mortem rigor of the affected muscle fibers. In a microscopic examination one observes, according to Olt, whose investigations were confirmed by the simultaneous investi- SKELETAL MUSCULATUEE 361 gations of Davids and later by myself, in the incipient stages of the loosening of the sarcoplasm or contractile content of the sarcolemma, a gradual disappearance and fusion of the same'. Thereby, gaps I appear which enlarge to form fissures and spherical cavities and -dissolutions of continuity arise in the muscle fibers to such an extent that the contractile content falls into irregular broken pieces of varying size (Fig. 95). AH disintegrated fragments are uniformly opaque, but may, however, still exhibit an evident transverse stria- Ition. Furthermore, in consequence of contraction of unaffected Fig. 93. Hyaline muscle degeneration in hogs, a, intact fiber; b, moniliforra arrangement of plasma debris; c, point of rupture of a muscle fiber. In other .parts of the preparation there ai'e unafEeoied muscle fibers together with plasma debris of various forms, rupture of the muscle fibers, loss of the sarcolemma and en- largement of the intermuscidar tissue. X i!5 diameters. fibers, ruptures of the degenerated fibers may be produced (Fig. "96, c) as well as a rounding-off of the protoplasuiic debris, so that in affected muscle fibers round or oval protoplasmic, balls are observed in a moniliform order (Fig. 95, b). The internal perimysium in acute diseases of the muscle fibers is somewhat affected by serous infiltration and exhibits a cellular proliferation. Olt was unable to demonstrate a thickening of the sarcolemma. The sarcolemma is iound in the form of a thin membrane over the disintegrated parts, -Frequently it is torn and in many affected muscle fibers it is not to be recognized at all. i 362 NOTEWORTHY ORGANIC DISEASES With regard to the occurrence of the above described process^ it is observed most frequently in hogs. It is also found, however, as shown by P. Falk, quite often in the musculature of calves and sheep. Its favorite locations are the muscular parts of the dia- phragm, the abdominal muscles and the intercostal muscles. As a rule, the disease is restricted to the muscular part of the diaphragm. Alterations of the whole striated musculature are exceedingly rare. Pig. 96. ct ■Z-' 'J ,■ iaa"" ■ '" '— * - i J iit - > 'I Hyaline muscle degeneration in hogs. A part of Fig. 95 magnified 375 times. o, intact muscle fiber; b, plasma debris with coccus-like deposits; c, point of rupture of muscle fiber. The partial solution of the sarcolemiua, the enlargement of the intermuscular tissue, and the chaotic arrangement of the plasma debris are shown more distinctly than in Pig. 95.j Opinions differ concerning the cause of the alteration. Olt believes that he saw streptococci in the altered portions of the muscles. Davids, on the other hand, called attention to the simi- larity of the structures in question to the sarcous elements into which the muscle fibers disintegrated. Davids considered the whole phenomenon as a simple hyaline degeneration, and, with Erb, regards it as a post mortem process which in the case in question is due to injuries (crushing of the musculature during slaughter). SKELETAL MUSOULATDBE 363- Judgment. — Previously it was customary to exclude from the market only those hogs in which so extensive an alteration existed that the whole musculature was discolored grayish-red and was strongly infiltrated with water. Even rejected animals, however, were tried out and the rendered fat was utilized as a human food material. In cases where the alterations were restricted to indi- vidual muscle parts, as, for.Bxample, to the diaphragm or abdominal muscles, only those parts were removed. The frequently-occurring slight alterations were ignored. When extensive alterations were present, it was customary to take the precaution of postponing the decision until after twenty-four hours for the reason that the dis- coloration and especially the watery character of the musculature was more conspicuous than itomediately after slaughter. This procedure is fully.jiisrtified, for the reason that, since the investigation of Davids, there is no foundation for the assumption of an injurious character of the meat in question. Iridescent character of meat. — In highly fattened hogs which neither before slaughter, nor during ordinary inspection after slaughter, exhibited any other alteration, we find with comparative frequency a peculiar alteration of the color and appearance of th& longissimus dorsi. This muscle is either entirely or partly discol- ored grayish, and of a shining appearance upon the cut surface. Under the microscope the muscle fibers appear to be completely intact. Undoubtedly we have in the anomaly in question a deficiency in the coloring matter of the muscle. The discoloration of the muscle favors this view, as well as the appearance of the iridescent property in boiled and pickled normal meat, in which an artificial destruction of the coloring matter of the muscle has taken place. Legge called attention to the iridescence of boiled and pickled, meat. The gray discoloration and the iridescence of the longissimus dorsi are apparently due to the unhygienic surroundings and nutri- tion of the hogs. Judgment. — Iridescent muscles are found in perfectly healthy highly fattened animals and are distinguished merely by the lack of the red color in normal muscles. Siuce the alteration is sufficiently evident from its conspicuous character and since the buying public,, according to past experience, takes no exception to the abnormal appearance of iridescent musculature, we may abstain from placing any trade restrictions upon the meat in question. X364: NOTEWOBTHY ORGANIC DISEASES Paie condition of musculature. — Faucon found, in a well-nourished four-year-old cow, which before slaughter had been perfectly •healthy, that the musculature was pale and of a white color as in milk-fed calves. The white beef differed from veal only in its dryer condition and stronger development of the muscle fibers. A similar case was observed by Baillet in a beef animal in 1878. Moreover, Villain described a similar 09.se in sheep. Tallow-like alteration ("steatosis ") of the musculature. — Castellant found in a beef animal nearly one-third of the musculature trans- formed into a tissue resembling adipose tissue. Infammations. — Parenchymatous myositis associated with hem- orrhage is found in cases of muscularj rheumatism. In calves an interstitial myositis occurs which is probably associated with primary degenerative processes of the muscle fibers. This alteration has been called " chicken-meat formation " for the reason that the •^■musculature shows a grayish- white color resembling that of chicken meat. Stoss described a case of this sort in which the whole muscula- ''ture of a young beef animal possessed a pale yellowish-red gvoubd «olor and exhibited yellowish or yellowish-green spots at intervals of about 1 cm. All of the lymphatic glands were ehlarged. By a "microscopic examination Stoss found an extensive proliferation of the intramuscular tissue and an atrophy of the muscle fibers, which Tvas especially pronounced in the yellowish-green areas. Bayersdorfer observed a similar case in a bull. The whole nmusculature exhibited a white color and at the same time a tough consistency. Judgment. — Meat which exhibits the phenomenon of intersti- tial myositis must be considered as a, spoiled (inferior) food material and as such must be excluded from free traffic. Tumors. — Primary tumors in the musculature are rarfe. Second- arily, however, sarcomata and also carciuomata may occur in the musculature. Moreover, in the musculature of cattle we may observe a peculiar, thus far insufficiently investigated, tumor forma- tion. In all, the author has seen four such cases of muscle tumors in cattle. In these cases the whole musculature, but in the most pronounced manner the muscles of the shoulder, sides of the chest and tail, were filled with innumerable granules and tubercles (Figl SKELETAL MUSCULATURE - Sej^' 97). All transition stages were observed between structures of the- size of a lentil and those as large as a walnut. On the periphery of~ the larger tubercles smaller tubercles were frequently observed,- The color of the rieomorphic tissue was grayish-white and its con- sistency was firm, as in fibromata. The cut surface was dry, uniformly gray, and showed punctate yellow-colored cavities-, in the center. The larger the tubercles the more numerous were the punctate cloudy areas. All organs, except the musculature,', were sound. According to their histological structure, the tumor* were to be considered as fibro-sarcomata. Apparently, however^ these were cases of neomorphio formation due to infection. Pig. 97. Beef tail with fibrosarcoma-like neomorphs. -In all cases observed by the author, the meat, on account of the general distribution of neomorphio formations, had to be- excluded from consumption as highly unfit for food. Infectious Geanulations. — Among the infectious granulations in the musculature, we may mention only those which are caused by the tubercle bacillus, actinomyces and botryomyces. Muscular tuberculosis is of very rare occurrence in food animals, if we disregard the otherwise quite rare cases in which the tuberculous process extends secondarily to the surrounding inter- fibrillar tissue from the bone or a lymph gland lying in the muscu- lature. Hertwig described a case of embolic primary tuberculosis of the musculature in a beef animal. During the examination of a four-year-old steer, a pronounced tuberculous alteration of the mesenteric glands was demonstrated. The intestine itself was not aff'ected. In the parenchyma of the lungs, liver and kidneys, embolic masses of the size of walnuts were found. The inguinal and prescapular glands were enlarged to three or five times their normal size and contained caseous masses of varying size. Further--. 566 NOTEWORTHY OBGANIO DISEASES more, in the subcutaneous connective tissue and skin muscles, and, sparingly, in the deeper lying musculature, especially on the inferior portions of the thorax, on the shoulders, as well as on the interior surfaces of the thighs, flat plaques and moniliform strands were to be observed, which consisted of larger and smaller tubercles and iollowed the direction of the connective tissue and muscle fibers. The tuberculous nature of these structures was demonstrated by a microscopic examination and by inoculation. Similar cases were subsequently reported by Godbille, Hiittuer, Strose, Kezevitsch, Mychkine and others. In cases of the extension of tuberculosis from bones and lymph glands to the neighboring musculature (secondary muscular tuber- culosis) grayish-yellow masses are formed, varying in size from a walnut to that of a child's head by a typical formation in the intra- muscular tissue with atrophy of the muscular fibrillse. Actinomycosis and botryomycosis of the musculature are char- acterized by an interstitial myositis which develops in the form of masses in the neighborhood of the colonies of actinomyces and botryomyces, or appears in, a diffuse condition and later affects larger portions of the musculature as in actinomycotic wooden tongue. The parasites which occur in the musculature, namely, Miescher's sacs, cysticerci and trichinae, are discussed in the chapter on "Invasion Diseases." IX. ANOMALIES OF THE BLOOD. Of the anomalous conditions of the blood which occur in food animals, the following are of importance for meat inspection : Deficiency of blood (oligemia, anemia) ; increase in water content (hydremia) ; increase in the number of white blood corpuscles ^leukemia) ; and, finally, the appearance of abnormal constituents (hemoglobinemia, cholemia and uremia). Fluctuations in the amount of blood and its composition possess little sanitary interest of themselves. They only become important through certain phenomena which they may produce in the solid tissues. The alterations of the blood mentioned above are, therefore, unimportant so long as they remain without recog- nizable influence upon the whole organism or upon the meat. 1. — Deficiency of Blood (Oligemia, Anemia). Nature and Origin. — By the term deficiency of blood we understand a decrease in the normal quantity of blood. This may be due to various circumstances. Attention has already been called to the fact (p. 131) that an excessively fat condition, especially in hogs, is usually accompanied with a striking diminution in the quantity of blood. This sort of oligemia, which is in part relative, may be characterized as physiological. Pathological deficiency of blood, however, arises when the equilibrium between the income and outgo of the body is disturbed, thus : By defective nutrition or disturbances of assimilation ; or by unusual loss of substance (frequent hemorrhages and parasites). These forms of anemia are included in the term symptomatic anemia, in contrast with essential or progressive pernicious anemia, which may develop from an unknown cause. The cases of pathological deficiency of blood which are observed among food animals are, with few exceptions, of a symptomatic nature. The primary affection consists, as a rule, in the invasion of 367 363 ANOMALIES OP THE BLOOD parasites (stomach, intestinal, liver and lung worms), which cause a diminution in the quantity of the blood, either directly, through removal of nutritive materials, or indirectly, through injury to the important vegetative organs (production of hemorrhages or inflam- mation). Moreover, anemia may occur as a consequence of non- parasitic organic diseases, such as chronic gastric and intestinal catarrh and chronic infectious diseases, like tuberculosis. Autopsies in Symptomatic Anemia. — The alterations which are caused by symptomatic anemia vary according to the degree of the latter. Mild cases influence the general condition only slightly. In severe cases, on the other hand, emaciation is a constant phe- nomenon. Between these degrees, all intermediate stages exist. The blood is characterized in all cases by its diminished quantity and weak staining power. In contrast with pernicious^ anemia, it is worthy of mention that even in the severest cases of symptomatic deficiency of blood, the parenchyma and skeletal mus- culature is, as a rule, intact. Schaper found a considerable diminution in the number of red blood corpuscles and in the content of hemoglobin, in cases of ane- mia resulting from distomatosis. The blood of healthy sheep contains from 11,000,000 to 12,000,000 red blood corpuscles per cm.j in anemic animals Schaper found only 6,000,000 to 10,000,000. Judgment of Symptomatic Anemia. — The meat of animals which are affected with symptomatic anemia is not injurious to health if the primary affection which causes the deficiency of blood has not occasioned a general disease. This may be the case in certain forms of tuberculosis. In ordinary cases of symptomatic anemia in consequence of infestation by worms, the above statement does not hold true. In such cases the meat may become highly unfit for food if the deficiency of blood is accompanied with emaciation. If the- condition of nutrition of the animals is still comparatively good and if the animals are to be characterized as poor and not as emaciated! (compare p. 243), there is no good reason for restricting the free sale of the meat. Essential {progressive pernicious) anemia differs fundamentally- from symptomatic deficiency of blood. During life an intermittent fever is observed. Furthermore, the disease usually results in ' death. The red blood corpuscles exhibit a marked variation from the normal condition (pcecilocytosis). The parenchyma, as well as. HYDEEMIA 369 the skeletal mnscnlature, becomes cloudy and undergoes fatty meta- morphosis. Finally, petechise are found in the serous membranes or even in the organs. Although this disease possesses all the symptoms of an acute general affection, it is impossible to discover any cause whatever by post mortem examination. It has rightfully been suspected, on account of the great similarity of post mortem findings with those which appear in certain toxic and infectious dis- eases, that the cause of pernicious anemia is some virus with toxic action. Silva asserts that in two fatal cases of pernicious anemia in man he isolated Staphylococcus pyogenes from the blood of the heart, and he entertains no doubt that this micro-organism may be the c.iuse of progressive pernicious anemia, for the products of the stai)hylococcus possessed a hemolytic power, and this fact may serve to explain correctly the symptoms which appear in pernicious anemia : perhaps we have here to deal with a micro-organism of attenuated virulence. Judgment. — Further investigation is required to determine whether the meat of animals affected with pernicious anemia pos- sesses harmful properties. It should be remembered in this connection that pernicious anemia is also one of the diseases of: man. If the condition described by Silva is found to be of regular- occurrence, the meat must be considered injurious to health. Afe any rate, the meat in question must be characterized as highly unfit; for food and must be absolutely excluded from the market on account of the substantial alterations which are seen, not only in the entrails, but also in the skeletal muscles. The harm which may be caused to the public from this disease is exceedingly slight, since thus far the disease has been observed with certainty only in horses, S'. armattisiii the large intestine and cecum and in aneurisms of the abdominal blood vessels, especially of the anterior Pig. 109. *!5*" ^^"fcat*^ Fourth stomach of beef infested with Strongylus convolutus. mesenteric artery of the horse ; S. hypostomus, in the stomach o£ sheep and goats ; S. cernuus, in the alimentary tract of sheep ; S. radiatus and ventricosus, in the small intestines of cattle ; 8. dentatus, in the large intestine of hogs ; 8. inflatus, in the large intestine of cattle ; 8. venulosus, in the intestines of goats ; and, finally, 8. _filir- collis, in the duodenum of sheep and goats. Greater importance attaches to those Strongylidae which may disturb the general condition and the nutrition of food animals or may produce serious alterations in the organs which are utilized as. human food. To this group belong the palisade worms of tha stomach and lungs. Palisade Worms of the Stomach, In the fourth stomach of sheep and goats, Strongylus contortus, lives parasitically (male, 13 to 15 mm.; female, 20 to 25 mm. ANIMAL PARA3ITES 409 long). The parasite obtains its nourishment from the blood of thp host, and in young animals may produce emaciation and hydremip cachexia (stomach worm disease) in cases of excessive invasion. In the fourth stomach of cattle, the author found S. convoluttis {male, 3 to 9 mm.; female, 4 to 12 mm. long) (Fig. 110). The female is characterized by the possession of a bell-shaped duplicature of the ski a over the vulva and may thus be distinguished from similar Strougylidse. S. convolutus is a very frequent parasite in cattle. In the abattoir at Berlin, it was found in 90 per cent, of all cattle which were slaughtered, including all cases in which isolated examples occurred. The coiled worm lies under the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the stomach and produces in that location small prcj- jections about the size of lentils provided with a central opening {Fig. 109). According to the observations of the author, 8. convolutus, in cases of excessive invasion of young cattle, may produce a con- siderable diminution of the digestive surface of the stomaph and Fig. 110. Strongylus convolutus, female on the left, male on the right, X 10 times. thereby cause emaciation or dropsical symptoms in unfavorable cases. According to the accounts of Smith and Stiles, the latter of whom proposes the name 8. ostertagi for the parasite, since S. convolutus was already preoccupied for another parasite, the nema- tode in question is very common in North America. Furthermore, McFadyean found 8- convolutus in young cattle which had become emaciated and anemic with symptoms of diarrhea. After death, or after the slaughter of the animals, an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach was found, and in such locations 8. convolutus was found not iufrequently associated with 8. retortceformis. According to Stijdter, in addition to 8. contortus and 8. convolutus five otl>er species of Strongylidse which have the power of producing serious disease, are found in the fourth stomach of domesticated ruminants. These species are 8. curticei (male, 6 to 8 mm.; female, 10 to 13 mm. long), in cattle and sheep ; 8. oncophorus (male, 7 to 9 410 INTASION DISEASES mm.; female, 9 to 12 mm. long), in cattle ; S. harkeri (male, 8 to 9' mm.; female, 15 to 16 mm. long), in cattle; S. retortceformis (male, 3 to 7 mm.; female, 3 to 9 mm. long), in cattle, sheep, goats and also in the fallow deer, hare and rabbits ; and S.filicollis (male, 8 to 15 mm.; female, 16 to 24 mm. long), in sheep. Strdse found Anchylostomum longemucronatum in the small intestine of a hog which was slaughtered on account of disturbances in nutrition, and on account of the protuberance (thickening) which he found in the wall of the intestine was inclined to consider the parasite as responsible for the nutritive disturbances in the host. In hare and wild rabbits, S. strigosus and S. retortceformis may, according to Eailliet, occur in the stomach and intestines and may produce serious symptoms of disease. The Palisade Worms of the Lungs. To the palisade worms of the lungs belong 8. micrurus in cattle, roebuck and fallow deer* ; S.filaria, 8. capillar is and 8. commutatus in sheep and goats, as well as 8. paradoxus in hogs. These palisade worms, after being introduced into the host, become located in the smaller and minute bronchi and alveoli, and by means of the irrita- tion which is exercised by them, they may cause a bronchitis or bronchiolitis. The embryos of the palisade worms, which become mature in the bronchi and reproduce oviparously or viviparously, penetrate into the lung tissue and thus cause a lobular or even a diffuse broncho-pneumonia (compare p. 325). Broncho-pneumonia may lead to the death of the infected animals. When recovery begins, the embryos wander back into the bronchi and from here pass either directly or by way of the alimentary canal, to the outside world. According to Miiller, the embryos of the palisade worms usually lie nearer the trachea and larynx as they become larger in size. The parent animals are disintegrated in the lungs. They may become encysted and casefied or calcified inside of the connective tissue capsule. Steongylus micrttbus is viviparous. The male is about 30 to 40 mm., the female, 40 to 80 mm. long. The females are especially conspicuous on account of their milk-white, oily appearance. Their location is in the bronchi, preferably those at the base of the lungs. S. micrurus is in general a rare parasite in cattle. Only in certain * Mtiller is of the opinion that the fallow deer is the common host of S. micrurus, •while cattle are only exceptionally infested. ANIMAL PAEASITE8 .411 regions — for example, in the marshy districts of Oldenburg and in the lowlands of the Rhine — does it occur abundantly in wet seasons. In the case of slight invasion we observe in the superficial parts of the lungs which are infested with these parasites, white lobuli with a sheen like that of mother-of-pearl, which do not collapse and which feel firmer than the normal tissue (Fig. 113). In making a section into these places, the parasites are found in the smaller bronchi, which, as a rule, are pathologically enlarged. The parasites are surrounded by a catarrhal secretion. The author has frequently observed, in the lungs of cattle, dead Strongylidse which which were enclosed in greenish-colored tubercles. In cases of excessive invasion in cattle, roebuck and fallow deer, acute broncho-pneumonia may develop with fatal results. In animals which die in consequence of acute pneumonia we frequently find, as was stated by Kitt, only a few. developed parasites in the trachea, while large numbers of them are to be demonstrated in microscopical preparations from the inflamed lung tissue. According to Tapken, the migration of the larval worms into young cattle takes place in July and August. The development of the worm is completed within six to seven weeks. During this time the invasion of the worms in acute cases of lung worm disease may cause the death of the affected animals. Winter observed the appearance of the lung worm disease in the meadows of the low- lands along the Rhine. Healthy calves became seriously affected within two weeks. In animals which died within a short time of broncho-pneumonia, no fully developed worms were found. They were observed, however, in animals which were slaughtered after being sick for one to one and one-half months. Stbongtlus filaeia, the lung thi-ead worm (male, 25 mm. long, the female as long as 84 mm.). With regard to the pathological anatomical relations of this worm, the same statements may b& made as for S. micrurus. It is also apparent in verminous pneu- monia of sheep and goats caused by S-filaria, that only a few mature specimens of the worm are found in the bronchi and lung tissue of the diseased animals, while immense numbers of embryos and eggs are found. Moreover, S. filaria is a comparatively rare parasite in sheep and goats. Steongylus oapillakis, the lung hair worm (male, 12 mm.; female, 20 mm. long ; very slender, almost like a cobweb, .04 to .06 mm. thick^. By microscopical examination the male is recognized 412 INVASION DISEASES hj the corkscrew-like posterior end of the body and the yellowishr ^rown spicules, while the female is distinguished by the two uteri filled with brownish eggs covered with shells. The mature animals live at first in the smaller bronchi of the alveoli and produce an acute catarrhal or hemorrhagic bronchitis. The embryos, after hatching from the eggs, migrate in large numbers into the lung tissue and cause either a limited lobular or more extended bronchor pneumonia which may cause death within a short time. Commonly, however, the inflammatory alterations in the lungs gradually recover as the larvse are expelled by coughing, and the parent worms migrate into the lung tissue, so that only a partial capillaiy bronchitis remains, which may heal by caseation and calcification of the worms. Fig. 111. Sheep lung with lobular infiltrations and residual tubercles as a result of invasittn 6y Sti-ongylus oapillaris. The tubercles enclosing S. capillaris are to be recognized by their yellow, grayish-red or grayish-yellow color. The worms which are expelled by coughing are swallowed again and may produce in their passage through the alimentary tract an acute catarrh of the fourth stomach by mechanical irritation (Schlegel). S. capillaris, according to Schlegel, is most abundant in goats and is rare iu sheep, in the latter of which it is often associatecj with S. commutatus. Schlegel has also found 8. capillaris, 8. com- mutatus and 8. filaria iu one and the same animal. The goat, however, is the true host of 8. caioillaris. Among 200 goats slaughtered at the abattoir in Freiburg, Schlegel found about 30 per cent, to be infested with ,S^. capillaris. Ruser, in 1891, found the parasite in, 19.5 per cent., of the sheep which were slaughtered at the abattoir at Kiel. In the course of the invasion of 8. capillari$^ iNlMAL IpAEASITES 413 "ive find in the lungs, as already stated, a tubercular, lobular infil- tration of a-gray or grayish-yellow color. Later, however, there are more or less numerous tubercles, in size varying from a millet seed' to that, of a lentil or pea, and of a yellow, grayish-red, or grayish- yellow color (Fig. 111). The larger of these tubercles show a certftin resemblance to the tubercles of tuberculosis, since they- ordinarily possess a cloudy-white or yellow center. In the tubercles- the extremely friable, dead, old worms, or aspirated eggs and embryos, are found (Schlegel), while the wedge-shaped, pneumonic- iufiltrations, corresponding to the bronchial branches, contain numerous coiled bodies of worms, as well as eggs and embryos, the- latter frequently lying close together as if in a nest (Fig. 78). Koch called attention to the fact that in November he frequently found eggs and embryos in the lung tissue and in later months only the- eneapsuled parent animals. In this fact we have a characteristic difference between the lung hair-worm disease and the lung thread- Fig. 113. Strongylus capillaris from the sheep lung; fully developed specimen. Natural size at the right. worm disease (A. Miiller). S. capiUaris always penetrates in large numbers into the lung tissue and remains there, finally becoming encapsuled and dying in the capsules. 8. Jilaria, on the other hand, turns back, in case it ever leaves the bronchi, and migrates to the outside world through the trachea. In the lungs of hare and rabbits, 8. commutatus is found as a parasite. This thread worm, which possesses a length of from 30 to 70 mm. and is distinguished by its brown color (due to the dark pigmented intestine), is always found in greater or less numbers in the lung tissue and causes a limited area of inflammation. The inflammatory patches are of the size of a hemp seed or hazel nut and contain yellow, caseous material in addition to the parasites. >S'. commutatus may cause an epizootic among hare. As Schlegel demonstrated, 8. commutatus is comparatively frequent also in sheep. Indeed, Schlegel characterizes 8. commutatus as the most frequent sind tnost injurious lung worm of sheep'. According to Schlegel, the 414 INVASION DISEASES dark-brown, black, reddish- violet or reddisli-browu tubercles in the lungs of sheep alwa3^'3 contain S. coriiiimlatus in an encysted condition. Strongylus paradoxus, 16 to 20 mm. long in the male and 30 to 40 mm. long in the female, is a very common parasite, but in spite of its large numbers, causes only slight disturbances in its host. Fin. li:!. Pin. 114, IIol; limits wilh StiYinnylus paradoxus. «, iii.'iirly |ianisilio [cjci; li. parasites in li sc'ctiiiu III' a lirniicliiis. Strongylus paradoxus in an opened broncliial branch. According to my investigations, S. paradoxus was present in about 60 per cent, of the hogs which I inspected at the Berlin abattoir. According to investigations in Leipsic, Mejer estimates its occur- rence in native hogs at 19 per cent, and in Hungarian hogs at 52 per cent. The invasions are rendered conspicuous from a distance by the spots, resembling mother of pearl, at the base of the lungs (Fig. 113). The bronchi which lead to these spots are enlarged and as a rule filled with knotted worms (Fig. 114). In about 90 per cent, of the cases, according to the author's observations, the ANIMAL PARASITES 415 invasion is restricted to the base of the lungs ; in the remaining 10 per cent., larger portions, sometimes even the greater part of the lung up to the apex, are infested with the parasites. 8. paradoxus, as a rule, causes only a catarrhal bronchitis and bronchiectasis, but no pneumonia. Olt described the finer anatomical changes which 8. paradoxus produces in the lungs of hogs. According to this author, the parasite causes a desquamative bronchitis with hyperplasia and . ectasis of the tubular glands in the miicous membrane of the bronchi and hypertrophy of the bronchial mucous membrane. Moreover, bronchiectasis and parasitic tubercle formation occur in the bronchi (bronchitis and nodular chronic peri-bronchitis), as well as in the lung tissues, and these tubercles resemble in every particular the entozoic tubercles in horses' lungs (p. 328). Finally, according to Olt, in consequence of the parasitism of 8. paradoxus, lobular desquamative pneumonia may arise with ultimate recovery or a connective tissue induration, as well as small pneumonic areas which become ' casefied with a secondary localization of vegetable organisms. Little-Known Round Worms of Food Animals. Leuckart described a small encapsuled round worm resem- bling trichina, which was found in melanotic lymph glands in a beef animal. The worm was asexual and 0.14 mm. long. The nematodes which were discovered by Drechsler in the small intestine of cattle have already been described in connection with the parasitic (Esophagostomum on page 283 ; similarly the round worm discovered by Natterer in the kidney fat capsule of a hog {8derosiomum pinguicola), and the non-glanderous lung tubercles of the horse, which were shown by Olt and Grips to contain nematodes (pp. 309 and 328). In the mucous membrane of the intestines of hogs there are, according to Johne, small encapsuled larval worms resembling trichina. Johne considered them as belonging to the palisade worms. With reference to the Strongylidse discovered by Olt in the follicles of the large intestines in hogs, compare p. 283. In one instance, Kitt found a nematode under the epithelium , and between the papillae of the mucous membrane of the tongue in a hog. Leuckart considered that this was probably a true filaria (compare also the observation of Korzil, p. 407). Finally,\Ebertz reported concerning the finding of a parasite in the musculatuie and lungs of a sheep. This find requires further 416 INVASION DISEASES ^planation. A butcher had jokingly requested a trichina inspectoir,. recently appointed to ofSce, to inspect the meat of a young sheep -which during life had exhibited a poor nutritive condition, muscular trembling and coughing. The trichina inspector removed the diaphragm, loin muscles and muscles of the shoulder, as well as the diseased portions of the lungs, and by an investigation demonstrated the presence of numerous parasites which closely resembled migrating muscle trichinae, but were distinguished from them by their smaller size and greater transparency. Leuokart declared Pig. 116. Fin. Small intestine of beef witli submucous nematode tubercles. Larva of Anchylostomum oovis from submucous tubercles of bovine in- testine (after Strose), X 35 times. that these parasites were the larval form of a filaria or of some strongylid, a nematode which probably was viviparous when parasitic in sheep. Concerning the significance of the find, Leuckart 'stated : " I do not believe that the worm can be transmitted to man, although, on the other hand, I would not desire to assert the impossibility of such transmission." According to the view of the author, it is impossible to avoid suspecting that the parasites which •were alleged to have been found in the musculature of the sheep ANIMAL PARASITES 417 came from the lungs and were allowed to get into the muscles by improper preparation of the material for inspection. Sanitary Significance of Organs Infested with Parasites "Which Are Non-Transmissible to Man. — In the unusually frequent occurrence of such parasites in the internal organs of food animals, it is required, irom the standpoint of national economy — and this is never opposed to hygienic, interests — that as many as possible of the parasitized organs should be put in a condition fit for consumption by the careful removal of the parasites. In eases of slight invasion, when the integrity of the parenchyma of the organ is still preserved, there is no reason for restricting free traflSc in the organ. Only in case of excessive invasion are the remains of the org ii n-^.ropo. In certain tropical countries, as, for, ANIMAL PARASITES 425 -example, Abyssinia, it- was well known, on the other hand, that this "worm was of very common occurrence in cattle. The rarity of beef measle worms among the native cattle of Europe was quite striking, for it stood in unexplainable contrast to the frequency of the appearance of Taenia saginata in man. Physicians uniformly reported concerning the decrease in numbers of T. solium, the tape- worm which develops from pork measles, while T. saginata not only did not decrease, but was on the increase. According to Ziislin, T. saginata at the present time occurs in Switzerland from nine to ten times more frequently than the previ- ously equally common, if not more common, T. solium. Both in Basel, in 1,526 autopsies, found T. solium in no case and T. saginata in eleven cases. In Tiibingen, Vierordt, in an examination of eleven tapeworm patients, found T. saginata in nine cases and T. solium in two cases. According to Mangold, 128 tapeworm patients were treated in Tiibingen between the beginning of 1885 and the end of 1894 ; of this number, 120 were infested with T. saginata, six with T. solium and two with Bothriocephalus latus. In this connection it is worthy of note that all six cases of T. solium occurred in the first year of the report. This condition agrees with that which has been found by statistical investigation in Vienna, Holstein and Italy. Since the 60's, Krabbe identified 400 tapeworms which were sent to him from various parts of Denmark. His studies yielded the following instructive results : Year. T. Saginata. T. Solium. T. CUCUME- EINA. BOTHKIO- CEPHALDS LATUS. Before 1869 1Sfi9-1880 1S80-1887 1887-1895 37 67 86 89 53 19 5 1 4 4 6 9 11 5 5 Total 379 77 15 30 According to Berenger and Perand, the number of tsenise found in Prance in the marine hospitals increased from 0.2 per cent, in 1865 to 14.5 in 1890; in the city hospitals, from 2.6 per cent, in 1866 to 6.14 per cent, in 1890. Simultaneously T. saginata became very frequent, while T. solium., on the other hand, became unusually rare. Of the 191 tapeworm cures concerning which Berenger and 4Si6 INVASION DISEASES Ferand reported, 112 whole taenise with the head were passed. In all 112 oases the species was T. saginata. In the United States, Stiles made a study of 297 tapeworms, which, without exception, proved to be specimens of T. saginata. Herff, on the basis of forty years' practice, reports that T. saginata is very common in Texas. This striking disproportion between the appearance of T. saginata and the measle worms in cattle was explained by thfr discovery which was made by municipal meat inspection in Berlin- At the suggestion of Hertwig, late director of Berlin meat inspection, after a number of occasional discoveries of measle worms in the masticating muscles, it was ordered that in all cattle which were submitted for inspection the masticatory muscles should be examined by means of an incision. From this order the surprising result was obtained that, in sharp contrast to the first five years (1883 to 1888), in which only four cases of beef measle worm were demonstrated, several hundred cases were found in a single year. This frequent findicg of cysticerci could not be explained by assum- ing that the bladder worms were suddenly becoming more common among cattle. They had been formerly overlooked, for the reason,, as appeared later, that cattle are only rarely so strongly infested that the worms appear on the surface of the muscles during the ordinary inspection at the time of slaughter. It frequently occurred that beef measle worms were found only in the muscles of mastica- tion, while no other examples could be found, as a rule, in all of the musculature, even by a most careful inspection. The result of investigations in later years corresponds completely to that of the first year and justifies the assumption that the muscles of mastica- tion are to be considered as the most usual location of beef measla worms. It is a remarkable fact that more male than female cattle ar& found to be measly. In Neisse, for example, the ratio of male measly cattle to female was 8 : 5, although in that locality more cows and calves were slaughtered than bulls and oxen. This peculiar condition may be explained in the first place by the fact that the majority of male cattle are slaughtered at a young age, in which the infestation from larval tapeworms usually occurs, and also by the fact that the beef measle worms, after having infested an animal may later become entirely disintegrated (The Author). Eeissmann compiled the following interesting table concerning the relationship of sex and infestation by cysticerci in Berlin. The following numbers of animals were found measly : ANIMAL PARASITES 427 Year. BUT.T.S. Steers, Cows; Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. 1892-93 1895-96 1899, 101 110 354 .118 .327 .554 86 113 103 .147 .209 .548 38 47 86 .134 .156 .309 9r-m Usual Location and Fbequency. — In by far the greater num- ber of cases, cattle show only a slight invasion, with the seat of the parasite in the masticatory muscles and heart. Thus, in Berlin, beef muscle worms were found distributed in the following locations, during the different years of the report, 1888-1890 : 1. In the masticatory muscles 316 3. In the masticatory muscles and heart 39 3. In the masticatory muscles and cervical muscles 1 4. In the masticatory muscles and the tongue 4 5. In the cervical muscles 1 6. In the cervical muscles and tongue 1 7. In the tongue 2 8. In the tongue and heart 3 9. In the thoracic muscles and tongue 1 10. In the whole musculature 23 According to these figures the cysticerci, except in twenty-twa cases in which they were distributed throughout the body, were located : 1. In the masticatory muscles 360 3. In the heart 41 3. In the tongue 10 4. In the cervical muscles 3 5. In the thoracic muscles 1 In later years the same condition prevailed. In the year 1899, for example, of 785 measly cattle, 754 showed only 1 cyaticercus, and in 767 cases the larval tapeworms were found only in the masticatory muscles (in 266 animals, only in the internal ; in 488, only in the external, and in 13, in both the internal and external masticatory muscles) ; 14 times in the heart ; 9 times in the masticatory muscles and the heart ; once in the heart and in the tongue ; 3 times in the masticatory muscles and tongue ; once in the masticatory muscles, heart and thoracic muscles ; once in the masticatory muscles, heart, and diaphragm ; once in the heart, shoulder and thoracic muscles ; 428 INVASION DISEASES and in the remaining cases generally distributed throughout the muscles. Furthermore, in other German abattoirs, as in foreign countries, •with the regular inspection of the masticatory muscles, only occasionally are cysticerci found in cattle. The proportion of measly cattle in the kingdoms of Prussia and Saxony, in which cattle are regularly inspected for cysticerci in the abattoirs, averages about J per cent., ranging from .16 per cent, to 4 per cent.* From the account already presented concerning the distribution of beef measle worms in individual cases, it is apparent that next to the masticatory muscles, but much more rarely than these, the heart was infested by the larval tapeworms. This fact was estab- lished in Switzerland before it was discovered in Berlin. Zschokke asserts that in the Canton of Zurich 19 cases of measle worm in cattle and S8 in calves were observed in 1886 as a result of careful inspection of the heart. Melchers reported also from Neisse that he found as many cases of infestation by measle worms in the heart as iu the head or masticatory muscles. At first, chief attention was directed to the finding of beef measle worms in the internal masticatory muscles. Glage, however. * The number of cases of infestation from cysticerci in cattle has increased from year to year in consequence of the more generally applied inspection for these larval tapeworms. The number of oases in the public abattoirs of the Kingdom of Prussia amounted to 567 in 1893, 1.143 in 1895, 5,471 (.5 per cent.) in 1899; and in the Kingdom of Saxony, 47 in 1893, 237 in 1895 and 496 (.46 per cent.) in 1899. Cysticerci are most frequently found in the abattoirs at Neisse, Danzig, Madge- burg, Eisenach, Aachen, Marienwerder and Kiel. The following numbers were found in : Neisse 1891-1896 3.3 -i. per cent. Danzig 1894-1900 36-3.76 Madgeburg 1893-1899 26 -1.319 Eisenach 1893-1894 1.91 Aachen 1895-1898 17 -1.24 Marienwerder 1893-1895 34 -1.02 Kiel. 1891-1899. 31 - .8 Dresden 1898 477 Berlin 1893-1899 16 - .47 Konigsberg in Prussia 1899 477 Leipsic 18DO-190O - .33 Oppeln 1894 23 Concerning beef cysticerci in foreign countries, reports have been made by Krabbe in Copenhagen, Morot in Troyes, Messner in Carlsbad, Mautner in Ischl, Muny in Puime, and several Italian authors. According to Krabbe, 133 or 0.044 per cent, of the 30,000 cattle which were slaughtered iu the abattoir at Copenhagen ia 1894, were found to be measly. ANIMAL PARASITES 429- showed that the external masticatory muscles are infested with equal frequency and even when the measle worms were not found in the internal masticatory muscles. In addition to the masticatory muscles and the heart, the tongue, cervical muscles, muscular portion of the diaphragm and intercostal and thoracic muscles must be considered as favorite locations for the beef measle worm. According to Noack, these parasites are frequently encountered in cutting up measly beef animals, in the muscle group known as the round and rump. With the exception of the heart, the vital organs of cattle are not usually infested with cysticerci. Only in cases of extensive invasions are the lymph glands, lungs, liver and brain infested. Exceptionally, however, in cases of quite slight invasions, cysticerci are found in the lymph glands, lungs, liver, brain and esophagus. In an African beef animal, Morot found the internal mastica- tory muscles less strongly infested with cysticerci than the tongne and heart. The animal in question was extensively infested. In addition to the tongue and heart, cysticerci were found in larga numbers in the muscles of the shoulder, foreleg and also in those of the back, rump and hind quarter. Diagnosis. — The recognition of fully-developed, uninjured cysticerci is not difficult. It is only on the surface of the body that they easily escape notice in consequence of desiccation (Laboulbene). In other cases, the thin wall and the cyst with the invaginated scolex, which, however, may be easily protruded by pressure between the two fingers, constitutes unmistakable evidence of cysticerci. We have also the characteristic corrugation of the caudal cyst, the neck permeated with calcareous corpuscles, and, Anally, the head armed with four sucking disks, but without hooks. These characters make certain the identification of the cysticercns of Taenia saginata, when examined under the microscope. Under certain conditions, the positive demonstration of unde- veloped or degenerated cysticerci may be more difficult ; in the first case, when the differentiation into scolex and caudal cyst has not yet taken place, and in the latter case, when total calcification has obliterated all normal structure of the parasites. In the first case, however, the peculiar pear shape or round form of the immature •cysticerci, surrounded by newly-formed connective tissue, and the bloody exudate (Figs. 126, 127) render a provisional diagnosis possible. Iq the latter case, as shown by the author, the demon- 430 INVASION DISEASES stration of calcareous corpuscles is decisive.* For the demonstra- iiou of these diagnostically important characters, it is sufficient to exauiiue an ordinary teased preparation under slight magnification. For the detection of isolated cysticerci, it is absolutely neces- sary to examine carefully in every beef animal the masticatory muscles aud the heart. t Fk;. 12.") O ^ Qdo Fin. r:!(i. Fill. 107 ? U ^ Q "' Oo Oo '^ (P\ O ' Q ■ Cilf-iii mis 1 ( r|,i|. cles friin a teu'-ed pre- JjccI bladikr wi.nn- in ili.'\(.liiiuiient. ]kii,iti >ii I I' ,-1 casL'fieil blailder worm, X 15I) I iniL's. Caseous detritus uliove to the left. In the demonstration of cysticerci in sausages, Schmidt-Miil- heim proposed the following method, which is based on the resistance of the scolex to the digesting power of the gastric juice : A small sample of sausage or minced meat is digested for several hours continuously at a temperature of 40' C. and with repeated stirring in sis to eight times its volume of artificial gastric juice, which is easily obtained by extraction of the minced mucous membrane of a hog's stomach with 0..5 per cent, hydrochloric acid. * Under the term ealcareoiis eorpiiseles arc understood the delicate, glassy, transparent disks which occur by thousands in tlie neck ol the cysticerci. They are round, ov,,l, I'eiiirorni or sausage-shaped. The majority of them,' however, possess a round or wA f.u'in (Fiy-. 12.",). The calcareous corpuscles vary m size between 0.0015 and .01!) mm. and consist ot albuminate ot lime. After the aildition of dilute acids there is a residue wliich shows the original form of the calcareous corpuscles. t Formerly in southern Germany, the rei|uircmeiit ot au inspection for beef measles was omitted and partly for tlie curious alleged I'cason tluit it was .superfluous since the meat was eaten in a cooked eondilion. Tlie fallacy of this reasonin-- is shown by statistics collected by Mangold from clinics in the Qniversitv of Tubin^n in which, during a comparatively short period, 120 persons were treated for T^nnia saginata infestation. ANIMAL PARASITES 431 "While the meat and fat are digested and the latter collects in the form of a more or less considerable layer of fat on the surface of the fluid, only the wall of the cyst of the cystieerci which may be present is attacked and the scoleces (and especially the circle of hooks in the hog measle worm) exhibit an extraordinary resistance to the action of the gastric juice. Since these possess also a rather high specific gravity, they collect at the bottom of the vessel and may be at once recognized in this situation as white bodies of the size of rice grains. Upon closer examination, especially in water, it is found that the white bodies, in which, even after exposure to the gfistric juice for a day, only traces of an incipient solution are ap- parent, exhibit strongly marked transverse folds and that the completely intact head' of the cysticercus is withdrawn into the hollow cephalic prolongation or is protruded. In both cases the head is easily isolated by means of dissecting needles. The sucking disks and, in the case of hog measle worm, the circle of hooks, then become apparent under a magnification of 20 diameters after clarifying the preparation in dilute glycerine. Bladder worm calcified at a young stage, with strongly developed con- nective tissue capsule, x 35 diam. Eissling proposed a simpler method of demonstrating cystieerci in sausage. This is based on the different specific gravity of the scoleces of the cystieerci and the muscle fibers and is practically as follows : A lye is prepared from caustic soda, potash, or some other readily-soluble alkali, in such concentration that pieces of meat which are poor in fat readily float on the surface. After it is clarified as much as possible, the lye is poured into a sufficiently broad glass vessel containing from one to four liters and the vessel drawn out to a point at the lower end. The finely minced meat or sausage to be examined is mixed with a small quantity of lye, and, without being crushed, is stirred so as to form a uniformly thin broth and is then added to the lye. Water is added, while the lye is being con- 432 IKYASION DISEASES stantly stirred, until some of the pieces of meat begin to sint^ If cysticerci are present, they immediately sink to the bottom and are then easily isolated by pouring off the rest of the materiaL In order to test the viability of the cysticerci, we may use the method of warming (Leuckart and Perroncito). Living cysticerci when heated to a temperature of"30 to 40° C. exhibit under the microscope active movements of the rostellum, sucking disks and other parts of the head and neck ; while killed or dead cysticerci remain motionless. This thermo-microscopic investigation may be undertaken conveniently in the Nuttal microscope thermostat as well as in the simpler and cheaper warming apparatus for microscopic investigation devised by Kabitz and Kissling (Zeit f. Fleisch. u. Ililchyg., VI). DiEPEEENTiAL DIAGNOSIS. — The beef measle worm may be con- fused with the larval form of Taenia marginata (Gysticercus tenuicollis} and with echinococci. Cysticercus tenuicollis is not found in the striated musculature, but only under the serous membranes and, in young animals, also in the liver. Furthermore, it possesses a double circle of character- istically-formed hooks (page 397). Echinococci, which occasionally occur also in the musculature, are distinguished from cysticerci by their round form and by the absence of any structure corresponding in size and form to the scolex of cysticerci. The echinococcus is either sterile — that is, without any head-like structure — or fertile — that is, furnished with numerous brood capsules. Furthermore, the lamellate structure of the cuticula of echinococci furnishes a good differential diagnostic character (page 512). As a rule, the lamellate structure is also apparent in degenerated echinococci and furnishes, therefore, in such cases, a certain criterion for diagnosis. Kieckhafer described a case of lymph cysts resembling cysti- cerci which had given occasion to confusion with beef measle worms. The cysts, the nature of which was immediately apparent upon incision, were located on the hyoglossus muscle and varied in size from that of peas to hazel nuts. Judgment.— A tapeworm {Tcenia saginata) develops in the alimentary canal of man from the beef measle worm. This tape- worm may affect the health of the host by causing distress, by withdrawing nutriment and frequently by recurrent digestive ANIMAL PARASITES 433 disturbances. Measly beef may, therefore, be considered a danger- ous food material. In this connection it should be remembered that Tcenia saginata, which develops from the beef measle worm, is difficult to expel. On the other hand, the beef measle worm is not so dangerous to human health as the hog measle worm, since, according to all reliable observations, autoiuvasion — that is, the formation of cysticerci in the vital organs of the host of Tcenia saginata— does not occur in cases of infestation by this parasite. In general, the cysticercus disease, as rightly asserted by Bollinger, cannot be considered in the same class with other zoonoses (anthraXi glanders, intestinal sepsis, trichinosis), since the tapeworm disease which arises from eating measly beef is not actually dangerous to life and often causes only very slight disturbances, and, us compared with the echinococcus disease, is to be characterized as almost harmless. Measly beef is dangerous only in a raw or half-cooked conditiou. This is shown by the fact that cooks and servant girls who commonly sample the meat during its cooking, furnish a large con- tingent to the hosts of Tcenia saginata.* By means of a suitable treatment of measly meat, we are in a position to kill the cysticercus. and render harmless the infesting parasites. Judgment op Immatuee and Degenebated Cysticerci. — It must be considered as certain that cysticerci are incapable of de- veloping into tape worms in the intestines of man before they have reached a certain developmental stage. This power is wanting, at least in cases where the head is absent or just beginning to develop, as well as in cases of incomplete development of the suckers. Simi- larly, completely degenerated cysticerci, in which the parasite itself appears to be cloudy or already calcilied, must be regarded as harmless. Meat infested with scuh cysticerci may, therefore, be admitted to the market as harmless food material, without any- special treatment, if it appears certain from an examination that: only undeveloped or degenerated cysticerci are present. In the previous discussion, however, attention has already been called to the fact that along with degenerated cysticerci intact indi- viduals may also occur, and this is frequently the case in cattle. * The connection between the frequent oecuFrenoe of tapoworms and the custom of eating raw meat appears very plainly also from the statistics of army physicians. According to these statistics there is in no one of the German army corps so high a percentage of tapevform infestations as in the Tenth, which is recruited chiefly from, lower Saxony, where the consumption of raw minced meat is widely prevalent 434 INYASION DISEASES The occurrence of intact cysticerci in the muscles of mastication at' the same time that degenerated individuals are found in the heart is especially frequent. For, in the latter organ, the cysticerci may degenerate even during development. The simultaneous occur- rence of intact and degenerated cysticerci in the other muscles is rarer. In cases where the degenerated cysticerci are found, a care- ful examination of the favorite locations of the parasites should be undertaken in order to determine whether liying specimens are found with the degenerated i^dividuals. In an examination which: I made at the Berlin abattoir, I found that when the muscles of mastication contained only degenerated cysticerci, the other muscu- lature contained no living parasites. Method of Desteoying Oysticeeci. — Beef measle worms may be killed by heating and by laying in brine. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that these parasites naturally disintegrate at the latest within three weeks after the death of the host. Finally, a destruction of the cysticerci may be brought about by freezing. 1. Killing by Heat. — Perroncito observed that a temperature of 45° G. was sufficient to kill beef measle worms, as evidenced by the fact of their cloudy appearance, their non-motility when exam- ined under the microscope, and the negative results from transmis- sion experiments. Hertwig found in cysticerci which had been exposed to a temperature of 65° 0. that the scolex, which in a living condition was unusually resistant to pressure, was so soft that it could be compressed between slides, like beef tallow. This altera- tion must be considered as an excellent criterion of the accom- plished destruction of cysticerci by boiling. By means of the above demonstration, Hertwig simultaneously disproved the wide- spread erroneous view that cysticerci which had been killed by boiling or roasting could be detected in eating the meat by a crack- ling sound between the teeth. In masticating boiled or roasted' meat, one can not detect any cysticerci which may be present. Me.asly beef may thus be rendered harmless by boiling. It should be observed that meat is a poor conductor of heat and that a high degree of heat is attained in the interior of the pieces only slowly. This question will be considered more in detail in the spe- cial chapter on the " Boiling of Meat, etc." In this connection it. may simply be mentioned that, according to experiments thus far made, the certain destruction of all cysticerci present in meat may be assumed if the meat, in pieces of any convenient length, but not ANIMAL PABASITE8 435 too thick (up to 12 cm. in thickness), has been boiled for two hours. The meat is then well done and on cross section appears to be of a uniform gray color. Since this alteration of color does not occur until a temperature of 60° to 70° 0. is reached (page 202), or a tem- perature which is more than sufficient to destroy the beef measle worm, we possess in this change a very efficient method for deter- mining whether a sufficiently high temperature has been produced uniformly throughout the meat for the destruction of the cysti- cerci. Measly beef which after boiling exhibits a gray color on cross section may thus with certainty be characterized as a harmless food material. Against compulsory boiling of measly beef before sale there is the one objection that a considerable depreciation of value is neces- sarily connected with the process. By the process of boiling, the meat loses as much as 50 per cent, in weight, and purchasers of boiled beef, even at low prices, are difficult to find. 2. Killing Cssticebci by Pickling. — Likewise, concerning the destruction of cysticerci by pickling, we owe the first experiments to the noted Italian investigator, Perroncito. This author demon- strated that isolated cysticerci are killed within twenty-four hours in a solution of common salt. But little use, however, is made of pickling for rendering measly meat harmless, since detailed infor- mation concerning the penetration of salt solutions into the interior of the pieces of meat is wanting. The author, therefore, tested this question by treating measly meat with salt solutions and examining the cysticerci contained in the meat, after the lapse of fourteen days, by heating in Nuttal's microscope-thermostat. The brine used in these experiments was of the same composition as that used by butchers in the ordinary commercial preservation of meat. It consisted of 2^ parts saltpetre, 20 parts cane sugar, 250 parts common salt, and 1000 parts water. The brine solution, therefore, contained 25 per cent of common salt. The experiments showed that cysticerci contained in measly beef and pork invariably died within fourteen days, provided the meat was laid in the brine in pieces not too thick (up to 6 cm. in thickness), or provided that the brine was injected into the pieces of meat by means of a brine syringe, in accordance with the sug- gestion of Glage. The destruction of the cysticerci keeps pace with the degree of pickling. For demonstrating the completion of the process of pick- 436 INVASION DISEASES ling, we possess a simple means in a 1 per cent, solution of uitrat©^ of silver (the author). The solution of nitrate of silver produces no striking change on the cut surface of fresh muscle meat, but, on the- cut surfaces of completely pickled meat, a temporary milky cloudi- ness is produced (chloride of silver). For making this test, one carefully washes in water the pieces of meat to be examined, dries the surface with a cloth, and makes a rapid cut through the middle of the piece of meat. The cut surface is then held upward and a few drops of a solution of nitrate of silver are allowed to fall on- the middle of the section. In order to pi-oceed with certainty, the solution of nitrate of silver may be poured into a funnel-shaped cavity which may easily be produced in the middle of the cut sur- face of the meat by cutting out (with a knife) a conical piece of meat. Glage has proposed a more accurate process for the demon- stration of the completion of the pickling process. He employs- a 2 per cent, aqueous solution of nitrate of silver which is ren- dered non-sensitive toward small quantities of salt by the addition of ammonia. The preparation of Glage's reagent for the demon- stration of pickling takes place according to the following recipe : Argent, nitric g Aqu. dest 100 Mf . Sol. Adde exaotissime Liquor. Ammon. canst, q. s. ad prsecip. et perfect, resolut.. Argenti; deinde Liquor. Ammon. caust. volumetr. 40 cc. Aqu. dest. q. s. ad 200 cc. in vitro flavo. On account of the excess of 40 cc. of normal ammonia, the mix- ture is so desensitized as a reagent for chlorine that in 10 cc. of the mixture— and not less should be used for each test— a precipi- tate of chloride of silver does not occur until after the addition of 2.7 cc. of a 1:100 normal salt solution, while smaller quantities do not alter the clear reagent or merely produce a precipitation of chloride of silver which is immediately redissolved. In the use of Glage's reagent, there is no precipitation of the chlorides which normally occur in the body and which in the use of the simple solution of silver nitrate may interfere to a considerable extent, especially in the differentiation of fresh and salted livers. For carrying out the test, one should pour 10 cc. of the reagent into a. glass vessel furnished with a polished glass stopper and without^ any neck-like constriction and should then drop into the reagent one gram of the meat to be examined, taken from the inside of a, piece. If, after vigorous shaking, a white precipitate is formed ANIMAL PARASITES 437 "whicli becomes violet or blackish in sunlight, the meat is to be con- sidered as salted throughout. The pickling of measly beef, as compared with compulsory- boiling, possesses the advantage that the meat by the former process loses only about 6.5 per cent, in weight, and is much more easily sold than boiled meat (Eieck). 3. Natural Death of Beef Measle Worms During Long- Preseryation of the Meat. — It was likewise Perroncito who ob- served that cysticeici die within a certain time after the death of the host. He found in a calf which had been artificially infested •with cysticerci that all the parasites were dead 14 days after the slaughter of the animal. The tests instituted by the author showed that natural death does not uniformly occur in the above- named period, but that by preserving measly beef for three weeks the cysticerci contained in it are rendered harmless. The demonstration of the fact that the cysticerci in meat pre- served for three weeks were dead was confirmed not only by the application of heat, but, in order to remove all doubt, by digestiott experiments and especially by infection experiments in which, be- side the author, a large number of students and assistants at the Veterinary High School at Berlin took part. The results thus ob- tained have been confirmed by the autoinfection experiments of the if they are shown to be -free f fom cysticerci by inspection, they require no treatment for rendering them harmless, but in such casea may be freely admitted to the market. (b) Hog Bladder Worm (Cysticercus Cellulosse). Nature. — The hog measle worm is the larval stage of a thin taenia of man, erroneously considered a solitary tapeworm {Tcenia solium, Eudolphi). T. solium is 2 to 3 m. long ; the mature pro- "^- 139. Pig. 130. Circle of lioo.ib ol the pork bladder worm. Prom a photograph. X 35 diameters. Scolex of Cysticercus cellulosse. X 13 diameters. glottides are provided with a uterus which sends out from seven to ten lateral branches on either side. Ou account of its location in the connective tissue which lies between the muscle fibers, the hog measle worm is given the name " connective tissue bladder worm " (Cysticercus celluloses). 