ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY DATE DUE u^^^^^ s^^^^^^ ^mm^i^ i GAYLORO PRINTEOINU.S.A. Cornell University Library LA 208.S58 The educational institutions of the Unit 3 1924 013 020 072 Cornell University Library The original of tliis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013020072 THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS UNITED STATES, THEIR CHARACTER AND ORGANIZATION. TEANSLATED FBOM THE SWEDISH OF p: a", siljestrom, m.a. BY FREDERICA ROWAN. LONDON : JOHN CHAPMAN, 142, STRAND. MDCCCLIII. LONDON : PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER, ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET. President White Library PEEFACE TO ENGLISH TEANSLATION. Having been informed that my work on the educa- tional institutions of the United States is about to appear in an Enghsh translation, and having been requested to write a Preface for this translation, I feel myself called upon to make the following observa- tions. The fact that a book is about to appear before a pubKc different from that for which it was originally intended, cannot but render the Author more than ever alive to its defects — such, at least, is the case with me in the present instance. In writingfor my own countrymen, I knew myself to be writing for a pubhc almost totally ignorant of all matters relating to national education in the United States ; and feeling that I could not pos- sibly, in the work which I had planned, treat so wide a subject in so full and complete a manner as it deserved, yet being anxious to give a general exposition of the whole, I limited myself on several essential points to a few short notices only, hoping that either I myself or some other writer might on a future occasion have an opportunity of filling up the gaps which I left open. Such as it is, however, the work will, I trust, be found a a IV PREFACE TO ENGLISH TRANSLATION. sufficient to satisfy the immediate requirements of my country. But when there is a question of England it is different. In England a knowledge of American affairs in general, and of the present suhject in parti- cular, must he much more common than in Sweden, and although, as far as I am aware, no regular and complete treatise on the system of national education in the United States has heen puhHshed there, the many excellent American works bearing on the suhject are no doubt known at least to that part of the public who are professionally interested in public instruction, and to these therefore my work may present nothing new. Further, there are various topics touched upon in the work, which, had it been written for the English public, ought to have been treated from a different point of view, and while some points might have been curtailed, others ought to have been more fully developed. There- fore, such as the work is, I can only express the hope, that, even should it prove unsatisfactory to the initiated, the great majority of readers in England may at least find in it that which will seem to them to justify its translation. So much for the work itself. May I now be per- mitted to add some general reflections. Works on America written by Europeans are frequently received with distrust, and it is but natural that it should be so, as these works are but too often dictated by party feel- ing. America has once for all come to be considered the touchstone of political theories, and consequently it frequently happens that the preconceived opinions of the European traveller in that country determine the judgment which he forms of its institutions. Now, PREFACE TO ENGLISH TRANSLATION. V although I am far from maintaining that I may not, as well as others, have been guilty of errors of judgment, I have, nevertheless, the consolation of knowing, that tlie field in which my inquiries have been carried on, is one regarding which there can be no difference of opi- nion. It is, alas, but too true, that in the United States, as elsewhere, the observer will detect many of the imperfections that characterize all human institu- tions ; htit there is one subject in that country which must afford unmixed pleasure to the heart of the philan- thropist and the mind of the thinker, and this is the noble and successful efforts made in the cause of popular education. " Have you seen our popular schools ? " is one of the first questions addressed to the stranger in the United States, by young and old, by men and women, and this question in itself speaks volumes. But when the stranger finds, that in reaUty the popular schools are one of the most prominent subjects of national pride and satisfaction; that the question of popular , education is not only of interest to some few philan- thropists and thinkers, is not only discussed in legislative assemblies, but that it forms part of the national life, and is considered an important, nay, the most important concern of the nation — then he feels that in the depths of American society there are forces at work, which in Europe have as yet produced but very mediocre results. This is, I think, the highest praise that can be bestowed on the United States. This constitutes the true greatness of the nation, and the best guarantee of its stability. VI PREFACE TO ENGLISH TRANSLATION. The United States are the only communities in the world which from their very commencement were pre- pared to establish popular education as one of the fundamental pillars of the social and pohtical fabric ; they are the only communities in which the highest possible degree of enlightenment in the people has been practically and universally recognised, not only as a very desirable object from the philanthropic point of view, but also as constituting the principal cog-wheel in the machinery of the State. But America no longer stands alone in this respect ; in Europe also popular education is about to pass, or has in a great measure akeady passed, from the hands of the philanthropist into the domain of the statesman. I think that by this time the opinion is becoming pretty generally estabUshed, that the cheapest and most effective remedy against pauperism would be to give to every individual that amount of education, and that feeling of self-respect, which, if they do not prevent poverty, at least render pauperism impossible — that it is better to keep the youth of the country imprisoned in a school during some hours of the day, than to let a certain number of individuals pine away the whole of their lives in prisons and houses of correction, as victims of crime born of ignorance and brutality — that general enUghtenment among the citizens of a country is the most watchful and the most active police force — that the standing army which most effectively guarantees the independence of a State, is an army of school-children — and that the country that possesses the most numerous and best disciplined army of this PREFACE TO ENGLISH TRANSLATION. Vll kind, will eventually prove to be, not only the happiest, but also (supposing all other matters to be equal) the most powerful. In effect, national enUghtenment will always, and in every branch of administration, prove the most effective ally of statesmanship. And while so many of the other auxiliary means of which statesmen are obliged to avail themselves, are in themselves either useless or reprehensible, and tdtogether such as can only be tole- rated on account of the object for the attainment of which they are employed, national education has the immense advantage of being at one and the same time the most powerful means and the highest end that can be proposed for national activity. According to my opinion, it is from this point of view that national education ought to be considered in the present day, and it is from this point of view it is particularly desirable that the system of popular schools in America should be known and studied in Europe. The Author. Stockholm, March, 1853. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Introductory remarks concerning the national schools of Ame- rica. — General principles on which the system of national education is founded.- — Eeasons for and against these prin- ciples. — State of public opinion relative to these matters. — Essential difference in the development of the systems of education in Europe and in America 15 CHAPTER II. Historical sketch of the development of national schools in America. — First legislative measures regarding popular instruction, and founding of the New England system of national schools. — Nature of this system. — State of popular education during the colonial period. — Causes that have impeded the progress of popular education during the pre- sent century. — Reforms introduced in the national schools of late years. — Modes of proceeding as regards these reforms. — ^General reflections. — Popular education in the States of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and causes of its inferiority in the two last-mentioned States. — Popular edu- cation in the new States of the West. — Influence of the New Englanders. — Plan of exposition to be given . 24 CHAPTER III. System of national schools in Massachusetts. — Territorial divisions relative to national schools. — Towns. — School districts. — Union districts. — General obligations of the towns relative to the support of the schools. — Character of the schools as determined bylaw. — School rates. — Town rates. — Purposes of these. — Voters. — Repartition of rates among the districts. — Obligations of the districts relative to taxar tion. — Local administration of the schools. — Town and dis- trict authorities. — Obligations of these as to the construction and fitting up of school-houses, the appointment of teachers, determination of the plan of instruction, the inspection of CONTENTS. schools, &c., &e. — Intervention of the State in matters rela- tive to national education — Central authority in school matters. — Board of Education, its constitution and functions 49 CHAPTER lY. School system of Massachusetts, continued. — Statistical no- tices respecting the popular schools. — School register. — Reports of school committees. — Annual report of the Board of Education. — Contributions of the State towards the pro- motion of public instruction. — School fund. — Grants for the support of normal schools, school libraries, teachers' insti- tutes, &c. — Control exercised as to the proper carrying out of the school laws . . .... 71 CHAPTER V. System of popular schools in the State of New York. — His- torical sketch of the development of this system. — Local administration. — Counties, towns, and school districts. — School rates. — General characteristics of system, and com- parison with that of Massachusetts. — Laws relative to popu- lar schools in Connecticut, Rhode Island, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont. — Territorial divisions in relation to popular schools. — Common funds for schools. — Whence de- rived. — Inequalities relative to the amount of local school- rates and the distribution of the common school fund. — System of free schools. — Important deviation from that of Massachusetts. — Administration of schools. — Differences herein. — Public reports on the state and requirements of the schools. — A few interesting points in the school laws bearing upon details. — Laws relative to popular schools in the other Free States.— Accordance between these laws and those of the other States already mentioned. — Grant of pub- lic lands for the support of schools. — Impediments in the way of public instruction in the western States. — Immigrar tion of popular school teachers . .... 90 CHAPTER VII.* Popular education in the cities. — DilFerences in the organiza- * Chapter VI. was erroneously headed Chapter VII., and the error was con- sequently coritinued throughout the book ; hence, nominally, the volume does not contain a Chapter Vll. CONTENTS. XI PAGE tion. — Boston. — Schools in this city. — High schools, gram- mar schools, primary schools, intermediate schools.— Statis- tical data. — Internal organization of the schools. — Adminis^ tration. — New Tori:. — Public schools in this city. — Historical sketch of these. — Public school societies and opposition of Catholics to these. — Origin of ward schools. — School administration. — Common organization of popular schools. — General contribution to these. — Pre? Academy. — Philadelphia. — School administration. — Summary account of the free-school system in this city. — Statistical data con- cerning the number of scholars and teachers, the amount of salaries, &c Ill CHAPTER Till. General reflections on national education. — Supplementary schools. — Intermediate schools. — Schools for special instruc- tion, &c., &c. — Evening schools. — Statistical data relative to the evening schools in New York. — Administration of these schools. — Eules. — Schools for the coloured population. — Pre- judice against negroes. — Cause of this prejudice. — Difference between country and town. — Laws relative to the " coloured schools." — Coloured teachers in schools for white children. — Petition for the abolition of the " coloured schools " in Boston. — Report of committee on this subject. — Organiza- tion of the coloured schools.— Absence of proper superintend- ence.— Closing remarks. — Schools for Indian children. — Indian reservations in New York. — Schools in that State. — Influence of these schools on morals and manners, &c., of Indians. — Popular education in the Slave States. — Obstacles presented by slavery.- — Differences between town and country 126 CHAPTER IX. Recapitulation. — Local authorities. — Powers with which these are invested. — General characteristics. — Position of the clergy in relation to the school authorities. — Frequent changes of school authorities and consequences hereof.— Means of control.— Influence of the State.— Position of the teachers in relation to the school authorities.— Hindrances to the spread of public education occasioned by the scattered state of the population.— Small school districts- Disadvan- CONTENTS. PAGE of these — A new plan for tlie organization of tlie popular schools. — Abandonment of the Lancasterian method and classification of popular schools. — Irregular attendance at school . . .- . 145 CHAPTER X. Statistical data bearing upon the State subsidies to the popular schools in New Hampshire, Maine, Ehode Island, Massachu- setts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, and other States. — Comparison between these subsidies and other public expenses. — General statistics of popular education. — Average attendance at school of each individual. — Differ- ence between number of pupils registered as scholars and of those actually present in school. — Average amount of actual attendance at school. — Examples borrowed from the States of Massachusetts, New York, &c. — Private schools. — Causes that have led to their establishment and continued existence in the United States. — Separation of classes. — Sectarian spirit. — Prolongation of popular schools. — Different kinds of private schools. — Statistical data relative to the pri- vate schools in some of the States . . 164 CHAPTER XI. Character and position of the teachers in the popular schools of America. — Town and country teachers. — Great youth of the latter and short period of office. — Advantages and disad- vantages of this. — Employment of women as teachers. — Many advantages arising from this. — Salaries of popular teachers. — Competition among female teachers . 179 CHAPTER XII. Education of popular school teachers — Normal schools in the United States. — Short description of the normal schools in West Newton, Albany, and Philadelphia. — Other means available for the education of popular school teachers. — Popular schools. — Reading. — Periodical press. — Influence of the general political system. — Academies for the education of teachers. — The Public School Society's normal school in New York. — Teachers' associations. — Teachers' institutes. — Account of the latter and their advantages . . .193 CONTENTS. XIU CHAPTER XIII. PAGE School-houses. — Importance of a suitable plan of construction and arrangements. — Improvements in this direction. — Warming and ventilation. — Chairs and tables of improved quality. — Arrangement of the school-rooms in conformity with the methods of instruction followed. — School apparatus. — Particular methods of instruction. — School-books. — Dis- cipline. — Less frequent use of corporal punishment. — General character of the system of punishment adopted in the schools. — Peculiar disciplinary system adopted in Harford. — Eewards. — Parental discipline. — Eefractory pupils. — Ex- pulsion. — Annotation books. — Lessons to be learnt at home. 206 CHAPTER XIV. Subjects taught in the popular schools. — Natural sciences.— Geometry and linear drawing. — History. — Political condition of the country. — Principal and essential branches of in- struction. — Geography. — Writing and arithmetic. — The mother tongue. — Importance of this branch of knowledge. — Writing. — Reading and elocution. — Music . . . 220 CHAPTER XV. Religious instruction. — Necessity for its exclusion from the popular schools. — Dissatisfaction of the Catholics with the popular schools. — Religious character of the popular schools. — Sunday schools. — American Sunday-School Union. — Its origin, activity, and organization. — Other Sunday-school Unions. — Advantages connected with the system of impart- ing religious instruction in Sunday schools. — Reflections on the participation of laymen in the occupations of the Sun- day schools. — Influence of the clergy on religious instruction. — Bible classes Observations on the position of the clergy in America. — Conclusion relative to the religious culture of the people. — Religious education of children in their homes 226 CHAPTER XVI. Influence of European emigration on the state of civilization in the Uliited States.— Statistics of popular culture in Ame- rica. — Ignorance. — Its causes. — General reflections on po- pular culture. — Exaggerated value attached to mere reading and .writing. — Means of culture independent of schools. — Comparison between Europe and America .... 243 XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTBE XVII. PAGE Importance of cheap literature for the people.— District school- libraries in America ; statistical and other data relative to these. — Immense circulation of printed works. — The Tract Society and its undertakings. — Great dififusion of books by means of the bookselling trade. — Newspapers. — Character- istics of the American press. — Statistics of political journals. — Popular lectures. — Frequency and advantages of these. — Concluding remarks 248 CHAPTER XVIII. General reflections. — Insufficiency of mere theoretical educa- tion. — Influence of practical life on the mental culture of a nation. — American estimation of popular education in Prus- sia. — Educating influences of public life. — Influence of men's vocation on their mental culture. — Social intercourse as a means of culture. — Political liberty. — Conclusion as to the eifect of self-government on popular culture . . 263 CHAPTEU XIX. Various kinds of supplementary schools. — Orphan schools. — Girard College in Philadelphia. — Its origin and constitution. —Stephen Girard, peculiar provisions in his will. — Magnifi- cence of the college buildings. — Observations on these . 272 CHAPTER XX. European crime in American prisons. — Schools for vicious children. — Specimens of these, and general remarks on their organization. — Prison education. — Miss Dix. — Her active endeavours for the moral regeneration of prisoners. — Prison libraries 280 CHAPTER XXI. Asylum for the deaf and dumb in Hartford, the oldest in the United States. — List of similar asylums. — General remarks on the character and organization of these institutions. — Asylums for the blind in Boston and New York.— Great number of insane persons and idiots in the United States. — Excellent organization of asylums for the insane. — Elegance of apartments and grounds. — Mental training of the insane. —Administration of these and other philanthropic institu- tions mentioned . ..... 286 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER XXII. PAGE Private liberality in fayour of public institutions.— Contribu- tions made by the less wealthy part of the population, and circumstances which render such contributions possible. — Circumstances which force the rich to be generous as regards public institutions. — Example illustratiTe of the co-operation of the State, the local communities, and private individuals as regards contributions in money 293 CHAPTEE XXIII. Observations on the gradation of schools, and the Importance and significance of this system. — Comparison between this and the system adopted in Europe. — High schools in Ame- rica. — Their influence on the schools of lower grade. — Com- mon high schools for boys and girls. — Course of instruction in these. — Notices of instruction in high schools. — Charac- teristic peculiarities therein. — Public high schools for girls. — Reflections .... 299 CHAPTER XXIV. The higher branches of instruction left almost entirely in the hands of private educational institutions. — Academies, col- leges, universities. — Statistical data. — Origin of these in- stitutions. — Plan of subjoined exposition .... 310 CHAPTER XXV. General organization of the university in New York. — Go- verned by a Board of Regents. — Rights and duties of the Board. — Grants made by the State to the academies. — Local management of the various establishments. — Rights and duties of directors. — Statistical data. — Great differences in the studies pursued. — Observations thereon. — Colleges. — Character of the course of instruction, &c., illustrated by the example of Columbia College. — General characteristics of the course of instruction in the colleges .... 315 CHAPTER XXVI. Foundation of the university in Cambridge.— Later donations. General organization. — Colleges.— Divinity school. — Law school. — Medical school.— Scientific school. — Administration of the university. — Discipline.— Charges and salaries . . 339 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTEE XXYII. PAGE Yale College. — Organization of the faculties in the United States. — Theological schools and education of the clergy. — Law and medical schools. — Unsatisfactory methods of in- struction and systems of examination in the latter. — General obsei-vations relative to the education of public functionaries and medical men . . ■ 359 CHAPTER XXYIII. Influence of the higher educational institutions on scientific life in America. — Academical and popular lectures in Europe and America. — Preponderating classical character of educa- tion. — Impediments in the way of the development of sci- entific life. — AVant of scientific collections. — Statistics of American libraries. — Museums of natural history, &;c. — Ob- servatories. — Manufacture of scientific instruments. — Small number of scientific and literary men. — Disadvantages which retard the development of higher intellectual life in Ame- rica. — Prospects as regards the future. — The Smithsonian Institute in Washington. — Learned and scientific institutions in the United States. — General observations on this class of institutions in Europe and in America. — Branches of science particularly favoured in America.— Condition of the fine arts. — Art unions . . . 373 CHAPTER XXIX. Want of technological institutions in the United States. — The military academy at West Point. — Circumstances independent of educational establishments which have an influence on the advancement of technical knowledge. — Observations on in- struction in the practical arts as given in Europe. — Influence of the schools in America with respect to practical culture. — Importance and significance of popular education with re- gard to this object The Franklin Institute . 398 Appendices 413 PEEFACE. No thinking person can behold with indifference the political movements at present taking place in Europe. No one can ask himself, without a feeling of anxiety for the future, whither these movements are tending. No one who has any feeling for the commonweal can refrain from speculating upon the forces which are in action, and from endeavouring, if possible, to contri- bute, at least in some slight measure, to direct them towards an end which promises benefits to humanity. I shall not, I trust, be understood as meaning hereby that a necessity exists for a new theory of social organization; and still. less as having one myself to propound. It is not theories that are required. In- deed, could theories secure the happiness of mankind, there would be nothing left for us to desire. But it has often struck me that the present moment is pecu- liarly suited for taking a survey of the political state of the world, from the simple point of view of expe- rience, and — if there be a country in which there is liberty without licence, progress without revolution, and order without oppression — for making ourselves thoroughly acquainted with all the conditions and circumstances that have secured to that country such extraordinary blessings. 2 PREFACE. That there is indeed a general tendency in this direction, is proved by the existence of strong predi- lections, -which, though less commented upon than many phenomena of minor importance, are, never- theless, highly deserving of notice, and cannot there- fore have escaped the observation of those who are earnestly watching the signs of the times. I shall now proceed to explain the nature of these predilections, and how they are evinced. In our country, as well as in the other continental States of Europe, French civilization has hitherto exercised a powerful and undisputed influence. The French lan- guage and French manners have taken root every- where, and every social and poUtical movement in France has given the signal for similar movements in other States. In a word, as regards general civilization, France has always been the leader among the conti- nental nations of Europe. In the meanwhile, England, notwithstanding her immense weight in the pohtical scales, as regards all questions of external policy, has exercised compara- tively but little influence on the internal development of these nations. Separated by her geographical position from the rest of Europe, her civilization has been regarded as eccentric and peculiar. Enghsh hterature has indeed been much admired; but the number of those who have studied this literature in the original language has hitherto been small. The extraordinary progress of England in material de- velopment has been much spoken of, as also the general piety and morahty of the English people; but comparatively few persons have taken the ti'ouble to PREFACE. 8 examine these matters on the spot. The political institutions, also, of England have heen much lauded; but considerable ignorance has nevertheless been be- trayed as to the true nature and character of these institutions, and they have not unfrequently been represented as being dependent on conditions so pecu- liar, that other countries could learn little or nothing from them. In these respects a great change has taken place of late. Those who remember how unusual it was, about fifteen or twenty years ago, to meet with individuals among our countrymen who were acquainted with the English language and literature, must be astonished to find how common such knowledge is in the present day. Indeed, it is now almost considered an indis- pensable part of a good education, and even of the education of young women, whose mental training was formerly regarded as pretty nearly complete when they had learned to repeat parrot- Hke a few common- place French phrases. It cannot either escape ob- servation, how many more of our countrymen visit England now than formerly, and how all who have thus become acquainted with that country return more or less impressed in favour of English civilization. In a word, it is manifest that sympathy with England is in this country daily increasing, at the expense of the French sympathies which have hitherto prevailed. The same may be said to be the case in the other continental States. Even in France — which, as the leading representative of the continental civilization of Europe, has always stood so sharply opposed to Eng- land—the former hatred of that country is gradually B 2 4 PREFACE. giving way to a more friendly disposition, and English literature and English manners are being more studied and adopted, while, at the same time, it is becoming more and more unusual to hold up English men and manners to ridicule on the stage. The great world- exhibition which took place in London last year has contributed, in a remarkable degree, to strengthen this amicable disposition towards England; and by its peaceful means Enghsh civiliza- tion has effected untold conquests among the conti- nental nations. If we inquire into the origin of this general change of feeling, it may no doubt be asserted with truth, that a growing appreciation of the intrinsic value of the English Uterature, as well as the immense influence exerted by England through means of her industrial enterprise, have greatly contributed to bring it about; yet these circumstances are far from being the only, or even the most important, causes. In the present day, every endeavour to account for sympathies and antipathies between nations must ne- cessarily lead us into the sphere of pohtios; and, in my opinion, if there be anything at the present moment that attracts the feelings and the attention of the European nations towards England, it is a presenti- ment, or an instinct (and the instincts of nations are powerful and clear-sighted), that tells them that it is fi-om the English race that they are to learn the solu- tion of those social problems which have so long puzzled the continental States, and which they have hitherto in vain endeavoured to solve. At first sight it may appear strange, that in the PREFACE. 5 midst of the republican tendencies of the Continent there should be any desire to seek examples for imita- tion in monarchical England; that in the midst of the struggle for the introduction of the principle of individuaUsm into the social organization, a thought should be turned towards a country whose social con- stitution is so strongly impressed with an aristocratic and plutocratic character. If, nevertheless, such be really the case, it must be because the nations have come to the conviction that a republican form of government, and the establish- ment of the principle of individualism, do not in themselves constitute a sufficiently secure foundation for the prosperity and the liberty of a nation. It has been proved in practice, that the monarchical and aristocratic-plutocratic constitution of England offers much surer guarantees for national prosperity and individual liberty than any of the repubUcs which have of late been tried on the Continent. Why this is so will be shown as soon as I have removed my readers to the field on which I have carried on the inquiries, the results of which are given in this work. Having visited England in 1848, I flattered myself that I understood pretty well the nature of the forces which had in that country led to such great political results. But I found, at the same time, that these forces were so hemmed in by antiquated, and some- times conflicting, institutions, that it was often difficult to form a clear judgment of their activity. It struck me at once, that the matters which I am here alluding to might he more thoroughly studied in the United States, where, notwithstanding the differences caused PREFACE. by the republican form of government, the fundamental powers at -work in the social system are the same as in England, but are allowed freer scope to develope themselves, and must, therefore, necessarily manifest themselves more clearly. The desire to visit the United States, to which this conviction gave rise, was supported by a stipend from the public exchequer, and 1 trust that the communications I am about to make may, in some measure, repay the debt which I have thus incurred to the public. It was not my object to study the political insti- tutions of the United States. These are well known, at least so far as regards the fundamental principles, and there is little or nothing to add on the subject. But, on the other side, it has occurred to me that there was much call for inquiry into specific points of American civihzation, and the more so as it is only through the study of details that a clear and distinct conception of the whole can be acquired. The subject to which my inquiries have been par- ticularly directed is the state of general intellectual cultivation in the United States, together with the organization of national instruction in all its branches. I have aimed at ascertaining how all matters relat- ing thereto have been developed under a system of government such as that of America, and what are its effects on the intellectual as well as material culture of the people ; and I have flattered myself that a full investigation of this subject would be the more inte- resting, because, as far as my knowledge goes, neither my own country nor the rest of Europe possesses any further information relative to these points than such PREFACE. 7 detached and cursory notices as may be found in books of travel treating of miscellaneous subjects. While pursuing the interesting task of observing how mental culture is conducted and promoted in a country whose institutions are such as those of Ame- rica, we are, by means of the organization of the agencies at work, enabled to obtain many important glances into the nature of the whole social fabric. I know of no field of observation from which a more perfect conception may be formed of the American system of government than the department of public instruction, or which affords a more comprehensive view of the life of the community; because in this department the observer is less exposed to be misled by political partizanship, or other disturbing causes. In no other department are the effects of local administration, and of the exertions of individuals and of private associations for the promotion of public objects, more clearly. manifested. In a word, in con- nection with no other question can we obtain a clearer insight into the nature of what the English and the Americans call self-government, the essence of which is, in fact, a strong spirit of local association. As regards this spirit, America, is greatly in advance even of England, and all other countries have nearly everything to learn. A nearer view of the present political circumstances of Europe will show that here lies the only road by which the continental nations can escape from revolution as well as from despotism; and, if I be not greatly mistaken, it is an indistinct feehng of this fact which, more than anything else, at this moment draws them closer to the Anglo-Saxon 8 PREFACE. race — the only one which has as yet developed, in any prominent degree, the idea of self-government. Self-government — the only social organization -which offers trustworthy guarantees for liberty ; which, where it exists, can secure freedom even in a monarchical State, and without which freedom will never prove any- thing but a chimera even in a republic ; which is so little known on the continent of Europe, but under the protection of which England and America have enjoyed tranquillity and security in the midst of the political storms that have so violently shaken this quarter of the world : this is the goal towards which political movements must be made to tend, if we are ever to hope for lasting tranquillity and true liberty. It is curious to contemplate the development of political Ufe in Europe from the point of view I have here selected. We see how the governments, animated by a spirit of centralization, sometimes well meaning, but always despotic, have endeavoured to destroy local liberties wherever they existed, in order to interfere directly or indirectly in even the most minute affairs of the community; while, for the same reason, or from some absurd and groundless fear, they have opposed the right of association with all their energies, and would, had they been able, have destroyed even its very spirit. De Tocqueville observes, that govern- ment in France has, in modern times, become much more centralized than it was even under Louis XIV.; and in other countries as well, the despotic spirit of the governments has, under the less offensive name of oentrahzation, encroached more and more on the liberties of the people. PREFACE. 9 For a time, the instinct of self-preservation in the privileged classes formed a strong bulwark against the increasing lust for power in governments. Inimical as these privileges were to popular liberty, they, never- theless, frequently served to protect the people against the encroachments of despotism. Based upon an unnatural foundation, class prerogatives, however, gra- dually declined in power and influence, until they were completely undermined, and partially destroyed, by the principle which has played the most prominent part in the political movements of modem times, viz., the principle of the rights of the individual. What have been the consequences of this change? Admirably and beneficially as the principle of in- dividualism has operated, in as far as it has been raised in opposition to the power of corporations, it has, nevertheless, hitherto been so far from afford- ing any guarantees against despotism, that it has, on the contrary, rather laboured in the service of the latter. Mxmicipal and local hberties have in no way been increased by its action, while, on the contrary, the principle of association has under its influence assumed the chimerical forms of Sociahsm and Com- munism. Thus, the final effect of the principle of individualism has merely been to place the individual in face of despotism, powerless, isolated, and shorn of all support from class, corporation, or commune. What would be the results where such a state of things existed it was easy to foresee,, and the experi- ence of our day proves it but too clearly; for it is through these means alone that despotism has been enabled to celebrate its supreme triumph, by letting B 3 10 PREFACE. centralization assume its ideal form, in that military dictatorship whose iron sceptre presses heavily upon Europe, and from which, as circumstances now stand, there seems to he no means of rescue save through violent revolutions. Will these revolutions again re- sult in an increase of despotism ? and will Europe constantly be kept balancing between these two ex- tremes ? My conviction is, that there is but one means by which to escape from this unfortunate position, viz., national self-government, such as it is understood in England and America. Nothing but a gradual exten- sion of well-established local liberties, and a gradual development of a sound system of association, can restore the lost equilibrium of the European commu- nities. To those who view the matter in this light, nothing can be of more pressing importance than to study in all their details the character and workings of self- government in those countries where it is already es- tablished, and more especially in America ; and from this point of view every investigation of details ac- quires a general interest. One thing in particular relating to this subject I must point out. It is the generally-received opinion of Europe, that whatever evils may otherwise result from a system of centralization, it possesses at least one decided advantage, in as far as it gives greater strength and uniformity to the administration. Now, altliough in theory this opinion may have appearances in its favour, the evidence of experience proves it to be utterly untenable. No one can maintain with truth PREFACE. 11 that the administration in England, or in the United States, is in any way more feeble than that of the strongest centralized countries in Europe. Centrali- zation, it is true, leads to greater outward uniformity, at least, apparently, but under this is but tow often concealed much real weakness ; whereas, in a country where local government prevails, there are many causes which not only tend considerably to strengthen the general administration, but which also contribute to produce greater uniformity in practice than would at first sight be supposed possible. This is, however, a point on which certainty is of importance, and this cannot be attained by general arguments, but solely by an investigation of facts in connexion with both systems of government. For this reason it is desirable that inquiries should be made into the workings and organization of various public matters, such as the internal means of inter- communication, the poor laws, public instruction, &c., under both systems, in order to ascertain in which case the greatest amount of efficiency and strength is manifested *. I hope that the present work will serve to throw some light upon this important question, as far as regards the various details of which it treats; and that it will also make the reader acquainted with other points relative to the decentralised system of govem- * For one purpose, indeed, centralization affords the strongest means, and that is for the perpetration of cowps d'etat. Such cannot take place in countries where self-government has taken root. 12 PREFACE. ment in America, whicli are higbly -worthy of notice, and which I will touch upon in a few words. One of the most interesting circumstances connected with the latest development of the national life of America is, indeed, the introduction of increased cen- traUzation, but in such a form, that without encroach- ing in any way on the people's right and practice of self-government, it serves to introduce greater uni- formity in the administration, while on the one side it stimulates, and on the other it controls the action of the local bodies. How this is done will be shown in the sequel. At present I will only add, that the introduction even of the mere shadow of centraliza- tion, to which I have alluded, was not attempted before the system of self-government had attained to a stability and firmness which rendered it evident that there was nothing to fear from such an innovation. In no instance have the eifects of this measure been more clearly manifested than in the organization of the system of popular instruction, which thereby ac- quires a new interest, independently of a great many regulations relative to details which are worthy of being inquired into, and, in many instances, of being imitated. The first volume of the present work will be exclusively devoted to this subject. In the second volume I will endeavour to give an account of the material development of the United States in some particular directions. Each volume will form a sepa- rate whole. As regards my exposition of all these matters, I have endeavoured to appear simply in the character of a PREFACE. 13 narrator, feeling persuaded that I should thus hest meet the wishes of my readers. I have therefore intruded hut few arguments of my own; and, when I have done so, it has merely been for the purpose of oalUng attention more particularly to points which I deem important. I trust, however, that my reflections have always been introduced in the narrative in a manner that will at once enable the reader to dis- tinguish between the facts as they exist, and my indi- vidual mode of viewing them. As regards local investigations, my activity has, in a great measure, been limited to some few of the eastern States; but, as regards many of the other States, I have enjoyed opportunities of collating the records of a great number of official proceedings, and other authentic sources of information. If, neverthe- less, I venture to describe not only the state of things in individual States of the American Union, but the state of things in the whole Union, it is because of the indisputable truth contained in the words of the eminent Enghsh author which I have selected as a motto for this work. The first section of the present volunje treats of the organization of the popular schools, and the general education of the people; the second, of charity schools (in a very summary manner) ; the third, of the higher branches of education, and the especial means pro- vided for obtaining a learned and practical education. THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTEE I. INTRODUCTION. Three great and important principles have been brought to bear upon the system of national education 'in the United States, and are daily more and more recognised, viz., 1, the duty of the State to watch over, and in a pecuniary sense to support, the education of the people; 2, the duty of the puhhc, i. e., of the State and of the local communities, to prepare means of gratuitous instruction for all ; 3, the necessity of com- mon schools for all classes of the community and for all reUgious sects. In my exposition of the system of national schools in America, I will endeavour to show how far these principles have been successfully carried out, and what means have been employed for the purpose*. Even to this day they have many * By/re« schools are meant in America such in which no fees are paid. Piiilic schools is the name given to all schools which are supported by the public, and which are therefore under public control. The specific name for the national schools, as 16 INTRODUCTION. opponents. Some persons, in conformity with their general principles of policy, think that education is a matter -which Ues entirely heyond the limits of legiti- mate State interference; that the latter ought to be restricted to matters relating to the civil institutions of the commonwealth, but ought not to be extended to spiritual matters, such as religion and education; that in so enlightened a community as the United States, the importance and value of education must be sufficiently recognised by the people to render all interference of the State superfluous; that one ought, therefore, to avoid bestowing unnecessarily on the State a degree of in- fluence which is inconsistent with the spirit of the American constitution, and to leave with confidence all matters relating to education, to the care of individuals and of the local bodies. Others look upon it as a great injustice to tax citizens (whether it be by local rates or by general taxation) who may themselves be childless, for the purpose of providing means of edu- cation for the children of others; or, if they have children, for the support of schools which they may not perhaps approve; in which case they would, of course, in as far as their means allow of it, place their children in some private seminary, and would tlius have to pay for two schools, or in a manner be obhged to pay a double school tax. Finally, as regards, the third point, it is freq^uently argued — regards their rank as educational institutions, is, however, common schools. It is therefore more usual to say, " such a person has had a good common school education," than to say that "he has had a good ptMic school education," although both terms are used. INTRODUCTION. 17 sometimes ■with true religious zeal, sometimes with sectarian bigotry — that if the national schools are to be in common for all sects, and in consequence no direct religious instruction can be imparted, religion in general -will be exposed to the greatest danger, and that therefore each sect ought to endeavour, as far as in it lies, to promote popular instruction within its own limits, either with or without public support. On this side are likewise ranged stupid selfishness and short- sighted ignorance, which, though unable to appre- ciate the advantages of general education, either as relates to material or to spiritual matters, or the evils and even expenses entailed by negligence on this point, are, nevertheless, quite capable of energetic resistance to any plan which threatens immediate expense, if it do not at the same time secure immediate personal benefits. On the other side it is urged, that, although the experience of America and England has shown that piety and religious worship do not require to be fos- tered and protected by the State, circumstances in the latter country have clearly proved that the same is not the case with national education ; that the only foun- dation on which a democratic constitution can rest with security is the moral and intellectual culture of the citizens, and that it must therefore be the first duty of the State to endeavour, by zealous attention to popular education, to fulfil the fundamental conditions of its own existence, and that this may be done with- out any undue centralization of power, and without in any way infringing on the principle on which the sys- tem of government in America is based. Further, that ] 8 INTEODUCTION. as the State has a recognised right to punish criminals, it must be supposed to have a still greater right to promote popular instruction, the best and most power- ful means of preventing crime*; and finally, that, although the right of property and the right of inhe- ritance are recognised, these must not be understood as comprising a monopoly of the very means which en- able a man to earn an honest livelihood, and teach him prudently to secure and invest his property, viz., know- ledge ; that all men have the same natural right to mental enlightenment as they have to enjoy the fresh air and the light of the sun, while, on the other hand, every man is bound to purchase his right to what he himself possesses at the price of such sacrifices as are justly imposed upon him, for the promotion of general enlightenment ; that if the matter be only looked at from the selfish point of view, there can be no doubt that it is better to be taxed for the benefit of a school, than for the benefit of a workhouse or of a prison; for whatever be saved on the former, will most assuredly, and by a necessary sequence, have to be expended on the latter ; that as regards those persons who put their children to private schools, they are so much the less entitled to public consideration in this matter, as their doing so must be regarded as very prejudicial to that mixing of all classes which is so highly desirable in a * In England, as is well known, the question of the right of the State to interfere in matters of education has been much discussed. Mr. Macaulay, if I am not mistaken, makes some- where the following observation on the subject : " He who has the right to hang people, must certainly also have the right to educate them." INTRODUCTION. 19 democratic community, and which is so much pro- moted by attendance at a common school. Lastly, as regards the sectarian objections, it is observed, that, although it is true that in schools frequented in com- mon by pupils belonging to various rehgious sects, instruction cannot be given in dogmatical religion, yet this does not preclude the inculcation and upholding of a truly moral and religious spirit ; that there are many means besides the school for acquiring religious knowledge, and that these means have suf&ced during two hundred years to maintain in America a higher degree of general religious culture than exists in any other country; whereas sectarian schools would only lead to such dissensions and intolerance as might eventually prove highly dangerous to civil Hberty, as well as to liberty of conscience, and to true Christian piety. The latter opinions are at present held by the most distinguished schoolmen and thinkers of America, and, I have reason to believe, by a great majority of the people in the Free States, where a system of popular education partially based upon these principles is al- ready estabhshed ; and although much still remains to be done as regards the complete practical realization of the system, there is nevertheless reason to rejoice at the progress which has been made in this respect, par- ticularly of late years, as will be shown in the sequel. In the meantime the subjoined statement may serve to throw some light on the tenor of public opinion rela- tive to this question, while at the same time it presents an interesting example of the mode of proceeding in America in legislative matters. 20 INTRODUCTION. In the State of New York, where a system of popu- lar education, otherwise in accordance with the princi- ples mentioned above, is established, the pupils of the schools were, however, obliged to pay certain fees in addition to the pubhc subsidy. In the year 1849 the Legislature passed a bill for the total aboUtion of these fees, and the establishment of a perfect free-school system ; but it was nevertheless considered advisable to take the opinion of the people on the question. It was in consequence submitted to the electors at the general election in the same year, and the result was that the bill was supported by 249,872 votes against 9], 951*. In the ensuing year the bill was, however, rescinded by the Legislature then sitting, in consequence of several complaints having been made against the in- conveniences with which its practical workings were attended, and it was a second time submitted to the decision of the people. On this occasion, also, the plurality of votes was in favour of the free-school system, although, owing to the exertions of the oppo- sition, the majority was not so large as on the former occasion ; yet, to the great dissatisfaction of the friends of education, and in defiance of the opinions of the people, expressed by the majority, the Legislature has, in the present year, again pronounced the condem- nation of the bill of 1849. It can hardly be doubted, however, that a law embodying the former resolution will soon be passed. * As the parties were pretty nearly balanced on all purely political questions, it seems that the political opinions of the voters exercised no influence on their judgment of this ques- tion ; and I have been repeatedly assured that such is the case in general as regards all questions of popular education. INTRODUCTION. 21 It has frequently been maintained elsewhere, that it was necessary that some payment to the school should be made by the parents or guardians of the pupils, in order to give them a greater interest in it; but in America this opinion, as may be judged from what has been stated, has been generally abandoned. It is in- deed, for the reasons just mentioned, considered highly desirable that the citizens should contribute to the support of the schools, not in the form of fees, but in that of a school tax. If selfish motives be sought as a basis for the interest in the school, it may certainly also be urged in favour of the latter expedient, that it would secure a much greater number of contributors than the former, as even those who have not children would be taxed. It cannot be denied that the pay- ment of fees to the schoolmaster in proportion to the time during which the child attends the school, must greatly promote a regular attendance ; that is to say, as far as regards such parents as have the means and the desire to make sacrifices for the education of i;heir children ; but, on the other side, it may be said with equal truth, that to parents who are in a different position, or who think differently, the necessity of paying for the schooling of their children would be a reason for not sending them to school. It is true that, in all those localities in America where it was or still is customary to pay fees, measures have always been taken to secure gratuitous instruction to the children of the poor, but the prevalent opinion now is, that in this matter there ought to be no difference between the children of the rich and of the poor, and that the pos- sibihty should be avoided of poor parents keeping their 22 INTEODUCTION. children from school, from motives of false delicacy, which might render it painful to them to ask for ex- emption from payment of the fees, a step which might by some be considered tantamount to asking alms, and to inscribing their names on the list of paupers. Before I proceed further, I ought to call attention to an essential difference which is exhibited in the de- velopment of the educational systems in Europe and America. In our quarter of the globe, the ruUng powers early learnt to understand the necessity for founding institutions for the promotion of science and literature. For centuries we have been in the enjoy- ment of excellent universities, which have been gra- dually developed in accordance with the requirements of the times, and we also possess other institutions connected with the higher branches of education, many of which greatly surpass everything of the kind in America. Now, although it is the higher classes that have chiefly been benefited by these institutions, it has nevertheless, in many instances, been considered right that the whole community should he taxed for the main- tenance of the latter, because by their means only the servants of the State can acquire the training necessary for the exercise of their duties. The education of the people, on the contrary, was in most countries left to the enterprise of individuals or to the zeal of the clergy, and was therefore but too often entirely neglected, or restricted to a very imperfect knowledge of the Christian doctrines; until of late years, when the exertions of philanthropists have succeeded in calling more atten- tion to this important subject. In America, on the contrary, popular education has from the begiiming INTRODUCTION. 