/ ' i .: : ' : '.."-","' i \ 
 
CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 MUSIC 
 
ML 338.fl2 e i882 VerSl,y Ubrary 
 
 3 1924 022 411 650 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92402241 1 650 
 
HINDU MUSIC 
 
 FROM 
 
 VARIOUS AUTHORS, 
 
 POM.PIL.ED AND J^UBLISHED 
 
 RAJAH COMM. SOURINDRO MOHUN TAGORE, 
 
 MUS. DOC.J F.R.S.L., M.U.A.S., 
 Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire ; 
 
 KNIGHT COMMANDER OF THE FIRST CLASS OF THE ORDER OF 
 
 ALBERT, SAXONY ; 
 
 OF THE ORDER OF LEOPOLD, BELGIUM ; 
 
 OF THE MOST EXALTED ORDEE OF FRANCIS JOSEPH, AUSTRIA ; 
 
 OF THE ROYAL ORDER OF THE CROWN OF ITALY ; 
 
 OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ORDER OF DANNEBROG, DENMARK ; 
 
 AND OF THE ROYAL ORDER OF MELTJSINE OF 
 
 PRINCESS MARY OF LUSIGNAN ; 
 
 FRANC CHEVALIER OF THE ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF THE 
 
 HOLY SAVIOUR OF MONT-REAL, JERUSALEM, RHODES AND MALTA ; 
 
 COMMANDEUR DE ORDRE RELIGIEOX ET MILITAIRE DE 
 
 SAINT-SAUVEUR DE MONT-REAL, DE SAINT-JEAN DE JERUSALEM, 
 
 DU TEMPLE, DU SAINT SEPULCRE, DE RHODES ET MALTE REFORME ; 
 
 KNIGHT OF THE FIRST CLASS OF THE IMPERIAL ORDER OF THE 
 
 " PAOU SING," OR PRECIOUS STAR, CHINA ; 
 
 OF THE SECOND CLASS OF THE HIGH IMPERIAL ORDER OF 
 
 THE LION AND SUN, PERSIA; 
 
 OF THE SECOND CLASS OF THE IMPERIAL ORDER 
 
 OF MEDJIDIE, TURKEY ; 
 
 AND OF THE ROYAL MILITARY ORDER OF CHRIST, PORTUGAL ; 
 
 KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF BASABAMALA, SIAM ; 
 
 AND OF THE GURKHA STAR, NEPAL ; " NAWAB SHAHZADA " 
 
 FROM THE SHAH OF PERSIA, &C, &C, &C. 
 
 IN TWO PARTS. 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Calcutta: 
 
 Printed by I. 0. Bose & Co., Stanhope Press, 
 249, Bow-Bazar Street. 
 
 1882. 
 
 [All rights reserved.'] 
 
PREFACE TO THE EIEST EDITION. 
 
 The very deep interest which the European Public 
 have of late evinced with regard to my humble labors 
 towards the revival of Hindu Music, has created in me a 
 desire to present to them a collection of all that have ever 
 been written on the subject by the Oriental Scholars of 
 Europe, together with my own comments on their views 
 and on those of our ancient Sanscrit musical writers. 
 
 The whole will consist of two parts : The first part 
 contains extracts from almost all the eminent works 
 on Hindu Music extant in the English language. 
 
 It is therefore hoped that the present collection, not- 
 withstanding its short-comings, will be received with 
 indulgence by those interested in the subject. Should 
 this hope be realized, I purpose soon to publish the 
 - second part which will contain a dissertation on our 
 ancient Sanscrit musical works and a criticism on the 
 different views taken by the European writers on Hindu 
 Music, together with further collections if available. 
 
 All the extracts bear the name of the works from 
 which they have been taken. With regard to one taken 
 from the " Ain-i-Akbari," a valuable translation of which 
 has lately been published by H. Blochmann, Esq., m. a., 
 I have only to add that my best acknowledgments are 
 due to that learned gentleman for his kind permission 
 to make use of his work. 
 
 SOURINDEO MOHUN TAGORE. 
 CALCUTTA, 
 
 PATHURIAGHATA, 
 
 The 28th January, 1875. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The increasing interest which has of late been evinced 
 by the Public in the Music of India, has led me to bring 
 out a second edition of this work. I have incorporated 
 ■with this a further collection of the views of foreign 
 writers on Hindu Music, which has been placed in the 
 second part. As I have already published a Dissertation 
 on Indian Music under the designation of " Six Principal 
 Kagas of the Hindus," I have thought it unnecessary to 
 give in this work my own views on the subject, such as I 
 had promised to do, while bringing out the first edition. 
 
 My acknowledgments are due to the learned writers, 
 extracts from whose works form the subject of Part II. 
 
 SOURINDRO MOHUN TAGORE. 
 CALCUTTA, ^ 
 
 PATHURIAGHATA RAJBATI, C 
 
 20th October 1882. \ 
 
PART I. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 Page. 
 A Treatise on the Music of Hindoostan. By Captain N. Augustus 
 
 Willard ... .. ... .. .. .. 1-122 
 
 On the Musical Modes of the Hindoos. By Sir William Jones . . 125-160 
 
 Anecdotes of Indian Music. By Sir W. Ouseley . . . . 163-172 
 
 On the GrSmas or Musical Scales of the Hindus. By J. D. Paterson, 
 
 Esq. .. .. .. ... .. ., 175-189 
 
 On the Vina or Indian Lyre. By Francis Fowke, Esq. . . 193-197 
 
 Sungeet. By Francis Gladwin, Esq. . . . . . . 201-208 
 
 The Naqqarahkhanah and the Imperial Musicians. Translated 
 
 by H. Blochmann, Esq., M. a. .. . .. .. 211-216 
 
 The Music of Hindustan or India. By William C. Stafford . . 218-228 
 
 Music of the Hindus. By J. Nathan .. .. .. 231-232 
 
 On the Music of Hindustan. (From the Scientific Intelligence.) . . 235-239 
 
 Catalogue of Indian Musical Instruments. By Col. P. T. French . . 243-273 
 
 Music. By Lieut.-Col. James Tod .. .. .. 277-282 
 
 Notes on the Musical Instruments of the Nepalese. By A. Camp- 
 bell, Esq., M. D. .. .. .. .. .. 285-290 
 
 Music of Ceylon. By John Davy, m. d., t. e. s. . . . . 293-294 
 
 Music and Dancing. By Crawfurd, Esq. .. .. ,,. 297-308 
 
A 
 
 TREATISE 
 
 ON 
 
 THE MUSIC OF HINJDOOSTAN, 
 
 COMPRISING A DETAIL OF 
 
 The Ancient Theory 
 
 AND 
 
 MODEBN PRACTICE. 
 
 The similarity of the music of Egypt and Greece to- that of this 
 eountry has been traced and pointed out : harmony and melody have 
 been compared : and time noticed. The varieties of song have been 
 enumerated, and the character of each detailed : a brief account of 
 the principal musicians superadded, and the work concluded with a 
 short alphabetical glossary of the most useful musical terms. 
 
 The man that hath no music in himself, 
 
 Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 
 
 Is fit for treasons. — Shakespear's Merchant of Venice. 
 
 BY 
 
 CAPTAIN N. AUGUSTUS WILLARD, 
 Commanding in the Service of B, H. the Nawab of Banda. 
 
TO 
 
 LADY W. C. BENTINCK, 
 
 &C &C» dsc. 
 
 Madam, 
 
 The illustrious statesman, our present Governor-General, to 
 whom the administration of the affairs of India is entrusted, has done 
 so much for the good of the country at large, and for the benefit 
 of my countrymen in particular, that I consider myself, though not 
 individually benefited by them, as bound to acknowledge them. The 
 sentiments of gratitude conveyed in a private letter are only known 
 to the parties concerned, or if recorded in a newspaper, are but of 
 ephemeral existence, and I have, therefore, taken this method of expressing 
 my humble sentiments towards His Lordship ; and from your Ladyships 
 relation to Lord W. 0. Bentinck, you will, I entertain no 
 doubt, feel an equal degree of satisfaction, when convinced of 
 the real sentiments of one of a community whom he has laid under such 
 important obligations. 
 
 With respect to yourself, Madam, I have only to observe, that 
 it was chiefly with the view of being enabled to dedicate the work 
 to your Ladyship, that it has been so abruptly and almost prematurely 
 introduced to public view, in this season of public depression through 
 the recent failures. 
 
 With my heartfelt acknowledgments for the very condescending and 
 handsome manner in which your Ladyship has been pleased to accede to 
 my request, that you would permit me the honor of dedicating the work 
 to your Ladyship. 
 
 I beg to subscribe myself, with all respect, 
 
 Madam, 
 
 Tour Ladyship's very obedient, and much obliged humble servant, 
 
 N. A. WILLARD. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 Preface. A general view of the plan and contents of the work 1 
 Introduction. Music. Its power on the human mind. That of Hin- 
 dustan. The opinion of the Natives with respect to their ancient 
 musicians. How a knowledge of it may be acquired. Not generally 
 liked by Europeans. Reasons assigned for this. Native opinion with 
 regard to its lawfulness. Musical instruments. Relation of music 
 to poetry considered. Progress of music in Hindustan. The manner 
 of life which should be led to ensure eminence in this science. 
 Cause of its depravity. Date of its decline. The similarity which 
 the music of this country seems to bear to that of Egypt and Greece. 
 How a knowledge of the. music of Hindustan might conduce to a 
 revival of that of those countries. Comparisons offered. Whether 
 the Natives of Greece or Hindustan had made greater progress in 
 music. Comparisons decide in favor of the latter . . . . 15 
 
 Hindustanee Music. What it is termed in the original. The treatises 
 held in the greatest estimation. Native divisions what and how 
 many. The arrangement adopted in, this work .. ..37 
 
 Of the Gamut. What it is called. The derivation of the word. The 
 ■ subdivisions of tones. Resemblance of these to the Great diesis. 
 Opinions of Dr. Burney and Mr. Moore on the enharmonic genus. 
 Names of the seven notes. Origin of these. The gamut invented by 
 Guido and Le Maire. Dr. Pepusch. Srooti . . . '39 
 
 Of Time. The various measures used in Europe. Difference between 
 them and those of Hindustan. Their resemblance to the rhythm of 
 the Greeks. Similarity between the Greek and Sungscrit languages. 
 The Hebrew unmusical, likewise the Arabic. Melody and metre 
 considered. Tartini's objections against metre, endeavoured to bo 
 controverted. The dignified prose in Sungscrit, and tongues derived 
 from it. Its superiority to the Oordu. Probable origin of the 
 modern musical measure. Tartini's deduction of measure from the 
 proportions of the octave and its fifth, opposed to the practice of 
 Hindustan. Whether the rhythmical or the musical measure 
 possesses greater advantages. Opinion hazarded thereon. Time 
 table. Characters for expressing time. Their varieties . . . . 45 
 
 Of Harmony and Melody. The origin and harmony in Europe. Opi- 
 nions of several learned men on the subject of harmony with that 
 of the author. Claims of melody . . . . . . . . 54 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Otf Oriental Melody. Not generally susceptible of harmony. Limited 
 to a certain number. Its character . . . . . , . . 60 
 
 Or Rags and Raginees, The general acceptation of the terms supposed 
 to be incorrect. Reasons offered, why they are limited to season and 
 time. Of the Ragmala. Absurdity of limiting tunes to seasons. 
 Divisions of Rags and Raginees into classes. Rules for determining 
 the names of the mixed Raginees. Table of compounded Rags. The 
 Ragmala copiously described . . . . . . . . 63 
 
 Of Mi'sical Instruments. Their present state susceptible of much 
 improvement. Their classification. Detailed description of the 
 several instruments now in use . . . . . . . . 90 
 
 Of the various species of Vocal Compositions of Hindustan. Twenty 
 different species described . . . . . . . . 101 
 
 Of the Peculiarities of Manners and Customs in Hindustan, to which 
 allusions are made in their song. Its characteristic nature. Reasons 
 assigned for several of them, which now no longer exist, and 
 examples produced . . . . . . . . . . 108 
 
 Brief Account of the most celebrated Musicians of Hindustan . . 118 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 OP 
 
 THE MOST USEFUL MUSICAL TERMS. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bishnoopud. A species of Hindu divine songs, p. 106. 
 
 Bugeed, Bur. A species of song, vide curca, p. 107. 
 
 Bum. The bass end of a drum. 
 
 Bunsee or Banslee. A flute. 
 
 Byree, m. Byrum, /. An enemy. Crishnu's flute, the Pupee- 
 ha, and some other birds are thus designated by the females 
 of Hindustan, as being the enemies to their repose. 
 C. 
 
 Charbyt. Songs in the Oordu, comprising four couplets, 
 p. 107. 
 
 Chhund. A sort of ancient songs, chiefly in the Sungscrit, 
 p. 101. 
 
 Chutoorung. Songs consisting of four strains in different 
 styles. 1, Kheal ; 2, Turana ; 3, Surgum ; 4, Tirwut, p. 106. 
 
 Cool. A sort of songs, p. 107. 
 
 Curtar, castanets made of wood, ivory, &c. 
 
 Cymbals and Castanets. Jhanjh, Munjeera, Curtar, &c. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dadra. Original songs of Boondelkhund and Bhughelkhund, 
 p. 107. 
 
 Gholkee. A sort of drum. 
 
 Dhoon, from h^fif a sound. It is used in contradistinction to 
 Rag and Raginee : any piece of melody not strictly in con- 
 formity with the established melody is thus characterised. 
 
ii GLOSSARY. 
 
 Dhoorpud. A species of song on tlie ancient fashion, It is 
 not generally understood or relished, and its use seems to 
 be about to be superseded by lighter compositions, as Tup- 
 pa, p. 101. 
 
 Drums are of various sorts, the chief of them are Nukara, 
 Mridung, Tubla, and Dholkee. For their construction, &c, 
 see the Chapter on Musical Instruments, p. 90. 
 F. 
 
 Flageolet. Ulghozub. 
 
 Flute. Bansulee or Bunsee. The famous instrument played 
 upon by the god Krishnu. It is seldom used, and there are 
 few tolerable performers on it now. 
 G. 
 
 Gamut. The native term for this is Surgum. 
 
 Geet. A species of ancient songs, chiefly in Sungscrit, p. 101. 
 
 Ghuzel. Persian lyric poetry, and in imitation of it, those in 
 Oordu, p. 106. 
 
 Gramsthau. The first or lowest note of an octave is called 
 gram, and is in some measure equivalent to our key note. 
 The extent of Hindu music being limited to three 
 octaves, the notes of the lowest octave are said to belong to 
 Khuruj, or mundar gram, and the sounds supposed to pro- 
 ceed from the umbilical region, which is its gramsthan ; 
 those of the middle octave, to mu&dhum gram, and are sup- 
 posed to proceed from the throat immediately : and the 
 notes of the highest octave are believed to have their origin 
 in some of the cavities of the scull or brain, and thence 
 denominated tarook gram. 
 
 Griha. The key note. 
 
 Qrunth. Native treatises on music. 
 
 Guitar. See Eubab, Sitar, &c. 
 
GLOSSARY. Ill 
 
 H. 
 
 Holee, or Horee. A species of song, p. 103. 
 
 I. 
 
 Instruments (Musical). These are divided into four classes : 
 ], "Tut ;'> 2, "Bitut ;" 3, " Ghun ;" and 4, " Sooghur." For 
 a description of these, vide the Chapter on musical instru- 
 ments, p. 90. 
 
 J. 
 Jhanjh. Large cymbals. 
 Jut. A species of song, p. 105. 
 
 K. 
 Khadoo. A Rag or Raginee, which comprises in its course 
 
 only six soors or notes. 
 Kheal. A species of songs, p. 102. 
 
 L. 
 Letters and Syllables, unpropitious. 
 
 The following eight letters are reckoned unpropitious, and 
 
 should not begin any piece of Hindu poetry or song, viz., 
 
 Wt3 ^mT&mCfl. Words consisting of three letters or 
 
 syllables, (which is the same in Nagree,) of the following 
 
 sorts, are believed to be equally unlucky ; 1. Those which 
 
 have the middle syllable long, and the first and third short, 
 
 and are called " Jugun, v as nf^[«j ; 2. Those which have 
 
 ' the two first syllables short, and the last long, denominated 
 
 " Sukun," as «jj|f^fcjT ; 3. A short syllable between two 
 
 long ones, " Rukun,'' as SR^i^ ; 4. " Tukun" the two first 
 
 long and the last short, as ijt cTT^f. 
 
 M. 
 
 Moorchhuna. A term expressive of the full extent of the 
 
 Hindu scale of music, and as this extends to three 
 
[ v GLOSSARY. 
 
 octaves, there are consequently twenty-one Moorchhunas, 
 having distinct names. A Moorchhuna differs from a aoor 
 in this respect, that, there are twenty-one of the former 
 and only seven of the latter, so that every soor has the 
 same name whether it belong to the lowest, middle, or 
 highest octave ; whereas every individual sound through the 
 whole range of three octaves has a distinct name when it is 
 considered as Moorchhuna, by which way of naming them 
 the octave of any particular sound has a distinct appella- 
 tive. A Khadoo Rag for instance, q. v., extends to six soors 
 or notes ; but it may comprehend within its compass seven, 
 or eight, or more Moorchhunas, according to the numbe* 
 of notes which are repeated in another octave. 
 
 Mridung. A sort of drum, appropriately used to accompany 
 Dhoorpuds, and other solemn species of music. 
 
 Munjeera. Little cymbals used to mark the time. 
 
 Muqamat Farsee. Persian music. These are said to have 
 their origin from the prophets, whilst others ascribe them, 
 as well as the invention of musical instruments, to philoso- 
 phers. Although the Muqamat Farsee are originally of 
 Persia, yet as they are now known in this country, it 
 seems necessary to say a few words respecting them. The 
 natives of Persia, like those of Hindustan, reckon their 
 ancient music as comprising of twelve classes or Muqams, 
 each of which has belonging to it two Shobuhs and four 
 Goshuhs. The Muqams being generally considered equi- 
 valent to the Bags of Hindustan, the Shobuhs being 
 esteemed their Eaginees, and the Goshuhs their Putras 
 and Bharjyas. 
 
 The annexed table, exhibits all the Muqams and Shobuhs, and 
 thirty of the Goshuhs, the rest being unknown. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 IHmes of Moqamti. 
 
 Shobuh. 
 
 Goshuh. 
 
 Hehavee, . . 
 Hoosynee, . . 
 Bast, 
 
 Hijaz, 
 Boozoorg, . . 
 
 Cocbuk, 
 
 Iraq, 77 
 
 Isfuhan or Isfubang 
 Nava, 
 
 Oosbsbaq 
 
 Zungoolub., 
 Boosuleek 
 
 Nourozi Urub, 
 
 consists of 6 notes, . . 
 Nourozi Ujum, .. 
 
 G notes, 
 Doogah, 
 
 2 notes, 
 Moohyyer, 
 
 8 notes, 
 Mooturuffe, 
 
 8 notes, some say 9. . 
 Punjgah, 
 
 5 notes, 
 
 Sigah 
 
 3 notes, 
 
 Hisar, 
 
 8 notes, some say 10, 
 Hoomayoon, 
 
 4 notes, 
 Noobzut, ., 
 
 8 notes 
 
 Eukb, 
 
 3 notes, 
 Tyatee, 
 
 5 notes, 
 (Mookkalif, .. .. 
 •J or 
 (.Rooe Iraq 
 
 5 notes, . . 
 
 Mughloob, 
 
 8 notes, 
 Tubreez, 
 
 5 notes, 
 
 Nusb apooruk 
 
 6 notes, 
 Nourozi Khava, 
 
 5 notes, 
 Mahvur, .. •« 
 
 6 notes, 
 
 Zaboel, 
 
 3 notes, 
 
 Ouj, 
 
 8 notes 
 
 Chargah, 
 
 4 notes, 
 
 Gliizal, 
 
 5 notes, . . . . 
 Usbeeran, 
 
 10 notes, 
 Suba, .. »j 
 5 notes, 
 
 Buhare nishat. 
 
 Ghureeb. 
 
 Suwara. 
 
 Ghumzooda. 
 
 Nubate Toork. 
 
 Surfuraz. 
 
 Busta nigar. 
 
 Nubate Coordaneea. 
 
 Nihavunduk. 
 
 Sufa. 
 
 Dilbur. 
 
 Ouje Gumal. 
 
 Nigar. 
 
 Visal. 
 
 Shuhuree. 
 
 Usbeeran, 
 
 Gbizul. 
 
 Turub ungez. 
 
 Buhre Cumal. 
 
 Buhre uslee. 
 
 Etedal. 
 
 Golistan. 
 
 Sureer. 
 
 Hyran. 
 
 Jumalee. 
 
 Booh ufza. 
 
 Hyrut. 
 Moatedilah. 
 Muanuvee. 
 Puhluvee. 
 
Vi GLOSSARY. 
 
 Music. The science of. This in Sungscrit is termed Sungeet. 
 The invention of it is attributed to demi-gods, and amongst 
 others to Narud, Sumeshwur, Hunooman, and Coolnath. 
 Several treatises were written and are in existence, but 
 they are so obscure, that little benefit is to be expected 
 from, them to the science. 
 
 Musicians. These are divided into classes by the Hindu 
 authors, agreeably to merit and extent of knowledge. 
 
 I. Nayuh. He only has a right to claim this denomination 
 who has a thorough knowledge of ancient music, both 
 theoretically and practically. He Bhould be intimately 
 acquainted with all the rules for vocal and instrumental 
 compositions, and for dancing. Should be qualified to 
 sing Qeet, Chhund, Prubund, &c, to perfection, and able to 
 give instruction. 
 
 II . To this class belong those who understand merely the 
 practice of music, and is subdivided into — 
 
 1. Oundhurb. One who is acquainted with the ancient 
 (Marg) Rags, as well as the modern (Desee), and 
 
 2. Goonee, or Gooncar. He who has a knowledge of only 
 the modern ones. 
 
 III. Culavunt, Qundharbs, and Oooncars, who sing Dhoor- 
 puds, Tirvuts, &c, to perfection, go by this appellation. 
 
 IV. Quvval, excels in singing Qoul, Turana, Kheal, Ac. 
 
 V. Dharee, sings Curca, &c. 
 
 VI. Pundit. This term literally signifies a Doc. Mus., and 
 is applied to those who profess to teach the theory of music, 
 and do not engage in its practice. 
 
 (Culavunt and Quvval are modern terms.) 
 
 N. 
 Nucta. A species of song, sung in Boondelkhund, &c, p. 107 
 Nuqaruh. A sort of large drum played upon with sticks. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 It is one of the instruments of the Noubut Khanuh. 
 Nuy : Literally a reed, Persian. A Mahomedan musical 
 
 instrument. 
 
 O. 
 Oodoo. A Rag or Raginee which consists of only five notes. 
 Oopuj. An ad libitum passage. 
 Oorohee. Descending scale. 
 Ootpunnu. Origin (of sounds). 
 
 P. 
 Palna. Cradle hymns, p. 107. 
 Prubund. A species of ancient songs, p. 101. 
 
 Q. 
 
 ^ .. I Species of song, p. 107. 
 
 Qulbana ... J e r 
 
 R. 
 Rag. A Hindu tune, p. 61 et seq. 
 Ragsagur. A species of composition, p. 103. 
 Rekhtah. Poetry in the tongue called Rekhtah, set to music, 
 
 p. 106. 
 Ritoo. Seasons. The poets and musicians of Hindustan 
 
 divide their year into six seasons, and one of these is 
 
 allotted to each Rag, with his Raginees, Pootras, and Bhar- 
 
 jyas. The seasons are : 
 
 Busunt, 
 
 Greeshmu, 
 
 Burkha, 
 
 Surut, 
 
 Hem, 
 
 Shishir, 
 
 1 mm fChyt and Bysakh. 
 ' Jeth and Usarh. 
 Sravuu and Bhadru. 
 Ashwin and Cartic. 
 , Ughun and Poos. 
 ° *" ^Magh and Phalgoon. 
 
 The Rags allotted to the seasons are 
 
 .9 5 
 
 .2 a 
 s o 
 
 8 CD 
 
 -a 
 
 Bhyron 
 Malcous 
 Hindol 
 Deepuc 
 
 Sree 
 Megh 
 
 Surut. 
 
 Shishir. 
 
 Busunt. 
 
 Greeshmu. 
 
 Hem. 
 
 Burkha. 
 
Vlii CL0SSARY. 
 
 Rohee. Ascending scale. 
 Kubab. A guitar strung with gut strings. 
 It is a Mahomedan instrument, and particularly liked by the 
 Puthans. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sarungee. The Hindustanee fiddle, a modern invention. 
 
 Seasons, vide Ritoo. 
 
 Sitar. An instrument of the Guitar species, invented by 
 
 Umeer Khosrow of Delhi. 
 Sohla. A species of song, p. 107. 
 
 Soor. A sound, the key-note, and the octave alt of the Khuraj. 
 Soor-bhurna. To produce a sound from the throat, generally 
 
 meant to sound the key-note. 
 Srooti. The chromatic scale of the Hindus, consisting of 
 
 the sub-divisions of the seven notes of the gamut into 
 
 twenty-two parts. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tal. Time or measure of melody 
 
 Thoomree. One of the more modern species of song, p. 103. 
 
 Time. Tal. 
 
 Tirwut and Turana. Modern compositions ; the style said to 
 
 be invented by Umeer Khosrow, p. 106. 
 Treatise on music is called a grunth. 
 Tubla. Small drums. These are used two at a time, one 
 
 played upon with each hand ; the right is used for the 
 
 treble (Zeer) and the left for the bass (Bumb). It is of 
 
 modern invention. 
 Tumboora. A stringed instrument used to prolong the r key- 
 
 note, and fill up pauses in song. 
 Tuppa. One of the very modern species of song brought to 
 
 perfection by the late Shoree of Lukhnow, p. 103. 
 
OLOSSART. IX 
 
 V. 
 
 Veen. The most ancient, extensive, and complicated musical 
 instrument of Hindustan. Its invention is attributed to 
 the Mooni Narud. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zeer. The treble end of a drum. 
 
 Zicree. A species of song originally of Goojrat, introduced 
 into Hindustan by Qazee Muhmood, p. 107. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 By music minds an equal temper know, 
 
 Nor swell too high nor sink too low ; 
 
 Warriors she fires with animated sounds, 
 
 Pours balms into the bleeding lover's wounds. — Pope. 
 
 Poets themselves must fall, like those they sung, 
 
 Deaf the praised ear, and mute the tuneful tongue. — Pope, 
 
 A general view of the plan and contents of the work. 
 
 A treatise on the Music of Hindoostan is a desi- 
 deratum which has not yet been supplied. Although 
 several eminent Orientalists have endeavoured to pene- 
 trate this elegant branch of Indian science, scarcely any 
 part of it has been elucidated or rendered familiar to 
 Europeans. It is this chasm which I have endeavour- 
 ed to fill ; how far I have succeeded in an undertaking 
 so difficult (for reasons which shall presently appear), 
 it is for the public to determine. 
 
 It is impossible to convey an accurate idea of music 
 by words or written language ; that is, the various de- 
 grees of acuteness or gravity of sounds, together with 
 the precise quantity of the duration of each, cannot be 
 ■expressed by common language, so as to be of any use 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 to performers, and as the musical characters now in use, 
 which alone can express music in the manner that 
 could be desired, is a modern invention, of course all 
 attempts to define music anterior to the invention of 
 this elegant and concise method must have necessarily 
 proved abortive. 
 
 How far the ancient philosophers of this country ad- 
 vanced towards the perfection of this science will ap- 
 pear in the course of this work ; but as they were some- 
 thing similar to the awkward attempts made in Europe 
 previous to the invention of the system now in use, they 
 were insufficient for practice. The musical scale, invent- 
 ed by Magister Franco, and the time table, were both 
 known here, and it only required a trifling degree of 
 ingenuity to connect the one with the other, so that 
 one individual character might instantly express both. 
 This step was wanting, and it is this which has ren- 
 dered all their treatises on music an unintelligible and 
 almost useless jargon. 
 
 During the earlier ages of Hindoostan, musie was 
 cultivated by philosophers and men eminent for polite 
 literature, for whom such general directions and rules 
 for composition sufficed, after a course of musteal edu- 
 cation acquired from living tutors ; indeed, the abhor- 
 rence of innovation, and veneration for the established 
 national music, which was firmly believed to be of divine 
 origin, precluded the necessity of any other ; but when, 
 from the theory of music, a defection took place of its 
 practice, and men of learning confined themselves ex- 
 clusively to the former, while the latter branch was 
 
PREFACE. 3 
 
 abandoned entirely to the illiterate, all attempts to 
 elucidate music from rules laid down in books, a scienco 
 incapable of explanation by mere words, became idle. 
 This is the" reason why even so able and eminent an 
 Orientalist as Sir William Jones has failed. Books alone 
 are insufficient for this purpose — we must endeavour 
 to procure solutions from living professors, of whom 
 there are several, although grossly illiterate. This me- 
 thod, although very laborious, and even precarious,- 
 seems to be the only one by which any advance can be 
 made in so abstruse an undertaking. Should the pub- 
 lic consider this work as at all conducive to the end to 
 which it achieves to aspire, it is the intention of the 
 author to lay before them specimens of original Rags 
 and Ragi'nees, set to music, accompanied with short 
 notices, which will serve to elucidate the facts advanced 
 in this volume. 
 
 The causes which induced- a defection of the theory 
 from the practice of music in Hindoostan will be deve- 
 loped in the course of the work, and 1 it is sufficient here 
 to notice that Such a defection has actually taken place, 
 and that a search for one versed both in the theory and 
 practice of Indian music would perhaps prove as fruit- 
 less as that after the philosopher's stone. The simili- 
 tude will hold still further if we take the trouble to 
 second our search with due caution, for there are many 
 reputed Kemiagurs in this country, all of whom prove 
 themselves to possess no more knowledge of the auri- 
 ferous art, than the reader can himself possibly be pos- 
 sessed of. 
 
 2A 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 A taste for the classics is imbibed by us from our 
 school education. No philologer will, I believe, deny that 
 impressions contracted in early infancy, or tender age, 
 will, if possible, be effaced with the greatest difficulty. 
 
 It is therefore hard for us to divest ourselves of the 
 idea that whatever is of Greek or Egyptian origin must 
 be deserving of respect and imitation. The near connec- 
 tion between poetry and music should not be forgotten. 
 To the antiquarian such researches afford a two-fold 
 interest. From this source should be derived that ve- 
 neration for ancient music which all classical scholars 
 entertain, and for which several have laboured. 
 
 The similitude between the music of the classical na- 
 tions and that of Hindoostan has never, I believe, been 
 traced, and the following labour will, I presume to hope, 
 be productive of some fruit. 
 
 There is no doubt that harmony is a refinement on 
 melody; but much modern music, divested of the har- 
 mony which accompanies it, presents to us its blank 
 nudity, and want of that beauty which warranted the 
 expression "and most adorned when adorned the 
 least." Although I am myself very fond of harmony, 
 and it cannot but be acknowledged that it is a very sub- 
 lime stretch of the human mind, the reasoning on 
 harmony will perhaps convince the reader that harmony 
 is more conducive to cover the nakedness, than shew 
 the fertility, of genius. Indeed, perhaps all the most 
 beautiful successions of tones which constitute agreeable 
 melody are exhausted, and this is the reason of the 
 poorness of our modern melody, aud the abundant use 
 
PREFACE. 5 
 
 of harmony, •which however in a good measure com- 
 pensates by its novelty. At the same time, we are con- 
 strained to allow that harmony is nothing but art, which 
 can never charm equally with nature. " Enthusiastic 
 melody can be produced by an illiterate mind, but 
 tolerable harmony always supposes previous study," — a 
 plain indication that the former is natural, the latter 
 artificial. 
 
 To be convinced that foreign music, such as we have 
 not been accustomed to, is always repugnant to our taste, 
 till habit reconcile us to it, we need only refer to the 
 sentiments of the several travellers who have recorded 
 their particular feelings on hearing the music of nations 
 with whom they have had but little intercourse. Eu- 
 rope, the boast of civilization, will likewise throw an addi- 
 tional weight into the balance of impartiality when the 
 music or science of those nations is concerned who are 
 designated semi-barbarous by her proud sons. It should 
 be a question likewise whether they have witnessed the 
 performance of those who were reputed to excel in so 
 difficult a practice. 
 
 If a native of India were to visit Europe, and who 
 haviDg never had opportunities of hearing music in its 
 utmost perfection — who had never witnessed an opera, 
 or a concert, directed by an able musician, but had mere- 
 ly heard blind beggars, and itinerant scrapers, such as 
 frequent inns and taverns — were to assert that the mu- 
 sic of Europe was execrable, it would perhaps never have 
 occurred to his hearer that he had heard only such 
 music as he would himself designate by the same title, 
 
b PREFACE. 
 
 and the poor traveller's want of taste would perhaps be 
 the first and uppermost idea that would present itself. 
 But when we possess the contrary testimonies of two 
 enlightened travellers with respect to the same 
 subject, surely we may have reason to appear some- 
 what sceptical. On the opinions given by Europeans 
 on the music of Hindoostan, I shall produce an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Dr. Griffiths, in his Travels in Europe, Asia Minor, 
 and Arabia, 1805, page 115, says, — "There are amongst 
 the Turks some who affect a taste for music ; but they 
 understand not ' the concord of sweet sounds,' nor com- 
 prehend, according to our system, a single principle of 
 musical composition. An ill-shaped guitar, with several 
 wires, always out of tune, — a narrow wooden case, 
 upon which are fastened two catgut strings, — a tam- 
 bourine of leather, instead of parchment, ornamented 
 with many small plates of brass, which jingle most 
 discordantly, — and a sort of flute, made without any 
 regard to the just proportion of distance between the 
 apertures, constitute the principal instruments of these 
 virtuosi : yet it is extremely common to see, amongst 
 the lowest orders, performers on the guitar, which they 
 continue for hours to torment with a monotony the 
 most detestable." 
 
 In a note on this paragraph, the Doctor says, — " These 
 ideas were committed to paper many years ago : I have 
 since seen Mr. Dallaway's interesting remarks upon the 
 music of the Turks, which I shall transcribe ; and only 
 observe, that however correct may be their theory, their 
 
PREFACE. 7 
 
 execution has always appeared to me (and I had many 
 occasions of attending to it) so far beneath mediocrity, 
 as to merit no kind of comparison with any other music 
 or musical performers. From the division of the semi- 
 tones into minor tones, Mr. D. says, results that sweet- 
 ness of melody by which they are so much delighted', 
 and which leads them to disparage the greater harmony 
 of European music ; — but Turkish judgment only 
 can give way to a preference so preposterous ; nor can 
 it be supposed that performers, who play merely from 
 memory, and reject notes, can acquire any eminenoe in 
 the difficult science of music." Mr. Dallaway says, — 
 " They are guided by strict rules of composition accord- 
 ing to their own musical theory." 
 
 I have quoted this passage not as the only or most 
 appropriate example, but because it "first occurred to me, 
 and the similarity between the Turkish, as described by 
 Dr. G. and Mr. D., and the Indian music, appeared to 
 me to be sufficiently close to warrant its insertion in this 
 place. 
 
 From the censure passed by Dr. G. on musicians 
 playing from memory, it should appear, that it did not 
 occur to him that all ancient musicians of Egypt, Greece, 
 and Rome, lived in an age much prior to that of the 
 monk of Arezzo, who is supposed to be the inventor of 
 the modern musical characters, and must consequently 
 have played from memory, notwithstanding which they 
 are celebrated to have acquired eminence. In more 
 modern times we have had several bright examples in 
 men who were either bora blind, or were deprived of 
 
sight in early infancy, and constantly played from 
 memory, who became great musicians and composers. 
 In fact, several eminent men have been of opinion that 
 the study of music was to be chiefly recommended to 
 blind persons. Saunderson, the algebraist, became blind 
 in his infancy, and Milton was so when he composed 
 his divine poem, which shews what men are capable of 
 doing from memory. 
 
 On the acquisition of India to the Europeans, it was 
 generally believed to have been in a semi-barbarous state. 
 The generous attempts made by Sir William Jones 
 and Dr. Gilchrist, together with the elegant acquire- 
 ments of Mr. H. H. Wilson, have proved it to be an 
 inexhaustible mine, pregnant with the most luxuriant 
 ores of literature. Several French authors have like- 
 wise contributed to the more intimate acquaintance of 
 the Europeans with Eastern learning. 
 
 The poetry of a nation is almost universally sought 
 after by the traveller and the curious, and it is seldom 
 considered by him that its music deserves a thought ; 
 while it should be remembered, that poetry and music 
 have always illustrated and assisted each other, parti- 
 cularly in Hindoostan, where both are subservient to 
 religion, and where the ablest performers of music were 
 Munies and Jogees, a set of men reputed, for sanctity, 
 and whose devout aspirations were continually poured 
 forth in measured numbers and varied tone. 
 
 Every scrap of Egyptian and Grecian music is trea- 
 sured up as a relic of antiquity, how despicable soever 
 its merits might be. I at least have not discernment 
 
PREPAdE. 9 
 
 sufficient to comprehend the beauties of the Greek air 
 inserted in the Flutist's Journal, No. 6, page 123, and 
 many other pieces of equal merit, which I could point 
 out, were I inclined to criticise. 
 
 That Indian music, although in general possessing in- 
 trinsic claim to beauty in melody, is seldom sought after, 
 will be, I presume, allowed ; but why ? I shall venture 
 to say, because possession cloys. We think it in our 
 power to obtain it whenever we please, and therefore 
 we never strive for it ; but may we never, never become a 
 nation so lost and forgotten as the ancient Egyptains 
 and Greeks, whose music can only be gleaned from 
 some imperfect accounts in their writings, although it 
 would enhance the value of the music of this country. 
 I am however convinced, for reasons given above, that 
 an endeavour to comprehend the ancient music of Hin- 
 doostan would not prove so easy an undertaking as one 
 would be inclined to promise himself it would. 
 
 I have endeavoured to notice the similarity which 
 appears to me to exist between the music of Hindoostan 
 and that of the other two ancient nations — how far my 
 conjectures have been correct, it remains with the learn- 
 ed to decide. Should my labours prove successful in any 
 one instance, I shall feel happy to have contributed 
 even in so small a degree to the development of a science 
 so intimately connected with the belle lettres, and which 
 respects a country acting so conspicuous a part on the 
 theatre of the modern world. 
 
 Egypt, Greece and Rome are the only ancient 
 countries which the European scholar is taught to 
 
 B 
 
10 PREFACE. 
 
 reverence as having been civilized and enlightened — all 
 the rest he is to consider as barbarous. India is not 
 generally thought of, as deserving of any approxiraity in 
 rank ; but the acuteuess of some has even led them to 
 doubt, whether this country was not in a state of civiliza- 
 tion even before the most ancient of those three ; nay, 
 whether this was not the parent country — the root of 
 civilization. If a graft from the parent tree, having 
 found better soil, has flourished more luxuriantly, are 
 ■we to despise the root which gave it birth i Iu India, to 
 this day, superstition and idolatry prevail : so did they 
 in Egypt, Greece, and Kome ; and if the truths of the 
 gospel were not to have been announced to the world 
 for two thousand years longer, we should have found 
 the same things prevailing in Europe. India has be- 
 sides suffered the persecutions of illiberal Mahomedan 
 princes, who were equally superstitious ; and although 
 desirous of eradicating idolatry (the falsity of which 
 they never thought of demonstrating but with the 
 sword), and were thus far certainly iconoclasts, surely 
 ■were no encouragers to the improvement of sciences. 
 So that all the philosophy and learning of the Hindoos 
 consist in the knowledge of their most ancient writings. 
 If it should appear that in those times they had advanced 
 more towards the perfection of music than did the 
 classical nations, it seems to me sufficient to authorise 
 their bearing the palm, at least in this branch of 
 science. 
 
 The theory and practice of music, as far as it is now 
 known and practised in Hindoostan, I hope I have 
 
PREFACE. 1 1 
 
 succeeded in describing. A knowledge of what might be 
 wanting here, I presume will be found on inquiry very 
 difficult to obtain ;* but I hope some one more able 
 
 * "Had the Indian empire continued in full energy for the 
 last two thousand years, religion would, no doubt, have given 
 permanence to systems of music invented, as the Hindoos 
 believe, by their gods, and adapted to mystical poetry : but 
 such have been the revolutions of their government since the 
 time of Alexander, that, although the Sanscrit books have pre- 
 served the theory of their musical compositions, the practice 
 of it seems wholly lost (as all the Pandits and Rajahs confess) 
 in Gour and Magadha, or the provinces of Bengal and Behar. 
 When I first read the songs of Jayadiva, who has prefixed to 
 each of them the name of the mode in which it was anciently 
 sung, T had hopes of procuring the original music ; but the 
 Pandits of the south referred me to those of the west, and the 
 Brahmans of the west would have sent me to those of the 
 north ; while they, I mean those of Nepal and Cashmir, declar- 
 ed that they had no ancient music, but imagined that the 
 notes of the Oitagovinda must exist, if anywhere, in one of the 
 southern provinces, where the poet was born : from all this, I 
 collect, that the art which flourished in India many centuries 
 ago, has faded for want of due culture, though some scanty 
 remnants of it may, perhaps, be preserved in the pastoral 
 roundelays of M athura on the loves and sports of the Indian 
 Apollo." — Sir William Jones, vol. I, p. 440. 
 
 Sir William Jones, it seems, confined his search to that 
 phoenix, a learned Pandit, who might likewise be a musician ; 
 but, I believe, such a person does not exist in Hindoostan for 
 reasons which shall be hereafter noticed. 
 
12 PREFACE, 
 
 and persevering will supply the deficiencies, and restore 
 the original music of this country to its primitive state. 
 Many branches of Indian science and literature have been 
 revived by zealous Orientalists, and it seems not quite 
 clear why its music has been so much neglected. 
 
 I have not confined myself to the details in books, 
 but have also consulted the most famous performers, 
 both Hindoos and Mussulmans, the first Veeukars in 
 India, the more expert musicians of Lucknow, and 
 Hukeem Sulamut Ulee Khan of Benares, who has writ- 
 ten a treatise on music. 
 
 The reader will not find this work a translation of 
 any of the existing treatises on music, but an original 
 ■work, comprehending the system of Hindoostanee music 
 according to the ancient theory, noticing as much of 
 it as is confirmed by the practice of the present day. I 
 have endeavoured, likewise, throughout the work, to 
 assign the motives for several peculiarities in Hindoo 
 music and manners, for which none has been hitherto 
 assigned, such as the confining their Eaginees to parti- 
 cular seasons of the year and time of day and night : 
 the difference between the lyric poetry of several 
 nations of Asia, sung in this country : some ancient 
 customs now become wholly or partly obsolete, and 
 practices now out of fashion, or rendered useless in con- 
 sequence of the security afforded by the British Go- 
 vernment. 
 
 In the definition of the term " Bag," I have taken 
 the liberty to differ from Dr. Gilchrist and Sir William 
 Jones ; the motives for which will, I hope, appear 
 
PREFACE. 13 
 
 sufficiently oogeut to have warranted the presumption. 
 Some reasoning on harmony and melody will likewise 
 be found, which I hope will not be unacceptable ; but 
 on impartial consideration found to possess some weight. 
 The immense variety in time noticed in the original 
 treatises, a great many of which are still practised, has 
 led me to discuss this subject more largely than I should 
 have done, had its number not been so limited in 
 European practice, and the subject not appeared so 
 important. All the species of composition have been 
 noticed, with a short sketch of the distinguishing charac- 
 ters of each ; and a brief account of the principal mu- 
 sicians, from the most ancient to the present time, is 
 superadded. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The verse of Chaucer is not harmonious to us : they who live with 
 him, thought it musical. — Dittoes. 
 
 Music. Its power on the human mind. That of Einioostan. 
 The opinion of the Natives with respect to their ancient musi- 
 cians. How a knowledge of it may be acquired. Not gene- 
 rally liked by Europeans. Reasons assigned for this. Na- 
 tive opinion with regard to its lawfulness. Musical instru- 
 ments. Relation of music to poetry considered. Progress of 
 music in Hindoostan. The manner of life which should be 
 led to insure eminence in this science. Cause of its depravity. 
 Date of its decline. The similarity which the music of this 
 country seems to bear to that of Egypt and Greece. How a 
 knowledge of the music of Hindoostan might conduce to a re- 
 vival of that of those countries. Comparisons offered. Whe- 
 ther the natives of Greece or Hindoostan had made greater 
 progress in music. Comparisons decide in favor of the latter. 
 
 All arts and sciences have undoubtedly had very trivial and 
 obscure beginnings, and the accounts given by historians of 
 their inventors are generally to bo considered as fabulous ; 
 for they certainly are the gradual productions of several, 
 wrought up into a system after the lapse of considerable 
 time, and the confirmation of a variety of experiments. 
 Nature is always gradual in her productions, and the length 
 of time required to bring any thing to perfection is in pro- 
 portion 'to the quality of that thing. The stately bur tree 
 takes ages to develope its majesty, while the insignificant 
 mushroom springs up in a few hours. With the human 
 
16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 mind, it is observed, to be the same as with other productions 
 of nature ; time and culture improve it, and the more the 
 adventitious circumstances surrounding it are favorable, the 
 more it flourishes. 
 
 " The invention of great arts and sciences have amongst 
 all nations of antiquity been attributed to deities or men 
 actuated by divine inspiration, except by the Hebrews, the 
 only nation upon' earth who had the knowledge of the true 
 God. Indeed, there is an awe with which men of great minds, 
 particularly such as exercise them for the benefit of mankind, 
 inspire us, that it is no wonder they were regarded by the 
 ancients as beings of a superior order." Men of limited 
 command have it not in their power to diffuse their benevo- 
 lence to an extensive circle ; but when princes, or great 
 statesmen and able generals, condescend to employ their 
 leisure in works which are conducive to the benefit, or allevia- 
 tion of the cares, of society, they evince the natural goodness 
 of their hearts, they gain the particular esteem of the people 
 over whom they exercise control, and are regarded as men of 
 a supeiior order. 
 
 All philologers are agreed, that music is anterior to lan- 
 guage. Dr. Burney* says, "Vocal music is of such high 
 antiquity, that its origin seems to have been coeval with 
 mankind ; at least the lengthened tones of pleasure and pain, 
 of joy and affection, must long have preceded every other 
 language, and music. The voice of passion wants but few 
 articulations, and must have been nearly the same in all 
 human creatures, differing only in gravity or acuteness accord- 
 ing to age, sex, and organization, till the invention of words 
 
 * General History of Music from the earliest ages to the present period, 
 .vol. i, p. 464. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 by particular convention, in different societies, weakened, and 
 by degrees rendered it unintelligible. The primitive and 
 instinctive language, or cry of nature, is still retained by 
 animals, and universally understood ; while our artificial 
 tongues are known only to the small part of the globe, where, 
 after being learned with great pains, they are spoken. ' We 
 talk of love, and of hatred,' says M. de Voltaire, ' in general 
 terms, without being able to express the different degrees of 
 those passions. It is the same with respect to pain and 
 pleasure, of which there are such innumerable species. The 
 shades and gradations of volition, repugnance or compulsion, 
 are equally indistinct want of colors.' This censure should, 
 however, be confined to written language ; for though a word 
 can be accurately expressed in writing, and pronounced but 
 one way, yet the different tones of voice that can be given to 
 it in the utterance are infinite. A mere negative or affirmative 
 may even be uttered in such a manner as to convey ideas 
 diametrically opposite to the original import of the word." 
 From this it appears, that music, or at least variety in tone, is 
 the soul of language, and without which no precise meaning 
 can be attached to any particular word. 
 
 " * If the art of music be so natural to man that vocal 
 melody is practised wherever articulate sounds are used, there 
 can be little reason for deducing the idea of music from the 
 whistling of winds through the reeds that grew on the river 
 Nile. And indeed, when we reflect with how easy a transi- 
 tion we may pass from the accents of speaking to diatonic 
 souuds ; when we observe how early children adapt the 
 language of their amusements to measure and melody, how- 
 ever rude ; when we consider how early and universally these 
 * Encyclopaedia Britannica, Art. Music. 
 
18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 practices take place — there is no avoiding the conclusion, that 
 the idea of music is connatural to man, and implied in 
 the original principles of his constitution.'' The Hindoos 
 attribute the invention of music to Muhadev ; but after 
 making due allowances for superstition and ignorance, as 
 well as for the innate pride of man, .it seems unnecessary to 
 argue this poiut any farther. 
 
 Every nation, how rude soever, has, we see, its music, and 
 the degree of its refinement is in proportion to the civilization 
 of its professors. She is yet in her cradle with the rude 
 Indians of America, or the " hideous virgins of Congo." 
 With the natives of Hindoostan, she may be said long to 
 have left the puerile state, though perhaps still far from 
 that of puberty, her progress towards maturity having 
 been checked, and her constitution ruined and thrown into 
 decay by the overwhelming and supercilious power of the 
 Mahomedan government; while in Europe, and especially 
 in the luxuriant soil of Italy, she sports in all the gaiety of 
 youthful bloom and heavenly beauty. It is with music, as 
 with painting, sculpture, statuary, architecture, and every 
 other art or science, chiefly ornamental or amusing, that it 
 flourishes best under steady and peaceful governments, which 
 encourage them by their patronage. " Literature, arts, and 
 refinements, were encouraged more early at the courts of 
 the Roman pontiffs, than in any other country j and owing 
 to that circumstance, it is, that the scale, the counterpoint, 
 the best melodies, the dramas, religious and secular, the 
 chief graces and elegances of modern music, have derived 
 their origin from Italy." 
 
 It is a very ancient observation, that the " greatest mas- 
 ters in every profession and science always appear in the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 same period of time ;'' and P. Bossu and Juvenal do not give 
 much credit for doubting " whether any influence of stars, 
 any power of planets, or kindly aspect of the heavenly 
 bodies, might not at times reach our globe, and impregnate 
 some favorite race with a celestial spirit." He also sneers 
 at the assertion of the supernatural conceptions and miracu- 
 lous nursings of Hercules and Alexander, Orpheus; Homer, 
 and Plato, Pindar, and the founders of the Roman and Per- 
 sian empires, and attributes the cause to emulation. This 
 latter principle, however, cannot exist without encourage- 
 ment, which is the source of all emulation. Did 1 Ukbur 
 Shah not encourage and patronize genius, his court would 
 not have been filled with the gems " Nouratun." Why is 
 Italy considered as the school of music 1 Or why was she 
 with regard to the rest of Europe what ancient Greece was 
 to Home 1 
 
 The power of music on the human mind has always been 
 acknowledged to be very great, as well as its general ten- 
 dency towards the soft and amiable passions. Polibius; 
 speaking of the inhabitants of Cynete, Plato, with his oppo- 
 nent Aristotle, Theophrastus, and other ancient writers, were 
 of this mind. In Arcadia, every man was required by law 
 to learn music, to soften the ferocity of his manners ; 
 and her admirers of Hindoostan have not been backward in 
 their praises of it. Host natives faithfully believe that ancient 
 songsters of the period, when their government flourished, 
 had power not only over human beings, and passions, but 
 also over irrational animals and inanimate and insensible 
 creatures. There are professors on record to whom the 
 wild beasts listened with admiration, nay at the sound of 
 whose voice rocks melted and whole rivers forgot to flow. 
 
20 ISTHODUCHON. 
 
 <■' I have been assured by a credible eye-witness," says 
 Sir William Jones, " *that two wild antelopes used often to 
 come from the woods, to the place where a more savage 
 beast, Siraj-ud-Doulah, entertained himself with concerts, and 
 that they listened to the strain with an appearance of plea- 
 sure, till the monster, in whose soul there was no music, 
 shot one of them, to display his archery ; secondly, a learned 
 native of this country told me that he had frequently seen 
 the more venomous and malignant snakes leave their holes, 
 upon hearing tunes on a flute, which, as he supposed, gave 
 them peculiar delight ; and thirdly, an intelligent Persian, 
 who repeated his story again and again, and permitted me to 
 write it down from his lips, told me, he had more than once 
 been present when a celebrated lutanist, Mirza Mohummud, 
 surnamed Bulbvi, was playing to a large company in a grove 
 near Shiraz, where he distinctly saw the nightingales trying 
 to vie with the musician, sometimes warbling on the trees, 
 sometimes fluttering from branch to branch, as if they wish- 
 ed to approach the instrument whence the melody pro- 
 ceeded, and at length dropping on the ground in a kind of 
 ecstaey, from which they were soon raised, he assured me, by 
 a change of the mode." 
 
 Whatever poets or fabulists might have alleged in favor 
 of music, and whatever extravagant praises the wildness of 
 their heated imaginations, assisted by the dictates of a fertile 
 genius, led them to pronouuce, it is nevertheless certain that 
 very few persons have been found in every age whose 
 apathetic bosom did not feel the glow music is wont to in- 
 spire. The power of music anciently, it has been supposed, 
 
 * On the Musical Modes of the Hindoos, written in 1784, and since much 
 larged by the President, p. 415. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 would, from the agreeable surprise, which must have been 
 occasioned by its novelty, add much to the effect that could 
 be looked for in later times ; indeed, some have supposed, 
 it could not but be irresistible. "With regard to Oriental 
 music, although it has been generally celebrated by almost 
 all scholars of the East, yet it seems to me very doubtful, 
 whether any of those who have thus eulogised the subject 
 fully comprehended its beauties. 
 
 The only way by which perfection in this can be attained 
 is by studying the original works, and consulting the best 
 living performers, both vocal aud instrumental ; and few per- 
 sons have inclination, leisure, and opportunities sufficient for 
 an undertaking in itself so complicated, and rendered more 
 so from the want of perspicuous definitions. Indeed, without 
 the assistance of learned natives, the search would be entirely 
 fruitless. The theory of music is so little discussed at pre- 
 sent, that few even of the best performers have the least 
 knowledge of any thing but the practical part, in which to 
 their credit it must be acknowledged they excel. The reason of 
 which seems to be, that most treatises on Hindoostanee music 
 are written in the manner of " Tartini on Harmony," which 
 men of erudition have lamented was not committed " in a 
 style of greater perspicuity." 
 
 Notwithstanding what men of great learning and taste 
 have alleged in favor of Oriental music, persons whose autho- 
 rity should be venerable, there are many who treat it with 
 derision : some that pretend to be connoisseurs, but upon 
 whose judgment I shall leave others to offer their opinion, and 
 will observe in a transient manner, that the only reasoning 
 they have to allege is to remark with a smile that it is Hin- 
 doostanee music, and not consistent with their natural taste 
 
22 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 •without satisfying us that their taste is of the most refined 
 nature. 
 
 There is a note in Mr. Wilson's translation of the Megha 
 Duta on this passage ^ 
 
 " Not e'en the vilest, when a falling friend 
 " Solicits help it once was his to lend," 
 which I cannot help transcribing. 
 
 " The Hindus have been the object of much idle pane- 
 gyric, and equally idle detraction ; some writers have invest- 
 ed them with every amiable attribute, and they have been 
 deprived by others of the common virtues of humanity. 
 Amongst the excellencies denied to them, gratitude has been 
 always particularized, and there are many of the European 
 residents of India, who scarcely imagine that the natives of 
 the country ever heard of such a sentiment. To them, and 
 to all detractors on this head, the above verse is a satisfac- 
 tory reply ; and that no doubt of its tenor may remain, I add 
 the literal translation of the original passage, " Not even a 
 low man, when laid hold of for support by a friend, will turn 
 away his face with forgetfulness of former kindness ; how 
 therefore should the exalted act thus 1" 
 
 If by Hindoostanee music is meant that medley of confu- 
 sion and noise which consists of drums of different sorts, and 
 perhaps a fife — if the assertoin be made by such as have 
 heard these only, I admit, the assertom in its full extent ; 
 but if it be so asserted of all Hindoostanee music, or of all 
 the beauties which it possesses or is susceptible of, I deny 
 the charge. The prepossession might arise from one or 
 more of the following causes : first, ignorance, in which I 
 include the not having had opportunities of hearing the best 
 performers ; secondly, natural prepossession against Hin- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 doostanee music ; thirdly, inattention to its beauties from 
 the second motive or otherwise ; fourthly, incapacity of 
 comprehension. It is probably not unfrequent that all these 
 causes concur to produce the effect. 
 
 It is certainly not rational in a man to praise or decry 
 any thing before he is perfectly acquainted with its various 
 excellencies or imperfections. There are many things in 
 nature which might appear impossible to a superficial ob- 
 server of her works — there are likewise several mechanical 
 and philosophical contrivances which present a similar view 
 to the uninitiated. Who would have thought that instinct 
 could lead an irrational animal so far as almost to approach 
 to sense, before proper attention was paid to the various 
 devices and arts employed by different animals ? Who should 
 have credited the wonderful effects of gunpowder, which ob- 
 tained for the Spaniards the appellation of the " mighty 
 thunders" in the wars with the Incas so late as the middle 
 of the fourteenth century? That fire might be literally 
 brought down from heaven was considered a miracle before 
 Dr. Franklin's time, and such a thing as the fulminating 
 silver was not dreamed of before the invention of it by 
 Brugnatelli." What surprising and stupendous effects have 
 of late years been produced by the action of so simple an 
 agent as steam ; and to what variety of purposes has it 
 been directed by the ingenuity of man! How it would 
 have rejoiced Captain Savery to have beheld steam, acting 
 as it were from its own impulse and consciousness, resembl- 
 ing that of a reasonable being ! 
 
 We can easily see how ignorance or incapacity might lead 
 a person to wrong conclusions, yet we do not consider whe- 
 ther those persons who decry Hindoostanee music have had 
 
24 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 opportunities of hearing it to the best advantage ; whether, 
 supposing they had, they were at the time divested of all 
 prejudices against it, and were disposed to judge impartially ; 
 whether they possessed the requisite capacity to compre- 
 hend its beauties. 
 
 Dr. Barney, in his preface to his general History of Music, 
 from the earliest ages to the present period, (MDCCLXXVI.) 
 very justly observes, that "to love such music as our ears 
 are accustomed to is an instinct so generally subsisting in our 
 nature, that it appears less wonderful it should have been in 
 the highest estimation at all times, and in every place, than 
 that it should hitherto never have had its progressive im- 
 provements and revolutions.'' It is perhaps owing to this 
 general want of acquaintance with it, that Oriental music is 
 not so much esteemed as perhaps its merit deserves. Al- 
 though I have met with some European ladies who eagerly 
 desired to possess a copy of a Hindoostanee song or air, yet 
 it seemed to me that they esteemed it more as a relic of 
 curiosity, perhaps to be sent home, than for its intrinsic 
 worth in their eyes. 
 
 The author of " An Inquiry into the Life and Writings of 
 Homer'' very justly observes, that "we are born but with 
 narrow capacities : our minds are not able to master two 
 sets of manners, or comprehend with facility different ways 
 ,of life. Our company, education and circumstances make 
 deep impressions, and form us into a character, of which we 
 can hardly divest ourselves afterwards. The manners, not 
 only of the age and nation in which we live, but of our city 
 and family, stick closely to us, and betray us at every turn 
 when we try to dissemble, and would pass for foreigners. In 
 a similar manner, unless we are perfectly well acquainted 
 
INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 with the manners, and customs, and mode of life prevalent 
 amongst a nation, and at the very juncture of time which 
 the poet describes, it is not possible to feel the effect intend- 
 ed to be conveyed." 
 
 Various are the opinions which the natives entertain of 
 music with regard to its lawfulness or otherwise. The Hin- 
 doos are unanimous in their praises of it, and extol it as one 
 of the sweetest enjoyments of life, in which the gods are 
 praised with due sublimity, kings and princes have their 
 benevolent aud heroic actions recited in the most suitable 
 manner, the affluent enjoy its beauties without reproach, 
 the needy by its aid forget their misery, the unfortunate 
 finds relief by giving vent to his sorrow in song, the lover 
 pays the most gratifying compliment to his mistress, and the 
 coy maiden without a blush describes the ardour of her 
 passion. 
 
 The Moosulman doctors, however, disagree from them and 
 with each other. The more severe of them prohibit the 
 use of it altogether as irreligious and profane ; while others 
 are somewhat more indulgent, and permit it with certain 
 restrictions. A few, convinced of its excellence, but dreading 
 the censure of casuists, have prudently preferred silence. 
 Some have" considered it as exhilirating the spirits, and 
 others, perhaps with more reason, declare it to be an incentive 
 to the bent of the inclination, and consequently possessing 
 the property of producing both good and evil. That moral 
 writer Shekh Sadee says, 
 
 Music is either vocal or instrumental. The former is 
 everywhere acknowledged to be superior to the latter. It 
 
26 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 is not in the power of man to form an artificial instrument 
 so very delicate and beautiful in tone, and possessing all 
 the pliability of a truly good voice. 
 
 When I speak of the beauties of Hindoostanee music, I 
 would have it understood, that I mean its intrinsic and real 
 beauties, uncircumscribed in its acceptation to any individual 
 branch of it. Although nature might not perhaps have bes- 
 towed sufficient ingenuity on the natives of India, which 
 might enable them to rival other nations in the nicety of 
 their instrument, (or what appears to me a more attributable 
 cause — a want of patronage from the distracted state of the 
 country and depravity of the times,) she has, however, been 
 sufficiently indulgent to them in their natural organs. The 
 names, of Byjoo, Nayuk Gopal, and Tansen will never be 
 forgot in the annals of Hindoostanee music ; and time will 
 show whether any of the disciples of the late Shoree will 
 ever rival him. The above observation on the musical 
 instruments of Hindoostan should only be applied to the 
 present times, for we can offer no opinion as to the care 
 bestowed on their manufacture during the flourishing state 
 of the empire. With respect to the voice, there are some in 
 existence whose singing does them great credit, and I have 
 myself had the pleasure of hearing a few both males and 
 females who richly deserve this praise. 
 
 It is allowed that ' some compositions contain sentences so 
 pithy, delivered in such beautiful poetry, that they do not at 
 all stand in need of music to set them off to advantage ; 
 while there are sometimes such happy effusions o£ the 
 musician's imagination that they speak for themselves ; nor 
 could all the fire of the poet or the persuasion of the rheto- 
 retician add a single grace to those they already possess.' 
 
INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 The natives of India are sensible of this power of music, and 
 have sometimes demonstrated it in their melodies, which if 
 considered iu a musical view are really elegant, and engage 
 all our attention ;, but when we come to examine the senti- 
 ment which has been delivered in so delicate a strain, and 
 which we fancy will be in accordance with the beauty of the 
 melody, we find ourselves sadly disappointed, for they con- 
 tain odd sentences awkwardly put together. I shall explain 
 how this comes to pass. 
 
 The ancient musicians of Hindoostan were also generally 
 poets and men of erudition, and sung their own compositions ; 
 in fact, music and poetry have always gone hand in hand, 
 and as the Egyptain priests,, by means of their hieroglyphics, 
 reserved the knowledge of their sciences exclusively to them- 
 selves, so the ancient Brahmins of this- country threatened 
 with excommunication any of their tribe who should presume 
 to apostatise and betray the sacred writings or Shasters to 
 any but members of the elect, whose mouths only were 
 esteemed sufficiently holy to utter words so sacred ; indeed, 
 the innate pride of man would induce them to keep that to 
 themselves which was the sole cause of all the abject defer- 
 ence and almost adoration paid to Brahmins by all the other 
 tribes. On the other hand, none of the inferior tribes could 
 presume to wish to acquire a knowledge of the sacred writ- 
 ings, as it would be reckoned impious to do so. It was 
 thus that the ancients sung their own composition ; but in 
 progress of time, and especially under the Mahomedan 
 princes, when music became a distinct trade, (and all whose 
 imaginations were fruitful for musical composition were not 
 likewise blessed with talent for poetry,) the musician, relying 
 on the strength of his own abilities in music, and fancying 
 
28 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 himself a poet of course, scorned to set melody to the poetry 
 of others. The consequence has been what I have noticed 
 in the preceding paragraph ; but notwithstanding this disad- 
 vantage, they have gained the palin from competitors, who 
 as poet3 might claim superiority, whilst the melody of the 
 others has preserved its rank for ages. 
 
 The history of the world, and of the rise and decline of em- 
 pires, the biography of eminent men, and the account of the 
 invention and progress of arts and sciences, furnish us with 
 one melancholy and common moral, that nothing sublunary 
 is stable. How trivial and insignificant were the beginnings 
 of nations, who in time grew powerful, and became the terror 
 of their neighbours, or of the world ! How different the 
 picture of their flourishing state from that of their decline 
 and fall ; even to the time when men inquire of each other, 
 where was Thebes, or Palibothra situated ! 
 
 The history of music, in common with that of other arts 
 and sciences, furnishes us with similar instruction. Its first 
 origin seems to have been to convey the idea of our passions 
 to others. In progress of time, when language arrived to a 
 certain degree of intelligibility, its use began to be restricted 
 to the worship of the Supreme Being. It was afterwards 
 extended to the commemoration of great events, the celebra- 
 tion of the praises of chieftains and heroes, and lastly to the 
 alleviation of the cares of society, in which the enumeration 
 of the joys of love holds a distinguished place. In Hindoos- 
 tan, music arrived at its greatest height during the flourish- 
 ing period of the native princes, just a little before the 
 Mahomedan conquest, and its subsequent depravity and 
 decline since then, closed the scene with the usual catas- 
 trophe. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 29 
 
 Music has always been highly appreciated, especially when 
 ts charms have not been prostituted to add to the allurement 
 of licentious poetry. Hence it is that after it had been metho- 
 dised, the greatest men in this country in ancient days 
 admired it, and patronised its professors ; till in course of 
 time, these becoming licentious, cast such a stigma on the 
 science, that men of honor disdained to be numbered amongst 
 its professors. At present most native performers of this 
 noble science are the most immoral set of men on earth, 
 and the term is another word for all that is abominable, 
 synonimous with that of the most abandoned and profligate 
 exercises under the sun. The later musicians of Greece 
 and Rome were no better ; indeed the parallel will admit of 
 being drawn through the whole latitude. 
 
 The author of An Inquiry into the Life and Writings of 
 Homer, treating of bards of the age of that poet, says, "It 
 was indeed no life of wealth or power, but of great ease 
 and much honor. The AOIAOI were welcome to kings 
 and courts ; were necessary at feasts and sacrifices ; and 
 were highly reverenced by the people." The ancient trouba- 
 dours of Provence were likewise all musicians.* Their sub- 
 sequent depravity is well known. 
 
 The common opinion in Hindoostan is, that to be a great 
 musician, a man must live retired from the world like a Jogee. 
 This opinion is influenced by a consideration of the prac- 
 tices of the greatest professors of antiquity, and is not 
 perhaps without some foundation. We know that some of 
 the greatest poets used to retire to their favorite romantic and 
 wildly beautiful spots, the most attracting parts of which they 
 
 * Todos o los mas cavalleros andantes de la edad passada eran grandes 
 Trobadores y grandes musicos. Part I, lib. iii, Don Quixote. 
 
30 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 copied from nature, and adopted as the foundation of thenr 
 enchanting scenes. The aid the painter derives from them 
 is evident. It is not only the poet and the painter, however, 
 that such delightful places befriend, the genius of music 
 likewise inhabits them, and in a special manner patronises 
 her votaries there. This opinion was also common with 
 the Greeks, as will appear from a passage quoted from 
 Plato by Dr. Burney : " The grasshopper sings all summer 
 without food, like those men who, dedicating themselves to- 
 the muses, forget the common concerns of life." 
 
 The paucity of men of genius has been one reason for the 
 estimation in which they were held. This scarcity has beer* 
 universally acknowledged. Sir William Temple says, " Of all 
 the numbers of mankind that live within the compass of a 
 thousand years, for one man that is born capable of making 
 a great poet, there may be a thousand born capable of 
 making great generals, or ministers of State, as the most 
 renowned in story." 
 
 The musicians of this country of old, who adopted this 
 austere method of living, concerning themselves little about 
 the luxuries and vanities of the world, would not be bribed 
 to display their talents in public as hired professors. No 
 gifts or grants were considered by them as worth accepting, 
 as they cared for nothing. Princes and great men of taste 
 therefore found themselves under the necessity of courting 
 their friendship, and of accepting the fruit of their genius as a 
 favor, for which they possessed no other means of repaying 
 them but with honor and kind treatment. Their tribe 
 likewise screened them from all sacrilegious violence, and 
 insured respect. The religious sentiments of the natives, 
 who considered these persons as voluntary exiles, who had 
 
INTRODUCTION. 31 
 
 renounced the world, and dedicated themselves to the wor- 
 ship of the gods, added some weight to the admiration they 
 commanded ; and the ease and independence enjoyed by such 
 men would spur the desire of its acquisition in others. 
 
 The consideration obtained by these men, in time, induced 
 several of an avaricious disposition to engage as pupils, 
 and after acquiring some knowledge of the art, to set up 
 for themselves ; but the sordidness of their views was soon 
 discovered. They, however, still continued to maintain their 
 ground, till the country became overstocked with professors, 
 who prostituted their abilities for a mere trifle ; and lastly, 
 considering themselves as ministers of pleasure, and seeing 
 that it answered their avaricious views, even engaged in 
 other traffic not at all honorable to a man of any profession, 
 and they might have said, with the Provencal minstrel of 
 the 12th and 13th century — 
 
 I from lovers tokens bear, 
 I can flow'ry chaplets weave, 
 Amorous belts can well prepare, 
 And with courteous speech deceive. 
 
 They were become like the minstrels of England in the 
 regin of Edward II. when it was found necessary in 1315 
 to restrain them by express laws. 
 
 Musicians of real merit, however, continued to meet with 
 due honor and patronage tilr the reign of Mohummud Shah, 
 who is considered the most luxurious of the sovereigns of 
 Delhi, and the splendur of whose court could not be maintain- 
 ed without expert musicians. After the reign of this monarch, 
 his successors had neither tranquillity nor leisure sufficient 
 for such amusements, and became engaged in sports of a 
 quite different nature, replete with dismal reflections. 
 
32 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Dr. Carey, in the preface to his Sanscrit Grammar, 
 Calcutta, 1820, supposes the Egyptians to have been a colony 
 from India. The reasons stated by that gentleman appear 
 very plausible, which may be consulted by the curious 
 reader. Bigland, in his Letters on the Study and Use of 
 Ancient and Modern History, page 67, treating on the differ- 
 ence of castes, says, " This regulation has no where been found 
 in ' any country of note, aocient or modern, except Egypt 
 and India, which has caused many to suppose that the inha- 
 bitants of India were originally a colony from Egypt, or that 
 the Egyptians were a colony from India." And again, p. 69, 
 " These distinctions were sanctioned by religion, and inter- 
 woven into its very essence in Egypt as well as in India. In 
 this the Egyptian priests and the Brahmans of India have 
 exactly hit the same mark, and met with equal success." 
 
 Although a similarity in the music of the two countries 
 would not have much weight in hazarding such an opinion, 
 yet, added to other resemblances, and to the conjectures of 
 such respectable authorities, it will perhaps not be consi- 
 dered out of place that I have pointed out all the confor- 
 mity which appeared to me to subsist between the two.. 
 
 Every person who reads the history of ancient music must 
 be struck with the vast laborious researches made in that 
 branch of science, and cannot but admire the abilities and 
 patience of the authors. But it is a matter of regret that 
 their labours have more generally ended in obscurity, doubt, 
 and conjecture than in ascertaining the desired point. 
 This, however, has been the case with almost all disputed 
 points, of great antiquity, and must perhaps for ever remain 
 so for want of authentic documents, which can never be 
 produced by either party ; for none could have existed pre- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 33 
 
 vious to the invention of letters, and most of what was since 
 committed to writing has been destroyed by revolutions ami 
 time. There is, however, another difficulty particularly at- 
 tending upon the history of music. This is a science which 
 addresses itself exclusively to the ear, and before the inven- 
 tion of the modern method of committing an air to paper, all 
 description of it in books must have been vague, and liable 
 to great uncertainty. The hatred of the natives of India to 
 innovation has prompted them to preserve their ancient 
 practice almost inviolable, and hence perhaps if a thorough 
 knowledge of Indian music is acquired, and some similarity 
 be found between it and that of the nations above noticed, 
 there would perhaps be some hopes of unravelling the prac- 
 tice of those celebrated countries. That great part of 
 ancient music is unintelligible is most generally allowed, and 
 such as have endeavoured to elucidate them, have for the 
 most part made but little progress for want of perspicuous 
 definitions and living performers, who might assist in deci- 
 phering the theory. 
 
 If a comparison between the ancient music of Greece, 
 which was principally borrowed from the Egyptians, and 
 that of Hindoostan ; might be hazarded, it would appear that 
 great similarity exists between the two. The same rythmi- 
 cal measure, the same subdivision of semitones into minor 
 divisions, the same noisy* method of beating time not only 
 • 
 * Many ancient instruments were monotonous, and of little use but to 
 mark the measure : such were the Cymbalum and the Systrum ; and it 
 was for this reason, perhaps, that the cymbals were called .ffiera by 
 Fetronius. But it would afford us no very favourable idea of the abilities 
 of modern musicians, who would acquire so much parade and noise in 
 keeping together. "The more time is beat," says M. Rousseau, "the less 
 
34 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 with the hand, but also with instruments of percussion ; 
 melody without harmony, in its present acceptation ; and 
 the similarity of the effects said to have been produced by 
 the music of the two nations. The Diatessaron or 4th of 
 the Greeks was always fixed, while the intermediate sounds 
 were mutable, which equally corresponds with the practice of 
 Hindoostan. 
 
 The Greeks divided their diatonic scale into two tetra- 
 chords, which were exactly similar to each other, si ut re 
 mi and mi fa sol la, and the note mi, being that by which 
 both were joined, was denominated the conjunctive tetra- 
 chord. The Sarungee or fiddle of Hindoostan is always 
 tuned in this manner, and not by 5ths, as is the practice in 
 Europe, and the Greek method is allowed to be more correct 
 in intonation, and in some respects more simple. 
 