0. cellidosce is provided with a double row of hooks (Fig. 130). HiSTOEiOAL. — According to Falck, the hog bladder worms wevft described by Aristotle. Moreover, they were mentioned iu tbti ^ANIMAL PAKASrCES 443 earliest regalations can&erning meat inspection, and the freqnencj df their occurrence led to the establishment of special sale booths, , "measle banks " or freibanks. According toBraun, it was demon- strated by the experiments of Kiichenmeister (1855), Humbert (1854), Leuckart (1856), HoUenbach (1859) and Heller (1876) that Oysticercus celluhsee develops into Tcenia solium in the human intes- tines. Similarly, by feeding ripe proglottides to hogs, Cysticercus eMuhsoR was repeatedly reproduced (Van Beneden, 1853 ; Haubner and Kiichenmeister, 1855 ; Leuckart, 1856 ; Hosier, 1865 ; Gerlach, 1870, et al). MoBPHOLOGT. — With regard to its location between the muscle fibers and also in great degree with respect to its microscopic peculiarities, Cysticercus ceUulosce agrees with the beef measle worm. For the rest, the hog bladder worm shows the following peculiari- ties : The cyst is more delicate and therefore more transparent than in the case of beef measle worm. The scolex, when iuvagi- nated into the caudal bladder, therefore, shows through the cyst more conspicuously in the case of the hog measle worm than in the beef measle worm. Moreover, the scolex of the hog measle worm possesses a double circle of hooks which is wanting in the beef measle worm. The number of hooks amounts to 22 to 28 (Fig. 130). The hooks are of compressed form with strong bases and gather slightly curved points (Fig. 134). The length of the large hooks is 0.16 to 0.18 mm. ; that of the small hooks, 0.11 to 0.14 mm. The size of the hog measle worm varies, as in the case of the beef measle worm, according to the stag^ of development in which the parasites are found at the time of the slaughter of their host. By means of feeding experiments, Gerlach demonstrated, the follow- ing facts concerning the development of the hog measle worm : 1. Cysticerci 20 days old : A delicate transparent vesicle of iihe size of a pin head without enveloping membrane ; rudimentary head indicated by a cloudy point. 2. Cysticerci 40 days old : Enveloping membrane still very delicate ; of the size of a mustard seed or sometimes larger ; head very plain ; sucking disks and a circle of hooks recoguizable, but jiot completely developed. 3. Cysticerci 60 days old : While in the enveloping membrane, of the size of a pea or larger ; when taken out of the connective tis- sue enveloping membrane, more reniform ; head projecting some- what from the vesicle as a faint white button-like structure ; true 444 INVASION DISEASES neck still wanting ; row of hooks and sucking disks, completely developed ; difference in size. 4. Cysticerci 110 days old : All of about tlie same size ; neck developed; transverse furrows indicated; the head, free from the firm enveloping membrane, lies invaginated into the caudal cyst. After the head is forced out, the cysticerci have the form of a flask. OccuEKENOE.— In contrast with the distribution of Gysticercus hovis, C. celMoscB is comparatively rare in our native hogs. In some Pig. 131. / Heart of a hog infec-ted with Cystioerous cell u I esse. parts of Germany, as Bavaria, Wiirtemburg, Baden, and Hohenzol- lern, the hog nieasle worm is almost never observed at present. This rare occurrence of the hog measle worm corresponds with that of Tcenia solium in man.* Formerly the hog measle worm was of quite frequent occurrence, even among the native hogs. At pres- ent only hogs imported from Bussian Poland, Galicia, Bohemia, Servia and Boumania are found to be frequently infested with cysticerci. Among Servian hogs, the introduction of which into * According to Mangold, the last cases of T. solium at the Tiiblngen Medical Clinic were observijd in 1887. ANIMAL PABASITES 445 ■ Crermany was quite extensive up to the beginning of the 90's, one- half of the shipments were frequently found to be measly. The gradual disappearance of the hog measle worm from Ger- many is a classical demonstration of the certain and beneficial effect of a regulated meat inspection. In this respect there is no essential difference between northern and southern Germany. While in northern Germany meat inspection has only recently been subject to general regulations, the extermination of hog measle worms was begun long ago, for trichina inspectors were instructed to take notice of the presence of cysticerci when taking samples for trichina inspection. At present it is only in the eastern provinces of Prussia that cysticerci in hogs are demonstrated with comparative fre- quency. It is worthy of mention that, according to the results of Ger- lach's feeding experiments, the eggs of Tcenia solium are unable to develop into cysticerci except in young swine (pigs up to one-half year old). Frequency of Cysticerci in Hogs. — Concerning the frequency of cysticerci in native hogs, the foUpwing figures are available : In the Kingdom of Prussia, according to the seven-year average (1876 -1882), one in every 305 hogs slaughtered was measly (Johne). Later the proportion became constantly wider. From 1886 to 1889, it was 1 in 551; in 1890-1892, 1 in 817 ; and, finally, in 1896, 2 in 1,470. In the Kingdom of Saxony, in 1894, one in every 686 hogs was found to be measly. In 1895, the proportion widened to 1 in 2,049, and in 1896, 1 in 5,886. In Berlin, in 1883-1884, 1,621 measly hogs were found among 244,343 ; in 1884-1885, 1,468 in 264,727 ; in 1885-1886, 2,740 in 285,882 ; in 1886-1887, 1,786 in 310,840 ; in 1887-1888, 2,333 in ■419,848; in 1888-1889, 2,328 in 479,124; and in 1889-1890, 1,887 in 442,115. Thus, as an average for the seven years, one measly hog was found in each 173 slaughtered. In 1895-1896, tbe rela- tion of measly hogs to the total number of slaughtered hogs was 1 to 1,000 ; and in 1896-1897, 1 to 1,363. In southern Germany, measly hogs are rare. In the Kingdom of Prussia, hog measle worms are much more frequent in the eastern provinces than in the western. Thus, in 1892 the ratio of measly hogs to the total number of slaughtered hogs in the governmental district of Marienwerder was 1 : 28 ; in . Oppeln, 1 : 80 ; in Konigsberg, 1 : 108 ; in Stralsund and Posen, , -446 INVASION DISEASES 1 : 187, and in Danzig, Frankfurt, and Bromburg, 1 : 250, as con- trasted with Arnsberg with a proportion of 1 : 865 ; Coblenz, 1 : 975 ; Diisseldorf, 1 : 1,070 ; Miinster and "Wiesbaden, 1 : 1,900. The aver- age proportion of measly hogs for the whole Kingdom of Prussia was 1 : 1,290, and for the eastern provinces 1 : 604. The diminution in the number of measly hogs is best shown by the following percentage computation : (a) Kingdom of Prussia. Year Percentage of measly hogs 1876-1883 0.834 1886-1889 181 1890-1893 133 1899 09 (b) Kingdom of Saxony. 1894 0.157 1896 017 1899. 010 (c) Berlin. 1883-1890. 0..5;7 1693-1893 319 1895-1896 099 1899 043 Concerning the frequency of Cysticercus cdluhsce in hogs slaugh- tered in foreign countries, there are only meagre data. According to Krabbe, only one measly hog was found among 1,334,000 slaugh- tered at the abattoir in Copenhagen. On the other hand, Prett- ner found 3.44 per cent, of the hogs slaughtered in Prag to be in- fested with cysticerci. Moreover, of the hogs imported from Eus- sian Poland into Myslowitz, Beuthen, Kattowitz and Tarnowitz, more than 1 per cent, were measly. Occurrence of Cysticercus cellulosce in Otlver -4mmafe.— In addition to hogs, C. cellulosce may be found occasionally also in sheep, dogs, bear and deer. Furthermore, according to Braun, this parasite may occur in cats, rats and apes. During the sanitary police inspection of slaughtered dogs in recent years, cysticerci have frequently been found ; for example, in 1890, a dog was found in Chemnitz extensively infested with cysti- cerci. Cmefied and Calcified Hog Measle Worms.— The hog measle worm, as well as the beef measle worm, may undergo regressive metamorl ANIMAL PAKA8ITES- Mr Fie. 133. phosis. This alteration, however, is more rarely observed in the former than in the latter. As a rule, hog measle worms appear to degenerate at a very early developmental stage. The dead cysti- cerci appear as elongated or spherical casefied or calcified struc- tures which usually stand at the limit of microscopic visibility, but occasionally reach the size of hempseed. Casefied hog measle worms have a gray color, while calcified specimens are pure white. Caseation and calcification are observed in both slight and exten- sive invasions, but are more frequent in the latter case. Moreover, in hogs, as contrasted with cattle, as a rule all of the cysticerci are affected with regressive metamor- phosis, excepting only the rare cases of extensive invasion in which, in addition to the muscula- ture, also the liver, lungs and other ^ -^ /f ' Afc-jSii I vital organs are infested with cys- ticerci; for the cysticerci in the viscera, especially those in the liver and lungs, usually disinte- grate at an early stage, while the muscle cysticerci undergo further development in a normal manner. When numerous cysticerci have disintegrated, the heart and skeletal musculature is found to be sprinkled with white granules (" calcareous concretions "). Un- der the microscope, a tough con- nective tissue membrane and a more or less strongly calcified center may be demonstrated in the calcified structure (Pig. 132). careous corpuscles and hooks are center. Bladder worm calcified at a young stage, with strongly developed con- nective tissue capsule. X*35 diam. Under certain conditions, cal- to be demonstrated in the Extensive Infestations. — In hogs, much more frequently than in <3attle, one observes extensive invasions of cysticerci. This fact is sufficiently explained by the method of managing hogs, as well as by their nature as omnivorous animals in the broadest sense. As many cases of extensive as of slight infestation are observed in hogs. The invasion of cysticerci may be so extensive that the parasites lie side- by aide in such a manner as to leave only frag- 448 INVASION DISEASES ments of active muscle substance intact. ■ In such degrees of infesta- tion the musculature is discolored grayish-red and quite watery. In slighter cases of infestation this is never the case. Moreover, in cases of extensive invasion one frequently finds cysticerci in the lymphatic glands, panniculus adiposus and brain. On the other hand, even in extensive invasions, cases in which the lungs, liver, and other viscera, in addition to the musculature, are infested with cysticerci, are very rare. Batio of Extensive to . Slight Oases of Invasion in Hogs. — In the years 1884 to 1887, according to statistics in Berlin, the ratio of extensively infested hogs to those slightly infested with cysticerci was as follows : Y&QiT Extensively Moderately Slight infested infested infesti 1884-5 54a 489 436 1885-6 1,002 743 995 1886-7 633 409 371 Hogs in which, despite a careful examination of all muscle sur- faces which are exposed by the ordinary commercial cutting up of the animals, oiity one specimen of Gysticercus cellulosce could be demon- strated, were found in the following numbers, according to the statements of Hertwig : In 1885-6, 156 ; in 1886-7, 279 ; in 1887-8, 408 ; in 1888-9, 446 ; and in 1889-90, 317. Later in Berlin it was found convenient, from practical con- siderations, to make a distinction only between extensively and slightly infested hogs. Inspection of hogs gave the following results : Slightli/ infested 333 358 307 Most Frequent Locations.— The usual seat of the hog measle worm is in the abdominal muscles, muscular portion of the dia- phragm, lumbar muscles, tongue, heart, muscles of mastication, intercostal muscles and cervical musculature, the gracilis, and sternal musculature.* These preferred locations of Gysticercus cellulosce must be most carefully examined in all slaughtered hogs, * For the purpose of inspecting the abdominal muscles, a previous removal of the retroperitoneal fat tissue is indispensable, and for inspecting the cervical muscular turo, it IS necessary that the hog be split into two lateral halves. Year Total number of Extensively measly hogs infested 1895-6 637 304' 1896-7 509 251 1899 325 118 AXIMAL PABASITES U9 and, like the heart and muscles of mastication, must in all cases be tested by iucision. Among the vital organs, the heart and brain should be named as frequent locations for the hog measle worm, and among the other organs the lymphatic glands and panniculus adiposus. Fig. 133. Fio. 134. /'^ Hooks from Cysticercus oelTuIosaB, seen from the side and in front. From photographs. a, large hooks ; b, small hooks. X 375 diameters. Preferred locations of the porlc bladder worm. a, gracilis; b, lumbar muscles; c, abdominal muscles ; d, pillars of the diaphragm ; e, costal portion of diaphragm; /, intercostal muscles; g, sternal muscles; A, neck muscu- lature; i, internal masticatory muscles. Cysticercus cellulosce is found in the other viscera only excep- tionally and, as a rule, only in case of extensive invasion. In- such cases the cysticerci are observed in the lungs, liver and spleen. Prettner found the eye to be an exceptional site of cysti- cerci; He examined the eyes of 400 measly hogs and discovered 450 INVASION DISEASES cysfcicerci in the interior of the eyes in a subretinal position in two of the hogs. The frequent occurrence of hog bladder worms in the muscu- lature of the tongue is utilized bj meat dealers in diagnosing infestation by cysticerci in living animals. For this purpose hogs ■ are thrown upon their side and the mouth opened with a stick. The tongue is then drawn out with a cloth and subjected to inspec- tion and palpation for the presence of cysticerci. Hogs thus recognized as measly during life, form a favorite material for trade in localities without regular meat inspection. This dangerous prac- tice is to be checked in all possible ways. A legal means of accomplishing this purpose is furnished by the food law, which, according to several decisions of the Imperial Court (page 111), is applicable also to living food animals, and, therefore, provides a penalty according to Section 12 for the sale of living hogsi known to be measly. Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of fully developed hog measle worms presents as little difficulty as the recognition of developed beef measle worms. In hog measle worms which have undergone 'an alijeration of their appearance, color and size in consequence of regressive meta- morphoses, the calcareous corpuscles (Pig. 125) and also the hooks ,(Fig. 134) demonstrate the presence of the remains of cysticerci. These diagnostically important parts are wanting only in cases where the hog measle worms have degenerated and become com- pletely calcified before the formation of the scolex. In this case, however, their position in the interfibrillar muscle tissue and the presence of a strong connective tissue capsule furnishes the means of making a probable diagnosis. In case cysticerci are present in the viscera, the demonstration of Cysticercus ceUidoscB must be made by means of a microscopic examination. Differential Diagnosis. — With regard to a differential diag- nosis, attention should be called to the fact that the harmless Cysticercus tenuicollis has been confused with the dangerous C. cellulosoi (Fig. 99). The harmless cysticercus, however, is distin- guished from the dangerous one, as should be again emphasized, by its exclusive occurrence under the serous covering of the viscera,, in the latter, and under the peritoneal covering of the abdominal muscles and diaphragm. C. tenuicollis is not found in the muscula- ture. Furthermore, after removing C. tenuicollis from its cystsj its ANIMAL PABASITE8 451 long neck is conspicuous (Fig. 100). And, finally, this parasite possesses from 32 to 40 hooks, as contrasted with the 22 to 28 of C. cellulosce. With regard to the hooks themselves, those of C. tenuicollis are longer, slenderer and more curved at the points than the hooks of G. cellulosce. Moreover, Schwarz called attention to the form (resembling a thumbnut) of the basal processes of the small hooks in d tenuicollis. This condition was not observed by Schwarz in C. cellulosce. It should not be forgotten, however, that even on the small hooks of C. celluloste a bifurcation or a median groove is indicated (Figs. 102, 134). Schwarz examined 1,000 specimens each of 0. cellulosce and C tenuicollis from different localities and found that in the former species there are usually 22 to 28 hooks ; in the latter, 28 to 36. Moreover, during his observations, Schwarz noted that in G. tenuicollis, as a rule (in 75 per cent, of the circles of hooks which were investigated), one or more small hooks were demonstrable, the basal process of which was bifurcated. In the 1,000 specimens of G. cellulosce examined by Schwarz, this was not the case in a single instance. Eeissmann has confirmed these observations. Judgment. — Measly pork is not merely harmful to human health like measly beef, but is dangerous. For, not only does a tapeworm, Tcenia solium, develop from the cysticercus, but there may occur the production of cysticerci in the human body by autoinfection of the host with the larvae of this tapeworm. Most probably this autoinfection is brought about by the fact that ripe proglottides of T. solium make their way into the stomach in conse- quence of an antiperistaltic movement of the intestinal contents, and in this situation embryos have an opportunity, under the influence of the gastric juice, to emerge from the eggs. On the other hand, it is possible that persons of uncleanly habits infested with tapeworms soil their fingers, during defecation, with excrement containing eggs and thus introduce the eggs into the stomach along with food. However this may be, the fact remains that C. cellidosce occurs rather frequently in man as compared with G. hovis, which has never been demonstrated with certainty in man. The danger of self-infection with the larva of T. solium lies in the fact that in man the cysticerci become located not only in the muscles but also in the vital organs, especially in the brain and eyes. Concerning the frequency and location of G. cellulosce in man, Haugg has collected the following statistics : 452 INVASION DISEASES Among 87 persons infested with cysticerci, Dressel found cysticerci in tlie brain in 72 cases ; in the muscles, on the other hand, in only 13 cases. Among 36 cases investigated by Knrl Miiller, cysticerci were found in the brain in 21, in the skeletal musculature in 12, and in the heart in 3 cases. Gribbohm described six cases, in which the brain was infested in 5 and the' brain and muscles simultaneously in one. Five cases described by Sievers showed cystiserci in the brain in all. In one case, however, cysti- cerci weie also present in the muscles. Finally, Haiigg himself, from autopsies at the Pathological Institute in Erlaugen (1874 to 1885), collected 25 cases, iu 13 of which the brain was infested, the muscles in 6 and the subeutis in 2 cases. The muscle most fre- quently infested was the pectoralis major. Von Grafe (in 80,000 patients with eye disease) observed cysticerci in the eye in 90 cases, and Everbusch has observed two such cases since 1874. According to Gast, 9 cases of intraocular cysticerci were observed at the Breslau Eye Clinic between 1885 and 1889. In southern Germany, thanks to the long existence of regulated meat inspection, cysticercus disease of man is rarer than in northern Germany. In Wiirtemburg, for example, according to Schleich,. only six cases of ocular cysticerci have ever been observed ; and in Munich, according to Bollinger, in 14,000 cadavers, only two cases of cerebral cysticerci were observed. Eecently a diminution iu tha extent of the cysticercus disease has been noted also in Berlin. According to Virchow, the proportion of cysticercus infestation in the brain has diminished since the introduction of meat inspection from 1:31 to 1:280. of the autopsies. In Berlin, Hirschbeig, in the^ years from 1869 to 1885, found 70 cases of cysticerci in the eye among 60,000 eye patients ; in the following six years, however, only two cases among 46,000 eye patients, and of these one came from Saxony. Howevei-, like measly beef, measly pork is also dangerous only in a raw condition. The latter, like the former, may be rendered harmless by pickling and boiling. In this regard, essentially the same statement may be made for the hc^ measle worm as was made concerning the beef measle worm, and likewise with regard to the utilization of measly meat in slight and extensive iuvasions in cases of the presence of undeveloped or degenerated cysticerci and with regard to the utilization of the viscera free from cysticerci. The hog measle worm, however, is distinguished from the beef measle worm by the fact that it is somewhat more resistant to heat. The ANIMAL PAEASITES 453 liog measle worm is not killed nutil a temperature of 49° 0. is reached. A further diffei'ence consists in the fact that the hog measle worms remain alive much longer than the beef measle worms after the death of their host. While beef measle worms are always found dead after a period of twenty-one days, I have found living hog measle worms in meat which has been slaughtered forty- two days. Measly pork, therefore, can not, like measly beef, be Tendered harmless by preservation in cold storage. This, however, is without practical significance, since hog measle worms are of much rarer occurrence than beef measle worms and since boiled or pickled measly pork can always be sold readily at a reasonable price. Measly pork is to be considered as harmless if it has been boiled so that the cut surface possesses a uniformly white color. Official Kegulatioiis Concerning the Method Ol Procedure with the Meat of Measly Hogs.* . With regard to the utilization of measly hogs, the following ordinance was passed in the Kingdom of Prussia, February 16, 1876 : In response to the report of October 23 of last year conGerning the complaint of Ihe Master Butcher X , on account of the destruction of measly pork ordered by police authority, we send the inclosed certified copy of the opinion given on this question by the Royal Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service, with the request that in cases of police regulations concerning hogs infested with cysticerci the suggestions made at the conclusion of the opinion should serve as a guide for legal action ; that the local police president as well as the other police authorities of the district shouUl be furnished with these instructions and that N" should be informed accordingly. Tour Excellency has requested of the undersigned Scientific Deputation for the Medical Service an opinion concerning the regulations which have been made in the interests of the sanitary police with regard to hogs found infested with cysticerci. The Deputation accordingly incloses herewith the required opinion: 1. That fat obtained from measly hogs by rendering or cooking may be utilized iin conditionally, but that lean meat can only be admitted for sale or for use in one's own household in cases where it is only slightly infested with cysticerci and is thoroughly boiled under police supervision after having been previously cut up.f 2. That no objection whatever, from a sanitary police standpoint, can be raised against the use of suitable parts of measly hogs in the preparation of soap or glue, * These regulations will become applicable throughout the whole German Empire as soon as the Imperial Meat Inspection Law comes into force. f According to a decision of the Second Criminal Senate of the Imperial Court, March 35, 1884 (p. 106), the rendered fat o£ measly hogs is to be sold under ■declaration. 454 INVASION DISEASES or against the free utilization of the skin and bristles, and the chemical utilization of" the whole body ; and that these usestare to be permitted without hesitation. 3. That in all cases in which hogs are found to be badly infested with cysticerci, care must be exercised by the police to secure the certain destruction of the carcass after this has been utilized so far as admissible.* With reference to the utilization of viscera free from cysticerci^ a decree of the Ministries of Interior and Education, June 26, 1883, permits the fat, liver and intestines of hogs found to be measly to be freely admitted to the market as food for man, provided they have been found, upon examination, to be free from cysticerci. In Bavaria the following regulations are in force, in accordance ■with the Opinion of the Royal Superior Medical Committee,. May 20, 1882 : 1. The meat of hogs extensively infested with cysticerci is to be withheld from consumption and from the public market and is to be rendered harmless in a suitable maimer. In the case of fat hogs, the separation and removal of the bacon is to be- allowed at the request of the owner. No objection can be raised to the technical utilization of such animals. 3. In cases where the cysticerci occur only sparingly in the meat, it may, according to the opinion of a scientific meat inspector and after it has been properly cooked under police supervision, be turned over to the owner for use in his own household. The owner is to be properly instructed concerning the danger to human health from measly meat and is to be made cognizant of the police regulations con- cerning the control of such matters. 3. The public sale of meat slightly infested is to be permitted in freibanks under declaration of the danger from the meat, only after it has been properly cooked under police supervision. In the Kingdom of Saxony, the meat of hogs slightly infested ■with cysticerci is to be admitted to the market in a cooked or pickled condition as non-marketable. The fat may be treated by rendering instead of boiling or pickling. The liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach and intestines of measly hogs may be utilized in a raw condition as non-marketable, provided they are found to be free from cysticerci by veterinary inspection. (c) Trichina Spiralis. Zoological Position.— According to the classification of Schneider, trichina belongs to the third group of nematodes, the Holomyaria. It is the only representative of its genus. Other *In the Prussian Governmental district of Arnsberg, it is provided that all measly hogs, whether found to be slightly or badly infested with cysticerci, are to be utilized for technical purposes only. There is no scientific basis for such a rigorous, procedure. ANIMAL PARASITES 455 nematodes have been erroneously considered to be trichinae.* Distinction is made between sexually immature individuals located in the intestines and the larvae which are found in the musculature. It is only the latter, the so-called muscle trichinae, which possess sanitary police interest, for they occur spontaneously in one food animal, the hog, and may be transmitted through the meat to man and cause in man a serious disease — trichinosis. With regard to the history of trichina, it should be stated that the English physician, Hilton, in 1832, first investigated calcified trichinae in the human cadaver, without, however, having discovered the worm in the capsule. According to Ziirn, these structures were observed in 1822 by Tiedemann, in 1828 by Peacock. The worm contained in the capsule was first noticed by Paget in 1835 in an Italian dead of tuberculosis, and was described by Owen, who received material from Paget, as the spiral hair worm (Trichina spiralis). After this determination and description, the matter rested. Other observations, to be sure, were published concerning the occurrence of encapsulated trichinae in man, for example, in England, in Berlin, Heidelberg, and in North America. Further- more, the parasite was found by Leidy in a bog in Philadelphia in 1847 and in a cat by Herbst in Gottingen, and by Guilt in Berlin. Moreover, in 1850, Herbst succeeded in infepting a badger with encapsuled trichina from a dog ; and by means of the meat of the latter, two dogs were rendered tiichinous. The sanitary police significance of trichina was, however, first recognized in 1860, as a result of an observation of Zenker and the experimental investiga- tions of Leuckart and Virchow. Zenker was the discoverer of trichinosis. As professor of pathological anatomy and general pathology at the Sui-gical-Medical Academy in Dresden, he held an autopsy in 1860 on a nineteen- year-old girl who had been received in the Dresden City Hospital as a typhoid patient and had received treatment at that place. In * So-called false trichiniB occur in vavipus animals; for example, in the muscula- tm-e and other parts ot hare, rats, mice, moles, birds and fish, nematodes are sometimes found which, in their external form, possess a certain resemblance to trichina, and have consequently been considered as such by uninformed persons. To this group belong the ascarids found in the muscle meat of moles, the filaria larvas which occur under the serous coat of the intestines in rats, the round worms in the mesentery and liver of white fish, the muscle nematodes in mice, frogs and eels (Leuckart) ; also the larvie of Strongylus retortceformis in the liver of hare ; the larval forms of ascarids in pike and carp; the filaria larva; under the serous coat of the intestines of ducks, and several species of filaria in moles, hedgehogs, lizards, meal •worms, etc. For further details, see Johne, " Der Trichinenschauer." 456 INVASION DISEASES Pig. 135. Intestinal trichinae. A, female giving birth to young; B, male, X 100 diam. (after Heller). makiufT the post mortem ou the girl, the intestinal .ilterations characteristic of typhoid were not found. Ou the other hand, Zenker found sexually mature tri- chinae in the intestines and numerous non-encapsuled trichina larvae in the mus- cles. Further investiga- tion shovi^ed that the girl took sick at Christmas time after eating pork and that the butcher who had furnished the meat, as well as several of his customers, also became ill. Several salted pieces of the sus- pected meat were found which were badly infested with trichinae. This de- monstration of Zenker, which was corroborated by Virchow and Leuckart by simultaneous experi- ments with some of Zen- ker's material, furnished proof of the surprising fact that trichina, which had until then been considered as a harmless commensal organism, was a dangerous enemy of man. Leuckart fed the musculature of the trichiuous girl to a dog and also fed an intestine of the dog, filled with preg- nant trichina3, to a hog, while Virchow undertook a transmission experiment by feeding Zenker's ma- terial to a rabbit. On ANIMAL PARASITES 457 precisely the same day Leuckart and Virchow demonstraied the presence of non-eucapsuled muscle trichinse in their experimental animals and thereby determined the fact that muscle trichinae could be produced by feeding meat which contained trichinae to suitable experimental animals. The connecting link which plays the most important role in this transmission, the sexually mature •developmental stage of the parasite in the alimentary canal, was already known as a result of the previous researches of these inves- tigators (1859). Several days befoi-e the above mentioned discovery of Leuckart and Virchow, Zenker investigated the intestine of the clead servant-girl, which had been preserved in cold storage, and demonstrated intestinal trichinae in the first drops of intestinal mucus which he examined. Soon afterward, the outbreaks of trichinosis in Hettstadt (1863) «ind Hedersleben (1865), in which 500 human beings were affected and 129 died, furnished the awful confirmation of the suspicions which had been entertained regarding the dangerousness of trichinge. It has been asserted that trichinae were introduced into Europe from Asia by migrating rats. According to Gerlach, however, trichinae were quite probably introduced into Germany in Chinese hogs which, during the 20's and 30's of the previous century, were used in England and northern Germany for crossing with native races in order to increase their fattening power. Trichinosis is said to be frequent iu China and the small Chinese hogs were iitilized in Germany, especially in those regions which later formed the center of distribution of trichinae in the province and kingdom of Saxony. As Gerlach rightfully insists, no trichinae were found in Europe previous to the 20's and 30's. This speaks for the correct- ness of th« assumption of Gerlach against the migrating rat theory, since the migrating rats came to Germany about the year 1770. Between the 30's and 50's trichinae were found accidentally iu human cadavers in isolated cases, and once in a hog, a dog and a cat. It was not until the 60"s that the distribution of trichinae increased and became permanently established in infested localities. BlOLOGy. — After the ingestion of trichinous meat, sexually mature, so-called intestinal trichinae develop in the intestines of certain mammals and biids, after the muscle parasite has been set free from its capsule by the gastric juice. Even within thirty to forty-six hours, developed trichinae are found in the small intestines where the males and females copulate before the second day. The female trichina, which reaches a length of 3.5 mm. or more, as con- 458 INVASION DISEASES trasted with a length of 1.2 to 1.5 mm. of the male, is viviparous. The first embryos are observed within six to seven days after feed- ing trichinous meat. The embryos when first born are slender, rod-like structures about 0.1 mm. long and 0.0056 to ,006 mm. in width. The expulsion of the embryos takes place by pressure from behind. According to Leuckart, a female trichina gives birth to not less than 1,500, and, according to Braun, to from 8,000 to 10,000. The number of sexually mature males and females in the alimentary tract is at first equal ; later the number of males diminishes more and more, and at from ten to fourteen days after infection one finds almost exclusively female trichinae (J. Vogel). From this fact we may conclude that the male trichinae die soon after copulation and are digested or cari'ied out with the feces. The females have an average life of from five to six weeks, but may live for twelve weeks. Leuckart, Pagenstecker, et al., have assumed that female trichinae give birth to embryos in the lumen of the iutestine, and that the latter, after a short sojourn in the intestinal mucus,, penetrate the intestinal wall, enter the peritoneal cavity, thence into the thoracic cavity, and finally, following the course of the strands of connective tissue, migrate actively into the voluntary musculature. Probstmayr, however, emphasized the fact that it is not possible to demonstrate trichina embryos in the intestinal contents. Moreover, Heitzmann rightfully argued against the migration theory, that the embryos at first possess no boring apparatus, and that, since they are found in the skeletal muscles, within a few days, they must have travelled a tremendous distance,, as compared with their size. Heitzmann, accordingly, considers it as certain that the trichina embryos are carried into the blood circulation by means of the lymph stream and are caught as emboli, in the capillaries of the striated muscles. The assumption, of the translocation of the embryonic trichinse by means of the circulating blood was substantiated«by the almost simultaneous researches of Cerfontaine, Geisse and Askanazy, but especially by the thorough-going experiments which were instituted by Graham in Munich under the direction of Hertwig. In harmony with the statement of Geisse, Graham found that the intestinal trichinae, both males and females, bore into the interior of Lieberkiihn's glands with the anterior end of the body, and that while in this position the females expel the embryos which are carried into the circulating blood through the chyle vessels. Graham demonstrated with certainty that the trichina embryos. ANIMAL PABASITES ,45^' make their way into the blood through the thoracic duct and are carried into the muscles by the circulating blood. In agreement ■with this finding, -we have the occurrence of trichina embryos in th& lymph glands observed by Virchow and later by Askanazy and Graham, and the finding of trichinae in the blood by Zenker, Col- berg, Probstmayr and Fiedler. Fie. 137. Fio. 136. Isolated muscle fiber from a rat, •which was killed 16 days after the first and 9 days after the" last feeding with tr;- cMnous meat, X 510 diaineters. A migrating trichina. The posterior end was pulled out of the muscle fiber in preparation (after Hertwig). Longitudinal section through the muscula- ture of a rat, which was killed 19 days- after the first and 10 days after the last feeding. X 310 diameters. Disappear- ance of striation in muscle fibers pene- trated by trichinas and great multiplica- tion and enlargement of the muscl& nuclei near the trichinas (after Plertwig).. Trichina embryos were never seen by Graham in the free spaces of the body cavity in which they must first appear if they travel by active migration. Whenever they are found in that situa- tion, the fact is to be explained by an injury to the thoracic duct or- blood vessels during exenteration of the peritoneal cavity. Graham was able to demonstrate trichina larvae in sections in a small artery and in muscle capillaries. By way of confirmatioBt 460 INVASION DISEASES of a view held by Van Beneden, Graham also observed, not infre- quently, larvffi whicli passed out of the capillary as a result of «tasis or hemorrhage. From the capillaries the trichina embryos malie their way immediately into the sarcolemmal sheath (Fig. 136). From the existence of canals which Graham observed behind trichinse, it is to be concluded that trichina embryos are able to migrate into the sarcolemmal sheaths. The migration finds its natural limit in the tendons and aponeuroses, whereby the accumu- lation of trichipse at these points is explained. Fiu. 138. Muscle trichina A ram. long, 15 days after feeding (Leuckart). Muscle trichinsE, 7 weeks old, in the enlarge- ments of the sarcolemmal sheaths (Leuckart). One observes the first trichina larvae in the musculature within seven or eight days after infection of the experimental animals. The youngest stages of the muscle trichiuse are 0.1 mm. long and are therefore of the same size as the trichina embryos at birth. This fact argues likewise for the distribution of the triciiinse by the circulating blood. According to a statement of Gerlach, the greatest number of migrating muscle trichinae are to be found between the twelfth and twentieth days. After the end of the period of migration into the muscle fibers the trichina embiyos pass into a stage of rest, in order to grow. A loss of the transverse striation takes place in the sarcolemmal ANIMAL PARASITES 461 sheaths which are affected by the invasion of the trichina embryos. The muscle fibers assume at first a homogeneous, and later a granu- lar character. Furthermore, the muscle nuclei increase in number and finally become so large that their transverse diameter about equals one-half the diameter of the muscle fibers (Fig. 137). A. granular mass lies around the nucleus. The growth of the trichinae is complete about three weeks after" feeding trichinous meat. Their size then reaches 0.8 to 1 mm. After their growth is completed, the muscle trichinse assume a. variously curved and coiled form with simultaneous fusiform dis- tension of the sarcolemma (Fig. 139). During the course of th& second month the trichinous muscle fibers collapse in consequence Pm. 140. Pig. 141. ■ ' ''MM''-' \ Bncapsuled trichina. Trichina capsule with persistent sarco- lemma and polar fat cells. (Leuckart.) Primary calcified trichinse with intact capsule, X 35 diameters. of the resorption of the disintegrated contractile substance. Simul- taneously the first appearance of the trichina capsule at the polea of the fusiform enlargement is noted. At the end of the third month, the trichinae are enveloped by fully developed capsules which lie in the long axis of the muscle fibers (Fig. 140). After the encapsulation of the trichina larvae in well fed animals, it. development of fat cells frequently takes place in the collapsed sarcolemma immediately around the poles of the trichina cap- sules. This polar fat tissue may be so extensive as to render th& trichinae recognizable by the naked eye (Figs. 143, 144). The ultimate fate of muscle trichinse varies. According to- 462 INVASION DISEASES Ijeuckart, we may observe incipient calcification of the capsules ■within six months after the animals have been affected (Fig. 142, b). According to the same author, a period of 15 or 16 months is necessary for the complete impregnation of the capsules with lime salts (Fig. 142, d). These statements, however, do not agree with the expeiience of practical meat inspectors. Thus, in two hogs S and 12 months old, Blome found completely calcified trichina capsules, the original form of which became again apparent after treatment with hydrochloric acid. The trichinae may become visible even to the naked eye as a result of complete calcification. The process of calcification is usually confined to the cap- sules, so that perfectly intact trichinae may be, found in capsules ■which are totally calcified. According to Leuckart, the parasites Fig. 143. a Normal calcification pf trichinae in different stages. ■a, intact trichina ; i, calcification of the poles ; c, incomjdete calcification, the parasite being visible ; d, complete calcification. themselves become calcified under normal conditions after, a long period (ten years or more). It has also been denionstrated that muscle trichinae more than ten years of age may possess perfect vital powers. Thus Dammann. demonstrated that trichinae 11| years old were still capable of producing infestation, and Langer- hans demonstrated this power for isolated trichinae in one case in ■which the age of the parasite was probably 31 years. In the case reported by Dammann, it was a striking fact that the trichina cap- sules were not completely calcified, but were so transparent that the trichinae contained in them could be seen. L&uckart expressed the opinion that trichinas do not calcify until after the capsule is completely incrusted with lime salts. The writer, however, has observed primarily calcified trichinae in perfectly transparent cap- sules in hogs (Fig. 141). ANIMAL PARASITES 463 The question lias been raised concerning the reason why- trichina laivse occur only in the musculature and not in other organs ; also why it is that trichinse are found in certain striated muscles more frequently than in others, and in one, the heart, not at all. These facts appear not to harmonize completely with the distribution of trichina embryos by means of the circulating blood. To the first question Graham gave the satisfactory answer that the doctrine of the exclusive infestation of the muscles was based on the occurrence of encapsuled trichinse. Thudichum has demon- strated that in artificially infested animals trichina embryos may be Via. 144. Pig. 143. ii Trichinous hog musoulature with unusu- • ally strong development of the polar fat tissue, a, trichina capsule; o, fat tissue. Natural size. Trichinous hog musculature with unusu- ally strong development of the polar fat tissue. X -35 diameters. found within seven days after infestation in the muscles, lungs, thy- mus and lymphatic glands. Virchow also, and others, as already- mentioned, have observed the occurrence of trichinae in the lymphatic glands and Askanazy observed them in the lungs. If later no encapsuled trichinae are found in these locations, this con- dition is due, according to the researches of Graham, to the fact that trichina embryos are unable to grow except inside of striated muscle fibers which are provided with sarcolemma and that in all other parts of the body they disintegrate after a short time. Tri- chinse die even in the perimysium internum if they do not succeed in making their way into the muscle fibers immediately after leav- 464: INVASION DISEASES ing the circulating blood; The fact should be emphasized that Ghaham, contrary to the statement of Chatin, never saw trichinaa^ either free or encapsuled in the adipose tissue. For the rest, the localization of trichina embryos in the musculature is favored by the fact that the newly born triehinsB are of about the thickness of the muscle capillaries, which, together with those of the retina, are the smallest in the body. If, now, the lumen of the capillaries is lessened by contractions of the muscles, the trichina enibryos, which can pass through all other capillaries, excepting only those of the lungs, are prevented from moving farther. Trichina embryos have been found by Askanazy in the lung capillaries, which may be constricted during expiration. Encapsuled trichinae have never been found in the muscula- ture of the heart. On the other hand, Thudichum observed a free trichina between the myocardium and the endocardium, a second immediately under the endocardium, and a third between the muscle fibers of the myocardium. Graham frequently saw embryos in large numbers in badly infested rats between the fibers of the myocardium which were partly penetrated and otherwise injured. The trichinae, however, always remain outside of the muscle fibers, since the sarcolemma is wanting and the disintegrated contractile substance floats away. Furthermore, trichinae do not find the required conditions for their growth in the myocardium and there- fore disintegrate in this organ. One finds embryos inside of small inflammatory foci, in which position they die. Moreover, the embryos which have made their way into the myocardium migrate out into the pericardium, in which they may be present in large numbers (Graham). Trichinae are not found uniformly distributed in the rest of the striated musculature. Certain muscles and groups of muscles are with great regularity, more extensively infested with parasites than others. These muscles are characterized as preferred locations of the parasites. Among these preferred sites for trichinae, mention may be made of the muscular portion of the diaphragm, muscles of the larynx and tongue, and to a less degree, the abdominal and intercostal muscles. The striking preference of trichina for the respiratory muscles is explained by Graham as due to their greater richness in blood and by Heitzmann as due to the regular contrac- tions and consequent diminution of the lumen of the capillaries. Undoubtedly the fact emphasized by Heitzmann plays the chief role in entrapping the trichina embryos. The same fact may also explain the frequency of trichinae in the tongue of the'ho'^, since ANIMAL PAHASITEB 465 this muscular organ in hogs fed in confinement is used most fre- quently of all tlie muscles which come into function periodically. Pathological Encapsulation of Trichince. — Leuckart was the first to report the frequent finding of muscle trichinse in hogs, in which the connective tissue membranes which arise as a result of reaction toward the surrounding tissue become so greatly distended as to reach the length of 1 mm. These abnormal proliferations of con- nective tissue prevent the formation of true transparent chitinous trichina ^^^- 145. capsules and occasion the premature ~-^ i death of the enclosed parasite with i ^ ' a final deposition of lime salts. Cal- '' v •. ' b ' cification in such cases may be so -af 1* ^ *» complete that no trace of the trichina ** » > I itself remains after the lime salts ' have been dissolved by acids. Only the peculiar fusiform shape, the size not exceeding 0.5 to 1 mm., and the position of the structures in the muscle fibers demonstrate that we are dealing with the remains of tri- | china (Pigs. 145, 184). ^ I \ Pathologicalh ili i il trichina cap- sules with prolileratmg connective tissue membranes and dead wojins.. From a hog. (Leuckart.) Degeneration of Trichince. — In the case mentioned above, Langerhans observed alterations in the trichinae and their capsules which must be considered as phenomena of degen- eration. Some of the capsules were quite empty ; in others with a per- fectly intact wall, recently formed connective tissue and adipose tissue were found which had originated from included cells. The trichinEQ were disintegrated and entirely or partly resorbed. Langerhans believed that he was justified in concluding from his researches that a decalcification and even a resorption of the capsules may take place after the disappearance of the trichinae. Accordingly, contrary to the belief entertained up to this time, an invasion of trichinae does not terminate with their calcification, but with their complete resorption. 466 INVASION DISEASES MoEPHOLOGY. — Non-calcified, but completely developed, muscle, trichinae consist of a lemon-shaped, or more nearly spherical, trans- parent, double-contoured trichina capsule, and the spirally coiled worm. According to Dammann, the length of the trichina capsule is about 0.495 mm. ; the width, 0.415 ; and the thickness of the cap- sule wall, 0.05 mm. The length of the worm is 0.8 to 1 mm. and its greatest breadth, 0.03 to 0.055 mm. In muscles which still possess animal heat, one observes tactile movements executed by the anterior end of the worm in its capsule. In cold muscles it is possible to induce these movements by treatment with warm water or concen- trated potash lye, and thereby demonstrate that the muscle trichinae are still living. "With regard to the finer structure of the muscle trichinae the following points of diagnostic importance may be mentioned. Muscle trichinae are provided with a thin transparent and struc- tureless cuticula. The anterior end is pointed, narrower than the posterior end, and furnished with a small, circular mouth opening. The mouth leads into the pharynx, a light-colored tubular structure, which, at its posterior end, passes over into the esophagus, which in turn is surrounded by a band of large nucleated cells, the so-called cellular body. The posterior end is thickened and pro- vided with a cloacal slit. The simple genital sac, which begins blindly at the posterior end of the parasite, is rudimentary (Fig. 148). The origin of the trichina capsule has been an unsettled question. Virchow attributed the capsules to the sarcolemma; others to the granular tissue which forms around the parasite. Hertwig, in co-operation with Graham, undertook researches on this disputed question, from which it appears that primarily the sarcolemma, with the presence of which, as already mentioned, the development of the trichina embryos is essentially connected, but secondarily also the granulation tissue is concerned in the forma- tion of the trichina capsule. According to Hertwig and Graham, one observes, about four weeks after artificial infection, that the granular nucleated contents of the primitive bundles are degene- rated. Nuclei and protoplasm together present a glossy, swollen appearance. Their mass, especially outside of the spindle-like swelling, is considerably diminished. The latter become elongated at both ends into fine threads. The swelling and the threads are surrounded by a gelatinous sheath which was observed by Leuckart and was considered by him to be a thickened sarcolemma (Fig. 139). Upon the outside of the gelatinous sheath there is a zone of ANIMAL PAEASITES 46T inflamed connective tissue which is extensively permeated with con- nective tissue cells and leucocytes. In more advanced stages of capsule formation, one observes the disappearance of the degenerated muscle mass in the region of the thread-like elongations. The connection with the material which surrounds the trichina is broken and in the interior of the gelatin- ous strand which originated from the sarcolemma one still observes Fig. 146. Longitudinal section through the muscu- lature of a rat which was killed 37 days after the first and 30 days after the last feeding, X 310 diameters, a, thick- ened sarcolemma ; h, remains of disin- tegrated muscle substance ; c, prolifer- ating connective tissue cells; d, tri- china. (After Hertwig.) Piece of a trichina capsule isolated by teasing, from a rat killed 87 days after the first and 30 days after the last feed- ing, a-d, as in Fig. 146 ; e, connective tissue cells which have wandered into the thickened sarcolemma and are organizing the trichina capsule. (After Hertwig.) here and there the remains of nuclei and granular masses which are gradually being absorbed. At about this time begins the organiza- tion of the definite trichina capsule. Cells migrate out from both ends of the inflamed connective tissue and pass into the gelatinous layer which surrounds the trichina and its food material. Small connective tissue cells with branched processes are to be observed, in the gelatinous substance and new cells appear also in the detri- 468 INVASION DISEASES tus with which the trichina is surrounded. They form small groups of cells at both poles (Figs. 146, 147). According to Hertwig and Graham, it is probable that the new, firmer cyst is secreted by th& wandering connective tissue cells in the region of the old gela- tinous sheath, for the cysts exhibit stratification marks parallel with the surface, and evident cells are still observed between tlie layers in young capsules, while later the cells are replaced wilh granular masses which are entirely wanting in the old capsules. In the account as given by Hertwig and Graham, we find an. explanation of the remarkable lemon-like form of the trichina cyst- The wall of the cyst is much thickened at both poles, since the con- nective tissue cells penetrate at these points and are hence found there in larger numbers than at other points of the periphery. OccuKEENCE. — Among the animals used for food, only the hog: and the dog are infested with trichina. Trichinae occur also in the wild hog, cat, bear, fox, badger, martin and pole cat. Trichinse may be artificially transmitted to a majority of the mammals. Hogs and the small experimental animals of the labor- atory, guinea pigs, rabbits, rats and mice, are most susceptible. The transmission to cattle, sheep and the horse is more difficult. After feeding trichinous material to calves and sheep, there is, as a rule, a development of intestinal trichina only and no muscle trichinae. The same is true of birds. Cold blooded animals are not susceptible. The importance of trichinse lies in their transmissibility to man. Man commonly becomes infested by eating pork. Occasionally, also, the meat of dogs, cats, foxes, badgers, as well as of bears from the zoological gardens,* may lead to the development of trichinse in man. The chief source of trichinse in man, however, is the domestic hog.t * Von Bockum found trichina; also in two hind quarters of bears which were introduced from the Caucasus. f As contrasted with the numerous outbreaks of trichinosis as a result of eating pork (see page 478), there are but tew reports concerning trichinosis as a result of eating wild hogs, although these animals are infested with trichina; with comparative frequency. Eulenberg reports a case of trichinosis in man which was referable to the consumption of the meat of wild hogs,(Lippspringe, 1S70). Furthermore, Wiirtz mentions two cases of trichinosis in man after eating wild hogs. Finally, in recent times an epidemic of trichinosis occurred in Namur as a result of the consumption of the meat of wild hogs. The sanitary police has accordingly taken account of the occurrence of trichinae in wild hogs by instituting obligatory inspection for trichina ANIMAL PARASITES 469 The hog most probably becomes infested by eating trichinous Tats. Both the house rat and the migrating rat are the normal liosts of trichina (Leuekart). This statement is substantiated by the fact that rats are infested with trichina very frequently, much more frequently than the hog. Heller states that among 704 rats from twenty-nine localities in Saxony, Bavaria, Wiirtemburg and Austria, 8.3 per cent, were trichinous. Of the rats caught about knackers' establishments, 22.1 per cent, were infested, 2.3 per cent, of those around abattoirs, and 0.3 per cent, of those killed in other localities. As a rule, they wera badly infested. Leisering examined rats from eighteen knackers' establishments in the Kingdom of Saxony and found that the rats from fourteen of these establishments contained tiichinsB. Gerlach determined that the majority of the rats from stalls of the Hanover butchers in which trichinous hogs had been kept were trichinous. Adam found two out of eighteen rats from the knackers' establish- ments of Augsburg to be trichinous ; Franck found two out of thirty-three rats from the Munich slaughterhouse and seven out of «eventy-seven from the knackers' establishments of Erlangen, Niirn- burg and Kronach ; and Fessler found not less than twelve out of twenty-four rats from the city abattoir and meat market in Bamberg to be infested with trichinae. In Blankenburg, where, until 1868, trichinosis occurred in man for many years in succession, it was shown by Miiller that all rats which were captured about knackers' establishments were infested with trichinae. Roll demonstrated trichinae in one out of 146 rats in the city of Vienna, seven out of forty-seven rats from knackers^ establishments and also in twenty out of thiity-one rats from the Moravian cities Brlinn, Ostrau and Privos. Csokor found 5 per cent, of the rats about the slaughter- houses in St. Marx to be trichinous. Trichinae have also been found in rats in Denmark and Sweden. Genersich found muscle trichinae in ten and intestinal trichinae in two out of 183 rats captured in Hungary. The trichinous rats were captured ex- -clusively in two places (Mills). Billings found trichinae to bft in all these animals brought to the market. The inspection should preferably take place at the locality where the meat is out up and sold. In localities where dogs are slaughtered, these animals must also be inspected for IrichinsB (Leistikow), and, in general, an inspection for trichinjB is to be practiced on all animals which are known to be occasional hosts of trichina, if they are utilized ia -exceptional cases as human food (bears, badgers, foxes and cats). The inspection of slaughtered dogs for trichinae was introduced into the Kingdom of Saxony by- xegulation of July 6, 1901. 470 INVASION DISEASES extraordinarily frequent in rats in Boston. In one of the export abattoirs of that city, all of the rats were trichinous ; in a knacker'* establishment 76 per cent., and in the city of Boston as a whole^ 10 per cent. The frequent occurrence of trichina in rats is explained by the gregarious habits of the rats in filthy places, such as knackers' establishments and abattoirs, where the offal of trichinous hogs becomes accessible to them ; and also by the fact that rats eat the bodies of their own species. Hogs are clever rat catchers and this fact explains the spontaneous occurrence of trichinosis in hogs. In addition to this method of invasion, the infestation of hogs as a result of eating other trichinous material, such as trichinous pork, plays a subordinate role. On the other hand, the distribu- tion of trichina among American hogs is in part to be attributed to feeding upon slaughterhouse offal. The frequent occurrence of trichinsB in rats about knackers' establishments furnishes an explanation of the fact that hogs fattened by knackers are often all trichinous. It is worthy of mention that Blome demonstrated that among ten hogs found to be trichinous in the district of Arnsberg during a period of twelve years, one-half were brood sows, although such animals were not killed except in small numbers. This is undoubt- edly due to the fact that brood sows reach the greatest age of all hogs and thus have the greatest opportunity for ingesting trichinae. For the rest, trichinsB occur in the hogs of all countries. Since the introduction of inspection for trichinae, these parasites have been demonstrated most frequently in northern Germany. They are found, however, in the practice of organized trichina inspection, in isolated cities of Bavaria, and, moreover, have been demonstrated in hogs from Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy, France, England, Penmark, Sweden and Norway, and with special frequency in hogs from North America. Statistics concerning the frequency of trichinous hogs are accessible only for Germany and America. In Germany the average per cent, in different years varies between 0.004 (Kingdom of Sax- ony, 1899) and .014 (Kingdom of Prussia, 1899). In the Prussian governmental district of Posen, there are certain localities in which as high as 1.5 per cent, of the slaughtered hogs are trichinous.* As a rule, about 2 per cent, of American hogs are trichinous. * In such localities it would be desirable to have a regulation that in all places in ■which trichinous hogs were found the rats should be destroyed as far as possible anA their bodies burned. ANIMAL PARASITES 471 In Germany the frequency of the occurrence of trichinosis in hogs has diminished in the course of the last twenty years. This encouraging fact may be regarded as a result of trichina inspection, through which the trichinous hogs are recognized and their meat rendered innocuous. The following figures may serve to indicate the diminution in the numbers of trichinse in native hogs, the nilmber of trichinous hogs being indicated by a per cent.: (a) Kingdom of Prussia.— 1878 to 1885, 0.061 to .048 ; 1888 to 1892, .033 to .043 ; 1896. .021 ; 1899, .014. (6) Kingdom of Saxony— 1891, 0.014; 1895, .012; 1899, .004. (c) Berlin.— 1883 to 1893, 0.035 to.064 ; 1893 to 1899, .022 to .015. Frequency of the Occurrence of Trichinae in Foreign Hogs. (a) United States of America. — According to Ziijn and others, in American pork imported before 1891, the following percentages were found to be trichinous ; In Ludwigshafen, 1 per cent.; Hamburg, 1.26 ; Rostock, 2 ; Barel, 2 ; Kiel, 2.36 ; Gottingen, 3 ; Bamberg, 3 ; Gothenburg, 4 ; Mailand, 4.8 ; Elbing, 5 ; Heilbronn, 8.