23 been based upon the idea of citizenship, not of philan- thropy. There the gift of education to the people has not been considered merely as an act of charity to the poor, hut as a privilege which every citizen, as such, had a right to claim, and a duty which, by virtue of the social contract, every citizen binds himself to fulfil ; and for the purpose of bestowing such education (that is to say, the minimum of knowledge which every citizen ought to possess), the State is entitled to tax the community ; whereas, the liigher branches of edu- cation, which only a small number of the people have the means of acquiring, have been looked upon as mat- ters concerning only those individuals who are anxious to avail themselves thereof, and have in consequence been left to private enterprise; the general force of circumstances, and the encouragement held out by the emoluments bestowed by the State on its servants, being regarded as sufficient inducements, to those who aspire to enter the public service, to acquire the neces- sary knowledge. The immediate consequences hereof are, that while in America we find most excellent popular schools, maintained at the expense of the State, there are but few institutions connected with the higher branches of education which do not owe their origin and maintenance solely to the exertions of individuals or private associations. What have been the effects of this system on the mental culture of the public servants in America, as well as on the develop- ment of literature, art, science, and industry, I will endeavour to show in the second part of this work. CHAPTEE II. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS IN AMERICA The first colonists in New England were particularly anxious to secure a good education to the growing generation. As soon as they had taken the first most necessary measures for ensuring the material well-being of the community, popular instruction became one of the chief objects of their sohcitude. The laws passed by them relative to this subject are very remarkable, particularly if the period when they were introduced be taken into consideration. The first emigrants to America, the so-called pilgrim- fathers, landed there in 1620, and estabhshed themselves near Plymouth, in the present State of Massachusetts. Boston, the capital of this State, was founded in 1630; and the most ancient entry on the records of the town is dated in the autumn of 1634. Under date 1635 is found the following minute : — "It was likewise unanimously resolved that our brother Philemon Purmont should be appointed school- master for the instruction and education of our chil- dren." At the same time thirty acres of land were granted for the support of the schoolmaster. Such was the humble beginning of the system of popular DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 25 education in Massachusetts, -whicli has since then attained to so high a degree of excellence. In the year 1642 the general court {i.e. the House of Eepresentatives of that day) resolved to enjoin the local authorities to "keep a watchful eye on their brothers and neighbours, and above all things to see that there be no family in v^hich so barbarous a state of things exist, as that the head thereof do not en- deavour either by his own exertions, or by the help of others, to impart sufficient instruction to his children and to his servants to enable them to read fluently the English language, and to acquire a knowledge of the penal laws, under a penalty of twenty shilUngs for such neglect." The same law determined that rehgious instruction should be afforded to all children, and enjoined all parents and heads of families " to bring up their chil- dren and apprentices to some honest and lawful occu- pation, whether it be the tilling of the soil or some other trade, for their own good and for that of the com- munity, in case they could not or would not give them an education that would fit them for some higher calling." The local authorities were at the same time autho- rized to remove the children or servants of such parents or masters, who, after having been warned on the sub- ject, persevered in neglecting this duty, and to place the former under the guardianship of other heads of famihes, whom they might " deem worthy of taking the place of such unworthy parents " — boys until the age of twenty-one, girls until the age of eighteen. In 1647, when education had thus been rendered c 26 DEVELOPMENT OF compulsory, the foundation was laid of that system of gratuitous instruction which exists to this day in Mas- sachusetts in all its essential features, though of course it has undergone some modifications. The law relating to this subject determines, "that every town* com- prising fifty famiUes shall be hound to support a teacher, who shall instruct the pupils frequenting the school in reading and writing; and that every town comprising one hundred and fifty families, shall in like manner support a grammar school, the teachers of which shall be competent to prepare youth for enter- ing the university." t Every infringement of these regulations was punished with fines, which varied in amount according to the wealth and population of the town, and which were apphed for the benefit of the school. In Connecticut, the oldest of the New England States after Massachusetts, a law relative to the publiO' schools was passed in 1650, which in its essential features was similar to the one just mentioned. The immense importance which was attached to education in these States, may be judged from the remarkable passage in their penal code, which determines, " that if any individual above the age of sixteen, and naturally of sound mind, swears at or strikes his or her father or mother, he or she shall be punished with death, excejit in cases where it can be fully proved that the parents have utterly neglected the education of the child." Indeed, what tales of neglected education might not * For the meaning of the word town, as it is used in Ame- rica, see next Chapter. t Harvard College was founded in 1636. NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 27 the scaffold and the prisons tell — or, in the greater number of cases, of what else do they tell ! In Maine (which until the year 1820 formed part of Massachusetts, and has only since that period been an independent State), in Vermont, in New Hampshire (which was likewise, during the colonial period, for a time united with Massachusetts), and in Rhode Island, all of which States form together what is called New England, the fundamental principles of Massachusetts on the most important points have been adopted, al- though the laws of the above-mentioned States bearing on popular education are of much later date. The sum and substance of this system was to make popular education a matter of local administration as regards the support and the superintendence of the schools. Attendance at school was made compulsory. The religious instruction imparted, as well as the whola organization generally, bore a Protestant character] but the schools were opened to all religious denomina- tions *. Under the influence of the excellent though rigid principles of religion, morality, order, and industry which prevailed throughout the community, the system proved most active and beneficial; and it was an almost unheard-of thing in New England to meet with an adult, possessed of a sound mind, who could not read and write. * Formerly the religious question presented no great diffi- culties, partly because the number of sects was not so great as at present (particularly in one and the same community), partly because, before Irish immigration attained its present extraordinary development, the number of Catholics, especially in the north, was very small. C 2 28 DEVELOPMENT OF Sucli was the state of things during the whole of the colonial period and also subsequently. At the begin- ning of the present century, however, as far as I have been able to ascertain, the state of national education seems to have suffered a decline, which was real in as far as a greater amount of rudeness and ignorance was manifested, and apparent, in as far as the schools remained stationary without adopting any of those improvements which time had introduced into the methods of instruction. The causes of this state of things are not difficult to trace. The war of independence and the subsequent war with England proved, like all wars, bad alhes of moral and intellectual culture. The higher as well as the lower branches of education suffered a long time from their consequences ; for not only were the schools during the wars reduced by the withdrawal of pupils and of the material means of support, but even after the conclusion of peace they suffered greatly in consequence of the necessity felt by individuals as well as the State to turn their attention exclusively to the restoration of their finances. The extraordinary progress in material civilization which took place in America subsequent to the last war with England, no doubt also contributed to the depression of the schools ; for even independently of the general tendency to be absorbed by material in- terests, which were thus developed, great temptations were presented to all skilful and industrious persons by the existing facilities for attaining not only inde- pendence, but even riches, by means of industry and commerce; and a love of adventure was created by NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 29 the great spirit of enterprise which prevailed, and par- ticularly the immense work of colonization going on in the west; and all these causes united must of course have rendered it difficult to find ahle persons to under- take the monotonous task of imparting knowledge, which in America, as well as elsewhere, is probahly but little remunerative. After the introduction of the new form of govern- ment, it was, on the other side, quite natural, that at least for a time — until the ferment of the new pohtical life had in a measure subsided — political questions should have chiefly occupied pubUc attention ; and it ought not to create astonishment, if, while trying on for the first time the republican costume, the people should have forgotten that the schoolmaster is the only tailor who is able to make a garment of that kind strong enough to bear wear and tear. I am, however, bound to admit that legislative measures of that period, and various allusions to the subject made in public, testify that zeal for popular education was not entirely extinct* ; although at the time they did not lead to any revival of activity within the sphere of national education. To what I have already said must be added another operating cause, namely, the conservative spirit which distinguishes the Anglo-Saxon race, and which, though otherwise very difierent from the continental conserva- tism of Europe, has nevertheless this, in common with the latter, that it nourishes a blind and unconditional * At this period, for instance, New York, the most populous State in the Union, obtained its first school law; and Congress allotted large tracts of land for the support of the schools in the west. 30 DEVELOPMENT OF reverence for everything that dates from olden times. We cannot but honour the veneration in which the New Englanders hold the memory of the pilgrim- fathers and of the early colonists in general, for few men have heen more deserving of the respect and affection of their descendants ; yet in this case as in others, we must he allowed to express censure when the veneration araounts almost to a trangression of the first commandment; and in the eyes of a true New Englander the founders of the colony are very often as infallible as the Pope in the eyes of an orthodox Catholic. According to his ideas, what they have done, be it right or wrong, cannot be improved. As regards public instruction, we may indeed excuse the founders of American society, if, in spite of theii- zeal, they failed to base their schools on better .prin- ciples than such as were generally received at the period, and were in accordance with the customs and manners of the times ; and it is not they who are to blame if, in consequence, it became a hereditary cus- tom to make use of miserable hovels, devoid of all the necessary machinery and arrangements, as school- houses ; to employ teachers wanting in every qualifica- tion but that of being able to hear the children their lessons ; and to establish the rod as the ultimate regu- lator in matters of discipline. That all these evils really existed, although they may not have constituted the general rule, has been proved by the investigations of modem times; and their presence in a country which in all other respects had made such rapid pro- gress, can only be attributed to the conservative spirit described above. NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 31 Two more circumstances remain to be mentioned, which have exercised an influence on the state of popular education in America during the present century. The first of these is the development of considerable manufacturing industry in some parts of the country, which, by furnishing remunerative employ- ment for children and young persons, drew them away from their proper field of labour — the schoolroom. This evil was, however, limited to certain localities, and was easily remedied by the legislative measures which were taken as soon as its existence became manifest. The second circumstance to which I have alluded, was, on the contrary, of a much more serious character, for although, on the one hand, it greatly contributed to the material development of the United States, on the other it not only acted as a check upon intellectual and moral progress, but caused a real degeneracy in this respect, and prepared a fearful trial for American civilization and American society. This trial America has passed through, as probably no other country could have passed through it ; and at present there is every reason to hope that the danger is surmounted. I am alluding to the European emigration to America, which has increased in so extraordinary a degree during the present century*. Tho first emigrants to New England, and their im- mediate successors, were led to this change of residence principally by religious persecutions in the mother country, and they were, as already observed, distin- guished by a spirit of true and enlightened Christian * In a table appended to this volume, the reader will find some notices relative to European immigration into America. 32 DEVELOPMENT OF piety and morality ; and this spirit, which continues to animate their descendants even to the present day, has contrihuted more than any direct legislative mea- sures to support the cause of enlightenment in Ame- rica. The European emigration of our times, however, presents a very different character. In by far the greater number of cases the present emigrants to Ame- rica are driven from their homes by material destitu- tion, which is but too often coupled with an equal degree of spiritual destitution; and thus ignorance, rudeness, immorality, and irreligion are introduced into America hand in hand with poverty. This is more particularly the case with the greater number of Irish who have during the present century poured into the United States; and to these evils must be added the difficulties which arise from the fact of the majority of the Irish being Catholics. On arriving in America these emigrants (I am here only alluding to those among them to whom the above observations are applicable), if they have energy enough left to seek for it, easily find employment which secures to them what is competence and even plenty when compared to what they were accustomed to at home ; but instead of availing themselves of this good fortune to improve their condition, it is too frequently only used as a means of satisfying their propensity to drunkenness and other vices. They do, indeed, soon learn to know their rights as citizens of a free State ; but this knowledge only engenders licence; and though they do not fail, as soon as the law admits of it, to make their numerical influence felt in the general elec- NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 33 tions, if it be only as the tools of some popular leader, they do not so soon learn to understand the duties of a republican as these are understood by the native Americans. Although the school is before their eyes, opening wide its doors and inviting all to enter, they cannot make up their minds to send their children to it, partly because they have never learnt to appreciate knowledge and cultivation, and partly because they are prevented by their ultra-CathoUc priests from avaihng themselves of educational institutions, which, though they carefully avoid every appearance of sectarianism, nevertheless owe their origin to Protestantism, and will therefore always by Oathohcs be suspected of heresy. The result is, that the cities are filled with crowds of young vagrants, who from their infancy imbibe such culture as may be obtained in the pubHc streets, and thus become addicted to all kinds of vices*. In consequence of this state of things it will probably * According to the report of the head of the police in the city of New York for the year 1849, there were in eleven of the eighteen wards of the city, 2955 vagranta of the ages from 8 to 16 years, two-thirds of whom were girls. Among these were 1600 or 1700 who, although their parents were other- wise respectable, were allowed, particularly in the evening and on the Sundays, to stroll about the streets and alleys and give themselves up to vicious pursuits. The rest generally con- gregated about the quays, railway stations, &c., and lived partly by stealing, partly by prostitution. Independently of these there were 2383 children, who, though having attained the age required, did not go to school. New York has about 600,000 inhabitants, half of whom are Europeans, mostly Irish and Germans. The former constitute about one-third of tne whole population. C 3 34 DEVELOPMENT OF 11 soon become necessary to introduce a law of compul- |lsory education, or to put such law into force wherever it ah-eady exists, although formerly there was never any call for such proceeding, and up to the present day the most admirable and persevering efforts have been jnade by persuasion and moral influences, to render it superfluous. I have heard many persons, who are thoroughly conversant with all matters relating to this subject, express opinions relative to the pro- bable future necessity for such a measure, however distasteful it ma,y be to the national feeUng. Such are the obstacles with which national education in America has had to struggle during the present century; and the consequences of these various cir- cumstances has been, that notwithstanding the exist- ence of a very old system of national schools, not- withstanding the general enlightenment which has always distinguished the flower of the nation, notwith- standing that the right of each citizen to education has .ever been a popular maxim, there was nevertheless found within the limits of the United States an amount of ignorance which could hardly have been conceived if it had not been demonstrated, and which when known caused great surprise and consternation. No sooner was the discovery made, however, than the alarm was sounded through the camp. All thinking citizens began to reflect on the great dangers to which the community would be exposed, should such a state of things be allowed to continue, and should the igno- rance which existed among the mass of foreigners be suffered to spread. NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 35 In my opinion the presidency of General Jackson contributed in no small degree to augment these fears in the minds of many. This remarkable statesman raised the power of the democratic party to its greatest height, and assumed to himself, as its leader, almost dictatorial power ; and his administration caused such agitation in the political life of America, that the eifects could not but he felt in various directions, and give rise to many serious reflections on the stability of the fundamental basis of the community. The per- nicious system of conferring all offices under the cen- tral government as rewards for political services, which was originated by General Jackson, and has since been upheld, and the consequence of which was that the public elections became an arena for the struggles of contemptible demagogues who lived by the " spoils," * rendered the promotion of education among the electors more than ever necessaiy, as a means of counteracting its evil influences t- Be this as it may, it is in fact from this period we may date the revival of that interest in all that con- cerns the national schools, which is now manifested throughout the Union, and it must be looked upon as * This appellation is giTen in America to such offices as come under the category named in the text. + The importance and necessity of general popular enlight- enment under a democratic form of government is self-evident. Among the 206 members that constituted the House of Repre- sentatives in Connecticut in 1826, there were, according to the official report, 180 who had principally or exclusively received their education in the national schools. Under such circum- stances it becomes highly important that these schools should not be neglected. 86 DEVELOPMENT OF the commencement of a new era in the history of popular education in America*. One of the first manifestations of this revival was the foundation of "The American Institute of Instruc- tion," a society consisting of teachers and other per- sons t interested in education, whose yearly meetings and published transactions (chieily of a philosophico- educational character) have greatly contributed to the spread of knowledge on all matters relating to the subject of education. Other societies, having the same object in view, but in most instances having a more limited sphere of activity J — they being instituted for separate States, districts, or towns — have contributed in no less a degree to forward the good cause, and the efforts of all have been energetically supported by a number of journals devoted to subjects bearing upon national education, and some of which are conducted with great talent §. Many distinguished persons have * The presidency of General Jackson lasted from 1829 to 1835. t Among the names of the founders of the society are those of the most distinguished teachers of America, such as G. B. Emerson, Potter, Davis, &c. J Among the societies of later date and wider sphere of action, I ought to mention the " Board of National Popular Education " in Ohio, of whose activity I shall have to speak in the sequel, and the " National Convention of the Friends of Public Education," which was founded in the year 1849, the object of which is to collect information from all the States concerning the popular schools and popular education, and to consult on the best means for introducing new improvements. § Of the number I will mention the following : " The Com- mon School Journal " (Massachusetts), edited by Horace Mann ; " The Connecticut Common School Journal," edited by Henry NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 87 also visited Europe ■with a view to making themselves acquainted with the modes of instruction in this quar- ter of the globe ; and among those who deserve more particularly to be mentioned, are Henry Barnard and! Horace Mann, who both travelled at their own ex-/ pense; Professor Stowe, who was deputed by the legis- J lature of the State of Ohio ; and Al. D. Bache (at present chief of the topographical engineers, then Pro- fessor of Physics iu the University of Philadelphia), who was entrusted with a mission from " Girard College," of which he was the director. Many of the improvements in the modern system of national schools in America have been borrowed from Europe, not- withstanding the many objections raised against every attempt to imitate modes of education adopted in monarchical states, and more particularly in autocratic Prussia; which, in the opinion of many persons, could not but be fraught with danger to liberty *. These efforts have resulted in many and most tho- rough-going reforms in the system of national education. Barnard ; " Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruc- tion," edited hy Henry Barnard ; " The District School Journal for the State of New York " (published at the expense of the State) ; " American Annals of Education and Instruction " (published in Boston by several persons) ; " The Ohio Common School Journal " (published under the auspices of the State), &c. Some of these journals have ceased to appear. School journals, of inferior value and of short duration, have been started in incredible numbers. * Many European conservatives will, no doubt, raise similar objections to such points in the American system as might be deemed worthy of imitation. Men are, in many cases, very much alike in all parts of the world. 38 DEVELOPMENT OF During the period to which I have been alluding, that is to say, during the last twenty years, a regular and active system of state control and supervision, as re- gards the national schools, has thus been estabhshed in all the States*. Means have been provided for the education of the teachers by the introduction of normal schools, and other measures. Better methods of teach- ing have been made known and adopted ; new school- houses on improved plans have been built, the neces- sary apparatus for instruction has been provided, &c., &o. In a word, there is not a branch of the system of popular instruction which has not been greatly im- proved. I have narrowly examined all the minutes relative to this great work of reformation, and I have thus come to a conclusion which I cannot refrain from laying before the reader. At first I beheld with surprise as well as pain the dark picture which was in many places unfolded before me; for even after deduction of all that might be exaggerated in the colouring (it is usual among the Americans mercilessly to expose abuses in all their nakedness), there still remained enough to call forth both these feehngs. But tlie more I pene- trated into the subject, and saw how the reform gradually developed itself, the clearer became the horizon, and I beheld what I Httle expected when I commenced the investigation. Before proceeding fur- ther, I will, however, by means of an example, en- deavour to give the reader a distinct conception of the work of reformation to which I have alluded. In Ehode Island, the smallest of the States of the * In New York a commencement had been made previously. NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 39 Union, -with a population of no more than between 100,000 and 200,000 souls, Mr. Henry Barnard, who had previously filled the office of superintendent of the popular schools in the neighbouring State of Connec- ticut, and who had distinguished himself by his zeal for the promotion of everything connected with edu- cation — was appointed to conduct the work of reform, in the capacity of commissioner of common schools. I subjoin a few short extracts from the official report made by him to the Legislature of Ehode Island, after the completion of the task allotted to him. Mr. Barnard's first endeavours were directed towards obtaining the necessary information relative to the actual state of the schools. For this purpose he says, — 1st, he twice visited every town in the State, and some even oftener, and on these occasions inspected 200 schools situated in different parts of the State, con- versed with upwards of 400 teachers on their methods of instruction, &c., examined pupils in and out of the schools, conferred personally with the school com- mittees in every town, and also with various other persons interested in education ; 2ndly, he issued more than 1000 circulars to teachers and school committees, containing questions of a most minute character, and put- so as necessarily to suggest whatever improve- ments might be required ; 3rdly, he convened public meetings in every town that he visited, in order to allow opportunities for all to express their opinions in open conference. In addition to these preliminary investigations, Mr. Barnard, according to his own report, continued his proceedings on the subject of school reform in the fol- 40 DEVELOPMENT OF lowing manner : firstly, he himself delivered, or caused to be delivered by others, more than 500 public lec- tures on subjects relating to the organization of the schools; secondly, independently of numerous verbal communications, he wrote 1000 letters in answer to inquiries addressed to him ; thirdly, he promoted the circulation of periodical publications relative to edu- cational questions (of one such publication, for in- stance, 10,000 copies were circulated, with two alma- nacks, &c.), and he was prepared, should it prove feasible, to establish an educational periodical at the expense of the State ; fourthly, he made arrangements for the establishment of educational libraries in each town, intended to contain standard works of reference for teachers, school committees, &c. — one library of tlus kind containing thirty volumes and as many trea- tises, was established in each town within a very short time ; fifthly, he encouraged and aided the formation of general associations for the improvement of schools, and of separate schoolmaster associations ; sixthly, he took preliminary steps for improving the education of teach- ers, and at the same time assisted the school com- mittees with counsel and co-operation as regards the appointment of teachers; seventhly, he made known the newest and most approved plans for the construction and internal arrangements of school-houses; eighthly, he encouraged and assisted in the choice of usefal school apparatus and school books ; ninthly, he co-operated in founding associations for the establishment of school libraries, instructive lectures, &c., &c. After having thus enumerated all his proceedings, Mr. Barnard con- cludes by saying that, lastly (and I beg the reader's NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 41 particular attention to tlie order in which he has placed this point), he has drawn up a project for a new school law*. What has here been stated is merely an instance of the mode of operation, which was followed, on a more or less extensive scale, in every state, in every district, in every township ; and which is the usual mode of proceeding in all matters of pubhc business in Ame- rica, whether this business be of greater or less im- portance. When I contemplate the picture of the immense mental labour accomplished in this way ; when I think of what a mass of information has thus been spread, and how conviction has, as it were, been made to force itself upon every home, every head, and every heart ; when I behold a people awakened to the consciousness * It will be seen that this manner of proceeding is diametri- cally opposite to that which is generally followed in Europe, where it is usual for a minister or a government committee to sit for years surrounded by Egyptian darkness of more or less intensity (but which is often so great that the public in gene- ral quite forget the existence of such minister or committee), brooding over a plan of reform, which possibly, when it at length sees the light, may give evidence of great erudition, much knowledge of the subject, and much talent. However, if in the sequel either the fiat of the ruler, or the little sealed paper of the voters, give to this project the force of law, though many an individual no doubt rejoices uncommonly at the great reform, and expects city and country to join in a universal Te Deum on the occasion, it is found, to the great surprise of the parties concerned, when the matter is put to the test of exe- cution, that public opinion is by no means prepared for it, and that none of the conditions are in existence which are neces- sary to make the law something more than a dead letter. 42 DEVELOPMENT OF of a great national evil in a manner driven out of their Jiouses to combat it; when I see and reflect upon all this, I confess I am more affected by this crusade against dilapidated school-houses, against inefficient schoolmasters, and faulty methods of instruction, than by many of the entei-prises that are most highly lauded in history. When I see a nation possessed by the extraordinary mental energy which is revealed in this labour, I cannot but admit, that to such a nation no difficulties, no dangers, are insuperable. And when I behold a government which, in order to meet a great danger which threatens the community, does not for one moment contemplate the introduction of compul- sory measures (I have already mentioned that not even a law of compulsory education was put into force, and that such a measure was only regarded as a last re- source), but confidently relies upon the power of per- suasion and on the activity of the people itself, when it shall have been roused to consciousness, I am forced to acknowledge that only a government that acts thus offers true guarantees for power and stability. The practical results of the above proceedings, that is to say, the reforms established, are highly satisfac- tory, and these are so much the more valuable because, in consequence of the manner in which they were brought about, a new and living spirit has been intro- duced along with the new form. It is true many an old and dilapidated school-house has still to be pulled down, and many a new one has to be built up ; there are still many school-rooms which have not yet been provided with the necessary apparatus ; there are still many teachers of the old scliool who ought to be re- NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 43 placed by more competent persons ; in a word, there are many weeds left which will have to he uprooted, hut nevertheless the good seed now predominates. It would he a thankless labour, therefore, to describe the present state of matters ; for, twenty years hence, no one will recognise in the public schools of America the schools of the present day, and still less those of twenty years ago *. Among the older States, New York was the first to introduce many important reforms, and it is the one * " The District School as it was," is the title of an interest- ing little book, giving a description of the popular schools of America in bygone times. The picture which it draws, and which I recognised as having repeatedly seen on this side of the Atlantic, has, no doubt, still many prototypes in reality, yet these are daily diminishing in number. In order that no misunderstanding may occur when I speak of the decline and reform in popular education in America, I beg to repeat what I have already stated, that the decline is not so much a real retrogression as an absence of progress ; various matters, such as the school buildings, the methods of instruction, &c., having assumed a stationary character, and the number of inhabitants devoid of the education conferred in the schools having con- siderably increased. But, upon the whole, the nation has always stood high in point of popular education (at least, as far as regards New England). If this had not been the case, it would indeed be difficult to account for the rapid progress of the school reform movement. When we read, that in 1790 there was in the State of New York 1 pupil in the public schools for every 6| inhabitant, and that in 1820 there was 1 pupil for every 5 inhabitants, this shows not only a commendable state of things, but also proves real progress, which is not, however, at variance with what we have stated above. I have considered it necessary to add this note to prevent its being thought that any serious and positive decline in 44 DEVELOPMENT OF which, as regards the present state of its popular schools, ranks next to New England, although its sys- tem differs in many respects from that of the last- mentioned States. In New Jersey and Pennsylvania popular education is comparatively very little advanced. The cause of this is, perhaps, to be sought in the influence of the Quakers, which has always preponderated in this part of the Union. Although this sect cannot by any means be justly accused of being inimical to educa- tion, as many of its opponents have maintained (Penn himself strongly advocated the education of the popular education had taken place ; for I do not believe that such was the case, except, perhaps, in some particular locali- ties. As a proof of the rapidity with which the reforms were in some cases introduced, I subjoin a few figures. The annual report of a county superintendent in the State of New York contains the following notices : — " Last year only 17 school- houses had proper arrangements for ventilation ; at present the figures may be reversed, the number having increased to 71. At that period only 33 schools were provided with proper chairs and tables, now 66 are provided with such accommodation. Then, only 57 schools had proper play-grounds attached to them, since then the number has increased to 87. The number of school-houses requiring repairs has decreased from 106 to 77. Twelve new school buildings have been erected, all of which are painted and surrounded by an inclosed area, while some are besides surrounded by plantations of trees. In one town the school-house has been erected at a cost of 2300 dollars, iacluding the ground, (fee." It is probable that the progress has not everywhere been equally rapid; but, on the other hand, it may be taken for granted, that the more the reforms advance, the more rapid will be the progression. NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 45 people), it has, nevertheless, prohahly indirectly con- tributed to bring about the result mentioned above. The Quakers are renowned for the philanthropic cha- racter of their activity as citizens; and the city of Philadelphia, their principal stronghold in America, is distinguished above all others in the Union for the excellence of its charitable institutions. The same spirit has been manifested in the organization of popular education. The necessity of establishing schools for the gratuitous instruction of poor children has alone been considered ; and as children belonging to the higher classes are educated at private schools, the public schools have thus been reduced to the condition of poor schools, and /are, in consequence, wanting in the spirit and energy that distinguish the free schools of New England, which are common for all classes. The fact that property, in the two States in question, is centered in fewer hands, and that, in consequence, the line of demarcation between rich and poor is more distinctly drawn than in the New Eng- land States, may also have contributed to the results to which I have alluded. Of late years, however, various alterations and improvements in the system have been introduced, and the schools of Philadelphia, for instance, can well bear comparison with those of Boston and New York. Another circumstance which has likewise acted as a check upon popular education in Pennsylvania is, that the population in a great measure consists of Germans, who have formed themselves into more or less exclusive German communities, and thus consti- 46 DEVELOPMENT OF tute a kind of State in the State *. Such a state of things, of course, exercises a paralyzing influence on all public matters, and particularly on public educa- tion; and the more so as the Germans by no means possess the same degree of intelligence, and the same desire for education, that distinguishes the Anglo- Saxon population. Among the new States of the West, Ohio, which attained the rank of an independent State in 1802 — and Michigan, wMch became an independent State in 1836 — rank highest in point of popular education. The other Western States — Indiana (1816), Illinois (1813), Iowa (1846), Wisconsin (1848), and, lastly, California — have all regularly-established systems of popular schools. The New England emigrants, who are the chief labourers in the work of colonization in these regions, carry with them that love of education which distinguishes them in their homes, and which they have inherited from their forefathers. As already observed, the New Englanders have strong conservative tendencies, and this spirit is evinced in the preserva- tion of the virtues also of their ancestors ; when, therefore, they establish themselves as settlers in the West, the church and the school are the first objects to which they turn their attention, as soon as the most necessary measures for the material well-being of the colony have been completed. The church and the school are in their eyes sacred heir-looms entrusted to * Many of the Germans of Pennsylvania do not even under- stand the English language, and the public decrees must, on their account, be published in German as well as in English. NATIONAL SCHOOLS. 47 their care, and the most precious remembrancers of their dear New England. Although I have not visited those parts of the United States, I will, nevertheless, in the sequel lay before the reader such information regarding popular education there as I have been able to gather from authentic sources. To the state of education in the slave States I will likewise devote some pages, al though I have but little to say on the subject. For the present, however, I will confine myself to the free States. To a European it would be wearisome, and but little improving, to survey in detail the school systems of the various States; and it would, besides, be a work of supererogation. On first arriving in America,, and beholding the vast field of investigation presented by thirty independent State organizations, the mind is bewildered, and knows not where to commence; but a nearer acquaintance with the country soon removes this difficulty; for it is then seen that nothing is more common in America than imitation and repetition, carried so far as even to give a character of monotony to the public institutions, viewed as a whole. If, for instance, a law or a system be adopted in one of the leading States, it will infallibly, in a few years, go the round of the whole Union, and, consequently, but little additional information will be gleaned by a detailed study of the separate States, after the state of things in the leading members of the Union have been tho- roughly mastered. The States which take the lead in the educational question, as in all other branches of civilization, are, Massachusetts, the leading Whig 48 DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS. State, and New York, the leading democratic State. Those who know these may be said in all essentials to know what America is or promises to be *. I shall, therefore, commence with an exposition of the school laws of the States of Massachusetts and New York, pointing out such differences as there may be between them. I shall, then, in the sequel only have to indicate some few pecuharities in the educa- tional systems of the other States. * It is quite possible, it is true, that the new States of the "West may have introduced some one independent system of popular education ; but, even should this be the case, it will not affect the general validity of the above. CHAPTEE III. SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS. Massachusetts, like all the New England States, is, for administrative purposes, divided into towns or townships. These townships vary much as regards extent and population; hut, according to the last official statements, which I have had an opportunity of consulting, in Massachusetts they comprise, on an average, an area of little more than half a Swedish mile in extent, with a population of about 2300 souls*. To the township, the time-honoured Anglo-Saxon community, has been entrusted the care of popular * It may be assumed in general that a town (or township, as it is called in some localities) in America does not on an average contain more than from 2000 to 3000 inhabitants. It must be remembered that the town or commune stands in no relation to the church. The congregation in America consists of a certain number of souls, but is in no way con- nected with territorial divisions. By the term city is meant a town with especial privileges, a different system of administration, and generally with a greater number of inhabitants. While in the town, adminis- trative matters are usually settled directly by the people, in the cities they are left to some delegated authority, such as a mayor, alderman, &c. D 50 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS education, as well as the care of the poor, the main- tenance of roads and bridges, &c. For this reason, each township has the right, if it deem it advisahle, to divide itself into two or more school districts, deter- mined by geographical Hmits, but in every respect in- dependent of all other civil and ecclesiastical relations, each assuming the rights and duties which will be detailed in the sequel. Such division into districts has, in the greater number of cases, taken place. In the School Eeport of 1850, mention is made of 315 townships, and 3749 districts*, which, for an area of about 800 English square miles (which is the extent of the State), and a population of about 800,000, gives about twenty school districts (and schools) for every two Swedish miles, and one school for every 200 inhabitants. If circumstances should render it advisable, two or more districts bordering on each other may unite and form what is there termed a union district, for the purpose of establishing a common school for the elder pupils, each district having a separate school for the younger children. Districts bordering upon each other, but belonging to different townships, may likewise form union dis- tricts for the estabhshment of a common school ; but not without the consent of the respective townships in which the districts are situated. In like manner, two townships, provided neither have more than 2000 inhabitants, may join for the *Thi3 number refers indeed to the schools, but it may, without much fear of misstatement, be applied to the districts likewise. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 61 common support of a so-called high school. Town- ships, as well as districts, are, as regards their relations to the schools, considered as bodies corporate, and may thus hold property, summon, and he summoned, before courts of justice, it being merely required on their side that they be legally constituted, and that they keep regular minutes of their proceedings. Each town, however small it may be, is bound to maintain at least one school, in which instruction is imparted during six months of the year; or two or more schools, the period of instruction in which shall together form a term of six months. Every town comprising 100 families or households, is bound to maintain one school throughout the year, or two schools, each during six months in the year, &c. Every township comprising 1 50 families, must main- tain two schools during nine months of the year, or three schools, each during six months, &c. Every township comprising 600 families must main- tain two schools throughout the year, or three schools, each during eight months, &c. In these schools are taught reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, English grammar and geography, and good behaviour. Each township comprising 500 families must, in addition to the schools already mentioned, maintain a school in which (together with the branches named above) instruction shall be given in the history of the United States, in geometry, algebra, land surveying, and bookkeeping; and this school must be in activity D 2 52 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS at least nine montlis in the year*. These schools are denominated English high schools. Townships comprising a population of 4000 souls, must, in addition to the schools already enumerated, maintain one in which instruction shall be given in the Greek and Latin languages, in general history, logic and rhetoric, besides all the branches taught in the other schools. Such schools are called Latin high schools. All these schools are open, without distinction, to every child in the community who has attained the age required, the two last-mentioned class of schools being in common for the whole township, whereas the district schools are only open to the children of the respective districts in which they are situated. According to the official report of 1850, there were in the State of Massachusetts 25 townships coming within the category that obliges them to maintain a Latin high school ; and if each family be assumed on an average to number five individuals, there were 65 townships in the category which involves the obligation to maintain an English high school. This gives on an average one English high school on about every third square mile, and for every 12,300 inhabitants; * Towns comprising less than 500 families are at liberty, if they deem it advisable, to tax themselves for the purpose of maintaining schools such as those mentioned in the text. As a general rule, the law may indeed be considered as merely de- termining the minimum which each town is bound to perform, without prohibiting any additional obligations which it may take upon itself. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 53 and a Latin high school on about every seven or eight Swedish square miles, and every 32,000 inhahitants*. Townships not included in either of the above cate- gories may, nevertheless, as before observed, maintain such schools, on their own account, or conjointly with other townships similarly situated; or they may make agreements with such townships as are legally bound to maintain high schools, to admit their children. The amount of the sum to be levied in each town- ship for the salaries of the teachers, and for providing fuel for the schools, is determined in a yearly meeting of all the voters of the township. The right of voting in this, as in all other questions of local administra- tion, is vested in every male citizen above the age of 21, who has resided in the State during the year, and in the township during the six months immediately preceding the meeting, and who has during the two preceding years contributed to the State or county taxes in some part of the State; as also in every citizen who is by law exempt from taxation, but who is otherwise qualified t- If the townships be divided into districts, the sum granted has next to be distributed among these. This repartition likewise takes place in the usual town meeting, but the law does not determine any propor- tion to be observed in the distribution ; and in practice various, and sometimes incongruous, principles prevail * As will be seen in the sequel, and for reasons which will there be stated, the enactment of the law relative to the Eng- lish and Latin high schools, is by no means strictly carried out. t With the exception of paupers. These are the same quali- fications as are required in political questions. 54 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS on this point. Thus, in some townships, the school rates are equally divided among all the districts ; in others, only part of the sum granted is thus distributed, and the rest in proportion to the numher of children in each district of the ages at which they are expected to frequent the schools, that is, from the age of 4 to 1 6 ; others, again, distribute the grant in proportion to the numher of persons above the age of 21 ; and some leave the distribution in the hands of the acting au- thorities, &c. As circumstances in the various dis- tricts of a township may be very diiFerent, one being rich, another being poor; one paying a greater pro- portion of the school rate, another less ; one being very populous, another but thinly inhabited ; one being extensive, another small, &c., — it becomes a matter of some difficulty to choose a basis for the distribution of the rates, which shall call forth no opposition. There is, however, one mode of adjusting the matter, wliich, as far as I am, aware, has never yet been proposed, but which seems to me the only just one, because, setting aside all local interests, it is founded in the nature of the circumstances which are to be taken into conside- ration. I mean, that as the rates are levied for the purpose of defraying the salaries of the teachers*, it would be more just to determine a maximum of pupils for one teacher, and a minimum for two, and then to distribute the rates according to the number of the * Part of the town rates may indeed also be applied to the purchase of fuel for the warming of the schools ; but this item is very small in comparison with the salaries of the teachers ; and, besides, the fuel is often furnished in luttura by the rate- payers, or is presented to the school as a gift, &c. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 65 teachers. But for the purpose of establishing a bene- ficial control, as regards attendance at school, I would have the calculations made, not according to the num- ber of children within the district that have attained the age required, but according to the number ac- tually attending the schools. If a township be not subdivided into districts, it has further to tax itself for the construction and internal arrangements of as many school-houses as may be required, as also for the purchase of all necessary materials for instruction, &o. If the township be subdivided into districts, it is at liberty, if i}, be found desirable, to defray these ex- penses, otherwise they devolve upon the separate dis- tricts. Hitherto it has been the general rule that the dis- tricts separately have provided for these necessities, each in proportion to its means; but experience has shown that the school-houses, as well as the school materials, have been of a much superior quahty, in the cases where the township has taken the duty upon itself It is indeed self-evident that, in the latter cases, the ex- penses would be more equally divided among districts of unequal capabihties, while, on the other hand, the total costs would be somewhat less (at least, as far as concerns the school materials), in consequence of larger purchases being made. All persons conversant with the matter seem to incline towards the latter arrangement ; and of late years there has been a decided tendency to adopt it generally. All taxes, be they town or district taxes, granted for the support of the schools, are assessed by the town 56 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS assessors, on the same principles as rule the assess- ments of the other town taxes, and they are collected hy the same tax-gatherers*. The general executive power in every township is vested in the so-called select men, who are elected annually, and whose duty it is to convene the people on ordinary as well as extraordinary occasions; to carry out the resolutions of the meetings ; in a word, to put into execution all the administrative measures of the township. The actual superintendence and care of the schools of the township are, however, entrusted to a school committee, consisting of three, five, or seven members, who are likewise elected annually. If the * The following details relative to the basis of taxation may prove interesting to some readers. With regard to the district taxes, it is a rule, that each person be taxed in the district in which he resides for all personal estate, as also for such part of his real estate as be employed for his own use ; for all the rest of his estate within the town- ship he must be taxed in the district in which the property is situated. All real estate and machinery belonging to manufac- turing companies, are taxed in the district in which the said estate and wMchinery are situate ; and when the shares of such companies are taxed, deduction is made of the value of the said estate and machinery. All land lying within one and the same township and pos- sessed by one and the same individual, not residing in the township, must be taxed in one and the same district of the toionship within which the property is situated, the town asses- sors being authorized to determine which district shall enjoy the advantage of this taxation. The same is applicable to all such property as is understood by the word " stocks " in com- merce and manufactures, which must also be taxed in the town- ship wherein the shops, warehouses, factories, wharfs, (he, are situated, although the proprietor may reside elsewhere. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 57 population of the township exceed 4000, the number of the members may be increased, but the additional number must not exceed six. In all localities, except in the city of Boston*, each member of the school committee is entitled to a com- pensation of at least one dollar for each day devoted to the business of the schools; the town being, however, authorized to fix a higher fee, should it be deemed advisable. The committee is bound to keep regular minutes of its proceedings, the expenses entailed thereby, as well as all other outlays necessarily incurred, being defrayed by the treasury of the township. By the side of this committee is placed another for each district, called " the prudential committee," and consisting of from one to three members residing within the district, and elected either by the town- ship, or, if it be considered more desirable, by the respective districts. The functions of the prudential committee are to convene the inhabitants for all meetings relative to school matters, and to carry out the resolutions of these meetings ; in a word, the committee represents the executive power of the district in all matters con- * It was considered that there would always be a sufficient number of qualified persons in this city ready to undertake the task without remuneration, and at present the school commit- tees there do not receive fees ; but I have heard many com- plaints relative to this subject. The general rule in America is, to pay all local functionaries, whether or not the law con- tain especial enactments on the subject ; and the above is merely given as an instance of an especial enactment of the kind. D 3 58 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS ceming the schools; and the inhabitants of the dis- tricts, one for all and all for one, are responsible for the lawful proceedings of the committee. The minutes of the committee proceedings are taken by a secretary appointed by the district. The special duties of the authorities named, in rela- tion to the schools, are enumerated below; and it must further be stated, that should the prudential committee neglect any of its duties, the school committee is not only entitled, but is bound to carry out what has been left undone. A. Building, fitting up, and repairing of school- houses, providing fuel, school materials, &c. As regards the town schools, i. e. the English and Latin high schools, it is the duty of the school com- mittee to attend to the above matters ; but as regards the district schools the duty devolves npon the pru- dential committee, except when the township takes upon itself the construction of the district school- houses also, and the providing of the necessary school materials, in which case the committee must undertake this charge likewise ; and the functions of the pruden- tial committee are then limited to providing fuel, and attending to the necessary repairs of the school-house and its appurtenances, &o. "When new school buildings are to be erected, a separate building committee is generally elected. The district itself makes choice of the site for the building; and the proprietor of the land is bound to cede it at a price to be settled either by amicable arrangement, or by the select men of the township, or, as a last resort, by a jury. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 69 B. The appointment of teachers, and all matters connected therewith. It is the duty of the prudential committee to ap- point teachers to the district schools and to make agreements with them, unless the township have re- served to itself the right of acting in this matter also ; in which case the school committee must undertake the charge in relation to the district schools, as well as to the town schools. In no case, however, can teachers be appointed to a district school without having ob- tained a certificate of quahfication from the school committee. Before granting such certificate, the members of the committee are b(3und to ascertain, by personal exami- nation, the amount of the candidate's knowledge, as also to inquire into his moral character, his capacity for teaching, and his manner of conducting himself, all of which latter points are to be taken more into consideration than the mere amount of knowledge which he may possess. The certificate is valid for one year only, and solely within the township in which it has been granted. Should circumstances render it ad- visable, the school committee may at any moment withdraw a certificate previously conferred. Persons who are not provided with such a certificate of quaUfication are not entitled to engage themselves as teachers in schools, and any agreement entered into with them is considered illegal. C. Plan of instruction, school hooks, dec. The school committee determines what books are to be used (in all the schools) ; the only restriction in the choice, imposed by law, being that the books shall 60 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS not have a sectarian character. The general plan of instruction is also determined by this committee*, and likewise the age at which the pupil shall he admitted into the town — or higher — schools. As regards the district schools, the earliest age of admission is fixed at four years. It devolves upon the parents or guardians to provide the children with the books selected by the committee, for no others are allowed to be used in the schools. If the parties in question neglect so to do, the committee is hound to supply the books, on being informed of the fact by the teacher. A hst of the parents and guardians of the children who have thus been provided with books, together with a list of the books given to each child, with thek prices appended, is to be made out and dehvered in to the town as- sessors, who are to determine in each particular case, whether the expenses ought to be remitted and placed to the account of the town treasury, or whether the whole, or part, shall be refunded by the transgres- sing party. In the latter instance the amount is in- scribed on the notice papers, and is collected like other taxes. In order to facilitate their own business relative to this point, it is usual for the school committees to purchase a large stock of books, which are then de- posited in some place of convenient access (for in- stance, in the keeping of the teacher), and which, in consequence of their being bought in large numbers at a time, are obtained at a cheaper rate than if each copy were procured singly in the bookseller's shop. * In practice, of course, after consultation with the teachers. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 61 D. School discipline. The ultimate decision in all matters of discipline rests likewise with the school committee. The law is silent as to the use of corporeal punish- ment*, but the latter is considered allowable, although * In order to enable the reader to form some judgment of the opinions that prevail in America on this subject, I sub- join a literal transcript, from an American newspaper, of a report of a trial before a court of justice, in a matter relating to the abuse of corporeal punishment. The suit was brought in 1848 before the Court of Common Pleas in Salem, Massachusetts, to which appeal had been made against the decision of a local authority, who had sentenced the accused, Webster, teacher in the district school of West Newbury, to pay a fine of two dollars and costs, for having, as it was asserted, inflicted undue punishment on Alfred Willis, a pupil of the said school. The teacher, 18 years of age, and student of Dartmouth College, was considerably smaller of stature than the pupil. The first witness called was Alfred Willis, who said : — " I attend Mr. Webster's school, am between 17 and 18 years of age : we went up to repeat our lessons ; the master said that whoever missed three words should go back and learn the lesson over again. I missed this number of words, and was desired to go back. I said, ' Curse the lesson, I will not learn it over again.' He came to me and said : ' What was that 1 ' I answered, ' I did not speak to you.' He then sent one of the pupils to fetch the three best sticks he could find. Three sticks were brought in. The master said, ' You shall have a flogging,' and told me to take off my jacket, and come forward on the floor. I answered that I would not do so. He caught hold of my hair, began to beat me, and tried to drag me forward. He got up on a chair, and struck me across the back. When he had broken the first stick, he asked me if I would do so any more 1 I answered ' No ;' but he continued to beat me with the other stick, until that was also much worn. I went back to my place, and sat and cried. He said, ' If you G2 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS at present it is less frequently inflicted than formerly. The application of this mode of chastisement is gene- don 't hold your tongue, I will give you anotlier taste of the stick.' The school was out directly after. In the afternoon father came, and called Mr. Webster out. He said he had reason to strike me. Father told him to come home with him and look at my back ; he answered that he could not do so then, but that he would come in the evening. I was unable to work, and bore the marks of it a whole month ; I felt it a whole week, but did not lose my appetite ; could not dress or undress myself. Worked a little on the farm the same day ; carried half a bushel of salt on my back the same afternoon. Father did not say to Webster that he would beat him ; had had some slight disagreement with Webster the previous day ; my brother came forward from his class, and the master told him to spell his name ; he could not do it, and Webster told him how to do it ; he let another boy spell it, and my brother spelt it after him ; the master told him to come forward, but he went back to his place ; the master brought him back, and gave him a few whacks. I warned the master not to whack him ; he said if I was not quiet, he would whack me. I an- swered, that I doubted that." JoTuxtlian Isley. — Alfred Willis contradicted the master three or four times ; would not learn his lesson ; went back to his place, threw his book upon the table, and said, " Curse the lesson ;" the master told him three or four times to take up his book again, but he would not. The master sent for three sticks ; Joseph Wood went and fetched three sticks from an apple- tree ; not very thick ; the largest as thick as my little finger. The master told him to take off his jacket, and he said, " You shall not make me do that ;" the master gave him two or three raps. Willis began to rise, and the master seized him by the forelock and beat him, and then Willis began to cry ; the master asked him why he told a lie (he had said he did not swear) ; Willis said he did not lie, but the master forced him to confess, and afterwards beat him because of the falsehood ; IN MASSACHUSETTS. 63 rally left to the discretion of the teacher. In like manner the teachers have also the right to expel pupils he did not touch, him after he had returned to hia place. The school was in good repute in the district, and much approved of by the committee ; the teaching was regular and good ; had never heard of the master having before that time struck any boy with a stick ; he took care of the school till it closed, eight or nine weeks after that. James Willis, the father of Alfred. Went to the school-house the same afternoon my wife complained to me. I told he master that I thought he had punished my son unjustly ; told him that if he wanted to strike any one, he might strike me ; if he would come out, I would give him a sound thrashing. Many parts of the boy's back were as black as my hat. I fomented his back with rum ; the skin was somewhat broken, but he did not suffer in health ; cannot say whether the door to the school- room was open when I said I would give him a thrashing. Kirhy Silloway heard Webster say that if he had thought Mr. Willis would make such a fuss about it, he would have given Alfred a double thrashing. Willis said that he did not swear, and that he did not speak to him. It is a good school ; I attended it the whole time till it closed. This constituted the evidence on the one side. The accused was not called upon for his defence, as the district attorney rose and said, he was highly surprised that such a suit should have been brought before the court ; that he had not had an opportunity of inquiring into it previously, because the first inquisition took place before a local magistrate ; and if he had had the slightest idea of the true nature of the suit, it should never have been brought forward. So far was he from blaming Mr. Webster, that, on the contrary, he could not but express the highest approbation of his conduct ; that the only thing to be regretted was, that the boy had not been sufficiently chas- tised, and that he could not help thinking that it would have been a good thing had the father been flogged twice as much as the boy. He trusted in consequence that the case would be non-suited. 64 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS from the school on their own responsibility, but only temporarily, until they have an opportunity of sub- mitting the case to the committee, who, on its side, may pronounce sentence of expulsion for the whole duration of its period of office, but not beyond this. E. Inspection of Schools. The school committee is charged with the inspection of all the schools. The law prescribes two modes of proceeding in reference to this point. In the first instance, the whole committee must visit each town school at least once every quarter; and, in like man- ner, all or some of the members must visit each district school once during the two weeks immediately preced- ing the last day, or immediately following the first day, of each quarter, for the express purpose of making themselves thoroughly acquainted with the character of the school, with the method of teaching in use, the state of disciphne maintained, and with a view to ascertaining that the children are properly supphed with books, &c. As the law contains no rule under this head, it is the general practice, with regard to these visits of inspection, that the members of the committee announce their coming beforehand. The judge declared that he could not admit of such a mode of procedure. This was a suit in which the accused had the greatest right to claim a verdict of not guilty from the jury. Thereupon he addressed the jury in a becoming and moderate speech of about ten or fifteen minutes' duration, commenting upon the disgraceful conduct of the father and son, expressing commendation of the master's behaviour, and expatiating on the necessity of discipline in general, in school and out of school. The jury, of course, acquitted Mr. Webster, without even leaving the jury-box. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 65 But, in addition to these visits, the law enjoins, in the second instance, that one or more members of the committee shall, at least once a month, visit each school in the township, the lower as well as the higher, without giving previous notice. It is usual for the members of the committee to divide the schools among them, so that each one has a certain number to in- spect. When the committee, or any of its members, are present in the school, the chief authority is vested in them, and they may, according as they deem fit, either themselves examine the children, or let them be exa- mined by the teachers, &c. From the above, the reader will see that the pru- dential committee is more particularly charged with the care of the materiel of the district schools; whereas the school committee, besides attending to the same matters as regards the town schools, is further entrusted with the superintendence and inspection of the intel- lectual and moral department in all the schools. From this it further becomes evident that the qualifications necessary for being a member of the one or the other of these committees are very different; for, whereas little more is required in order to be a member of the pruden- tial committee than a certain amount of order and ac- curacy, and some knowledge of economical details, it is, on the other hand, important that the school committee should be composed of men whose knowledge and experience render them equal to the responsible task of examining teachers, organizing the systems of in- struction and disciphne in the schools, &c.* * The appointment of the teachers by the prudential committee eO SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS The above are the fundamental principles of the school law of Massachusetts, such as, with few modi- fications, it has existed since the first founding of a system of popular schools in the State. Of late years, three important additions have been made to this system, viz. — I. The establishment of a common fund for the support of the schools (in 1834), and recognition of the principle that the State is bound in every way to uphold the system of public instruc- tion. 2. The institution of a central authority in matters pertaining to the schools, by the appointment of the Board of Education, which was instituted in 1837. 3. The introduction of normal schools, for the training of popular teachers (in- the year 1838*). As I shall return to these last-named institutions, which are three in number, when speaking of schools ought, in fact, not to rank higher than their other duties, aa no one can be appointed without having previously obtained a certificate of qualification from the school committee ; but it frequently occurs that the prudential committee present their candidates for examination so short a time before the commence- ment of the term, that, in order to avoid the alternative of the school's remaining closed, the school committee is obliged to confer certificates on persons of inferior capacities — not to say worse. This state of things has caused much discontent, and it certainly proves that it would be more advantageous for the schools if the right of appointing, as well as examining, teachers were vested solely in the school committee. In the sequel I shall have an opportunity of returning to this subject. * The first impetus to the introduction of normal schools was given by Mr. B. Dwight, who presented a sum of 10,000 dollars to the State, to be applied to the education of teachers, on condition that the State would add an equal sum from its own funds. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 67 of a similar nature in the other States, I -will now limit myself to mentioning some points of interest ia con- nection -with the preceding head. In speaking of the Boaxd of Education as a central authority in matters relating to popular education, I must not he understood as using these words in the European sense. When the question of the institution of such an authority was first mooted, as also during the first years of its existence, much opposition was raised against it, as many persons looked upon it in the light of a real central authority — after the model of Europe — and, as such, as a serious encroachment on the time-honoured local liberties and administra- tion, under the shadow of which popular education had thriven and flourished for upwards of two centuries, and had attained a highly creditable degree of develop- ment. These fears were, however, totally unfounded, and seem at present to be quite allayed; indeed, as far as I have been able to ascertain, the institution is now very popular, although it must be a great source of annoyance to those functionaries who dread their acts being exposed to the light of day. Without having in any way interfered with the existing system of administration, the Board has been able, by indirect meanSj to efiect gxeat improvements in all matters connected with the schools; and Mr. Horace Mann, the first secretary of the Board, who filled this oJBBce until 1849, when he was elected member of Congress, has, by his abilities and active exertions, rendered the establishment of this institution the beginning of a new era in the history of national education in Ame- rica *. * Mr. Mann was president of the Senate of Massachusetts, 68 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS With the exception of the special superintendence of the normal schools in the State, with which the Board is entrusted, its functions, as already stated, are exclusively limited to indirect action, and consist in nothing more than — 1. In collecting and diflFusing information respecting the schools and education in general. 2. In giving advice and encouragement in all questions concerning education, without, however, possessing any authoritative voice in the matter, the local authorities heing at hberty to follow the advice of the Board or not, as they may deem fit. That the Board exercises a most beneficial influence, is, how- ever, placed beyond a doubt; and, indeed, it could hardly he otherwise in a country where the power of enlightened public opinion is so great as in the United States. The Board of Education consists of ten members, among whom, ex officio, are the Governor and De- puty-Governor. The eight other members are ap- pointed by the Governor and the Council for eight years, one member retiring each year, and being re- placed by another. The members of the Board receive no salary, but are indemnified for any expenses they may incur in the service. The secretary, who is appointed by the Board, and on whom the greatest amount of business devolves, receives a salary of 1600 dollars a-year, besides com- pensation for all expenses incurred in the service. At when he accepted the appointment as secretary to the Board of Education. He was considered one of the ablest lawyers in Massachusetts, and had previously, as member of a committee nominated for the purpose, assisted in editing the revised statutes of Massachusetts. IN MASSACHUSETTS. 69 the present moment he is likewise lihrarian of the State lihrary, which he uses as his office. The secre- tary has the right to appoint an assistant, who must also act as notary to the Board. The following are the specified duties of the Board : — 1. To draw up annually, and lay before the Legisla- ture, an abstract of the reports sent in to the State secretary by all the school committees throughout the State. 2. To collect information respecting the actual con- dition and workings of the popular schools, as well as upon all other matters connected with, or bearing upon, national education; and also to spread as widely as pos- sible throughout the State a knowledge of the methods of instruction and education proved by experience to be the best, &c. 3. To select from among its own members an in- spector for each of the normal schools, and to appoint teachers to these schools. The secretary may be elected assistant inspector of all the schools. 4. To elect from among its own members a certain number to act as directors of the " teachers' institutes," of which I shall have more to say in the sequel. The secretary may likewise be elected for this office. 5. To deliver in annually to the Legislature a detailed report of its own activity, together with such observa- tions and suggestions as circumstances may call for. In order to promote the objects of the Board, the secretary makes each year extensive tours of inspec- tion, in the course of which he endeavours, by means of lectures and addresses to the people, as well as to the authorities, to awaken or keep alive a general 70 SYSTEM OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS, ETC. interest in the system of public instruction. Accord- ing to a resolution passed by the Legislature of 1850, two agents have been nominated to assist the secretary in this important and arduous part of his duties. The secretary is hound to keep in his oflBoe a collec- tion of all hooks, maps, and other materials for iu- struction, which can be obtained gxatuitously (and these are not few in number), besides such as he may purchase for the yearly sum of 50 dollars, which has been granted for the purpose; and to hold these at the disposal nut only of the Board, but of all teachers and school authorities who may wish to consult them. CHAPTER IV. SCHOOL SYSTEM OF MASSACHUSETTS CONTINUED. One of the most important duties of the Board of Education is to collect statistical data concerning the popular schools, and to make reports on these. For this purpose the Board is enjoined to draw up forms of school registers, to be kept in the common schools. Copies of these forms are sent round to the respective school committees in the State, who are bound to see that each school is provided with one ; ancr the teacher, on his side, is not legally entitled to receive his salary until he has delivered the form to the school committee, with all the entries properly made. If the school be in want of a form, immediate appHcation for one must be made to the Board. The forms used in Massachusetts (in case they be not altered, of which there was a question) consist of nicely-stitched books in quarto, calculated to suffice for five years, and to contain — a, the names of the teachers and of the members of the school committee ; h, a list of the school books prescribed by the school committee ; c, length of time during which the school is open, to be noted in months, four weeks being reckoned as one month; d, number of pupils; e. 72 SCHOOL SYSTEM OF average number of pupils attending the school ; f, whole amount of teacher's salary per month ; g, cost of teacher's hoard ; h, days on which the school was visited by members of the committees or other autho- rities, together with observations made by them ; and finally, the form of registry, given in page 73. The average number of pupils attending the schools is obtained by multiplying the number of pupils with the relative proportion of the sums of the two columns headed "number of days in attendance at school," and " number of days inscribed as pupil." The former column shows how long a time (calculated by days) the pupil has actually attended the school ; the latter how many days have elapsed since he was entered as a pupil. The columns for the various studies are scored through with a pen, in case the pupil have not taken part" in that particular branch of study. MASSACHUSETTS CONTINUED. 73 Other studies (if any). 1 OD -a 1 Arithmetic Geography English Grammar . Writing . . • . Reading Spelling Present in School. Absent during the schoo mittee's second visitati com on Absent during the school com mittee's first visitation Number of days inscribed a pupil Number of days in attendance a school Number of days absent . Number of times too late Saturday Tuesday Monday Satu ~Krid Thu rday ay . rsday Wednesday Tuesday . Monday . p 1 Years Months Name Number . Date on which left school Date on which entered school Name of parents or guarc ians E 74 SCHOOL SYSTEM OF Together with the forms of registry for the use of the schools, the Board distributes annually a form of questions, to be answered by the school committees. Some of these questions are repeated from year to year ; others are put as circumstances may seem to require. O t>H Ph a ? ?) 423 „ „ 1387 „ „ „ 776 „ „ less than Of the 3830 female teachers in the State — Dollars. 29 received a monthly salary of 16 and upwards. 49 „ „ between 12 and 16 dollars. 485 „ „ „ 8 „ 12 „ 3200 „ „ „ 4 „ 8 „ 67 „ „ less than 4 likewise exclusive [of board. The latter item is often furnished in kind, that is to say, the teacher hoards with the inhabitants in rotation. This system of "boarding round," as it is called, would no doubt be very irksome to a permanent teacher, and one who was no longer young ; but after what I have said of the American popular school teachers, it will be readily understood that it proves less so to them. On the other hand, it is not without its advantages, as, by the teacher's presence in the families in this way, a more intimate connection grows up between the family and the school. Board and lodging in Massachusetts is (officially) valued at about nine dollars a month for male and seven dollars a month for female teachers *. * This is a very high estimate, and far exceeding the rates in other States. THE POPULAR SCHOOLS OF AMERICA. 191 Although the salaries paid to teachers in most cases cannot be considered high when compared with the wages paid for mere manual lahour *, they are, never- theless, sufficiently remunerative to prove an allure- ment to many. Women cannot easily find any other occupation as suitable and honourable as this, and which, at all events, affords provision for reasonable wants ; and as regards young men, the opportunities of increasing their knowledge, or for fixing in memory the stock of information previously acquired, which one or two years' service in a school affords, will always prove valuable in a country where knowledge- is held in such high esteem, and may be turned to so much account. Besides, both classes of teachers may, in most cases, put by a portion of their salaries, after having covered necessary expenses. One more point, which I cannot pass over in silence, is the great disparity between the salaries of the male and the female teachers. This disparity must not be attributed solely to those circumstances which in general cause woman's labour to be less highly valued than man's in a pecuniary sense, but Hkewise to the many means of livelihood, besides that afforded by the schools, which in America are open to almost every * In a country like America, where colonization is still going on, even the coarsest manual labour must command comparatively very high wages, and any comparison between these and the remuneration awarded to mental labour will, therefore, lead to false conclusions. Labourers in the sphere of mind may be quite able to make a comfortable living, and yet seem badly paid when compared to the manual labourers. 192 CHARACTER, ETC., OF THE TEACHERS. man, though the same is not the case with women, and to the greater competition which in consequence exists among the latter for the situations of teachers. The greater the amount of this competition the more general, we may conclude, is a superior degree of edu- cation among the women ; and this explains why it is that the difference between the salaries of the two sexes is greatest in the very States where the amount of general education is highest, and where the greatest number of women are employed as teachers ; though we do not pretend that this circumstance can be con- sidered an unerring criterion of the state of popular education, or of the condition of the popular schools in the various States. In the New England States the competition is actually great enough not only to sup- ply all their own popular schools, hut also those of other States ; and, as I have before observed, a great number of female school missionaries emigrate thence every year to the new States in the west. CHAPTEE XII. EDUCATION OF POPULAR SCHOOL TEACHERS. It is the opinion of all experienced educationalists, that, as soon as the organization of the proposed new sys- tem of a gradation of schools shall have heen com- pletely carried out in the rural districts also, the district schools ought to be given entirely into the hands of female teachers, while it is thought more advisable that the Union schools, for the more advanced pupils, should be entrusted to the care of men. At all events, the teachers in the latter schools ought to undergo a higher degree of training, as regards general informa- tion and the art of teaching, than is necessary for the teachers in the district schools. This will, indeed, be imperative, if the object held in view, by the gradation of schools, is to be reahzed. With the gradation of schools must be introduced a gradation of teachers. A higher order of teachers than those at present em- ployed will be required ; and if not for all, it will at least be important as regards these superior teachers, that there should be normal schools in which they may be educated. Normal schools for the training of popular- school teachers, are a new feature in America, and have been introduced in imitation of European countries. The K 194 EDUCATION OF first question of their introduction was raised in 18S5*, but no institutions of the kind were estabUshed until a much later date. Even at the present moment they are but few in number, and consequently quite in- sufficient for the training of the number of teachers required. The furnishing of such a corps d'6lite as I have alluded to above, and not a very numerous one, will be the utmost that they can accomplish at present ; and, indeed, as long as the present system of constant shifting is maintained among the teachers, it would be impossible to exact that all should submit to a course of preUminary training. I shall have occasion here- after to show what are the means of which the teachers at present generally avail themselves for the purpose of acquiring the necessary preliminary knowledge and experience, and in the meanwhile I will give a short account of two or three of the normal shools in America, with which I am acquainted. a. The Normal School in West Newton, Massachusetts. There are three normal schools in Massachusetts, the one of which I am about to speak being exclu- sively for women. Candidates for admission into this school must have attained their sixteenth year at leastfj must he able to furnish certificates of a sound and healthy state of * Mr. Gallaudet, the founder of institutions for the deaf and dumb in America, was the first person who drew the attention of the public to the importance and value of normal schools. t At the period of my visit to the school the average age of the pupils, I was told, was 18 years. POPULAR SCHOOL TEACHERS. 195 body *, of good mental capacities, and of good eon- duct; and, finally, must prove themselves proficients in all the branches of knowledge taught in the com- mon schools. They must, moreover, make a solemn declaration that it is their intention, after having com- pleted a course in the institution, to devote themselves to tuition, and they must promise to attend the nor- mal school during four terms at least. The year is divided into three reading terms, em- bracing together 42 weeks. The school is in activity six hours a day. Saturday is a firee day. Studies at home are prescribed. Lectures are occasionally de- livered in the evenings. The subjects in which instruction is imparted are, algebra (two degrees), geometry (as far as the fourth book of Euclid), the rudiments of natural philosophy, chemistry, astronomy, natural history, moral philo- sophy, psychology, and the art of tuition ; in addition to which, the pupils go through a higher and more complete course in all the branches taught in the com- mon schools. The school-house contains one large and two smaller rooms. At the time of my visit the number of pupils was about 80. A district school is attached to the normal schools, as an experimental school, in which the pupils in the former jnay obtain a practical knowledge of the art of teaching. Each pupil in the normal school is bound to ofiiciate three weeks at least in the experimental school, one week as observer and two weeks as teacher, * This regulation is made with a view to excluding persons labouring under such bodily defects as would be incompatible with the position of a teacher. K 2 196 EDUCATION OF and to make a report to the principal in both capa- cities. The school possesses a good library, containing school books, books on miscellaneous subjects, and expensive works on education, and likewise a very suitable set of mathematical instruments. At the period of my visit the staff of teachers con- sisted of one head master, who gave the lessons in philosophy, in the art of tuition, and in the history of the constitution of the United States and of Massa- chusetts, and of three female teachers, who taught all the other branches. The pupils were divided into two classes, seniors and juniors. The cost of board (which every pupil must provide for herself) amounts to about 100 dollars a year. The pupils are placed in private families, where they may be under parental control. Of the pupils present when the report of 1849 was drawn up, 23 were daughters of labourers, 16 of farmers, 14 of tradesmen, i of captains of merchant vessels, 3 of clerks, 2 of newspaper editors, 2 of rail- way inspectors ; 7 were daughters of men following as many different callings, 3 were orphans, and 29 widows. It was truly delightful to behold the sober and pleasing manners of these pupils, who all gave promise of exercising a most beneficial influence on the schools which should in future be entrusted to them ; and I may say the same of all other female pupils of normal schools and all female teachers I saw in the United States. Although I have, on the whole, no reason to have other than a favourable opinion of the male POPULAR SCHOOL TEACHERS. ] 97 teachers also, I nevertheless give the preference to the females. It is incontestahle that woman, otherwise in point of education on a level with the other sex, far surpasses the latter in refinement of feeling and in nicety of perception, and these qualities give her a decided superiority as a teacher of childhood. With these the American female teachers combine another no less im- portant quality, namely, a firmness of character which is less frequently found among women in Europe. The spirit of freedom which reigns in America gives even to woman there a superior degree of independence and decision, and a greater power of action; and the respect, bordering upon submissiveness, with which she is treated by the other sex, imparts to her charac- ter a loftiness, I might almost say pride, which cannot but strike every stranger, and which renders it easy for her, in her capacity of schoolmistress, to command the necessary deference. In a word, I have been highly gratified at the combination of manly earnestness and womanly gentleness which, in most cases, I have met with among the female teachers of America, in addi- tion to all the other qualities of mind which one loves best to see in a woman. I. The Normal School in Albany. In the State of New York there is but this one nor- mal school, which was established in 1844, and adapted to receive 256 pupils of both sexes. Each county in the State has the right to send to it a certain number of piipils, selected by the respective superintendents. The age of admission for men is 18, for women 16. 198 EDUCATION OF At first, a certain number of the pupils were main- tained at the expense of the State, while the others were obliged to pay for their board. At present, how- ever, a certain sum is granted to be equally divided among all the pupils, after indemnification has been given to each for the expenses incurred in travelling to Albany. The staflf of teachers is composed of one head master and nine male and female assistant teachers. The pupils are divided into three classes, junior, middle, and senior, and each of these is again subdivided. Some pupils remain as long as two or three years, but the greater number go through the complete course in one year or one year and a half. The course embraces a somewhat wider range of studies than that of West Newton; in geometry, for instance, it extends to the learning of the sixth book of Euclid (for the male pupils it includes plane trigonometry and land survey- ing), and, in algebra, includes part of the theory of equations, and it embraces, besides, a certain part of agricultural chemistry. The afternoons are particu- larly devoted to singing and drawing. The school possesses a library of school books, amounting to 4000 or 5000 volumes, in addition to 800 volumes on miscellaneous subjects, and a collec- tion of philosophical instruments. Occasionally lectures are delivered on various sub- jects, and instruction in some of the branches of study, such as the art of tuition, rhetoric, &c., is imparted in this manner. The pupils are also exercised in " sub- lecturing," as it is termed, under the guidance and superintendence of the masters. POPULAR SCHOOL TEACHEES. 199 ■ An experimental school is attached to the normal school. In the former there were, in 1849, 70 pupils, of -which 35 were free scholars. The school is under the care of one permanent teacher, who is assisted hy the pupils of the normal school, eight of whom officiate every week, four as "observers" and four as teachers. Three or four times a week these officiating pupils assemble, after the duties of the school are ter- minated, under the guidance of the head master, to discuss questions relative to methods of teaching, &o. A subject is given to each pupil on which he is required to expatiate. At the expiration of his term of service in the experimental school, each pupil of the normal school is required to write a report according to a for- mulary drawn up for that purpose. The normal school in Albany is located in a splen- did building, erected for the purpose at a cost of 25,000 dollai-s. c. The Normal School in Philadelphia. This school, as I have before observed, is, at the same time, considered as a pubHc high school for girls ; and pupils are therefore admitted at the early age of 14. The course of studies is calculated to embrace three years, but the greater number of pupils leave the school after a shorter term. The number of pupils in 1849 was 143. The staff of teachers was composed of one head master and six male and female assistant teachers. The branches of study are about the same as those mentioned above. In the art of tuition instruction is imparted by the principal himself. In this school 200 EDUCATION OF natural philosophy, chemistry, and physiology are taught only hy means of lectures. Two pubUc common schools are connected with the normal school as experimental schools. These few remarks will serve to give a general notion of normal schools in America. The greater number of popular school teachers, however, receive their edu- cation through other means, which I shall now proceed to touch upon. First of all, in many instances industrious pupils may, even in the common schools, find opportunities for extending their knowledge beyond that of the ordinary pupils, and in many places it is moreover usual for the chief master to give regular lessons to the assist- ant teachers as well as to those among the pupils whom he may desire to educate for teachers in the school. To this must be added private study. In the sequel I will more fully show to what an extent the love of reading prevails among the people in America, and how much this love is nourished by the district school libraries and other libraries, as also by the cheap periodical and other literature. But in order that the reader may un- derstand at once that the auxiliai-y means thus aiForded for the education of the popular school teacher may be, and indeed is, of no sUght importance, I must en •passant point out that in no country in the world is the taste for reading so diffused among the people as in America, and that no other country offers to aU classes such facilities for the gratification of this taste. I must, however, make one observation relative to this subject. It is well known how important an instru- POPULAR SCHOOL TEACHERS. 201 ment for the spreading of enlightenment is the pe^ riodical press of America, and to what an extent the political journals are read in that country, and I shall have an opportunity hereafter of expatiating further on this subject ; but I would here point out, in connection with the matter in question, that the pohtical journals, of whatever party, although they otherwise contain such great variety of instructive matter relative to almost every useful subject, nevertheless in general very rarely touch upon questions connected with na- tional education. A few of these papers, however (and among these the " New York Tribune"), form honour- able exceptions, and not only warmly advocate the cause of education, but likewise insert all such matters as may be of importance to the educational system. The indifference to this subject evinced by the greater number of the journals, is the more surprising, as it is one of the most popular topics throughout the Union. The perfect freedom of speech and of the press which reigns in America, and the custom of discussing all questions in pubhc, bring to the knowledge of even the lowest classes among the people a variety of sub- jects, with which in countries less free the higher classes only are expected to be conversant. . Every observing -traveller in that country has no doubt frequently been surprised to find much special scientific knowledge among persons least supposed to possess it. The poli- tical system creates, as it were, an atmosphere of oivi- Uzation, which exercises an influence on aU ; and it is easier to detect its effects than to point out in all cases how they are produced. But this constitutes another K 3 202 EDDCATION OF indirect though powerful means for the education of the popular teachers. Independently of these indirect influences, which help to develope the mental capacities of the teachers, other direct expedients besides the normal schools have been resorted to for the purpose. Thus, in the State of New York; a rather considerable sum from the public funds is granted by the State to the academies ("which are otherwise private institutions), on condition of their introducing a separate class or division for the education of common school teachers : a measure which has not, however, proved very satisfactory*. Under this head must also be reckoned the Public School Society's so-called normal school in the city of New York, which seems admirably adapted for carrying out the object in view, viz. to afford additional in- struction to the persons already employed as assistant * This measure was first introduced in lS2ft, when a specified sum was divided equally among all the existing academies. Subsequently, when it was found that this did not answer the purpose, the State grant was, in 1834, limited to eight acade- mies. In 1849 there were 38 academies, each receiving 250 dollars from the public funds for the purpose in question. Separate allowances have throughout been granted for the purchase of the necessary apparatus for instruction, such as philosophical instruments, &c., &c. This was the first practical measure introduced in the United States, with a view to the education of public school teachers, at least on an extensive scale ; but in 1826, already, the then governor of New York, De Witt Clinton, proposed the foundation of a normal school. i^OPDLAR SCHOOL TEACHERS. 203 teachers in the schools helonging to the society. For male pupils this school is open every evening except Saturdays, after the closing of the common schools ; for the female pupils it is open every Saturday from nine in the morning until three in the afternoon*. Many pupils continue their studies in this school during several years, so that in mathematics, for instance, some have advanced as far as analysis ; and the study of the Latin language also is being introduced. Lectures on various subjects are occasionally delivered in a spacious lecture-room erected for the purpose. The most important institutions as regards their in- fluence on the mental cultivation of the teachers are, however, the so-called Teachers' Associations, or meet- ings of the teachers belonging to smaller or larger ter- ritorial divisions, such as state, county, &c., for the purpose of deliberation and discussion f, as also, more particularly the so-called Teachers' Institutes or Con- ventions. The latter owe their origin to Mr. Barnard, who first introduced them in Connecticut in 1839 ; but since then they have been gradually spreading through the other States, and wherever they have been intro- duced they have proved of the greatest benefit. The teachers' institutes may be considered as a kind of temporary normal schools, opened in each county during the common school vacations, generally during one or two weeks each year, sometimes at two different * Saturday is a holiday in the popular schools of New York. t In the cities the teachers in some cases meet once a week or once a fortnight; those who gather from more distant localities generally do not meet for more than two or three days in the year. 204 EDUCATION OF periods. The common school teachers assemble in these institutes for the purpose of receiving instruction in matters relating to the art of tuition and to disci- pline, from persons especially selected for this charge hy the highest school authority in the State, and who are bound, after the expiration of their term of office, to give a report to the former. It is not unusual for the State Superintendent, or (as in Massachusetts) the Secretary of the Board of Education, to be present at these meetings. In the course of the day regular instruction is given to the assembled teachers, through means of lectures, interrogatories, and practical exercises; and in the evening general questions are propounded, and discus- sions opened, in which all present are at liberty to take part. In this manner the teachers not only acquire much positive information, but, what is not less im- portant, their interest in everything relating to the schools is kept alive, and even heightened, to a degree which cannot easily be attained in a common normal school ; for in the institutes there is something exciting even in the very external circumstances and in the transitory character of the meetings, besides which, the individuals who direct and guide the meetings are mostly selected from among the most distinguished persons in the State, and their influence is proportion- ately great. It is common for the inhabitants in the localities where these teachers' institutes are held, to provide gratuitously board and lodging for the visitors, besides a room in which the meetings may be held ; and the reciprocal action of opinion and of the popular schools POPULAR SCHOOL TEACHERS. 205 upon each other, which is greatly promoted hy the in- stitutes, is, perhaps, one of the most heneficial results of the latter. Upon the whole, these institutes con- stitute one of the most interesting features in the puhhc educational system of America. In many places the travelling expenses incurred hy the teachers are either entirely or partially borne by the State. In the State of New York, the State allowance for the support of teachers' institutes was estimated in 1849 at 3000 dollars. As an example of how far these institutes are at- tended, it may be mentioned that, according to the School Eeport for the State of Maine -in 1849, such meetings had been held in all the counties, and had been attended by 2355 teachers in all, namely, 1074 men, and 1280 women. (According to the same au- thority, the total number of teachers in the State was 6557; namely, 2727 of the male, and 3830 of the female sex.) In New York, above 6000 teachers at- tended the institutes in 1845, &c., &c. I find it stated in the returns from one county in the State of New York, that 320 teachers had attended the institutes, at an expense of 10 dollars each. This is one among many proofs of the interest which the teachers themselves take in the means thus provided for their higher development. To have been present in the institutes is also considered a great recommen- dation in all questions of preferment- CHAPTER XIII. SCHOOL-HOUSES. Among the questions connected with popular education which are at present attracting the greatest attention in America, that of the suitable construction and adapta- tion of the school buildings, is in public estimation considered second only to that of the promotion of a higher degree of culture among the teachers ; and, in consequence, great improvements have in this respect been introduced of late. Formerly too little importance was attached to the condition and character of the school-house and the school-room. A miserable hovel, devoid of every con- venience, and situated on a badly-selected and unat- tractive spot ; a dark, gloomy, and ill-ventilated room ; benches to sit upon, which must have given the children some notion of the rack, and which could not but ex- cite in the minds of school-boys the desire to wreak their vengeance in the form of every degree of injury which a knife can inflict on a wooden bench : such were the outward circumstances amid which the growing gene- ration was doomed to spend a great and most valuable part of its time ; and it will readily be admitted that from such no very beneficial results could be expected as regards the promotion of bodily health, of a sense SCHOOL-HOUSES. 207 of order and propriety, and of general discipline in the school. Those who, either as teacher or as pupil, have experienced hoth, -will best he able to tell how different is the discipline, and how much quicker the progress made, in a school of the opposite character to what I have just described, that is to say, in a school where the teacher as well as the pupil may thrive physically, and in which the neatness and good taste which prevail in all the arrangements have a natural tendency to de- velope feelings of ' self-respect and a sense of order and propriety. And ought not the character of the school always to be such that the pupil, who in his home is accustomed to order and comfort, shall not in his school meet with the very reverse, and that, on the contrary, the pupil, whose home aifords no desirable example in this respect, may in his school find a model of all that regards propriety of conduct and good order ? If it be further considered how apt youth is to confound the abstract and the concrete, it will be allowed that there is great danger that the repulsive character of the school may even inspire the pupils with a certain contempt and dislike of the studies pursued in it; and I am very much inclined to think that a dirty and disorderly school-room, and an ugly and ill-printed school book, have frequently created as great a distaste for study, as has in many instances the personal appearance and character of the master. To the great benefit of popular education, these truths have of late years been generally recognised in America ; and although, owing to causes which have been elsewhere stated, many district school-houses are still in a very dilapidated and neglected state, there 208 SCHOOL-HOUSES. are, on the other hand, many that are well and suitably constructed ; and, what is the most important, every new school-house which is now built is constructed in accordance with the higher claims, as to fitness and convenience, which have of late become prevalent. Should the improvements herein continue to increase in the same ratio as they have progressed during the last decennium, every district school-building will, he- fore the passing away of one generation, have been trans- formed into a neat and pretty cottage; with a playground and a small plantation attached to it, and provided with every external and internal convenience. In the cities and other large communities the school-houses are frequently buildings of a very superior order, and are generally constructed on a very extensive scale, so as to admit a large number of pupils *. In the large schools, suitable means are always adopted for warming and ventilating the school-rooms, and these important points are daily exciting more at- tention. In order to ensure the maintenance of a wholesome middle temperature, the teachers in many schools that I visited were enjoined to watch a thermo- meter suspended in the school-room, and to note down their observations in the school-reeister. o One great improvement which I marked in the in- ternal arrangements of the school-room, is the intro- duction of a most suitable kind of desks and chairs, in * I was present at a meeting of the Board of Education in the city of New York, when 16,000 dollars were voted for erecting a new ward school. In .the rural districts in this State a district cannot legally be constrained to build a school- house at a cost of above 400 dollars. SCHOOL-HOUSES. 209 lieu of the old-fashioned wooden henches. In some cases, each pupil has not only a separate seat, hut a separate desk with a drawer for hooks ; in others, two pupils share the same desk. For the little children in the primary schools, whose weak limbs require to be supported, neat httle arm-chairs have been introduced, having in general a drawer for books on the one side. That such arrangements are calculated to act most be- neficially on the physical well-being of the children, and on the promotion of order and industry, by keep- ing the pupils from too close contact with each other, will readily be understood by every experienced teacher. The other internal arrangements of the schools are of course in a great measure dependent on the methods of instruction in use. I have already mentioned that, as a general rule, the Lancasterian system has been aban- doned in America. Here and there may, indeed, be found a school in which it is still strictly followed (in New Haven, for instance, I visited a very good school conducted on this plan, and the teacher in which was a pupil of Lancaster himself*), or others, as, for instance, * In this school, the male department of which numbered 250 pupils, there was only one head master and one assistant. Those who have examined both cannot, I think, fail to give the preference to the usual schools in America ; but these are, indeed, much more expensive. However, although a, popular school conducted strictly on the Lancasterian plan cannot be considered a model of perfection, it would, nevertheless, be a mistake to deny that the system of mutual instruction, if applied with discrimination, may be of great use in a school, particularly if the latter be considered not only as an institu- tion for imparting instruction, but as an educational establish- ment. 210 SCHOOL-HOUSES. the public schools in New York, where it is applied in a modified form ; such instances are, however, excep- tional, the rale being that the number of teachers shall be such as to admit of their dispensing with the aid of monitors. About 50 scholars is considered the highest number which one teacher can well undertake, and although I have known schools where there have been as many as 60 or 70 pupils to each teacher, yet I be- have that 30 or 40 is the average number. In Massa- chusetts, for instance, according to the School Eeport of 1850, the average number was, in the summer schools, one teacher to 27 pupils ; and in the winter schools, one to 34. In the other States the proportions are the same; but this does not prevent a gTeat number of scholars from being assembled in one and the same room. I have seen schools in which as many as 500 pupils and upwards have been assembled in one room, and others in which upwards of 1500 pupils have been gathered under one roof. In this latter instance, the ground floor was occupied by a primary school, and the two other stories by the male and female departments of a grammar school. At one end of the immense common room, intended for rehearsings, and for exercises in writing, singing, elocution, &c., the head master pre- sides, and instructs the highest class, while the assistant masters, placed at suitable distances at the other end of the room, are partly engaged in giving lessons, partly in superintending those who are rehearsing. The lessons are repeated, or, as they say in America, recited to the masters in the two or three smaller ad- joining rooms, termed recitation rooms. • In the primary schools the children of both sexes SCHOOL-HOUSES. 