 If it were inquired whether the nation of Greece or Hin- 
 doostan proceeded farther in the cultivation of music, the 
 accounts we have of its state amongst the former, and the 
 living examples at present found in the latter, aided by a 
 review of its flourishing state under the native princes, would 
 decide in favor of Hindoostan. The use of a flute, with 
 holes to produce melodies, was only discovered during the 
 latter ages of Greece, as well as the performance on that 
 
 it is kept ; and in general, bad music and bad musicians stand moat 
 in need of sucb noisy assistance." Burney's History of Music, vol. i, p. 75. 
 With due deference to sucb autbors, I beg to observe tbat no allowance 
 seems to have been made for tbe different styles of music. The music 
 now in use in Europe would certainly be despoiled of all its beauty 
 by sucb an accompaniment ; but the ancient music was on the rythmical 
 principle, in which the greatest beauty consisted in marking the time 
 distinctly. The same train of reasoning will account for the practica 
 of Hindoostan. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 35 
 
 instrument as a solo ; both of which existed in Hindoostan- 
 from time immemorial. It was the instrument on which 
 Krishna played. The Greeks did not play solo, except on the 
 trumpet, till the Pythic games were celebrated, when Sacadas 
 of Argos is said to have been the first who distinguished 
 himself by playing on the flute alone.* 
 
 Agalaust of Tegea won the crown which was proposed for 
 a player upon stringed instruments without singing. This 
 was so late as the 8th Pythiad, 558 B. C, and seems to be the 
 first instance of such a performance. 
 
 ' The Greek scale at the time of Aristoxemus extended to- 
 two octaves, and was called Systema perfectum, maximum, 
 immutatum.' The Veen, one of the most ancient instru- 
 ments of India, and on which the Mooni Narud is said to 
 have performed, extends to three octaves and a half. 
 
 ' There was no instrument amongst the Greeks with necks 
 or finger-board, so that they were not acquainted with the 
 method of shortening strings in playing, so as to produce 
 different sounds ; (so their melody must therefore have been 
 confined to from four to ten sounds, as their Cithara had 
 only that number of strings) ;' while here various musical 
 instruments have existed which possessed these improve- 
 ments, as will be shewn when I come to treat of them 
 respectively. They did not express the octave of any sound 
 by the same character ; these have one common name for the 
 same note in every octave. 
 
 ' The dancers in Kome were called Saltatores from thei* 
 frequent leaping and springing.' This is all that is known of 
 their dance ; but we have no account of their particular 
 graces. ' The dance of the Greeks was similar, and served 
 
 * Burney, vol. i, p. 82. t M&' 
 
 E2 
 
36 1NTR0DT7CT10K. 
 
 as the model which their conquerors, the Romans, adopted. 
 Amongst them this class of people were denominated Cuvetes.' 
 This description is evidently very defective, and give3 us no 
 very distinct or graceful idea of this amusement amongst 
 them. 
 
 The dance, as it is now practised in Hiudoostan, is com- 
 paratively of a modern date. Music having been in more 
 ancient times dedicated almost solely to religious purposes, 
 the dance was likewise practised by persons actuated with 
 religious zeal and warlike enthusiasm, till they were subse- 
 quently prostituted by interested performers for the enter- 
 tainment of the luxurious. Dances beiug accompanied with 
 song, and the theme of the latter being charged from pious 
 hymns to love ditties, the actions of the one were necessarily 
 conformed to the words of the other ; and this in a short 
 time could not fail, amongst so voluptuous a people as con- 
 quered the degenerate sons of India, to change into that 
 effeminate and meretricious style in which it is at present. 
 Indeed, the want of morals amongst its professors of both 
 sexes is the primary cause of the present derogation of this 
 elegant science amongst the natives from its original dignity. 
 If we consider, however, this branch of music abstractedly, 
 without revertiDg to any tendency which it might have on 
 the morals of the spectators, it cannot but be allowed that 
 they are accompanied with much grace, and the Bhav, which 
 regards gesticulations expressive of the poetry, is, by expert 
 performers, such as would not disgrace a stage-player. 
 
HINDOOSTANEE MUSIC. 
 
 °S**Oo 
 
 What it is termed in the original. The treatises held in Hie greatest estimation. 
 Native divisions what, and how many. The arrangement adopted in this 
 work. 
 
 Music in Hindoostau is termed " Suogeet" from the 
 Sanscrit, whence this as well as all terms connected with 
 it are derived. There are various original treatises on this 
 science, with translations of several in the Hindee and Per- 
 sian. The most esteemed of these are the Nadpooran, Bagar- 
 nuvu, Subhavinod, Bagdurpun, and the Sungeet Durpun, 
 and other works in the original Sanscrit, and short ac- 
 counts in the works of Hukeem Salamut Ulee Khan, and the 
 Tohfuht-ool Hind, by Mirza Khan. The native authors di- 
 vide Sungeet into seven parts : — 1, Soor-udhyay, which treats 
 of the seven musical tones, with their subdivisions ; 2, Eag- 
 udhyay, defines the melody ; 3, Tal-udhyay, describes the 
 measures, with the manner of beating time ; 4, Nrit-udhyay, 
 regards dancing ; 5, Aurth-udhyay, expatiates on the signifi- 
 cation of the poetry sung ; 6, Bhav-udhyay, confines itself to 
 expression and gesture ; and 7, Hust-udhyay, instructs the 
 method of performing on the several musical instruments. 
 
 The first three of these heads are more immediately con- 
 nected with my design. Something will likewise be cur- 
 sorily mentioned in the course of the work regarding the 5th 
 
38 HINDOOSTANEE MUSIC. 
 
 and last heads. Those referring to dancing and its appro- 
 priate actions, I shall leave aside. 
 
 I shall not, however, confine myself to the method adopted 
 in the original works on this subject, but shall treat of its 
 various branches ia the order in which they will naturally 
 present themselves. 
 
OF THE GAMUT. 
 
 Madam, before you touch the instrument, 
 To learn the order of my fingering, 
 I must begin with rudiments of ai-t. 
 To teach you Gamut in a briefer sort. 
 
 Shakespear. 
 
 What it is called. The derivation of the word. The subdivisions of tones. Re' 
 semblance of these of the Greek diesis. Opinions of Dr. Bumey and Mr. Moore 
 on the enharmonic genus. Names of the seven notes. Origin of these. The 
 Gamut invented by Guido and Le Maire. Dr. Pepusch. Srooti. 
 
 The Gamut in Hindoostanee is termed Surgum, which 
 appellation is said to be derived from the four first notes of 
 the scale, as our A B C is from the three first letters of 
 the alphabet, or the word itself from the two with which the 
 Greek letters begin. The number of tones is the same as 
 in the modern music of Europe, but the subdivisions are more 
 in the manner of the ancient enharmonic genus of the 
 Greeks. The difference in the subdivision of the tones 
 which characterised the enharmonic, consisted in the notes 
 of the chromatic genus being divided by the diesis or quar- 
 ter tone. 
 
 To a person versed in the modern music of Europe, the 
 subdivisions of semi-tones into, minuter parts will appear 
 
40 OF THE GAMUT. 
 
 incomprehensible, at least inasmuch as to be productive of 
 any melody that would be pleasing to the ear. I shall forbear 
 to say anything on my own authority, but shall quote a pas- 
 sage which I think appropriate. 
 
 Dr. Burney, in his general dissertation on the music of the 
 ancients, p. 43, treating of the Grecian enharmonic genus, 
 has this : " How this quarter tone could be managed, so as to 
 be rendered pleasing, still remains a mystery ; yet the diffi- 
 culty of splitting a semi-tone into two halves, or even divid- 
 ing it into more minute intervals, is less, perhaps, than has 
 been imagined. When it is practised by a capital siDger or 
 a good performer on the violin or hautbois, at a pause, how 
 wide it seems ! " 
 
 T. Moore, in his translation of the XLIII. Ode of Anacreon, 
 
 has the following note on these lines : 
 
 And while the harp impassioned flings 
 Tuneful rapture from the strings. 
 
 "Barbiton, Anc. Mus. If one of their modes was a pro- 
 gression by quarter tones, which, we are told, was the na- 
 ture of the enharmonic scale, simplicity was by no means the 
 characteristic of their melody ; for this is a nicety of progres- 
 sion, of which modern music is not susceptible." 
 
 That such subdivisions exist in Hindoostanee music is cer- 
 tain, but it must be left to time, and more intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the science, to determine whether it has any claim 
 to the eulogium bestowed by this gentleman on the enhar- 
 monic of the Greeks. 
 
 The names of the notes are : 1, Khuruj ; 2, Bikhub ; 3, 
 Gundhur ; 4, Muddhum ; 5, Punchum ; 6, Dhyvut, and 7, 
 Nikhad. In solfa-ing, however, the first syllable only of each 
 is mentioned — su, ru, or ri, gu, mu, pu, dhu, ni. The Khuruj 
 
OF THE GAMUT. 41 
 
 is called su, on account of its being likewise denominated soor, 
 or the fundamental note, by way of pre-eminence. 
 
 I do not recollect that any of those who have written on 
 Hindoostanee music has informed the public what system 
 has been adhered to by him ; that is, which note of the Sur- 
 gum has been made to correspond with which of our gamut. 
 It seems to me to be a matter of some consequence to de- 
 termine this point, for the benefit of those who might wish 
 to take the comparison. 
 
 As the number of notes is the same in both cases, the only 
 thing to be determined is, Which is to correspond to the 
 first of their scale, or Khuruj. Sir William Jones makes the 
 Khuruj to correspond to A ;* but in this it appears to me he 
 is guided more by alphabetical arrangement of letters than 
 by any connection it may have with musical arrangement. 
 
 If the Khuruj is tuned UT or 0, it seems to me to be more 
 systematic, it being the key-note of the natural scale. 
 
 The musicians of Hindoostan never appear to have had 
 any determined pitch by which their instruments were regu- 
 lated, each person tuning his own to a certain height, adapt- 
 ed by guess, to the power of the instrument and quality of 
 the strings, the capacity of the voice intended to be accom- 
 panied, and other adventitious circumstances. Prom this 
 it may be observed that it is immaterial which note is desig- 
 noted by which letter, but it seems to me more systematic 
 that some such definition be made. 
 
 The authors of the East, being desirous of tracing every 
 thing to its source, in the want of authentic history, supply 
 its place by fable. In the instance of the origin (oot-piinuu) 
 
 • See his delineation of the finger-hoard of the Vina. 
 
 F 
 
42 OF THE GAMUT. 
 
 of the gamut, they say, that the various sounds of which it 
 is composed are derived from the natural sounds or calls of 
 various animals. The Khuruj, they assert, is in imitation of 
 the call of the peacock ; the Rikhub, of the bird called pu- 
 peeha ; the Gundhur, of the lowing of a sheep ; Muddhum, 
 from the call of the bird named Coolung j Punchum, Eoel ; 
 Dbyvut, horse ; and Nikhad, elephant. How far this opi- 
 nion can be maintained, I leave the reader to determine. I 
 was not aware, before I got a sight of native treatises on mu- 
 sic, that the lowing of sheep, the neighing of horses, or the 
 call of the elephant, could be construed into musical sounds. 
 
 It will be allowed that the Hindoos have made no despi- 
 cable advances in music, when it is known that they have 
 Beven distinct names for notes which compose their gamut. 
 Guido of Arezzo in Tuscany, a monk of the order of St. Be- 
 nedict, is allowed to be the inventor of the gamut as it is 
 adopted in Europe, although some dispute this point. The date 
 of this invention is about the year 1022. The syllables 
 ascribed to him are only six in number, taken from the first 
 syllables of the hymn of St. John ■' Ul queont laxis," the 
 major seventh being then considered merely as a note of 
 grace, and not essential to the scale ; and it was not till 
 about the latter end of the sixteenth century that the last 
 si was invented by Le Maire, a singing-master of Paris.* 
 
 * 8a, ri, &c. Three of which syllables are, by a singular concurrence, 
 exactly, though not in the same places, with three of those invented by 
 David Montare, as a substitute for the troublesome gamut used in his time, 
 and which he arranges thus : 
 
 Bo, ce, di, ga, la, ma, ni. — Sir William Jones, vol. i, p. 426. 
 
OF THE GAMUT. 
 
 43 
 
 Solmization, however, in various parts of Europe, still con- 
 tinues to be performed hy the tetrachord, as was the prac- 
 tice in Greece, adapting only the Gujdonian terms in lieu 
 of the Grecian. In England, the syllables mi, fa, sol, la, 
 only were used, so that the octave of mi, was la, till the 
 eighteenth century, when the whole of the hexachord was 
 introduced by Dr. Pepusch. 
 
 The notes of an octave are divided into twenty-two minor 
 subdivisions, instead of the twelve semi-tones, as is done 
 with us. These are called Srootis, and each of them has a 
 distinct name assigned to it, as is specified in the follow- 
 ing table. 
 
 Soors. 
 
 .Comprising Srootis. 
 
 
 Butra. 
 
 Cumodutee. 
 
 Mundrica. 
 
 Chhunduvutee. 
 
 Duyavutee. 
 
 Bunjunee. 
 
 Euctica. 
 
 Sivee. 
 
 Crodhee. 
 
 Bujjia. 
 
 Prusarunee. 
 
 Preetee. 
 
 Marjunee. 
 
 Kshutee. 
 
 Bicta. 
 
 Sidpunee. 
 
 Ulapunee. 
 
 Mundutee. 
 
 Bohinee. 
 
 Eummya. 
 
 Ooggra. 
 
 Joobhunca. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Here it must be observed that the intervals between the 
 first and second, fourth and fifth, and fifth and sixth notes 
 
 F2 
 
44 OF THE GAMUT. 
 
 of the octave are divided each into four parts ; those between 
 the second and third and sixth and seventh, each into three 
 parts, and those between the third and fourth, and seventh 
 and eighth, which with us are reckoned semi-tones, each into 
 two parts. 
 
OF TIME. 
 
 Musick do I heat 1 
 Ha, ha ! keep time. How sour sweet musick is, 
 When time is broke, and no proportion kept. 
 
 Sfiakespeav. 
 Heroes who o'ertime, or die, 
 Have their hearts hung extremely high : 
 The strings of which in battles' heat 
 Against their very corslets beat ; 
 Keep time with their own trumpet's measure, 
 And yield them most excessive pleasure. 
 
 Prior, 
 
 The various measures -used in Europe. Difference between them and those of 
 Hindoostan. Their resemblance to the rythm of the Greeks. Similarity between 
 the Qreek'and Sanscrit languages. The Hebrew unmusical, likewise the Arabic. 
 Melody and metre considered. Tartini's objections against metre endeavoured 
 to be controverted the dignified prose in Sanscrit, and tongues derived from 
 it. Its superiority to the Oordoo. Probable origm of the modern musical 
 •measure. Tartini's deduction of measure from the proportions of the octave 
 and its fifth, opposed to the practice of Hindoostan. Whether the rythmical 
 or the musical measure possesses greater advantages. Opinion hazarded thereon. 
 Time table. Characters for expressing time. Their varieties. 
 
 Time in music signifies the measure by which the melody 
 is regulated, and without which there is no music. The 
 importance of this branch of the science is so generally 
 acknowledged, that it is superfluous to expatiate on its ' 
 merits. I shall not here insist on the different measures 
 
46 OF TIME. 
 
 in European practice, as it mast be understood by all who 
 have auy knowledge of music, and to those who are not ini- 
 tiated in that science, it is not my object to enter into any 
 explanation. 
 
 A great difference prevails between the music of Europe 
 and that of the Oriental nations in respect to time, in which 
 branch it resembles more the rhythm of the Greeks, and 
 other ancient nations, than the measures peculiar to the 
 modern music of Europe. To all those who are acquainted 
 with the principles of ancient music it will be unnecessary to 
 observe, that this rhythm was no other than the poetical 
 feet which formed the basis of their musical measure. 
 
 From the certain knowledge of the rhythm of the ancients, 
 and the similarity observed in the practices of the natives of 
 India, Persia, and other Oriental countries, it inclines one to 
 the opinion that the rhythmical measure is the lawful off- 
 spring of nature, found in all parts of the world, which 
 existed much prior to the birth of her younger sister, the 
 modern musical measure. 
 
 Much has been said by writers against the use of rhythm, 
 as.it confines the melody to.certain measures ; but I question, 
 whether there can be any melody without restrictions of that 
 nature, be that the ancient rhythmical, or the present musi- 
 cal, measure. When the -great variety, of poetical feet in the 
 Greek and Sanscrit languages, as well as in those derived 
 from the latter, is taken-into consideration, it seems doubt- 
 ful, whether the one wonld|Uot even .allow ; more variety than 
 the other. The gebrew is, acknowledged tp.be a harsh lan- 
 guage, and unfavourable .toomusic, from the paucity of vowels 
 and abundance of consonants ; the same , is likewise applicable 
 to the Arabic : the Sanscrit has sixteen vowels, and the 
 
OP TIME. 47 
 
 language is sonorous beyond a doubt. This should perhaps 
 be one reason for ita being particularly adapted for music. 
 
 On the contrary, authors have not been wanting who 
 have defended it, perhaps with more zeal than the subject 
 would freely admit. Amongst others, Isaac Vossius is of 
 opinion, that "since the discontinuance of the use of rhythm, 
 and the adoption of the modern musical measure, musicians 
 have lost that power over the passions which the ancients 
 are said to have possessed." I mention this fact only in a 
 transient manner, and leave it on his authority for the de- 
 cision of others ; but 1 must confess, that I can by no 
 means agree with him, when he ascribes this power to rhythm 
 unassisted by melody. 
 
 Sir William Jones* seems -to have more reasonably as- 
 signed the cause of the power of the ancient musicians. His 
 words are," It is in this view only that we must consider the 
 music of the ancient Greeks, or attempt to account for its 
 amazing effeets which we find related by the greatest histori- 
 ans and philosophers ; it was wholly passionate or descriptive, 
 and so closely united to poetry, that it never obstructed, but 
 always increased, its influence ; whereas our boasted harmony, 
 with all its fine accords and numerous parts, paints nothing, 
 expresses nothing, says nothing to the heart, and consequently 
 can only give more or less pleasure to one of our senses ; and 
 no reasonable man Will seriously prefer a transitory pleasure, 
 which must soon end in satiety, or even iu disgust, to a delight 
 of the soul, being always interesting, always transporting." 
 However, to give all the merit to melody, and deny that rythm 
 *£as any share in aiding the effects produced by melody in 
 
 * Essay on the Arts commonly called imitative, inserted in his works, 
 vol. iv, p. 556. 
 
48 OF TIME. 
 
 exciting the passions, caunot be consonant to sound reason- 
 ing, as the very idea of the necessity of some sort of measure 
 by which the melody might be regulated is repugnant to it. 
 How different would epic poetry sound if written in the 
 measure peculiar to anacreontic odes, or vice versA ! Metre 
 is allowed to have this effect in poetry, and why not in 
 music ? It is very well known that a mere transposition of 
 key, without a change iu the time, has very little power on 
 the spirits of the hearer. 
 
 It has been also alleged in defence of rythm, that " a 
 melody of even very ordinary merit, in which the time is 
 distinctly and accurately marked, is more capable of pleasing 
 and giving satisfaction generally than a more scientific and 
 laboured composition that is deficient in this respect." Many 
 of our songs will prove this assertion. 
 
 From the strict regard paid by the ancients to their long 
 and short syllables, Tartini supposes, " they could not have 
 prolonged any note beyond the time allowed to the syllable, 
 and from this cause a fine voice would be unabled to display 
 its powers by passing rapidly from syllable to syllable to 
 prevent the loss of time." How far this may hold good 
 with respect to the music of the Greeks, we possess no exist- 
 ing means of judging ; but with regard to Oriental music, this 
 is not the case. For in this respect, there is more liberty 
 allowed than our modern system of time will permit, as I 
 shall endeavour to demonstrate. 
 
 The peculiar nature of the melody of Hindoostan not only 
 permits but enjoins the singer, if he has the least pretention 
 to excel in it, not to sing a song throughout more than once 
 in its naked form ; but on its repetition, which is a natural 
 consequence, occasioned by the brevity of the pieces iu general, 
 
OF TIME. 49 
 
 to break off sometimes at the conclusion, at other times 
 at the commencement, middle, or any certain part of a mea- 
 sure, and fall into a rhapsodical embellishment called Alap, 
 and after going through a variety of ad libitum passages, rejoin 
 the melody with as much grace as if it had never been dis- 
 united, the musical accompaniment all the while keeping 
 time. These passages are not reckoned essential to the melody, 
 but are considered only as grace notes, introduced according 
 to the fancy of the singer, where the only limitations by 
 which the performer is bound are the notes peculiar to that 
 particular melody, and a strict regard to time. No other 
 rules exist for them, and if measured with the opinion of 
 Dr. Burney,* they appear to be in the right for not confining 
 them to certain forms. 
 
 It will perhaps be inquired, how in such cases strict adher- 
 ence to time can be maintained. The reply is, that when 
 these flights are more lengthened than a single apogiatura, the 
 ad libitum movement runs through the full time of a whole 
 measure, or a certain number of measures, reckoning from the 
 instant of its adoption to that when it is dropped, taking up 
 the measure of the rythm at the same foot where it was drop- 
 ped, or if these passages require more or less time than the 
 complement of the measure requires, allowance is made for it 
 in rejoining the melody. 
 
 A great number of pieces are in dignified prose, of an 
 elevated strain, peculiar to the Sanscrit and the languages 
 derived from it. These are not strictly confined to poetical feet, 
 
 * Writing down grace is like recording the nonsense and impertinence of 
 conversation, which, bad at first, is rendered more and more insipid and 
 absurd as the times, manners, and occasions which produced it become more 
 distant,— General History, vol. ii,p. 151, note u. 
 
 G 
 
50 OP TIME. 
 
 and admit of much variety. In compositions of this nature, 
 two or more notes are frequently allotted to one syllable, and 
 they resemble more the style of the modern musical measure 
 than the generality of poetical compositions. These pieces, 
 and indeed all those songs called Dhoorpuds and Kheals, 
 as well as those of some other species, are commonly in the 
 language spoken at Vruj and in the district of Khyrabad. 
 
 The Vruj Bhasha is peculiar to the Hindoos, and although 
 an extremely elegant and sonorous lauguage, bearing the 
 greatest resemblance of any to the Sanscrit, is nevertheless 
 not so generally understood as the Oordoo. It appears, 
 however, to be far superior for poetical compositions, and 
 there certainly are more numerous works in it possessing 
 genuine poetical beauties than in the other. 
 
 I have not seen any account of the origin of the present 
 musical measure of Europe, and am led to believe that it 
 must have had its rise from the following cause. The pri- 
 mitive fathers of the Christian churches being desirous of 
 admitting music in their divine service, in imitation of the 
 Apostles, the Hebrews, and all other nations, were however 
 unwilling to admit the melodies then in use amongst the 
 pagans as profane. The rythmical measure also was object- 
 ed to, as being too light and lively, and the distinction of 
 poetical feet being laid aside, all notes were rendered of the 
 same length. When music began afterwai'ds to be cultivat- 
 ed for the stage and the cabinet, the insipidity of music 
 composed of notes of equal length was soon felt, and the 
 ancient metrical measure being out of favor, while the adop- 
 tion of some sort of measure was found necessary, appears 
 to be the most plausible reason for the invention of the 
 measure now in use throughout Europe. 
 
OF TIME. 51 
 
 Dr. Burney, in his General History of Music, has the follow- 
 ing paragraph, page 82: " Tartini has deduced all measure 
 from the proportions of the octave and its fifth : ' common 
 time, or measure,' says he, ' arises from the octave, which is 
 as 1:2; triple time arises from the fifth, which is as 
 2:3.' ' These,' adds he, ' are the utmost limits within which 
 we can hope to find any practicable proportions for melody.' 
 Indeed, many have attempted to introduce other kinds of 
 measure, which, instead of good effects, have produced nothing 
 but the greatest confusion, and this must always be the case. 
 Music has been composed of five equal notes in a bar, but 
 no musician has yet been found that is able to execute it. 
 The authorities of Tartini and Dr. Burney are very respect- 
 able, yet we may sastisfy ourselves every day that there is 
 beautiful melody in Hindoostan, comprising seven and other 
 unequal number of notes in a measure, and that they have 
 musicians in abundance that are able to execute it. The 
 table prefixed to the end of this article will prove the exist- 
 ence of many very unequal measures successfully employed 
 by them. The above deduction itself of Tartini remains yet 
 to be proved, before we give it our unqualified assent. 
 
 From all that has been discussed above, a question natu- 
 rally arises, namely, which has the advantage — the ancient 
 rythmical or the modern musical measure 1 This appears 
 to be a point difficult to decide, and will perhaps not be finally 
 settled until the musicians of Europe shall have learned to 
 play the music of Hindoostan in unequal number of notes. 
 In the meantime, perhaps, if we steer a middle course, and allow 
 each its merit, we shall not be far from the truth. The ryth- 
 mical measure seems to have been quite adapted to the 
 language of the Greeks, which admitted of such variety in the 
 
 G2 
 
52 OF TIME. 
 
 metrical feet, and as the Sanscrit is known to bear a strik 
 ing resemblance to it in this respect, the use of it may be al- 
 lowed to be equally advantageous in melodies of that lan- 
 guage, and those derived from it, many of the poetical feet of 
 which could not be adapted to the modern melody of Europe. 
 
 The time table in Europe was first formed in the eleventh 
 century. Magister Franco, believed to be a native of Cologn, 
 is by some allowed the honor of this invention, although 
 others suppose him only to have improved on the principles 
 of his predecessors. He is, however, acknowledged to have 
 invented the term minim ; as only the long, breve, and semi- 
 breve were known about that time. Although six different 
 characters for time are generally described in modern time 
 tables, yet no more than four were known till several centu- 
 ries after the time of Franco. 
 
 There are four sorts of characters for time used by the 
 musicians of Hindoostan — the Undroot, the Droot, the Lu- 
 ghoo, and the Gooroo, with marks, which serve as our point 
 to lengthen the preceding note half its value. They reckon 
 a fifth, Ploot, but that I conceive is not a distinct character. 
 
 It is certainly very creditable to the knowledge of music 
 in Hindoostan that characters of such different values 
 have subsisted amongst them. The ancient Greeks seem 
 to have had only two, the long and the short, which serv- 
 ed to mark the measure both of poetry and music, and in 
 the canto farmo notes of equal value only are found. 
 
 Time, in the acceptation it has in music, is called Tal.* 
 
 » The origin of this word is said to bo from Tand, the dance of Mu- 
 Eadew, and Las, that of his wife, Parvuttee, the first letters of which 
 form the word Tal <TRT- 
 
OF TIME. 53 
 
 They reckon an immense variety of these, but such as are 
 now practised are limited to ninety-two. These I shall 
 describe in the annexed table. The aggregate quantity or 
 value* fixed in the third column forms one complete mea- 
 sure, but in beating, the commencement of every note given 
 there is struck. The syllables corresponding with a certain 
 number of the strokes of the Tal, from its commencement, 
 Oochchar, are called Purun, the last of which in the mea- 
 sure is termed Sum, which is always on an accented syllable, 
 and is the principal note in the measure. In this respect, 
 Sum is equivalent to the most emphatic parts of our music 
 denominated accented parts. 
 
 * I use the word " Value," not in the double sense ascribed to it by 
 D'Alembert, but simply mean its quantity of duration. 
 
OF HARMONY AND MELODY. 
 
 " Thoughts that voluntary move 
 Harmonious numbers." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 «' The prophet David, having singular knowledge, not in poetry alone, but 
 in music also, judging them both to be things most necessary for the 
 house of God, left behind him a number of divinely indited poems, and was 
 farther the author of adding unto poetry melody in public prayer, melody 
 both vocal and instrumental, for the raising up of men's hearts, and the 
 sweetening of their affections towards God." — Hooker. 
 
 The origin of harmony in Europe. Opinions of several learned men on the subject 
 of harmony, with that of the author. Claims of melody. 
 
 Harmony, in the present acceptation of the word, is a plant 
 whose native soil is Europe, whence it has been transplanted 
 to some other countries ; but all the native culture of music 
 has not been able to make it grow spontaneously in any 
 other part of the world as in its indigenous soil and climate. 
 Wherever else it is found, it is exotic. The only harmony 
 which Hindoostanee music generally admits of, and indeed 
 requires, if it can be called harmony, is a continuation of its 
 key note, in which respect it resembles very much the 
 Scotch pastorals, or the instrument accompanies the voice in 
 unison, as was the practice in Europe, until towards the end 
 of St. Lewis's reign in the thirteenth century. 
 
OP HARMONY AND MELODY. 55 
 
 Many discussions have taken place amongst the learned on 
 the merits of harmony. M. Rousseau and some other au- 
 thors seem to be of opinion that music is not really improved 
 by the use of harmony. The former produces various 
 arguments to prove that it is a barbarous and Gothic inven- 
 tion. All our reasoning, however, cannot lead us to subscribe 
 to the truth of this great author's assertion when we hear 
 the harmony of a piece judiciously selected, and in which the 
 melody is not overpowered ; in short, harmony by which 
 melody is adorned, not overloaded. 
 
 Dr. Burney, in a note, p. 459, says : " There is a fashion, we 
 find, not only in melody, but harmony ; modern ears are 
 best pleased with Ptolomy's arrangement, though Doni tells 
 us that in the last century, the diapason of Didymus was 
 most in vogue. 
 
 " Tartini has asserted, that melody is the offspring of har- 
 mony as being deduced from it. I cannot presume to dis- 
 pute so great an authority, but I would only beg to ques- 
 tion, whether melody or harmony was first practised in the 
 world. Every unprejudiced person will, I believe, coincide 
 with me, that although melody can certainly be deduced from 
 harmony, yet the former is the elder sister by many a thou- 
 • sand year. Harmony and melody are not like music and 
 language ; there is not the same relation between them. 
 
 "Notwithstanding the dependence of melody upon har- 
 mony, and the sensible influence which the latter may exert 
 upon the former, we must not however from thence conclude, 
 with some celebrated musicians, that the effects of harmony 
 are preferable to those of melody. Experience proves the 
 contrary."* 
 
 * Encyclopaedia Britannica, Art. Music, p. 531. 
 
56 OF HARMONY AND MELODY. 
 
 It is not in my power to decide a point on which the 
 learned are divided in their opinion. I shall only offer a 
 few obvious remarks, which must naturally strike every 
 person who bestows any degree of attention on the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 Many pieces of music, in parts, even by the greatest mas- 
 ters, which are universally admired, would souud quite insipid 
 if divested of that harmony which animates them. This at 
 once decides the merit of harmony, although it may likewise 
 add some weight to the opinion which some entertain, that 
 the modern melody has not the merit of the ancient, and 
 that harmony is used with the view of compensating for its 
 poorness, and diverting the attention of the audience from 
 perceiving the barrenness of genius. 
 
 It will be easily allowed that the beauties of a piece of 
 melody are not so perceptible when sung with accompani- 
 ment in parts, as when it is performed as a solo. Dr. 
 Burney has some very appropriate sentences, which I beg 
 leave to transcribe. 
 
 " Upon the whole, therefore, it seems demonstrable that 
 harmony like ours was never practised by the ancients ; 
 however I have endeavoured to shew, that the stripping 
 their music of counterpoint does not take from it the power 
 of pleasing, or of producing great effects ; and in modern 
 times, if a Farinelli, a Gizziello, or a Cafarelli, had sung 
 their airs wholly without accompaniment, they would, per- 
 haps, have been listened to but with still more pleasure. 
 Indeed, the closes of great singers, made wholly without 
 accompaniment, are more attended to than all the contriv- 
 ance of complicated parts, in the course of the airs which 
 they terminate. 
 
OP HARMONY AND MELODY. 57 
 
 " An elegant and graceful melody, exquisitely sung by a 
 fine» voice, is sure to engage attention, and to create delight 
 without instrumental,, assistance, and in a solo, composed 
 and performed by a great master, the less the accompaniment 
 is heard the better. Hence it should seem asjf the harmony 
 of accumulated vocal parts, or the tumult of instru- 
 mental, was no more than a succedaneum to a mellifluous 
 voice, or single instrument of the first class, which is but 
 seldom found. However, to diversify and vary our musical 
 amusements, and to assist in dramatic painting, a full piece 
 and a well-written chorus have their peculiar merit, even 
 among songs and solos, however elegant the composition or 
 perfect the peiformance."f 
 
 * "AH these instruments (pianoforte, organ, &c.) were far inferior 
 to the voice, the spontaneous gift of nature, in promptitude, and in the 
 power of obeying^ every call of sentiment, every degree, as well as every 
 kind of emotion, with which the heart was agitated. The pleasures of 
 harmony, though great, were monotonous, and could not express the 
 momentary variations of sentiment, which are as fleeting as the light 
 and shade of a prospect, while the dappled clouds fall across the sky. 
 The violin and a small number of the simple wind instruments were 
 found to be the only ones which could fully express those momentary 
 gradations of sentiment that give music its pathos, and enable it to 
 thrill the very soul." Supplement to Encyclopedia, Britannica, vol. ii, 
 Art. Pianoforte. 
 
 We may here likewise observe, that as all musical instruments without 
 exception are inferior to that unrivalled gift of nature, a good voice, and 
 a single voice is not able to sing in parts, it may be deduced that music 
 in parts was never intended by nature. 
 
 t "It may indeed happen, from the number of performers, and the 
 complication of the harmony, that meaning and sentiment may be lost in 
 the multiplicity of sounds ; but this, though it may be harmony, loses 
 the name of music. 
 
 "The second department of this division by lively and accentuate 
 nflections, and by sounds which may be said to speak, expresses all the 
 
 H 
 
58 OF HARMONY AND MELODY. 
 
 Melody seems to be as much the child of nature as the 
 rythmical measure already noticed. Indeed, music is found 
 all over the world, and that music, except in Europe, where 
 harmony has been introduced for the space of little more 
 than two centuries, is purely melody, be that of a refined or 
 gross nature, and generally in rythmical measure.* 
 
 passions, paints every possible picture, reflects every object, subjects 
 the whole of nature to its skilful imitations, and impresses even on 
 the heart and soul of man sentiments proper to affect them in the most 
 sensible manner. This, continues he, (M. Rousseau,) which is the 
 genuine lyric and theatrical music, was what gave double charms and 
 energy to ancient poetry ; this is what, in our days, we exert ourselves 
 in applying to the drama, and what our singers execute on the stage. 
 It is in this music alone, and not in harmonics, or the resonance of 
 nature, that we must expect to find accounts of those prodigious effects 
 which it formerly produced. 
 
 ''But, with M. Rousseau's permission, aU music, which is not in some 
 degree characterised by these pathetic and imitative powers, deserves 
 no better name than that of a musical jargon, and can only be effec- 
 tuated by such a complication and intricacy of harmony as may con- 
 found, but cannot entertain, the audience. This character, therefore, 
 ought to be added as essential to the definition of music ; and it must 
 be attributed to our neglect of this alone, whilst our whole attention is 
 bestowed on harmony and execution, that the best performances of our 
 artists and composers are heard with listless indifference and oscitation, 
 nor ever can conciliate any admirers, but such as are, indeed, by pedan- 
 try and affectation, to pretend what they do not feel. Still may the 
 curse of indifference and inattention pursue and harrow up the souls of 
 every composer or performer who pretends to regale our ears with this 
 musical legerdemain; still the grin of scorn, or the hiss of infamy, teach 
 them to correct this depravity of taste, and entertain us with the voice 
 of nature." — Encyclopaedia Britannica, Art. Music. 
 
 * "Music is at present divided more simply into -melody and harmony; 
 for since the introduction of Jiarmony, the proportion between the length 
 and shortness of sounds, or even that between the distance of returning 
 cadences, are of less consequence amongst us. For it often happens in 
 
OF HARMONY AND MELODY. 59 
 
 That melody ia the production of genius, and harmony 
 of art, will not, I believe, be disputed ; nor that the former is 
 more generally comprehended and relished by mankind 
 than complicated harmony. 
 
 Music had already been too much, circumscribed by rules 
 of art, mathematics was made to supply the place of the ear, 
 or rather in a great measure to supplant its authority alto- 
 gether, even before the invention of harmony.* 
 
 Having advanced all that I thought was necessary on the 
 subject of harmony and melody in general, I shall now 
 introduce the reader to the melodies of Hindoostan. 
 
 modern languages, that the verses assume their measure from the mu- 
 sical air, and almost entirely lose the small share of proportion and 
 quantity which in themselves they possess." — Ibid. 
 
 * " Had the philosophers never meddled with it (music), had they allowed 
 the practical musicians to construct and tune their instruments in their 
 own way, so as to please their ear, it is scarcely possible that they should 
 not have hit on what they wanted, without all the embarrassment of the 
 chromatic and the enharmonic scales of the Greeks."— Ibiet. Art. Tempera- 
 ment. 
 
OE ORIENTAL MELODY. 
 
 Not generally susceptible of harmony. Limited to a certain number. Its 
 character. 
 
 The melody of the East has always been admired, and I 
 believe very justly. The Europeans, however, are at present 
 so much accustomed to harmony, that to their ear this me- 
 lody will sound less attracting than it would otherwise have 
 been. Indeed, so wide is the difference between the natures 
 of European and Oriental music, that I conceive a great 
 many of the latter would baffle the attempts of the most ex- 
 pert contrapuntist to set a harmony to them, by the existing 
 rules of that science.* 
 
 * " We do not say that this total innovation (harmony) in the principle 
 of musical pleasure is exceptionable ; we rather think it very defective, 
 believing that the thrilling pleasure of music depends more upon the 
 melody or air. We appeal even to instructed musicians whether the 
 heart and affections are not more affected (and with much more distinct 
 variety of emotion) by a fine melody, supported, but hot obscured, by 
 harmonies judiciously chosen. It appears to us that the effect of har- 
 mony, always filled up, is more uniformly the same, and less touching 
 to the soul, than some simple air sung or played by a performer of sen- 
 sibility and powers of utterance. We do not wonder, then, that the 
 ingenuous Greeks deduced all their rules from this department of music,, 
 nor at their being so satisfied with the pleasures it yielded, that they 
 were not solicitous of the additional support of harmony. We see that 
 melody has suffered by the change in every country. There is no 
 
OF ORIENTAL MELODY. 61 
 
 To expect an endless variety in the melody of Hindoostan, 
 would be an injudicious hope, as their authentic melody is 
 limited to a certain number, said to have been composed by 
 professors universally acknowledged to have possessed not 
 only real merit, but also the original genius of composition, 
 beyond the precincts of whose authority it would be criminal 
 to trespass. What the more reputed of the moderns have 
 since done is, that they have adapted them to their own pur- 
 poses, and formed others by the combination of two or more 
 of them. Thus far they are licensed, but they dare not pro- 
 ceed a step further. Whatever merit an entire modern com- 
 position might possess, should it have no resemblance to the 
 established melody of the country, it would be looked upon 
 as spurious. It is implicitly believed, that it is impossible 
 to add to the number of these one single melody of equal 
 merit. So tenacious are the natives of Hindoostan of their 
 ancient practices ! 
 
 It may here be remarked, that in the art of combining two 
 or more Eaginees, the natives are guided by their own rules 
 of modulation, the propriety of which should of course not 
 be judged of by the rules laid down by M. Eousseau, or his 
 commentator D'Alembert ; but by those determined by the 
 native masters, allowing the ear to be the best and most 
 natural judge of that which has its existence merely with the 
 view of affording pleasure to the auditory organ. 
 
 The general term for melody in Hindoostan is Rag or 
 Raginee, which is the subject I shall next be led to treat of ; 
 
 Scotchman, Irishman, Polo, or Russian, who does not lament that the 
 skill in composing heart-touching airs is degenerated in his respective 
 nation ; and all admire the productions of their muse of the days that 
 are past. They are pleasant and. mournful to the soul"— Ibid. Art. Tem- 
 perament. 
 
62 OP ORIENTAL MELODY. 
 
 but before I enter upon that head, I shall offer a few observ- 
 ations which are common to all : 
 
 1. Hindoostanee melodies are short, lengthened by repe- 
 tition and variations. 
 
 2. They all partake of the nature of what is denominated 
 by us Eondo, the piece being invariably concluded with the 
 first strain, and sometimes with the first bar, or at least with 
 the first note of that bar. 
 
 3. A bar, or measure, or a certain number of measures, 
 are frequently repeated, with slight variation almost ad Kb. 
 
 4. There is as much liberty allowed with respect to pauses, 
 which may be lengthened at pleasure, provided the time be 
 not disturbed. 
 
OE RAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 <x£«<o«— — 
 
 Tunes and airs have in themselves some affinity with the affections ; 
 as merry tunes, doleful tunes, solemn tunes, tunes inclining men's 
 minds to pity, warlike tunes ; so that tunes have a predisposition to the 
 motion of the spirits.— Bacon. 
 
 The general acceptation of the terms supposed to be incorrect. Reasons 
 offered, why they are limited to season and time. Of the Rag-mala. 
 Absurdity of limiting tunes to seasons. Divisions of Rags and Raginees 
 into classes. Rules for determining the names of the mixed Raginees. 
 Table of compounded Rags. The Rag-mala copiously described. 
 
 Rags aud Raginees are generally construed to mean cer- 
 tain musical modes* of Hindoostan. How far this definition 
 is correct, I shall here inquire into. 
 
 * S. iC\,\ Bag- ■"■ »■ m /'r'TJT) *■ -^ mo( * e ^ mu sic (six in number), 
 music, song, tune; l_€I < t J L\ Rag-rung, n. », m., music; j^U^jU 
 Eag-sagar, n. a. m., a song composed of many Rags or musical modes ; 
 111* i f T\ Rag-mala, n. s. f., the name of a treatise in music — (nothing 
 
 more than a collection of pictures, exhibiting the traditional history of the 
 primary and subordinate modes and the subject appointed to each), 
 jS. \$ L5 Raginee, n. a. f., a, mode in music (wives of Rags, 30 in 
 
 number). — Hunter's Taylor's Hindoostanee Dictionary, 1808. — Shakes- 
 pear's Hindoostanee Dictionary, 1817, exactly as the preceding. 
 
 The celebrated \ Dr. Carey of Serampoor, however, in his 'Bengalee 
 Dictionary, gives the following meaning : 
 
 <I"j"?'|" a tune (this is the only signification applicable). 
 
 ^■TmTTT s * (? vom HJt^T ' A tune), a female personification of tunes in 
 Hindoo music. 
 
G4 OF RAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 The word " Mode'' may be taken in two different signifi- 
 cations, the one employing manner of style, and the other a 
 key ;* and strictly speaking, this latter is the sense in which 
 it is usually understood in music. 
 
 Mode, in the language of the musicians of this country, is, 
 in my opinion, termed T'hat, and not Rag or Eaginee ; the 
 signification of which terms should be limited to that given 
 by Dr. Carey. As amongst us there are two modes, the 
 major and the minor, so the natives have a certain number 
 of T'hats, to each of which two or more Rags or Raginees are 
 appropriated. If these signified mode, each should require 
 a different arrangement, which is certainly not the case. 
 Any one may convince himself of this by procuring a per- 
 former on the Sitar. This instrument has moveable frets 
 that are shifted from their places, so that when the instru- 
 ment is properly adjusted, the fingers of the left hand runniug 
 over them produce those tones only which are proper for the 
 mode to which the frets have been transferred, and no other. 
 Let the Sitar-player be desired to play something in the 
 Eaginee Uluya, and after he has done that, tell him to play 
 some other Eagiuee without altering the frets, and it will be 
 seen that other Baginees may be performed on the same T'hat. 
 On the other hand, after he has played Uluya, let him play 
 Lulit, or Bhyrewee, or Cafee, &c, &c, and he will be oblig- 
 ed to alter the That or mode by shifting the frets. This 
 proves that the former are all in the same mode or T'hat. It 
 is true that a Eaginee is not to be considered exactly in the 
 
 * Mode, in music. A regular disposition of the air and accompani- 
 ments relative to certain principal sounds upon which a piece of music 
 is formed, and which are called the essential sounds of the mode. Encyc. 
 Brit. 
 
OP BAGS AND RAGINEES. 65 
 
 same situation as a tune is amongst us. It is not strictly a 
 tune according to the acceptation of the word, as its definition 
 given hereafter will shew. A That comes nearest to what 
 with us is implied by a mode, and consists in determining 
 the exact relative distances of the several sounds which 
 constitute au octave with respect to each other ; while the 
 Eaginee disposes of those sounds in a given succession, and 
 determines the principal sounds. The same That may be 
 adapted to several Baginees, by a different order of succes- 
 sion ; whereas no Eaginee can be played but in its own pro- 
 per That. It is likewise not a song, for able performers can 
 adapt the words of a song to any Eaginee : nor does a change 
 of time destroy its inherent quality, although it may so far 
 disguise the Eaginee before an inexperienced ear as to appear 
 a different one. 
 
 After the ancients had made pretty good observations on 
 the firmament of fixed stars, and had as nearly as they could 
 ascertained their respective situations, they thought of re- 
 ducing them into constellations, under the representations of 
 certain familiar objects, in order to assist the memory to re- 
 tain them the better and easier. To connect a "variety of 
 heterogeneous subjects that have no relation with each other 
 under one common head, in order to preserve a concatena- 
 tion, has been a practice common amongst the Oriental 
 nations, and subsists to this very day. The Arabian Nights' 
 Entertainments, the Tooteenamah, the Buhardanish, and a 
 variety of works in all the languages of the Bast, are proofs 
 known to every person who has trod the paths of Oriental 
 literature. 
 
 It seems probable, therefore, that the author of the Bags 
 and Eaginees, having composed a certain number of times, 
 
66 OP RAGS AKD RAGINEES. 
 
 resolved to form some sort of fable in which he might intro- 
 duce them all in a regular series. To this purpose, he pre- 
 tended that there were six Rags, or a species of divinity, who 
 presided over as many peculiar tunes or melodies, and that 
 each of them had, agreeably to Huuooman, five, or as Coolnath 
 says, six wives, who also presided each one over her tune. 
 Thus having arbitrarily, and according to his own fancy, dis- 
 tributed his compositions amongst them, he gave the names 
 of those pretended divinities to the tunes. 
 
 It is also probable that the Pootrus and Bharjyas are not 
 the composition of the same, but some subsequent genius, 
 who, apprehending that their number would be greatly in- 
 creased by this additional acquisition, or dreading an innova- 
 tion in the number established by long usage might not be 
 well received, or that some time or other it might cause a 
 rejection of the supernumerary tunes as not genuine, con- 
 trived the story that the Bags and Eaginees had begotten 
 children. This opinion is strengthened by its being asserted 
 that forty-eight new modes were added by Bhurut. 
 
 That this fiction, however, (as well as every other fiction, 
 allegory, and in fact, as it appears to me, the whole of the 
 mythology of the ancient heathens,) pleasingly beguiles us, is 
 acknowledged by Sir William Jones, vol. I, p. 430 : " Every 
 branch of knowledge," says he, " in this country, has been 
 embellished by poetical fables, and the inventive talents of 
 the Greeks never suggested a more charming allegory than 
 the lovely families of the six Rdgas, each of whom is a ge- 
 nius or demi-god, wedded to five Raginees or nymphs, and 
 father of eight little genii, called his Pootrus, or sons. The 
 fancy of Shakespear and the pencil of Albano might have 
 been finely employed in giving speech and form to this. 
 
OF RAGS AND RAGINEES. 67 
 
 assemblage of new aerial beings, who people the fairy-land of 
 Indian imagination : nor have the Hindu poets and painters 
 lost the advantages with which so beautiful a subject pre- 
 sented them." 
 
 That the name of any one of the Rags or Raginees was 
 arbitrarily assigned by the author to any one of his composi- 
 tions, is as probable as the often whimsical names given 
 by our country-dance and reel composers to their produc- 
 tions. No person believes that the "Devil's Dream" is a 
 genuine communication from the dreamer. This is further 
 probable from there being very little or no similarity between 
 a Rag and his Raginees. The disparity is sometimes so 
 great, that Hindoo authors disagree with regard to the^ Rag 
 to which several of the Raginees, Pootrus, or Bharjyas be- 
 long. ' Nay, some of the tunes allowed by one author to be 
 a Rag is emasculated by another to a Raginee, as Dr. Gil- 
 ehrist justly observes ; and on the other hand, a Raginee is 
 classed under the head of Rags, The same uncertainty pre- 
 vails with respect to their Pootrus and Bharjyas. 
 
 If we look to the characters under which the Rags and Ra- 
 ginees are delineated in the Rag-mala, it will be seen that 
 they are altogether metaphorical. As the figures of the 
 signs of the Zodiac are descriptive of the seasons of the 
 year, so these" divinities are represented in attitudes and 
 characters most appropriate to the time and season in which 
 the tune was prescribed to the song, although the determin- 
 ing of the time itself is wholly arbitrary. 
 
 The songsters of Hindoostan pretend, that any song sung 
 out of the time appropriated for it sounds uncouth. The 
 reason alleged by them is, that the times and seasons allotted 
 to each are those at which the divinities are at leisure to 
 
68 OF RAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 attend at the place where their favorite tune is suug, and to 
 inspire the performer with due warmth in hia execution. 
 Sir W. Jones says on this subject, p. 429 : " Whether it 
 had occurred to the Hindoo musicians that the velocity or 
 slowness of sound must depend, in a certain ratio, upon the 
 rarefaction and condensation of the air, so that their motion 
 must be quicker in summer than in spring or autumn, 
 and much quicker than in winter, I cannot assure myself ; 
 but am persuaded that their primary modes, in the system 
 ascribed to Parana, were first arranged according to the 
 number of Indian seasons." 
 
 Sir W, Jones's observations are very acute and plausible ; 
 they appear quite philosophical ; but to satisfy us of their 
 probability, he should have entered much deeper into the 
 subject, and endeavoured to prove that the nature of the 
 several Bags and Raginees are such as to be really improved 
 by the difference of temperature naturally incident to the 
 varieties of season, even without making allowance for acci- 
 dental variations, which constantly take place every year. 
 Sir William asserts that the modes ascribed to one system 
 were arranged according to the number of Indian seasons, 
 which are six, and his calculations just preceding it are 
 founded on the four seasons of Europe. It seems to me 
 not improbable, that in limiting the season in which each 
 Bag or Raginee should be sung, the composers had their 
 preservation in view, for by this means, they would all 
 necessarily have each one its turn, and for the want of any 
 such regulation, the prettiest ones only would be performed, 
 and the rest neglected and suffered to be forgot. Perhaps this 
 will be considered the more reasonable when we take notice 
 that the same cause which converts all the several parts to 
 
OP RAGS AND RAQINEES. 69 
 
 one whole conduces likewise to keep every individual part 
 alive, active, and in its turn brought on the stage. 
 
 It may probably be with those who are accustomed to hear 
 certain Rags and Raginees at stated hours and seasons, that 
 being reconciled to them from habit, they would not relish 
 tunes so well at what was reckoned improper seasons. Per- 
 haps being a usage of the country, established from time 
 immemorial, and in some measure sanctioned by religious 
 authority, or a dread of being taxed with want of taste, 
 might constrain several to comply with the established cus- 
 tom. But it must be quite indifferent to others unacquainted 
 with these limitations. It would be reckoned extremely 
 ridiculous to call for a particular tune at an improper season. 
 This may indeed shew the ignorance of the person who 
 makes the request in this branch of Hindoostanee music ; 
 but, in my opinion, it can be no imputation against his taste ; 
 for the same tune may sound pleasant or otherwise according 
 to the humour a person may be in, but the time of the day 
 can make no difference. A man deeply in love, for instance, 
 will always relish love ditties, and a huntsman is ever for 
 the chase. Moreover, seasons have more regard to the 
 words of a song than to the tune ; for although the tune 
 should in some measure correspond with the subject, whe- 
 ther gay or grave, &c, yet there are more tunes than one 
 that will or may be made to suit the same set of words. 
 It is also observable that the subject proper for each 
 Rag or Raginee is not determined, and it often happens, 
 through the abuse of unqualified composers, that the words 
 are not seasonable with the tunes. 
 
 The Hindoos define Rags to have their origin from words 
 combined in a determinate series, so as to be distinct from 
 
70 -Ot RAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 each other. Some Rags and Eaginees resemble each other 
 in the similarity and succession of their sounds or tones, but 
 differ in the Srootis (see page 29) which gives them a claim 
 to distinction. 
 
 Rags and Raginees are divided into three classes (Jati) : first 
 Sunvpoornu, or those which comprise all the seven notes; in 
 their course, in any determinate succession whatever ; second, 
 Khadoo, or such as are composed of six notes ; and third, 
 Oodoo, whose extent ranges to but five notes : and hence it is 
 said, that no Rag or Eaginee is confined within limits whose 
 extent is less than five notes. 
 
 There is likewise another distinction of these with regard 
 to their formation or composition, and this also comprises 
 three classes : first, Soodh, or such as are simple and original. 
 This first class is subdivided into two species, viz., Soodh 
 and MuTiasoodh .- Soodh are such as are deficient in some of 
 their Si-ootis ; and those which retain all their Srootis are 
 termed Muhasoodh. Tooree is an example of the former, and 
 Sarting and Ganhra of the latter. Second, Salung. These 
 are likewise simple, but bear a resemblance to some other, 
 as for example Sree Rag, which has the likeness of Gouree. 
 Third, Swikeernu ; and these are the compound ones. This 
 last class is also subdivided into two species : first, Sunkeernu, 
 or such as are compounded of two Soodhs, e. g., Bhyron, 
 which is formed of Tooree and Canhra ; and second, Muhasun- 
 keernii, or such as consist of two or more of any of the three 
 classes, except two Soodhs of course. 
 
 There is a diversity of opinion with regard to which of 
 the Rags and Raginees belong to which class. In general, 
 the Rags are believed to be Soodh, and the Raginees, die, 
 Sunkeernu. Some suppose even the Rags to be of this last 
 
OP RAGS AND RAGINEES. 71 
 
 mentioned class. Others reckon these seven Soodh : first, 
 Canhra ; seeond, Sarung ; third, Goojree ; fourth, Nut ; fifth, 
 Mular ; sixth, Tooree ; and seventh, Gouree. To the second 
 class, Salung, they ascribe the following : first, Descar; 
 second, Bibhas ; third, Lulit ; fourth, Rewa ; fifth, Bilawal ; 
 sixth, Megh ; seventh, Soruth ; eighth, Dhunasree ; ninth, 
 Goura ; tenth, Sree Rag ; eleventh, Deepuk ; twelfth, Cafee ; 
 and thirteenth, Kidara. 
 
 The rule for determining the names of the mixed Rags 
 is, agreeably to some authorities, to name the principal one 
 last, and that which is introduced in it first : as Pooria 
 Dhunasree ; others more naturally say that that which is 
 introduced in the first part of the song or tune should be 
 mentioned first, and the other or others subjoined to it in 
 regular succession ; e. g., suppose Shyam and Eamculee 
 to be compounded with each other : if Shyam forms the com- 
 mencement, and Ramculee is afterwards introduced into it, 
 it should be called Shyam Ram ; but if, on the contrary, it 
 commence with Ramculee, and Shyam be afterwards intro- 
 duced, the whole should be denominated Ram Shyam. 
 
 COMPOUND RAGS. 
 
 These are Rags compounded from others chiefly by the 
 more modern composers. The word Rag is here used 
 in a general acceptation, and seems here to imply simply 
 " a tune ;" for most of these cannot with propriety be deno- 
 minated either Rags or Raginees, Pootrus or Bharjyas. I have 
 arranged them alphabetically for easy reference. 
 
72 
 
 OF RAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 Names of Rags. 
 
 Compounded of 
 
 Bagesree 
 
 Bhempulasee 
 Bhoopalee . . 
 
 Bhyron 
 
 Bhyruvee 
 
 Bibhas 
 
 Bichittra 
 Bihagra 
 
 Biharee 
 
 Bijuya , 
 
 Bilawul 
 
 Bub.ool.ce . . . . . 
 
 Buhoolgoojree 
 Bungal ■ 
 
 Buraree 
 Burhuns 
 
 Busunt • 
 
 Dhunasree and Canhra. 
 
 Dhunasree, Soodh and Poorbee. 
 
 Gound and Culian ; or, according to others, 
 Bilawul and Culian. 
 
 Hindol, Soodh, Canbra and Pooria. 
 
 Buraree, Lulit, Soodh, Sarung, Punchum, and 
 Bilawul; or, agreeably to others, Soodh, 
 Shyam and Bhyron. 
 
 Bilawul, Goojree, and Agavuree - 
 
 Sreeruvun, Chitee, Gouree, and Buraree. 
 
 Kidara, Maroo, and Suruswutee. 
 
 Maroo and Suncurabhurun . 
 
 Tooree, Cumbharee, and Pooria. 
 
 Bilawul and Goursarung, or Bilawul and Sarting ; 
 or, as others say, Culian and Kidara. 
 
 Ramculee, Goojree, Descar, Bungal, and Pun- 
 chum ; some say Tunc instead of Bungal. 
 
 Descar, Bungal, Ramculee, and Goojree. 
 
 Dhunasree, Maroo, Gouree, and Lulit ; others 
 say Buraree, Gound, and Goojree. 
 
 Descar, Toree, and Turwun, 
 
 Marwa, Kouranee, Chitee, Doorga, and Dhuna- 
 sree. 
 
 Deuguree, Nut, Mular, Sarung, and Bilawul. 
 
 Cafee 
 
 Camodee 
 
 Camod 
 
 Camod Nut 
 
 Caodee 
 
 Capurgouree , 
 
 Chi tec 
 
 Colahul 
 
 Coocub 
 
 Coombh ■ 
 
 Cudum Nut 
 
 Culaee, or Curaee, 01 
 Soogharee > 
 
 Culayer 
 
 Culian Binod ) 
 
 or \ 
 
 Culian Camod ) 
 
 Cuban Nut 
 
 Cumbharee 
 
 Cumbhavutee 
 
 Suncurabhurun and Gouree. 
 
 Soorishtuc and Gouree, or, agreeably to others, 
 
 Sooghraee and Soruthee. 
 Gound and Bilawul. 
 Camod and Nut. 
 Maroo, Bihagra, and Nut. 
 Jutee, Cumbhavutee, Jytsrce, Uheeree, Tunc, 
 
 and Buraree. 
 Sanwunt, Lulit, and Pooria. 
 Bihagra, Culian, and Canbra. 
 Bilawul, Poorbee, Kidara, Deuguree, and Ma- 
 
 dho. 
 Dhunasree and Soruthee. 
 Dhunasree, Dhuvul, Canhra, Uheeree, Kidara, 
 
 Soodh, and Mudmadh. 
 
 Nutnarayun, Urana, and Bilawul j or, according 
 
 to others, Bilawul and Canhra. 
 Bilawul, Canhra, Nut, and Mular. 
 
 Emun and Camod. 
 
 Culian and Nut. 
 
 Sourashtuh and Dhunasree. Composed by 
 
 Guuesh. 
 Malaree and Mular. 
 
OF BAGS AND EAGINEES. 
 
 73 
 
 Names of Rags. 
 
 D. 
 
 Deepavutee . 
 
 Deepuk 
 
 Desee 
 
 Descar 
 
 Deuguree . . . 
 
 Deusakh . . . . 
 Dhoulsree . . 
 Dhunasree . . . 
 Dhyanjee .... 
 
 Diwalee 
 
 Doorga 
 
 Dukshin Nut . 
 
 E. 
 
 P. 
 
 Furodust 
 
 G. 
 
 Goojree . . . 
 Goonculee . 
 
 Gound 
 
 Goundculee . 
 
 Gouva. 
 
 Gouree 
 
 Goursarung . 
 
 Gumbheer Nut 
 Gundhar 
 
 Hindol . 
 Humeer 
 
 Humeer Nut 
 Hurkk 
 
 J. 
 
 Jujavuntee .. 
 
 Jutee Gouree 
 Jy tculian .... 
 Jytsree 
 
 Compounded of 
 
 Cuntha » Maroo, Kidara, Jytsree and Suncarabhurun. 
 
 Curaee, vide Culaee, 
 
 Curna Nut Funchum, Lulit, Bibhas and Goojree. 
 
 Curum Punchum Lulit, Busunt, Hindol and Descar. 
 
 Deepuk and Suruswutee, 
 
 Kidara, Curnud, Soodh, Nut and Bagesree. 
 
 Toree and Khutrag. 
 
 Suruswutee, Puruj and Soruth. 
 
 Poorbee, Sarung and Soodh. . Sung by the 
 
 Deutas. 
 Suncurabhurun, Soodh, Mular and Canhra. 
 Bilawulee and Jytsree. 
 Toree, Usavuree, and Maroo. 
 Toree, Bibhas, and Suhana. 
 Cumbharee, Malsree and Suruswutee. 
 Malsree, Leelavatse, Gouree and Sarung, 
 Coocub, Bilawul, Poorbee and Kidara. 
 
 Emun Kidara, Bilawul and Soodh Culian. 
 
 Poorbee, Shyam and Gouree. 
 
 Lulita and Ramculee, 
 
 Desee, Toree, Lulit, Usavuree, Descar & Goojree. 
 
 Dhunasree, Mular and Bilawul. 
 
 Goojree and Usavuree. 
 
 Gouree, Nut and Turwan. 
 
 Jujavuntee, Usavuree, Goojree and Soruth ; some 
 
 say, Soohoo and Canhra. 
 Goura; or, according to others, Gouree and 
 
 Canhra and Nut. 
 
 Sindhola, Usavuree, Gouree, Deuguree and Bhy- 
 ron ; or, according to some, Khutrag, Usa- 
 vuree and Desee. 
 
 Bilawulee, Lulit, Punchum, Pooria and Bhyron. 
 Kidara, Emun and Soodh Culian. Sung by 
 
 Goureenath. 
 Humeer and Nut. 
 Dewsakh, Bilawulee, Sarung, Soodh, Mular and 
 
 Gound. 
 
 Soruth, Dhoulsree and Bilawul; 
 
 Gouree, Bihagra and Nut, 
 Lulit and Gouree. 
 Jytsree and Soodhculian. 
 Dhoul, Buraree and Descar. 
 
 others say, 
 
74 
 
 OF RAGS AND RAGINEE8. 
 
 Names of Rags, 
 
 Kheni 
 
 Kheraculian 
 
 Khutnug 
 
 Khutrag „ 
 
 Ki.Ja.rn 
 
 Kidar Nut 
 
 Kyrvee 
 
 L. 
 
 Leelavutee 
 
 Lulit 
 
 Luucdhun 
 
 M. 
 
 Madho 
 
 Malavatee 
 
 Malgoojree 
 
 Maligoura 
 
 Manj 
 
 Malcous 
 
 Malsree ••■• 
 
 Malwa 
 
 Maroo 
 
 Marwa 
 
 Megh 
 
 Mudmadh 
 
 Mudmithoon ) 
 
 Madhvee / 
 
 Mular 
 
 Mular-Nut 
 
 Mungulashtuk 
 
 Mungal-Goojree 
 
 Munoliur 
 
 N. 
 
 Nagdhun ■•-• 
 
 Nut-Narayun 
 
 Compounded of 
 
 Paravutee 
 Poorbee . . . 
 
 Canhra, Suruswutee and Culiau. 
 
 Kidara and Humeer; or, as others affirm, 
 Canhra, Suruswutee and Soodhculian. 
 
 Maroo, Dhoul, Jytsree and Kidara. 
 
 Euraree, Usavuree, Toree, Shyam, Buhoolee and 
 Gundhar. Some say Buhool-Goojree instead of 
 Buhoolee ; others, instead of Shyam. 
 
 Coocba, Poorbee and Bilawul. 
 
 Kidara and Nut. 
 
 Sarung, Sooha, Goojree and Gouree. 
 
 Descar, Jytsree and Lulit. 
 
 Desee, Bibhas and Punchum. Some leave out the 
 
 last, and others make it comprise of Dewsakh, 
 
 Bungal, Dhoul and Bibhas. 
 Bilharee and Kidara, composed by Hunwunt. 
 
 Soodh, Mular, Bilawul and Nutnarayun. 
 
 Punchum, (. amod, Soodhunt and Humeer. 
 
 Ramculee, shyam, Gundhar and Goojree. 
 
 Gouree and Soruth. 
 
 Sarung, Soruth, Bilawul and Mular. 
 
 Hindol, Busunt, Jujavuntee, Punchum Khutrag, 
 Maroo, Sarung and Sanwuntee. 
 
 Suncurabhurun, Kidara, Mudmadh and Surus- 
 wutee. 
 
 Gouree, Puraj and Bibhas. 
 
 Gouree, Puruj and Soruth. 
 
 Coclut, Canhra and Sooha, composed by Nyrud. 
 
 Culian, Camod, Sanwunt and Busunt. 
 
 Mular, Soodhculian and Mulsree. 
 
 Nutnarayun, Mular, Soodh, Humeer and Mud- 
 madh, sung by Canh. 
 
 Sarung, Soruth and Bilawul ; or, agreeably to 
 others, Nut, Sarung and Meghrag. 
 
 Mular and Nut. 
 
 Jytsree, Canhra, Kidara and Culian. Some add 
 Fhyam. 
 
 Ramculee, Shyam, Gundhar and Mungulashtuc. 
 Some say, instead of the last, Buhoolee. 
 
 Marwa, Turwun and Gouree, or instead of Gouree 
 Biharee, 
 
 Mular, Kidara and Soohoo. ■ 
 
 Suncurabhurun, Mudmadh, Luncdhun and Bila- 
 wul. 
 
 Dewculee, Gound, Gouree and Poorbee. 
 Malwa and Gouree ; or, agreeably to others, 
 Gouree, Gound and Deuguree. 
 
OF BAGS AND RAGINBBS. 
 
 75 
 
 Names of Rags. 
 
 Compounded of 
 
 
 Dhoulsree, Tunc, Mungulashtuc and Canhra. 
 
 Lulit and Busunt. According to aome Buraree, 
 Gound and Goojree. Others sayj Gundhtuv 
 Munohur and Hindol. 
 
 Deuguree, Poorbee, Gouree and Gound. 
 
 Dhunasree, Maroo and Gundhar. Some as- 
 sert it consists of Maroo, Toree and Usa- 
 vuree. 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 Bhyron, Gouree, Kidara, Deuguree, Dewgun- 
 dhar, Sindhoora, Dhunasree, Canhra and 
 Usavuree. 
 
 Malwa, Sree-Rag and Munohur. Sung by 
 Bhurut. 
 
 Cumbharee, Pooria and Toree. 
 
 Lulit, Leelavutee, Chitee and Punchum. 
 
 Suncurabhurun, Urana and Somth.ee. 
 
 Mulsree, Soodb and Mular. 
 
 Nut, Sarung, Bhyron, Lulit and Punchum. 
 
 
 
 or \ 
 
 
 s. 
 - Sanwunt 
 
 Sanwunt Camod 
 
 Sarung 
 
 Shiwruti 
 
 Shuhana 
 
 Sindhoora or Sindhwee 
 
 Soodh-Camod 
 
 Soodh-Culian 
 
 Soodh-Nut 
 
 Sooghraee vide Culaee. 
 Soohoo • 
 
 Soruth 
 
 Soruthee 
 
 Sourashtuc 
 
 Sree-Rag 
 
 Sree ruvun 
 
 Sree-sumod 
 
 Stumbh 
 
 Bucroun 
 
 Sarung and Mular. According to some Kidara 
 and Camod. Others add also Canhra. 
 
 Kidara and Camod. Some add Soodh. Others 
 say, Sawunt and Camod. 
 
 Deuguree, Mular and Nut. Others say, Marwa 
 and Mular. 
 
 Burhuns and Sindhw. 
 
 Purodust and Canhra. 
 
 Usavuree and Uheeree. 
 
 Soodh and Camod. 
 
 Tunc, Camod and Gond. 
 
 Bagesree, Pooria and Mudmadh. 
 
 Malsree, Bilawul and Bibhas. Others sub- 
 stitute Soodh or Bagesree, in the room of 
 Bibhas. 
 
 Goojree, Punchum, Bhyruvee, Gundhar and 
 Bungal. 
 
 Malwa, Emun and Soruth. 
 
 Gundhar, Goojree, Bungal, Punchum and Bhy- 
 ruvee. 
 
 Burhuns, Tunc and Gouree. 
 
 Sree-Rag, Malsree and Suncurabhurun. 
 
 Malsree, Soodh, Sree-Rag, Bhempulasee and 
 Tunc. 
 
 Malsree, Soodh and Mular. 
 
 Soruth, Luncdhun and Bilawul, 
 
 J 2 
 
76 
 
 OF RA.G8 AND RAGINEES. 
 
 Names of Rags. 
 
 Compounded of 
 
 Suctbulibh 
 
 Suncurabburun 
 
 Surd 
 
 Suruswutee 
 
 Susirekba 
 
 T. 
 
 Thoomree , 
 
 Tiluk-Camod 
 
 Toree 
 
 Treekshun ". 
 
 Trivenee 
 
 Tunc 
 
 Turwun 
 
 U. 
 
 Ubbeeree *| 
 
 or v 
 
 Uheeree ) 
 
 Ubeer Nut 
 
 Uheer-Roop 
 
 Unsee 
 
 Urana 
 
 Goonculee, Ramculee,Gundhar, Goojree, Sbyam 
 
 and Gour. 
 Kidara and Eilawul. 
 .Bbyvon, Sooba and Soodh. 
 Nutnarayun, Suncurabburun and Soodb. 
 Lulit, Puncbum, Tiluk, 3arung and Sooboo. 
 
 Suncurabburun and Maroo. 
 
 Kbutrag and Camod. 
 
 Usavuree and Khutrag. Some add Dbunasree. 
 
 Otbers make it consist of Lulit, Dbunasre© 
 
 and Dboulsree. 
 Bijuya, Burbuns and Desee. 
 Nutnarayun, Jytsree and Sunuru. 
 Sree-Rag, Canhra and Bbyron. 
 Descar, Gouree, Poorbee. Some, in tbe room of 
 
 tbe last, say Lulit ; otbers Bibbas. 
 
 Culian, Descar, Goojree and Sbyam. 
 
 Ubeeree and Nut. 
 Dbunaaree and Tooree. 
 Dboulsree and Gound. 
 Mular and Ganbra. 
 
 OF THE RAGMALA.* 
 
 The personification of melodies in Ragmala, or chap- 
 let of melodies, is what I shall next describe. Custom, which 
 has subsisted from time immemorial, has rendered this an 
 essential branch of knowledge and polite learning. How 
 far these symbolical representations are by native painters 
 made to correspond with what they should represent, I shall 
 leave to the decision of the reader, when he sees one, and 
 compares it with the description which I shall here give of 
 it. I shall, however, remark that the Ragmalas generally 
 offered for sale are sometimes so incorrect, that scarcely one 
 of the representations is strictly in conformity with the 
 » IfLo i_f)\ See Note I, p. 49. 
 
OF RAGS AND RAGIN1SES. 77 
 
 description given in books. As painting is not now exer- 
 cised in the greatest perfection in Hindoostan, it is probable 
 that drawiugs intended in the original to represent one ob- 
 ject were mistaken for another, and accordingly adopted 
 in the copy. Subsequent copies were made in a similar 
 manner, former errors were perpetuated, and new ones added, 
 till very little resemblance remained between the pictures 
 of the Eagmala and that which should have been represent- 
 ed. The generality of amateurs are more solicitous of 
 possessing a copy of the drawings denominated Eagmala 
 than of ascertaining its accuracy, for which indeed few are 
 competent or will go to the trouble. The painter, if he should 
 even possess skill, as long as he can find purchasers for his 
 work, sees no reason for his being at the pains of reforming 
 the pictures to their original state of purity. I beg leave to 
 quote the opinion of Sir Wm, Jones on the subject of Indian 
 drawings. " Whenever the Indian drawing differs from the 
 memorial verse in the Retnamala, I have preferred the author- 
 ity of the writer to that of the painter, who has drawn some 
 terrestrial things with so little similitude, that we must not 
 implicitly rely on his representation of objects." Vol. I, 
 p. 343. On the Antiquity of the Indian Zodiac. 
 
 I.— BHYRON. 
 
 This rag is personified in the exact representation of Muha- 
 dev or Shiv, one of the three principal deities of the Hin- 
 doos. He is drawn as a sunyasee or Hindoo mendicant of a 
 comely aspect, having his whole body besmeared with ashes, 
 his hair is clotted into knots, and from amongst them flows 
 the impetuous Qunga. He wears bracelets on his wrists, and 
 his forehead is adorned with a crescent. The monster appears 
 
78 OF RAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 in the third eye situated between his brows. A hideous 
 serpent is entwined about his shoulders and bosom, and from 
 his neck is pendent a string of skulls instead of flowers. 
 The skin of the huge elephant is negligently thrown over his 
 shoulder, and one of his hands supports a triple dart. Thus 
 equipped, he is mounted on an enormous bull. Sometimes 
 he is represented seated on the elephant's, skin, and the bull 
 tied beside him. 
 
 I. — Bhyruvee. 
 
 This is one of the five wives allotted to Bhyron, and is 
 perhaps not only the eldest, but also his best beloved — at 
 least she seems to be the first and most respected. 
 
 Her form bespeaks a young aud beautiful virgin of a deli- 
 cate complexion, with beaming eyes ; her hair hangs grace- 
 fully down to her waist. A white saree or sheet is thrown 
 over her slender form, and exposes her feet which are tinged 
 red.* A garland of chumpa flowers graces her neck ; she is 
 seated on the summit of a rock ; the cumul (lotus ) blooms by 
 her side, and she holds a pair of munjeeras or little cymbals 
 in her hands, with which she keeps time to the song or hymn 
 which she appears to be singing. 
 