* At the instigation of the Chicago Board of Health, Drs. Belfield and Atwood examined 100 hogs for the presence of trichinae in 1868 and of this number 8 were trichinous. According to Salmon, 18,889 hogs were examined for the presence of trichinse, and of this number 517, or 2.7 per cent., were found to be infested. Of the 999,554 hogs inspected in 1900, 19,448, or 1.95 per cent., were found to be trichinous. The number of trichinous hogs, however, varied in different localities between 0.28 and 16.3 per cent. According to a note in the Berliner Tierarztl. Wochensohrift, in 1890, 10 per cent, of the emale hogs and 14.87 per cent, of the male hogs in the city of Boston were found to be trichinous, while on an average from 2 to 3 per cent, of the hogs raised further inland were infested with trichinae. Finally, among 88 hogs imported from America into Dresden in 1881, 14, or 15.9 per cent., were trichinous. (6) Demarh — Krabbe, during the years 1866 to 1892, demon- strated the presence of trichinae in 36 Danish herds of hogs. In Hamburg, 26 trichinous hogs of Danish origin were found in 1886, 23 in 1887 and 15 in 1895. Moreover, in 1895 trichinse were repeatedly found in pieces of Danish pork, especially in loin roasts and hog necks in Hamburg and other German cities. * For an account of the controversy concerning trichinas in American porlf, see Stiles, Trichinosis in Gtermany, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bui. 30. — Teanslator, 472 INVASION DISEASES (c) Austria-Hungary. — The reports on meat inspection for the Kingdom of Saxony contain interesting data concerning the occur- rences of tdchiuge in Austrian and Hungarian hogs. Among Austrian and Hungarian fat hogs the following numbers were found trichinous : in 1892, 11 ; in 1893, 9 ; in 1894, 9. In 1895, 0.024 per cent, of the hogs introduced from Hungary into Saxony were found trichinous. Moreover, trichinae have frequently been demonstrated in Saxony in hams and salamiwurst of Austrian origin. (d) Russia. — According to Nebykow, 0.25 per cent, of the hogs inspected in St. Petersburg in 1882 were trichinous and .32 of those inspected in 1883. In Moscow the frequency of trichinosis in hogs varied during the years 1889 and 1892 between .07 and .17 per cent. In Kharkov in 1875, .12 per cent, of the inspected hogs were found to be trichinous, aijd in Kalisch, according to Fedecki, during the years 1882 to 1885, .16 per cent, were trichinous. (e) Sweden. — Among 85,987 hogs examined in Stockholm, 42 were infested with trichinae. Moreover, trichinae have been repeat- edly found in Hamburg in pork imported from Sweden. The occurrence of trichinae in foreign countries is also demon- strated by trichinosis, which is observed in the majority of the European countries, especially Belgium,* Denmark.f England, France, I Holland, Italy, Spain, Austria, § Eussia, || Sweden, the former Danube principalities, also in North and South America, Egypt, Algiers, East Africa, Syria,^ India and Australia. *In Herstal, near Liittich, 47 persons were seriously afEeoted with trichinosis ia 1893 and 13 died. f Friis collected 27 cases of trichinosis in man in Denmark with a fatal attack iii two cases. t In 1878 a small epidemic of trichinosis was observed in Prance (Braun), §InTeplitz, in 1894,63 persons were affected with trichinosis and 50 persons during the same year in Freudenthal. Moreover, during 1894 the report showed the affection of 31 persons with trichinosis in Bohemia with a fatal attack in 13 cases. In 1897 a small, but, nevertheless, serious, epidemic of trichinosis occurred in Brtix and a more extensive one with a fatal attack in 5 cases in Iglau. II During the years 1889 to 1891, in the governmental district of Bromberg, 11 persons were affected with trichinosis, after eating unsmoked sausage from Russian Poland. In 1895 an outbreak of trichinosis occurred in Opatow from eating Russian meat. IT On account of the occurrence of trichinous hogs in Syria, the Italian Govern- ment has prohibited the introduction of hogs and pork from the Ottoman Empire. ■ANIMAL PAKASITEB 473 Can Sucking Pigs he Infested with Trichin'ce ? — In countries ^Mch have introduced obligatory inspection for trichinae, sucking pigs, as a rule, are also subjected to compulsory inspection for this parasite. Protests against such inspection have repeatedly been made by interested parties, accompanied by the statement that trichinae do not occur in sucking pigs. The experiments of Gerlach throw light on this question. Gerlach demonstrated that trichinse are not congenital. Two female rabbits which Gerlach had fed on trichinous meat gave birth to young twenty-two and twenty-eight days after infection. The young animals were free from trichinse in spite of the fact that large numbers of freshly migrated trichinse were found in the mothers. On the other hand, Gerlach found that pigs may become infested with trichinae at a very early age. He placed two eight- "weeks-old pigs with an old hog which had previously been infested "with trichinae and which within a period of several days had been fed twice, each time outside of the stall, with trichinous meat. Both pigs were killed five weeks after the second feeding of the old hog. It was found that one was slightly infested with muscle trichinse. Probably the pig had ingested trichinse which had been expelled in the feces of the old hog along with undigested pieces of muscle. But, even if we disregard these experiments of Gerlach, com- pulsory inspection of sucking pigs is justified, because the ingestioli of trichinous material may take place by some accident or other soon after birth and the development of trichinse capable of infest- ing other hogs may take place in pigs which are only a few weeks old ; for muscle trichinse are capable of transmission when they reach the size of 0.5 to 0.75 mm., or within 16 to 20 days after the ingestion of trichinous material (page 479). Frequeiicy of Tricliince in Dogs. — Among 1,167 dogs slaughtered in Chemnitz during the four years 1897-1900, 13, or 1.11 per cent., Tv^ere infested with trichinae (Tempel). Extensive and Slight and Eepeated Invasions. — Trichinae may occur so sparingly in the body of the hog that even several -dozen microscopic preparations from the most frequent seat of trichinse will disclose only a single parasite. On the other hand, hogs have been found in the practice of meat inspection which were :comp'letely permeated with trichinse. As a rule, the trichinae in hogs spontaneously infested are all in the same stage of development, which points toward the single .474 INVASION DISEA8K8 : ingestion of tricMnous material. There are exceptions to this usual finding, in which, on account of the various developmental stages of the trichina, it is necessary to assume repeated invasions. The following statistics from the city meat inspection in Berlin may serve to illustrate the above-mentioned conditions : „ Trichinous Extensively Moderately Slightly ^^"''' hogs infested infested infested 1889-90 292 101 81 110 1891-2 254 67 85 102 1893^ 133 39 34 49 1894^5 136 63 27 46 1895-6 158 49 41 68 1896-7 192 108 22 63 Among the hogs which were only slightly infested, there wer& always several in which, despite extensive investigation, only a single trichina could be found. Of the 192 trichinous hogs reported in the year 1896-7, 171 showed living trichinae only, 13 a few calcified trichinse, and 8 both, living and calcified trichinse. The Number of TricJdnce in Badly Infested ^ogrs.— According ta Leuckart, trichinse are frequently found to the extent of 1,500 per gram of muscle. Schreyer counted the trichinse in one gram of musculature from various parts of the body of the hog and esti- mated the total number of trichinse in a hog which weighed 174 pounds (after subtracting 50 per cent, of the weight for fat tissue^ bones, tendons, etc.) as 63,162,000. Schumann and Ludwig calcu- lated the number of trichinse in a similar manner in the case of a badly infested hog (3,961 trichinae per gram) as 158,400,000. Diagnosis. — There is no other method for the certain identifi- cation of trichinse than microscopic investigation. A slight mag- nification, however, is sufficient for this purpose. The proper magnification is 40 diameters. "With this magnification one plainly observes the encapsuled muscle trichinse as lemon-shaped, oval or spherical structures, recognizes the transparent double-contoured wall, the characteristic trichina capsule, and the spirally-coiled or pretzel-shaped worm. With the above-named magnification, the , recognition of the migrating and resting, but not coiled, trichinse is more difficult. However, the granular cloudiness of the muscle fibers in cases of fresh invasion by still uncoiled muscle trichinse arouses suspicion of the presence of the parasites, which may be ANIMAL PARASITES 475» demonstrated with certainty by the use of a stronger magnifica- tion. Franck and Tiemann recommended the examination of prepara- tions by means of hand lenses with a magnification of ten dia- meters. Experienced inspectors are able to recognize trichinae in. pork, even with this magnification (Fig. 149). A magnification of 40 to 50 diameters, however, at least for less experienced inspectoi-s, is much more reliable. Greater magnifications than 40 to 50 dia- meters are unnecessary and also unsatisfactory, since the greater the magnification the more time required for examining the slides. Pig. 148. Fi9. 149. ^Trichinous musculature,. X 10 diameters. Developed muscle trichina after removal from the capsule, with intestine, genital organ and lateral line (Leuckart). Kafitz recommends projection in the place of direct micro- scopic examination of trichina preparations. Inspection by mean» of projection is simpler and more reliable in the case of fresh, meat than direct examination. Until further experience is had, it- may be recommended at any rate for use in the further examina- tion of samples already inspected. Calcified trichinae, as well as the still incompletely developed muscle trichinae, offer some difficulties in making a reliable diagno- sis. Finally, the recognition of trichinae becomes difficult if it is- necessary to demonstrate them not in fresh meat, but in preserved pork, especially smoked hams. For the better recognition o£ trichinae in such material, Dancker recommends treating the sam- '476 INVASION DISEASES -pies of muscles for several minutes with dilute acetic acid. In American hams preserved according to the newer methods, in which the trichinae are only slightly differentiated from the musculature, which becomes transparent during the process of preservation, I Jbave found the addition of water to be advantageous. Differential Diagnosis. — Without a careful examination, other objects can be easily confused with encapsuled and still uncalcified Pjg. 151. JEuoapsuled muscle trichina with incipient polar calcification (Perls). X 130 diameters. Vinegar eel. trichinae. Even Miescher's sacs, which are so frequently observed in muscles, have such distinct characters that it is impossible to mistake intact and uncalcified specimens. The same is true of muscle distomes (page 404). With reference to the much more important differentiation of calcified trichinse from other calcified depositions in the musculature, I must refer to the section on ^'So-called Calcareous Concretions in the Musculature of Hoes" rane ; later, caseation and calcification. In the second form, on :the other hand, one observes fibrinous, or, rarely, even a bloody ■exudation between the organic and ecbinococcal membranes, union smd adhesion of these two membranes with necrosis of the -ecbinococcal membrane. At the same time, the echinococcus fluid Ijegins to disappear as a result of resorption. In case of coagula- ^iion necrosis of the ecbinococcal membrane, the organic membrane is intact and undergoes but slight alteration in its external appear- ance, even when the parasites die as a result of inflammation. It is only in sheep that one sometimes observes chondrification and "Calcification of the organic membranes after the parasitesi have died. The disintegrated echinococci present cysts filled with yellow, moist or dry, caseous, purulent or partially or totally calcified con- iients. Occasionally the caseous content of dead echinococci is of a greenish color. Echinococcus Mnltilocnlaris s. Alveolaris. Occurrence. — This species of echinococcus occurs in food animals, or, more properly, in one of them, the bovine, more fre- ^juently than has previously been supposed. The author called attention to this fact in Deutsche Ztsch. fur Tiermedizin, XVIL, and in that connection described 30 cases which he observed during the ^course of 13 months. Later, Mejer reported the occurrence of ^. multilocularis in cattle in Leipsic in 7 per cent, of the total num- "ber of cases of echinococcus. According to Gurin, this parasite occurs in 0.2 per cent, of all cattle slaughtered in Eussian abattoirs. ^Moreover, Mobius observed cases in sheep, in the lungs, liver and Ijronchial glands, and Schmidt, in the lungs. Gurin observed 3 cases of this parasite in sheep. Eaillet and Morot reported 100 cases of E. multilocularis which were observed in cattle and sheep in the abattoir at Troyes. Among the 200,000 hogs which the author 3ias inspected in the course 'of several years, -K multilocularis vfa,^ ANIMAL PARASITES 5oa>- found only once. Strose and Gurin have observed other cases irt hogs. MoKPHOLOGT. — In veterinary works the alveolar echinococcus is . not well described. According to my observations, the parasite ia^- distinguished by the following characters : E. muUilocularis forms: in the liver, less often in other organs (spleen, lungs, kidneys, lym- phatic glands and bones), tumors of various sizes, which usually exhibit a constant growth. These tumors, which resemble specifie- Echinococcus multilooularis in a beef liver, natural size. granulations, and are most nearly related to actinomycomata andi botryomycomata, exhibit two distinct portions : a central casefiedr and partly calcified, and an intact peripheral portion. In the peri- pheral zone, the tumors exhibit an elastic consistency, while in the? calcified portion the consistency is tough and soft. The tumor as a. whole feels moderately firm. A hard consistency is a rare occnr- rence and is not caused, as in man, by a great proliferation of con- nective tissue, but by extensive calcification. A characteristic- feature is the rather strong connective tissue framework whiclt 510 INVASION DISEASES penetrates the whole tumor in a net-like manner and which sepa- rates the calcified parts and also the recent cysts from one :another. The young cysts arise by evagination and subsequent constriction of the whole wall of the mother cyst. After the joung cysts are constricted off, the formation of connective tissue around the cyst takes place. Distinction Between Ecliinococcus multilocularis of Man and tJie Domestic Animals. — The echinococcus of cattle is distinguished from. Pig. 160. Section through Echinococcus multilocularis of cattle. M muUilocularis of man (1) by the fact that it produces no clinical' symptoms, but may be unexpectedly found in perfectly healthy animals; (2) by the absence of any considerable local alterations in the surrounding hepatic tissue (no icterus or cirrhosis); (3) by the complete absence of ulcerative processes ; (4) by the greater -development of separate cysts ; (5) by the less extensive develop- ment of the connective tissue framework. In contrast with the alveolar echinococcus of cattle, the case ANIMAL EABASITB8 511 observed by the author in a hog showed a great similarity with the alveolar echinocoocus of man. On the costal and pulmonary pleura of the hog in question there were numerous round, lenticular tubercles, as well as round- ish and elongated plaques with a granulated surface (Fig. 162). The color of the tubercles was gray or yellow and the con-, sistency hard. The whole condition resembled the pearl disease. Under the microscope, however, it appeared that the tubercles and plaques consisted of a connective tissue framework which inclosed casefied and intact echinococcal cysts. Special mention should be made of the fact that scoleces were present even in the micro- Fin, 103. Fio. 161. Section through the cortical zone of Echinococcus multi- locularis of cattle, X 3 diam. a, Echinococcus multiloculans under the costal pleura of a hog. scopically invisible cysts. A similar case was recently observed in cattle by Benedictis. By a careful microscopic examination one observes giant cells immediately surrounding the cysts of the multilocular echinococci, a condition to which attention was first called by Guillebeau in connection with E. multiloctdaris of cattle. Diagnosis and DrPFEEENTiAi Diagnosis of Eohinococci.— Intact polymorphous echinococci should offer no difficulty in diagnosis if we disregard the above described immature forms. Quite often, however, dead polymorphous and multilocular echinococci are cortr fused with other pathological alterations, especially tuberculosis. 512 INVASION DISEASES ■ Casefied or calcified polymorphous echinoeocci, however, are distinguished from tubercles by the integrity of the correspond-, ing lymph glands, the easy separability of the casefied contents from the connective tissue membrane,, and the peculiar striated, condition of the echinococcal membrane (Fig. 163), which is. easily demonstrable, even in the case of extensively casefiedeciino- ' cocci. E. multilocularis likewise causes, as a rule, no alterations in tha corresponding lymph glands and exhibits on the periphery fresh Tig. 16-S. -* ..<• f /' f ^ ■ , Oblique section through the wall of a fertile echinococeus. a, lamellate stratifloatiou of the cuticula; 6, scoleces, partly in the brood capsule, partly free as a result of maceration ; c, calcareous corpuscles. X 35 diam. cysts and echinococcal membranes with striated cuticula, at least when examined under the microscope. ' | Tuberculous conglomerates, to which E. muUitocdlaris may show great similarity, possess a firm, dry, or purulent character in con- trast with the elastic and tough, but soft, consistency of E. midtilo- cularis. Under certain conditions, unilocular echinoeocci may give rise to confusion with cysticerci. Lungwitz reported two such cases in which echinoeocci of the size of peas and located in the heart of a hog were mistaken for cysticerci. ANIMAL PAKASITES' SlSt Judgment op Echinococci. — Organs infested with echinococci are not dangerous to health, but are to be considered merely as- spoiled (inferior) food material, for the larvae of echinococcus taenia- ■which occur in the organs of food animals can not develop in man, even if fertile, and do not cause any other harm. The majority of the organs infested with echinococci can be saved for food by care- fully removing the echinococci. This is permissible in cases where the echinococci are present only in moderate numbers and of such size that removal is possible. They are best removed by cutting the organs into thin disks. Parasites which are excised during this process and whole organs which are condemned on account of extensive invasion are to be rendered innocuous. Special effort should be made to prevent the possibility of the parasites which have been removed from organs, or of parts which are infested with parasites, becoming accessible to dogS, Pig. 164. Intestinal mucous membrane of a dog, with Taenia eohinooocous in natural size. Taenia echinococcus. — T. echinococcus develops from the fertile echinococcus of food animals and is parasitic in the intestinal canal of dogs. On account of its small size (Fig. 164), this tape- worm easily escapes observation. We can not, therefore, do. otherwise than approve the opinion of the faculty of the Veteri- nary Institute at Brussels, as handed down, with regard to the admission of dbg meat as human food ; viz., that the esophagus,, stomach and intestines of all slaughtered dogs should be excluded from the market. (b) Larvae of Pentastomum Taenioides. Nature and Occxs-RKmc^.— Pentastomum (Linguatula) tcenioides,. Eudolphi, was formerly erroneously classified with the Helminthes,, but belongs to the mite-like Arachnoidea, a class of Arthropoda. S14 INVASION DISEASES The sexually mature parasite is from 8 to 20 mm. long and is found in the nasal and frontal cavities of the dog, wolf, horse, fox, goat and occasionally man ; while the larvae are found in the vis- cera of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, deer, hare and rabbits. Only the larvae of Pentastomum tcenioides are of importance in meat inspection. These were described by Kudolphi as P. denticvlatum, under the assumption that they were a distinct species. HrSTOEY. — The occurrence of pentastomes in domestic animals has long been known. Ziirn states that P. tcenioides was discovered Fig. 165. Fig. 166. Larva of Pentastomum tsenioides from a mesenteric gland of a beef animal, X 15 diameters. (In natural size on the left.) Pentastomum taenioides from the nasal cavity of a dog. (Natural size.) by Chabert in 1757 in the nasal cavities of horses and dogs and that P. denticvlatum was discovered a few years later by Abilgaard and Frohlich in the viscera of a goat and hare. It was not until 100 years later, however, that the ontogenetic connection of these two forms was established. It was reserved for the brilliant investi- gations of Leuckart to demonstrate that P. denticvlatum was not a distinct species, but merely the larva of P. tcenioides. MoBPHOLOGY AND BiOLOGY.— According to the statements of ANIMAL PARASITES 515 Xeuckart and Ziirn, the larvse of pentastomum are flat, white, trans- parent structures, 4.5 to 5 mm. long and 1.2 to 1.3 mm. broad at •the widest point. They are divided into about 80 segments which are furnished with numerous backwardly-directed bristles or tooth- like spines. (Budolphi, therefore, chose the name denticvlatum). Underneath the mouth opening there are two slit-like apertures on either side, from each of which the points of two claws pro- trude. (The name Pentastomum, "five-mouth," was given from the erroneous interpretation of these slit-like openings). The sexual organs of the larvae are rudimentary (Fig. 165). The embryos of P. tcenioides are provided with a boring appara- tus in the form of a stylus-like spine underneath the mouth open- ing. Moreover, on the opposite end of the body of the tail-bearing embryo, one observes several spines which serve for locomotion. According to Ziirn, the embryos bore through the intestinal wall, and, chiefly by means of the circulating blood, migrate under the peritoneum into the liver, mesenteric glands, and, in exceptional cases, even into the lungs, where they beeome encapsuled and sur- rounded by a membrane. Statements concerning the further fate of P. denticulatum are at variance. Ziirn says that after seven months the parasites become somewhat more active, leave their cysts, and make their way into the body cavity of their host. Here they await an accident to free them " from this prison." If such an accident does not occur, they become encysted again, but only to die. On the other hand, Oerlach, on the basis of a feeding experiment, holds the view that pentastomes do not remain in their host until the death of the latter, but that, after the development of their spines and powerful Pilaws, they change their location and migrate into the lungs and thence into the trachea. Von Edtz agrees with this view condition- ally. In a goat which exhibited a cachetic condition, this writer observed numerous pentastomes under the peritoneum and also in the lungs. In the latter organs the worms had bored deeply into the tissue. In another case, a roebuck, the pulmonary pentasto- mata were partly encapsuled. Babes calls attention to the fact that, in spite of the abundant material which he had occasion to examine, he was unable to observe the migration of the pentas- tomes described by Gerlach through the lungs and respiratory passages. On the contrary, he found a regular migration of the parasites into the intestines, whence they were carried out by the excrement. Tempel, also, who observed encysted and migrating pentastomum larvse in the lungs of a goat, argues against the 516 INVASION DISEASES assumption of a migration of the parasites througli the trachea^ for the reason that he found the larvae under the pleura, but not in the trachea, and not in a single instance in the neighborhood of the bronchi. DiSTEiBUTiON.— Concerning the distribution of the larvae of" pentastomum, Ziirn states that P. denticidatum is found in horses, goats and sheep, more rarely in cattle. Similar statements- are made by Piitz and Friedberger and Frohner. Colin reports from France that during the course of 2^ mouths he found pentas- tomes in 300 sheep and 1 dromedary. Two years later, Colin incidentally mentions cattle also as the host of P. denticulatum. Accordingly, in Germany and France, the occurrence of pentas- tomum larvae in cattle must be considered as comparatively rare, while Babes made the surprising report from Eoumania that he found pentastomum larvae in all of 20 steers which had died of contagious hemoglobinuria. Babes was inclined to connect this finding directly with the disease, but he soon convinced himself that in Eoumania, especially in the swampy low-lands of the Danube, all cattle are extensively infested with pentastomes. On account of their different economic conditions in Eoumania, this statement does not necessarily hold true for Germany. How- ever, at the Central Abattoir in Berlin, I became convinced that even in Germany pentastomes frequently occur in cattle. Finally, it should be mentioned that larvae of pentastomum may occur also in deer and rabbits and have been observed also in two cases in hogs. Seat op the Larv^. — According to Ziirn, pentastomum larvae are found under the peritoneum, in the liver, in the mesenteric glands and, exceptionally, also in the lungs. Von Eatz observed them in one of his cases under the peritoneal covering of the liver and in the lungs ; in a second case, however, only in the lungs, Tempel was also able to demonstrate the parasites only in the lungs of a goat. Babes, in his numerous cases, discovered the parasites chiefly in the wall of the folds of the small intestines and in the mesenteric glands, but also under the serous covering of the liver and under the pleura. Thirty years ago Colin called attention to the fact that in cases of natural invasion, these para- sites are found in the mesenteric glands, while in his feeding experi- ments with a large amount of material, the liver and lungs were also infested with the worms. The writer has observed pentasto- ANIMAL PARASITES 5,17 Tiium larvae, as a rule, in tlie mesenteric glands an,d in isolate^ cases also in the mediastinal, prescapular, iliac, kneefold and 1am- Tjar glands, as well as in the liver and spleen. Pathological Anatomy. — Pentastomes produce various altera- tions in the mesenteric glands. The most striking alterations are foci of yellowish-green or gray color, varying in size from a mil- let seed to a pea. They may occur in all partstof the lymphatic gla,nds, but usually lie near the peripheral zone. The smaller foci appear round on cross section. The larger are of a more T'-. V~ Bovine mesenteric gland with calcified pentastome foci irregular form. The consistency of, these structures, which are plainly distinguished from the surrounding tissue of the lymphatic gland.s, is sometimes that of gruel (in yellow-colored specimens) ; sometimes more caseous (in case of green color) ; or, finally, firmer, plaster-like^ due to the deposition of lime (in gray-colored speci- mens). Under the microscope one observes intact pentastomes in the yellowish and greenish foci, but, in the gray foci, the parasites are cloudy as a result of fatty degeneration and deposition of lime. In the yellowish foci, the worms are surrounded by disintegrated tissue of the lymphatic glands ; in the greenish foci, by pus cor- puscles ; and, in the calcified foci, by detritus and lime deposits. T. ,518 INVASION DISEASES liave never observed the formation of a capsule in the lymphatic? glands, such as regularly occurs in the liver and spleen. Whole worms may be absent in a portion of the gray-colored foci, but characteristic claws are found as the undoubted remains of dead parasites. These claws apparently resist the process of calcifica- tion like the hooks of the armed cysticerci. According to my investigations, bloody foci in the lymphatic glands, such as described by Babes as au almost uniform occur- rence around pentastomes, are rare. It is highly probable that these hemorrhages were due to the hemoglobinemia with which the cattle examined by Babes were affected. Even migrating pen- tastomes which had already bored quite large canals in the lympha- tic glands lay, in the case which I observed, in the milk-white or slightly yellow-colored semi-fluid tissue. In contrast with the pentastomes in the lymphatic glands> those which are found in the liver and lungs are regularly sur- rounded with blood when the parasites are migrating. Encysted parasites in these organs are white structures, varying in size from a millet seed to a vetch seed. Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis. — Old pentastome foci in the lymphatic glands closely resemble tuberculous alterations. When carefully examined, however, ■ ■ there are marked differences between 1^' ' ' i ^ jC ^ these two conditions. Tubercles are ' ± v;^_J * sharply delimited from the surround- I ^ ing tissue. The most recent tubercles ■""^ ' possess a cloudy, casefied center and a transparent periphery; older tubercles, on the other hand, are almost entirely ~=»V^ 'f casefied and of a pronounced yellowish /"^^ ^ color. The consistency is like that of W}^ moist or dry cheese. As a rule, fresh tubercles may be observed around the P 111 1 I II 1 \ 1 1 3m a strongly larger tubercles. As contrasted with calcified focus in a lymphatic .i • t,. , i, . , , , gland. this condition only yellowish-colored,.. never deep yellow-colored, foci are found in pentastomatosis. Furthermore, these yellow-colored pen- tastomes are of a semi-fluid consistency. The pentastome foci,,, however, which exhibit a more cheesy consistency, are of a greenish- color. Finally, partially calcified remains of pentastomes are gray„, -while tuberculous foci, even in an advanced stage of calcification^ \ ANIMAL PARASITES 519 Tetain their yellow color. Toang tubercles with casefied centers and transparent periphery are not observed in pentastomatosis. Finally, by means of a simple teased preparation, the nature of pentastome foci may be demonstrated beyond question (demonstra- tion of whole larvae or claws, Fig, 168). In this connection I may remark that, according to my investigations, pentastomes, after migrating, leave smooth cicatrices, but no granules of a tuberculous character. In distinguishing between pentastomes and tubercles, the intermuscular lymph glands are of special significance, since a false interpretation of tubercle-like pentastomes in these lymphatic glands may lead to an unjust condemnation of whole animals or quarters. Judgment. — Statistics concerning the frequency of entozoa in dogs furnish a convincing proof that after the introduction of meat inspection in a locality or country, the number of dogs infested with ■worms diminishes greatly. Deffke demonstrated in Berlin that after the introduction of obligatory meat inspection, tapeworms of dogs became less frequent. For example, according to Deffke, Taenia marginata, which was formerly quite frequent in Berlin and which in Iceland infested 75 per cent, of the dogs (Krabbe), and in Saxony, 27 per cent. (Schone), at the end of the 80's was found in only 7 per cent, of the dogs which were examined. On the other hand, the effect of obligatory meat inspection on pentastomes is not yet observable. Pentastomes are still frequent parasites in the dogs of Berlin. Deffke found them in 13, or 6.5 per cent., out of 200 dogs. No doubt can. remain that dogs are the source of pentastome larvae; for Deffke calls attention to the fact that it is especially the butchers' dogs and' dogs used for draft purposes which are infested with Pentastomum tcenioides. Through intimate association with dogs, man runs the risk of becoming infected by the ingestion of pentastome eggs. Zenker in Dresden demonstrated the presence of the larvae of Pentastomum tcenioides in 4 per cent, of all cadavers which were examined by him. In one case (Laudon) a developed pentastomum was observed in man. Occasionally, also, organs infested with pentastomes may have an injurious effect. As a rule, however, this is not the case, and for this reason organs infested with pentastome foci can not -in general be considered as dangerous food material. In order to prevent farther distribution of pentastomes, Ziirn recommends "careful examination of food animals in which £20 INVASION DISEASES Pentastomum denticulatum may be found. If this parasite is found, especially in the livers and mesenteric glands of goats and sheep, or in the peritoneal cavity of rabbits and hare, it should be imme- diately destroyed, preferably by burning." According to the investigations of the writer, meat inspectors should give especial attention to the mesenteric glands of cattle and sheep. It is a difficult matter to burn all viscera infested with pentastomes. Fortunately, however, this is not absolutely necessary. By far the greater proportion of the mesenteries are rendered in the prepara- tion of tallow and in the manufacture of soap. The possibility of the transmission of pentastome larvae to dogs is thereby excluded, so that it is only necessary to condemn the more extensively infested mesenteric glands in all cases in which the above men- tioned utilization is permitted. This should be practiced in the case of the infected lymphatic glands of poor mesenteries which are not rendered out. APPENDIX. 1. — Protozoa. In the skeletal musculature, esophagus, mucous membranes of the stomach and intestines, as well as in the liver of our food animals, various parasites occur which belong to the lowest known animal forms, Protozoa, and which were formerly, quite generally characterized as Gregarinidss, or psorosperms. These names, how- ever, are not in accordance with zoological nomenclature. According to zoological classification, the parasites in question belong to the second subdivision of Protozoa, or Sporozoa. Under this name Leuckart, in 1879, included a number of unrelated unicellular parasites which form spores with shells. According to Braun, Sporozoa are divided into several orders, of which the following ^ are of importance for meat inspection : Coecidia, Myxosporidia, Sarcosporidia and Hemntosporidia. Sarcosporidia and Hematosporidia are the most important orders for meat inspection. The Coecidia play a much less important role in food animals, and the Myxosporidia occur only iu fish and lower animals. PROTOZOA 521 (a) Coccidia. The Coccidia are parasites of epithelia. They are small, spherical or oval structures, which destroy the epithelial cells by their rapid growth aud then divide into a number of parts. These penetrate into the intact epithelia of the infested organ (rnerozoites) or become changed into microgametes aud macrogametes (male and female sexual cells). By the copulation of these forms, sporoblasts are produced and, finally, permanent forms with shells (sporozoites) arise. The latter cause infestation of new hosts. The following forms belong to the Coccidia : 1. Coccidium: Ovipoeme (Leuchart). — The sporoblasts are elongated, oval and surrounded by a double membrane ; length, O.OS Fig. 170 Fig. 169. Sporoblasts of Coccidium oviforme from a rabbit liver. Rabbit liver with coooidial foci. to .04 mm.; width, .015 to .028 mm. At first, the protoplasm fills the whole inside of the parasites with a coarsely granular mass, but soon becomes contracted into a sphere from which four sporozoites arise. C. oviforme is found in rabbits in the epithelium of the bile duct and produces coccidiosis of the rabbit liver. Occasionally coccidiosis of the liver is observed in man. Coccidiosis of the rabbit liver is characterized macroscopically by the appearance of abscess-like foci which are white in color and roundish in form. Eoot-like projections are observed on the larger tubercles which correspond to the pathologically-altered bile ducts (Fig. 170). By examination of cross sections it is seen that the abscess-like structures are formed of greatly distended bile ducts. 522 INVASION DISEASES partly fused together, which are sharply delimited from the almost unaltered hepatic tissue by means of fibrous connective tissue and contain immense numbers bi coccidia, besides epithelial detritus. The process begins with the invasion of the coccidia into the epithelia of the bile ducts. The epithelial cells which are attacked by the coccidia are destroyed. Later a marked hyperplasia of the epithelia and a papillary proliferation of the bile ducts arise, so that these structures do not represent simple canals, but much-branched cavities (Fig. 171). Fig. 171. Fm. 173. Red dysentery of cattle. Coceidia in . the mucosa of the large intestine. X 1,200 diameters, h-d, various developmental stages. At a and 6 the cell nucleus is visible. (After Zschokke). Coccidiosis of the rabbit liver. Section through the cortical part of a ooocidial focus. Papillary hyper- plasia and enlargement of the bile ducts due to localization of the parasites. Coccidia in ike, Liver of Hogs. — Johne described cyst-like cavities with cloudy, chocolate-colored fluid contents in the liver of a hog and was able to demonstrate coccidia in them. I have also found these foci quite frequently in the liver of hogs and can corroborate the statements of Johne on this point. As a rule, we find isolated tubercles varying in size from a pea to a walnut, with tough con- nective tissue walls and pronounced radiate cirrhosis in the surrounding tissue. Occasionally, however, the whole liver is permeated with such tubercles and the tissue becomes cirrhotic in toto. The inner surface of the wall of the cyst shows evaginations and the above-described discolored and rather scanty contents PROTOZOA 525- always exhibit unicellular sporozoa, but in small numbers. John* leaves the question unsettled whether these structures are identical with Coccidium oviforme or not. 2. Coccidium: Pebforans {Leuckart). — The sporoblasts of C~ perforans are smaller and more spherical than those of C. oviforme (0.017 to .024 mm. long and .012 to .014 mm. wide). According to Hieck, they are distinguished from those of the latter chiefly by the fact that in the division of the protoplasm to form the four sporozoites a portion of it remains as the " residual division cor- puscle." Coccidium perforans is found in the intestinal epithelia of rabbits and produces a desquamative catarrh of the whole intestinal tract characterized by a profuse diarrhea. Moreover, C. perforans or a related species occurs in the intestinal epithelium of sheep and calves. Red Dysentery of Cattle. — In the Swiss Cantons, Lucerne ani Bern, a peculiar disease of an epizootic nature occurs in cattle, especially in young stall-fed animals, which has been describedi by Zschotke as " red dysentery " (" dysenteria hemorrhagica- coccidiosa," Hess). This name was chosen on account of the con- stant bloody discharges observed in this disease. In the epithelium of the granulated or longitudinally folded mucous membrane of th& colon in the animals, Zschokke demonstrated spherical or oval coccidia, or 0.01 to .22 mm. in diameter. They were homogenous- and strongly refractive and with a double contour. After staining ■ with anilin stains, nuclei may be demonstrated which may be- three times as large as those of the epithelial cells. The finding of Zschokke has been confirmed by Hess and Guillebeau. Guillebeau> is of the opinion that the coccidium of red dysentery is C. oviforme^ Judgment. — Zschokke and Hess call attention to the fact that the meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter on account of red dysentery is always admitted to the market and is eaten without any bad results. The meat, however, possesses the character of a spoiled (inferior) food material and is, therefore, to be sold under declaration. C. teneUum occurs in fowls and may produce an epizootic^ croupous, diphtheritic enteritis, during which, according to Eieck^ small disintegration foci caused by invasion of coccidia appear iix the mesenteric glands. S24: INVASION DI&EASES Chicken Pox. — "Chicken pox" is a disease of the mucous membrane of the head and neck and of the general integument of iowls, and is characterized by the formation of tubercles. The disease begins with a catarrh of the mucous membrane of the head in the further course of which wart-like proliferations appear on the mucous membrane. The pathological proces^s spread from the mucous membrane of the head to the skin, on which, especially on the unfeathered areas, miliary to bean-sized -neomorphs are formed (epithelioma contagiosum, Bollinger). Thei dermal epithe- liomata are at first gray, often shining like mother-of-pearl, firm, and furnished with a smooth surface. Later they become covered Teith a scab. Rivolta and Silvestri consider coccidia to be the cause of this readily transmissible epizootic disease. In the proliferating epithelial cells strongly refractive homogeneous corpuscles are observed which stain yellow with picrocarmine and are thereby readily distinguished from the epithelial cells, which stain brownish red. Croupous, diphtheritic deposits may arise on the proliferating portions of the mucous membrane (gi'egarious form of avian diphtheria, according to Friedberger and Fiohner). The disease may become so extensive on the mucous membrane of the head that the animals are no longer able to close the beak, take nourishment or breathe. According to more recent investigations, "chicken pox" is said to be due to bacteria. "Chicken pox" is a local disease of certain parts of the head and neck and has no effect upon the food qualities of the other parts of the animal. The customary removal of the head and neck, together with the trachea and esophagus, is sufficient to permit the admission of the animals to market without any re- striction. The carcasses of fowls affected with epitheliomata are to be excluded from the market as highly spoiled (unfit) food material only in cases where symptoms of general disease have appeared as a result of mechanical hindrances to the ingestion of food or respiration. Pigeons affected with epitheliomata dis- tributed over the whole body are to be judged in the same manner. Coccidia in the Fo'urth Stomach and Intestines of Sheep. — Maske demonstrated coccidia very frequently (in 70 per cent, of the inspected stomachs) in the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach of sheep, especially in the depths of the folds of the mucous membrane. The sporoblasts of these coccidia are comparatively large and are surrounded with a double contoured. PROTOZOA 525- strongly refractive capsule. The coccidia caused tubercles of the size of a pinhead. For Spieidenitis coccidiosa (granular eruption of hogs), com- pare page 270. (b) Myxosporidia. Myxosporidia are parasitic chiefly in fish. A large number of species are known. Myxosporidia are usually surrounded with a tough cuticula, and contain numerous nuclei. The size varies from microscopic smallness to the volume of a hazel nut. The location is sometimes free in the body cavities, sometimes in the viscera^ gills, muscles and dermal epithelium. Fig. 173. Barbel with myxosporidial tumors due to Myxobolus pfeifEeri (Doflein). Among the numerous species of myxosporidia, the most inter- esting one for us is Myxobolus pfeifferi, which may produce the_ epizootic death of barbel. An epizootic myxosporidiosis of the barbel was first observed in the Mosel in 1870, whence it spread to the Maas, Meurte, Ehine, Marne and Seine. In 1890, Ludwig Pfeiffer investigated the disease which had broken out in this region and found myxosporidia in the muscles of diseased barbel. The affected fish were sluggish, scarcely able to swim against the- current, and exhibited discolored swellings of the skin (Fig. 173) and crater-like ulcers on the head, body and tail. Immense num- bers of the myxosporidia were found in the ulcers, their primary location being in the muscle cells. Pfeiffer found the other organs of barbel to be free from myxosporidia, while, in the tench, the gall bladder, swimming bladder, spleen and arteries were affected. The pathologico-anatomical processes in an invasion of myxosporidia in 526 INVASION DISEASES ^barbels were carefully studied by Thelohan. According to his investigations, the invasion of myxosporidia causes a hyaline ■degeneration of the muscle fibers, which become disintegrated and are replaced by connective tissue. Thus it comes about that finally one finds the spores of the myxosporidia surrounded by fibrous oysts. The frequently observed eruption of tumors on the body of barbels and the evacuation of a pus-like spore-containing mass is •due to the secondary localization of a large bacterial organism described by L. Pfeiffer, which finds favorable conditions for its development in the degenerated muscle tissue of barbels affected -with myxosporidia. The bacterial organism in question appears to possess pathogenic properties. Pig. 174. Tench with "skin pox." Myxobolus cyprlni occurs in the kidneys of carp and tench. In affected fish, white cartilaginous thickenings of epidermis (" pox marks") occur, in which, however, strange to say, no organisms are iound (Hofer and Doflein). Judgment op Cocoidia and Myxosporidia. — Nothing is yet known concerning the injurious effect of eating organs which are infested with coccidia and myxosporidia. Practically no careful investigations have been made on this subject, and until this ques- tion is settled, we must exclude from the market all organs affected with coccidia and myxosporidia. This method of procedure is justified by the alterations which extensive invasions produce in affected parts. In the myxosporidial disease of the barbel, we should also remember that even uninfested parts of the diseased £sh are discolored yellOw, are of a gelatinous consistency and assume a more or less conspicuous bitter taste on cooking. PEOTOZOA 52T (c) Sarcosporidia. Genebal Chaeactees. — In 1884 Balbiani characterized as sar- cosporidia the parasites which had previously been known under the name of Miescher's sacs in the musculature of warm-blooded animals. Sarcosporidia are elongated or oval structures which have their seat either in the inuscle fibers (Miescheridse), or in the connective tissue (Balbianidse). Some of the former are sur- rounded by a thin structureless membrane (Miescheria) ; others possess a thick membrane provided with transverse striae or bristles (Sarcocystis, Blanchard). Pig. 175. Fig. 176. End of a Miescher's sac with contents. At the side, sporozoites greatly mag- nified, (Leuckart.) Meischer's sac from the musculature of a hog, X 30 diameters. According to Bertram, whose brilliant investigations con- tributed greatly to a better knowledge of the sarcosporidia, one finds the youngest forms as small sacs consisting of a surrounding membrane, and round or oval cells. From these the sporoblast mother cells are formed and from the latter in turn the sporoblasts. In the meantime the surrounding membrane becomes two-layered. From its inner layer a supporting substance develops around the sporoblasts and also the cells which are later formed from the layer out of which arise the sporozoites, formerly known as sickle- shaped corpuscles. The whole sac is thereby divided into a sys- tem of chambers which contain sporozoites in the form of balls. 528 INVASION DISEASES According to Braun, the sporozoites of sarcosporidia are very small, apparently membraneless corpuscles, witli a nucleus, and often with one or two transparent spots. The form is elongated, C-shaped, or fusiform and clavate (Fig. 176). The function of the sarcosporidia is completed with the forma- tion of the sporozoites. They may then disintegrate, while, as assumed by Bertram, the sporozoites become disintegrated in the central chambers. So long as the surrounding membrane is unin- jured, the cyst persists, and in its chambers a granular detritus is found, together with a few sporozoites which are still preserved. If the necrotic process attacks also the surrounding membrane, leucocytes may apparently penetrate into the sac. Finally, the sacs may calcify. Fig. 177. Sarcosporidia from the abdominal musculature of a sheep. Natural size. To the Miescheridse belong Miescher's sacs, so widely dis- tributed in the musculature of herbivorous and omnivorous ani- mals. These are observed most frequently in the skeletal muscu- lature of hogs and sheep ; also in horses, cattle, goats, deer, dogs, hare and chickens. Miescher's sacs become located inside the striated muscle fibers in their long axis. The elongated smaller .specimens exhibit throughout the surrounding tissue a layer of striated substance of varying thickness (Fig. 175). In the case of larger specimens, on the other hand, the striated substance dis- appears as far as the distended sarcolemma. The size varies. Bertram observed Miescher's sacs which were only 0.04 mm. lone PROTOZOA 529 and .006 mm. wide. When fully developed, they are 0,5 to 3 mm. long and of various widths up to 0.4 mm. Special Featuees in Vaeious Food Animals. — Miescher's sacs {Sarcocystis lliescheriana, Kiihn) are quite regularly found incident- ally duriug the microscopic inspection of pork. Kiihn found these parasites in 98 per cent, of the hogs which he inspected. When Miescher's sacs are completely or even partially calcified, they may be detected with the naked eye. Calcification begins in the middle of the sac in the form of irregular masses of lime deposits, which, from their reaction to acids, must be considered as consist- ing principally of calcium carbonate. Occasionally delicately twisted and coiled lime deposits are observed in Miescher's sacs resembling the appearance of primarily calcified trichinae. In cases of total calcification, Miescher's sacs, when examined macroscopi- cally, appear to be white, but under the microscope they appear as dark, almost black, structures. Calcified Miescher's sacs form one kind of so-called calcareous concretions in the musculature of hogs. With regard to the seat of Miescher's sacs in hogs, it should be stated that they may occur in all striated muscles, in the myo- cardium as well as in the skeletal muscles. As a rule, however, in hogs, the abdominal muscles and muscular portion of the dia- phragm appear to be more extensively infested than the other muscles. In sheep, Miescher's sacs reach a larger size than in hogs (Fig. 177). Quite frequently one observes sacs which show a length of IJ cm. and a maximum width of 0.3 mm.* In the sheep also sarcosporidia appear to be almost uniformly present. At any rate Bertram observed them in Rostock in 182 out of 185 sheep, inspected at that place. One observes macroscopically-visible- parasites in the dermal and abdominal muscles, as should be stated in opposition to the assertion of Bertram, according to which the larger savcosporidial forms are found in sheep only in the mus- cles of the tongue, esophagus, pharynx and larynx. According to Bertram, macroscopically-visible forms may be demonstrated in the muscles of the head and neck and in the intercostal, diaphrag- matic, abdominal and lumbar muscles, as well as in the heart. In horses, macroscopically-visible Miescher's sacs appear most commonly in the musculature of the esophagus and neck. With * The largest sarcosporidia are fouiid in the fallow deer. Thus, Manz, reports sarcosporidia in this animal more than 6 cm. long. 530 INVASION DISEASES regard to the distribution of Miescher's sacs in the liorse, the state- ment of Siedamgrotzky is interesting, to the effect that he was able to demonstrate these parasites in the majority of horses which he inspected for this purpose in Dresden. Csokor in Vienna inspected 241 horses and found 10 per cent, infested with them. In cattle, one occasionally observes that the musculature is infested with roundish or elongated foci of a yellowish or dirty ground color, varying in size from a millet seed to a kernel of rye. When examined under the microscojDe they are found to be Miescher's sacs. These foci may be present in very large num- bers in the whole musculature. Sanfelice asserts that he regularly observed sarcosporidia in the tongue of Sicilian cattle. : Pathogenic Impoktance of Miescher's Sacs. — In isolated cases, which, however, require further explanation, Miescher's sacs are said to have caused inflammatory phenomena in the muscula- ture. On account of their rare occurrence, however, these cases have only a slight importance for us. As a rule, Miescher's sacs heal in the muscle fibers without reaction (Fig. 175). Eieck described a case in which he assumed the pathogenic action of Miescher's sacs. This case was a beef animal which had exhibited no pathological symptoms during life, but which, after slaughter, presented hard tumors varying in size from that of a fist to that of a child's head in nearly all muscles, especially in the muscles of the abdomen, back, shoulder and thigh. Under the microscope, extensive infiltration of the perimysium internum and externum with small cells was observed in those parts which were affected with the first stages of the disease. In addition to the leucocytes, isolated, membranous, round structures, with a perfectly homogeneous body, were observed in the muscle fibers. In the sec- ond stage a chronic interstitial inflammation was present, together with sarcosporidia in the muscle fibers; and in a third stage, a granular disintegration was observed in the muscle fibers infested by sarcosporidia. A similar case was observed by Piitz in the horse. He, how- ever, left the question undecided whether or not the pathological alterations (interstitial myositis) were due to the presence of the not very numerous Miescher's sacs. As is well known, Miescher's sacs have also been considered as the cause of the muscle tumors in horses known by the name of " ice balls." PROTOZOA 531 In slaughtering a steer which had shown a stiff gait daring life, Tokarenko found the musculature pale-red and exhibiting yellow stripes and spots at certain points. The intermuscular tissue showed a serous infiltration and small hemorrhages were observed in the musculature of the posterior extremities. Microscopic examination demonstrated the presence of an immense number of Miescher's sacs, especially in the muscles of the thigh. The muscle fibrillse appeared pale ; the transverse striation in sorhe parts was totally obliterated, and a granular disintegration had appeared in its place. Differential Diagnosis. — Intact Miescher's sacs should scarcely give occasion to confusion with other phenomena in the musculature. Nevertheless, calcified sacs in hogs have frequently been mistaken for calcified trichinsB. For the differentiation of calcified trichinae from calcified Miescher's sacs, see page 540. Judgment of Saecospobidia. — Prom a sanitary police stand- point, sarcosporidia are to be* judged somewhat differently than coccidia and myxosporidia. For, in the first place, they produce no striking alterations in the affected organs. Furthermore, it has been proved that sarcosporidia are an exceedingly rare occurrence in the muscles of man. From the fact of their unusual occurrence in food animals, it can not be assumed that sarcosporidia can be transmitted to man by eating meat. Quite recently, Rosenberg described a case of " undoubted ' Miescher's sacs " in the heart of a man, and, in this connection, called attention to three cases which were described in 1863 by the Russian scientist, Lindermann. As contrasted, however, with the almost constant occurrence of Miescher's sacs in domestic animals, such cases must be considered as rare. L. Pfeiffer asserts that feeding experiments with Miescher's sacs in hogs, sheep, dogs and rabbits have given negative results. Moreover, he is of the opinion that muscle infections, analogous to those in hogs, have not been observed with certainty in man. In the cases of alleged sarcosporidial, acute, progressive polymyositis, described by Unverricht, it is stated that neither Miescher's sacs nor the crescent forms were found. In the practice of meat inspection, it is quite customary to disregard the ordinary slight invasions of Miescher's sacs in hogs and to admit the meat of such animals to market without restric- tion. This practice is justified so long as the musculature shows no 532 INVASION DISEASES macroscopically-recognizable alterations, and this is the usual case^ Exceptionally, however, the meat must be considered as spoiled, (inferior) food material, in case calcification has appeared in many- of the Miescher's sacs ; and the meat must be considered as highly unfit for food in case the musculature is greatly altered ; for example, with yellow or green spots or gray discolorations and watery as a result of extensive invasion of Miescher's sacs. In the last-named cases, the meat loses the quality of human food, for it is^ exceedingly repulsive and unappetizing. The case is different with hogs in which numerous Miescher's sacs appear as calcareous concretions (Fig. 183). In such cases^ the meat has, to be sure, lost somewhat in proteid content on account of the lime deposits, but aside from the calcified parasitic foci, the musculature possesses a normal consistency and color, and, as a rule, also an unaltered fat content. For these reasons no objection can be made to the sale of such meat under declaration. If the occurrence of calcified Miescher's sacs is restricted to certain muscle groups, only these muscles are to be treated as spoiled (inferior) food material. Sheep in which more or less numerous saico- sporidia of macroscopic size are found in all of the . muscle groups, are to be excluded from free sale on I ^ \ account of their inferior quality, and, under certain conditions, are to be absolutely excluded from the market. If, however, the parasites are restricted to certain muscle groups (for example, dermal and abdominal muscles) the meat may be admitted to the market after removal of these parts. Fig. 178. 'rr ■?', BalbianidsB from the esophagus of a sheep. Balhianid(B. — The sarcosporidia which occur so frequently in the interfibrillar tissue of the esophagus in sheep and goats and which in some years are present in almost every individual, belong to the family Balbianidse. Kailliet gave this parasite the name Balhiania gigantea* They present white sacs filled with pus-like contents, varying in size from a millet seed to * Bertram held the opinion chat the small sarcosporidia which occur in sheep {Sarcocystis tenella, Railliet) and Balhiania gigantea, were merely different stages of one and the same species. He believed that at first the parasites were found in the muscle fibers, while later they grew through the sarcolemma and in. this manner became transformed into psorosperm sacsi, PKOTOZOA 533 -a, hazel nut (psorosperm sacs), which are often found to the num- l)er of several dozen in a single esophagus. Morot found them present to the number of 227 in one esophagus. In addition to this location, the Balbianidse have their seat also in the connective tissue of the lingual and laryngeal musculature, as well as in the thoi-acic and abdominal muscles. Judgment. — Formerly the esophagus was not utilized for food. Since, however, it has come to be so used — less scrupulous butchers utilize the '■ gullet meat " of sheep in the preparation of sausage — it becomes the duty of meat inspectors to condemn all esophagi infested with Balbianidse and to render them innocuous. By this means also the further distribution of the disease would be corre- spondingly prevented. (d) Hematosporidia. The Hematosporidia, the relationship of which to the Sporozoa is not yet established with certainty, are unicellular parasites of the Ted blood corpuscles of vertebrates. The first Hematosporidia were -observed by Gaule in 1880 in frogs, tritons and turtles. In the «ame year Laveran made his epoch-making discovery that unicellu- lar motile parasites occur also in the blood of malarial patients. "The Hematosporidia acquired importance for veterinary science through the classical investigations of the American author, Theo- iDald Smith, on the subject of Texas fever, in which Hematosporidia were likewise found and demonstrated beyond question to be the cause of the disease. Texas Fever. — On the subject of Texas fever, we owe to Smith and his co-worker, Kilborne, the following data : Home of the Disease. — In the southern United States the station- ary focus for Texas fever is found in a wide zone extending from the Gulf of Mexico to 37° or 38° north latitude. The native cattle of this region are apparently healthy. If, however, cattle from northern regions mingle with these apparently healthy animals, the former fall ill of the plague. . If cattle from the infested territory pass over the northern or southern boundary line, they may carry the disease with them. The incubation stage is about fifty days. Clinical Symptoms. — The first symptom of the disease is a high iever (40.5° to 42° C). An acute anemia rapidly follows this stage. CJlinical hemoglobinuria is rare. The Litter, for the most part, is 534 INVASION DISEASES Fi8. 179. demonstrated on post mortem.* The fever persists until deatli or recovery. At the crisis of the fever, one-eighth to one-sixth of the red blood corpuscles are destroyed within twenty-four hours. After the temperature falls, however, their regeneration takes place rapidly. Pathologico-anatoinical Findings. — Upon making a post-mortem examination one fiuds red-colored urine in the bladder (hemoglobinuria). The kidneys^ are dark, brownish-red, or, if the period of hemoglobinuria is passed, they are pale- brown and soft. A bloody edema is observed in the perirenal fat tissue. The spleen is enlarged from two to five times its normal size and is of a dark-red color. The liver is swollen and either filled with blood (in the first stage) or poor in blood and dis- colored yellowish. Petechias under the epi- cardium and endocardium ; bloody erosions on the mucosa of the fourth stomach ; in the small intestinps, on the other hand, oleaceous deposits which consist of sloughed-off epithelial cells. Etiology. — As the cause of the disease. Smith discovered pro- tozoan micro-organisms of a pale color and exhibiting amoeboid movements at a temperature of 24° C. These organisms live inside Texas fever. Cover glass preparation from the spleen pulp of a beef animal, with quite num- erous intraglobular par- asites, X 900 diameters. (After Smith.) Fig. 180. Texas fever Diaferent forms of Piroplasma bigerainum due to amoeboid movements, c and c? still possess nuoei; d shows the pear-shape characteristic of the acute atoo-o Much enlarged. (After Smith.) the red blood corpuscles and pass through several developmental phases there. According to Smith, the parasite, called by him Fyrosoma bigeminum, is, in mild forms of the disease, small, round- ish, coccus-like ; in the acute, summer forms, however, it is larger * This account is based on the investigations of Smith and Kilborne (Bulletin 1, Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agrfculture). Later investiga- tions, however, have shown that hemoglobinuria is a characteristic clinical symptom, especially in severe cases, terminating fatally.— Teanslator's Notk PBOTOZOA 535 (2.5 to 4 /t long and 1.5 to 2 /* broad) ; amoeboid, and in the fully developed condition pyroform in shape.* demonstration of Parasites. — In the circulating blood these structures are found usually in only one or two, or, at most, 10 per cent, of the red blood corpuscles. The capillary blood of dead animals is more extensively infected, the blood of the renal capil- laries being most infected, in which location as many as 80 per Pig. 181 Texas fever. Boophilus bovis. a, recently hatched young tick, X 40 diameters; b, sexually mature male, X 10 diameters; c, sexually mature female, X 10 dia- meters. (After Smith.) i cent, of the erythrocytes contain the parasitic organism. For demonstrating Texas fever parasites, air-dried cover-glass prepara- tions are kept in a hot-air incubator for from one to one and one- half hours at a temperature of 110° to 120° C, then stained for one-half to two minutes with alkaline-metbylene blue, washed with water, dipped momentarily into 1 per cent, acetic acid, and again washed with water. In doubtful cases, the staining method of Komanowsky gives good satisfaction (with polychromio methylene- * Wandolek changed the name of the organism of Texas fever to Apiosoma higeminum, since Pyrosoma is preempted for a genus of Tunicates. As noted by Stiles, however, even the name chosen by Wandolek is not free. It is sug- gested, therefore, that the name proposed by Patton, Piroplasma higeminum, is the proper species name for the parasitic organism of Texas fever. .536 INVASION DISEASES blue, to which eosine is added until precipitation begins to takje place, and differentiation with water slightly acidified with acetic acid). The Texas fever parasites then appear blue and the red blood corpuscles red. , Blethod of Infection. — The disease is transmissible by inoculat- ing the blood of infected cattle into other cattle. Inoculation with the blood of apparently healthy cattle from the infected region also produces the disease, for these animals regularly contain intraglobular parasites in small numbers. Babbits, guinea pigs, pigeons and sheep are immune. Under natural conditions, the infection is produced by means of ticks (Ixodes bovis, Eiley; s. BoopMlus bovis, Curtice). The eggs of these 'ticks are laid in pas- tures. The young ticks hatch in from two to six weeks, attach themselves to cattle, attain sexual maturity, and, after about 23 days, fall off for the purpose of depositing their eggs. The period of incubation, therefore, includes the time necessary for the develop- ment of young ticks out of females which have dropped (about 30 days), and the true incubation period of the disease (10 to 15 days). Judgment.— Thus far, nothing is known concerning any disease in man due to eating the meat of cattle affected with Texas fever. Nevertheless, the meat of such animals is to be withheld from the market and rendered innocuous, for the possibility is by no means excluded that Texas fever may be distributed by means of meat traffic. Texas fever, therefore, possesses chiefly a veterinary police interest. In cases of the introduction of American cattle, the officials of the veterinary police should give special attention to this disease, which in 1894 was introduced into Hamburg by means of a transport loaded with American beef cattle, and caused all the States of the European continent to prohibt the introduction of American cattle. Keceiit luvestigatious Concerning the Nature and Occurrence of Texas Fever. Weisser and Maassen confirmed the belief that Texas fever was introduced into Hamburg by the importation of American cattle. They demonstrated the parasites discovered by Smith in smear preparations from the kidneys, spleen, liver, lymphatic glands and heart, but found them in greatest numbers in the capil- laries of the kidneys and myocardium. The spherical structures formd in the majority of the red blood corpuscles sometimes PBOTOZOA 537 Tesemble large cocci or diplococci. As a rule, there was only one spherical parasite in each red blood corpuscle, but in many cases there were two, and then they possessed a somewhat elongated, •occasionally pyriform, shape. The parasites stained fairly well "with the ordinary basic auilin dyes. The elongated forms, how- ever, take the stain actively only in the wider ends. Good results were obtained on sections by the use of hematoxylin, methylene- Ijlue and gentian -violet, the latter in dilute solutions for a period of 24 hours. K. Koch demonstrated that Texas fever occurs also in coast Tegions of German East Africa and that in this country also it is transmitted by ticks as in America. Koch confirmed the essential statements of Smith and Kilborne, but found the pyroform phase of the parasite even in mild cases of the disease. According to Smith, the epizootic hemoglobinuria of Rou- manian cattle, investigated by Babes, and the red water which occurs in South Africa, are related or identical with Texas fever. According to Starcovici, the epizootic of sheep investigated by Babes and called " carceag," belongs to Texas fever. Bonome in Padua found an endoglobular " amoebosporidium " in a disease ■characterized by him as "parasitic ictero-hematuria of sheep." However, according to Babes, the disease investigated by Bonome is nothing more than carceag. Furthermore, the same findings as in Texas fever have been made by Sanfelice and Loi in hematuria of Sardinian cattle ; by Oelli and Santori in bovine malaria of the Campagna of Rome ; by Krogius, von Hellens and Kossel in an epizootic hemoglobinuria of I'inuish cattle ; and by Laveran and Nicolle in an epizootic of sheep which is prevalent in the vicinity of Constantinople. Texas fever is widely distributed also in Australia. Finally, according to the investigation of Jackschath and von Ziemann, it must be assumed that the so-called bloody urine of ■cattle, which is enzootic in Germany, is a disease etiologically j-elated to Texas fever. Diseases Caused, by Infusoria. (a) Nagana and Surra Disease.