211 occupy the same room ; but in the schools of higher grade the pupils of the different sexes are mostly, but not always, separated. In every case, however, there are separate entrances from the street for girls and hoys, separate staircases and separate entrances into the school-room, where, on coming in, the children are received by one of the assistant teachers, who main- tains order and sees that they take their proper seats ; and lastly, there are separate court-yards for the two sexes. In the district schools in the country there is generally but one room, and altogether the excellent arrangements which prevail in the town schools are as yet but very partially introduced in the rural districts, although endeavours are being made to raise these also to a level with the best models. But there are of course many arrangements which, however necessary and desirable in a large school in a city, are less so in a small and indigent school iu a rural district, and which would indeed in the latter case be impossible of attainment. As regards the materiel of instruction, this is gene- rally of the highest character in all the better schools. Every grammar school in Boston, for instance, pos- sesses, as I have already stated, an excellent collection of scientific instruments ; and ia many other popular schools I have seen small collections of minerals, tech- nical products, &c., &c., and I believe there are but few schools with the slighest pretensions to superiority, that are entirely without some collection of the kiud ; which, in addition to its immediate usefulness as a means of practical illustration, cannot fail to act Hke- wise as an incitement to the pupils. Outline maps and 212 SCHOOL-HOUSES. a black drawing board, generally running all round the walls of the room, are likewise never-faihng append- ages of a good popular school in America. The poorer district schools in the country are indeed, in many cases, but badly provided with these conyeniences, and in some they are perhaps entirely wanting, but in this respect also great progress has been made of late. Original methods of instruction, peculiar to the country, I have not met with in America ; but all the latest opinions and principles concerning education are well known there, and as a European invention is rarely adopted in America without undergoing some improve- ment of one kind or the other, so also in the present case slight innovations have been introduced. The school- book Uterature of the country is uncommonly rich. All the good works that England has produced in this branch of literature have been multiplied to an immense extent by numerous reprints, and many works of the kind have also been translated from foreign languages; besides which, the number of original educational works is very great, and many are of high merit. The great demand for school books in the popular schools ren- ders a publication of the kind highly remunerative if successful, and this circumstance of course acts as a constant spur on authors and publishers. Besides, as it is very rare for anything to be long-lived in America, a book — and even a school book — which has been out some time soon comes to be looked upon as antiquated, and it is superseded by a greater novelty. All these circumstances lead to the publication of a really super- fluous number of school books : a state of things which, though it may have its advantages, is never- SCHOOL-HOUSES. 213 theless attended with many disadvantages also, as I have elsewhere shown. As it seems most appropriate to mention the suhject in connection with the other matters relating to the in- ternal organization of the schools, I suhjoin a few words relative to the system of discipline in the popular schools. That in America, as elsewhere, the cane and the strap should of old have been the chief instruments for the maintenance of discipline in the schools, will excite no surprise, as it is well known that the Puritans were never given t6 over-indulgence in point of educa- tion. To this day, if I he correctly informed, corpo- ral punishment in the popular schools is nowhere in the Union excluded by law *, although it has become less and less usual to have recourse to this odious measure, and it is universally condemned by persons who are well acquainted with the workings of the educational system. Indeed, in a school, as in the community at large, the necessity of recurrence to physical force for the maintenance of order, seldom arises except in con- sequence of weakness or incapacity in the governing body. In a school, the master of which understands his calling, and where due superintendence is exercised, the ferule may without inconvenience be banished * The application of corporal punishment is left to the dis- cretion of the masters. In a decision given by the School Superintendent in New York, in a case relative to a question of discipline, he says, " The teacher is responsible for the main- tenance of order in the school, and he must himself determine the nature and the degree of the punishment to be inflicted in case of resistance to his authority ; he will, however, at the same time, be held responsible for any abuse of a prerogative which is only founded on old custom." 214 SCHOOL-HOUSES. from the school-room. In America, the gradual dis- continuance of corporal punishment has heen propor- tionate to the improvement in the character of the teachers employed, and to the increased strictness in the control exercised hy the puhlic over the schools. This result is partly owing to the milder spirit of the times, but also, no doubt, in a great measure to the more frequent employment of women as teachers, a state of things which cannot otherwise than exercise a refining influence on the manners of the schools. All writers in America who have of late years treated of this subject, express opinions in accordance with the views here put forward ; and as an instance of the importance which is attached to the gradual aboHtion of corporal punish- ment, I may mention that the Public School Society of New York occasionally bestows honorary diplomas on masters who have been able during a lengthened period to uphold discipline without the aid of such chastisement. In general it may be said, that in America the system of discipline in the schools is severe, but the means of upholding it are mild. The same apparent contradic- tion will be observed in all matters relating to the life of the community in the United States, and its explanation must be sought in the recognised truth, that men gene- rally turn out such as we take them to be. The practical mode of proceeding in all relations is, to evince earnest- ness in one's dealing with people, but to treat all — whether young or old, high or low, rich or poor— with that respect to which human nature has a rightful claim, and to be severe when severity is really re- quired, but not to observe and to punish every slight SCHOOL-HOUSES. 215 offence, from a love of interference or tyranny. Where these rules are acted upon, be it in State or school, it ■w#l soon be discovered that it is not so very difficult a matter to maintaiu order as many are inclined to suppose. I have had opportunities of witnessing the effects of a system such as I have just described in many American schools, and in several of these I have met with the most delightful examples of order, peacefulness, and quiet, ■which have left an impression on my miad never to be effaced *. In the high school in Hartford (Connecticut) a sys- tem has been introduced of letting the pupils them- selves form a tribunal for the judgment of all offences relative to discipHne. Every morning after prayers, the annotations made by the monitor on the preceding day, and delivered in to the master, are submitted to the votes of the pupils. On these occasions each pupil is at liberty to move for such alterations on various points as he may deem desirable, and these motions are then likewise discussed by all. I was present on an occa- sion of the kind, and had the pleasure of hearing a good deal of youthful parliamentary eloquence. The teacher who ofiBciated as chairman had, however, re- served to himself the right of absolute veto. The monitors, who are termed officers, are elected by the * At times, indeed, the desire for quiet and silence in the school seems carried too far. I have seen schools in which it is a rule that the children before entering the school-room must take off their shoes and put on slippers, in order not to make a noise ; the additional advantage of keeping the floors clean is, however, obtained by the same means. 216 SCHOOL-HOUSES. pupils. I was told that this disciplinary system was found to work well, but according to my opinion it is not one which it would be advisable to imitate. • The system of holding out money reward^ as an encouragement to industry and good conduct, is en- tirely abolished; but counters and marks of distinction are still used in some schools. However, in America the conviction is daily gaining ground, that even these latter means, far from being effective for good, rather act injuriously, and that the good opinion of teachers and companions, or, at the utmost, the rank held in the school, constitute suiScient incitements, and are the only ones which ought to be allowed. In spite of all that may be said about the sense of honour, and in spite of all the great things which ambition has accompHshed, T am certainly of opinion, that every endeavour to incite young persons to industry and good conduct by means of rewards, is a direct contravention of the chief object of education, which must be to im- plant a love of good and a love of knowledge for its own sake, and to teach the young mind in every respect to prize reality above mere appearance. As means of enlivening the pupils and also of keep- ing up an interest in the schools among the population in general, it has become customary in many places to have what are termed " celebrations '' once or twice a year, on which occasions as much pomp as possible is displayed in processions with flags, &c., in order to induce the pubhc to be present at the examinations and the delivery of the addresses which follow. Another expedient, conceived in the true American spirit, and which no doubt also has a very quickening SCHOOL-HOUSES. 217 effect upon the scholars, has of late years heen adopted by the Public School Society in New York, at the sug- gestion of a Mr. Holbrook. This is a relation esta- blished between the schools of the Society and those of other States for the interchange of products of the schools, such as drawings, maps, &c., and also of minerals and other natTiral objects peculiar to the various locahties. It is evident that the emulation awakened by these interchanges may have a very bene- ficial effect, while at the same time the school collec- tions are enriched without expense, and the pupils be- come more interested in them, in as far as they them- selves contribute to increase them. What I have said in the foregoing pages about the treatment of children in the schools, may be equally applied to their treatment at home. Although in the Northern States (in the South it is very different) parental authority is exercised with a certain degree of severity, this is mostly accompanied with a moderation and consideration that leads one to think that the parents ever bear in mind that their children will one day grow up and have to choose their own religious faith, and to exercise all the rights which belong to a citizen in a democratic State. The children, in conse- quence, soon learn to look upon themselves as beings called to independent thought and action; and their characters are thus early developed, and their attention turned to the more serious aspects of hfe. Under such circumstances the home of the pupil becomes a power- ful ally of the school ; but it is, however, probable that in many cases this system degenerates into too great laxity, and thus engenders self-will in the children. L 218 SCHOOL-HOUSES. At all events, whether it arise from this cause, or from neglect or bad example, it is a fact that the popular schools in America as well as in other countries, are afficted with a considerable number of refractory and self-willed children *, and, as far as I am aware, the school laws in all the States authorize the teachers and school directors to expel such pupils as cannot by any means be brought to subjection. This is, how- ever, a measure which ought to be more sparingly had recourse to even than corporal punishment, but which may, nevertheless, sometimes prove absolutely neces- sary. The system of annotation books, which affords such an effective means of control over the conduct of the pupils, is in general use in the popular schools of America. Another connecting link between school and home, which I consider less desirable, is the cus- tom of giving the pupils lessons to study at home. This, as well as several other regulations, shows a mis- taken tendency to overwork the intellectual faculties of the children at the expense of their bodily strength and health f. As far as I am aware, gymnastic exercises * I have been told of some examples of insubordination carried to an extreme quite unheard of in our country (for in- stance, of a pupil levelling a pistol at the teacher), but which are more easily explained in a country like America, where the use of fire-arms is so common among young and old. There are not, either, wanting examples of district schools in the rural districts having been entirely broken up on account of the impossibility of maintaining discipline. In the latter cases, however, the fault may perhaps lie more with the teacher than with the pupils. t Among such regulations, I may mention that which pre- SCHOOL-HOUSES. 219 are not introduced in any of the schools of America ; and all attempts hitherto made to do so have failed. Gymnastics for the hody in a sitting posture, such as are used in our infant schools, have indeed been in- troduced in some schools in America even for older children, but this cannot be considered of much import- ance. Upon the whole, it may be said that nothing relating to education in America stands so much in need of improvement as the physical training of the people. However, in this respect also progress has been made, at least as regards the sanitary arrange- ments in the school-houses, if not in the estabhshment of a regular system of gymnastics. vails in many places, of not dividing the school hours into morning and afternoon hours, but of keeping the children at their studies during " long sessions," as they called it, i. e. from nine in the morning until three in the afternoon, with only short intervals of rest. The frequent want of suitable playgrounds, &c., must also be placed under the head of the circumstances exercising a pernicious influence on the health of the children. L 2 CHAPTEE XIV. SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE POPULAR SCHOOLS. By the exclusion of religious instruction from the popular schools, much more time has been gained for the acquisition of the various branches of secular knowledge, and instruction in these may therefore be carried much further than would otherwise be possible. In many schools one or several of the natural sciences, such as natural philosophy, chemistry, mineralogy, natural history *, physiology, &c., are taught, as also some technical subject, particularly such as may be of importance to the locality in which the school is situ- ated ; but it is but very little that is taught in any of these branches ; and the principal object aimed at is no doubt that of awakening the interest and attention of the pupils, more than the imparting of any amount of positive knowledge. The quantity as well as the quahty of the studies relating to these sciences depends in a great measure on the extent of the collections and in- struments to which each school has access ; I have, however, in some schools met with scientific apparatus * Natural history is in general treated with less favour than natural philosophy and the other physical sciences ; aud this is the case in the higher as well as in the lower educational insti- tutions. SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE POPULAR SCHOOLS. 221 ■which appeared to have been very little used. It may, therefore, he said that it is only in exceptional cases (these heing constituted by the higher grades of the popular schools) that the study of the natural sciences is carried to any extent in the popular schools of Ame- rica, and that in none do these sciences bear an essen- tial part in the course of instruction. Indeed, it is self- evident that an extended course of such studies can never be introduced into popular schools ; yet it seems to me that much still remains to be done in this respect, and there is every reason to beheve that it mil ulti- mately be done. Geometry and linear drawing may, to a still greater extent, be considered as exceptional branches of study in the schools. It seems to be a common defect in education in America, that it aims too exclusively at the development of the intellect, overlooking such matters as contribute to cultivate the feelings, the sense of beauty, &c. Drawing and the rules of per- spective, which (independently of their practical useful- ness) are so important for this purpose, are too much neglected. History cannot, either, be said to be studied with much zeal, and this is easily explained. The Ame- cans are a new people, and as yet their history has but few great epochs. It is true, on one occasion when I was present in a grammar school in Boston, I heard the pupils examined in the intricate passages of English history relating to the wars of the White and Eed Eoses, and such other events ; but, nevertheless, history does not hold the same rank among the studies in the schools, as does geography, for instance. In connec- 222 SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE tion -with the historical studies some instruction is given in the poUtioal laws of the country ; hut this is a subject on which every man in America will soon obtain information without the aid of the schools. We have now come down to what are considered the usual branches of study in the popular schools ; those hitherto touched upon may be looked upon as a valuable and elegant ornamental appendage to the common school education, but more they will never be. The good rule, that it is better to learn little and well than much and badly, ought, above all things, to be appHed to popular schools. The sphere of instruc- tion in these must always, in a very great measure, be limited to the first rudiments of knowledge, and it is essential that these should be thoroughly mastered, as, without them, every further progress is rendered im- possible, or at least so difficult that the course passed through may be considered as having partially failed in its object. It is, therefore, well and good if more can be achieved, but the chief aim of a popular school ought to be to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic, thoroughly. In the American schools geography is added to these studies as one of the essential branches of instruction. It canno.t be denied that this science is a very suitable subject of study in all popular schools, and it has, in consequence, been introduced to a greater or less extent in those of all countries ; but in America it is of so much more importance, because the Americans migrate within the limits of their own country more than any other nation, in addition to which they devote themselves much to a seafaring life. The study of geography is therefore pursued with par- POPULAR SCHOOLS. 223 ticular ardour in the American schools ; so much so, indeed, that I have heen surprised to hear the know- ledge evinced by the pupils, not only regarding the geographical conditions of the wide-spread regions of America, hut even of so remote a country as my own. Writing and arithmetic, particularly the latter, are also carried to great perfection. In arithmetic is generally included mental arithmetic. First in rank among the subjects of study is, how- ever, the English language, which, in the more superior American schools, embraces reading, elocu- tion, grammar, and composition. It is evident that, if in every country a thorough knowledge of the mother tongue is of the greatest value, it must be so much the more so in a country where the mode of government is such, that it renders it of the greatest importance that every citizen should he able not only to understand written and spoken language, but to ex- press himself with ease and distinctness in writing and speaking. Very great importance is, indeed, attached to this in the popular schools ; and I have been astonished to see the ease with which pupils of 12 or 13 years of age have treated in writing any subject given to them. As a remarkable proof of how far the capacity for expressing thoughts in writing in the mother tongue is cultivated in the American popular schools, I may mention the periodical written and published by the female operatives in the manufacturing town of Lowell, and the contents of which, though of no great artistic or literary value, nevertheless prove a mastery over the language, which is highly surprising in persons in that 324 SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE condition of life. Indeed, the greater number of writers in the United States owe the substructure of their literary attainments to the popular schools. Por the purposes of reading and declamatory exer- cises, there are excellent books of varied contents, and adapted for the different grades of schools. From these books the pupils may acquire a store of varied information and a degree of mental cultivation which is not the less real and valuable because the knowledge is not instilled in the form of a regular lesson. I must, however, observe, that in general the American school reading books contain too great a proportion of elocu- tionary pieces and poetry, and are, in regard to more weighty subjects, far inferior to reading books of the same class in Europe. The art of reading is frequently carried to great perfection in the popular schools in America. The pupils are made to read, sometimes one at a time, to the whole class, and at others all at once. When present at the latter exercises, I often admired the accuracy and harmony which was observed, and which made it almost appear as if I were listening to one voice only *. For exercise in declamation the pupils recite aloud pieces from the reading book, which have been learnt by heart. For this purpose selections are generally made from the speeches of celebrated statesmen, and thus the school-rooms often resound with the glowing speeches of the patriots of the time of the revolution, such as Patrick Henry and others, breathing the love * The greatest amount of difficulty is found in the spelling lessons. POPULAR SCHOOLS. 225 of liberty in every sound. I often thought, on such occasions, of what would be the alarm of many a school director in Europe were he to hear anything of the kind. In America there is no ground for such alarm. There, even childhood is made familiar with political liberty, and as the latter thus loses the piquancy of a forbidden fruit, it loses also those exciting qualities which in Europe often makes the lovers of liberty break through all bounds. Of late singing has, in many places, been introduced into the popular schools ; and wherever this has taken place, the results have proved so satisfactory, that the subject has been taken up with great warmth by all American educationalists. In the grammar schools in the cities, at least in the superior ones, a piano will generally be found. In the grammar schools the course of education ex- tends a good deal beyond the hmits usual in the popular schools in Europe, and they may therefore be considered as holding an intermediate position between what we strictly understand by popular schools, and what, in Germany and Scandinavia, are termed Real schools *. This is a natural consequence of the gra- dation of the popular schools, and in proportion to the spread of this system will be the rise in the character of the public schools. * Schools in which arts and sciences are taught. — Traris. L 3 CHAPTEE XV. RELIGIOUS INSTEUCTION. To one accustomed to see the catechism form the quintessence of the course of instruction in the popular schools — and more particularly to one who thinks that the time spent in mastering tliis compendium of dogmatism is in reality so much time spent in ac- quiring quickening religious knowledge — to such a one, I say, it must be matter of painful surprise to find, that in America all positive religious instruction is banished from the schools*. His surprise will no doubt increase, when he learns that, nevertheless, in America there is in all likelihood as much real piety as in any other Christian land, and at the same time, be- yond all comparison, a greater show of outward i-eli- gious propriety than in any country, except, perhaps. Great Britain. In a country possessing perfect religious liberty, the exclusion of religious instruction from the schools becomes a matter of absolute necessity, if any general system of popular education is at all to exist. Were separate schools to be erected for the separate sects, this would, besides many other disadvantages, render the * America is not, however, the only Christian country in which this is the case. BELIGIOUS INSTEUCTION. 227 Schools much more expensive, while, at the same time, they would degenerate in character. It has thus heen found necessary to provide other means for the rehgious instruction of the youth of the country ; and that this is practicahle, and instead of exercising a haneful, on the contrary exercises aheneficial influence on the Christian religious culture of the community, is most satisfactorily proved by the example of America. In the country itself the existing system is generally highly approved by all Protestants, whether clergy or laymen, although of course a dissenting voice is now and then raised. Ob- jections against the system are, however, constantly raised by the Eoman Catholic part of the population ; and from this quarter frequent demands are made for-the erection and supply of separate sect schools. It is also the Catholics who above all others send their children to private sect schools ; and it is often quite impossible to induce them to avail themselves of the popular schools, however excellent these may be. Now, either we must deny the existence of all Christian zeal among the Protestants of America, and assume the Catholics alone to be animated by such, or we must conclude that the opposition of the latter to the popular schools, and their partiality for the exclusive sect schools, must originate in some other feeling besides anxiety for the religious education of the children. Those who are at all acquainted with the views of the Koman Catholic Church relative to popular education in general, and to religious instruction in particular, will find no difficulty in discovering what may be these motives*. * De Tocqueville says, relative to the influence of religion 228 EELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. For my part, I can only say, in accordance with all that I have heard and seen, that if there be not a true and living interest for rehgion and Christianity among the Protestant clergy and people of America, such in- terest must he sought in vain throughout Christendom. Before entering upon a further elucidation of the means used for imparting positive religious instruction, I will endeavour to reply to one objection which may be raised on this point. It might be said that if reli- gious instruction he excluded from the popular schools, the whole character of the latter must be anti-religious and unchristian. And, it might be added, ought not religion to be the very essence of all popular instruc- tion, and where this is neglected will not the mental culture of the people take a false direction ? Without wishing in the least to deny the great on the democracy of America : " On peut done dire qu'aux Etats-Unis il n'y a pas une seule doctrine religieuse qui se montre hostile aux institutions democratiques et r6publicaines ;" and he takes great pains to prove this, in particular as regards the Roman Catholic religion. However, should it happen — as certain steps on their side give reason to fear — that the Catholics withdraw in greater numbers from the public schools, and give the education of their children exclusively into the hands of the clergy and the " frferes Chretiens," this would seem to me a most dangerous attack on the democratic liber- ties of the country. From their foundation and throughout every stage of their development, the leading American com- munities have been based upon the greatest attainable amount of enlightenment among the people, and in spite of the recog- nised principles of religious liberty, they have always retained a strong Protestant character. The vast increase of the Catholic element which has of late taken place, will no doubt lead to many inconveniences, if not dangers, particularly if the separation to which I have alluded should take place. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 229 importance of religion as regards popular educa- tion, and indeed as regards all education, I cannot, first of all, admit the correctness of the proposition that every educational institution in which religion does not form one of the branches of positive instruction, must necessarily and consequently be irreligious and unchristian in its tendencies. An agricultural school, or a mining school, a technological institution, a draw- ing academy, or a riding school, for instance, are not considered unchristian institutions, because Christianity is not taught in them. These various establishments do not pretend to teach anything but worldly know- ledge, but surely they cannot therefore be considered as hostile to religion. The same is the case with the popular schools in America. They must be considered merely as institutions for imparting instruction in the branches of temporal knowledge which form part of popular education. This is their sole aim, and this is all they pretend to be ; but are they therefore to be looked upon as anti-religious ? The important thing is, that religious instruction should form part of national education, but if it be imparted in educational esta- blishments denominated popular schools, or elsewhere, it matters not. It would, however, be a great mistake, were it to be supposed that in what I have said above I have fully expressed the relation in which the popular schools stand to religion. This relation is by no means purely negative ; the influence of the schools on the develop- ment and propagation of Christian religiousness is, on the contrary, most positive and beneficial. In the greater number of the popular schools, at 230 EELIGIODS INSTRUCTION. least in New Eugland, the custom of reading the Bible is maintained ; in many places, however, it has been discontinued, and justly so, in accordance with the established principles, as there is one Christian sect, the Eoman Catholics, who object to it. The custom of having prayers in the morning is likewise kept up in most cases, although in some schools they have been obliged to abandon it, in order to avoid every appear- ance of sectarianism. Dogmatical instruction, on the contrary, is never attempted ; but Httle indeed must they understand of the nature of religion, who believe that a true religious spirit cannot exist and be incul- cated in a school, unless the latter bear more or less the character of a theological seminary. Although no word of dogma be breathed — nay, although the Bible be never read within its walls, the whole course of in- struction and the system of discipline in a school may, I think — and the practical example of many American schools has confirmed me in this opinion — be so deeply imbued with the purest spirit of Christianity, that the influence exercised cannot but be much more effective than the mere mechanical repetition of the phrases of a catechism or of a compendium theologice dogmatics. Some persons may perhaps be wilhng to allow that a certain kind of religiousness may be developed under such circumstances, who may nevertheless feel inclined to question whether it be Christian. To this I reply with another question : What else could it be in a Christian country ? But setting aside this question, it must at all events be admitted that a religious spirit in general is at least a very good foundation for Christianity. EELIGIOXJS INSTRUCTION. 231 The task of imparting positive Christian knowledge is chiefly entrasted to the Sunday schools, which, in America, are exclusively devoted to this object. These schools were first introduced in 1790, thanks to the efforts of the Methodists, and several limited associa- tions were successively formed for promoting their general introduction, until at length, in 1823, the American Sunday School Union was founded. The chief object of this Union, the principal seat of which is Philadelphia, is to promote the establishment of Sunday schools throughout the United States, wherever they be wanting, and to publish and distribute religious books and tracts, for use in the Sunday schools as well as in the homes of the people. As many as 50 mis- sionaries a year have been employed by the society to act for the promotion of the first-named object, and who for this purpose travel about, principally in the new States, to encourage individuals as well as commu- nities to be active in the cause. The Union has besides entered into relations with a number of zealous persons belonging to the upper classes, and who act as resident agents, each in his immediate sphere. As regards the second object of the society's activity, the extent of the latter may be judged from the fact that the publisher's catalogue for 1849 comprises 5213 larger and smaller works published by the society since its establishment (including various forms of the same works, and in general also various editions of the same works). Small collections of 25 or 50 volumes are formed for the use of the Sunday schools, which, if taken at one pur- chase, are sold for a very moderate price ; and indeed, in general the prices of the society's publications are 232 RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. fixed so low, that the expenses are barely covered by the proceeds of the sales. Nevertheless the gross 'pro- ceeds on these books amounted, in the year mentioned, to 130,000 dollars. Books to the value of upwards of 12,000 dollars were distributed gratuitously in the same year ; and the society received in donations up- wards of 30,000 dollars. In addition to the publica- tion of books — partly original works, partly transla- tions, and partly reprints of English works — the asso- ciation publishes three journals, one for teachers, and two for children and young people. As an example of the cheapness of these publications I may mention that one of the last-named journals, which appears twice a month, consists of sixteen small octavo pages, and is embeUished with very pretty woodcuts, costs 26 cents a year. The American Sunday School Union embraces all the evangelical sects ; and in order to exclude all one- sided sectarianism, the books which it publishes are examined by a committee, comprising one member of each rehgious denomination. The directing body is composed exclusively of laymen, it having been con- sidered more advisable to entrust the care of the interests of the association to the latter than to clergymen. Besides this general Sunday School Association, the greater number of the more numerous religious sects have formed separate associations within their own de- nomination, for the same purposes as those of the general association, but whose sphere of activity is limited to each particular sect. These various associa- tions have exercised a most beneficial influence on the religious education of the people ; and I cannot sup- RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 233 press my conviction that a system of Sunday schools, such as exists in America, is much more calculated to promote not only the knowledge, hut also the prac- tice of Christianity, than the teaching of the catechism, such as is customary in popular schools in Europe. One circumstance in particular connected with this sub- ject I would point out. I stated above that a truly re- hgious spirit may reign in a school, notwithstanding that religion is excluded as a subject of positive in- struction ; but, may we not go further, and assert, that in reality religion suffers from being made a subject of instruction in the daily school ? As religious instruc- tion in the common schools must alternate with the temporal studies, is it not probable that iu the minds of the pupils it will be placed on a level with the other subjects ? Is it not probable that even the teachers ■will treat the one subject in exactly the same manner as the other, that is to say, they will treat it as an in- tellectual exercise, and nothing more ? And can we suppose that all this will not contribute to degrade and profane religion in the thoughts of the young ? At least, as far as my experience goes, it tells me that thus it is. Observe the tone which generally rules in schools where, nevertheless, religion is daily taught ! If there be any hour of schooltime from which it is thought absence will be of no consequence, it is the hour of prayer. And who, that has ever frequented a school, has not as many bitter or disagreeable recollections connected with the religious teaching as with any other lessons ? Who has not witnessed daily ebullitions of temper in teacher as well as pupils, and found these as often called forth by the rehgious exercises as by any 234 RELIGIODS INSTEDCTION. other ? And is it not most desirable that everything of this kind should be ayoided in connection with such a subject as religion* ? In a Sunday school it is' different. The very fact that a school is set apart for religious instruction alone, places the latter on a different footing to all the other subjects of instruction in the estimation of the pupils, * I cannot refrain from quoting, in connection with this sub- ject, the words of a highly respectable clergyman of the Anglican Church, used in a report made by him in his capacity of Inspector to the Committee of Council on Education : " But," he says, " I was shocked to find that it was more particularly in the understanding of the Bible (read daily in the schools), that even the most advanced children in the public schools were most deficient. Not only were they frequently ignorant of the principal events mentioned in the Bible, but sometimes they could not even answer the simplest question regarding the chapter they had just been reading. Their religious ignorance was not, either, in the least diminished hy their hnoioledge of the catechism. I repeatedly examined the highest class in part of the catechism, and found that they did not even understand the meaning During the reading of the Bible by the monitor, as well as during the lessons in catechism, the children evinced strong signs of inattention and disgust, occa- sionally alternating with outbursts of roguish merriment, when the eye of the teacher was averted In con- sequence of the Bible being used as the means of teaching them to read and to spell, it becomes connected in their minds with all the reprimands and punishments they incur in the course of these lessons ; and it will he fortunate if the Scriptures, thus used for u, purpose for which they were never intended, do not beccine in their eyes the symbol of all that is tiresome and disgusting." This is a deplorable confession, but if the truth were told, it might no doubt, with little alteration, be applied to religious instruction in all daily schools. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 235 while the holiness of the Sabhath, in connection with all the external as well as internal arrangements of the school, are calculated to tune the minds of teachers as well as scholars to a pitch which is likely to exclude all that is profane or unholy. Those who have seen reli- gious instruction imparted in both classes of schools can hardly hesitate as to which to give the preference, that is to say, if they are of opinion that reUgious knowledge ought to be something more than a common lesson. The Sunday schools in America are generally held in the basement story of the churches, which are espe- cially arranged for this purpose, or in the ordinary school-houses; sometimes also in some lecture-room, or even in a room in a private house. In the rural districts they are open only once a day, either before or after divine service; in the towns they are open both' before and after. Lessons in the Bible or other religious books, to be learnt at home from one Sunday to another, are given to the children, and these are re- peated in the Sunday school, and explained by the teacher. The superintendents of these schools are elected by the congregation, and are sometimes clergymen, some- times laymen. The teachers are in most, if not all cases, laymen, or women, frequently zealous members of the congregation, who give their services gratuitously for love of the good cause. This cause is indeed, in America, considered, of so much importance, that the most respected among the citizens do not think it be- low their dignity to be teachers in a Sunday school, and there are many examples of judges of the supreme 236 RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. courts, and other high functionaries, having devoted themselves to this calling. I have been told that Ge- neral Harrison, equally distinguished as a man and a •warrior, fulfilled his duties as teacher in a Sunday school down to the very Sunday preceding his depar- ture for Washington, to assume the office of President of the United States, to which he had been called by the confidence of his fellow-citizens. It is a circumstance highly worthy of remark, that in America not only is popular instruction in general removed from the control of the clergy, but that even all that concerns the Sunday schools, and consequently the most important part of the religious instruction of the people, with the exception of that which the -chil- dren get in their homes, is left in the hands of laymen. To me it seems that this arrangement is in true har- mony with the spirit of Christianity, according to which every man is called to be a priest, and minister in his sphere and to the full measure of his capacities ; and this constitutes one of the great privileges of Christians. The higher the development which Chris- tianity attains, i. e. the more it is brought into harmony with its object, and the more the Christian spirit spreads among men, the less will be . the importance and influence of the offices of an outward priesthood. The circumstances which I have touched upon above may, therefore, he considered as forming a very re- markable point of development in the history of Christianity. It might be questioned whether religious instruction imparted by laymen would be as strictly dogmatical and as definite as is desirable. But it must be remem- RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 237 bered that the teachers have books to guide them, and it must he assumed that they understand these suf- ficiently to he able to give all the explanations required. However, I do not think these teachers are in general called upon to make any very subtle theological defini- tions. I have already mentioned that the American Sunday School Union embraces all evangelical religious sects, and that the books published by it must not contain anything offensive to any one of these sects ; now as the lesson books and the reading books of the Union are in general use in all the Sunday schools, it is evident that, at least as regards the religious education of children, no great importance is attached to the dogmatical points on which these sects differ. As, however, the great object of the Union is to impart true Christian instruction, this further proves that the parties in question do not look upon these points as essential, but that they conceive that true Christianity exists beyond and independently of their sectarian dif- ferences. In truth, were it not thus in reaUty, the Christian church would be in a strange position, and the more so, that under such circumstances, no one would venture to decide where the Christian church really was. True Christian instruction may thus be given apart from all dogmatism, the child being taught only that which is general and essential in Christianity, while the points at variance between the different sects are left to be tested at a maturer age. Such, I think, is the general character of religious instruction in the American Sunday schools, although there may be some isolated attempts at sectarian influence. However, sectarianism in America, as well as elsewhere, 238 EEHGIOUS INSTRUCTION. is often more a name than a reality, at least as far as regards purely dogmatical differences. Were the lay members of any sect, be it Lutheran or Calvi- nistic, &c., who had duly learnt the catechism of their respective sects, to be questioned on the subject, I have no doubt that they would be found to know very little of what constitutes specific Lutheranism, Cal- vinism, &c. Nay, have we not often seen persons pass from one religious denomination to another — and without being impelled by any sinister motives — and yet not even knowing the principal dogmatical differ- ences between the religion they have abandoned and the religion they have adopted ? I was told in America that one religious denomination there, which is noted for its sectarian spirit, has allowed works which had previously been published by the Sunday School Union, to be reprinted under its own auspices, for dis- tribution in its separate Sunday schools, merely in order to impress the sectarian stamp upon them. Although, as has been shown, the influence of lay- men on religious instruction is great in America, the clergy of that country have nevertheless a wide field of activity left open to them as rehgious teachers ; but this activity is hmited to the pulpit, to private conver- sation, and to the so-called Bible-classes. In order to form a just estimate of the influence which may be exercised through these means, as regards the promotion of religious knowledge and the strengthening of reh- gious feeling, we must first endeavour to obtain a clear conception of the position of the American clergy, which is in many respects different from that of the clergy in most other countries. In some cases the minister is by RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 239 law, and in almost every case he is by public opinion, excluded from all interference in political and muni- cipal matters; and any clergyman who took a part in the political contests of the day, would at once lose all influence as a pastor*. In addition to this, public opinion in America also obhges the clergy to observe themselves closely, and to be very circumspect in their conduct, which does not, however, prevent them from being cheerful and agreeable companions. It must also be remembered, that the congregations in America are not larger than that a clergyman may easily become acquainted with his whole flock, and he is thus able more thoroughly to fulfil his pastoral duties; and finally, that earnest attention to the duties of his vocation is the sole means by which the clergyman can acquire a hold upon his congregation, or secure even his worldly prosperity, as there is no State church there to protect him against every complaint. Need I more than slightly allude to all that a clergy thus situated may effect as regards the promotion of piety and religious knowledge ? If all that has been stated above be considered col- lectively ; if, first of all, we take into consideration the amount of religious knowledge which children may acquire in their homes and in the Sunday school; secondly, if we consider that, in a country where attendance at church is not an exception, but the general rule, the pulpit attains much importance as a * Although the clergyman is thus excluded from a seat in school committees, poor-law committees, &c., he may never- theless exercise, indirectly, considerable influence on these various local matters. 240 RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. means not only of spreading religious knowledge, but of rendering it more intelligible ; thirdly, that Bible- classes and other institutions are open to every one ■who desires to be enhghtened on religious questions ; fourthly and fifthly, that the pastor is not only more fre- quently applied to on such questions, but is also more willing to receive such confidences, because he is not prevented from giving them his fuU attention by other occupations of a less spiritual nature ; and finally, that a great number of reUgious books, and above all others of Bibles, are disseminated and read in America, and that the religious journals have as wide a circu- lation, and are as much read, as those of a pohtical character ; — if, I say, we take all these points into con- sideration, it will be easy to conceive how it is possible that true Christian culture may exist in America in a much higher degree than perhaps in any other country, although regular religious instruction is not imparted in the popular schools. It must, however, be acknowledged, as regards the subject in question, that no religious instruction, be it in day school or in Sunday school, can be compared to that which a child receives in its home. This will readily be understood by every one who has had the happiness of growing up in a Christian home. Before the introduction of the Sunday schools in America, direct religious instruction to children was, with the exception of the " sect schools,'' imparted nowhere but at home, and to this day this is the case among the higher classes. Before concluding this chapter, I will, in a few words, touch upon the religious education given to the children in their homes, more especially RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 241 for the purpose of throwing some light upon the cases where the parents belong to different rehgious per- suasions. These cases, however, 1 must observe, are quite exceptional, first, because the greater number of marriages are formed between persons of the same per- suasion, and secondly, because, where this is not the case, the one party is generally converted to the faith of the other. In those cases, on the contrary, where each party remains faithful to his or her persuasion, it is but reasonable to suppose that neither can be a fanatical zealot, but that both must be imbued with the spirit of toleration. And when this is the case, nothing is easier, as has been shown by the example of the Sunday schools, than to give a truly Christian educa- tion to the children, without, on the one side, entering upon any contested points, or, on the other, neglecting any essential part of Christianity. Whether the child shall follow father or mother to church is probably most frequently determined by casual circumstances ; and for my part, I cannot see why they should not, as is indeed sometimes the case, attend both churches alternately ; for no one will suppose that in America nothing is heard from the pulpit but controversial sermons and denunciations of the heresies of other sects. Far from this being the case, most persons, and particularly children, may as a general rule attend the churches of even the most opposed sects, without ever becoming aware of any differences in doctrine. As I am leaving entirely out of consideration some few fana- tical sects, of very httle numerical importance, and the members of which never intermarry with other sects, there are none the differences between which are so 243 EELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. difficult to reconcile, as those between Protestants and Catholics ; but between these also few intermarriages take place. Although, therefore, there may he ex- ceptions, I think that in general the mixed marriages place no great practical obstacles in the way of a re- ligious home education ; and this matter, which at first sight seems to many so beset with difficulties, becomes in practice very simple to those who have properly con- ceived the idea of toleration. And if it be allowed that toleration is not irreconcilable with Christianity, it will likewise be admitted, that the religious education of the children under the circumstances in question, may also be a truly Christian education*. * The spirit of religious toleration which is at present so prevalent in the United States, is one of the most interesting social phenomena of American life, although many individual examples of an opposite spirit are not wanting. Well-informed persons have told me that religious toleration has increased in a remarkable degree within the last twenty, nay, even ten, years, while, at the same time, there is no perceptible diminu- tion in the general interest felt for religion. It is, indeed, a matter of course that the full recognition of religious liberty in school and State must ultimately lead to real toleration ; but it requires time before such a feeling can become prac- tically alive in a nation. In America there has, until of late years, been so much the less reason to look for practical re- sults of this kind, because the establishment of perfect religious freedom in the country is not of very old date, particularly in some of the States. I am persuaded that the great activity which has of late years reigned in all matters relating to popular education, and the discussions concerning religious instruction to which this has given rise, have in no mean degree contributed to the spread of religious toleration. CHAPTEE XVL INFLUENCE OF EUROPEAN EMIGEATrON ON THE STATE OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES. The European emigration to America, which causes such a constant influx of new moral and intellectual elements, renders all statistical calculations of the extent of popular culture in that country yery difficult. It is well known, however, that the people in the Free States stand very high in this respect, and indeed, this can hardly be otherwise where the system of popu- lar instruction is so well organized, and so active, as that of America. I subjoin some figures, which would nevertheless seem to prove the reverse, but which, in fact, only show how necessary it is to proceed warily in drawing conclusions from statistical figures relating to the United States. In the year 1840, when the census was to be taken, an attempt was made in connection therewith to obtain a complete statistical view of various matters relating to the mental and physical condition of the people throughout the Union, or, at least, to make a step in this direction. This attempt did not, however, prove very successful, as subsequent investigation showed so many errors in the returns under certain heads, that confidence in the whole could not but be greatly M 2 244 INFLUENCE OF shaken*. The figures which I am about to quote may, therefore, be more or less incorrect ; but it is nevertheless certain, that, however many errors there may be in the returns, in point of figures, the principal conclusion deducible from them is quite correct, viz. that, even in the Free States of the Union, there are a great number of adults who can neither read nor write. Here are some extracts from the returns in question. The number of white persons above 20 years of age who could not read and write was : — In Massachusetts 4,448 i.e. 1 in 1 66 inhabitants. In New York . 14,983 „ 1 in 162 „ In Ohio . 35,394 „ 1 in 43 „ In Indiana . . 38,100 „ 1 in 18 In Illinois . . 