 * Mr. Wilson, in his translation of the Megha Duta, in a note on 
 verse 212— 
 
 O'er every floor the painted footstep treads. 
 Staining the soles of the feet with a red color derived from mehndee, 
 the Lac, (fee, is a favorite practice of the Hindu toilet. It is thus ele- 
 gantly alluded to in the ode to one of the female personifications of music, 
 the Raginee Asauvsree — 
 
 " The rose hath humbly bowed to meet, 
 " With glowing lips her hallowed feet, 
 "And lent them all its bloom." 
 Hindu odes by John David Paterson, Esq., pubished in the new series of 
 Gladwin's Oriental Misecellany, Calcutta. 
 
OF RAGS AND RAGINEES. 79 
 
 2. — Buraree. 
 
 This young girl, the beauty of whose countenance is 
 heightened by the contrast of her jetty ringlets, is engaged 
 in dalliance with her lover. The color of her dress is white. 
 Her wrists are adorned with Cungun (bracelets), and her ears 
 with the flowers of the Culpu-turoo. 
 
 I cannot account for the apparent incongruity in this and 
 some other Raginees. She is one of the wives of Bhyron, 
 and is here represented as deficient in her conjugal faith 
 towards him. Ovid's advice " to retaliate in kind" cannot 
 be properly applicable here, as the Hindoos are permitted 
 by law a plurality of wives, but the women are not at 
 liberty to marry twice. But, have not the gods and 
 goddesses been privileged in matters of love from all 
 eternity 1 
 
 3. — Mudhmadh. 
 
 The complexion of this Raginee is of a golden color, and 
 she appears to prefer that to every other tint. Her dress 
 is of the same tinge, and her body is stained with the fragrant 
 die of the saffron. She is engaged in the same manner as 
 the preceding. 
 
 It is to be observed for the satisfaction of the European 
 readers that a golden complexion is as much admired by 
 the natives of Hindoostan as a moon-faced beauty, both of 
 which sound uncouth in the idioms of Europe ; but it is to 
 be understood that the latter of the two expressions has 
 reference only to the pleasure which the beams of the moon 
 diffuse, and not to its rotundity ; while in the former case 
 respect is only had to the natural beauty of pure gold, and 
 not to its actual hue. 
 
80 OF BAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 4. — Sindhvee. 
 
 The sanguinary disposition of this female is displayed in 
 her features. She is clothed . in red garments, holds a 
 triple dart in her hand, and a dopuhuria flower hangs from 
 her ear. She is enraged at the delay of her lover, and waits, 
 impatient for his arrival. 
 
 5. — Bwngal. 
 
 A joginee or female mendicant or devotee. Her face is 
 sprinkled over with ashes ; her body is stained with marks 
 of ground sandal ; and her forehead streaked with musk. 
 Her clotted hair is tied in a knot ; a yellow saree conceals 
 her bosom : she holds a lotus in her right hand, and a triple 
 dart in her left. This Eaginee, although the native of a 
 foreign and distant land, appears in the costume properest 
 for a wife of Bhyron. 
 
 II.— MALCOUS. 
 
 An athletic young man of rosy complexion, and intoxicated 
 with wiue. His vestments are blue, and he holds a staff 
 in his hand. A string of large pearls is hung round his 
 neck. He is surrounded by women, whom he addresses with 
 gallant familiarity. The pearls are sometimes exchanged for 
 the heads of such as he has conquered in battle. 
 
 It is remarkable that, although wine is prohibited by the 
 religion of several nations, yet votaries to Bacchus are every- 
 where to be found. Amongst Hindoos, some are not only 
 permitted the use of this intoxicating beverage, but it is 
 even offered in libations by them to the gods ; while others 
 abstain from it altogether. By the precept of the faith of 
 Mohummud, its very touch is polluting. The poets, particularly 
 the Moosulmans, however, are very eloquent and lavish of its 
 
OP RAGS AND RAG1NEES. 81 
 
 praises. Scarce a work of fancy either in prose or verse is to 
 be found in which some lines are not dedicated to the altar of 
 the rosy god. Turn up the works of the admirable Hafiz, 
 almost at any page, and you will be convinced of it. The 
 commentators on that work ascribe, it is true, a very different 
 meaning to that word, but any unprejudiced person must 
 Bud the construction rendered by the commentators on several 
 passages very much strained. Wine used by the natives of 
 Hfndoostan, both actually and fictitiously, is always taken to- 
 excess, so as to cause deep intoxication. 
 
 l.—Toree. 
 This delicate minstrel is clothed in a white saree. Hep 
 fair skin is tinged and perfumed with touches of camphor 
 and saffron. She stands in a wild romantic spot playing on 
 the veen. The skill with which she strikes that instrument 
 has so fascinated the deer in the neighbouring groves, that 
 they have forgot their pasture, and stand listening to the 
 notes * which she produces. This is one of the effects of- 
 music attributed to the ancient musicians, and confirmed even 
 by modern asseveration : vide p. 6. 
 
 2. — Gouree. 
 This very young brunette has adopted the blossom of the 
 mangoe for her ornament. She is endeavouring to sing her 
 favourite melody, but is so infatuated and intoxicated as to 
 be hardly able to proceed with it. 
 
 3. — Gooncuree. 
 
 The grief which is depicted in the air of this female, the 
 
 tears which flow fast from her eyes, the scattered wildness 
 
 of her hair which wantons with the breeze, the sighs which 
 
 she breathes, and the dejected posture in which she is sitting 
 
82 OP BAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 under the cudum tree, with her head leaning forwards, prove 
 the anguish of her heart for the absence of her beloved. 
 
 4. — Cumbhavutee. 
 This wanton beauty, neglectful of care, studies her own 
 enjoyment : she is constantly immersed in music and danc- 
 ing : mirth and pleasure are her constant attendants.* 
 
 5. — Cooculh. 
 The revels of the preceding night have rendered her 
 countenance pale, her eyes, though naturally sparkling, are 
 drowsy from want of sleep : the garlands of chumpa flowers 
 with which she had decorated herself lies ecattered about, and 
 her dress is discomposed ; but yet she seems to loathe the 
 light of the dawn, and would fain convince her lover that the 
 morn has not yet blushed. 
 
 III.— HINDOL. 
 He is seated in a goldon swing, while a number of nymphs, 
 by whom he is surrounded, amuse him with music and keep 
 time with the rocking of the swing on which he sits, in- 
 dolently gazing on their charms, enjoying the sweets spon- 
 taneously offered to his shrine. His countenance is wan, 
 which seems to indicate that, although an immortal, his 
 
 * It is to the commentators that I am indebted for the sole occupa- 
 tion of the goddesses, being pleasure and dress : the fact is, 
 To sing, to dance, 
 To dress, and troll the tongue, and roll the eye, 
 constitutes a very well educated female, according to the customs of 
 Hindoostan. We cannot help, however, being pleased with the simplicity 
 and propriety of taste, which gives to the graceful ornaments of nature 
 so prominent a part in the decoration of feminine beauty.— H. H. 
 Wilson's Megha Duta, p. 76. 
 
 K2 
 
OP HAGS AND RAGINBES. 83 
 
 constitution is impaired by the early and unceasing career 
 of pleasures and irregularities which he has pursued. 
 
 1. — Ramcuree. 
 The complexion of this nymph is pale, her dress is blue, 
 she is decked with jewels, and her forehead is striped with 
 infusion of musk. She has been disappointed in an inter- 
 view she expected with her lover the preceding night ; while 
 he, having had more important business in hand, perhaps a 
 new amour, has just arrived after daylight, and is endea- 
 vouring to effect a reconciliation for his late neglect. It 
 is not certain how soon he will obtain his object, for, although 
 we easily forgive those we love, yet the present affair is of a 
 very serious nature. She is not only actuated by jealousy, 
 but is also apprehensive lest her rival wean the affections of 
 her beloved from her. 
 
 2. — Desakh. 
 In treatises on the Rags, this Eaginee is described as an 
 enraged Amazonian, wielding a naked sword in her hand, 
 with which she has overcome a number of foes and defended 
 her lover who stands by her side ; but the general repre- 
 sentation in the Ragmala is quite ambiguous ; there she is 
 drawn in the figure of several athletic young men engaged 
 in various gymnastic exercises, such as wrestling, casting of 
 huge masses of stone, &c. It is quite uncertain what gave 
 rise to this preposterous representation. 
 
 3 — Zulit. 
 It is not satisfactorily explained why this beautifully fair 
 creature, who is so overwhelmed with grief for the absence 
 of her lover, should decorate herself with all her finery of 
 dress, jewelry and flowers. 
 
 K2 
 
84 OF RAGS AND RAGINEE8. 
 
 4 — Bilawulee. 
 
 The pride of this Ragiuee consists in the beautiful sym- 
 metry of her limbs, and her solicitude to please her beloved is 
 expressed by the pains she takes to adorn herself against 
 his arrival, whom she awaits with anxious expectation and 
 beating heart. She is dressed in rose-coloured vestments. 
 
 5 — JPutmunjuree. 
 
 O ! the pangs of separation : the poignancy of whose sting 
 is known only to those who have felt its wound ! May my 
 readers, and particularly those of the fair sex, never experi- 
 ence its fatal power ! 
 
 The object now before us is oppressed with the deepest 
 anguish. She sheds incessant tears, which give her a sad 
 and solitary relief, the only consolation her tender heart 
 will admit. The flowers hung round her neck no longer 
 laugh in the bloom of freshness, the fever iu her mind and 
 body have withered them to sapless leaves, which exhale no 
 more their wonted perfume. 
 
 IV,— DEEPUK. 
 
 The flame which- the ancient musicians are said to have 
 kindled by the performance of this Rag is depicted in his 
 fiery countenance and red vestments. A string of large pearls 
 is thrown rouud his neck, and he is mounted on a furious 
 elephant accompanied by several women. He is also repre- 
 sented in a different form. 
 
 1, — Desee. 
 
 The excess of passion to which this blooming Raginee is 
 subject induces her to pay a visit to her lover at his abode. 
 She accordingly adds the assistance of art to the natural 
 charms of her person, and puts her resolution into practice. 
 
OF BAGS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 2. — Camod. 
 
 What troubles and dangers will not love instigate one to 
 undergo ! When under its influence what will not youth 
 dare to accomplish ! Here we see a nymph forget the natu- 
 ral delicacy of her sex, and venture alone in the desert in the 
 hideousness of night. She quits her soft bed and friendly 
 neighbourhood, and traverses unaccompanied the wilderness 
 infested with ravenous beasts. The chance of an interview 
 with the object of her love she considers well worth the 
 risking of her life and character. A thousand fears now 
 mock her fortitude when she finds herself at the place of 
 assignation alone, for he, on whose account she has staked all 
 this, is not yet there ! The timidity of her sex then displays 
 itself. She starts at the fall of a leaf) and melts into tears. 
 She has on a short white boddice, and passes unnoticed under 
 cover of a red saree. 
 
 This young maiden prefers the career of glory to that of 
 pleasure. She is adorned with jewels, and has clothed her- 
 self in men's attire, and being mounted upon a furious steed, 
 Minerva-like, engages in battle with those of the opposite 
 sex. Her countenance is flushed with the ardours aud fatigues 
 of such an undertaking. 
 
 4.— Kidara. 
 
 The subject of this Eaginee is a masculine character. 
 The young man in white garments wields a sword in his 
 right hand, and in his left grasps the tusk of an elephant 
 which he has rooted out. A. bard standing beside him recites 
 the praises of his valor. 
 
8C OF RAGS AND BAGINEES. 
 
 V.— SREE. 
 
 A handsome man dressed iu white, or some say in red. 
 A string of crystal and ruby beads hung round his neck. 
 He holds a lotus flower in his hand, and is seated upon a 
 carved throne ; musicians performing in his presence. 
 
 l.—Malsree. 
 
 Although love holds an exalted rank in the music of 
 Hindoostan, as it does in that of other countries, and 
 instances are not wanting of its existence in a refined state, 
 yet, the beauties of nature are allowed to arrest their share 
 of attention. The fascinating creature before us is an 
 example. She is clad in a flowing yellow robe, and sits 
 under a mangoe tree, in the society of her female companion, 
 enjoying the verdure and luxuriance of the extensive scene 
 before her. 
 
 2.— Marwa. 
 
 Her dress is of gold brocade, and she has a garland of 
 flowers round her neck. She sits in anxious expectation of 
 the arrival of her lover. 
 
 3. — Dhunasree. 
 
 We cannot but sympathise with solitary grief in a beauti- 
 ful female. There is something so irresistible, that we 
 naturally feel inclined to become acquainted with the cir- 
 cumstance which gave rise to her misfortune, not by a vain 
 curiosity, but with the view of affording her any consolation 
 which may be in our power, and of sympathising with her 
 in her griefs. The misfortunes of the subject now under 
 consideration proceed from the absence of her lover, and 
 
OP RAGS AND RAGINEES. 87 
 
 that she has long languished is evident from her emaciated 
 frame. Her dress is red, and avoiding the society of her 
 friends, she sits alone under a Moulsree tree, venting her 
 griefs to the woods. 
 
 4. — Busunt. 
 
 Busunt is the spring of Hindoostan, the time of mirth 
 and festivity. The hero of .this piece therefore is the volup- 
 tuous god Crishnu, who is represented in his usual costume 
 and occupation. His vestment is tinged red. His head is 
 adorned with his favourite plumage, extracted from the tail of 
 the peacock ; in his right hand he holds a bunch of mangoe 
 blossoms, and in the left a prepared leaf of the betel tree. In 
 this manner he stands in a garden surrounded with a num- 
 ber of women as jolly as himself, and all join in the dance, 
 and sing and play a thousand jovial tricks. 
 
 5. — Usavuree. 
 
 The hideousness of this picture is mitigated only by the 
 delicacy of the principal figure. Her dark-brown complexion, 
 the monstrous snake which entwines her arms and legs — her 
 hair tied in a knot on the crown of her head — the wild 
 solitude of the rock environed with waters where she sits, 
 are all beautifully relieved and contrasted with the fine out- 
 lines of her features, the white sheet gracefully thrown over 
 her, (which is sometimes changed for a covering of leaves,) 
 and the streaks of dissolved camphor with which she has stain- 
 ed her forehead. 
 
 VI.— MEQH. 
 
 This is the only Rag that bears a masculine character. 
 He is represented of a dark complexion, his hair is tied in a 
 
88 OP RAdS AND RAGINEES. 
 
 knot on the crown of his head, and in his hand he balances 
 a sharp-edged sword. 
 
 1.— Tune. 
 
 Various expedients have been resorted to by love-sick 
 maids to allay in some measure the fever raging in their 
 veins. The object of our present inquiry, labouring under 
 its influence, has applied to the crown of her head the leaves 
 of the lotus, which is said to possess refreshing qualities. 
 
 2. — Mular. 
 The frequent representation of scenes of separation, and 
 the consequent grief attendant upon it, recalls to one's mind 
 the sad history of ancient Hiniloostan ! As I review the 
 Eagmala, which I peruse as pictures of real life, I am affected 
 with sadness at the deplorable state in which, in former times, 
 the female sex particularly subsisted. Various sources of 
 abject injustice and oppression still exist ; but as they are 
 rendered sacred by their laws, and they have been habituat- 
 ed to them by custom which has prevailed from time im- 
 memorial, the poor women acquiesce under them without 
 murmur. Some causes, however, have been removed in the 
 British territories, which must be a source of great comfort 
 to them. The convenience of travelling in these days, even 
 with women, children, and property, must be reckoned as 
 one of the foremost. Such ancient princes of Hindoo3tan 
 who afforded convenience to travellers are some of the most 
 celebrated amongst them ; and the construction of high roads, 
 bridges, tanks, wells, and choukees, for public use and protec- 
 tion, are amongst the most meritorious acts of their religion. 
 The pious and chaste Ram Chundru of Ujodhya is celebrated 
 for his great care in these matters. 
 
03? HAGS AND RAGINEES. 89 
 
 This tUginee is delineated of a complexion wan and pale ; 
 she is decorated with the white jessamine, and sits sad and 
 solitary, endeavouring to soothe and dissipate her melancholy, 
 with the tones of the Veen, in happier days her delight ; but 
 
 " In vain the lute for harmony is strung, 
 And round the robe-neglected shoulder hung ; 
 And faltering accents strive to catch in vain 
 Her race's old commemorative strain : 
 The falling tear that from reflection springs, 
 Corrodes incessantly the silvery strings ; 
 Recurring woe still pressing on the heart, 
 The skilful hand forgets its grateful art ; 
 And idly wandering strikes no measured tone. 
 But wakes a sad wild ■warbling of its own. 
 At times such solace animates her mind, 
 As widowed wives in cheerless absence find." 
 
 3. — Qoojree. 
 
 The tenor of this picture is not evident. It presents a 
 
 young female minstrel, of a delicate voice and engaging mien, 
 
 dressed in yellow short stays and red saree, and adorned with 
 
 jewels. 
 
 4. — Bhoopalee. 
 
 This is some happy nymph engaged in dalliance with her 
 lover. A white saree is thrown over her body, which is 
 stained with the fragrant saffron. A garland of flowers 
 adorns her bosom. The favoured youth sits by her side, 
 round whose neck her arms are enfolded. 
 5. — Descar. 
 
 There is no material difference between this and the 
 preceding delineation. The characters by which we distin- 
 guish them are, the string of pearls substituted for the 
 flowers, and the marks with which she has stained herself 
 are of ground sandal. 
 
OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 oKKoo 
 
 Several musical instruments are to be seen in the hands of Apollo's 
 muses, which might give great light to the dispute between the ancient 
 and modern music. — Addison. 
 
 Their present state susceptible of much improvement. Their classification. 
 Detailed description of the several instruments 'now in vac. 
 
 How proud soever the people of Hindoostan may be of 
 their musical instruments, I am of opinion, as I have already 
 observed, that they are susceptible of very important im- 
 provements. The defects which have come under my notice 
 are of two sorts ; the first regards the materials of which they 
 are made, and the second their construction. 
 
 With respect to the first of these defects — the materials 
 of which their musical instruments are made, it appears that 
 very little attention is paid to it, as if it were immaterial what 
 substance was employed for the purpose. This want of 
 choice is influenced by . pecuniary considerations, as well as 
 want of ingenuity. It cannot be supposed that such care- 
 lessness prevailed during the flourishing period of the Indian 
 empire ; but that from the commencement of its decline a 
 check had been opposed to its further refinement is what 
 perhaps all will allow. At present, for reasons offered in a 
 preceding part of the work, it will appear reasonable, that, far 
 from expecting a progressive improvement, we Should rather 
 be prepared to anticipate this noble science on the wane in 
 
OP MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 91 
 
 the same portion as the decline of its empire, and the 
 consequent decrease of knowledge and depravity of the 
 people of this once celebrated country. The root of the 
 venerable tree being sapped, its blossoms are no longer sup- 
 plied with nourishment by the branches which they were 
 designed to decorate, and must soon decay. The security 
 and stability proffered from political motives by the British 
 Government to the native chieftains has, perhaps, materially 
 conduced to render them luxurious and effeminate in a still 
 greater degree than the climate to which those vices are 
 generally attributed ; and these have been the bane of the 
 music of Hindoostan.* In Europe professional men are 
 always employed in the construction of all instruments and 
 engines, or at least their advice is solicited, and suggestions 
 acted upon ; here, the making and fitting up of musical in- 
 struments is entrusted entirely to persons who are ignorant 
 not only of the merest elements of music, but who, besides 
 manufacturing musical instruments, are general carpenters 
 and other artificers, who if they even possessed the abilities 
 could not afford to waste their time in experiments for the 
 improvement of musical instruments, the number rather 
 than the quality of which would ensure the greater gain. It is 
 on this account that the better musicians prefer to patch and 
 mend their old instruments rather than construct new ones, 
 of which to find the just proportions, they lack the abilities. 
 Khooshhal Khan and Oomraw Khan, Veenkars, mentioned 
 before, have in their possession the instrument on which their 
 grandfather Jeewun Shah used to ravish his audience. Some 
 no doubt are not aware that a difference of material produces 
 any difference in the tone of an instrument. There is an 
 
 * See page 31, and following. 
 
92 OT MUSICA.L INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 anecdote of a Rajah, who in token of his approbation pre- 
 sented a favourite player with a silver Sarungee, on which he 
 was to perform before him.* 
 
 It is problematical whether a violin of the sort just men- 
 tioned could produce sounds sufficiently sweet to arrest any 
 attention ; but it cannot certainly be denied that a good per- 
 former on any instrument, whether musical or other, can do 
 more execution on one of inferior quality than can be pro- 
 duced from one of a far superior quality put into the hands 
 of a person who is only an inferior artist. 
 
 Drums and tabors of all sorts are covered with goat's skin, 
 fresh, and in an unprepared state ; the body and neck of 
 Sarungees are made of wood, one entire piece, excavated, the 
 top covered with skin instead of thin light board ; the flutes 
 are pieces of the bamboo cane, formed by nature, and gene- 
 rally bored without regard to just proportion.. It is not, 
 however, the musicians that are entirely to blame for making 
 use of such imperfect instruments. A musical instrument 
 of the first class requires so much time and nicety in its 
 construction, besides scientific skill in the maker, that the 
 musicians of Hindoostan cannot now-a-days afford to pay for 
 one ; indeed, on this account one is not procurable. What 
 extravagant sums were paid by the Greeks even for their 
 flutes ! The more respectable performers in this country, if 
 
 * There i3 a European anecdote similar to the one quoted above. Leonardi 
 da Vinci, the celebrated painter, passed at his time for an excellent violin 
 player, and was even professionally engaged by the Duke of Milan, Ludovico 
 Sforzia. In the sketch of his life, prefixed to his treatise on painting, is this 
 singular statement : " Vinci had a violin of silver made for him, which was 
 shaped in the form of a horse's head, and he surpassed on this instrument 
 all other violin players." 
 
OP MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 93 
 
 they would be well paid, should rather keep up a large 
 retinue than really superior instrument. 
 
 As for the defects which regard their construction, there 
 is one, which exclusive of other minor ones, is found to affect 
 them all. I mean that material radical imperfection which 
 will not admit of a change of keys. They have likewise no 
 method of tuning their instruments to a certain pitch, but 
 are guided in this respect merely by the ear. 
 
 If an opinion might be hazarded, why no person has 
 endeavoured to render instruments playable in every key, I 
 should suppose the reason to be this : A drum or tabor, the 
 sound of which is necessarily monotonous, is an ever-attend- 
 ant and inseparable companion to Indian songs, whether 
 any other instrument be present or not. Its sound is taken 
 as the key-note, and all other instruments that may be pre- 
 sent, and the voice, are regulated by it. From this it should 
 appear that as long as the use of the drum or tabor is not laid 
 aside, there will be no necessity for change of keys, and the 
 rythmical nature of Indian music renders a liberal use of the 
 drum more essential, in order to mark the time distinctly, 
 than any other accompaniment. 
 
 Musical instruments are divided into four classes — 
 
 1. Tut. Such as are strung with wires or gut are thus 
 denominated : The Rubab, the Tumboora, the Sitar, the 
 Sarungee, the Veen, and the Qanoon, &c, belong to this class. 
 
 2. Bitut. To this division are referred all those which 
 are covered with skins, as the Mridung, the Dholkee, the 
 Tublas, the Daera, the Duph, the Nuqqara, &c. 
 
 3. Ghun. These are instruments of percussion, and used 
 two at a time. The Munjeera, the Jhanjh, the Curtar, &c, 
 (Cymbals, Castanets,) are of this description. 
 
94 OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 4. Sooghur. Wind instruments are classed under this 
 name. The Surnaee, the Banslee, the Torey, &c., are exam- 
 ples of it. 
 
 The grand instrumental music of Hindoostan ia the 
 Noubut, and the instruments used in the cabinet are the 
 Mridung, the Dholkee, the Tublas, the Daera, the Duph, the 
 Munjeera, the Curtar, the Sarungee, the Tumboora, the Sitar, 
 the Rubab, the Veen, the Qanoou, and the Banslee. Five of 
 the last are occasionally played solo : the rest are used as 
 accompaniment either to these, or to the voice. 
 
 Of the Noubut. 
 
 The Noubut is the grandest instrumental music of Hin- 
 doostan. It is a concert, and the instruments which comprise 
 a full band of the Noubut Khanuh are two pairs of Nuqqaras, 
 one pair of large Noubuts, one Quna, one Toruy, one pair of 
 Jkanjhs, two Surna, two Nuy, two Alghoza, one Roshun 
 Chouhee Surna, and one pair Qulum flutes, and flageolets. 
 
 The effect produced by the joint efforts of expert per- 
 formers is considerably imposing, and should be witnessed 
 to be properly appreciated. It is heard to advantage from 
 some distance. 
 
 THE MRIDUNG, THE DHOLKEE AND THE TUBLAS. 
 
 These are drums, and differ from each other in form, 
 construction, and likewise in the manner of playing. The first 
 is the most ancient, and is one of those instruments which 
 accompanied the voice in the more chaste ages ; the Dholkee 
 is generally preferred by amateur .performers, and is the 
 domestic and homely companion to the music of the uniniti- 
 ated female j and the last, less solemn than the Mridung, 
 
OP MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 95 
 
 and more adapted to accompauy light and trivial composi- 
 tions, is selected as the fittest counterpart with the Sarungee 
 to the silver tones of the modern meretricious Hindoo 
 dancing girl. It is from hence evident, that the two last are 
 modern licentious inventions, unknown to the ages when 
 music breathed sacred and solemn numbers. 
 
 The Mridung is a hollow cylinder of wood, resembling a 
 cask, open at both the ends, which are covered with crude 
 goat's skin of different thicknesses, so as to produce differ- 
 ent sounds : one end has likewise a coating of a composition 
 made of rosin, oil, &c, applied to the inside, and is tightened 
 with leather braces like our drums. The Dholkee is similar 
 to this, only the diameter bears a greater proportion to the 
 length, and is a lighter and more delicate instrument. The 
 braces are strings. The difference between both the above 
 and the Tubla is, that the latter are always used two to- 
 gether, the one being the treble and the other the bass, 
 which however may be considered as one instrument, divided 
 from the middle for the sake of convenience. 
 
 The method of playing on these instruments is curious. 
 They are struck with the fingersjand palms of both hands, 
 and it is surprising what variety of measures, and changes of 
 the same measure, expert players can produce on them. It 
 is allowed to be more difficult to describe the manner of 
 using the blow-pipe than of acquiring its use : the method of 
 playing on these instruments is absolutely indescribable, and 
 is only to be learnt from a master, chiefly by imitation and 
 long practice. 
 
 THE DUPH AND THE DAERA. 
 
 The first of these is an octagon frame of wood, about three 
 feet in diameter and six inches deep, covered on one side with 
 
9G OP MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; 
 
 skin, the stress of which is counterbalanced on the other with 
 a net-work of thiu slips of the same. The skin is struck 
 upon, in playing, with the fingers of the right hand, while a 
 tender flexible switch, held perpendicularly over the instru- 
 ment with the fore-finger of the left, is made to strike on it 
 with the middle finger at stated intervals of the measure. 
 
 The Daera, as its name implies, is a circle of wood, metal, 
 or other material, covered on one side, as the preceding. Its 
 diameter is generally about 11 or 12 inches. The right hand 
 fingers are applied in the same manner as in using the Duph, 
 and the thumb of the left is thrust into a string passed 
 through a hole on one side of the circle, so as to form a rest 
 or support for that hand a little above the centre, against 
 which the knuckle of the middle finger is pressed on the in- 
 side when a rise in the tone is desired. 
 
 Both these instruments are now almost entirely used by 
 amateurs, although the former is sometimes played upon by 
 professional men of the lower order. These instruments 
 may be compared to the Tambour de basque, Tabret or 
 Timbrel of the ancients. 
 
 THE MUNJEERA AND THE CURTAR. 
 These are Cymbals and Castanets, and are of no other use 
 than to mai'k the time distinctly, which, as I have already 
 several times noticed, is the very life of rythmical music. 
 
 THE SARUNGEE. 
 
 The Sarungee is the fiddle of Hindoostan. It is strung 
 with four gut strings, and played with a bow, the hairs of 
 which are loose, and tightened with the hand at the time of 
 playing. The two lowest strings are tuned to Khurvj, and the 
 
OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 97 
 
 others to a perfect fourth. The instrument is held in a posi- 
 tion contrary to that in whioh the violin is used ; that is, in 
 the manner of the bass violin ; and the fingers of the left 
 hand do not press upon the strings, but are held close beside 
 them, while the right hand draws the bow. 
 
 Besides the gut-strings, the instrument has a number of 
 metal wires, generally thirteen, of unequal lengths, which go 
 under the gut-strings. These wires are tuned to the mode 
 proper to the Eaginee intended to be played. The bow can 
 never touch or approach them, so tlrey are of use only to 
 reverberate with the sound of the gut-strings. This proves 
 that the musicians of Hindoostan are aware of the fact that 
 sound propagated on one string will communicate vibration 
 to another that is in unison with it, or the difference of 
 whose tone is exactly an octave. 
 
 THE TUMBOORA. 
 
 The Tumboora or Tanpoora is another very ancient in- 
 strument, and the simplest of all those of the guitar kind. 
 It somewhat resembles that instrument, but has a very long 
 neck without frets. The body is generally made of about 
 the two-thirds of the dry shell of a gourd, the top covered 
 with a thin board. It is strung with three or four wire 
 strings, one brass and the rest steel. The lowest is tuned 
 to the key note, and the others to its quint and octave 
 above. These are struck alternately, the instrument reclin- 
 ing on the shoulder. Its use is calculated, as the name 
 indicates, to fill up all pauses and vacuities in the song, and 
 likewise to keep the songster from straying from the tone 
 which he originally adopted. 
 
&8 OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 THE SITAR. 
 
 This is likewise a modem instrument, and was invented 
 by Umeer Khosro of Delhi. It resembles the last mentioned 
 instrument, but is made a good deal smaller, and has mov- 
 able frets of silver, brass, or other material, which are fastened 
 with catgut or silk. Seventeen frets are generally used, 
 and as they are movable, they answer every purpose 
 required. The shifting of these to their proper places 
 requires a delicate ear. 
 
 This instrument derives its name from si **» signifying in 
 Persian three, and tar jlj a string, as that number is com- 
 monly used. More modern performers have made several 
 additions. 
 
 Of the three wires, one is steel, and the others brass. 
 These last are tuned in unison, and are called Khuruj from 
 their sound, and the other is a perfect fourth to it. The 
 fingers of the left hand slide over the frets on the finger- 
 board, and stop the notes in the same manner as on the 
 guitar, and the wires are struck with the fore-fiDger of the 
 right, to which is fitted a kind of plectrum or instrument 
 called a Hizrab,* made of a piece of wire curiously twisted, 
 to facilitate the various motions of the finger. 
 
 The Sitar is very much admired, is used both by profes- 
 sional men and amateurs, and is really a very pleasing toned 
 instrument in the hands of an expert performer. 
 
 THE EUBAB. 
 This instrument is strung with gut-strings, and in shape 
 and tone resembles a Spanish guitar. It is played with 
 a plectrum of horn held between the fore-finger and thumb 
 
 * From the Arabic verb i_j ye to strike. 
 
OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 99 
 
 of the right hand, while the fingers of the left stop the 
 strings on the fingerboard. I have heard some performers on 
 this, who are said to excel, and their performance certaiuly 
 deserved praise, for the delight with which they inspired 
 their hearers. The Puthans are remarkably fond of this 
 instrument, which is very common at Rampoor. 
 
 THE VEEN. 
 
 The Veen is one of the most ancient of the musical •instru- 
 ments of Hindoostan. It was played upon by the minstrel 
 Mooni Narad, to whom the credit of its invention is allowed. 
 It is the instrument of the greatest capacity and power ; and 
 a really superior Veen in the hands of an expert performer 
 is perhaps little inferior to a fine-toned piano, and indeed, for 
 Hindoostanee music, the best devised, and calculated to be 
 adapted jto all practical modifications. 
 
 Although the Veen has a fingerboard and frets, it is not 
 strictly confined in its intonation, as a guitar, a pianoforte, or 
 an organ is ; for it is so delicate an instrument, that the 
 slightest difference in the pressure of the finger, or of its 
 distance from the frets, will cause a sensible variation in the 
 tone, of which a good performer avails himself. Hence 
 results that beautiful nicety of just intonation in every mode 
 which charms the musical ear. To convey a correct idea of 
 this beauty, we need only observe that the superiority of the 
 violin over most other instruments is to be derived from this 
 
 source. 
 
 The Veen is strung with seven metal wires, three steel and 
 four brass ; but as is the case with the Sitar and the Rubab, 
 the melody is generally played on one of the steel wires, and 
 the rest are chiefly for accompaniment ; several fingers of 
 
100 OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 the right haud striking simultaneously on several of the 
 wires : each of the fingers to be thus employed is armed with 
 a plectrum usually made with the large scales of fishes, and 
 fastened on with springs, or tied down with thread. 
 
 THE BANSULEE, OE BUNSEE. 
 The flute was formerly a very favourite instrument, and is 
 said to have produced wonderful effects in the hands of the 
 god Crishnu. There are few professional performers on this 
 instrument now. 
 
Or THE VARIOUS SPECIES 
 
 OF 
 
 VOCAL COMPOSITIONS OF HINDOOSTAN. 
 
 Twenty different species described. 
 
 The most ancient sorts of composition are, 1st, the Oeet; 
 2nd, the Took ; 3rd, the Chhund ; 4th, the Prubund ; 5th, the 
 Dharoo ; 6th, the Dhooa; and 7th, the Mwn. These are 
 chiefly in the Sanscrit, and difficult both of comprehension 
 and execution. The first four I have heard ; but much of 
 these is not known in these days. 
 
 The various species of the more modern compositions are 
 the following : — 
 
 1. The Bhoorpud. This may properly be considered 
 as the heroic song of Hindoostan. The subject is frequent- 
 ly the recital of some of the memorable actions of their 
 heroes, or other didactic theme. It also engrosses love mat- 
 ters, as well as trifling and frivolous subjects. The style is 
 very masculine, and almost entirely devoid of studied orna- 
 mental flourishes. Manly negligence and ease seems to 
 pervade the whole, and the few turns that are allowed 
 are always short and peculiar. This sort of composi- 
 
102 VOCAL COMPOSITIONS 
 
 . tion has its origin from the time of Rajah Man of Gualiar, 
 who is considered as the father of Dhoorpud singers. The 
 Dhoorpud has four Tooks or strains,— the 1st is called Sthul, 
 Sthaee, or Bedha; the 2nd, TJnlura; the 3rd, Ubhog ; and 
 the last, Bhog. Others term the two last Ubhag. Dhoorpuds, 
 in which the names of flowers are introduced, in such man- 
 ner that the meaning will admit of two different construc- 
 tions, are called Phoolpund ; and two Dhoorpuds which corre- 
 spond with each other in time, syllable, and accent, are deno- 
 minated Joogool. 
 
 2. Eheal. In the Kheal the subject generally is a love 
 tale, and the person supposed to utter it, a female. The 
 style is extremely graceful, and replete with studied elegance 
 and embellishments. It is chiefly in the language spoken 
 in the district of Khyrabad, and consists of two Tooks. 
 Sooltan Hoosyn Shurqee of Jounpoor is the inventor of this 
 class of song. A species of this, consisting of only one Too]c, 
 is called Chootcula ; another, termed Burwee, comprises two 
 TooJcs, and is in the Poorbee tongue. 
 
 Although the pathetic is found in almost all species of 
 Hindoostanee musical as well as poetical compositions, yet 
 the Kheal is perhaps its more immediate sphere. The style 
 of the Dhoorpud is too masculine to suit the tender delicacy 
 of female expression, and the Tuppa is more conformable to 
 the character of a maid, who inhabits the shores of the 
 Ravi, (and has its connexion with a particular tale,) than 
 with the beauties of Hindoostan ; while the Ohuzuls and 
 Rekhtus are quite exotic, transplanted and reared on the 
 Indian soil since the Mahomedan conquest. To a person 
 who understands the language sufficiently, it is enough to 
 hear a few good Kheals, to be convinced of the beauties of 
 
OF HINDOOSTAN. 103 
 
 Hindoostanee songs, both with regard to the pathos of the 
 poetry and delicacy of the melody. 
 
 3. Tuppa. Songs of this species are the admiration of 
 Hindoostan. It has been brought to its present degree of 
 perfection by the famous Shoree, who in some measure may 
 be considered its founder. Tuppas were formerly sung in 
 very rude style by the camel-drivers of the Punjab, and 
 it was he who modelled it into the elegance it is now sung. 
 Tuppas have two TooTcs, and are generally sung in the lan- 
 guage spoken at Punjab, or mixed jargon of that and Hin- 
 dee. They recite the loves of Heer and Eanjha, equally re- 
 nowned for their attachment and misfortunes, and allude to 
 some circumstance in the history of their lives. 
 
 4. Thoomree. This is an impure dialect of the Vrnj- 
 bhasha. The measure is lively and so peculiar, that it is 
 not mistaken by one who has heard a few songs of this class. 
 It is useless to waste words in description, which must after 
 all prove inadequate, of a subject which will impress the 
 mind more sensibly when attention is bestowed on a few 
 songs. 
 
 5. Rag-Sagur, or the ocean of Sags. It is a species of 
 Kondo, which commences with a particular Rag. Each suc- 
 cessive strain is sung in a different Rag, and at the • end of 
 each, the first strain is repeated. 
 
 6. Holee or Horee, consists of four TooJcs or strains like 
 Dhoorpud, and the style is peculiar to itself. 
 
 If the songs of Hindoostan were classed by subjects, per- 
 haps that which recites the amours of Chrishnu would be the 
 most voluminous. The age of that voluptuary forms a very 
 important era in the history of India, and it is not to be 
 wondered at that it should so materially influence their song. 
 
104 VOCAL COMPOSITIONS 
 
 Every nation has celebrated the valorous deeds of its heroes 
 in song, and so have the natives of Hindoostan done. 
 Numerous compositions are in existence, which recite the vic- 
 tories and virtues of their ancient princes and heroes. The 
 joys of love, however, have everywhere been more numer- 
 ously sung ; and so has Crishnu, who is represented as the un- 
 rivalled Damon, Paris, and Adonis of Hindoostan ; all the ex- 
 cellencies of these are united in him. Equally amorous in 
 his own turn, and beloved by all the fair without exception. 
 He is emphatically styled " Mohun," or the enchanter. His 
 person was so graceful, that every woman who once beheld 
 him, became instantly enamoured of it. His pipe possessed 
 such irresistible attractive charms, that none who ever heard 
 it could attend to any thing else, however serious, incum- 
 bent, or necessary. It diffused a sort of phrenzy along with 
 its tone, the influence of which could not be withstood by 
 any woman of Vruj. Neither the usual cares of the house- 
 hold, the desire of arraying so natural to the female sex, nor 
 the threats of the enraged husband ; no, not even the atten- 
 tion due to a hungry and crying infant could for a moment 
 detain her from following the impulse occasioned by the 
 sound of Crishnu's flute, 
 
 I have observed above, that songs which have love for 
 their theme, are more numerous amongst all nationa. In 
 Hindoostan there is one other motive for their being 
 esteemed — being the acts of the god Crishnu, they are con- 
 sidered as pious hymns. The old sing them as acts of de- 
 votion, the young derive pleasure from their contents ; by 
 the pious they are held sacred ; while the profane find in them 
 many things which they glory either to have themselves 
 performed, or should have been glad to have had it in their 
 
OF HINDOOSTAN. 105 
 
 power to achieve. The wise man has folly enough to be 
 beguiled by them, and the fool possesses sufficient taste to 
 relish their beauties. All, in short, agree in admiring songs 
 of this class, how different soever their motives might be for 
 this predilection in its favor. 
 
 The scenes of Crishnu's frolics were the villages of Gocool 
 and Muthoora, on the opposite banks of the Jumna or 
 Yamoona, and the wilds of Vrindabun. No milkmaid could 
 here pass without being attacked by the amorous Crishnu. 
 All Hindoo women went a watering to the Jumna with 
 pitchers on their heads or under their arms, and never re- 
 turned without at least an amorous embrace or a kiss. 
 
 These are recited in the holees. One song of this class de- 
 scribes a maiden reproaching Crishnu with his audaciousness 
 in taking liberties with her ; another admires his comeliness 
 and extraordinary address. One with beating heart warns 
 her female friends to be cautious how they venture to the 
 river-side alone ; another with tears in her eyes states her 
 doleful tale, how she has been roughly treated and shame- 
 fully abused by the god. In this a forsaken girl bemoans 
 her fate, and imprecates her rivals ; in that other she declares 
 the excess of her passion, and fondly confines the god in 
 her arms. One declares her resolution of bearing no longer 
 with his insults and oppressions ; another congratulates her 
 friend's arrival at a village like Gocool, where love revels. 
 The forcible seizure of milk or a kiss forms the theme of 
 one song ; while in another you hear them bribe his stay 
 with both. Some adore him as a god, others esteem him 
 as a lover, and a few treat him as an impudent fellow. 
 
 7. Jut. A few hemistichs, each in a different dialect and 
 Rag. 
 
106 VOOAi COMPOSITIONS 
 
 8. Tirvut and Tuvana. No words are adapted to these, It 
 being considered necessary, however, to utter something for 
 the easier and more perfect vocalization of this species of 
 music, the following set of words has been adopted for 
 this purpose, without regard to the order of succession 
 here set down. 
 
 There is a tale connected with these words, which is in 
 almost every one's mouth, and therefore not necessary to be 
 inserted here. 
 
 9. Surgum — Is sung with the notes contained in the Hin- 
 dee scale [Surgum], as the name implies. It is literally what 
 we call Solfa-ing or Solmization, although it is not now in- 
 variably used with the same view. 
 
 10. Bishnoopud. This » species of Hindoo hymns. It 
 was founded by Shoordas, a blind poet and musician, and is of 
 a moral tendency. 
 
 11. Chutoorung — Is four strains: 1, Kheal; 2, Turana ; 
 3, Surgum ; and 4, Tirvut. It is of modern invention. 
 
 12. Ghuzul and Rekhtu. These are in the Ordoo and 
 Persain languages, and differ from each other, according to 
 some, merely in the subject they treat of. The former has 
 for its theme a description of the beauties of the beloved 
 object, minutely enumerated, such as the green beard, moles, 
 ringlets, size, shape, &o, &c, as well as his cruelties and 
 indifference, and the pain endured by the lover ; whilst in the 
 Rekhtu he eulogizes the beauty of the beloved in general 
 terms, and evinces his own intention of persevering in his 
 love, and bearing with all the difficulties to which he might 
 be exposed in the accomplishment of his desires. They con- 
 sist mostly of from five to ten or a dozen couplets. One 
 
OP HINDOOSTASf. 107* 
 
 species of these is termed Charbyt, and" contains only four 
 couplets, as its name indicates. 
 
 13. Badra and Nucta — Are of various lengths, and gene- 
 rally in the dialect spoken in the districts of Bundelkhund 
 and Bughelkund. The subject is almost universally mean-~ 
 
 the petition of the fond woman for the acquisition of the 
 most trifling favors. 
 
 14. Ourca. War songs in praise of valour. This is gene- 
 rally in the tongue spoken by the Rajpoots. It is the 
 profession of a class of songsters denominated Dharees. 
 Those in the language of Vruj and Gualiar are called Sadra. 
 One species of this, in very lengthened couplets, is termed 
 Bugud. Those in the Charnee tongue are denominated 
 Bur. 
 
 15. Palna. Cradle songs or hymns. The subject is appro- 
 priate. Childhood and blessings for longevity, &c. 
 
 16. iSakla is sung on marriages. 
 
 17. Moulood. One or two hemistichs in praise of the 
 Almighty, or of Mahommud. It is chiefly in the Arabic. 
 
 18. Stooti. In praise of superiors. 
 
 19. Qoul, Qulbana and Kool are in Arabic. These are 
 suDg by Quvvals. 
 
 20. Zicree. The subject of these is morality, and is sung 
 in the dialect of Goojrat. It was originally introduced in 
 Hiudoostan by Qazee Muhmood. 
 
OF THE PECULIARITIES 
 
 OF 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN, 
 
 TO WHICH 
 
 ALLUSIONS ARE MADE IN THEIR SONG. 
 
 When she spoke, 
 Sweet words, like dropping honey, she did shed ; 
 And 'twist the pearls and rubies softly brake, 
 A silver sound, that heavenly music seem'd to make.— .Fairy Queen, 
 
 The winds were hushed, no leaf so small 
 At all was seen to stir, 
 
 Whilst turning to the water's fall 
 The small birds sung to her. — .Drayton's Cynthia. 
 
 I saw a pleasant grove, 
 With chaunt of tuneful birds resounding love.— Milton. 
 
 Earth smiles with flow'rs renewing, laughs the sky, 
 
 And bids to lays of love their tuneful notes apply.— Dryden, 
 
 Its characteristic natvre. Reasons assigned for several of them, which now no 
 longer exist, and examples produced. 
 
 It will perhaps be desirable to expatiate a little on such 
 parts of the prevailing manners and customs of ancient 
 Hindoostan as influence their music. The songs of a nation, 
 as well as its poetry, go a great way towards developing its 
 
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN. 109 
 
 domestic practices, rites, and ceremonies, as also its habits 
 of life. Those of Hindoostan are very characteristic, and it 
 is perhaps, as is justly observed, owing to this happy union 
 of melody and poetry, when judiciously adapted to each other, 
 that we can reconcile ourselves to the extraordinary power 
 music is said to have anciently possessed over the human 
 soul, not only in Hindoostan, but likewise over the occidental 
 nations, and probably over the whole world. 
 
 The allowed insignificancy of the female sex in the idea of 
 a Hindoo, the contempt with which they are generally beheld, 
 have very considerable effects on their poetry. A transient 
 observation should likewise be made on the Arabians and 
 Persians, as their music is generally understood and cultivat- 
 ed in this country. The Hindee Ghuzuls are in imitation and 
 on the model of the PersiaD. 
 
 In Arabic poetry the man is invariably in love with the 
 woman who is the object beloved. In Persia he is repre- 
 sented, contrary to the dictates of nature, as in love with his 
 own sex. This is evident in all lyric poems of that country. 
 Their pieces abound with the praises of the youthful cup- 
 bearer, the beauty of his green beard, and the comeliness of 
 his mien. In Hindoostan the fair sex* are the first to woo, 
 and the man yields after much courting. In compositions 
 
 * "We must here make an allowance for Indian prejudices, which always 
 assigns the active part of amorous intercourse to the female, and make the 
 mistress seek the lover, not the lover his mistress." — Note on verse 255, 
 Translation of Megha Duta. 
 
 I have endeavoured to assign a reason in the next paragraph after the 
 following, which seems to me to obviate the necessity of any allowance 
 being made for the passage on which Mr. Wilson has given this note, or of 
 calling it a prejudice. The original text of Calidas appears to me quite 
 natural, consistently with the customs of his country. 
 
110 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAKT. 
 
 of this country, therefore, love and desire, hope and despair, 
 and in short every demonstration of the tender passion, is 
 first felt in the female bosom, and evinced by her pathetic 
 exclamations. 
 
 If we should trace the origin of this disparity in the poet- 
 ry of these nations, it will perhaps appear that the women 
 in Arabia are less subject to be wounded by Cupid's darts, 
 and are similar to the lukewarm beauties of Cabool. The 
 peculiar custom of Persia is evidently the reason that their 
 pieces abound with themes of the cast just noticed. The 
 poor neglected women in vain expose their charms — in vain 
 add the assistance of art to the comeliness of their persons — 
 in vain has nature bestowed such charms, and been so lavish 
 in her gifts to beings whom it does not much benefit. Alas f 
 lovely creature, adorn not thy head with those precious gems, 
 nor thy person with rich brocades ; for neither these nor thy 
 jetty ringlets, hanging gracefully down thy back, nor the re- 
 viving perfume, which thou carriest about thee, shall have 
 any influence on the icy heart of the beloved object of thy 
 cares — his warmth is reserved for another, he fancys superior 
 beauties in the yet unsprung beard of his beloved Saqee, 
 which, if it claim any attention, ' it is purely that it ap- 
 proaches to and resembles thy softness. 
 
 In Hindoostan I can see no other motive but that the 
 men being permitted, by law and the custom of the country, 
 a plurality of wives, the women should grow fond by neglect. 
 Having from the total want of education no meaDs of men- 
 tal amusement, they consider the society of their husbands 
 as their supremest felicity ; and as he has to bestow a portion 
 of his time on every individual wife, it may be fairly pre- 
 sumed that no one of them can be cloyed with him, From 
 
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN. Ill 
 
 this permission of polygamy she is the more solicitous to 
 engage and secure his affections by ardent demonstrations 
 of fondness. A precept of Hindoo law should likewise be 
 remembered, which prohibits the women to engage in the 
 bonds of Hymen more than once during their lives. How 
 far this precept of flagrant injustice is relished by the 
 females, I shall leave the fair sex to determine. 
 
 To comprehend the songs of this country, and to relish 
 their beauties, we must not figure to ourselves Hindoostan 
 in the state in which it is at present, but must transport 
 ourselves back to those earlier ages to which allusions are 
 made by them : to those times, when these regions enjoyed 
 not the tranquillity at present subsisting in its parts, but 
 when they were possessed by petty chieftains, arbitrary in 
 their respective dominions — when no highroads existed, but 
 communication between one village and another was main- 
 tained by narrow footpaths, and rude mountains and junguls 
 formed the natural barrier of the different chiefs, guarded 
 by almost impossible woods and wild beasts — when naviga- 
 tion by river was as impracticable as travelling by land — 
 when a journey even to a few leagues was rendered hazard- 
 ous by robbers and marauders, who infested the despicable 
 roads of themselves formidable, and rendered more so by 
 frequent interruptions from rivulets and morrasses, and from 
 ravines aud nallas, which during the rains presented by 
 their rapidity and intricacies very powerful obstacles — when 
 topography was almost unknown, and the advice of a stran- 
 ger adventitiously met was to be cautiously embraced, as 
 robbers lurked about the roads in various disguises to seize 
 on their prey by force or stratagem : to the time, in short, 
 when parting even for a journey to an adjoining village, 
 
112 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN. 
 
 was accompanied by mutual tears, and prayers for safe 
 return. 
 
 A distant tour such as in these days is looked upon with 
 indifference, was formerly contemplated and consulted on 
 for a year or two before undertaken ; and when a man who 
 had accomplished his purpose returned home in safety, after 
 encountering all the hardships incident to it, the wonderful 
 recital of his adventures, the skill with which he conducted 
 himself in the presence of princes, his valour and intrepidity 
 in times of danger, his cunning and foresight in preventing 
 or avoiding the toils of the evil-minded, and all these exag- 
 gerated by the vanity of the traveller, formed the theme of 
 admiration to the village, and the subject of pride to his v 
 relatives, not soon likely to be forgot. J 
 
 It is observed by the author of " An Inquiry into the 
 Life and Writings of Homer," page 26, " that it has not been 
 given by the gods to one and the same country to produce 
 rich crops and warlike men, neither indeed does it seem to 
 be given to one and the same kingdom, to be thoroughly 
 civilized, and afford proper subjects for poetry." It is this 
 which renders Hindoostanee songs flat and unpalatable, 
 unless we transport ourselves back to their barbarous and 
 heroic ages. Their abhorrence of innovation induces them to 
 retain their ancient ways of thinking, or at least to imitate 
 their manner of thinking in times of yore, notwithstanding 
 the changes introduced by time. Indeed, from what has 
 been observed in this and the preceding paragraph, although 
 I heartily rejoice at the effects of the British government 
 in India, I should really be sorry that their poetry should be 
 tinctured with the rules and regulations in force at present, 
 and their poetical and fictitious lovers reach their homes in 
 the security which the government allows. 
 
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN. 113 
 
 Hindoo women are married at so tender an age, that it ia 
 indeed very seldom that they feel any influence of love till 
 some years after marriage : there are therefore consequently 
 very few pieces to be found wherein a maiden (by which I 
 mean an unmarried woman) is concerned. 
 
 It is customary in Hindoostan for the parents and their 
 sons, with their daughters-in-law, and maiden daughter, to 
 live together, and in the event of the young men going 
 abroad in quest of employment, to leave their wives behind. 
 What induced them to do this in former times was the diffi- 
 culties and dangers attendant on the roads, which rendered 
 it impossible to perform a journey of any extent in company 
 with females, who would not only be liable to the greatest 
 abuse even immediately in the neighbourhood, but also to 
 be torn from the arms of their husbands to grace the beds 
 of any chieftain who might chance to take a fancy to them, 
 or might be induced to do it through mere wantonness and 
 caprice. 
 
 Let us figure to ourselves an amiable and fond woman in 
 the bloom of her age, wasting her years in sighs for her 
 absent and beloved husband, in whom are centered all her 
 hopes of life — let us behold her at public festivals, where themes 
 to which her heart is familiar are sung in the most pathetic 
 language enforced by the charms of melody — let us accom- 
 pany her to the riverside, which she daily visits to procure 
 water for the use of the household, and where she witnesses 
 a thousand tender interviews— let us turn our eyes to her 
 domestic scenes, we see her happier sisters-in-law adorning 
 and ornamenting themselves, and sporting in all the gaiety 
 natural to their age, and she striving to stifle her grief, nnd 
 appear cheerful. Perhaps she hears news of her husba" •''*» 
 
114 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN. 
 
 intention shortly to return : she revives as the drooping 
 flower refreshed by sudden and timely rain. If this be in 
 the winter, she laments his absence during the long cold 
 nights of that season, and calls him cruel for not having 
 thought of home earlier. Winter past, she trembles at the 
 idea of the scorching rays of the sun, which will assail him 
 on his journey. But when the rains set in, those months 
 which are the most delightful* of all in Hindoostan to those 
 whose hearts are not afflicted by separation, then it is that 
 
 she feels her existence insupportable. Cheering hope, which 
 beguiled her during the former seasons, no longer affords its 
 balmy aid, and she despairs of his arrival this year. Every 
 cloud, every flash of lightning sends forth a dart to her 
 tender bosom, and every drop of rain adds fresh poignancy 
 to the wound in her agonizing heart. If she endeavours by 
 domestic toils to wean her thoughts for a moment from her 
 
 absent lover, the Coel, and particularly the Pupeeha, reminds 
 her of him by her constant and reiterated interrogations of 
 Pee-cuhan — Pee-cuhan 1 
 
 * "The commencement of the rainy season, being peculiarly delight- 
 ful in Hindoostan, from the contrast it affords to the sultry weather 
 immediately preceding, and also rendering the roads pleasant and practicable, 
 is usually selected for travelling. Hence frequent allusions occur in the 
 poets to the expected return of such persons as are at this time absent from 
 their family and home."— Note on line 20 of the Translation of the Megha 
 Duta, by H. H. Wilson, Esq. 
 
 " Sprang from such gathering shades to happier sight." 
 The meaning of Calidas seems to be somewhat different. 
 
 ir^raH w^fcf g%^ts<2R)sjig;ffriicr: i 
 
 And a hundred Hindoostanee songs will prove that aftor the rains arc set n, 
 it is no season for travelling. 
 
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN. 115 
 
 These, however, are not the only birds which are addressed 
 by the females of Hindoostan, by the title of Byree or enemy ; 
 the peacock,* the chatak, and several others are said to 
 add to their affliction, and remind them of their absent lovers. 
 Superstition lends her aid to afflict or comfort them, by attach- 
 ing importance to the throbbing of the eyes or pulsations of 
 the limbs.t 
 
 The husband remaining from home for several years to- 
 gether, his wife, if she had been married very young, when 
 she attains the years of maturity, begins to feel the power 
 of love, and readily finds a youth on whom she fixes her 
 affections,! having perhaps little more knowledge of her 
 absent husband than from hearsay. In such a state of 
 things, the lover can seldom be admitted at home on account 
 of the smallness of the house, and the number of rela- 
 tives. She sees herself therefore reduced to the necessity of 
 
 * " Or can the peacock's animated hail, 
 
 The bird with lucid eyes, to lure thee fail V 
 
 "The wild peacock is exceedingly abundant in many parts of Hin- 
 doostan, and is especially found in marshy places ; the habits of this 
 bird are in a great measure aquatic, and the setting in of the rains is 
 the season in which they pair; the peacock is therefore always intro- 
 duced in the description of cloudy or rainy weather, together with the 
 cranes and cliatakas."— Cloud Messenger, pp. 29, 1, 148. 
 
 t " O'er her left limbs Bhall glad pulsations play." 
 
 " Palpitation in the left limbs, and a throbbing in the left eye, are 
 here described as auspicious omens when occurring in the females : in 
 the male, the right side is the auspicious side, corresponding with the 
 ideas of the Greeks, described by Potter, q. v."— Ibid. 
 
 % An objection very frequently started by Europeans against Hin- 
 doo poetry and songs is, that they are generally too licentious and 
 voluptuous. To such I would recommend the perusal of the note by 
 Mr. Wilson on line 46S of his translation of the Megha Duta, It is too long 
 to quote. 
 
116 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN. 
 
 visiting* him at his, to effect which, it requires a great deal 
 of circumspection and evasive art. The female sex being 
 generally more fond, affords a fertile source of dread from 
 the influence of rivals. It is undeniable that such practices 
 are immoral ; but such is the fact, and nature, unrestrained 
 by education, (and the women of Hindoostan are perfectly 
 ignorant of all knowledge, but the art of pleasing,) will posi- 
 tively have its headlong course. Taking all matters into 
 consideration, the poor women of this country should be an 
 object of our compassion rather than of our contempt. The 
 stimulus given to India by British example, and capital em- 
 ployed for the education of native females, is not amongst 
 the least of her beneficial operations. The time will come 
 when their worth shall be duly appreciated by the daugh- 
 ters of India ; and then, should this work chance to be 
 perused by them, they will sigh at the follies of their ances- 
 tors, smile at their own good fortune, and perhaps think 
 kindly on him who has endeavoured to palliate their weak- 
 ness, and bring them nearer on a level with the more blessed 
 fair sex of other regions. 
 
 The tenor of Hindoostanee love-ditties, therefore, gener- 
 ally, is one or more of the following themes : 
 
 1. Beseeching the lover to be propitious. 
 
 2. Lamentations for the absence of the object beloved. 
 
 3. Imprecating of rivals. 
 
 4. Complaints of inability to meet the lover from the 
 
 * " The pearls that bursting zones have taught to-roam, 
 Speak of fond maids, and wanderer* from home." 
 
 " T have already mentioned that the Hindoos always send the lady to seek 
 her lover, and they usually add a very reasonable degree of ardour and 
 impatience." — Note on line 466, Wilson's Megha Duta. 
 
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN HINDOOSTAN. 117 
 
 watchfulness of the mother and sisters-in-law, anil the tinkl 
 ing of little* bells worn as ornaments round the waist and 
 ancles, called payel, bichhooa, &c. 
 
 5. Fretting, and making use of invectives against the 
 mother and sisters-in-law, as being obstacles in the way of 
 her love. 
 
 6. Exclamation to female friends termed Sukhees, and 
 supplicating their assistance ; and 
 
 7. Sukhees reminding their friends of the appointment 
 made, and exhorting them to persevere in their love. 
 
 * " My fair awakens from her tinkling zone." 
 
 " A girdle of small bells (^T*5^'t*l£ nl ) ' s a favourite Hindoo ornament ; 
 
 also silver circles at the ancles and wrists, which emit a ringing noise as the 
 
 wearer moves." — Wilson's Megha Dutta, pp. 85, 1, 514. 
 
 The use of this ornament was probably first imposed by jealous husbands 
 to check clandestino visits, should the wives be so inclined; the sound 
 emitted by them rendering them more liable to detection : until women 
 using them being regarded more chaste, others were obliged to comply with 
 the fashion to avoid aspersion of character. Thus did the Hindoos endea- 
 vour to fetter their wives, and secure their affections by such inadequate 
 means ; neglecting their moral instruction, which is the only safe 
 barrier. 
 
BBIEF ACCOUNT 
 
 THE MOST CELEBRATED MUSICIANS OP HINDOOSTAN. 
 
 " A happy genius is the gift of nature."— Drydm. 
 *' Invention is a kind of muse, which, being possessed" of the other 
 advantages common to her sisters, and being warmed by the fire of 
 Appollo, is raised higher than the rest." — Ibid, 
 
 The invention of all arta and sciences, as I mentioned in 
 the early part of this treatise, has always been attributed by 
 heathen nations to beings of superior order, of celestial 
 orgin, to demi-gods. These, however, were undoubtedly not 
 the inventors of those arts and sciences which are attributed 
 to them, but merely the compilers and collectors of the 
 fruits of the industry and invention of ingenious men, who 
 preceded them for centuries ; but as the compiler centered 
 in his own person the aggregate sum of knowledge then exist- 
 ing, he of course possessed a greater fund than any other 
 individual of that particular profession which he chose to 
 investigate, and was of course, from bis aggregate knowledge 
 of What others possessed only in parts, enabled to make 
 comparisons of the several details, and form rules for the 
 
MUSICIANS OF HINDOOSTAN. 119 
 
 whole, consistent, precisely defined, and universal. It should 
 likewise be remembered that 
 
 By improving what was done before, 
 
 Invention .labours less, but judgment more. — Roscommon. 
 
 These compilers of sciences, if they were powerful and 
 wise priuces, persons reputed for religious sanctity, austerity 
 of manners, of extraordinary benevolence, virtue, wisdom, or 
 genius, could not but be looked upon, by so superstitious and 
 polytheistical a nation as the Hindoos, as an emanation 
 from the Supreme Being; an Uvutar ; and their excessive 
 fondness for fable and mythology would soon prompt them 
 to adopt allegories, for which the genius of this people seems 
 to have been nothing inferior to that of the Egyptians. 
 
 The Hindoos, although an idolatrous, were never so luxu- 
 rious and vicious a nation as their conquerors, the Maho- 
 medans ; most of the vices existing in this country having 
 been introduced after the conquest. The songs of the abori- 
 gines of Hindoostan will bear comparison with those of any 
 other country for purity and chasteness of diction, and eleva- 
 tion and tenderness of sentiment. 
 
 By a rule of the Mahomedan law, the womeu of all Cafirs 
 or unbelievers, to which class the Hindoos belong, are to 
 them Hulal, or lawful, without marriage ; and since the acqui- 
 sition of the country to the latter, all manner of excesses and 
 debauchery reached their acme. The vice of drunkenness 
 was, I am persuaded, unknown, at least of the stimulating 
 and inflammatory class. The opium, Bhung, and Dhatoora, 
 (the two latter of which were chiefly used by the Hindoos,) 
 are rather stupefying and sedative than irritative. There is 
 no term, I believe, in Sungscrit, or tongues derived from" it, 
 for a slave or eunuch. The fear of the loss of caste, in the 
 
120 MUSICIANS OF HINDOOSTAN. 
 
 waut of sound religion and refined morality, acted as a very 
 wholesome check against promiscuous and unguarded indul- 
 gence of passion, except amongst the very lowest classes of 
 sociely and outcastes. 
 
 A great many of the songs of this country abound with 
 the praises of drunkenness. These are certainly not of 
 Hindoo origin, for the Hindoos never drank wine or spirits ; 
 and although the Mahomedan religion prohibits the use of 
 wine, the very touch of which is reckoned polluting, very 
 few of their monarchs and nobles have refrained from indulg- 
 ing themselves freely with this beverage. They know no me- 
 dium ; it was, and now is, drank by such as make use of it 
 to excess. They never dilute their liquor with water, and 
 in times of their prosperity, it was contrived to be made so 
 pure and strong that it could not be drank ; in which case, 
 roast meat was a constant companion to liquor, in which 
 they dipped the bits of roast, as we do in sauce. It was 
 made strengthening and nutritive by the addition of all sorts 
 of flesh of quadrupeds and birds into the still previous to 
 distillation. The liquor is used even now by the more 
 wealthy Mahomedans, and is called Ma ool luhum. 
 
 The conquest of Hindoostan by the Mahomedan princes 
 forms a most important epoch in the history of its music. 
 From this time we may date the decline of all arts and sciences 
 purely Hindoo, for the Mahomedans were no great patrons 
 to learning, and the more bigotted of them were not only 
 great iconoclasts, but discouragers of the learning of the 
 country. The progress of the theory of music once 
 arrested, its decline was speedy ; although the practice, which 
 contributed to the entertainment of the princes and nobles, 
 continued until the time of Mohummud Shah, after whose 
 
MUSICIANS OP HINDOOSTAN. 121 
 
 reign history is pregnant with facts replete with dismal 
 scenes. But the practice of so fleeting and perishable a 
 science as that of a succession of sounds, without a know- 
 ledge of the theory to keep it alive, or any mode to record 
 it on paper, dies with the professor. 
 
 Amongst the most ancient musicians of this country, who 
 are reckoned inventors, compilers, and masters of the science, 
 we find the most prominent to be Sumeshwur, Bhurut, Hu- 
 nooman, the goddesses Parvutee, Suruswutee, and Doorga, 
 Vayoo, Shesh, Narud (the Mooni or devotee), Coolnath, Ou- 
 shyup (another Mooni), Haha, Hoohoo, Ravun, Disha, and 
 Urjoon. The first three and Coolnath have left treatises. 
 
 The most renowned of the Nayuks have been Gopal, a 
 native of the Dukhun, who flourished during the reign of 
 Sooltan Ula ood deen, and his contemporary Umeer Khosrow* 
 of Dehli, Sooltan Hoosyn Shurque of Jbunpoor, Rajah Man, 
 Qilladar of Gualiar, founder of the Dhoorpud, Byjoo, Bhoon- 
 noo, Pandvee, Buksoo, and Lohung. The four following lived 
 at the time of Bajah Man of Gualiar, — Jurjoo, Bhugwan, 
 Dhondhee, and Daloo. 
 
 The Gundharbs and Gooncars, that is, such as were eminent 
 singers, but were not acquainted with the theory of music, are 
 
 * It is related that when Gopal visifed the court of Delhi, he sung 
 that species of composition called Geet, the beauty of which style, 
 enunciated by the powerful and harmonious' voice of so able a performer, 
 could not meet with competition. At this the monarch caused Umeer 
 Khosrow to remain hid under his throne, whence he could hear the mu- 
 sician unknown to him. The latter endeavoured to remember the style, 
 and on a subsequent day, sung Qoul and Turuna in imitation of it, which 
 surprised Gopal, and fraudulently deprived him of » portion of his due 
 honor. 
 
122 MUSICIANS OF HINDOOSTAN. 
 
 very numerous ; and the following are chiefly those who had 
 the honor of performing ia the presence of Julul ood deen 
 Molmmmud Ucbur, King of Delhi. Tansen was originally 
 with Rajah Ram, and was sent to court at the special 
 request of the king ; Soojan Khan, Soorgyan Khan of Futeh- 
 poor, Chand Khan and Sooruj Khan (brothers), Tanturung 
 Khan, the son of Tansen Muclun Eay Baba Ramdas, and 
 his son Soordas, a blind moral poet and musician, the foun- 
 der of the Vishnoopud, who sung 
 
 As the wakeful bird 
 Sings darkling, and in shadiest covert hid, 
 Tunes her nocturnal note, 
 
 Baj Bahadoor, Chundoo, Daood, Is-haq, Shekh Khizur, Shekh 
 Bechoo, Husun Khan, Soorut Sen, and his brother Lala 
 Debee, Neelam Prucash and Meerza Aquil, and the Veen 
 players Feeroz Khan and Noubat Khan. 
 
 In more modern times, Sudarung and Udharung, Noor 
 Khan, Lad Khan and Pyar Khan, Janee and Gholam Rusool, 
 Shucker and Mukhun, Teetoo and Meethoo, Mohummud Khan 
 and Chhujjoo Khan, and Shoree, the founder of the Tuppa, 
 stand in high repute ; and several practical musicians of both 
 sexes are even now to be met with, who, although ignorant 
 of the theory of music, may, for extent, sweetness, pliability, 
 and perfect command of the voice, rival some of the first-rate 
 minstrels of Europe. Mohummud Khan and Serho Baee, 
 amongst others whom I have heard, are living examples of 
 superior vocal powers ; and Khoosh-hal Khan and Oomrao 
 Khan, Veen players, of instrumental execution. Good per- 
 formers on other instruments are more numerous. 
 
ON THE MUSICAL MODES OF THE HINDOOS. 
 
 BY 
 
 SIR WILLIAM JONES. 
 
ON 
 
 THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 OF 
 
 THE HINDOOS : 
 
 Written in 1784, and since much enlarged. 
 
 By the President. 
 
 Music belongs, as a science, to an interesting part of 
 natural philosophy, which, by mathematical deductions from 
 constant phenomena, explains the causes and properties of 
 sound, limits the number of mixed, or harmonic, sounds 
 to a certain series, which ' perpetually recurs, and fixes the 
 ratio, which they bear to each other or to one leading term ; 
 but, considered as an art, it combines the sounds, which 
 philosophy distinguishes, in such a manner as to gratify 
 our ears, or effect our imaginations ; or, by uniting both 
 objects, to captivate the fancy, while it pleases the sense ; and 
 speaking, as it were, the language of beautiful nature, to 
 raise correspondent ideas and e motions in the mind of the 
 hearer : it then, and then only, becomes what we call a 
 fine art, allied very nearly to verse, painting, and rhetoric ; 
 but subordinate in its functions to pathetic poetry, and in- 
 ferior in its power to genuine eloquence. 
 
 Thus it is the province of the philosopher to discover the 
 true direction and divergence of sound propagated by the 
 successive compressions and expansions of air, as the vibrat- 
 ing body advances and recedes ; to show why sounds them- 
 
126 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 selves may excite a tremulous motion in particular bodies, 
 as in the known, experiment of instruments tuned in unison, 
 to demonstrate the law, by which all the particles of air ; 
 when it undulates with great quickness, are continually ac- 
 celerated and retarded ; to compare the number of pulses 
 in agitated air with that of the vibrations which cause 
 them ; to compute the velocities and intervals of those 
 pulses in atmospheres of different density and elasticity ; 
 to account, as well as he can, for the affections, which music 
 produces ; and, generally, to investigate the causes of the 
 many wonderful appearances, which it exhibits : but the 
 artist, without considering, and even with out knowing, any 
 of the sublime theorems in the philosophy of sound, may 
 attain his end by a happy sele ction of melodies and accents 
 adapted to passionate verse, and of times conformable to 
 regular metre ; and, above all, by modulation, or the choice 
 and variation of those modes, as they are called, of which, 
 as they are contrived and arranged by the Hindoos, it is 
 my design, and shall be my endeavour, to give you a general 
 notion with all the perspicuity that the subject will admit. 
 
 Although we must assign the first rank, transcendently 
 and beyond all comparison to that powerful music which 
 may be denominated the sister of poetry and eloquence, yet 
 the lower art of pleasing the sense by a succession of agree- 
 able sounds not only has merit and even charms, but may, 
 I persuade myself, be applied on a variety of occasions to 
 salutary purposes. Whether, indeed, the sensation of hear- 
 ing be caused, as many suspect, by the vibrations of an 
 elastic ether flowing over the auditory nerves and propelled 
 along their solid capillaments, or whether the fibres of our 
 nerves which seem indefinitely divisible, have, like the strings 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 127 
 
 of a lute, peculiar vibrations proportioned to their length 
 and degree of tension, we have not sufficient evidence to 
 decide ; but we are very sure, that the whole nervous system 
 is affected in a singular manner by combinations of sound, 
 and that melody alone will often relieve the mind, when it is 
 oppressed by intense application to business or study. The 
 old musician, who rather figuratively, we may suppose, than 
 with philosophical seriousness, declared the soul itself to be 
 nothing but harmony, provoked the sprightly remai'k of 
 Cicero, that he drew his philosophy from the art, which he 
 professed ; but if, without departing from his own art, he 
 had merely described the human frame as the noblest and 
 sweetest of musical instruments, endued with a natural dis- 
 position to resonance and sympathy, alternately affecting and 
 affected by the soul, which pervades it, his description might, 
 perhaps, have been physically just; and certainly ought not 
 to have been hastily ridiculed. That any medical purpose 
 may be fully answered by music, I dare not assert ; but after 
 food, when the operations of digestion and absorption give so 
 much employment to the vessels, that a temporary state of 
 mental repose must be found, especially in hot climates, 
 essential to health, it seems reasonable to believe, that a few 
 agreeable airs, either heard or played without effort, must 
 have all the good effects of sleep and none of its disadvan- 
 tages ; putting the soul in tune, as Milton says, for any subse- 
 quent exertion ; an experiment which has often been suc- 
 cessfully made by myself, and which any one who pleases 
 may easily repeat. Of what I am going to add, I cannot give 
 equal evidence ; but hardly know how to disbelieve the tes- 
 timony of men, who had no system of their own to support, 
 and eould have no interest in deceiving me. First, I have 
 
128 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 been assured by a credible eye-witness, that two wild ante- 
 lopes used often to come from their woods to the place where 
 a more savage beast, Siea Juddatjlah, entertained himself 
 with concerts, and that they listened to the strains with an 
 appearance of pleasure, till the monster, in whose soul there 
 was no music, shot one of them to display his archery : secondly, 
 a learned native of this country told me, that he had frequently 
 seen the most venomous and malignant snakes leave their holes, 
 upon hearing tunes on a flute, which, as he supposed, gave 
 them peculiar delight ; and, thirdly, an intelligent Persian, 
 who repeated his story again and again, and permitted me to 
 write it down from his lips, declared, he had more than 
 once been present, when a celebrated lutauist, Mjrza Moham- 
 med, surnamed Bulbdl, was playing to a large company in 
 a grove near Shiraz, where he distinctly saw the nightingales 
 trying to vie with the musician, sometimes warbling on the 
 trees, sometimes fluttering from branch to branch, as if they 
 wished to approach the instrument, whence the melody 
 proceeded, and at length dropping on the ground in a kind of 
 ecstasy, from which they were soon raised, he assured me, 
 by a change of the mode. 
 