— The nagana and surra dis- Anthrax bacilli from tlie cardiac blood Cadaver bacilli (edema bacilli from (he of a mouse, with "clavate pr,laf siilicutis of an arlittcially infected .swellings." X oOO diameters. raliliit). X •lUO diameters.' bacterial cells are broader than the remainder of the cell body (Fig. 198). This phenomenon, previously characterized as clavate end-swelling, arises in consequence of the contraction of the middle of the bacterial body before division (Johue). Anthrax bacilli are found especially in the capillaries of the internal organs, particularly the spleen, intestines, mesenteries and lungs. On account of the retention of the anthrax bacilli in the capillaries, their demonstratiou in the large vascular trunks during life may be a difiicult matter. Differentiation of Anthrax Bacilli and So-called Cadaver Bacilll— Attention has already been called (page 575) to the fact ANTHRAX 581 Fi(i. 200. that ill the alimentary canal of living animals, edema bacilli are found and that these organisms penetrate from the intestines into the neigliboriug organs, especially into the spleen and liver, if the cadaver has lain nuopeiel for from 12 to 24 hours. For this rt'ason the edema bacilli which occur in cadavers, or, as they may be briefly termed, cadaver bacilli, are of great practical significauce in the bacteriological diagnosis of anthrax. Cadaver bacilli also form spurious threads, like anthrax bacilli. The individual bacilli, however, are more slender and longer than the anthrax bacilli and are not squarely cut at the ends like the latter, but are rounded, or end obli(|uely. Furthermore, the cadaver bacilli form spores in the carcass (Fig. 100) and possess no capsule like anthrax bacilli. It sometimes occurs, to be sure, that a cap- sule-like, faint, lateral seam appears on the cadaver bacilli. This spurious capsule, how- ever, is usually unilateral and without an external contour (Fig. 200), since it arises by the retraction of the serum albumen contained in the prepara- tions. Finally, the cadaver bacilli are discolored by the Gram method, while the anthrax bacilli remain well stained after the completion of this method. Ciilaver liaoilh with pseu- (lii-ia|jMiles, troiu the spleen of an asiihyxiateil fjninea ])ig, kept in an ineubator. X 500 diam. Occurrence. — Anthrax occurs in all domesticated animals and in man. The sheep is most susceptible, followed by cattle and horses. Wild members of the deer family and also hare are affected by anthrax. Finally, the disease may be transmitted to fowls (chickens, ducks and geese). The hog is usually resistent toward anthrax infection and shows in this relation a great similarity to man. Clinical Symptoms. — The clinical symptoms of anthrax vary according to the mode iif infection and the susccptiljility of the species vl animal. Anthrax bacilli enter either by way of the alimentary tract or through the injured skin. Artificial anthrax infection maybe produced by rubbing the bacilli into the uninjured skin. Alimentary or intestinal anthrax is always due to a spore infection, for the spore-free bacilli are rendered innocuous by the g istric juice (Koch, Falk). Natural skin-infection, wdiicli may also be produced by the bacilli, is connected with the presence of wounds. 582 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Pathologico-anatomical Findings.— The spleen exhibits the most important alterations. It is considerably swollen, blackish- red and of a fluid consistency, if the capsule is incised. Moreover, we observe a tar-like condition of the blood, hemorrhages in all organs, especially under the epicardium, and parenchymatous- degeneration of the liver, heart and kidneys. Finally, yellow gelatinous or hemorrhagic infiltration may be present in the sub- cutaneous, submucous and subserous tissues. In hogs; anthrax is characterized by decided cervical edema- Swelling of the spleen in anthrax of hogs may be absent. Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis.— The following diseases- may be mistaken for anthrax : (1) Malignant edema; (2) petechial fever; (3) hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle ; (4) blackleg ; (5) sepsis ; (6) intoxications ; (7) splenic tumors in consequence of metabolic infarcts or torsion of the spleen. Anthrax, except in the hog, in which animal the bacterial find- ings in the blood and in the pathologically-altered foci is decisive,. is distinguished from all these dis- eases by the characteristic splenic tumor, as well as by the finding of numerous non-motile and mor- phologically well - characterized rods in the spleen. In acute anthrax in cattle and horses and in anthrax of hogs, the bacilli in the spleen may not be numerous. In such cases the mesenteric glands ought to be examined in cattle and horses (Fiorentini), and the edematous infiltrated areas of the subcutis in hogs, for the pur- pose of detectiug the presence of the anthrax bacilli. In doubtful cases, animal experiments and bacteriological cultures must decide. The anthrax bacillus kills mice, as a rule, within thirty-six hours ; guinea pigs and rabbits within forty-eight hours. In plate cultures, one observes, after twenty-four to thirty-six hours, by a slight magnification, quite characteristic colonies which are formed of bundles of anthrax threads "like locks of hair" (Fig. 201). It should be noted that for the differentiation of the anthrax bacilli Fig. 201. Anthrax colony from an agar plate culture 34 hours old. X 35 diameters. ANTHRAX 583 from edema bacilli inoculation of mice is not sufficient, since, strangely enough, in mice, edema bacilli occur also in the blood. Furthermore, attention may be called to the fact that the virulence of anthrax bacilli is weakened by putrefaction, and, in fact, may be entirely destroyed. A negative result from inoculation with putre- fying blood from suspected carcasses can not, therefore, be consid- ered as proof of the absence of anthrax. With reference to metabolic infarcts in the spleen in conse- quence of torsion of this organ, attention has already been called (page 347) to the fact that this may lead to a quite considerable increase in the volume of the spleen. This increase in volume, however, is distinguished from anthrax tumor by the pronounced firm character. A fluid condition of the spleen, such as exists in anthrax, never occurs. The metabolic infarcts, moreover, are dis- tinguished by their conical contours. Furthermore, we may demon- strate the emboli directly, in the branches of the splenic arteries. Pkocedube With the Meat of Anthracic Animals. — Sec. 31 of the Imperial law of June 23, 1880, and May 1, 1894, concerning the prevention and suppression of animal plagues, prescribes that " animals which are affected with anthrax or suspected of being affected with this plague, shall not be slaughtered"; and Sec. 33 of this law declares that " the carcasses of dead or slaughtered anthracic animals or of animals suspected of being affected with this plague must be immediately rendered innocuous. The skin- ning of these animals is forbidden." This measure is primarily dictated by veterinary police consid- erations. How shall we judge the meat from a sanitary police standpoint ? Is the meat of animals affected with anthrax injurious to health ? Forensic Judgment op the Meat of Anthracic Animals. — Bollinger has already called attention to the fact that anthrax is not so easily transmitted to man by the consumption of meat as has been generally assumed. Accordingly, he combated the former general assumption (Heusinger) that, as a rule, cases of meat poisoning are to be ascribed to the consumption of meat of anthracic animals. Bollinger's view has received extensive confirmation by recent observations. It has been repeatedly shown that in cases of emergency slaughter of anthracic animals, the cousumers, sometimes numbering hundreds, remain well, while the butchers who injure themselves during the slaughtering become affected with anthrax. .584: INFECTIOUS DISEASES Thus, Behring described a case in which the meat of a bull, subjected to emergency slaughter on account of anthrax, was eaten without any harm, while the butcher and his mother, who assisted at the slaughter, contracted malignant pustule. Similar cases may be cited iu large numbers. Mayer reported concerning an enzootic of anthrax in Alsace in which five diseased cows were utilized us human food. Thereupon, in one village nine persons who had come in contact with the raw meat, took sick. Of this number, two died with pustules on the thumb or arm and the remaining patients had pustules on the hands. " Of the numerous persons who had eaten the meat, only three became affected, and they recovered." Accordingly, the meat of anthracic animals ordinarily produces no injurious consequences after being eaten, and this experimentai fact is sufficiently explained by the biological peculiarities of the anthrax bacilli. As already explained, no spores develop in the meat or by ordinary methods of preservation in cool places, even upon its surface. Spore-free anthrax bacilli, however, are destroyed by the secretions of the stomach. Eesistance of Anthrax to Higher Temperatures. — Anthrax bacilli are destroyed by heating to a temperature of 55° to 60° C. for ten to fifteen minutes. For the destruction of the spores, on the other hand, a boiling temperature for several minutes is required. Although experience teaches, and science has given us a per- fectly satisfactory explanation of the fact, that the meat of anthracie animals, as a rule, does not produce harmful results after being eaten, it must, nevertheless, be treated as a dangerous food material, quite aside from the stringent provisions of the Imperial Animal Plague Law. For, 1. The possibility of infection from meat which contains only the bacilli is not excluded, if there are lesions in the mouth, pharynx and esophagus of the consumers. 2. Under especially favorable external conditions, as shown by Schmidt-Miilheim, spores may form on the surface of the skinned carcasses (high external temperature during the preservation of the meat in badly ventilated rooms), whereby exceptionally an intestinal infection may be produced. 3. It should not be forgotten that anthracic meat which con- tains only bacilli may produce an infection by mere handling ; for example, during the process of cutting lip, if the persons thus engaged have lesions on their fingers. Thus, for example, in ANTHRAX , 585 Oei-mauy, between 1886 aud 1890, 363 human beings were affected with the skin form of anthrax. They . were mostly butchers, knackers and other persons occupied with the slaughtering, skinning and burning of animals. Among the 363 human cases of anthrax, not less than 187 were butchers and knackers. In 1894 there were 109 cases of the transmission of anthrax to man in Germany, with 14 fatal terminations ; in 1896, 82 cases, with 15 fatal terminations ; and in 1900, 62 cases, 10 of which died.* Concerning primary intestinal anthrax in man, Baumgarten states, " the second form under which human anthrax appears is the primary intestinal anthrax which was formerly known as mycosis intestinalis. Bollinger, and especially E. Wagner, deserve credit for having referred to the forms of anthrax this previously much observed but not thoroughly understood disease. Later observa- tions completely confirm the views of these authors. The majority of cases have been observed in persons who work on animal skins, especially in the preparation of animal hair. In a case of this sort, E. Wagner succeeded in microscopically demonstrating, on the hair, spore-bearing rods which were identical with anthrax bacilli. The origin of the infection was thus discovered. The anthrax spores passed from the fingers to the food, thence into the stomach and from thence into the intestines of the patient." Appendix. — Perroncito reported as follows concerning a disease resembling anthrax : In Sardinia a peculiar epizootic disease pre- vails among horses, asses, cattle and hogs, and is transmissible to man. Of the various experimental animals, rabbits, guinea pigs and fowls are susceptible. The disease in question closely resembles anthrax in its course and clinical symptoms, but sometimes appears also under the form of hematuria or hemoglobinuria. Perroncito believed that he had found Pi'oteus viridentissimus as the micro- organism which caused this disease. Probably the disease investigated by Perroncito was the hematuria of Sardinian cattle, in which Sanfelice aud Loi demonstrated piroplasma to be the cause of the disease (pj^-ge 537). * A case which is very instructive in regard to trafiSc in antliracic meat occurred in tlie Swiss village of Gex. Of the 300 to 400 persons vcho ate of the meat of an anthracio beef animal in that town, only one, a woman who received an injury on the forearm in cutting up the head of the animal, became affected . with the disease. A dog which had gnawed a raw bone became infected. Tlie anthrax infection in the dog took place on the nose, and. without doubt, from a wound which tiie dog received while fighting with a cat over the bone. 586 INFECTIOUS DISEASES (b) Aphthous Fever. Aphthous fever possesses great interest for experts in the- practice of meat inspection, notwithstanding the fact that from a sanitary police standpoint it plays only an insigiiificant role. Aphthous fever is extensively disseminated by food animals, and this brings it about that many larger cattle yards and abattoirs, become permanently affected. Since abattoirs are to such a great extent exposed to the danger of infection by aphthous fever, expert inspectors should give careful attention, for veterinary reasons, to. this disease, both before and after slaughter. Occurrence.— Aphthous fever is a disease peculiar to hoofed animals. Occasionally it is said to be transmitted to cats and fowls. Cattle and hogs are most frequently affected with the disease, w.hil& sheep are more rarely affected. Home reported also concerning the appearance of aphthous fever among reindeer in northern Sweden. Etiology. — Despite numerous investigations, it has not yefc been possible to demonstrate the organism of aphthous fever. Klein in London several years ago believed he had found a specific diplo- coccus in cases of this disease. This finding, however, has not been substantiated. Siegel considered very delicate rods 0.7 /J- in length, which he succeeded in isolating from the cadavers of human beings dead of " mouth disease," as identical with the organism of foot-and- mouth disease, but he was unable to identify these rods in case of the latter disease. Siegel later saw his error and acknowledged it. Finally, Schottelius reported that in punctate hemorrhages of the epicardium in a cow which suddenly died of . aphthous fever he found a peculiar, organism in the contents of aphth* when certain precautions were observed. This organism was said to grow slowly in colonies of a remarkable character. The colonies contained short and long series of very different sized, roundish bodies which, as a whole, were spherical, of which, however, many, especially those which were located on the ends, showed evaginations which in form resembled motile pseudopodia of the white blood corpuscles. Schottelius called these structures streptocytes in order to distin- guish them from streptococci. When injected with 1 co. of a bouillon culture of eight days' growth, calves and young cattle showed a slight lever after twelve hours, a diminution of appetite^ and a cough, phenomena which persisted for two or three days. APHTHOUS FEVER • 58T Aphtha, however, did not appear and hogs utterly failed to react to inoculations of streptocytes. Kurth corroborated the finding of Schottelius. Kurth was unable, however, to produce aphthous fever iirtificially by inoculation with " Streptococcus involutus." The most comprehensive investigations concerning the organism of foot-and-mouth disease during the last ten years wer.e made by- Loffler, Frosch and Uhlenhut in the Berlin Institute for Infectious; Diseases and later in the Hygienic Institute at Greifswald, as well as in connection with a Commission in the Imperial Health Office in Berlin. The skill and industry of these investigators, however, did not suffice to clear up the mystery which prevails with regard to> the etiology of foot-and-mouth disease. The investigations in ques- tion, on the other hand, produced important results with regard to the nature of the infectious material. Attempts to infect tha smaller experimental animals with foot-and-mouth disease resulted negatively. Mice, guinea pigs, rats, rabbits, chickens, pigeons and ducks were refractory. Goats also exhibited n.o pronounced symptoms of disease, in spite of the fact that they were inoculated with large quantities of very virulent lymph. Two goats developed slight granulations at the point of inoculation. The hoofs, however^ remained wholly unaffected. Attempts to produce artificial infec- tion in sheep in a typical manner were unsuccessful. Cattle and hogs reacted equally well to the infection. In the Institute for Infectious Diseases it was found possible to transmit the disease to calves by means of the blood of animals, which had been inoculated twelve to twenty-eight hours previously and had exhibited a rising fever. It was not found posaible to pro- duce infection by means of feeding muscle meat, pieces of the spleen, liver, kidneys or contents of the intestines, but positive results were obtained by feeding the affected parts of organs. The contents of aphthae which were heated for fifteen minutes to a temperature of 50°, ten minutes to 70° and momentarily to lOO'* C. lost their virulence. In the Institute for Infectious Diseases th& contents of aphthae were found to be still infectious after heating for half an hour to 50° C. The virus of foot-and-mouth disease is not influenced by cold. Lymph placed in a mixture of chloride of lime and ice and kept irt. a frozen condition ( — 48° C.) for about three hours, promptly- infected the inoculated animals. The contents of aphthsB, on the other hand, appear to possess, only a slight resisting power against desiccation, since lymph which was dried on a sterilized plate in a desiccator over sulphuric acid 588 INFECTIOUS DISEASES in vacuo at a temperature of about 22° C. for eighteen hours did not produce, disease in the inoculate^-animals. Lymph which was dried on -wood, stones and flannel ^at tte living temperature and under diffuse- stanlight likewise bfeeaSne inactive after twenty-four hours. ' '1 - Lymph also proved to have but little resisting power against disinfectants, It was found possible to destroy its virulence by an exposure for one-half hour to the following solutions in the strengths Fi6. 202; Aphtha. Tip of beef tongue. a, Aphtha; b, epithelial erosion after bursting of the aphtha. indicated : Carbolic acid, 1 per cent.; formaldehyde, 2 per cent.; soda, 3 per cent.; hydrochloric acid, 1 per cent.; phosphoric acid, 1 per cent.; milk of lime, 1 per cent. An interesting observation was made in filtering diluted lymphs through a Chamberland filter. It was found that the filtrate remained infectious. Finally, in artificial transmission experiments, it was found by the Commission that the incubative period up to the outbreak of the lever was from one-half a day to six days, and up to the eruption of aphthse, it was from two to ten days. APHTHOUS FEVER 589 DUGNOSIS. — Vesicles filled witli a clear fluid (aphthae, see Fig. 202, a) constitute the characteristic symptoms of aphthous fever. They appear in cattle most frequently on the nasal septum and on the toothless border of the upper jaw as well as on the tip and lateral surfaces of the tongue and on the mucous membrane of the cheeks and hard gums (mouth disease). When aphthae are present on the border and in the cleft of the hoofs, oue speaks of foot dis- ease. Aphthae are also observed on the udder and rarely in the pharynx, at the base of the horns and on the mucous membrane of the external genital organs. In hogs, aphthae are far more numerous on all four toes than on the head. Aphthae are also comparatively frequent on the tip of the snout. Aphthae persist for only a short time. They soon burst and leave behind a watery erosion. These erosions, as a rule, heal very quickly by proliferation of the epithelium or epidermis from the side. Previous to their healing, they are recognizable by the sharply-marked limits between the sound tissue and the eroded areas, which result from the bursting of the aphthae (Fig. 202, b). It should be observed that the erosions on the hoofs, especially of hogs, are characterized by a tendency to hemorrhages. Moreover, the sloughing-off of the hoofs- is not a rare occurrence in hogs, in consequence of hoof disease. BiEFEEENTlAL DIAGNOSIS. — The Sequelae of aphthae in the mouth cavity may be confused with erosions following chemical or thermic agents, but especially with actinomycotic erosions ; and, on the toes, they may be confused with, for example, simple traumata. Such confusion is not possible when intact aphthae are present. Actinomycotic erosions, which are not infrequent on the mucous membrane of the cheeks and tongue of cattle, may be easily distin- guished from aphthous erosions. For the former, in contrast with the latter, are sharply delimited and possess a tough, leathery basis with punctate, depressed, yellow areas. In case of actinomyco- tic erosions, the fungiform papillae are destroyed; these remain unaffected in aphthous fever (Leutsch).' Simple traumata on the hoofs, which, especially in hogs, have led to confusion with foot-and-mouth disease, commonly affect only one toe, and, furthermore, are not restricted to a shedding of the epidermis, as is the case in bursted aphthae ; but they attack deeper-lying parts in cases where they become noticeable at all. ^90 INFECTIOUS DISEASES In sheep so-called foot rot is frequently mistaken for foot-and- mouth disease. In case of foot rot there is an inflammation of the epidermis of the cleft of the hoof, in which, however, aphthae are absent. Judgment.— Parts of diseased animals affected with aphthae and fresh erosions must be regarded as dangerous food material in a raw condition, for aphthous fever is transmissible to man. The meat, on the other hand, as well as all other parts of aphthous animals, possesses, according to experts, no injurious properties. It is, therefore, a common practice to remove from these animals only those parts which form the seat of specific alterations. All other parts, however, are admitted to the market as suitable food material. With regard to parts of the body affected with aphthae and erosions, the usual procedure is not strictly correct. Some expert inspectors consider it sufficient to cut out the diseased parts and admit the rest of the organs to the market. Other inspectors order the total- destruction of these organs. The one procedure is as unworthy of approval as the other. The diseased parts are oonditionally utilizable. They may be admitted to the market after they have been scalded in boiling water, for the boiling i»mperature destroys the virus of aphthous fever, and by scald- ing, such valuable parts as the tongue may be saved for use as food. SEQUELiE AND SuDDEN FaTAL CaSES OF APHTHOUS FeVER. — Judgment in the case of sequelae should be essentially different irom that in cases of aphthous fever. Chiefly in cattle, less fre- -■« exhibits an uniformly transparent tissue when examined in the above mentioned manner, one observes, when tubercles are present, roundish, cloudy foci with giant cells in the center and epithelioid cells around the periphery (Fig. 209). The latter are never wanting, while the giant cells may sometimes be absent. 6. — Local and Geneealizbd Tubekculosis. We commonly characterize as local diseases those which are restricted in an anatomical sense to one organ. In the case of tuberculosis, we extend the meaning of the local character, since * Giant cells are found also around encapsulated foreign bodies and con- stantly in a radial arrangement around Echinococcus multilocularis, as well as in the neighborhood of colonies of aotinomyoes. These conditions, however, may be readily distinguished from tuberculosis by the above mentioned method of examination, since in the first case the foreign bodies, and in the other cases the echinococci or actinomyces, are demonstrable. TUBERCULOSIS 621 this condition is set in contrast with the dissemination of the dis- ease throughout the whole body. The latter condition, however, is possible only through the aid of the systemic blood circulation. Tuberculous processes, therefore, are characterized as local in the broader sense as long as a mere extension or distribution has taken place through the lymphatic vessels, and the general circulation is not concerned in the dissemination of the tuberculous virus. In cases where the systemic blood has become the carrier of the virus, we characterize this condition as generalized or general tuberculosis (Weigert). This distiuction is of the greatest impor- tance for meat inspection, since tubercle bacilli gain entrance into the musculature, " the meat of traffic," only by the aid of the circu- lating blood. The musculature, therefore, can be considered as infected and injurious to health ouly when the organisms of tuber- culosis are distributed through the body by means of the blood (Johne). Tuberculosis of domesticated animals has a pronounced tendency to localization. This phenomenon may be explained most simply by the assumption of a prompt filtering action of the lymph- atic glands as well as by the fact that the tuberculous products in domesticated animals are, as a rule, poor in bacilli. As asserted by Johne, however, and confirmed by the experiments of Nocard (see page 640), individual bacilli which accidentally escape the protective filtering action of the lymph glands, become inactive in the circu- lating blood. The generalization of tuberculosis arises in consequence of the penetration of numerous bacilli into the systemic circulation. This may occur in veins affected with tuberculous processes or in tuber- culous lymphatic glands ; in the latter case, with the aid of the thoracic duct or the right tracheal duct. " Flooding " of the blood with tubercle bacilli is, according to Weigert, always to be ascribed to tuberculous affection of the wall of a blood vessel, or thoracic duct. General tuberculosis appears in two principal forms : A slight infection of the blood leads to the formation of isolated tubercles in various organs ; an extensive infection, to the eruption of innumer- able tubercles in the majority of the organs. In the first case the small tubercles commonly grow to become large tubercles or case- ous foci by peripheral expansion, since in such cases infection of the blood scarcely appears clinically and, therefore, in and of itself, gives no occasion for slaughter (chroaic general tuberculosis). In the latter case, on the other hand, tubercles are often observed in a but slightly altered condition, since this form of generalization, as a 622 INFECTIOUS DISEASES rule, gives cause for slaugliter (acute miliary. tuberculosis). If a slight infection of the systemic blood has preceded the extensive invasion of the tubercle bacilli, we have both processes simulta- neously. Weigert characterizes this condition as a " transition form." The Participation of Individual Organs in the Eruption of Tubercles in Gases of Generalized Tuberculosis.— Aitev the entrance of tubercle bacilli into the circulating blood, tuberculous alterations do not, by any means, occur in all organs in food animals. One observes, on the contrary, that certain organs are. constantly affected, others rarely, and some almost never. This peculiar behavior is partly explained by the peculiar connection of the indi- vidual organs with the blood circulation and by the rapidity of the circulation in them ; in part, also by the presence of specific sub- stances ; for example, secretions which influence the development of the tubercle bacilli in different ways. For other organs we must assume a resisting power in the tissue itself, against tuberculosis. Thus, Ziegler characterizes the musculature as " almost immune " to tuberculosis. The connection with the blood circulation is of considerable importance, since this determines the quantity of the bacilli which may find their way into the organ. The lungs, for example, in cases where the blood is infected through the agency of the thoracic duct, receive blood which contains many more bacilli than all the other organs together, for all of the infected blood cir- culates through the lungs and thereby large quantities of bacilli may be removed from the blood by becoming lodged in the pulmonary capillaries. A similar condition may exist in the liver if infection is brought about by entrance of the bacilli into a branch of the portal vein. In fact, in this case the filtration of the blood through the hepatic circulation may restrict the pathological pro- cesses to the liver. Sequence in IJie Organs Wliich Are Affected by General Tuberculosis. — The author has already called attention (Berliner Archiv, Vol. XIV) to the fact that in generalized tuberculosis of cattle a certain sequence of participation of various organs is to be observed. One finds uniformly an infection of the lungs and liver ; then follows the spleen and kidneys, and then the prescapular and inguinal glands, udder, bones and joints. When the posterior part of the peritoneum in female animals is affected, the uterus is also attacked, almost without exception. TUBERCULOSIS 623 It is a remarkable fact that in generalized tuberculosis of young cattle (up to four years of age), the spleen is almost always affected and the kidneys are free from tuberculous foci, while in older cattle the kidneys, together with the spleen, uniformly show tuberculous alterations. In hogs, the lungs, liver, spleen and kidneys are similarly affected in generalized tuberculosis. Furthermore, affections of the bones in hogs, especially the vertebral column, are much more frequent than in cattle. Bieck, in 430 cases of general tuberculosis in cattle identified at the abattoir in Leipsic, 1880 to 1891, deter- mined the following sequence in the affection of different organs : Lungs, 100 per cent; liver, 83 ; alimentary canal, 73 ; serous mem- branes, 57.4; kidneys, 52.5; meat, 49.3; spleen, 18.6; udder, 16.7; bones, 8.8. Moreover, Rieck found that 80 per cent, of the cases of tuber- culosis were restricted to the lungs or bronchial glands. Several organs of one cavity of the body, usually the thoracic cavity, were affected in but 3.9 per cent. ; the processes extended beyond the thoracic cavity in 1888 in 9.3 per cent, of the cases ; in 1889, in 13.3; in 1890, in 11.9 ; and in 1891, in 19.6 per cent, of the cases. In a considerable proportion of the last-named cases, only the lungs and mesenteric glands were affected. Tuberculosis of the serous membranes was demonstrated in Leipsic in 10.8 per cent, of all tuberculous cattle (7.2 of male and 14.8 of female animals). 7. — Examination op Slaughteeed Tuberculous Animals. For determining the extent of the disease in animals found to be tuberculous, it is desirable to adopt a certain method of inspec- tion.* The essential features of this method of inspection consist in first subjecting to a regular examination the organs and groups of lymph glands which may be affected by general infection, and which, according to present knowledge, are most important in the determination of generalized tuberculosis. For this purpose the most important organs are the lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, sexual organs, sternum and vertebral column ; also the prescapular, axil- lary, popliteal, kneefold and inguinal glands. Affections of the bones of the extremities, joints and skeletal musculature are always characterized by alterations of the last- * With reference to the determination of primary tuberculous alterations in slaughtered animals, compare page 617. 624 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Darned lymphatic glands. Affsctions of the meniDges of the braiii^ the myocardium and the tongue possess only a slight significance^ since they are seldom present and then only in the most pronounced cases of generalization. A quite subordinate role in the determina-f tion of generalized tuberculosis is played by the affections of the serous membranes. In judging the meat of tuberculous cattle, one must become accustomed to disregarding completely the affections of the pleura and peritoneum. It should always be remembered that, as shown by Schmidt- Miilheim, peritoneal tuberculosis may pass over in a purely local manner to the pleura. Peritoneal tuberculosis, moreover, may be associated with a local process in the lungs, either with or with- out affection of the pleura and without generalization in cases where bronchial slime is swallowed and gives rise to an affection of the intestine, or, what is more frequent, to the mesenteric glands (auto-infection). Tuberculosis of the serous membranes, particu- larly of the peritoneum, comes into consideration only in case of affection of the uterus, since in this organ a local invasion of the specific process from the peritoneum to the mucous membrane is possible and frequent. The greatest extension of tuberculosis upon the peritoneum and pleura may, however, occur with the complete integrity of the parenchyma of the lungs, liver, spleen; etc.,* while, on the other hand, in the typical picture of acute miliary tuberculosis, or of chronic general tuberculosis with exten- sive alterations, even of the lymph glands, which lie in the skeletal musculature, the serous membranes are often only slightly or not at all affected. A significance equally subordinate with that of the peritoneum and pleura and their lymph glands, with regard to the determina- tion of the question whether generalized tuberculosis exists, is possessed by frequent alterations of the pericardium and epi- cardium, trachea and larynx, as well as the lymph glands of the head and mesenteries. The first-named alterations are usually associated with tuberculous processes in the lungs ; the latter, however, may arise in consequence of swallowing tuberculous bronchial secretions (auto-infection, see above), or by the direct ingestion of the specific virus with the food. I emphasize this point for the reason that some importance in judging meat has been erroneously ascribed to the affection of the mesenteric glands. * For this reason distinction should be made in affections of the organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities between parenchymatous tuberculosis and tuberculosis of the serous membranes. TUBEECULOSIS ,62^ The organs which for the determmatiou of generalized tuber- culosis are without significance are to .be examined next in order and merely for the purpose of determining what parts are to be condemned in case of the eventual release of the meat. The examination of parts which are important for reaching , a sanitary judgment on meat should not, as was formerly the general custom, proceed from organs known to be diseased, but from those which are presumably healthy. However unimportant this point may seem, it can not be impressed too strongly upon the meat inspector. Through the contamination of a liver by means of a knife which was previously used in sectioning a tuberculous focus in another organ, as, for example, the lungs, more damage can be done in case the liver is released after the determination of its intact character than under other conditions by the release of the meat of an animal suffering from general tuberculosis. For, by the above mentioned manipulation, the liver may receive a large quan- tity of tuberculous virus. It therefore frequently happens that the liver is eaten in an incompletely cooked condition. The muscula- ture, on the other hand, is quite rarely, the seat of tuberculous alterations and even its lymphatic glands are only in certain cases affected with generalized tuberculosis. . , The practice which was formerly observed in certain locali- ties of condemning all internal organs in all animals affected with tuberculosis, but which were released for sale, is a radical and, so far as human health is concerned, a safe one, but can not be approved from a scientific standpoint or from a consideration of the material loss to the producers. When it can be determined with certainty that the organ is free from pathological alterations, it should never under any circumstances be withheld from sale. If, however, it is contaminated with tuberculous material, this material must be removed, but the expert has thereby committed a technical error. This technical error may be avoided if the examination of tuberculous animals begins, not with the organs which are known to be tuberculous, but with those which are presumably healthy. I purposely emphasize this point since the warning already sounded from another source (Deutscher Veteriuar Kalender and Zschokke), not to contaminate healthy parts by tuberculous material, does not, in and of itself, furnish any guide for the mani- pulation and may, perhaps, bring it about that the above direc- tions are followed by merely washing the contaminated knife before making an incision into an apparently healthy oi-gan. More- ■ 626 INFECTIOUS DISEASES over, for reasons already given, all unnecessary cutting of tubercu- lous foci should be avoided. Butchers should likewise be expressiy forbidden to cut into the tuberculous organs of tuberculous ani- mals or to continue the operation of cutting up the animal with knives used for this purpose. The examination of slaughtered tuberculous animals must pro- ceed postero-anteriorly, and, on animals which are hung up, from above downward. We examine first of all the " meat " and the lymphatic glands which receive the lymph from it, and then the internal organs. In making the examination, the following sequence may be observed : 1. Popliteal, kneefold, inguinal, pubic or supramammary lymph glands. 2. In case of an intact peritoneum, the iliac and the other retro- peritoneal lymph glands. 3. Vertebral column, ribs and sternum. 4. Prescapular and axillary glands. (For the examination of the latter, the anterior extremities must be removed. The prescap- ular glands, however, may be conveniently reached without removing the extremities by a simple incision in front of the shoulder joint.) 5. The udder in female animals. 6. The kidneys and renal lymphatic glands. (The latter aa-e usually found by making an incision directly over the point where the renal artery branches off from the aorta.) 7. Spleen. 8. Liver. 9. Lungs. 10. The other internal organs, together with the corresponding lymph glands. The characteristic symptoms of tuberculous affection of the above named parts of the body have already been described in the chapter on "Organic Diseases." In addition to the discussion found there, the following notes may be added with reference ito the technique of the demonstration of tuberculous processes in individual organs. The tuberculous affection of the udder is best demonstrated by palpation. The healthy udder, although of strikingly large size, possesses in all its parts a uniformly, moderately soft character! A tuberculous udder, on the other hand, as is well known, in case of striking enlargement of one or more quarters, shows a firm, often TUBERCULOSIS 627 «tony consistency, of the affected parts. . One must remove all uncertainty concerning the nature of doubtful tubercular thicken- ings present in the udder by means of a cross section. It should be noted that Bang, in his well known work on tuberculosis of the iTdder, called attention to the absence of softened spots (abscesses) in tuberculosis of the udder. In general, abscesses in the udder are to be considered as non-tnberculous alterations. Any possible doubt, however, may be easily removed by an examination of the supramammary lymph glands. The kidneys and suprarenal bodies are to be removed from the fatty capsule in situ, and after a superficial examination are to be cut open by several sections running toward the renal pelvis. Since, however, palpation as well as sectioning of the kidneys can not be performed in such a satisfactory manner that a reliable con- clusion can be drawn upon this basis, for the absence of tuberculous foci, the aid of an examination of the lymph glands is indispensable for reaching a diagnosis of the condition of the kidneys. The tissue of the spleen should be examined by making numerous parallel longitudinal sections. Moreover, even small tubercles in the spleen may be demonstrated by palpation. In case of the liver it must be insisted upon that the portal lymph glands shall in no case be removed before a veterinary inspection is made, for frequently these glands exhibit a much more strikingly diseased condition than the tissue of the liver. Similar conditions are present in case of the bronchial glanda and the lungs. Tuberculous alterations in the latter may be of two sorts : There are either small or large cavities (primary pulmonary tuberculosis) or round small and Jarge tubercles (embolic pulmonary tuberculosis). The cavities have their seat especially at the base and apex, as well as in the lower border of the lungs. The embolic foci, on the other hand, are uniformly distributed in the interlobu- lar tissue. When inspection is made according to the foregoing directioms, the inspector can, as a rule, decide without difficulty whether in a particular case tuberculosis is local or generalized. The internal organs, particularly the lungs, liver, spleen and kidneys, as well as the intermuscular lymph glands, present a more favorable nutrient medium for tubercle bacilli than the meat. The most recent alter- ations, incipient tubercles, are therefore much more easily and certainly demonstrated in the internal organs and lymph glands than in the various joints and in the marrow of the bones, quite aside from the fact that the dissection of the meat for the purpose 628 INFECTIOUS DISEASES of inspection is quite limited. The alterations in the organs, there- fore, together with those which may be demonstrated in the skeleton,, musculature and intermuscular lymph glands, must be considered as final criteria for deciding the question whether the case is one of Pig. 319 a. Fig. 319 h. f<. h- —h ::->(L Half of beef, seen from the outside. a, popliteal glands; b, kneefold glands; c, presoapular glands. Half of beef, seen from the inside, a, super- ficial inguinal glands ; b, deep inguinal glands (of variable size and not always pre- sent); c, internal iliac glands; d, lumbar glands; c. renal glands; /, lymphatic glands of the inferiiir thoracic wall ; g, glands of the superior thoracic wall; h, lower cervical glands. local or generalized tuberculosis. By means of the above described examination the organic alterations may be most perfectly deter- mined, and, when taken together, give positive evidence on the question whether tubercle bacilli have gained entrance into th& TOBEKCULOSIS 629 general circulation or have distributed themselves beyond the point ■of entrance into the neighboring organs, or not. At the same time. Fig. 219 c. Tosition of the most important lymphatic glands after removal of the retroperitoneal ■ fat tissue, a, lymphatic glands above the hock ; b, popliteal glands ; c, super- ficial inguinal glands; d, kneefold glands; e and/, internal iliac glands; g, lymphatic glands of the lower thoracic walls; A, lower cervical glands ; i, upper cervical glands; /., submaxillary glands. it may be determined by the above described method of examination what parts are to be destroyed in case the meat is released. 8. — Sanitaey Judgment on Tubeeculosis. (a) Tuberculous Organs. It must be assumed that tuberculosis may be transmitted to man by the consumption of tuberculous organs. For, tuberculosis of man and animals is produced by a bacillus which, in regard to its eS(V INFECTIOUS DISEASES Jia-ffl, stainability, growth, and transmissibility to small experi^ laental animals, exhibits no essential differences. Furthermore, it is •possible in a proportion of the cases, if not always, to transmit human tuberculosis to cattle, hogs and sheep. Finally, a number of cases is known in which tuberculosis of domesticated animals has been transmitted to man (skin infection from handling tubercu- lous material and alimentary tuberculosis after eating the milk of cows affected with tuberculosis of the utlder). By means of experiments on animals it has been shown that the tubercle bacilli introduced in food may be taken up by the lymphatic apparatus of the gums and pharyngeal cavity, and that they are also capable of passing through the stomach and may pro- duce specific alterations in the intestines or mesenteric glands. A necessary condition, however, is that the tubercle bacilli shall be introduced in a certain quantity (see page 611). Recently the question of the transmissibility of tuberculosis of domesticated animals to man has been thrown into doubt by Bobert Koch on the basis of experiments which he carried out in coopera- tion with Schiitz. In these experiments it was found impossible, by any method of inoculating human tuberculosis, to render cattle, nineteen in number, tuberculous, while, on the contrary, cattle which were inoculated with tuberculous material from other cattle became seriously affected and part of them died. Before the experiments of Koch and Schiitz, Piitz, Theobald Smith, Frothingham, Dinwiddie and Gaiser had demonstrated the difficulty of transmitting human tuberculosis to cattle ; Koch and Schiitz, however, conducted their experiments, in so far as they operated with pure cultures, exclusively with one culture. This is of the greatest significance in judging the results, as was shown by the experiments of Thomassen. He infected four cattle with four cultures of tubercle bacilli of various human origins and produced positive results in two cases. Furthermore, Karlinski succeeded in infecting cattle with human tuberculosis in ten cases during twenty-five experiments. Similarly, Bollinger, Kitt, Frothingham, Crookshauk, Svennson, Delepin^, Ailoing, Krebbs and Eievel, as well as de Jong, obtained positive results in the transmission of human tuberculosis to calves. "We may, therefore, agree with Thomassen when he states that it is difficult but not impossible to transmit human tuberculosis to cattle. In the case of hogs and sheep, even Koch and Schiitz suc- ceeded in part of their experiments in producing tuberculosis, if only of a local character, in the experimental animals by moans of TUBERCtTLOaia 631 tttbereulotia material of human origin. In hogs and sheep also, tabercaloQs material of bovine origin was found to be much more infectious than that of human origin. The rarity of primary intestinal tuberculosis in man seems to speak . for the soundness of Koch's assumption. The question should not be decided by this evidence, but rather by the occur- rence of primary tuberculous alterations in the laryngeal, cervical and mesenteric glands, which affections appear much more fre- quently after the ingestion of tubercle bacilli with the food than does a tuberculous affection of the intestinal mucous membrane. Heller in Kiel recently found that in nearly one-half of the cases of tuberculosis of children there was an affection of the mesenteric glands. Moreover, Dr. Still, working on material obtained from autopsies in a London hospital for children, found 29.1 per cent. and Dr. Shennan in Edinburgh found primary tuberculosis in 28.5 per cent, of the cases of tuberculosis in children. Negative results in the transmission of a given race of tuber- culous cultures of bovine origin to man, as reported by Baum- garten, are not sufficient, according to the results of the experi- ments by Thomassen and Karlinski, to prove the non-transmissi- bility to man of bovine tuberculosis. In favor of the possibility of the transmissibility of bovina tuberculosis to man we have the case of Moses, that of Priester, several cases of skin tuberculosis of animal origin and cases of alimentary tuberculosis which have been observed in man after drinking tuberculous milk. The veterinarian, Moses, of a healthy family, received in the summer of 1885, a wound on the left thumb while making a post-mortem examination of a tuberculous cow. The wound healed without suppuration, although the point of the knife probably penetrated into the joint. After six mouths, how- ever, a so-called skin tubercle developed on the cicatrix and the joint became loose. In the autumn of 1886 acute catarrh appeared, and thereupon a chronic hoarseness, and, in January, 1887, death resulted (Pfeiffer). Priester reported a c.ise, observed in a surgi- cal clinic in Kiel, of skin tuberculosis in a man who for the pur- pose of removing a tattooing of the skin pricked the tattoo marks and rubbed milk into the punctures. This operation was repeated several times. Skin tuberculosis developed in the punctures which were rubbed with ruilk on a certain day. Concerning skin tuberculosis in veterinarians and butchers, which may be ascribed to infection with bovine tuberculosis, we have the communications of Tscheruing, Bavenel, Johne, Miiller in (332 INFECTIOUS DISEASES I Erfurt, Sick and tlie author (compare Zeit. f. Fleisch u. Milchhyg., Vol. II., No. 12). In this connection it should be remembered that skin tuberculosis cfin be induced artificially only with some diffi- culty. Chauveau did not succeed in infecting calves by super- ficial scarification of the skin and subsequent rubbing-in of the tuberculous material. Similarly, Bollinger obtained negative results by cutaneous inoculation of guinea pigs. With regard to the transmissibility of tuberculosis by means of the milk of tuberculous cows, particularly such as are affected with mammary tuberculosis, the following observations may suffice : According to a report of Ollivier in the Academy of Medicine at Paris, twelve girls in a Girls' Academy contracted tuberculosis. Of this number, five died. The fact that the infeqted and dead girls came from healthy parents and showed principally the symptoms of intestinal tuberculosis awakened the suspicion of alimentary infection, and this suspicion was fully confirmed by the slaughter of a cow which for years had furnished the milk for the Academy.* The cow was found to be infected with extensive tuberculous processes of the internal organs and udder.f All organs affected with tuberculosis must, therefore, be excluded from the market as dangerous food material. In this connection, it should be observed that also those organs are to be considered tuberculous in which we find merely an affection of the lymph glands, for although it is known that tubercle bacilli possess the power of penetrating intact epithelia and producing alterations in the neighboring lymph glands, nevertheless we do not know with certainty, in individual cases, that no tubercles are actually found in the organs. The organs can not be dissected to such an extent that all macroscopically-visible tubercles in them may be demon- strated. Moreover, even if this were true, the foci which stand on the borderland of macroscopic visibility might escape our atten- tion.J For this reason also, as frequently mentioned, all lymphatic * This one case, mentioned incidentally, should furnish sufficient reason for all abattoir directors allowing the milk of cows maintained at abattoirs, a very large percentage of which are found to be tuberculous, and often some with mammary tuberculosis, to be admitted to the market only after previous boiling (compare Ostertag, Zeit. f. Fleisch u. Milchhyg., Vol. V.)" t Koch has recently stated that Ollivier subsequently corrected his report and asserted that the girls did not receive the milk of the tuberculous cow.— Translator. t Rieck emphasizes the fact that in the frequently occurring affection of the broncliiHl glands there are often only isolated minute peribronchial foci to be found, which are distinguished from the normal parenchyma by their darker color TUBERCULOSIS 633 glands at the natural openings (alimeutai-y and respiratory tracts) in every food animal slionld be carefully examined for the presence of tubercles, by palpation and incision. The requirement is evidently well based that even in the case of the presence of isolated foci in a given organ, the whole organ is always to be considered as dangerous to health. For, quite aside from the fact that the tubercle bacilli quite regularly make their Tpay from isolated foci to neighboring lymphatic glands and thus pass through the apparently healthy parts of the organ, we have no means of knowing whether or not similar foci have developed at a greater or less distance from the visible tubercles. A tuberculous organ can not, like one which is infested with animal parasites, be ren- dered innocuous by removing the affected parts.* On account of the danger to health from eating tuberculous organs, they should be carefully removed with all their appendices ^nd rendered innocuous ; especially the corresponding lymph glands of such an organ must in each case be excluded from market along Tvith this organ. I emphasize this fact, since this requirement of the sanitary police is frequently violated. It sometimes happens that the lobes of the lungs are removed, but not the bronchial glands, trachea, or larynx ; and also that the peritoneum or pleura is removed, but not the groups of lymphatic glands which belong to these structures. It also occurs that the mesenteric glands are condemned, but not the corresponding portion of the intes- tine, etc. (compare page 182, ff.). Procedure in Cases of Local Affection of ilie Pleura and Peritoneum. — In local affection of the pleura and peritoneum, it is the common practice merely to remove these membranes with the lymphatic glands which lie upon them (Fig. 219). Objection may be raised to this practice that by the careless dissection of the membranes in ■question tuberculous material may remain on the thoracic or a,bdominal walls. Hartenstein, therefore, rightly demands that the removal of the tuberculous pleura and peritoneum shall be per- formed only by the meat inspector hirjself or by some other reliable official. Still better, however, is the suggestion of the same author * A quite formidable danger lies in a procedure which I have unfortunately ■observed in the case of insufficiently-trained empirical meat inspectors. Such persons content themselves with the removal of the more extensively altered parts, or with cutting out superficial foci, and admit the rest of the organ to market without restriction. These improperly instructed officials do not know that they are thereby in each individual case laying themselves liable to punish- jnent (Sees. 13 and 14 of the I'ood Law). 634 INFECTIOUS DISEASES that in ease of pleural tuberculosis the whole thoracic wall (liib®,, iutercostal muscles and pleura) be removed, and that in peritoneal tuberculosis, the whole abdominal wall, or the peritoneum, togethec with the lymphatic glands and abdominal muscles which lie imme- diately under it, should be removed. (b) Judgment of the Meat of Taberrulons Animals. The careful elimination of organs showing tuberculous altera- tions is the most important function of the sanitary police with regard to tuberculosis of food animals. Tuberculous organs con- stitute the chief danger to human beings. In comparison with it the danger from the consumption of the meat of tuberculous animals is. slight. The question whether and to what extent the meat of tubercu- lous animals possesses harmful properties has given rise to mora investigations and experiments than any other problem of hygiene^ The modifications of the prevailing views concerning this questioa during the pre-Kochian epoch may be passed over, since they possess rather a historical interest. At the present time the stand- point with regard to the mooted question may be described as follows : The belief that the meat of tuberculous animals is, as a rule» harmless and that only in exceptional cases does it possess harmful properties must be looked upon as scientifically well founded. It is one of Johne's great merits that he introduced clear con- ceptions concerning the harmfulness of the meat of tuberculous animals in the place of the previously prevailing vague and ill- defined ones. Johne established the proposition that " the gist of the question regarding the point of time from which the meat of tuberculous animals is to be considered as infected and therefore infectious is not, as maintained by Gerlach, determined by the affection of the lymph glands of the neighboring organs, but simply by the demonstration of generalized tuberculosis. This alone furnishes positive proof of the fact that the virus has entered into the systemic circulation and has infected the meat. Not until this point of time, therefore, are we justified in unconditionally exclud- ing from the market a given piece of meat." Thus formulated, this principle constitutes a great stride in advance as contrasted with the general, meaningless phrases which formerly passed current regarding the judgment of the meat of tuberculous animals and which are, unfortunately, still to be found in some regulations con- cerning meat inspection. TOJBEacciiOSiSv 685 The concepiaoni of thaf generalization of tuberculosis wiiicl* WW-etBr, as a rule, it is essen- tially pathogenic only for birds and toot for mammals, as, vice versa, the bacilltis of mammalian tuberculosis, as a; rule, ia not transmissible to birds. Nocard demonstrated that by repeated passages throtigh animals the organiaar of mammalian tuberculosis could be rendered virulent for birds. The bacillus of avian tuber- culosis vegetates at temperatures between 25° and 45° C. Mafucci emphasizes, as a prominent distinction between the pathogenic action of the two species, the fact that the tubercle of mammals usually possesses giant cells, while the latter are absent in avain tubercles. Mafucci suggested that possibly the bacilli of tuberculosis of chickens play a part in the etiology of local tuberculosis of man. From a histological standpoint, Pfauder demonstrated that the specific products of avian tuberculosis were not completely free from, but are very poor in Langhans' giant cells (with peripheral nuclei, Fig. 209), and that they exhibit caseation, not in the form of cloudy and finely granular masses, as in the case of mammalian tuberculosis, but rather in the form of a hyaline, glassy sub- stance. 652 INFECTIOUS DISEASES (g) Pseudo-Tuberculosis. Nature and Etiology. — Under tlie term pseudo-tuberculosis are included pathological processes which, without being caused by the tubercle bacillus, have the essential character of caseation in common with tuberculosis. The etiology of so-called pseudo- tuberculosis is exceedingly multiform. Micrococci, bacilli, clado- thrices and mold fungi may cause tubercle-like processes. Formerly tubercles produced by animal parasites were classified with the pseudo-tuberculous processes ; for example, when degenerated tape- worm larvae were present in the musculature, one spoke of cestode tuberculosis. Ebstein and Nicolaier accepted this term for vermin- ous tubercles in the kidneys of dogs and in the lungs of cats. OccuBEENOE. — Tubercle-Hke alterations which were not pro- duced by the tubercle bacillus were observed by Eberth, Pfei£fer and other authors in guinea pigs and rabbits ; by Melassez and Vignal in chickens ; by Megnin and Mosny in horses ; by Hayem, Toupet and Eppinger in man ; and, finally, also by a large number of observers in food animals, especially cattle and sheep. In the last named animal pseudo-tuberculosis may appear as an epizootic, as has been the case of late years in Australia and America. Kitt described a case of bacterial caseous pneumonia in cattle. The lungs exhibited the symptoms of caseous bronchial pneumonia. The disease was distinguished, however, microscopically from tuberculous, bronchial pneumonia by the complete absence of calcification and the formation of cavities. The condition of the lymphatic glands could not be determined. In the caseous material, thick masses of fine rods were found which were 1.5 /< long and about as broad as swine erysipelas bacilli. They were readily stained by the Gram method and when so stained were to be recognized by their abundance, even in sections from the freezing microtome, under low magnification. In connection with this, from a sanitary standpoint, highly important observation, Kitt cites the following similar cases from literature : Stohr saw a case of pseudo-tuberculosis (caseous pneu- monia) in sucking calves, which was produced by a bacillus. Nocard discovered masses of bacilli lying close together in the tubercles which occur in France in pseudo-farcy of horses and which appear in the lungs, liver, spleen and lymphatic glands and show a central caseation. These bacilli were about as long as those of swine PSEUDO-TUBERCULOSIS 653^ erysipelas and as wide as tubercle bacilli. They were stained by the Weigert modification of Gram's method. Coxirmont found a specific bacillus in a case of pleural tubercles in a cow, and, finally, Baumgarten found a specific micrococcus in a caseating granulation tumor in a lamb. Preisz and Guinard reported concerning a case of pseudo- tuberculosis in a sheep. Both kidneys of a sheep which was^ slaughtered in an abattoir were covered with old calcified granules- which greatly resembled tubercles. Koch's bacillus, however, could not be demonstrated in the granules. By the inoculation of rabbits- and guinea pigs the authors uniformly obtained positive results : a rapid generalizatiou of small tubercle-like structures which con- tained ]arge quantities of very delicate fresh bacteria, rounded at both ends. This micro-organism could also be demonstrated in the tubercles of the sheep kidneys. Preisz and Guinard are of the opinion that the bacterial pseudo-tuberculoses are all identical. Later Preisz called attention to the fact that the pseudo-tubercu- losis investigated by him was distinguished from true tuberculosis by the fact that, iu the former, tubercles were rapidly produced and casefied immediately after their appearance, while true tubercles do not become visible and begin to calcify until three or four weeks after inoculation. In the frequently-occurring pseudo-tuberculosis of rodents, we apparently have to do with a bacterial affection as in similar cases in sheep and cattle. The Bacillus pseudo-tuberculosis of A. Pfeiffer, which is identical with the zoogleacoccus of pseudo-tuberculosis,, described by Eberth and others, may be successfully transmitted to house mice, hamsters, guinea pigs, rabbits and hare. The author was able to demonstrate Bacillus pseudo-tuberculosis, as described by Kitt, Preisz and Gainard, in caseated lymphatic glands in sheep of various origin. In one case, reported by Tarski, there was an extensive outbreak of pseudo-tuberculosis iu a herd of Merino sheep. Among 150 ewes, 44, or 29.3 per cent., were more or less affected. The sheep which were affected with pseudo-tubercnlosis were emaciated and after slaughter exhibited caseous alterations in various lymphatic glands, bronchial, mediastinal, portal, prescap- ular, kneefold and other intermuscular lymphatic glands. The lymphatic glands were either completely modified into caseous foci, or Were sprinkled with caseous areas, varying in size from a hemp seed to that of a hazel nut. The substance of these areas was greenish-yellow, caseous, purulent, crumbling or dry, and in layers like an onion. Calcification was completely wanting in the case> ■■JV •654 INPEOTIODS DISEASES described by Kitt. Moreover, the parenchyma of the internal organs was unaltered. On the other hand, metastatic, caseous foci •were found in the musculature. In these foci numerous rods, resembling those of swine erysipelas, were demonstrated by Gram's staining method (Fig. 221). These rods grew on blood serum in the form of milk-white colonies, produced pseudo-tuberculosis in mice, rabbits and guinea pigs, and killed sheep with symptoms of violent septicemia, even when inoculated in comparatively small doses. Likewise in pseudo-tuberculosis of sheep, which has occurred in epizootic form in Australia and America, the bacillus pseudo- tuberculosis in .question was demonstrated Fig. 321. as the pathogenic organism (Cherry and Bull, Norgaard and Mohler). ;„' :;\ " ' Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis.— I - The general symptom of pseudo-tuberculous ' y_ ' ^ , processes, caseation, has already been men- / ^ J"^- ,- tioned. Pseudo-tuberculosis has this symp- ; / torn in common with true tuberculosis. For ^ j^ (, , the differentiation of the two processes, the -„.„.„ , ,, casualistic material furnishes essentially two Bacilli of pseudo-tubercu- •. ■ -n- ■ n i ■■ losis in a smear prepara- Criteria: ifirst, the pseudo-tuberculous tu- a sheep. X 500 diam. Cells or epithelioid cells ; furthermore, it is to be concluded from observations thus far made that the caseous foci which appear in the lymph glands in pseudo-tuberculosis do not calcify, but dry up, and, consequently, exhibit an onion-like stratification. Judgment.— The sanitary police judgment of pseudo-tubercu- lous alterations varies like their etiology. In all cases, however, the character of the process justifies the complete exclusion from the market of organs? which are affected with the alterations in question, and of the meat which is sympathetically affected by the generalization process. (h.) Actinomycosis. Etiology.— Actinomycosis (ray fungus disease) belongs to the chronic infectious diseases. It is produced by actinomyces (ray fungus), which was observed by Perroncito, Rivolta and Hahn, but ACTINOMYCOSIS 655 was first recognized as an etiological factor and described by Bollinger in 1877. Morphology. — Actinomyces is classified with the pleomorphic l3acteria for the reason that in cultures it forms short and long rods, simple and branched threads, spirally twisted organisms and cocci- like elements (Wolff and Israel). In animal tissues the ray fungus is observed in the form of graceful rosettes, the chief character of which consists in club-shaped swellings of the radiallj-arranged mycelia (Fig. 222). In domesticated animals, aotinomyces does not produce sup- puration, but simply an extensive infiltration of round cells and, in Fm 333 .^if , Actinomyces mycelia from a sub-maxillary actiaomycoma of a beef animal. X 340 diameters. the neighboring tissue, giant cells, the formation of which, to the best of the author's knowledge, was first described by Kitt (Fig. 223). The giant cells, however, are not of such regular form as in tuber- culosis, but are of a more irregular shape. Suppuration in domesti- cated animals is to be attributed to a mixed infection with pyogenic bacteria. In purulent actinomycotic foci, I was impressed with the fact that the fungus rosettes do not show the fine growth and development which we are accustomed to see in domesticated ani- mals, but that they resemble in this respect more nearly the ordi- nary picture of actinomyces in man (Fig. 225). By transmitted light the actinomyces rosettes exhibit an evi- dent greenish sheen; in consequence of calcification they lose this sheen and become black under transmitted light. The ray fungus rosettes are commonly located close together, in "mulberry-like 656 INFECTIOUS DISEASES masses," and thereby form pale-yellow granules of the size of millet seed, -visible to the naked eye, and which are plainly distin- guished from the diseased tissue (Fig. 224). Pathogenesis. — Actinomyces may produce ulcers of consider- able size. According to their exterior condition, these ulcers are classified into soft and firm actinomycomata, the former being the more frequent. They possess the firmness of myxofibromata, while in the case of the firm actinomycomata, the consistency is similar Pia. 233. Section through an actinomycotic tongue, a, central part of the actinomyces ; h, radially arranged olavate hyphas; c, giant cells in the adjoining zone of infiltration, x 240 diameters. to that of pure fibromata. The firm actinomycomata are compara- tively poor in mycelia. All actinomycotic foci are delimited from the surrounding tissue by a thick wall of connective tissue. In case of actinomycosis of one part of the body, the cor- responding groups of lymphatic glands may take part in the affec- tion. Bay fungi which accidentally find their way into the afferent lymphatic vessel produce in the lymphatic glands, as well as in the other tissues, small infiltration foci, inside of which the fungus colo- nies may be plainly recognized (compare Fig. 223). Neither sup- puration nor caseation appears in actinomycotic lymph glands. ACTINOMYCOSIS 657. OccDERENCE. — Actinomycosis is of frequent occurrence in pattle and hogs. As a rule, the disease appears sporadically. It may, however, attain an enzootic distribution (Jensen, Stienon, Claus, Neuwirth). In rare cases the ray fungus disease has been observed in horses, sheep and deer. In cattle, it is especially the head which is the seat of the dis- ease. Almost all parts of the head may be attacked by the ray fungus. Formerly the lower jaw was considered the most fre- quent point of attack. In this location the fungus may produce enormous deformities in consequence of rarefactive ostitis, on the one hand, and enormous granulation formations, on the other. Likewise, in the upper jaw, actinomycomata have frequently been demonstrated. According to recent investigations, however, the Pis. 235. Fi8. 234. :'5-^#dS£i'iS^^sS:si-. — Actinomyces myoelia from i laryngeal actinomycoma. X 35 diameters. Actmomyces mycelia fiom a puiulent actmomy- . coma in a beef lung. X 340 diameters. accuracy of which the author can fully verify, the tongue must be considered as the most frequent seat of actinomycosis. Henschel and Falk called attention to the fact that besides the form of lingual actinomycosis in cattle, known jinder the nanae of wooden tongue, actinomycosis occurs in this organ quite frequently in the form of tubercles. Henschel and Falk specified a particular part of the dorsal surface of the tongue which ia frequently affected with primary actinomycosis, and which must, therefore, be carefully inspected in every slaughtered animal (Fig. 52). Besides in the musculature of the tongue, one observes fungoid actinomycomata (Fig. 226, h) and superficial actinomycotic erosions (Fig. 226, a) on the mucous membrane of the tongue and also on the mucous mem- brane of the cheeks and gums. These erosions are distinguished from similar alterations by their firm, leathery basis. Moreover, actino- mycotic foci may be plainly recognized iu the form of yellow spots. C58 INFECTIOUS DISEASES It was shown by Klepzow that iu cattle -slaughtered at the Moscow abattoir the mucosa and submucosa of the under lip are \eTj frequently permeated wUh actinomycomata. From March to June, 1892, among 42,230 slaughtered cattle, 1,030 cases of actino- mycosis were found, and among these not less than 621 cases of labial actinomycosis. In the pharyngeal cavity, larynx and esophagus, pedunculate actinomycomata of the size of a hazel nut or a potato frequently occur (Fig. 227). These are distinguished from non-actinomycotic polyps by their rough, pale-red surface and the sprinkling of yel- low spots. Moreover, the skin of the head and neck, as well as the sub- cutis of these parts of the body, are frequently the seat of hard or Pig. 326, Beef tongue with (as) actinomycotic erosions ; b, mushroom-shaped actinomycomata. The tip of the tongue also exhibits the condition of wooden tongue. soft, sharply delimited or diffuse ulcers, in which, when carefully examined, yellow spots or actinomyces colonies may be observed. The neighborhood of the angle of the jaw and the larynx are very often affected with actinomycosis. According to Easmussen, sub- cutaneous actinomycomata also occur on the back, elbow and femur, and in the form of the so-called knee-sponge. Liipke observed a case of elephantiasis which was caused by actinomy^ cosis. Actinomycosis may also take its origin from castration wounds. Contrasted with the frequency of actinomycosis in the head, that of other organs is rare. In the first stomachs one finds pedunculate actinomycomata like those in the pharyngeal cavity and esophagus. In the lungs smaller scattered tubercles and large ulcers occur up to the size of a child's head ; the latter in delimited ACTINOMTCOSIS 659 portions of the lungs. The large ulcers are, without exception, of a soft, myxoma-like consistency. They frequently show a central puriform softening. Hepatic actinomycosis appears either in the form of solitary ulcers (infection through fungi-bearing bodies from one of the first stomachs) or in the form of numerous abscess-like tubercles (infection through the portal vein). Actino- mycosis of the udder is found in cattle in the form of tubercles varying in size from that of a pin to that of a hen's egg, and pos- sessing a fibrous peripheral zone with a soft center permeated with actinomyces foci, or in the form of diffuse, acute inflamma- tion with a tendency to induration. Bang and Jensen also found Pig. 327. Bovine larynx with an actinomycoma on the epiglottis. actinomycomata iu the kidneys. Affections of the intestines, blad- der, vagina, spleen, peritoneum, vertebral column and sternum are rare. In hogs, Johne has shown that the tonsils are a frequent seat of actinomyces. Moreover, in the hog the ray fungus fre- quently leads to the infection of the mammary glands, which affec- tion frequently appears in the form of a cold abscess. In the contents of the abscess one finds well developed rosettes in great quantity, which do not differ in any respect from Actinomyces hovis. Besides the abscess form, actinomyces of the mammary gland may appear also in the form of tubercles and large ulcers leading to suppuration and the formation of fistulse. Fungoid actinomyco- mata may grow out through the openings of the fistnlse. B.asmus- sen states that at the abattoir in Copenhagen he observed aotino- 660 INFECTIOUS DISEASES myces of the mammary gland in hogs in 52 cases inside of three months. The same author demonstrated actinomycomata in the subcutis on the neck, in the fore-arm, abdominal wall (castration cicatrices) and hind quarters of hogs. Finally, in the. horse several cases of actinomycosis of the tongue, lymphatic glands and of the generalized form have been observed. In the sheep, one case of pulmonary actinomycosis was observed by Grips, and two cases of lingual as well as one case of labial actinomycosis by Berg. In the last named case and in one of the cases of lingual actinomycosis, specific alterations in the cavity of the lower jaw were present simultaneously. Geneealization op Actinomycosis. — The ray fungus may, under certain circumstances, exhibit a general distribution. This, how- ever, is an extremely rare occurrence. Hertwig described a case of this sort in the hog, the only one in several million hogs which were slaughtered in Berlin. In the case in question, in addition to actinomycomata in the mammary gland, softened actinomycotic foci were found in various dorsal vertebrae. Moreover, two cases of generalized actinomycosis were demonstrated in cattle in Berlin. In these two animals, in connection with actinomycosis of the head, embolic foci had developed in the lungs, liver, and, in one case, also in the neighborhood of the kidneys. Furthermore, in the second cervical vertebra, embolic actinomycosis (granulations and granular pus) was observed in a beef animal by a Swedish veterinarian (Jensen). Differential Diagnosis. — Upon superficial examination, actino- mycosis may be confused with tuberculosis and also with simple non-specific tumors (fibromata, myxomata, etc.). In all these cases microscopic examination makes certain the diagnosis of actinomy- cosis. Moreover, the above described microscopic peculiarities of actinomycomata, especially the sprinkling of punctate yellow foci and the usual negative findings in the corresponding lymphatic glands, furnish important criteria for the identification of the disease, without the assistance of the microscope. Judgment. — The question whether actinomycosis of animals may be transmitted to man has recently been made a subject of lively investigation, especially in America. The possibility of such a transmission must be theoretically admitted, since Wolff and Israel succeeded in inoculating actinomycosis from one animal to another.. AOTINOIiyCOSIS 661, However, all experience is opposed to the spontaneous occurrence of a direct transmission of the disease from animals to man. According to statistics collected by Moosbrugger, including 75 cases, 54 in men and 21 in women and children, the greater propor- tion of the actinomycotic patients had no contact with animals. In 11 cases the occupation was not stated ; 20- cases developed among farmers ; 33 patients, however, had nothing to do with animals (millers, glaziers, tailors, merchants and students). Contact with ■diseased animals could be demonstrated in only one case. Of the 21 womeri and children, not more than 4 belonged to the farming class and none of these individuals had come in contact with a •diseased animal. Concerning the transmission of actinomycosis by the consumption of actinomycotic organs or meat of actinomycotic animals, nothing whatever is known. Ponfick, Bostrom, Nocard, Crookshank, et cd., are of the opinion that man and animals become -affected with actinomycosis from one and the same source, and that in this regard grains are highly suspicious. Of special importance is the communication of Bostrom, according to which, after he had especially directed attention to this point, he could uniformly •demonstrate the undoubted presence of grains in the actinomycotic foci. Bostrom thereby substantiated the early observations of -others, especially the observation of Lanow, Schartau, Soltmann, Fischer and Bertha, who likewise found portions of grains in actinomycotic foci in man. Since Bostrom has called attention to this point, the grains of barley and the chaff of oats have been found in actinomycotic foci in man by Hummel, Bernstorff and ■Jurnika. These experiences agree entirely with those had in connection •with domesticated animals. The usual occurrence of the disease in the anterior portions of the digestive apparatus in cattle speaks in favor of infection through the food, and the affection of the mammary glands in hogs, of infection through straw. Furthermore, one quite frequently finds positive proof of the assumed method of infection in parts of grains surrounded by ray fungi, especially cereal grains and particles of straw, within actinomycotic foci in cattle and hogs. Henschel and Falk have shown beyond question that lingual actino- mycosis arises exclusively in consequence of the penetration of fungus-bearing food material. Finally, the transmission of the disease from one animal to associated animals has never been observed with certainty. Accordingly, the assumption that the consumption of actino- mycotic organs is injurious to health, is scarcely justified. Under: 662 INFECTIOUS DISEASES all conditions, we must combat this assumption for the meai of actinomycotic animals in case of local actinomycosis. The activity of the sanitary police should therefore be restricted to the removal of all affected organs, and these should be excluded from the market as highly unfit for food in so far as the removal of the specifically altered parts is not possible. This is the case in isolated foci in the tongue, and the removal of the diseased parts for the purpose of releasing the rest of the tongue is very desirable, since the tongue is so valuable an organ. In the extremely rare cases of generalization, the whole animal should be excluded from the market, since generalization in actino- mycosis appears to run a very atypic course, and the detection of all the foci (in the bones and inside the muscles) is much more difficult than in tuberculosis, in which a uniform affection of the regional lymphatic glands famishes a valuable guide in finding the diseased parts. (i) Botryomycosis. HiSTOET. — Under the term botryomycosis, we understand a chronic proliferation of the connective tissue which is produced by a specific micro-organism (botryomyces of Bollinger). Bollinger first found this fungus in 1869 in firm pulmonary tubercles of the size of a hazel nut or a walnut in a horse, and gave it the name " Zooglcea pidmonis equi." Later this fungus, after it had been forgotten, was discovered "anew" by Rivolta, who named it " Discomyces equi," as well as by Johne and Kabe, who proposed the names Micrococcus ascoformnns and M. iotryogenus. Hereupon Bol- linger changed his first name to iotryomyces (grape fungus). Pathological Anatomy and Bacteriology. — Through the investigations of Babe, Johne and Kitt, concerning botryomycomata and botryomyces, the following points have been determined : Botryomycoma is a connective tissue tumor of chronic charac- ter and peculiar structure. It has thus far been demonstrated only in horses and in one beef animal and one hog. In horses the tumor is found most frequently on the spermatic cord aft^r castration ; also in the intermuscular and intramuscular tissue in the retro- peritoneal tissue, in the subcutis under the collar, on the breast and tail, and, finally, in the udder, lungs, ribs and pleura. Botryomycosis of the lungs may arise primarily or secondarily.. Kitt reported a case in which metastatic foci in the lungs developed : BOTRYOHYCOSIS 663 after a case of botryomycosis of the spermatic cord. Jensen enlarged the casuistics of metastatic pulmonary botryomycosis by three other cases : one of his own and two of Steiner and Thomsen. The case observed by Jensen is remarkable in that the lymphatic glands lying at the entrance to the thorax showed some botryo- myces foci as large as nuts. A similar case was observed by Frohner in a horse. In this case, in addition to botryomycosis of the spermatic cord, skin, abdomiual musculature and lymphatic glands, metastases were present in the lungs ; also botryomycotic peritonitis. Botryomycoma appears in the form of tubercles of various size which consist of a firm connective tissue framework and soft, yellowish-brown tissue in the interstices. The latter con- PiG. 328. Botryomyces colonies, a intact, h calcified. X 35 diameters. sists of small tubercles, softened in the center, in which without exception yellowish-white granules of the size of a grain of sand may be demonstrated (Fig. 228). " These depositions, of the size of grains of sand, like the similar granules in actinomycomata, are to be considered as the pathogenic criteria of this new infectious tumor " (Johne). In a microscopic examination one observes that these deposi- tions are nothing but " mulberry and grape-shaped conglomerations of micrococcal masses, which lie close together, are mostly round, and are about 5 to 10 or even 100 pL in diameter " (Pig. 229). These structures are held together by a membrane or capsule. The masses of micrococci are stained by gentian violet and Loffldr'a anethylene-blue solution. 664 INFECTIOUS DISEASES Relationship of Botryomyces to Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus.—- Eabe determined that pure cultures of botryomyces killed guinea pigs, and in sheep and goats produced a round inflammatory edema. Kitt succeeded in cultivating cocci from colonies of botryo- myces which possessed great similarity to Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and produced suppuration as well as connective tissue pro- liferation. Hell states that he always obtained S. pyogenes aureus in pure cultures from botryomycomata. According to Poucet, Dor and Parascandolo, botryomyces is a specific bacterium, never agrees in form, size, stainability, formation of pigment and growth Pig. 329. Botryomyces colonies from a botryomycoma of the spermatic cord, x 240 diameters. on various nutrient media with S. pyogenes aureus, and can be dis- tinguished from it by serum diagnosis. Differential Diagnosis. — Botryomycomata may be confused with actinomycomata, simple tumors and glanderous neomorphs. In all cases the findings of sand-like depositions and a micro- scopic examination make certain a positive diagnosis. man. Judgment. — Botryomycosis has never been demonstrated in It is not impossible, however, that botryomyces may be patho- genic for man in another form than in the horse — perhaps as a purulent organism (compare the investigations of Babe, Kitt and RINDERPEST 665 Hell). For these reasons, at least, the parts of the organs which are affected with botryomycomata must be carefully removed and Tendered innocuous. 3. — Infectious Diseases Which Occur Only in Animals and are not Communicable to Man in any Form.* (a) Rinderpest. Rinderpest possesses interest merely from a veterinary police standpoint. For clinical and pathologico-anatomical details, refer- ence is here made to text books on epizootic diseases and special pathology. The only matter of importance to experts in meat inspection is the differential diagnosis of this plague, which, despite its unusually great infectiousness, is still quifcia unexplained from an -etiological standpoint. As a result of the great development of our commerce, it may occur and has occurred, in spite of our strict quarantine regulations, that rinderpest has suddenly broken out in the interior of the country. This plague is, therefore, to be kept constantly in mind, in stock yards and abattoirs. The following are the chief diseases which may give occasion to confusion with rinderpest : Ifalignant catarrhal fever and intoxications. In malignant catarrhal fever, as well as in rinderpest, all the mucous membranes may be inflamed (catarrhal, croupous and diphtheritic inflammations). Malignant catarrhal fever, however, is distinguished from rinderpest by its very slight infectiousness and especially by the usual involvement of the mucous membrabe -of the respiratory apparatus, by the appearance of parenchy- matous keratitis and by the integrity of the parenchyma of the internal organs. In cases of rinderpest, cloudiness of the eyes is wanting, while, on the other hand, the parenchyma is greatly altered {cloudy swelling, fatty metamorphosis). * The infectious diseases peculiar to the horse, viz., horse distempei-, pneu- monia and contagious coryza, possess only a very subordinate significance for meat inspection. This is evident, on the one hand, from the usual benign course of these diseases, and, on the other, from the low slaughter value of horses. In severe cases the owner will, as a rule, prefer the risk of eventual death to a saving of an inconsiderable slaughter value. Transmission of horse distemper, pneumonia and contagious corvza to man from eating meat, has thus far never been observed ; nor have infections appeared in the attendants of ani- mals affected with these diseases. i666 INFECTIOUS DISEASES lutoxications are clinically sufficiently differentiated from rinderpest by the absence of infectiousness. Intoxication may, however, occur in the form of an extensive outbreak. Thus, for example, it may occur, in the careless use of gray mercurial salve as an insecticide, that several or all the cattle of a herd become sick at the same time. Mercurial poisoning is characterized by the fact that it produces alterations in the digestive and respiratory appara- tus, vi^hich, to some extent, resemble the alterations in rinderpest, especially the punctate and spotted reddened areas, ulcers and sub- mucous infiltrates in the intestines and, finally, croupous deposits on the respiratory mucous membranes. In cases of mercurialism, on the other hand, there is wanting that universal croupous diph- theritic iuflammation of the mucous membranes which characterizes rinderpest. In addition to mercurial poisoning, other intoxications may be confused with rinderpest. Such a confusion occurred a few years ago in the Rhine Province, where a large number of cattle suddenly became seriously affected after feeding on poisoned maize slump. In a subsequent investigation of the case one was inclined to ascribe the disease to the development of hydrogen arsenide which may have gotten into the slump by the utilization of impure sul- phuric acid. Judgment.— The meat of cattle affected with rinderpest is harmless for man. This is to be considered as demonstrated by the numerous experiences, especially those which were had in field campaigns. Gerlach emphasizes the fact that rinderpest followed the armies in all of the European wars of the nineteenth century and that the meat of affected cattle was eaten without any harm. Prom 1813 to 1815, the allied as well as the French troops received cattle affected with rinderpest, and among them many animals in an acute stage of the disease. An isolated observation of Ziickert on the alleged iujuriousness of the meat of a beef animal affected with rinderpest has no weight against this experimental material, especially since in the case in question it is very probable that the meat had already begun to decompose. Despite its harmlessness, however, the meat of cattle affected -vvith rinderpest in well regulated conditions in time of peace can not be admitted to the market, for veterinary police reasons. The Imperial law of April 7, 1869, concerning regulations against rinder- pest prescribed incineration of animals killed on account of rinder- pest or dead of this disease. MALIGNANI CATARKHAL lEVEB OF CATTLE 667 (b) Malignant Catarrhal Fever of Cattle. Natuee and Occurrence. — Malignant catarrhal fever is a specific disease of cattle. In all probability it depends upon the entrance of micro-organisms. Thus far, however, they have not been demonstrated. The disease is usually not directly infectious. It appears, rather, to be contracted exclusively through intermediate carriers (food, fl jors of stalls). Malignant catarrhal fever in the majority of cases appears sporadically. Under certain conditions, however, it may obtaiit great distribution as a local plague. Frank, in Alsenz, called atten- tion to the occurrence of catarrhal fever in an enzootic form. Many similar occurrences, however, had been reported previously. The author, himself, observed au outbreak of the disease in which, among a herd of 80 animals, 60 became more or less seriously affected within a short time. Anatomical Findings. — Pathological alterations are primarily observed on the mucous membrane of the respiratory apparatus. The mucous membrane from the nostrils to the small bronchi may exhibit all degrees of inflammation, catarrh, croup. and diphtheria. The inflammatory phenomena of the alimentary tract may be asso- ciated with symptoms in the form of a croupous and diphtheritic stomatitis and of gastritis and croupous enteritis and with the formation of .the well-known croupous tubes. Moreover, malignant catarrhal fever may be complicated with inflamihatory phenomena, of the urino-genital apparatus (nephritis, cystitis and vaginitis of various degrees). The affection of the eyes is of characteristic and differential diagnostic importance (Gerlach). One observes in nearly all cases inflammation of the lids, conjunctivae, cornea and even of the iris. It is quite remarkable that in spite of the serious .character of the disease, the parenchyma of the internal organs is found to- be intact post mortem. Bollinger characterizes this fact as au important differential diagnostic criterion of this disease, as com- pared with rinderpest. The musculature also, as mentioned by Frank, shows no variations from the normal condition. Judgment. — In the larger number of cases with which I am acquainted, the meat of animals affected with malignant catarrhal fever was eaten without harm. Likewise in the literature of the- 668 INFECTIOUS DISEASES subject tliere are no statements of injury to human health from eat- ing the meat of animals which had been affected with malignant ■catarrhal fever. In my own opinion, therefore, there can be no objection to the sale of the meat as an inferior food material if the symptom^ are Testricted simply to the respiratory apparatus, for all the post- mortem findings in these cases are in favor of the propositon that the process ruus a local course. In cases of complication with croupous enteritis, on the other hand, and with serious inflamma- tory phenomena in the urino-genital apparatus, the meat is to be considered as highly unfit for food and is' to be excluded from the market, for in these cases there is usually a rapid emaciation of the diseased animals. (c) Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle. Geneeal. — Pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, like rinderpest, is of interest chiefly from a veterinary police standpoint. This fact, however, should not prevent the meat inspector from giving care- ful attention to the disease ; for, by means of ah expert control of the slaughter of cattle it is possible to render material assistance to the veterinary police in combating pleuro-pneumonia, since the inspection in abattoirs may serve to detect with certainty cases whiph run an occult course, and hereby to furnish a timely demon- stration of concealed foci of pleuro-pneumonia. Etiology. — Nocard and Roux, by means of a new and excellent culture method, succeeded in obtaining from lungs affected with pleuro-pneumonia micro-organisms, which, according to the state- ment of both investigators, do not possess the power of producing pleuro-pneumonia, but, like the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia, are capable of producing immunity against pleuro-pneumonia in cattle. Nocard and Roux prepared small sacks of collodion, filled them with bouillon, and, after a previous sterilization, inoculated them with a small quantity of the fluid exudation from the lungs of a beef animal affected with pleuro-pneumonia. When the collodion sacks thus prepared were placed in the abdominal cavity of cattle or small experimental animals, the bouillon became cloudy and under a microscopic examination was seen to contain a pure cul- ture of extraordinarily minute micro-organisms. The dimensions of these micro-organisms were smaller than those of the smallest known bacteria. They are capable of passing through the pores PLEUEO-PNEUMONIA OP CATTLE G6t>' of a Berkefeld and Chamberland filter, and can not, therefore, be definitely identified, even after a previous staining. Nocard suc- ceeded in rendering cattle insusceptible to pleuro-pneumouia by- inoculation with the organisms cultivated "in vivo." The clinical picture of pleuro-pneumonia offers little of inter- est to us. Of much more interest are the pathologico-anatomical findings. Pleuro-pneumonia is a chronic, progressive pneumo- pleurisy. It is restricted, as a rule, to one lung (chiefly the left). The most striking feature of the process is the affection of the inter- lobular tissue, hyperemia, gelatinous infiltration and thrombosis of the lymph and blood vessels. The lobuli which are surrounded by the diseased, greatly enlarged connective tissue strands, uniformly exhibit various stages of hepatization (red, yellow, gray). More- over, necrotic lobuli (sequestration) may be present, or lobuli which have lost their original structure in consequence of puriform altera- tions. The pleura exhibits the alterations of fibrinous pleuritis. At first one finds only small foci in the lungs, of the size of a hazel nut or walnut. Finally, however, the larger portion of the lungs, may be attacked by the progressive pathological process. The characteristic symptoms of pleuro-pneumonia are the extensive affection of the interlobular connective tissue and the presence ot inflammatory foci of different ages in the pulmonary parenchyma between the diseased interlobular connective tissue strands (mar- bled hepatization, according to Gerlach). A cross section through' a lung affected with pleuro-pneumonia presents no uniform picture, as, for example, is obtained by a cross section through lungs affected with hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle, pneumonia of horses, or swine plague ; but always presents to view freshly inflamed foci, together with older ones (see Pig. 4 of the lithographic plate). Differential Diagnosis. — 1. Genuine Pneumonia. — In the litera- ture of the subject, we find isolated statements concerning the occurrence of a genuine non-infectious pulmonary inflammation in cattle. This usually occurs on the right side. Genuine pneumonia is distinguished from pleuro-pneumonia by its acute course, and, therefore, by the fact that the alterations in the lungs are all of the same age. 2. Pectoral Form of Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Cattle. — In the pneumonia of hemorrhagic septicemia, we also find extensive infiltra- tion of the interlobular tissue and pleuritis. The hepatization of the lungs, however, is uniform and of the same age (as in pneumonia of iorses). Moreover, the inoculation of animals furnishes an excellent.. 670 INFECTIOUS DISEASES differential diagnostic criterion (see under " Hemorrhagic Septicemia _ of Wild Game and Cattle "). 3. Infectious Broncho-pneumonia of Calves.— In this disease, the distension of the interlobular tissue is entirely wanting and the pulmonary parenchyma exhibits phenomena of a lobular desquama- tive pneumonia. The affected parts of the lungs are grayish-red, rich in fluids and free from air. A slimy purulent secretion is found in the bronchi. The inoculation of diseased portions of the lungs does not, as a rule, kill small experimental animals. Nocard observed, in five steers imported from America, a contagious broncho-pneumonia which aroused a suspicion of pleuro-pneumonia. The disease in question, however, was distin- guished from pleuro-pneumonia by its acute character, flabby hepatization and the less extensive infiltration of the interlobular tissue. A considerable quantify of ropy, slimy, purulent secretion escaped from some of the bronchi. In this secretion Nocard found a micro-organism which killed mice, guinea pigs, rabbits and pigeons within forty-eight hours. 4. Traumatic "Pneumonia. — The differentiation of traumatic pneumonia from pleuro-pneumonia is simple. In cases of traumatic pneumonia, a " marbled " appearance may arise in the tissue sur- rounding the foreign body in consequence of the extensive affection of the interstitial pulmonary tissue by the process. The easily demonstrable trauma, however, removes all doubt. 5. Aspergillosis (see page 325). Judgment. — Section 85 of the Instructions with regard to the Imperial Animal Plague Law declares that " the lungs of animals killed on account of pleuro-pneumonia, or dead of the disease, must be buried at least one meter deep, in order to render them innocuous. The meat of such animals shall not be removed until it is entirely cooled off." According to the provisions of the Imperial Animal Plague Law, the sale of the meat of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia is permitted. The restriction that the meat of such animals shall not be transported until after it is perfectly cool was adopted on account of the fact that it was assumed that a virulence attached to the meat while still possessed of the animal heat. From a sanitary standpoint, no objection can be raised against the release of the meat as permitted by the Imperial Animal Plague Law, for the meat of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia is catftn withou-t any bad effects. In cases where the lungs, are not HEMOEBHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 671 .seriously affected, the meat may be considered as marketable. If, on the other hand, the animals are slaughtered during the crisis of the disease in an acute, feverish condition, in which animals sub- jected to emergency slaughter do not bleed adequately, the meat is to be sold under declaration as an inferior food material. "The meat is usually absolutely excluded from the market in cases in which emaciation and edematous processes have developed during the course of the disease.* In a dissertation prepared under the direction of Jiirgensen, Wiedermann propounds the question whether pleuro-pneumonia occurs in man. The occasion for this was given by the post-mortem findings in two children in a region (Lustnau, near Tubingen) in which at the time in question pleuro-pneumonia was very prevalent among cattle. The lungs of both of the children were stated to have exhibited a picture resembling that of pleuro-pneumonia, viz., fibrinous pneumonia and purulent pleuritis, together with peri- carditis. No transmission of the virus from eating the milk or by any other method could be demonstrated with certainty in other cases and no confirmation of this observation (1878) has since been furnished, although there has been no lack of opportunities for observation in the districts affected with pleuro-pneumonia for example, in the government district of Magdeburg. (d) Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Wild. Gam.e and Cattle. Etiology. — This disease, thus named by Bollinger, who first described it, has been explained from an etiological standpoint, ospecially through the investigations of Kitt. The disease is due to bacteria which are classified with the group of rabbit septicemia (Koch), or of hemorrhagic septicemia (Hiippe). In addition to rabbit septicemia and the septicemia of wild game and cattle, this Ijacteriological pathogenic group includes also swine plague, buffalo plague and fowl cholera. In order to avoid repetitions, the most important peculiarities of the bacteria in question may here be dis- cussed together. The organisms of septicemia of wild game and cattle, swine plague, rabbit septicemia and fowl cholera are characterized by * As in pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, so in infectious broncho-pneumonia of calves and infectious pneumonia of horses, sheep and goats, no injury to health has been observed from eating the meat. With regard to Swine Plague, com- pare page 695, 672 INFECTIOUS DISEASES their almost complete agreement in morphology, biology and experi- mental pathogenic properties (Baumgarten) The identity of these bacteria, however, may still be doubted, for the certain proof of identity has thus far been furnished only for fowl cholera and rabbit septicemia (Kitt). The bacteria of this group are about 1 to 1.4 ;w long, 0.4 to .7 /i wide, and rounded at the ends (Fig. 239). They are non-motile, and stain most deeply at the poles. They are decolorized by Gram's method. Inoculation withfthem kills rabbits and mice, as well as pigeons. With regard to other experimental animals, considerable differences exist. Quite remarkable is the peculiarity of the bacteria of the rabbit, septicemia group that they possess, with the exception of the swine plague bacteria, the power of passing through the stomach unatten- Tiated. For the rest, they die in aqueous suspension at a tempera- ture of 55° C. for fifteen minutes, or 80° C. for ten minutes. For the destruction of the bacteria in the meat, however, thin slices must be exposed to a temperature of 80° C. for at least one hour. According to Hiippe, the bacteria in question are killed by being brought to a boiling temperature, a result which, according to Yolsch, is not observed in imbedding the bacteria in substrata con- taining mucin. OccuEEENCE. — Hemorrhagic septicemia of wild game and cattle occurs in deer, wild boars and cattle. Moreover, the disease is transmissible to horses, hogs and goats, while sheep are infected with difficulty. CouESE AND Anatomical Findings. — Hemorrhagic septicemia of wild game and cattle appears in three principal forms : As an exanthematio, pectoral and intestinal affection. In the exauthe- matic form, which is the common form of affection in cattle and which sometimes occurs also in wild game (Liipke), rapidly appear- ing swellings of enormous size are formed on the soft parts of the head, neck, and develop with an elevation of the internal tempera- ture up to 42° C. Death may result within six hours. As a rule, however, it does not appear until after twelve to thirty-six hours. The swelling arises in consequence of serous inflammation of the subcutis and submucosa of the mucous membrane of the mouth. After death we find not only swellings, but hemorrhages in the different organs. In the pectoral form of hemorrhagic septicemia, which is the common form iu wild game, one observes the phenomena of an HEMOKRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 673 acute pneumo-pleuiisy. This form is characterized by a less rapid course (five to eight days). In addition to alterations in the thoracic cavity, hemorrhages are found, in the pectoral form of the disease, in all parts of the body. The intestinal form is, as a rule, present in association with the two first-named forms and is characterized by the fact that the feces exhibit a bloody character in consequence of hemorrhagic inflammation of the intestinal mucous membrane, especially of the small intestines. Differential Diagnosis. — Hemorrhagic septicemia may be con- fused with anthrax (exantliematic form) and with pleuro-pneumonia (pectoral form). The disease is distinguished from anthrax by the absence of splenic tumor and anthrax bacilli, and from pleuro- pneumonia by the fact that the pulmonary foci are all of the same age. The interlobular connective tissue strands are serously infil- trated and consequently distended. The pulmonary lobules, how- ever, which lie between the infiltrated connective tissue strands always exhibit the same stage of inflammation, and not, as in the case of pleuro-pneumonia, old inflammatory foci side by side with fresh ones. Furthermore, in all cases hemorrhagic septicemia is usually recognized as such by a bacteriological examination and inoculation of animals. In the blood and in the bloody exudations one always finds the above described bacteria in large numbers. Mice and rabbits die within from 12 to 36 hours after cutaneous. or subcutaneous inoculation, and exhibit, post mortem, a pro- nounced laryngo-tracheitis, characterized by a scarlet-red colora- tion of the mucous membrane of the trachea (Kitt). Moreover, hemorrhagic septicemia — and hereby the disease is distinguished from many other infectious diseases — is transmissible to experi- mental animals by feeding. JmjGMENT. — The resistance of the bacteria of hemorrhagic- septicemia to the gastric juice has already been mentioned. Never- theless, the meat of animals affected with hemorrhagic septicemia can not be considered as iiijarious to health; for the transmission of the disease to man has never been observed. Injuries received in making post-mortem examinations have never been followed by evil consequences and the meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter has never caused any harm when eaten (Freidberger and Frohner). In his first communication concerning this interesting .disease, Bollinger emphasizes the fact that the meat of diseased 674 • INFECTIOUS DISEASES animals had been eaten by men in numerous instances and pre* pared in various ways without any demonstrable harm. This was confirmed by Franck. Moreover, according to Bollinger, contamina- tion of the hands with the blood while making post-mortem exami- nations was followed by no bad consequences. A case of illness in a workman after the sting of an insect at a time when hemorrhagic septicemia prevailed extensively could not be definitely referred to infection with the virus of hemorrhagic septicemia. The possibil- ity was not excluded that the case was one of ordinary septic infec- tion. Moreover, the meat of animals which have been affected with hemorrhagic septicemia can not be admitted to the market, since this disease, from a veterinary police standpoint, is classed along with anthrax, and is to be treated like the latter (see page 583). The buffalo plague (barbone disease) is also classified with the diseases which belong to the group of hemorrhagic septicemia. Buffalo plague usually attacks young animals and runs a course of peracute or acute septicemia with the simultaneous appearance of hot, doughy tumefactions in the region of the larynx. Upon post- mortem examination, the most striking alteration observed is an extensive edema of the neck, face and the base of the tongue. The cause of buffalo plague was discovered by Oreste and Armanni in a micro-organism 0.9 to 1.8 /< long and .4 to .6 )a. wide, which, mor- phologically and biologically, is closely related to the organism of hemorrhagic septicemia. The organisms of buffalo plague are found especially abundant in the subcutaneous edematous swellings, less abundantly in the internal organs, and not at all in the cardiac blood of affected animals. It was demonstrated by von Eatz that the rabbit is extraordinarily susceptible to infection from buffalo plague. Babbits die within 9 to 15 hours after subcutaneous inocu- lation. Guinea pigs are more resistant, pigeons still more so, and inoculated chickens and ducks remaiu perfectly healthy. On the other hand, white and gray mice die in from 19 to 36. hours. The disease may be artificially transmitted to cattle, horses, sheep and hogs. Spontaneous transmission, however, during an outbreak of buffalo plague has been observed only in hogs. According to von Eatz, buffalo plague is most closely related to hemorrhagic septi- cemia. (e) Blackleg. OccuEEENOE.— Blackleg of cattle is a stationary disease. It is observed almost exclusively in so-called blackleg districts and is BLACKLEG , 675 only occasionally conveyed to other localities in the transportation of animals already infected. The incubation period is two days. It is worthy of mention that usually only cattle between one and four years of age are affected. Besides cattle, blackleg may rarely attack goats, sheep and horses. Hogs are immue to the disease. Bactebiologt. — Blackleg, as shown by Feser and Bollinger, is caused by the strictly anaerobic blackleg bacillus. On account of its behavior toward oxygen, it is found only in affected connective tissue and muscles and never in the living blood. It may occur, however, in the de-oxydized cadaveric blood. Blackleg bacilli are 3 to 6 // long and about 1 fj. wide and are characterized by an evident motility. As soon, however, as sporu- lation begins, they become non-motile (Kitasato). The spores occupy a polar position in the straight, stiff rods and the blackleg spores are character- Fig. 330 ized by their strong resistance to heat. ^ Kitasato emphasizes the fact that the s irregular, shining corpuscles, which may be ^ j* found in the bacilli while the animal is o living, and which are characterized by the \ ^ " iact that they stain better in the ordinary manner than the bacilli themselves, are not * spores. " The true blackleg spores (resting ^^^''spof eYearin™°'*^^ spores) are not formed in the animal body X 500 diameters. until from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after the death of the animal." Pieces of meat taken immediately after death and heated for twenty minutes at a temperature of 65° C. proved to be sterile upon inoculation, while material which was taken two days after death and treated. in the same manner killed all the experimental animals by the development of blackleg. According to the experiments of Kitt, blackleg bacilli in dried meat are not destroyed by live steam, but are merely attenuated. Fresh blackleg meat was not sterilized, but was merely rendered somewhat less infectious by boiling one hour in a steamer, and the same is true for dry meat powder after similar treatment for six hours. Symptoms. — Blackleg infection, as in the case with all diseases caused by anaerobic material, takes place only in the subcutis or submucosa in consequence of injury to those parts. The most important criterion of this almost always fatal.disease is the appear- ance of crackling tumors which contain gas,, and which extend very g76 INFECTIOUS DISEASES rapidly. The most frequent locations of the tumors are the thigh,, neck, shoulder and lower part of the breast as well as loin and. sacral regions (Friedberger and Frohner). Simultaneously there is a serious disturbance of the general condition and a high fever (42° C). Anatomical Findings.— The skin over the tumors crackles when, stroked and is, as a rule, necrotic. The subjacent subcutis is infil- trated with bloody gelatinous material and the musculature is cloudy and either reddish-brown or black. An abundant accumu- lation of gas may be demonstrated in the subcutis and musculature. The gas possesses a disagreeably stale odor (chiefly carburetted hydrogen), but no odor of decomposition. The rest of the muscu- lature may be only slightly altered. Numerous hemorrhages are found under the serous membranes. The parenchyma of the liver and kidneys and the myocardium are cloudy. lu the thoracic and. abdominal cavities, serous effusions mixed with blood may be- present. The spleen is intact and the blood shows no alterations. DiFFERENTUL DIAGNOSIS. — Blackleg may be confused with dermal emphysema of mechanical origin, malignant edema and anthrax. Dermal emphysema may arise mechanically from injuries of the external skin, trachea and larynx, as well as secondarily in con- nection with interstitial pulmonary emphysema (see page 321).. Emphysemata of mechanical origin gradually progress from the cervical region ; the skin does not become necrotic and when an incision is made we do not find any bloody, gelatinous effusions. Finally, no bacilli are demonstrable. In malignant edema, the gases, after necrosis of the skin has taken place, possess the odor of decomposition. Furthermore, in a bacteriological examination, the bacilliof blackleg are distinguished from those of malignant edema by the fact that they are more slender than the latter and never develop into threads in the carcass. Spore formation in blackleg bacilli occurs only in a polar position (drumstick form) and not in the middle as in the bacilli of malignant edema. With malignant edema is associated a so-called parturient blackleg (Carl). This rarely occurs in blackleg regions, but fre- quently in regions in which true blackleg has never been observed. In contrast with true blackleg, it is also frequently observed in old cows. According to Albrecht, parturient blackleg occurs two to five days after parturition and usually causes death within one to threa BEAXY 67T ^ays. The chief clinical symptoms are fever (41° C. or more), depression, lack of appetite and thirst, and a tumefaction of the external genitals which extends to the sacrum, thigh and back, and crackles on stroking. A foul-smelling fluid is found in the uterus and vagina, post mortem, pronounced reddening of the mucous membrane and edema of the submucous and muscularis coats of the uterus. The emphysematous parts of surrounding tissues are affected with bloody serous or fibrinous infiltration. In two cases of parturient blackleg, Carl demonstrated the bacillus of malignant edema as the cause of the blackleg-like alterations. The differentiation of blackleg from anthrax should not offer any difficulty in the present state of our knowledge concerning the etiology of both diseases. Blackleg is distinguished macroscopi- <;ally from anthrax by the crackling tumors, intact spleen and the normal character of the blood. All doubt may be removed, how- ever, by the bacteriological findings, and especially by the inocula- tion of animals. Babbits are immune to blackleg and guinea pigs are infected with blackleg only by a subcutaneous injection, while anthrax kills rabbits as well as guinea pigs by mere cutaneous inoculation. Judgment. — The older veterinary observers have already called attention to the fact that the meat of animals affected with blackleg may be eaten by man without any harm, and that, in contrast with anthrax, infection does not take place in man even in dissecting the ■carcasses. The meat of animals affected with blackleg is accordingly not injurious to health. Nevertheless, it is always highly unfit for food, for it rapidly passes into decomposition, and while being pre- served develops a disagreeable, rancid odor resembling smoked berring (Kitt). For veterinary police reasons, the carcasses of animals affected -with blackleg must be rendered innocuous, since blackleg, like hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle, is, from a veterinary police stand- point, classed with anthrax (page 583). (f) Braxy, Nature and Occurrence. — Braxy (braasot of the Norwegians and braxy of the Scots) is an infectious disease of sheep, which runs an acute or peracute course, which begins as a hemorrhagic inflammation of the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach, is accompanied with a pronounced development of gas in the alimen- €78 INFECTIOUS DISEASES tary tract, especially in tlie stomachs, and in some cases causes the- death of the animal hj, general infection, in others, presumably, by intoxication or dyspnea, due to tympanites (Jensen). The disease^ for the most part attacks young animals ; animals over three years of age are seldom affected with braxy. It is, furthermore, worthy of note that braxy is observed almost exclusively in the winter mouths and either does not occur at all in the summer or only rarely. Braxy occurs in an epizootic form on the west coast of Norway,. in Iceland, Faroe Islands and in Scotland. According to Giimge. , the annual loss from braxy in Scotland amounts to about 150,000. sheep. In Germany the disease has been identified in Meckleu- burg. It is said to occur there quite frequently (Peters). Etiology. — Credit should be given to Ivar Nielsen for having cleared up the etiology of braxy. In the hemorrhagically altered parts of the alimentary tract and in other Pig. 331. organs of affected animals, he found a ^i bacillus 2 to 6 /< long and 1 jx wide, B. ^ __^ gastromycosis ovis (Fig. 231). The bacillus is actively motile and is stained by Gram's ^ y y method. It is often found associated in ' _^ pairs ; seldom, however, in longer chains. \ The braxy bacillus is anaerobic, grows in \ ' ^ gelatin, agar and gelatin-agar, but best on ^ — ^ blood-serum-agar and blood-serum-bouil- Braxy bacilli from the hem- Ion (Jensen). In the carcass and in arti- "uSUytli"^^^^^^^ fi"^l ^'^t'^ient media, the bacillus forms. pig. X 500 diameters. spores, either in the middle or at one pole, and may be transmitted to mice, pigeons, chickens, guinea pigs, rabbits, sheep, calves and hogs by subcutaneous inoculation. At the point of inoculation a hemor- rhagic inflammation develops with the formation of gas as in blackleg. Artificial infection of sheep by feeding has not been accomplished. The spores of the braxy organisms are very resist- ant and withstand boiling heat. Clinical Symptoms.— Sheep become suddenly sick, exhibit Tv^eakness, usually lie down and are unable to stand again. Thi& comatose condition persists for a few hours and leads almost uni- Jormly to death. PosT-MOETEM FiNDiNGS.-The carcasses of dead animals are much bloated. The wool is so loose that it may be rubbed off DIPHTHERIA OF CALVES 679 "with the hand. The most striking alterations are dark, blui&h-red spots in the wall of the fourth stomach. The mucous membrane of this organ is of a dark-red color and shows a bloody or bloody- serous infiltration. Hemorrhagic inflammation may also be present in the first stomachs and to a greater or less extent in the intes- tines. The parenchyma of the liver and kidneys, as well as the myocardium, are cloudy. Occasionally the spleen is somewhat swollen. The carcasses rapidly pass into decomposition and give rise to a powerful stench. Judgment.— Br axy runs its course so rapidly that, as a rule, affected animals die. The question of judging the meat of sheep affected with braxy, therefore, possesses no practical interest. It should be remembered, however, that the disease may be carried by means of meat traffic, and that, on account of the resistance of the braxy spores to heat, we are not in a position to destroy the virulence of the meat by boiling. The meat of sheep affected with braxy is, therefore, to be rendered innocuous, for sanitary and veterinary police reasons. It is of interest, however, to note that the meat of sheep which have died of braxy is quite commonly eaten in Scotland, without a single case of illness having appeared in the consumers (Jensen). To remove the disagreeable odor, the meat is rubbed with salt, washed in water, again salted and smoked. After some weeks, braxy meat, according to the somewhat questionable statements of Scottish informants, is as good or even better than the meat of healthy sheep. Beindeer Flagiie. — Reindeer plague, which, in the summars of 1895 and 1896, prevailed among the reindeer herds of the Laps, appears with symptoms resembling blackleg. The subcutaneous emphysema is not so well delimited as in blackleg. Furthermore, on post-mortem examination one finds, in addition to the accumula- tion of gas in the subcutis, occasionally a fibrinous inflammation of the pleura and peritoneum. In the spleen and pericardial fluid, bacilli are found, which are more slender than the anthrax bacilli and bear an oval spore iu the center or at one pole. The bacilli are stained by the Gram method, are aerobic, produce gas and kill mice as well as guinea pigs. (g) Diphtheria of Calves. Nature. — In 1877, Dammann described under the name of " calf diphtheria " a disease of calves, the most conspicuous symp- ■680 INFECTIOUS DISEASES toms of which consist in the appearance of croupous deposits and diphtheritic inflammation upon and in the mucous membranes of the mouth and pharyngeal cavities. These alterations may also develop in the esophagus, second stomach, small intestine, nasal cavity, larynx and trachea, and may reach an acute stage. The dis- ease possesses an unusually malignant character ; most animals die after four or five days, or after two or three weeks. Etiology. — According to the investigations of Dammann, the infectious nature of the disease is certain. He succeeded in trans- mitting the- disease to rabbits and lambs. Lbffler studied the pathological products of calf diptheria and found in them bacilli which formed large undulating threads, but which were essentially different from the diphtheria bacillus of man. According to Bang, the bacillus found by LiifHer in the caseous foci of calf diphtheria is a widely distributed pathogenic organism and not only has the power of producing the alterations of calf diphtheria in calves, but may also cause necrosis in other domes- ticated animals and in various organs. Bang, therefore, gave the bacillus the name " necrosis bacillus." It is identical with the organism discovered by Sclimorl in an epizootic disease of rabbits, and called Streptothrix cuniculi. The necrosis bacilli are thread bacteria which appear as short or long rods and as threads of 80 to 100 y. in length and 0.75 to 1.5 fi in thickness. The threads are stained with Loffler's blue and with carbol fuchsin, but not by the Gram method. In the necrotic foci the necrosis bacilli are found arranged radially and often in thick bundles like palisades on the boundary between the living and the dead tissue. Inside of the necrotic parts they are not demonstrable, or, if so, only with difficulty. The necrosis bacilli are strictly anaerobic, grow only in blood serum and blood serum agar, and may be transmitted to mice and rabbits by subcutaneous inoculation. In mice a necrosis of the inoculation wound appears with pronounced collateral edema and death after about 12 days. In rabbits, on the other hand, necrosis is progressive and results in death in from 12 to 16 days. In addition to calf diphtheria, the necrosis bacillus of Bang has been found in panaris of cattle, in dry gangrene of the skin and subcutis of the teats of cows, in multiple necrosis of the liver of cattle, in one form of liver abscess of cattle which arose from necrosis of the liver, in deeply penetrating diphtheria of the small intestine of the calf, in diphtheria of the uterus and vagina, in DYSENTERY OF CALVES 681 embolic necrosis of the lungs,* in cardiac necrosis, one case of "which was of embolic and the other of traumatic origin, in wound necrosis of a beef animal, in gangrenous dermatitis, fistula of the hoof, and diphtheria of the colon of a horse, and in necrosing processes in the oral and nasal cavities, lungs and intestine of a liog (see under "Hog Cholera"). M'Fadyean and Hamilton found multiple necrosis also in the liver of a sheep and of a mule. Fur^ thermore, the author has repeatedly demonstrated bacillar necrosis of the raucous membrane of the first stomachs of cattle. Relation Between Diphtheria of Calves and Human Diph- theria. — The assumption of Dammanr that calf diphtheria is identical with diphtheria of man is accordingly not substantiated by l)acteriological investigations, since no observation whatever has been recorded of the occurrence of true diphtheria in domesticated animals identical with human diphtheria (compare also " Diph- theria of Fowls "). Likewise, inoculation experiments with virus of human diphtheria have given negative results in animals. In no <3ase has a disease been produced in experimental animals similar to human diphtheria. At most there were local affections of the mucous membranes. Friedberger and Frohner emphasize the fact that similar inoculation experiments with exclusively negative Tesults have been made by Colin in hogs, Harley in dogs, Pentzoldt in rabbits, chickens and pigeons, and Esser in calves. Judgment. — The necrosis bacillus is characterized by its ten- dency to localization. In the case of a local necrosis, as in diphtheria of calves, and in the absence of symptoms of septicemia of a secondary nature arising from necrosis, the meat can be admitted to the market as a spoiled (inferior) food material. In cases of a secondary sepsis, the meat should be treated as a dangerous food material. (h) Dysentery of Calves. Among the intestinal diseases of domesticated animals, enzootic, so-called, white dysentery of calves possesses special interest on account of the frequency of its occurrence. Bacteriology. — Jensen demonstrated that not only in the intestinal contents and the inflamed mucous membrane, but also in * Embolic pulmonary necrosis in cattle may occasion confusion with pleuro- jneumunia. 682 INFECTIOUS DISEASES the swollen lymphatic glands and in the blood of calves affected ■with dysentery, oval bacteria (" calf dysentery bacteria") occur, ■which in feeding experiments produce fatal dysentery in new-born calves, but in subcutaneous inoculation cause either a local swelling or septicemia. The organism of calf dysentery is morphologically and biologically closely related to Bacillus coli communis, B. neapoli- tanus and B.fcetidus lactis (Fig. 232j.* The clinical symptoms of dysentery of calves are well known. Upon post mortem examination one finds advanced emaciation, diffuse red coloration of the mucous membrane of the small intestine and cecum, swelling of the mesenteric glands and often hemorrhages in them, petechias under the epicardium and a dirty-red coloration of the skeletal musculature. As a rule, the liver, spleen and kidneys show no gross alterations. Fig. 233. Fig. 233 I S f,' ^ ^> I' 'y> r Bacteria of calf dysentery from an Bacteria of calf dysentery from a agar culture 24 hours old. smear preparation from the crural I X 500 diameters. vein of a calf slaughtered in the ' crisis of dysentery, x 500 diam. Judgment.— The meat of calves affected with dysentery— that is, of calves which are prematurely slaughtered on account of dys- entery—is almost always admitted to the market, and, as a rule, no harm has resulted therefrom. The meat, however, is a spoiled (inferior) food material and should be sold only under declaration. The attention of the purchasers should be called to the fact that the meat must be eaten soon, since it passes into decomposition in a comparatively short time. If calves affected with dysentery are not slaughtered until the agony of the disease, the meat must be con- sidered as a harmful food material, according to present knowledge. At any rate, the harmfulness of the meat of dysenteric calves * During his investigations of white scour in Ireland, Nocard found a pas- teurella to be the pathogenic organism. Calves become infected at the time of birth, through the umbiacus.— Teakslator. SWINE EKYSIPELAS 68a slaughtered during the agony is connected with the fact that in such cases the specific, bacteria are fonnd. also in the blood (Fig. 233). Furthermore, the dysentery bacteria may multiply excess- ively, even at ordinary temperatures, in the carcasses of calves sub- jected to emergency slaughter (the author). In doubtful cases, therefore, the decision concerning the admission of the meat to the market should be based on a bacteriological investigation (compare page 739). (i) S'wine Erysipelas. Natdee. — The elucidation of the term " swine erysipelas " is due entirely to bacteriology. Swine erysipelas has nothing in com- mon with erysipelas of man except the reddening of the skin. Pig. 234. Pig. 235. Swine erysipelas baxjilli. Smear pre- paration from tlie cardiac blood of an inoculated mouse, stained with fuchsia. X 500 diameters. Same preparation as Pig. 334, staised by the Gram method. While, however, the erysipelas of man, or traumatic erysipelas,, which also occurs in hogs, is caused by Streptococcus erysipelatis (!