27,502 „ 1 in 14 „ Now if any one were, on the strength of these figures, and without further investigation, to draw conclusions relative to the state of popular culture and popular education in America, these would certainly not be very favourable. The matter is not, however, difl&cult of explanation. If, first of all, we take the two new States, Indiana * As one instance of the inaccuracy of these returns, I wiU state the fact which first roused suspicion against the correctness of the figures, and caused an inquiry to be instituted on various points. Under the head " insane," a most extraordinary pro- portion was found to be among the coloured population, and people began to reason and to draw conclusions from the sup- posed fact. At length measures were taken to verify the re- turns in different localities, and it was then found that the number of coloured persons who had been returned as insane actually exceeded the number existing in the various localities. EUROPEAN EMIGRATION, ETC. 245 and Illinois, we find that the former had, in the year 1800, only 4875 inhabitants, and, in the year 1820, not more than 147,178 ; while the latter was not included in the census of 1800, and in 1820 had only 55,211 inhabitants. From this it will be seen that no very great proportion of the 38,100 ignorant persons in Indiana, above the age of 20, could have been natives of this State, and that the same may he said of the 27,502 persons in Illinois, who could not read and write. That these persons had not immigrated from the older Eastern States, is also evident; for even if it be assumed that the figures relating to New York and Massachusetts, quoted above, show the actual amount of native ignorance in those States, and the calcula- tions be extended to all the old Free States, this will nevertheless not suffice to explain the figures returned for the two Western States which I have mentioned. The very idea that so large a number of native-bom inhabitants of a State like Massachusetts, in the very heart of New England, and possessing so admirable and so active a system of popular instruction, should have grown up in such total ignorance, is absurd, and it is treated as such by all Americans with whom I have conversed on the subject. The only way in which the existence of such an amount of ignorance can be ac- counted for, is, therefore, that it is introduced along with the emigrants from Europe ; and in truth, in England and Ireland, whence the greater number of the emigrants come, the amount of ignorance and rudeness among those classes is sufficiently great to account for the state of things in question. However, although the Americans scout the idea. 246 INFLUENCE OF I do not doubt the possibility of some grown-up indi- viduals being found even in New England, who are ignorant of the rudiments of reading and writing, and it is still more likely that there should be such in those States, as, for instance, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, where popular education is comparatively in a lower stage. Indeed, I am in possession of authentic returns which place the fact beyond a doubt. In the report on the prisons in Massachusetts in 1846, for instance, mention is made of several lads of from 17 to 18 years of age, who had spent the whole of their hfe in the city of Boston, and who, on entering tha house of correction, were found ignorant of even the first rudi- ments of reading and writing. It is not stated whether they were of American or foreign parentage. Accord- ing to the report of 1849, on the prison in Auburn (State of New York), three-fourths of the prisoners were natives of America, and one-third of the whole number could either not read at all, or but very indif- ferently, &c., &c. But from what I have seen, as well as from what I have leamt from other sources, I am nevertheless of opinion, that not only in New England, but also in the other States, such examples very rarely occur among individuals belonging to the chief stock of the nation, i. e. the Anglo-Saxon population. They may, on the other hand, be more common among the children of foreign settlers. I have before mentioned how negUgent the latter often are in sending their cliildren to school, and that this circumstance has led many to fear that compulsory measures may ultimately become necessary, however distasteful they may be. I cannot refrain from making a few observations EUROPEAN EMIGRATION, ETC. 247 relative to the subject touched upon above. It is very usual to judge of the state of national culture in a country by the number of individuals who have no knowledge of reading or writing. It is commonly said, for instance, that in such or such a country there will be found among 1000 adults of sound mind only one or two who cannot read and write, or perhaps not one who cannot read ; and by means of this negative criterion it is supposed to be fully established, that the nation in question has attained a high degree of general culture. It seems to me, however, that the conclusion come to requires to be considerably modified. The capa- bility of reading and writing, however valuable, never- theless proves but little as regards the mental culture of the individual. Before the establishment of the pre- sent systems of national education, there were a great many persons who neither knew how to read or to write, and who nevertheless had attained to a conside- rable degree of moral and religious culture ; and we need not go so far back as the heathen times to recall to mind many examples of most distinguished men, who possessed neither of these acquirements, or, at least, who possessed them in a very slight degree. It does not follow from this, that the arts of reading and writing are not most important means for promoting mental culture, but only that mere reading and writing is not mental culture, whereas the power of thought is, even if it be developed without the aid of these acquire- ments. If the knowledge of reading and writing be not followed by increased mental activity ; if these two arts be merely mastered to a degree which renders them hardly available for any practical purpose ; finally, if 248 INFLUENCE OF the circumstances in the midst of which the individual is placed he such as to make few or no calls upon his mental life, or to offer few or no opportunities for ex- ercising his capacity of reading or writing; then cer- tainly this capacity must -he of little value. For my part, under such circumstances I can see no more dif- ference between a person who can read and write and a person who cannot read and write, than between a parrot that can talk and a parrot that cannot talk. That a man can read is well and good, hut is it not also important to inquire how he reads ? It seems to me that it is of little importance to the community that there be one individual in 1000, or one in 100, or even one in 10, that cannot read nor write, provided only the other 999, or 99, or 9, not only know how to read and write well, but are, besides, ca- pable of thinking for themselves. And according to my views, the problem of national education is by no means solved, because possibly every citizen may know how to read and write. The important question is. How are citizens to he made thinking beings in the great- est possille nmnhersi If national culture be considered from this point of view, the common systems of national instruction, however excellent they may otherwise be, cannot be deemed sufficient for the attainment of the end pro- posed. The seed which is sown in the popular school will soon be choked, if it be not allowed space to de- velope itself; the foundation laid in the school is pur- poseless and meaningless, if a superstructure be not raised upon it. This is the reason why, in several countries in Europe, where national education is sup- EUROPEAN EMIGRATION, ETC. 249 posed to be on a very good footing, the desired results are nevertheless wanting ; and it is in this respect that America stands so high above them. In the two following chapters I will endeavour more fully to develope this important subject, by pointing out cer- tain circumstances in America, which, independently of the popular schools, contribute, in a most active and beneficial way, to promote national culture. M 3 CHAPTEE XVII. IMPORTANCE OF CHEAP LITERATURE FOR THE PEOPLE. Even those who feel the deepest reverence for rehgion, and who are most alive to the importance and value of religious books, as regards the especial object these have in view, must allow that such literature alone is not sufficient for the cultivation of the mind. Persons commonly denominated " cultivated," are certainly not so called on account of their superior theological know- ledge, but, on the contrary, in as far as there is any truth in the denomination, because of their attain- ments in secular knowledge and science; and if the catechism is to be the principal subject of instruction in the schools frequented by the great mass of the people, and if subsequently the reading of the people is restricted to the Bible and the prayer book, we must allow that this reading will not contribute in any essential degree to the cultivation of the national mind, however justly we may otherwise prize it. It seems to me that if the people are to be educated through the medium of books, it is necessary that they should be provided with useful and instructive secular literature, as well as with religious reading. In this respect, America (in which country, however, spiritual literature. IMPORTANCE OF CHEAP LITERATURE, ETC. 251 far from being neglected, is more cultiyated than in any- other) has made extraordinary and most satisfactory progress. The Americans are not only the most prac- tical people in the world, hut also, taken as a ■^hole, the people who read the most. Every one who is ac- quainted with the latest hooks of travels in America, must have met with some statement hearing witness to the almost incredible amount of popular reading in that country. I subjoin a few notices of a more gene- ral character and wider scope, which tend further to confirm these statements. One of the principal means employed for the en- couragement of reading among the great mass of the people, are the district-school libraries, which are at- tached to the common schools. I have in the fore- going pages alluded to the allowances made by the State for the purpose of establishing such libraries. With respect to this point the State of New York, in which the system was first introduced, ranks first among the States of the Union*. A yearly sub- sidy of 56,000 dollars is granted from the public exchequer of that State for the district-school libraries, and the municipalities raise annually an equal amount for the same purpose. According to the official report * The first enactment bearing upon district-school libraries dates from 1835. The first juvenile library was, however, founded in Salis- bury, in Connecticut, about 50 years ago. The plan of estab- lishing district-school libraries is said to have originated with a Mr. James, of Connecticut. As a local measure, town and country district libraries no doubt existed in New York, as well as other States, long before their systematic introduc- tion in the former State. 252 IMPORTANCE OF CHEAP LITERATURE for 1850, the district-school libraries comprised toge- ther no less than 1,409,154 volumes, which gives an average of 125 volumes for each district. When a district numbering 50 or more children within the ages appointed for attendance at school has already collected as many as 125 volumes, the portion of the public grants allotted to it for the purchase of books may legally be alienated for other purposes, such as the purchase of school apparatus, &c., and the same may be done in a district which numbers less than 50 chil- dren, when the number of the volumes in the school library amount to 100. The books purchased are se- lected by the inhabitants of the district, under the guidance of the proper school authorities (the State Superintendent deciding in cases of appeal); but the liberty of choice is somewhat restricted, school books, as also religious works of a sectarian, and political writings of a polemical character, being inadmissible. With few exceptions, the collections generally consist of good works on religion, philosophy, the natural sciences, history, geography, &.c.* The books are lent on certain conditions to the pupils in the district school, as well as to the inhabitants of the district generally. If a special librarian be not appointed, the functions of this oiBce are performed by the clerk of the district. An annual report of the state of the library is made to the authorities whom it concerns. The data which I have been able to collect relative * The Board of Education in Boston has published a number of useful books, with an especial view to the requirements of the popular libraries. Another very valuable series, adapted for the people's libraries, is at present being published in New York. FOE THE PEOPLE. 253 to these popular libraries in the other States of the Union are very imperfect, and I can therefore only say in general, that the number of town and district-school Ubraries, exclusive of private lending libraries, is greatly increasing in the new as well as the older States. It would be interesting to have a complete statistical view of the circulation of the books in these libraries, in order to obtain an idea of the extent to which the people avail themselves of the opportunities for read- ing thus afforded ; but on this point also I can only give a few scattered notices. The total number of volumes in the public school hbraries in the city of New York in the year 1847, was 5220, and the num- ber of books lent out during a period of six months was 18,278, so that on an average each book was lent more than three times during that period, or seven times in the year. In twelve counties in the State of New York the average number of books lent out at one time was in one case between one-half and one- third of the whole number in the libraries, in another between one-third and one-fourth, in a third between one-sixth and one-seventh, and in the remaining coun- ties one-twelfth, one-eighth, one-fourth, one-thirtieth, one-fifth, one-tenth, one-ninth, one- twelfth, and one- sixteenth of the whole number. If one-tenth only be assumed as the average number, and it be supposed that each borrower of a book keeps it fourteen days, each book would be lent out twice in the year. Ac- cording to the report for the year 1849, the number of books lent from the library founded for young people of the working classes, by the Apprentices' Library 254 IMPORTANCE OF CHEAP LITERATURE Company (a private association), in Philadelphia, was 21,921 to hoys, and 6410 to girls. In the course of the year the numher of persons applying for the loan of books had been increased by 706 boys and 159 girls. The average number of persons holding books from the library at one and the same time was 700 boys and 214 girls. (The libraxy is not open on the same days for both sexes. A fortnight is the longest term allowed for a book to be kept.) Similar institu- tions are found throughout the Union in considerable numbers *. I must not fail to notice, that since 1840 the State of New York grants annually a sum of 2400 dollars for the support of an educational periodical, entitled " The District School Journal," a copy of which is supplied gratuitously to every district-school library in the State. To give an example of the immense circulation to which printed works may attain in America, I will quote a few data from the annual report for 1850, of the American Tract Society in New York, a society the aim of which is to publish and distribute moral and religious tracts. Of one almanac (the " Family Chris- tian Almanac ") published by this society, numbering 60 pages, and containing interesting information on a va- riety of subjects, and twelve very neatly-executed wood- cuts, l!J2,000 copies were sold ; and the society's * When the school libraries were first established they were but very little used, and the same is still the case in many places. The taste for reading does not immediately follow the facilities for obtaining books, but is gradually developed ; and experience has shown that it is increasing with every year. FOR THE PEOPLE. 255 journal, " The American Messenger," issued twice a month, has 140,000 subscribers*. What I have here stated relative to the circulation of printed works, though independent of the regular book trade, may nevertheless also serve to illustrate the amount of business done in the latter. The activity in this branch of trade in America is, indeed, astound- ing ; wherever you go you are sure to meet with book- sellers' travelling agents and itinerant book-vendors. The latter are in never-failing attendance on railways and in steamboats, the peculiar construction of the American railway carriages allowing them to pass from carriage to carriage during the journey to offer their books, newspapers, and periodicals for sale. As regards the character of the works forming the staple of this active trade, I would merely draw atten- tion to one very important fact, viz. that no country in the world possesses a literature so rich in good and useful books for children and young people as Ame- rica. The American book trade furnishes, in addition to reprints of everything of this kind produced in England (and who does not know how rich is this * The society employed, in the course of the year, 314 paid agents to distribute its publications, besides 106 students, who volunteered their services for the same purpose. These agents sold 377,258 tracts, and distributed, gratis, 98,819, having called upon 341,071 families. Some of these tracts are very short — occasionally only one leaf, containing a few moral or religious sentences. The society's revenues for the year amounted to between 200,000 and 300,000 dollars, something less than half of which was donations. 256 IMPORTANCE OF CHEAP LITEEATUKE branch of English literature?) a great number of ori- ginal works of the same class, and also of translations from foreign languages. The Continent of Europe is comparatively poor in books of this kind, to the great detriment of education and general culture. Among the works which contribute to the mental culture of the people in America, ought also to be mentioned the numerous almanacs published annu- ally, such as the "Whig Almanac," the "Democratic Almanac," the "Medical Almanac," the "Farmer's Almanac,'' the " Family Almanac," &c., &c., which contain a great amount of useful and instructive in- formation, within a very small compass. Every reh- gious sect (at least the more numerous ones) pub- lishes a separate almanac *. In connection with this subject I will give a short account of the newspaper Uterature of America. With few exceptions, the political journals in the United States axe not conducted with much talent ; as regards original matter they are, on the contrary, almost below mediocrity t, but they nevertheless contain a great deal * I have not mentioned, among the rest, the American Almanac, which, though, as to the richness of its contents and to the valuable information it affords, it stands highest in rank among all American and European Almanacs, cannot, however, be reckoned among books adapted for what is generally termed popular reading. t I have been told by trustworthy persons that, in the greater number of cases, the editors of newspapers in America have received no other education than that obtained in the popular school. Now, although the newspapers, as stated in the text, are not in general conducted with much talent, they FOR THE PEOPLE. 257 of useful and instructive information, besides the news of the day. The greater number of pohtical journals, particularly the -weekly papers, which are the most common, contain comparatively a very small proportion of political matter, except the mere narrative of poli- tical events, but always a greater or smaller number of articles on miscellaneous subjects. As regards the general tone of these newspapers, I must say that I never met with any on as low a level as the lowest papers on this side of the Atlantic. To scourge public per- sonages is certainly considered quite legitimate, and the right to do so is so freely exercised, that httle or no notice is taken of the jargon adopted on such occa- sions ; but, as far as I have been able to judge, private scandal is not resorted to as a means of attracting readers. Such as it is, I look upon the newspaper literature of the United States as contributing in a great measure to promote and extend popular culture in the country. A few data relative to the newspaper Uterature of America may perhaps prove interesting to the reader. The following statistics refer, indeed, only to a smaU State, but they are nevertheless very significant. I are, neyertheless, sufficiently well written to testify very favourably to the culture obtained in the national schools, if what I have stated above be correct. Besides the regular weekly papers, a collection of the most important and interesting articles in the daily papers (which are in a great measure filled with local advertisements) is usually published two or three times a week. One and the same paper thus frequently appears as " daily," " semi-weekly,'' " weekly," or " tri-weekly." 258 IMPORTANCE OF CHEAP LITEEATUEE obtained from one of the largest newspaper offices in Con- necticut (that of the " Connecticut Courant," Hartford) a specimen of every newspaper published in the State, copies of which were sent to the editors, and, although it was said that the number was not complete, I think that only a few were wanting *. The specimens in my possession show that in the city of Newhaven, which has about 15,000 inhabitants, and is the most populous city in the State, three daily papers are published ; and in Hartford, which has about 12,000 inhabitants, two daily papers are issued from the press. These papers are equal in size to the principal newspapers of Stock- holm, but contain a good deal more matter, as they are printed in smaller type. The subscription price is from four to five dollars a year. New London, a town with about 7000 inhabitants, has two daily papers of about half the size of those named above. All the others are pubhshed periodically, viz. 3 three times a week, and 1 7 once a week. All of these are of large size, and printed in six or eight columns. Among them is one religious journal, one temperance journal, and three the titles of which show that they are chiefly devoted to science, literature, &c. The sub- scription prices vary fi-om one to two dollars a year. Some of the papers, which are more generally read throughout the Union, and also in Europe, such as those pubhshed in Washington, New York, &c., have as many as from 40,000 to 50,000 subscribers ; but on * The reader will remember that the population of the whole State does not amount to more than from 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants. FOR THE PEOPLE. 259 an average the number of subscribers to each paper may be assumed to be from 1000 to 2000. According to the official returns for 1850, made in connection with the census taken in that year, the total number of newspapers and periodicals published in the United States was 8800, and the total number of subscribers 5,000,000, viz. :— •350 published daily, and having 750,000 subscribers 150 „ three times a week „ 75,000 125 „ twice a week „ 80,000 2000 „ once a week „ 2,875,000 50 „ twice a month „ 300,000 „ 100 „ once a month „ 900,000 „ 25 „ once a quarter „ 20,000* „ It follows from these figures that every fourth inha- bitant of the Union may be considered as a subscriber to some one periodical. As a general rule, it may be assumed that every farmer, at least belonging to the native population, reads one political, and in most cases one religious periodical also. One more active and important means of spreading popular culture still remains to be mentioned ; I allude to popular lectures. In reference to these, also, I will quote some figures, in order to prove more conclusively how common such lectures are in America. These figures are, however, limited to the State of Massa- chusetts, and to the year 1839. In the said year there were in the State of Massachusetts 145 societies, such as mechanics' institutes, lyceums, &c., in which, or * Among these are reprints of several English periodicals, as, for instance, the Edinburgh and London Quarterlies. 260 IMPOKTANCE OF CHEAP LITEEATUEE through means of which, courses of lectures were de- livered. These courses were attended by 32,689 per- sons, and had caused an expenditure of 21,197 dollars. It must be observed, however, that these numbers do not iaclude any courses embracing less than five or six lectures, nor occasional lectures on general sub- jects, such as the abolition of slavery, temperance, peace, &c., &c., but only lectures on literary and sci- entific subjects. The county of Suffolk, that is, the city of Boston and its immediate environs, counts in these figures for 26 courses of lectures, which were at- tended by 13,448 persons*, and caused an expenditure of 11,434 dollars. In this last instance only those courses are included that embraced at least eight lec- tures ; the number excluded must therefore be great. This must suffice as an exemplification of how cur- rent popular lectures axe in America. Although such lectures act within a narrower sphere than popular Ute- rature, they can hardly be considered of less value; not so much on account of the amount of positive in- formation which they are the means of disseminating (although this also must not be overlooked), as on ac- count of the power which the living word exercises in stimulating the mental activity of its auditors, and by which means its influence is extended far beyond the immediate sphere in which it is spoken. In connection with popular lectures I ought also to * These figures give the average attendance, that is to say, the sum total of the average number present at each course ; consequently the average attendance at each course must have been 500. FOR THE PEOPLE. 261 mention the addresses delivered or caused to be deli- vered by the school superintendents and other func- tionaries of the kind, during their visits of inspection. These addresses have a very beneficial effect in keeping alive the pubHc interest in the cause of enlightenment. Occasionally, also, lectures are given in the common schools by persons not otherwise connected with the ■ schools. On one such occasion, in a grammar school in Philadelphia, when I was present, the subject of the lecture was illustrated by a number of diagrams, and was listened to with much attention by the assembled pupils. Though I would not attach undue importance to the amount of knowledge acquired in this way, it seems to me that it is hardly possible to invent any more effective means of encouragement than_ such lec- tures are likely to prove to the youth in the schools. Whenever a stranger visits the schools, it is also cus- tomary to request him to address the scholars, and to give them information relative to the natural features of his country, its schools, its form of government, &c., and this also must operate as a healthy stimulant. If we comprehend in one view all that has been stated above concerning the popular libraries, the dif- fusion of books through the activity of private philan- thropic associations, as well as of the common book trade, the newspaper press, and popular lectures, we shall find that these form a combination of means calculated to promote in a most effective manner the general culture of the people in America. In this manner the instruction received in the popular schools is made living and fi:uit-bearing, which it will never be if the mind of the individual, after leaving school, be 262 IMPORTANCE OF CHEAP LITERATURE, ETC. left without nourishment and the means of continued development. Where this is the case, the knowledge acquired in the schools is soon forgotten, the mind loses its tension, and we too frequently seek in vain in the life of the man for the results of the schooling of his youth. Whoever has any experience in these mat- ters, will admit the truth of this assertion ; he will know how imperfect and unsatisfactory is the know- ledge acquired even by those who have carried oif the most honours at school, and who have passed their ex- aminations most triumphantly, and how little this avails if the knowledge be not extended and the power of thought be not strengthened by subsequent independent mental activity and study. This is true even of the highest schools; how much more applicable, then, to the contracted sphere of the popular schools ! Verily, if popular education is to stop at the point where popular school instruction ceases, then the mental culture effected by the latter must be considered as wasted. But this is a truth which has hitherto been too little recognised in Europe. CHAPTER XVIII. GENERAL REFLECTIONS. In the present chapter I ■will touch upon certain cir- cumstances in the United States, which exercise a greater influence on popular culture than any I have yet named. All merely theoretical education, which does not go heyond mere book knowledge, is of very secondary value ; nay, I even go so far as to deny it all right to he termed culture. Only those studies have any real value that either tend to develope independent mental action or practical skill. I know nothing more con- temptible and puerile than mere learning ; and a learned pedant, who has no other merits than his learning, is in my opinion as little deserving of respect as any other useless being. How many such are there not, who conceal a narrow, barren heart under all their know- ledge, and who, with all their learning, are incapable of independent research, unfitted for practical Hfe, and not even able to teach others what they know them- selves, or to use it for edification or amusement in daily intercourse ! Mere learning may he compared to a rough diamond, which, as long as it is such, is of no value. It is the independent activity of the mind in the sphere of Ute- 264 GENERAL EEFLECTIONS. rature or in practical life, -which cuts the facets in it, and enahle it to give back in glorious hues the rays of truth. So great is the reciprocal action of knowledge and independent mental activity, that the former is necessary for the fuU development of the latter, and this, in its turn, can alone give value to knowledge. In the higher spheres of science mental activity may mani- fest itself either in investigation and research, or within the limits of practical life; in the lower spheres it is in a great measure, or perhaps entirely, restricted to the latter. As regards what we term popular culture, we ought, therefore, first of all to inquire. How far is the life of the people— its outward practical Ufe, with all its influences — calculated to stimulate independent mental activity, and by means of this to sharpen and to fertilize the theoretical education which has been acqiured in the popular schools, and perhaps subse- quently extended and developed by private study ? According to the answer given to this question must be our estimate of the real usefulness of popular in- struction. Horace Mann, at the conclusion of his report on popular education in Prussia *, adds some reflections on the subject, from which I extract what follows : — " It is sometimes asked," he says, " why the Prus- sians, with such a vast and powerful machinery for po- pular instruction, do not as a nation advance more rapidly in the path of oivihzation ; why the useful and mechanical arts among them are still in a half-barba- * Vide "Massachusetts Common School Journal," vol. vi. p. 166. GENERAL EEFLECTIONS. 265 rous condition ; why the people are so indolent and httle enterprising; and finally, why certain national vices have not yet been eradicated." After having enumerated several causes which he thinks bear upon this question, such as the too short attendance at school, the want of popular libraries and suitable reading for children, &c., he concludes with the following observation: — "The chief cause of the helplessness and incapacity of the Prussians is this : when the children once leave school, they have very few opportunities of applying the know- ledge, or exercising the capacities, which have been acquired and developed there. Their mental resources are not drawn upon, their capacities are not quickened or strengthened by practice. Phrases such as, ' the active duties of life ; ' ' the responsibility of citizens ; ' ' the stage, career of action ; ' ' obligations to posterity; ' which are in such common use among us, would have a foreign sound in the ears of a Prussian. In Prussia the Government takes about the same care of the citi- zen, as the citizen takes of his cattle. The citizen does not elect functionaries, is not called upon to inquire into the character and eligibility of candidates for office, has no vote to give. He neither makes nor repeals laws. He is not called upon to discuss or to decide questions of peace or war, of finance, customs, taxes, or postal and internal improvements. He is not asked where a road is to be opened or a bridge to be built, although in the one case he has to furnish the labour, and in the other the materials. His sovereign is bom to him. The laws are made for him. If there be question of war, he is not called upon to account for N 206 GENERAL REFLECTIONS. it or to end it ; he has merely to fight, to be shot, and to be paid. The tax-gatherer tells him how much he has to pay in taxes. The ecclesiastical authorities draw the plan of a church which he is made to build ; and his spiritual guides, who have been appointed by others, prepare a creed to which he has only to sub- scribe. He is told in the same way how to obey his ting and how to worship his God. But although an ocean slumbers in the mind of every child that is born, what will prevent its eternally remaining in a state of gloomy stagnation, if no refreshing quickening breeze be allowed to stir over its surface ? " This description of the influence of a despotic govern- ment and a system of centralization on the general cul- ture of a people is very true ; and the influence of the opposite system, or that of self-government, as it exists in America, where the people elect the public fanc- tionaries without any interference on the side of Govern- ment, and manage their own affairs, is as self-evident. That the habit of looking into and discussing and managing public matters must promote independent mental activity, will be allowed by all ; and, indeed, it is proved by daily experience in our own country, where many examples may be met with of persons who, possessing no fundamental store of book-learn- ing, have nevertheless, by participation in the busi- ness of the diets, as well as in the local affairs of their parishes, acquired no mean degree of culture and a very correct judgment. In my opinion, no other means of culture can in effectiveness be com- pared to this, and therefore endeavours ought to GENERAL RErLECTIONS. 267 be made to extend as far as possible their sphere of action *. It may be said in reply, that practical Ufe has more than one side, viz. the political, and that a man's voca- tion in life, and his intercourse with his fellows, must exercise as great an influence on the cultivation of his mind as participation in public affairs. In regard to the former point, there is, however, one important ob- servation to make. There can be no doubt that a man's particular calling in life may be a very active means of promoting the general culture of his mind [much more active, indeed, than such a course of studies as is now generally considered the sole means of cultivating the mind], but only in so hx as it leads him to take higher views of his vocation and of life iu general. Only such things tend to the cultivation of the human mind, which in the moral sphere ennoble man, and iu the intellectual sphere widen his views. The study of * M. de Tocqueville makes the following remarks on the institution of the jury in the United States : — " Le jury sert in- croyahlement k former le jugement et ^ augmenter les lumiferes naturelles du peuple On doit le considerer comme une Icole gratuite et toujours ouverte, oil chaque jure yient s'instruire de sea droits, oil il entre en communication jour- naliSre avec les membres les plus instruits et les plus 6clair6s des classes llevees, ou les lois lui sont enseignees d'une mani^re pratique, et sont mises h, la portee de son intelligence par les efforts des avocats, les avis du juge, et les passions m^mes des parties," &c. He adds, that in his opinion this constitutes the chief advantage of the institution of the jury. The same re- mark will hold good, mutatis mutandis, of the participation of the people in the legislative and particularly in the administra- tive power. N 2 268 GENERAL EEFLECTIONS. details tends to develope skill ; generalization, on what- ever subject, tends to develope and cultivate the mind. T have known men highly distinguished in some par- ticular branch— savants, artists, mechanicians, &c. — • who nevertheless could not he called cultivated men ;. whereas others, on the contrary, who have had too great a tendency to generalization, having thrown away the useful ballast of special knowledge, have been driven about by winds and currents, without ever reaching the goal they had in view. This last mistake is, however, but little to be feared in persons occupied in the lower callings in hfe; it is the privilege of the learned to lose their way in the fantastic regions of empty space; hut if even in the higher vocations we see exclusive attention to a special object lead to vulgarity and nar- row-mindedness, how much more is this not to be feared as regards the lower callings, and particularly such as demand manual labour ! Now by what means will it be possible to elevate the minds of persons occu- pied in such vocations, so as to enable them to take a higher view of life and also of their calhng ? None so easy, so natural, so active, as participation in the ma- nagement of pubhc affairs. Their horizon will thus be extended beyond the Hmits of the clod of earth which they themselves occupy ; their thoughts will be elevated above the narrow hmits of self-interest. Civil Uberty also inspires courage, cheerfulness, and a feeling of security, and these three together constitute a founda- tion on which the most lowly calling may be raised up from the dust. Mental elevation among the more cul- tivated classes of the community may be promoted by many means; among the lower classes I know of GENERAL REFLECTIONS. 269 nothing, except religion, which can he an effectual suhstitute for political liherty and the activity of puhlic life. Similar remarks may he made relative to social in- tercourse. If this intercourse is to exercise a refining 'and elevating influence, the themes of conversation must he of a high and general character ; in the oppo- site case, social gatherings will degenerate into wild orgies or mere gossiping meetings. As regards this point, also, puhlic life in a democratic State exercises a most extraordinary influence on the culture of all classes, hut particularly of the lower, hecause it daily directs the attention to subjects of high interest, and thus in a great measure hanishes rudeness and idle gossip from social intercourse. Even the similarity of manners which exists in such a State, contributes to elevate the general standard of education. In a country where almost every man is called a gentleman, and every woman a lady, and every one claims to he treated as such, it is evident that, although it may often he found that the term is misapplied, yet it must powerfully contribute to raise the self-esteem of the people ; and this is the first con- dition of mental culture. In truth, although in the United States much roughness of manner may be met with among the lower classes (in most cases the con- sequence of too great famiharity), the rudeness and coarseness which are so common among the same classes in Europe are seldom found among native Americans. There is still another point from which the influence 270 GENERAL KEFLECTIONS. of political liberty on the general culture of a nation ought to be viewed. In a country where no preroga- tives of classes or races exist, but where, on the con- trary, the highest offices in the State may be legiti- mately aspired to by all, and where public life offers to talent and knowledge innumerable opportunities of distinguishing themselves', it is but natural that talent and knowledge should be highly appreciated. It is surprising to see how much love and respect for know- ledge is frequently manifested in the United States among classes from whom, in Europe, we expect no- thing of the kind. Where this is the case, popular education is half achieved ; and the same may be said of all education. Where there is respect for know- ledge, love of knowledge will soon follow, and then the acquirement of knowledge becomes easy, in many cases even without the assistance of school and school- master ; while the best school instruction is of little avail if it be not supported by that powerful stimulant to independent exertion which is constituted by love and respect for knowledge, based upon appreciation of its value. In a word, from whatever side we view the subject, we see that the poUtical system in America exercises a greater influence on popular culture than all the auxiliary means that have been enumerated in the pre- ceding chapters. It is by the aid of this alone that the system of popular instruction, however excellent in itself, is made to bear useful fruits for hfe ; and what- ever advantages or disadvantages may otherwise attach to the system of centraUzation on the one hand, and GENERAL REFLECTIONS. 271 to the system of self-government on the other, my expe- rience in Europe, as well as in America, tells me that only under the influence of this last-named system can the problem of popular education he properly solved. CHAPTEE XIX. VARIOUS KINDS OF SUPPLEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Hitherto I have only spoken of such educational estabhshments in America as may in a double sense be termed " popular schools," first, because their sole purpose is to bestow that which is generally understood by popular education ; and secondly, because they are placed under the immediate control and administration of the people. The preceding cUvision of my book may therefore serve to illustrate the activity of the American system of government, and more particu- larly the activity of the local bodies, with regard to popular education, although there also I have had op- portunities of alluding to the active intervention of pri- vate individuals and associations, as well as of the State, in educational matters. I shall now proceed to mention some institutions relative to which the local bodies with- draw entirely into the background, while associations, supported by private beneficence, stand more prominently forward. These institutions have a natural claim to a place here, because, though not immediately under pubhc control, they are nevertheless intended to supply some vacancies in the system of public schools which cannot he filled by the ordinary means at the disposal of the popular schools. But, Jmving originated in exceptional circumstances, they introduce us into a new sphere. In a previous chapter I have made mention of what .VARIOUS EINDS OF SUPPLEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 273 in the United States are termed supplementary schools, and I have now to add to those then named the large class of schools of a purely philanthropic character — namely, special educational estahUshments opened to the poor and the vicious, to those deprived of some outward sense, and to those suffering under mental infirmity, such as asylums for orphans and for young delin- quents, for the deaf and dumb, and for the blind, for idiots and for the insane. All these estahUshments differ from the usual schools in this, that the pupils dwell on the spot, and that their moral and physical development is more carefully attended to even than their mental development, the institution adopting with reference to them not only the responsibilities of a teacher, but also that of a parent. In respect of the number and of the internal organi- zation of some of these institutions in particular, Ame- rica stands far above Europe. I will not enter into minute particulars on this subject, which in fact Hes beyond the limits of my investigations ; but I cannot refrain from touching on it in a few words. Orphan asylums, or "half-orphan asylums," exist in great number in America; in the city of New York, for instance, there are no less than six. I will, however, only introduce one of these to the reader, selecting this on account of some particular circumstances connecfed with its origin and present organization, and because of its being the result of the largest private donation which, as far as I am aware, has ever been made for such a purpose. No stranger in Philadelphia omits to pay a visit to Girard College; and it is perhaps the only orphan N 3 274 VARIOUS KINDS OF asylum in the world that no traveller would venture to pass hy unnoticed. Besides the great interest which the institution has in the eyes of the philanthropist and the observer in consequence of its object, it has the further attraction of being one of the " lions " of America. What I shall say about it will prove that it is quite deserving of more than common attention. Stephen Girard was by birth a Frenchman, but was removed in early youth to America, where he was first a common sailor, afterwards commander of a ship of his own, and ultimately a merchant. By the favour of fortune, and by means of un- common activity and energy in commercial under- takings, he succeeded in accumulating an amount of wealth which even in the United States was considered immense (between 14,000,000 and 15,000,000 dollars, I was told), and almost the whole of which was at his death (in 1830) bequeathed to various public institu- tions. Among other bequests there was one of 2,000,000 dollars for the foundation of an asylum for orphans, which, when completed, was called Girard College. The conditions of admittance imposed by the testator, are, that the orphans (boys only) shall be children of indigent white parents, from the ages of 6 to 10 years. They must remain in the college until the ages of 14 or 18, and subsequently they are made to follow some useful practical pursuit, such as commerce, agriculture, &c., under the superintendence of the directors of the college, until they have attained their majority. Natives of Philadelphia, where the testator resided, are to be admitted in preference to all others; after these in priority come natives of New York, then natives of SUPPLEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 275 New Orleans, and then of other places in the Union without distinction. This institution has only heen in activity some few years, and at the time of my visit there were between 200 and 300 children within its walls. Although I do not mean to enter into particulars, I cannot refrain from expressing my high admiration of the excellent arrangements in the various branches of this vast esta- blishment, each of which may be compared with the best of the kind I have seen anywhere. But it must be observed that, before entering upon the organization of the college, its first president. Professor Bache, tra- velled two years in Europe for the purpose of obtaining correct information relative to all the best institutions of the kind in our hemisphere *, The auditories are, for reasons which I shall mention hereafter, the most defective. The circumstance which above all others has drawn so much attention to, and gained so high a reputation for, this philanthropic institution, is the extraordinary magnificence of the buildings. In the middle of an area of about 45 acres in extent, and planted with trees and shrubs, rises the principal edifice in the form of a Grecian temple, surrounded by a colonnade of 34 Co- rinthian pillars. The whole edifice — walls, columns, roof, steps (inside and outside) — is built of white marble t, and has an air of real grandeur. I must, how- * Professor Bache has written a very interesting report of this voyage, in which he gives a full account of the systems of instruction, in the lower as well as the higher branches of study, in various countries of Europe. t Marble is much used as a building material in Philadel- 270 VARIOUS KINDS OF ever, confess, that on first beholding this magnificence, I was less struck by its aesthetic side, than by the prodigality of which it bore evidence, and which must have alienated such large sums from the prin- cipal object of the institution. In the United States, as elsewhere, it is not uncommon to see beneficent donations frittered away on unnecessary pomp, and particularly of late years, since the taste for archi- tectural luxury has so greatly increased. In the case in question, the mere interest of the fund bequeathed amounted to such enormous sums, that fortunately the lavishness to which I have alluded led to no other inconvenience than that the ultimate organization was obliged to he postponed for some years, to allow the capital time to accumulate. The magnificence and whole character of the building seem, however, to have been necessitated by the provisions of the will* to which phia. There are ■whole streets in which the ground-floor and steps of each house are of white or gray marble. * Mr. Girard's will is a perfect curiosity as regards the rules laid down for the constiuction of the principal building of the future college. Though stating neither the form nor the character which the edifice ought to have, the testator has entered into the most minute details (filling three closely- printed pages of imperial octavo) relative to the length and breadth of the building, the thickness of the walls, the form of the roof, which was to be as flat as possible and covered in with marbleslabs of a certain thickness ; nay,he has even deter- mined the thickness of the iron clamps, &c., to be used. When the plan of the college was to be drawn it was found that the design eventually carried out was the only one in which these rules of detail could be combined with the beauty and strength prescribed in other parts of the will. The rules regarding the SUPPLEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 277 The principal building is devoted to the auditories and the various collections, and in point of conveni- ence for these purposes is far from being equal to what it is in point of magnificence. Indeed, no style of architecture can be less adapted to the requirements of a modem school than the style represented by a Grecian temple, and I take it for granted that such would never have been selected in so practical a country as Ame- rica, were it not, as I have said, for the rules laid down in Girard's will. The four wings, which are likewise built of marble, contain the dormitories, refectories, lavatories, bath-rooms, &c., besides the apartments occupied by the president, the matron, and others. On ascending the marble steps, and entering the magnificent temple, you behold in the auditories no- thing more or less than common school-rooms, which in some respects cannot even bear comparison with the ordinary popular schools in America. As the pupils had only been installed during a short time when I visited the college, the course of instruction had not either been extended beyond the usual limits of the popular schools. The appellation of college has been walls and the roof, for instance, necessitated the introduction of the expensive colonnade, &c. ; and it has thus happened that the absence of all ornaments, likewise enjoined by the testator, stands in strange contrast to the stateliness of the building. It is affirmed that each column has cost between 20,000 and 30,000 dollars. (The same observations are appli- cable to the internal arrangements.) I will not, however, undertake to decide whether or not greater cheapness might have been combined with equal good taste, but, for reasons which will hereafter be stated, one is easily reconciled to the luxury exhibited in this case. 278 VARIOUS KINDS OF given to the establishment, as it is intended that the scholars shall pass through a course of academical instruction before leaving it ; but I have heard well- informed persons express their belief that Girard Col- lege, as an educational establishment, would never rise far above the standard of the common schools, because the democratic feelings of the country would tend to open its doors to as great a number of pupils as pos- sible, even were they to receive within its walls nothing more than an ordinary popular education, rather than to limit the number of pupils, in order to give them a higher education. There is one circumstance connected with the sub- ject of this college which seems to me worthy of special remark. I have said that the architectural splendour of this edifice may probably have been ren- dered necessary by the provisions of the testator (though opposed to his wishes, as may be inferred from the will) ; but it seems to me that the result, as shown by the drawings and the estimates of cost, might have afforded a good reason for departing from so very strict an adherence to the minute rules laid down in the will, particularly as such evasion might be sup- ported by the clause enjoining avoidance of all unne- cessary ornament. It seems to me that the conclusion might easily have been come to, that either these oppo- site conditions could not possibly be reconciled, or that if reconciled they would lead to results evidently at variance with the desires of the testator. Had this mode of reasoning been followed, the idea of building a Grecian temple of marble as an asylum for poor chil- dren would not have been entertained ; and a building SUPPLEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 279 far better suited for this purpose would have been con- structed at much less cost. On the other hand, although much of this architec- tural display may be attributed to the love of public splendour, which exists in no small degree in the United States, it is nevertheless worthy of remark that the object for which the edifice was destined did not deter the builders from carrying it out in the style de- scribed above. It proves, at least negatively, a respect for the poor, which it is delightful to meet with ; and it is impossible to behold without emotion stately pa- laces, in which princes might be proud to dwell, form- ing asylums for the poorest among the poor, the most unfortunate among the unfortunate — helpless orphans. In a country where the fatherless are not deemed un- worthy of dwelling in palaces, we may hope that they will never feel the want of a home and a protector*. * I cannot leave the subject of Girard College without touching on one more provision in the will of its founder, which has no doubt contributed greatly to fix the attention of the curious on this establishment. Mr. Girard strictly enjoined that no man in holy orders should ever in any way be con- nected with the affairs of the college, or even be allowed to enter its doors. This clause, which has called forth much animadversion, was followed up by another, which says that no sectarian religious views must be inculcated in the college, and, perhaps, the testator believed that the provisions of the first-mentioned clause were necessary for the due enforcement of the other. CHAPTER XX. EUROPEAN CRIME IN AMERICAN PRISONS. The records of American prisons show, among other things, the great increase in crime and immorality caused by the European immigration. In 1849 the re- port on the great "cell prison" in Philadelphia mentions that, of the 2421 convicts imprisoned there since its first opening in 1820, 1141 were natives of Pennsyl- vania, 920 were natives of other States of the Union, and 460 of other countries, chiefly European. Re- garding the house of correction in Boston, it was re- ported in 1849, that out of fSfJO prisoners confined there, only 258 were natives of America, and among these 204 were natives of the New England States. Regarding the reformatory school for young delinquents in Massachusetts, the report of 1850 says that out of 334 young persons admitted, 60 were foreigners by birth, and 100 of the remaining 286 were of foreign (96 of Irish) parentage, though horn in America. In a similar reformatory school in New York, 169 out of 208 children admitted in the course of the year were of foreign birth (according to the report of 1849). In like manner it is stated, relative to the workhouse in Boston, that of the persons admitted into the establish- ment in 1848, 102 were born in Boston of American EUROPEAN CRIME IN AMERICAN PRISONS. 281 parents, 1161 were foreigners, 331 were cliilclren of non-naturalized foreigners born in the United States. These figures, which I do not, however, give as sta- tistics of crime, will suffice to show that, independently of the amount of native crime, the amount of imported crime is such as to render it highly necessary that measures should be taken to secure the means of edu- cation to those who, being inmates of prisons and houses of correction, are withdrawn from the influence of the usual educational institutions, and particularly to the young among these. The number of special reformatory schools for young delinquents or for vicious children, who are sent there by the magistrates, or possibly in some cases by their parents, have of late years greatly increased. Among these are the house of reformation in Boston ; the State reform school in Westborough, Massachusetts; the house of refuge in New York ; the house of refuge in Eochester (State of New York) ; the house of re- fuge for white children in Philadelphia; the house of refuge for coloured children in the same city, &c., &c. The institutions of the kind which I have visited are all uncommonly well organized, and are equally distin- guished by the neatness and order which prevail, and by the excellent spirit which directs the endeavours to reclaim the children. The greater number of these estabUshments, though supported by the State, owe their origin to private be- nevolence. The reformatory school in Westborough, for instance, which is entirely under the control of the State, and was founded in 1848, received in donations and bequests from one private individual an aggregate 282 EUROPEAN CRIME sum of 72,000 dollars, to whicli the State added another sum, the exact amount of which is not known to me, but which was, I beheve, about equal. In con- nection with this school there is a farm on which the children are trained to agricultural labour. Both houses of refuge in Philadelphia, each of which have cost about 80,000 dollars, owe their origin to the liherahty of a private society, under whose direction they remain, although they enjoy a considerable annual subsidy from the State. The same is the case with the house of refuge in New York and other such institutions. The children are made to work as well as to learn. For the latter purpose there are day schools, Sunday schools, and hbraries, exactly as under ordinary cir- cumstances. However, in these schools more time is given to devotional exercises and positive rehgious in- struction than in the common schools, although even here endeavours are made to avoid every appearance of sectarianism. Otherwise the course of instruction is exactly the same as in the popular schools. Upon the whole, with the exception of the children not being allowed to absent themselves*, there is nothing in these institutions that remind one of a prison or a house of correction. They cannot be looked upon otherwise than as a kind of popular schools, which axe so far superior to the ordinary schools, that the pupils are there taught manual labour as well, and that they are trained to orderly habits of life. * Pupils who have proved themselves worthy of being trusted are allowed to go about in the neighbourhood, be it to execute an errand or to visit friends or relatives. IN AMERICAN PRISONS. 