 The astonishing effects ascribed to music by the old Greeks, 
 and in our days, by the Chinese, Persians, and Indians, have 
 probably been exaggerated and embellished ; nor, if such 
 effects had been really produced, could they be imputed, I 
 think, to the mere influence of sounds, however combined or 
 modified: it may, therefore, be suspected (not that the 
 accounts are wholly fictitious, but) that such wonders were 
 performed by music in its largest sense, as it is now described 
 by the Hindoos, that is, by the union of voices, instruments, 
 and action ; for such is the complex idea conveyed by the word 
 
OP THE HINDOOS. 129 
 
 Sangita, the simple meaning of which is no more than Sym- 
 phony ; but most of the Indian books on this art consist 
 accordingly of three parts, g&na, v&dya, nrtiya, or song, 
 permission, and demising ; the first of which comprises the 
 measures of poetry, the second extends to instrumental 
 music of all sorts, and the third includes the whole compass 
 of theatrical representation. Now it may easily be conceived 
 that such an alliance, with the pdteht Auxiliaries of distinct 
 articulation, graceful gesture, and well adapted scenery, must 
 have a strong general effect, and may, from particular asso- 
 ciations, operate so forcibly on very sensible minds, as to 
 excite .copious tears, change the colour and countenance, 
 heat or chill the blood, make the heart palpitate with violence, 
 or even compel the hearer to start from his seat with 
 the look, speech, and actions of a man in a phrehsy : the 
 effect must be yet stronger, if the subject be religious, 
 as that of the old Indian dramas, both great and small 
 (I mean both regular plays in many acts and shorter 
 dramatic pieces on divine love) seems in general to have 
 been. 
 
 In this way only can we attempt to account for the indu- 
 bitable effects of the great airs and impassioned recitative 
 in the modern Italian dfaiflas, where three beautiful arts, 
 like the Graces' united in a dance, are together exhibited in 
 a state of excellence, which the ancient world could not have 
 surpassed, and probably could not have etjiiafied : ah heroic 
 opera of Metastasio, set by Per&olesi, or by some artist of 
 his incomparable school, and represented at Naples, displays 
 at once the perfection of human genius, awakens all the 
 affections, and captivates the imagination at the same instant 
 through all the senses. 
 
130 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 When such aids as a perfect theatre would afford are not 
 accessible, the power of music must in proportion be less ; 
 but it will ever be very considerable, if the words of the 
 song be fine in themselves, and not- only well translated into 
 the language of melody, with a complete union of musical 
 and rhetorical accents, but clearly pronounced by an accom- 
 plished singer, who feels what he sings, and fully understood 
 by a hearer, who has passions to be moved ; especially if the 
 composer has availed himself in his translation (for such may 
 his composition very justly be called) of all those advantages 
 with which nature, ever sedulous to promote our innocent 
 gratifications, abundantly supplies him. The first of those 
 natural advantages is the variety of modes, or manners, in 
 which the seven harmonic sounds are perceived to move in 
 succession, as each' of them takes the lead, and consequently 
 bears a new relation to the six others. Next to the pheno- 
 menon of seven sounds perpetually circulating in a geometri- 
 cal progression, according to the length of the strings or the 
 number of their vibrations, every ear must be sensible, that 
 two of the seven intervals in the complete series, or octave, 
 whether we consider it as placed in a circular form, or in a 
 right line with the first sound repeated, are much shorter 
 than the five other intervals ; and on these two phenomena 
 the modes of the Hindoos (who seem ignorant of our compli- 
 cated harmony) are principally constructed. The longer in- 
 tervals we shall call tones, and the shorter (in compliance 
 with custom ) semitones, without mentioning their exact 
 ratios ; and it is evident that, as the places of the semitones 
 admit seven variations relative to one fundamental. sound, 
 there are as many modes, which may be called primary ; but 
 we must not confound them with our modern modes, which 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 131 
 
 result from the system of accords now established in Europe ; 
 they may rather be compared with those of the Roman 
 Church, where some valuable remnants of old Grecian music 
 are preserved in the sweet, majestic, simple, and affecting 
 strains of the Plain Song. Now, since each of the tones 
 may be divided, we find twelve semitones in the whole series ; 
 and, since each semitone may, in its turn, become the leader 
 of a series formed after the model of every primary mode, 
 we have seven times twelve, or eighty-four modes in all, of 
 which seventy-seven, may be named secondary ; and we shall 
 see accordingly that the Persian and the Hindoos (at least 
 in . their most popular system ) have exactly eight-four 
 modes, though distinguished by different appellations, and 
 arranged in different classes : but, since many of them are 
 unpleasing to the ear, others difficult in execution, and few 
 sufficiently marked by a character of sentiment and expres- 
 sion, which the higher music always requires, the genius of 
 the Indians has enabled them to retain the number of modes 
 which nature seems to have indicated, and to give each of 
 them a character of its own by a happy and beautiful con- 
 trivance. Why any one series of sounds, the ratios of which 
 are ascertained by observation and expressible by figures, 
 should have a peculiar effect on the organ of hearing and 
 by the auditory nerves, on the mind, will then only be known 
 by mortals, when they shall know why each of the seven 
 colours in the rainbow, where a proportion, analogous to 
 that of musical sounds, most wonderfully prevails, has &■ 
 certain specific effect on our eyes ; why the shades of green 
 and blue, for instance, are soft and soothing, while those of 
 red and yellow distress and dazzle the sight : but, without 
 striving to account for the phenomena, let us be satisfied 
 
 Q 2 
 
132 ON THE MUSICAL MQDES 
 
 with knowing, that some of the modes have distinct percep- 
 tible properties, and may be applied to the expression of 
 various mental emotions ; a fact which ought well to be 
 considered by those performers, who would reduce them all 
 to a dull uniformity, and sacrifice the true beauties of their 
 art to an injudicious temperament. 
 
 The ancient Greeks, among whom this delightful art was 
 long in the hands of poets, and of mathematicians who had 
 much less to do with it, ascribe almost all its magic to the 
 diversity of their Modes, but have left us little more than 
 the names of them, without such discriminations as might 
 have enabled us to compare them with, our own, an,d apply 
 them to practice ; their writers addressed themselves to 
 Greeks, who could not but know their Rational music ; and 
 most of those writers were professed men oi; science, who 
 thought more of calculating ratios than of inventing melody j 
 so, that, whenever we speak of the soft Eolian, mode, of the 
 tender Lydian, the voluptuous Ionic, the ; manly Dorian, or 
 the animating Phrygian, we use, mere phrases, I believe, 
 ■without clear ideas. For all that is known concerning the 
 music of Greece, let me refer those who have no inclination 
 to read the dry works of the Greeks themselves, to a little 
 tract of the learned Wallis, which he printed as an Appen- 
 dix to the Harmonics of Ptolemy ; to the Dictionary of 
 Music by Rousseau, whose pen, formed to elucidate all the 
 arts, had the property of spreading light before it on the 
 darkest subjects, as if he had written with phosphorus on 
 the sides of a cavern ; and, lastly, to the dissertation of 
 Dr. Buenet, who, passing slightly over all that is obscure, 
 explains with perspicuity whatever is explicable, and gives 
 dignity to the character of a modern musician by uniting 
 it with that of a scholar and philosopher. 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 133 
 
 The unexampled felicity of our nation, who diffuse the 
 blessings of a mild government over the finest part of India, 
 would enable us to attain a perfect knowledge of the Oriental 
 music, which is known and praotised in these British domi- 
 nions, not by mercenary performers only, but even by Mussal- 
 mans and Hindoos of eminent rank and learning. A native of 
 CasAan, lately resident at Murshed&had, had a complete 
 acquaintance with the Persian theory and practice ; and the 
 best artists in Siridoost&n would cheerfully attend our 
 concerts. We have an easy access to approved Asiatic 
 treatises on musical composition, and need not lament with. 
 Chabdin, that he neglected to procure at Isfahwn the explan- 
 ation of a. small tract on that subject, which he carried to 
 Europe. We may here examine the best instruments of Asia, 
 may be, masters of them, if we please, or at least may com- 
 pare, them with ours ; the concurrent, labours, or rather 
 amusements, of several in our own body, may facilitate the, 
 attainment of correct idea^ on a subject so delightfully inter-* 
 esting ; and a free communication from time to time of 
 th,eir respective discoveries would conduct them more surely 
 and speedily, as well as more agreeably, to their desired end. 
 Such would be the advantages of union, or, to borrow a 
 term from the art before us,, of harmonious accord,, in all our 
 pursuits, and above all in that of knowledge. 
 
 On Persian. Music, which is not the subject; of this paper, 
 it would he improper to enlarge : the whole system of it is 
 explained in a celebrated collection of tracts on pure and 
 mixed mathematics, entitled Dur,ratu'ltaj : , and composed by a 
 very learned man, so generally called All&mi Shimzi, or the 
 great philosopher of Shiraz, that his proper name is almost 
 forgotten ; but, as the modern Persians had access, I believe, 
 
134 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 to Ptolemy's harmonics, their mathematical writers on music 
 treat it rather as a science than as an art, and seem, like the 
 Greeks, to be more intent on splitting tones into quarters and 
 eighth parts, of which they compute the ratios to show their 
 arithmetic, than on displaying the principles of modulation, 
 as it may affect the passions. I apply the same observation 
 to a short, masterly tract of the famed Abusina, and 
 suspect that it is applicable to an elegant essay in Persian, 
 called Shamsu'ldswdt, of which I have not had courage to 
 read more than the preface. It will be sufficient to subjoin 
 on this head that the Persians distribute their , eighty-four 
 modes, according to an idea of locality, into twelve rooms, 
 twenty-four recesses, and fburty-eight angles or corners : in 
 the beautiful tale, known by the title of the Four Dervises, 
 originally written in Persia with great purity and elegance, 
 we find the description of a concert, where four singers, with 
 as many different instruments, are presented " modulating 
 " in twelve maiams or perdahs, twenty-four shdbahs, and 
 " forty-eight gushas, and beginning a mirthful song of Hqfiz, 
 " vernal delight in the perdah named r&st or direct." 
 All the twelve perdahs, with their appropriated shSbahs, 
 are enumerated by Amin, a writer and musician of Hindoos- 
 tan, who mentions an opinion of the learned, that only 
 seven primary modes were in use before the reign of PARvfz, 
 whose musical entertainments are magnificently described 
 by the incomparable Nizami : the modes are chiefly deno- 
 minated, like those of the Greeks and Hindoos, from different 
 regions or towns ; as among the perdahs, we see Hijdz, 
 Irak, Isfahan : and, among the shdbahs, or secondary 
 modes, Zabul, Nishapur, and the like. In a Sanscrit book, 
 which shall soon be particularly mentioned, I find the 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 135 
 
 scale of a mode, named Hijeja, specified in the following 
 verse : — 
 
 Mans 1 agraha sa nydsb' c'hild hijejastu sayahni. 
 
 The name of this mode is not Indian ; and, if I am right 
 in believing it a corruption of Hijaz, which could hardly be 
 written otherwise in the N&gari letters, we must conclude' 
 that it was imported from Persia ; we have discovered then 
 a Persian or Arabian mode with this diaposon — 
 D,E,FftGftA,B,C&D; 
 
 where the first semitone appears between the fourth and fifth 
 notes, and the second between the seventh and eighth ; as 
 in the natural scale Fa, sol, la, si, ut, re, mi, fa : but the C#, 
 and GJC, or ga and ni of the Indian author, are variously 
 changed, and probably the series may be formed in a manner 
 not very different (though certainly there is a diversity) 
 from our major mode of D. This melody must necessarily 
 end with the fifth note from the tonic, and begin with the 
 tonic itself ; and it would be a gross violation of musical 
 decorum in India, to sing it at any time except at the close of 
 day ; these rules are comprised in the verse above cited ; but 
 the species of octave is arranged according to Me. Fowkk's 
 remarks on the Vina, compared with the fixed Swaragr&ma, 
 or gamut, of all the Hindoo musicians. 
 
 Let us proceed to the Indian system, which is minutely 
 explained in a great number of Sanscrit books by authors, 
 who leave arithmetic and geometry to their astronomers, 
 and properly discourse on music as an art confined to the 
 pleasures of imagination. The Pandits of this province 
 unanimously prefer the Ddm6dara to any of the popular 
 Sangitas ; but I have not been able to procure a good copy 
 
136 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 of it, and am perfectly satisfied with the Narayan, which I 
 received from Benares, and in which the Damodar is fre- 
 quently quoted. The Persian book, entitled A present from 
 India, was composed, under the patronage of Aazem Shaw, 
 by the very diligent and ingenious Mikza Khan, and contains 
 a minute account of Hindoo literature in all or most of its 
 branches ; he possesses to have extracted his elaborate 
 chapter on music with the assistance of Pandits from the 
 Ragdrnava, or Sea of Passions, the Ragadarpana, or Mirror 
 of Modes, the SdbhavMda, or Delight Of Assemblies, and 
 some other approved treatises in Sanscrit. The Sangitadar- 
 pana, which he also names among his authorities, has been 
 translated into Persian ; but my experience justifies me in 
 pronouncing that the Moghols have no idea of accurate 
 translation, and give that name to a mixture of gloss and 
 text with a flimsy paraphrase of them both ; they are 
 wholly unable, yet always pretend, to write Sanscrit words in 
 Arabic letters ; that a man, who knows the Hindoos only 
 from Persian books, does not know the Hindoos ; and that 
 an European, who follows the muddy rivulets of Mussulman, 
 writers on India, instead of drinking from the pure fountain 
 of Hindoo learning, will be in perpetual danger of misleading 
 himself and others. From the just severity of this censure 
 I except neither Abblfazl, nor his brother Faiz v i, nor 
 Mohsani FiNf, nor Mikza Khan himself ; and I speak of 
 all four after an attentive perusal of their works.' A tract on 
 music in the idiom of Meathwra, with several essays in pufe 
 Hindoostanee, lately passed through my hands ; and I possess 
 a dissertation on the same art in the soft dialect of Panjab, 
 or Panchanada, where the national melody has, I am told, 
 a peculiar and striking character j but I am very little 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 137 
 
 acquainted with those dialects, and persuade myself that 
 nothing has been written in them, which may not be found 
 more copiously and beautifully expressed in the language, 
 as the Hindoos perpetually call it, of the gods, that is, of their 
 ancient bards, philosophers and legislators. 
 
 The most valuable work that I have seen, and perhaps 
 the most valuable that exists, on the subject of Indian Music, 
 is named Bag&vib6dha, or the Doctrine of Musical Modes ; 
 and it ought here to be mentioned very particularly, because 
 none of the pandits, in our provinces, nor any of those from 
 Casi or Cashmir, to whom I have shown it, appear to have 
 known that it was extant ; and it may be considered as a 
 treasure in the history of the art, which the zeal of Colonel 
 Poliee has brought into light, and perhaps has preserved 
 from destruction. He had purchased, among other curios- 
 ities, a volume containing a number of separate essays on 
 music in prose and verse, and In a great variety of idioms : 
 besides tracts in Arabic, Hindi and Persian, it included a 
 short essay in Latin by Alstedius, with an interlineary 
 Persian translation, in which the passages quoted from 
 Looeetius and Virgil made a singular appearance ; but the 
 brightest gem in the string was the Ragavibodha, whioh the 
 Colonel permitted my Nagri writer to transcribe, and the 
 transcript was diligently collated with the original by my 
 pandit and myself. It seems a very ancient composition, 
 but is less old unquestionably than the Eatnacara by Sarnga 
 Deva, which is more than once mentioned in it, and a copy 
 of which Mb, Burrow procured in his journey to Heridwar : 
 the name pf the author was Soma, and he appears to have 
 been a practical musician as well as a great scholar and an 
 elegant poet ; for the whole book, without excepting the 
 
 R 
 
138 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 'strains noted in letters, which fill the fifth and last chapter 
 of it, consists of masterly couplets in the melodious metre 
 called Arya; the first, third, and fourth chapters explain the 
 doctrine of musical sounds, their division and succession, 
 the variations of scales by temperament, and the enumera- 
 tion of modes on a system totally different from those which 
 will presently be mentioned ; and the second chapter con- 
 tains a minute description of different Vinas with rules for 
 playing on them. This book alone would enable me, were 
 I master of my time, to compose a treatise on the music of 
 India, with assistance in the practical part from an European 
 professor and a native player on the Vind; but I have 
 leisure only to present you with an essay, and even that, I 
 am conscious, must be very superficial ; it may be sometimes, 
 out, I trust, not often, erroneous } and I have spared no 
 pains to secure myself from error. 
 
 In the literature of the Sindoos all nature is animated 
 and personified ; every fine art is declared to have been 
 revealed from heaven ; and all knowledge, divine and human, 
 is traced to its source in the VSdas ; among which the 
 Samave'da was intended to be sung, whence the reader, or 
 singer of it, is called Udg&tri or Sdmaga : in Colonel Polibr's 
 copy of it, the strains are noted in figures, which it may not 
 be impossible to decipher. On account of this distinction, 
 say the Brahmens, the Supreme preserving power, in the form 
 of Crishna, having enumerated in the Qita various orders of 
 beings, to the chief of which he compares himself, pro- 
 nounces, that " among the V6das he was the Saman." From 
 that VHa, was accordingly derived the Upavida of the 
 Oandharbas, or musicians in Indra's heaven ; so that the 
 divine art was communicated to our species by Brahma 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 139 
 
 himself or by his active power Sebaswati, the goddess 
 of Speech, and their mythological son Ndred, who was in 
 truth an ancient lawgiver and astronomer, invented the Vina, 
 called also Cach'hapi, or Tesiudo ; a very remarkable fact, 
 which may be added to the other proofs of a resemblance 
 between that Indian god, and the Mercury of the Latians. 
 Among inspired mortals, the first musician is believed to 
 have been the sage Bherat, who was the inventor, they say, 
 of Natacs or dramas ; represented with songs and dances, 
 and author of a musical system, which bears his name. If 
 we can rely on Mibzakhan, there are four principal Matas, 
 or systems ; the first of which is ascribed to Iswara, or 
 Osiris ; the second to Bherat ; the third to Hanumat, or 
 Pa van, the Pan of India, supposed to be the son of Pavana, 
 the regent of air ; and the fourth to Calli Nath, a Rishi, or 
 Indian philosopher, eminently skilled in music, theoretical 
 and practical : all four are mentioned by Soma ; and it is the 
 third of them, which must be very ancient, and seems to have 
 been extremely popular, that I propose to explain after a few 
 introductory remarks ; but I may here observe with Soma, 
 who exhibits a system of his own, and with the author of 
 the Narayan, who mentions a great many others, that 
 almost every kingdom and province had a peculiar style of 
 melody, and very different names for the modes, as well as 
 a different arrangement and enumeration of them. 
 
 The two phenomena, which have already been stated as 
 the foundation of musical modes, could not long have 
 escaped the attention of the Hindoos, and their flexible langu- 
 age readily supplied them with names for the seven Swaras 
 or sounds, which they dispose in the following order, sh&dja, 
 pronounced sharja, rishabha, gandhdra, madhyama, panchama, 
 
140 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 dhaivata, nishdda ; but the first of them is emphatically 
 named swara, or the sound, from the important office which 
 it bears in the scale ; and hence, by taking the seven initial 
 letters or syllables of those words, they contrived a notation 
 for their airs, and at the same time exhibited a gamut, at 
 least as convenient as that of Guido : they call it Swara- 
 grama or septaca, and express it in this form : 
 
 8a, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, 
 three of which syllables are, by a singular concurrence, 
 exactly the same, though not all in the same places, with three 
 of those invented by David Mostake, as a substitute for 
 the troublesome gamut used in his time, and which he 
 arranges thus : 
 
 Bo, ce, di, get,, lo, ma, ni. 
 As to the notation of melody, since every Indian conso- 
 nant include by its nature the short vowel a, five of the 
 sounds are denoted by single consonants, and the two others 
 have different short vowels taken from their full names ; by 
 substituting long vowels, the time of each note is doubled, 
 and other marks are used for a farther elongation of them ; 
 the octaves above and below the mean scale, the connection 
 and acceleration of notes ; the graces of execution or man- 
 ners of fingering the instrument, are expressed very clearly 
 by small circles and ellipses, by little chains, by curves, by 
 straight lines horizontal or perpendicular, and by crescents, 
 all in various positions : the close of a strain is distinguished 
 by a lotus-flower ; but the time and measure are determined 
 by the prosody of the verse, and by the comparative length 
 of each syllable, with which every note or assemblage of 
 notes respectively corresponds. If I understand the native 
 musicians, they have not only the chromatic, but even the 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 141 
 
 second or new, enharmonic, genus ; for they unanimously 
 reckon twenty-two s'rutis, or quarters and thirds of a tone, 
 in their octave : they do not pretend that those minute in- 
 tervals are mathematically equal, but consider them as equal 
 in practice, and allot them to the several notes in the follow- 
 ing order ; to sa, ma, and pa, four ; to W, and dha, three ; 
 to ga, and ni, two ; giving very smooth and significant names 
 to each s'ruti. Their original scale, therefore, stands thus, 
 Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. 
 
 is' 3s' 2/ 4s' 4s' 3s' 2s' 
 The semitones accordingly are placed as in our diatonic 
 scale : the intervals between the fourth and fifth, and 
 between the first and second, are major tones ; but that 
 between the fifth and sixth, which is minor in our scale, 
 appears to be major in theirs ; and the two scales are made 
 to coincide by taking a s'ruti from pa, and adding it to dha, 
 or, in the language of Indian, artists, by raising Servaretna 
 to the class of Santa and her sisters ; for every s'ruti they 
 consider as a little nymph, and the nymphs of Panchama, 
 or the fifth note, are Malini, Chapald, Lola, and Servaretna, 
 while Santa and her two sisters regularly belong to Dhaivata : 
 such at least is the system of Cohala, one of the ancient 
 bards, who has left a treatise on music. 
 
 Soma seems to admit that a quarter or third of a tone 
 cannot be separately and distinctly heard from the Vind ; 
 but he takes for granted that its effect is very perceptible 
 in their arrangement of modes ; and their sixth, I imagine, 
 is almost universally diminished by one s'ruti ; for he only 
 mentions two modes, in which all the seven notes are unal- 
 tered. I tried in vain to discover any difference in practice 
 between the Indian scale aud that of our own ; but, know- 
 
142 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 ing my ear to be very insufficiently exercised, I requested a 
 German professor of music to accompany with his violin a 
 Hindoo lutanist, who sung by note some popular airs on the 
 loves of Ceishna and Radha ; he assured me that the scales 
 were the same ; and Mr. Shore afterwards informed me, 
 that, when the voice of a native singer was in tune with his 
 harpsicord, he found the Hindoo series of seven notes to 
 ascend, like ours, by a sharp third. 
 
 For the construction and character of the Vina., I must 
 refer you to the very accurate and valuable paper of 
 Mr. Fowke in the first volume of your Transactions ; and I 
 now exhibit a scale of its fingerboard, which I received 
 from him with the drawing of the instrument, and on the 
 correctness of which you may confidently depend : the regu- 
 lar Indian gamut answers, I believe, pretty nearly to our 
 major mode ; 
 
 TJt, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, ut ; 
 and, when the same syllables are applied to the notes, which 
 compose our minor mode, they are distinguished by epithets 
 expressing the change which they suffer. It may be neces- 
 sary to add, before we come to the Rdgas, or modes, of the 
 Hindoos, that the twenty-one murc'h'hanas, which Mr. Shore's 
 native musician confounded with the two and twenty s'rutis, 
 appear to be no more than seven species of diapason multi- 
 plied by three, according to the difference of pitch in the 
 compass of three octaves. 
 
 Rdga, which I translate a mode, properly signifies a passion 
 or affection of the mind ; each mode being intended, according" 
 to Bherat's definition of it, to move one or another of our 
 simple or mixed affections ; and we learn accordingly from 
 the Ndrdyan, that, in the days of Crishna, there were 
 
OP THE HINDOOS. 
 
 143 
 
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144 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 sixteen thousand modes, each of the Gopis at Mathura 
 choosing to sing in one of them, in order to captivate the 
 heart of their pastoral god. The very learned Soma, who 
 mixes no mythology with his accurate system of Ragas, 
 enumerates nine hundred and sixty possible variations by 
 the means of temperament, but selects from them as appli- 
 cable to practice only twenty-three primary modes, from 
 which he deduces many others ; though he allows that by 
 a diversity of ornament and by various contrivances, the 
 Ragas might, like the waves of the sea, be multiplied to an 
 iufiuite number. We have already observed that eighty-four 
 modes or manners might naturally be formed by giving the 
 lead to each of our twelve sounds, and varying in seven dif- 
 ferent ways the position of the somitones ; but, since many 
 of those modes would be insufferable in practice, and some 
 would have no character sufficiently marked, the Indians 
 appear to have retained with predilection the number indi- 
 cated by nature, and to have enforced their system by two 
 powerful aids, the association of ideas, and the mutilation 
 of the regular scales. 
 
 Whether it had occurred to the Hindoo musicians, that the 
 velocity or slowness of sounds must depend, in a certain 
 ratio, upon the rarefaction and condensation of the air, so 
 that their motion must be quicker in summer than in spring 
 or autumn, and much quicker than in winter, I cannot as- 
 sure myself ; but am persuaded that their primary modes, 
 in the system ascribed to Pavana, were first arranged accord- 
 ing to the number of Indian seasons. 
 
 The year is distributed by the Hindoos into six ritus, or 
 seasons, each consisting of two months ; and the first season, 
 according to the Amarcdsha, began with Margaslrsha, near 
 
OP THE HINDOOS. 145 
 
 the time of the winter solstice, to which month accordingly 
 we see Oriskna compared in the Oita ; but the old lunar 
 year began, I believe, with A'svrina, or near the autumnal 
 equinox, when the moon was at the full in the first mansion : 
 hence the musical season, which takes the lead, includes the 
 months of A'swin and C&rlic, and bears the name of Sarad, 
 corresponding with part of our autumn ; the next in order 
 are Hemanta and Sisira, derived from words which signify 
 frost and dew ; then come Vasanta, or spring, called also 
 Surabhi or fragrant, and Pushpasamaya, or the flower time ; 
 Grtshma, or heat ; and Vershd, or the season of rain. By 
 appropriating a different mode to each of the different sea- 
 sons, the artists of India connected certain strains with 
 certain ideas, and were able to recal the memory of autumnal 
 merriment at the close of the harvest, or of separation and 
 melancholy (very different from our ideas at Calcutta), during 
 the cold months ; of reviving hilarity on the appearance of 
 blossoms, and complete vernal delight in the month of Madhu 
 or honey ; of languor during the dry heats, and of refresh- 
 ment by the first rains, which cause in this climate a second 
 spring. Yet further : since the lunar year, by which festi- 
 vals and superstitious duties are constantly regulated, pro- 
 ceeds concurrently with the solar year, to which the seasons 
 are necessarily referred, devotion comes also to the aid of 
 music, and all the powers of nature, which are allegorically 
 worshipped as gods and goddesses on their several holidays, 
 contribute to the influence of song on minds naturally sus* 
 ceptible of religious emotions. Hence it was, I imagine, that 
 Pavan, or the inventor of his musical system, reduced the 
 number of original modes from seven to six ; but even this was 
 not enough for his purpose ; and he had recourse to the five 
 
 s 
 
146 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 principal divisions of the day, which are the morning, noon, 
 and evening, called trisandhya, with the two intervals between 
 them, or the forenoon and afternoon : by adding two divi- 
 sionsf or intervals of the night, and by leaving one species 
 of melody without any such restriction, S6ma reckons eight 
 variations in respect of time ; and the system of Pa van 
 retains that number also in the second order of derivative 
 modes. Every branch of knowledge in this country has 
 been embellished by poetical fables ; and the inventive ta- 
 lents of the Greeks never suggested a more charming allegory 
 than the lovely families of the six Ragas, named, in the 
 order of seasons above exhibited, Bhairava, Ma'lava, Sri- 
 ra'ga, Hindola, or Vasanta, Di'paca, and Me'gha ; each of 
 whom is a Genius, or Demi-god, wedded to five Raginis, or 
 Nymphs, and father of eight little Genii, called his Putras, 
 or Sons : the fancy of Shakspeare and the pencil of Albano 
 might have been finely employed in giving speech and form 
 to this assemblage of new aerial beings, who people the fairy- 
 land of Indian imagination ; nor have the Hindoo poets and 
 painters lost the advantages, with which so beautiful a sub- 
 ject presented them. A whole chapter of the NdrAyan con- 
 tains descriptions of the Rdgas and their consorts, extracted 
 chiefly from the Ddmddar, the Caldncura, the Retnamala, 
 the Chandrica, and a metrical tract on music ascribed to the 
 God Nared himself, from which, as among so many beauties 
 a particular selection would be very perplexing, I present 
 you with the first that occurs, and have no doubt that you 
 will think the Sanscrit language equal to Italian in softness 
 and elegance : 
 
OP THE HINDOOS. 147 
 
 Lild vihdrena vanantarati, 
 Chinvan prasundm vadhli, sah&yah, 
 Vilasi vesddita divya murtih, 
 Srir&ga Ssha prat'Mtah prit'hivyam,. 
 
 " The demi-god SeIraga, famed over all this earth, sweetly 
 " sports with his nymphs, gathering fresh blossoms in the 
 " bosom of yon grove ; and his divine lineaments are dis- 
 " tinguished through his graceful vesture.'' 
 
 These and similar images, but wonderfully diversified, are 
 expressed in a variety of measures, and represented by deli- 
 cate penoilB in the Rdgamdlcts, which all of us have examined, 
 and among which the most beautiful are in the possession of 
 Mr. E. Johnson and Mr. Hat. A noble work might be 
 composed by any musician and scholar, who enjoyed leisure 
 and disregarded expence, if he would exhibit a perfect system 
 of Indian music from Sanscrit authorities, with the old me- 
 lodies of So'ma applied to the songs of Jatade'va, embellished 
 with descriptions of all the modes accurately translated, and 
 with Mr. Hat's RagamAld,, delineated and engraved by the 
 scholars of Cipriani and Bartolozzi. 
 
 Let us proceed to the second artifice of the Hindoo musi- 
 cians, in giving their modes a distinct character and a very 
 agreeable diversity of expression. A curious passage from 
 Plutarch's treatise on Music is translated and explained by 
 Dr. Burnet, and stands as the text of the most interesting 
 chapter in his dissertation j since I cannot procure the 
 original, I exhibit a paraphrase of his translation, on the 
 correctness of which I can rely ; but I have avoided, as much 
 as possible, the technical words of the Greeks, which it 
 might be necessary to explain at some length. " We are 
 " informed,"'says Plutarch, " by Aristoxenus, that musicians 
 
 S 2 
 
148 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 " ascribe to Olypmus of Mysia the invention of enharmonic 
 " melody, and conjecture that, when he was playing diat- 
 " onically on his flute, and frequently passed from the highest 
 " of four sounds to the lowest but one, or conversely, skipping 
 " over the second in descent, or the third in ascent, of that 
 " series, he perceived a singular beauty of expression, which 
 " induced him to dispose the whole series of seven or eight 
 " sounds by similar skips, and to frame by the same analogy 
 " his Dorian mode, omitting every sound peculiar to the 
 " diatonic and chromatic melodies then in use, but without 
 " adding any that have since been made essential to the new 
 " enharmonic : in this genus, they say, he composed the 
 " Nome, or strain, called Spondean, because it was used in 
 " temples at the time of religious libations. Those, it seems, 
 " were the first enharmonic melodies > and are still retained 
 " by some who play on the flute in the antique style without 
 " any division of a semi-tone ; for it was after the age of 
 " Olympus that the quarter of a tone was admitted into 
 " the Lydian and Phrygian modes ; and it was he, therefore, 
 " who, by introducing an exquisite melody before unknown 
 "in Greece, became the author and parent of the most beau- 
 " tiful and affecting music." 
 
 This method then of adding to the character and effect of 
 a mode by diminishing the number of its primitive sounds 
 was introduced by a Greek of the lower Asia, who flourished, 
 according to the learned and accurate writer of the travels of 
 Anacharsis, about the middle of the thirteenth century 
 before Cheist ; but it must have been older still among the 
 Hindoos, if the system, to which I now return, was actually 
 invented in the age of. Rama, 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 149 
 
 Since it appears from the Nardyan, that thirty-six modes 
 are in general use^ and the rest very rarely applied to practice, 
 I shall exhibit only the scales of the six Rdgas and thirty 
 Rdginis, according to So'ma, the authors quoted in the 
 Nardyan, and the book explained by Pandits to Mirza. 
 Kha'n ; on whose credit I must rely for that of Oacubhd, 
 which I cannot find in my Sanscrit treatises on music : had 
 I depended on him for information of greater consequence, 
 he would have led me into a very serious mistake ; for he 
 asserts, what I now find erroneous, that the graha is the 
 first note of every mode, with which every song that is com- 
 posed in it, must invariably begin and end. Three dis- 
 tinguished sounds in each mode are called graha, nydsa, 
 ans'a, and the writer of the Nardyan defines them in the 
 two following couplets ; 
 
 Graha swarah sa ityuct6 yd gitadau samarpiiah, 
 Nydsa swarastu sa pr6ct6 yd gitddi samapticah : 
 Yd vyactivyanjacd gdnd, yasya serv? nugd minah, 
 Tasya servatra bdhulyam vddy ans6 pi nripdtamah. 
 
 " The note called graha is placed at the beginning, and 
 " that named nydsa, at the end, of a song ; that note, which 
 " displays the peculiar melody, and to which all the others 
 " are subordinate, that which is always of the greatest use, 
 " is like a sovereign, though a mere ans'a or portion." 
 
 " By the word vddi," says the commentator, " he means the 
 " note, which announces and ascertains the Rdga, and which 
 " may be considered as the parent and origin of the graha 
 " and nydsa ■•" this clearly shows, I think, that the ans'a must 
 be the tonic ; and we shall fiad that the two other notes are 
 generally its third and fifth, or the mediant and the domi- 
 
150 
 
 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 nant. In the poein entitled Magha there is a musical simile, 
 which may illustrate aud confirm our idea : 
 
 Analpatwat pradhanatwad ans'asy&ve' taraswarah, 
 Vijigishdrnripaiayah prayanti pericharatam. 
 
 " From the greatness, from the transcendent qualities, of 
 " that Hero, eager for conquest, other kings march in subor- 
 " dination to him, as other notes are subordinate to the 
 " ans'a." 
 
 If the ans'a be the tonic, or modal note, of the Hindoos, 
 we may confidently exhibit the scales of the Indian modes, 
 according to So'ma, denoting by an asterisk the omission of 
 a note. 
 
 Bhairava : 
 
 ' dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa. 
 
 Varati : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Mediyamadi : 
 Bhairavi : 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 * 
 
 ni, sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga. 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Saindhavi : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 # 
 
 ma, pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 * t 
 
 Bengali : 
 
 .sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Malava : 
 
 ' ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha. 
 
 T6d i : 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri. 
 
 Oavdi : 
 Oonddcri : 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 *, ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 * # 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, pa, 
 
 > 
 
 ni. 
 
 Sust'Mvats : 
 
 
 
 not in So'ma. 
 
 
 
 Cacubha : 
 
 . 
 
 
 not in So'ma. 
 
 
 
 Sriraga : 
 
 'ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha. 
 
 Mdlavas'ri : 
 
 sa, 
 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, pa, 
 
 * 
 
 ni. 
 
 Mdrvai : 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 *, ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 Bhanyasi : 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, pa, 
 
 * 
 
 ni. 
 
 Vasanti : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, *, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Asaverti : 
 
 jna, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 
 
 151 
 
 Hindola : 
 
 f 
 
 ma, 
 
 * 
 > 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 #_ 
 
 ga. 
 
 Ramacri : 
 
 j ««, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 DSs'dcshi : 
 
 jff a > 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 * 
 t 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri. 
 
 Lelita : 
 
 ri, 
 
 9 a > 
 
 ma, 
 
 # 
 > 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 VSldvali : 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 • 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 # # 
 
 Patamanjari : 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 not in 
 
 So'ma 
 
 
 
 Dipaca : 
 
 
 
 
 no 
 
 in So 
 
 'ma. 
 
 
 Dm : 
 
 (ri, 
 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa. 
 
 Cdmbodi : 
 
 | '<*■, 
 
 ri, 
 
 g«, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 *_ 
 
 Netta : 
 
 A sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Cidari : 
 
 ! ■"i, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 g«, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha. 
 
 Oarndti : 
 
 {.ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 *. 
 
 Me'gha : 
 
 
 
 not 
 
 in So 
 
 MA. 
 
 
 
 Taecd : 
 
 fsa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Melldri : 
 
 | dha, 
 
 * 
 > 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 # 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa. 
 
 Gurjari : 
 
 • 
 
 ri, 
 
 9", 
 
 ma, 
 
 * 
 > 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa. 
 
 Bhdpdli : 
 
 
 ga, 
 
 * 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 * 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri. 
 
 D&sacri : 
 
 { 
 
 ^sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 go., 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 It is impossible that I should have erred much, if at all, 
 in the preceding table, because the regularity of the Sanscrit 
 metre has in general enabled me to correct the manuscript : 
 but I have some doubt as to VMavali, of which pa is declared 
 to be the ans'a or tonic, though it is said in the same line, 
 that both pa and ri may be omitted : I, therefore, have 
 supposed dha to be the true reading, both Mieza Khan and 
 the Narayan exhibiting that note as the leader of the mode. 
 The notes printed in Italic letters are variously charged by 
 temperament or by shakes and other graces ,- but, even if I 
 were able to give you in words a distinct notion of those 
 changes, the account of each mode would be insufferably 
 tedious, and scarce intelligible without the assistance of a 
 masterly performer on the Indian lyre. According to the 
 
152 
 
 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 best authorities adduced in the N6.ra.yan, the thirty-six modes 
 are, in some provinces, arranged in these forms : 
 
 Bhairava : 
 
 ' dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa. 
 
 Vardti : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Medhyam&di : 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha. 
 
 Bhairavi : 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 via, 
 
 * 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Saindhavi : 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma. 
 
 Beng&U : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Malava : 
 
 'ma, 
 
 # 
 
 daa 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga. 
 
 T6di : 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga. 
 
 Gatidi : 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 *, 
 
 dha. 
 
 06ndacri : 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 * 
 
 ni. 
 
 Sust'havoti : 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 * t 
 
 Cacubba ; 
 
 I 
 
 not in the N&rdyan 
 
 
 
 SrIraga : 
 
 ■sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Malavasri : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Maravi : 
 Dhanyasi : 
 
 sa, 
 
 • 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 g'h 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Vasanti : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Asaveri : 
 
 j-i, 
 
 9a, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa. 
 
 Hindo'la : 
 
 'sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 * 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Ramacri : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Desacsbi : 
 Lelita : 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha 
 
 , ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 # t 
 
 ,sa, 
 
 * 
 
 9 a , 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 • 
 > 
 
 ni. 
 
 VMavali : 
 
 i dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 w.a, 
 
 pa. 
 
 Patamanjari : 
 
 ^pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma. 
 
 Dipaca : 
 
 
 
 omitted. 
 
 
 
 
 Did : 
 
 'ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha. 
 
 Cambodi : 
 
 , sa > 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Netta : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Cedari : 
 
 i 
 | 
 
 
 
 omitted. 
 
 
 
 Carnati : 
 
 i"*, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha. 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 
 
 153 
 
 Me'gha : 
 
 ' dha, ni, 
 
 Tacca : 
 
 
 Melldri : 
 Gurjotri : 
 
 dha, ni, 
 
 
 BhUp&U : 
 
 sa, ri, 
 
 DZsacri : 
 
 .ni, sa, 
 
 sa, n, ga, ma, pa. 
 (a mixed mode.) 
 *, ri, ga, ma, *. 
 omitted in the Nardyan. 
 ga, *, pa, dha, *. 
 
 ga, 
 
 pa, 
 
 Among the scales just enumerated we may safely fix on 
 that of Sbiraga for our own major modes, since its form and 
 character are thus described in a Sanscrit couplet : 
 
 Jdtinydsagraha gram&ns 1 Ishu shddjo' Ipapanchamah, 
 SringaraviraydrjnSyah Srirdgd gitacSvidaih. 
 
 " Musicians know Si-iraga to have sa for its principal note 
 " and the first of its scale, with pa diminished, and to be used 
 " for expressing heroic love and valour." Now the diminu- 
 tion of pa by one s'ruti gives us the modern European scale, 
 
 ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, ut, 
 with a minor tone, or, as the Indians would express it, with 
 three s'rutis, between the fifth and sixth notes. 
 
 On the formulas exhibited by Mirzakhan, I have less 
 reliance ; but, since he professes to give them from Sanscrit 
 authorities, it seemed proper to transcribe them : 
 
 Bhaibava : 
 
 ''dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 #_ 
 
 Var&ti : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Medhyamddi : 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga. 
 
 Bhairavi : 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga. 
 
 Saindhavi : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Bengali : 
 
 .sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Malava : 
 
 ' sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 T6di: 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 fifaudi : 
 
 sa, 
 
 # 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 * 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Odndacri : 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa,. 
 
 J* 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 * 
 
 Susthdvati : 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 #. 
 
 Cacubbd : 
 
 .dha, 
 
 ni 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 T 
 
 pa. 
 
154 
 
 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 Sbi'ka'ga : 
 
 'sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Mdlavasri : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 g^ 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Mdravi : 
 
 ! sa > 
 
 * 
 
 pa, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Dhanydsi : ~\ sa, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha 
 
 ni, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 #, 
 
 Vasanti : 
 
 \sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Asdveri : 
 
 ^dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa. 
 
 Hindo'la : 
 
 'sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 * 
 
 ni. 
 
 Udmacri : 
 
 sa, 
 
 
 ffa, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 # 
 
 ni. 
 
 Dtsacshi : 
 Lelitcb : 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 *. 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 * 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 *_ 
 
 VHdvali ; 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa. 
 
 Patamanjari : 
 
 <pa, 
 
 dha 
 
 , ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma. 
 
 Dipaca : 
 
 ' sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 B'esi : 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 * 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa. 
 
 Cambddi : 
 Netld : 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa. 
 
 sa, 
 
 ni, 
 
 dha, 
 
 pa, 
 
 ma, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ri. 
 
 C&d&ri : 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 # 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 *. 
 
 Carnati : 
 
 Jii, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha. 
 
 Me'gha : 
 
 ' Alia, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 * 
 
 *. 
 
 Taccd : 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 Melldri : 
 Ourjari : 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 * 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 *_ 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 sa. 
 
 Bhupdli : j 
 
 sa, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni, 
 
 pa, 
 
 ri. 
 
 Disacri : 1 
 
 sa, 
 
 ri, 
 
 ga, 
 
 ma, 
 
 pa, 
 
 dha, 
 
 ni. 
 
 It may reasonably be suspected that the Moghol writer 
 could not have shown the distinction, which must necessarily 
 have been made, between the different modes, to which he 
 assigns the same formula ; and, as to his inversions of the 
 notes in some of the Raginis, I can only say, that no such 
 changes appear in the Sanscrit books which I have inspected. 
 I leave our scholars and musicians to find, among the scales 
 here exhibited, the Dorian mode of Olympus ; but it cannot 
 
OF THE HINDOOS. 155 
 
 escape notice, that the Chinese "scale C, D, E, *, G, A, *, cor- 
 responds very nearly with ga, ma, pa, *, ni, sa, *, or the 
 Maravl of So'ma : we have long known in Bengal, from the 
 information of a Scotch gentleman skilled in music, that the 
 wild but charming melodies of the ancient highlanders were 
 formed by a similar mutilation of the natural scale. By such 
 mutilations, and by various alterations of the notes, in tuning 
 the Vina, the number of modes might be augmented indefi- 
 nitely ; and Callinat'ha admits ninety into his system, 
 allowing six nymphs, instead of Jive, to each of his musical 
 deities : for Dipaca, which is generally considered as a lost 
 mode (though MfazAKHAN exhibits the notes of it), he sub- 
 stitutes Punchama ; for Hinddla, he gives us Vasanta, or the 
 Spring) and for M&lava, Natanarayan or Chrishna, the 
 Dancer ; all with scales rather different from those of Pavan. 
 The system of Iswara, which may have had some affinity 
 with the old Egyptian music invented or improved by Osiris, 
 • nearly resembles that of Hastumat ; but the names and scales 
 are a little varied : in all the systems, the names of the 
 modes are significant, and some of them as fanciful as those 
 of the fairies in the Midsummer Night's Dream. Forty-eight 
 new modes were added by Bherat, who marrys a nymph, 
 thence called Bhary£, to each Putra, or Son, of a Raga ; thus 
 admitting, in his musical school, a hundred and thirty-two 
 manners of arranging the series of notes. 
 
 Had the Indian empire continued in full energy for the 
 last two thousand years, religion would, no doubt, have 
 given __ permanence to systems of music invented, as the 
 Hindoos believe, by their gods, and adapted to mystical 
 poetry ,• but such have been the revolutions of their govern- 
 ment since the time of Alexander, that although the San- 
 
156 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 scrit books have preserved the theory of their musical compo- 
 sition, the practice of it seems almost wholly lost (as all the 
 Pandits and Rajas confess) in Gaur and Magarha, or the 
 provinces of Bengal and Behar. When I first read the songs 
 of Jayade'va, who has prefixed to each of them the name 
 of the mode in which it was anciently sung, I had hopes of 
 procuring the original music ; but the Pandits of the south 
 referred me to those of the west, and the Br&hmens of the 
 west would have sent me to those of the north ; while they — 
 I mean those of JVSpdl and Cashmir — declared that they had 
 no ancient music, but imagined, that the notes to the 
 Qitag6vinda must exist, if anywhere, in one of the southern 
 provinces, where the Poet was born : from all this I collect, 
 that the art, which flourished in India many centuries ago, 
 has faded for want of due culture, though some scanty 
 remnants of it may, perhaps, be preserved in the pastoral 
 roundelays of Mafhura on the loves and sports of the Indian 
 Apollo. We must not, therefore, be surprised, if modern 
 performers on the Vina have little or no modulation, or 
 change of mode, to which passionate music owes nearly all 
 its enchantment : but that the old musicians of India, 
 having fixed on a leading mode to express the general charac- 
 ter of the song,' which they were translating into the musical 
 language, varied that mode, by certain rules, according to 
 the variation of sentiment or passion in the poetical phrases, 
 and always returned to it at the close of the air, many 
 reasons induce me to believe ; though I cannot but admit, 
 that their modulation must have been greatly confined by 
 the restriction of certain modes to certain seasons and 
 hours, unless those restrictions belonged merely to the prin- 
 cipal mode. The scale of the Vind, we find, comprised both 
 
OP THE HINDOOS. 157 
 
 our European modes, and, if some of the notes can be raised 
 a semi -tone by a stronger pressure on the frets, a delicate and 
 experienced singer might produce the effect of minute en- 
 harmonic intervals : the construction of the instrument, 
 therefore, seems to favor my conjecture ; and an excellent 
 judge of the subject informs us, that, " the open wires are 
 " from time to time struck in a manner that prepares the 
 " ear for a change of modulation, to which the uncommonly 
 " full and fine tones of those notes greatly contribute." We 
 may add, that the Hindoo poets never fail to change the 
 metre, which is their mode, according to the change of subject 
 or sentiment in the same piece ; and I could produce in- 
 stances of poetical modulation (if such a phrase may be used) 
 at least equal to the most affecting modulations of our 
 greatest composers : now the musician must naturally have 
 emulated the poet, as every translator endeavours to re- 
 semble his original ; and, since each of the Itidian modes is 
 appropriated to a certain affection of the mind, it is hardly 
 possible, that, where the passion is varied, a skilful musician 
 could avoid a variation of the mode. The rules for modula- 
 tion seem to be contained in the chapters on mixed modes, 
 for an intermixture of Melldri with T6di and Saindhavi 
 means, I suppose, a transition, however short, from one to 
 another : but the question must remain undecided, unless 
 we can find in the Sangilas a clearer account of modulation 
 than I am able to produce, or unless we can procure a copy 
 of the OUagSvinda with the music; to which it was set, before 
 the time of Calidas, in some notation, that may be easily 
 deciphered. It is obvious, that I have not been speaking of 
 a modulation regulated by harmony, with which the Hindoos; 
 I believe, were unacquainted ; though, like the Greeks, they 
 
158 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 distinguish the consonant and dissonant sounds ; I mean only 
 such a transition from one series of notes to another, as we 
 see described by the Greek musicians, who were ignorant of 
 harmony in the modern sense of the word, and, perhaps, if 
 they had known it ever so perfectly, would have applied it 
 solely to the support of melody, which alone speaks the 
 language of passion and sentiment. 
 
 It would give me pleasure to close this essay with several 
 specimens of old Indian airs from the fifth chapter of So'ma ; 
 but I have leisure only to present you with one of them in 
 our own characters accompanied with the original notes. I 
 selected the mode of Vasanti, because it was adapted by 
 Jayadeva himself to the most beautiful of his odes, and 
 because the number of notes in Soma, compared with that 
 of the syllables in the Sanscrit stanza, may lead us to guess, 
 that the strain itself was applied by the musician to the very 
 words of the poet. The words are : 
 
 Lalita lavanga lata perisilana c6mala malaya samire, 
 Madhucara nicara carambita c6cila cHjita cunja entire" 
 Viharati heririha sarasa vasanti. 
 
 Nrttyati yuvati janina soman sac' hi virahi Janasya durante. 
 " While the soft gale of Malaya wafts perfume from the 
 " beautiful clove-plant, and the recess of each flowery arbour 
 " sweetly resounds with the strains of the Cdcila, mingled 
 " with the murmurs of the honey-making swarms, Heri 
 " dances, O lovely friend, with a company of damsels in this 
 " vernal season ; a season full of delights, but painful to 
 " separated lovers.'' 
 
 I have noted S6ma's air in the major mode of A, or sa, 
 which, from its gaiety and brilliancy, well expresses the 
 general hilarity of the song ; but the sentiment, often under 
 
55 
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OP THE HINDOOS. 
 
 159 
 
 pain, even in a season of delights, from the remembrance 
 of pleasures no longer attainable, would require in our music 
 a change to the minor mode ; and the air might be disposed 
 in the form of a rondeau ending with the second line, or 
 even with the third, where the sense is equally full, if it 
 should be thought proper to express by another modulation 
 that imitative melody, which the poet has manifestly attempt- 
 ed : the measure is very rapid, and the air should be gay, 
 or even quick, in exact proportion to it. 
 
 AN OLD INDIAN AIR. 
 
 * / lo li 4-n 1„ ,, 1„ i- ... _._• -- ....... 
 
 la li ta la Tan ga la ta pe ri si la ua co mala ma la ya 
 
 :#= 
 
 §eS 
 
 s 
 
 S^ 
 
 im 
 
 *r s r 
 
 mi re mad mica ra ni ca ra ca ram bi ta co oi la 
 
 
 cu ji ta cun ja cu ti re \i ha ra ti he ri ri ha 
 
 vi ra hi ja na sya du ran te 
 
 i 
 
 t- 
 
 -&- 
 
 m 
 
 *~* sa ri ga ma pa dha ni sa 
 
160 ON THE MUSICAL MODES 
 
 The preceding is a strain in the mode of Hindola, begin- 
 ning and ending with the fifth note sa, but wanting pa, and 
 ri, or the secoad and sixth : I could easily have found words 
 for it in the GUag6vinda, but the united charms of poetry 
 and music would lead me too far ; and I must now with 
 reluctance bid farewell to a subject, which I despair of 
 having leisure to resume. 
 
ANECDOTES OF INDIAN MUSIC. 
 
 Sir W. OUSELEY. 
 
 ( From " The Oriental Collections" Vol. I. ) 
 
ANECDOTES OE INDIAN MUSIC. 
 
 BY 
 
 Sir W. OUSELEY. 
 
 When I first resolved to apply myself to the study of the 
 fine arts, as cultivated among the Persians, I solicited from 
 various correspondents settled in the East the communi- 
 cation of such books and original information on those sub- 
 jects as their situation might enable them to procure, whilst 
 I availed myself of every opportunity that offered in this 
 country to increase my collection of Oriental manuscripts. 
 
 With two fine copies of Sadi's GuUsfan and Boston, which 
 once belonged to the celebrated Chardin*, I have lately been 
 so fortunate as to pruchase a short, but very curious, essay 
 on Persian Music, which from many circumstances I am 
 willing to persuade myself was brought to Europe by that 
 ingenious Orientalist, and is the same manuscript of which 
 he laments that he had not procured the explanation while 
 at Isfahan.^ But as my design in the present essay relates 
 
 * From his notes, written in a most minute hand, and in the French and 
 Latin languages, on several pages of the Gulistan, the Second Number of 
 this work shall be enriched with extracts. 
 
 t Chardin, (Quarto Edition, 1735) Vol. Ill, P. 155. 
 
 Sir William Jones, in his Dissertation on the Musical Modes of the Hindus, 
 mentions a Persian treatise entitled " Durratu Itaj, composed by a very 
 learned man, so generally called Allami Shirazi, or the great pkilosopkei- of 
 Slriraz, that his proper name is almost forgotten." Asiatic Researches, 
 Vol. III. — An ingenious friend has communicated the title of the Essay on 
 Music comprised in that collection. 
 
164 ANECDOTES OP INDIAN MUSIC. 
 
 only to the music of Hindustan, I shall proceed to mention, 
 that among several books sent to me from that country, some, 
 though written in the Persian language, profess to be 
 translated from the Sanscrit, and treat of the musical modes, 
 the Raugs and Rauginees of the Hindus. From these, how- 
 ever, so little has been borrowed in the course of the following 
 remarks, that if any thing curious or entertaining should be 
 found in them, the thanks of the reader will be principally 
 due to my brother Mr. Gore Ouseley, whom a residence of 
 several years in india has rendered perfectly acquainted with 
 the theory and practice of Hindu Music. 
 
 By him were communicated the Indian airs, and drawings 
 of musical instrument : I can only boast of having compiled 
 from his letters : of having deciphered (not without difficulty) 
 the notation of the Eamgully, and translated a few passages 
 from a Persian manuscript treatise on music, which I shall 
 mention hereafter, and for the perusal of which I am indebted 
 to the politeness of Sir George Staunton. 
 
 On the subject of those ancient and extraordinary 
 melodies, which the Hindus call Raugs, and Rauginees, 
 ( \J\j and ,J>^lj ) the popular traditions are as numer- 
 ous and romantic, as the powers ascribed to them are 
 miraculous. Of the six Raugs, the five first owe their origin 
 to the God Mahadeo, who produced them from his five heads. 
 Parbuttee, his wife, constructed the sixth; and the thirty 
 
 U3tj>-& &C&* - ^t d"°K 
 
 which, from certain circumstances, ho once believed to be the composition 
 of Sadi. 
 
 We find an Essay on Music among the Works of another celebrated 
 poet, Jami. 
 
p 
 
 t ea 
 
 ■ff-J-Tf 
 
 jfc 
 
 Jf~W 
 
 l Egl 
 
 Plaintive. 
 
 jr- fi^ n 
 
 ttBSSw 
 
 p 
 
 si 
 
 S 
 
 ^s 
 
 *S 
 
 feffi j 
 
 :± 
 
 ^-rrrf J^ 
 
 3E 
 
 - 1 1 ' 1 1 
 
 g 55 
 
 ii J V4- 
 
ANECDOTES OF INDIAN MUSIC. 165 
 
 Rauginees were composed by Brimha. Thus, of celestial 
 invention, these melodies are of a peculiar genus : and of 
 the three ancient genera of the Greeks resemble most the 
 enharmonic; the more modern compositions are of that 
 species termed Diatonic. A specimen of these is given in 
 the Eindovee air, Qui buddun thoo hum see, in the annexed 
 plate j of which the words (too trifling to deserve translation) 
 are thus written in the original language : 
 
 In the same plate I have given the notes of a Hindu 
 Jungle Tuppa and of a Bengalee tune ; of which the follow- 
 ing are the words : 
 
 Nock erbesor Jeelee Mille 
 
 Poteer gulla doorea Koonja 
 
 Choola dauntee hassia Naaloo 
 
 Rangonee gjoalia naalo 
 A considerable difficulty is found in setting to music the 
 Eaugs and Eauginees, as our system does not supply notes 
 or signs sufficiently expressive of the almost imperceptible 
 elevations and depressions of the voice in these melodies ; 
 of which the time is broken and irregular, the modulations 
 frequent and very wild. Whatever magic was in the touch 
 when Orpheus swept his lyre, or Timotheus filled his softly 
 breathing flute, the effects said to have been produced by 
 two of the six Raugs, are even more extraordinary than 
 any of those ascribed to the modes of the ancients. Mia 
 Tonsine, a wonderful musician in the time of King Akber, 
 sung one of the Night Raugs, at mid-day : the powers of his 
 
166 ANECDOTES OP INDIAN MUSIC. 
 
 music were such that it instantly became night, and the 
 darkness extended in a circle round the palace as far as the 
 sound of his voice could be heard. 
 
 There is a tradition, that whoever shall attempt to sing 
 the Maug Dheepuck is to be destroyed by fire. The Emperor 
 Akber ordered Naih Gopaul, a celebrated musician, to sing 
 that Raug : he endeavoured to excuse himself, but in vain ; 
 the Emperor insisted on obedience : he therefore requested 
 permission to go home, and bid farewell to his family and 
 friends. It was winter when he returned, after an absence 
 of six months. Before he began to sing he placed himself 
 in the waters of the Jumna till they reached his neck. As 
 soon as he had performed a strain or two, the river gradually 
 became hot ; at length began to boil ; and the agonies of the 
 unhappy musician were nearly insupportable. Suspending 
 for a moment the melody thus cruelly extorted, he sued for 
 mercy from the Monarch, but sued in vain. Akber wished 
 to prove more strongly the powers of this Eaug : Naih 
 Qopaul renewed the fatal song : flames burst with violence 
 from his body, which, though immersed in the waters of the 
 Jumna, was consumed to ashes ! 
 
 These, and other anecdotes of the same nature, are related 
 by many of the Hindus, and implicitly believed by some. 
 
 The effect produced by the Maig Mullaar Raug was imme- 
 diate rain. And it is told, that a singing girl once, by 
 exerting the powers of her voice in this Eaug, drew down 
 from the clouds timely and refreshing showers on the parched 
 rice-crops of Bengal, aud thereby averted the horrors of 
 famine from the Paradise of Regions.* An European, in 
 
 * An Arabic title given to the province of Bengal by Aurungzeeb. See 
 Jones' Ferf. Gram. p. 82. 
 
ANECDOTES OF INDIAN MUSIC. 167 
 
 that country, inquiring after those whose musical perform- 
 ance might produce similar effects, is gravely told, " that the 
 art is now almost lost ; but that there are still musicians 
 possessed of those wonderful powers in the west of India." 
 But if one inquires in the West, they say, " that if any such 
 performers remain they are to be found only in Bengal." 
 
 Of the present music and the sensations it excites one can 
 speak with greater accuracy. " Many of the Hindu melo- 
 dies" (to use the word's of an excellent musician) " possess 
 the plaintive simplicity of the Scotch and Irish, and others 
 a wild originality pleasing beyond description." 
 
 Counterpoint seems not to have entered, at any time, into the 
 system of Indian Music. It is not alluded to in the manuscript 
 treatises which I have hitherto persued, nor have I discovered 
 that any of our ingenious Orientalists speak of it as being 
 known in Hindustan. The books, however, which treat of 
 the music of that country are numerous and curious. Sir 
 William Jones mentions the works of Amin, a musician ; the 
 Damodara, the Narayan, the Ragarnava, (or sea of passions) ; 
 the Sabhavinoda, (or delight of assemblies) ; the Ragavibodha, 
 (or doctrine of musical modes) ; the Ratnacara, and many 
 other Sanscrit and Hindustani treatises. There is besides the 
 Raugaderpun, (or mirror of Raugs) translated into Persian 
 by Fakur Ullah from an Hindovee Book on the Science 
 of Music, called Muncuttuhub, compiled by order of Man 
 Sing, Rajah of Gualier. The Sungeet Durpon (or mirror 
 of melody) is also a Persian translation from the Sanscrit. 
 To these I am enabled to add, by the kindness of the 
 learned Baronet whom I have before mentioned, the title 
 of another Hindovee work translated by Deenanaut, the son 
 of Bausdheo, into the Persian language on the first of 
 
168 ANECDOTES OF INDIAN' MUSIC. 
 
 the month Ramjan, in the year of the Hegira 1137, of our 
 
 sera 1724. 
 
 j* i£\ji *S" utfU jb ^iji ^j ^yc p\fi aJLy 
 
 " An Essay on the Science of Music, translated from the 
 book Paurjauthuck: the object of which is to teach the 
 understanding of the Raugs and Rauginees, and the playing 
 upon musical instruments." 
 
 From this work, while I refer the reader to the learned 
 observations of Sir William Jones, and other ingenious mem- 
 bers of the Asiatic Society, on the musical modes, and the 
 instruments of the Hindus, I shall here briefly state that 
 they have a gamut, consisting of seven notes, like our own, 
 which being repeated in three several Ast, hans,* or octaves, 
 form in all a scale of twenty-one natural notes. The seven 
 notes which form the gamut are expressed, So,, ra, ga, ma, 
 
 pa, da, na, or Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni And, when 
 
 written at length, stand thus : 
 
 £ f£ Kau, redge 
 wjk^Sj Rekhub 
 jUa^S 1 Gundhaur 
 »A>x Mud, dhum 
 *sr^. Punchum 
 ci>yki Dhawoth 
 
 al^So Neekhaudh • 
 
 • From the Sanscrit words asMa or ostium, (signifying tight) and ara (the 
 spoke of a vkeel, or any thing resembling it,) a very learned Orientalist is of 
 opinion that the Hebrew Ashtaroth, and the Persian Sitarah, (formerly 
 Astarah) (a star with eight rays) are most probably derived. The Persian 
 numeral <*>&*> is evidently the same as the Sanscrit. See Mr. Wilford's 
 Essay on Egypt and the Nile-Asiatic Res. Vol. III. 
 
ANECDOTES OF INDIAN MUSIC. 169 
 
 Of these seven words, (the first excepted) the initial letters 
 are used in writing music to represent the notes. Instead 
 of the initial of the first or lowest, (Kauredge) that of the 
 word -m (sur) is used, which signifies emphatically the note, 
 — being, as it were, the foundation of the others, "and 
 named " (says Sir William Jones*) " Sviara, or the sound, from 
 the important office which it bears in the scale." — The 
 use of Sur or Swara instead of Kauredge prevents a possibi- 
 lity of mistaking the initial of the latter for that of Qun- 
 dhaur ; a circumstance which might otherwise happen, the 
 characters being alike in form. But it is not the initial 
 letter only of each note that we find used in writing music : 
 Rekhub is often thus described i_sj Dhawoth is and 
 Neehhaudh ^i ;— ^when the gamut may be expressed accord- 
 ing to the form given by Sir William Jones : sa ri ga ma pa, 
 dha ni. — And in a manuscript before me the first note is 
 always fully described ,«« (sur). 
 
 In each of the three octaves, wherein these seven notes 
 are repeated, there are twenty-two Srutis or soorts, (Dieses) 
 by which the Major and Minor tones are most curiously 
 distinguished : 
 
 Major tone Minor tone Semi Major Major Minor Semi 
 
 tone 
 
 I i i i. 1 i i 1 I ! i i i I i I i i i I I i 
 
 ,j» sa j ra J ga f ma ,_, pa »,> da ^ na 
 
 * Essay on the Musical Modes of the Hindus,— Asiatic Researches, 
 Vol. III. 
 
170 ANECDOTES OF INDIAN MUSIC. 
 
 The following words are found written at length, either 
 preceding, under or over the notes according to the necessary 
 variations. I have given their pronunciation and significa- 
 tion : 
 
 iluo Istaud, slow. 
 )) Ro, quick. 
 oAf Ousht, quaver. 
 ii)ULj. Jumbawi, shake. 
 
 &■*&£ Kasheed, lengthen, or continue the sound. 
 £ji> Thurrah, double, but not so quick as to be confound- 
 ed into one. 
 
 ^-•■S&k Teep ) Either of these words marks the 
 
 (JbS" Kopaulee J note to be raised an octave. 
 
 Sometimes one note is affected by two of those words ; 
 as Thurrah and Kasheed placed, over or under the note 
 Dhowoth in the Ramgully, of which I have given the notation : 
 and in the manuscript before me those words are written in 
 red ink, while the characters which represent the notes are 
 in black. 
 
 I shall endeavour to explain the notation of the tune, 
 given in the annexed plate, in the following manner, using 
 capital letters to express the notes, and italics for the words 
 which are applied to them, and which in the manuscript 
 are written in red ink, but in the plate are expressed in an 
 oblique and smaller character. 
 
 (Before the tune we read Canoon e newaktun Ramgully, 
 The rule for playing the air Ramgully.) 
 
 SA SA GA SA DHA KPY 
 
 Istaud Ro Ro Ro Ro Istaud 
 
Or.-CoU:1797. Jm. 
 
 W c M~h dW c// b * 
 
 
 J 
 
 
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 V > 
 
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 Y; 
 
 My 
 
 
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 W 
 
 £ 
 
 "/ 7 
 
 :0 \j 
 
 
 
 A *Z 
 
 11 
 
 p 
 
 i I 
 
 { r 
 
 /? -v^ r* 
 
 'AA J^ ^ ^^77 
 
F^&*s^-^^sy 
 
 4 
 
KPY 
 
 NI 
 
 Istaud 
 
 Kasheed 
 
 gusht 
 
 
 NI 
 
 DHA 
 
 Thurrah 
 
 Ro 
 
 GA 
 
 RI 
 
 Kasheed 
 
 Thurra'l 
 
 ANECDOTES OF INDIAN MUSIC. 171 
 
 DHA PA DHA 
 
 Thurrah Thurrah Kasheed 
 Jcasheed 
 
 PA MA GA GA 
 
 Kasheed Thurrah Thurrah Ito 
 Kasheed 
 SA SA 
 
 Thurrah Istaud 
 Kasheed Kasheed 
 Here SA signifies sur, (which itself, as I before remarked, 
 is put for the first note Kauredge) ; GA, Oundkaur ; DHA, 
 Bhawoth, &o., but the reader will perceive the introduction 
 of KPY in the above scheme, not enumerated among the 
 notes of the Gamut. I have used those three letters to 
 express Kopalee (signifying the octave of the note) which in 
 the mauuscript is described by an Arabic Cas of a different 
 form from the character which represents the note Gundhaur, 
 as may be seen in the engraving, where I have given, copied 
 exactly from the drawing in the manuscript, a figure of the 
 Tamhooreh tjjjfb with the notes applied to the finger-board, 
 explanatory df its scale. 
 
 There are annexed also, representations of the Serinda, 
 or Bengal violin, in full (fig. 1.) and profile (fig. 2.,) with 
 its bow, (fig. 3.) The strings of this instrument are of a 
 certain kind of silk. 
 
 Of the Baaseree, (fig. 4.,) or pipe of Krishnah, the Hindu 
 Apollo : one perforated bamboo similar to our Flageolet, 
 except that each hole is not so exactly divided by 
 notes, but many by half notes : its tone is soft and 
 plaintive, and so easily filled that some blow it with their 
 nostrils. 
 
172 ANECDOTES OF INDIAN MUSIC. 
 
 Of the Taomeree, (fig. 5.,) an instrument more common 
 in the Deokan than in Bengal : it is formed a Gourd or 
 Cuddos nut, and two small perforated bamboos,' with reeds iu 
 each, like those of the bag-pipe. 
 
 In a future Number of this Publication the subject of 
 Indian Music shall be continued ; the notes given of a tune 
 set horn, the voice of the singing girls of Cashmere, and 
 some passages from an original manuscript in Persian, on 
 the Music of that province. 
 
ON THE GRA'MAS OR MUSICAL SCALES 
 OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 BY 
 
 J. D. PATERSON, Esq. 
 
 (From Asiatic Researches, Vol. 9.) 
 
OS 
 
 THE GRA'MAS OR MUSICAL SCALES 
 
 OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 BY 
 
 J. D. PATERSON, Esq. 
 
 When music was first reduced to a science, it is probable, 
 that it was confined to the few scientific men, whose education 
 and studies fitted them to understand its principles ; and that 
 the first efforts of the science were displayed in hymns to the 
 deities : each being addressed in a peculiar mode, rhythmus, 
 and expression. 
 
 According to Plato,* the Egyptians were restricted by 
 their laws to certain fixed melodies, which they were not 
 permitted to alter ; he says, that the lawgivers of Egypt 
 appear to have laid it down as a principle, that " young men 
 in cities should be accustomed to beautiful figures and beauti- 
 ful melodies, and that it was one of their institutions to 
 exhibit in their temples what these were, and what the qua- 
 lities which they possessed ; and besides these it was not 
 lawful either for painters or other artificers to introduce any 
 that were new, or even to think of any other than those 
 belonging to their country.'' He adds, " nor is it lawful at 
 present to do this either in these particulars or in the whole 
 of music. If you observe, therefore, you will find, that paint- 
 ings and sculptures there, which were executed ten thousand 
 
 * On Legislation. Dialogue 2nd. 
 
176 qra'mas ok musical scales of the Hindus. 
 
 years ago, as if they were not of such great antiquity, are 
 neither more beautiful nor more deformed than the paintings 
 or carvings of the present day, but are fashioned by just the 
 same art." 
 
 When Clinias observes, that he spoke of a wonderful cir- 
 cumstance, he replies, "It is, however, a circumstance per- 
 taining to law and politics in a transcendent degree, you 
 will likewise find other things there of a trifling nature, but 
 this respecting music is true and deserves attention, because 
 the legislator could firmly give laws about things of this kind 
 and with confidence introduce such melodies as possessed a 
 natural rectitude : but this must be the work of a God, or of 
 some divine person ; just as they say there, that their melo- 
 dies, which have been preserved for such a length of time, are 
 the Poems of Isis.'' 
 
 Plato considers this restriction as proper and necessary 
 to prevent the introduction of sensual licentiousness and 
 effiminacy. There appears to have been some such idea of 
 restriction, amongst the ancient Hindus, by the confinement 
 of their music to thirty-six melodies : viz., the six Ragas and 
 thirty Raginis : the forty-eight Putrus are melodies, which 
 seem to have been introduced in after times, when the dis- 
 cipline, alluded to by Plato, had begun to be relaxed. 
 
 But the Indian Ragas and Raginis are fixed respectively 
 to particular seasons of the year and times of the night or day. 
 This is a circumstance particularly deserving remark, as it 
 is probably peculiar to the Hindu music. 
 
 It is likely, that these melodies were in former times ap- 
 propriated to the service of different deities. In such case 
 the Ragas or Raginis would derive their appropriation to 
 particular times and seasons, from the times and seasons 
 
gra'mas or musical SCALES OF THE HINDUS. 177 
 
 allotted by the Hindu ritual for the performance of the 
 services to which they were respectively appropriated. This 
 appears probable : but whatever might have been the origi- 
 nal cause of this apparent singularity, it has become so com- 
 pletely engrafted on the ideas of music amongst the natives 
 of India, that they cannot at this day divest their minds of 
 the prejudice. The Muslemans have universally adopted it ; 
 and a performer, who should sing a Raga out of its appro- 
 priated season, or an hour sooner or later than the time ap- 
 pointed, would be considered as an ignorant .pretender to the 
 character of a musician. This restraint upon their music, 
 which Europeans would think insupportable, the Ijidian 
 considers as absolutely necessary to give a. true relish to the 
 melody. The origin of this custom seems lost in antiquity. 
 No Hindu, with whom I have conversed, has been able to 
 account for it. We may, therefore, suppose it probable, that 
 it originated, as I have observed before, in the religious 
 restraints to which music appears to have been subjected, 
 when first reduced to .fixed principles as, a science. 
 
 Music must have been cultivated in very early ages by 
 the Hindus ; as the abridged names of the seven notes, viz., 
 sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, are said to occur in the Soma 
 
 Veda ; and in their present order. Their names at length 
 
 are as follow : 
 
 Shadja pronounced Sarja or Kharja. 
 
 Rishabha pronounced Rikhabh. 
 
 Oand'hara. 
 
 Madhyama. 
 
 Panchama. 
 
 JDhaivata. 
 
 Nishada pronounced Itiikhad. 
 
178 gra'mas or musical SCALES OP THE HINDUS. 
 
 Hence we find, that the above-mentioned abbreviated names 
 of these notes, which are used in what we call Solfaing or 
 Solmization, are the first syllables of their names, viz., Sa, 
 ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni. The complete scale is called Sioara- 
 grdrna or assemblage of tones ; it is likewise called Septao 
 or heptachord, as containing, or consisting of, seven notes. 
 
 The Hindus place the seven notes under the protection 
 of seven AcFMshfhdtri Divatds, or superintending divinities, 
 as follow : 
 
 Shadja, under the protection of Agni. 
 
 RKshabha, of Beahma. 
 
 Gdndhdra, of Sarasvati. 
 
 Madkyama, of MahIdeva. 
 
 Panchama, of Sri or LacshmL 
 
 fihaivata, of Gan'e's'a. 
 