^ehleisen), the organism of swine erysipelas is a delicate, slender bacillus, and, for the purpose of differentiation, swine erysipelas is also called " bacillar erysipelas of swine." Bacteeiologt. — The discovery of the swine erysipelas bacillus is due to the investigation of the bacteriologist Lbffler, who has done much toward the elucidation of the etiology of animal plagues. As a result of the discovery of the swine erysipelas bacilli, we are in a position to distinguish bacillar erysipelas from the other epizootic diseases of hogs with which it was formerly classified and confused. Farther Taluable results in the elucidation of the subject .^84 INFECTIOUS DISEASES -were accomplislied by tlie work of Schiitz, Lydtin and Schottelius. The bacilli of swine erysipelas are about 0.8 to 1.5 fx long and .1 to ,2 II wide. They are rendered Tisible, therefore, only by the use of oil immersion. The bacilli are stained by all the basic analin dyes as well as by Gram's method. By means of the latter stain, it is possible to demonstrate all the erysipelas bacilli present in the preparation (compare Figs. 234, 235). The growth of these bac- teria on gelatin is characteristic. Stab cultures at a living tempera- ture, after three or four days, take on the form of a test tube brush. Jn plate cultures, on the other hand, bluish gray spots appear after two or three days, which under slight magnification exhibit a deli- cately branched figure (configuration of a bone corpuscle). Spores have not been observed in the erysipelas bacillus. Petri aod Maasen demonstrated that the erysipelas bacilli possess to a high ■degree the power of forming sulphuretted hydrogen. The fact that the growth of erysipelas bacilli does not require a blood temperature explains the fact demonstrated by Lydtin and Schottelius, that erysipelas bacilli in the carcass may multiply to such an extent that within twenty-four to forty-eight hours all the vessels are filled with bacillL Susceptibility of Other Animals to Erysipelas Bacilli— The erysip- elas bacilli are transmissible by inoculation to mice, rabbits and pigeons. Horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, cats and guinea pigs, on the other hand, are immune to bncillar erysipelas. At first it was sus- pected that the erysipelas bacillus of hogs was identical with the Ijacillus of mouse septicemia, with which it agrees almost completely, morphologically and biologically, as well as with regard to its pathogenicity to mice, rabbits and pigeons. This view, however, can not be sustained, since Preisz has shown that in the inoculation of hogs the erysipelas bacilli are virulent, while those of septicemia are not. Prettuer, however, has lately maintained the identity of both species of bacteria on the basis of experimental investigations. Resistance of Erysipelas Bacilli to Heat and Preserving Re-agents. — The erysipelas bacilli belong to the least resistant micro-organisms. It is difificalt, however, to kill the bacilli, with certainty, in meat by means of the common domestic and commercial methods of prepar- ing and preserving. This has been demonstrated by the thorough investigations of Petri. The same investigator reported as follows concerning these investigations : 1. The bacilli of swine erysipelas may usually be killed by teating to 55° C. for five minutes. In some cases, however, they endure a temperature of 70° C. for the same period. SWINE ERYSIPELAS 685 2. In the usual methods of cooking, frying and roasting, th& heat penetrated into the pieces of meat very irregularly and slowly^ even when the period of application of heat was extended to four hours. Bones seemed to conduct the heat into the center of the mass more rapidly than the soft parts. 3. In pieces of meat not heavier than 1 kg. from hogs affected with erysipelas, it was not possible to kill with certainty all th& erysipelas bacilli, especially those which were found deep in the muscle or in the bone marrow, by means of the ordinary methods of boiling, frying and roasting. By boiling, for two and one-half hours, pieces of meat which were not heavier than those mentioned! above, this result was obtained with certainty, although the same result was not secured by long frying and roasting. 4. The usual salting and pickling materials, common salt, salt- peter and sugar, in a concentrated aqueous solution, affected the germinating power of erysipelas bacilli in pure cultures only slightly and slowly ; so that the destruction of the bacilli was not accomplished until after four weeks. Pickling brines containing albumen and other materials obtained from the meat itself exer- cised a more energetic effect upon the bacteria. The death of the bacteria occurred after about eight days. 5. In the meat of hogs affected with erysipelas, the virus was .present in an unattenuated form after salting for one month. 6. In pickling meat covered with brine, the erysipelas virus retained its normal virulence for several months. A slight attenua- tion appeared after the lapse of this time, but even after six months there were still virulent erysipelas bacilli in the picklecJ meat. 7. After meat which had been salted or pickled for one month was thoroughly smoked for 13 days, the erysipelas bacilli in pieces of meat freshly removed from the smoke were still unattenuated... It was not until after a further preservation of the meat that the- bacilli appeared gradually to lose their virulence. After a period of three months some virulent bacilli could still be demonstrated in smoked hams. In the bone marrow, also, the bacilli retained their virulence for a long time. It was not until after the lapse of six months after smoking that the erysipelas bacilli in hams appeared to hiive died. According to Petri, however, boiling small pieces (under 1 kg.) for 2J hours gives u guaranty that the erysipelas bacilli are v -' ' ,' ' ^ monstrated a bacillus in the meat and 5^0 i ■?■*'»- ,',' " 1 inside the blood vessels It was motile, "-s- '' "■" '" '^ easily stainable, but took the stains most Bacillus enteritidis Gartner . , , . 1/1 -1 1. from an agar culture 24 . intensely at one pole, the remainder 01 hours old. x 500 diam. the bacillus being only slightly stained. Dogs, cats, chickens and sparrows proved to be immune. Mice, rabbits, guinea pigs and goats, however, were affected by inocu- lation and also per os. B. enteritidis, as Gartner named the organism, produces a chemical toxin which is not destroyed by cooking. This explains the fact that in the case of meat poisoning in Fraukenliausen persons who had eaten cooked parts of the meat were also affected. Johue demonstrated B. enteritidis also in the meat of the cow which caused the outbreak of meat poisoning at Cotta. Strange to say, however, the bacilli in this outbreak were found only in the connective tissue and not in the blood vessels. Later, Johne isolated the same micro-organism from mettwurst and knackwurst which were condemned on account of their connection with the outbreak of meat poisoning at Bisch- offswerda. Mice died within from six to twelve days after being fed material obtained from the sausage, and the bacteria in question were found in large numbers in the spleen and in small numbera- 730 EMEEGENCY SLAUGHTER also in the blood and transudations. Karlinsky states that he found B. enteritidis in dried mutton which had proved to be poisonous. In the outbreak of meat poisoning at Rijhrsdorf, Gaffky and Paak made cultures of pathogenic micro-organism? from two sau- sages which were sent to them. These organisms were called " sausage bacillus." The latter was found to be a motile rod which did not stain as well in aqueous staining solutions as after the addi- tion of anil in oil. lu stab cultures the sausage bacillus resembles the typhoid bacillus. It is a facultative anaerobe and is killed by flaming. However, it possesses the property of producing patho- genic effects when ingested with food. Mice, guinea pigs and apes proved most susceptible to this method of infection. Gaffky and Paak were unable to demonstrate the sausage bacillus in samples of meat sausage from any other source. In the outbreak of meat poisoning at Rotterdam, Poels and Dhont found short and extraordinarily delicate rods on the surface of the meat and in the intermuscular tissues. These organisms were much more numerous than other demonstrable bacteria. The Rotterdam bacillus is slowly motile, produces iudol, but does not coagulate milk. Intravenous injection of the bacillus in large quan- tities kills cattle within fourteen hours, and the bacilli have been found in all organs, blood and muscles. When inoculated with small doses (^ ce.) cattle recovered after a temporary affection aud the meat of a beef animal slaughtered four days after such inocula- tion was eaten by the personnel of the Rotterdam Cattle Yards without injurious effect. Another experimental beef animal was killed twenty minutes after the inoculation of a small quantity of the pure culture, and part of the meat was preserved at 20° C. and a,nother part in a refrigerator. Immediately after slaughtering the bacillus was found in the spleen and liver, as well as in the blood vessels in small quantities, while it could not be demonstrated in the muscles, except iu their blood vessels. On the other hand, meat which was preserved for seventy-two hours at a temperature of 20° C. was found to be thoroughly permeated with the bacilli.* At the instigation of Poels and Dhont, 53 persons ate of the meat which Lad been preserved in cold storage, 15 of them were affected with *This finding is of importance in explaining the fact that meat of animals subjected to emergency slaughter, when eaten soon after slaughter, is often harmless or only slightly harmful, while that eaten later may develop very toxic properties, as a result of the multiplication of the bacilli which has taken placa in the meantime. MEAT POISONING 731 headache, gastric enteric catarrh and bodily pains. The symptoms appeared within from twelve to eighteen hours after eating the meat. Some of the patients were affected with severe diarrhea.* In the outbreak of meab poisoning at Moorseele, Van Ermengem demonstrated bacilli, which he called the Moorseele bacillus, in the marrow of the femur of two calves concerned in the case of poison- ing. This bacillus was 0.6 to 1.5 fx long, somewhat thick but often slender at both ends. It is commonly grouped together in pairs and rarely forms chains in the tissues. It is surrounded with a . glistening zone. The rods are very motile and possess numerous (4 to 8) long flagella which are easily stained with Loffler's flagel- lum stain. In saccharine media, the bacillus of Moorseele produces gas by a decomposition of the sugar. Neutral milk is not coagu- lated by the bacillus. The milk becomes clear and after eight to ten days is almost transparent. It becomes slightly brownish at the same time and assumes an alkaline reaction. The Moorseele bacillus proved to be pathogenic for calves, apes, dogs, guiuea pigs, rabbits, pigeons and mice by any method of inoculation. In the majority of cases, a more or less severe enteritis with hemorrhages in the lungs, liver and spleen appears after inoculation, and in this case the Moorseele bacillus could always be demonstrated in the organs and blood. The bacillus produces a toxalbumen which is not destroyed by heating to a temperature of 100° or even 120° C. Van Ermengem found a great similarity between his bacillus and B. enteritidis of Gartner. However, the two micro-organisms are not identical. The difference in the appearance of pure cultures and in their behavior toward stains argues against their identity. The bacillus of Moorseele stains homogeneously, while B. enteritidis does not. In an epidemic of meat poisoning in Breslau, Sanitarian Fliigge fed parts of the poisonous meat to mice. The animals died after two days with symptoms of severe diarrhea. In the intestines of the animals a pure culture was found of a bacterium resembling B. coli. From the intestinal contents and the internal organs of the mice, the same bacteria were isolated which had been found in the poisonous meat. Pure cultures of the bacteria killed mice in two to three days with the same symptoms. The bacterial species in question multiplies rapidly in the organism, but ultimately produces its effect by means of a toxin, for the number of bacteria is not suffi- * The repetition of this experiment on man does not recommend itself, since the results of such experiments can not be foreseen with certainty. 732 EMEEGENCY SLAUGHTER ciently large to enable them to operate mechanically. Kansche states concerning the Breslau bacillus that he was able to demon- strate it in streak cultures made directly from the meat and that it forms gas in saccharine media and produces a toxin which is not destroyed by boiling the pure culture for two minutes. The rods are from two to three times as long as thick, rounded at the ends, stain readily with the ordinary anilin stains, but are decolorized by the Gram method. They are actively motile, grow on gelatin in a manner similar to the typhoid bacillus. Growth is very luxuriant on potatoes. ludol reaction is negative, and milk is not coagu- lated. The Breslau bacillus is highly pathogenic for mice and pigeons, less so for rabbits. Dogs and cats are refractory. Cooked pigeon and r&bbit meat killed rats and mice with symptoms of Intoxication. Bacteria could hot be demonstrated in the organisms of these experimental animals. Sterilized bouillon cultures (boiled for two minutes) also proved to be toxic for mice. By means of a tabular comparison of the organisms thus far found in cases of meat poisoning, Kansche showed that the Breslau bacillus is identical with the Moorseele bacillus and perhaps also with the bacillus of Poels and Dhont, but that it was distinct from the other bacilli (Gartner, Karlinski, Fischer, Gaffky and Paak, and Baseuau). Basenau made cultures of " B. hovis morhificans " from the meat of a cow which had been slaughtered on account of a disease occurring after parturition. This organism is. of the size of the typhoid bacil- lus (1 to 1.2 j^ long and .3 to .5 /< wide), is motile and grows rapidlj^ It is a facultative anaerobe, grows in and upon meat, forms no spores, and is killed by exposure to a temperature of 70° 0. for one minute. B. hovis morhificans does not produce toxins. It is patho- genic for mice^ white rats, guinea pigs and calves, whether trans- mitted by inoculation or per os. Later, Basenau demonstrated that this bacillus forms indol, but gives no nitroso-indol reaction with sulphuric acid ; that it ferments grape sugar, but not milk and cane sugar; produces volatile sulphur compounds, and possesses considerable reducing power toward litmus. It lives in beef broth for three years, but dies after four days in meat broth containing an excess of common salt, and within ten days on agar containing salt. In an epidemic of meat poisoning in Gaustadt, Hoist isolated a micro-organism from the spleen of three of the patients which died, and from the intestinal ulcers of one. The organism was con- sidered identical with the Moorseele bacillus. The Gaustadt bacil- lus is very virulent for rabbits, less so for guinea pigs, mice and MEAT POISONING 733 pigeons. It kills animals by any means of transmission, including the method per os. The bacillus thrives on all ordinary media, and in bouillon forms toxins "which are very virulent for rabbits- when injected intravenously. These toxins are not destroyed by cooking. An evident diminution of virulence was often observed. The attenuated bacillus, however, again became perfectly virulent by passage through pigeons. In an outbreak of meat poisoning in Denis, Kuborn deter- mined Staphylococcus pyogenes flavus as the cause of the outbreak. This organism was demonstrated also in five samples of the toxic meat of the cow.* Silberschmidt investigated the sickness which was observed in a family in the Canton of Thurgau after eating the meat of young pigs. The suspected meat caused no pathological symptoms when fed to experimental animals. On the other hand, the injection of a bouillon culture which had been prepared from the dejecta of one p£ the patients, and from the meat, killed guinea pigs in nearly all cases in which inoculation was made intraperitoneally. In the dejecta of the patients and in the meat of the pig a short rod with rounded ends was found with 4 or, rarely, 8 flagella of considerable length which were evenly stainable, but which were decolorized by Gram's method. The bacillus was killed when heated to a tempera- ture of 58° C. It did not liquefy gelatin, produced much gas in grape sugar agar, but did not coagulate milk. The odor was slightly sweet and the organism is thereby distinguished from the otherwise similar B. coli communis.^ In the epidemic of meat poisoning in Kempen, an examination of the spleen and liver of the persons who died after eating the meat showed the presence of a micro-organism, which Giinther, on the basis of his investigations, considered identical with B. enteri- tidis. Bacteria which are similar to B. enter Itidis and B. coli communis were also demonstrated to be the cause of meat poisoning by Hoef- nagel (outbreak of meat poisoning on an estate near Rotterdam), Froidbise (two outbreaks of meat poisoning in Belgium after eating * Basenau called attentioa to the fact that the outbreak of meat poison- ing in Denis was the only instance in wliich cocci were found as the cause of dis- ease in the place of bacilli, as in other cases of meat poisoning. I The outbreak of meat poisoning reported by Silberschmidt proves anew that pickling and smoking are not sufficient to kill pathogenic bacteria in meat. This, fact was experimentally demonstrated by Stadler for the bacteria which are found in cases of meat poisoning. Stadler found that bacteria are not killed by- ordinary pickling, if they were present in the muscles intra vitam. ;734 EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER insufficiently cooked sausages of good appearance), Hermann (out- break of meat poisoning at Sirault), and Nobele (outbreak of meat poisoning in Flanders). Hermann demonstrated that the serum of men and animals which had withstood an invasion of the bacillus which causes meat poisoning possesses an agglutinating property in dilutions varying from 1 : 6 to 1 : 400, and Nobele showed that the serum of human beings who had recovered from a case of meat poisoning in Flanders possessed agglutinating properties, not only toward the bacilli which were obtained from these cases of meat poisoning, but also toward the organisms found in the outbreaks at Moorseele, Geneva, Calmpthout and Sirault, even in dilutions of 1:200. Finally, Basenau made a bacteriological investigation of six cases of a disease in slaughtered animals and thereby obtained a confirmation of his previously-expressed opinion that, as a rule, the pathogenic bacteria which penetrate into the meat of animals intra ■vitam are bacilli. Basenau also demonstrated that some of these bacilli, which he called " meat bacilli " (more properly, meat poison- ing bacilli), form toxins'which are not destroyed by cooking, while in others, as shown by Gartner and Yan Erniengem, this is not the case. All the bacilli thus far found in cases of meat poisoning show a great morphological resemblance to B. coli communis, but differ from this organism in their biological and pathological characters. Base- nau states, therefore, that two views may be held : either all of the bacteria in question arise from one and the same biologically and pathologically variable mother species, or we have to deal with distinct races which preserve their characters within narrow limits. Moreover, from the above-discussed bacteriological studies on the problem of meat inspection, Basenau draws the following conclu- sion : " In all cases of judgment of the meat of diseased animals, except in cases in which the meat must be condemned without any hesitation, on the basis of a microscopic examination of the animal carcass — or with the aid of the known pathological symptoms — a proper bacteriological investigation will lead in the best and most certain manner to a result which will satisfy all concerned." Basenau rightly holds the opinion that meat containing only bacteria which die at a temperature of 70° C. and a toxin which is destroyed at 100° C. may be admitted to the market without hesi- tation, without previous treatment in a steam disinfector. Aside from the bacteriology of cases of meat inspection, the clinical and pathologico-anatomical characters which are common to MEAT POISONING 735 septic diseases are of the greatest itnportance in the prophylaxis of meat poisoning. The most conspicuous clinical characters are a Berious disturbance of the general condition and the great depres- sion of the animals, which is often out of all proportion to the local t, while still warm, IS stored in large pieces and in closed receptacles, or, in general^ ABSORPTION OF ODOES 74T ■(vlion it is subjected to conditions under which it cannot cool. This ulteration is characterized by the term " suffocated." Absorption op Odoks. — When improperly handled, meat may undergo post mortem alterations in its odor. Attention has already- been called to the fact that not only living animal bodies, but also warm and cold tissues, possess the power of absorbing and retaining odors. We have numerous unexceptionable proofs of this fact. It is well kuown that meat absorbs the combustion products of tobacco smoke. Moreover, Dinter reported that the meat of a hog which had been carried for several days in a freshly-cleaned car, disin- fected with carbolic acid, developed a highly disagreeable odor when boiled or roasted. In the year 1889, the meat of eight hogs w?is returned to a dealer in Berlin for the reason that it possessed a pronounced flavor of chlorin. The meat had hung near rooms which had recently been painted with a 10 per cent, solution of milk of chlorid of lime. Such cases have since been observed in large numbers.* They serve as an urgent warning against transporting animals in odorous cars, and against the utilization of odorous dis- infectants in abattoirs. Moreover, the observations mentioned above show that in the construction of cold storage plants all odor- ous materials must be rigidly excluded. Admixture op Harmful Metals. — Furthermore, during the preparation and preservation of meat, it may absorb injurious metals. Thus, Masse reports a case of poisoning as a result of eat- ing meat which was roasted on a spit over coals of dry wood which had been painted with white lead. Cases of chronic lead poisoning attributable to pieces of lead which had been loosened from impro- perly constructed mincing machines have been reported also from England. Finally, Ungar and Bodlander demonstrated that when conserves are packed in cans, there is always danger of the absorp- tion of enough tin to be dangerous to health. Contamination from Insects. — The occurrence of dipterous larvsB on meat in cases where it is carelessly handled during summer, and the occurrence of meal mites in hams may be mentioned incidentally. Sticker has called attention to the occurrence of th& latter. According to Schmitz and Janssen, this is explained by th& * Israelitic dealers usually place leeks in the abdominal cavity of exenterated fowls for the purpose of making the meat keep longer. The meat thereby acquires the pronounced odor of leek. 748 POST-MOBTEM ALTEEATIONS fact that in certain regions, such as on the lower Rhine, it is cus- tomary to preserve hams in meal or bran. Does the presence of dipterous larvse on meat indicate long standing decomposition? To this question, which is frequently proposed to meat inspectors for consideration, the following answer may be made : Among the flies, the larvsB of which develop in animal materials, the house fly (Musca domestica), the blow fly (31. vomitoria) and the flesh fly (Sarcophaga carnaria) may be mentioned. The first two mentioned flies deposit their eggs in fresh and decomposing materials of animal origin and the larvse hatch within twenty-four hours, while the flesh fly deposits living larvse in decomposing material. It, therefore, appears that the mere demon- stration of dipterous larvse is no proof that the material has been long in the process of decomposition. The length of the larvse, which on the first day is 1 mm. and within ten days reaches 10 mm., may give an approximate indication of the length of the period of decomposition. Localization op Micbo-oeganisms. — By far the most important post mortem alterations are produced by the localization of micro- organisms on meat. As a result of its peculiar chemical composi- tion, meat furnishes, an unusually favorable medium for fungi of all tinds. As mentioned on page 198, Bocklart reported that about thirty of the species of bacteria which he tested commonly develop luxuriantly in meat broth.* The localization of fungi on meat is most likely to occur in cases where it possesses a high moisture con- tent as a result of improper preservation. Among the alterations of the last named sort belong moldiness of the surface of meat, as well as red and blue coloration due to the localization of Bacillus prodigiosus and B. cyanogenes. These altera- tions, however, for practical purposes, are of slight importance, since they usually cause no injury to health, in and of themselves.t and since the growths in question take place simply on the surface * Since the pathogenic organisms of human infectious diseases also thrive well on meat, it is necessary to take the precaution that persons who are suffer- ing from infectious diseases (typhoid, cholera, scarlet fever, infectious skin eruptions, etc.), or M-ho have even completely recovered from such diseases, are prevented from coming in contact with meat. t In contrast with the red colored meat of food animals, red colored sardines have been demonstrated to be injurious. Loir is of the opinion that the red col- oration of sardines is caused by a toxic variety of B. prodigiosus which setttes upon the sardines in large quantities before the latter are preserved in boiling oil PHOSPHOBESCENT MKAT 749 and may easily be removed by cutting away the superficial layers of meat. Tiie localization of photogenic bacteria on meat is of more impor- tance, and the decomposition of meat by putrefactive bacteria is of quite especial importance. These two alterations require, there- fore, a more detailed discussion. Geat Coloeation of Sausages. — In sausages intended for long keeping a gray coloration frequently appears on the peripheral portions, without the slightest change in odor or taste of the other parts of the sausage. The cause of this striking phenomenon is not ■nuderstood. Falk and Oppermann suspected that Bacillus mesenteri- cus, which had been note 1 by Serafini as a regular occurrence on sausages, was the cause of the alteration in the color of these sau- sages. Meyer attributes the gray coloration of sausages to a loss of salt as a result of endosmotic processes. He found as much as 3 per cent, less salt in the periphery of gray sausages than in the interior, while in red sausages the difference amounted to only 1 per cent. According to Glage, volatile sulphur compounds are con- cerned in the gray coloration of sausages (sulphuretted hydrogen and mercaptan). These are given off, as shown by Glage, not only from fresh but also from conserved meat, and the sulphuretted hydrogen may change the red coloring material of the muscle in sausages to a gray color. The "latent green colorations " (Glage) in poorly salted hams and pieces of pickled meat, and which appear only after exposure to oxygen, are to be attributed to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen. Decomposition of Fat. — In addition to moldiness and alteration as a result of chromogenic bacteria, fat exhibits a specific alteration (rancidity). Formerly this alteration was ascribed to the appear- ance of free fatty acids and the degree of rancidity was estimated according to the percentage of fatty acids present. Scala, however, found, as a cause of the rancidity, an aldehyde, the presence of which may be demonstrated by collecting the distillate obtained by means of steam in a hydrochloric metaphenylen-diamin solution. The degree of rancidity may be determined colorimetrically by the yellow coloration of the reagent. 1.— Phosphorescent Meat. Begged of Cases. — The literature contains a large number of observations concerning meat which possessed the striking property 750 POST MORTEM ALTERATIONS of emitting ligbt. Ftibricius ab Aquapendente, in the jear 1592, reported that in Eome a portion of a slaughtered lamb which had been preserved in the raw state, became phosphorescent. In the jear 1780, according to another report of a meat dealer in Orleans, the whole meat supply became phosphorescent. The physiologist, U. von Briicke, reported that in Vienna at the beginning of the 50's, a large number of sausages were observed in a phosporescent state. INuesch in Basel in 1877 observed that pork which was kept in a receptacle iii a pantry emitted a green light of such intensity that people were able to recognize each other by it and to read the time on their watches. Recently many reports have been published con- 7 j 7 • , , i of the bacilli already pos- strated. B. ootuiinus appears not to be sess spores. X 500 diam. widely distributed in nature. Brieger and Kempner have isolated the pure toxin from, cultures of B. botulinus. Rabbits are killed within 24 hours by 0.0005 mg. of this toxin. Furthermore, Kempner, in cooperation with Pollak, succeeded in preparing an active therapeutic serum against sausage poisoning by treating animals with the toxin of botulism. Finally, it should be observed that these authors did not suc- ceed in isolating a toxin similar to that of botulism from the products of decomposition. Pathological Symptoms. —The clinical symptoms of sausage poisoning are of a very peculiar nature. In the first place, it should be noted that the pathological picture is by no means uni- form. Variations appear, especially with regard to the incubation period and duration of the disease. These variations may be explained by the larger or smaller content of botulism toxins in the BOTULISM 763 meai. In some patients, the most ■viruieni symptoms of intoxica- tion appear immediately after eating the sausage or meat, while in other patients these symptoms appear later. In some cases the effects of the disease continue for 1, 2 or 3 days, and then disappear entirely, while iu other cases convalescence is very slow and is extended over a period of several weeks. However, all cases of sausage poisoning uniformly exhibit the following symptoms : indisposition, bodily pains, pronounced weakness, vomiting, consti- pation, or, more rarely, diarrhea. The last-named symptom does not appear until the second or third day. Optical disturbances are pathognomonic. The eyes are affected in nearly all cases. One observes paralysis of the optic nerve (mydriasis), of the motor oculi (ptosis, disturbances in accommodation and strabismus), also paralysis of the trochlear and abducens. The lachrymal nerve is occasionally affected through the trigemini. According to Van Ermengem, botulism is characterized as follows : 1. By an increased or decreased secretion of the saliva and mucus of the mouth, pharynx, etc. 2. By a more or less marked external or internal ophthalmo- plegia (blepharoptosis, mydriasis, paralysis of the accommodation center, diplopia, internal strabismus). 3. Dysphagia, or aphagia, aphony, persistent constipation,, retention of urine. 4. Absence of fever and of sensory and cerebral disturbances. 5. With these symptoms respiratory and cardiac disturbances are often associated which may cause death more or less suddenly with symptoms of bulbar paralysis. 6. Finally, the characteristic symptoms (mydriasis, ptosis) appear, at the earliest, 12 to 24 hours after eating the suspected food material. They are often ushered in with temporary gastro- intestinal symptoms. These develop gradually and do not dis- appear until after several weeks. With regard to the pathological anatomy, mention should be made of a negative post-mortem finding. Hyperemia of most of the viscera is observed. Under certain conditions symptoms of gastro-enteritis and fatty degeneration of the liver may be present. Mortality. — The death rate in cases of sausage poisoning is very high. According to Miiller's estimate, one-third of the patients die, and Senkpiehl, in essential agreement with Miiller, found a death rate of 40 per cent., or 165 deaths among 412 patients (1789-1886). 764 POST-MOBTEM ALTEBATIONS Prophylaxis. — Cases of sausage poisoning are preventable by- hygienic instruction of the public and by suitable laws. The public must be warned against eating any meat which is in process of decomposition or which is already decomposed. Warning should also be issued against eating strongly spiced sausages, for sausage which is carelessly prepared from decomposed meat is often strongly spiced by butchers in order to conceal its disagreeable taste. Moreover, suitable punishment should be provided lor such dealing, in order to induce sausage makers to use fresh meat in the preparation of sausage, and thoroughly to clean the sausage casings with the aid of harmless disinfectants wherever possible, and also to induce them to cook sausages which are intended for immediate con- sumption and to smoke sausages which are intended for long keeping. As shown by Serafini, a water content of 30 to 35 per cent, furnishes the best security for the preservation of sausages, while the addition of saltpeter, boracic or salicylic acids excercises a noticeable effect. Finally, the sanitary police should strongly insist that no sausages of any kind be prepared from cases of emergency slaugh- ter ; at any rate not from animals in which a thorough bleeding has not taken place. For experieiice teaches that the meat of such animals is abnormally susceptible to decomposition. On the basis of his investigations, Van Ermehgem has formu- lated the following principles in the prophylaxis of botulism : 1. Meat conserves which are subjected principally to anaerobic conditions, should not be eaten in a raw condition, but only after thorough cooking. 2. Conserves which arouse suspicion on account of their rancid odor are to be absolutely excluded from consumption. 3. "With regard to hams, a sufficiently concentrated brine appears to prevent them from spoiling. 2.— Poisoning from Minced Meat. Differences Between Minced Meat Poisoning and that "Which Follows After Eating Decomposed Meat of Other Kinds.— Minced meat poisoning is essentially different from poison- ing as the result of eating decomposed meat ; for the former cases occur after eating raw meat in which decomposition processes are apparently absent. Furthermore, the consumption of such meat in a raw condition results in the development of a pronounced toxic effect, while in a roasted condition either no effect or only a slight illness takes place. POISONING FROM MINCED MEAT 765 OcouRBENCE. — Minced meat poisoning, like trichina epidemics, is closely associated with the habit of eating raw meat, which is widespread and firmly rooted in certain parts of Germany. Thus far, cases of minced meat poisoning have been observed only in the States of Saxony. In that region, raw sausages and raw minced meat appear to be real delicacies, the consumption of which has not been checked by the numerous epidemics which have occurred. The nature of minced meat poisoning has not been sufficiently explained. Since these cases occur only under a high external tem- perature in spring and summer, it may be concluded that we have to deal with decomposition from the effects of bacteria which are destroyed by boiling and do not form toxins. Bacteria find a more favorable medium in minced meat, the more water has been added to the meat by underhand methods. BpECOED op Cases. — The following cases of minced meat poison- ing have been reported : In Chemnitz in 1879, an outbreak of poisoning occurred after mettwurst and raw beef had been eaten, during which 241 persons were affected and 2 died. Seven years later in the same city, 160 persons became ill after eating minced meat. Similar epidemics as a result of eating raw minced meat have been observed during the last six years in Dresden (11 cases), Gerbstadt (more than 50 cases), and in Gera (30 cases). Symptoms. — With regard to the symptoms in the second epi- demic of minced meat poisoning in Chemnitz, Haupt, according to Sohmidt-Miilheim, makes the following statements : The pathologi- cal symptoms varied according to the quantity of meat which was eaten and the age and constitution of the patients. The symptoms appeared four to twenty hours after eating the meat, and, in persons who had eaten only a small quantity of the meat, consisted of a slight indisposition, congestion of the head and weakness. How- ever, in persons who had eaten larger quantities of meat, the symptoms included vomiting, dysenterial diarrhea, headache, dizzi- ness and extreme depression. In children, the cases exhibited cholera-like symptoms, high fever, violent headache, delirium and alarming weakness. A few cases appeared to be critical after a number of days. All of the patients, however, recovered after a shorter or longer period of illness. In the case of a child under one year of age, it could not be determined whether death was a result of eating the meat or not. 766 POST-MOKTEM ALTEBATI0N8 Peophylaxis. — For preventing cases of minced meat poisoning, Schmidt-Mulheim recommended that the long preservation of raw meat during the warm days of summer be prohibited by police regulations. Such a regulation was subsequently passed in Schmal- kalden. Appendix. (a) Poisoning from Decomposing Fish and Crustacea. In the decomposition of fish and Crustacea, toxins appear to be formed which greatly exceed in toxicity those formed from the meat of warm blooded animals. According to Bocklisch, the toxic properties of fish meat are greatest in the first stage of decomposi- tion.* For this reason, careful attention should be given by the market police to traffic with decomposing fish and Crustacea. Eecognition , OP Decomposition in Fish.— -In addition to the above mentioned character of decomposition (page 754), Gerlach mentions other special indications of decomposition in fish. He says, "dead fish are to be considered as unfit for food when the «yea have lost .their sheen, or the cornea is somewhat cloudy, the red gills pale and the meat soft so as to pit on pressure with the finger, or, finally, when the scales are easily loosened." In the later stages of decomposition in fish-, the entrails are partly forced out of the body cavity as a result of the decomposition ^ases. Baranski recommends laying fish in water in testing their condition. Dead fish which sink are good and undecomposed, while putrefying fish float upon the water. With regard to the cadaverous decomposition of Crustacea, the Berlin police president called attention in a public circular to the fact that in boiled crawfish, shrimps and other Crustacea, injurious substances may develop after long standing, even before the appearance of the odor of decomposition and when the animals have been boiled after being allowed to die. In such crawfish, the telson is usually not curved under the abdomen.f * From the similar pathological symptoms in man, Van Ermengem concludes that the most frequent form of iohthysm is almost identical with sausage poison- ing and therefore has the same etiology as the latter. t Landgericht I. in Berlin decided with regard to dead crawiish that such material must be considered as highly unfit for human food and must, there- POISONING FKOM CLAMS 767 (b) Poisoning from Clams. The outbreaks of clam poisoning which were observed in. "Wilhelmshaven in 1885 and 1887 and which are described by Schmidtmann, have recently directed attention to this kind of fore, be excluded from the market. This decision was based chiefly on the statement of an expert meat inspector that the meat of crawfish rapidly passes Pig. 250. Fie. 351. Male crawfish, a, copulatory organs ; b, swimmerets. Female crawfish, genital organs ; a, opening of the b, swimmerets. into decomposition. The sale of dead lobsters and fish, as is well known, is not to be prohibited so long as it shows no decomposition. In addition to the deter- mination of cadaverous alterations in crawfish, the recognition of the sex is of interest, since in certain parts of the country closed seasons are prescribed for female crawfish. The male is slenderer than the female and possesses only three swimmerets, while the female has four (Figs. 250, 6, and 251, b). Furthermore, in the male the copulating organs (Fig. 250, a) are found in front of the first pair of swimmerets, and in the female the opening of the sexual organs at the base of the second pair of swimmerets (Fig. 251, a) are diagnostic characters. 768 POST-MOETEM ALTERATIONS intoxication, which was observed by Vancower in 1800. The etiol- ogy of mytilism, however, is not fully explained, in spite of the- numerous investigations which were made in the cases which, occurred in Wilhelmshaven. Nature of the Poisoning. — Brieger considers the toxic body to be a leucomain (mytilotoxin), which he succeeded in isolating from the clams, especially from the liver. The origin of this body was not determined. It is a matter of fact, however, that certain " poison areas" are found in the water along the coast, in which clams ar& uniformly poisonous. Recognition of Poisonous Clams. — According to Schmidtmann and Virchow, poisonous clams are less pigmented (lighter with radiate streaks), while non-poisonous specimens are uniformly darkly pigmented. Furthermore, the shells are less firm, more friable and broader than in non-poisonous clams. The liver is larger, softer and rich in fat and pigment. Prophylaxis. — Springfield recommends that the public be warned against buying dead clams (those which do not close the shell when taken out of the water). Furthermore, the public should be warned against eating the liver and the broth. The former is the principal location of the toxin, which is extracted by water. Finally, it is recommended that the clams be boiled in a soda solution, since the toxin is thereby destroyed with certainty. The excess of alkali after boiling may be easily removed by the addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid. Relationship Between Mytilism and Botulism. — Mytilism, even in a paralytic form, has, according to van Ermengem, nothing in com- mon with botulism. For, in mytilism the pathological symptoms appear within one-fourth to one-half hour after eating, and death within a few houra at the outside. Moreover, the disease quickly runs an acute course and is not ushered in with long-continued ocular disturbances as in botulism. Finally, mytilotoxin resists high temperatures, while the toxin of botulism does not. Mytilism must, therefore, be considered as an intoxication sui generis. (c) Poisoning from Oysters. As shown by experience, the eating of oysters may lead to slight or serious cases of illness. Slight cases consist of urticaria and albuminuria; more serious cases in violent gastro-enteritis. Cases have been observed in which cholera-like symptoms devel- oped after eating a single oyster. POISONraG FROM OYSTERS 769 Etiology. — The cause of oyster poisoning, like that of clam poisoning, is still doubtful. Formerly, it was assumed that color- ing oj'sters with verdigris in order to give them the appearance of the so-called groenbardeu * was the cause of the poisoning. This assumption, however, can not be brought into harmony with the phenomena of ordinary oyster poisoning. According to Bardet, all oysters are diseased during the summer. Bardet, how- ever, was unable to determine the nature of this disease. He merely found that diseased oysters possess a characteristic milky appearance and that the liver is enormously enlarged, gray and soft. Prophylaxis. — In view of the fact that oysters are poisonous only in the summer months, their sale has long been prohibited during the months from May to August. This prohibition is per- fectly justifiable. In very warm early autumns, or Indian summers, cases of poisoning may occur in September and October. More- over, the public should be warned against eating dead or decom- posed oysters. When removed from the water, good oysters close the shell, react to touch with movements, are of medium size and bluish color and exhibit a clear, pure, fluid inside the shell. In the case of dead oysters, the shells remain open, while decomposed oysters are dis- colored, very soft, do not smell fresh and also exhibit a blackish ring on the inner side of the shell. — Springfield. * The so-called groenbarden, or Marennes oysters, acquire their natural green color from the sea watei; in which they are placed as soon as captured, and in which they are kept for months, during which time they are fed on a species of seaweed, Navieula ostrearia. The seaweed contains the coloring matter called by Ray Laukaster, marennin, which is deposited in the cuticular cells of the gills and which is bluish of itself, but is changed to green by the normal brown- ish or yellowish color of the gills. Oysters which contain copper are not dark-green, but grass-green, and exhibit a verdigris-like, slimy secretion of the folds of the mantel. After the addition of vinegar, a fork becomes encrusted with copper when stuck into the oysters, and when ammonia is added, the oysters become dark-blue. — Spring- field. XY. ADDITION OF FLOUR TO SAUSAGE-COLORING AND INFLATION OF MEAT. 1.— Addition of Flour to Sausages. Geneeal. — At stock shows and also on other occasions, butchers never fail to insist upon the fact that the aim of hog raising runs directly counter to the interests of meat dealers, for in all cases an attempt is made to produce as early and as large a deposition of fat as possible. Butchers claim that such hogs are not suitable for manufacturing into sausage, since they do not render possible the preparation of a sausage with good keeping qualities and do not furnish a good " combining" mass for so-called kochwurst or brlih- wursfc. By the term " combining power of meat " is understood the property of absorbing water. The combining power is due to the swelling capacity of muscle albumen (Hofmann). In highly fattened animals which mature late, this swelling capacity is greater than in animals fattened on large rations of manufacturers' byproducts and which have reached an early maturity. In the last named animals the combining power of the meat, especially in summer, is said to be slight. Dry, firm fibers have the power of absorbing the most water ; moist and flabby fibers, the least. According to Trillich, and his statement is confirmed by others, it is possible for 100 parts of sausage to absorb as much as 70 parts by weight of water. It is a highly remarkable fact that in beef the absorptive power for water may be artificially increased by working it up in a fresh warm condition and either pounding it vigorously or deviling it. Pork with a low combining power may have this property increased by salting, frequent turning, or by the addition of beef and veal. The combining power of pork may be also increased by adding eggs or dry albumen (100 to 200 grams allowed to swell in one liter of water per half centner of sausage material). 770 GENEBAL 771 The custom of mixing flour with the meat im the preparation of kochwurst or briihwurst, in order to give the material the necessary combining power, is attributed to the defective combining power of meat. There are no reliable data concerning the time when, or the place where, this custom originated. Berlin and Leipsio butchers testified in court during the 80's of the previous century that the custom of adding material to the sausages above named had been established for " about ten years," and that this method of manu- facturing sausage had been introduced from southern Germany. The butchers in southern Germany, on the other hand, reported that in " southern Germany since ten or fifteen years" it ha'd been the custom to add flour to sausage pulp. However that may be, it is a matter of fact that at the present time the addition of flour to sausages intended for immediate consumption has become a wide- spread custom in Germany. The following facts were obtained by means of a circular letter addressed to the German Meat Dealers' Union : In the province of Hanover, it has been customary since "grandfather's" time to prepare sausage mixed with milling products. In Voigtlandt and Erzgebirge, it is customary to add about 2 per cent, of starch flour to all briihwurst. In Rheinland and Westphalia, the addition of potato flour to a number of kinds of sausage is generally practiced, although there are certain butch- ers who use only animal products. The meat dealers in Koln assert that the addition of flour is absolutely unnecessary ip the case of sausages intended for long keeping (cervelatwurst, blockwurst, etc.) ; that the addition of 2 or 3 per cent, is sufficient for different kinds of kochwurst, such as fleischwurst, leberwurst, mettwurst, frank- furters, etc., while for ordinary leberwurst or briihwurst, the addi- tion of 5 to 8 per cent, of flour is considered customary. In the Kingdom of Wiirtemburg, according to the statements of the Butchers' Union, the preparation of fresh sausages, genuine brat- wurst, from pounded young beef or veal, with the addition of milk, eggs and 2 to 3 per cent, of wheat flour, has been customary from time immemorial and has never been condemned by the authorities. In the Province of Brandenburg, the addition of 2 to 4 per cent, of starch material to rostwurst is considered necessary. It was reported from Magdeburg that it was not customary to add any considerable quantity of flour to sausage, and finally, from Silesia and East Prussia it was reported that the addition of flour to sau- sage was unknown or not practiced. The materials for the. technical basis of the draft of the food Y72 ADDITION OF FLOUR TO SAUSAGES law contain the statement that many butchers have found ihat evea small quantities of starch flour or ordinary flour, when cooked with water, may absorb a large quantity (50 times its volume) of water and that thereby a thick, flrm paste is formed. Butchers are said to have taken advantage of this property by adding such paste to the sausage. Against the oft-repeated assertion that the addition of flour belongs to the sausage, it must be objected that, especially in private houses, good sausages are frequently made without any addition of paste. It was then an important duty of chemical experts— m addition, to the demonstration of coloring matters artificially added to meat- and the only duty which fell to the chemists with respect to the supervision of the meat traffic— to demonstrate flour in sausages, for this demonstration is very simple. The simplicity of the demonstration in connection wjth the above mentioned statements of the materials for the basis of the food law brought it about that after the passage of the food law a very large number of prosecu- tions were made for adding flour to sausages, and^ these cases, through the testimony of witnesses and the accurate investigations of experts, brought to light some surprising facts concerning the operation and purpose of the manipulation in question. The final result could not be brought into harmony with the statement in the materials for the basis of the food law, and the latter, therefore, can no longer be considered as an accurate foundation for a legal judg^ ment of the addition of flour to sausages. For the better understanding of the question at issue, it is necessary to devote a little time to the customary method of prepar- ing meat for sausages, especially with regard to the manufacture of kochwurst or briihwurst intended for immediate consumption. "With regard to the two last named kinds of sausage, very important criteria are contained in an opinion of Prof. Hofmann in Leipsic, which was requested by the Landgericht in Liibeck. Different Kinds op Sausages. — Distinction is made according to the material which constitutes the chief element of the sausage between visceral sausages (lungwurst, leberwurst, hirnleberwurst), siilzwurst, which contain a considerable amount of skin from the head and feet (schwartenmagen, presssack, head cheese, " calf's feet," etc.), blood sausages and lastly meat sausages. Meat sausages are again divided into those which are intended for long keeping (cervelatwurst, schlackwuvst and mettwurst) and bratwurst, koch- wurst and briihwurst. The latter are known in different parts of PEEPAEATION OP KOCHWDRST AND BBUHWUEST 773, ■<3-ermany under the names saitenwurst, knoblauchwurst, Wiener- wurst, bierwurst, knackwurst and jauerschewurst. Preparation of Kochwubst and Beuhwubst. — In contrast with the sausages intended for long keeping, in making which the chief aim is to secure the best possible keeping quality, the method of preparing kochwurst and briihwurst is such that an immediate con- sumption is required, not only on account of the slight keeping quality of the sausage, but also in the interest of the manufacturer and dealer. The water content of the meat mass which is used in preparing these sausages is artificially increased. Kochwurst becomes more unsightly from day to day on account of the evapora- tion of water, which, in consequence of the delicate casing, takes place much more rapidly in kochwurst than in other sausages. For this reason it is to the interest of dealers, as already mentioned, that the sausage should be consumed as soon as possible. The : sausages are exposed for a short time to hot smoke and immediately Tjefore being eaten are either cooked or, more frequently, placed in water at a temperature of 70° C. for about 20 minutes. The addition of water to the minced meat in the preparation of kochwurst is absolutely necessary for two reasons : In the first place, without an addition of water to the minced meat it is impossible for the sausage maker to pre-pare a meat mass of the proper consistency for injecting into the thin-walled casings which are used and which must be used in the manufacture of briihwurst. Thin-walled casings must be used, since in the case of briihwurst the casing is not removed, as in the other sausages, but is ■ eaten along with the sausage by the great majority of consumers. In the second place, the high water content of kochwurst or briihwurst is an essential character required by the consumers. The public desires a "juicy" bierwurst with a homogeneous, coherent and non-friable cut surface. The juicy character and the homogen- eous structure of the sausage, however, can not be secured without the addition of water. The natural water of the meat is not suffi- cient to render possible the preparation of a juicy kochwurst. For purposes of comparison, Hof mann had briihwurst prepared without the addition of water. Although the fresh rheat paste possessed a water content of 76.5 per cent., corresponding to that of fresh meat, the water content of the meat paste in the sausage was lowered to 51 per cent, as a result of smoking. The sausages, the dry matter of which had increased 49 per cent., were hard, tough and dry. It was necessary to masticate the firm mass a long time before it 774 ADDITION OP FLOUR TO SAUSAGES could be swallowed. Hofmann says that the sausages were "simply of a quality such that they could not be sold as juicy, soft bruhwurst." The addition of water is, therefore, made, not to increase the weight of the sausages, but to lend them quite specific characters which are demanded in briihwurst. From the experiment of Hofmann it is apparent that the demand of consumers for a juicy briihwurst is not unreasonable, if "we consider merely the palatability of the material. This, how- ever, is the essential feature in the kind of sausage in question. Hofmann rightly says : " On account of the necessary addition of water to briihwurst, this sausage is no longer a pure meat sausage. Briihwurst and kochwurst, as usually prepared, do not possess the nutritive value of pure meat." Hofmann also demonstrated that the weight of sausages found on the market varied considerably (from 34.1 to 40.1 grams, or about 17.6 per cent.). This fact indi- cated very clearly the difference in value between sausages intended for long keeping and kochwurst. The former are bought by weight. In the case of briihwurst the public does not ask concerning the ■weight. As Trillich says, it is literally true that, in the case of briihwurst, we eat water with a fork ; but in these sausages we do not pay for the nutritive value, but for the taste. "Water Content of Bruhwurst.— The quantity of water which is added in the preparation of the meat mass varies. More water is added to good dry meat than to that of a watery character, since the latter possesses smaller powers of imbibition. Sausage makers determine the required amount of water for different qualities of meat, not according to the determined weights, but according to the feeling. Water is added to the meat mass until it acquires the proper consistency according to the view of the sausage maker. According to Hofmann, the amount of water added amounts to 24 per cent. However, the amount of water added is illusory, since the sausages lose water during smoking and drying, and are, there- fore, sold with a considerably lower water content. Hofmann found that the water content of sausages immediately after smoking was only 60.6 to 64.8 per cent. The sausage mass had, therefore, lost during the process of smoking not only the quantity which was added artificially, but also 10 to 15 per cent, of the natural water of the meat. Is Starch Flour Absolutely Eequired in the Preparation of IBruhwurst?— This question must be answered in the negative; for PREPAEATION OF KOCHWTJRST AND BRUHWDEST 775 tliere are butchers who prepare briihwurst without the addition of flour. Furthermore, in legal processes, on account of the addition of flour in Kegensburg, Munich and Coblenz, it was considered as demonstrated that the addition of flour was not customary and also that the public expected to obtain pure meat sausages when buying briihwurst. The addition of flour to meat masses intended for briihwurst can, therefore, not be considered as an absolute neces- sity, since good meat possesses a sufficient combining power to absorb the required quantity of water and since the trade has recourse to other means than the use of flour for increasing the combining power of meat (page 770). The preparation of briihwurst without the addition of flour must, however, be characterized as exceptional in Germany. As a rule, flour is added, especially patato flour, to which also the name of "strength flour" is given for reasons which are not apparent. The resolution of a " Congress of Sausage Makers," at which a majority of the delegates decided that the addition of 2 per cent, of flour to certain sausages was necessary, furnishes proof of the extent of the custom of using flour in the manufacture of briih- wurst. The Butchers' Union in Bremen declared in the form of a resolution that the use of flour for improving the quality of certain kinds of sausage had been customary for years ; moreover, that this addition is not considered as a fraudulent practice by the dealers is apparent from the fact that, as stated by Hofmann, briihwurst was prepared with the addition of flour before the eyes of the public at a cooking exhibition in Leipsic. Does the Addition op Starch Flour Bender Possible an UUusiiALLY High Water Content, or Does it Prevent the Loss op Water in Smoking and Drying? — It must be considered as a happy thought on the part of the Landgericht at Liibeck that it had careful experiments instituted in the form of a sausage test for obtaining light on these points. Sausages were prepared without potato flour, with 0.8 per cent., and also with 2 per cent, potato flour. (Sample I. without flour, but with the usual addition of water; Sample II. with 0.8 per cent, potato flour and with the usual 8 per cent, of water; Sample III. with 2 per cent, of flour nnd as great as possible an addition of water ; Sample IV. without flour, but with the same amount of water added as in Sample III.). The experts who were requested to test the sausages. Pharmacist Schorer and Prof. Kiistermann, summarized the results of the test as follows : 776 ADDITION OF FLOUR TO SAUSAGES 1. For the regular preparation of bierwurst, 18 parts of water must be added to every 100 parts of meat in order to produce a. workable raw mass. 2. In smoking such sausages, which, as a rule, occupies one- half hour and is carried out in a sort of fire-place, or over a free fire, the mass loses about 11 parts of water; so that a bierwurst is obtained with 7 parts of water to 100 parts of meat. 3. The addition of 0.8 per cent, potato flour to the meat mass is without any decided influence upon the water content of the sau- sauge. The sausage is not thereby altered either in external appearance or in taste after cooking ; that is, in the case of meat with a good combining power. 4 With the addition of 2 parts of potato flour, as much as 70 parts of water may be mixed with 100 parts of meat for obtaining a. raw mass for the preparation of bierwurst. 5. The same quantity of water, however, 70 parts to 100 parts of meat, may be added also without the use of potato flour.* 6. In smoking. Sample III. (with 2 per cent, flour) aiid Sample IV. (without flour) lost about the same amount of water immediately after smoking, or 32 and 35 parts respectively. After hanging 24 hours in the air, the loss increased to 42 and 44 parts of water, so that the bierwurst, when ready for consumption, consisted of 100 parts of meat with 28 or 26 parts of water. 7. The addition of potato flour, at least in quantities up to 2 per cent., does not, therefore, make possible the utilization of a larger quantity of water in the sausage mass than could be accom- plished with the meat mass alone without the addition of potato flour. In any event, this quantity of water must be estimated as con- siderably less than 70 per cent, of the raw mass, or less than 26 per cent, of the 100 parts of meat in the smoked sausage when ready for consumption, if the bierwurst is to be as saleable as the ordinary market form of this sausage. 8. From a comparison of the loss of water from Sample I. (without flour) and Sample II. (with 0.8 per cent, flour) or from Sample III. (with 2 per cent, flour) and Sample IV. (without flour), it appears " that the amount of water lost in smoking depends upon * Trillioh also demonstrated this fact. At the Sixth Session of the Free Union of Bavarian Representatives of Applied Chemistry, he characterized the influence of the addition of starch flour upon the water content as illusory, since ii is possible to combine an equally large quantity of water in a sausage mass vihioh contains no starch flour. DEMONSTRATION OF STAEOH FLOUR 777 the amount of water added to the raw sausage mass and that this is not influenced by the addition of potato flonr, at least when used in quantities up to 2 per cent." These experiments show that the addition of a small quantity (up to 2 per cent.) of starch flour does not injure the quality of the sausage in the sense of making it more watery than would be pos- sible without this addition. The essential point in the views expressed in the materials for the technical basis of the food law concerning the effect of the addition of flour is, therefore, robbed of its force. Moreover, on the occasion of the legal proceeding in Xiiibeck, Schorer called attention to the fact that it was a gross error to assume, as was done in the materials for the basis of the food law, that 1 part of starch flour in 50 parts of water furnishes a thick, firm paste. The experiments instituted by him showed that 1 part of starch flour boiled in 50 parts of water gives a :fluid substance which could readily be poured in drops. A firm paste could be obtained only by cooking 1 part of flour with not more than 10 parts of water. In general, it was shown that potato ^our does not absorb water except when boiled ; that the materials are added to the sausage in a cold form and not, at least not as a rule, in the form of a paste, as assumed in the materials for the basis of the food law. Furthermore, the sausages in question are usually not boiled, but, as stated by Bischofl', steamed at a tempera- ture of 70° C. Demonstration op Starch Flour. — This demonstration may be conveniently made, chemically, by the use of Lugol's solution, with which the cut surfaces of the sausage to be tested is touched. If starch flour is present, the characteristic blue color is produced in a diffuse distribution over the whole cut surface. Furthermore, the addition of flour may be demonstrated by the microscope. Briiller states that for accuracy he prefers a microscopic demonstration. He argues that the iodine reaction proves nothing with regard to the presence of starch flour, since pepper is also normally present in sausage and this may give a fine iodine reaction, even in great dilution, with 5,000 times its quantity of water.