283 Even the more regular prisons have in a certain- measure assumed the character of educational esta- hlishments, in consequence of the care which is he- stowed on the moral and intellectual training of the prisoners. That want of education is one of the prin- cipal causes of crime has heen fully proved by sta- tistics *, and if the desire to reclaim the criminals be seriously entertained, the first step to he taken is ne- cessarily to afford them the means of instruction. In the prisons where the convicts are permitted to mix with each other (as in those conducted on the Auburn principles) it is customary to have regular evening schools and Sunday schools ; in those where the sys- tem of solitary confinement or the Philadelphia sys- tem is followed, where instruction must be given to each convict separately, this of course becomes a much more difficult task. In these cases, in particular, the services of private individuals, who, either acting in- dependently or as members of associations founded for the purpose, devote themselves to the education of the prisoners, prove most valuable. I cannot on this occasion refrain from expressing the admiration and reverence which I feel for that most benevolent woman. Miss Dix, who devotes herself entirely to the admirable object I have just mentioned, and who is constantly travelling fcom one prison to another in the United States, instructing the criminals (upon whom she is said to exercise an extraordinary * In illustration hereof, I may mention that, according to official reports relative to the prisons in Massachusetts, out of 8260 prisoners, only 2520 knew how to read and write. 284 EUROPEAN CRIME influence), taiing notes of such defects of organi- zation, &o., as may come under her notice, and zealously endeavouring to have them corrected and to promote the introduction of improvements. Miss Dix, who must have more experience in these matters than most other people, has also written a treatise on the prisons in America, in which she gives the pre- ference to the Philadelphia system. Independently of the direct instruction imparted to the prisoners, all the hest organized prisons are pro- vided with lihraries * for the use of the convicts — generally the gift of private benevolence. In the prisons conducted on the principle of solitary confine- ment, these libraries are particularly valuable ; in the other prisons the inmates are so much occupied with hand labour, that, except on Sundays, they have but little time for private study. According to the report for 1849, the library in the prison in Auburn contained about 700 volumes. The prison library in Columbus, State of Ohio, is stated, in the report of the same year, to contain 7000 (?) volumes, besides 1500 volumes of pamphlets and magazines, and 20,000 pages of tractsf. The prison in Philadelphia also possesses a very re- spectable library, though I cannot state the number of * Besides a Bible and other devotional works, of which there is a copy in each cell. t In her treatise on the prisons of America, in 1845, Miss Dix complains of the want of direct means for the improve- ment of the inmates in this prison. My information has not been obtained from official sources, nor has it been gathered on the spot, for I have not visited the place, but has been borrowed from a newspaper. IN AMERICAN PRISONS. 285 books ; at the time of my visit one of the prisoners was acting as lihrai'ian. According to what I have been told by trustworthy persons, the moral and intel- lectual improvement of the prisoners is better attended to in this prison than in any other in America *. * The annual report of the board of managers of the Prison Discipline Society contains a summary account of a great number of American prisons, penitentiaries, houses of correc- tion, and reformatory schools ; but the information given is of course meagre as compared with the separate reports of each establishment. Besides the society here mentioned, there are several other prison societies, as they are called — for instance, in New York, Philadelphia, and other places — that labour for the moral and intellectual improvement of the prisoners. CHAPTEE XXI. ASYLUMS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC. The first institution for the deaf and dumb in America was founded in Hartford (Connecticut) in 1816, under the name of " The American Asylum for the Instruc- tion of the Deaf and Dumb," and was placed under the direction of Mr. Gallaudet, who had travelled in Europe, during the preceding year, to make himself acquainted with the methods of instruction adopted in asylums of the kind there. His chief studies were carried on in Paris, and since then the French system has been exclusively adopted in America. Besides the asylum already named, which, in 1849, had 1 director, 11 assistant teachers, and 205 pupils, there are at present in the United States the following institutions for the deaf and dumb : " The New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb," in the city of New York (with ] director, 1 1 assistant teachers, and 220 pupils in 1849) ; " The Pennsylvania Institution," in Philadelphia (with 1 director, 7 assistant teachers, and 121 pupils in 1848); " The Virginia Institution," in Staunton ; " The North Carolina Institution," in Ealeigh; "The Georgia Asylum," in Cave Spring (quite new) ; "The Tennessee Institution," in Knox- ville (new, having no more than 25 pupils in 1848); ASYLUMS FOE THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC. 287 " The Kentucky Institution," in Danville (with 1 director, 2 assistant teachers, and 50 pupils in 1848) ; " The Ohio Asylum," in Oolumhus (with 127 pupils in 1 848) ; " The Indiana Asylum," in IndianopoUs (with 1 director, 3 assistant teachers, and 92 pupils in 1848); "The Illinois Asylum" (with 1 director, 3 assistant teachers, and 60 pupils in 1848); and pos- sihly some more which have not come to my know- ledge. It was thought at first that the asylum in Hartford would suffice for the whole Union, and the name of the American Asylum was therefore given to it. The institutions for the deaf and dumb in America are in a great measure indebted to State grants and annual State subsidies for their origin and their sup- port *, although, as relates to these asylums, private charity has also proved itself very active. Some of the pupils axe paid for, others are supported by the State. Those States which have no institution of their own, make an agreement with some neighbouring State, which has an asylum of the kind, for the recep- tion of a certain number of pupils. Under such con- ditions, for instance, the asylum in Hartford receives pupils from all the New England States. The management of all the institutions of the kind with which I have become acquainted — and I have reason to think the same is the case in all other in- stances — is entrusted to corporate bodies formed for * Shortly after the foundation of the Asylum in Hartford, a considerable grant of public lands was made to it by Con- gress, by the sale of which a large fund was accumulated. 288 ASYLUMS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC. the purpose, but annual reports are made to the legis- lature, and the State has reserved to itself the right of inspection. The arrangements relative to the moral, intellectual, and physical well-being of the pupils are such as to leave nothing to be desired, and the institu- tions in Hartford, New York, and Philadelphia are in every respect equal, and in some respects superior, to the best institutions of the kind in Europe. Among the institutions for the blind, I have visited that of Boston and that of New York. The so-called Perkin's Institute, in Boston, has attained a world re- nown under the direction of the celebrated Dr. Howe. Who has not heard of Laura Bridgeman, who, although blind, deaf, and dumb, has, through means of the admirable system of instruction in force in this institution, and the unwearying care bestowed upon the inmates, attained a degree of intellectual develop- ment, and acquired an amount of knowledge, truly marvellous under the circumstances ! To those who can produce such results, it seems that nothing in the way of education can be impossible. The institute for the blind in New York is also of a very superior character. In this there are upwards of 100 pupils, and for these, besides the director, four teachers in the literary, five in the musical, and two in the mechanical, department. It is said that insanity is more common in the United States than in any other country. According to an inquiry instituted in Massachusetts some years ago, and apparently carried out very conscientiously, there were in that State two insane persons to every 1000 inhabitants; and it was likewise found that, in ASYLUMS FOE THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC. 289 the same State, the population of which does not exceed 1,000,000, there were about 1200 idiots. The number of insane persons in the whole Union is estimated at 30,000 or 40,000 at the lowest. Without attempting to decide in how far these figures may be correct, and still less to account for this unusual amount of mental aberration in America, I will content myself with sim- ply stating the fact that the hospitals for the insane, of which there are at present about 80 in the United States, and which can receive 7000 patients, are by no means sufficient for the demands made upon them. Of late years, however, public attention has been stead- fastly turned to this painful subject, principally in consequence of the statistics which I have quoted above; and it may therefore be supposed that the number of these asylums will rapidly increase. But, however deficient in number, the existing hospitals (at' least those among them that I have visited) are, in every respect, of the very highest order. However ex- cellent in their kind all the other philanthropic institu- tions in America are, they are greatly surpassed by the asylums for the insane, which stand undeniably above the best of the kind in any country. It is impossible to behold without feelings of grateful emotion institu- tions such as the " Retreat for the Insane," at Hartford, and the " Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane," in Philadelphia, where the patients are treated with a gentleness, tenderness, and judiciousness truly admir- able. The results of the treatment seem equally satis- factory. In the Philadelphia Hospital, for instance, out of a total of 1378 patients, 149 died, 737 were completely cured, 117 were much improved, and 193 290 ASYLUMS FOB, THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC. were so in a less degree; and out of a total of 1897 patients in the Retreat in Hartford, 155 died, and 1012 were completely cured, while of the remaining num- ber many were more or less improved. The internal arrangements of many of these hospitals are so elegant, that one might fancy one's self in the dwelling of a family of distinction, rather than in an asylum for the insane. Each patient has a separate and very pretty little sleeping-room, and in the daytime he may either walk in the light and handsome corridors, or install himself in the elegant drawing-room, read- ing-rooms, &c. Surrounding the house are pleasure- grounds and gardens provided with various apparatus for the amusement of the patients, who are, also, some- times made to occupy themselves with gardening, &c., which is considered conducive to health *. All that regards boaid, cleanliness, and other household mat- ters, is as carefully attended to as everything else, and, upon the whole, the establishments are on a most superior footing. The expenditure for the hospital in Hartford amounted, in 1849, to about 25,000 dollars, and for that in Philadelphia to about 40,000 dollars. Many of the patients are paid for, others are admitted without payment; some are taken for a sum fixed by agreement with the States to which they belong. The greatest amount of admiration and attention is, however, due to the system of mental training followed in these asylums. Any one not previously acquainted * It has also been found beneficial to teach the patients various trades, which they work at in rooms arranged for the purpose. ASYLUMS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC. 291 with the principles adopted in modem times relative to the treatment of the insane would, no doubt, be greatly astonished on entering these establishments to see persons whom he knew to be lunatics occupied in all kinds of peaceful and tranijuil amusements, such as music, reading, chess, &c. ; to hear them quietly join in prayers, observe them listen with attention to a sermon or a scientific lecture*, or to see them assemble for social amusement, &c., &c.t The nature of the administration of these, as well as of the other philanthropic establishments I have mentioned, will best be seen by the Ust of officials attached to the hospital in Hartford, which I subjoin. There may, indeed, be differences of detail in the various estabhshments, but I give the Ust, to which I have alluded, as an example, because it shows a greater combination of forces than any other I have seen, and is, therefore, best calculated to give an idea of the principles followed in organizing an administrative body of the kind. The list for 1849, to which I am referring, gives 1 chairman, 1 deputy chairman, 1 treasurer, 1 solicitor, 1 secretary (all these are ap- * In the hospital for the insane, in Philadelphia, there were delivered, during the year preceding my visit, 46 lectures, namely, 17 on the birds of America, 9 on astronomy, 3 on elec- tricity, 8 on the physiology of plants, 2 on heat, 2 on the atmosphere, 3 on the eye and the sense of sight, 2 on the ear and the laws of acoustics. These lectures, as also prayers and sermons, were generally attended by one-half of the patients. (Attendance is quite voluntary.) t Evening parties are generally given once a week or once a fortnight. 2 292 ASYLUMS FOE THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC. pointed by election), 6 deputy chairmen, for life*; 6 directors, for life t ; 20 directors, elected for a year ; 3 commissioners, appointed by the State. To these are added 6 medical inspectors, 8 administrators, 6 female inspectors, 1 physician and superintendent, 1 assistant physician, 1 chaplain, 1 steward, and I matron. Institutions for idiots are of recent date in America ; and, as far as I am aware, there is as yet hut one. This has very lately heen estahhshed in Boston hy Dr. Howe (the director of the institution for the blind, and the teacher of Laura Bridgman), to whom it offers a new field for the exercise of his admirable powers. The institution was, at the time of my visit, still of so recent date, that all that I could learn from it was to appreciate the immense difficulties connected with education under such circumstances. * In virtue of their having subscribed 200 dollars and up- wards. The original number had been fourteen. t In virtue of their having subscribed 100 dollars. The original number of these directors had been nineteen. CHAPTER XXII. PRIVATE LIBERALITY IN FAVOUB OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. While on the subject of such institutions as axe chiefly maintained by voluntary subscription, I -will introduce some general observations on the pecuniary means which are thus obtained, and on the co-operation of the State, the local bodies, and private individuals for a common object, observations which will at the same time serve as an introduction to the succeeding division of this work. The sums which private persons in America expend upon educational and philanthropic institutions are truly astonishing, and such is the public spirit and general culture of the nation, that there is very rarely any difficulty in raising a sufficient amount by sub- scription for carrying out any benevolent purpose. In judging of the Uberality thus evinced, we must, of course, take into consideration the great wealth pos- sessed by private individuals, which must not, how- ever, be supposed to be greater, or even as great, as in Europe*; but the "widow's mite" also plays a * As regards the Free States, it must be remembered that although in the cities immense wealth is accumulated in some private hands, in the rural districts, on the contrary, there is no wealthy class of proprietors. 294 PEIVATE LIBERALITY IN FAVOUR OF great part in these subscriptions, and this is the most interesting side of the subject. It is marvellous what large sums are often collected in penny contributions, or small contributions, in naturd, of various kinds of articles. The single fact that one of the obser- vatories in America * (mark, an observatory) has, in a great measure, been founded by means of a penny subscription, will serve to exemplify this. But, what- ever may be the spirit of the nation, such instances of public Uberality would be impossible if taxation was not so light that it causes no inconvenient drain on the purses of the people, and if the laws were not such as always to secure to labour its reward (that is to say, as far as such matters are dependent on legislation). The greater the number of artificial impediments and difBculties people have to struggle with in making their way in life, the more narrow-minded, the more indiffe- rent to all but their own interests they become ; while that cheerfulness of temper and lightness of heart which result from liberty of action, naturally inchne to generosity, because, under such circumstances, labour does not seem burdensome, and its reward seems of easy attainment. As regards the rich, there are circumstances in Ame- rica which, as it were, force them into showing greater munificence relative to pubhc undertakings than they might otherwise be inclined to evince. It is only such munificence that secures respect, or even toleration for their riches. It is, for instance, a well-known fact, that in America wealth is so far from being considered a * That of Cincinnati. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 295 desirable quality in a representative of the people, that his being rich may on the contrary prevent the success of a candidate. This is, no doubt, a state of things against which the selfishness of the wealthy may revolt ; but in it we see one of the most excellent efiects of the democratic form of govemmenfwhich thus forces riches into their proper channels. No organization of society can prevent riches from accumulating in the hands of individuals, but we cannot but admire a constitution which, by the application of a gentle moral pressure, renders it impossible for the rich to enjoy pubhc esteem, if they give themselves up to selfish enjoyment of their means, and merely endeavour to gain the reputation of generosity by the gift of a few alms. Such communis- tic views are the only ones that gain ground in America, and to me these views seem correct and commendable. The practical results have indeed proved very satisfac- tory. Daily and hourly the traveller in that country comes upon evidences of the extraordinary liberality of the rich as regards all undertakings for the benefit of the public. In the preceding pages I have quoted some examples of this liberality ; in the sequel I shall have occasion to mention many more ; and I might almost fill a volume were I to enumerate all the dona- tions and bequests that, even to my knowledge, have been made to public institutions. Finally, there are the subsidies of the State, which often come in to fill up what is wanting from other sources. From the subjoined example, which I have had an opportunity of investigating, it will be seen how the three powers to which I have alluded are made to act in concert. 296 PRIVATE LIBERALITY IN FAVOUR OF In 1848 the Legislature in Connecticut assessed a sum for founding a normal school for the education of teachers. This sum was, however, to he exclusively applied to defraying the salaries of teachers ; whatever other funds were required were to be supplied hy the community in which the school was to be located, the communities being allowed to compete with each other for this advantage. It was soon shown that the matter was by no means regarded with indiiference. Every township in the State put forward claims to be the one especially favoured, and all the advantages which the school would derive from its location in this or that town were industriously propagated by speeches and pamphlets. At length the competition was restricted to three townships besides the two capital cities, which had greatly outbid all the others. Delegates from these townships then met at the office of the State Superintendent of schools, to make known the offers of their respective constituents, and to plead their cause. A special committee was nominated to exa- mine the various proposals, and to accept the one which it should deem most advantageous. Before it came to this point the two capitals had withdrawn, the one principally because it had just made great sacrifices for the construction of a railway, and was therefore less inclined to subject itself for the moment to any additional burden, and both, as was distinctly expressed, because they were averse to enter into com- petition with townships which under such circumstances would always be obliged to cede *. One of the capi- * As far as I could perceive, much jealousy exists between PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 297 tals was, however, represented by a solicitor, who, without making any formal proposal, limited himself to alluding in general to the advantages which the school would derive from heing located in a larger city. After long discussion and deliheration the com- mittee at length decided in favour of a small town (with a population of Irom 2000 to 3000) which ten- dered a sum of 16,000 dollars in cash, 6000 dollars of which had been given by one individual. The two other tenders were nearly equal to this, but as they included offers of existing buildings, the offer of cash was preferred, as this left the building committee at liberty to construct the school-house on the most approved principles. It cannot be denied that this example proves great Uberality as regards public under- takings, and more particularly pubUc schools. Another circimistance which is deserving of attention is, that whenever the State grants a sum for purposes of this kind, this grant is not made a reason for assuming a dictatorial tone, but is merely given as an en- couragement. The State is ever willing to give its subsidies into the hands of local bodies and associa- tions, without any attempt at limiting their powers, and rarely demands more in return than to be held informed of their proceedings, through means of minute and conscientious reports. The power of control which is thus secured to the State, as well as through the right of inspection, which it reserves to itself, is, however, of incalculable benefit, and is quite a sufficient guarantee the country towns and the two capitals — the one of which has 12,000 the other 15,000 inhabitants. 3 298 PRIVATE LIBERALITY, ETC. for the proper application of the funds ; while, on the other hand, the activity of the local bodies and the private associations is not crippled, and their interest in the undertakings not weakened by the unnecessary interference of the supreme power in matters of detail. CHAPTER XXni. OBSERVATIONS ON THE " GRADATION '' OF SCHOOLS, AND THE IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS SYSTEM. Before I enter upon an account of the organization of the higher educational institutions in the United States, I must once more turn the attention of the reader to one point in connection with the public schools which is of much importance, and which will lead us by a natural transition to the subject of the succeeding chapters. I have on several previous occasions alluded to that classification of the public schools which is understood in America by the term gradation of schools ; but it is of importance that the organization implied thereby should be thoroughly understood. In Europe also there exists in a certain sense a classification of schools, but this classification cannot in general justly be termed a gradation. In the dif- ferent schools the scholars pass through various degrees of knowledge to a higher or lower stage of culture; but the starting-point is generally the same in all. The course of instruction in one school is not a conse- quential continuation of the course in another. The higher is not actually based on the lower. Each con- 300 OBSERVATIONS ON THE stitutes a separate system of mstruotion, adapted for various positions in life, and for the different classes of the people. There are thus schools in -which children destined to receive a learned or a scientific education begin with learning to read and to write ; and others in which children destined to be artizans begin with the same instruction. The lowest grade must always be considered & poor school, and in many places is indeed called so ; and this is, in fact, the class of school which is generally meant by popular schools, and the course of instruction in which, forms the standard of what is usually termed popular education. Where this is the case, popular culture cannot without much difficulty be extended beyond the limits thus drawn ; but to be sure it may the more easily be defined, as regards quahty as well as quantity. In America the public schools, as far as they go, (that is to say from the primary school to the high school, both inclusive) constitute a connected system, in this way, that the course of instruction in the higher school is considered a continuation of that in the school immediately below it, and only on condition of having gone through the course in the latter can the pupil claim admittance into the former. No difference in the studies pursued occurs before the high school divides into two branches, the English and the Latin ; that is to say, when the pupils have attained their twelfth or fourteenth year. , The first and most natural consequence of this arrangement is, on the one hand, that the lower schools must of necessity assume a higher character, and on the other, that it becomes more difficult to define the fixed limits of what is under- GRADATION OF SCHOOLS, ETC. 301 stood by " popular instruction." I have, however, in the preceding pages endeavoured to give a general idea of the nature of this instruction, such as it is imparted in the primary schools and the grammar schools ; and as I am now proceeding in due order to give an account of the higher educational institutions of America, I will add a few further particulars relative to the high schools, which, as I have before said, are equivalent to our learned schools and our real schools. In so doing, I shall more particularly hold in view the schools of that grade which I visited in Boston, in Hartford (Con- necticut), and in Philadelphia. On the one hand, these represent the best of the kind in America, and on the other, they afford examples of the variations which occur in the general system. In the high schools, pupils are not admitted under the age of 12 years. The conditions of admittance are proficiency in all the principal branches of in- struction taught in the grammar schools, i. e. reading, writtng, arithmetic (down to the rule of three inclusive), English grammar, spelUng, &c., as also geography and the history of the United States. In consequence of the healthy reaction exercised on the lower grades of schools by the high schools, and the strict prehminary examination — to which pupils seeking admittance into them are subjected — the latter have of late years been of more advanced age and better informed than was formerly the case. The average age of the pupil-s admitted into the high school in Philadelphia, for in- stance, in 1838 when it was founded, was little more thaa 12 years, while in 1850 it was more than 14 years ; and although the statutory claims made upon 302 OBSKEVATIONS ON THE the pupils have not been raised, the efifect upon the lower schools has, as I have said, been such as to in- crease de facto the amount of kuowledge possessed by the new comers. The complete course is calculated to occupy four years; but only a small number of pupils continue their studies so long. On an average they cannot be assumed to remain more than two years. In general the high schools are exclusively either for boys or for girls. The school in Hartford, which is in common for both sexes, forms an exception to this rule. This last-mentioned school presents the strange spectacle (strange, as regards our habits and ideas) of girls and boys of the ages of 15 and 16, assembled in a common school -room under the guidance of female as well as male teachers*. Girls and boys enter by separate doors from the street, have separate entrance rooms, &c., and are placed on separate sides of the large school-room ; otherwise they are upon quite an equal footing, and in the recitation rooms you may see classes composed of both sexes. There can be no doubt but that this system of allowing boys and girls to receive their education in common, must tend to refine the manners and morals of the school, while at the same time it must exercise a great influence on the position of women, not only as regtirds education, but also afterwards in society. The high school in Hartford includes two Latin * At the period of my visit to the school the mathematical lessons were given by a female teacher, as is, indeed, frequently the case in the United States. GRADATION OF SCHOOLS, ETC. 303 courses and two English courses. The higher English course, which is calculated to extend oyer a period of four years, embraces the following subjects : — 1st year: arithmetic and algebra, geography and history of the United States, English grammar, together with spell- ing, and the definition of words*, caUgraphy, and vocal music; 2nd year: arithmetic and algebra (as far as the second degree), elementary geometry, geography and history of England, EngUsh grammar (including etymology), exercises in reading and composition; 3rd year: elementary geometry (concluded), together with plane trigonometry, natural philosophy, geography, and history of France and England, rhetoric and logic, reading of the English classics, English etymology composition, and elocution; 4th year: astronomy (or land surveying), chemistry, physiology, ancient history and geography, history of literature (a course of lec- tures), theoretical and practical philosophy, pohtical economy (a course of lectures), natural theology and the evidences of Christianity. The general course for girls is the same. The girls who prefer following the Latin course are exempted from attending the lessons in etymology, the geography and history of the United States, natural philosophy, chemistry and philosophy. The jimior English course embraces the subjects taught in the first two years, with this difierence, that book-keeping and caligraphy are substituted for geo- metry. * The definition of words forms an important item in the study of the mother tongue in America ; and, indeed, it ought to be so. 304 OBSERVATIONS ON THE The classical or Latin course, which is also assumed to extend over four years, embraces, in common with the higher English course, the following subjects: arithmetic and algebra, English grammar, reading of English classics, caligraphy, exercises in reading, an- cient history and geography ; but otherwise only the classical languages. The books used for this course, in addition to the school-books, are Cornelius Nepos, Sallust, Cicero's orations, Virgil, Xenophon's Anabasis, and Homer. The pupils are also practised in writing Greek and Latin, and in translating from one of these languages into the other. The high school in Philadelphia has also adoptefl the plan of a higher and a lower course, and the pupils who go through the higher classical or English course (both of which extend over four years) are at hberty to choose between the classical languages on the one side, and the French and Spanish languages on the other, while the junior course (extending over two years) em- braces neither ancient nor modem languages. In Boston, as I have already stated, the different courses are taught in distinct schools ; this is, however, an exception from the general rule. As regards the plan of instruction, it is usual to give the pupils lessons to learn at home *, to teach them in classes, and give them places in the classes according to their deserts. (Promotion is effected in some schools once a year, as for instance in Boston ; in others twice * The school hours are consequently mostly devoted to the hearing of lessons. Occasionally lectures are introduced, and in some cases instruction in certain branches (as, for instante, the natural sciences) is always given in this way. GRiDATION OF SCHOOLS, ETC. 305 a year, as for instance in Philadelphia.) In some oases each class has a separate teacher, but in the greater number each science is taught by a separate teacher, or both methods are combined. As regards discipline, the very same system prevails which I have mentioned in Chapter xiii. relative to the popular schools, for which reason I alluded iu that place to the peculiar system adopted in the high school in Hartford. Annual school festivals, which are termed celebra- tions, are usual. Promotion in the schools in Boston is not preceded by examination ; and though in Phila- delphia examination does take place on these occasions, much importance is not attached to it ; whereas, very strict examinations and repetitions take place quarterly, to which, however, the public is not invited, although then, as at all other times, any one who chooses may be present. The school vacations amount in all to about six or eight weeks, exclusive of a few general holidays. Some high schools (and among the rest that in Phila- delphia) are not open on Saturdays. As a general rule the classical department in these schools must not be considered as intended solely to prepare scholars for college. The colleges in the United States, as I shall show more fully in the sequel, are institutions of a more private character, between which and the public-school system there is no organic connection. The amount of knowledge required as a condition of admittance into the colleges is far below that possessed by a pupil who has gone through the whole four years' course in the high schools. Some 306 OBSERVATIONS ON THE of the last-mentioned schools indeed claim to he con- sidered equal to colleges. The high school in Phila- delphia, for instance, confers the degree of bachelor of arts, and the teachers are called professors. Therefore, although many scholars who leave the high schools enter a college to continue their studies, the former must not, as I have said, be regarded merely as prepa- ratory schools for the latter ; on the contrary, forming the last grade in the system of public free schools in America, they are intended to impart what is termed a general education, fitting the scholar for entering a learned as well as a practical career. It is not impro- bable that in like manner, as they have contributed gradually to raise the standard of excellence in the lower schools, so they will themselves gradually rise, until they will at length assume the character of pubHc col- leges ; at least there are many indications that some- tliing of this kind will take place ; for it cannot be supposed that public instruction in America, which has by degrees so greatly extended its sphere of activity, should remain stationary at the point it has at present attained. As regards the character of the instruction imparted, the following points are particularly worthy of remark. The character of the high school in Philadelphia is more scientific, and only 20 per cent, of the school- time is devoted to tb,e study of languages; whereas the character of the classical department of the high school in Hartford, as also of the Latin high school in Boston, is so exclusively classical, that, on the Con- tinent of Europe, at least, nothing like it is met with. The natural sciences are almost entirely set aside, and, GRADATION OF SCHOOLS, ETC. 307 with the exception of some hours given to mathe- matics, the -whole of the time not devoted to the classical languages is appropriated to the study of the English language, and to the so-called humaniora. In the English high schools, also, the humanities and the English language have a more important part assigned to them than the natural sciences. Even in the school in Philadelphia, the more scientific ten- dency of which I have already alluded to, and where the mathematical course embraces analytical geometry and the beginning of algebra*, as also a somewhat extended course of appHed mathematics (astronomy f, navigation, land-surveying, &c.), the hours of instruc- tion in the subjoined branches are as follows : philo- sophy, history, and belles-lettres, 62 ; languages %> 32 ; mathematics, 40 ; natural sciences, 44 ; drawing, &c., 14. The cultivation of the mother tongue in reading, writing, and speaking, is, in these schools, as in the lower popular schools, most carefully attended to; and the proficiency attained in writing the English language is often very remarkable. This is more par- ticularly proved by the common custom of letting the pupils at the examinations, as far as it is possible, answer the questions put to them in writing. The natural sciences are limited principally to astro- * In the English high school in Boston the course of in- struction in geometry does not extend beyond elementary geometry and trignometry. + This school possesses an observatory, furnished with a movable cupola, one of Prauenhofer's refracting telescopes, one of Ertel's transit instruments, and other good instruments. % Classical in the Latin division, modern in the English division. 308 OBSERVATIONS ON THE nomy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and physiology ; natural history is either entirely excluded or is treated with Uttle favour. I have thought it right more particularly to direct attention to the above points, because they will no doubt in many cases occasion surprise ; as, in Sweden, we are generally impressed with the idea that the American culture is of an exclusively practical charac- ter. For the rest I will postpone all further remarks on the subject until I have made the reader acquainted with the remaining and higher educational estabhsh- ments in America, in which the same general charac- teristics prevail as regards the subjects of study. I will here, however, seize the opportunity of draw- ing the attention of the reader to the great importance and significance of such high schools for girls as are daily becoming more numerous in America. The objections which were at first raised, by class-prejudice in particular, against the estabhshment of pubhc schools for girls, have been confuted by actual ex- perience in the schools established, and it is, therefore, to be expected that the number of these establishments will rapidly increase. The course of instruction im- parted in these schools, as well as in a great many of the academies which will be mentioned hereafter, is, in every respect, the same as the course in the boys' schools. In addition to a very extensive knowledge, practical as well as theoretical, of the English lan- guage, and of the subjects included under the name of humanities, an acquaintance with elementary geometry, one or two degrees of algebra, the natural sciences, the Latin, and sometimes the Greek, language con- stitute the more substantial accomplishments which GRADATION OF SCHOOLS, ETC. 309 form part of the higher education of women in America. For my own part I do not, I confess, consider it of the least value either for woman or for man to possess a smattering of Greek or Latin ; and I would, there- fore, point out several defects in the higher as well as the lower girl schools in America — defects which very commonly prevail in the school education in that country, and which are, perhaps, most striking in the establishments to which I have just referred. I would, for instance, as regards the mathematical course, desire to see geometry and geometrical drawing assume a more prominent place at the side of arithmetic and algebra, than is the case at present ; I should be glad to see natural history placed on a level with the other natural sciences ; and I would recommend that more attention should be given to manual arts, &c. But, above all things, it is important that the education of girls, as well as boys, should be of a serious and sub- stantial character. The comparatively high degree of culture which women of all classes in America possess, as also the influence which, in consequence, they exercise in their famihes and in society, cannot but strike every Euro- pean traveller. The more developed the life of a community is, the greater is the influence and signifi- cance of woman ; and the position which woman holds in America is at one and the same time a standard by which to measure the high degree of culture attained by the American nation, and one of the best guaran- tees of its stability and of its future development. CHAPTEE XXIV. PRIVATE CHARACTER OF HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. Although, as has been shown in the preceding chapter, there axe some public schools in which a learned education may be obtained, hitherto the higher branches of instruction have been left principally to institutions of a more private character, in regard to which, although they enjoy a certain measure of pubHc support, and are subjected to public control, the State only acts as the protector of private rights. While po- pular education (properly speaking) in its origin as well as in its organization is the fruits of a regularly-planned system, which has gradually, in each locality, extended its field of action so as to embrace the higher branches of education also, this will not be found to be the case with the institutions of which I am about to speak ; and in consequence the picture I have now to unfold presents a variety of organizations independent of each other, and owing their establishment to casual circum- stances, yet possessing points worthy of attention. The educational institutions to which I more parti- HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 311 cularly allude, are the so-called academies *, and colleges, the latter of ■which are also sometimes called univer- sities. These confer upon the graduates the diplomas of bachelor of arts and master of arts, hut, both as regards the plan of instruction and the disciplinary system adopted, they hear more resemblance to our gymnasiums than to our universities. It is, indeed, only very lately that any approach has been made in America to such institutions as are in Europe termed universities. The faculties of divinity, medicine, and law, although accidentally united ■with these colleges into -what may ■with more or less justice be termed universities, must, nevertheless, in general be con- sidered as independent schools, as will be shown here- after when I shall give a fall account of these matters. The American Almanack for the year 1850 mentions 120 colleges t as existing in the Union, 14 of which are in New England, 8 in the State of New York, &c. The average number of teachers in each was 8, but in reality the number varied from 'Z and 3 to upwards of 20. The number of pupils in 119 of the colleges was 10,770, giving an average of about 90 to each college ; but the real numbers varied from 20 to 300 and 400. Of the total number the New England States comprised 2068, which, in proportion to the amount of population, is twice as many as any of the * In some parts of America the term semmary is more usual than academy. t Some of these are said not to be in full activitjj and hardly to deserve the name of college. However, the number of teachers and pupils in 119 of the colleges is given. The 120th had just been founded (in New York). 312 PRIVATE CHAEACTER OF other States. This proportion, no doubt, shows a greater taste for classical studies in this division of the Union, but it also in a great measure arises from the fact that many pupils are sent to the New England colleges (particularly to some of these) from the other States. The number of academies is very great, as will be seen by the example borrowed from a single State, which I shall quote in the following chapter. The history of the origin of these educational insti- tutions is generally as follows, for I am here not speak- ing about private boarding-schools, which are based upon circumstances of a stiU more accidental nature. Some persons perceiving that a college or academy is wanted in a locality, unite and open a subscription for the purpose of founding one. If fortune favours them — and this is probably most frequently the case — the un- dertaking is generally from the very commencement supported by some large private donation. The next step is to secure to the new institution a satisfactory legal position, by obtaining for it the pdvilege of in- corporation, and instances are not rare in which the local bodies as well as the State have contributed to the support of these establishments. In this manner several of these institutions have from very small be- ginnings gradually attained a very respectable position. According to my ideas, however, it is not so much the number of more or less considerable donations which have been presented to these institutions, which is most worthy of attention, but more particularly the great sums which have often been accumulated by means of very small contributions. The university of Cambridge, HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 813 which is now so rich, has risen to its present position, from the small beginning of the gifts of a few hooks, or natural ohjects, or of a few dollars; and Yale College — which has at this moment the greatest number of pupils, and which in completeness of organiza- tion comes nearest to the university just mentioned — owes its existence to a few clergymen, who contributed a small number of books as a foundation for the college which now stands in such high repute. All institutions of the kind of which I am now treating are mainly supported by fees paid by the pupils ; but a great proportion of them — indeed most probably all — receive a greater or smaller number of free scholars. There arfe besides many foundations for the support of poor students*. All the details relative to the organization of these institutions, which can be of any interest, will be found in the next chapter. In the exposition which I there give, I begin with the State of New York ; not because the colleges in this State belong to the best in the Union, for such is not the case ; but because in New York there exists a kind of centralized administration, embracing the academies as well as the colleges, which are thus united into a kind of system, and by beginning with an account of this system I shall be better able at once to afibrd the reader a general view of this part of * According to a table of expenses in some of the colleges, which is given in the "American Almanack for 1850," the fees paid vary from about 20 dollars to upwards of 70 dollars a year. Inclusive of other expenses, such as apartments, board, lights, and laundry, the yearly expenses range from upwards of 100 dollars to upwards of 200 dollars. P 314 HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. the American system of instruction, than if I began by describing institutions, which though superior to any of the same grade in New York, are not united by any common bond. But after the reader has, through ac- quaintance with the New York system, obtained a clear conception of the general character and spirit of the institutions in question, I will devote a separate chapter to that estabhshment, which is justly considered the first in the United States, and which may serve to show how great a height classical and scientific education in America has attained. -€r«NB«si; — erE5ASi273nlOw— Of the university in NEW YORK AND ITS DEPENDENT SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. The fifteenth chapter of the "Eevised Statutes of the State of New York" begins with the following enact- ment, -which places the university under the protection of the State : — C^^ 1. A university has been founded in this State, the government of which is, and shall continue to be, entrusted to a Board of Eegents. " § 2. This university is incorporated and shall be known by the name of the ' Eegents of the University of the State of New York,' and under this name it shall possess the right of perpetual succession, as also of suing and being sued in courts of law, of causing to be made and making use of a common seal, and of introducing any alterations in this that it may deem proper; of possessing movable and immovable pro- perty to the amount of a yearly revenue of 40,000 bushels of wheat, and further of purchasing, selUng, or otherwise disposing of lands and chattels," &c., &c. Those who are not intimately acquainted with Ame- rican affairs might be led to conclude from this be- ginning, that the university in question was chiefly p 2 316 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE indebted to the State for its existence, and that it was dependent on a powerful and active centralized govern- ment ; and when I add that the university embraces all the medical schools, colleges, and academies in the State of New York, besides a number of popular schools, &c. *, some persons may be induced to think that there is some resemblance between this institution and " I'Universite de France." Nothing could, how- ever, be further from the truth^as-^wili'4>e-se6a bytbe- folloadug details. I commence with an account of the Board of RegefftS) and of- its- rights aad-duties-. (The Board is composed of 22 members, among whom are, ex officio, the governor, deputy governor, and Secretary of the State. This last-mentioned official who, as I have befoTe-started, is likewise superintendent of com- mon schools, thus constitutes a link between the lower and the higher systems of instruction. All the other members are elected by the Legislature, and may be discharged by the concurrent vote of both Chambers. ^he JBoard elects fiom among rt;s owrTmembers a chancellor, a vice-chancellor, a treasurer and a secre- tary. The law prescribes one annual meeting of the Board, and it is further bound to meet whenever con- vened by the desire of three of its members.^^ The Boardls authofized aSTT5ouiid tolnspect all the colleges and academies that are placed under its super- intendence t, and to make an annual report to the * These are the Lancaster schools, and " select schools," or sectarian schools. + That is to say, all such as are duly chartered. UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 317 Legislature on the subject. In addition to this it has the right to confer, on such persons as it may deem fit, all hoDourahle degrees, above the degree of master of arts, which are in use in European universities. A diploma of doctor of medicine thus conferred authorizes the possessor to practise medicine within the territories of the Statej CThe Board has farther to distribute among the various educational institutions, the public funds set aside for this purpose, in fulfilUng which duty it proceeds partly according to rules laid down by law, partly accord- ing to its own discretion. The funds here alluded to are the so-called Literature Fund — the interest on which amounted in the year 1848-1849 to upwards of 18,000 dollars — and 28,000 dollars a year contributed from the interest on the United States Deposit FundJ (^^Ee above~HnonntS""are~"distfibuted among the re- spective academies which are placed under the super- intendence of the Board, according to the following principles (colleges and special schools of a superior grade, such as divinity or medical schools, are excluded from participation in the State grant). The whole sum received from the Deposit Fund, together with 12,000 dollars of the interest of the Literature Fund, is equally distributed among the " Senatorial distijcts," * to be ftirther distributed among the educational institutions within their limits. These grants are to be applied exclusively to defraying the salaries of teachers. Whatever sum from the interest of the Literature Fund remains over and aboye the * It is the districts which elect a member for the Senate. 318 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE 12,000 dollars just referred to, may be distributed by the Board among such of the institutions as it may deem most deserving of this privilege, for the purchase of books, maps, scientific instruments, chemical appa- ratus, &c., but vrith this limitation, that no one establishment must receive more than 250 dollars, and that no sum must be given under this head, unless the school in question agree to spend for the same purpose a sum equal to that offered by the Board. Before any part of the State subsidy can be granted to an educational institution, the Board must ascertain that the school-house is in proper repair, that it is in possession of a library and a collection of scientific instruments, and that it has a staff of properly qualified teachers. The value of its movable and fixed pro- perty, must amount to at least 2500 dollars. That some academies receive a special grant for the mainte- nance of normal classes for the training of popular teachers, has already been stated. As regards these last-mentioned classes, reports are to be sent in to the superintendent of common schools, who is likevfise authorized to prescribe the course of studies to be foUovred, &c. The public fund is distributed among the respective establishments in proportion to the number of scholars who in the last year but one received, during four months at least, instruction in the classical course, or in the higher English course, or in both*. The autho- rities are bound on oath to furnish correct returns to the Board on all these points. -l h,.^ cy^-'^- * A pupil is not considered as belonging to the classical UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 319 Such is the principal business which devolves upon that central governing hody of the higher educational institutions, which is denominated the Board of Ee- gents. How far the authority and power of this Board extends in reaUty will be better understood when an account has been given of the functions of the special boards of management of the colleges and academies. These last-named institutions, tis_I_bave~befe¥e-edd-, must, as regards their origin, be considered entirely as private estabUshments. Although they have been in- corporated by the State, they have reserved for their respective boards of trustees, the perpetual right of filling up such vacancies as may occur in their body, it being stipulated by law that the number of members must not exceed 24, and as regards the colleges, must not be less than 12, and as regards the academies not less than 10^ /^^ trustees of each of these institutions are entitled not only to lay down all such rules as they may deem best calculated to faciUtate the business of the schools, but also to prescribe the course of instruction and the rules of discipline, and further to appoint and to dis- charge the president, professors, and tutors in the colleges, and the principal, masters, and tutors in the academies. With respect to the coUeges, it is the trustees, also, who confer the degrees in use in these institutions in the United States, and who issue the necessarydiplomas^^ /According totBe~statutes, the president, but not division unless he has read at least the first book of the .lEneid, and not to the " higher English " division, unless his attain- ments be superior to those acquired in the common schools. 