 Nishdda, of Sueta. 
 Of these notes, there are four descriptions : 1st the Badi, 
 which is the Ansa or key note ; and is described as the 
 Rajah on whom all the rest depend ; the 2nd is Sanbadi which 
 is considered as the Mantri or principal minister of the 
 Kajah; the 3rd are Anubadi, described as subjects attached 
 to their Lord ; 4th Bibddi, mentioned as inimical to him.* 
 
 The Hindus divide the octave into twenty-two intervals, 
 which are called S'ruti, by allotting four S'ruti to represent 
 the interval which we call a major tone, three to describe a 
 minor tone, and two the semi-tone : not as being mathemati- 
 cally just, but as means of representing to the eye, anil to the 
 understanding, the supposed relations which these intervals 
 
 * The three last distinctions seem to correspond to the Somopkonia,- 
 Paraphonia, and Antiphonia, of the Greeks. Gaudentius in his Harmonic 
 Introduction, explains Paraphonia, a mean between consonance and dis- 
 sonance ; where the sound, to the ear, appears consonant. H. T. 
 
gea'mas or musical SCALES OP THE HINDUS. 179 
 
 bear to each other } merely to shew, that a semi-tone is half 
 a major tone, and that the minor tone is a medium between 
 the major and semi-tone, being less than the former and 
 greater than the latter. Mathematical calculation is out of 
 the question. 
 
 Perhaps they were induced to make this division of the 
 octave, by considering the minor tone as not divisible by two 
 without a fraction ; and therefore made the whole number 
 three, to represent it : for, if we divide the octave into twelve 
 semi-tones, this will give twenty -four quarter tones or S'ruti ; 
 but by allowing three to represent each of the two minor 
 tones, instead of four, there will remain only twenty-two, 
 the number of S'ruti admitted. 
 
 The S'rutis are personified as so many nymphs ; and, in the 
 
 Sangita Rutndeara, are thus named and arranged.* 
 
 To Shadja or To Panchama or 
 Sa . . . 4 ( Tihra Pa 4 ( Cirti 
 
 - l Cumiidvati ) Ractd 
 
 S Munda y Dipari 
 
 ' Chandovya ' Al&pini 
 
 To Rishabha or 
 Ri .... 31 Dayavati 
 
 - < Renjani 
 
 ( Retted 
 
 To Gdndhdra or To Dhaivata or 
 
 Ga .... 2 ( Rudri Bha ... 3 [ Madanti 
 
 — — \ Cr6d ha, <R6hini 
 
 ^ L Ramya 
 
 To Madkyama or To Nishada or 
 
 Ma .... 4 ( Bdjricd M ... 2 f Upta 
 ) Prasarani \ Cdbiri 
 
 S Priti ' 
 
 ( Mdrjani 
 
 * The names, exhibited in the Sangita D&modara, are quite different . They 
 seldom occur except in the writings of authors treating on music. H. T. C. 
 
180 GKa'mAS OR MUSICAL SCALES OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 The Hindils have three Gramas or scales : viz., Shadja- 
 Grama, Madhydmd-Gr&ma, and Gandhdra-Gr&ma. The 
 foregoing arrangement of the S'ruti is that of the Shadja- 
 Grama, which consists of two disjunct, but perfectly similar, 
 Tetrachords, separated by a major tone. The Madhyama- 
 Grama is formed from this by a transposition of the major 
 tdne between Pa and Dha, and of the minor tone between 
 Dha and Ni; thus the technical language of Hindu music, 
 Dha takes one S'ruti from Pa, and becomes thus possessed of 
 four, leaving three to Pa. 
 
 The two Gramas may be thus represented. 
 
 TeirachorA. Tetrachord. 
 
 Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa 
 
 Shadja L 
 Grdma f 
 
 1. 2. 3. 4 
 
 1. 2. 3. 
 
 1.2. 
 
 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4.|l. 2. 3- 
 
 1.2. 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 11 1 II 
 
 1 
 
 
 g 
 
 ■P ? s g s ? 
 
 &: 
 
 o 
 i-3 
 
 5' B* <=• <§■ B" B 
 
 h3 S 3 H H h H 
 
 o 
 
 ne 
 one • 
 
 >ne ■ 
 
 one ■ 
 
 ne - 
 one 
 
 B 
 
 CD 
 
 1 
 
 i i ■ . 
 
 CO to [fc» ||i CO to 
 
 Sa 
 
 Ei Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa 
 
 Madhyama ( 
 
 1.2. 
 
 3.4. 
 
 1.2.3. 
 
 1.2. 
 
 1.2.3.4 
 
 . 1. 2. 3. 
 
 1.2.3.4. 
 
 1.2. 
 
 Grdma. 
 
 
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 1 1 
 
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 II 1 
 
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 K 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
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gra'mas or musical scales OF THE HINDUS. 181 
 
 When the change of key requires a different modulation, 
 the changes in the disposition of the S'ruti are called Vierit : 
 they reckon twelve such. 
 
 When a note is to be rendered graver or deeper, they say 
 that such a note takes one or more S'ruti from the note im- 
 mediately below it, as in the example of the change from the 
 Shadja Gr&ma to the Madhyama Grama, where Dha is made 
 one S'ruti flatter than in the former scale. 
 
 If a note is to be raised, the expression is, that such a 
 note gives one or more S'ruti to the note immediately below 
 it ; which operation renders the note proportionally sharper, 
 as its distance from the note immediately below it is conse- 
 quently increased ; and to that immediately above it, the 
 distance is in the same proportion diminished. 
 
 The Oandhara Grama is formed from the Madhyama 
 Grama ; and in the construction of it, the Sangita Darpana 
 points out three changes in the scale. 
 
 Is*. Gand'hara takes one S'ruti from Rishabha, an d be- 
 comes of three i. e., by rendering the third note Ga flat, the 
 interval between Ri and Ga is reduced to a semi-tone, and 
 that between Ga and Ma becomes a minor tone. 
 
 2nd. Panchama loses one S'ruti to Gandhara. 
 
 I am at a loss to know how this can take place : I rather 
 suspect an error in the text, and would propose to substitute 
 Dha the sixth note instead of Gandhara. The three S'ruti 
 of Panchama make the interval between the 5th and 6th : by 
 losing one, it is reduced to a semi-tone ; but it cannot lose 
 this one to Gandhara, which is the third note. There are 
 but two methods of reducing this interval to a semi-tone : 
 one by raising the fifth note ; the other by rendering the 
 sixth flat. But here the interval between the 4th and 5th 
 
182 gra'mas ok musical SCALES OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 remains unaltered. It must in this case be done by making 
 Dha the 6th note flat ; or, in the language of Hindu music, 
 by giving one of Panchama's S'rutis to Dhaivata. 
 
 3rd. Suddhaswara gives one S'ruti to Nishada. Here 
 Nishada is rendered one S'ruti flat. Suddhaswara is not the 
 name of a note ; but is explained to me to be a term applied 
 to a note possessing its full compliment of S'rutis. It may, 
 therefore, be applied, in this case, to Dhaivata ; for, although 
 it may give one S'ruti to Nishada, yet it gains one from 
 Panchama, and still retains four complete S'rutis. 
 
 If these conjectures are admitted, and we compare it with 
 the Madhyama Grama (to which these changes evidently 
 refer), it will stand thus : — 
 
 Sa Ei Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa 
 
 4. 3. 2. 4. 3. 4. 2. 
 
 Madhyam 
 Grama 
 
 a I I 
 
 I I 
 
 I I 
 
 Sa 
 
 Ei Ga 
 2. 3. 
 
 Ma 
 
 4. 
 
 Pa Dha 
 2. 4. 
 
 Ni Sa 
 
 Gdndhdra 
 Grama 
 
 EG 
 
 g 
 
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 CO 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 B 
 
 B 
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 B 
 
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 H 
 
 
 
 
 
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 B 
 
 p 
 
 i-3 
 
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 That the Hindus' probably, by this division of the octave, 
 meant nothing more than what I have before supposed, 
 may appear from the following table, in which the intervals, 
 between each note and the note above it, are taken from 
 Mr. Malcolm's series of the octave in the two modes (as 
 given by Mr. Chambers, under the article scale). This I 
 
gra'mas or musical SCALES OF THE HINDUS. 183 
 
 have done, in order to compare those intervals with the S'ruti 
 of the Hindus, and to show the difference. 
 
 Malcolm's series of the octave. 
 
 Malcolm's series of the octave. 
 
 Major Mode 
 or 
 
 Madhyama Grdma. 
 
 Minor Mode 
 or 
 
 Gandhdra Grdma. 
 
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184 gra'mas or musical scales op the Hindus. 
 
 If we revert to the Shadja Chroma, we shall find it composed 
 of two disjunct, but perfectly similar Tetrachords, separated 
 by a major tone : both Tetrachords are expressed by the 
 name numbers 4. 3. 2 ; and, if we reject the fractions of the 
 first Tetrachord in the foregoing table, we have the same 
 number : and, as they considered the 2nd Tetrachord as per- 
 fectly similar to the first, they probably made use of the 
 same numbers to express that similitude. 
 
 There are three kinds of characteristic melody for the 
 structure of Ragas, either by the use of all, or the exclusion 
 of one, or two, particular notes. Those Ragas, in which the 
 whole seven notes are employed, are called Humir huran. 
 Those, which exclude one particular note, and only use the 
 remaining six, are called CaoVhir. Those, which exclude two 
 particular notes, and only reserve five, are called Orav. There 
 is a passage in Dr. Burners history of music, and one, in the 
 British Encyclopaedia (speaking of the Ouglia Rotta* or the 
 broken pillar lying in the Campus Martius at Rome,) by which 
 it appears, that there is on this pillar or obelisk the figure of 
 a musical instrument with two strings and with a neck ; that, 
 by the means of its neck, this instrument was capable, with 
 only two strings, of producing a great number of notes ; that 
 these two strings, if tuned fourths to each other, would fur- 
 nish that series of sounds called by the ancients Heptachord, 
 which consists of a conjunct Tetrachord as B. C. D. E ; E. G. 
 A ; if tuned in fifths, they would produce an octave, or two 
 disjunct Tetrachords. 
 
 This may possibly explain the principle of the construction 
 of the Shadja Grama of the Hindus ; and there is a similar 
 
 * A fragment of an Egyptian obelisk of the highest antiquity, which had 
 been brought to Romt under Augustus. Ifc is covered with Hieroglyphics. 
 
GRA'MAS OR MUSICAL SCALES OF THE HINDUS. 185 
 
 instrument still in use, called Dwitantri, which I hare often 
 seen and heard ; and, as far as I remember, it is tuned in 
 fifths. It consists of a wooden body, hollowed out and cover- 
 ed with parchment ; it has a neck and two strings, and is 
 struck with a plectrum. 
 
 The Madhyama Grama is evidently our major modes ; and, 
 if I am right, that of Gandhara is our minor mode. 
 
 The extent of the Hindu scale is three Septacas ; which are 
 thus fancifully described : the lowest or first Septaca, called 
 Mundra-sthdna, is derived or produced from the navel, 
 extending upwards to the chest ; the second Madhya-sihana, 
 from the chest to the throat ; the third Tara-sthana, from the 
 throat to the brain. 
 
 The scale is denominated Gr&ma, (literally village,) because 
 there is in it the assemblage of all the notes, S'rutis and 
 Murchkands, arranged in their proper places, as mankind 
 assemble in towns and villages, and there assume their differ- 
 ent degrees and stations. 
 
 In considering the names given to the three Gramas, it 
 appears to me, that the Shadja Grama takes its name from 
 the lowest note in that scale, as being the foundation of the 
 first Tetrachord; the second Tetrachord being apparently 
 formed from the first by fifths : in which case the 6th must 
 necessarily be more acute than in the Diatonic scale ; and the 
 interval between the 5th and 6th is therefore represented by 
 four S'rutis to signify, that Dha bears the same proportion 
 to Pa, that Mi does to Sa. The intervals of the Shadja 
 Grama may be represented as follow : — 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 4 | 3 
 
 5 J 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 16 
 27 
 
 8 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
186 gra'mas or musical SCALES OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 The modulation of the Madhyama Grdma probably took 
 its rise from making Madhyama the 5th note in the scale ; 
 in which case you will have 
 
 &i sa ri ga ma pa dha. 
 
 OR 
 
 Si ut re me fa sol la. 
 
 This is precisely the diatonic scale of the Greeks ; and here 
 it became necessary to render Dha a comma lower in the 
 scale, which the Hindus express by making Dha receive one 
 S'ruti from Pa. The alteration, thus suggested, they adopt- 
 ed ; and with it formed their 2nd scale from the Shadja 
 Grama, giving it the name of Madhyama, probably to denote 
 its origin. 
 
 The Gandhdra Grdma appears to have a similar origin ; 
 by making Gandhdra the 5th. This will produce 
 
 Dha ni sa ri ga ma pa. 
 
 OR 
 
 La si ut ri mi fa sol. 
 
 Which is the natural minor mode La : but keeping Sa as 
 their first note, the Vicrits, or changes before mentioned, 
 became necessary, to give it the same modulation ; and 
 it was probably called Gandhdra Grdma to denote its 
 origin. 
 
 Of the notes and S'rutis I have spoken above, I shall now 
 endeavour to explain what these M&rchhanas are j or rather 
 what I conceive them to be, Each Grdma is said to con- 
 tain seven Murchhanas ; hence they reckon twenty-one 
 in all. 
 
 Sir W. Jones says they appear to be no more than seven 
 pieces of diapason multiplied by three, according to the 
 
GRA'MAS OR MUSICAL SCALES OP THE HINDUS. 187 
 
 difference of pitch in the compass of three octaves.* But the 
 M&rckhanas are described to be the seven notes, each arrang- 
 ed in its proper station in the scalei, which renders them fit 
 to be applied in the composition of the Ragas, &o. It ap- 
 pears to me therefore, that they are the intervals of each 
 Ordma, which I would arrange as follows. 
 
 The Shadja Ordma is composed of two disjunct but per- 
 fectly similar Tetraohords, separated by a major tone, and 
 both Tetraohords have a major third ; the Mitrchhanas of 
 this Grama 1 suppose to be 
 
 1st. from Sa to Hi "\ 1st. 2nd. 
 
 2nd. Sa to Ga > 1st. 3rd. 
 
 3rd. Sa to Ma J 1st. 4th. 
 
 4th. from Pa to Dha -v 2nd. 2nd. 
 
 5th. Pa to Ni L 2nd. 3rd. 
 
 6th. Pa to Sa J 2nd. 4th. 
 
 7th. Pa to Sa 8 octave. 
 
 The Murchhanas of Madhyama Ordma : 
 2nd. from Sa to Ei. 
 3rd. — — Sa to Ga 1 , greater third. 
 
 4th. Sa to Ma. 
 
 5th. Sa to Pa. 
 
 6th. Sa to Dha, greater siitfe. 
 
 7th. Sa to Ni. 
 
 8th. Sa to Sa. 
 
 * In citing a passage from the Epic Poem on the death of Siscpala, 
 which is entitled Mdgha, Sir W. Jones translated Mi'trchhana, "musical 
 interval." (See As. Res. Vol. 1st p. 265.) He afterwards gave a different 
 interpretation of it, (Vol. 3rd. p. 71,) as stated in the text. In his version 
 of that passage, Sir W. Jones mistook the meaning of the term S'ntii, 
 (which is there translated ear, instead of quarter tone,) but he has rightly 
 explained it in his treatise on the musical modes of the Hindus. H. I. C. 
 
188 GRA'MAS OB MUSICAL SCALES OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 Miirchhand of Gandhdra Grama : 
 Sa to Bi. 
 
 Sa to Ga, minor third. 
 Sa to Ma. 
 Sa to Pa. 
 
 Sa to Dha, minor sixth. 
 Sa to Ni. 
 Sa to Sa. 
 
 The M&rchhan&s are all personified, and distinguished by. 
 names,* viz. 
 
 Those of the 
 
 SJiadja Grdma are : — 
 
 1st. 
 
 Uttara mundd. 
 
 2nd. 
 
 Uttarayita. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 Rechani. 
 
 4th. 
 
 Sud haprajaya. 
 
 5th. 
 
 Sancita. 
 
 6th. 
 
 Chaeranta. 
 
 Those of Madhyama Grama, are :- 
 
 1st. 
 
 Saubiri. 
 
 2nd. 
 
 Harina. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 Culopawta. 
 
 4th. 
 
 Sitdha Mad'Jiya. 
 
 5th. 
 
 Margin. 
 
 6th. 
 
 Purvi. 
 
 7th. 
 
 RisMca. 
 
 * This list is apparently from the Sangila-Ratnacara. The personified 
 M4rchhands have other names in the StmgitarDamodara. H. T. C. 
 
gra'mas or musical SCALES OF THE HINDUS. 189 
 
 Those of Gandhara Ordma, are :- 
 
 1st. 
 
 Mandra. 
 
 
 2nd. 
 
 Vis' did. 
 
 
 3rd. 
 
 Sumuc'hi. 
 
 
 4th. 
 
 Chitra. 
 
 
 5th. 
 
 Rohini or 
 
 Chitravati. 
 
 6th. 
 
 Suc'ha. 
 
 
 7th. 
 
 Alapa. 
 
 
 The use of these. Mitrchhanas is, in my opinion, to teach 
 the learner to rise an octave by tones and semitones ; and 
 to descend again by the same notes j and to rise and fall by 
 greater intervals, directly, by omitting the intermediate notes ; 
 in short the practice of solmisation. 
 
ON 
 
 THE YINA OR INDIAN LYRE. 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANCIS FOWKE, Esq. 
 
 (From "Asiatic Researches" Vol. I.) 
 
mm x " ^ 
 
AN EXTRACT OE A LETTER 
 
 ON THE VINA. 
 
 From FRANCIS FOWKE, Esq., 
 To the PRESIDENT ASIATIC SOCIETY of BENGAL. 
 
 The drawings of Jeewan Shah and the Been will be des- 
 patched in a small boat to-morrow, you wished to have had 
 the two attendant musioiaus in the same drawing with Jeewan 
 Shah ; but the draftsman was not equal to the perspective 
 of this : he would have run all the figures one into the other : 
 and as he has succeeded telerably well with the principal 
 figures, I thought it was better to be sure of that, especially 
 as the other figures can easily be added by a European artist. 
 I have a double pleasure in sending you the enclosed account 
 of the Been. 
 
 In obliging'you, I look forward to the instructive amuse- 
 ment I shall share with the public at large in the result of 
 your researches into this subject of Indian music ; and I am 
 exceedingly happy, by furnishing you with facts, highly 
 necessary indeed, but the mere work of care and observation, 
 to give you greater leisure for the contemplation of the whole 
 You may absolutely depend upon the accuracy of all that I 
 have said respecting the construction and scale of this instru- 
 ment : it has been done by measurement : and with regard 
 to the intervals, I would not depend upon my ear, but had the 
 
194 
 
 THE VINA OR INDIAN LTEB. 
 
 Been tuned to the harpsichord, and compared the instruments 
 carefully, note by note, more than once. What I myself am 
 aware of, will certainly not escape your penetration, that 
 there may be a little of the bias of hypothesis, or an opinion 
 pretty strongly established, in what I have said of the con- 
 fined modulation of the Indian music. 
 
 But it is easy to separate my experiments and conjectures ; 
 and my prejudices cannot mislead you ; though they may 
 possibly suggest a useful hint, as half errors often do. 
 
 The Been is a fretted instrument of the guitar kind. The 
 finger-board is 21| ths inches long. A little beyond each end 
 of the finger-board are two large gourds, and beyond these 
 are the pegs and tail-piece which hold the wires. 
 
 The whole length of the instrument is three feet seven 
 inches. The first gourd is fixed at ten inches from the top, 
 and the second is about two feet 11 \. The gourds are very 
 large, about fourteen inches diameter, and have a round 
 piece cut out of the bottom, about five inches diameter. The 
 finger-board is about two inches wide. The wires are seven 
 in nnmber, and consist of two steel ones, very close together, 
 in the right side; four brass ones on the finger-board; 
 and one brass one on the left side. 
 
 They are tuned in the following manner : — 
 
 S § «! * \ a a. 
 
 £ is 3 2 • s « 
 
 ■3° * e S3 -S3 
 
 03 tffl 
 
 ~E3~ 
 
 ■#1 
 
 O - 
 O 
 
 4^— f- 
 
 Q 
 
 £Tf<» 
 ■? rt 
 
 ffi *• o 
 
 gal 
 
 -t 
 
 K 
 
 3, 
 
 S2 -« 
 
 ■a 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 ?~ 
 
 P..h 
 
 p 
 
 £5 
 S 3 
 
 +i 
 
 £•3 
 
 
 cq 
 
 T 
 
 SI 
 
 U~ 
 
THE VINA OR INDIAN LYRE. 195 
 
 The great singularity of this instrument is the height of 
 the frets ; that nearest the nut is one inch -§-, and that at 
 the other extremity about §ths of an inch, and the de- 
 crease is pretty gradual. By this means the finger never 
 touches the finger-board itself. The frets are fixed on with 
 wax by the performer himself, which he does entirely by 
 ear. This was asserted by Pear Cavm, the brother of Jeewan 
 Shah, who was ill at the time, but Pear Cawn is a performer 
 very little, if at all, inferior to Jeewan Shah. The frets of 
 Pear Cawn's instrument were tolerably exact. Any little 
 difference is easily corrected by the pressure of the finger. 
 Indeed, the performers are fond, on any note that is at all 
 long, of pressing the string very hard, and letting it return 
 immediately to its natural tension, which produces a sound 
 something like the close shake on the violin ; but not with 
 so agreeable an effect ; for it appears sometimes to alter the 
 sound half a tone. 
 
 The frets are nineteen in number. The' notes that they 
 give will appear on the following scale. I have added below 
 the names which the performer himself gives to the notes 
 in his own language. It is very observable, that the semitones 
 change their names on the same semitone as in the European 
 scale. 
 
 P 
 
 <-> 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 -d 
 
 -d 
 
 Ti 
 
 TJ 
 
 3 
 
 TJ 
 
 TJ 
 
 a 
 
 -d 
 
 rd 
 
 A 
 
 -d 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 co 
 
 n> 
 
 g b ■g a a g i 
 
196 THE VINA OR INDIAN LYRE. 
 
 ftrfl 
 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 O 
 
 R 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 73 
 
 o 
 
 -is 
 
 
 O o 
 
 * 
 
 3 
 
 -3 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 1m 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 g 
 
 73 
 
 TJ 
 
 t3 
 
 73 
 
 t3 
 
 g 
 
 ,-, 
 
 T3 
 
 ti 
 
 ,4 
 
 ** 
 
 n 
 
 73 
 
 71 
 
 3 
 
 ** 
 
 ^a 
 
 rd 
 
 ,d 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 
 3 
 
 Ei 
 
 r-l 
 
 CN 
 
 
 •* 
 
 
 CI 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 i- 
 
 CO 
 
 C3J 
 
 
 r-l 
 
 sA -pfe 
 
 kii^^F^^^^^^^ 
 
 g gjg^f-^ 
 
 On the wires R and S, which are those principally used, 
 there ia an extent of two octaves, a whole note with all the 
 " half notes complete in the first octave, but the g t| and b b 
 wanting in the second. The performer's apology for this was, 
 that he could easily get those notes by pressing the string a 
 little hard upon the frets f $ and a ty which is very true 
 from the height of the frets : but he asserted that this was 
 no defect in his particular instrument, but that all Beens 
 were made so. Th£ wires T U, are seldom used, except open. 
 
 The Been is held over the left shoulder, the upper gourd 
 resting on that shoulder, and the lower one on the right knee. 
 
 The frets are stopped with the left hand ; the first and 
 second fingers are principally used. The little finger of the 
 haud is sometimes used to strike the note V. 
 
 The third finger is seldom used, the hand shifting up and 
 down the finger-board with great rapidity. The fingers of 
 the right hand are used to strike the strings of this hand ; 
 the third finger is never used. The two first fingers strike 
 the wires on the finger-board, and the little finger strikes 
 the two' wires. The two first fingers of this hand are defend- 
 ed by a piece of wire put on the tops of them in the manner 
 of a thimble ; when the performer plays strong, this causes 
 a very jarring disagreeable sound ; whereas, when he playa 
 softly, the tone of the instrument is remarkably pleasing. 
 
THE VINA OR INDIAN LYRE. 197 
 
 The style of music on this instrument is in general that 
 of great execution. I could hardly ever discover any regular 
 air or subject. The music seems to consist of a number 
 of detached passages, some very regular in their assent and 
 descent ; and those that are played softly, are most of them 
 both uncommon and pleasing. 
 
 The open wires are struck, from time to time, in a manner 
 that, I think, prepares the ear for a change of modulation, 
 to which the uncommonly full and fine tones of these notes 
 greatly contribute ; but the ear is, I think, always dis- 
 appointed ; and if there is ever any transition from the prin- 
 cipal key, I am inclined to think it is very short. Were there 
 any other circumstances, respecting the Indian music, which 
 lead to suppose that it has, at some period, been much supe- 
 rior to the present practice, the style, scale and antiquity of 
 this instrument, would, I think, greatly confirm the supposi- 
 tion. 
 
SUNGEET. 
 
 FBANCIS GLADWIN, Esq. 
 
 (From the " Ay em Akbery," Vol. III.) 
 
SUNGEET 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANCIS GLADWIN, Esq. 
 
 'Sunoeet is the art of Vocal and instrumental HattSic ; 
 together with that of dancing. 
 
 The rules thereof are comprised in seven bodks, bin., Firsi;, 
 •Soot, the nature of sound, Which is of two kinds ; Art/nahut, 
 a sound without any earthly cause, and which they consider 
 to have existed from all eternity after 'the following manner. 
 When a man closes the orifices of his ears with his fingers, 
 he perceives an inward noise, to Which ihey give this name. 
 They say this proceeds from Brahma, and that it cannot be 
 heard without 'stopping the ears/till'a man is in the state of 
 Muckut, when -it becomes 'part of lis "nature. Abut, a sound 
 which proceeds from a cause whidh, like speech, they consider 
 to be an accident of air, occasioned by percu&aib'n. They say 
 'that Providence has given every man twen'ty-two nerves, 
 extending from the belly to the crown eff'the head, through 
 eighteen of which the air paffs from the navel upwards ; and 
 according as these nerves are employed forcibly or weakly, 
 in such degree, is the sound "uttered. 
 
 The air does pass through the 'fifth, sixth, eighteenth and 
 nineteenth nerves, consequently they are rriute : but the 
 sound uttered through the 'others, they divide into seven 
 kinds, in the following order : 1-, Sitirj, is like the voice of the 
 peacock, and Which is produced by the fourth nerVe. 2, 
 Riffhbeh, is like the voice of the Peepeeheh, a bird resembling 
 
202 SUNGEET. 
 
 the Sar, which sings in the rainy season. It is in compas3 
 from the seventh to the tenth nerve. 3, Qandhar, is like the 
 bleating of a goat, and reaches from the ninth to the thir- 
 teenth nerve. 4, Muihem, is like the voice of the crane, and 
 reaches from the thirteenth to the sixteenth nerve. 5, Pun- 
 chem, is like the voice of the bird called the Koyil, and 
 reaches to the seventh nerve. 6, Dehwat, is like the voice of 
 the lizard and reaches from the eighth to the twenty-second. 
 7, Nikhad, is like the noise of the elephant, and reaches from 
 the twenty-second to the third. 
 
 An air which contains all these seven Soors, they call 
 Sumpoorun. If it has six, Khadow. If five, Owduh ; aud 
 no air has fewer. But the Tan (or symphony) may be com- 
 posed of two. 
 
 Second Adhya, Ragabibaha, the modes and their varia- 
 tions. 
 
 They say that singing was invented by Mahadeo and 
 Purbutty. That the first had five mouths, from each of which 
 issued a musical mode in the following order : 1, Sree Raga ; 
 
 2, Bussunl ; 3, Beharowg ; 4, Puncham ; 5, Megh. 
 
 To this they add Natnarain, which they attribute to 
 Purbutty. These six modes they call Raga, and each has 
 several variations ; but the six following are what are most 
 common. 
 
 Vabiations of Sree Raga — 1, Malavee ; 2, Tirowenee ; 
 Z,6owree; 4, Kadaree ; 5, Maddeemadwee ; 6,Beharee. 
 
 Vaeiations of Bdssunt— 1, Deysee ; 2, Deo-gurree ; 
 
 3, Byratty ; 4, Towree ; 5, Lellita ; 6, Eindowlee. 
 Variations of Boyrowung — 1, Boyrowo ; 2, Muddehmad; 
 
 3, Bihrowee ; 4, Bung alee ; 5, Biratka ; 6, Bindavee; 7, 
 Poonargeya. 
 
SUNGBET. 203 
 
 Vaeiations of Puncham— 1, Beybhass ; 2, Boopalee ; 3, 
 Kanra ; 4, Badhunsha ; 5, Malsree ; 6, Pathamunjeree. 
 
 Variations of Megh— 1, Mullar ; 2, Sowrutty ; 3, Assa- 
 varee; 4, Kowsekee ; 5, Gandhar ; 6, Harasingaree. 
 
 Variations of Namarain — 1, Eammodee; 2, Eulleyan; 
 3, Aheeree ; 4, Soodhanuat ; 5 Saluk ; 6, Nutkwmfmer. 
 
 Some make only four variations of each Eaga. Others in 
 the place of Bussunt, PuncJiem, and Megh, use Malkoosa, 
 Sindowl, and fieepuc, and make five variations of each. 
 Others instead of Bussunt, Behunga, Punchama and Megh, 
 use Soodh Behungara, Hindowla, Dasher, and Soodhanut. 
 
 There are two kinds of songs ; Marug being those invented 
 by the Dewlabs and the Rekehsir, which are the same every- 
 where, and are universally held in the highest veneration. 
 
 In the Dekhan there are many who sing them in different 
 ways, amongst which are the following : 1, Soorejperkass ; 
 2, Penjtalisser ; 3, Sirbetoobehder ; 4, Chanderperkass ; 5, 
 Bagkuddem ; 6, Shoomra ; and 7, Surtunnee. 
 
 The other kind of songs are called Deysee (or local), each 
 place having its peculiar ones, as Dhoorpud in Agra, Gwaliar, 
 Bary, and that neighbourhood. In the reign of Rajah Man 
 Singh at Gwaliar, three of his musicians named Naik Bukh- 
 shoo, Mujhoo, and Bhanuoo, formed a collection of songs 
 suited to the taste of every class of people. When Man 
 Singh died, Bukhshoo and Mujhoo went into the service of 
 Sultan Bahader Gujeratty, and being highly esteemed by 
 that prince, introduced into his court this kind of songs. 
 
 The Dhoorpud consists of stanzas of three or four rhymi- 
 cal lines of any length. They are chiefly in praise of men 
 who have been famous for their valour or their virtue. Th 
 Deysee songs in the Telingee and Carnatic dialects, are called 
 
2GT4 SUNGEET; 
 
 Dkerowi the subjeoJ;-iS;genemUy love. Those' sung in. Ben- 
 gal, are called Bimgeela. Those of Jownpoor> Clioolkutta. 
 Those of, Dehly, Eowl, and TemnehX These last were com- 
 posed by Ameer Khosru of- Dehly, with the assistance of ' 
 Samut and Tetarj they are a- delightful mixture of the 
 Persian and; Bindove. style. Those. of-Mehtra, are called: 
 Bishenpxdj consisting of "stanzas; of four, or six lines, and 
 are in praise of K,%shm. Those of Si(jd, are called Kamee,. 
 and are on love and friendship. Those, in the Terhut lan- 
 guage, called Leheharee, w.ere composed by Bedyaput, and are 
 on the violence of the passion, of love. Those of Lahore are 
 called Chund. Those.; of Qujerat Juckee. The warlike and 
 heroic songs are called. Kirhtfi and Sadereh; they are. of 
 different measures, and in various dialects. Besides those 
 already, mentioned, there are many others, amongst which 
 are Pcorbee t Dehnasireej Rumkully) Retry ie, Seohav, Deyskar, 
 and Deysneek* 
 
 The Third Adhya, PurJce&renka, txe&bs- of : Atop $ which is, 
 of two kinds. 1, Ragalap, the Tan^ or symphony* which 
 contains the. subject of the air. 2^ Mdopalap,< the air. with 
 the. words.,. 
 
 The Fourth Adhya, Pirbendh, is the art' of composiug 
 Oeet.(oi song), and consists of six things: — ], Soot-, % Beredi 
 (praise) ; 3, Pud,ih& person praised ; 4,.Tinna, or Amen ; 5, 
 Tuntivma, or Amen ; 6, JVeehrat, Time, 
 
 Paut signifies the variations of the word, Tvmtiwm, from 
 three ta twenty syllables. This therefore is an excess of time. 
 
 Taul, or measure. If the Taul contains six Tuntinnas, it 
 is called Meydenee; if five, Anundenee ; if four, Debnee,; if. 
 three, Bhawanee; if two, Terawely ; audit never consists 
 of fewer. 
 
SUNGEET. 205 
 
 Thefour Adhyas above described} are only divisions of Seor, 
 or- melody. 
 
 The Fifth Adhta, Taul, treats of the nature and quanti- 
 ty of the measure. 
 
 The Sixth Adhya, Wadya, of musical instruments, and 
 which are of four kinds : — 1, Tut, stringed instruments. 2, 
 Tit, those made of skins, such as drums. 3, Qheen, any two; 
 things that produce. sound by, percussion. 4, Sookhir, wind 
 instruments. 
 
 Stringed Instruments : — 
 
 The Junter has a neck of hollow wood an ell in length, 
 at each end of which is fastened half of a gourd. On the 
 neck are placed sixteen wooden frets, over which are strung 
 six iron wires, fastened into both ends of the neck. The tone 
 is varied, by means of the frets. 
 
 The Bheen resembles the Junter; but has only three 
 strings. 
 
 The Kinner has a longer neck than the Bheen, and has the 
 gourds with two strings. 
 
 The Sirbheenis like the Bheen excepting • that it has not 
 any frets. 
 
 The Ambirtee, the neck of this is smaller than that of' the 
 Sirbheen, and it has only one. gourd, which is placed in the 
 middle of the neck underneath, and one iron wire. The 
 changes of the modes are played upon it. 
 
 The Rebab, in general, has six strings of. gut ; but some 
 have twelve, and others,, eighteen. 
 
 The Sirmendel resembles the Canoon. It has twenty-one 
 strings, some of which are .of iron, some of. brass, and some 
 of gut. 
 
206 SUNGEET. 
 
 The Saringee, called also Soorbotan, is of the shape of 
 a bow, with two hollow cups inverted at each end. It has 
 one string of gut, resembling a bow-string. They hold under 
 the string a small gourd, and play with a plectrum. 
 
 The A dhowtee is a gourd with two wires. 
 
 The Kingerah resembles the Bheen, but has only two strings 
 of gut, and the gourds are smaller. 
 
 The Second Kind of Instruments oe Drums : — 
 
 The Puhuwej is a hollow piece of wood in the shape of a 
 citron, but flat at both ends, which are covered with parch- 
 ment ; and it is held under one arm. 
 
 The Awej resembles two falconers drums fastened together. 
 It is braced with strings of silk. 
 
 The Dehl, is another kind of drum well known. 
 
 The Dheddeh, is smaller than the Dehl. 
 
 The Irdahwej, is half the size of the Awej. 
 
 The Duff, is another kind of drum well known. 
 
 The Khenjir, is a little Duff hung round with small bells. 
 
 The Third Kind of Instruments, those of Percussion : — 
 
 The Tal, is a pair of brass cups, with broad mouths. 
 The Kut-h Tal, resemble small fish, and are made of wood 
 or stone ; a set consists of four. 
 
 The Fourth Kind, or Wind Instruments : — 
 
 The Shehna, is the same as the Persian Sirna, or trumpet. 
 
 The Mushk, is composed of two reeds, perforated according 
 to rule, and joined together in a leather bag. In the Persian 
 language it is called Nie Amhan, or the bagpipe. 
 
 The Moorlee, is a kind of flute. 
 
 The OvipunJc, is a hollow tube, an ell long, with a hole in 
 the centre, in which is placed a small reed. 
 
SUNGEET. 207 
 
 The Seventh Adhya, Tirtya, or the Art of Dancing. 
 
 The different kinds of singers. 
 
 Those who sing the ancient songs, which are the same 
 everywhere, are called Byhar ; -and those who teach them 
 Sehkar. The Kerawunt chiefly sing the Dhoorpud. 
 
 The Dharhee are those who sing the Penjaby songs, which 
 they accompany with the Dehdeh, and Kingerah. Many of 
 these sing in the field of battle the praises of heroes, to 
 excite the troops to valiant actions. The Kewall are of this 
 number, but sing chiefly the Dehly airs and Persian songs 
 in the same style. The Poorkeya, the men accompany their 
 voices with the Awej, and the women with the Tal ; formerly 
 they sung the Kirleh, but now the Dhoorpud, and such like. 
 There are many beautiful women of this class. The Dusmn 
 are chiefly Penjaby women who play on the Duff and Dehl, 
 and sing Dhoorpud and the Sohlah, or nuptial and birth-day 
 songs. Formerly, they appeared only before women ; but now 
 they will exhibit in public. The Sezdehtaly, the men of this 
 class have large Duffs, and one of the women plays at once 
 upon thirteen pair of Tal, placing them upon her wrists, 
 backs of the hands, elbows, shoulders, back of the neck, and 
 on the breast. 
 
 These are mostly natives of Gujerat and Mulwah. The 
 Nuthwah dance with graceful motions, and sing and play 
 upon the Pukawej, Rebab, and Tal. 
 
 The Keertunnya are Brahmins whose instruments are such 
 as were in use amongst the ancient, viz., the Pukawej, Rebab, 
 and Tal. They are boys dressed like women, who sing the 
 praise of Kishen. The Bhugteyeh, whose songs are the same 
 as the last ; but they change their dresses, and are great 
 mimics. They exhibit at night. The Bhumveyeh greatly 
 
208 SUNGEET. 
 
 resemble the last, but exhibit both in 'day and night. They 
 dance in a surprizing manner in the compass of a brass 
 dish, called in the Hindovee language Talee, They also sing : 
 The Bhena play on the Dhel and Tal, and sing : They re- 
 present different animals : They draw up water through the 
 nostrils : They run an iron spit down their throat into the 
 stomach : They swallow a mixture of different kinds of 
 grain, and then bring them up again separately, with other 
 flights of hand. The Kunjeree, the men play on the Pukawej, 
 Rebab, and Tal, and the women sing and dance : His Majesty 
 calls them Kunchenee. The Nut play on the Dhel and Tal, 
 dance upon the rope, and throw themselves into strange pos- 
 tures. The Beltroopee exhibit in the day, and disguise them- 
 selves in such a manner, that old men seem to be youths, 
 and youths old men, beyond detection. 
 
 The Jugglers are so dexterous, that they will seem to cut 
 a man in pieces, and join him together again. 
 
 The Akaheeh, or private Singing and Dancing. 
 
 This is an entertainment given at night by great people to 
 their own family. The performers are generally women of 
 the house, who are instructed by proper people. 
 
 A set consists of four dancers, four singers, and four others 
 who play the Tal, with two P-tikaWej, two Owpunks, one 
 Rehab, one Junter; and two who stand by with torches. 
 They are, for the most part, instructed by the Nutwah, who 
 Bometimes teach slaves of their own, and then sell them. 
 
 His Majesty is excessively fond of music, and las a perfect 
 knowledge of its principles. This art, which the generality 
 of people use as the means of obtaining sleep, serves to 
 amuse him and keep him awake. 
 
THE NAQQARAHKHANAH 
 
 AND 
 
 THE IMPERIAL MUSICIANS. 
 
 Translated from the original Persian. 
 
 BY 
 
 H. BLOCHMANN, Esq., m.a. 
 
 ( From the " Ain-i-Akbari," Vol. I. ) 
 
.A.I2T 19. 
 
 NAQQARAHKHANAH. 
 
 BY 
 
 H. BLOOHMANN, Esq., m. a. 
 
 Of musical instruments used in the Naqqarahhhanah, I 
 may mention, 1, The Kuwargah, commonly called DamamaJi ; 
 there are eighteen pairs of them more or less ; and they give 
 a deep sound. 2, The Naqqdrah, twenty pairs, more or less. 
 3, The Duliul, of which four are used. 4, The Karana* is 
 made of gold, silver, brass, and other metals : and they never 
 blow fewer than four. 5, The Surna of the Persian and 
 Indian kinds ; they blow nine together. 6, The Nafir, of 
 the Persian, European and Indian kinds ; they blow some of 
 each kind. 7, The Sing is of brass, and made in the form of 
 a cow's horn ; they blow two together. 8, The Sanj, or cym- 
 bal, of which three pairs are used. 
 
 Formerly the band played four gharis before the commence- 
 ment of the night, and likewise four gharis before daybreak ; 
 now they play first at midnight, when the sun commences 
 his ascent, and the second time at dawn. One ghari before 
 sun-rise, the musicians commence to blow the Surnd, and 
 wake up those that are asleep ; and one ghari after sun-rise, 
 they play a short prelude, when they beat the Kuwargah a 
 little, whereupon they blow the Karana, the Nafir, and the 
 other instruments, without, however, making use of the Naq- 
 qarah; after a little pause the Sum as are blown again, the 
 
 * Or Karranu. 
 
212 NAQQAEAHKHANAH. 
 
 time of the music being indicated by the Naurs. One hour 
 later the Naqqarahs commence, when all musicians raise 
 "the auspicious strain."* After this they go through the 
 following seven performances : — 1, The Mursali, which is the 
 name of a tune played by the Mursil; and afterwards the 
 Bard&sht, which consists likewise of certain tunes, played by 
 the whole baud. This is followed by a pianissimo, and a 
 crescendo passing over into a diminuendo ; 2, The playing 
 of the four tunes, called Ikhlati, Ihtiddi, Skirazi, Qalanddri 
 nigar quatrah,f or Nukh&d Qatrah, which occupies an hour. 
 3, The playing of the old Khwdrizmite tunes. Of these his 
 Majesty has composed more than two hundred, which are the 
 delight of young and bid, especially the tunes Jaldlsh&M, 
 Mahamir karkat (1), and the Naurdzi. 4, The swelling play 
 of the cymbals. 5, The playing of Ba miy&n daur. 6, The 
 passing into the tunes Azfar, also called Rdhi bdld, after which 
 comes a pianissimo. 7, The Khwdrizmite tunes, played by 
 the Mursil, after which he passes into the Mursali ; he then 
 pauses, and commences the blessings on his Majesty, when 
 the whole band strikes up a pianissimo. Then follows the 
 reading of beautiful sentences and poems. This also lasts 
 for an hour. Afterwards the (Swao-players perform for ano- 
 ther hour, when the whole comes to a proper conclusion. 
 
 His Majesty has such a knowledge of the science of Music 
 as trained musicians do not possess ; and he is likewise an 
 excellent hand in performing, especially on the Naqq&rah. 
 
 * Probably blessings on his Majesty. 
 
 t Several of these names of melodies are unclear, and will in all pro- 
 bability, remain so. Perhaps the words shirdzi qalandari, "a hermit of 
 Shiraz," belong to each other. Ndgar qatraJi means, behold the tear. 
 
( 213 ) 
 
 J±T1<T 30. 
 
 THE IMPERIAL MUSICIANS* 
 
 I cannot sufficiently describe the wonderful power of this 
 talisman of knowledge (music). It sometimes causes the 
 beautiful creatures of the harem of the heart to shine forth 
 on the tongue, and sometimes appears in solemu strains by 
 means of the hand and the chord. The melodies then enter 
 through the window of the ear and return to their former 
 seat, the heart, bringing with them thousands of presents. 
 The hearers, according to their insight, are moved to sorrow 
 or to joy. Music is thus of use to those who have renounced 
 the world and to such as still cling to it. 
 
 His Majesty pays much attention to music, and is the 
 patron of all who practise this enchanting art. There are 
 numerous musicians at Court, Hindus, Irani, Turanis, 
 Kashmiris, both men and women. The court musicians are 
 arranged in seven divisions, one for each day in the week. 
 When his Majesty gives the order, they let the wine of 
 harmony flow, and thus increase intoxication in some, and 
 sobriety in others. 
 
 * We have to distinguish goyandah, singers,' from khwanandalis, chan- 
 ters, and sdzandahs, players. The principal singers and musicians come from 
 Gwaliar, Mashhad, Tabriz, and Kashmir. A few come from Transoxania. The 
 schools in Kashmir had been founded by Irani and Turani musicians, patronized 
 by Zain-ul-Abidin, king of Kashmir. The same of Gwaliar for its schools of 
 mnsic dates from the time of Rijah Man Tunwar. During his reign lived the 
 famous Nait Bakhshu, whose melodies are only second to those of Tansen. Uakh- 
 shu also lived at the court of Rajah Bikramajifc, Man's son ; but when his patron 
 lost his throne, he went to Rajah Kirat of Kalinjar. Not long afterwards, 
 he accepted a call to Gujrat, where he remained at the court of Sultan 
 Bahadur (1526 to 1536, A. D.) Islem Shah also was a patron of music. 
 His two great singers were Ham Doss and Mabapater. Both entered 
 subsequently Akbar's service. Mahapater was once sent as ambassador to 
 Muktrad Deo of Orissa. 
 
214 THE IMPERIAL MUSICIANS. 
 
 A detailed description of this class of people would be 
 too difficult ; but I shall mention the principal musicians. 
 
 1. Miyan Tansen,* of Qwaliar. A singer like him has 
 
 not been in India for the last thousand years. 
 
 2. Baba R<irndas,+ of Gwaliar, 'a singer. 
 
 3. Subhan Khan, of Qwaliar, a singer. 
 
 4. Srigyan Khan, of Gwaliar, a singer. 
 
 5. Miyan Chand, of Qwaliar, a singer. 
 
 6. Biohitr Khan, brother of Subhan Khan, a singer. 
 
 7. Muhammad Khan Dhari, sings. % 
 
 8. Bir Maudal Khan, of Gwaliar, plays on the Sarmandal. 
 
 9. Baz Bahadur, ruler of Malwafi, a singer without rival. 
 
 10. Shihab Khan, of Gwaliar, performs on the Bin. 
 
 11. Daiid Dhari, sings. 
 
 12. Sarod Khan, of Gwaliar, sings. 
 
 13. Miyan Lai, of Gwaliar,[| sings. 
 
 * Regarding Tansen, or Tansain or Tansin, Ram Chand is said to have 
 once given him one kror of tankahs as a present. Ibrahim Sur in vain 
 persuaded Tansen to come to Agrah. Abulfazl mentions below his son 
 Tantarang Khan ; and the Padishahnamah (11, 5— an interesting passage) 
 mentions another son of the name of Bilas. 
 
 t Badaoni (11,42) says, Ram Dass came from Lakhnaw, He appears 
 to have been with Bairam Khan during his rebellion, and he received once 
 from him one lakh of tankahs, empty as Bairam's treasure chest was. 
 He was first at the court of Islem Shah, and he is looked upon as second 
 only to Tansen. His son Sur Das is mentioned below. 
 
 t Dhari means ' a singer,' a musician. 
 
 || Jahangir says in the Tuzuk that LSI Kalawant (or Kalanwat, i. e., 
 the singer) died in the 3rd year of his reign, " sixty or rather seventy years 
 old. He had been from his youth in my father's service. One of his 
 concubines, on his death, poisoned herself with opium. I have rarely seen 
 such an attachment among Muhammadan women." 
 
THE IMPERIAL MUSICIANS. 215 
 
 14. Tantarang Khan, son of Miyan Tansen, sings. 
 
 15. Mulla Is-haq Dhari, sings. 
 
 16. Usta Dost, of Mashhad, plays on the flute (nai). 
 
 17. Nanak Jarjti, of Gwaliar, a singer. 
 
 18. Purbin Khan, his son, plays on the Bin. 
 
 19. Sur Das, son of B&bu Earn Das, a singer. 
 
 20. Chaud Khan, of Qwaliar, sings. 
 
 21. Rangsen, of Agrah, sings. 
 
 22. Shaikh Dawan Dhari, performs on the Karand. 
 
 23. Rahmatullah, brother of Mulla Is-bdq, (No. 15), 
 
 a singer. 
 
 24. Mir Sayyid All, of Mashhad, plays on the Ohichak. 
 
 25. Usta Yiisuf, of Harat, plays on the Tamb&rah. 
 
 26. Qasim, surnamed Koh — bar.* He has invented an 
 
 instrument, intermediate between the Qzibuz and 
 the Rab&b. 
 
 27. Tash Beg, of Qipchaq, plays on the Qubiiz. 
 
 28. Sultan Hafiz Hussaia, of Mashhad, chants. 
 
 29. Bahram QciM, of Harat, plays on the QAichak. 
 
 30. Sultan Hashirn, of Mashhad, plays on the TamTrtbrah. 
 
 31. Usta Shah Muhammad, plays on the Surnd. 
 
 32. Usta Muhammad Amin, plays on the Tamb&rak r 
 
 33. Hafiz Khwajah' Ali, of Mashhad, chants. 
 
 34. Mir* Abdullah, brother of Mir Abdul Hai, plays the 
 
 Qanun. 
 
 * Koh-bar, as we know from the PSdishahnamah (1„ 6, p. 335) is 
 the name of a Chaghtai tribe. The Nafais-ul-Madsir mentions a poet 
 the name of Muhammad Qasim Kohbar, whose nom-de-plume was Cabri. 
 ■Vide Sprenger's catalogue, p. 50 (where we have to read Kohbar, for Guh- 
 pan). 
 
216 THE IMPERIAL MUblCIANS. 
 
 35. Pirzadah,* nephew of Mir Dawam, of Khurasan, 
 
 sings and chants. 
 
 36. Usta Muhammad Hussain, plays the Tamb&rah.f 
 
 * Pizzadah, according to Badaoni (111, 318) was from Sabzwar. He 
 wrote poems under the iahhalluc of Liwai. He was killed in 995 at Lahor, 
 by a wall falling on him. 
 
 t The Maasir i Rahimi mentions the following musicians in the service 
 of the Khan Khanan— Aglic Muhammad Nai, son of H£ji Ismail, of Tabriz ; 
 Maulana Acwati, of Tabriz ; Ust£b Mirza, Ali Fathagi ; Mauling Sharaf of 
 Nishapur, a brother of the poet Naziri (p. 579), Muhammad Mumin, alias 
 Hafizak, a Tamburah-player ; and Hafiz Nazr, from transoxania, a good 
 singer. The Tuzuk and the Iqbalnamah mention the following singers 
 of Jah£ngir's reign— Jabangfrdad ; Chatr Khan ; Parwizdad ; Khurramdad ; 
 Mak'hu ; Hamzan. During Shahjahan's reign we find Jangat'h, who 
 received from Shahjahan the title of Kabrdi ; Dirang Khan ; and La"l Khan ; 
 who got the title of Gunasamudra (ocean of excellence). Lai Khan was 
 son-in-law to Bilas, son of Tansen. Jagnath and Dirang Khan were both 
 weighed in silver, and received each 4,500 Rupees. 
 
 Aurangzib abolished the singers and musicians, just as he abolished 
 the court historians. Music is against the Muhammadan law. Khan Khan 
 (11,213) tells a curious incident which took place after the order had been 
 given. The court-musicians brought <* bier in front of the JharokTiah 
 (the window where the emperors used to shew themselves daily to the 
 people,) and wailed so loud as to attract Aurangzib's attention. He came 
 to the window, and asked whom they had on the bier. They said, " Me- 
 lody is dead, and we are going to the graveyard." " Very well," said the 
 emperor, " make the grave deep, so that neither voice nor echo may issue 
 from it." A short time after, the Jharok'hah also was abolished. 
 
ORIENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 THE MUSIC OF HINDUSTAN OR INDIA. 
 
 WILLIAM 0. STAFFORD. 
 
 B— 
 
OEIENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 THE MUSIC OP HINDUSTAN OR INDIA. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM C. STAFFORD. 
 
 Sir William Jones divides Asia into five great nations — 
 the Indiaus, Arabians, Persians, Chinese, and Tartars ; all of 
 whom, except the last, have their characteristic and national 
 music. In Tartary he found few indications of musical know- 
 ledge ; though some of the branches of that vast mother of 
 nations undoubtedly possessed great skill in the science. 
 
 India is one of those countries which lays claim to a very 
 high antiquity, and to a very early proficiency in the arts 
 and sciences. M. Bailly supposes the Indians cultivated 
 Astronomy 3101 years before Christ. The computation, how- 
 ever, is inreconcilable with the commonly received opinion of 
 the age of the world ; and we merely allude to it as a proof 
 that the country which we now call Hindustan, was amongst 
 the earliest settlements of the sons of Noah, and that a 
 people renowed for learning and intelligence, dwelt there. 
 '' India," says Mr. Orme, " has been inhabited, from the ear- 
 liest antiquity, by a people who have no resemblance, either 
 in their figure or manners, with any of the nations contiguous 
 to them ;" and, as Sir William Jones observes, however de- 
 generate the Hindus may now appear, we cannot but suppose, 
 " that in some early day, they were splendid in arts and 
 arms, happy in gOTernment, wise in legislation, and eminent 
 
220 ORIENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 in knowledge.* We shall not, however, pursue the inquiry 
 into their antiquity, nor into their proficiency, in arts and 
 sciences, except to give a sketch, as succinct as circumstances 
 will allow, of their musical pretensions. 
 
 The Hindus believe, that music was invented by Brahma 
 himself or by his active power, Sareswati, the goddess of 
 speech ; and that their mythological son, Narad, invented 
 the vina, the oldest musical instrument in use in Hindustan, 
 —which was also called Cach'hapi or Testudo. Among in- 
 spired mortals, the first musician is believed to have been the 
 sage Bharat, who was the inventor, they say, of Natacs, or 
 dramas, represented with songs and dances, and the author 
 of a musical system that bears his name. There appear to 
 have been in the ancient Hindu music, four principal matas, 
 or systems, and almost every kingdom aud province had a 
 peculiar style of melody, and very different names for the 
 modes, as well as a different arrangement and enumeration 
 of them. 
 
 In the sacred books of the Hindus, their ancient system of 
 music is said still to be preserved. These, however, have 
 never been translated ; and probably never will be : nor do 
 we think they would repay the time and trouble which such 
 a task would require. To the learned natives, hoTsever, the 
 theory of the art appears to be known, though the practice is 
 entirely lost. 
 
 The Hindus have thirty-six ancient melodies, of a very 
 peculiar nature, called raugs, [or ragas] and raugines, [or 
 ragiues.] There are various popular traditions as to their 
 origin ; aud many miraculous powers are assigned to them. 
 " Of the six raugs," says Sir William Ouseley,* " the first 
 
 * Oriental Collec ion*. 
 
ORIENTAL MUSIC. 821 
 
 five owe their origin to the god Mahadeo, who -produced them 
 from his five heads. Parbuttee, his wife, constructed the 
 sixth ; and the thirty raugines were composed by Brahma. 
 Thus, of celestial invention, these melodies are of a peculiar 
 genus ; and of the three ancient genera of the Greeks most 
 resemble the enharmonic. A considerable difficulty is found 
 in setting to music the raugs and raugines, as our system 
 does not supply notes, or signs, sufficiently expressive of the 
 almost imperceptible elevations and depressions of the voice 
 in these melodies ; of which the time is broken and irregular, 
 the modulations frequent, and very wild. Whatever magic 
 was in the touch, when Orpheus swept his Lyre or Timotheus 
 filled his softly-breathing flute, the effects said to have been 
 produced by two of the six raugs, are even more extraordi- 
 nary than any of those ascribed to the modes of the ancients. 
 Mia Tousine, a wonderful musician in the time of the Em- 
 geror Akber, sung one of the night raugs at midday ; the 
 powers of his music were such, that it instantly became 
 night; and the darkness extended in a circle round the 
 palace, as far as the sound of his voice could be heard," 
 Another of these raugs — the rang Dheepuck — possessed the 
 singular property of occasioning the destruction by fire of 
 Whoever attempted to sing it. Akber is said to have com- 
 manded one of his musicians, named Naik Gopal, to sing it, and 
 he, obliged to obey, repaired to the river Jumna in which he 
 plunged himself up to the neck. As he warbled the wild and 
 magical notes, flames burst from his body and consumed him 
 to ashes ; the effect of the third — the Maig Mullar rang — was 
 to produce immediate rain, and tradition says, " a singing 
 girl once, by exerting the powers of her voice, in this raug, 
 drew down from the clouds timely and refreshing showers 
 
222 ORIENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 on the parched rice-crops of Bengal, and thereby averted the 
 horrors of famine from the paradise of region."* Of course 
 no traveller now meets with singers possessed of these 
 wonderful properties ; but if he inquire for them in the west 
 of India, he is told they are to be found in Bengal : in Bengal 
 the inquirer is sent back to the west of India on the search. 
 
 The ancient musical instruments of India were of the lyre, 
 the flute, and the drum kind, and it would appear that the 
 violin was in use in some parts as far back as the early part 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 " In a collection of Voyages and Travels, collected for the 
 library of Lord Orford, there is one entitled, ' A true and 
 almost incredible report of an Englishman, that, being cast- 
 away in the good ship called the Ascension, in Cambaya, the 
 farthest part' of the East Indies, travelled by land through 
 many unknown kingdoms,' &c, &c, by Captain Corvette, 
 1607-8, which contains many curious particulars of the people 
 amongst whom he was thrown ; and what is to our purpose 
 here contains a passage, clearly describing the existence of the 
 ancient violin. He arrives at Buckar ' standing on an island, 
 in a gallant fresh river,' where dwelt a people called the Bul- 
 lochies, ' mere-eators' and worshippers of the sun. The ad- 
 joining country of the Puttans was little better, for they met 
 the travellers with fiddles in their hands, as if to welcome 
 them, yet robbed and nearly murdered them."f 
 
 Francis Fowke Esq., in a letter to Sir William Jones, des- 
 cribes an Hindu instrument called the Been (or vina before 
 mentioned) which is similar in construction to the Spanish 
 Guitar. " The style of music," he says, " on this instrument 
 
 * Sir W, Ouseley's Oriental Collections, Vol. i., p. 74. 
 t Quarterly Musical Review. 
 
OEIENTAL MDSIC. 223 
 
 is in general that of great execution ; I could hardly ever disco- 
 ver any rational air or subject. The music seems to consist of a 
 number of detached passages, some very regular in their ascent 
 and descent ; and those that are played softly are both uncom- 
 mon and pleasing. The open wires are struck from time to time 
 in a manner that I think prepares the ear for a change in the 
 modulation, to which the uncommonly full and fine tones of 
 these notes greatly contribute ; but the ear is always dis- 
 appointed." He adds, " were there any other circumstances 
 respecting the Indian music which led to the supposition, 
 that it has at some period been much superior to the present 
 practice, the style, scale, and antiquity of this instrument, 
 would, I think, greatly confirm the supposition." There is 
 an excavation at Mahabalipatam, described ; by Mr. Golding- 
 ham, in the Asiatie Researches,* which he imagines was ori- 
 ginally intended as it is now used " as a shelter for travellers. 
 A scene of sculpture fronts the entrance, said to represent 
 Crishna attending the herds of Ananda. One of the group 
 represents a man diverting an infant by playing on a_flute, 
 and holding the instrument as we do." In the same papers 
 there is an account of the pagoda at Permuttum^ on which 
 there are several groups of sculptured figures ; one of which 
 represents two camels, " with a person on each, beating the 
 naqua, or great drum."t 
 
 What we have hitherto said, must be considered as refer- 
 ring chiefly to the ancient music of Hindustan. Of the 
 modern Hindu music and the sensations it excites, as Sir 
 William Ouseley remarks, we can speak with greater accu- 
 racy. It is of the diatonic genera and " many of the 
 
 * Asiatic Researches, Vol. V. 
 t Ibid. p. 313. 
 
224 ORIENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 Hindu melodies possess the plaintive simplicity of the 
 Scotch and Irish, and others a wild originality, pleasing 
 beyond description. Counterpoint seems not to have entered, 
 at any time, into the system of Indian music. It is not 
 alluded to in the M. S. treatises which I have hitherto per- 
 sued; nor have I discovered that any of our ingenious 
 Orientalists speak of it as being known in Hindustan."* 
 
 Sir William Jones says, " The Hindu system of music has, 
 I believe, been formed on truer principles than our own; 
 and all the skill of the native composers is directed to the 
 great object of their art, the natural expression of strong 
 passions, to which melody, indeed, is often sacrificed, though 
 some of their tunes are pleasing even to an European ear."t 
 If we do not admit Sir William's eulogy in the fullest sense, 
 we must certainly allow, that many of the Hindu airs possess 
 great merit. Dr. Crotch has inserted several of them in his 
 " Specimens of Various Styles of Music;" some of which are 
 original in their formation, and others are marked by a pecu- 
 liar and pleasing tenderness. It would appear, that music is 
 generally cultivated in India ; and in central India, accord- 
 ing to Sir John Malcolm, most of the villages have attached 
 to them men and women of the Nutt or Bamallee tribes, who 
 appear to be a kind of wandering gipsies, and have attached to 
 them rude musicians and minstrels, whose music and songs 
 form the chief entertainment of the peasantry. These musi- 
 cians are divided into two classes, Charims and Bhats; they 
 boast of a celestial origin, and exercise an influence of a very 
 powerful description over the people. 
 
 • Oriental Collections. 
 
 t Sir William Jones's Second Anniversary Discourse before the Asiatic Society 
 of Calcutta. Works, Vol. Ill, p. 17. 
 
ORIENTAL MUSIC. 225 
 
 In an account of Penang, given by Wilkinson in his 
 " Sketches of China," it appears that the inhabitants culti- 
 vate a species of extempore song, rudely imitative of the art 
 of improvisatrizing, so well known in Italy. 
 
 " Upon entering one of their boats, you immediately be- 
 come a subject for their panegyric and eulogium ; and every 
 part of your dress is severally described and sung in chorus 
 by the sable songsters, in their savage polacca, which, al- 
 though possessing more discord than harmony, has a kind of 
 melancholic dissonancy, not altogether unpleasing to the 
 ear."* 
 
 The Hindus have a Gamut " consisting ' of seven notes 
 like our own, which, being repeated in their several asfhaus, 
 or octaves, form a scale of twenty-one natural notes. The 
 seven notes which form the Gamut are expressed sa, ra, ga, 
 ma, pa, da, -na, ov sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni ; and, when 
 written at leDgth, stand thus : hauredge ; rehkub ; gundhaur ; 
 muddhum ; punchwm ; dhawoth ; neehhaudh. Of these seven 
 words, (the first excepted) the initial letters are used, in 
 writing music, to express the notes. Instead of the initial 
 of the first, or lowest hauredge, that of the word sur is used, 
 which signifies, emphatically, the note being, as it were, the 
 foundation of the others, and named swam, or the sound, 
 from the important office which it bears in the scale."+ 
 
 Sir William Jones says, " As to the notation, since every 
 Indian consonant includes, by its nature, the short vowel a, 
 five of the sounds are denoted by single consonants, and 
 the two others have different short vowels, taken from their 
 
 * Letter on ' Oriental Music," in the Quarterly Musical Review and Maga- 
 zine, Vol. Tiii., p- 20. 
 
 t Sir William Ouseley's Oriental Collections, Vol. i., p. 76. 
 
 C-l 
 
22G ORIENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 full names ; by substituting long vowels, the time of each 
 note is doubled, and other marks are used for a further 
 elongation of them. The octaves above and below the meau 
 scale, the connexion and acceleration of notes, the graces of 
 execution, or manner of finger in the instrument, are express- 
 ed very clearly by small circles and ellipses, by little chains, 
 by curves, by straight lines, horizontal or perpendicular, and 
 by crescents, all in various positions. The close of a strain 
 is distinguished by a lotus flower ; but the time and measure 
 are determined by the prosody of the verse, and by the com- 
 parative length of each syllable, with which every note, or 
 assemblage of notes, respectively corresponds. If I under- 
 stand the native musicians, they have not only the chromatic, 
 but even the second, or new enharmonic genus."* 
 
 The regular Gamut of the Hindus applies very nearly 
 to our major mode ; ut, ri, mi, fa sol, la si, ut. When the 
 same syllables are applied to notes, which compose our minor 
 mode> they are distinguished by epithets expressing the 
 change. 
 
 The Hindus reckon twenty-two S'rati's, or quarters and 
 thirds of a tone, in their octave, Their modes are very 
 numerous ; in the days of Crishna, they say they amounted to 
 sixteen thousand. One of their musical authors, Soma, 
 enumerates nine hundred and sixty possible variations of 
 the musical scale, but he selects from them, as applicable to 
 practice, only twenty-three primary modes. It should be 
 observed, that the Hindu word raga, which is rendered 
 mode, properly signifies a passion, or afiection of the mind ; 
 each mode being intended, according to Bhekat's definition 
 of it, to move one or other of our simple or mixed 
 affections. 
 
 * On ike Musical Modes of the Hindui, Works Vol. iv., p. 157. 
 
ORIENTAL MUSIC. 227 
 
 Mr. Paterson, in his notice of the " Garnets, or Musical Scales 
 of the Hindus," expresses an opinion, that the ancient Hindus 
 were confined, in their music, to thirty-six melodies, vie., 
 "the six ragas, and thirty ragines,' 7 which were fixed 
 respectively to particular seasons of the year, and times 
 of the day and night, and probably were, in early times, 
 applied to the service of different deities. Now the Hindus 
 would consider a performer who sung a raga out of its 
 appropriate season, as an ignorant pretender to the character 
 of a musician. ... 
 
 The principal instruments in use in modern Hindustan, are 
 the tamboura which has a body formed of a gourd, with a 
 long neck, or finger-board, and three strings, two of which 
 are turned in unison, and one an octave below. These strings 
 are struck with a plectrum, shaped like a heart. The sauringas, 
 or syringas, resemble an European violin. The strings are 
 of gut ; they are sometimes four, and sometimes five in num- 
 ber : and they are tuned in fourths, played with a bow, and 
 stopped on the finger-board in the manner of a violin ; the 
 Cashmerian sauringas are larger, and are held and played in 
 the manner of that instrument. 
 
 The Hindu cithara is furnished with wires, and is played 
 with a bow. The common pulsatile instrument in use is a 
 small kettle-drum. Two of these instruments are fastened to 
 the sash which goes round the waist, and are beaten with the 
 fingers, both hands being used. 
 
 In those parts of India which are under British dominion, 
 the same style of music is cultivated which is current in 
 the mother country ; and Calcutta, in particular, has been 
 visited by some distinguished artists, both vocal and instru- 
 mental. 
 
228 OMENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 The orchestra of the theatre in that city, — in 1824, consist- 
 ed, besides the violins, of a double bass, two violon cellos, two 
 bassoous, two flutes, two clarionets, two horns, two trumpets, 
 and kettle-drums. It was under the direction of Mr. Del- 
 mer ; and the most distinguished amongst the singers were 
 Dr. Wilson, Mr. and Mrs. Bianchi Lacy with Mesdames 
 Cooke, Kelly and Miss Williams. Concerts were given, some- 
 times by foreigners, but generally by Englishmen, the price 
 of admission being sixteen Rupees. The charge of the higher 
 class of professors for lessons was from eight to sixteen 
 Rupees. 
 
MUSIC OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 BY 
 
 J. NATHAN. 
 
 (From " Musurgia Vocalis." ) 
 
MUSIC OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 BY 
 
 J. NATHAN, 
 
 The Hindus considered music iuvented for the purpose of 
 raising the mind by devotion to the felicity of the divine 
 nature, and have airs faithfully handed down by their ances- 
 tors in Sastras, where the whole science of harmony is personi- 
 fied in six Ragas, or, as we may call them, major modes ; to 
 each of which is attached' six Ragnis, or minor modes of the 
 same strain, representing so many princes with six wives 
 to each. But as the Indian allegories speak much more ex- 
 pressively to the eye than to the ear, we learn from appro- 
 priate paintings to the several modes, that the performance 
 of each undivided melody is exclusively restricted to some 
 season of the year, or point of time in the twenty-four hours, 
 at which only it is opportune or admissible.* 
 
 I here omit a full discussion of Hindu music, because the 
 pages of the Asiatic Researches have been already devoted 
 
 * According to Hindu belief in the absurd account given in the Sanscrit 
 language, the supreme God having created the world by the word of his 
 mouth, formed a female deity named Bawaney, who, in an enthusiasm of 
 joy and praise brought forth three eggs. From these were produced three 
 male deities, named Brimah, Vishnou, Sheevah. Brimah was endowed 
 with the power of creating the things of this world, Vishnou with that of 
 cherishing them, and Sheevah with that of restraining and correcting them. 
 Seraswaty, the wife of Brimah, presides over music, hannony and elo- 
 quence ; she is also said to be the inventress of the letters called Demnagry, 
 by which the divine will was first promulgated among mankind. This god- 
 dess is supposed to have a number of inferior deities, called Rags or Ragae, 
 
232 MDSIC OF THE HINDUS. 
 
 to the inquiry. Lieutenant-Colonel Tod, however, imagines 
 the Hiudus to have derived the notion of the seven notea 
 from the seven planets, whence they obtained an octave 
 with its semitones. It is also possible (he avers) that as 
 they converted the ascending and descending notes into 
 Grahas or planetary bodies, they may have added them to 
 the harmonious numbers, and thus produced the No-Ragini 
 or nine modes of music, so called from the nine passions 
 excited by the powers of Harmony. He believes, that they 
 had not only the diatonic, but the chromatic scale ; for, al- 
 though the latter has been referred to Timotheus in the time 
 of Alexander, it is more probable, that it was brought from 
 
 the banks of the Indus. 
 
 acting in subordination to her ; they preside over each mode. The Ragas 
 are accompanied each with five Eaginies or Ragnis, female deities or nymphs 
 of harmony ; they have each eight sons or genii, and a distinct season is 
 appointed for the music of each Rag, during which only it can be sung or 
 played, and this at distinct and stated hours of the day or night. 
 
 There once existed, say the Hindus, a musical mode belonging to Deipec 
 or Cupid, the infiamer; but it is now lost, and a musician who attempted 
 to restore it was consumed with fire from heaven. 
 
 To Nared, the son of Brimah, is ascribed the invention of a fretted 
 instrument named Bene. 
 
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
 
 ( From the " Journal of the Asiatic Society," 
 Vol. XXV., 1834) 
 
 D— 1 
 
WILLAED'S TREATISE 
 
 MUSIC OF HINDUSTAN. 
 
 With the exception of Sir William Jones' valuable and 
 learned essay in the third volume of the Asiatie Researches, 
 we have had little information on the music of the Hindus, . 
 beyond a notice of the adaptation of the rags to the different 
 Seasons and hours in Gilchrist's Hindustani Grammar, and 
 occasional cursory (generally disparaging) mention of the . 
 existing practice of the art at naches, in noisy processions, or/ 
 on the Gh&ts, by travellers ill capable of appreciating the 
 peculiarities of the science of sweet sounds among the nations, 
 of the East. The instruments themselves are pretty well 
 known ; Solwyn's magnificent work contains accurate 
 drawings of most of them, which have been copied into, 
 other more popular works. 
 
 The present volume, therefore, a child of long promise, 
 and consequently of high expectation, was received with 
 avidity, as the author was known to be a skilful per- 
 former himself on several instruments, and to have en- 
 joyed local advantages of observation from his appoint- 
 ment at the native court of the Nawab of Banda : neither 
 has his little volume disappointed us, being a familiar 
 and pleasing account of his subject, intended for the general 
 reader, and rendered more inviting by frequent allusion to 
 
236 ORIENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 the music of the West both ancient and modern. An author 
 in the present day labours under evident disadvantages, in 
 attempting to describe what the music of the Hindus was in 
 the flourishing period of their literature and religion, when 
 poets and priests were also musicians, modulating and singing 
 their own compositions. To have persued the subject as an 
 antiquary, would have required extensive knowledge of 
 Sanskrit, and sufficient familiarity with the varied metre of 
 its heroic, and erotic poetry, to do without aid from native 
 professors ; for the present cultivators of the science are for 
 the chief part of the most ignorant and abandoned classes ; 
 so that the very art is held to be disreputable among the 
 more respectable ranks, just as among us the noble drama 
 is forsworn by many, from the abuses which have crept into 
 our theatres. Still in these degenerate days there are 
 exceptions, and the sacred Vin may occasionally be heard 
 pouring forth a strain of rhapsody that carries the imagina- 
 tion back to the fabulous age of Rishes and Oandharbas. 
 
 Our author treats successively of the Gamut, of time, of 
 oriental melody, rags and raginees (giving a long catalogue of 
 compound rags) instruments, vocal compositions, and of the 
 peculiarities of manners and customs exemplified in the songs 
 of Hindustan. Then follows a brief account of the most 
 celebrated musicians, a copious glossary of musical terms, 
 and copper-plate tables of the varieties of time or metre with 
 their native characters and values. 
 
 " The musicians of Hindustan never appear to have had 
 any determined pitch by which their instruments were re- 
 gulated, each person tuning his own to a certain height, 
 adapted by guess, to the power of the instrument and 
 quality of the strings, the capacity of the voice intended 
 
ORIENTAL MUSIC. 237 
 
 to be accompanied, and other adventitious circumstances. 
 From this it may be observed that it is immaterial which 
 note is designated by which letter." Sir William Jones 
 makes the Kharaj, or key-note, on the Vin, to correspond 
 with A, but the author thinks it would be more systematic to 
 tune it to ut or 0, the key-note of the natural scale of Europe. 
 This depends upon whether it was the intention to speak of 
 the diatonic intervals, or of the absolute pitch of the instru- 
 ment. " The notes of an octave are divided into 22 minor 
 sub-divisions instead of twelve semitones, as is done with 
 us : these are called Sruti, and each of them has a distinct 
 name assigned as follow : — 
 
 Soor. Abbreviated for Solfaing, Srulis comprised. 
 
 C Kharaj Sa., Butra, Cumodutee, Mundrica, Chhundavuttee. 
 
 D Rikhab Ri Duyavatee, Heictica, Runjunee. 
 
 E Gandhar Ga Sivee, Crodhee. 
 