* It was further stated by Briiller " that under the micro- scope the starch of pepper could be readly distinguished from that of potatoes, since the starch granules of pepper are considerably * According to Lehmann, the amylum of the seasoning is not sufficient to produce a microscopic, diflfuse, blue coloration on the cut surface of the sausage after treatment with iodine. 778 ADDITION OP FLOUR TO SAUSAGES smaller and never show the concentric striation with the excentric nucleus of potato flour. As Briiller rightly observes, amylum granules are for the most part demonstrable in the unaltered condi- tion, since, as a rule, flour and not paste is added to the sausage mass, and since amylnm granules, as shown by Schorer, undergo no alteration during smoking at a high temperature. Histology of Potato Stabch. — The starch granules of pota- toes are on an average 45 to 75 /^ long, 45 to 65 /< wide, round or elliptical (oyster-shaped). The excentric nucleus lies almost always in the narrower portion. The striae are not uniform, but are mostly fine and sharp (draft of the Codex Alimentarius Austria- cm). Quantitative Dbmonsteation of Staeoh. — In order to deter- mine the quantity of starch flour which has been added to meat products, the so-called inversion method has heretofore been used successfully. By this method the amyloid substances are changed, by the action of dilute acids under high temperature and pressure, into sugar, and the latter is determined. A second method of procedure was described by Mayrhofer. According to this method the material to be examined is dissolved by the application of heat on a water bath in about 8 per cent, alcoholic potash lye without the addition of sand for the purpose of a better distribution. In the case of pure sausages, scarcely any residue is left except cellulose, since the casing is also dissolved. After the material is dissolved, it is diluted in warm alcohol ia order to prevent gelatination. Any insoluble residue which may be present is placed upon a paper or asbestos filter and washed with alcohol until the alkaline reaction disappears. It is then treated with an aqueous solution of potash lye and thereby the starch is brought up to a definite volume. If, now, the alkaline solution is treated with alcohol, the starch is precipitated in flakes and settles rapidly to the bottom. After filtration upon filters of known weight and washing with alcohol and, finally, with ether, the quantity of starch may be easily determined. In order to avoid a determination of the ash, it is desirable to produce the precipitation, not with alkalies, but with a solution slightly acidified with acetic acid, since the acetate of the carbonate of potash which is contained in abundance in the starch is easily soluble in alcohol. In this manner we obtain starch free from ash. The results show the quantity of pure starch, not tjie original quan- HTGI3NIC AND OULTNAEY JUDGMENT 779 tity of flour added. The method is, therefore, not strictly accurate, but it is quite as accurate as the previous method of inversion. Since the distribution of starch in the sausage is not uniform, it i& desirable to take not merely a few grams for samples, but pieces weighing from 60 to 80 grams. Experiments with sausages artificially diluted with starch flour have shown that the starch which was originally used can be dem- onstrated by the method of Mayrhofer, either in its entirety or at least within a few milligrams. Htgienio and Culinaet Judgment of the Addition op Floue. — Hofmann rendered an opinion, in harmony with Schmidt-Miil- heim and Schorer, that the addition of flour does not promote the decomposition of sausages ; that sausage paste decomposes with equal rapidity whether with or without the addition of flour, and that, therefore, the assumption of a harmful effect from the addition of flour is unjustifiable, since the starch flour belongs to a class of bodies which decompose with difficulty.* Finally, Hofmann calls attention to the fact that a slight addition of starch flour improves the quality of sausages. The juice of the sausage is thereby ren- dered thicker and therefore remains longer on the tongue. More- over, it is asserted that the addition of flour renders possible the use of larger quantities of spice in the sausages, since it operates at the same time as a diluting and enveloping medium. Hofmann claims that flour is therefore added even by very reliable dealers, since sausages containing flour are preferred by the public. As a result of the addition of flour in limited quantities, Schmidt-Miil- heim observed an improvement in the quality of sausage, due to the fact that the starch flour helps to combine the sausage mass and prevents its escape from the casing. Legal Judgment of the Addition of Floue to Beuhwuest. — No hygienic scruples can be held against the addition of flour to briihwurst. There is, however, a further question, whether a material injury is not caused to the consumer through the addition of flour, and whether sausages containing flour must not be consid- ered adulterated. Under the head of adulterated food materials (page 102), we *In the case of blood and liver sausages which are diluted with flour to the extent of 10 per cent, and which are not at all or only partially smoked and have been preserved for a long time, a noticeable souring may take place before true meat decomposition sets in (Bischoff). YSO ADDITION OB FLOUR TO SAUSAGES understand those which do not possess the properties which are expected in actual trade. The conditions of adulteration are not fulfilled if the addition of flour is customary in the locality in ques- tion—and that is the case in the greater part cuf Germany— and if the quantity of flour added does not exceed 1 to 2 per cent., which is the usual quantity in trade. On the other hand, the addition of flour must be considered as an adulteration in localities where it is not customary ; * or if it greatly exceeds the above named limits so that it amounts to an actual and substantial depreciation of value, or to a considerable replacement of meat with flour. Greater quantities than 1 to 2 per cent, are added to the sausage mass only with fraudulent intent, since, according to the statements of reliable dealers, 1 to 2 per cent, is sufficient in order to lend the sausages an appetizing taste. It must be characterized as an adulteration when flour is added to sausages other than bruhwurst, particularly to sausages which are intended for long keeping, since in the latter the addition of flour is neither custoinary nor necessary .t Similarly, the addition of flour to minced meat is undoubtedly a gross adulteration.:]: The Eeichgericht, in a judgment rendered October 4, 1883, declared' that it is a case of adulteration when a paste consisting of potato flour and water is added to sausages, contrary to the custom which prevails at the locality where the sausage is prepared and according to which pure meat sausages are understood by the terms used. Furthermore, in the case of the Eegensburg butchers (Criminal Senate I, Judgment of September 23, 1883), the Beichgericht ren- dered a similar decision. These butchers had added 1 to 5 per cent, of flour to presssack, speckwurst, blutpresssack, weisswurst and Parisian sausages. It was held to be a settled fact that in * In such localities, dealers may protect themselves against legal procedure by the use of placards such as are employed in Wiesbaden (page 781). t Bischoff calls attention to the fact that in the case of sausages which are boiled before smoking a very different judgment should be rendered than in the case of briihwurst, in which smoking is done first. In material which is first cooked, as, for example, liver sausage, the starch is changed to a paste by the process of boiling. This paste yields up only a part of its water during smoking, and in such products, subsequently sold according to weight, an abnormally large water content is present as a result of the addition of flour. t The addition of " albumina " is also an undoubted adulteration. Albumina consists of tragacanth and albumen and when added to the extent of 3 per cent, renders possible the preparation of a sausage paste which consists of 70 pounds of meat to 100 pounds of water. LEGAL JUDGMENT 781 Hegensburg the addition of flour was not a common custom and that the public did not know or expect that it was purchasing anything else than material prepared purely from parts of the animal body with the addition of spice. Likewise, the Eeichgericht (I, Judgment of January 7, 1887) decided that in Munich the addition of 4 to 5 per cent, of starch flour to sausages was an adulteration, since such an addition in the place in question was neither a common custom nor expected by the public. It was held also that the trade practice could not be con- sidered as deciding the question in itself, merely according to the wish and practice of the producers, but that the reasonable expecta- tion of the public must also be considered. On the other hand, the addition of a small quantity of wheat bread to rostbratwurst (10 to 12 pfennig worth to 5 kg. of meat) was not considered as an adulteration if in the region in question such an addition was " by no means an unknown or unexpected admix- ture," and if, on the contrary, " according to the view of the public," wheat bread is a necessary constituent of a palatable bratwursfc (Decision of Criminal Senate III, December 21, 1882). Finally, on December 3, 1894, the Eeichgericht decided that the addition of flour to cervelatwurst, in however small quantity, must be considered as an adulteration. The Boyal Prussian Landgericht at Coblenz declared that in Coblenz, according to the practice of the reliable tradespeople, nothing but meat (beef or pork), except the necessary seasoning, is to be used in the ordinary preparation of meat sausage and that other additions (liver, lungs, sardines, etc.) are to be indicated in the name of sausage. It was held that flour could not be considered a normal constituent of meat sausage. Nevertheless, the defendants, who had used flour to the extent of 3.3 per cent., were discharged for the reason that they had added the flour merely as a combining material without knowing that it was not allowable, and without the intention of deceiving. The Landgericht in Frankfurt decided that the addition of two per cent, of flour as combining material was permissible. In Wiesbaden and Giessen, any addition of flour to sausage is considered as punishable. For this reason it has become the estab- lished custom of sausage dealers to display placards in their salesrooms with the inscription "sausage with combining material." The dealers thus escape liability of punishment by this declaration. Likewise, according to a decree of the council in Dresden, April 8, 1899, any addition of flour to sausages is considered punishable. . 782 ADDITION OP FLOUR TO :SAUSAGES On the other hand, the utilization of wheat bread in the preparation of so-called semmelleberwurst is not condemned on account of being a local custom. Also in the Grand Duchy of Baden, no addition of flour is permitted (Ministerial Decree of March 17, 1897). Note. Other Adulterations with Inferior Material. With regard to other adulterations in meat traffic and in the manufacture of sausages, a proper decision can easiljf be reached in accordance with the previous discussion and after consideration of the meaning of the term adulteration. In all cases the essential points which determine the fact of deception are the determination of the prevailing custom of preparation among reliable dealers and the reasonable expectation of the consumers in buying the products and also the price. According to these points of view, the addition of a small quan- tity of wheat bread to rostbratwurst was not considered as an adul- teration in the decision of the Reichgeiieht, December 21, 1882. Similarly the utilization of wheat bread in preparing fresh blood and liver sausages in Berlin was not considered an adulteration since this method of preparation was quite common and well known (Bischoff). On the other hand, the utilization of testicles, uteri, with or without the fetus, beef head, etc., in the preparation of sausages, undoubtedly constitutes an adulteration. Special attention may be directed merely to an adulteration, the detection of which is in other respects the function of a chemist — namely, to the adulteration of lard with cottonseed oil. This oil is added in large quantities to American lard. According to Sendt- ner, for example, among 110 samples of American lard examined in Munich, not less than 72 were adulterated with cottonseed oil, while, according to Stein, 14 out of 78 samples inspected in Copen- hagen were likewise adulterated. The addition of this vegetable oil amounted to 50 per cent, or more, so that the mixture should not properly have borne the name lard. So long as the American fat mixture is sold under proper declaration, no objection can be made to it. Vohnti non Jit injuria. On the other hand, the practice of mixing domestic lard with the American material and selling this mixture under the name and for the price of the former should be checked. OTHER ADULTERATIONS 783 The demonstration of cottonseed oil in lard may be made by determining the iodin number (page 219). According to Neufeld, the iodin number of lard is 46 to 61. Cottonseed oil raises the iodin number, while it is lowered by the addition of beef tallow. Governmental Regulations Against the Adulteration op Lard. According to the Imperial law concerning traffic in butter, cheese, lard and other substances, June 15, 1897, all lard-like prepar- ations in which the fat content does not consist exclusively of pork fat, must be declared as " artificial food fat." The following state- ment concerning the meaning of this term is contained in Section 1: " Artificial food fats in the sense of the law include prepara- tions resembling lard in which the fat content does not consist exclusively of pork fat. Exception is made in favor of unadulterated fats of certain animal and vegetable species which are exhibited under names which indicate their origin." Adulteration of Caviar. — A work of Niebel contains some very interesting statements concerning adulterations of caviar. In Ger- many, according to Niebel, fluid or granular caviar is almost the only kind found on the market. More rarely pressed or so-called servietten-caviar is observed. The best caviar is the Bussian ; the American is next best ; the third best is the Elbe caviar.* The Russian caviar is coarsely granular and free from membranes and mucous admixtures. In judging caviar, attention should be given to the color, consistency, size of the eggs and the odor and taste, as well as the purity. According to Niebel, caviar is to be considered spoiled when it contains foreign admixtures or when it is rancid or possesses a mouldy or bile-like, bitter taste. On the other hand, it is to be considered as adulterated when foreign materials, like bouillon, white beer, oil or sago are added. Sour caviar is of inferior quality. The border line between inferior and rancid caviar, according to Niebel, is at the point of 4.5 per cent, of free acid con- tent. The content of common salt in samples of caviar which were examined amounted to from 6.15 to 11.4 per cent. Strongly salted caviar is of inferior value and caviar saturated with salt is not suit- * Concerning the .quality of the Elbe caviar, Bischoff states that as a rule it is a suspicious product. Sturgeons are at present almost never observed in the Elbe. It is asserted that the product which is sold under the name Elbe caviar is usually deoomposipg American caviar which has been subjected to a subse- quent process of preservation. 784 ADDITION OF FLOUB TO SAUSAGE able for human food. Likewise, decomposing caviar must be characterized as unfit for food. As helps for judging caviar, it is recommended that the reaction be determined ; furthermore, that a quantitative demonstration of free fatty acids and salt be made, and,, finally, that the amount of free ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen be determined. Adulteration of Shrimps. — Two kinds of so-called shrimps occur on the market: the common shrimp (Crangon vulgaris) and the Pig. 253. a Crangon vulgaris, a, median spine; b, inner antenna! filaments; c, external antennal i filaments; d, third appendage ; e, the five ambulatory appendages ; /, sixt'' abdominal appendage. (After H. Raebiger.) , Pig. 353. Palaemon squilla. a, rostrum; J, inner antennal filaments; c, outer antennal fila- ments ; d, third appendage ; e, the five ambulatory appendages ; /, sixth abdominal appendage. (After H. Raebiger.) prawn (Palaemon squilla). The latter is the more valuable of the two, since it possesses a better flavor and is more edible than the former. It assumes an appetizing red color in cooking and is also rarer than the common shrimp. The price of common shrimp is 20 to 60 pfen., and of prawns, 1.6 to 3 marks per pound. This differ- ence in price makes an adulteration of the last-named species a OTHER ADULTEBATIONS 785 profitable practice and this has recently been done by boiling, in fuchsin water, the common shrimp, which normally remains gray in cooking. Boiled common shrimps thereby acquire the character which ordinary people consider as the most important criterion for recognizing the prawn. The adulterated shrimp or imitation prawn may, according to Baebiger, be recognized by the following characters : Bed coloration of artificially-stained shrimps is spotted. Moreover, the broken o£f ends of the abdomen are totally stained and the eggs which are found under the abdomen are bright red. In some parts of the shrimp the coloring material penetrates even into the meat. Artifi- cial coloring may also be demonstrated by boiling shrimps in alcohol. Artificially stained shrimps lend the alcohol a cloudy rose-red color, while with naturally red prawn the alcohol remains whitish yellow. The prawn are characterized by the strongly projecting frontal spine, the long-peduncled eyes, the larger number of antennal fila- ments, the chelipers on a number of the ambulatory appendages and the bright-red telson, as contrasted with the short spine, short-peduncled eyes, less numerous and shorter antennal filaments,, different anatomical structure of the ambulatory appendages and the darkly pigmented telson of the shrimp (Figs. 252, 253). Fraudnlent Treatment of Salmon. — According to Eaebiger, the following salmon are found in trade : The Bhine, Weser, Elbe, American, Baltic, Volga or Russian, saltwater (common hake), and> finally, the fagonlachs. The Rhine salmon (Trufta solar) is the most expensive. It costs from 5 to 8 marks per pound, and othef species of salmon of less value are, therefore, frequently used to replace it. The Rhine salmon is distinguished by its rose-red color of slightly yellowish tinge, strong development of white fat,, the elongated, oval, silvery-white scales, becoming black-browm toward the dorsal line, and also by the fact that the dorsal and ventral lines approach each other toward the head. The Rhine salmon swims up stream in a fat condition for the purpose of spawning and returns to the sea in a poor condition with pale meat. When caught returning to the North Sea, they are called poor "Rheinsalm." The Elbe and Weser salmon are identical with the Rhine salmon, but, according to the opinion of connoisseurs, are not so valuable as the latter. The American salmon* (probably * The most important Alaskan salmon are King salmon, redflsh, cohoes, humpbacks and dog salmon. — Translator's Note. 786 COLORING AND INFLATION OF MEAT Oncorhynchus quinnat), which, on account of its coarse-fibered meat and very salty taste, brings a price of 2 to 4 marks, possesses a rose-red or brick-red meat, well developed intermuscular connective tissue and myomeres, and exhibits much less fat than the Rhine salmon. The salmon which occurs in the Baltic is less highly prized for its meat than the North Sea salmon ; its meat possesses the typical salmon color, is very fat and its intermuscular connec- tive tissue is less strongly developed than in the American salmon. The Baltic salmon during its migrations reaches the Weichsel and the Memmel, is identical with the Russian salmon and possesses small round scales. The Volga salmon is either an American or Baltic salmon. Saltwater salmon or hake (Merluccius vulgaris) is a species belonging to the gadoid group and not to the Salmonidss. It is characterized by its almost white meat, which contains but little fat. Pinally, do-over salmon (fagonlachs), which is prepared by pressing together the waste pieces, is recognizable by the absence of the connective tissue strands, or by their regular course upon a cut surface. 2.— Coloring. The artificial coloring of large pieces of meat, minced meat and especially sausages, belongs among the achievements of the most questionable sort, which characterize the modern meat industry. Pdbpose. — The purpose of coloring meat varies. The materials for the technical foundation for the draft of the food law contain the statement that a sausage mass which has lost its natural coloring by the excessive addition of flour and water is frequently colored with fuchsin in order to conceal this defect. From a study of court proceedings it appears that the artificial coloration of sausages from this cause is less frequent than in the case of minced meat which is intended for sale as such. Furthermore, we learn from court proceedings that in recent times the coloration of meat is practiced rather extensively with the object of concealing the gray color of sausages intended for long keeping. This alteration of color is common in sausages, even in those which have been properly prepared (page 749). Bischoff asserts that until the authorities interfered in this matter, about 70 per cent, of all the sausages imported from Thiiringen were colored for the reason just mentioned. At present, it is said, the percentage is muck smaller. Finally, there are unscrupulous dealers who do not hesi- tate to give, by means of coloring materials, the appearance of COLORING TST "wholesome products to meat which has lost its normal color as a, Tesult of decomposition. Kinds op Coloring Material. — The dyes which are used for , ■coloring meat products are of various sorts. It appears that the first experiments in coloring meat were made with fuchsin. SinCe, however, this stain could easily be demonstrated, coloration with cochineal and carmin prepared from cochineal (ammoniacal extract of cochineal) came into use. Carmin is sold on the market under the name of " karnit." A very small quantity of either of these dyes is sufficient to produce a bright red color in the meat, since the staining power of tJhese materials is very great. According to Palk and Oppermann, a carmin solution of 1:30,000 is sufficient to stain the meat red. According to Marpmann, in addition to fuchsin and carmin, other dyes have recently been used for staining meat, including safranin, eosin and red vegetable dyes, from saturated stains of red berries, beets and roots to yellow crocus. According to Bischoff, moreover, azo-dyes have been used for this purpose. These materials are added under the most various names, in part calcu- lated to deceive ("rosalin," "carmin substitute," "blood color," "blackberry red," "stabil," " cervelatwurst salt with spice," "alkermessaft)." Bosalin is a carmin preparation. Carmin sub- stitute, on the other hand, is an azo-dye (Bischoff) ; blood color consists of starch colored red by anilin dyes (Baumert). Another anilin dye sometimes used is the so-called brilliant-berolina (Polenske). Corallin is used for coloring sausage casings. The use of this dye is forbidden by the law of June 5, 1887, concerning the utilization of injurious coloring materials in the preparation of food, for the reason that, it frequently contains .phenol. According to their effects, as shown by Juckenack and Sendtner, the dyes utilized in coloring sausages may be divided into three groups : (1) Those which stain the meat portions, but leave the fat un- colored. (2) Those which color finely minced meat and fat uniformly red. (3) Those which are soluble in fat and which con- sequently color finely or moderately finely minced meat and fat uniformly and throughout. If stained with members of group 1, the sausage when rendered contains uncolored fat, while, if stained with group 3, the fat is of a bright red color. Demonstration of Dye Stuffs. — Lehmann recommends for the demonstration of fuchsin in sausages extraction with ethyl or 788 COLOKING AND INFLATION OF MEAT amyl alcoliol. " If a distinct red coloring matter is dissolved oul the sausages are evidently stained with artificial dyes." According to Fleck, comminuted meat samples are treated wit] amyl alcohol as long as the latter shows any red color. The large portion of the solvent is distilled ; the remainder is volatilized oi the water bath and the residue dissolved in petroleum ether. Thi reddish-brown solution thus obtained is shaken together witl absolute alcohol after the addition of a few drops of dilute sul phuric acid 1:4 The petroleum ether together with the fat whicl may be present then comes to lie as a layer upon the alcoholi( fuchsin solution. The latter is repeatedly washed in a filter witl petroleum ether until the ether leaves no residue of fat aftei evaporating. The alcoholic fuchsin solution, thus carefully obtained, is now diluted with an excess of ammonia. The ammO' nium sulphate which is formed is separated by filtration from th( fluid which is now colored slightly yellow, and the latter is evapor^ ated in a tared platinum or glass cup. From 80 to 85 per cent, of the fuchsin used, in coloring th( meat should be demonstrated by Fleck's method. For the demonstration of cochineal, Klinger and Bujard firsi suggested a method which is based on extraction by means ol glycerin. Twenty grams of finely minced sausage is boiled on a watei bath with a mixture of equal parts of water and glycerin. If cochi- neal is present, a conspicuously red colored solution is obtained ir a short time. In the absence of this dye, the glycerin is not at a]. stained or at most somewhat yellowish. After cooling, the solutior is filtered and if only small quantities of the dye have been dissolved the process is repeated with the filtrate obtained from another 2( grams of sausage. The perfectly clear, and, what is of specia importance, fat free, more or less red colored glycerin solution may as a rule, be then directly examined by means of the spectroscope during which the absorption bands characteristic of carmin may be plainly recognized in all cases. Otherwise the carmin-lac may bt precipitated out of the solution in the usual manner. This sub- stance is then collected upon a filter and dissolved in a smal quantity of tartaric acid. A quite concentrated solution of the dye is thus obtained with which the usual reactions may be demon- strated. According to Petsch, extraction with ammouiacal alcohol is i more rational method. By shaking the samples of colored sausagt in a vessel containing ammoniacal alcohol, a more intensive colora- COLOKING 789 tioii of the filtrate appears than with glycerin extraction. Petsch, therefore, proposes, as a method for the demonstration of foreign coloring materials in sausage, that after negative results from the amyl alcohol test, the comminuted sample should be treated with a mixture of alcohol and ammonia by the cold method. Spath recommends extraction with a 5 per cent, solution of sodium salicy- late as a preliminary test in the demonstration of carmin from analin dyes in sausage. The minced sausage is warmed on a water bath in this solution for fifteen minutes. It is then allowed to cool and is filtered. The filtrate is stained if artificial coloring materials are present. la old sausages (two years old) Polenske found that carmin was readily recognized by the color of the extract, while the - analin dye (brilliant-berolina) was not. However, when the extracts were treated with dilute sulphuric acid, the salicylic acid was separated with a yellowish white color in the case of non-colored samples of sausage, while with sausages stained with carmin or brilliant-berolina, the salicylic acid was colored crimson. In order to be able to demonstrate even small quantities of carmin, Bremer recommends that in suspicious samples of sausage, •extraction of the coloring material should be attempted not only with alcohol, amyl alcohol, or alcohol and glycerin, but also with a slightly acidified (tartaric or hydrochloric acid) mixture of glycerin and water in equal parts. From this solution, which, moreover, in the presence of acids, is colored merely yellowish, the coloring material may be precipitated as lac. This is brought about by boiling the fluid with ammonia and diluting with water and allowing to settle. After twenty-four hours, if small quantities of carmin are present, a deep crimson precipitation is formed which may be col- lected on the filter. On the basis of extensive experiments, Polenske considers a combination of the methods of Bremer and Spath as most suitable in demonstrating artificial dyestuffs in sausages. Polenske recom- mends a solution containing 5 grams salicylate of soda, 50 cc. of water and 5 cc. of glycerin. Twenty grams of the sausage is pressed into a paste, 30 cc. of the extraction fluid added, and the whole heated on a water bath for half an hour with repeated stirring. After cooling, the whole is pressed through gauze and filtered. The presence of " carmin substitute " is easily demonstrated by a boiling test. In boiling a piece of sausage, the fat stains red and :floats like red oil on water (Bischoff). Marpmann and Spath recommend a microscopic examination as a certain method of demonstrating dyestuffs in sausage. Under 7,90 COLOKING AND INFLATION OF MEAT the microscope one recognizes artificial coloration by the fact that iso- lated portions of tissue paper appear to be stained red, while fresh tissue, even from smoked meat, exhibits a yellowish, yellowish-green or yellowish-gray color. According to Polenske, however, the microscopic demonstration of dyestuffs in smoked saupagps is not easily made, while a chemical demonstration offers no difficulty, even in case of smoked sausages two years old. A microscopic examination, however, may serve as a test for orientation. Marp- mann considers as most suitable the following method of microscopic determination of dyestuffs in sausage: A piece of sausage to be exaiuiued is macerated in water. It is then saturated with 50 per cent, alcohol, after which the coloration of the salts may be recognized. Sausages which when covered with 50 per cent, alcohol possess a decolorized appearance after standing for two hours at ordinary living temperature must be considered as unstained, while, conversely, if the sausage still possesses a color, it is sufficient evidence of adulteration by artificial stains. If one treats a sausage with carbol xylol and replaces the latter with tetrachlorome thane, treatment with cedar oil renders the prepara- tion more favorable for a microscopic examination. Officul Directions ' fob Demonstrating Colobing Matters l|^ Sausages.— The Berlin Police President issued the following directions for the demonstration of dyestuffs in sausages for the food control stations which are under the direction of the district yeterinarians : 1. Small pieces weighing about 10 gm. of the sausage to be tested are placed in a test tube and covered with a mixture of offi- cinal glycerin and water, so that the pieces of sausages are about 1 cm. beneath the surface of the fluid. If, after the test tube has been kept for fifteen minutes on a boiling water bath, the fat layer upon the glycerin or the glycerin water itself or both fluids are colored red the sausage must be considered as artificially colored with carmin or azo-dyes. 2. If by the application of the method just described a negative result is obtained, a piece of sausage weighing about 10 grams is to be placed in a cold mixture of officinal ammonia and water in the proportion of 1 : 3. If after some time the sausage exhibits violet • red, or crimson spots, it must be considered as having been colored with carmin powder. _ 3. If these tests give a negative result, a portion of the sausage IS to be heated in 95 per cent, alcohol. If the alcohol is colored COLOBING 791 Ted the sausage must be considered as having been dyed with fuchsin. 4. The application of these methods is left to the discretion of the veterinarians. Against the above directions, Weller and Eiegel have raised the objection that they may fail to give results, since sausages which are made from meat prepared with salbpeter always yield a bright red colored fluid after treatment with the solvents mentioned in the above directions. Weller and Eiegel demonstrated by means of spectrum analysis that the coloring material, which is soluble in ether, alcohol and in aqueous and alcoholic glycerin, but which does not stain wool, is methemoglobin. The modification of the hemoglobin into a per- manent red coloring matter under the influence of saltpeter appears to be a specific peculiarity of the hemoglobin of hog blood, since in a control experiment with calf's blood, only small quantities of yellow coloring materials were obtained in the ether which was used as an extraction reagent. The experiments which were instituted by Weller and Eiegel, however, as indicated by Juckenack and Sendtner, do not correspond with actual conditions, for it never occurs in practice that meat sausages intended for long keeping are prepared by adding blood, since blood would reduce the keeping property of the sausages. Judgment. — The dye stuffs which are used for coloring sau- sages are not injurious from the nature of their composition, nor do they produce a substantial depreciation of the value of the meat or meat products on account of the quantity which is added. Never- theless, from the standpoint of meat inspection and also from the legal standpoint, the addition of dye stuffs must be treated as an adulteration, and this is right and just. It is undoubtedly a case of adulteration if the coloration deceives the consumer concerning the age of the meat, as in the case of mince meat, or with regard to the fraudulent addition of flour and water. It is an adulteration and also a violation of Sec. 12 of the Food Law if decomposing meat is colored and offered for sale,* for decomposing meat is injurious to health (page 757). It is only in the case of the coloration of otherwise good sau- sage intended for long keeping that judgment may be doubtful. * Reichardt (cited frona Lehmann) describes an outbreak of illness which affected a whole family and was due to colored sausage. It is highly probable that in this case the sausage was prepared from decomposing meat. ^792 COLORING AND INFLATION OF MEAT This is done in order to conceal the gray color of the sausage and, according to the statements of Bischoff, is extensively practiced in Thiiringen, but even in this locality the courts without exception condemn the practice on the basis of Sec. 10 of the Food Law, since fuchsin and cochineal are not constituents of normal sausage and since the addition of these dye stuffs is made for the purpose of giv- ing the sausage the appearance of freshness and increased nutritive qualities. Moreover, Bremer rightly states that coloration may conceal not only the gray color, but also other decomposition jirocesses in sausage, which may spoil the taste of the sausage. It is stated that in Munich sausages have repeatedly been examined which, at first glance at the fresh, smoothly cut surface, would be considered as excellent material, while they were absolutely inedible, except to a perverted palate. Thus, for example, in the institution for the examination of foods in Munich, cervelatwurst was found of very good external appearance, but exhibiting a rather bright red color on the cut surface. It possessed an acid content of 76 per cent, however, and was literally inedible. Moreover, with the utilization' of azo-dyes, which give a red color to the fat, the appear- ance of pure meat sausage is produced.* Finally, it should be observed that hundreds of sausage makers in Gotha, which is the chief location for the manufacture of cervelatwurst, have declared that the prohibition of the use of dye stuffs would be to the interest of reliable dealers ; for, with the help of dye stuff:3, cheap American beef may be worked over into sausages, and thereby the good reputation of domestic sausages may suffer. Decisions of the Reichgericht. — The coloration of the gills of fish with red dye stuffs in order to give them the appearance of fresh fish is an instance of adulteration (Decision II., Criminal Senate, December 2, 1891). Likewise, the coloration of sausage by means of dye stuffs in order to preserve the color of fresh products * Juckenack and Sendtner have demonstrated by means of analyses that the addition of dye stuffs makes possible the preparation of sausage intended for long keeping with a higher fat and water content or, in other words, sausages which' are of inferior value as compared with uncolored sausages. The sausages exhibited the following average conditions : Deficiency Excess of Excess of in lean meat. fat. water. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 1 kg. colored mettwurst 23.96 14.68 14.68 1 kg. colored cervelatwurst 23.67 7.44 14.93 1 kg. colored salamiwurst 23.41 7.19 15,56 INFLATION 793 "for a period during which without such manipulation it would be apparent from the alteration of the natural color that the products ■were not fresh (Decision III., Criminal Senate, February 18, 1882). The Position op the Impeeial Health Office with Regard TO THE Coloration of Sausages. — Concerniug the coloration of sausages, the Imperial Health Office has published a memorial, the ^ist of which may be stated in the following propositions : 1. If meat rich in natural coloring matter is utilized with proper regard to care and cleanliness, a uniformly red colored sau- sage, suitable for long keeping, may be prepared without the help of artificial dye stuffs. 2. The addition of dye stuffs makes it possible to lend the appearance of a better quality to a sausage which is prepared from less suitable material or with insufficient care, and the purchasers are thus deceived concerning the true character of the sausage. 3. In accord with the principles laid down by the Keich- gericht, the majority of the courts which have considered this ques- tion assume that the artificial coloration of sausages, which has become established in many regions, can not be considered as legitimate business practice from the standpoint of the food law. 4. By the utilization of. poisonous dye stuffs, the consumption ■of sausages colored with them may be injurious to human health.* 3.— Inflation. Purpose. — The inflation of whole calves and sheep, as well as ihe lungs of these animals, is considered by the butchers as a tradi- tion of their trade, so well founded that strong objections were raised when the authorities in many localities decided to prohibit the practice. Butchers especially assert that the process of remov- ing the skins from the auimals just mentioned is made much easier after inflation. Daily experience in abattoirs, however, where infla- tion is forbidden, teaches. that skinning of calves and sheep — in the latter inflation is a much more general custom than in the former — does not offer any special difficulties, even without artificial infla- tion with air forced into the subcutaneous connective tissue. The * By order of the Federal Council of February 16, 1903, the artificial colora- tion of meat and meat products, with the exception of the coloration of sausage ■casings, is forbidden in the whole German Empire from and after October 1, J903. 794 COLOEING AND INFLATION OF MEAT actual reason of the objection of tradesmen to the prohibition of inflation from the side of the authorities is, therefore, doubtless, not the reason alleged, but another, namely, that it is possible, by means of inflation, to increase the apparent value of the meat. Meat is rendered more plump and of better appearance by inflation. It is -very doubtful -whether, as Schmidt-Miilheim assumes, it also becomes more appetizing. This appears to be a matter of taste. The effect sought in inflation is at any rate a possible advantage for the butcher in all cases in which poor, immature animals are concerned, which do not produce a favorable impression in the non- inflated condition. In the case of the lungs, a volume is obtained by means of inflation which is not seen in them in the non-inflated condition. In this case it can not be denied that the organs are not only of better appearance, but that they exhibit a more appetizing exterior than when not thus treated. On the other hand, inflation makes it possible to substitute inferior hog and sheep lungs for the more valuable calf lungs. This substitution may be accomplished to the satisfaction of the laity more easily than when inflation is for- bidden. Schmidt-Miilheim mentions an increase in the keeping property of the meat as a hygienic advantage in inflation, provided that this operation is done by means of bellows with air filtered through cot- ton. The lymph which remains in the subcutaneous and iuter- muscular connective tissue is forced into the larger lymph vessels by the pressure of the air, and the drying-out of the subcutis, au important factor in the keeping quality of meat, is thus favored by the enlargement of the body surface due to inflation. In this con- nection, however, experience also teaches that we may well dispense with inflation without exposing the meat to a more rapid process of spoiling. In addition to calves and sheep, light, poorly fed geese are also inflated, with fraudulent intent. Technique.— Inflation is done in its simplest form by means of the mouth. As a rule, the lungs are inflated in this manner. For inflating whole animals, however, tradesmen usually employ a bel- lows. These possess a pointed canula, which is introduced into the subcutis in any part of the body through a slit in the skin. The air after being forced into the subcutis is distributed over the whole surface of the body by rubbing with the hand. Geese are inflated by naeans of a quill. INIIATION 795. Recognition. — It is not difficult to recognize the inflated condi- tion of a whole animal. This condition is apparent at first glance from the unusual size of the slaughtered animal and from the peculiar sheen exhibited by the subcutis in place of the cloudy character of the panniculus adiposus or of the pure white appear- ance of the subcutaneous tissue which is not filled with fat! A spongy feeling on palpation and a crackling sound are conspicuous. The detection of inflated lungs is not so simple. The condi- tion of such lungs is best understood by making an inflation experiment. If warm lungs are inflated by means of a tube inserted into the trachea, under slight pressure, the lungs swell greatly, the mediastinal surfaces come to lie in contact and the borders of the lungs become unusually sharp. The inflation is uniform and eippears also in the anterior lobes, which consequently do not hang down or at the side, but stand out in the natural direction from the principal lobes. Moreover, as a rule, sub-pleural emphysema is observed as a result of excessive mechanical tension, and rupture of the alveolar walls by the pressure of the air. All of these points should be carefully observed, for, since the prohibition of inflation has come into force, butchers have found another method of producing " large " lungs, which can not be con- demned. This consists in the clever utilization of the mechanics^ of the thorax. After the exenteration of the abdominal cavity, and. after the incision is made through the ischio-pubic symphysis, th& animals are hung by the posterior extremities on gambrels, the; hind legs are forced as far apart as possible, and the abdominal W^Us above the sternal cartilage are likewise forced apart by means of wooden braces. The artificial enlargement of the thorax causes ^a excessive inspiration into the air-tight lungs and this air is retained after the removal of the lungs from the thorax, if the removal does not take place too soon, but only after the appear- ance of a more or less complete rigor mortis. Such lungs with artificially increased inspiration are distinguished, however, from inflated lungs by their smaller size, less sharp borders, the absence of interstitial emphysema and, finally, by the flabby character of the anterior lobes. The latter possess only a medium air content, and, therefore, hang to the side or downward, for the artificial enlargement of the thorax on account of the natural anatomical conditions is greater in the posterior parts of the lungs and much less in the anterior parts. A condition which resembles inflation is occasionally observed in the lungs of slaughtered cattle when aspirated fodder balla 796 COLOKING AND INFLATION OF MEAT ■become wedged in the trachea or in the chief bronchi, as a result of violent inspirations during bleeding, so that they can not be driven out again by expiration. Judgment. — While it can not be denied that the inflation of whole animals renders skinning easier and increases their keeping quality, nevertheless experience teaches that these advantages of inflation may ■well be dispensed with by tradesmen. Moreover, inflation is a trade custom the prohibition of which is justified for hygienic and commercial reasons. With but few exceptions, consumers might reasonably reject a food material which is filled with the expired air of another person. In addition to the subjective feeling, however, it should also be remembered that in inflation by means of the mouth numerous putrefactive, often pathogenic, bacteria are inoculated into the meat and thus the advantage of increased keeping qualities is not real- ized, while under certain circumstances the meat may be given an actually dangerous quality. Putrefactive bacteria are also forced into the meat, even when the bellows is employed, if the filtering apparatus for the air recommended by Schmidt-Miilheim is not used in connection with the bellows. Moreover, in any individual case it can not be determined whether the animal body or a lung has been inflated by means of bellows or with the mouth. A general prohibition of inflation is, therefore, sufficiently justified by the reasons which have already been mentioned. It should also be remembered that the less observing pur- chasers may be deceived concerning the true character of the products in consequence of inflation and consumers may be enticed into buying meat which they perhaps would not have bought in an uninflated condition. Decision of the Eeichgericht.— The Eeichgericht declared in a decision of May 27, 1888, that inflated meat must be considered as spoiled in the sense of Sec. 367^ of the Criminal Law Statutes, and must, therefore, be absolutely excluded from the market. The case iu question concerned the ofi'ering for sale of a leg of veal which had been inflated with the mouth. The Eeichgericht held that the meat into which aii- had been forced by means of the mouth was dis- gusting to the majority of consumers and was thereby, as well as from the fact of the danger of the transmission of pathogenic organ- isms from the person who inflated it, unsuited for ordinary con- INPLATIOK 797 sumption. Moreover, it was considered that the meat was depre- ciated below its normal condition and was thus rendered of inferior ■value. Prohibition op Iotlation. — A circular letter of the Eoyal Prus- sian Ministries of February 13, 1885, recommends to the Govern- ment presidents the decree of a police regulation against inflation of meat. The inflation of meat with the mouth had already been prohibited by decree of the Eessort minister of August 17, 1861, and furthermore under the decree of November 15, 1879, the abso- lute prohibition of inflation was declared to be justifiable. Accord- ingly, the inflation of meat in Berlin as well as in the governmental districts of Konigsberg, Frankfurt, Posen and Bromberg was for- bidden. The Prussian Kammergericht, on an appeal of a butcher against an unfavorable judgment of the Landgericht in Frankfurt,, decided that police ordinances forbidding inflation were legal. XVI. PRESERYATION OF MEAT. As with milk, so also with meat, we may speak of a certain teeping quality. While, however, in the case of milk, the keeping property may be endangered and destroyed by acid and zymogenic bacteria, in meat it is the putrefactive bacteria, those " ubiquitous organisms " which are everywhere present and which wait only for a favorable opportunity to induce decomposition in meat. The leaping property of meat depends upon various conditions. Atten- tion has already been called (page 711) to the fact that the meat of animals slaughtered on account of disease is characterized by poor keeping property. For the rest, however, the keeping power of the meat depends chiefly upon the temperature and moisture con- tent of the air in the room in which the meat is preserved. In cold, dry rooms meat keeps much longer than in warm, moist rooms. . This fact finds its natural explanation in the biological products of putrefactive bacteria. The latter thrive in a certain moisture content of the nutritive substratum and at a temperature which is not too low. One necessary condition of good keeping property of wholesome meat is, therefore, a careful cooling immedi- ately after slaughter, since the animal heat is the optimum temperature for the growth and multiplication of putrefactive bac- teria. By the application of artificial agents — so-called preserving agents — it is possible to increase the normal keeping power of meat. The preserving agents are of a chemical and physical nature. The former are utilized more extensively in traffic in meat preparations, while the latter are more applicable to the traffic in unprepared meat. It is doubtful whether it is possible to protect meat from decomposition by preservation in sterile air. The Argentine Govern- ment is said to have made an experiment in preserving fresh meat in sterile air in special rooms on transport vessels. The method o£ KEEPING QUALITY OP MEAT 799 Emmerich was also devised for tlie purpose of accomplishing sterile preservation. This method consists in exenterating and cutting up food animals with instruments rendered aseptic by passing them through a flame. The natural casing of the meat, viz., the skin, fat, connec- tive tissue, etc., are not removed. , The surface of those portions of the meat not covered by , the skin are sprinkled with glacial acetic acid and the pieces of meat to be preserved are finally packed in sawdust for the purpose of keeping them dry. The sawdust is sat- urated with common salt and heated and dried at a temperature of 180° C. How long will meat keep under the ordinary conditions of preservation ? Concerning this important question, accurate state- ments are found only in a work which has already become historical, namely, in Johann Peter Frank's " System einer vollstandigen medizinischen Polizei." Mannheim : 1804. Frank makes the fol- lowing statements : The learned contributions to the Braunschwei- gischen Anzeigen of 1773 contain a table on the length of time during which raw meat may be kept in the air without spoiling. The table gives the following data for the keeping power of meat of different origins : In Summer In Winter Days Bays Deer 4 8 Wild boar 6 10 Hare 3 6 Pheasant 4 10 Black grouse 4 10 Wood grouse 6 14 Partridge S 6-8 i Cattle and hogs 3 6 Sheep 3 3 i Calves and lambs 2 4 Turkeys and geese 4 8 Capons 8 6 Old roosters 8 6 Young roosters 3 4 Young pigeons 2 4 Naturally, as observed by Frank, this table would not hold true for all climates and all kinds of game. " On sultry days and during thunder storms, meat may begin to decompose within one-half day." 800 PBESERTATION OF MEAT 1. — Chemical Preservatives. The most common methods of preserving meat by means of chemical materials are those of salting and pickling. Moreover, the disinfecting agents, boric, salicylic and sulphurous acid, ar& used in the preservation of meat. Smoking is a combination method of preservation in which chemical materials and hot air act together. With regard to the application and effectiveness, as vyell as the advantages and disadvantages of the various preserving agents, the^ following statements may be made : (a) Salting and Pickling. Application. — Common salt is used especially in the preserva- tion of bacon sides and hams. Moreover, in America and Australia, beef is prepared for export by means of salt (" salt meat "). Salt is either rubbed into the pieces of meat in a dry condition (salting) or is applied in the form of a salt brine (pickling). For determining the salt content of the brine a so-called alkalimeter is employed, which is constructed according to the principle of Quevenne's hydrometer. The introduction of brine syringes marked an impor- tant step in advance in the field of preservation technique. These , syringes end in a long, hollow needle which is introduced deeply into the ponnective tissue lying between the bones and muscles. By means of brine syringes it is possible, in a very short time, uni- formly to impregnate large pieces of meat, especially hams, with salt water. This result would not be possible by simply laying the meat in salt brine. In large meat salting establishments, brine pumps, constructed on the principle of the force pump, are used. Buppert and others recommend pickling in iron tanks from which the air has been exhausted and in which the pickling brine h allowed to penetrate the meat under pressure for a period of seven to eight hours. Pickling ia thereby said to be more uniform than by the old method and much accelerated, so that the whole process of pickling hams requires only fourteen days, while by the old pickling method six to nine weeks were required. By means of a patent apparatus (rapid pickling apparatus " Meteor "), it is said that pickling takes place so rapidly that meat may be prepared ready for sale and cutting up within one to two days. SALTING AND PICKLING 801 Pickling Through the MEoroM of the CrROtiATOBY System. — The Swedish investigator, Fjelatrup, recently attempted to introduce a method of pickling which utilizes the circulatory system for trans- porting pickling brine. The animals are killed by shooting, the hair is removed from hogs in the usual manner after death. The blood is still perfectly fluid under ordinary circumstances and this is a necessary condition for the success of the injection. The ani- mal is then placed on its back in a trough table, so that the blood may run off completely. The thoracic cavity is opened by a long incision through the soft parts and by sawing through the sternum, and a canula is introduced through the left ventricle into the aorta and ligated. A pump is connected with the canula, by means of which the salt brine after the right side of the heart is opened, is forced in under a pressure equal to the normal aortic pressure. The salt brine thus forces the blood out through the right side of the heart and at the same time fills the blood system. The process requires from three to four minutes. After being cut up, allowed to cool and lying for a short time, the meat is ready for export or smoking. Cattle and sheep are injected with sterilized water or very weak brine immediately after death, in order to force out th© blood. This process is not new. J. P. Frank, in his " System," already referred to, states : " According to the statements of the Englishman Hales, an attempt has been made to inject with salt water the blood vessels of animals which have been killed by bleeding. This is done in order to preserve the meat longer. This method was first tested in Madagascar and is really the most rapid method of thor- oughly saturating the meat." Experiments with the new methods of preservation are not yet complete. According to Kiihnau, the public objects to the utiliza- tion of injected meat in the form of fresh meat on the ground that it retains its red color in cooking. Pickling With the Aid of Electricity. — The South Ameri- can author Pinto claims that rapid pickling (within ten to twenty hours) may be brought about bypassing an electric current through the meat while lying in the brine. Effect. — The preserving action of brine depends upon the dry- ing effect as a result of the extraction of water. Furthermore, chloride of sodium possesses slight disinfecting properties. The disinfecting action of salt consists in a general check upon the mul- 802 PBESEEVATION OP MEAT tiplication of micro-organisms, the. prevention of the powerful pro- teolytic action of these organisms, even in a comparatively dilute solution, and the reduction of the chemical functions of certain organisms (Petterson). Salt does not exhibit a pronounced checking effect upon micro- organisms except in solutions of from 20 to 23 per cent. In a concentration of 5 per cent, it hinders the multiplica- tion of obligate anaerobes, but not that of facultative anaerobes and aerobes. Putrefactive bacteria are much more susceptible to the action of salt than cocci. In general the growth of bacilli is checked by a 10 per cent, solution of salt. Some of them, however, endure a concentration of 12 per cent, and occasionally one of 15 per cent, in pure cultures in bouillon. The majority of cocci thrive even in a solution containing 15 per cent, of salt. Salt is well adapted for use in the preservation of the meat of healthy animals. The action of salt upon pathogenic bacteria in meat, however, has been considerably overestimated, although J. P. Frank, at the close of the 18th century, stated : " Brine on meat which is fundamentally spoiled is nothing more than an unwhole- some broth, and if any one believes that salt can extract the poison from suspicious meat in the manner in which it dissolves the aque- ous parts thereof, such a person would allow his imagination to influence his most important business dealings for very slight rea- sons." Frank rightly characterizes the pickling of the meat of diseased animals as " painting with a sort of health varnish," and called attention to the fact that pickling has no other effect upon the meat of diseased animals than to preserve it from total decom- position in the same manner as it preserves healthy meat. This empirical demonstration of the great sanitarian of the 18th cen- tury has been confirmed from a scientific standpoint by recent exact experiments. According to the experiments of Forster, pathogenic staphylococci, the streptococcus of erysipelas and the bacilli of swine erysipelas, remain alive for weeks and months when pure cul- tures of these micro-organisms are covered with salt. Tubercle bacilli in cultures treated in the same manner proved virulent after two months. Pieces of tuberculous organs finely minced also proved to be virulent after lying in salt brine for eighteen days. Anthrax bacilli were destroyed in from eighteen to twenty-four hours. Anthrax cultures, however, containing spores, retained their viru- lence for months, despite treatment with salt. Salting the meat of diseased animals has, therefore, by no means the high value which is commonly ascribed to this method of preservation. SALTING AND PICKUNG 8Q3 The effect of salt manifests itself in the meat by a decoloriza- tion of the musculature. In order to prevent this result, it. is customary to add saltpeter to the salt brine.* According to Glage, however, the persistence of the red color of meat is not due to salt- peter, but to the effect of the nitrites and perhaps nitric oxide, which are formed from the saltpeter in the brine. In cooked meat products, the addition of a small quantity of nitre to the pickling salt is a sure means of producing the red color. Also in the case of raw meat products it is not the saltpeter, but one of its decomposi- tion products (nitric oxide?) which preserves the redness of the coloring matter of the muscle. Glage determined, furthermore, that in raw meat products, in addition to saltpeter and cane sugar, di-phosphate of soda, potash and borax have the effect of gradually producing a red color. Composition of' Ordinabt Beine. — Sixteen parts of salt are mixed with one-half part saltpeter and 1.5 to 2 parts of sugar. For each 100 kg. of meat, 5 kg. of this mixture is used, or 4,350 gm. of salt, 150 gm. of saltpeter and 500 gm. of sugar. The sugar is added to the meat on account of its marked action in preventing putrefac- tion (impoverishment of the nutrient medium for putrefactive bacteria). On the other hand, the addition of sugar may cause a slimy fermentation of the brine, which, however, is said to be with- out effect upon the character of the pickling material. Special Pickling Methods. — In America, the so-called dry pickled beef is prepared in the following manner : A 20 per cent, salt brine is prepared with the addition of salt- peter and sugar. The meat is thus pickled in a moist condition. Before it is shipped the meat is dried by means of special machines and is sprinkled with borax. The addition of borax is said to amount to from 1 to 2 per cent.f After the meat is sprinkled with borax, it is pressed by machine power. * " Stabil," which is recommended by the preservative manufacturer Adamczyk for the preservation of sausage for long keeping, contains 79 per cent, of saltpeter (Polenske). ■f According to an analysis made in Germany, the content of boric acid is much greater. Thus, in Dresden, 3.87 per cent, boric acid was demonstrated in American dry pickled beef. Amthor found in American beef 70.37 per cent, water and 7.61 per cent, mineral substances which consisted of 68.5 per cent, salt and 19.5 per cent, borax. In 51. samples of American dry pickled meat (partly pork and partly beef) Polenske demonstrated boric acid in every case. Nineteen samples contained from 1 to 3 per cent. ; 13, 2 to 3 per cent., and 1 sample, 3,36 804 PRESERVATION OF MEAT The Chicago firm of Nelson, Morris PKESEEYATION BY COLE 327 the length of time that frozen meat will keep, and whether anjr alterations occur in the meat during its preservation. Steers were quartered, hogs halved and sheep left whole. The' meat was placed in the freezing establishment on November 27. On November 28 the temperature in all the kinds of meat had sunk below 0° C, and remained at about — 4° C. until August of the following year. Mutton was frozen first and beef most slowly. The following alterations were demonstrated in the meat: In February, the beef acquired a darkish surface and the pork a gray external surface. At a depth of 1 to 1.