320 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE the professors, may be a member of the board of trus- tees, while no person who is a member of the Board of Kegents of the University can at the same time act as trustee of a school. The religious tenets of the individual are not allowed to interfere in any way -with his connection with the institution, either as pupil, tutor, trustee, &c., &c. ■' , It will be seen ijy the above that the actual manage- ment of the schools is entirely in the hands of the trustees, while the interference of the supreme ruHng body is Umited principally to tie right of inspection, and of demanding yearly reports from the trustees. Although, therefore, this body cannot be looked upon as a central authority in the ordinary sense of the word, it nevertheless undoubtedly exercises a very wholesome and active control. (It will easily be understood that under such circum- stances there can be no uniformity either as to the course of studies or other matters in the various insti- tutions, each standing apart under its own indepen- dent direction. The official report for 1850 contains a variety of sta- tistical notices relative to 7 colleges and 160 acade- mies * (the full number of these schools is nearer 200). The academies mentioned had received in the course of the year, 16,331 pupils (namely, 8078 boys, and 8258 girls), who had fulfilled the condition * Not including five medical schools ; nor the institution for the deaf and dumb, in New York ; nor either several Lan- caster schools and select schools, which are likewise placed under the superintendence of the Regents. One new college had just been founded. UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 321 named in the statutes, i. e. who had, during four months, attended either the classical or the higher English course ; and the average ages of the pupils in each academy coming under this head, varied from 13 to 19 years. The aggregate value of the buildings and sites of the 160 academies was 1,176,548 dollars; of the libraries 69,881 dollars; and of the various apparatus 70,018 dollars *. The revenue for the year arising from school charges amounted to 227,576 dollars, consequently to little more than 10 dollars for each pupil. The total receipts during the year were 294,200 dollars. Out of this, 232,375 dollars were paid away in salaries._/ TheTbtal number of masters and tutors was 695, but the number in each school varied from 1 to 25. Some of the academies for girls had the greatest number of tutors f. The vacations varied from six to eleven weeks,-^ : 'f- jFOT' iQy pafFT 3e"^TOtT5Ee''miy"Trfajgeti(m~tQ-4he4ftti-' tude thus allowed, nor ai^y advantages to be derived from greater uniformity. A careful study of the science of language and mathematics is universally admitted to be the most desirable basis for all further instruction, and ought, therefore, never to bb neglected ; but where this rule is observed, it seems to me that full Uberty may be allowed in the choice of all qther subjects of instruction, and is more likely to prove (beneficial than prejudicial. Suppose, for instance, that| natural history be one of the subjects of study -prescribed, and that the teacher has a greater taste for, andj is better versed in, botany than in any other branch of natural history, would it not be better to allow him — even at the expense of zoology — to choose as the bhief subject of instruction 824 GENEBAL ORGANIZATION OF THE the branch which hei himself prefers, and which he would therefore prob^ihly render most interesting to the scholars ? Or if 'some of the pupils feel most in- terested in zoology, ind others most in botany, why should not the teacher, in order to ensure greater pro- gress, allow them to follow their natural bent ? Or, if some particular school should by chance be irP posses- sion of a very excellent collection of minerals, or geo- logical specimens, &c., and should there at the same time be a teacher in the school particularly devoted to any one of the sciences connected with these collections, would there not be great reason to make the latter available for instruction, although the science in ques- tion might not be included in the prescribed course ? If the locality in which the school is situated be more favourable for the study of one branch of natural science than another, would it not be desirable to let the pupils read in preference that page of nature's book which she herself would thus seem to have opened for them ? May there not also be local circumstances which render the study of one modem language more desirable than that of another ? &c., &c. There is a great tendericy, in regard to education, to insist too much upon the acquisition of a definite amount of knowledge of various given branches ; and to overlook the important fact that true intellectual education consists in awakening and strengthening the power of thought, and that whoever has attained this, and has at the same time acquired a taste for learning, will easily, without assistance from school or teacher, gain that amount of ' desultory knowledge, which though it does not constitute a good education, in the UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 325 true sense of this term, i^ nevertheless worth possess- ing. Those who draw their knowledge from expe- rience, and not from theoretical speculations, will, I am sure, always find that mere learning does not constitute mental culture, and that true culture, on the other hand, may he promoted in various ways. So, likewise, when there is a question of the choice between two subjects of instruction, ^e ought not, as is too often the case, to lose sight of the' fact, that in practice the more or less attractive character of the materials for study (including school books), as well as the greater or smaller amount of interest and capacity evinced by the teacher, may often confute the most excellent train of reasoning. Everything thus seems to favour the system of granting a wide, though not im- bounded, latitude in the choice of subjects for study, because, by this means j local and casual circumstances, which maybe of importance, may be taken into due con- sideration ; whereas, uiider a centralized and uniform system of organization, it becomes necessary, for the sake of the imaginary advantage of outward uniformity, not only to prescribe in general the subjects and methods of instructioh, but even to enter into the greatest minutiee relatipg to both. There is another point of view from which the liberty of choice to wl|ch I am alluding seems equally recommendable. I ask myself, what advantage does the nation, or does higlji mental culture in general, de- rive from the existence ;of perfect general uniformity of education, or, if I may feo express it, from the fact that every individual mind is made, as it were, to put on the same uniform of knowledge ? In relation to this 326 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE question, my own country,yor instance, presents several points open to remark, f The course of instruction adopted in the gymnasiumfe and universities of Sweden is such that there are probibly but few persons in the cultivated classes who have not some slight knowledge of natural history, and more particularly of Botany. But, on the other hand, geology is, as far as I am aware, not taught in one of our gymnasiums, and is hardly studied at the universities ; and the consequence is, that it is a matter of very rare occurrence to meet with any one in the country, with the exception of men especially devoted to science (the number of which is but small), who have even the most distant knowledge of this science, which is, however, so well calculated to be a popular study ; and that there is not a single pro- fessorship in geology throughout the realm. This last- mentioned fact is a very disagreeable confirmation of Ovid's maxim, i^wo^z nulla' cupido. Similar remarks may in a great measure be rriade relative to almost all the natural sciences, to anatomy, physiology, &c., &c., in as far as regards their influence on the general cul- ture of the nation, although these sciences are repre- sented in our universities. Now, natural history is undoubtedly a science deserving of high esteem and much attention; but I cannot see that there is any reason why it should be cultivated to the exclusion of all the other natural sciences, and its peculiar advan- tages as part of an educational course are certainly not so great that it might not, under certain circumstances at least, be with more benefit superseded by some other. And surely there would be no reason to con- sider a person less cultivated bedause peradventure he ( UNIVEESITi IN NEW YORK. 327 might be less acquainted with natural history hut more familiar with natural philosophy, geology, physiology, or any other science. In the interest of general education and of the sciences themselves — for what better and more efficient support can the latter have, than general cultivation in the nation? — it is no doiibtof much greater consequence that each science shoulH at least be cultivated by some portion of the people, than that each individual in the nation should possess a certain amount of knowledge of one particular science. It is important to keep in view how much instn^ction may be imparted, inde- pendently of schools and universities, through the in- fluence of scientific aifateurs. In my opinion, it is much to be desired t|iat there were many more in- stances than at present exist, of private persons pos- sessing collections of natural objects, or of antiquities, or of books upon some special subject, &c. ; in a word, some collection, ever s^o small, which indicates an in- terest in science ; for, whatever may be said of " dilet- tanteism " in art and science, it cannot be denied that it emollit mores, and that it is a great enemy to gossip- ing and card-playing, the usual pastimes of so many " educated " persons. May not this very dilettanteism be the cause of the ^perior mental culture of the middle classes of the people belonging to the Anglo- Saxon race ? And is it not probable, that nothing has contributed so much to awaken the scientific spirit that prevails among these people, as the liberty of choice that has been allowed with regard to all studies except the two branchfes which are considered essen- tially fundamental, viz. mathematics and the classical 328 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE languages ? Indeed, it se^ms to me that the close ad- herence to the " humanities," in our preparatory edu- cational institutions, far from cultivating a taste for science, rather counteracts such taste, by making the study of the sciences, in a great many cases, appear in no better light than that of a pensum, which must he learnt for the purpose of passing an examination. However, he^this as it may,-the fact as regards the American schools is, a&-I have -snid, that mathematics and the classics, together With the English language, and to a certain extent the physical sciences, must be considered as the constant and essential subjects of study, whereas aU other subjects must be viewed in the light of accidental, omamfental studies, varying accord- ing^ to circumstances in the difiPerent-sehools."" I shall now proceed to give an account of the edu- cational institutions called colleges; and as I think the best mode of enabling the reader to form a clear con- ception of this class of schools, will be to famish him with a concrete example, I select for this purpose Co- lumbia College, in New York, which, belonging neither to the most superior nor the most inferior colleges in the Union, may be considered a fair specimen of the general character of these institutions. ' 'According to the calendar of 1849, the administra- tive body of this college was composed of 24 trustees, and the staif of teachers of 1 professor of theoretical and practical philosophy, political economy, rhetoric, and belles-lettres; 1 of mathematics and astronomy, 1 of natural philosophy and chemistry, 1 of the Latin and Greek languages and literatures, 1 tutor in the same branches, 1 tutor in Hebrew, 1 in UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 329 German, 1 in French, 1 in Spanish, 1 in ItaKan, ] in elocution, 1 in jurisprudence*. The president merely superintends. The number of students was 130, divided into four classes, viz., 31 seniors (this being the head class), 33 juniors, 39 sophomores^ 27 freshmen. , ^T!Tieconditions of admission into the lowest or freshman's class are a knowledge of Latin and Greek grammar, together with the rules of prosody ; further, in Latin, to be able to construe the commentaries of Caesar (with the exception of the last book), Cicero's Oration in CatiUnam, and pro Archia Poeta ; Sallust, and the first six books of the iEneid; in Greek, to be able to construe the gospels of Luke and John, the Acts, a Greek reading book, the first three books of Xenophon's Anabasis ; further, to be able to translate, grammatically correct, from English into Latin ; and finally, a knowledge of arithmetic as far as the Eule of Three, common and decimal frac- tions, and the extraction of square roots and cubic roots, and of algebra as far as equations of the first degree^- ffTsubjoin the course of studies in each class. Re- lative to the classical studies it must be observed that * It will be seen hereafter, that only some of these tutors are employed for the regular collegiate course, the others being merely engaged for such students as may desire especial guidance in subjects not comprised in the usual course. t-5bis word at' one~tiffie "wa-j-generally believed _ to be an- American barbarism; it is now sAposed to have been originally introduced from this country, T^here, it is maintained, it was at a very early period in use in the university of Cambridge. — Trmis. 330 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE the president and the professors are at liberty to select such among the prescribed works, or such part of these, as they may deem most advisable. The course in each class occupies one year. ' Freshman Class. — 1. Horace's Odes, Epodes, and I Satires, Virgil's Georgics, Ovid's Fasti, Cicero de Senectute and de Amicitia, Cicero pro Mureena, Col- lectanea Grseca, Luoian, Latin composition in prose and verse, Roman and Greek antiquities, ancient history and geography*. 2. Equations in the second and higher degrees, logarithms and series, practical problems, the elements of plane geometry (right lines and triangles, parallel lines, circles, rectangles, poly- gons). 3. English and general grammar, and English composition. 4. German language. Sophomore Class. — 1. Horace's Epistles, Plautus, Lucan, Livius, Tacitus, Pliny!s Epistles, Euripides, the Iliad, the Homeric Hymns, Herodotus, Thucydides, Latin and Greek composition in prose and verse, repe- tition of ancient history and geography t. 2. Geo- metry (equations, analytical plane geometry,- plane trigonometry, sohd geometry, spherical trigonometry, projections and linear drawing, descriptive geometry, together with its application to land surveying, navi- gation, &c.). 3. The rudiments of physics and che- mistry. 4. Rhetoric and recitation, English compo- * In 1849 the Latin course comprised Cicero de Senectute, de Amicitia, the Paradoxa and Somnium Scipionis, as also Cor- nelii Nepotis Vita Attici ; and the Greek course, Xenophon's Memorabilia. t In 1849 the Latin course comprised the Germania and Agricola of Tacitus, as also Virgil's Georgics ; the Greek course, Aristophanes. UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 331 sition (read out to the whole class and criticised by the \ tutor). 5. The elements of modern history. 6. The German language. Junior Class. — 1. Cicero's philosophical works, Lu- cretius, Terence, ^schylus, Aristophanes, Plato, Demos- thenes and ^schines de Corona, Latin and Greek com- position, in prose and verse, Eoman literary history *• 2. Practical astronomy, together with the theory re- lative to the use of astronomical instruments, the laws ruling the motion of the planets, the theory of tides, nautical astronomy, general exposition of the solar and stellar systems, and of the theory of gravitation. 3. Applied chemistry, mineralogy and geology. 4. Logic, the principles of sesthetics, history of English litera- ture, and general history of modern European litera- ture, English composition. 5. German language. Senior Class. — 1. Cicero de Oratore, Quintilianus Dialogus de Oausis Corruptee Eloquentiee, Juvenal and "Persius, Longinus, Pindar, Sophocles, Latin and Greek composition in prose and verse, history of Greek lite- rature f. 2. Differential and integral calculus and the calculus of variations, together with their application to geometry, mechanics and physical astronomy, theo- retical and practical mechanics and engineering. 3. Theoretical and practical philosophy, and history of philosophy, political economy, introduction to natural ' and revealed religion. 4. English composition, and * In 1849 they read in Latin, Terence's Comedies and/ Horace's Ars Poetica and Epistolae ; and in Greek, Demos-r thenes and ^schylus. t In 1849 they read in Latin, Juvenal ; in Greek, Aristotle and Sophocles. 332 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE ,' occasionally " debating " exercises on given subjects. \, 5. German language and literature. The daily exercises begin at half-past ten o'clock, at whiich hour the professors and scholars, headed by the president, assemble in the chapel for prayers. After prayers two of the students (in rotation) recite either some passages from an approved author, or some com- position , of their own. The four hours immediately succeeding prayers is the only time dedicated to regular teaching, and this only on the first five days of the week. On Saturdays and Sundays no exercises are gone through. It is evident from this that the greatest amount of work is done by the students in their own chambers, and the lesson hours are chiefly occupied in repeating what has been studied in private ; but also partly in attending lectures deKvered by the professors. Some subjects, such as philosophy, literary history, and others, are principally taught in this manner, in which cases the students take notes and are examined each week in the portion of the subject propounded. Vacations are allowed from the last day of July until the Saturday preceding the first Monday in Octo- ber, and from the 24th of December until the 4th of January. Besides these, there are some general hoUdays. / There are two examinations each year, one in the beginning of February and the other in the beginning of July, the weeks immediately preceding these being devoted to repetitions. The examinations last several days, and are very stringent; promotions in the classes take place after the second examination. The students in each class who have made most general progress UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 333 receive a " general testimonial of merit," and those ■who distinguish themselves in any particular branch, receive " special testimonials." The recipients of these take the first places in the calendar and in the classes ; the other students have no fixed places. The rules of discipline are the same as in a school. Every morning the names of the students are called over, and those present as weU as those absent are noted. None must be absent from a lesson without especial permission. If a student neglect his own studies or disturb others in theirs, or misconduct himself towards a tutor or superior, or be guilty of swearing and indecent language, drunkenness, gamb- ling, fighting, &c., the punishment is a private or public reprimand, or expulsion for a shorter or longer period, sometimes for ever. In the Board of the college, composed of the presi- dent and all the professors in the four classes named above, is vested the chief management of the institu- tion, and to this authority appeals are to be made in all matters of discipHne which cannot be decided by the president alone. This Board holds a meeting every Saturday to discuss and settle all matters of business. The consent of the president is required for every decision of the Board. ^ ' Commencements are held every year at -the end of July, when the degree of Bachelor of Arts is conferred on the students who have gone through the whole course. The latter are bound on these occasions to read in public a treatise of their own composition, which has previously received approval. The degree of Master of Arts is quite honorary, and is conferred 334 GENERAL OEGANIZATION OF THE on persons considered worthy of it, but not until three years after they have received the diploma of a Bachelor of Arts. Each pupil pays annually 9i) dollars for the instruc- tion imparted. However, the cities of New York and Brooklyn, as also five separate corporations in New York, have each the right to send two free scholars to the college, and the city of New Jersey one. Each religious denomination in the city of New York has likewise the right to send one free scholar destined for holy orders. Finally, every academy (with excep- tion of the grammar school annexed to the college itself) which, in the course of one year, sends four pay- ing pupils to the college, hkewise enjoys the privilege of the free admission of one scholar *. On obtaining the diploma of Bachelor of Arts the students have to pay a fee of eight dollars ; but all the expenses con- nected with the conferring of the degree are defrayed from the funds of the college, provided they do not exceed 200 dollars. ' THie library of this college contains about 15,000 volumes. Two associations, formed among the stu- dents, possess, in the aggregate, from 3000 to 4000 volumes. The collections of other objects are insig- nificant ; yet the students have access to some scien- tific instruments, minerals, &e. All that has been said above may, with a very few modifications, or, perhaps, even without any, be ap- phed to every college in the United States, in as far as regards the length of the course of studies, the * In 1849 the number of free scholars was 24. UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 335 division into classes, the conditions of admission, the prominence of the mathematical and classical, studies, the home studies, the daily exercises in the college, the rules of discipline, and the degrees conferred. It is, however, self-evident that there must he many differences as regards the charges for instruction, the number of free scholars admitted, the extent of Ubra- ries, and other collections, &c. ; also as regards the qualifications of the teachers, the more or less interest in the studies evinced by students and tutors, &c. Ia-Sweden-4be- beliBf "that Ameiicaii - edueatit)n-is essentially practical, and that classical studies form a very small part of it, is so prevalent, that the tendency of quite an opposite character, which is revealed in the college regulations, will no doubt cause much surprise. In reality, by far the greater part of the time in college is spent in classical studies ; and persons who graduate in any of the superior American colleges must possess a considerable amount of classical knowledge. That this must be the case will easily be perceived after a glance at the course of studies in Columbia College, as given above, and particularly if it be remembered that the studies are pursued under the same vigilant supervision and the same system of careful examina- tion by the teachers as in ordinary schools, and that Latin and Greek exercises are written every week. Indeed, not even in Germany, would it be possible to proceed on a more minute and critical system of inter- pretation, as regards the classical authors, than I heard applied in Columbia College when I was there. The same may be said of the mathematical studies, which, in many colleges, embrace even the higher cal- 336 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE cuius, and always exteud far beyond the pensum re- quired for the bachelor's degree in our country. The two subjects just mentioned form as it were the kernel of the collegiate instruction, and they are par- ticularly cultivated in the two junior classes — natural science, philosophy, and rhetoric being the principal subjects in the senior classes. ^ With the exception of the two first-named subjects, no branch of study can be said to enjoy any particular favour. As regards the natural sciences, indeed, I think that, to a certain degree, physics and natural history are pretty generally embraced in the course, b,ut the instruction given is not always of the best. Chemical manipulations are not customary. Upon the whole, it may be said that the study of the natural sciences (perhaps with the exception of astronomy) does not exceed what ought to be the extent of the course in every gymnasium^ but I will resCTVe'^ibr -a- future chapter the reflections suggested by this- state . of-things'^ On the system of discipline in the American colleges I must add one general remark. I mentioned above that the discipline was exactly the same as in a school ; and this constitutes another point of difference be- tween these institutions and our universities. That young men of about the same age as the younger members of our universities, but among whom I have seen men of from 25 years and even 30years of age, and, consequently, in full possession of all the rights of a * The reader will perceive that the system of instruction I have described betrays an English origin. UNIVERSITY IN NEW YORK. 337 citizen and elector, should be subjected to a system of school discipline, seems the more striking to us when we compare it to the amount of hberty which, in Eu- rope, is allowed to the youths of the universities, and which too often leads to idleness and degenerates into licence. But this is not the only instance of licence allowed in Europe where liberty is excluded, while in America rigid discipline goes hand in hand with freedom. That in this case, as in many others, even the strictest system cannot always prevent abuses, and that the evilly inclined will always find means to evade the laws and the most vigilant superintendence, need hardly be mentioned. Finally, I must observe that many of the colleges are, as regards religion, under the direct influence and control of some one sect or other * ; but, nevertheless, dogmatic religion is not taught in these institutions ; and, with the exception of some few Catholic colleges, they are all open to students of every denomination. Morning and evening devotions take place regularly in the presence of the teachers. The larger colleges have a chapel or a church, often of a very ornamental cha- racter, attached to them, and which is used for exer- cises in elocution as well as for religious devotions. I cannot conclude this chapter without referring to a subject connected with some academies, and even superior educational institutions, in the United States, which seems to me most worthy of remark — I mean the custom of allowing the pupils to learn some trade, or even * Thus Harvard College is Unitarian ; Yale College, Calvi- nistic ; Columbia College, Episcopal, &c. Q 338 UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK. practical agriculture, while pursuing their theoretical studies. Some schools, indeed, depend in a great measure on the work of the pupils for their support, and the charges made for the pupils are thus reduced to a comparatively very small sum. Many indigent young men are thus enabled to continue their studies without being obliged to have recourse to the baneful expedient of running into debt, and thus drawing upon the insecure future. I have reason to believe that, in particular, many men in holy orders have trodden this toilsome and modest path to knowledge. In my opinion the introduction of useful manual labour, even into schools frequented by young persons not destined to be artizans, is not only in accordance with the true prin- ciples of pubhc education, but will sooner or later be rendered necessary by the force of circumstances. . CHAPTEE XXVI. THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBEIDGE. As Harvard College, or Cambridge University, as it is now more properly called, is the first among the in- stitutions in the United States, which can lay claim to the denomination of universities, in the higher sense of the word, it is but right to devote especial attention to it. In the present chapter, therefore, the reader will find information on the most essential points relating to this interesting institution. Thanks to the efibrts of a few private individuals, and to a small grant made by the general court, in 1636, for the establishment of a school in Newtown*; the first foundation of the university was laid in that year, but its true rise must be dated from the year 1638, when an English clergyman, by name John Harvard, who died after only a year's sojourn in Ame- * Such was then the name of the present city of Cambridge, which latter name the town has derived from the university. This little town is situated close to Boston, from which city it is separated by an arm of the sea, which is now traversed by a bridge. Formerly communication between the two towns was kept up by means of a ferry, the proceeds of which were granted to the university. Q 2 340 THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. rioa, bequeathed to tbe school his library and the half of his fortune, which was rather considerable for the times. It is after this, its first benefactor, that the university has been called Harvard College. From this period the unpretending school has gone on gradually developing itself, and has attained its pre- sent high position, chiefly through the support of pri- vate Uberality, but with the co-operation of the State. The greater number of professorships have been founded by donations, and in these cases bear the names of the founders, such as the Hollis professorship in theology, the Hollis professorship in mathematics and natural philosophy, Eoyall's professorship ia law, Erving's in chemistry, Hersey's in medicine, Perkins in mathematics and astronomy, Rumford's in applied physics, &c., &c. The donations made -nithin the course of the present century alone amount to about one million doUars. Among these donations are the following, which I give as examples : — Dollars. Cents. 1805. Subscriptions for the establisliment of a botanical garden and a professor- ship in natural history . . . 31,333 33 1817. Subscriptions for theological school . 30,000 1826. Do. for do. do. . 19,322 33 1829. Do. for a professorship in homiletics 13,180 1838. Subscriptions for the establishment of a loan-fund for necessitous students 12,050 1838. Subscriptions (of 30 persons) for an observatory ..... 3,000 1842. Subscriptions (of 34 persons) for a library 21,000 1843. Subscriptions for a telescope . . 20,000 THE UNIVEESITY OF CAMBRTDGE. 341 Dollars. Cents. 1846. Subscriptions for the foundation of a scholarship 1 635 1846. Subscriptions towards defraying the salary of the observator . . . 5,050 1846. Subscription for purchase of the skeleton of a mastodon . . . 3,065 1846. Subscriptions for the medical school 4,600 1841. From the Society for Promoting Theo- logical Education in Harvard Col- lege 10,000 &c., &o. FuETHER Donations feom Swole Individuals. 1814. Eliot, for the foundation of a profes- sorship in Greek .... 20,000 1815. Parkman, for the foundation of a professorship in theology . . 5,000 1816. Rumford, for the foundation of a pro- fessorship in applied physics . . 28,000 1816. Smith, for the foundation of a profes- sorship in French and Spanish . 20,000 1822. Perkins, for a professorship . . 20,000 1829. 1 „ , . . , , o.,f. I Dane, for a professorship in law . 15,000 1831. Gore, without any stipulation . . 94,000 1834. Fisher, for a professorship in natural history 20,000 1834. Mc Lean, for a professorship in natural history 20,552 30 1835. Sarah Jackson, for poor students of divinity - 10,000 1840. Parkman,fora professorship indivinity 5,000 1843. Sears, for a cupola for the observatory 5,000 1844. Haven, for mathematical and astrono- mical books 3,000 1844. Munson, without any stipulation . 15,000 342 THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. Dollars. Cents. 1845. Presoott, to library .... 3,000 1845. Sears, to observatory (for an observator) 5,000 1846. Brooks, for a dwelling-house for pre- sident 10,000 1847. Warren, a cabinet of anatomical pre- parations, valued at 10,000 dol- lars, and for preservation and extension of this .... 5,000 1847. Abbot Lawrence, to scientific school . 60,000 1848. Phillips, to observatory . . . 100,000 ifec, » New York . 213,736 )> 11 Pennsylvania . 15,511 »» )» Marj'land 8,072 )» 1) Virginia 372 )» !• South Carolina 1,008 )l f} Georgia . 209 )» )» Alabama 172 »> 11 Florida . 75 >> >> Louisiana . 25,209 7J J) Texas 439 Total . 299,610 By far the greater number of immigrants are Irish ; after these come Germ9,ns, English, and Scotch All other nations together constitute but a very small proportion of the total number. 414 APPENDICES. Number of Churches and Ministers in the United States belonging to the Tleligious Sects named below. (From the American Almanack.) Baptists Methodists Presbyterians Congregationalists (Orthodox) Ditto (Unitarian) Protestant Episcopalians Roman Catholics Universalists Lutherans . Reformed . Mennonites Swedenhorgians Hermhuts Churchea. Ministers. . 14,318 8,637 7,207 . 5,137 4,064 1,971 1,687 245 250 . 1,232 1,497 . 1,073 1,081 . 1,194 700 . 1,604 633 543 592 400 250 42 30 22 24 Table of Population in the United States, according to the Census of 1850 (not including the States and Territories of California, Texas, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Minne- sota, and the Columbia District). Maine . New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut . (Prom the National Intelligencer.) 583,188 317,964 313,611 994,499 147,544 370,791 New England 2,727,597 Brought forward 2,727,597 *! New York . 3,097,394 New Jersey . 489,333 Pennsylvania . 3,311,786 2,801,119 Ohio . . 1,956,108 Michigan . 397,654 Indiana 988,416 Illinois 851,470 Wisconsin . . 305,191 Iowa . . 198,214 4,691,053 Free States . 13,317,163 Delaware . 91,535 Maryland . 583,035 Virginia . 1,421,661 North Carolina . 868,903 South Carolina . 668,507 Georgia . 905,999 Florida . 87,401 Alabama . 771,671 Mississippi . . 606,555 Louisiana . 511,974 Arkansas . 209,639 Missouri . 682,043 Tennessee . . 1,002,625 Kentucky . . 982,405 Slave States 9,393,953 22,711,116 Woodfall and Kinder, Printers, Angel Court, Skinner Street. fe:^ ^€se^l ^i -eQ^ PAMPHLETS. 7 St. Paul's Epistles to the Corinthians: An Attempt to oonyey their Spirit and Significance. By the Rev JOHN HAMILTON THOM. Post 8vo, cloth. Original price, 9«.; reduced to 7«. P. Is. " A volame of singularly free, suggestive, and beautiful commentary."— Zrejuirer. 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" ' The Vocation of Man ' is, as Fichte truly says, intelligible to all readers who are really able to understand a book at all ; and as the history of the mind in its various phases of doubt, knowledge, and faith, it is of interest to all. A book of this stamp ia sure to teach you much, be- cause it excites thought. If it rouses you to combat his conclusions, it has done a good work ; for in that very effort you are stirred to a consideration of points which have hitherto escaped your indolent acquiescence." — Foreign Quarterly/. *' This is Fichte's most popular work, and is every way remarkable." — Atlas. '• It appears to us the boldest and most emphatic attempt that has yet been made to explain to man his restless and uncon- querable desire to win the True and the Eternal." — Sentinel. The Characteristics of the Present Age. By JOHANN GOTTLIEB FICHTE. Translated from the German, by William Smith. Post 8vo, cloth. Original price, 7s. ; reduced to 6s. P. 6d. "A noble and most notable acquisition to the literature of England," — Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Faper. " We accept these lectures as a true and most admirable delineation of the present age ; and on this ground alone we should bestow on them our heartiest re- commendation ; but it is because they teach us how we may rise above the age, that we bestow on them our most em- phatic praise. The Popular Works of J. Ot. Fichte- 2 vols. Post 8vo, cloth. Original price, £1 4s. ; reduced to £1. P. 2s. " He makes us think, and perhaps more sublimely than we have ever formerly thought, but it is only in order that we may the more nobly act. " As a majestic and most stirring utter- ance from the lips of the greatest German prophet, we trust that ihe book will find a response in many an English soul, and potently help to regenerate Enghsh so- ciety.*' — The Critic. I A Just Income-Tax: How Possible, being a Review of the Evidence reported by tlie Income-Tax Committee, and an Inquiry into the True Principle of Taxation. By G. W. HEM- MING, of Linooln's-Inn, Barrister-at-Law and Eellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. Lectures on Social Science and the Organi- zation of Labour. By JAMES HOLE. Demy 8vo, stiff cover, price 2«. M. P. 6d. " An able and excellent exposition of tbe opinions of the Socialists."— £<;onom!S<. I m^¥d^s^ -^^^^^^ 12 c^e^ ^ir©: MR. chapman's publications. Ireland. An Inquiry into the Social Condition of the Country, with Suggestions for its Improvement. By DANIEL KESHAN. Post 8vo, cloth. Is. 6d. lULOJlBy and BXorals : A Book for the Times. Con- taining an attempt to explain the nature of Money Capital, and the probable effects of the New Gold on Conaraerce, Incomes, and Public Morals; with some Suggestions relative to the Agricultural Interest, the Condition of Towns, and the National Defences. By JOHN LALOR. 8vo, cloth, 10s. P. Is. "Both in matter and style it isalike excellent; and it is difficult to determine j whether Mr. Lalor has placed the public ^ under greater obligations by the ability | with which he has investigated several of, the most abstruse questions which perplex ' political economists — by the felicitous and , forcible language in which his meaning is ; uniformly conveyed— or by the high moral tone which pervades every part of his volume. Rarely has philosophy assumed so attractive a garb, or appeared in a cos- i tume illuminated by so many of the spangles of a lively but chastened fancy ; and seldom has the intimate relation which most persons feel to exist between the ma- terial and moral conditionsof society been so clearly and tiioroughly expounded." — Morning Chrunicle. " Tliese essays possess great merit, both of style and of matter, They are written with address and persuasion, and are not less remarkable for profound philosophic judgment and extreme metaphysical re- finement than for a delicate play of poetic fancy, which, at the same time that his mind is strengthened and enriched, al- lures, surprises, and beguiles the imagina- tion of the reader. It is, in a word, an attractive ind quickening work, in which the practical precepti of a benign and elevated philosophy are united in the happiest combination with the graces of elegant and harmonious composition." — Morning Puai. " Neither a party nor a superficial pro- duction. Mr. Lalor is well versed in all the writings of the ecorioraists, and not only in them, but in much other litera- ture ; and he pours out his stores with great facility, and in a very graceful man- ner. Essentially, the book is politico- economical, but it is also social, moral, and litt-rary, treating many of the topics of the day, but treating them on scientific principle. If a temporary circumstance have given birth to the book, the materials for it have been gathered through years of study, by much reading and reflection." —lEconoMisL " A very able and luminous treatise on the impoi'tant questions of capital, cur- rency, credit, and the monetary system generally. The author is singularly clear and accurate in his definitions of tJie various branches of what is commonly called money, or, as he more precisely de- fines it, 'purchasing puwer;* and places before the reader, in as simple terms as the subject will permit, a picture of the mode in which incnnie and capital reci- procally create and augment each other. A person with a very elementary notion of the principles of political economy and ■ monetary science may readily follow and comprehend his argument?, and, as he goes ' on, will be enabled to appreciate the merits of the author's deductions. The subject is one of deep interest, and, though not concurring in all tlie views it contains, we can fairly pronounce the worii to be a valuable contribution to the study of the science on which it treats." — Morning Adverdser, The iEilements of Individualism. A Series of Lectures. By WILLIAM MACCALL. Post Svo, cloth, 7s. Qd. P. Is. *' U is a book woi*thy of perusal. Even those who can find no sympathy with its philo.Mi,iliy, will derive pleasure and im- provement from t'le many exquisite touches of feeling, and the many pictures of beauty which rnarli ts pages. "The expan-^ivc philosophy, the pene- trative intellect, air I the general humanity ui' the author, have rendered the Eleynents of InrttvidualisTn a booli of strong and general interest."— Critic. " We have been singularly interested by this book .... Here is a speaker and thinker whom we may securely feel to be a lover of truth, exhibiting in his work a form and temper of mind very rare and peculiar in omv tvavQ."— Manchester Exa- miner. h =^9=^ ^ ^eQ^ SPECULATIVE, MORAL, AND SOCIAL PHILOSOPHr. 13 The Agents of Civilization. A Series of Lectures. By WILLIAM MACCALL. 12uao, cloth. Original price, 3s. 6d.; reduced to Is. Qd. P. Qd. The Education of Taste. A Series of Lectures. By WILLIAM MACCALL. 12mo, paper cover. Original price, 23. 6d. ; reduced to Is. P. Gd. The Progress of the Intellect^ as Exemplified in the Religious Development of the Greeks and Hebrews. By R. W. MACKAY, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth, 24s. P. 2s. in these respects; in our own day we re- member none." — Examiner. "Over the vast area of cloud-land, bounded on one side by the wars of the Christian?, and on the other by the last book of the Odi/ssei/, he has thrown the penetrating electric light of modern science, and found a meaning for every fable and every phantom by which the mysterious region is haunted."— v^^/m*. '* All the views are justified by authori- ties. Tlie work embraces many important subjects included in and suggested by the religious theories of the Greeks and Hebrews, and, from this minute accuracy, will be a storehouse for arguments and facts for those disposed to attack the theories, if not for these who havo an in- terest in defending them. For a book so full of learning, it ia remarkably weU written." — EconomiHt. " The work before us exhibits an in- dustry of i-esearch which reminds us of Cudwortb, and for which, in recent litera- ture, we must seek a parallel in Germany rather than in England, while its philo- sophy and aims are at once lofty and practical. Scattered through its more abstruse disquisitions are found passages of pre-emment beauty— gems into which are absorbed the finest raya of intelligence and feeling. We believe Mr. Mackay's work is unique in its kind The analysis and history of the theory of mediation, from its earliest mythical embodiments, are admirable, both from their panoramic breadth and their richness in illustrative details. AVe can only recommend the rea ler to resort himself to this treasury of mingled thought and learning." — We^t- minater Review, Jan. \, 1851. " Mr. Mackay brings forward in support ofhis views an amount of erudition which will prove formidable to his antagonists. Most of the best German editions of the Greek and Latin classics seem to be per- fectly familiar to the author, who knows well how to wield such ponderous mate- rials The accountof thetheosophy of Aristotle, given in the first volume, is evidently the production of a master of the subject." — Athenceum. " ' The Progress of the Intellect ' is in comparably the most important contribu- tion yet made by any English writer to views first broadly put forth by rational- istic German theologians. He has widened their basis — given them freer scope and larger aims— supported them by stores of as various and accumulated learning, and imparted to them all tlie dignity which can be derived from a sober and weighty style of writing, and from processes of thought to which imagination and reason conLribute in almost equal degrees. This is unusual praise; but it is due to unusual powers; and to be offered to Mr. Mackay quite apart from any agreement in the tendency or object of his treatise. We will nut even say that we have read it with sufficient care or critical guidance to be entitled to offer an opinion on the sound- ness of its criticism or reasoning, or on the truth or falsehood of its particular conclusions, or, indeed, on anything but its manifest labour and patience, the rare and indisputable monuments of knowledge which we find in it, and the surprising range of method it includes — logical, philo- sophical, and imaginative. Not many books have at any time been published with such irresistible claims to attention Intellectual B^eligion ; Being the Introductory Chapter to " The Progress of the Intellect, as Exemplified in the Religious Development of the Greeks and Hebrews." By R. W. MACKAY, M.A. 8vo, paper cover, Is. Qd. I Iietters from Ireland. By Harriet martineau. Reprinted from the Daily News. Post 8vo, cloth^ 6s. 6d. P. 6d. " Every one of these letters contain pas- 1 "....We entertain no doubt, then, sages worthy of attention The re- that our readers will rejoice with us in publication of Miss Martineau's Letters, having these contributions brought toge- as a very late description of Ireland, will ther and presented again to their notice in be universally acceptable." — Economist, a compact and inviting form." — Inquirer. Letters on the Laws of Man^s Nature and Development. By H. G. ATKINSON and HARRIET MAR- TINEAU. Post 8vo, cloth. Original price, 9s.; reduced to 5s, P. Is. •' Of the many remarkable facts related in this book we can say little now. What rather strikes us is the elevating influence of an acknowledgment of mystery in any form at all. In spite of all that we have said, tliere is a tone in JMr. Atkinson's thoughts far above those of most of us who live in slavery to daily experience. The world is awful to him — truth is sacred. However wildly he has wandered in search of it, truth is all for which he cares to live. If he is dogmatic, he is not vain ; if he is drying up the fountain of life, jet to him life is holy. He does not care for fame, for wealth, for rank, for reputation, for anything, except to find trulh and to live beautifully by it; and all this because he feels the unknown and terrible forces which are busy at the warp and woof of the marvellous existence." — Fraser's Ma- gazine. " A book from the reasonings and con- clusions of which we are bound to express our entire dissent, but to which it is im- possible to deny the rare merit of strictest honesty of purpose, as an investigation into a subject of the highest importance, upon which the wisest of us is almost entirely ignorant, begun with a sincere desire to penetrate the mystery and ascer- tain the truth, pursued with a brave re- solve to shrink from no results to which that inquiry might lead, and to state them, whatever reception they might have from the world." — Critic. " A curious and valuable contribution to psychological science, and we regard it with interest, as containing the best and fullest development of the new theo- ries of mesmerism, clairvoyance, and the kindred hypothesis. The book is replete with profound reflections thrown out in- cidentally, is distinguished by a peculiar elegance of style, and in the hands of a calm and philosophical theologian may serve as a useful precis of the most formidable difficulties he has to contend against in the present day." — Weekly News. " The Letters are remarkable for the analytical powers which characterize them, and will be eagerly read by all those who appreciate the value of the assertion, that ' the proper study of mankind is man.' The range of reading which they embody is no less extensive than the sincerity as well as depth of thought and earnestness in the search after truth, which are their principal features. Without aff"ectation or pedantry, faults arrived at by so easy a transition, they are marked by simplicity of diction, by an ease and grace of lan- guage and expression that give to a subject, for the most part intricate and perplexing, an inexpressible charm." — JVeekly Dispatch. Lectures on Political WILLIAM NEWMAN, Autlior the Hebrew Jlonarchy," &c. 7s. 6d. ; reduced to 5s. P. Is. " The most able and instructive book, which exhibits, we think, no less moral than economical wisdom," — Prospective Review. " For a lucid statement of principles in asingularly compact and readable volume, we know of nothing comparable to this. Any person familiar with the subject, and the writings upon it, will appreciate the union of fulness with brevity which dis- ©^53^^ liconomy. By prancis of ''Phases of Faith," "History of Post 8vo, cloth. Original pricC; tinguishes it; but only those who have some experience in lecturing can under- stand the amount of thought and dexterity required tokeep such a subject within such narrow limits, and yet not have a tedious page. . . The best manual or introduction to the science of Political Economy with which we are acquainted. . . We send our readers to the volume itself, with our emphatic commendation." — Leader. -e^es ^9^ I SPECULATIVE, MORAL, AND SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY. 15 W An Elementary Treatise on Iioeic. 8vo, G y cloth, is. 6d. ( ) Philosophy of Human Knowledge. By J. J. OSBORNE. 8vo, cloth, is. A Treatise on Iiogic. By j. j. osborne. ismo, sewed, Is. The Purpose of Existence. Popularly considered, in relation to the Origin, Development, and Destiny of the Human Mind. Crown 8vo, cloth. Original price, 7s. 6d. ; reduced to 3s. 6d. P. Is. "This singularly thoughtful essay em- braces a wide range of topics, but without ever departing from its proper theme. In the performance of bis task, the author has displayed gi-eat power of reflection, much learning, and an eloquence and eleyation of style, peculiarly appropriate to the loftiness of the subject-matter." — Critic. The Educational Institutions of the United States: their Character and Organization. Translated from the Swedish of P. A. Siljestrom, M.A., by FREDERICA ROWAN. Post 8vo, cloth, 8s. 6d. Social Aspects. By JOHN stores smith, Author of "Mirabeau, a Life History." Post 8vOj cloth. Original price 6s,; reduced to 2s. Qd. P. Is. " This work is the production of a thoughtful mipd, and of an ardent and earnest spirit, and is well deserving of a perusal in extenso by all those who reflect on so solemn and important a theme as the future destiny of their native country." Morning Chronicle. " A work of whose merits we can hai'dly speak too highly." — Literary Gazette. " This book has awakened in us many painful thoughts and intense feelings. It is fearfully true— passionate in its up- braidings, unsparing in its exposures — yet full of wisdom, and pervaded by an earnest, loving spirit. The author sees things as they are — too sad and too real for silence — and courageously tells of them with stern and honest truth. We receive with pleasiu'e a work so free from polite lispings, pretty theorizings, and canting progres- sionisms ; speaking, as it does, earnest truth, fearlessly but in love." — Noncon- formist. The Great Sin of Great Cities ; being a Keprint, by request, of an article entitled "Prostitution," from the "West- minster and Foreign Quarterly Review," for July, 1850. 8vo, sewed, Is. A Theory of Population^ deduced from the general law of Animal Fertility. By HERBERT SPENCER, Author of " Social Statics." Republished from the Westminster Review, for April, 1852. 8vo, paper cover, price Is. m^^^ -e€^ \] ^^^ - crc::^^ ^ 16 MR, CHAPMAN S PUBLICATIONS. Social Statics] or, the Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified^ and the first of them Developed. By HER- BERT SPENCER. 8vo, cloth, price 12s. ' Mr. Spencer in his able and logical , science of social polity." — Literary Ga- work on 'Social Statics' ." — Edin- burgh Review. " It deserves very high praise." — North British Review. " A remarkable work." — British Quar- terly Revieiv. " We shall be mistaken if this book do not assist in organizing that huge mass of thought which, for want of a more specific name, is now called Liberal Opinion." — AthejKeum. ' It is the mo«t eloquent, the most in zette. " . . . . The book will mark an epoch in the literature of scientific morality." — Econoinist. " We remember no work on ethics, since that of Spinoza, to be compared with it in the simplicity of its premises, and tlie logical rigour with which a complete sys- tem of scientific ethics is evolved from them." — Leader. " The careful reading we have given it has both afforded us intense pleasure, and teresting, the most clearly-expressed and | rendered it a duty to express, with un- logically- reasoned work, with views the usual emphasis, our opinion of its great most original, that has appeared in the I ability and excellence." — Nonconformist, General Principles of the Philosophy of Nature : with an Outline of aome of its recent Developments among the Germans. By J. B. STALLO, A.M. Post 8vo, cloth, Qs. P. Is. An Essay upon the Philosophy of Evidence ; with a Discussion concerning the Belief in Clairvoyance. By WAT- KIN WILLIAMS, of the Inner Temple. 8vo, sewed. Is. pistori iiiib §i(jfrap!jj). The War of Ormuzd and Ahriman — Liberty and Despotism— in the Nineteenth Century. By WINTER JACK- SON DAVIS. 8vo, 10s. U. I liife and Letters of Judge Story^ the eminent American Jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and Dane Professor of Law at Harvard University. Edited by his Son, WILLIAM W. 8T0RY. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. Original price, £1 10s. ; reduced to £1. P. 3s. " Greater than any Law AYiiter of which there can be no Hifflculty in accounting EnglanrI can boast since the days onilack- f^r his personal influence and popularity." stone." — Lord Cawpbell, ui the House oj\ — Edinburgh f-irv/cm. Lords, Apn'll, 1843. | " The biography before us, written by " Wc louk in vain over the legal litera- 1 his son, is admirably digested, and written ture of England for names to put in com- in a style which sustains the attention to parison with those of Livingstone, Kent, the last, and occasionally rises to true and and Story. . . . After reading his (Judge striking eloquence." — Eclectic Review. Story's) Life and Miscellaneous WritingaJ ^^^9. ^Q^ HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, Historical Sketches of the Old Feunters. v By the Author of "The Log Cabin.'' Post 8vo cloth, 3s. P. 6d. Italy: Past and Present. Or, G-eneral Views of its History, Religion, Politics, Literature, and Art. By L. MARIOTTI. 2 vols, post 8vo, cloth, 10s. P. Is. Qd, " This is a useful book, informed witli lively feeling and sound judgment. It contains an exhibition of Italian views of matters, social and political, by an Italian who has learned to speak through English thoughts as well as English words. Parti- cularly valuable are the sketches of recent Italian history; for the prominent charac- ters are delineated in a cordial and sym- pathetic spirit, yet free from enthusiastic ideas, and with unsparing discrimination. . . . The criticisms on ' The Past' will richly repay perusal; it is, however, in ' The Present ' of Italy that the main in- terest of the book resides. This volume does not merely possess an interest simi- lar to that of contemporary works, it sup- plies a desideratum, and is well adapted to aid the English reader in forming a just estimate of the great events now in pro- gress in Italy. Not the least wonderfiil part of the book is the entire mastery the author has acquired of our language." — ExaniiTter, April. " Our author lias an earnest, nay, en- thusiastic, love and admiration of his native country ; with the ability and elo- quence to render his subject very inte- resting and attractive." — Morning Adver- tiser. The following notices refer to the first volume of the work : " The work is admirable, useful, in- structive. I am delighted to find an Ita- lian coming forward with so n.uch noble enthusiasm, to vindicate his country, and obtain for it its proper interest in the eyes of Europe. The English is wonder- ful 1 never saw any approach to such a style in a foreigner before — as full of beauty in diction as in thought." — Sir M. Bulwer Lytion, Sart. " I recognise the rare characteristics of genius — a large conception of the topic, a picturesque diction founded on profound thought, and that passionate sensibility which becomes the subject — a subject beautiful as its climate, and Inexhaustible as its soil." — S. Disraeli, Esq., M.P. " A very rai :id and summary resumS of the fortunes of Italy from the fall of the Roman Empire to the present moment. — A work of mdustry and labour, written with a good purpose. — A bird's-eye view of the subject that will revive the recol- lections of the scholar, and seduce the tyro into a longer course of reading." — Athenaum. " This work contains more information on the subject, and more references to the present position of Italy, than we have seen in any recent production." — Foreign Quarterly/ Review. " In reference to style, the work before us is altogether extraordinary, as that of a foreigner, and in the higher quality of thought we may commend the author for his acute, and often original, criticism, and his quick perception of the grand and beautiful in bis native literature."