 F Maddham Ma Bugra, Prusarunee, Preetee, Marjunee. 
 
 G Panchum Pa Kshuttee, Recta, Sidpunee, Ulapunee. 
 
 A Ilhyvat Dha Mundutee, Rubin ee, Rummya. 
 
 B Mkhad Ni Oogra, Joobhanka. 
 
 The intervals between the first and second, fourth and 
 fifth, and fifth and sixth notes are divided into four parts $ 
 those between the second and third, and sixth and seventh, 
 each into three parts ; and those between the third 
 and fourth, and seventh and eighth, which with us are 
 reckoned semitones, each into two parts." Captain Willard 
 asserts under the division ' time,' notwithstanding the 
 authority of Tartini and Dr. Burney, that no musician 
 can execute measures of five notes in a bar — " There is 
 beautiful melody in Hindustan comprising seven and other 
 unequal number of notes in a measure, and that they have 
 musicians in abundance that are able to execute it. We 
 should much doubt this fact. 
 
238 ORIENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 Indian Harmony is mostly confined to a monotonous re- 
 petion of the key-note during the flights of their vocal or 
 instrumental melody ; for it is melody which has ever consti- 
 tuted the soul of the national music in India as amoDg the 
 Greeks and Egyptains. Our author has the following general 
 observations on this subject. 
 
 1. Hindustani melodies are short, lengthened by repeti- 
 tion and variations. 
 
 2. They all partake of the nature of what is denominated 
 by us Rondo, the piece being invariably concluded with the 
 first strain, and sometimes with the first bar, or at least with 
 the first note of that bar. 
 
 3. A bar, or measure, or a certain number of measures, 
 is frequently repeated with slight variation, almost ad lib. 
 
 4. There is as much liberty allowed with respect to 
 pauses, which may be lengthened at pleasure, provided the 
 time be not disturbed. The author corrects Sir William 
 Jones' rendering of Rag by the expression, ' mode,' or key, 
 for which the Hindus have the distinct word that : — rag 
 signifies rather ' tune' or ' air.' 
 
 The personification of rags and rdginees, and the series 
 of pictures called ragmalahs, are too well known to re- 
 quire any remark ; it would have increased the interest 
 of the work to European readers had the descriptions of 
 these been accompanied by engravings of a selected 
 series of drawings, but we are aware that this could not 
 have been easily done in India. The sixteen melodies set 
 to music (always excepting the impossible 7-quaver airs) 
 form, however, an interesting part of the author's labour ; 
 the effect of metre is strikingly marked in some of these 
 
ORIENTAL MUSIC. 239 
 
 We cannot resist pointing out the [close resemblance of 
 the 9th (a Persian ghazal) to the hexameter verse ; by trans- 
 posing the first and second section iu each line and adding 
 one long foot the metre becomes perfect : 
 
 Ashvagari dil burda za man (to) jalva numai, 
 Kajkulahi zar rin kamari (ham) tanga qubai, 
 Man bavasalash ky rasam in (ast) baa ki barahash, 
 Khaka shavam rozi (ta) bo&am (man) kan pai. 
 
 which may be anglicized in the metre of the original : — 
 (Dilburda za man-ashvagari— jalva nxxxni, &c.) 
 
 Oh thief of my heart, eye me not so — shining so brightly 
 With head dress awry — girdle of gold — boddice bound tightly — • 
 When, when shall we meet ! Ah not in life— not till my ashes 
 Lie strew'd in thy path— kissing thy feet— treading so lightly. 
 
CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 COL. P. T. FEENCH. 
 
 ( From the Proceedings of the Royal Irish 
 Academy, Vol. IX., Part I. ) 
 
 E-l 
 
CATALOGUE OF INDIAN MUSICAL 
 
 INSTRUMENTS, 
 
 Presented B¥ 
 
 Colonel P. T. FRENCH. 
 
 Captain Meadows Taylor read the following :— 
 Having been called upon to describe the valuable Collec- 
 tion of Musical Instruments of India, presented by Colonel 
 P. T. French to the Academy, I will now proceed to do so, 
 in the order in which they have been numbered. I have to 
 regret that I have not beeu able to tune any of them : had 
 this been possible, their uses and effects would have been 
 much more readily understood than they can be by mere 
 description ; but the greater number of these instruments 
 require steel wire strings of a quality made especially for 
 them by wire-drawers in India, which is not obtainable in 
 this city. I have therefore to depend upon descriptive detail 
 alone, with notices of the uses to which they are put by native 
 musicians of India, according to my own experience. 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, in Catalogue. Native Name j^ (Jhang). 
 
 Metal Cymbals of vaeioos Kinds. 
 
 These are used as accompaniments to all native music ; but 
 in the north more frequently in connexion with that of a 
 religious character than in the south, where in all shapes 
 they are universal. The larger kinds, whether of silver or 
 of bell metal, when clashed together, have an effect similar 
 
244 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN. 
 
 to those in use iu our own military bands, and form fitting 
 unison with the hoarse bray of trumpets, the shrill pipes 
 and flageolets, the drums, and large choruses of male voices, 
 by which the temple music, chaunts hymns, and the like, 
 is generally executed. Cymbals differ in form and, sound: 
 some have the effect of large gongs ; others of a softer and 
 more tinkling character, are used with softer music. In . all, 
 however, the effect for the most part is to assist in marking 
 the time, which is done very skilfully and evenly by the 
 performers. 
 
 In the south of India another kind of cymbal is used, 
 which is in the form of two cups, of bell metal, and of which 
 there is no specimen here. Of these one is held in the left 
 palm, secured by a cord passed round the hand, and is struck 
 by the other, which is held loosely in the right. Players on 
 these cymbals are extremely dexterous, and produce a not 
 unpleasing accompaniment to the voice, or to instrumental 
 music, by striking the cups together in such a manner, 
 outside, inside, and upon their edges, as to form notes in 
 accordance with the voice, or the other instruments by which 
 it may be accompanied. This cymbal accompaniment ia 
 played with more execution than may be conceived possible 
 from the nature of the instrument. I have heard professors 
 even play solos upon it, which, if not very intelligible as to 
 tune, were at least curious in execution and diversity of time, 
 as suited to the various styles of music. Cymbals are used 
 both by Hindu and Mahcmedan musicians. 
 
 4. srr^T (Thalia).— Gong. 
 
 This needs no particular description. It is beaten in tem- 
 ple music, or as calls to sacrifice or ceremony at different 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT. 245 
 
 hours of the day, and is used by many of the professional 
 religious mendicants of the country, more especially those 
 who are accompanied by bulls or goats which perform tricks. 
 The thalla or gong, is not used as an accompaniment to vocal 
 music, nor to any but the loud, crashing and generally disso- 
 nant music of temple ceremonies. It is not used by Maho- 
 medans except when struck as a clock, noting the hours of. 
 the day as shown by the water-clock or hour-glass, and in 
 this respect iudeed it is common both to Hindus and Maho- 
 medans. 
 
 5. *f§ (Gunte). — Bell. 
 
 As a musical instrument, the bell is used somewhat in the 
 same manner as the cymbals before mentioned, but more rare- 
 ly. No ceremony of sacrifice or oblation, however, is ever 
 performed without preliminary tinkling of the bell, which is 
 repeated at certain intervals according to the ritual. No set 
 of sacrificial utensils is complete without one. To describe 
 the use of the hand bell at particular periods of ceremonial 
 observance, would lead me into digressions which have no 
 reference to the subject in hand ; but there can be no doubt 
 that the practice of using it is as ancient as Hinduism itself, 
 and the rituals, liturgies, and works on ceremonial obser- 
 vances, define the use to be made of it. By Mahomedans, 
 the use of the bell in any form that I am aware of is un- 
 known. 
 
 6. $ '^5 (Goongooroo). — Ankle Bells. 
 
 These striugs of small bells are used by all dancers, male 
 or -female, Hindu or Mahomedan. They are tied round the 
 leg, above the ankle, and produce a faint clashing sound as 
 the feet move in steps, which mingles, not; unmusically, with 
 
246 CATALOGUE OP INDIAN. 
 
 the dauce music, or songs which accompany the dance ; and 
 they not only serve to mark the time, but to keep the dancer 
 or singer in perfect time and accord with the musicians. 
 These bells are the symbols of their profession with all 
 dancers and singers, and to some extent are held sacred. No 
 dancer ties them on his or lier ankles before performance, 
 without touching his or her forehead and eyes with them, and 
 saying a short prayer or invocation to a patron saint or divi- 
 nity, Hindu or Mahometan. Nor is it possible, after a female 
 singer or dancer has once been invested with them- — a cere- 
 mony which is very solemnly performed, and attended with 
 much cost — to abandon the professional life so adopted. 
 He or she " has tied on the bells," is even a proverb, to 
 signify that the person alluded to has devoted himself or her- 
 self to a purpose from which it is impossible to recede. 
 Strings of these small bells are also used for horses, and tied 
 round the fetlocks of prancing chargers with gay tinsel rib- 
 bons or pieces of cloth, also round the necks of lap-dogs, and 
 some of a large size round those of a favourite plough or cart 
 bullock. The latter are identical with sleigh bells. No post 
 runner in India travels without a string of them tied on the 
 end of his pole on which is slung the leather bag he carries ; 
 and on a still night their clashing sound, besides being heard 
 at a great distance serves to scare away wild beasts and to 
 cheer the runner on his lonely path. 
 
 7. frs*l (Seeng). — Horn. 
 
 Used universally through India for signals, watch setting, 
 processions, and the like, both by Mahomedans and Hindus, 
 though the performers, for the most part, are Hindus of low 
 caste. In every village of Central or Southern India, it is 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. f *~' * 247 
 
 the business of one or more of the watchmen to blow the 
 horn at sunset, and again at certain hours during the night, 
 or when the watchmen go their stated rounds. Iu large cities 
 every niahdla or ward has a horn-blower attached to its 
 night watchmen or police ; and there is seldom a guard or 
 detachment of native irregular troops without one. In all 
 processions, temple services, and especially at marriages and 
 other festive occasions, this horn is indispeusable ; and wail- 
 ing blasts for the dead are played upon it at the funerals of 
 Hindus of the lower classes and castes, or equally so at the 
 cremations of Hindu princes. 
 
 No native authority traverses the country without one, 
 frequently several, in his train ; and as towns or villages are 
 approached, the great man's advent is heralded by flourishes 
 of the instrument, blown by the performer, who struts at 
 the head of the cavalcade. These blasts are answered by 
 others from the town or village gate, whence the local authori- 
 ties come out to meet the visitor and present their offerings of 
 welcome. On these occasions, the horn-blowers on both sides 
 vie with each other in producing their grandest effects, and 
 the discordance is generally indescribable. 
 
 Itinerant mendicants of many classes use this instrument, 
 both Hindu and Mahomedan ; and by the men in charge of 
 droves of cattle carrying grain or merchandize, such as 
 Brinjarees, Comptees, and others, it is sounded at intervals 
 along the road to cheer up their bullocks and keep them from 
 straggling, as well as at their departure from or arrival at 
 one of their stages. 
 
 In tone a good Seeng, or horn, is not unlike a common 
 bugle, but has much more power, and in the hands of a good 
 phiyer much more compass. In playing the high notes in 
 
248 CATALOGUE OP INDIAN. 
 
 many of the calls, shrill quivering cadences are produced, 
 which have a startling and peculiarly wild effect as heard 
 from the walls of some ancient fortress, or from village 
 towers and gates as night falls, and more especially in the 
 otherwise unbroken stillness of night. 
 
 I have never heard tunes played or attempted by native 
 horn-blowers, though the modulations of the tones of the 
 instruments are frequently sweet and pleasing ; nor are they 
 used iu concert with other music, but always independently, 
 as I have already explained. There can be no doubt, I think, 
 that this kind of horn is of very ancient origin and use ; and 
 I observe in the Museum of the Academy one ancient Irish 
 or Celtic instrument, if not indeed others, identical with the 
 Indian Seeng, and which, like it, were most probably used in 
 battle, or for the purposes already detailed. In shape, in 
 the peculiar adaptation of their joints, and in the form of 
 the mouth-piece, they are identical. 
 
 8. Jjtjfi: ( Tootoore ). — Small Trumpet. 
 Used chiefly in religious music at temples, and in other 
 religious ceremonies. It always accompanies the next in order, 
 and may be called the tenor trumpet, the other being the 
 bass. No calls or modulations are blown upon it, but it is 
 sounded at intervals, several being employed, with a wild 
 shrill effect, in concert with the pipes on which the tunes are 
 played. 
 
 9. 3i«if ( Kuma). — Large Trumpet. 
 Like the preceding, this is used chiefly in religious pro- 
 cessions, or in festivals in honour of local divinities. It has 
 a few hoarse bass notes, which contrast with the shrill tenor 
 of the Tootoore, and appear incapable of other modulation. 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 249 
 
 These instruments are almost invariably played by Brahmins 
 or priests attached to Hindu temples, and by persons at- 
 tached to the retinues of the Gooroos, Swamies, or spiritual 
 princes of the country, who possess large ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction, and are provided with them, as a mark of high 
 rank, which is not allowable to others. Occasionally, also, 
 they are met with in the Nobuts, or musical establish- 
 ments attached by royal permission to nobles of high rank, 
 Mahomedan as well as Hindu ; and they are sounded at the 
 five stated periods of the regular daily performance ; but 
 they do not exist in all cases, for there are distinctions in 
 the classes of instruments, according to the rank of persons 
 privileged to play the Nobut, which involve the presence or 
 otherwise of the hurna, those of the highest rank only being 
 able to use it. The Nobut, as a peculiar institution of native 
 music, will be explained hereafter. The hurna, or large 
 trumpet, is esteemed by all Brahmins to be the most ancient 
 instrument of music in existence, and the sound of it to be 
 especially pleasing . to the gods, in various particular ceremo- 
 nies, and at solemn parts of sacrifice. I need not, however 
 occupy the time of the Academy with such legends. 
 
 It is perhaps worthy of remark, however, that in the pro- 
 cession on the Arch of Titus at Rome, one of these trum- 
 pets, precisely similar in shape to that of this collection, 
 is being carried with the sacred candle-stick with seven 
 branches, and other trophies from the Temple at Jerusalem ; 
 and thus it may be inferred that it was used in the ancient 
 Jewish ceremonies. < 
 
 10. "ffan: ^T ^Ti 1 ( Holar cha SoonaiJ. — 11, 12, Do. 
 Tenor or Second. — Eeed Pipes. 
 
 These instruments, which all belong to the same class, are 
 of universal use in all parts of India. What bagpipes are 
 
 F-l 
 
250 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 to Scotland or Ireland, these pipes are to India. Although 
 flageolets in appearance, their sound is precisely similar to 
 that of the bagpipes, only perhaps more powerful, and in the 
 hands of good players more melodious. They have seven 
 and eight holes, respectively, and thus would appear to have 
 no great compass ; but in execution, whether from the effect 
 of the lips and tongue upon the reed mouth-piece, or the 
 manner of fingering upon the holes, combinations are formed 
 which include semitones and quarter notes, and thus the 
 expression of chromatic passages ad, libitum, of which native 
 prayers are very fond, is given, which, in reality, are very 
 effective. From their great power of sound, these pipes are 
 unpleasant if the performers be near ; but at a distance in 
 the open air, and specially among mountains, the effect is 
 much subdued, and often attains much wild beauty and 
 softness. As I have already stated, their use is almost 
 universal. They are, in fact, the only regular out-door 
 instruments of Indian music, and are employed on all 
 oeeasions, whether in domestic or public religious ceremonials, 
 processions in festivals, temple music, and the like ; and the 
 music played upon them varies with the occasion on which 
 they are used. Marches, and military music exceedingly like 
 pibrochs in character — pieces for marriages) for rejoicings, 
 for funerals, welcomings, departures — familiar ballad airs, 
 and the stated music of the Nobut, have all separate modes 
 and effects. In the Mahratta country, in which I know them 
 best, the simple melodies of the people, joyous or plaintive, 
 are performed with a style of execution which is often sur- 
 prising ; and combinations of musical effect are introduced 
 which are equally curious and interesting. 
 
 In the Nobut or honorary band of musicians attached to 
 noblemen, temples, or shrines of saints, Mahomedan or 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 251 
 
 Hindu, the best performers obtainable are generally employ- 
 ed ; and the performance is accompanied by drums, tenor 
 and bass, and large kettle-drums, which are tuned with the 
 pipes, and form useful aids to the general effect. The music 
 played is generally traditional, as no written music is ever 
 played from ; but skilful players not unfrequeutly invent 
 new airs, which are founded upon the several modes of 
 recognised divisions of music, and these are taught to pupils, 
 thus perpetuating continual changes, whether for different 
 hours of the day or night, or for extraordinary occasions. 
 Not unfrequently, very sweet-sounding flageolets are used 
 by Mahratta musicians in company with these pipes, which 
 have the effect of mollifying their shrillness ; but I do not 
 find any specimens of them in this collection. 
 
 In the Mahratta country the players of these pipes are 
 called gursee, and the office of piper is hereditary in every 
 village or town, accompanied by portions of land, and cer- 
 tain proportions of the crops of the village at harvest, and 
 other hereditary dues and privileges, in common with other 
 members of the hereditary twelve villages councilmen. The 
 office of "gursee" involves sweeping the village temples, 
 lighting the lamps, and officiating at certain ceremonies ; and 
 on all occasions of marriages, festivals, funerals, and the like, 
 the gursee is entitled to certain perquisites, the rights to 
 which are strictly preserved and universally admitted. 
 
 14. 'fteTT ^1 ^JT- 15- (Solar cha SoorJ. — Tenor 
 and Bass Drones. 
 
 The pipes are invariable accompanied by drones, tenor and 
 bass, or first and second bass, of which Nos. 14 and 15 are 
 specimens. The instruments have but one note each, which 
 
252 CATALOGUE OF INDUS* 
 
 is played without intermission by different persons. They 
 have the exact effect of the drones of bagpipes, and can hi 
 tuned to any key which the leading instruments require, by 
 altering the position of the mouth-piece or reed, and the pipes 
 are tuned to different keys iu the same manner. 
 
 16. tff*t (Poovgi). — Snake-Chaemer's Pipe. 
 
 These instruments have six notes, and three semitones. 
 Simple, plaintive airs, generally in minor keys, can be played 
 upon them ; but they are not used with other musical 
 instruments, and belong exclusively to the snake-charmers 
 -and various tribes of jugglers, acrobats, and the like. By 
 the snake-charmers, a few notes only are played, which seem 
 to have the effect of rousing the snakes to be exhibited, 
 usually cobra de capellos, to action ; and as the reptiles raise 
 themselves on their tails, expand their hoods, and wave 
 themselves to and fro, the players become more excited, 
 while the motion of the snakes is accelerated by the rapidity 
 of their execution. So also in feats of jugglery, or sleight of 
 1 hand, the poongi, accompanied by a small hand drum, seems 
 to assist the performer, especially when throwing knives or 
 balls into the air, catching them in succession, and throwing 
 ■ them up again. 
 
 I think there is no doubt that the tones of this instrument 
 have an effect upon all snakes, especially cobras, though this 
 is denied by many. As an instance of this, I may. mention 
 that one very large cobra, which, frequented my garden at 
 Ellichpoor, and of which every one was in dread, was caught 
 ' by some professional snake-charmers in my own presence 
 ; by means of -the poongi. It -was played at first very softly 
 before the aloe bush, underneath which the snake lived h>a 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 253 
 
 hole ; gradually the performer increased the tone and time 
 of his playing, aud as the snake showed its head, he retreated 
 gently till it was fairly outside, and erected itself in a defiant 
 manner. At that moment another man stepped dexterously 
 behind, and, while the snake's attention was absorbed by the 
 player before, threw a heavy blanket upon it, seizing it by 
 the head under the jaws. The head was then pinned down 
 by a forked stick, and the fangs and teeth extracted by 
 strong pincers. The snake was then turned loose, apparently 
 completely cowed and exhausted, and finally transferred to a 
 basket for education as a performer. There was no mistake 
 as to the identity of the reptile ; for a portion of its tail 
 had been shot off in an attempt to destroy it. The same 
 men afterwards drew snakes from the thatch of my house, 
 all of which seemed to obey the fascination of the pipe. 
 
 17. ^mTU I (Soor Sotta). 18. ?rfaTT (Tumboora). 
 
 19. Do. 20. Do. — Four Stringed Lutes, larse and small. 
 
 The four instruments, 17 to 20, are called soor sotta, or 
 tumboora, and are only variations of the tumboora. They 
 consist of a large grourd as a body, and a stringboard without 
 frets, with pegs at the end, along which the wires, one brass 
 and three steel, are stretched over a bridge, below which each 
 string is fitted with a glass bead, which improves the tone and 
 assists in tunning. No performance of varied character is 
 made on these instruments. They are tuned to one chord, 
 in whatever key is required — generally of C — and the finger 
 passed rapidly across the strings : or the notes are played 
 separately, but quickly, so as to form the chord in vibration. 
 
 Almost all Hindu and Mahomedan singers use these ins- 
 truments in preference lo any other. They are, in fact, only 
 
254 CATALOGUE OP INDIAN 
 
 helps to the voice, and afford a simple accompaniment which 
 marks the time, while it does not interfere with the singer's 
 execution. So much ornament is employed by professional 
 native singers, that they prefer to rely upon their vocal 
 powers alone for success ; and it is esteemed a mark of in- 
 teriority to use any other adventitious aid than the simple 
 chord of the tumboora. In most instance the singer plays 
 himself, though I have occasionally seen two or three instru- 
 ments, of different sizes and tones, employed where the singer 
 was sure of correctness of time, and accord. The tumboora, 
 therefore, is confined to the use of singers, male or female, 
 pr to accompaniments in recitations, the chanting of sacred 
 works and hymns, and of scales and exercises in singing. 
 It is never used in company with, pipes or flageolets, or in- 
 deed with any other iustruments ; but, as I have described 
 it, the effect is simple, and often very charming when a good 
 instrument is used which has a mellow tone. 
 
 21. fsnnt ( Sitar ). — Guitar, or Lute, for 
 Performance. 
 
 The sitar is another instrument expressly intended for the 
 performance of species of music, though I have heard it 
 used occasionally by Rajpoot minstrels as an accompaniment 
 to the voice. It has five wire strings, three steel for treble, 
 and two brass for bass, and eighteen frets, or, with the nut, 
 nineteen ; aud it will be seen by a glance, and its capability 
 for execution is considerable, though the metallic strings 
 always produce a jangling effect, which is unpleasant. The 
 sitar can be altered to any key by moving the frets up or 
 dowu, and a skilful musician knows how to do this exactly. 
 The execution with which it is frequently played is wonder- 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 255 
 
 ful r and the performer can execute chromatic passages at Will, 
 extending to fourths of original notes. 
 
 22. ^t ^p^fT (Soorsringa). 23. sr^^T (Kuchwa.) 
 
 Numbers 22 and 23 are instruments of the same character 
 aa 21, for performance only. 23 differs from 21, not Only in 
 respect to its size and power, but in having two strings only 
 to play upon, tuned in thirds, from strings in the centre, 
 which are tuned to the chord of the key or primary note ,• 
 and two smaller strings at the side, which represent a high 
 octave, and can be struck as necessary. In playing, the 
 chord in the centre is not always struck, but only occasion- 
 ally for effect. This instrument, which is difficult of execu- 
 tion, is not often met with. 22 has only sixteen frets, but 
 eight strings, six from the top and two at the sides, which 
 lie under those played upon, and are used in combination 
 with them for peculiar resonant effects. This variation of 
 No. 21 is, however, uncommon, and confined perhaps to the 
 Guzerat country. 
 
 24, 24a, 25. ?rr3l% (Taoosee). ■ 
 
 This is another variation of the sitar, No. 21. No. 24 has 
 seventeen frets, with six playing strings j but below them 
 are eleven strings of very fine steel wire, which are tuned 
 to eleven separate notes in the direct scale, and are not played 
 Hpon. Their use Is to. effect modulations by vibration of 
 sound, which imparts softness to the melodies executed by 
 the hand. No. 25 is an instrument of the same character, 
 but with twelve lower strings, which are tuned as in the 
 preceding, arid with the same object. 
 
256 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 The Vina. — The best instrument, however, and the most 
 powerful and melodious of this character, is the vina, 
 which is wanting to this collection. In form it does not 
 differ much from the preceding, but it has much more power 
 and sweetness, though the peculiar effect of notes sounded 
 upon brass and steel strings is never absent. The finger 
 "board of the vina with nineteen frets is %\ octaves, and the 
 frets themselves represent the following notes in English 
 music : — 
 
 D, Dft E, F, F# G, Oft A, Bft C, Cfl, D, Dft C, F, F#, 
 Gjf, A, D. To hear, so as to understand, any really classical 
 Hinflu music, it should be played upon this instrument ; 
 and I have occasionally met with some very learned and 
 accomplished performers, principally from Mysore and the 
 South of India. One of these men, after playing many 
 Hindu airs and variations upon them, changed the key of 
 the instrument, and began a piece which was familiar to me, 
 though from him unaccountable ; it was, in fact, a great 
 portion of Beethoven's Sonata in A ; and he explained that, 
 having once taught an English lady a good deal of his own 
 music, which she played upon the piano, she had in turn 
 taught him this Sonata, which he preferred, he said, above 
 all other " English Music,'' and his version of it, considering 
 the defects of his instrument, was really very beautiful. 
 The fact of nineteen frets expressing the notes I have enu- 
 merated and their extension according to the Hindu system 
 of fingering, affords satisfactory proof of the capabilties of 
 the vina, which is honourably mentioned by Sir William 
 Jones in his Essay on Hindu Music, as the standard instru- 
 ment of India. 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 257 
 
 26. OTTfil (Sarungi.) 27. ^ct^T (Sarrooda). 
 28. f^fim (Ghikara). 
 
 These are the ordinary violins or fiddles of India, and are 
 played in the same manner, though differing from them in 
 some respects, as the instruments in use with ua. Of the 
 three, No. 26 is the most commonly employed. 87, Sarrooda, 
 may be called the tenor or second fiddle, and accompanies 
 26 in chords, played by the bow, or by hand as a guitar. 
 28 is an inferior fiddle, which is mostly to be seen in the 
 hands of strolling players, or mendicants, reciters of short 
 plays or poems, and ballad singers. The Sarungi has four 
 strings of cat-gut j it is played with a bow ; and the execu- 
 tion upon it by accomplished performers is frequently strik- 
 ing and pleasing, while the tones are nearer perhaps in quali- 
 ty to the human voice than .those of any other instrument 
 with which I am acquainted. Considering its small size and 
 rude shape, the tone is much more sweet and powerful than 
 would be conceived from its appearance, and this may be 
 accounted for in two ways. First, that the sounding board 
 is of parchment, stretched over the wooden frame ; and, 
 secondly, that below the gut-strings which are played upon, 
 there are eleven others of fine steel wire, tuned exactly 
 with the scale, and thus the effect of the notes played is 
 perhaps increased by vibration upon the wire notes beneath. 
 
 The Sarungi is used by Mahomedau musicians more than 
 by Hindu ; and I imagine it may have been introduced into 
 India by the Mahomedans, possibly from Persia. It forms 
 an excelleut accompaniment to the voice ; and an old friend 
 of mine, an excellent musician and violin player, the late 
 Captain Giberne, Bombay Army, used to prefer one of these 
 
 G-i 
 
258 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 instruments to his own violin for concerted pieces in which 
 the violin took a sophrano part. The capability of the Sarungi 
 for the execution of chromatic passages and harmonies is, to 
 some extent, equal to our own violin ; but it would be quite 
 possible to improve the native instrument without alter- 
 ing its character, and in such case it might prove a useful 
 addition to our own orchestral effects. 
 
 From its size, the Sairooda is more powerful, but more 
 difficult of execution ; and it combines the effect of a guitar, 
 as it is sometimes played in accompaniment, and the violin. 
 
 29. ' <i l <.4<^l (Sar Mundal.) 
 
 This may be styled the Indian dulcimer. It is by no 
 means common, and therefore good execution upon it is not 
 often met with, nor indeed at any time is it very pleasing, 
 owing to the continual jangle of the wire strings. 
 30. spfa (Been). 
 
 Wire-strung guitar, which is chiefly used by mendicants 
 and religious devotees in recitations, hymns, and other sacred 
 singing. In some degree it resembles the vina but has not 
 its power or sweetness, nor indeed capability of execution. 
 This instrument has twenty-three frets, and there are five 
 strings to be played upon, with two others at the side for 
 occasional effects. 
 
 31. •ft'^'f* (Toontoonee). 
 
 An instrument with one wire striDg, and of a rude charac- 
 ter. It is invariably used by mendicants and common bal- 
 lad singers iu the Dekan, and the wire is struck rapidly by 
 the finger, or a quill, as an accompaniment to the voice. 
 The string can be tuned to any key- required. 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 259 
 
 32. vgts% (Buffde). 33. (Buffde). 34. y^fii (Hullcya). 
 35. <STHTT (Bayra). 36. ^ (Buff.) 
 
 These five instruments belong to one class, the common 
 tambourine drum of India, which is played, partly by sticks, 
 partly by the hand. The performer holds two long thin 
 pieces of wood or twig in his left hand, which he rests upon 
 the frame of the instrument, which is strung over his shoul- 
 der, while with the right he beats it with a short thick 
 drumstick. The measure and tone can be changed and varied 
 by the manner in which the notes are played by the sticks 
 in the left hand, and in this respect the drummers are very 
 expert. These instruments form the ordinary accompani- 
 ments to the horn, No. 7. Every village, or watch on town 
 bastions, fort walls, and the like, has one ; and in native 
 armies the duff is beaten furiously on occasions of attack. 
 In all sorts of processions, festivals, and the like, they are 
 employed ; but they do not aspire to the refinement of other 
 drums of a more scientific character, which will be described 
 in turn. 
 
 37. fft (BUI). 38. 39. ^fcR (Bholkee).— 
 Ordinary Drum and Little Drum. 
 
 Both played by hand as accompaniment to the voice, or 
 struck with a stick when in concert with pipes or loud ins- 
 truments. Both these instruments are of universal use, but 
 are seldom employed by professional musicians. 
 
 40 ireKTar (Puhhwaj). — Tenor and Bass Drum. 
 
 Which is used exclusively as accompaniment to the voice, 
 and in all concerted music. Some musicians prefer the 
 
260 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 tubla, which will be described hereafter ; and perhaps the 
 jmhhwaj is employed more than the other by Hindu profes- 
 sionals. On this instrument-players are exceedingly expert ; 
 and by the manner in which both sides, tenor and bass, are 
 played by the hand, the points of the fingers, and occasionally 
 the palms, the notes which are produced assist the voice ; 
 while the time, however complicated, is kept with the great- 
 est exactness. This drum is tuned by the side cords, and by 
 a composition laid on the centre, which assists the sound ; 
 and a piece of dough is usually put upon the bass side, which 
 tempers the skin, and keeps it in tune. Among instrumental 
 performers this drum, or the tubla is considered the standard 
 instrument, and all others, whatever they may be, are tuned 
 to it. 
 
 41. 'g^R (Eoodooh). 42. stu (Dak). 
 
 These drums are used by ballad singers, mendicants and 
 the like, and need no particular description. The latter use 
 them in concert with begging petitions in the name of some 
 divinity, which are often sung to wild or melancholy 
 cadences. 
 
 43. 3Tf3TT (Bahya). 44. fsrgr (Jilla).— Common 
 
 Copper Kettle Drums. 
 
 Which need no particular explanation ; both are played 
 with sticks. They are often found with small parties of 
 village musicians, and in concert with pipes. 
 
 45. wfa (Sumball). — Tenor and Bass Drum. 
 Of the same character as No. 40, Pukhtoaj ; but not so 
 melodious in tone, nor so much used. 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 261 
 
 46. K^TT {Tulla.) 
 
 These drums, tenor and bass, rank with the Pukhwaj, and 
 are preferred by many players. They are tied in a cloth 
 round the waist, when played, and the hands are exclusively 
 used, with extraordinary execution. The tone is mellow and 
 delicate, and, harmonized with the violins, forms an excellent 
 accompaniment to the voice. The tubla drums are made 
 of copper, and, while equally sweet, have perhaps more 
 resonance than the pukhwaj, which is of wood. 
 
 Drum-playing on these instruments is quite an art among 
 Indian performers. They mark the time, which is of a very 
 complicated nature, and differs in many respects from ours, 
 to suit the varied modes of the music. On this account, 
 and from the very florid passages required, years of study 
 and practice are„required by the perfomers. 
 
 47. *ra {Nul). — Kettle-Drums. 
 
 Generally used on horseback, much like our own, and 
 beaten by sticks. In native cavalry, and in our own irre- 
 gular cavalry regiments, they are carried in front on the 
 march, and by their sonorous notes the line of progress is 
 indicated to prevent straggling. 
 
 48. sg*T^*U (Doogdooga). — Small Hand Drum, 
 
 Used chiefly by mendicants and ballad singers. 
 
 49. %sm {Nobut.) 
 
 This instrument, which is the largest kettle-drum used in 
 India, gives the name to the "Nobut," or honorary music be- 
 fore alluded to. It has a deep, mellow sound, and is played 
 
262 CATALOGUE OP INDIAN 
 
 and used much like our own bass drum. With it are usually 
 associated the smaller kettle-drums, 43 and 44 ; and a per- 
 formance upon the drums alone forms part of every period 
 of playing throughout the day, though they accompany the 
 pipes and trumpets in all other music executed. 
 
 50. ■snf (Shunk). — Conch Shell. 
 
 Is not xised as a musical instrument, but is sounded dur- 
 ing religious ceremonials, in processions of Hindu wor- 
 ship, and before idols. No tune, so to speak, can he played 
 upon it ; but the tone is capable of much modulation by 
 the lips, and its clear, mellow, humming notes, heard at 
 early morning and eventime from Hindu temples and the 
 groves about them, have a peculiar though melancholy effect, 
 not without charm. 
 
 The above concludes the catalogue of these instruments, 
 and as the foregoing details may be esteemed incomplete 
 without some notice of Hindu music as a science, the follow- 
 ing remarks upon it, brief as they must necessarily be, may 
 serve in some respects to supply the deficiency. I do not 
 put them forward as original ; for it would be impossible for 
 me, without a greater acquaintance with Hindu music than 
 I possess, to write anything more complete than Sir William 
 Jone's essay, which gives details to a greater extent than 
 those with which I can presume now to occupy the time of 
 the Academy. 
 
 First, then, as to notation — we find the Hindu gamut to be 
 in essentials similar to our own. There are eight notes in 
 their scale, which form the foundation of the primary modes, 
 or "Swaras," and which are named as follows : — 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 263 
 
 Sharja. Puuohama. 
 
 Rishaba. Dhaivata. 
 
 Qandhara. Nishada. 
 
 Madhyama. 
 of which the initial letters form the gamut : — Sa, Ri, Ga, 
 Ma, Pa, Bha, Ni, Sa, corresponding with our Ut, Ri, Mi, 
 Fa, Sol, La, Si, Ut, and the Hindu scale may be thus 
 written. : — 
 
 ABODBFG A 
 
 Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. 
 
 But the Hindus have adopted no especial symbols, like 
 ours, to express sound or time ; and in writing music, accord- 
 ing to the ancient system, the air and time of the melody 
 are expressed by lengthening or shortening the vowels 
 attached to each initial consonant, and repeating the notes 
 as they may fall together in the air.* This in itself, it will 
 be admitted, is rude and unsatisfactory ; but by certian signs, 
 such as dots, curves, and other marks, the written notation 
 becomes intelligible to performers ; and as taught at present, 
 the scales, and vocal and instrumental exercises of learners, 
 some of which are extremely complicated and difficult, con- 
 sist of repetitions of the primary notes of the gamut, in the 
 time and tune intended. 
 
 Each note is divided into halves, thirds, and fourths, which 
 are denned by signs and marks attached to the notes of the 
 
 * In like manner our own music might be written and read from the 
 notes themselves. 
 
264 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 gamut, and can be expressed by the voice ; or, taking the 
 viua as the standard instrument, on and between the frets, 
 by a manner of fingering known to performers and teachers ; 
 and the Sarungi or violin, can be used with similar effect. 
 
 Again, taking each fundamental sound separately, the 
 classical definition or doctrine of sounds admits and defines 
 seven variations to each, which become the leaders of a series 
 of other modes. Thus we fiud 7X12 = 84 modes : seven 
 primary, and seventy-seven secondary, which are known under 
 their separate appellations. The requirements of the classical 
 system are, that each melody formed upon any of the above 
 primaries or other adjuncts should be complete in itself ; and 
 no deviation from this rule is recognised or permitted. The 
 modes are distributed over the hours of the day and night ; 
 and no professor of Hindu music, or educated performer, 
 would be held excusable by a critical audience, if he trans- 
 gressed propriety so much as to introduce at a wrong period 
 songs, or instrumental performances, which belonged to 
 another. 
 
 In illustration of this rule, Sir William Jones observes : — 
 " A melody, or phrase, commencing with 
 
 D. E. ¥$. Gjf. A. B. C#. D. 
 where the first semitone appears between the fourth and 
 fifth notes, and the second between the seventh and eighth, 
 as in the natural scale ; and the G# and CJ, or ga and ni, 
 of the Indian authors, form our major mode of D ; — such a 
 melody must end with the fifth note from the tonic, and it 
 would be a gross violation of musical decorum to sing it at 
 any time except the close of day." 
 
 Another mode of division, which is perhaps more modern, 
 is the division of the six primary notes into fifty-four modes, 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 265 
 
 by an allegory. Bhairava, Malava, Sriraga, Hindola, Dipaoa, 
 and Megha, are six nymphs, each of whom is married to a 
 Eagini, and each has eight children. Thus we have six 
 nymphs, as primary notes ; six semitones, as husbands ; and 
 forty-eight children, as minor modes or divisions ; making 
 fifty-four in all. 
 
 A third system divides of rags or modes into six 
 primary, and thirty secondary. Each of these is known by 
 the note which begins it or ends it. As an example, the 
 Sriraga corresponds with our major scale ; Sa, or A, is its 
 principal notes, with Pa, or E, diminished by one " sruti," 
 or part of a note. Thus, we find that this mode represents 
 the ordinary scale, ut, re, mi, sol, fa, la, si, ut, with a minor 
 tone, or three srutis, between the fifth and sixth notes. 
 
 I have mentioned in my descriptions of the instruments, 
 that chromatic and enharmonic passages of great intricacy 
 can be executed upon several of them — the vina, the 
 sarungi, &c. This will be accounted for by the fact of the 
 jsystem of music prescribing twenty-two srutis or divisions 
 of notes, to each whole octave ; or furnishing each note, or 
 those which according to the requirements of the particular 
 mode may need it or the particular melody in the mode, 
 with semitones, thirds, and quarters of notes, as may be 
 necessary. It would seem, however, as if more than " twenty- 
 two srutis" to an octave were inadmissible ; and the notes 
 to which any number of srutis is admissible is determined 
 by the key note, or primary. 
 
 " Semitones,'' says Sir William Jones, " are placed as in 
 our own diatonic scales, the intervals between the fourth and 
 fifth, and first and second are major tones ; but that between 
 fifth and sixth, which is minor in our scale, is major in theirs. 
 
 H— 1 
 
266 CATALOGUE OP INDIAN 
 
 The two scales are made to coincide by taking a ' sruti' from 
 Pa, or E, and adding it to Dha, or F ; or, in Indian terms, by 
 raising Savaretna to the class of " Santa," and her sisters. 
 Every sruti is a little nymph ; and these nymphs, or srutis, 
 or quarter-tones of the fifth note, Pa, or E, are called malim, 
 Chapala, Sola, and Savaretna.'' 
 
 In like manner, every note has its fairy attendants at- 
 tached to it ; and these being furnished with names, the 
 separate portions of each are known at once, in their proper 
 order, aud without confusion, to scientific Hindu musicians. 
 
 There are many Sanscrit, as well as Teloogoo, Cauarese, 
 and Tamul works on music, still in existence. Indeed, in 
 <the south of India music appears to have been maintained 
 and cultivated as a science, long after it had ceased as such 
 in the north. Mahomedan historians of the period relate, 
 that when the Dekhan was invaded by Alla-oo-deen Togluk, 
 in A. D. 1294, and the conquest of the South of India com- 
 pleted by the Mogul general, Mullik Kafoor, several years 
 afterwards, the profession of music was found to be in a 
 condition so far advanced of the north, that singers, male 
 and female, musicians, and their Brahmin iustructors, were 
 taken with the royal armies and settled in the north. The 
 works that remain on the subject have been examined by 
 competent oriental scholars, who have discovered that music 
 as a science held a high place amoug ancient Hindus, and 
 became the subject of learned, though pedantic, treatises on 
 doctrines of sound, variations of scales accord of musical 
 instruments, divisions of modes, singing, and instrumenta- 
 tion ; but nowhere does it appear that the laws of harmony 
 had ever been discovered or invented ; aud, as a consequence, 
 all Indian music is wanting in this most essential particular. 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 267 
 
 This, and the pedantic divisions into modes, so jealously 
 guarded from infringement, have prevented Hindu music 
 and its science from that improvement and extension which 
 have been attained elsewhere. In this respect music is, 
 like all other sciences of the Hindus, and their philosophy, 
 unprogressive and effete. In performance upon the vina or 
 sarungi, the performer's ear, and the capabilities of the 
 instrument, lead players into thirds, fifths, and octaves, with 
 the laws of which they are unacquainted ; but all singing 
 and playing are in unison, and whether trebles, tenors, or 
 basses, which are often joined, and in all instrumental music, 
 the execution is of the same character. It is needless to 
 say that this inevitably produces monotony, and causes 
 Indian music to be generally uninteresting, if not repellant, 
 to European ears. 
 
 I am bound to state, however, that very little of the really 
 good or classical music of the Hindus is ever heard by 
 European ears. What is ordinarily played to them is the 
 commonest ballads and love songs, with modern Persian 
 and Hindustani ditties, sung by ill-instructed screaming 
 dancing women, at crowded native durbars, marriages, and 
 other ceremonials. The late Nawab Shumsh-ool Oomrah, 
 of Hydrabad, for instance, used to cause from ten to twenty 
 sets of dancers and singers to stand up together, each set 
 consisting of several women as singers, and a proportion of 
 instrumental performers. All sang and played together 
 whatever they pleased, and the clamour of different tunes, 
 with all their varied accompaniments, was quite indescri- 
 bable. It is no wonder, therefore, that the English guests 
 stopped their ears, and declared native music to be abo- 
 minable. Need I say, that, were all the best singers and 
 
2G8 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 bands of Dublin to play the most beautiful music at their 
 command at the same moment, the effect might even be 
 more painfully hideous ! 
 
 But music of much intrinsic beauty, nevertheless, exists ; 
 and the ancient rags or modes, with their simple melodies, 
 and the marvellously difficult, and often charming scales, 
 droopuds and laonees, and other exercises of vocal and instru- 
 mental performance, and the plaintive and beautiful ballads 
 of the Eajpoots and Mahrattas, would, I think, amply repay 
 collection by one competent to make it. It would be a grate- 
 ful gift to the musical world at large, were the Government 
 of India to undertake a complete collection and exposition 
 of the best Hindu and Mahomedan music, as it exists in the 
 north of India, in Rajpootana, and Guzerat, in the Southern 
 Provinces, and midway in Maharashtra and Bundelkund. 
 The music of all these provinces differs as much in character 
 as national music in Europe, and there is a great deal of it 
 that is very interesting. How many of the old rags or modes 
 are illustrated by love songs ! and how many of the chival- 
 rous events of ancient and mediaeval times are subjects of 
 ballads much like our own, descriptive, picturesque, and 
 most original both in subject and music ! In the Mahratta 
 country, I can state of my own experience that ballads and 
 love songs are innumerable, whether of the old Mahomedan 
 period, the Mahratta risings against them, and the more 
 recent English and Mahratta wars, and are full of local 
 adventure and spirited description ; while in all the grades 
 of love songs, under their several local denominations, 
 there are scores, nay, hundreds, in every province of India, 
 worthy of being rescued from their present obscurity, and of 
 being preserved among the musical records of the world. 
 
MUSICAL INSTBUMENTS, 269 
 
 In his Essay, and to illustrate the manner of notation of 
 the ancient Hindu system, Sir William Jones has quoted a 
 very simple air of Soma's, who was one of the most ancient 
 Hindu writers, on music, and composers. This, with a few 
 airs contributed by Colonel Tod, in his work on the Eajpoots, 
 form nearly all the Hindu music now on record ; and these, 
 with some common tuo.es picked up from ordinary singing 
 men and women at nautches, are the only specimens of 
 Indian music now available for reference or comparison. 
 There is much to be regretted, I think, in this, not only be- 
 cause national music is always valuable in an ethnological 
 point of view, but because it would afford most interesting 
 comparisons with the ancient national music of Europe, 
 which it so much resembles. I venture to offer a very simple 
 contribution, — a plaintive Hindu air of the most ancient 
 class, to which I have adapted English words in partial para- 
 phrase of the original Hindee, and to which one of my 
 daughters has added enough accompaniment to admit of 
 its being sung by a soprano voice to the pianoforte. 
 
 I cannot close this paper without adverting to the value 
 and importance of this collection of musical instruments, 
 which I consider to be unique. I have never seen so large 
 a one in the possession of any native connoisseur, and my 
 impression is that there is nothing so complete in -any 
 European museum. A few, and very few, instruments are 
 wanting to make it perfect, and these might be easily sup- 
 plied. On these grounds, therefore, I'consider that this 
 Academy is under peculiar obligations to Colonel French for 
 his valuable donation, — valuable alike from its original cost 
 and expense of transport, and as an illustration of the 
 musical tastes and acquirements of India ; and I have no 
 doubt that suitable acknowledgment will be made to him. 
 
270 
 
 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 UsTDI-AJST AIR 
 
 .Kwna na pdee bat. 
 
 Words by M. T., from Hindu Ballad, Accompaniment 
 by A. M. T. 
 
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MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 271 
 
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272 
 
 CATALOGUE OF INDIAN 
 
 i 
 
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 is the dri - Ting rain ; Nor place I 
 
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 *=£ 
 
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 find to dwell. 
 
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MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 273 
 
 m 
 
 St^f-I 
 
 ■=H=- 
 
 *~r 
 
 Ah ! now I vainly cry- 
 Dear lord, dear heart so fondly loved, 
 Thou would'st not see me lie 
 So desolate, nor fail that love so truly proved. 
 Rest ! rest, oh, breaking heart ; 
 
 Peace cometh now to thee, that nought had ever mov'd, 
 Ah ! why delay thy dart 
 Kind death— take me to him, that never more we part. 
 
 Original Hindee Words. 
 
 Kurna na paee bat 
 
 Ab myn. Peea soo jeea ke bat 
 
 Oodowjee ! tabreean, myn bulaeen leongi bo ! 
 
 Mobe le'cbulo oonben ke pas. 
 
 1-1 
 
MUSIC. 
 
 BY 
 
 LIEUT.-COL. JAMES TOD. 
 
 ( From Annals and Antiquities of Edjast'han.J 
 
MUSIC. 
 
 BY 
 
 LIEUT.-COL. JAMES TOD. 
 
 (From. Annals and Antiquities of Rajas? han, Vol. I, 
 page 538 to 540J 
 
 As Muralidhara, or the "flute-holder," Kaniya is the god of 
 music ; and in giving him the shepherd's reed instead of 
 the vina or lyre, we may conjecture the simple bamboo 
 (bhans) which formed the first flute (bhansli) was in use 
 before the Chatara,* the Greecian Cithara,f the first invented 
 lyre of Apollo. Thus from the six-wired instrument of the 
 Hindus we have the Greek Cithara, the English Cithern, and 
 the Spanish guitar of modern days. The Greeks, following 
 the Egyptians, had but six notes, with their lettered sym- 
 
 * From cha, c six ' and tar, ' a string or wire.' 
 
 t Strabo says, the Greeks consider music as originating from Thrace and 
 Asia, of which countries were Orpheus, Musseus, &c. ; and that others 
 " who regard all Asia, as far as India, as a country sacred to Bionysius 
 (Bacchus,) attribute to that " country the invention, of nearly all the science 
 of music. We perceive them sometimes describing the cithara of the 
 Asiatic, and sometimes applying to flutes the epithet of Phrygian. The 
 names of certain instruments, such as the nabla, and others likewise, are 
 taken from barbarous tongues." This nabla of Strabo is possibly the tabla, 
 the small tabor of India. If Strabo took his orthography from the Persian 
 or Arabic, a single point would constitute the difference between the N 
 
 (^) and the T (o)« 
 
278 music. 
 
 bols ; and it was reserved for the Italians to add a seventh. 
 Guido Aretine, a monk in the thirteenth century, has the 
 credit of this. I, however, believe the Hindus numbered 
 their's from the heavenly bodies — the Sun, Moon, Mercury, 
 Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, — hence they had the regular 
 octave, with its semitones : and as, in the pruriency of their 
 fancy, they converted the ascending and descending notes 
 into grahas, or planetary bodies, so they may [have added 
 them to the harmonious numbers, and produced the no-ragini, 
 their nine modes of music.* Could we affirm that the hymns 
 composed and set to music by Jydeva, nearly three thousand 
 years ago, and still chauuted in honor of the Apollo of 
 Vrij, had been handed down with the sentiments of these 
 mystic compositions ( and Sir W. Jones sanctions the idea,) 
 we should say, from their simplicity, that the musicians of 
 that age had only the diatonic scale ; but we have every 
 reason to believe, from the very elaborate character of their 
 written music, which is painful and discordant to the ear 
 from its minuteness of sub-division, that they had also the 
 chromatic scale, said to have been invented by Timotheus 
 in the time of Alexander, who might have carried it from 
 
 * An account of the state of musical science amongst the Hindus of 
 early ages, and a comparison between it and that of Europe, is yet a desi- 
 deratum in Oriental literature. From what we already know of the science, 
 it appears to have attained a theoretical precision yet unknown to Europe, 
 and that, at a period when even Greece was little removed from barbarism. 
 The inspirations of the bards of the first ages were all set to music ; and the 
 children of the most powerful potentates sang the episodes of the great 
 epics of Valmika and Vyasa. There is a distinguished member of the Royal 
 Asiatic Society, and perhaps the only one, who could fill up this hialut ; 
 and we may hope that the leisure and inclination of the Bight Hon'ble 
 Sir G. Ousely will tempt him to enlighten us on this most interesting 
 point. 
 
music. 279 
 
 the banks of the Indus* In the mystic dance, the Ras-man- 
 dala, yet imitated on the annual festival sacred to the sun — 
 god Heri, he is represented with a radiant crown in a dancing 
 attitude, playing on the flute to the nymphs encircling him, 
 each holding a musical instrument : — 
 
 « In song and dance about the sacred hill ; 
 
 " Mystical dance, which yonder starry sphere 
 
 " Of planets, and of fixed, in all her wheels 
 
 " Resembles nearest, mazes intricate, 
 
 " Eccentrick, intervolved, yet regular 
 
 " Then most, when most irregular they seem ; 
 
 " And in their motions harmony divine 
 
 u So smooths her charming tones, the God's own ear 
 
 "Listens delighed." 
 
 Milton, Booh V., 155. 
 
 These nymphs are also called the no-ragini, from raga, a 
 mode of song over which each presides, and no-rasa, or ' nine 
 passions,' excited by the powers of harmony. May we not 
 in this trace the origin of Apollo and the sacred nine ? In 
 the manner described above, the ras-mandal is typical of 
 the zodiacal phenomena ; and in each sign a musical nymph 
 is sculptured in alto-relievo, in the vaulted temple dedicated 
 to the god,* or in secular-edifices by way of ornament, as 
 in the triumphal column of Cheetore. 
 
 From Annals and Atiquities of Rajasl'han, Vol I, 
 page 543 to 544. 
 
 This mystic dance, the ras-mandal, appears analogous to 
 the Pyhrric dance, or the_/?re-dance of the Egyptians. The 
 
 * I have often been struck with a characteristic analogy in the sculp- 
 tures of the most ancient Saxon Cathedrals in England and on the Conti- 
 nent, to Kanya and the Gopis. Both may be intended to represent divine 
 harmony. Did the Asi and Jits of Scandinavia, the ancestors of the 
 Saxons, bring them from Asia ? 
 
280 mdsio. 
 
 movements of those who personate the deity and his fair 
 companions are full of grace, and the dialogue is replete with 
 harmony.* The Chobisf of Mat'hura and Viudravana have 
 considerable reputation as vocalists ; and the effect of the 
 modulated and deep tones of the adult blending with the 
 clear treble of the juvenile performers, while the time is 
 marked by the cymbal or the soothing monotony of the 
 tabor, accompanied occasionally by the m&rali or flute, is 
 very pleasing. 
 
 From Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han, Vol. I, 
 page 648 to 649. 
 Every chief has his band, vocal and instrumental ; but 
 Sindia, some years since, carried away the most celebrated 
 vocalists of Oodipoor. The Rajpoots are all partial to music. 
 The tuppa is the favourite measure. Its chief character is 
 plaintive simplicity ; and it is analogous to the Scotch, or 
 perhaps still more to the Norman.J 
 
 * The anniversary of the birth of Kaniya is celebrated with splendour 
 at Sindia's Court, where the author frequently witnessed it, during a ten 
 years' residence. 
 
 t The priests of Kaniya, probably so called from the chob or club with 
 which, on the annual festival, they assault the castle of j Kansa, the tyrant 
 usurper of Crishna's birthnight, who, like Herod, ordered the slaughter of 
 all the youths of Vrij, that Chrisna might not escape. These Chobis are 
 most likely the Sobii of Alexander, who occupied the chief towns of the 
 Punjaub, and who, according to Arrian, worshipped Hercules (Hei-i-ci'tl-es 
 chief of the race of Heri), and were armed with clubs. The mimic assault 
 pf Kansa's castle by some hundreds of these robust church militants with 
 their long clubs covered with iron rings, is well worth seeing. 
 
 i The tuppa belongs to the very extremity of India, being indigenous 
 as far as the Indus and the countries watered by its arms ; and though the 
 peculiar measure is common in Rajast'han, the prefix of Punjabi shews its 
 origin. I have listened at Caen to the viola or hurdy-gurdy, till I conld 
 have fancied myself in Miwar. 
 
music. 281 
 
 The Rana, who is a great patron of the art, has a small 
 band of musicians, whose only instrument is the shehna, or 
 hautboy. They played their national tuppas with great taste 
 and feeling ; and these strains, wafted from the lofty terrace 
 of the palace iu the silence of the night, produced a sensa- 
 tion of delight not unmixed with pain, which its peculiarly 
 melancholy character excites. The Rana has also a few flutes 
 or flageolet players, who discourse most eloquent music. In- 
 deed, we may enumerate this among the principal amusements 
 of the Rajpoots ; and although it would be deemed indecorous 
 to be a performer, the Bcience forms a part of education.* 
 Who that has marched in the stillness of night through 
 the mountainous regions of Central India, and heard the 
 wander sound the tsoraye from his turreted abode, perched 
 like an eyrie on the mountain-top, can ever forget its 
 graduated intensity of sound, or the emphatic hem ! hem I 
 'all's well,' which follows the lengthened blast of the cornet 
 reverberating in every recess.t 
 
 * Chund remarks of Ms hero, the Chohan, that he was "master of the 
 art," both vocal and instrumental. Whether profane music was ever com- 
 mon may be doubted ; but sacred music was a part of early education with 
 the sons of kings. Rama and his brothers were celebrated for the harmo- 
 nious execution of episodes from the grand epic, the Ramayuna. The sacred 
 canticles of Jydeva were set to music, and apparently by himself, and are 
 yet sung by the Chobis. The inhabitants of the various monastic establish- 
 ments chaunt their addresses to the deity ; and I have listened with delight 
 to the modulated cadences of the hermits, singing the praises of Patalis- 
 wara from their pinnacled abode of Aboo. It would be injustice to touch 
 incidentally on the merits of the minstrel Dholi, who sings the warlike 
 compositions of the sacred Bardai of Rajast'han. 
 
 + The tooraye is the sole instrument of the many of the trumpet kind 
 which is not dissonant. The Eotah prince has the largest band, perhaps, in 
 these countries ; instruments of all kinds — stringed, wind, and percussion. 
 But as it is formed by rule, in which the sacred and shrill conch-shell takes 
 precedence, it must be allowed that it is any thing but harmonious. 
 
 J-l 
 
282 music. 
 
 A species of bagpipe, so common to all the Celtic races of 
 Europe, is not unknown to the Rajpoots. It is called the 
 misheh, but is only the rudiment of that instrument whose 
 peculiar influence on the physical, through the moral agency 
 of man, is described by our own master-bard. They have 
 likewise the double flageolet ; but in the same ratio of per- 
 fection to that of Europe as the ni&shek to the heart-stirring 
 pipe of the north. As to their lutes, guitars, and all the 
 varieties of tintibulants ( as Dr. Johnson would call them), 
 it would fatigue without interesting the reader to enumerate 
 them. 
 
NOTES ON THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
 
 ZLsTIEIP.A.IL.ESIK!. 
 
 A. CAMPBELL, Esq., m.d., 
 
 (From "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal" 
 Vol. VI, Part II.) 
 
NOTES ON THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 NEPALESE.* 
 
 BY 
 
 A. CAMPBELL, Esq., m.d. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to allude here to the two chief 
 classes of men forming the population of the valley of 
 Nepal ; but to save repetition, it may not be amiss to men- 
 tion, that the instruments underneath enumerated are 
 common to the Newars and the Parbuttiahs, both designa- 
 tions being understood in the widest sense. This difference, 
 however, exists, in the classes of each tribe using them ; 
 among Parbuttiahs none but the lowest castes furnish 
 professional musicians, and there are no amateurs of this 
 science among the rude highlanders, who now rule Nepal. 
 The Newars, on the contrary, are as a people, extremely fond 
 of music, and many of the higher and middle castes practise 
 it professionally, and indulge in it as amateurs. Their labors 
 in the field are generally accompanied, and their weary return 
 from it at certain seasons enlivened, by the plaintive strains 
 of the rural flute (hamuli) as the sharper tones of the 
 Mohalli (flageolet), and at marriages, births, feasts, fairs, and 
 religious processions, a preceding band of music, is an 
 
 • The figures refer to models presented by Dr. Campbell and deposited 
 in the Museum.— En. 
 
286 NOTES ON THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 indispensable portion of the smallest ceremony ; nor is it 
 uncommon, on the festival day (of which the Newars have 
 nearly 100 annually) to see a joyous jolly fellow, with his 
 flageolet, or cymbals, as the case may be, trudging along 
 towards the scene of rejoicing, piping a national air on the 
 former, for his own amusement and that of all passengers, 
 or drumming with the latter, in unison to his thoughtless 
 but cheering whistle. 
 
 As a general rule, however, professional musicians, among 
 the Newars, as with the Parbuttiahs, are from among the 
 lowest castes, Kullds and K&siilliahs, from the majority from 
 the former, Damais and Sarhis from the latter. 
 
 The instruments used by the people are as follows : I 
 exclude the imitations by the Goorkhas, of British ones, with 
 which their military bands are furnished, the chief of which 
 are the bagpipe, made and played on the Sarkist The flute, 
 either English, or imitation of the flageolet, and a variety of 
 horns, trumpets and bugles. 
 
 No. 1. — PMmga (Newari), is a trumpet-shaped instrument 
 made of copper, about three-and-half feet long, two inches 
 in diameter at its large extremity, and tapering gradually 
 to the mouth-piece, where its bore is diminished to the 
 diameter of ^th of an inch, it is formed of three pieces, the 
 one fitting into the other is of very rude workmanship, and 
 costs only about two Nepalese Rupees.* The length of this 
 instrument, and its slender make, require some support, 
 when being used ; it is consequently furnished with three 
 pieces of stick, which, when fitted into one another, form a 
 rod of four feet in length to which the Ph&nga is attached, 
 by a bit of ribbon, at its expanded end, the rod crossing the 
 • A Nepalese Rupee worth about 12 or 12J annas of Company's currency. . 
 
OF THE NEPALESE. 287 
 
 instrument at right angles. The player holding the opposite 
 end of the rod in his right hand elevates the instrument 
 at pleasure, bringing it to the perpendicular when used in 
 a crowd, but carrying it horizontally under other circums- 
 tances. The Phunga belongs exclusively to the Newars, is 
 called by them, " the musical instrument of the Gods," and 
 is played on at every religious ceremony and at every temple, 
 within the valley, when the setting sun gives the signal for 
 the performance of the evening sacrifice. 
 
 No. 2.— The Mohalli { Newari ), or Nepalese flageolet. Is 
 rudely executed, and from the most ordinary materials. Its 
 mouth-piece is nothing more than a bit of palm leaf folded, 
 and cut into a convenient shape ! the body of the instrument 
 is made of two pieces of sal wood, bound together by slips of 
 bambn, and hollowed out longitudinally, apertures or stops, 
 (8 in number) being made for the fingers to play on ; its 
 trumpet or dilated extremity, is made of copper, gradually 
 increasing in calibre, from the diameter of an inch to that 
 of four inches at its open termination. The complete ins- 
 trument costs about two-and-a-half Nepalese Rupees. The 
 Mohalli belongs exclusively to the Newars, and many persons 
 of this tribe use it, who are not professional musicians. Its 
 tones are sharper than those of the bansuli or common 
 Indian flute, and the national tunes adapted to it are lively 
 and pleasing, even to a British ear. To the Newars it seems 
 to sound magically, for it has the power of inducing the 
 poorest and most fatigued laborers, to join in the dance, and 
 it is the constant accompaniment to their songs of merriment 
 at feasts and weddings. 
 
 No. 3. — The Singha or Narsingha, the Nepalese horn. It is 
 made entirely of copper, is, when put together, in the shape of 
 
288 NOTES ON THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 a cow's horn, aud about four feet long, is composed of four 
 pieces, and tapers gradually from its wider extremity, where 
 its calibre is four inches in diameter, to the mouth-piece, 
 where the bore is not more than a quarter of an inch across. 
 The Singha is used exclusively by the lowest castes among 
 the Parbuttiahs, and is in considerable demand among 
 the lower castes of the plains of India. Its blast is loud, 
 deep, but not musical, and its professors seem unable to 
 mould its tones into anything like harmony. It is rudely 
 manufactured, and costs about three-and-a-half Nepalese 
 Rupees. 
 
 No. 4. — The Nag-phhii or Turi, a Parbuttiah instrument 
 exclusively. It is only different from the last in being of a 
 smaller size and having three vertical turns in its shaft, like 
 a French-horn. Its noise, for music it scarce produces, is 
 anything but harmonious. It is made of sheet copper, 
 tinned over, and costs one Rupee eight annas. 
 
 No. 5. — The Bansuli, " or rural flute" of Sir W. Jones. It 
 is much more like the common English fife in its tones, and 
 is identical with it in form ; is used by the Newars and 
 Parbuttiahs. 
 
 No. 6. — The Saringi. This is the same as the instrument 
 of that name used in India, and represents our European 
 violin, in so far as it is stringed and scraped upon, with a 
 horse-hair bow, but it is at best a miserable instrument. In 
 Nepal it is only played on by the lowest caste Parbuttiahs, 
 aud by begger boys, from among whom I have not seen or 
 heard of any Pagamnis. The daucing girls, imported from 
 Benares annually for the amusement of the durbar, have their 
 accompanying fiddlers ; but these being foreigners, are not 
 alluded to here. 
 
Or THE NEPALESB. 289 
 
 No. 7. — The Sitar, or three-stringed guitar of India, is 
 ased by a very few persona in Nepal, whose proficiency is 
 most wretched. Professors of this instrument from the plains 
 of India- find some encouragement from the Goorkhas, — at least 
 an occasional performer of tolerable skill may be heard at 
 their court. 
 
 No. 8. — Cymbals of various size, from that of a tea-cup, 
 to the dimensions of a wash-hand basin, are used by the 
 Newars and Parbuttiahs, to the same extent as in Hindus- 
 tan ; all religious ceremonies requiring music, all jattr'as, or 
 processions of the Gods, as well as of marrying, and feasting 
 mortals, are accompanied by the discordant noise of these 
 untuned instruments. They are made of mixed metals, the 
 chief of which is denominated Phulia, and is composed of 
 zinc, copper and tin, in various proportions, according to 
 the tone intended for the cymbal. 
 
 No. 9. — M&ritlli of the Parbuttiahs, Beaugh of the Newars, 
 is a small clarionet, about nine inches long, with eight stops, 
 made of a single piece of bambu, the mouth-piece being 
 formed by blocking up one end of the canal with a bit of wood, 
 except a small slip through which the air is breathed. The 
 tone of this instrument is sweet, and the airs played on it 
 pleasing and plaintive. It costs about eight annas. 
 
 No. 10. — Dhol (Drum). The same as the Hindustani one, 
 except in the greater length of barrel, in one of the varieties. 
 
 No. 11. — Dholuch, differs from the Dhol in having one end 
 only covered with leather, and played on, is used by the 
 Parbuttiahs but not commonly ; a nearly similar drum is 
 used by the Newars, and called by them dishi. 
 
 No. 12.— Beh (Newari), commonly called Erishna-bek, is 
 the pastoral flute of that God (Keishka) so celebrated in 
 
 K— i 
 
290 NOTES ON THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 history, and so famous in his loves, — is a common reed, with 
 a spoon-shaped shield at the mouth-stop ; has seven stops 
 along its shaft. 
 
 Specimens of these instruments were deposited in the Mu- 
 seum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in January last, I 
 do not feel at present competent to give any correGt account 
 of the state of the science of music among the Nepalese. In 
 general it may be stated that the Newars are capable of 
 forming bands, containing performers on all the instruments 
 above enumerated, whose music is far from discordant al- 
 together of the simplest construction. The orchestra attendant 
 on a Hindu play enacted here last year was upwards of 50 
 strong, and in some of the melo-dramatic portions of the per- 
 formance, the tunes were not only enlivening and harmonious, 
 but of a highly inspiriting caste. The Nepalese have no writ- 
 ten music, so far as I have been able to ascertain. Among 
 the numerous volumes of Sanscrit literature, collected by 
 Mr. Hodsson in Nepal, he informs me there is a very large 
 one of the scenic and musical acts, which he infers must 
 have flourished very considerably in union with each other, 
 previous to the Goorkha conquest of the valley. In these 
 works the musical science is deemed of sacred origin. The 
 Nepalese music is most probably identical with that of the 
 plains, the Hindu portion of which is traced to the same 
 fountain. 
 
MUSIC OF CEYLON. 
 
 JOHN DAVY, m.d., i.b.b. 
 
 (From "An Account of the Interior of Ceylon 
 and of its Inhabitants,") 
 
MUSIC OF CEYLON. 
 
 JOHN DAVY, m. d., f. r. s. 
 
 Almost every Singalese is, more or less, a poet} or, at 
 least, can compose what they call poetry. Love is not their 
 great inspiring theme, but interest ; — a young Kandyan does 
 not indite a ditty to his mistress's eye-brows ; the bearded 
 chief is the favourite of his muse, to whom he sings his 
 petition in verse, whether it be to ask a favour, or beg an 
 indulgence. All their poetry is sung or recited : they have 
 seven tunes by which they are modulated. Their most 
 admired tune is called " the Horse-trot ;" from the resem- 
 blance which it bears to the sound of the trotting of a 
 horse. 
 
 Of their music, which is extremely simple, they are very 
 fond, and prefer it greatly to ours, which, they say, tliey do 
 not understand. The whole amount of their tunes does not, 
 I believe, exceed the number already mentioned. 
 
 Their most common instruments are those of which figures 
 are given : — 
 
 No. 1. — The Berrigodea, a kind of long drum, is made of 
 jack-wood, covered with deer's skin; and beat with the hands. 
 
 No. 2. — The Doula, made like the former, is beat at one 
 end with a stick, and at the other with the hand. 
 
 No. 3. — The Tam-a-tom, is beat with two sticks, the 
 extremities of which are bent to form circles, and kept in a 
 state of tension. 
 
294 MUSIC OF CEYLON. 
 
 No. 4. — The Udakea, is beat with the fingers. 
 
 No. 5. — The Tallea, made of brass, is beat with a stick. 
 
 No. 6. — The Horanawa ; its mouth-piece is of talipot-leaf, 
 its middle-piece of wood, and the other parts are of brass. 
 The fusiform piece of wood attached, is to separate the bits 
 of leaf forming the mouth-piece, and enlarge the orifice. 
 
 No. 7. — The Venab, or Venavah, has two strings of 
 different kinds, one made of a species of flax, and the other 
 of horse-hair, which is the material also of the string of the 
 bow, Which with bells attached to it, is used as a fiddle-stick. 
 The hollow part of the instrument is half a oocoa-nut shell, 
 polished, covered with the dried skta of a lizard, and per- 
 forated below. 
 
 All these instruments, with the exception of the Venavah 
 and Udakea, are very noisy, and are seldom used^ excepting 
 in temples and in processions. Each kind of drum has a 
 different sound. The Horanawa, the Katfdyan pipey ia 
 extremely shrill, and its notes are not unlike the Highland 
 bagpipe. The "Venavah is rarely seen, excepting in the hand 
 of some strolling lame or blind son of Apollo, who wanders 
 about the country from house to house, amusing the villagers, 
 and supporting himself by his simple instrument. The 
 Udakea is the favourite domestic instrument. It is usually 
 beat during the recital of a poem, and is the general accom- 
 paniment of the song. At night it is often to be heard in 
 the houses of the 1 Singalese, particularly of the better sort ; 
 many of whom spend hours together listening to it, and aye 
 in the habit of being lulled to sleep' by it; for "nothing 
 (tbey say) is so tranquilising as sweet poetry, and the fe*»tl» 
 Udakea." 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 CRAWFTJRD, Esq. 
 
 ( From the " History of the Indian Archipelago,' 
 Vol. I. ) 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 (J A VANESE.) 
 
 BY 
 
 CRAWFURD, Esq. 
 
 MUSIC. 
 
 After this account of the state of the medical art among 
 the Indian islanders, I shall proceed to describe their music. 
 Each tribe has its distinct national airs, but it is among the 
 Javanese alone that music assumes the semblance of an art. 
 These people have, indeed, carried it to a state of improve- 
 ment, not only beyond their own progress in other arts, 
 but much beyond, I think, that of all other people in so rude 
 a state of society. This is most remarkably displayed in the 
 construction and composition of their musical instruments 
 and bands. These instruments are either wind instruments, 
 stringed instruments, or instruments of percussion. The two 
 first are remarkably rude, and it is only in the last that the 
 perfection of Javanese music is to be discovered. I shall 
 offer the reader a short description of all these in succession, 
 and afterwards proceed to give a description of their musical 
 system. 
 
 In doing this, I am happy to say, that my own deficiencies 
 are supplied by the skill and learning of Dr. Crotch, the well- 
 known auther of the " Specimens of the various Styles of 
 Music." I supplied this gentleman with a variety of Javanese 
 airs, taken down by wj friend Mr. Scott of Java, and he had 
 
 l— l 
 
298 MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 the advantage of inspecting the fine collection of musical 
 instruments belonging to Sir Stamford Raffles at the Duke of 
 Somerset's. On the subject of Javanese music he addressed 
 a letter to me, the words of which I shall quote without 
 alteration on every material point. 
 
 Of the wind instruments the rudest and earliest is the 
 Anghlung. This instrument is confined to the mountaineers 
 of Java, particularly those of the western end of the island. 
 It consists of a number of tubes of bamboo cane, cut at the 
 end like the barrels of an organ, and of graduated lengths so 
 as to form a gamut or series of notes. The tubes are loosely 
 placed in frames, so as to move when the frame ia shaken ; and 
 the whole of its rude notes consists in nothing more than the 
 vibration produced by this motion. A troop of forty or fifty 
 mountaineers will be seen dancing in wild and grotesque 
 attitudes, each individual playing upon an Angklung, himself 
 and his instrument decked with feathers. Among the musi- 
 cal instruments of the neighbouring island of Bali is a large 
 wind instrument, in appearance like a German flute, but in 
 sound and the manner in which it is blown more resembling a 
 clarionet. It is about four feet in length, and five or six of 
 them usually play in a band. The suling and serdum are 
 sorts of flutes or fifes in use among the Malay tribes, played 
 alone, and never in a band. 
 
 These, I think, are the only native wind instruments known 
 to the Indian islander at present. The fife or flute they 
 acquired from the Hindus, as its Sanskrit name bangsi points 
 out. Trumpets they acquired from the Persians and 
 Europeans, as we learn from their names, nasiri and salom- 
 pret. The sruni is a kind of native hautboys or trumpet, 
 which we read of in native romance, without ever seeing. 
 
MUSIC AND DANCINU 299 
 
 Of stringed instruments they hafe three, the 6h&tempmg, 
 the trawangsa, and the rabab. The ohcHempung has from ten 
 fifteen wire strings, and is played in the manner of a harp. 
 The fruwangsa is an instrument resembling a guitar, which is 
 occasionally found among the Sandas or mountaineers of Java. 
 This is the same sort of lute which we hear of among the 
 Malays under the name of E&chapi. 'The rabab, an instru- 
 ment borrowed from the Persians, is a small Violin of two 
 strings played with a bow, and producing perfect intonation. 
 This is played by the leader of the band in a Javanese 
 Orchestra, but is wanting in the music of those tribes who 
 have had little intercourse with the western nations of Asia. 
 It is a handsome little instrument, made of ivory, with a 
 front of parchment. 
 
 The instruments of percussion are numerous. The drum 
 is a native instrument, and recognised by many different 
 Barnes, according to the dialects of the people. Besides the 
 native varieties, they are indebted to the Arabs and Euro- 
 peans for others. The native drum struck with the hand is a 
 rude instrument, au<i Dr. Crotch pronoueees, upon a very 
 good one in the collection of Sir Stamford Raffles, that, 
 " the sound is feeble and unmusical." 
 