^ mm. under the surface,, however, the meat was juicy and of a bright red color. More- over, a grayish-white deposit (excreted meat salts) was observed. over the surface of all the meat. In March, mold fungi appeared on the beef, but they were readily removed by rubbing the meat and improving the ventilation. In August, when the meat was taken from the freezing rooms and distributed among the troops, it was found that it not only- cooked well, but that it possessed a good flavor and could not be distinguished from fresh meat. It required only half as much time- as fresh meat in cooking, furnished a good broth, and proved to be especially tender and juicy in a roasted condition. After four months the meat had lost in weight as a result of evaporation of the water to the extent of 8.8 per cent, (beef), 7.4. per cent, (pork), and 11.5 per cent, (mutton) ; and after nine months the meat had decreased in weight 17.8 per cent, (beef), 12.8 per cent- (pork), and 23.4 per cent, (mutton). Grassmann also observed that in thawing out considerable meat juice escaped from the meat, and this is ascribed to the fact that the cell walls may have been, ruptured. No other unfavorable alterations or decrease in nutri- tive value took place in the frozen meat. In the freezing rooms of the Hamburg Cold Storage Plant^, experiments with frozen meat have given satisfactory results. The same may be said for the freezing rooms intended for the preserva- tion of fish, game, fowls, eggs and milk (Kiihnau). As stated by Hofmann, freezing is not adapted to inland trade on account of the disadvantages above mentioned. For this trade the only rational method of preserving meat is to keep it at 3° to 5° C. in rooms with an average moisture content of 70 to 75 per cent. Under such conditions, however, the low temperature alone is not sufficient to prevent all decomposition of the meat. Putre- factive organisms may become located on the meat and may exhibit a slight growth even at the lower temperature. In order to destroy 828 PBESEEVATION OP MEAT the conditions for the undesirable multiplication of these organisms, it is necessary to dry the surface of the meat and to maintain it in n dry condition. On dry surfaces — and in slaughtered animals decomposition regularly begins on the surface (page 753) — all vital activity of putrefactive bacteria ceases under low external tempera- tures. The aim of architects and engineers should, therefore, be directed to devising cold storage establishments which produce not only cold, but dry air. Even under these conditions, the meat Temains undecomposed for only a few weeks. This, however, is quite sufficient for the demands of the meat traffic. SouECES OF Cold. — For producing lower temperatures we have several artificial means at our command, the simplest of which is in the form of natural or artificial ice, and the more complicated forms are found in ingeniously constructed cold air and cold vapor machines. The latter alone satisfy all the requirements of hygiene and the technique of preservation, and should, therefore, be intro- duced as extensively as possible. Cooling by means of ice is adapted only for household purposes, for retail dealers in large «ities, and also for slaughterhouses in small cities, on account of its simplicity and cheapness. In such slaughterhouses the cost of •cooling machines would be out of all proportion to the advantages derived. (a) Refrig'eration by Means of Ice. The most primitive form of the application of cold consists in simply laying materials to be preserved upon the ice. This is also the poorest form, since the materials to be preserved are cooled only on one side, rather than on all sides, and, instead of being dry, they are artificially moistened as a result of the melting of the ice. More- over, in the use of natural ice, there is the danger of the transmis- sion from the ice to the meat of pathogenic bacteria the viability of -which has not been destroyed by freezing. The Eoyal Government President at Potsdam issued a public warning against the careless use of natural ice, in which the following statements were con- ttiined : " As a result of investigations in the Imperial Health Office, it was determined that the ice used in Berlin for domestic purposes, even when of good external appearance, often contains numerous dangerous micro-organisms quite capable of development. It k probable, therefore, that the diseases observed after the ingestion PBESEBVATION BY COLD 829! of drinks which have been cooled by throwing in pieces of ice are not so much due to the coldness of the drint as to the pathogenic organisms which are present in the ice. The same danger may arise in the case of solid food materials which have been cooled by lying on such ice." A better method of cooling by means of ice is found in the vari- ous devices in which the ice does not come into imi^ediate contact with the materials to be preserved, but is separated from them by a division wall. The meat is thereby not cooled directly, but indi- rectly, by the surrounding air, and a moistening of the food materials; by melting ice is avoided. We possess such devices on a small scale in ice chests, also on a large scale in cold storage plants in which natural ice is used. The ice is placed between two double walls on the side or in the middle of the cooling room. In the so-called Brainard system, the ice is placed upon the ceiling of the preserving room upon a corrugated metal sheet. The following statements concerning cooling plants in which natural ice is used are taken from a description by Wittenbriuk. The plant consists essentially of three rooms — an ice room, cooling room, an antechamber ; the latter connects the outside world immediately with the cooling room. The cooling room and ice room are separated froin each other by a division wall. The ice room lies higher than the cooling room. The cold air passes from the ice room into the cooling room through slits which may be opened or closed, as required. The cold air immediately descends to the floor, removing the heat and moisture from the meat, which hangs at about the height of a man, and again rises and escapes through a chimney or ventilator in the ceiling. The ventilation of the room is, therefore, excellent, and the inner surface of the wall, a^ well as the external surface of the meat, are said to be dry at all times. The plant is opened for business only twice daily, one hour in the morning and evening. The ice in the ice room keeps even through the hottest summers until winter. Wittenbrink adds to his description the statement that the city of "Waldenburg with 14,000 inhabitants has possessed a cooling plant of this sort for three years. It is said that this plant, as well as similar cold storage plants in Landeshut and Myslowitz, hate proved perfectly satisfactory to the tradesmen. The meat keeps per- fectly fresh for several weeks and the plant possesses the advantages of great simplicity and extraordinary cheapness of operation. The so-called Brainard system, according to which the cold storage plant of the abattoir in Budapest is constructed, is intended 830 PEESEBVATION OP MEAT to produce the greatest possible dryness of air by stacking the ice xipon a corrugated metal sheet over the cooling room. The use of corrugated metal furnishes a large surface for condensation on ■which the water may be precipitated and readily conducted away in the grooves. Value op Cold Storage Plants with Natural Ice. — Accord- ing to present experience, cold storage houses in which natural ice is used can not compare with artificial cold storage plants with regard to the certainty of effectiveness. Consequently they are generally too expensive, despite their apparent economy. The greater original cost of artificial cold storage plants is more than offset by the certainty of the preservation of the meat. Cold storage liouses using natural ice in connection with abattoirs can be con- sidered only as makeshifts. "Various cold storage plants in which natural ice is used, as, for example, those in Schmiegel, have already been replaced by artificial cold storage establishments. E.EPEIGERATOE Cars. — Ice is used ill most exclusively for cooling Tefrigerator cars intended for transporiing meat by rail. In this «ase the disadvantages of the system are not so strongly felt as in stationary establishments, since the revolution ' of the wheels fur- nishes a driving power which can be readily utilized for ventilating the interior of the cars. Various systems are in use, especially the system of Stras- chiripka and Tiffany, the system of Anderson, Zimmermann and Acclom, in which the air is drawn in through the ice from the out- side, and the systems of Jaschka, Wickes and Schreiber, in which, l)y means of ventilators in the hermetically closed room, the air is kept in constant circulation between the ice room and the cooling a-oom. Schreiber's refrigerator cars are 7 meters long, 2 meters high and 2.33 meters wide. The double floor is provided with a layer of sawdust. The side walls consist of three layers of boards and the two inner walls are separated from each other by cattle hair and are coated with waterproof paste. The whole space is surrounded with a thick layer of felt which is held in place by a layer of gal- Tranized iron which constitutes the inner wall of the space. The meat is hung on longitudinal bars in such a manner that the pieces destroy cysticerci and trichina ; for these parasites die at 45° to 49^^ C. and 60° to 70° C. From the experiments above described, it is also apparent that by means of rational boiling we are able to produce in the interior * The Becker-Ulmann boiling apparatus, which was used in these experimemts and has been introduced into several hospitals, barracks and other institutions, for cooking on a large scale, consists of a double walled wooden chest surrounded, by tile, in which there are three larger and thi-ee smaller chambers, the so-called pots, for receiving the water and meat. The spaces between the .walls of the chest are filled with poor heat conductors. Each chamber is furnished with a. closely fitting, double-walled cover. On the floor of each chamber there is a steam pipe, by means of which the meat or the surrounding water is heated. .^46 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. of the meat temperatures which lie above 85° and which are suff cient to destroy the virulence of the vegetative forms of most pathc genie bacteria, including the tubercle bacillus. There are two defects, however, which attach to boiling, eve when conducted in a rational manner ; viz.: (1) the fact that the tern peratures produced in the interior of the meat always vary withi: certain limits, and (2) the fact that we possess no easy and con venient method for determining when the temperature in the interio of the meat has risen above 85° C. Without the aid of special apparatus we are only able to reoog nize that the meat has been heated to a temperature above 70° C and we may know this, as already stated, by the discoloration of th musculature. The defects just named may be obviated by steam sterilizatior Changes in the Weight and Composition op Meat as . IResult op Boiling. — It has long been known that meat loses i: weight during boiling and gives up a portion of its extractives inti the boiling water. More detailed information on these points i furnished by the investigation of Ferrati and Nothwang. Ferrati found that the loss of weight was different at dilferen temperatures, as shown in the following table : Beef , Veal Pork Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Half done (60" C.) 38.3 S6.8 31.6 Well done (70° C.) 31.3 39.3 33.0 Well done (90° C.) 47.3 47.3 41.1 Temperatures above 100° C. caused a further loss of weigh ■which increased with the elevation of the temperature. Ferrati demonstrated, furthermore, that meat in rigor morti suffered a greater loss of weight than meat which had not passo into rigor. The viscera were affected very differently by high tern perature. At a temperature of 100° C, the heart loses most i: Tveight (52.15 to 68.48 per cent.) ; next in order come the kidney <31.47 to 37.77) ; liver (30.71 to 30.76); and the lungs (15.04 to 18.4 per cent.). From the investigations of Nothwang, it appears that, in boil ing and steaming fresh meat, between 50 and 60 per cent, of th extractives and about 35 per cent, of the phosphoric acid pass ove into the broth. Pickled meat loses some of its extractives am anhydrous phosphoric acid in boiling and steaming, so that th STEAM STERILIZATION 847 "total loss in weiglit from pickling and boiling exceeds that wliicE ordinarily occurs in boiling and steaming. The changes in weight shown by fresh meat in pickling, boiling or steaming are best pre- sented in the following table : Fresh Pickled Boiled Steamed 100 69.9 49.5 47.4 100 67.3 50.3 43.4 100 78.1 51.5 49.3 Noack demonstrated in 19 beef animals a loss from boiling of S9.2 per cent, and in 25 hogs an average loss of 34.4 per cent. 2. — Steam Sterilization of Meat. Value op the Method. — In another place, I have called atten- tion to the fact that we have entered into a new and economically Tery important phase of practical meat hygiene, since Hertwig demonstrated that by the use of steam under pressure in suitable apparatus, it is possible within a comparatively short time to heat "with certainty all parts of meat to a temperature of 100*? C. It is thus actually possible, as Hertwig says, "to preserve as valuable iood material for man large quantities of meat which have thus iar gone to the knackers as practically worthless," for all objections Trhich may be raised against the reliability of boiling infected meat Jail to the ground in the use of the method in question. Method. — Hertwig in his experiments employed a steam disin- fector constructed by Kohrbeck, in which a new principle, the so-called method of pressure differences, was utilized. The appara- tus possesses a device for the rapid cooling of steam, whereby the latter is condensed, and at the same time part of the latent heat of the steam set free by condensation is given off to the objects in the apparatus. By prolonged cooling, a minus pressure arises in the steam chamber which causes the gases to escape from the meat: Preshly introduced steam can thus readily enter into all parts of the meat which is to be disinfected. The disinfector consists of ah iron double cylinder 2.62 meters long and 1.68 meters in diametei*. The open ends may be closed air-tight by means of iron doorl liemovable iron grates are arranged one above the other in the boiler, and the pieces of meat are laid upon them, side by side. "Under each grate there is a roof-like zinc sheet, sloping toward either end of the apparatus and serving to receive the dYippiii^ 848 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. brotli and to allow it to run into zinc troughs on the floor of the boiler. In Berlin the apparatus is connected with the steam system of the slaughterhouse, in which the boiler, as a rule, registers a pres- sure of 2 to 2^ atmospheres. In the disinfector itself, a pressure of 1 atmosphere is sufficient. In the experiments, however, the pressure was never made so great, but operations were usually car- ried on with ^ or I of an atmospheric pressure, the latter, however,, for only a short period. Pia. 256. Rohrbeek's steam disinfector. The steam enters from above and can be admitted directly from the boiler or may first be passed into the double wall (mantel) and may be conducted thence into the disinfector. By means of a special valve, it is possible to. introduce the steam only iuto the mantel, whereby the apparatus, after the steaming operation is finished, may be operated as a dry chamber. The steam escapes from the floor of the boiler through several openings which lead into steam pipes furnished with stop cocks. For small institutions, Eohrbeck has prepared meat sterilizers with direct heat, which cost only 600 to 1,200 marks and require but little space and may be heated by gas or coal as desired. STEAM STERILIZATION 849 Dunoker (Zeit. fiir Fleisch u. Milohhyg., Vol. 1) made the fol- lowing report of Hertwig's experiments : Before the meat was placed on the grates it was cut up in the usual manner by a butcher into pieces weighing about 3 to 6 kg., and measuring from 12 to 15 cm. The lungs, livers and other vis- cera were occasionally incised, but only when they were greatly enlarged and thickened as a result of pathological processes. After the meat had been laid upon the grates, a tested maximum ther- mometer was introduced into specially selected pieces of meat under a strict observation of all necessary precautions. Furthermore, in the center of several pieces of meat which appeared to be the most difficult ones to steam, a contact thermometer, especially constructed for these experiments, was placed, which, when a temperature cJf 100° C. was reached, caused a bell to ring outside of the boiler. The cords attached to the thermometers were wound with wire, which Pig. 357. c a> 6 Contact thermometer, a, spiral coil; 6, alloy; c, apertures in the metallic case. was introduced through the walls of the boiler and was connected with an electric battery and the numbered signal bells.* . In this way it can be instantly known when a temperature of 100° C. has been produced in the interior of the pieces of meat. In order that the highest temperature reached in the steam chamber may be controlled, another tested maximum thermometer is hung in this chamber. Results fkom Experiments. — The experiments thus conducted with regard to the penetration of heat into meat showed that uni- formly lean meat is difficult to boil thoroughly. Even in larger pieces of such meat, however, a temperature of 100° C. was reached after the lapse of 2J hours. On the other hand, such pieces as are * The contact thermometer consists of a metal case in which one pole of the electric coil or spiral is separated from the other pole by an alloy which melts at a temperature of 100° C. (Fig. 357). As soon as this temperature is reached in the alloy plate, the poles come into contact, the electric current is closed, and the signal bell is set in action. 850 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. ordinarily found on the market require a much shorter time for thorough steaming. On the basis of these experiments, Hertwig emphasizes the fact that in order to secure a rapid and certain heating of the meat to Fib. 358. Henneberg's meat steamer. a temperature of 100° C, it is necessary that the meat be first cut into pieces 12 to 15 cm. thick and 3 to 6 kg. in weight. It should also be observed that meat treated in a steam steri- lizer is very juicy and possesses a more agreeable odor and taste STEAM STERILIZATION 851 than that which has been cooked in wfl,ter. The odor and tagte are more like those of roasted meat, so that even beef, which, when ■cooked, is not so eagerly purchased as pork, finds a ready sale when steamed. Henneberg's Meat Steamer. — Further experiments in the direction of those by Hertwig have shown that the method of pres- sure difference, which is utilized in the apparatus of Eohrbeck, is not a necessary requirement for the complete and certain steaming •of meat. Thorough steaming may be accomplished also in single- walled sterilizers. An apparatus of this simpler sort has been con- structed by Henneberg, and on account of its low price (1,100 to 1,500 marks) has already been distributed quite widely. Construction. — The apparatus consists of a boiling vessel proper (Fig. 258, a) which is closed above in a steam-tight manner with a cover, b. In order that this cover may be easily lifted, it is "balanced by means of a chain, pulley and a balanced weight, which latter runs in the column, /. The floor of the boiling vessel is double-walled and the space between the walls, c, is provided with a direct steam pipe, d, as well as a pipe for carrying off the con- densation, e. The rest of the apparatus consists of a safety valve, g, and a manometer, the removable wire basket, i, air cock, A, and dis- charge cock, I. The apparatus is operated in the following manner : In the first place, the boiling vessel, a, is filled with pure water, so that the bot- tom is entirely covered, and then the seasoning necessary for the meat broth is added. Thereupon the meat sprinkled with salt and condiments is distributed uniformly in the wire basket, i. The cover, i, is closed tightly, and then, by opening the steam valve, d, the water of the boiler is brought to a boiling point. The steam thus produced arises and surrounds the meat, while at the same time the air contained in the boiling vessel escapes through the air cock, k. As soon as the steam begins to escape through the cock, Jc, the latter is closed, whereupon a pressure soon arises in the boil- ing vessel, which may be read on the manometer, and the upper limit (I of an atmosphere) is regulated by the safety valve, g. The meat is thus exposed to the action of pure water steam under a pressure of | of an atmosphere, corresponding to a temperature of 118° to 120° 0. The juice which percolates out of the meat is col- lected in the bottom of the boiling vessel and forms, when mixed with the water and concentrated, a palatable meat broth. After tha 852 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. steaming process is completed, the steam valve, d, is closed, and as soon as the pressure in the boiling vessel, a, is again down to 0, the air cock, h, is opened and then the cover, h. The meat is then removed, either from the wire baskets in separate pieces, or the baskets together with the meat are taken out of the apparatus. For this purpose the baskets are furnished with suitable handles. The bouillon is ladled out in the usual manner. It is not desirable that the broth be drawn off through the cock, I, since the fat would thereby be irregularly distributed in the different portions «f the broth. According to Liebe, 2^ hours on an average is sufficient for heating even larger pieces of meat throughout to a temperattire of 100° 0. Budenbeeg's Disinpectoe. — This apparatus occupies a hori- zontal position, and, like Eohrbeck's disinfector, is furnished with grates placed one above the other. The apparatus is so constructed that it may be used simultaneously as a destructor and meat steamer, for it makes possible the application of a steam pressure of 2J- atmospheres. Against the use of one and the same apparatus for the destruction of material which has been absolutely excluded from the market, on the one hand, and for the steaming of food intended for human consumption, on the other hand, there are certain scruples which, although of an aesthetic nature, can not be suppressed. The utilization of separate apparatus for each of these processes ia unquestionably to be preferred. Haetmann's Meat Steeilizee. — The firm of E. A. Hartmann.in Berlin, manufactures a meat steamer which is not operated by direct boiler steam, but which changes water in the apparatus itself into steam. The impurities of boiler steam are thus prevented from com- ing into contact with the meat. Careful experiments by Olt, Abel and Glage have shown that conditionally dangerous meat in pieces weighing 2 to 3 kg. and measuring 10 cm. iu thickness may be thoroughly boiled and steri- lized by subjection to steam for two hours in Hartmann's sterilizer under a pressure of ^ an atmosphere. Hartmann's meat sterilizer consists of a metal cylinder in a horizontal position, provided with a heating surface. The steaming baskets intended for receiving the meat are placed in the apparatus by hand or by a sliding grate. The lower part of the apparatus, which is intended for the introduction of the boiling water, is sepa- STEAM STEEILIZATION 853 rated by a transverse wall. Alter the apparatus has been closed, "by screwing on the front cover, steam from the boiler is introduced Tipon the heating surfaces for the purpose of producing a high tem- perature. The water is thereby heated and the air in the appara- tus is driven out by the steam through an air cock placed in the roof of the apparatus. After the air is blown out, the air cock is closed and the meat is steamed under pressure. According to Kiihnau, boiling in the Hartmann apparatus is most successfully accomplished when the apparatus is filled with water up to ^ the height of the lower transverse wall and when the boiler steam is introduced into the heating boxes under pressure of 4 to 5 atmospheres. The discharge of the cold air requires under these conditions 25 to 30 minutes. It may be assumed that the air is all blown out when steam escapes from the air cock in a uni- formly white stream. The time required for steaming pieces of meat weighing 2 to 3 kg., measuring 10 cm. in thickness, is, on the average, 2 hours, after closing the air cock. In the case of large old cattle, it is desirable to steam the meat for ^ hour longer, while in calves and young pigs, the period of steaming may be shortened J hour. The steam pressure may be increased to | of an atmos- phere during the first quarter of an hour and may be maintained for the remaining 1| hours at ^ an atmosphere. Pbactical Rules fok the Steam Sterilization of Meat. — The experiments of Abel demonstrate that pork may be, as a rule, foinewhafc more easily steamed than beef. On the other hand, pieces which inclose plates of bone, much fat, and which are inclosed with uninjured rind, and also pieces of poor meat, are diffi- cult to steam. Abel, therefore, recommends that shoulder pieces, hams, very fat meat with the uninjured rind and poor muscle meat should be steamed in pieces weighing not more than 2 kg. Hams must always be split, while thin pieces of meat (flanks and rib pieces) may weigh as much as 5 kg. (Kiihnau). Glage found that pieces of meat which lie upon one another and are closely pressed together do not become thoroughly steamed. The pieces of meat should, therefore, not be in contact. After the steaming process is completed, the steam should be discharged as quickly as possible, for the sooner the apparatus is opened the brighter gray the color and the more appetizing the appearance of the meat. Glage deter- mined that the gray coloration of the meat began at the temperature of 60° C. The meat becomes light or whitish gray on the surface and is flabby and soft. The firmer consistency which indicates the 854 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. coagulation of albumen and which occurs simultaneously with the darker gray coloration of the blood and muscle pigment shows that the meat has been subjected to a temperature of 70° to 75° C. Glage characterizes such pieces of meat as "well boiled." Kiihnau,, on the basis of temperature determinations, gives the following criteria for insufficiently and perfectly steamed meat : 1. Cut surface, grayish-red ; meat, tough ; bloody meat juice ;, temperature, 60° to 70° C. 2. Cut surface, gray (grayish-white) ; meat, firm ; reddish meat juice ; temperature, 70° to 80° C. 3. Cut surface, gray (grayish-white) ; meat, tender ; colorless, meat juice ; temperature, 80° C. The latter meat is to be characterized as thoroughly cooked. Loss OF Weight in Meat as a Eesult of Steam Stekiliza- TiON. — According to P. Falk, the loss of weight in beef amounts to 63.75 to 64.4 per cent, (on an average, 60 per cent.) ; and in pork, 37.54 to 51.05 per cent, (on an average, 46.04 per cent.). Hengst also found the loss of weight in beef as a result of sterilization to be higher than 50 per cent., while in pork it was somewhat lower, but always three-sevenths of the dressed weight. Liebe, Eieck and Noack likewise determined considerable losses of weight in steriliz- ing meat. They were, however, lower than those which were found by Falk and Hengst. Rieck, for example, found the average loss in 21 beef animals to be 43.1 per cent., while in 37 hogs it was only 16.7 per cent. Noack found an average loss of 44.9 per cent, in 97 cattle, 34.5 per cent, in 191 hogs, 43.4 per cent, in 21 calves and 44..'> per cent, in 30 sheep. For the purpose of reducing this considerable loss in weight during the steam sterilization of beef, Rohrbeck proposed that sterilization be practiced with a lower pressure (from one-tenth to a maximum of one-fifth atmosphere), for beef lost only about one-third of its weight when sterilized by steam under such pressures in the Berlin Central Abattoir, under the direction of Reissmann. 3.— Harmless Disposal of Meat Absolutely Excluded From Sale. Necessity for the Harmless Disposition of Meat Confis- cated AT Slaughterhouses. — The German Veterinary Council, at its fourth meeting, made the following declaration with regard to the regulation of the business of knackers : " tt is most desirable DISPOSAL OP MEAT 855 that animal cadavers be rendered harmless by the aid of chemical agents or by a high degree of heat (boiling, burning). Burying is permissible only when the method of removal just mentioned is not practicable." The statements made regarding the cadavers of animals which have died a natural death hold true for organs and whole animals which are absolutely excluded from the market. In the discussion of the structure and internal arrangement of abattoirs, attention has already been called to the fact that more care than heretofore should be given to the harmless removal of pathologically altered organs, especially those which are affected with animal or plant parasites, and that the Saxon municipal ordinance of January 16, 1890, forbidding the throwing away and burial of tuberculous parts in dung heaps, deserves all consideration. The fact was also emphasized that in small abattoirs in which the number of con- demned parts and animals is but small, the process of burning is sufficient. In all larger institutions, on the other hand, it is neces- sary to introduce devices by which these waste products may be not only rendered harmless, but may also be utilized as far as pos- sible. These arrangements should be connected with abattoirs, since, according to past experience, manifold opportunity is offered on the way to the knacker for underhand dealing with highly spoiled and dangerous meat (compare page 40). The other waste products which are found in abattoirs, the contents of the stomach and intestines, and the blood, are most suit- ably utilized according to the method of Ploennies. Ploennies peptonizes cattle and sheep blood, which is not utilized for food purposes, with the aid of the stomach contents of slaughtered hogs. The peptonized blood is then mixed with the dried contents of the paunch of slaughtered ruminants and in this manner a valuable feeding stuff (peptone feed) is prepared from waste products which were formerly almost or quite valueless. The intestinal contents from the stalls of the abattoir and feces containing straw are worked over by Ploennies by mixing them with uii slacked lime, so as to form a firm fertilizer mass. An institution for the preparation of peptone feed has already been established at the Central Abattoir in Berlin. The following statements may be made concerning the various methods for the harmless removal of the confiscated waste products in abattoirs. 856 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. (a) Simple Burning. This is undoubtedly tlie surest means of removing all excluded animal parts, but is at the same time the most irrational, for the fuel value thus obtained in the most favorable cases from the cadavers is very slight. Simple burning can be excused only in quite small institutions ia which the establishment of special apparatus would not be profitable. The utilization of special burn- ing ovens in large abattoirs, however, is quite unsuitable. In such cases the burning of confiscated meat means an unwarrantable waste of valuable material, quite aside from the fact that consid- erable expense for fuel is incurred in burning the material. Incineration may be accomplished in the fire box of a steam boiler. Feist constructed an incineration oven in an anthrax region according to the principle of lime kilns. The use of this apparatus has proved to be a valuable veterinary measure. The incineration of large animal carcasses, however, costs about 16 marks. A special burning oven for confiscated meat has been constructed by the firm of Kori in Berlin, and is characterized by an accessory fire box for drying the material to be destroyed. Kori's incinerating ovens for the destruction of confiscated meat have been established at the abattoirs in Niirnberg, Liegnitz, Stralsund and St. Petersburg. The ovens receive pieces of meat weighing 10 to 12 centners, together with the contents of stomachs and intestines, and cost from 1,500 to 2,500 marks, according to size. The incinerating oven of Schaller and Goriui and Venini are constructed in a similar manner. According to Weyl, it is customary in England to burn animal cadavers in Tryer's Destructor. These destructors, however, are chiefly valuable for the incineration of rubbish. (b) Chemical Treatment. In connection with the operation of reducing animal carcasses in a purely chemical manner, mention is made in the literature of the subject of the method of Porion. He constructed a distillation apparatus, in which parts of carcasses are thrown, together with the addition of potash and iron filings for the purpose of producing dry distillation and also to obtain as final products animal charcoal and yellow prussiate of potash. This method has enjoyed, there- fore, only a slight extension, since it is not tery profitable. DISPOSAL OF MEAT 857 The method of Eohkramer is a chemical thermic one. Th« material to be worked over by this method is placed in sulphuric acid and heated with it for 24 hours. During this boiling, a homo- geneous, more or less thick, gruel is obtained from the material of fhe carcasses, from which the upper layer of fat is first removed. To the remainder, steamed bone meal from which the gelatin has been removed is added in order that the superfluous sulphuric acid may he combined and the sulphuric acid content of the material increased. After a short time, the mass assumes a sufficiently thick consistency to be dried and pulverized. Before Eohkramer, Sombart used a still simpler method of boiling in sulphuric acid for the destruction of anthrax carcasses -and thereby prepared compost from the cadavers boiled in sulphuric acid. Boiling in sulphuric acid is a certain and profitable method, and is absolutely certain, since boiling in sulphuric acid destroys •even the most resistant bacteria. The only disadvantage of this method is the danger in handling the sulphuric acid. (c) Steam Sterilization Under High Pressure. This method for the harmless disposal of carcasses should be preferred above all others. It not only satisfies all hygienic require- ments, but renders possible the most advantageous utilization of the valuable constituents of the animal body. By the use of steam under pressure, temperatures may be produced, which, on the one hand, far exceed 100° C. (up to 150° 0.) and destroy all organic life, even the most resistant bacterial spores, and, on the other hand, dissolve the organic structures of tissues to such an extent that the component elements of the latter, especially albuminates, salts and substances which yield gelatin and fat, are separated from one ■another. The principle of steam sterilization under high pressure is utilized in practice in various forms. 1. Treatment op Carcasses in So-called Digestoes. — Digestors are iron cylinders, several meters in height and about one meter in -diameter. They are constructed according to the priuciple of Papin's Digestor and resemble gelatine steamers, which have long been in use in bone gelatine factories. These cylinders receive the parts of the carcass to be destroyed after the latter have been previously comminuted. Thereupon this material is subjected to live steam 858 BOILING, STEAM STEIilLIZ.VTION, ETC. under a pressure of 2^ to 3 atmospheres. The statements concern- ing the length of the period of steaming vary : Beclam asserts that 2 to 3 hours are sufficient. In Vienna also the period of steam- ing under pressure is, according to Toscano, only 3 hours. In the Berlin Fiscal Knackers' Establishment, on the other hand, the parts of meat to be destroyed are left iu the digestor for 8 to 10 hours under steam pressure. After the material has been thoroughly steamed, the fat and gelatin water are drawn off. The fat is conducted into clarify- ing pans, where it is purified by chemical and mechanical means in order that it may be utilized as machine oil and in the manu- facture of soap. The gelatin water is likewise clarified and then condensed. According to Reclam, gelatin may be used in the manufacture of printers' rollers and for a finishing material in cloth mills. The remainder (parts of meat and bones freed from fat and gelatin) are placed in a kiln for drying and are pulverized by means of a grinding-and-sifting apparatus.* The latter may be used not only as a fertilizer, but also for feeding hogs and fish. The most valuable product obtained from this manipulation of carcasses is the fat. This may have a value of 40 marks or more per 100 kg. On the other hand, the gelatin and animal meal are in part either absolutely unsaleable or can be sold only with diffi- culty (Resow). If, as is generally assumed, animal meal proves to be valuable in the future as a feeding stuff, the profit from the manipulation of carcasses will be considerably greater than here- tofore. Reclam states that in Leipsic the artificial fertilizer establish- ment provided with digestors can profitably haul away the carcasses and pay a small sum for them. This sum amounts to 15 marks for large animals in a poor condition and 55 marks for fat animals. 2. The Copenhagen Method of Destruction. — In Copen- hagen, there is a special institution established for destroying and utilizing meat which has been confiscated in abattoirs. The meat to be destroyed is placed in the upper room of the destruction establishment, which is constructed at the level of the upper edge of the cylindrical destructors. In this room the necessary com- minution is performed, whereupon the meat is thrown into the destructors and is steamed under a pressure of 3 to 5 atmos- * Large quantities of this material are annually sold in this country. Tha j)oultry industry alone consumes hundreds of thousands of pounds. — Covert. DISPOSAL OF MEAT 859 pheres for 4 or 5 hours with periodical discharge of the steam. After this operation is completed, the fluid which is collected in the destructors is drawn into a large cylindrical boiler occupying a vertical position and constructed with a conical bottom in such a manner that the cylindrical part lies in the upper room, while the conical bottom projects into the lower room. After the fluid has settled, the "soup" is drawn off through a cock in the bot- tom and the fat remaining behind is boiled with water. After the fat has been purified in this manner, it is drawn off into vessels and thus furnishes a finished trade product, utilizable for techni- cal purposes. The steam obtained by blowing off the destructors and from boiling the meat is conducted into a worm in a recep- tacle fllled with water. The steam is thus condensed and the fluid is carried off into the sewer. By this means warm water is obtained for bathing, washing and filling the vessels, and at the same time bad odors from the boiling processes are avoided. 3. The Method of Podewils. — This method, which has been in practical use for 18 years in Augsburg, consists of cutting up the animal carcasses into large pieces and placiug them in a heated rotating drum. This drum operates as a high-pressure steamer, drying apparatus and pulverizing machine. The parts of carcasses are steamed tinder a pressure of 5 to 6 atmospheres (corresponding to a temperature of 150° to 160° C), and after the fat has been drawn off, together with the so-called gelatin broth, it is dried by steam heat and simultaneously pulverized. The extraction of the fat from the carcasses is promoted by washing the cadaveric mass after a period of 2 hours' steaming by means of hot gelatin broth obtained from a previous operation of the apparatus, and this process is con- tinued until the whole apparatus is fllled up to the level of the manhole. By means of a valve located near the manhole and a connecting pipe, the fat is then forced out of the apparatus in a pure condition. After the separation of the fat, the gelatin broth is also dried. The whole process takes place without contact with the air and the fumes which are developed are condensed in water, while the gases which can not be condensed are passed under fire. The parts of carcasses introduced into the apparatus leave it in the form of a pulverizable, dry animal meal. The advantages of this method, according to a statement of the inventor, consist (1) in the complete absence of odors ; (2) in a favorable action of the rotation of the drum upon the commi- nution and desiccation of the material ; and (3) in the simultane- 860 BOILING, STEAM STEBILIZATION, ETC. ous desiccation of the so-called gelatine water, whereby all dangei associated with the fluid is avoided. The method of Podewils has been introduced into the abattoirs at Barmen, Kattowitz and Beuthen in Silesia, and Aarhus and Odense in Denmark. It has also been utilized for a long time in Fig. 359. Podewils' apparatus for reducing carcasses. various knackers' establishments (Augsburg, Munich, Graz, Ham- burg, Friedberg in Hessen, Dresden, Caanstatt, Hatzfeld, near Bar- men, and Lausanne in Switzerland. Profit from the Application of Podewils' Method.— In judg- ing the profit to be derived from the application of Podewils' method for the treatment of carcasses, the following table, published by Vollers, may be of interest : DISPOSAL OF MEAT 861 Fee- TILIZEB Obtained ^ ■^OCOOOOiOOOWaaflDD-COGQO T-l O t^ oo^-o^2cDloo^5ooS^2Sow T-tl-tWl-lT-ll-MT-ilHl-ICO-l-lCOOlWTH s 00 of Total Time 1 S o S S « PL, £ s ^ THO»OOi-l-r-)0030SOSOOC700SO t-i T-H T-H T— 1 tH 1-1. i-H tH tH Period foe Removing Fat 1 Ttl'^-*'*^-*^-*^^^-*'-!!'*^ S tt 115 O OS^ O ro O CD CO C0_ OO O C» £> -* *^„ ^„ CT j iOOOO, 1 .OOOiOOO, ' Sheep Lambs GrOATS Kids ^ 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Calves AND Sheep siiiiiiliiiiiii tt (^^c^OOO ooo oooo S § § 1 ^. § 1 S S S 1 g s § ^„ T^ <>i Tit T-tT-' of T-l 1-1 T-Hl-l Horses AND Colts 4" oooooooo ooooo 862 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. The price obtained for the fat is 40 lo 42 marks per double centner, and for the fertilizer 11 to 12 marks. Ill 1804, a total of 509,565 kg. of raw material was ntilized. The profit amounted to 53,350 kg., or 9.04 per cent, fat, with a value of about 23,474 marks, and 139,456 kg., or 24.5 per cent, of the mass in fertilizer, with a value of 16,734 marks. The fat obtained by Pode- wils' method, as in all other methods, naturally varies according to the fat content of the material used. Fm. 260. 4. De l.v Ceoix's System, named for the Veterinarian de la Croix, Director of the Abattoir in Antwerp. — The apparatus constructed by this veterinarian has been introduced also in Ger- many through the efforts of Lydtin and is now manufactured by the firm of Eietschel & Henneberg in Berlin under the name " KafiU Disinfector." The apparatus consists of three cylinders (Fig. 260). The largest cylinder or disinfector proper (the first cylinder on the left DISPOSAL OF MEAT 863 in the figure) is furnished with a steam chest ; that is, it is con- structed with double walls and possesses at the top an easily remov- able cover for introducing the carcasses, etc. The second cylinder is a receiver, in which all of the fluid portions, fat and gelatin broth extracted from the carcasses are collected, while the third and smallest cylinder serves as a condenser for the fumes and gases Tvhich are drawn off from the other cylinders. The sterilizer is con- nected with a steam boiler by means of a special pipe and is heated "by one pipe from the steam boiler, while another pipe leads to the inside of the sterilizer by means of three branches which may be closed with valves. Other pipes furnished with valves branch off from the highest and lowest point of the disinfector. They, unite and pass to the receiver in the form of curved pipe. The connection of the latter with the condenser consists in a transfer pipe which can not be closed, the end of which is bent in the form of a semicircle, is per- forated with small holes and penetrates into the water in the con- denser. From the upper end of the condenser, a pipe which is kept constantly open leads to the fire box. The remainder of the construction of the receiver and con- denser is alike. It consists of sprays, gauges, stop cocks and dis- charge valves. Moreover, the receiver is provided with special stop cocks. After the apparatus is filled in the proper manner, the cover is closed steam-tight and the apparatus is heated by opening a valve in the steam chest. The dry heat in the interior of the dis- infector is thus communicated to the layers of meat, so that the steam which operates on them later finds a material which ^s already hot and produces its full effect without condensing. After this preliminary warming process has been carried on for thirty minutes, the true disinfection process is begun by introducing steam into the disinfection cylinder. The steam is now under the fall pressure of the steam boiler and the material in the ■disinfector is subjected to the action of the steam for six to twelve hours. 5. Habtmann's Extbaction Apparatus. — This apparatus for the destruction of carcasses is constructed like the KafiU Disinfector. This new apparatus, like the Kafill Disinfector, consists of three vessels connected with one another by pipes ; viz.: (1) a vertical sterilizer which serves at the same time as a fat extractor ; (2) a Jiorizontal cylinder for the reception and evaporation of the gelatin 864 BOILING, STEAM STEEILIZATION, ETC. water ; (3) a rectangular wrought-iron condenser for receiving tha fume8 from the other two vessels. Furthermore, the structure consists of a drying apparatus with rotating catchers and two steam-heated iron shoulders, as well as a Gruson Excelsior Mill. While in the KafiU Disinfector destruction is brought about by direct steam from the boiler after the preliminary heating of the meat, the material in Hartmann's apparatus is steamed in its own water, as in an autoclave, for the purpose of saving expense. It was found, however, that steaming the material in its own water required a longer time, and was, therefore, more expensive than steaming with direct steam from the boiler. For this reason Hart- mann has abandoned his new method and boils the material with direct steaming during the first half of the boiling period. The time required by this method, which, like that of the KafiU Disinfector, is odorless, is, according to Colberg, from 6 to 8 hours. After the process is ended, the clarified fat may be completely drawn off from the first cylinder. The gelatin water in the second cylinder is then steamed until a thick fluid mass remains. The steaming process lasts " several hours " and takes place during sterilization and also during the drying and pulverization of the residue of the meat and bones. According to a statement of the manufacturer, Hartmann'a destroying apparatus has been introduced into 12 institutions dur- ing the last two years (1900-1901). The dry fertilizer powder amounts to about 12 per cent, of the raw material. The fat obtained in 24 experiments amounted to only 5.3 per cent., but, according to Colberg, may be estimated at 8 per cent, on an average. The amount of gelatin obtained was also 8 per cent. In Magdeburg, 36 marks was the price paid for fat per double centner and 11 marks for the gelatin. The value of a double centner of fertilizer was estimated at 8.5 marks. 6, Otte's Apparatus. — This apparatus is said to accomplish steaming, drying and pulverizing in one apparatus, as in Podewils' method. The whole apparatus consists, likewise, of three vessels, a disinfector, receiver and gelatin steamer. A simple digestor is also used as an accessory apparatus for receiving whole carcasses. The most important part of the apparatus, the disinfector, is a double walled stationary cylinder, within which a perforated drum revolves which serves to receive dissected carcasses, parts of meat and other animal waste products. Inside the mantle of the station- CONCJI^UDING REMAlil^S 865 ary cylinder are peculiarly arranged shovels and brushes, which, ^y constant motion and turning, hasten the desiccation of the auimal meal and serve to empty the apparatus completely after the desicca- tion is accomplished. In order to operate the apparatus, the mantle of the cylinder is first heated by steam under a pressure of from 4 to 6 atmospheres and the drum is turned. After a short time the steam is admitted into the interior of the cylinder, whereby the cooking process is begun. In the meantime the revolution of the cylinder is continued for about one hour. The drum is then allowed to remain quiet until the extraction of the fat and gelatin is completed, after about 3 hours. The fluids which drip through the perforated drum are forced into the receiver. As soon as the dripping ceases, the outer mantle of the cylinder is heated for the purpose of drying the extracted cadaveric masses. The perforated drum is also moved backward and forward. It is said that after about five hours the whole contents of the drum become dry and may be ground through the perforations by means of edge rollers. It should also be noted that there is a steaming vessel in use for the technical utilization of confiscated meat in the abattoir at Zwickau, and Rohrbeck and Budenberg recommended their disin- fectors also for the harmless destruction of animal carcasses. Concluding Remarks. Veterinarians will deserve the great gratitude of stock raisers if they earnestly strive to introduce devices everywhere, but chiefly in abattoirs, whereby not only a certain destruction of whole animals and parts excluded from consumption, but also an advan- tageous technical utilization of this material may be accomplished. By this means a considerable portion of the national wealth will be saved instead of wasted and the great loss which agriculture suffers through the condemnation of whole animals or parts of animals will be diminished. Appendix. Enforcement of Section 21 of the Imperial Meat Inspec- tion Law. By an Imperial decree of February 16, 1902, it was ordered that Section 21 of the Meat Inspection Law should go into force October 866 BOILING, STEAM STERILIZATION, ETC. 1, 1902. This paragraph forbids the utilization of materials an also methods of procedure in the commercial preparation of mea which may lend the products an injurious property or which ar calculated to conceal harmful or inferior quality. In the prpclams tion of the Imperial Chancellor of February 18, 1902, the material the utilization of which is forbidden from and after October 1, 1905 are named. The decree of February 16, 1902, with regard to the partis enforcement of the law concerning the inspection of food animal and meat of June 3, 1900 : We, Wilhelm, by grace of God German Emperor, King of Prussia, etc. , i the name of the Emperor and with the consent of the Federal Council, decree o the basis of Section 30, line 2, of the law concerning the inspection of foo animals and meat, of June 3, 1900, the following ^ Section 31 of the law concerning the inspection of food animals and meat o June 3, 1900, shall go into force October 1, 1903. Simultaneously, the provision of Section 36, No. 1, Section 27, No. 1., and Sections 38 and 39, shall go into fore so far as they concern violations of Section 21, paragraphs 1 and 3, of a prohibitio issued on the basis of Section 31, paragraph 3. Wilhelm, Count von Posadowsky. The proclamation of the Imperial Chancellor reads as follows Proclamation concerning injurious and deceptive additions to meat and it products, February 18, 1903. . On the basis of Section 21 of the law concerning the inspection of fooi animals and meat of June 3, 1900, the Federal Council has rendered the followin] decisions : The provisions of Section 31, paragraph 1, of the law apply to the followini materials, as well as to preparations containing such materials j Boric acid and its salts ; formaldehyde ; hydroxidsand carbonates of alkalie and alkaline earths ; sulphurous acid and its salts as well as hyposulphites fluoric acid and its salts ; salicylic acid and its combinations ; salts of hydro chloric acid. This applies also to coloring materials of all kinds, except that it shall no be construed to mean the prohibition of the utilization of a yellow coloration o oleomargarine and the coloration of sausage casings in so far as this utilizatloi does not violate other provisions. Count von Posadowsky. Berlin, February 18, 1903. INDEX Abattoir; see Slaughterhouses. — veterinarians, appointment of, 54. Abdominal glands, 183. Abnormal physiological conditions, 237. Accidents, 741. Achlya nowicki, 707. — prolifera, 707. Acid fermentation, 745. in game, 746. Actinomyces bovis, 343, 654. Actinomycomata, 656. Actinomycosis, 275. — general account, 654-662. — of the muscles, 366. — of the tongue, 276. — in the horse, 660. — in sheep, 660. — in man, 660. Adenoma of liver, 297. Adipose tissue, abnormal coloration of; see also Fat, 245. — appearanceof, 184, 202. Adulteration, 102. — of sausage with flour, 770. — -with other material, 782. — German law concerning, 783. Agamodistomum, 404. Age, criteria for judging, 321, 236. — of cattle, 233. — deer, 235. — ducks, 228, — fowls, 237. — geese, 327. — hens, 227. — horses, 321. — partridges, 238. — pheasants, 288. — pigeons, 338. — sheep, 224. — slaughtered animals, determina- tion of, 221. Age of swine, 335. — turkeys, 337. Air bladder mesentery, 289. Air expansion machines, 833. " Albumina," mixed with sausage, 780. Alcohol as a preventive of meat pois- oning, 714, 717. Alimentary canal, normal appearance of, 168. Alkalimeter, 800. " AlkermSssaft " for coloring meat, 787. Allantiasis, 758. Ammonium acetate, 830. Amphistomum conicum, 281,398, Amyloid degeneration, 257. Amylum, demonstration of, 777. Anasarca, 278. Anchylostomum bovis, 283, 283. — longemucronatum, 410. Anderson, Zimmermann and Acolom system of refrigerator cars, 830. Anemia, 367, Angiomatosis of the liver, 391. Anguillula aceti, 477. Animal meal, 858. Anoplocephala mamillana, 281, 395, — perfoliata, 281, 395. — plicata, 281, 395. Anthrax, 577-585. — bacilli, capsules of, 579. resistance to high temperature, 584. — bacillus and cadaver bacillus, dif- ferentiated, 580. — differential diagnosis, 582. — procedure with meat in cases of, 583. Antigrisein, 830, Antisepsis, importance of, 548. Aphthous fever, 586. 868 INDEX Apiosoma bigeviinum, SCj. Arsenic, 380. Asafetida, odor of in meat, 384i Axcaris capsularis, 407. — lumbricoides, 381, 406. — megalocephala, 381, 406. Aspergillosis, 326. Aspergillus fumigatus, 338. — niger, 336. Aspiration of blood, 331. — of stomach contents, 330. — pneumonia, 834. Atelectasis, 320. Atrophy, 251. Australian meat preserve, 814. Austria-Hungary, meat inspection in, 30. Autointoxication, 379, 385. Avian diphtheria, 705. — tuberculosis, 651. Axillary glands, 179. Azo-dyes for coloring meat, 787, Azoturia ; see Ischuria. Bacillus anthracis, 578. — hotulinus, 761, 702. — bovis morbificans , 732. — — renalis, 307, 559. — cellulceformans, 753. — chauvmi, 675. — coli communis, 683, 731, 733, 734. — crassus bovis, 559. — ■ — pyogenes bovis, 559. — cyanogenes, 748. — enteritidis, 314, 315, 739, 730, 731, 733, 753. — fcetidus lactis, 683. — gastromycosis avis, 678. — hemorrhagicus, 574. — liquefaoiena pyogenes bovis, 559. — mallei, 595. — mesentericMs, 749, 753. — neapolitaniin, 683. — prodigiosiis, 748. — proteus vulgaris, 753, — pseudo-tuberculosis, 653. — pyocyaneus, 307. — pyogenes bovis, 559. • fcetidus, 559. — subtilis, 825. — snipestifer, 697. — suisepticus,QQ4:. Bacillus tetani, 576. — tuberculosis, 607. aviuvi, 651. Backsteinblatteru, 691. Bacon, black coloration of, 254. — pigmentation of, 209. — German and American, 220. Bacteria, chemism of, 551. — demonstration in meat, 740. — on meat, 748. — resistance to heat, 551 . Bacteriology and meat inspection, 548.. Bacterium, coli; see Bacillus coli. Balbiania gigantea, 532. Balbianidse, 582. Barbone disease, 674, Barmenit, 810. Barrows, 238. Beech chips for producing smoke, 807^ Beech nuts, effect on bacon, 187. Beef bladder worm, 419. — usual location of, 437. Beef, character of, 300. — bones, 204. — classification of, 148. — fat, 203. Belgium, meat inspection in, 30, 33.. Berlinit, 811. Bierwurst, 773. Bile ducts, inflammation of, 297. Bllliarzia crassa, 405. Biliary peritonitis, J287. "Blackberry red," 787. Blackleg, 674-677. — bacillus, 675. — diagnosis, 676. — sjmptoms, 675. Bladder, diseases of,. 309. — inspection of, 158. — worms, 419. Bleeding, defective, 742. — normal, 131. — obtaii.ed by different methods of slaughter, 138. Bloating, 741. Blood, anomalies of, 367. — aspiration, 331. — bread, 168. ' ■ Blood color," for coloring meat, 787. Blood, normal appearance of, 167. — food, value of, 108. — quantity of, 131, 169. INDEX 869' "Blood sausage, 773. — spot disease, 574. — vessels, diseases of, 341. Bloody urine, 537. Blunzen, poisoning from, 759. Boars, cryptorchid and castrated, odor of meat of, 347. Boiling meat, 841. Boiling, effect of high temperatures. upon dangerous meat, 841. — effect of high temperatures upon parasites, 841. — effect of high temperatures upon toxins, 843. — effect on weight and composition of meat, 846. Bolt hammer, 138. Bones, actinomycosis of, 353. — diseases of, 350. — normal appearance of, 176. — tuberculosis of, 351. — weight of, 177. Boophilus bovis, 536. Borax, use in pickling meat, 803. Boric acid, application in preserva- tion of meat, 809. — demonstration in meat, 811. — effect on man, 813. — in trade preparations, 810. — preservative effect of, 811. Boroglycin, 810. ^othriocephalus latus, 418. Botryomyces, 663. Botryomycosis, 663-665. — of the muscles, 366. — of the udder, 316. Botulism, 758. — bacteriology, 761. — occurrence, 759. — etiology, 760. — mortality, 763. — pathology, 763. — prophylaxis, 764. Braasot; see Braxy. Brain, diseases of, 348. Bratwurst, 773. Braxy, 677-679. Breslau bacillus, 733. Brilliant-berolina in sausage, detec- tion of, 789. Brine, composition of, 803. — effect on microorganisms, 803. Brine for preserving meat, 800. — syringes, 800. Bronchial glands, 183. Broncho-pneumonia of calves, 670. Brown coloration of skeleton, 353. Briihwurst, 773, 773. — water content of, 774. — starch in the preparation of, 774. — flour in the preparation of, 775, 779. Buck sheep, odor of meat of, 348. Budenberg disinfector, 853. Buffalo meat, 300. — bones, 304. — plague, 674. — skeleton, 305. Bulls, odor of meat of, 348. Burning condemned meat, 856. Butchering, art of, 133. Butchers' jelly, 391. Cachexia, 369. Cadaver bacilli, 575, 580. Cadaverin, 553. Calcareous concretions, 539-546. — deposits, 354. — fibrous tubercles in liver, 399. Calcification of peritoneum, 385. Calf diphtheria, 679. — dysentery, 681. " Calf feet," 773. Calves, inspection of, 159. Camphor, odor of in meat, 384. Canned meat, 833. — injurious decomposition of, 756. — introduction of, 85. — judgment on, 833. Carcass, treated in digestors, 857. — utilization of, 40. Caroeag, 537. Carcinoma, 365. Carmin for coloring meat, 787. — detection of, 789. " Carmin substitute" in meat, detec- tion of, 789. Camat, 814. Came pura, 833. Carrion, 744. Caseous lymphadenitis, 658. Casting apparatus, 140. Castration of female animals, 333. Cat, skeleton of, 308. Cattle inspection, 157. 870 INDEX Cattle ticks, 536. Caviar, adulteration of, 783. — American, 783. — Elbe, 783. — Russian, 783. Cephenomyia ruflbarbis in pharynx of stag, 379. — stimulator in pharynx of roebuck, 279. — trompe in pharynx of reindeer, 379. Cerebrospinal meningitis, 348. Cervelatwurst, 773. Cervical glands, 179. Cestodes, 394. Charque, 823. — duloe, 823. Cheiracanthus hispidus; see Qnatho- stomum hispidum. Chemical preservatives, 800. prohibition of use of, 866. — utilization of condemned meat, 856. Chemismof bacteria, 551. Chemistry of the musculature, 196. Chicken pox, 534. Chlorin flavor of meat, 747. Cholemia, 375. Cholin, 553. Chromosot, 814. Circulatory disturbances, 258, 336. Cirrhosis of the liver, 393. Clam poisoning, 767. nature of, 768. recognition of , 768. Classification of beef, 148. in Berlin, 150. in Vienna, 150. in Paris, 149. in London, 148. — of food animals, 334. mutton, 151. pork, 151. veal, 151. " Clean " animals, 10. Cloudy swelling, 355. Clump liver, 391. Cocci, 549. Coccidia, 521. — in rabbit liver, 531. hog liver, 523. • sheep intestines, 524 Coccidium fusoum, 873. Coccidium oviforine, 272, 309, 531. — perforans, 523. — tenellum, 533. Cochineal for coloring meat, 787. — detection of, 788. Canurus oerebralis, 348, 395. — serialis, 395. Cold air machines, 833. Cold as a preservative, 824. "Cold butchering," 113, 132. Cold, effect of on putrefactive bac- teria, 825. — effect of on pathogenic bacteria, 825. — for preserving meat, sources of^ 838. — oars, 830. — storage, Fixary system, 836. plants, necessity and value of,. 839. with artificial contrivances, 833. with ice, 838-. value of, 830. various systems of, 830. position and structure of , 83S — vapor machines, 833. with circulating salt solu- tion, 838. Coloring fish gills, 102. — material, kinds of, 787. directions for detecting, 790. — matters, prohibition of use of, 866. — meat, 786. purpose, 786. — sausages, judgment of, 791 . — Imperial Health OflSce, position of, 793. Colpitis, pernicious, 313. Compression machines, 833. Condemnation of meat, 84, 115, 155. Condemned meat, harmless methods ot disposal, 854. Cooking meat, 841. Cooking, effect on weight and com- position of meat, 846. Cooling meat, 836. Copenhagen method of destruction, 858. Copper in oysters, 769. Corallin for coloring sausage casings,. 787. INDEX 871 Corn, effect on bacon, 187. Corned beef, 821. Corned brown, 831. — mutton, 821. Cotton seed oil in lard, 782. Courtoy and Coremans' method for demonstrating horse meat, 216. Cow pox, 591. Crangon vulgaris, 784. Crab plague, 708. Crayfish plague, 708. — spot disease, 708. Crustacea as food, 125. — poisoning, 766. Cryptogenetic pyemia, 563. Cryptorohids, 2S2. Curcuma paper for • demonstrating boric acid, 811. Customs, inland, 86. — officials, 86. Cutis, erythrisms of, 268. — solutions of continuity, 268. Cysticeroi, calcified, 543. — degeneration of, 433. — in sausages, demonstration of, 430. — methods of killing, 434-438. by acids, 438. — — by freezing, 437. by heat, 434. long preservation, 437. pickling, 435, — unusual findings of, 423. Cystieercus bovis in the liver, 298. in the lung, 328. in the heart, 341. in the brain, 348, general account, 419. — cellulosce, 8. caseation and calcification, 446. — — infestation by, 447. location of, 448. in the liver, 298. in the lung, 328. in the heart, 341. in the lymph glands, 346. in the brain, 348. general account, 442-453. — disease in man, 8, 452. — inermis; see Cystieercus bovis. — ovis, 417. — pisiformis, 398. — tenuicollis, 9. C^sticerciis tenuicollis in the liver, 298, in the lung, 328. in the peritoneum, 291. general account, 395, 450. Cystitis, 3U9. Oytodites nudus, 273, 335. Davainea tetragona, 283, 395. Death, natural, 743. diagnosis and judgment of meat in, 743. Deception in labels, 100. Decomposing meat, alkaline reaction of, 755. Decomposition, demonstration of, 754, in canned meat, 756. — judgment of, 757. — of meat, 751. influence of air on, 753. partial, 753. — toxins, 754. isolation of, 754. . Deer, skeleton of, 207. Degenerations, 254. De la Croix system for treating car- casses, 862. Demodex phylloides suis, 390, Denmark, meat inspection in, 31. Deposits of lime, 254. — of pigment, 25^. Diamond skin disease, 691. Differentiation of meat and organs of different animals, 166. Digestors for treatment of carcasses, 857. Diphtheria of calves, 679. — relation to human diphtheria, 681. .— of fowls, 7Q5-707. Dipterous larvae, 890. Dipylidium caninum, 395. JHseomyces equi, 662. Diseases, most important, 128. Dispharagus uncinatus, 407. Dissolutions of continuity, 251. Distomatosis, 401. Distomes, 'development of, 403. . Distomum hepaticum, 328, 399. — lanceolatum, 402. — magnum, 405. — panareatieumin pancreas, 300, 405. Dog, bones of, 307. — fat of, 203. 87^ INDEX Dog, skeleton of, 207. Dogs slaughtered for food, 125. Double liver, 291. Double-loin calves, 201. Dourine, 538. Drepanidotcenia lanceolata, 394. — setigera, 894. Dresel's preserving salt, 810. Dressed weight, 188. ■ rules for determining, 190. Dried meat, 823. Dropsy, cellular, 370. Drugs, odorific, effect on meat, 384. Dry pickled beef, 803. Dyestuffs in meat, demonstration of, 787. Dysenteria hemorrhagica coccidiosa, 523. Dysentery of calves, 681-683. Ecchymoses, 258. Eochinococci in the myocardium, 340. — in the liver, 298. — in the lymph glands, 346. — general account. 501. — calcification of, 544. — death of, 508. JUchinococcfus alveolaris, 508. — cysticun fertilis,50i. ■ sterilis, 504. — disease in man, 9, 499. — granulosus, 504. — hydatidosus, 504. — multilocularis, 836, 501, 508. in man, 510. — polymorphus, 501, 503, 505. — unilocularis, 503. Echinoryvchus gigas, 406. Eclf hart's preserving salt, 810. Edema, 273. — bacillus, 574. — malignant, 574. Egyptian meat regulations, 10. Electricity as an aid in pickling, 801. Emaciation, differentiation from poorness, 243. — judgment on, 244 Emergency slaughter, 63, 73, 710. percentage of injurious meat from, 711. difficulty in judging meat from, 735. Emergency slaughter, bacteriological study of meat in cases of, 739. Emphysema, 320. — mesenterial, 388. Endocarditis, 338. — bacterial, 563,' 693. Endocardium, diseases of, 337. England, meat inspection in, 31. English patent method of slaughter- ing, 130. Enteritis, hemorrhagic, of calves, 571. — Infectious, 712. Entozoa and inspection, statistics of, 8. — in intestines, 281. — in the lungs, 329, 599. Eosin for coloring meat, 787. Epicardium, diseases of, 336. Epithelioma contagiosum of fowls,, 524. Erysipelas of swine, 683. Eserin, 381. Esophagus, diseases of, 279. Esox lueius, 418. Ether, odor of in meat. 384. Eustrongylus gigas, 309, 407. Expansion machines, 833. Extractives of meat, 196. Farcy; see Glanders. Fasciola; see Distomum. Fat, anatomy and physiology of, 186. — decomposition of, 749. — importance of, 188. — influence of feed on, 187. — normal appearance of, 184, 203. Fatness, means of judging, 186. Fats, differentiation of, 303. Fattened condition, 185. Fatty abscesses, 257. — degeneration, 255. — infiltration, 2n6. — metamorphosis, 185, 256. — necrosis, multiple, 288. Feeding, influence on fat, 187. ■ meat, 195. ■ odor of meat, 345. Feijaoada, 823. Fenugreek, influence on odor of meat, 246. Fermentation of meat, 745. Fertilizer factories, 42. Fetuses, meat of, 341. INDES 873 Tetuses, judgment on, 343. Fibrillar rupture of muscles, 356. Filaria hemoi-rhagica, 407. — immitis, 407. — megastoma, 381, 407. — microstoma, 281, 407. — papulosa, 391. — pectinifera, 407. — scutata esophagea bovis in esopha- gus of cattle and sheep, 379, 407. — strongylina, 281, 407. — uncinata; see Dispharagus iin- cinatus. "Fir chips for producing smoke, 807. Itsh, 125. — decomposition of, 766. detection of, 766. — diseases, 535, 707. — influence of as feed for animals,345. " Fish meat " degeneration, 257, 358. — parasites, 398, 418, 525. — poisoning, 766. — pox, 525. Fishy meat, 245, 247. Flaxseed, influence on the odor of pigeon meat, 247. Flour, adulteration of sausage, 770. — in sausage, judgment on, 779. legal considerations, 779. Flukes, 398. — in muscles, 404. Tluorin sodium silicate, 820. Food animals, 122. Foot-and-mouth disease, 121, 586. : — diagnosis, 589. — sequelae of. 590. — -virus of, 587. Formalin, 820. Fowl cholera, 672, 703, 705. — plagues, 703, 707. Fowls, inspection of, 87. Fractures, 351. France, meat laws in, 29, 30. Freezing meat, 826. Freibanks, 28, 46. — history of, 49. — distribution in Germany, 49. .Frozen meat as army ration, 826. Fuchsin for coloring meat, 787. detection of, 788. i}alactococeus dlbtis,' 315. &alactococ