— P^-e*- cott, in the North American Heview. " The work before us consists of a con- tinuous parallel of the political and lite- rary history of Italy from the earliest period of the middle ages to the present time. The author not only penetrates the inner relations of those dual appear- ances of national life, but possesses the power of displaying them to the reader with great clearness and effect. We re- member no othtr work in which the civil conditions and literary achievements of a people have been blended in such a series of living pictures, representing suci-essive perlo Is of history. "—Allgemeinc Zeiiung, "An earnest and eloquent work." — Examiner. "A work ranking distinctly in the class of belles-lettres, and well deserving of a library place in England."- -Z.;if»-cEr^ Ga'xcUc. *' A work warmly admired by excellent judges." — TaiCs Magazine. "An admirable work, written with great pov.-er and beauty."— Pro/. Longfellow:— Poets and Poetry of Europe. I h^^b^ ^^^Q^>§ ^^^ ■^^^^^J MR. chapmaist's publications. The liife of Jean Paul Fr. Richter. Compiled from various sources. Together with hie Autobiography, translated from the German. Second Edition. Illustrated with a Portrait engraved on Steel. Post 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d. P. Is, " The autobiography of Richter, which extends only to his twelfth year, is one of the most intei'esting studies of a ti'ue poet's childhood ever given to the world." — Lowe's Edinburgh Magazine. " Richter has an intellect vehement, rugged, irresistible, crushing in pieces the hardest problems ; piercing into the most hidden combinations of things, and grasp- ing the most distant; an imagination vague, sombre, splendid, or appalling, brooding over the abysses of being, wan- dering through infinitude, and summoning before us, in its dim religious light, shapes of brilliancy, solemnity, or terror ; a fancy of exuberance literally unexampled, for it pours its treasures with a lavishnesa which knows no limit, hanging, like the sun, a jewel on every grass-blade, and sowing the earth at large with orient pearls. But deeper than all these lies humour, the ruling quality of Richter — as it were the central fire that pervades and vivifies his whole being. He is a humorist from his inmost soul ; he thinks as a humorist ; he imagines, acts, feels as a humorist ; sport is the element in which his nature lives and works." — Thomas Carlyle. " With such a writer it is no common treat to be intimately acquainted. In the proximity of great and virtuous minds we imbibe a portion of their nature, — feel, as mesmerists say, a healthful contagion, are braced with the same spirit of faith, hope, and patient endurance — are furnished with data for clearingup and workingout the intricate problem of life, and are in- spired, like them, with the prospect of immortality. No reader of sensibility can rise from the perusal of these volumes without becoming both wiser and better." — Atlas. *' Apart from the interest of the work, as the life of Jean Paul, the reader learns something of German life and German thought, and is introduced to Weimar during its most distinguished period — when Goethe, Schiller, Herder, and Wie- land, the great fixed stars of Germany, in conjunction with Jean Paul, were there, surrounded by beautiful and admiring women, of the most refined and exalted natures, and of princely rank. It is full of passages so attractive and valuable, that it is difficult to make a selection as ex- amples of its character." — Inquirer. " The work is a useful exhibition of a great and amiable man, who, possessed of the kindliest feelings, and the most bril- liant fantasy, turned to a high purpose that humour of which Rabelais is the great grandfather, and Sterne one of the line of ancestors, and contrasted it with an ex- altation of feeling and a rhapsodical poetry which are entirely his own. Let us hope that it will complete the work begun by Mr. Carlyle's Essays, and cause Jean PaiU to be really read in this country." — Ex- aminer. *' Richter is exhibited In a most ami- able light in this biography — industrious, frugal, benevolent, with a child-like sim- plicity of character and a heart overflow- ing with the purest love. His letters to his wife are beautiful memorials of true aflFection, and the way in which he perpe- tually speaks of his children shows that he was the most attached and indulgent of fathei's. Whoever came within the sphere of his companionship appears to have contracted an afi'ection for him that death only dissolved : and while his name was resounding through Germany, he re- mained as meek and humble as if he had still been an unknown adventurer on Par- nassus." — The Apprentice. " The ' Life of Jean Paul ' is a charming piece of biography which draws and rivets the attention. The afl'ections of the reader are fixed on the hero with an intensity rarely bestowed on an historical charac- ter. It is impossible to read this bio- graphy without a conviction of its inte- grity and truth ; and though Richter'8 style is more difficult of translation than that of any other German, yet we feel that his golden thoughts have reached us pure from the mine, to which he has given that impress of genius which makes them current in all countries."— CAm/i'an Heformer. Histoire des Crimes du Deux Par VICTOR SCHCELCHER, Repr6sentant du Peuple. cloth, 5s. " It wants the splendid rhetoric and sarcasm of ' Napoleon le Petit,' but it compensates the deficiency by presenting a circumstantial, animated, detailed his- tory of the coup d'etat.*' — Westminster Meview, Decembre. Post 8vo, There is much that is new in it, and every page is curious. The history of the several ' preventive arrests,' with which the coup d'etat opened, is told with cir- cumstantial minuteness, and reads like a Dumas novel." — Leader. I -fega -eQ^ I HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. The Iiife of the Rev. Joseph Blanco White. Written by Himself. With Portions of his Correspondence, Edited by JOHN HAMILTON THOM. 3 vols, post 8vo, cloth. Original price, £1 is. ; reduced to 155. P. 23. " This is a book which rivets the atten- tion, and makes the heart bleed. It has, indeed, with regard to himself^ in its sub- stance, though not in its arrangement, an almost dramatic character; so clearly and strongly is the living, thinking, active man projected from the face of the re- cords which he has left. " His spirit was a battle-field, upon which, with fluctuating fortune and sin- gular intensity, the powers of belief and scepticism waged, from first to last, their unceasing war; and within the compass of his experience are presented to our view most of the great moral and spiritual pro- blems that attach to the condition of our race." — Quarterly Review. " This book will improve his (Blanco White's) reputation. There is much in the peculiar construction of his mind, in its close union of the moral with the intel- lectual faculties, and in its restless desire for truth, which may remind the reader of Dr. Arnold." — Examiner. •* There is a depth and force in this book which tells." — Christian Remembrancer. " These volumes have an interest be- yond the character of Blanco White. And beside the intrinsic interest of his self-por- traiture, whose character is indicated in some of our extracts, the correspondence, in the letters of Ix>rd Holland* Southey, Coleridge, Channing, Norton, Mill, Pro- fessor Powell, Dr. Hawkins, and other names of celebrity, has considerable at- tractions in itself, without any relation to the biogi-aphical purpose with which it Yfos published." — Spectator. The History of Ancient Art among the Greeks. By JOHN WINCKELMANN. Prom the German, by G. H. Lodge. Beautifully illustrated. 8vo, cloth. Original price, 125. : reduced to Qs. P. \s. " That Winckelmann was well fitted for the task of writing a History of Ancient Art, no one can deny who is acquainted with his profound learning and genius. He undoubtedly possessed in the highest degree the power of appreciating artistic skill wherever it was met with, but never more so than when seen in the garb of antiquity The work* is of ' no common order,' and acareful study of the great principles embodied in it must ne- cessarily tend to form a pure, correct, and elevated taste."' — Eclectic Review. " The workis throughout lucid, and free from the pedantry of technicality. Its clearness constitutes its great charm. It does not discuss any one subject at great length, but aims at a general view of Art, with attention to its minute developments. It is, if we may use the phrase, a Grammar of Greek Art, a sine qua non to all who would thoroughly investigate its language of form." — Literary World. "Winckelmann is a standard writer, to whom most students of art have been more or less indebted. He possessed extensive information, a refined taste, and great zeal. His style is plain, direct, and specific, so that you are never at a loss for his mean- ing. Some very good outlines, representing fine types of Ancient Greek Art, illustrate the text, and the volume is got up in a style worthy of its subject." — Spectator. " To all lovers of art, this volume will ftimish the most necessary and safe guide in studying the pure principles of nature and beauty in creative art We cannot wish better to English art than for a wide circulation of this invaluable work." — Standard of Freedom. " The mixture of the philosopher and artist in Winckelmann's mind gave it at once an elegance, penetration, and know- ledge, which fitted him to a marvel for the task he undertook Such a work ought to be in the library of every artist and man of taste, and even the most general reader will find in it much to instruct, and much to interest him." — Atlas. -^6^ ^9^ ^^^g^^Jl MR. CHAPMAN S PUBLICATIONS. Ipwtrg m)5 Jfkti0it. The Nemesis of Faith. By j. a. froude, m.a., kte Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Post 8vo, cloth, Qs. P. 6d. insi(flit into human minds, and in his per- ceptions of natural beauty The style of the letters is everywhere charm- ing. The confessions of a Sceptic are often brilliant, and always touching. The clos* ing narrative is fluent, graphic, and only too highly wrought in painful beauty." — Prospective Reviev>, May, 1849, " The book becomes in its soul-burning truthfulness, a quite invaluable record of the fiery struggles and temptations thx'ough which the youth of this nineteenth century has to force its way in religious matters. Especially Is it a great warning and protest against three great falsehoods. Against self-deluded word orthodoxy and blbliolatry, setting up the Bible for a mere dead idol instead of a living witness to Christ, Against frothy philosophic Infi- delity, merely changing the chaff of old systems for the chaff of new, addressing " ' The Nemesis of Faith' possesses the first requisites of a book. It has power, matter, and mastery of subject, with that largeness which must arise from the writer's mind, and that individual cha- racter — those truths of detail — which spring from experience or observation. The pictures of an English home in child- hood, youth, and early manhood, as well as the thoughts and feelings of the student at Oxford, are painted with feeling per- vaded by a current of thought: the re- marks on the humbug of the three learned professions, more especially on the world- liness of the church, are not mere decla- mation, but the outpouring of an earnest conviction: the Picture of Anglican Pro- testantism, dead to faith, to love, and to almost everything but wealth -worship, with the statement of the objects that Newman first proposed to himself, form the best defence ot Tractarianism that has- men's intellects and ignoring their spints. appeared, though defence does not seem lo be the object of the author As the main literary object is to display the struggles of a mind with the growtli and grounds of opinion, incidents are subordi- nate to the intellectual results that spring from them: but there is no paucity of in- cident if the work be judged by its own standard." — Spectator. " The most striking quality in Mr, Froude's writings is his descriptive elo- quence. His characters are all living before us, and have no sameness. His quickness of eye is manifest equally in his Against Tractarianism, trying to make men all belief, as Strasburgers make geese all liver, by darkness and cram- ming ; manufacturing -^tate folly as the infidel state wisdom : deliberately giving the lie to God, who has made man in his own image, boily, soul, and spirit, by making the two first decrepit for the sake of pampering the last Against these three falsehoods, we say, does the book before us protest : after its own mournful fashion, most strongly when most unconsciously." — Eraser's Mag.^ Mai/, 1849. Hearts in Mortmain^ and Cornelia. A Novel, in 1 vol. Post 8vo, cloth. Original price, 105. Qd. ; reduced to 5s. P. Qd. " To come to such writings as ' Hearts in Mortmain, and Cornelia * after the anxieties and roughness of our worldly struggle, is like bathing in fresh waters after the dust and heat of bodily exertion. To a peculiar and attractive grace they join considerable dramatic power, and one or two of the characters are con- ceived and executed with real genius." — Prospective licview. " Both stories contain matter of thought and reflection « hich would set up a dozen common-place circulating- library produc- tions." — JSxaK'iucr. "It is not often now-a-days that two works of such a rare degree of excellence in their class are to be found in one volume; it is rarer still to find two works, each of which contains matter for two volumes, bound up in these times in, one cover.'— Observer. " The above is an extremely pleasing book. The first story is written in the an- tiquated form of letters, but its simplicity and good taste redeem it from the tedi- ousness and appearance of egotism which generally attend that style of composi- tion." — Economist. " Well written and interesting." — Daili/ Nezoa. *' Two very pleasing and elegant novels. Some passages display descriptive powers of a high order." — Britannia. I) -^^^^e^^ §t^ ^^^D^ ' POETRY AND FICTION. -^^^$^^, 21 !? Norica^ or, Tales of Niirnberg from the Olden Time. Translated from the German of August- Hagen. Fcp. Svo^ orna- mental binding, suitable for pi*esentation, uniform with "The Artist's Married Life." Ori^nal price, 7s. 6d. ; reduced to 5s, P. 6d. " This pleasant volume is got up in that styleof imitation of the books of a cen- tury ago, which has of late become so much the vogue. The typographical and mechanical departments of the volume speak loudly for the taste and enterprise employed upon it. Simple in its style, quaint, pithy, reasonably pungent. — the book smacks strongly of the picturesque old days of which it treats. A long study of the art-antiquities of Niirnberg, and a profound acquaintance with the records, letters, and memoirs, still preserved, of the times of Albert DUrer and his great brother artists, have enabled the author to lay before us a forcibly-drawn and highly-finished picture of art and house- hold life in that wonderfully art-practising and art- reverencing old city of Germany." — Atfas. " A delicious little book. It is full of a quaint garrulity, and chai'acterized by an earnest simplicity of thought and diction, which admirably conveys to the reader the household and artistic German life of the times of Maximilian, Albert Diirer, and Hans Sachs, the celebrated cobbler and 'master singer,' as well as most of the artist celebrities of Niirnberg in the 16th century. Art is the chief end and aim of this little history. Uislauded and praised with a sort of unostentatious devotion, which explains the religious passion of the early moulders of the ideal and the beau- tiful ; and, perhaps, through a consequent deeper concentration of thought, the secret of their success." — Weekly Dispatch. " A volume full of interebt for the lover of oM times; while the form in which it is presenled to us may incite many to think of art, and look into its many won- drous influences with a curious earnest- ness unknown to them before. It points a moral also, in the knowledge that a people may be brought to take interest in what is chaste and beautiful as in what is coarse and degrading.'* — Manchester Examiner. Foems by R. "W, Smerson. Post 8vo, cloth, 4s. The Patriot : a Poem. By R. W. KING. 12mo, Is. " ' The Patriot ' is a volume of no com- | not that after reading it, the public will men merit, and has been warmly and | pronounce the same yeTivA."— Morning heartily received and praised by Mr. 1 Advertiser. King's friends and admirers. We doubt | ^\ The Odes of HoracCj translated into Unrhymed English Metres, with Illustrative Introductions and Notes, by F. "W. NEWMAN, Professor of Latin at University College, London. Post 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d. * * The Odes are so arranged, that the introductions to them form a small, con- tinuous history of the period ; and the notes are especially addressed to unclassical readers. "Mr. Newman has given an elegant! "Prof.Ncwman'scommandof pure and ant! whenever the necessities of metre choice Enghsh is everywhere shown to be don' "orbid, a scholar-like translation of singularly masterly. It presents a model of Horace . . The :iotcs are admirable, good construing, t. e , the rendering of the and a-e 1 kdy to be of extensive use to Latin original into ,the best and closest the student Mr. Newman has written l-nglish equivalents."-»'f«Wj< News. a 4nraS attractive book, which will be ' " We most cordially recommend Mr. of iXitJ use t™the student, and of some, Newman's volume to all who are mte- service to the ripe scholar in helping him; rested in the subject tor the notes."- to the best possible prose English of difH- LUeymv Gaalte. cult passages."— Dfli'^S' Neias. I =?3- 22 MR. chapman's publications. if The Siege of Damascus ; An Historical Komance. By JAMES NISBET. In 3 vols, post 8vo, cloth. Original price, £1 lis. 6d. ; reduced to lOs. P. Is. Gd. "A romance of very unusual power, such as must arrest attention by its quali- ties as a work of fiction, and help the good cause of liberty of thought." — Leader. *' There ia an occasional inequality of style in the writing, but, on the whole, it may be pronounced beyond the average of modem novelists .... whilst descriptive passages might be selected that betray a very high order of merit." — Manchester Examiner. XSssaySj PoemSj Allegories^ and Fables. By JANUARY SEARLE. 8vo, 4s. Tlie Village Pearl : A Domestic Poem ; with Mis- cellaneous Pieces. By JOHN CRAWFORD WILSON. Ecap. 8vo, cloth, 3s. Qd. Peter Jones l or, Onward Bound. 12mo, price 35. P. Qd. An Autobiography. Preciosa : A Tale. Fcp. 8vo, cloth, Is. 6d. " A bridgeless chasm seems to stand be- tween us and the unexplored world of feeling. There are many faults in * Preciosa,' but we do not hesitate to sa,y that there are passages in it which, for the power of transporting the reader across this intervening depth, and of clothing in an intelligible form the dim creation of passionate imagination, have scarcely a rival in English prose." — Morning Chronicle. " Marked by qualities which we are accustomed to associate with the maturity of a writer's powers." — Guardian. " Exquisitely beautiful writing. . . It is full of sighs and lovers' aspirations, with many charming fancies and poetic thoughts. It is Petrarch and Laura over again, and the numerous quotations from the Italian interspersed, together with images suggested by the passionate melo- dies of the great composers, pretty clearly indicate the burthen which runs like a rich refrain throughout. ... Of its execution we have the right to speak in terms of unqualified praise." — Weekly Dispatch. Reverberations. Part I., u. Part II., 2s. Fcp. 8vo, paper cover. "In this little verse -pamphlet of some sixty or seventy pages, we think we see evidences of a true poet; of a fresh and natural fount of genuine song ; and of a purpose and sympathy admirably suited to the times The purchaser of it will find himself richer in possessing it by many wise and charitable thoughts, many generous emotions, and much calm and quiet, yet deep reflection." — Examiner. " Remarkable for earnestness of thought and strength of diction."— MorningHerald. " The author of these rhymed brochures has much of the true poetic spirit. He is always in earnest. He writes from the full heart. There is a manliness, too, in all his utterances that especially recommends them to us As long as we have such 'Reverberations' as these, we shall never grow weary of them." — Weekly Kcws. Three Experiments of Idving: "Within the Means. Up to the Means. Beyond tlie Means. Fcp. 8vo, orna- mental cover and gilt edges, Is. P. 6d. -^^^^B MISCELLANEA. 23 Slisalkn^a. An Analytical Catalogue of Mr. Chapman's Publications. Price Is. P. 6d. %* To enable the reader to judge for himself of the merits of Mr. Chapman's publications, irrespective of the opinions of the press — whether laudatory or otherwise — an Analytical Catalogue has been prepared, which contains an abstract of each work, or, at least, such an amount of information regarding it as will furnish him with a clear conception of its general aim and scope. At the same time, from the way in which the Catalogue is drawn up, it comprises a condensed body of Ideas and Facts, in themselves of substantive interest and importance, and is therefore, intrinsically, well worthy the attention of the Student. Cheap Books, and how to get them. Being a Reprint, from the Westminstek Eevibw for April, 1852, of the article on " The Commerce of Literature ;" together with a Brief Account of the Origin and Progress of the K«cent Agitation for Free Trade in Books. By JOHN CHAPMAN. To which is added, the judgment pronounced by Lord Campbell. Second Edition. Price Is. P. 6d. A Report of the Proceedings of a Meeting (consisting chiefly of Authors) held May 4th, at the House of Mr. John Chapman, 142, Strand, for the purpose of hastening the re- moval of the Trade Restrictions on the Commerce of Litei-ature. Third Edition. Price 2d. Two Orations against taking away Human Life, under any Circumstances ; and in Explanation and Defence of the Misrepresented Doctrine of Non-Resistance. By THOMAS COOPER, Author of "The Purgatory of Suicides." Post 8vo, in paper cover. Is. P. 6d. " Mr. Cooper possesses undeniable abili- i the highest degree manly, plain, and vigor- ties of no mean order, and moral courage ' ous." — Morning Adverttner. beyond many The manliness with ! " These two orations are thoroughly im- which he avows, and the boldness and zeal bued with the peace doctnnes which have !? () with which he urges, the doctrinesof peace lately been making rapid progress m many C) A and love, respect for human rights, and unexpected quarters. To all who take an /'^ V) moral power, in these lectures, are worthy interest in that great movement, we would I , )' of all honour ."—J7oKCon/o?m!rf. : recommend this book, on account of the v\ f D " Mr. Cooper's style is intensely clear , fervid eloquence and earnest truthfulness (j \ Y c, and forcible, and displays great earnest- ; which pervade every line of \t."—Man- p iN V ft ness and fine human sympathy ; it is in Chester Examiner. a V li^^^^^ -e^^^^^^ 24 MR. chapiman's publications. stories for Sunday Afternoons. DAWSON. Square 18mo, cloth. Is. Qd. P. 6(Z. " This is a very pleasing little volume, whicli we can confidently recommend. It is ilesigned and admirably adapted for the use of children from five to eleven years of age. It purposes to infuse into that tender ago some acquaintance with the facts, and ta.ste for the study of the Old Testament. The style is simple, easy, and for the most part correct. The stories are told in a spirited and graphic manner. " Those who are engaged in teaching the young, and in laying the foundation of good character by early religious and moral impressions, will be thankful for additional resources of a kind so judicious as this volume." — Inquirer. SSssays by Emerson. Second Series, with Preface, by THOS. CARLYLE. Post 8vo, cloth, 3s. Qd. P. Qd. " The diflQculty we find in giving a pro- per notice of this volume arises from the pervadingness of its excellence, and the compression of its matter. With more learning than Hazlitt, more perspicuity than Carlyle, more \igour and depth of thought than Addison, and with as mucli originality and fascination as any of them, this volume is a brilliant addition to the Table Talk of Intellectual men, be they who or where they may." — Prospective Reinew, " Mr. Emei*son is not a common man, and everything he writes contains sugges- tive matter of much thought and earnest- ness." — Examiner. " That Emerson is, in a high degree, possessed of the faculty and vision of the seer, none can doubt who will earnestly and with a kind and reverential spirit peruse these nine Essays. He deals only with the true and the eternal . His pierc- ing gaze at once shoots swiftlv, surely, through the outward and the superficial, to the inmost causes and workings. Any one can tell the time who looks on the face of the clock, hut he loves to lay hare the machinery and show its moving prin- ciple. His words and his thoughts are a fresh spring, that invigorates the soul that is steeped therein. ITis m:nd is ever dealing with thp eternal; and those who only live to exercise their lower intellec- tual faculties, and desire only new facts and new images, and those who have not a feeling or an interest in the great ques- tion of mind and matter, eternity and nature, will disregard him as unintelligi- ble and uninteresting, as they do Bacon anil Plato, and, indeed, philosophy itself." — Douglas JerrnMs Magazine. " Beyond social science, because beyond and outside social existence, there lies the science of self, the development of man in his individual existence, within himself and for himself. Of this latter science, which may perhaps be called the philo- sophy of individuality, Mr. Emerson is an able apostle and interpreter."— Lfftgwe. "As regards the particular volume of Emeeson before us, we think it an im- provement upon the first series of esf:ays. The subjects are better chosen. They come home more to the experience of the mass of mankind, and are consequently more interesting. Their treatment also I indicates an artistic improvement in the ' composition." — Spectator. " All lovers of literature will read Mr. Emerson's new volume, as the most of them have read his former one ; and if correct taste, and sober views of life, and such ideas on the higher subjects of ' thought as wc have been accustomed to account as truths, are sometimes outraged, ' we at least meet at every step with origi- nality, imagination, and eloquence." — • I Inquirer. The Beauties of Channing. With an Introductory Essay. By WILLIAM MOXTNTPORD. 12mo, cloth, 2s. Qd. P. Qd. " This is really a book of beauties. It is no collection of shreds and patches, but a faithful representative of a mind which deserves to have its image reproduced in a thousand fonns. It is spch a selection tVom Channing as Channing himself might have made. It is as though we had the choicest passages of tliose divine discourses ©§^3^^- read to us by a kindred spirit ...... Those who have read Martyria will feel that nn man can be better qualified than its author, to bring together those passages which arij at once most characteiistic, and most rich in matter tending to the moral and religious elevation of human beings." — hiquirer. -^<5^$^ MISCELLANEA. 25 i 'WiUiam von Humboldt^s Zietters to a Female Friend. A Complete Edition. Translated from the Second German Edition. By^CATHBRINE M. A. COUPER, Author of "Visits to Beechwood Farm," "Lucy's Half-Crown/' &c. 2 vols. a G p. Is. post 8vOj cloth, 10s. . *' WecordiallyrecommendtheseTolumes to the attention of our readers The work is in every way worthy of the character and experience of its distin- guished author.'* — Daily News. " These admirable letters were, we believe, first introduced to notice in England by the ' Athenasum ;' and per- haps no greater boon was ever conferred upon the English reader than in the pub- lication of the two volumes which contain this excellent translation of William Hum- boldt's portion of a lengthened corre- spondence with his female friend.'* — Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Re- view. ' The beautiful series of W. von Hum' sess not only high intrinsic interest, but an interest arising from the very striking circumstances in which they originated. We wish we had space to verify our remarks. But we should not know where to begin, or where to end ; we have therefore no alternative but to re- commend the entire book to careful pe- rusal, and to promise a continuance of occasional extiacts into our columns from the beauties of thought and feeling with which it abounds." — Manchester Exa- miner and Titnes. " It is the only complete collection of these remarkable letters which has yet been published in English, and the transla- tion is singularly perfect; we have seldom boldt's letters, now for the first time read such a rendering of German thoughts translated and published complete, pos- into the English tongue."— Cn'^ic. Ziocal Self-G-oveminent and Centralization : The Characteristics of each, and its Practical Tendencies as affecting Social, Moral, and Political Welfare and Progress : including com- prehensive Outlines of the English Constitution. By J. TOULMIN SMITH. Post 8vo, cloth. Original price, 8s. 6d. ; reduced to 5s. P. Is. " This is a valuable, because a thought- ful, treatise upon one of the general sub- jects of theoretical and practical politics. No one in all probability will give an ab- solute assent to all its conclusions, but the reader of Mr. Smith's volume will in any case be induced to give more weight to the important principle insisted on." — Tail's Magazine. " Embracing, with a vast range of con- stitutional learning, used in a singularly attractive form, an elaborate review of all the leading questions of our day." — Eclec- tic Review. *' This is a book, therefore, of imme- diate interest, and one well worthy of the most studious consideration of every re- former; but it is also the only complete and correct ex]jo.sition we have of our po- litical system J and we mistake much if it does not take its place in literature as our standard text-book of the consti- tution." " The special chapters on local self-go- vernment and centralization will be found chapters of the souudest practical philo- sophy; every page bearing the marks of profound and practical thought." " The chapters on the crown, and on common law, and statute law, display a . thorough knowledge of constitutional law and history, and a vast body of learn- ing is brought forward for popular infor- mation without the least parade or pe- dantry." " Mr. Toulmin Smith has made a most valuable contribution to English litera- ture; for he has given the people a time account of their once glorious constitu- tion ; more than that, be has given them a book replete with the soundest and most practical views of political philosophy." — Weekly News. " There is much research, sound prin- ciple, and good logic in this book ; and we can recommend it to the perusal of all who wish to attain a competent knowledge of the broad and lasting hasis of English constitutional law and practice." — Morn- ing Advertiser. Calico Printing as an Art BSanufacture, A Lecture read before the Society of Arts by Edmund Potter. 8vo, sewed, Is. I ■^^^^^^^ ^^^ -^^^g^l MR. chapman's publications. Bible Stories. p. 6d. By SAMUEL WOOD. 2'vols. 12mo, cloth, 3s. Indian Political Reform: Being Brief Hints, together with a Plan for the Improvement of the Constituency of the East India Company and the Promotion of Public "Works. By JOHN CHAPMAN, Author of ''The Cotton and Commerce of India," &c, 8vo. Is. Baroda and Bombay; Their Political Morality. A Narrative drawn from the Pjipers laid before ParUament in rela- tion to the Removal of Lieut. -Col. Outram, C.B., from the Office of Resident at the Court of the Gaekwar. With Explanatory Notes, and Remarks on the Letter of L. R. Reid, Esq., to the Editor of the Daily News. By J. CHAPMAN, Author of ''The Cotton and Commerce of India, considered in Relation to Great Britain." 8vo. 3s. The Cotton and Commerce of India^ Con- sidered in Relation to the Interests of Great Britain ; with Remarks on Railway Communication in the Bombay Presidency. By JOHN CHAPMAN, Founder and late Manager of the Great Indian Penin- sular Railway Company. 8vo, cloth. Original price, 125. ; reduced to 6s. P. Is. " Promises to be one of the most useful treatises that have been furnished on this important subject It is distin- guished by a close and logical style, coupled with an accuracy of detail which will, in a great measure, render it a text-book." — Times, Jan. 22, 1851. " Marked by sound good sense, akin to the highest wisdom of the statesman. The author has given to the public the most complete book we have for some time met with on any subject." — Economist. " Mr. Chapman's great practical know- ledge and experience of the subjects upon which he treats have enabled him to col- lect an amount of information, founded upon facts, such as we believe has never before been laid before the public. The all-important questions of supply, produc- tion, and prices of cotton in India, as well as the commercial and financial questions connected with it, are most ably treated." — Morning Chronicle. " Written by an intelligent, painstaking, and well-informed gentleman Nothing can be more correct than his views, so far as they extend, his survey and character of districts, his conclusions as to the supply the earth can yield, and his assertion that the cost of transit is with Indian cotton the first and ruling element of price." — Daily News. " Mr. Chapman's work is only appre- ciated in the fulness of its value and merits by those who are interested in one or other branch of his subject. Full of data for reasoning, replete with facts, to which the most implicit credit may be attached, and free from any political bias, the volume is that vara, if not incognita avis, a truth- ful blue book, a volume of statistics not cooked up to meet a theory or defend a practice." — Britannia. " The arrangement is clear, and the treatment of the subject in all cases mas- terly." — Indian News. " This is a comprehensive, practical, careful, and temperate investigation," &c. — Indian Mail. Observations on India. By a Resident there many years. 8vo, cloth, 5s. " The best digest we have ever seen. -Weekly Dispatch. The Temporalities of the Established Churcli, as they are and as they might be ; Collected from authentic Public Records. By WILIJAM BEESTON, an Old Churchman. 8vo, paper cover, Is. P. id. '3^b^ § K ■^^g^Sff I CHAPMAN'S Uniform, Post 8vo, ornamented paper cover. Sketches of Suropean Capitals. By william WARE, Author of "Zenobia; or, Letters from Palmyra," *'Aure- lian," &c. Is. P. 6d. n. IdLterature and Iiife. Lectures by E. p. WHIPPLE, Author of "Essays and Reviews." Is. P. Qd. Representative Men. Is. 6d. P. ed. " Hr. Emerson's book is for us rather strange than pleasing. Like Mr. Carlyle, he strains after effect by quaint phrase- ology— the novelty will gain him admirers and readers. At the same time there is good sterling stuff in him j — already pos- sessing a great name in his own country, and being well known to the reading world of Europe, his present work, speaicing of men and things with which we are fami- liar, will extend his fame. It is more real and material than his former volumes; more pointedly written, more terse and pithy, contains many new views, and is on the whole both a good and a readable book ." — Economist. " There are many sentences that glitter and sparkle like crystals in the sunlight ; Lectures by R. W. EMERSON. and many thoughts, which seem invoked by a stern philosophy from the depths of the heart." — Weekly News. *' There is more practical sense and wisdom to be found in it (this Book) than in any of the Books he has given to the world, since his first When Emer- son keeps within his depth, he scatters about him a great deal of true wisdom, mingled with much genuine poetry. There is also a merit in him which it would be ungrateful not to acknowledge ; be has made others think; he has directed the minds of thousands to loftier exercises than they had known before ; he has stimu- lated the reflective faculties of multitudes, and thus led to inquiry, and inquiry cer- tainly will conduct to truth." — Critic. IV. § The Fourth Edition of The Soul J Ker Sorrows and Her Aspira- tions. An Essay towards the Natural History of the Soul as the true Basis of Theology. By FRANCIS WILLIAM NEWMAN, formerly Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. 2s. P. 6c?. V. Christian Theism. By c. c. hennell. Author of " An Inquiry into the Origin of Christianity." Is. P. 6ii. VI. Historical Sketches of the Old Painters. By the Author of " Three Experiments of Living," &c. The First Series of Essays. By r. w. emerson. ^ ^ [Nearly ready. m^3 ^^ -^^s^^© -eQ^ t i 28 MR. chapman's publications. THE WESTMINSTER REVIEW. Price Six Shillings per Number. Annual Suhacription, when paid to the Publisher in Advance, £1; or if the work be delivered by post, £143. TKS CEaCVX.ATXON OF THE REVIEW Is nearly 70 per Cent, greater than it was before it was transferred to its present proprietor, and is rapidly in- creasing with the publication of each successive number. The high reputation which the work has attained is a guarantee of its general merits, whilst the Analytical and Critical SKETCHES OF CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE, COMPBEHENDING Notices of the most remarkable Books, English and Foreign, which appear during each quarter, and especially the large section of each number now devoted to the dissemination of a sound knowledge of the character and worth of New English Books, give to the Review a specific value as a register of literary progress. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE WESTM INSTER REVIEW. " A periodical which no one can suspect of narrow or illiberal tendencies."— Times. " The new number of the Wesiminnter is calculated to keep up the reputation of this rising periodical. It is a healthy state of the public mind which can endure and favour the advocacy of all shades of opinion in the works of its current literature. "We are glad, therefore, to see that encouragement is given to a Review starting upon a neutral ground indeed, but a ground which needs but cultivation to produce fruit that cannot but add greatly to the national )3^Zb^ -^6^ Q. 9=9- -«^^^ i THE WESTMINSTER REVIEW. 29 riches. The Westminster, old in name indeed, is new in feature, and is an evi- dence of the strength of the new forces that are seething under the parched crust of modern society. It gives us suggestions, anticipations, hopes. It may not always fall in mth the current in which our own ideas have been used to flow — it may run right athwart the stereotyped lines of railroad in whicli modern thought is almost bound to travel ; but whenever it does so it brings its justification along with it. It is not only startUng but often profound, and, as a rule, both vigorous and honest On the whole, the present number will be held to be one of the most successful of the series." — Daily News, " The Westminster Review, which has failed under so many managements, under its new management promises to be no failure at all. Good healthy blood stirs in it, and we have little doubt that it will not only win its way to as high a point in public estimation as it held in its best days, but that more prac- tical results will follow, and it will be found to sen. With equal ability, we observe a larger and more catholic spirit. In the present number there are several good subjects soundly and admirably treated. Let us hope, then, that our old friend the Westminster, brought as it now is into complete harmony with the spirit of the time, and having its pages furnished by thinking men as well as abl^ writers, will take gradually a sure hold of the public, and will be bought by tlio.-e who heretofore Iiave been satisfied to read it as it came to them borrowed from the circulating library. We wish its new conductors all success. They are in the right way to obtain it." — Examiner. " In general, the Review is characterized by great novelty and great vigour." — Economist. " We have learned to look forward to each number of the Westminster Review with expectations rising from a cause far superior to anything of personal sympathy. So much thought, learning, and eloquence, we rarely meet else- where." — Leader. " The old declamatory verbiage has been discarded for serried reasoning and rigid strength. The industry of the various collaborators is not less remarkable than the consistency and common purpose pervading every page, and he who difiers from what he reads, yet does homage to the power of the erring writer." — Globe. ■' The Westminster Review, under its new editorship, seems destnied to achieve a very distinguished position as a critical Titan, and to become a powerful agent in the mental and moral progress of the age." — WeeJdt/ Dispatch. " There appears no diminution in the searching ability and masterly style of exposition which have characterized the various contributors to this first-class Quarteriy since the issue of the new series." — Gloucester Journal. " Number by number the present conductors of the Westminster are buildmg up for themselves and their Journal a position in the republic of letters which has perhaps been but once attained in our Uterary KistorY."— Sunderland News. Contents of No. VI.— AprH, 1853. II. British Philanthropy and Ja- maica Distress. Thackeray's Works. III. Iconoclasm in German Philoso- phy. IV. Martial and his Times. V. French Writers on French Policy. VI. Euth and Yillette. VII. Educational Institutions of the Uniied States. Vin. Poems by Alexander Smith. IX. Early Christianity: its Creeds and Heresies. X. Contemporary Literature of England. XI. Contemporary Literature of America. XII. Contemporary Literature of Germany. XIII. Contemporary Literature of France. -e-e^e^ f I fi^s^^=^ 30 I ME. chapman's publications. Contents of No. V.— January, 1853. I. II. Mary Tudor. The Condition and Prospects of Ireland. VI. The Atomic Theory, before Christ and since. VII. History and Ideas of the Mor- III. IV. V. Charity, noxious and beneficent. The English Stage. American Slavery, and Emanci- pation by the Free States. mons. VIII. Daniel Webster. IX. X. XI. XII. Contemporary Li- terature of England, America, Germany, and France. Contents ofNo, IV.— October, 1852. I. The Oxford Commission. II. Whewell's Moral Philosophy. III. Plants and Botanists. IV. Our Colonial Empire. V. The Philosophy of Style. VI. ThePoetry of the Anti-Jacobin. VII. Goethe as a Man of Science. VIII The Profession of Literature. IX. The Duke of Wellington. X. XI. XII. XIII. Contemporary Literature of England, Ame- rica, Germany, and France. Contents of K"o. III.— July, 1852. I. Secular Education. II. England's Forgotten Worthies. III. The Future of Geology. IV. Lord Jeffrey and the Edinburgh Eeview. V. The Tendencies of England. VI. The Lady Novelists. VII. The Political Life and Senti- ments of Niebuhr. VIII. The Restoration of Belief. IX. Sir Robert Peel and his Policy. X. XI. XII. XIII. Contemporary Literature of England, Ame- rica, Germany, and France. Contents of I^o. II.— April, 1852. I. The Government of India. II. Pliysical Puritanism. III. Europe: its Condition and Pro- spects. IV. A Theory of Population, de- duced from tlie General Law of Animal Fertility. V. Shelley and the Letters of Poets. VI. The Commerce of Literature. VII. Lord Palmerston and his Policy, VIII. Early Quakers and Quakerism. IX. X. XI. XII. Contemporary Literature of England, Ame- rica, Germany, and France. Contents of Ko. I. — January, 1852. I. Representative Reform. II. Shell Fish: their Ways and Works. III. The Relation between Em- ployer,^ and Employed. IV. Mary Stusirt. V. The Latest Continental Theory of Legislation. VI. Julia von Kriidener as Co- quette and Mystic. VII. The Ethics of Christendom. VIII. Political Questions and Parties in France. IX. Contemporary Literature of England. X. Retrospective Survey of Ame- rican Literature. XI. XII. XIII. Contemporary Lite- rature of America, Germany, and France. THE WESTMINSTER KEVIEW. 31 Cj^ The "Westminster Review" is designed as an instrument for the O r development and guidance of earnest thought on Politics, Social Philo- * Bophy, Religion, and General Literature ; and is the organ of the most able and independent minds of the day. The fundamental principle of the work is the recognition of the Law of Progress. In conformity with this principle, and with the consequent conviction that attempts at reform — though modified by the experience of the past and the conditions of the present — should be directed and animated by an advancing ideal, the Editors seek to maintain a steady comparison of the actual with the possible, as the most powerful stimulus to improvement. Nevertheless, in the deliberate advocacy of organic changes, it will not be forgotten, that the institutions of man, no less than the products of nature, are strong and durable in proportion as they are the results of a gradual development, and that the most salutary and permanent reforms are those, which, while embodying the wisdom of the time, yet sustain such a relation to the moral and intellectual con- dition of the people as to ensure their support. In contradistinction to the practical infidelity and essentially destruc- tive policy which would ignore the existence of wide-spread doubts in relation to established creeds and systems, and would stifle all inquiry dangerous to prescriptive claims, the Review exhibits that untemporizing expression of opinion, and that fearlessness of investigation and criticism, which are the results of a consistent faith in the ultimate prevalence of truth. Aware that the same fundamental truths are apprehended under a variety of forms, and that, therefore, opposing systems may in the end prove complements of each other, the Editors endeavour to institute such a radical and comprehensive treatment of those controverted questions which are practically momentous, as may aid in the conciliation of diver- gent views. In furtherance of this object, a limited portion of the work, imder the head of "Independent Contributions," is set apart for the reception of articles ably setting forth opinions which, though not dis- crepant with the general spirit of the Review, may be at variance with the particular ideas or measures it will advocate. The primary object of this department is to facilitate the expression of opinion by men of high mental power and culture, who, -while they are zealous friends of free- dom and progress, yet differ widely on special points of great practical 1 concern, both from the Editors and fi-om each other. A The Review gives especial attention to that wide range of topics which X ] I may be included under the term Social Philosophy. It endeavours to V ( form a, dispassionate estimate of the diverse theories on these subjects, to give a definite and intelligible form to the chaotic mass of thought S \ K 32 THE WESTMINSTER REVIEW. C '' now prevalent concerning them, and to ascertain both in what degree \ 3 r the popular efforts after a more perfect social state are countenanced by * the teachings of politico-economical science, and how far they may be sustained and promoted by the actual character and culture of the people. In the department of politics careful consideration is given to all the most vital questions, without regard to the distinctions of party; the only standard of consistency to which the Editors adhere being the real, and not the accidental, relations of measures — their bearing, not on a ministry or a class, but on the public good. In the treatment of Religious Questions the Review unites a spirit of reverential sympathy for the cherished associations of pure and elevated minds with an uncompromising pursuit of truth. The elements of eccle- siastical authority and of dogma are fearlessly examined, and the results of the most advanced Biblical criticism are discussed without reservation, under the conviction that religion has its foundation in man's nature, and will only discard an old form to assume and vitalize one more expressive of its essence. While, however, the Editors do not shrink from the expression of what they believe to be sound negative views, they equally bear in mind the pre-eminent importance of a constructive religious philosophy, as connected with the development and activity of the moral nature, and of those poetic and emotional elements, out of which pro- ceed our noblest aspirations and the essential beauty of life. In the department of General Literature the criticism is animated by the desire to elevate the standard of the public taste, in relation both to artistic perfection and moral purity; larger space is afforded for articles intrinsically valuable, by the omission of those minor and miscellaneous notices which are necessarily forestalled by newspapers and magazines, and equivalent information is given in a single article showing the course of literary production during each preceding quarter. The Foreign Sec- tion of the Review is also condensed into an Historical Survey of the novelties in Continental and American Literature which have appeared in the same interval. rs -%s^ m^^B^^ -^^e^OMk g^K^-a ■ -eQ^ MR, chapman's publications. 33 THE PROSPECTIVE REVIEW: Si ©uarterig Siounial OF THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE. Price 2s. 6d. per Number. Contents of No. XXXIII.— February, 1863. I. Maurice on the Kings and Pro- phets of the Old Testament. IT. Memoirs of Thomas Moore. III. Forstcr'B Primaval Language. IV. Phaethon, or Loose Thoughts for Loose Thinliers. V. The French Puritans. VI. Hippolytus and his Age. ip The " Pkospeoitve Kbvibw " is devoted to a free theology, and the moral aspects of literature. Under the conviction that lingering in- fluences from the doctrine of verbal inspiration are not only depriving the primitive records of the Gospel of their true interpretation, but even destroying faith in Christianity itself, the work is conducted in the con- fidence that only a living mind and heart, not in bondage to any letter, can receive the living spirit of revelation ; and in the fervent belief that for all such there is a true Gospel of God, which no critical or historical speculation can discredit or destroy, it aims to interpret and represent Spiritual Christianity in its character of the universal religion. Fully adopting the sentiment of Coleridge, that " the exercise of the reasoning and reflective powers, increasing insight, and enlarging views, are requisite to keep alive the substantial faith of the heart,"— with a grate- fiil appreciation of the labours of faithful predecessors of all churches,— it esteems it the part of a true reverence not to rest in their conclusions, but to think and live in their spirit. By the name, " Peospeotive Review," it is intended to lay no claim to discovery, but simply to ^ express the desire and the attitude of Progress; to suggest continually A the duty of using past and present as a trust for the future ; and openly \ ( to disown the idolatrous conservatism, of whatever sect, which makes &|^ Christianity but a lifeless formula . ^^^ li^^ o-^ . 34 MR. chapman's publications. ■eO^ \] %\t 'Catljfflit Suies. I Sermons of Consolation. By F. W. p. Greenwood, D.D. 3s. cloth. 2. Self-Culture. By Wm. Ellbrt Chanmimg. Paper Covers, 6d.; Is. clotli. 3. {Out of Prmt.) 4. The Critical and Miscellaneous Writings of Tlieodore Parker. CI. 6». 5. The Rationale of Religious Inquiry ; or, the Question stated, of Reason, the Bible, and the Church. By James MAKTiNEAn. With a Critical Lecture on Eationalism, Miracles, and the Authority of Scrip- ture, by the late Rev. Joseph Blanco White. Fourth Edition. Post 8to, cloth, is. ed. 6. Essays. By R. W. Emebson. (Second Series.) With a Notice by Thomas Caeltle. 3s. 7. Memoir of J. Gottlieb Fichte. By William Smith. Second Edi- tion, enlarged. Cloth, is. The Vocation of the Scholar, By JoHANN Gottlieb Fichte. Cloth, 2s. ; paper cover, U. Gd. 9. On the Nature of the Scholar, and its Manifestations. By Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Second Edition. Cloth, Ss. 10. The Vocation of Man. By Jo- hann Gottlieb Fichte. Cloth, 4s. 11. The Characteristics of the Pre- sent Age. By JoHANN Gottlieb Fichte. Cloth, 6s. 12. The Way towards the Blessed Life; or. The Doctrine of Religion. By Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Translated by William Smith. Cloth, 6s. 13. Popular Christianity: its Tran- sition state and probable Develop- ment. By Frederick Foxton, A.B. Cloth, 8s. 14. Life of Jean Paul Fr. Richter. Compiled from various sources. To- gether with his Autobiography, trans- lated from the German. Second Edition. Illustrated with a Portrait, engraved on Steel. Cloth, 7s. 6d. IS. Wm. von Humboldt's Letters to a Female Friend. A Complete Edition. 2 vols, cloth, 10s. 16. Representative Men. Seven Lectures. By Ralph Waldo Emer- son. Cloth, Is. 6(2. 17. Religious Mystery Considered. Cloth, 2s. 18. God in Christ. Discourses by Horace Boshnell. In 1 vol. cloth, 6s. 19. St. Paul's Epistles to the Corin- thians ; An Attempt to convey their Spirit and SigniBcance. By the Rev. John Hamilton Thom. 1 vol. cloth, 7s. 20. A Discourse of Matters per- taining to Religion. By Theodore Parker. Post 8vo, cloth, is. ■^^^^^m I THE CATHOLIC SERIES. 35 C / '* The various works composing the ' Catholic Series' should be known to all lovers ^ ") () of 'literature.'*' — Morning Chronicle. () " Without reference to the opinions which they contain, we may safely say that they are generally such as all men of free and philosophical minds would do well to know and ponder." — Nonconfiyrmist. " A series of serious and manly publications." — Economist. " This series deserves attention, both for what it has already given, arid for what it promises." — Taifs Magazine. " A series not intended to represent or maintain a form of opinion, but to bring together some of the works which do honour to our common nature, by the genius they display, or by their ennobling tendency and lofty aspirations." — Inquirer. " It is highly creditable to Mr. Chapman to find his name in connexion with so much well-directed enterprise in the cause of German literature and philosophy. He is the first publisher who seems to have proposed to himself the worthy object of in- troducing the English reader to the philosophic mind of Germany, uninfluenced by the tradesman's distrust of the marketable nature of the article. It is a very praise- worthy ambition; and we trust the public will justify his confidence. Nothing could be more unworthy than the attempt to discourage, and indeed punish, such unselfish enterprise, by attaching a bad reputation for orthodoxy to everything connected with German philosophy and theology. This is especially unworthy in the ' student,' or the * scholar,' to borrow Fichte's names, who should disdain to set themselves the task of exciting, by their friction, a popular prejudice and clamour on matters on which the populace are no competent judges, and have, indeed, no judgment of their own,— and who should feel, as men themselves devoted to thought, that what makes a good book is not that it should gain its reader's acquiescence, but that it should multiply his mental experience ; that it should acquaint him with the ideas which philosophers and scholars, reared by a training diflferent from their own, have labo- riously reached and devoutly entertain ; that, in a word, it should enlarge his materials and his sympathies as a man and a thinker."— Prospective Review. ^^^^^ -^=6^ \] I i^^S^ ■ -eO^ FREE TRADE IN BOOKS MR. JOHN CHAPMAN, who originated the agitation for free trade in books, which has recently been brought to a successful termination, invites public attention to the liberal terms on which he is now enabled, by the dissolution of the Booksellers' Association, to supply books of all kinds. MISCELLANEOUS ENGLISH BOOKS. Mr. Chapman will allow, for Cash, a discount of one-sixtb, or fwopemce in tlie shilling', from the advertised prices of all new books which are published on the usual terms. Works issued by those publishers who, in consequence of the recent change, deter- mine to reduce the amount of discount allowed to the trade, will be supplied at relatively advantageous rates. Periodicals and Magazines supplied on the day of publication, at a discount of 10 per cent, from the published prices. Orders for Old or Second-hand Books carefully attended to, and Binding executed in all varieties of style. AMERICAN BOOKS AT GREATLY REDUCED PRICES, forwarded by post, at the rate of 6d. per lb., to all parts of the United Kingdom. The postal conveyance is at once the cheapest and most expeditious, and has enabled Mr. Chapman greatly to reduce his scale of prices, as purchasers can now obtain their books directly from him at the cost price of Importation, with the addition only of a small reTnunerative cow/mission. The prices attached (in English currency) to the List of American Books published by Mr. Chapman, with the exception of Periodicals and Magazines, are the XiOwest XTett Prices, from which, therefore, no discount can be allowed. Mr. C. INVITES ATTENTION tO. his EXTENSIVE AND CAEEPULLT-SELEOTED STOCK OP Amebioan Books, a classified Catalogue of which, at the GEEATLT-EEDUCED PKIOES, may now ie had, gratis, on application, or hy post in return for two stamps. ^° Purchasers are especially requested to transmit their orders for American Boohs, accompanied hy a remittance, or reference in Town, directly to Mr. Cliapman, who will promptly execute them, and forward the Books, iy Post or otlierwise, as desired. %* Post-ofiice Orders should be payable at the Strand Office. LONDON: JOHN CHAPMAN, Hi, STEAND.