 Next to> the drum may be mentioned the well-known 
 instruments called gongs: The word, which incorrectly writ- 
 ten gung, is common to aM the dialects of the Archipelago^ 
 Kndi its. source may be considered 1 to be the vernacular langu- 
 age* of Java ; if,, indeed, it was not originally borrowed from 
 the Chinese. The gong is a composition of copper, zinc and 
 tin, in proportions which have not beea determined, some of 
 them are af enormous size, being occasionally from three to 
 four feet in diameter. They have a nob in the centre, which is 
 
SOO MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 struck with a mallet covered at top with cloth or elaatie 
 gum. They are usually suspended from a rich frame, and 
 the tone which they produce is the deepest aud richest that 
 can be imagined. . Dr. Crotch says of those he inspected, 
 "A pair of gongs was suspended from the centre of a most 
 superb wooden stand richly carved, painted and gilt. The 
 tone of these iustruments exceeded in depth and quality any 
 thing I had ever heard." 
 
 The next instrument of percussion to be mentioned may be 
 described as a variety of small gongs, of which one is laid in 
 a wooden frame upon striugs to support it. These, accord- 
 ing to their varieties, are called by the names of Ketuk aud 
 Kampul. 
 
 A series of similar vessels or gongs, arranged in a double 
 row upon a wooden frame, go uuder the name of Kromo aud 
 Bonang. " The tone of this singular instrument," says Dr. 
 Crotch, " is at once powerful and sweet, and its intonation 
 clear and perfect." 
 
 The last class of instruments of percussion are the 
 Staccados, in the Javanese language called Gambang. 
 These are of greater variety than any of the rest. The first I 
 shall mention is the wooden Staccado, or Gambang Kayu. 
 This consists of a certain number of bars of a hard sonorous 
 wood of graduated lengths, placed over a wooden trought or 
 boat, and struck with a little hammer. This instrument is 
 common throughout every part of the Archipelago, particular- 
 ly among the Malay tribes, and is often played alone. Ths 
 second kind of Staccado resembles this, differing from it only 
 in having the bars made of metal instead of wood. 
 
 They each assume different names in the copious lan- 
 guage of Java, according to the number of bars, or notes, 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 301 
 
 or other modifications of their construction. The tone 
 of the wooden Staccado is sweet, but not powerful ; 
 that of the metallic one stronger. A modification of the lat- 
 ter is known by the name of Gander. This consists of 
 thin plates, instead of bars of. metal, supported by 
 tightened cords, instead of resting on the sides of the wooden 
 boat or trought ; below each bar, there is a bamboo tube to 
 improve the sound. On the fabrication of all those instru- 
 ments, Dr. Crotch observes, after viewing those at the Duke 
 Of Somerset's, that he " was astonished and delighted with 
 their ingenious fabrication, splendour, beauty and accurate 
 intonation." 
 
 The instruments now described, according to their ar- 
 rangement, the omission of some instruments, or the 
 insertion of others, are divided into bands or Orchestras, 
 pitched on the same scale in perfect unison, and each ap- 
 propriated to some particular description of music, or some 
 particular occasion. The word Qamalcm, which we so often 
 hear in the mouths of the Javanese, expresses these bauds 
 or sets. There are no less than seven of them. The first is 
 called Manggang, and is the simplest and most ancient. 
 Some of the principal instruments mentioned in the descrip- 
 tion I have given are omitted in it ; it is played at public 
 processions. The name of Gamalan Kodok Ngorek, or the 
 band resembling " the croaking of frogs," a name which it 
 sometimes bears, was probably given to it from its want of 
 harmony, after the Javanese became acquainted with the 
 more improved and perfect ones. 
 
 The next band is the Salendro, the most perfect of all, 
 whether for the number of instruments of which it consists, 
 or the number of notes in each of this. The P'elag is like 
 
302 MU8IO AND DANCINO. 
 
 the Salendro ; but some of the instruments have fewer notes, 
 and all are larger and louder. The MiHng, aa its name im- 
 plies, partakes of the nature of the Salendro and Pdag. 
 These three bands, are more particularly employed as 
 accompaniments in the different kinds of dramatic exhibi- 
 tions. 
 
 The Gamalan, Ghoro Bali, or band according to the fashion 
 of Bali, omits the rabab or violin, an instrument borrowed 
 from the Mahomedans ; for which, I presume, are substituted 
 in the native country of it, the flutes or clarionets which 
 I have described. In other respects it resembles the Salendro, 
 and has the instruments as large and loud as those of the 
 Pelang. 
 
 The Sakaten is only distinguished from the Pelag by the 
 still greater size and louder sound of the instruments. This 
 is played only before the monarch, and on very solemn occa- 
 sions, such as the great religious festivals. 
 
 The Srunen is the martial music of the country. In. this 
 band, as its name implies, trumpets are introduced, or some 
 wind instruments similar to them — a complete band of 
 either kind will cost from two hundred to five hundred pounds 
 Sterling. 
 
 On the style and character of Javanese music,, the fol- 
 lowing are Dr. Crotch's very interesting observations : 
 " The instruments," be observes, " are all in the same kind 
 of scale as that produced by the black keys ol the piano- 
 forte ; in which scale so many of the Scots and Irish, all 
 the Chinese, and some of the East Indian and North 
 American airs of the greatest antiquity were composed. The 
 result of my examination is a pretty strong convicti-an that 
 all the real native music, of Java, notwithstanding some 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 303 
 
 difficulties which it is unnecessary to particularize,* is com- 
 posed in a common enharmonic scale. The tunes which I 
 have selected are all in simple common time. Some of 
 the cadences remind us of Scots music for the bagpipe ; 
 others in the minor key, have the flat seventh instead 
 of the leading note or sharp seventh — one of the indica- 
 tions of antiquity. In many of the airs the recurrence of 
 the same passages is artful and ingenious. The irregu- 
 larity of the rhythm or measure, and the reiteration of 
 the same sound, are characteristic of oriental music. The 
 melodies are in general wild, plaintive and interesting." 
 It is almost unnecessary to add, that the Indian islanders are 
 unacquainted with the art of writing music ; the tunes, of 
 which there are a great variety, are handed down from 
 memory. 
 
 In the plates accompanying this work will be found the 
 scales or gamuts of the principal instruments of percussion, 
 with five Javanese tunes, and one Malay air, selected by 
 Dr. Crotch, to which are added, by himself, the b es and 
 chords. 
 
 DANCING. 
 
 The love of dancing, in a variety of shapes, is a favourite 
 passion of the Indian islanders. It is somewhat more, indeed 
 than an amusement, often mingling itself with the more 
 serious business of life. Dancing, as practised by them, is 
 neither the art, as it exists among the savages of America 
 nor among the Hindus and Mahomedans of Western India. 
 
 • The difficulties here alluded to are, in our present state of information 
 believed to be the consequence of some errors which had found their way 
 into the original manuscript furnished to Dr. Cr «tch. 
 
304 MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 Like the latter, they have professed dancing women, who 
 exhibit for hire ; but like the former, they occasionally dance 
 themselves, and in public processions, and even more serious 
 occasions, dancing forms a portion of the solemnities. 
 
 Whatever be the occasion in Which dancing is exhibited, 
 it is always grave, stately ami slow, never gay nor animated. 
 As in all Asiatic dancing, it is not the legs but the body, and 
 especially the arms, down to the very fingers, that are em- 
 ployed. Dexterity, agility or liveliness, are never attempted. 
 To the gravity and solemnity which belong to the inhabitants 
 of a warm climate, any display of agility would appear as 
 indecorous, as their stately and sluggish minuet dancing 
 appears insupportably tiresome to our more volatile and 
 lively tempers. 
 
 The dancing of the Indian islsuulers may be considered as 
 of three kinds, — their serious dunces on public occasions, 
 the private dances of individuals at festivities, and the ex- 
 hibitions of professed dancers. 
 
 Of the first kind are the war dances of the people of Ce- 
 lebes. If a warrior throws out a defiance to his enemy, it ia 
 done in a dance in which he brandishes his spear and kris, 
 pronouncing an emphatic challenge. If a native of the same 
 country runs a muck, ten to one but he braves death in a 
 dancing posture. When they swear eternal hatred to their 
 enemies, or fidelity to their friends, the solemnity is accom- 
 panied by a dance. There is a good deal more vivacity on 
 these occasions than I ever saw exhibited on any other of 
 the same kind. 
 
 All orders executed in the presence of a Javanese monarch, 
 on public occasions, are accompanied by a dance. When a 
 message is to be conveyed to the royal ear, the messenger 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 305 
 
 advances with a solemn dance, and retreats in the same 
 way. The ambassadors from one native prince in Java 
 to another follow the same course when coming into and 
 retiring from the presence of the sovereign to whom they 
 are deputed. When the persons whose business it is to let 
 the tiger loose from his cage into the hollow square of spear- 
 men, as above mentioned, have performed their duty, and 
 received the royal nod to retire, an occasion, one would think, 
 when dancing might be spared, they do so in a slow dance 
 and solemn strut, with some risk of being devoured by the 
 tiger in the midst of their performance. 
 
 ^Previous to the introduction of the Mahomedan religion, 
 it appears to have been the custom of all the oriental islanders, 
 for the men of rank, at their public festivities, when heated 
 with wine, to dance. Upon such occasions, the exhibition 
 appears to have been a kind of war dance. The dancer drew 
 his kris, and went through all the evolutions of a mock fight. 
 At present the practice is most common among the Javanese, 
 with every chief of whom dancing, far from being considered 
 scandalous, as among the people of Western India, is held to 
 be a necessary accomplishment.* Respectable women never 
 
 * In Dampier's time, and I suppose to the present day, the people of 
 Mindanao followed the same practice. " It was not long before the general 
 caused his dancing women to enter the room, and divert the company with 
 that pastime. I had forgot to tell you, that they have none but vocal music 
 here by what I could learn, except only a row of a kind of bells without 
 clappers, sixteen in number, and their weight increasing gradually from 
 about three to ten pound weight. These were set in a row, on a table in the 
 general's house, where, for seven or eight days together, before the circum- 
 cision day, they were struck, each with a little stick, for the biggest part 
 of the. day making a great noise, and they ceased that morning. So these 
 dancing women sung themselves, and danced to their own music. After 
 
 M-I 
 
306 MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 join in it, and with that sex, dancing is confined to those 
 whose profession it is. In the most crowded circle of 
 strangers, a Javanese chief w^ll exhibit in the mazes of the 
 dance with an ordinary dancing girl, or, in other wordsj with 
 a common prostitute. I have often seen the sultan of Madura, 
 a most amiable and respectable prince, in this situation. The 
 dance at such time is nothing more than the slow and solemn 
 pacing exhibited on other occasions. 
 
 The professed dancers differ little but in inferiority of 
 skill, from the common dancing girls of Hindustan. Those 
 who have been often disgusted with the latter, will find still 
 less to interest them in the former. The music to which the 
 dancing is performed is, indeed, generally incomparably 
 better than that of Western India, although the vocal part 
 of it is equally harsh aud dissonant. Now and then a single 
 voice of great tenderness and melody may be found, but 
 whenever an effort is made at raising it for the accommoda- 
 tion of an audience, it becomes harsh and unmusical. The 
 songs sung on such occasions are often nothing more than 
 unpremeditated effusions, but among the Javanese, to whom 
 I am now more particularly alluding, there are some nation- 
 al ballads, that might bear a comparison with the boasted 
 odes of the Persian minstrels. 
 
 this the general's women, and the sultan's sons, and his -nieces, danced. 
 Two of the sultan's nieces were about 18 or 19 years old the other two were 
 three or four years younger. These young ladies were very richly dressed, 
 with loose garments of silk, and small coronets on their heads. They were 
 much fairer than any women I did ever see there, and very well featured ; 
 and their noses, though but small, yet higher than the. other women, and 
 very well proportioned"— Dampier's Voyages, Vol, I, p. 342. 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 307 
 
 The singular fact of the sovereign having, among the Java- 
 nese, the most beautiful and admired of his concubines in- 
 structed to dance, and their exhibiting their performance in 
 public, accords with what I have stated respecting the condi- 
 tion of women among the Indian islanders.* 
 
 * Commodore Beaulieu's account of a dance exhibited before the King 
 of Achin is somewhat peculiar, but very characteristic : — " Then came 
 fifteen or twenty women, who ranged themselves by the wall side, and each 
 of them having little drums in their hands, sung their king's conquests, 
 making their voices answer the drums. After that there came in, at a little 
 door, two little girls, very oddly dressed, but very handsome, and whiter 
 than any I ever saw in so hot a country. Upon their head they had a sort 
 of hat, made of spangles of gold, which glittered mightily, together with a 
 plume about a foot and a half high, made of the same spangles. This hat 
 hung down upon one ear. They had large ear-pendants of spangles of 
 gold, hanging down to their shoulders. Their neck was covered with neck- 
 laces of gold, and upon their shoulders was a sort of jacket of gold, curiously 
 engraven, under which was a shift, or waistcoat of cloth of gold, with red 
 silk, covering their breast, and a very broad girdle, made of gold spangles. 
 Their girdle was tied above the haunches, from which there hung a cloth of 
 gold, with straight breeches underneath, which were likewise made of cloth 
 of gold, and did not pass the knees, where several bells of gold hung upon 
 them. 
 
 " Their arms and legs were naked, but, from the wrist to the elbow, were 
 adorned with bracelets of gold and jewels, as well as from the ancle to the 
 calf of their leg. At their girdle each of them had a sword, the hilts and 
 scabbards of which were covered with jewels ; and in their hands a large 
 fan of gold, with several little bells about it. They advanced upon the 
 carpet with a profound gravity, and, falling upon their knees before the 
 king, saluted him, by joining their hands, and lifting them up to their 
 head ; then they began to dance, with one knee upon the ground, making 
 several motions with their body and arms ; after that they danced upright, 
 with « great deal of agility and cadence, sometimes putting their hands 
 to their swords, another time making as if they shot a bow, and sometimes 
 as if they had a shield and hanger in their hands. This lasted about half 
 an hour, after which they kneeled before the king, and, in my opinion, 
 
308 MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 were pretty well tired, for each of them had above forty pounds weight of 
 gold upon her. However, they danced with a very good grace, and if our 
 French dancing-masters had seen them, they would have owned their 
 performance not to have been what we account barbarous."— Harris's Collec- 
 tion of Voyages, Vol. I, p. 732. 
 
hccher or Cyni-brd, 
 
 JTa'MAWJBSE MuTSIiCAJt. TfofSnnKUJMJEMTS. 
 
( 309 ) 
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 S5 
 
 sz^z^zlz^zai^D^M^ 
 
 «^»a — •)■ 
 
 Raja Santul 
 
 Z>. c 
 
 l^ete^is^aga 
 
 bis 
 
 ^^adj M g ppg S^^ 
 
 K 
 
 u i r i — i — i 
 
 N i I " N i M rt 
 
 ^m^m^^ m^- \ ^^^ ^ 
 
 a=3=ai 
 
 \whr-r 
 
 r~ri *H — • 
 
 #=f* 
 
 ^j=rf 
 
 *=*=? 
 
 ^ 
 
 §§il§^^ 
 
 /T\ 
 
 ^ISH 
 
 
 4^P= 
 
 HHi 
 
 /C«i 
 
 ^s* 
 
 i 
 
 «*CT 
 
 CT— *— y*^ 
 
Longki. 
 
 ( 312 ) 
 
 g j I J'^Ti I U I !' , . 
 
 j-^rrrrn^rj^ ^ 
 
 Slow. 
 
 ^^ ^^^ 
 
 5 
 
 3!=3t 
 
 , ^^^^fe^^^4« 
 
 E@£ 
 
 =3= Jl i J 
 
 PJ-- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 J * ^ 
 
 t 
 
 ?r-* 
 
 "? 
 
 Malay tune. $& 
 
 -%7Tt~!T" ' 
 
 w- 
 
 i^s 
 
 m^^&mmm 
 
 ' ^fe ^-rH-^ ^^^^ ^^^ 
 
 dbzCt 
 
 ^^ g^^^^^^^^ P 
 
 fr^ci r r i i iii — L ^-i — ——I — 1 1 1 i jss • ' 
 
 End of Vol. I. 
 
PART II. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 Musical Instruments from the " Industrial Arts of India." By 
 
 George CM. Birdwood, c.s i., M.D., Edin, 1880 .. .. 315 
 
 On the Hindu division of the Octave, with some Additions to tho 
 Theory of Systems of the higher orders. By E. H. M. Bosanquet 317-335 
 
 Hindu Music from the " Hindoo Patriot." By Sourindro Mohun 
 Tagore .. .. .. .. .. .. 339-397 
 
 On the Musical Scales of different Nations from an " Introduction to 
 the Study of National Music." By Carl Engel .. .. 401-401 
 
 The Saman Chants from " The Arsheyabrahmana." By A. C. Bur- 
 nell,i?H. d. .. .. .. .. .. .. 407-412 
 
 The Hindu Theory of Music from " "What is Music." By Isaac L. 
 Eice, Pianist and Professor, New York ... .. .. 415-417 
 
 The Indian Art of Music from the " Imperial Gazetteer of India." 
 BytheHon'ble W. W. Hunter, c.i.e., ll.d., Director-General of 
 Statistics for the Government of India ; President, Education 
 Committee of India .. .. .. .. •• 421-423 
 
THE INDUSTRIAL AKTS OF INDIA. 
 
 Geokge C. M. BIRDWOOD, c.s.i., m.d., EDIN, 
 1880. 
 
 N-l 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Indian Musical Instruments are remarkable for the beauty 
 and variety of their forms, which the ancient sculptures and 
 paintings at Ajanta shew have remained unchanged for the 
 last two thousand years. The harp, chang, is identical in 
 shape with the Assyrian harp represented on the Nineveh 
 sculptures, and the Vina is of equal antiquity. The Hindus 
 claim to have invented the fiddle bow. At Kalka, in the 
 Ambala District of the Panjab, the " Jew's harp" Mu r chang 
 ["mouth-harp"], is made at certain seasons of festivity and 
 sold by hundreds. Musical Instruments are made in most 
 of the large towns and cities, and those of Srinagar [Cash- 
 mere] and Delhi in the Panjab, of Murshedabad in Bengal, 
 and of Tamkur in Mysore, are specially prized. They are also 
 made of marked excellence at Parashram and Malwan, both 
 in the Eatnagiri Collectorate of the Bombay Presidency. 
 Delhi, Bareilly and Channapatna in Mysore are noted for 
 the manufacture of wire for musical instruments. The Conch 
 shell used in India as a wind instrument is often beautifully 
 mounted in silver and gold. It is the Turbinella rapa of 
 naturalists, and all that is required to make it sonorous is to 
 drill a hole through its base. When blown into, the wind 
 passing through the different whorls, produces a loud, sharp, 
 and piercing sound, which is heard far aud wide, and hence 
 its great esteen as a war trumpet. It is used in religious 
 services to call the attention of the gods to their worship- 
 pers ; and also at the conclusion of certain ceremonies. The 
 Conch shell used for pouring water on the gods is a smaller 
 one, the Mazza rapa of naturalists. Both these species, and a 
 third, the Voluta gravis, are used in the manufacture of the 
 bracelets of Dacca. 
 
ON 
 
 THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, WITH 
 SOME ADDITIONS TO THE THEORY OF 
 SYSTEMS OF THE HIGHER ORDERS. 
 
 R. H. M. BOSANQUET. 
 
 {Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 
 From March 1, 1877 to December 20, 1877.) 
 
•ON THE HINDU DIVISION OP THE OCTAVE, &C. 319 
 
 " On the Hindu division of the Octave, with some addi- 
 tions to the theory of systems of the higher orders."* By 
 B. H. M. Bosanquet, Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford. 
 Communicated by Prof. Henry J. S. Smith, p. K. s., Savilian 
 Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. Re- 
 ceived January 5tb, 1877. Read 8th February.! 
 
 My attention has been recently drawn to some publications 
 which appear to afford trustworthy information concerning 
 the musical intervals in use among the Hindus.^ In parti- 
 cular it appears that the foundation of their system is a 
 division of the Octave into 22 intervals, which are called 
 S'rutis. I propose to discuss this system in the light of the 
 theory formerly communicated to the Royal Society ; and 
 as it is one of what I have called the higher systems, and 
 the theory of such systems has not been sufficiently deve- 
 loped, I take the opportunity of adding what is necessary for 
 the classification, discussion and practical treatment of the 
 principal systems of this character. 
 
 Some light may be thrown on the object of the paper 
 by the following quotation from the work of Fetis before 
 referred to. After an exhaustive treatment of the various 
 accessible scales, tunes, &c, from the artistic point of view, 
 he sums up in the following words : — 
 
 " Dailleurs, pour 6tablir d'une maniere certaine l'6tat 
 v6ritable de la musique indienne de nos jours, il faudrait 
 
 * Sometime after the paper was read, the author's attention was called 
 to M. Fetis's work, a reference to which is embodied in the paper. 
 
 t See Proc. Koy. Soc, Vol. XXV, p. 540. 
 
 % "Hindu music, from various authors," Part T, S. M. Tagore, President, 
 Bengal Music School, &o , Fetis, Histoire.Generale de la Musiqueval. j . 
 
320 ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &C. 
 
 qu'elle eut et6 dtudiSe sur les lieux par un musician pos- 
 sidant une coDnaissanoe complete del'art et de la science, 
 ce qui n'a pas eu lieu Jusqu'an Jaurd' hui. Cette 6tude 
 exigerait, pour Stre bien faite, non seulementle savoir 
 technique, mais uu esprit observateur degage" de tout systeme 
 prficoncu. Dans ces conditions seulement, on parviendraifc 
 & determiner avec exactitude la nature de la tonalite" des 
 chants de 1' Inde modern e, ce que n'ont fait ni Fowke, ni 
 W. Ouseley, ni Willard, ni mSme W. Jones; car leurs appre- 
 ciation & ce sujet n'ont pas la rigoureuse precision qu6 est 
 indispensable dans les recherches de ce genre." 
 
 The point of the present paper, so far as it relates to 
 Hindu music, is, that uutil we have a general means of 
 producing and controlling such systems as are likely to be 
 met with on instruments with fixed tones (e. g., the har- 
 monium) and of thus comparing such systems with actual 
 facts we can have no certainty as to the results, at least in 
 the present state of musical education. 
 
 Fetis employs the principle of the comparison of inter- 
 vals with equal temperament semitones, which is the basis 
 of the writer's methods -, but he uses it only for the purpose 
 of speculating on the connexion between the Hindu system 
 of 22 and a division of the Octave into 24, or of each semi- 
 tone into two equal parts, a comparison by which nothing 
 appears to be gained* The use of method for instituting 
 comparisons with perfect consonances has escaped him. 
 And yet it appears (Fetis, Vol. II, p. 278) that the Vina (the 
 historic instrument of Indian music) is tuned by concords, 
 forming a complete major chord on the open strings. This 
 
 • Proe. Boy. Soc, 1875, Vol. XXIII, p. 390 ; and " An Elementary Treatise 
 on Musical Intervals and Temperament" (Macraillan, 1876.) 
 
ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &0. 321 
 
 is enough of itself to suggest the necessity of an inquiry into 
 the relations between the system of 22 and perfect concords. 
 
 The Hindu scale has several forms ; that which is described 
 by most of the writers, and seems accepted as fundamental, 
 is represented commonly as follows, S'rutis being such that 
 22 of them make an Octave :— 
 
 S'rutis. 
 
 Hindu names. 
 
 European ? 
 
 ( Sa 
 \ Ei 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 f Ga 
 
 F 
 
 J" Ma 
 IPa 
 
 F 
 G 
 
 f Dha 
 f Ni 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 fSa 
 
 C 
 
 The above scale is called the Shadja Grama. 
 
 Another form called Madhyama Grama is precisely similar 
 to the above, except that the intervals Pa Dha and DM Si 
 are inverted ; so that we have 
 
 f Pa G • 
 
 3 \ Dha A 
 
 f Ni B 
 
 4 t 
 
 There is a third principal form, the constitution of which 
 appears uncertain, but the two above given are suggestive, 
 and are enough to make clear to us the general nature of the 
 
 arrangement. 
 
 B o-i 
 
322 ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &C. 
 
 la fact, if we suppose for a moment that tile fifths and 
 thirds of this scale are perfect, which is not exactly true, 
 we see that the first form, Shadjd Qr&ma, is the form we 
 should give to the scale in just intonation, when we wish 
 to retain the ordinary seeond of the key, and raise the 
 sixth of the key, so as to form a good fifth with the second 
 (e. g., in the key of C we should raise a to a so as to get 
 the good fifth, d-a.) The other form, Madhyama Grama, 
 corresponds to the diatonic scale as ordinarily given. 
 
 Are the S'rutis all equal in value ? The native writers say 
 nothing about this, but the European ones for the most part 
 suggest that they are not. For instance, an English reviewer 
 recently wrote, " A S'ruti is a quarter tone or a third of 
 a tone according to its position in the scale." This appears 
 to be a misapprehension arising from the modern idea that 
 each interval of a tone in the scale is necessarily the same. 
 But the language in which the different forms of the scale 
 is described distinctly indicates that a note rises or falls 
 when it gains or loses a S'ruti ; consequently we may infer 
 that the S'rutis are intended to be equal in a general sort of 
 way, probably without any very great precision. 
 
 We shall now show that the fifths and thirds, produced by 
 a division of the Octave into 22 equal intervals, do not deviate 
 very widely from the exact intervals, which are the founda- 
 tion of the diatonic scale. 
 
 For this purpose we shall only need to recall the values of 
 the perfect fifth and third in terms of equal temperament 
 semitones of 12 to the Octave. A simple calculation will 
 give us the values of the corresponding intervals of the 
 system. 
 
ON THE HINDU DIVISION Op THE OCTAVE, &0. 323 
 
 The perfect fifth is 7-01955 semitones, 
 
 or 7-Ji nearly. 
 The perfect third is 4— -13686 semitones, 
 
 or 4 nearly. 
 
 t'o 
 
 To find the interval in semitones made by x units of the 
 system of 22, we have 
 
 if x or T » T x 
 Hence we obtain the following values : — 
 
 •System of 22. 
 
 Intervals. 
 
 No. of 
 units. 
 
 Interval in 
 semitones. 
 
 Exact interval 
 in semitones. 
 
 Major third . 
 
 ... 7 
 
 38182 
 
 3-8631 
 
 Fifth ... . 
 
 ... 13 
 
 7-0909 
 
 7-0195 
 
 Hence the fifth of the system of 22 is sharp by about -07, 
 or \ of a comma very nearly. 
 
 The major third is fiat by -045, or \ of a comma nearly. 
 (Comma of |£= -21506.) 
 
 The system of 22 possesses, then, remarkable properties ; 
 it has both fifths and thirds considerably better than any 
 other cyclical system having so low a number of notes. The 
 only objection, as far as the concords go, to its practical 
 employment for our own purposes lies in the fifths ; these 
 lie just beyond the limit of what is tolerable in the case 
 of instruments with continuous tones. (The mean tone 
 system is regarded as the extreme limit ; this has fifths \ 
 of a comma flat.) For the purposes of the Hindus, where 
 no stress is laid on the harmony, the system is already so 
 perfect that improvement could hardly be expected. 
 
 It is thus wrong to suppose that the system of 22 would 
 need much tempering to bring its concords into tune. These 
 
324 ON THE HINDU DIVISION OP THE OCTAVE, &C. 
 
 are probably quite as accurate as rough and poorly toned 
 instruments admit of. 
 
 But although the consonance error of fifth and third is 
 small, it is far otherwise with the deviations of the other 
 intervals of the scale from the values to which Europeans 
 are accustomed. 
 
 System op 22. 
 
 Interval. 
 
 Difference of. 
 
 Units. 
 
 Interval. 
 
 Exact Interval. 
 
 Fourth 
 
 ■ . Fifth and Octave 
 
 2 
 
 4-9091 
 
 & -9S05 
 
 Major tone 
 
 . . Fourth and fifth 
 
 i 
 
 2-1818 
 
 2.0391 
 
 Minor tone 
 
 . . Third and major tone 
 
 3 
 
 1-6363 
 
 1-8240 
 
 Major semitone 
 
 . . Third and fourth 
 
 2 
 
 1-0909 
 
 1 1174 
 
 Minor third 
 
 . . Fifth and third 
 
 6 
 
 3-2727 
 
 3-1564 
 
 Minor semitone . 
 
 . Major third and minor 
 third. 
 
 1 
 
 -5454 
 
 ■7067 
 
 In regarding these numbers we must remember that, as far 
 as European musicians are concerned, the deviation from 
 equal temperament is the most important thing in a melodic 
 point of view ; and this is expressed in every case by the 
 notation adopted for the intervals. Intervals which deviate 
 widely from equal temperament sound out of tune to the 
 European ear ; and, as harmony is not employed, the justifica- 
 tion which derivation from perfect concords is felt to give in 
 harmony has no opportunity of asserting itself. 
 
 The only method by which it will be possible to make 
 reliable investigations on the intervals practically used in 
 India will be to provide some instruments suitable for mani- 
 pulating the system of 22 divisions in the Octave, and then 
 to compare its intervals with those given by the Indian 
 musicians. It will thus be possible to find out what is the 
 extent of the tempering, if any, which they employ. The 
 education of the European ear is as yet so imperfect that 
 
ON THE HINDU DIVISION OP THE OCTAVE, &C., 325 
 
 no reliance can be placed on estimations of intervals, other 
 than integral numbers of equal temperament semitones, if 
 made by ear only, even with skilled musicians. The habit 
 of estimating fractions of intervals numerically by ear is 
 completely uncultivated amoDg us ; and the value to be set 
 on the dicta of casual European observers is in consequence 
 little or nothing. 
 
 I shall presently indicate the mode in which the principles 
 of the generalized key-board permit us to construct an ins- 
 trument that will deal practically with this system of 22, 
 and exhibit in a graphical manner the singular laws of 
 harmony to which its notes are subject. 
 
 Theoby of the Higher Systems. 
 
 Let us recall what is meant by the order of a system. 
 (The letters E. T., are used as an abbreviation for " equal 
 temperament.") 
 The E. T., fifth is 7 semitones ; the Octave is 12 semitones. 
 .•. 12 E. T., fifths=7 octaves=84 semitones. 
 
 The perfect fifth, on the other hand, is (very nearly). 7^4- ; 
 so that 12 perfect fifths=84H. 
 
 And in other systems there is always a small difference 
 between 12 fifths and 7 Octaves. Now the simplest way in 
 which this can be treated is to make this small difference 
 the unit of the system. When this is done the system is 
 said to be of the first order. 
 
 But sometimes this small difference is more than one unit : 
 if it is divided into two units, we say that the system is of 
 the second order ; if into three, of the third, and so on. 
 
326 ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &C. 
 
 The forma of arrangement into scales and laws connecting 
 the harmony of fifths and thirds depend primarily upon the 
 orders of systems. 
 
 Referring back for the details of the investigation to my 
 previous communication already cited, I recall only that the 
 systems of each order proceed by differences of 12, and that 
 for the first three orders they are as follows : — 
 
 Order 
 
 1. 17 29 .41 53 
 
 2. , 22 34 . . 118 
 
 3. 15 27 39 
 
 The accompanying illustration (Diagram I.) will make clear 
 what is meant by saying that the system of 22 is a system 
 of the second order. The numbers are the characteristic 
 numbers of the system ; they are arranged in order of 
 fifths, i. e., they proceed by differences of 13, 22, being always 
 cast out. The departure of the sharp fifths from E. T. is 
 represented by displacement in a vertical direction. 
 
 Then the circle of 12 fifths has its terminal points 2 units 
 apart. 
 
 Similarly in systems of the rth order, the circle of 12-fifths 
 has its terminal points r units apart. 
 
 In the illustration we see how the notes may be introduced 
 which form the intervals intermediate between the terminal 
 poiuts, thus the note 1 is introduced midway between 
 and 2. 
 
ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &0. 327 
 
 Diagram I. 
 Charatteristic numbers of system of 22 in order of fifths. 
 
 c g d a e' b f| c| g| ell l>b. f o 
 2 2 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 
 Formation of Thirds. 
 
 Thirds may be formed either by the notes of the circle of 
 fifths with which we start, or by the notes of another circle 
 any number Of unites above or more generally below the first. 
 
 In the system of 22 we have seen that' the third' is 7 units. 
 Looking at' the circle of fifths, the third' by 4 fifths- up is" 8 
 units. We may form the third to any note therefore by 
 ascending through 4 fifths of the series and then descending 
 one unit ; i. e., the third is formed in the circle of fifths, one 
 unit below that which contains the fundamental. 
 
 This mode of formation has not been previously considered. 
 It leads to the following observation, which is important in 
 the practical employment of the system : — 
 
 Modulation through a tbird r ia systems of this character, 
 cannot be generally treated as equivalent to modulation 
 through any number of fifths. 
 
 We proceed to a further classification of the higher sys- 
 tems; based on this" property. 
 
328 ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &C. 
 
 By definition, the interval between the two ends of the 
 circle of fifths is r units. Let r circles of fifths be placed in 
 juxta-position, so that corresponding pairs of notes are all 
 one unit apart, and consider the third formed with the start- 
 ing point of the uppermost series. 
 
 Then we shall define a system as being of class x, when 
 the third lies in the xth series below the upper one. 
 
 In the system of 22, the third (7) to e (0) lies one series 
 below that in which c is, so that we may define the proper- 
 ties of the system of 22 by saying that it is of order 2 and 
 class 1. 
 
 The simplest systems of higher orders are those which 
 form their thirds either by 4 fifths up or 8 fifths down 
 in the same series ; those may be spoken of as of order r 
 class o, and order r class r respectively. Both have been con- 
 sidered in my paper already referred to. 
 
 I proceed to indicate shortly the general expressions by 
 means of which systems can be discussed. 
 
 The departure of the third formed by 4 fifths up is 
 
 In a system of class x, the third is x units lower, and its 
 
 departure is &?_^x —=-4 3x ~ r W 
 
 n ' n n 
 
 And this has to be compared with the departure of the 
 perfect third, _ _ .\z§%q 
 
 = -^7 3 nearly. 
 
 So that for a determination of the class of any system n 
 of the rih order, we have the approximate condition. 
 
 Zx ~ r= w% nearly ^ 
 
DIAGRAM II. 
 
ON THE HINDU DIVISION OP THE OCTAVE, &0. 329 
 
 The formulae (*) and (it) are sufficient for any required 
 discussion ; they present no difficulty, and I confine myself 
 to a statement of a few of the principal results. 
 
 The departure of the third of all systems of order 2, class 
 1 is represented by 
 
 n 
 The system of 34, of order 2, class 1, presents both fifths 
 and thirds of exceptional excellence. This system may be of 
 interest for modern purposes. 
 
 Systems of the third order and first class have equal-tem- 
 perament thirds ; for (i) vanishes when x=- : or, more gene- 
 ts 
 
 rally, a system has E. T., thirds when the number of the 
 class is J that of the order. 
 
 System of order r class x which make 3x — r, negative need 
 not be considered, as their thirds are sharper than E. T. thirds 
 
 In the third order, class 2, there is a good system of 87. 
 
 In the fourth order, class 2, there is a good system of 56. 
 
 Neither of these are likely to be of practical interest. 
 
 Practical Applications. 
 
 In the light of the foregoing investigation we see that the 
 generalized key-board, as hitherto constructed, is of limited 
 application ; it is capable of controlling only systems which 
 form their thirds by either 4-fifths or 8-fifths down. 
 
 The systems included by these conditions are all those of 
 the first order, positive and negative, and all systems of any 
 order of class o or class r. These embrace all that are likely 
 to be interesting with reference to European harmonious 
 music, with the possible exception of the system of 34 above 
 alluded to. 
 
 E-l 
 
330 ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &C. 
 
 The principles of the position on which the key-board is 
 founded are, however, applicable to all higher systems ; and 
 I shall presently investigate its transformations. The key- 
 board of the second order thus obtained will afford a means 
 of controlling, in a convenient manner, systems of the first 
 class in that order, and dealing with facility with either the 
 Hindu system of 22, or the system of 34 above mentioned. 
 
 But before proceeding to discuss these arrangements, it 
 is desirable to provide the extension of our notation, which 
 is necessary for dealing with systems of the rth order and 
 classes other than r and o. 
 
 Genebalized Notation. 
 
 The notation which I have hitherto employed has always 
 assumed that the deviation, or departure, due to a circle of 
 12-fifths is identical with one unit of the system employed. 
 
 Thus C — 1C represented both the departure of 12-fifths 
 and the smallest interval, or unit, of the system. 
 
 In non-cyclical systems, and in systems of the first order, 
 this representation is consistent and satisfactory ; but in 
 systems of higher orders these two conceptions diverge. 
 The departure of 12 fifths and the unit of the system can 
 no longer be represented by the same symbol. 
 
 The choice we will make is, that the symbol of elevation 
 or depression shall represent primarily one unit of the sys- 
 tem. Thus c — /c will always represent the unit, but will 
 only represent the departure of 12 fifths in systems of the 
 first order. 
 
 C— I jo will be the departure of twelve-fifths in systems of 
 the second order ; c — / / jc in systems of the third order, 
 and so on. 
 
ON THE HINDU DIVISION OP THE OCTAVE, &C. 331 
 
 It follows that, in a continuous'series of fifths, at the point 
 where two consecutive series of the notation join, the diffe- 
 rence of the macks, on the two notes which constitute the 
 joining fifth, wiil be )•. 
 
 Thus the following are fifths which join the unmarked series 
 to that next above it :— 
 
 In the 1st order, b — jf% 
 2nd „ 8-///ft 
 
 3rd „ &-////# 
 and so on. 
 
 We now require only to find the thirds. Introducing the 
 conditions that the system be of class x, we find the third 
 as follows : — Pass up four steps in the series of fifths, and 
 then x units down. 
 
 Example.— Order 2, Class 1. 
 Third to C : 
 
 4 Steps up give e, 
 
 1 Unit down e, which is the required third. 
 Third to C : 
 
 4 Steps up give / /djf, 
 1 Unit down /djf, which is the third. 
 Whence, in order 2, class 1, b, e, a, d (letters of the memo- 
 ria— technica word) form thirds by one mark up, and all re- 
 maining notes by one mark down. 
 
 Similarly, in a system of order r clsss x, b, e, a, d form 
 thirds with r—x marks up, and all the remaining notes with 
 x marks down. 
 
 Transformations of the generalized Key-board. 
 It is only necessary to require, in the construction of the 
 generalized key-board, that all the keys shall equally fit all 
 the bearings, to reader it possible to produce any required 
 
332 ON THE HINDU DIVISION OP THE OCTAVE, &C. 
 
 position system with a sufficient number of the ordinary 
 keys. This requirement has always been attended to in the 
 plans for the sake of simplification ; though the important 
 results which flow from it were not originally foreseen. But 
 it is found that unless the attention of the maker is specially 
 directed to the point, the nature of the finishing processes 
 does not secure the result in question ; there is, however, 
 no difficulty in securing it when it is desired. 
 
 The distance of the end of the key on the plan (projection 
 on a horizontal plane) from a line of reference drawn from 
 right to left determines the form of the key completely. 
 
 There are 12 such fundamental positions ; so that we 
 may describe the pattern of any key completely as a func- 
 tion of a series of numbers running from 1 to 12. After 
 12 the same patter ns recur, with reference to a new standard 
 line, such that the old 12 has the same position as the new o. 
 
 The ordinary arrangement of a series of 12 fifths may be 
 simply exhibited by writing under each note of the series 
 the number of which its pattern is a function. 
 
 Direct Key-boabd. 
 
 c g d a e b jf% \c% \g% \ i% \ a% // \e 
 1234567 8 9 10 1112 1 
 
 Increase of the numbers denotes increased height as well 
 as increased distance from the front ; so that according to 
 this, the original arrangement, rise on the key-board corres- 
 ponds to rise in the series of fifths. 
 
 Inversion. 
 
 Before the key-board was originally constructed, it became 
 matter for investigation how far it would be advantageous 
 to make rise in the series of fifths correspond to fall on the 
 key-board and vice versa. 
 
ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, ilC. 333 
 
 It is a question of manipulation ; the advantages are in 
 some cases rather evenly balanced, and it is very desirable to 
 examine this arrangement practically. 
 
 The example of transformation will bear upon this 
 problem ! — 
 
 It is possible to convert a generalized key-board of the 
 " direct arrangement" above described into an " inverted one" 
 by re-arranging the keys. 
 
 Inverted Key-boakd. 
 
 c g d a e b I j% l<% lg% jd% ja% If jc 
 12 II 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 12 
 
 To complete this transformation in an extremely practical 
 manner, we have only to determine the condition that white 
 and black notes shall remain the same. 
 
 Looking at the key-board of an ordinary piano, which 
 presents the same order of white and black, we see that, as 
 far as colour is concerned, it is symmetrical about two points, 
 d and a 6. Portions of a key-board, therefore, which termi- 
 nate in these points, or in points equi-di.stant on opposite 
 sides from either, present when inverted from right to left, 
 the same sequence of black and white as before. 
 
 The moat convenient arrangement for this purpose con- 
 sists of a compass of keys from c to e, any number of octaves 
 included. 
 
 When inverted, i. e., when the note on the extreme right 
 is placed in the same row on the extreme left and so on, such 
 an arrangement presents the same sequence of black and 
 white as before. 
 
 The e becomes a c and the sequence of patterns is that of 
 an inverted series. 
 
334 ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &C. 
 
 General transformation of the rth order. 
 
 Systems of the rth order were defined as those in which 
 the euds of the circle of 12 fifths include r units of the sys- 
 tem. Similarly the key-board of the rth order may be defined 
 as that which has )■ unit intervals ()• — 1 notes) in the vertical 
 line between the ends of a circle of 12-fifths. 
 
 It is easy to obtain the condition of arrangement in the 
 general case. The difference of level of the ends of the 
 series of 12-fifths, must amount to 12 steps by course of 
 fifths, and to r steps by course of units. Consequently the 
 whole difference of level of the ends of the series of fifths 
 must be made up of 12 r primary steps, or steps made by the 
 patterns ; each step in course of fifths must be made up of 
 r primary steps, and each step in course of units must be 
 made up of 12 primary steps.* In this manner, with a suffi- 
 cient supply of notes of the 12 given patterns, a generalized 
 key-board of any order can be at once arranged. 
 
 Although system of any order can always be constructed 
 in this manner, it will not generally be the case that they 
 can be played upon with facility— simply because the large 
 space covered by related notes cannot be, in the general 
 case, brought within reach of the hand. By any system 
 can be demonstrated in this manner. 
 
 Key -board of the Second Order. 
 
 The key-board of the second order furnishes results of some 
 interest. It can be easily arranged according to the fore- 
 going rules. The peculiarity in the result is, that perfor- 
 mance on a complete system of the second order and first 
 class, by means of it, is nearly as easy as performance on 
 system of the first order by means of the key-board formerly 
 
ON THE HINDU DIVISION OF THE OCTAVE, &C. 335 
 
 constructed. The problem of representation and performance 
 is thus solved both of the Hindu system of 22, and for the 
 system of 34, the interest of which has been already indi- 
 cated. 
 
 Diagram II. (p. 382) represents a portion of the key-board 
 of the second order. 
 
 C—je — g is a major triad, whence the major thirds are 
 better situated for the finger than on the first order key-board 
 with positive systems ; but the presence of continuous rows 
 of keys in all twelve divisions is somewhat less advantageous 
 than in that arrangement. 
 
 — \e* — g is the minor triad. 
 
 In the general transformation of the rth order, transfor- 
 mation with regard to colour (white or black) is not generally 
 practicable. For the most general purpose it would be 
 necessary to have a sufficient supply of keys of both colours 
 for every pattern ; for any particular case the requirements 
 are more limited. 
 
 * Any common factor of r and 12 may be divided out, since it is only 
 necessary that the two classes of steps should be to each other as 12 : r. 
 Vol. XXVI. 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 BY 
 
 SOUEINDRO MOHUN TAGORE. 
 
 Reprinted from the "Hindoo Patriot," 
 7th September 1874. 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 The Hindoo Patriot of the 15th September last contain- 
 ed a criticism on Mr. C. B, Clarke's report on Hindu Music, 
 embodied in a letter, dated the 17th May 1873, and addressed 
 to the Director of Public Instruction. After an interval 
 of about eight months Mr. Clarke thought fit to answer 
 that criticism in an essay in the Calcutta Review, and it 
 gave rise to a learned and interesting controversy, in the 
 columns of the Indian Observer, between Mr. Aldis, Principal 
 of the Martinere, an accomplished critic, and Mr. Clarke. 
 The controversy has closed only lately. Other papers 
 have also had their say on the subject. We watched 
 with interest the current of criticism on Mr. Clarke's 
 essay, and now that all parties have apparently exhausted 
 themselves on the subject, we may, we think, with pro- 
 priety, say a few words in reply to the author of the report, 
 who has provoked this war of words. We are sorry to 
 perceive that he still persists in his original misconception of 
 the real character of Hindu Music ; that he supports his 
 errors by committing fresh errors ; and that the more 
 he proceeds, the more he involves himself in"a maze of 
 hopeless delusions. His mathematicism has proved a snare 
 for himself in his attempt to unweave the web of Hindu 
 Music. We believe he is a searcher after truth, and if he 
 will, in a kindly spirit, accept the light which we, in all 
 humility, offer to him, he may yet find out that priceless 
 treasure. We will now proceed to an examination of Mr. 
 Clarke's critical dissertation. 
 
340 hiSdu music. 
 
 At first sight it would seem as if Mr. Clarke's chief 
 object in writing the essay was to mystify the subject 
 by enveloping it in a cloud of mathematicism. But no 
 one is better aware than himself that mathematics is no 
 more indispensable for one to be a musician than it is 
 indispensable for him to be a painter or statuary. In 
 learning music the student requires, above all thiDgs, an 
 educated ear capable of detecting and feeling the sense 
 of all tonal combinations. The susceptibility of an art 
 being examined by mathematical tests is some thing different 
 from mathematics being indispensable to its comprehension 
 or acquisition. Principles of music, embodied into scienti- 
 fic theories, may be based on mathematics, but it does not 
 necessarily follow that one must know mathematics in order 
 to understand those principles. "We may say without fear 
 of contradiction that those principles which go to form the 
 science of Acoustics enter fully into Hindu Music. But 
 that science in its improved form is still incomplete and 
 imperfect. " The state of our knowledge of Acoustics," 
 justly observes Professor Graham, " one of the most subtle 
 and difficult of sciences, is still too incomplete to permit 
 of the formation of a perfect theory of music.'' There is 
 nothing to make us regret that the principles of Acoustics, 
 as they exhibit themselves in our music, differ in form from 
 the European system. We shall have occasion to shew as 
 we proceed that the science of Acoustics, as it exists among 
 the Hindus, is quite sufficient for all purposes as regards the 
 application of its principles to music. Mr. Clarke, we hope, 
 will permit us to produce the testimony of eminent European 
 professors of music to prove that mathematics, instead of 
 contributing to the exposition and development of music, 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 341 
 
 does much to mystify and obscure it. Dr. Weber says, 
 " I must vindicate myself on the allegation, that, according 
 to the foregoing division, harmouial acoustics, and in 
 particular the mathematical doctrine of intervals, is not 
 mentioned as a part, much less as the basis, of the doctrine 
 of musical composition. For, most teachers of musical 
 composition imagine that the theory of musical composition 
 must necessarily be founded on harmonic acoustics, 
 and, on this account commence their books of instruc- 
 tion with arithmetical and algebraic problems and formulas. 
 But this seems to me, calling it by its proper name, nothing 
 else than a mass of empty vagaries and an unseasonable re- 
 tailing of erudition,— pedantry. For, one may be . the 
 profoundest musical composer, the greatest contrapuntist ; 
 one may be a Mozart or a Haydn, a Bach or a Palestrina, 
 ■without knowing that a tone is to its fifth as 2 to 3 j and 
 it is, in my honest conviction, a mistake of teachers of 
 musical composition, betraying a decided want of understand- 
 ing of the subject, to mix, as they do, with the doctrine of 
 musical composition, such demonstrations by fractions, 
 powers, roots and equations, and other mathematical formu- 
 las, from which to proceed in teaching the theory of 
 musical composition. To me it appears just as it would be 
 for one to commence a course of instruction in painting, 
 with the theory of light -and colors, of straight and curved 
 lines ; musical instruction, with the study of harmony ; and 
 instruction in language, with the philosophy of speech ; 
 or, to demonstrate the principles of grammar to a child, 
 in order to teach him to say — papa and mamma." Dr. 
 Marx's observation of mathematics in relation to music are 
 more pointed. He says, "our object, however, is not to 
 
342 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 calculate, but freely to invent ; and this requires no mathe- 
 matical calculations but a higher faculty which enables us 
 to detect and feel the sense of the different tonal combina- 
 tions ; and, therefore, might be called artistic consciousness." 
 The great Aristoxinas takes the same view, forcibly enforces 
 the same doctrine and will not allow .either reason or mathe- 
 matics to have any share in the arrangement of the intervals. 
 He thought sense the only judge. He therefore determined 
 the 4th, 5th, and 8th by the ear, and the difference of the 
 4th and the 5th found out the interval of the tone. 
 
 Professor Graham, in his essay on the theory and practice 
 of musical composition, while dwelling upon the injurious 
 effect of mathematics on music, says, — "In Italy we may 
 hear persons who cannot read music, singing very agreeably 
 in two, or three, or four parts, in harmony. Do such persons 
 know any thing of the harmonic ratios of the sounds they 
 combine together in this way ? They have no more 
 idea that even an octave is in the ratio of 1:2, than they 
 have of the distance between the earth and the moon. 
 Similar false applications of mathematics have tended greatly 
 to produce that mysterious obscurity which has hitherto been 
 artificially thrown over the beautiful and inviting regions 
 of musical melody and harmony." 
 
 But it is not necessary to go so far as Italy. The truth 
 contained in the above extract is of universal application, 
 and may be perceived in all countries in the fact that the 
 greatest musicians and the most tasteful composers did 
 not pretend to a knowledge of mathematics. Who amongst 
 the students of oriental music is ignorant of the names 
 of Mibja Bull-bull of Persia, Akhwal-u-Sobbha and 
 Nicomachus of Arabia, Hekmes Tbismegistus of Egypt, 
 
HIHDU MUSId. 343 
 
 the great Confucius and Chaong of China, Osman Efiendi 
 of Turkey, Asaph of the Hebrews, Than Sen, Ameer 
 Khusru, Nayaka Qopal, Huridas Swami, and Raja Man, 
 Haha, Huhu, Sarangadeva, Narada, Bharat, and Naraya- 
 HADEVA of India ? And yet who will venture to say that 
 any one of them was a mathematician 1 The extracts we 
 have given, we hope, will prove sufficiently the futility of 
 Mr. Clarke's infallible test of mathematics. 
 
 We admire Mr. Clarke's boldness in venturing upon 
 a discussion on the merits of Hindu Music with, as it 
 appears, scarcely any knowledge of its elementary principles. 
 He has no knowledge of Sanskrit, and is but very imperfectly 
 acquainted with Bengali. He had recourse to a native guide, 
 who seems to be equally ignorant of the Sanskrit language 
 as of the musical literature of his country. And the result 
 is that the critic is made to betray his ignorance of the 
 simplest things in our musical system, such as the term 
 Raga and the number of Rigas in use, of the construction 
 of the Sitara and its capacity, though it is the simplest 
 and the most popular of Hindu musical instruments. 
 He attacks the Srooties which he does not evidently under- 
 stand, though they form the very base-work of the musical 
 system of the Hindus. That we are not wrong in our 
 estimate of the critic's knowledge of the subject of his criti- 
 cism will be perceived as we examine his theories one 
 by one. 
 
 First as regards his views of Raga in Hindu Music. In 
 saying " there are 36 modes in use amongst the Hindus,'? 
 he evidently supposes that Riga and Mode are synonymous. 
 Let us see how Danneley defines the term " mode." " A 
 mode," he says, " or a scale is called major, when its third 
 
344 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 diatonic note is composed of four chromatic degrees ; or is 
 the fifth diatonic— chromatic note of the scale, called also 
 the major third ; as, C — natural, E — natural, C— sharp, 
 E — sharp &c. A mode or scale is said to be minor when 
 the third note, called the minor third, is composed of but 
 three chromatic degrees ; as C E— flat D F — natural ; in 
 opposition to major, the third note of which is composed 
 of four chromatic degrees." Let us again see what view 
 Captain Willard takes of Eaga in Hindu Music : — 
 
 "Mode in the language of the musicians of this country 
 (India) is, in my opinion, termed That and not Eaga or 
 Eaginee." "The word mode," he continues, " may be taken 
 in two different significations — the one implying manner 
 of style, and the other of key ; and, strictly speaking, this 
 latter is the sense in which it is usually understood in music" 
 Neither is tune Eaga as has been apparently construed by 
 our critic in the following : — 
 
 " It is true that a European melody written in the funda- 
 mental mode can introduce and sometimes will introduce 
 all the twelve notes in the octave, whereas the Hindu tunes 
 cannot." 
 
 We will again quote Willard. " It is true," he says, " that 
 a Eaginee (or Eaga) is not to be considered exactly in the 
 same situation as a tune is amongst us. It is not strictly 
 a tune according to the acceptation of the word." 
 
 Tune and Eaga are thus so distinct from each other that 
 one cannot be used for the other without a confusion of ideas. 
 Eaga is not joined by regular and symmetrical forms, and 
 may not terminate in the same key as the tune. Moreover, 
 one Eaga may be multiplied into innumerable tunes 
 when its angas, namely libddi,. anulddi, samb&di, graha,, 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 345 
 
 wya&a, &c, are so arranged as to follow each other in regular 
 succession. Again, Raga is not divided by a QivajilcA-MkhpL 
 or bars, as the tune is. The truth is the English language has 
 not a corresponding term for the Raga. To express it by the 
 term mode would be nearly as accurate as to express the 
 idea of quinine by the word efyiretta in Bengali, How could 
 chiretta be translated into English or quinine into Bengali 
 when there is no term for chiretta in English and no term 
 for quinine in Bengali ? In the same way there is no equi- 
 valent term for R£ga in English, nor one for mode in Bengali. 
 The idea which the word Raga conveys has net its counter- 
 part in Eaglisk. 
 
 To enable Mr. Clarke to form a correct idea of the. term 
 Raga, And to prevent his confounding it with mode, we beg 
 to recommend for his perusal such learned treatises as Rdgd- 
 Bibodha, Rdga-Sarvama Sdra, Rdgdranava, &c. 
 
 As we have observed above our critic has not only no idea 
 ©f Raga, but he is also ignorant of the number of its varie- 
 ties. In one pari of his essay he says, "Hindu Musjc, 
 which employs 36 modes, $c" If he attempts to give a 
 siecircigrgnM! pf all $he 3.6 fnadjBS he refers jto ? he will perceive 
 the distinction between .nipple .and Raga. He would have, 
 however, avoided the mistake into which he has fallen^ if Lis 
 researches ,o,n the .subject had extended a little beyond 
 hearsay. The following stanza will occur to the most super- 
 ficial enquirer who has but a rudimentary knowledge of the 
 literature of Hindu Music : 
 
 is! sjTwifsr Kmm wzmfa *r n)7sn i 
 
 R— 1 
 
346 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 " Krishna, enchanted by the music of hia flute, legan 
 
 singing, and the QopikAs (sixteen thousands in number) 
 
 followed him one by one, and thus are produced sixteen 
 
 thousand Ragas." 
 
 N&rada Sambdda I, Chapter. 
 
 Again, our critic says, " It (Bengali Music) employs also 
 seven notes only of the octave in simple tune and nine in 
 more elaborate ones, &c." 
 
 The confidence with which the above lines are written is in 
 keeping with his general knowledge of Hindu Music. To 
 whom is he indebted for that invaluable morsel of truth 
 that Bengali music employs nine notes in elaborate tunes ? 
 We would take the liberty to commend him to the following 
 lines which occur in all respectable Sanskrit works on music : 
 
 "There are three classes of Ragas (in Hindu Music) : 
 that class which is produced by a grama consisting of five 
 tones is called odava, and that produced by a grama of six 
 tones is called shddava, while the third one produced by a 
 gr&ma of seven tones is called eamp&rna." 
 
 Sangita Darpana. 
 
 It may be observed here in passing that the diatonic scale 
 which Mr. Clarke has used for our SC^Sf grama is a wrong one. 
 The diatonic scale somewhat resembles the saptaha but not 
 quite. 
 
 After giving a very short and meagre description of the 
 Sitara, the simplest and the most popular musical instru- 
 ment in use amoDgst the natives of this country, he says : 
 
HINDU MUSIO. 347 
 
 " But the frets (of the Sitara) are then inconvenieutly close 
 together." It would be difficult to obviate objections in a case 
 which depends upon practice. What may appear inconveni- 
 ent to any other person may be one of the easiest musical 
 feats to a practised player. We, for our part, shall be very 
 happy to demonstrate this practically if our critic wants a 
 practical demonstration. We do not know on what authority 
 he ventures to make the statement that " the Sitara can- 
 not play D flat." Any body can do it. We find no difficulty 
 in playing it with M&rchchhana and can practically shew it 
 without displacing the frets. Here, again, is another illus- 
 tration of tlie mischief of hearsay knowledge. There would 
 have been no chance of mistake if statements had been 
 made on the authority of an expert or of one who possess- 
 ed some practical knowledge. Mr. Clarke, in another 
 place, says, " Hindu Music employs melody only without 
 harmony." This is a very unqualified assertion. It is true 
 that Hindu Music abounds in melody, but it is not void of 
 harmony. The following quotation from Nakada's work 
 will best explain our meaning : — 
 
 vJ — ©■. d 
 
 There are ten kinds of properties of a song. These are : 
 
 ?^r" tHr^rp «f iron* *m' fastf^' ^r' *w 
 
 3fflTf WOT I 
 
 but all of them are not to our present purpose ; ?L^f (Rak- 
 tang) only serves our purpose well, and its definition is as 
 
348 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 follows .- *^f (Raktahg) is that which is produced by a com- 
 bination of the sounds of all stringed-instruments, wincf- 
 instruments, and those of other kintfe. 
 
 This is harmony. Vide ¥l^t«t ^tflT and ^JH ^TfTTJlt! 1 
 
 The disadvantage of writiug with an imperfect knowledge 
 of his subject has betrayed the critic into absurd blunders 
 at almost every step. We have another instance in the 
 following extract : 
 
 " The Sitara thus stands in the mode, amd can be- made to- 
 stand in any one of the thirty .six modes employed in Hindu 
 Music. This connection between the Sitara and the modes 
 in use renders it certain that either the modes are derived 
 from the Sitara or that the Sitara has been invented to play 
 those particular modes. This latter seems to me highly 
 improbable." 
 
 It is impossible to have two opinions on a point which does 
 not admit of a doubt. To say that the R&gas were derived 
 from the Sitara would be as much as to say that the goose 
 was produced from the quill. The Sitara is an instrument 
 of yesterday's invention. It was, according to Captain 
 Willard, invented by Amber Khusroo in the beginning of the 
 12th century. Even the VinS, the most ancient of the 
 Hindu instruments of music, of which the modern Sitara 
 is a clumsy imitation, was invented by the great NiflADA long 
 after the Kagas had been practised on the throat. That this 
 most ancient instrument, whose invention is almost coeval 
 with the origin of Hindu Music, did not precede but 
 follow the Ragas will appear from the following extracts 
 familiar to every student of Sanskrit music ! 
 
 " The Bagas are known to be located in the throat." 
 
filNDTT MUSIC. 349 
 
 Ergo they are not derived from the Sitara or any other 
 instrument. 
 
 SITWft JIPrffolT <J cT^JT: W®* ^^ST |) 
 
 T? here are two kinds of Yiai in music, namely, ^f?;^ 
 (Ddravi) or that which is made of wood and jrr^fiftJnt 
 (G&travfna) or that which is to be found in the human body. 
 Now Jn^tmr (GatravinS) is called S6magi because the 
 Sdma- Veda singers wholly depended upon this Vln& in sing- 
 ing hymns from the Sdma- Veda. It is capable of producing 
 both tones and articulate sounds. Ddravivind, which is made 
 of wood, is an imitation of the G6fcrav£na. 
 
 *raj*^n:^f i^ wf ^ His* ^ n 
 
 " Looking at the fingers and following the directions of the 
 Sdstras the words should at Once be sounded both by the 
 mouth and by the hand.'* 
 
 Again : — 
 
 sit) ifttf H^H<^r^n^T^fH^tJi9 n . 
 
 *r^ta mw® i 
 
350 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 "Dancing follows instrumental music, and music follows 
 singing, hence singing being of prime importance, it should 
 here be first explained." 
 
 It is thus clear that the JRagas were neither derived from 
 the Sitara nor from the Vin&. 
 
 Mr. Clarke in a kind of condescending style reproves us for 
 our obstinacy in maintaining that C sharp is the same as D 
 flat. His words are : — 
 
 " Probably my Bengali friends will be surprised to hear 
 that C sharp is never the same as D flat that in the instru- 
 ments like violin that can be stopped anywhere, &c." We 
 forbear urging any thing in defence of our position. If we 
 have erred we have erred with the safest authorities on the 
 subject. What Dr. Adolph Bernnard Marx, Professor of 
 Music at the University of Berlin, says on this point, will, 
 we suppose, be accepted as a' conclusive settler of the dispute. 
 "The attentive student," he states, " will, however, soon 
 observe that two keys have each two different names and that 
 cflat is the same as b, naif flat ia the same as e. Such sounds 
 which only differ in name but are indeed the same (as regards 
 pitch) are termed enharmonic sounds. Thus 6 and c flat, 
 e and f flat, b sharp and e, c sharp and d flat, a flat and g 
 sharp are enharmonic sounds or notes. It may at first appear 
 strange that each sound should thus have two different names ; 
 and the student may be inclined to ask why not call the 
 black keys always o sharp, d sharp, &c, &c, or Aflat, eflat 
 &c, &c. Why is e to be called sometimes / flat, and / some- 
 times e sharp. For this apparent superfluity of names there 
 are very good reasons ; they are indispensable for the sake of 
 clearness and precision in musical notation, but their necessity 
 will more fully appear in the study of the theory and practice 
 of musical composition." 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 351 
 
 Again, the critic asks, " if there is no difference between Q 
 sharp and A flat, why have European musicians permitted 
 in using two for one and the same thing V The reply is a 
 simple one, and a reference to Mr. John Hullah's work would 
 have saved him the trouble of this enquiry. The words of 
 Mr. Hullah are that they " are used for transposition, modu- 
 lation, minor scale and chromatic scales." In Sanskrit they 
 are used to mark the ascending and descending of a scale. 
 
 We are free to confess that we made the assertion, which is 
 disputed, not on the authority of Sanskrit works, but from 
 what we observed in English music. As Dr. Weber states :-« 
 
 " When must a tone be written as the elevation of a lower 
 one, and when as the elevation of a higher one ? This is a 
 point to which .we have not yet attended. For the present 
 it is sufficient to know that sometimes the one takes place and 
 sometimes the other, just according to the different relations 
 under which the tone occurs." 
 
 Again : 
 
 " It may, however, be further observed in respect to this 
 matter that such a tone should not properly sound so high in 
 the first case as in the second, e. g., the key between O and 
 D, when it occurs as C sharp it is not quite so high as when 
 it appears as D flat, F sharp is not quite so high as G flat, 
 E flat is not so low as D sharp, E sharp is not quite so high 
 as F, F flat is not quite so low as E, C double sharp is not 
 quite so high as D or E double flat, &c ; This difference 
 between C sharp and D flat, F sharp and G flat, and the like, 
 is called an enharmonic difference ; (which we call the dif? 
 ference of Srooties). These differences, however, are ex- 
 tremely small and thus imperceptible to our ear, and we may 
 with entire propriety and convenience have but one and the 
 same key for all tones differing only enharmomcally ; they 
 
352 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 may also be called enharmonically parellel tones. Thus only 
 one and the same key C sharp and D flat, for A sharp and 
 B flat, for C double sharp and D and E double flat, &e. 
 
 " Whatever be the bearing of this circumstance in other 
 respects, in one certainly it is very convenient ; for if, instead 
 of the mere twelve keys which we now have within the 
 compass of one octave, we should have a distinct key exclu- 
 sively for C sharp and another for D flat, &c, one for E and 
 another for P flat, aud still another perhaps for D double 
 sharp, &c., our pianofortes must be overloaded with an end- 
 less multitude of keys." 
 
 Thus we have been spared the trouble of entering into a 
 vindication of our position, though Dr. Weber's explanations 
 do not appear to us to be quite satisfactory. We hold that 
 there must be difference between G sharp and A flat accord- 
 ing to the division by Srooties. Mr. Clarke, should he admit 
 this theory, must confess to a conversion to our doctrine ; but 
 should he deny the Srooties (quarter tones) he will only con- 
 tradict himself. Any how his statements and his apparently 
 professed creed are at variance with each other. All that 
 we say is that he is right only when he admits the Srooties. 
 
 With regard to our critic's complaints as expressed in the 
 following extracts, we sympathize with him on his want of 
 knowledge of the Sapskrit language in which the theories 
 of the art of music are clearly expounded : 
 
 " My Bengali critics assert that I do not understand what 
 Srooties (or very sharp, very flat) are in Bengali music. How 
 can I if the Srooties are not defined." 
 
 Again : 
 
 " But my Bengali critics while they go on piling heaps of 
 hard terms about Srooti, &<;., also omit altogether to define that 
 of which they say I fail to discover the accurate meaning." 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 353 
 
 We are really sorry for our critic. We tried to make the idea 
 of Srooti clear to Mm by a periphrasis iu which the use of 
 hard terms was unavoidable. . And any definition that we 
 may attempt will always fall short of his comprehension 
 because pf his ignorance of Sanskrit. But we will make 
 another effort. The definitions in Sanskrit as given in Sangita 
 Ratnavali are the following : 
 
 sif?Wii€t I 
 
 A Srooti is formed by the smallest intervals of the sound 
 and is to be perceivable by the ear. It is of twenty-two 
 kinds. 
 
 " Every distinct audible sound is a Srooti." 
 Again: 
 
 "f^RW-SlTfe^rasiT SH^t ^Tf^fa: 3WT: I 
 
 " It is a Srooti because it is to be heard by the ear. Tones 
 are produced by Srooties, and the places from which Srooties 
 arise are three in number, viz., heart, throat, and head." 
 
 " To every one of these three places there ar.e twenty-two 
 strings attached, and from" them when struck by the wind the 
 Srooties are produced, and these Srooties in every place rise 
 
 s— 1 
 
£54 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 successively higher and higher, i. e., those of the throat are 
 of higher tone than those of the heart, and so on." 
 
 The critic's failure to understand the term Srooti has led 
 him to a curious blunder in his attempt to give a division of 
 the Srooties in the Hindu Swaragrdma ; this will appear from 
 the following passage : 
 
 " The tone from G to A is divided into three Srooties and 
 the tone from A to B into two Srooties." 
 
 The truth is, within the interval from G to A which cor- 
 responds to our -q to ^j we have four Srooties, and in that 
 from A to B which corresponds to v to f*T three Srooties, as 
 the following couplet from Sangita Nar&yana which is borne 
 out by similar authorities in other Sanskrit books, will prove : 
 
 secret TTi*f v%£ *i«iJr ^ci*ft *rar. i 
 wsm *ta9 tcNit i" arreiK firer^ 11 
 
 " There are four. Srooties in TJ^, 3^5T and frgrn or G, C, 
 and F, three in ^5HH and ■%■%*( or D, and A, and two in 
 jnsqra; and f^Err^ or E, and B." 
 
 We also find the following passages on the point in Carl 
 Engel : " Smaller intervals than semi-tories are in use with 
 some Asiatic nations, and were employed by the Hindus long 
 before our Christian era." 
 
 Further, 
 
 "The seven intervals of the Hindu scale which nearly cor- 
 respond with our diatonic major scale, are subdivided into 
 twenty-two Srooties corresponding to quarter-tones." 
 
 Mr. Clarke finds fault with us for using the term quarter- 
 tone for Srooti. We owe him some explanation. We used 
 the word in the absence of a better one, though we are fully 
 aware that a quarter-tone is not a Srooti. The term ia used 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 355 
 
 in all English works where it is intended to convey the idea of 
 a Srooti, and we thought that Mr. Clarke would have no 
 difficulty in understanding it if similarly used by us. In 
 English there are no corresponding terms for Srooti, Raga, 
 Murchohhana, Tala and several other words commonly used in 
 Hindu Music, and in employing any one of them in an Eng- 
 lish composition on music the choice of words conveying an 
 approximate meaning is unavoidable, and in such a case the 
 writer cannot be said to misuse words except by the hyper- 
 critical. 
 
 Then Mr. Clarke puts the following query ; " I therefore 
 ask what is a Srooti, is it a quarter-tone as my opponents 
 usually denominate it : or is it sometimes a quarter-tone — 
 sometimes third of a tone 1 " We reply that a Srooti is 
 sometimes a quarter-tone and sometimes the third of a tone. 
 There are four Srooties between Ef*g"gj and ^(JBJJT and there- 
 fore each Srooti between these two tones is a quarter-tone. 
 Similarly there are three Srooties between ^J5f jq and jrpSITt: 
 and here each Srooti is the third of a tone. To prevent 
 misconception it is necessary to add that except in the 
 definite places pointed out there cannot be a quarter-tone 
 and third of a tone in any and every place. As to our critic's 
 dogmatical conclusion that " if the latter alternative (the 
 third of a tone) is selected I think it may be demonstrated 
 that music on such a scale is impossible." We have just 
 proved that when a Srooti is the third of a tone between 
 ■SB and II it is quite in place and the tone is perfectly musi- 
 cal nobody has yet questioned that the tone between ^ and 
 
 IT is- an unmusical one. 
 
 To come now to his other queries. He asks, " How many 
 Srooties are there between C and G in Tar&, the upper octave, 
 
356 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 and how many between A and B in Muddrd, the lower octave J 
 And in answering this question it must be recollected that 
 the distance from C and D or from A to B is the same in every 
 octave." There lies couched in these queries an unconscious 
 mistake, but for which there would have been no occasion for 
 them. Between C and D in the upper octave there are four 
 Srooties, and between A and B in the lower octave, three. We 
 shall only remark that there is no difference in number be- 
 tween the three saptahas — the only difference that exists con- 
 sists in the difference of value. The numbers do not increase 
 in quantity but in quality. We have again recourse to Sangita, 
 Eatndvali which says : — 
 
 "These are the different kinds of tones. Then these are 
 called Srooties because they are heard and rise higher and 
 highest up in tone ( as they pass through the different 
 quarters)." 
 
 Tie warning given in the last sentence of the extract from 
 the critique is uncalled-for. The distance from C to D ( or 
 from A to B ) is not the same in every octave, for there are 
 four Srooties in the interval between and D, while there are 
 three only between A and B, and our critic does not, we hope, 
 wish us to say that four is equal to three. We repeat that 
 the different spaces are the same in the three octaves, — they 
 differ from each other only in quality. 
 
 Again, he asks — " If between G and A the difference is di- 
 vided into three Srooties, does any one of the Srooti intervals 
 coincide with the semi-tones, or do the three Srooties divide 
 the interval from G to A into three equal tones }" The ques- 
 tion itself is wrong. Between G and A there are not three 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 357 
 
 but four Srooties divided into four equal intervals. This is 
 the truth which all Hindu Musical works teach and which 
 reason approves. 
 
 The assurance implied in the following passage is not a little 
 surprising. "It is impossible to challenge any Bengali per- 
 former to exhibit the Srooties on a Sitara, for there are no 
 frets on the Sitara at the Srooti intervals so that the Srooti 
 can only be performed by nicking the string, i. e., altogether 
 uncertainly." 
 
 This is going a little too far, to say the least of it. What 
 will the writer do-if he has to tune a Eaga 1 Will he flick the 
 String merely or do something else ? Will it not be necessary 
 to remove the frets as often and whenever necessary, and tune 
 the Srooti so that Eaga may come out 1 His replies to these 
 questions will serve for the explanations he seeks. 
 
 Our critic not content with his extravagant and dogmatic 
 opinions makes the following challenge : — 
 
 " Can any Bengali singer be produced who can sing the 
 quarter tones between and D and afterwards the third note 
 between G and A ? I will not say produced before me as I 
 am about to pledge myself to a total disbelief in the whole 
 thing, but any competent Professor of music such as Mr. 
 Frye." 
 
 Security, it is said, is man's chiefest enemy, and this is note- 
 ably the case with Mr. Clarke. The feat he alludes to is nei- 
 ther impracticable nor difficult. One who knows to sing can 
 sing both the quarter-tone and the third note without diffi- 
 culty. It is done every day by practised singers and has 
 been in use amongst us from remote antiquity. Very distinct 
 allusion is made to the feat in ancient Sanskrit works on 
 music such as Ratnavali, Riga Bibodka, and the like, from 
 which we make the following extract : 
 
358 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 " Srooties or enharmonic tones rise higher and highest up 
 in succession perceivable both in Vin£ or in the stringed 
 instruments and in the throat." 
 
 It is thus clear that the Srooties are both tuned and sung. 
 We shall be very happy to satisfy Mr. Clarke not only before 
 Professor Frye, but any number of European musicians of the 
 truth of our statement. The difficulty will lie with the challen- 
 ger himself, who, we may be permitted to say, evidently 
 seems to be incapable of appreciating the Srooties. His dis- 
 belief in them, however, does not disprove their existence any 
 more than the disbelief of a blind man in the existence of 
 colors disprove the colors themselves. Neither can it affect the 
 truth that the Srooties or enharmonic tones have been used 
 and recognised from time immemorial not only in this 
 country but in Greece, Arabia, China, Persia and several 
 other Asiatic countries. Nathan truly observes that the 
 Srooties are extremely musical, and they are so called from 
 their superior excellence as a species of music, the modulation 
 whereof, according to Brossard, proceeds by intervals less than 
 quarter-tones. This species was in great vogue among the 
 Greeks by whom it was considered much easier of execution, 
 but it is now lost. It is evidently of much of ancient date 
 as Aristoxinus ascribes the invention to Olympus. Dr. Burney 
 says that Dr. Russel procured him from Aleppo the Arabian 
 scale of music, the octave of which consisted of twenty-four 
 quarter-tones, all of which admitted of the same demons- 
 tration as the Srooties. The following extract from Dr. 
 Graham is very much to the point. He says, " as to the 
 Hindu, Persian and Chinese scales and the use of the quarter- 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 359 
 
 tones and other minute intervals, we refer the reader to what 
 we published on that subject in No. IV., of the new Edin- 
 burgh Review for April 1822, pp. 521-528. We have examined 
 a number of Chinese wind and stringed instruments brought 
 home in June 1837 and have found semi-tones in all of them. 
 Professional musicians who followed Napolean to Egypt 
 remarked the frequent and dexterous use of very small inter- 
 vals by some singers." Can we help inferring that the tones 
 in the instruments referred to were Srooties 1 
 
 Again Stafford, the musical historian, says : — " A late travel- 
 ler assures us that the modern Egyptian performers make 
 use of very minute intervals in singing passages of embellish- 
 ment with a rapidity and volubility, the imitation of which 
 would be difficult, if not impracticable, to most European 
 singers." That they are in use among many uncivilized 
 nations will be found in various works of note, from one of 
 which we transcribe the following passage : — 
 
 " Even some uncivilized nations possess according to the 
 accounts, of the travellers such a discernment of intervals as 
 to surpass our own — Councillor Teliuius* informs us that the 
 natives of Nukahiva, the principal island of the Marguisus 
 Archipelago distinctly intone demi-semi-tones (quarter tones ) 
 in their vocal performances. The New Zealanders appear 
 from Davis' account to be- gifted with a remarkably fine ear 
 for distinguishing quarter tones." 
 
 The Persians appear to have employed at an early period 
 smaller intervals than semi-tones, f In France too a number 
 of experiments were made with Viottis' performance, and it 
 was ascertained that he employed a vast number of. very 
 
 * Musical curiosities by E. Jones. 
 
 t Specimens of 'Popular Poetry in Persian as found in the adventures and 
 in- Hie songs of- the people inhabiting the shores of the Caspian Sea by 
 Chodgoho. 
 
360 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 minute intervals in order to play perfectly tunes in all keys. 
 The Swiss still retain the quarter tones in use.* 
 
 As for the assertion that the Sangita Sdra does not contain 
 anything like the theory of music, we will take the liberty to 
 point out that ia the book alluded to and in all Sanskrit works 
 on the subject, the theoretical part of music is as fully dwelt 
 upon as in any European treatise, only it is not mystified by 
 obscuring mathematicism. As we have said elsewhere we 
 hold that it is quite possible to build a rational theory of music 
 without the aid of numbers. We will again trouble the critic 
 with an extract from a Sanskrit work bearing on the point 
 in question : 
 
 •v e( ^ »*" 
 
 ^ftSMKIW I 
 
 " Sound, which is first produced by vibration and air within 
 the human body, comes through the mouth and is called m\ 
 ( n&da ), 
 
 " Thus the sound arises first from within the body, secondly 
 it is expressed in the form of words through the mouth, and 
 thirdly by means of instruments. From this m^ ( nada ) or 
 sound the whole system of music is evolved." 
 
 « C. S. P. 54. 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 361 
 
 '• And singing is to be explained first, but without sjt^ 
 (nada) singing is impossible and therefore sound is the root 
 of all. Without sound singing is impossible, without sound 
 tone is impossible, without sound Raga is impossible, and 
 therefore «jT3[ ( n ^ a ) is tlle a11 pervading soul of the world." 
 
 The origin and nature of this jfj^ ( n ^ a ) ia aa follows :— 
 
 m^W# ^ra^T^swm || 
 
 •IT^WT SfT^TSTC *aHr J or («0 vital air or P ower and 
 (^) heat or vibration produced by heat originates nada («ft^) 
 or sound. 
 Again : 
 
 ^t *ti» ^fPciiit aftcf <tqitw sircar 11 
 
 " From nfida arises srooti, from srooti comes swam or tone, 
 and from sieara comes Raga, and from Raga comes Gfta, and 
 therefore the soul of Gfta is sound. The instrumental music 
 follows Gfta." 
 
 Hence it is, we contend, that our scale is natural and is well 
 represented by M. Momigny's doctrine which holds tha't a true 
 scale is derived from nature and requires no mathematical 
 calculations. 
 
 Our critic observes with some emphasis that the Hindu 
 boatmen whom he heard " employ occasional sharps and 
 
 T-l 
 
362 HINDD MUSIC. 
 
 flats that could not be played on the Sitara.'' Apart from 
 the question of the accuracy of the statement about the 
 boatmen's songs we will simply dwell on the principle invol- 
 ved in the criticism, and say that there is not a single Indian 
 melody with occasional sharps and flats which cannot be 
 played on the Sitara. Let our critic name any melody and 
 we will demonstrate our position. 
 
 In extolling the boatmen's songs as the best and the most 
 approved specimens of Hindu music our critic makes the 
 following remarks:-— 
 
 " I think most Europeans who take the trouble to compare 
 this (boatmen's song) with the best specimens in Sangita Sara 
 &c, will readily credit my statement in my letter of 17th 
 May 1873 (which appears to have much angered my Bengali 
 critics) viz., that ' while all Hindu musicians speak with 
 contempt and almost abhorrence of the boatmen's songs, I 
 have heard many Europeans declare that the boatmen's 
 chants are the only music in Bengal that can properly be 
 called music'." 
 
 There is such a refined appreciation of musical lore in the 
 above that we know not what to say. But it requires no 
 comment. We grieve to find that our critic drags other 
 Europeans along with him to countenance his own idiosyn- 
 crasies. May we ask how many Europeans understand the 
 language of the boat-man's song or its so-called musical 
 cadence 1 All native boatmen do not sing in the same strain 
 and in the same language. In the Eastern districts there 
 are classes of boatmen who may be marked out by broad 
 distinguishing characteristics. Their habits and manners 
 are distinct and their songs are different in strain and lan- 
 guage. The boatmen of Noakhally are not like the boatmen 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 363 
 
 of Dacca, and the boatmen of Chittagong are quite unlike 
 the boatmen of Dacca and Noakhally. Again, by far the 
 greater portion of these boatmen are Mahomedans, who sing 
 songs in Mahomedanized Bengali if we may so express our- 
 selves. Can Mr. Clarke distinguish a native boatman as to 
 his nativity by his song and its language ? Besides the three 
 large classes of boatmen we have named there are others in 
 East Bengal who are also distinguished by some peculiarities 
 — the boatmen of Sylhet, Backergunge and Furreedpore for 
 example. Again, the boatmen of West Bengal who navigate 
 the Ganges and its tributaries are quite a distinct class of 
 boatmen from any of the Eastern districts. They sing much 
 better than our critic's friends of East Bengal. They usually 
 come in contact with a larger number of educated and 
 polished gentlemen than any boatmen of East Bengal can 
 ever hope to do, and it may be said the former move in better 
 society. They are therefore expected to be better educated 
 and more civilized than their fellow-laborers in the eastern 
 districts and yet their songs indicate no tunes of musical 
 merit. If there is any thing for which their songs attract 
 notice it is their point and peculiar epigrammatic beauty. 
 But perhaps Mr. Clarke bad the rare good fortune to fall in 
 with a class of musically educated boatmen. What however 
 surprises us most is that his proteges sang songs in Sanscrit. 
 He says : — 
 
 " When I had travelling in my boat Koylash Chunder 
 Sen (Additional Deputy Inspector of Schools in Dacca) I got 
 the boatmen to repeat the words to him. Koylash Chunder 
 told me that the words were Sanscrit, that the boatmen very 
 imperfectly understood them themselves, and gave me some 
 account of the legend of which I took no note." 
 
364 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 It ia very difficult to maintain one's gravity in arguing 
 with a person who can be so credulous. Cannot our critic 
 favor us with one or two of the songs which so charmed hitn 1 
 But a few words will suffice. He cannot deny that the 
 popular songs of a nation must be composed in the language 
 spoken by the people. Can he refer to a period when Sanscrit 
 was the spoken language of the masses of Bengal, and of 
 East Bengal in particular 1 Where did the boatmen learn 
 Sanscrit songs ? We know of very few Pandits who can recite 
 extempore Sanscrit songs. But the writer betrays himself 
 when he says that " the boatmen often sing very nicely 
 in tune though their voices may be rough and their 
 style uncultured, &c." Ignorant and uneducated people may 
 mispronounce Sanscrit, but if they sing in Sanscrit it cannot 
 be in uncultured style unless the songs be of their own com- 
 posing. We fear Mr. Clarke's short stay in East Bengal has 
 made a Bangal of him, and we fear that his Deputy treated 
 him with, a canard. 
 
 We now come to the discussion of our critic's remarks on 
 our musical notation, which he condemns by saying " that the 
 nationalist Bengali musical notation is valueless and ought to 
 be superseded at once by the stave.'» To say the truth we do 
 not very clearly understand the gist of his objection. We 
 may, however, tell him that the Indian notation as far as it 
 goes is all that we require. It is simple, convenient, and 
 sufficient for all practical purposes. What the Europeans 
 express in eleven lines by the great stave of eleven we do the 
 same in three lines only,— the great stave of eleven is arbi- 
 trarily divided into two halves as the Europeans use both the 
 hands. We beg Mr. Clarke to bear in mind that the notation 
 he condemns is based on the original Sanscrit notation, of 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 365 
 
 which he will find a full exposition by Sir William Jones in 
 the Asiatic Researches; many of the signs anil symbols of 
 that notation have now become obsolete or have been entirely 
 lost. What we have done is simply this, we have endeavoured 
 to introduce such improvements in the system as are neces- 
 sary to adapt it to modern requirements. In the original 
 Sanscrit notation Hindu Music was represented by means of 
 one line with certain signs and symbols and the initials of the 
 seven notes ; we now use three Hues for three octaves. The 
 reason of this innovation is, that the three octaves being 
 the three natural ones are best represented by three lines, 
 though one line would do and might still be used in the same 
 way as the Tonic-sol-fa method of the Europeans. It will be 
 remembered that the Greeks represented three octaves by 
 three different letters. Now it will be seen that in represent- 
 ing the three octaves the Europeans not only require the stave 
 of five lines but also use many ledger-lines for the notes, or 
 they use the great stave of eleven lines. Now we put it to 
 Mr. Clarke to say which is simpler — the stave of three or the 
 stave of eleven, and which would occupy lesser space ? 
 
 There is a great diversity of opinion among English musi- 
 cians regarding the stave in use. Nathan in his History of 
 Music says : — 
 
 " In the eighteenth century a stafi - of four lines was in 
 general use, which may be met with at this period in some of 
 the old church music.'' 
 
 Again Curwen says : — 
 
 " The old way of " noting " or writing music called the old 
 " notation," uses a ladder of five lines and four spaces, which 
 is called the " stafi 1 ." On this certain marks are placed which 
 represent the tones. These marks are placed higher or lower 
 
366 HINDU MDSIC. 
 
 on the Hues and spaces as the tones are higher or lower in 
 pitch. The difficulty of the old notation, to the singer, arises 
 from its not shewing plainly and promptly, which is the key- 
 tone Doh, which the third of the scale, Me, which is the fourth, 
 Fah, &c. For, on the preception of key-relationship, the power 
 of the singer depends. When once the Tonic Solfa-ist has 
 heard the key-tone and knows that a certain note before him 
 is Ray or Soh, &c, he can sing it. * # * But until he sees the 
 key-relationship of a tone he is at a loss. No information as 
 to its absolute pitch, or its distance in pitch from the last tone 
 sing, apart from key-relationship, can supply to him that 
 clear and accurate preconception of the tone to be struck, to 
 which he has been accustomed." To remove this difficulty 
 the author offers some hints, the repetition of which in this 
 place is deemed unnecessary. When the staff of five is still 
 imperfect even in English music how can it be sufficient for 
 Hindu Music which is rich in KSgas and which abounds in 
 Murchhands, Tdlas, &c. ? And yet Mr. Clarke says that the 
 Bengali notation ought at once to be superseded by the 
 English stave. 
 
 Every nation that has a music of its own has also its own 
 system of notation for writing it. Whether that system be 
 an advanced one or not, it cannot he correctly expressed in the 
 notation of another nation, however improved and scientific 
 it may be. And even in such a case the notation will have to 
 be studied separately. Under such circumstances we do 
 not understand how the introduction of a foreign notation 
 can save us the trouble of learning it. Anglicized as we have 
 become in many respects, we confess we prefer our national 
 system of notation for our national music. The English 
 system of notation, it needs be observed, is imperfect 
 and insufficient for the purposes of Hindu Music for the 
 simple reason that the genius of Hindu Music ia distinct 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 367 
 
 from that of European music. We cannot, therefore, sub- 
 scribe to'Mr. Clarke's opinion that " if it was essential to 
 represent quarter-tones, some modification of the stave would 
 be far more preferable to the nationalist notation, and that the 
 common European stave can represent fully the Bengali melo- 
 dies and ought to be generally adopted." When it is admitted 
 that some modification is necessary for the quarter-tones 
 alone and some more for the Murchhauas and the varieties 
 of Tala &c, we cannot understand with what consistency 
 we are asked to have recourse to a foreign and hybrid nota- 
 tion, in preference to our national system. Indeed, we fail 
 to perceive the force of the ipsi dixit that a Bengali who knew 
 no English might play a melody from an English or French 
 piece of music, when it is not denied that he must submit to 
 the difficult task of studying the English stave without know- 
 ing the language, and learn the modifying signs not only for 
 the quarter-tones but also for other innumerable varieties of 
 Tdlas, &c, referred to above. It may from this be imagined 
 what a deal of trouble he must undergo in order to under- 
 stand a single Raga. B ut why impose upon him this heavy 
 work when in the three-lined Hindu notation — in spite of 
 the signs for Srooties, &c, which, however, are very distinctly 
 marked upon the Swaragrdma — he has only to mark the 
 different swaras in their initial order in the three Saptakas 
 placed separately each in its proper place, and the whole 
 thing is at the perfect command of the learner 1 Only three 
 lines mark the three sorts of natural sounds, namely, the 
 chest, the throat, and the head sounds. Is not this simple 
 and clear ? To give a clearer idea of this we give below a 
 diagram of our Swaragrdma of the Saptakas which is so 
 natural and at the same time sufficient for all practical 
 purposes. 
 
368 
 
 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 & 
 
 * 
 
 il q t ^r »t <r f=? 
 
 11 a» ft 1 »t q fa 
 
 Now mark the contrast in the English notation. Here is a 
 diagram of eleven lines. 
 
 I 
 
 -C! 
 
 ^ 
 
 ::£ 
 
 w 
 
 Let us examine, as far as practicable, both the English and 
 the Indian systems of notation from the diagrams given 
 below in order to judge of their comparative merits and of 
 the facilities for comprehension which they respectively 
 afford. We will take the English notation first, and, for- 
 eigners as we are, we cannot help remarking that to our 
 understanding it is complicated. In order to express an 
 octave it is required in the European notation to have seven 
 or eight Hues or steps indicative of the position of notes 
 that constitute an octave. 
 
 cd efga b c 
 
 Thus upon the lowest of these lines or steps, the lowest 
 note c must have been placed ; upon the line above it, the 
 next note d ; upon the third line, the note e, and so on. In 
 this case, which however is the most natural, so many lines 
 are necessary that it is next to impossible to perceive at a 
 
HINDU MU3I0. 369 
 
 glance the position of the notes upon them, and such will 
 exactly be the case if our Saptakas be required to be ex- 
 pressed according to this system. To remove this incon- 
 venience, the number of lines is limited to five, and why ? 
 Firstly, because an odd number of lines, as Dr. Marx says, 
 has the advantage of an equi-distant middle line, which 
 divides the staff into two equal parts and thereby facilitates 
 its reading. Secondly, because a less number than five, say 
 three lines together, with their spaces do not afford even 
 a sufficient number of spaces for a single octave, while a 
 greater number than five, say seven, will be unnecessary. 
 In order to obtain a sufficient number of degrees, the spaces 
 between the lines above and below them are also employed 
 as places for notes. These five lines together are called a 
 staff, which is now in use among the Europeans. These five 
 lines together with the spaces between, below and above 
 them, separate places for eleven different notes as will be 
 seen in the next diagram drawn below : 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; « 
 
 -#- 
 
 — •- 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Here the note representing the lowest sound has the 
 lowest place below the first line, while that representing the 
 highest sound is placed above the last or fifth line. But the 
 insufficiency of this system for the purposes of Hindu Music 
 is at once apparent. As the ledger-lines usually drawn are 
 no more than the long ones, then five-lines staff is altogether 
 insufficient even for English music. The ledger-lines, how- 
 ever, are thus used for the purpose of representing the notes 
 above the 11th as shewn here : 
 
 u-i 
 
370 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 ^^1^ 
 
 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 
 
 c d a g f a _c 
 
 Recourse is had to the same expedient when the lower 
 sounds are required to be noted. Thus there will be no end 
 of such lines, and how complicated and cumbrous it would 
 look when our Saptakas are noted with the Srooties and the 
 different varieties of T&las. For, besides the Swaras, for which 
 an almost infinite number of ledger-lines will have to be 
 drawn, there must also be used numberless different signs to 
 represent the Srooties, &c, along with the signs for the differ- 
 ent clefs. Yet we have not done, we must know what sound 
 is really represented by a note standing upon a certain line 
 or space. For these various purposes they remove the notes 
 as it is impossible for them from the nature of the staff to 
 have a fixed position. For instance, if it had been deter- 
 mined that the first line of the staff in the last example 
 quoted above should be the place for one lined o, then we 
 should at once know that the note on the first space must be 
 d, on the second line e, and that below the first line be small 
 b ; for the notes follow each other in the same order as the 
 sounds themselves. But it is obvious that if one more note 
 than one lined c were to be placed on the first line, all the 
 other notes would change their places. If, for instance, e 
 instead of c were to occupy the first line, then the notes 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 371 
 
 d and /would stand below and above it, and g would have its 
 place on the second line. This is indeed a complicated and 
 confounding method. The situation of a note must be 
 definitely fixed, if the object be to determine the respective 
 places of the rest. The English musicians use for this 
 purpose certain signs called clefs, which have been in- 
 troduced to point out a certain line as the fixed place of a 
 certain note. Of such clefs there are at present in use three, 
 and there may be more in future. These three are first Q 
 or treble clef, sometimes called the violin clef, the C clef, 
 and the F or bass clef. The form of G or treble clef is as 
 shewn below : — 
 
 If we required to note in this clef the small /, we should 
 have to place it upon a third ledger-line below the staff ; the 
 three-lined a would have its situation over the fourth ledger- 
 line above the staff, and so on. Here the English musicians 
 use g as the first note, which would be impossible in our 
 Swaragr&ma. For Q corresponds to our q, and q cannot 
 form the base or the first note of the q^gjxf^ ^cr> in? af 
 according to the Sanskrit authorities is always to be taken as 
 the first. Further, we do not understand why they have used 
 here O instead of C, which is the recognized fundamental 
 note, and this a they use on the ledger-line. Again, the first 
 note must, as a matter of course, occupy the first line, but 
 the g, although taken here as the first note, must stand on 
 the second line. Altogether this is a complex method for us 
 to understand, however plain it may appear to Europeans. 
 Moreover, in the first diagram drawn above, it is shewn that e 
 
372 
 
 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 takes the first line, and therefore e naturally forms the elef. 
 But in reality it does not do so. Formerly in France they 
 used O as the first note and upon the first line ; but we do not 
 know why they have changed its position. The C clef shows, 
 that the line which it occupies is the fixed place of one lined 
 c. It occurs in this form : 
 
 ^ih I 1 
 
 And this again is employed in three different ways, as canto, 
 alto, and tenor clefs. The canto clef places one-lined c upon 
 the first line. Here is a table of its notation. 
 
 n — .11' •'* T=n 
 
 #= ,*»' " * 
 
 " m u m — •-■ u « — u 
 
 gab c d e_ f g a b cdefgab 
 
 This table may be extended by means of ledger-lines below or 
 above the staff, according to the preceding directions. The alto 
 clef places the one-lined c upon the third line and the tenor clef 
 places the one-lined c upon the fourth line. But in the former 
 case the F will be on the first line, which corresponds to our 
 fVSBM, an( ^ in *^ e latter case e will be on the first line, which 
 corresponds to JTpsrtc;, therefore the two are inapplicable to 
 our Ef^ST. Of the annexed two diagrams, the first represents 
 the sounds of the notes of alto clef and the second presents 
 the notes of the tenor clef. 
 
 mi 
 
 m 
 
 -m-± 
 
 + + ± + 
 
 1 
 
 f g a b 
 
 defgabc d 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 373 
 
 t=±± 
 
 ^g^^B 
 
 ■#HH 
 
 c cdefgab £ d _? L S 
 
 These are the three ways in which the C clef is now em- 
 ployed. The ancients used it in the second also, and we cannot 
 account for the modern alteration, neither do we understand 
 which of the three clefs is now used. It may be asked why 
 the first canto clef is inapplicable to Hindu Music, since the 
 one-lined o may stand for E^Sf ; the answer is that the one- 
 lined c corresponds to ^5T S not in the g^TCT or the lowest 
 Saptaka, but in the ■^fttf or JT^t^T Saptaka. In Hindu 
 music, whether vocal or instrumental, we commence our grdma 
 from the lowest or the g^TCT ^ITl^f. But the discant or 
 canto is the highest of the four principal voices. Here we 
 may observe in passing that in noting our three octaves, 
 which are natural, when divided and sub-divided as in the 
 European music, an endless number of ledger-lines must be 
 used. And will the innovation be an improvement upon our 
 system ? Supposing it were, it would change the character 
 of Hindu music, which does not admit of any minute divi- 
 sions and sub-divisions. 
 
 We now come to the third clef, F or Bass clef, which is 
 represented in the form here shown, and indicates that the 
 line which it encircles is a seat of small/. 
 
 $~# 
 
 In modern music it always occupies the fourth line and 
 the remaining lines and spaces are named thus :— 
 
374 
 
 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Contra Great. 
 
 -»# 
 
 *--* 
 
 1 
 
 -#*- 
 
 -#-«■ 
 
 — L.^' 
 
 f ABCDEFGABcdefgabcde_ 
 
 When it is required to extend its range, it is found insuffi- 
 cient, and innumerable additional ledger-lines have to be 
 drawn. Thus contra O being situated below the third ledger- 
 line, they require an additional ledger-line for the notation of 
 contra F ; above the staff, a third ledger-line must be drawn 
 for one-lined g, a fourth for b, and so on. In old English 
 music, however, we occasionally meet with Bass clef upon the 
 third line, and also upon the fifth. Thus there has been a 
 change already, and we know not how many more might take 
 place in future. These are the clefs — but what is the use of 
 so many clefs ? Will not the numerous gradations of clefs 
 in use prove perplexing and misleading ? Will not one be 
 sufficient, as Weber says, " indeed we might employ only a 
 single line.'' To this perhaps it might be urged that the use 
 of one clef would necessitate the multiplication of ledger- 
 lines both below and above the staff, as in the Bass clef ; 
 for example, two ledger-lines are required for one-lined e ; 
 five ledger-lines for two-lined c, and perhaps not less than 
 nine ledger-lines for three-lined c, all which is avoided by the 
 use of the clefs. Admitting the explanation to be reasonable, 
 why have the Europeans then in modern music discarded not 
 only the O clef upon the first line, but also the C clef upon 
 the second line, and F clef upon the third and fifth lines — and 
 according to many the reduction is just. Really, all this is a 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 375 
 
 puzzle to us — is this the system which is to solve our 
 difficulties ? 
 
 All these divisions and sub-divisions together with so many 
 clefs and varieties of lined notes have been derived from the 
 great stave of eleven, and, notwithstanding all these inno- 
 vations and modifications, they cannot, as Dr. Weber remarks, 
 represent more than three octaves, originally noted down in 
 the simplest forms of the stave of eleven lines. Again, the 
 English musicians divide this stave into two equal parts, the 
 reason of which is inexplicable to us. Perhaps it is done in 
 order that the performer on a pianoforte might use both the 
 hands, or it may be for male and female voices being used in 
 harmony. But all that we say is mere guess — the correct 
 explanation may be best furnished by Europeans. But 
 whatever the reason, no such division is admissible in Hindu 
 Music in which the melody requires that the series of tones 
 should come in succession ; nor have we any instrument like 
 the pianoforte which to be tuned requires two hands for two 
 kinds of tones at one and the same time. From the above 
 explanations it will be evident how complicated Hindu Music 
 will become, if noted after the European fashion, while the 
 contrast will be remarkably favorable to our national system 
 of notation. 
 
 "We -will now enter upon the examination of the Hindu 
 system of notation. In the English notation, of which we 
 have furnished but a rough sketch, the lines used are in pro- 
 portion to the number of tones in an octave, which are eight ; 
 sometimes so many as eleven or twelve lines are used, per- 
 haps with the view of making them correspond to the num- 
 ber of strings in a harp, or for other reasons which are un- 
 known to us. In the Hindu system of notation we generally 
 
376 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 use three lines forjthe three saptakas in common use amongst 
 us - ^TT ^R H *T T 'y fa corresponding to C D E F G A B, 
 are the seven notes which together constitute a saptaka. 
 There may be more than three saptakas in Hindu Music ; 
 but they are not in general use. The three lines on which 
 the saptakas are placed indicate by their position three kinds 
 of sounds, viz., Q<*\*j[ , fX^X^X an ^ cTW. ^ e ^o not re- 
 quire different clefs, nor changes in the situation of our notes 
 for different purposes, as we always make ^ r g^ the base or 
 the first note of the saptakas : q^5f or c in European music 
 has its position fixed and permanently settled. 
 
 This peculiarity enables us to avoid the introduction of 
 different clefs, the use of numberless ledger-lines, and the 
 change of situation of the notes. We have three saptakas 
 in common use, for which only three lines and nothing more 
 are required. 
 
 jfi n ■it? »t h fa 
 
 *rl m ft ? t *i fa 
 
 Tl n ^ ■h »t «f fa 
 
 In the foregoing diagram, shewing the notation of Hindu 
 Music, the lowest or the first line has the lowest saptaka, and 
 the third or the uppermost line has the highest saptaka. If 
 it were necessary to use more saptakas, we could use dots 
 under each note to mark their position, either below the 
 first or above the uppermost line. Thus, if we place one 
 dot under 5T on ^ e uppermost line, it will show that it has 
 a place in one saptaka above that line ; and if we put a dot 
 under ^[ on *^ e l° wes k l me > it w iU shew that it has a place 
 in a saptaka, next below that line. Similarly two or more 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 377 
 
 dots will represent as many saptakas besides the natural 
 ones, either above the uppermost or below the lowest or first 
 line. 
 
 This is all that we require for the purpose of forming the 
 basis of our notation, and from all that has been said, the 
 reader will form an idea of the simplicity of our notation 
 as contrasted with that of the Europeans. To guard against 
 misapprehension, we must say that our object is not to 
 establish the superiority of the Hindu system over the Euro- 
 pean, but merely to show that our system, as it is, is quite 
 sufficient for all practical purposes, and that the introduction 
 of the European system will not be an improvement. We 
 will here add that if we have recourse to the division of seals 
 by means of clefs, one line for each saptaka will be sufficient. 
 From what has been said of the notations of different nations, 
 it will be remarked that each nation, for the complete 
 representation of the differences of their music, must use 
 different signs. If the Europeans use lesser number of signs 
 than what we require, it is simply because they have to do 
 with harmony, while we, for the sake of melody, must use a 
 variety of signs to represent ^rooties, Murchehhands, Talas 
 &o. So our notation, as we have shewn, is adapted to our 
 requirements, and is both simpler and easier of comprehen- 
 sion than the English ; while it dispenses with the necessity 
 of adopting the stave. We cannot, however, give our assent to 
 the view of Mr. Clarke's so-called progressive party, that 
 " by adopting, if possible, the European stave for the repre- 
 sentation of Bengali melodies, the Bengali musicians of 
 course would save themselves the labor of learning one nota- 
 tion more," that " a Bengali who knew no English might play 
 a melody from an English or French piece of music." For 
 
 v— 1 
 
378 HINDC MUSIC. 
 
 this dissent we have the best of reasons. In the Euro- 
 pean notation we cannot use all the signs necessary for the 
 full representation of our music without making it indistinct 
 and cumbrous. Some of the signs we refer to are Bikshepa 
 and Prakshepa, which are in frequent use in vocal music ; the 
 varieties of Krintanas, such as Murchchhana-krintana, 
 Spars, a-krintana, Gamaka-krintana, A! s a-Tcrintana, &c, the 
 varieties of Chheras or ^^T^r^T^ which are of very frequent 
 use in our Vina-Setdra, and the sign known by the name of 
 *KTO which in the Mahomedan instruments, the Babdb, the 
 Sarode, &c, in several strings used in various ways, 
 greatly contribute to the grace and ornamentation of 
 our music ; the Spars'a, the varieties of A's'a, such as 
 Gamaka-A's'a, Murchchhand A'tfa, #<?. These and several 
 others are not represented in the notation of the so- 
 called progressiva party, and their not representing them 
 does not make the representation the less necessary, if 
 for nothing else, at least for the preservation of the in- 
 tegrity of our system of music. They may ignora them, but 
 we are prepared practically to prove their existence whenever 
 we may be called upon to do so. Again, that which we hold 
 to be the very foundation-stone of Hindu Music, we mean the 
 Srooties, or the quarter-tones of the Europeans, in which 
 Mr. Clarke has pledged his disbelief, and in expressing which 
 we take a special pride, finds no place in the system of the 
 misnamed progressive party, who are victims of self-practised 
 delusions. All these signs when mentioned in the Sanskrit 
 works on music must be expressed either vocally or by means 
 of instruments, and if we fail, it is plain we are ignorant of 
 the method. The adopted notation of the progressive party, 
 even in its improved state, is still as incomplete as it can 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 379 
 
 possibly be. The numerical signs introduced in it require 
 to be explained for the comprehension of different nations, 
 and so will the several new signs created expressive of the 
 peculiarities of our music, which is distinct from the music 
 of other nations, and that in the languages of those nations. 
 Will it be possible for an Eaglishman or Frenchman, who 
 knows no Bengali, to play a melody from a piece of Bengali 
 music as represented by these notations ? The signs, more- 
 over, have been differently used for the purpose of represent- 
 ing our music, and how will the Englishman or the French- 
 man make them out without special instruction ? For instance, 
 they use the sign of Soma for the English pause, while this. 
 Soma is the very starting poiut in Hindu Music, and is as 
 difficult of comprehension to the European as the Rdga. 
 We could point out other anomalies, but what we have 
 already done will suffice. 
 
 Above all, the notation in question has been formed on the 
 treble clef, but not only one such clef but all the clefs 
 divided as they are, are quite insufficient for the representa- 
 tion of the A'lapa of a Rdga. The A'l&pa consists of four, 
 divisions,— ggr^Tft, 5RTO H^TCt and snwfjT, and 
 these four divisions together constitute what is called a 
 Tana (cfT*}) , without which the Rdga is incomplete * It is 
 thus evident that Mr. Clarke's assertion "that if it was 
 essential to represent quarter-tones, some modification of the 
 staff would be far more preferable to the nationalist's notation 
 &c," is barely an assertion, and does not admit of proof. 
 
 We think we have adduced sufficient evidence in this part 
 of our discussion to justify us in pronouncing Mr. Clarke's 
 
 * An account of these divisions will be found in Sir William Jones' 
 Works on Hindu Music ; also in Sangila Ratrulvali in Sanscrit. 
 
380 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 theory about the adaptation of the English system of nota- 
 tion to the music of all nations as wholly arbitrary. Every 
 civilized nation, that has a music of its own, has also a system 
 of notation adapted to the peculiarities of that music. If we 
 attempt to replace it by the European system of notation, we 
 will be under the necessity of expressing those peculiarities 
 by means of new signs. Take the Chinese music as an illus- 
 tration. The Chinese have a notation of their own with 
 distinguishing peculiarities. They have adopted nine different 
 characters, which are enumerated in French by DeQuignes 
 as ho, se, y, chang, tche, hung, fan, Kaon, and an.* There 
 they write in a line downwards. They note down each with 
 a character of their own, and DeGuignes says it is impossible 
 to set them down correctly in the European system of nota- 
 tion. Take again Japan. As far back as the year 1611, the 
 musical lines of the Japanese were pricked, f Captain 
 Turner was informed that the Buddhist priests in Thibet 
 had their music written in characters which they studied. 
 Nor are the Egyptians and Hebrews without a contrivance 
 of their own. J • Java and other islands of the Indian 
 sea possess some kinds of notation quite sufficient for 
 the musical requirements of the different nationalities.! 
 The Burmese and the Siamese appear to have made as great 
 a proficiency in music as any other Asiatic nation. They 
 are naturally very fond of it, and the style of their music is, 
 for the most part, extremely lively, and may not sound un- 
 pleasant to the European ear. Their pieces of music are 
 
 * They have also been translated into English by the Bev. E. W. Style, 
 t Howard Malcolm's Travels in South Eastern Asia. 
 
 X Historical, Technical and Literary Description of Oriental Music and 
 Musical Instruments by Villotcau. 
 
 i, Opus cit. 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 381 
 
 very numerous. They exhibit as many as hundred and fifty 
 tunes written in their own character.* In Ceylon too, music 
 appears to be cultivated with great ardour. There are 
 pieces of music to be seen in regular notes written in the 
 Pali language. The Turks are not without a system or rule. 
 Their music has not only all the tunes and sounds corres- 
 ponding to ours, but, possessing quarter-tones, it is very 
 rich in materials, aud consequently highly melodious and 
 difficult of reduction to a regular scale even in their national 
 system of notation. The Turkish people play in unison or 
 in octaves, which practice though hostile to harmony in the 
 musical sense of the word, is productive of a grand musical 
 effect, and is very imposing, t The Arabs divide their music 
 into two parts — the telif (composition) or music considered 
 in its relation to melody, and the ikaa (cadence of sounds) 
 or the measured cessation of melody regarding instrumental 
 music only. They have four principal modes from which are 
 derived eight others, and they have also six composite modes 
 formed by union of these. Their manner of noting music is 
 by forming an oblong rectangle, divided by seven lines perpen- 
 dicular to its sides, representing together with the two extreme 
 lines eight intervals. Each of these lines is of a different 
 color, which must be remembered as well the name as the inter- 
 val. They use in their music smaller intervals than our semi- 
 tones. The notes of their scale (which are designated by the 
 numbers from one to seven — yek, du, si, tschar, pent, sehesch, 
 heft, or, as in European music, by the first seven letters of the 
 Alphabet, which are in the Arabic, alif, be, girn, dal, ha, wain, 
 tain,) are subdivided into seventeen one-third tones, and in 
 
 * Howard Malcolm. t See The Harmonicon, Vol. II. 
 
382 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 rendering this scale in the European system of notation, new 
 signs will have to be invented for the quarter-tones. But 
 from the sixth to the minor seventh a — b fiat will he semi- 
 tones, while in their scale only one-third tone, &c. Thus, it is 
 impossible to represent Arabic music in the European system 
 of notation, notwithstanding the invention of new signs for 
 quarter-tones* 
 
 The Persian music very much resembles ours. It has also 
 its own notation, the reduction of which to the European 
 scale is as difficult and impracticable as that of ours. Now 
 we leave it to Mr. Clarke to determine the result of repre- 
 senting the music of different nations on the face of the earth 
 by one common notation, i. e., the European with newly in- 
 vented signs according to the requirements of each. We 
 fear we must defer the prospect of an universal language of 
 music till the milleneum arrives. If an attempt be made to 
 adapt the English notation to the music of the different 
 nations, it will be necessary, we believe, according to Sir. 
 Clarke's plan, to make sub-divisions in order to cover the 
 wants and peculiarities of each nation, but then the result 
 will not be that " a Bengali who knew no English might 
 play a melody from an English or French piece of music." 
 But the difficulty we have just represented is not all. As 
 the different systems of music of different nations are not 
 equally progressive, (and some are not at all progressive) 
 the new signs we have referred to will have to he modified, 
 altered or extended according to the stages of progress and 
 development of the original music. We will ask Mr. Clarke 
 to bear in mind how much alteration has European music 
 
 • A Treatise on Arabic Music, translated from the Arabic by EU Smith. 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 383 
 
 undergone in the course of the last 500 years, and how much 
 more it is destined to undergo. Had the European system 
 been an immutable or a system, what necessitated John 
 Curwen'a modifications (which by the bye closely resembles 
 the ancient Sanscrit notation) and what guarantee have we 
 that they will stop here ? From what we have already 
 adduced it may now be safely assumed as an established 
 fact that, except by the systems of notation invented 
 by them, the music of the oriental nations cannot be 
 represented by the European notation. In this opinion 
 we are well supported by Ambros, who says that " respect- 
 ing the national songs which have hitherto been published, 
 it must be observed that in all of them the original charac- 
 ter of the music has been greatly altered, if not obliterated, 
 by the arrangement 'of melodies for the pianoforte, or. by the 
 unwarranted addition of accompaniments of some kind. 
 In many instances where the songs are usually performed in 
 unison, they retain, when harmonized, but faint traces of their 
 former characteristics. Even in instances where an accom- 
 paniment originally exists, its peculiarities are often so 
 entirely disregarded in the arrangement that it becomes 
 almost another composition." And as to the inapplicabi- 
 lity of the European notation, what has been said of 
 the music of other oriental nations is equally true of 
 Hindu Music. The difficulty of adopting the foreign nota- 
 tion arises as much from the modifications necessary for the 
 quarter-tones, as for various other causes too intricate for 
 enumeration. We will cite a few more authorities in support 
 of the views advocated by us. " A great difference," says 
 Willard, " prevails between the music of Europe and that 
 of the oriental nations in respect to time, in which it re- 
 
384 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 sembles more the system of the Greeks and other ancient 
 nations than the measures peculiar to the music of modern 
 Europe.'' Again, another writer says, " nor are the ancient 
 Hindu aira known to the Europeans from the impossibility 
 of setting them according to our system of notation. The 
 Hindus have quarter-tones, a fact which renders.it still more 
 difficult to express their music by our own system."* Mr. 
 Whitten, in his lecture on the music of the ancients, delivered 
 at the Calcutta Normal School, took the same view of the 
 question. His words were as follows : " Few of the Hindu 
 airs are known to Europeans, and it has been found impos- 
 sible to set them to music according to the modern system 
 of notation, as we have neither staves nor musical characters 
 whereby the sounds may be accurately expressed."! Another 
 writer, an equally independent authority, goes on to say, 
 that " considerable difficulty is found in setting to music 
 the Ragas and Raginis, as our system does not supply notes 
 or signs sufficiently expressive of the almost imperceptible 
 elevations and depressions of the voice in these melodies ; 
 of which the time is broken and irregular, the modulations 
 frequent and very wild."t 
 
 It is thus generally admitted that Hindu Music, from its 
 nature, does not admit of being represented by the European 
 system of notation. Mr. Clarke may, therefore, well regale 
 in the enjoyment of his pleasing visions supported by the 
 distinguished authority of his progressive friends, and will 
 
 * Oriental Collections by W. Ouseley Esq. 
 
 t Orchestra, March 14th 1868. 
 
 J Oriental Collections by Sir W. Ouseley. Mr. Clarke himself has given 
 an indirect demonstration of the difficulty of representing Hindu Music 
 by the European notation in the three lines appended to his article, and we 
 are glad to find that Mr. Aldis takes our view of the case. 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 385 
 
 we hope have the goodness to practically illustrate his theory 
 with their invaluable aid as to how the Hindu system of 
 notation may be superseded by the European. 
 
 We will conclude with a few words, pointing out certain 
 errors into which Mr. Clarke has, perhaps unwittingly, fallen 
 in respect to certain musical facts and personal questions. 
 In discussing the question of notation he incidentally 
 mentions that the notation in use is not the Bengali notation 
 but an invention of four years ago, taken up by " a small 
 but rich party in Calcutta." We are sorry to say, that in 
 making this statement our critic is entirely mistaken, or 
 has allowed himself to be misled by the party to which he 
 has apparently surrendered his critical judgment. If he 
 had referred to the published works of his countrymen, he 
 would have discovered his mistake. Amongst others we would 
 take the liberty to recommend for his perusal Sir W. Jones' 
 works on Hindu Music. The notation in use is not one of 
 four years' invention, but of an age anterior to the commence- 
 ment of the authentic history. In proof of its antiquity we 
 annex a facsimile of a printed form of notation, written in 
 the oldest Sanskrit character of g^jsfj ^f jj | 
 
 w-i 
 
$& 
 
 
 dfil 
 
 
 a 
 
 eg) 
 
 
 a 
 
 SI 
 
 -9tffll 
 
 iOjo 
 
 31 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 M 
 ■<§> 
 
 © 
 
 -(VJ1 
 
 ^1 n 
 
 /=3 
 
 <§X 
 
 as 
 
 oo 
 
 
 ► 
 
 
 S3 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 HH 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 i=aj 
 
 
 t~3 
 
 ^ 
 
 cc 
 
 k 
 
 j> 
 
 Oj 
 
 tz{ 
 
 k 
 
 OJ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 £sJ 
 
 k 
 
 o 
 
 I— I 
 
 o 
 
 la 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 387 
 
 We will not enter into the personal question, but we may 
 state for Mr. Clarke's information that the party which 
 shares our opinions in musical matters is nearly as numerous 
 as to comprehend musicians of all degrees of taste and 
 proficiency — of course the progressive party only excepted. 
 In the appendix will be found a paper containing autographs 
 of all the eminent Hindu and Mahomedan musicians of the 
 day, who endorse our view of the question under discussion. 
 We do not pretend to any knowledge of English music — the 
 little that we know does not, perhaps, extend to much be- 
 yond a knowledge of the notes on a harmonium and the 
 explanation of the notation. But we have taken the pains 
 to study the particular branch of music in which we take 
 pride and pleasure, and on which we have presumed to write. 
 
 Finally, we venture to express a hope that Mr. Clarke will 
 do us the justice to believe that in all that we have said in 
 the course of this controversy we have not been actuated 
 by any unfriendly feeling, or hostile spirit. What grieves 
 us most is that a gentleman of Mr. Clarke's erudition, 
 scientific attainments, natural abilities, and high character, 
 should have imported in this discussion the party spirit of 
 those, who are themselves unable to understand or explain 
 what they write about, and who have made him an exponent 
 of their crude views and egregious misconceptions. If this 
 paper satisfies Mr. Clarke that in advocating the national 
 system we are simply following reason, truth, and history, 
 we will consider ourselves amply repaid. 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 389 
 
 ^ft*p5NCT3r to: i 
 
 f%reft sr^fT fw #i ?r*ft «ra, f^rcr 
 '5WRT *fi^?T 'ti s:^3ft rr^^ta ^ten % 
 
 n&rft ?r^^T fro ^ i ^?r, *re, tw- 
 f*w *n: to f5R «fpr ^T5r«ni T&fsft ^w?m 
 T* to^ totto^ «rr^ f i ^i^: ^rt^ ^f?r 
 
 ^rar it ^t£ ^tt, *h\<< ^*re ^^5^ 
 
390 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 TRT Tf%^, ^RT *T? # ^RT ^^ ^R Tpfqj 
 
 ^hft ?n^fter w\wa, *rsi^fcrer, ^ifa*irta«r, 
 
 '=r<.*H*rref 3F^ ^^ft T%^?T T*i«T f ^HR 
 
 *r#t ^r^?ft tif g^eref ^ft ^rt ^fit t^jt 
 ^ ^f <T ^^ ^fa** 'w: wrcr *ra* 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 391 
 
 'S^Nrr ^Stare *nrc «ra rare *repr ^t<rre$ 
 *re3% ^rH *rrew f^t <?farrf wnsft 
 
 SPI^ft^ WW? T^ T^*t ^T«T f^l if?5W^T 
 
 ^rrsra ^r^r s;^r£ thrw srTsNrir ^f^ 
 
 ^TR^iT ^TCI ^RS.1 T#t TTTTf fft 'SW ^RT 
 
 «ft^t «ra€t ^iifa ^^ft ^NFt^ ^w*s 
 s^Nt **rre ^rt *m to i ?RT*r «n*?rraik 
 
 # •, ^ti qm ^V*r w$i ^tt% 't, «-d!4l *fi*% #, 
 
 V TO?T # , ^t *t ^I?T TTf WSWVfT 'Tt^T- 
 
392 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 ^k t^trw "*\*ft II % ii 
 
 Professor MOWLA BUX, 
 
 Of Bombay. 
 
 tor fira, sreferc i ^EPnraftfMk, sjxrfksT i 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 393 
 
 ^lr |.U.J wXjjjj a—jlo^ j-^Jjl i^t ^J»^> y£*^&«. 
 ji$ &¥ t^i j'j' J^ **J* «>Uij ^ f^ O*' 4- 
 
 —■MM——— 
 
 T r 
 
 — — — — — j> ^ _ 
 
 p* ^-jj) vtt*ju*l jjl (►* ^ bo u4^V ^^ 
 pX^JL) j£ 2. J^ji olmAi ic^hy ^° -^ <J>£l->l j)jl 
 
 J0 ] vs/*t ^ vAPjij* fk W ] ji *>J±*Vi ,^1 
 jjl jl*ij t^r* <-V <■**" ft ^* 1 ^HH uft ^ 
 
 tit )^ ^'jj ^b ^ r 3 *-%* ^G^ j>' 
 
 •> ♦• •* . •• 
 
 X-l 
 
394 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 ^ «^ L ^Ail^JJ ^gX.-jl »? jjl ^t J* I jjl Jjl 
 
 V^ O/* fe" *— fyj-l <^ nJJ^-cU £j.i> ^g^f.) KO^J J* 
 jjy* j\l* t_jbj ^j ^»*x±. v ^ t ^llswo IS" &gJt,Jjl 
 
 ■*" " 
 
 V. ^ jj' ^^ M ^^y^ j£ <£■ ^ uLo> fe" 
 
 ^ ^ vU 1 v'-*- 2 * &->f jj' *fekj^. (_/ |J^ u*' cH. 
 erV ^ir^ ^" ^5^. w ^° v^ ^** J 4^-5 ^ 
 
HINDU music. 395 
 
 V*. B^Xto,* US' j^ U ^li.jjJL, <J!j £jf ^j! 
 
 jV *)j*$ \j^t ^^ V— i^«J O^yJ X- &4SV0* ^Jojl 
 
 jj| r J ' ^ *fe<^ ft**" ^ ^jji ^i $\y 
 , -6 J v* ^^ ** ks*. &h Lf« v -^.' ^ <j>^* . J^t 
 
 u/t? i^< ^ r^ J- 5 ' ^ c^*ji> y^ jl <£ liljiXrU 
 
396 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 J* U^i lsi <J> * o* V_ ^.' *- **** Lf^ *-^ ^ 
 LaS^ ^LuaJ oJ^j ^^^j* Jaia^iX^Jjl jJ^Vijmoj 
 
 * j. j*J] * 
 
 * J, utll # 
 
 * 0. >j«J| * 
 
 *J% ^ ^U. d..»SW0 # 
 
 * J. ;«H * 
 
 * Sf^J" 1 * 5 ^^ ^ * 
 
 * t> sl«JI * 
 
 * 4 JJtf) # 
 
hindu music. 397 
 
 ♦t 
 
 * 4 JJtJI * 
 
 * ij'j-^ jjj-" n>^ (Ji U^j-J-c * 
 
 * o. «cJ| * 
 
 * J. JJlJI * 
 
ON THE 
 
 MUSICAL SCALES OP DIFFEKENT NATIONS 
 
 FROM 
 TO THE STCTDY OF 
 
 NATIONAL MUSIC;" 
 
 BY 
 
 CARL ENGEL. 
 
MUSICAL SCALES OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 
 
 The seven intervals of the Hindu scale— sa, ri, ga, ma, 
 pa, dha, ni, — which nearly correspond with our diatonic 
 major scale, are subdivided into twenty-two Srooti, corres- 
 ponding to quarter-tones, but not quite exactly, since there 
 are only 22 instead of 24 in the compass of an octave. 
 
 Whole 
 tone. 
 
 Whole 
 tone. 
 
 Semi- 
 tone. 
 
 Whole I Whole 
 
 tone. l! tone. 
 I I I I I I I 
 
 Whole 
 tone. 
 I I 
 
 Semi- 
 tone. 
 
 I I I 
 4 Srooti. 
 
 3 Srooti. 
 
 w 
 
 (<*) 
 
 ga 
 
 2 
 
 Srooti. 
 ma 
 
 I I I 
 4 Srooti. 
 
 I I I 
 4 Srooti. 
 
 I I 
 3 Srooti. 
 
 (/) 
 
 pa 
 (?) 
 
 dha 
 
 («r 
 
 2 
 
 Srooti 
 
 (*) (<0 
 
 Sir William Jones considers sa identical with our a, so 
 that the syllables sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, would represent 
 our scale of a major, a, b, c iff, d, e, f % g %. Other writers 
 on Hindu music take sa to be synonymous with c, as has 
 been done in the above illustrations of the scale. Captain 
 Willard observes that Sir W. Jones, in making the Khuruj* 
 to correspond to a, " appears to be guided more by 
 alphabetical arrangement of letters than by any connexion 
 it may have with musical arrangement. If the Khwruj is 
 tuned ut or e, it seems to me to be more systematic, it being 
 
 * Khviruj ia the name given to ax, the fundamental note of the scale. 
 
 Y-l 
 
402 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 the key-note of the natural key. The musicians of Hin- 
 dustan never appear to have had any determined pitch by 
 which their instruments were regulated, each person tuning 
 his own to a certain height, adapted by guess to the power 
 of the instrument aud quality of the strings, the capacity 
 of the voice intended to be accpmpanied, and other adventi- 
 tious circumstances."* This question, however, is not of 
 much importance in our inquiry. More remarkable is the fact 
 that two of the whole tones in the Hindu scale, viz., those from 
 the second to the third, ri—ga, and from the sixth to the 
 seventh, dha — ni, comprise only three Srooti, while the other 
 whole tones comprise four. In certain cases the performer to 
 some extent obviates inequality, by enlarging a small whole 
 tone with a Srooti borrowed from the next tone of the scale. 
 
 The general name for the Hindu scale is That. R&gas and 
 R&ginees are melodies founded upon certain scales, or rather 
 modes, which are formed either by substituting for the 
 prime another interval of the scale as fundamental note, 
 or tonic, as in our ancient Church modes ; or by con- 
 sidering certain intervals of the scale as inessential ; or 
 by omitting one or two intervals entirely. In illustration I 
 subjoin a few specimens of scales selected from a number 
 given in Sir W. Jones's essay ' On the Musical Modes of the 
 Hindus.'t Two of them, called Todi and Saindhavi, resemble, 
 it will be seen, the former the Dorian, and the latter the 
 Phrygian mode. Those intervals which in the scales called 
 Bhairava, Tacca, and Maravi are written as crotchets, are 
 
 • A treatise on the Music of Hindustan by Captain N. Augustus Willard. 
 Calcutta, page 27. 
 
 t Asiatic Researches, Vol. Ill, p. 55. 
 
fitNDTT MUSIC. 
 
 403 
 
 inessential, and may be skipped by the performer. Intervals 
 entirely omitted (as in M&ravi and Hindotd) are indicated 
 thus — 
 
 *ToAi. Saindhavi. 
 
 r^rf II jJ-^E 8 
 
 Bhairava. 
 
 Tacca. 
 
 j^f Pf'HrN-M 5 ^ 
 
 -P 
 
 Maravi. 
 
 Eindola. 
 
 $1 j" jtth » ii j , ,) ^^~a 
 
 In the music of the Arabs we also meet with smaller 
 intervals than our semi-tones. The notes of the Arabic 
 scale, which are designated by the numbers from 1 to 7, 
 yek, du, si, tsohar,peni, schesoh, heft, (or also, as in our own 
 music, by the first seven letters of the alphabet, which are 
 in the Arabic alif, be, gim, dal, he, wan, zain.,) are subdivided 
 into seventeen one-third-tones. 
 
 Yeh 
 
 i I 
 
 I I 
 
 tschar peni ichesch Iieft Yeh 
 
 I I 
 
 I I 
 
 111. 
 
 D 
 
 B flat 
 
 In rendering this scale in our notation, I shall employ 
 signs similar to those previously adopted in the examples 
 •with quarter tones. Thus, Jiff before a note raises it a one- 
 third-tone, and §# two one-third-tones ; Jt) before B 
 
404 HINDU SHJ8IC. 
 
 indicates . that the interval is a one-third-tone higher thas 
 B flat, and |£[ that it is two one-third-tones higher than B Sat. 
 The minims indicate the diatonic intervals, which, it will 
 be seen, differ from ours in so far as the seventh is minor, 
 and the two steps from the third to the fourth e — /, and 
 from the sixth to the minor seventh, a — b flat, which in 
 our notation would be semi-tones, are in the Arabic scale 
 only one-third-tones. The intervals written as crotchets 
 denote the intermediate one-third tones between the respec- 
 tive diatonic intervals. 
 
 ARABIC INTERVALS. 
 
 if 1 f I f h$ 
 
 7±ttftl&W*&* ^& 
 
 The Persians appear to have employed at an early period 
 smaller intervals than serai-tones. After the conquest of 
 Persia by the Arabs, about the middle of the seventh 
 century of our Christian era, the music of the Persians and 
 Arabs, became, so to say, amalgamated, and there are still 
 treatises extant of early Arabian and Persian theorists, in 
 which the system of one-third-tones is exhibited. After- 
 wards, however, some of the Persian Musicians adopted a 
 system of twelve semi-tones in the compass of an octave, 
 like our chromatic scale. 
 
THE SAMAN CHANTS 
 
 FROM 
 BY 
 
 A. C. BUKNELL, ph.d. 
 
THE SAMAN CHANTS. 
 
 The music of the Sdman Chants has been so often men- 
 tioned by me, that I shall try to give an idea of it, as it is 
 now sung by the Sdnia Veda priests. Here, as in other 
 respects, there are numerous CahhA differences and I shall, 
 therefore, follow the practice of the Kaulhumi CdJchd, the 
 only one of which I have been able to obtain sufficient in- 
 formation. The art is very nearly extinct, and this is a 
 good reason for describing it, especially as the only European 
 who studied it in India — Dr. Haug-^js now no more. 
 
 The foundation of these Chants being unquestionably very 
 old, they are, as might be expected, on an imperfect scale 
 of notes, but modes do not appear to be used, except one. 
 The Sdman Chants resemble in some respects the Gregorian 
 or Plain Chan t, and the two kinds of music approach one 
 another in many points ; the Sdman, however, being the 
 older and less cultivated, one occasionally meets with pas- 
 sages which are forbidden by the rules of the Plain Chant, - 
 and are, to a foreigner's ear, by no means pleasing. 1 
 
 The notation, as has been already remarked* varies exceed- 
 ingly, accordingly as the MSS. come from different parts of 
 India, and it is not too much to say that it would be almost 
 impossible to find two MSS. which precisely agree. MSS. 
 of the ganas are only copied by professional Sama- 
 
 1 ofr. P. 370 of Helmholtz, " Die Lehro von den Tonemp-findungen," 
 (3rd ed ) a3 to the development of taate as regards Music. 
 
 2 Above PP. XXVI and XXVII. 
 
408 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 Veda priests for their own use, and present no kind of in- 
 terest to the public; every copyist, therefore, follows a 
 different plan in details, for almost every one adds marks 
 and signs of his own to assist him in chanting the notes. 
 
 It would be useless to give the complicated notation as 
 used in the S. Indian MSS. and which I have already 
 mentioned, for these letters amount to several hundreds. 
 The principle of the modern notation by numbers is far 
 more simple. The seven notes are marked by the numerals 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and the last (really never used) by 7 or ^. Of 
 these the first = ¥ and the rest E, I), C, B, A, G. 1 
 
 It is necessary to point out (as there has been much con- 
 fusion on this point) that the ganas are not accented in the 
 ordinary sense of the word, or like the other Vedas ; but 
 that the marks which form such a prominent feature in the 
 text are actually musical notes.* 
 
 The difficulty in understanding their true nature has 
 arisen out of the attempts to classify the notes, and also to 
 connect them, phonetically, with the accents. It is not 
 difficult to understand this by comparison with similar 
 attempts of the mediaeval students of music. Thus Hugbaud 
 
 1 I have ascertained thi3 by means of a standard pitch-pipe. It is also 
 the doctrine of the Ndradacixd (adhy. ii.) according to oral information : 
 
 Yah SSraaganam Prathamah Sa Venor madhyamasvarah 
 Yo dvitiyah Sa Gaudhai as, tritiyas tv rishabha smrita. 
 
 The common Hindu scale corresponds with the European key of C , but 
 Sir W. Jones has (as evidently might be done) put it in the key of A, for 
 which I can find no sufficient reason ; and, in fact, he is thus led into 
 inconsistency (As. Res. iii.) 
 
 2 These notes; should bo as just mentioned ; but I have seen M8S. in 
 which the accent marks were used, and this misled me (Cat. P. 45), and 
 the practice is, admittedly, wrong. 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 409 
 
 (840-930 A.D,) classified the notes of the Plain Chant in 
 the following way : — 
 
 So, La, Si, Ut I Ri, Mi, Fa, Sol I La, Si, Ut, Re, I Mi,FaJSol,La 1 
 grades | finales | superiores | excellences 
 
 In the Indian books on music there is a somewhat similar 
 classification of the notes : 
 
 Uddtta 
 Nishdda, gdndhdra. 
 
 Anudatta 
 
 Rishdbha, Dhai- 
 vatu. 
 
 Svarita 
 Shadja, Madhyama, 
 Pancama. 
 
 The three sthinas represent three octaves. 
 
 The names of the seven notes differ, and some have 
 several names. The oldest list that I know of is probably 
 that in the Sdmavidhana Brahmana* — krushta, Prathama, 
 dvitiya, tritiya, caturtha, pancama and shashtha or antya. In 
 the later works {e.g., Sdyanas C. on the Arsheyabrdhmana) the 
 numbers prathama, etc., are used 3 ; these again partly corres- 
 pond to the shadja, rishabha, gandh&ra, madhyama, pancama 
 dhaivata and nishdda of usual music, but in reverse order, 
 i. e., the first note of the Hindu ordinary music is the fourth 
 of the Sdma priests, and the scale ascends, the reverse of 
 the scale of the last. In S. India the names are usually 
 given as prathama, etc., mandra (5th) anusvarya (6th) and 
 atisvarya (7th). 
 
 1 Dela Page, "Cours complet dl Plain Chant," P. 691. 
 
 2 See i, 1, 8 of my edition (P. S). 
 
 3 So in the Svaraparibhdshd. Mandra is, however, the most usual name for 
 the fifth svara. In the Sdmatantra (by i, ii, 3—" ueoo gan") gi, ji, di, di 
 stand for the first five svaras. The antya is not mentioned (8. T. I., i, 1.) 
 
 4 That the krwMa is the first note, and that it is generally called prathama 
 there can be no doubt. SSyana (in his C. on the Arsheya br.) mentions 
 knuhta repeatedly («. g., in 1, 16 and 17) where the Samaa'has the first note 
 marked. 
 
 Z-I 
 
410 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 Besides the seven simple notes (pralcriti), there are seven 
 others (vikriti) 1 which express constantly recurring groups of 
 notes or modifications, and the necessity for which has evi- 
 dently arisen from the system of notation by numbers. 
 There are : ' prenkha' which adds two m£tra to the preceding 
 syllable and ends with the second svara, it is marked i, or in 
 S. Indian MSS. ' pre' sometime occurs. ' Namana? which con- 
 sists of the first three notes (one, two and three) ; ' iarsTiana' 
 is either up the scale (marked A) or down (marked V) and 
 includes all the notes between these marked. ' Vinata' is 
 marked by ' vi' or S and consists of 1 and 2 ; where ' Vinata' 
 occurs in the Qr&mageyagana, Prenkha is put in the Uha. 
 The two remaining vikritis are embellishments : Atyutkrama 
 — 4565, Samprasdrana=234:b. There are many other terms 
 of the art, but only ' abhigdta ' requires to be noticed. 
 This consists in a repetition of the note with a short a ; it 
 appears to be marked in the Bibliotheea Indica edition of 
 the Santa- Veda by 7. As is everywhere the case in Sanskrit 
 literature, the Sdma Veda priests have a long vocabulary of 
 technical terms, but I shall not attempt to explain them, 
 as most have arisen out of the peculiar notation, and it 
 would not be possible to make them intelligible in a short 
 space. 
 
 With these explanations it is now possible to give a speci- 
 men of the Sdma Veda chants noted according to the Plain 
 Chant system which will best suit the purpose. It must be 
 remarked, however, that the Chant is continuous, and not 
 staccato, and that, in one respect, there is a total want of 
 resemblance to the Plain Chant — the value of the notes or 
 time depends chiefly on the words ; in the adaptations of a 
 
 1 These are purely modern. 
 
<5 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 411 
 
 Sdman to different words, the length of the notes is made 
 up by the modifications of the words and insertion or omis- 
 sion of letters. .^JjTotes are, sometimes, Dirgha or Vriddha, 
 and the former are alone marked— in N. Indian MSS. 
 usually by the letter r, in S. Indian MSS. by O. Vriddha 
 notes are emphasized ; Dirghn notes are prolonged beyond 
 the usual length. Where there is a group of notes and a 
 number over each one, these upper numbers give the length in 
 (Mdtra). 1 The bar or division {Parvan) marks the notes 
 to be sung with one breath. The length of the note depends 
 on the vowel, and not on the length of the syllable according 
 to prosody ; thus in ' citra' the first note is short, the last 
 note in each parvan is always Vriddha. 
 
 If I*be right in assuming that the S. Indian letter nota- 
 tion is the oldest — and there are many reasons in favour of 
 this, and none (so far as I can see) against it— it is obvious 
 that such chants can never have been thus preserved exactly 
 without alteration, for the letters do not show the place 
 of the notes on the text, and there are other indications of 
 this. For instance, the syllable ' hum' which so often occurs 
 in the Sdman was called originally (as the Brahmanas prove) 
 hinkara, and 'him' must, therefore, have been the original 
 sound. Again the PhuMas&tra shows that some Cahhds sang 
 certain Sdman to more notes than others. Again, it is diffi- 
 cult to trace much in common between what are nominally 
 the same chants as sung by members of different C&khds. 
 This consideration affords a probable explanation of the 
 
 1 The above explanation will enable any one to note the Sdma Veda 
 chants (as e. g. printed in the B. I. edition) in the European way. In some 
 cases notes seem to be made sharp or flat, but I have not been able to learn 
 any rule as regards these. 
 
412 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 assertion (in the Purdnas) that there were formerly count- 
 less ('a thousand') Cdkh&s of the Sdma Veda; it was in- 
 evitable that endless differences should arise in course of 
 time, as the fidmavedins gradually arrived at a better appre- 
 ciation of melody. I am not sure that the chants are not 
 modified even at the present day ; some priests, at all 
 events, use embellishments which others reject. 
 
 Thus the Soma Veda contains the ' incantamenta' of 
 Ancient India as Profr. V. Roth appropriately has termed 
 them 1 ; and it is, therefore, of great interest as the best 
 preserved record of a phase of belief of which we find 
 traces in the histories of the civilization of all nations. The 
 ascription of a magical effect to music is remarkable, and 
 our word ' incantation' is still a witness to it among the 
 Latins j the German held the same belief." 
 
 Brief and imperfect as this outline necessarily is, I think 
 it will be found sufficient to show what the oldest Indian 
 music was. The ancient music of nations even nearer than 
 India has not as yet attracted any interest, 3 and the best 
 historians of this art have not always had access to un- 
 questionable information. When more important work that 
 I have in hand is done, if ever it be done, I hope to return 
 to this subject, and to elucidate it so far as my imperfect 
 acquaintance with the theory of music will permit. 
 
 , l (l Der Atharbaveda in kaschmir," P. 9. 
 
 2 J. Grimm, "Deutsche Mytliologie" pp. 987 ffg. The myths which 
 have obvious reference to music are numerous and interesting, but little 
 haB, as yet, been done to illustrate them. 
 
 3 e. y. Greek music has been but little studied. 
 
THE HINDU THEORY OE MUSIC 
 
 t r<sm^. i s £g m ic ,; 
 
 ISAAC L. RICE, 
 
 Pianist and Professor, New York. 
 
THE HINDU THEORY OE MUSIC, 
 
 The musical system which next claims our attention is 
 that of the ancient Hindoos. Though unlike that of the 
 Chinese, it is no. less curious and interesting. The latter 
 attempted to account for the power of music over the emo- 
 tions by a mystic symbolical system. But it was not the 
 characteristic of the Hindoos to enter into such geognostic 
 mysteries. They, too, were susceptible to the influence of 
 the music, and to a very great degree ; but they were too in- 
 dolent to seek for the natural cause of the phenomenon — they 
 had a simpler way of doing things. Why spend your existence 
 in the futile effort to untie a knot, when you can cut it, and 
 sever its most intricate ramifications at a single blow 1 
 
 2. Music is the invention of the great God Mahada-krish- 
 na, who caused five Ragas to spring from his five heads. 
 The sixth owed its existence to Parbuti. Afterwards Brahma 
 himself created thirty Raginis. Each Raga was then per- 
 sonified in a god who protected and governed it, each Ragini 
 in a nymph. The Ragas were the primary modes, the Ragi- 
 nis the secondary ones. Later, Sarasvati, the spouse of 
 Brahma, presented mankind with the most beautiful of ins- 
 truments — 'the Vina. The demi-god Narada was elected to 
 teach its use. Then Mabada-krishna endowed the Ragas with 
 the power of magic. The Sagas, in turn, endowed the Ra- 
 ginis. Men, animals and inanimate nature were henceforth 
 compelled to obey them. One Rag a was possessed of the 
 power of raising clouds and producing rain. A songstress 
 versed in that mode at one time saved BeDgal from an 
 
416 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 imminent famine by intoning. Another Saga could cause the 
 sun to vanish. One charmed serpents, another lions and 
 tigers. All heaven is filled with music. The great God 
 Indra is surrounded by Gandharvas ; they accompany him in 
 war and sing his praise in peace. Yea, the terrible Shiva 
 himself was charmed by the magic of Havana's Vina. Music 
 is the pier of prayer and sacrifice — it is god-compelling. 
 
 3. The original system was much elaborated in the course 
 of time, so that it grew to contain no less than sixteen 
 thousand modes, each of which was governed by one of the 
 sixteen thousand nymphs, who attempted to gain the love of 
 Mahada-krishna during his incarnation. The nymphs are 
 governed by the thirty Raginis, the Rdginis by the six 
 Sagas, the Sagas by Krishna himself. Now, as certain Ragi- 
 nis had affinities for certain Sagas, it was conceived that a 
 general marriage had taken place — that each Raga had been 
 wedded to five Raginis, and that eight sons had been born in 
 each family ; that each of the forty-eight sons, called Putras, 
 had taken a nymph for a spouse, whereupon the immediate 
 family of the Sagas comprised one hundred and thirty-two 
 heads, all chief modes. 
 
 4. Later, the Sagas were construed as being also gods of 
 the seasons. This was done, because there appeared to be a 
 great analogy between the frame of mind produced by each 
 of the Sagas, and the one natural to one of the six seasons 
 into which the Hindu year was divided. The joyful strains 
 of one Raga were symbolical of the season of blooming ; 
 the gay characteristics of another, of the ripening of the 
 fruits; while the sad and melancholy melodies of another, 
 of the fading and falling leaves. In time it came to be 
 considered a grave offence to the presiding Riga of the 
 
HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 417 
 
 season, if melodies in any but one of the modes subject to his 
 control were intoned. 
 
 How differently the Chinese and the Hindus accounted 
 for the emotive power of music ! On the one hand, the 
 gloomy mysteries of the numbers and the elements ; on the 
 other, the bright, fantastic, gorgeous heaven of sunshine, 
 marriages, and pleasures ! And yet, who knows but that 
 the Hindu philosophers, who established such a flowery 
 system, were thinkers fully as deep as the Chinese sages 
 
 that their original conception and hidden meaning were 
 
 not as spiritual as those of modern days? It was the 
 
 spirit of the age to call a force a God that is to say, to 
 
 personify the ideal, the spiritual. The first theoreticians, 
 probably, used the word Rdga as a sober name, signifying 
 mode. As the tones increased in variety, and by the aid 
 of modulation, changes of rhythm, &c, appeared to be- 
 come almost unmanageable, or rather irreducible to any 
 system ; they were compelled to limit them to a certain 
 number of modes fit for practical use, and this number be- 
 came in course of time extended to sixteen thousand by some 
 calculation, of which we are ignorant. Then came mytholo- 
 gical philosphy. The tones, with their wonderful effect on 
 the soul, must have originated in heaven. The next step 
 was to specify how and where they originated, by whom 
 they were propagated, and then the wildest speculations on 
 the subject were the order of the day. The peculiar poeti- 
 cal character of the ancient Hindu showed itself in the 
 question " What is music ? " as part of the question 
 "What is Nature?" 
 
THE INDIAN ART OF MUSIC 
 
 FROM 
 
 The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 
 
 BY 
 
 The Hoh'ble W. W. HUNTER, c. i. e., l. l. d. ; 
 
 Director-General of Statistics for the Government 
 of India, 
 
 President, Education Committee of India. 
 
THE INDIAN ART OE MUSIC. 
 
 The Indian art of Music (Oandharva-veda) was destined 
 to exercise a wider influence. A regular 
 system of notation had been worked 
 out before the age of Panini (350 B.C. 1) and the seven notes 
 were designated by their initial letters. This notation passed 
 from the Br&hmans through the Persians to Arabia, and 
 was thence introduced into European music by Guido d' 
 Arezzo at the beginning of the 11th century.* Some, indeed, 
 suppose that our modern word gamut comes not from the 
 Greek letter, gamma, but from the Indian gdma (in Prakrit ; in 
 Sanskrit, grdma), literally ' a musical scale.' Hindu music, 
 after a period of excessive elaboration, sank under the 
 Muhammadan dynasties into a state of arrested development. 
 Of the 36 chief musicians in the time of Akbar, only five 
 were Hindus. Not content with tones and semi-tones, the 
 Indian musicians employ a more minute sub-division, to- 
 gether with a number of sonal modifications, which the 
 Western ear neither recognises nor enjoys. Thus they divide 
 the octave into 22 sub-tones, instead of the 12 semi-tones of the 
 European scale. This is one of several fundamental differ- 
 ences, but it alone suffices to render Indian music barbaric 
 to us ; giving it the effect of a ballad in a minor key sung 
 intentionally out of tune. 
 
 * Von Bholen, Vat alte Indien, ii, 195 (1830) ; Benfy's Indian (Erscb. & 
 Gruber'B Encyclopadie, xvii, 1840) ; quoted by Weber, Hist. Jnd. Lit., 
 p. 272, foot-note 315, (1878), 
 
422 HINDU MUSIC. 
 
 Melodies which the Indian composer pronounces to be 
 the perfection of harmony, and which 
 have for ages touched the hearts and 
 fired the imagination of Indian audiences, are condemned 
 as discord by the European critic. The Hindu ear has been 
 trained to recognise modifications of sound which the 
 European ear refuses to take pleasure in ; our ears, on the 
 other hand, have been taught to expect harmonic combina- 
 tions for which Indian music substitutes different combina- 
 tions of its own. The Indian musician declines altogether 
 to be judged by the few simple Hindu airs which the English 
 ear can appreciate. It is, indeed, impossible to adequately 
 represent the Indian system by the European notation, 
 and the full range of its effects can only be produced on 
 Indian instruments — a vast collection of sound-producers, 
 slowly elaborated during 2,000 years to suit the special 
 requirements of Hindu music. The complicated structure 
 of its musical modes {rags) rests upon three separate 
 systems, one of which consists of five, the other of 
 six, and the other of seven notes. It preserves in 
 a living state some of the earlier forms which puzzle 
 the student of Greek music, side by side with the 
 Revival of Hindu most complicated developments. Pat- 
 MuS10- riotic Hindus have of late endeavoured 
 
 to create a musical revival upon the old Sanskrit basis. 
 Within the past ten years, Rajah SourindVa Mohun Tagore 
 of Calcutta has published a series of interesting works on 
 Indian Music in the English tongue, adopting as far as 
 possible the European notation. He has organized an or- 
 chestra to illustrate the art ; and presented complete col- 
 lections of Hindu instruments to the Conservatoire at Paris, 
 
hindtj Muaio. 423 
 
 and to other institutions in Europe. One of the earliest 
 subjects which the new movement took as its theme, was 
 the celebration of the Queen of England and her ancestors, in 
 a Sanskrit volume entitled the Victoria-Gitika (Calcutta, 1875). 
 No Englishman has yet brought an adequate acquaintance 
 with the technique of Indian instrumentation to the study 
 of Hindu music. The art still awaits investigation by some 
 eminent Western professor j and the contempt with which 
 Europeans in India regard it merely proves their ignorance 
 of the system on which Hindu music is built up. 
 
 End of Part II. 
 
 Printed by I. 0. Bose & Co., Stanhope Press, 249, 
 Bow-Bazar Street, Calcutta.